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_ Editors:

Mol. 75, No.1.

J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

1978 ie | me Rs. 35

NOTICE TO ONTRIBUTORS

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Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, - Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

“ta (ee

VOLUME 75 NO. 1—APRIL 1978

Date of Publication: 7-viii-1978

CONTENTS

PAGE

THE STATUS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN BLACK LEAF-MONKEY (Presbytis johnii) 1N

THE PALNI HILxs. By J. F. Oates. (With a text-figure) < A ae 1

FLORA CF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NaApbu. By B. D. Sharma,

B. V. Shetty, K. Vivekananthan and N. C. Rathakrishnan. (With a map) a 13

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus) IN THE

ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By R. Whitaker and Z. Whitaker. (With five plates) a 43

REVISION OF THE GENUS Dipcadi MEpIK. (LILIACEAE) IN INDIA AND ADJOINING

REGIONS. By D. B. Deb and Syamali Dasgupta. (With ten text-figures) se 50

THE ELEPHANT IN U.P. (INDIA)—A RESURVEY OF ITS STATUS AFTER 10 YEARS.

By V. B. Singh. (With two maps and a plate) 5 A ih 71

EFFECT OF MOON PHASE AND LUNAR CYCLE ON THE LIGHT TRAP CATCH OF TOBACCO

CATERPILLAR Spodoptera litura (FABR.) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE).

By S. M. Vaishampayan and S. K. Shrivastava. (With two text-figures) ae 83

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘GREENISH-YELLOW WATER PHENOMENON CAUSED BY THE

SWARMING OF Trichodesmium erythraeum EHRENBURG, IN THE SEA OFF MADRAS

AND ITS EFFECT ON THE LOCAL MARINE FAUNA. By A. Daniel, A. K. Nagabhusha-

nam and P. Krishnamurthy ee a ae ae Bs 88

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PART IV—

Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (GRAY)—HIPPOSIDERIDAE. By A. Madhavan, D. R. Patil

and A. Gopalakrishna. (With two plates) a ne an a 96

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF Labeo gonius (HAM.) FROM THE RIVER KALI.

By A. Chatterji, A. Q. Siddiqui and A. A. Khan. (With three text-figures) id 104

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF A TROPICAL EARTHWORM Pontoscolese corethurus

(O. F. MULLER). By S. Arunachalam. (With three text-figures) AG ey AO)

THE SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE. By A. J. Gaston.

(With six text-figures) ae Ne 3 Ae oes 115

CEREAL PREFERENCE AND INTAKE OF FOUR SPECIES OF FIELD RODENTS. By Shakunthala

Sridhara and R. V. Krishnamoorthy. (With a text-figure) ft A 129

THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION AND SATIETY ON THE SWIMMING ACTIVITY GF AN

AQUATIC COPEPOD, Orthocyclops modestus (CRUSTACEAE: COPEPODA).

By Fred Punzo. (With two text-figures) a oe ie AEST

IMAGC CASTE OF Neotermes megaoculatus megaoculatus ROONWAL ET SEN-SARMA

(ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE) FROM KUMAON HILLS, UTTAR PRADESH.

By M. L. Thakur. (With a text-figure) 23 ay a aoe, Wa

FOOT-WETTING AND BELLY-SOAKING BY INCUBATING GULL-BILLED TERNS AND BLACK

SKIMMERS. By Gilbert S. Grant. (With a text-figure) .. a, te 148

New DESCRIPTIONS:

A new species of Polystichum from Shillong (Meghalaya). o N. C. Nair and

Kalpana Nag. (With eight text-figures) a : a iy MOS

A new variety of Wendlandia scabra Kurz from Burma (Rubiacese) By M. P. Nayar

and K. C. Mallick ae : : a se enrol) of

Notes on some Orchids from Bhutan. By N. P. Balakrishnan. (ae four text-figures) 157

Studies on some Indian Aphelinid Parasites (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). By S. Irfan

Ahmed and S. Adam Shafee. (With twenty-one text-figures) HN : 164

A new Mygalomorph spider of the Genus Phlogiodes from Khasi-Jaintia Hills, India

(Araneae: Theraphosidae). By M. Barman. (With a text-figure) ae ee OS

Further comments on the Genus Tamraca Moore with the description of a new species

from Chandigarh (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). ce H. S. Rose and H. R. Pajni.

(With six text-figures) ane : : 5 : 170

On a new species of Agriocnemis Selys, 1869 ee as Odeniey with esbrigs

tion of its larva from Dehra Dun Valley, India. By Arun Kumar and Mahabir

Prasad. (With fifteen text-figures) ne ae a sy 174

A new species of Krait of the Genus Bungarus Daudin. 1803 (Serpentes: Elapidae)

from the Andaman Island. By S. Biswas and D. P. Sanyal. (With four text-figures) 179

Studies on Indian filistatid spiders (Araneae: Arachnida). By B. H. Patel.

(With two text-figures) a wt ie Ee Sigs ellos)

OBITUARY:

1. Sir Keith Cantlie gs a. ie a, Le wel OO

2. Patrick Donald Stracey ake se ae ah a 191

3. Ralph Camroux Morris me ae ke uh ip 192

REVIEWS:

1. Rails of the World. (Salim Ali) ge mie ue see NOT

2. Wild Life and adventures in Indian forests. (H. Abdulali) a Sha a

3. Backs to the wall. (J. C. Daniel) a oe Us aa) 200

4. Birds of prey. (M. K. Dharmakumarsinhji) et be: oe 200

5. The Mammals of Pakistan. (J. C. Daniel) ws a a 1 202

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MAMMALS: 1. Reaction of Langur, Presbytis entellus. By S. C. Makwana (p. 204); 2. Birth

and growth of Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) in captivity. By L. N.

Acharjyo & S. Mohapatra (p. 204); 3. Observations on the ecology and status of the Hispid

Hare in Rajagarh Forest, Darrang District, Assam, in 1975 and 1976. (With a text-figure).

By R. K. Ghose (p. 206); 4. Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra Linn.) at Point Calimere. By

K. N. Natarajan, T. S. Paul Sundar Raj & C. K. Shah (p. 209); 5. A Wildboar (Sus scrofa)

sharing Wild dogs’ (Cuon alpinus) kill. By A. J. T. Johnsingh (p. 211).

Birps: 6. Bird Migration across the Himalayas. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 212); 7. A Buz-

zard nest in Ladakh. By Prakash Gole (p. 213); 8. Red-necked Phalarope in Sri Lanka. By

G. M. Dunnet & S. W. Kotagama (p. 215); 9. Unusual Ornithological records for Pakistan.

By T. J. Roberts (p. 216); 10. Notes on the Striated Babbler Turdoides earlei (Blyth) near

Delhi. By A. J. Gaston. (p. 219); 11. A brief note on the Grandala, Grandala coelicolor

Hodgs. By Lavkumar J. Khacher (p. 221); 12. Notes on the food of the Blackheaded Munia

and the Spotted Munia in South Kamrup District, Western Assam (India). By B. C. Saha

and A. K. Mukherjee (p. 221).

REPTILES: 13. Note on the status of the Gir Crocodiles. (With a plate). By R. Whitaker

(p. 224); 14. Notes on vocalization and protective behaviour in the Mugger. By R. Whitaker

& Z. Whitaker (p. 227); 15. Notes on captive breeding in Mugger (Crocodylus palustris).

By Zahida Whitaker and Romulus Whitaker (p. 228); 16. Growth rate of Crocodylus palus-

tris. By R. Whitaker & Z. Whitaker (p. 231); 17. Breeding record of the Indian Chameleon

(Chameleo zeylanicus). By R. Whitaker (p. 232); 18. The feeding habits of the Cliff Racer,

Coluber rhodorhachis (Jan.). By T. S. N. Murthy & B. D. Sharma (p. 233); 19. Birth record

of the Andaman Pit Viper (Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus). (With a plate). By R. Whita-

ker (p. 233); 20. On skin sloughing of King Cobras, Ophiophagus hannah(Cantor) in Capti-

vity. By L. N. Acharjyo, S. Mohapatra & B. Mishra (p. 234).

CRUSTACEA: 21. Record of the Benthic Leucosiid Crab, Randallia eburnea Alcock in the

Northern Arabian Sea. (With a photograph). By A. Daniel and T. Sivanandam (p. 237).

CENTIPEDE: 22. Disconnected observations on a species of Scolapendra. By M. Krishnan

(pi239))

INSEcTA: 23. A note on the discovery of the male of Acritochaeta distincta Mall. (Diptera,

Muscidae). By J. D. Skinner II, J. C. Davies and K. V. Seshu Reddy (p. 240); 24. Mormon

butterfly—its status in Bombay. By J. S. Serrao (p. 241); 25. New record of Myrmecine

ants as pests of Bhendi, Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. By C. C. Abraham and K. S.

Remamony (p. 242).

BoTANY: 26. Does Adiantum aethiopicum Linn. exist in India? (With six text-figures). By

N. C. Nair and S. R. Ghosh (p. 244); 27. New records of Fabaceae for Maharashtra State.

By S. K. Malhotra and S. Moorthy (p. 247); 28. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. (Solanaceae)

—A new record of distribution for N. W. Himalayas. By K. N. Nautiyal (p. 248); 29. A

note on Kaempferia angustifolia Roscoe. By R. B. Ghosh, Barin Ghosh and J. C. Das

(p. 248); 30. Carduus tenuiflorus Curtis, (Asteraceae): An addition to the flora of India.

(With a text-figure). By A. R. Azad and G. N. Javeid (p. 249); 31. Malva verticillata—A

little known plant of economic importance. By R. K. Arora and R. Prasad (p. 251); 32. Lecto-

type of Maesa castaneifolia Mez (Myrsinaceae) and a new addition to the Indian Flora.

(With a text-figure). By M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri (p. 252); 33. Alysicarpus ovalifolius

(Schumach.) J. Leonard—A new record for India. (With a text-figure). By M. Sanjappa

and R. P. Bhatt (p. 254).

JOURNAL

OF THe

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1978 APRIL

Vol. 75

No. 1

THE STATUS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN BLACK LEAF-

MONKEY (PRESBYTIS JOHNII) IN THE PALNI HILLS’

J. F. OATES?

(With a text-figure)

Short surveys were conducted in 1976 in the Palni Hills,

status of the black leaf-monkey Presbytis johnii

Western Ghats, to assess the

(the “Nilgiri langur’) and its forest

habitat. Evergreen forest was found to be patchily distributed in the hills and only some

of the patches contained leaf-monkeys. I estimate that between only 150 and 500 leaf-mon-

keys survive in the Palnis, mostly on the south western escarpment. The leaf-monkey popula-

tion is under pressure from man _ through habitat destruction and hunting. Action is re-

commended to alleviate these threats.

INTRODUCTION

The Nigiri langur or S. Indian black leaf-

monkey*® is listed as “vulnerable” in the

1U.C.N. Red Data Book (Goodwin & Hol-

1 Accepted March 1977.

2 The Rockefeller University, Field Research Cen-

ter for Ecology and Ethology, Tyrrel Road, Mill-

brook, N.Y. 12545, U.S.A.

31 prefer this term to the commonly-used “Nil-

giri langur’’ since the species occurs in many hill

loway 1972). But accurate information on the

status of the species throughout its range 1s

not available. A recent report on its status

by Kurup (1975) covered in detail only parts

of the area from which it has been recorded

areas in addition to the Nilgiris and is known lo-

cally as “black monkey” rather than “langur’’.

“Langur” is a Hindi word which applies specifically

to Presbytis entellus. “Leaf-monkey” is frequently

used with reference to the Southeast Asian mem-

bers of the genus Presbytis.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

(distribution data are summarized by Daniel

& Kannan [1967] and Oates in press). To fill

some of the gaps in information on the species’

present abundance, and to complement an in-

tensive ecological study being undertaken at

one locality in Tirunelveli District, I have made

surveys in two hill ranges (Palni and Ash-

ambu) not treated in the reports of Krishnan

(1971) and Kurup (1975). This report covers

the Palni Hills.

NATURAL HISTORY OF Presbytis johnii

Apart from light reddish-brown hair on the

head and (in females) white thigh patches,

Presbytis johnii has an entirely black coat.

It is characteristically an inhabitant of ever-

green forest, including relatively thin strips of

riverine gallery forest bordered by other vege-

tation types. It is herbivorous and its diet in-

cludes large quantities of tree leaves. Black

leaf-monkeys typically live in social groups,

often of 10-20 animals, with a single adult

male. The adult male has a characteristic loud

whooping call, which is frequently produced

at or soon after dawn (Tanaka 1965; Poirier

1969, 1970a, 1970b; Horwich 1972; personal

observation).

_ Although black leaf-monkeys probably al-

ways base their activities in evergreen forest,

they do occasionally enter other habitats.

McCann (1933) says that they may frequent-

ly be seen crossing open stretches of grass

between sholas (evergreen forest in valleys)

and notes the monkeys sunning in the topmost

branches of tall, planted Eucalyptus trees near

sholas. Prater (1971) notes that they may

invade gardens and belts of cultivated wood-

land. In the Ashambu Hills they occur at very

low elevations in river valleys (down to ap-

prox. 108 m alt.) and may also be seen feed-

ing in open deciduous woodland some way

from the riverine forest (personal observation).

In the Nilgiri and Palni Hills, Presbytis johnii

is found as high as 2400 m alt. (Poirier 1970a;

M.A.R. Khan personal communication; this

report, below).

DESCRIPTION OF THE PALNI HILLS

The Palnis (or Pulneys) are the north-

eastern spur oi that section of the Western

Ghat mountains which stretches from the

Ariankavu Pass (9°00'N) to the Palghat Gap

(10°35’N). They extend east-north-east for

some 65 km from the valley of the upper Ten

Ar River at approx. 77°15’E* to 77°50'E, just

west of the town of Dindigul. If their foot is

taken as the 500 m contour, their width varies

between 20 and 40 km _ (between latitudes

10°01'N and 10°27’N) (see Fig. 1). The hills

rise by steep escarpments to a high, undulat-

ing plateau, much of which is above 2000 m

and whose highest point is Vembadi Shola

peak (2508 m; 8221 ft).

Climate varies over the range, but much of

the plateau receives an average of more than

1200 mm of rainfall annually with no more

than four dry months. The southern face of

the hills is wetter than the northern. In the

higher areas mean temperatures in the coolest

month are below 15°C. At the main town on

the plateau, the hill station of Kodaikanal

(10°14'N, 77°29’E; 2343 m alt.), temperature

varies between a mean monthly minimum of

8.1°C and a mean monthly maximum of

18.5°C. Blasco (1971) gives details of the

Palni climate.

Over much of the Palni plateau the “‘natu-

ral’’ vegetation is a short-grass montane sav-

anna, often dotted with small trees of Rhodo-

dendron arboreum vat. nilagarica. The various

* Taken by Kurup (1975) as the eastern bound-

ary of the Anaimalai Hills in his survey.

STATUS OF PRESBYTIS JOHNIT IN THE PALNI HILLS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

savanna formations are described by Blasco

(1971), who believes that savannas in these

areas result primarily from the influence of

fire, presumably generated by human huniers

and graziers. The plateau forests are thus

largely restricted to sheltered (‘‘encaissées’’)

valleys on well-drained soils. The ‘“‘savanni-

zation” of the S. Indian high plateaux is pro-

visionally dated by Blasco to within the last

3000 years. Burning still occurs in the grass-

lands today.

Since the opening-up of the Palni Hills

from the latter part of the 19th century, large

areas of the plateau have been planted with

gum (Eucalyptus spp.) and wattle (Acacia

spp.). Today many of the remaining tracts of

savanna are being ploughed initially for

potato cultivation, but with young trees, es-

pecially pines, being planted amongst the pot-

atoes to supersede the vegetable crop.

The surviving evergreen forests of the

upper elevations of the Palnis are divided

by Blasco into ridge forests (‘‘foréts de

crétes’’) and, in valleys, sholas. Both types

survive only in small patches on the plateau,

and ridge forests are particularly scarce. Al-

though forest disappearance seems to have

been a long-term process, in action for thous-

ands of years, a certain amount of shola has

been felled within recent times—Blasco notes

the destruction of Bear Shola near Kodai-

kanal between 1963 and 1970 and the felling

since 1969 of 400 hectares of shola covering

the upper basin of the Ten Ar River. How-

ever, present Forest Department policy seems

to be to protect, at least nominally, what little

evergreen plateau forest that remains.

Shola forests also occur on the upper escarp-

ments of the Palnis, and are an abundant

vegetation type in precipitous valleys on the

wet southwestern face of the hills. Evergreen

forest apparently once extended down these

valleys almost to the plains. The natural ve-

getation of the southern and. eastern slopes

of the Palnis, apart from the sholas of the wet

valleys, is semi-deciducus forest, and on the

northern slopes dry deciduous forest. Below

about 900 m the forest becomes scrubby. It

was evident from my survey that parts of the

northern slopes are heavily grazed by cattle,

and that up to around 1300 m_ the eastern

slopes carry extensive plantations, particularly

of coffee, bananas and silk-cotton trees. The

encroachment of the Palni vegetation by Ku-

mari potato cultivation on the plateau and by

plantations at the foot of the hills is also des-

cribed by Davidar (1975).

THE SURVEY

Methods:

The Palni Hills were visited from 4-10 June

and 28-29 July 1976. The survey consisted of

three main parts: (a) driving through the

range by Jeep, noting the status of the veget-

ation and questioning people by the road and

at settlements on their knowledge of black

leaf-monkeys (this was done mainly through

a Tamil-speaking field assistant, Mr. D.

Michael); (b) interviewing individuals with

a knowledge of the vegetation and fauna of

large parts of the range (i.e. officers of the

Tamil Nadu Forest Department and H. H.

the Raja of Pudukkottai in Kodaikanal); and

gested to be particularly promising as _leaf-

monkey habitats—I walked through these

forests, noting details of the flora and fauna.

and searching for monkeys. I also listened for)

their unmistakable loud calls (particularly at!

dawn).

The route taken on the June survey was the

main ghat road (“‘Law’s Ghat’) from Vattal-

kundu to Kodaikanal, from Kodaikanal east

STATUS OF PRESBYTIS JOHNIL IN THE PALNI HILLS

on. the Cochin road to Berijam (10°11'N,

77°24'E) and then on as far as Mariyanshola

(10°09’N, 77°21’E), from Mariyanshola back

to Berijam and then north via Mannavanur

to Kukkal (10°17'N, 77°22’E), from Kukkal

via Pumbarai and Gundar (10°13'N, 77°26'E)

to Kodaikanal, from Kodaikanal via Pannaik-

kadu to Tandikkudi (10°18’N, 77°39’E), and

from Tandikkudi east to the plains near Sem-

batti (see Fig. 1). In July the northeastern

section of the hills was visited, driving up

from the plains at Oddanchatram to Pach-

chalur (10°22’N, 77°40’E), and from there for

a short distance towards Tandikkudi, before

returning to the plains by the same route.

Results from general survey and interviews:

This survey, and information obtained at

interviews, made it clear that rather little

suitable Presbytis johnii habitat (evergreen

forest in a relatively undisturbed state) sur-

vives in the Palnis, as has already been noted

in such publications as Spillett (1968) and

Blasco (1971).

My observations indicate that the remain-

ing areas of evergreen forest in the Palnis are:

(1) Close to rivers in the valleys along the

southern face of the hills to the east of Kodai-

kanal.

(ii) “Tiger Shola’” on a hillside just east

of Kodaikanal.

(iii) On the southern edge of the plateau

and on the steep southern escarpment from

Kodaikanal west to the Kerala border near

Top Station.

(iv) In patches on the edge of the plateau

near Kukkal.

_ (v) A patch near Gundar, close to the road

between Pumbarai and Kodaikanal.

(iv) At Gunguvar Odai, north of Kodai-

kanal towards Palni town (reported by H. H.

the Raja of Pudukkottai).

(vii) Small patches on the flanks of Peru-

mal Malai peak (2234 m; 10°18’N, 77°34’E).

(viii) In an area called Andialai, 2 km

south of Tandikkudi, where the forest is un-

derplanted with cardamom.

(ix) Small patches around Pachchalur, some

underplanted with cardamom.

(x) Close to the summit of Pachai Malai

(1299 m; 10°24’N, 77°43’E); this very small

area of forest was observed only from lower

on the hill (where the vegetation was dry

woodland) and its exact character was not

determined.

Areas (ili), (iv) (v) and (x) were examin-

ed on foot and are described in detail in the

next section. Interviews suggested that the

status of black leaf-monkeys in the other areas

(in which the canopy was in most cases scan-

ned with binoculars) is as follows:

(1) Leaf-monkeys seem to be almost entire-

ly absent from the southeastern valleys, but

2 men reported that they occur below Machur

on the road between the settlements of Oothu

and Perumalmalai, in the valley of the ‘“Thal-

asiar’” river. The valley vegetation there is

below 1000 m altitude. Bonnet macaques

(Macaca radiata) were reported from forests

near the road and one group was seen at an

altitude of about 1300 m.

(ii) No leaf-monkeys occur in Tiger Shola

(Forest Department and H.H. the Raja of

Pudukkottai).

(iii) H.H. the Raja of Pudukkottai reports

that a few P. johnii occur at Gunguvar Odai,

but that they are very difficult to find. This is

probably at the headwaters of the Thevan-

Kariar River.

(iv) A few leaf-monkeys may survive in the

sholas on Perumal Malai. Some people said

they were or might have been found there,

others said there were none.

(v) Careful questioning of several people

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

who had lived at Tandikkuddi all their lives,

or who worked in or near the cardamom

estate, produced the response that there are

no leaf-monkeys in the Andialai forest. How-

ever, M. radiata was said to be present, and

one group of this species was seen by the

road between Tandikkuddi and Pannaikkadu

at an altitude of 1300 m.

(vi) It is probable that no leaf-monkeys

exist today near Pachchalur (about 1250 m

alt.). Many people here were questioned.

Several said that black monkeys were found

at Champrankulam, between Pachchalur and

Ayakkudi, but when closely interrogated on

the monkeys’ appearance it seemed clear that

they were referring to Presbytis entellus and

that they had in mind its black face. This is a

caution that the mere statement of the presence

of “black monkey” is unreliable evidence.

Otherwise, everyone questioned said that no

black monkeys existed near Pachchalur. One

elderly man who had lived there all his life,

who hunted in the forests and knew them well,

was adamant on this point. However, E.

Ugarte, S.J. (personal communication) recalls

that he may have heard the call of P. johnii

in the Pachchalur area around the year 1960.

Results from investigation of particular forests

Southern escarpment

From near Kodaikanal west to the Kerala

border near Top Station (a distance of about

25 m) most of the valleys running down the

scarp face, and a few of the ridges, carry ever-

green forest. The upper edge of the scarp lies

at between 2000 and 2500 m, and the face

drops away within a horizontal distance of

some 2 km to an altitude of only 1000 m,

where there is semi-deciduous forest. Between

the patches of evergreen forest are open rock

(often as near-perpendicular cliffs) and grass-

land. At one time, all these forest patches

would have probably been connected by ever-

green forest at a lower altitude where the

valleys meet. But today the low-altitude veget-

ation is much disturbed by man.

One of the most extensive patches of scarp

forest is the Mathikettan shola on the edge

of the escarpment near Berijam. This reaches

downhill from about 2200 m altitude, and was

investigated on foot on 5 June 1976 between

0944 and 1645 h. The area of continuous forest

here was assessed to be at least 2 km? and

perhaps more than 3 km?. The largest trees

in the area investigated were estimated to

reach a height of 25m, with their crowns only

occasionally in contact. Most of the large trees

were identified as Syzygium sp. (possibly S.

arnottianum) and Cinnamomum wightii, with

a few Elaeocarpus recurvatus. Actephila ex-

celsa waS numerous in the middle tree-layer,

and in the understory Lasianthus sp. was ab-

undant. On parts of the forest floor were

many Calanthe veratrifolia orchids. The woody

vine Toddalia asiatica was common. A some-

what similar ridge forest in the Berijam basin

is described in detail by Blasco (1971). [Plant

identifications reported in this paper were

made in the field by reference to Gamble &

Fischer (1967) and Blasco (1971); they have

not been confirmed by a botanist.]

In this forest animals belonging to one

group of P. johnii were clearly seen and it

was estimated that the group contained at

least 10 animals. A second group of monkeys

was heard but not clearly seen. The loud

whooping call of an adult male P. johnii was

heard across a valley to the southwest of the

section of forest investigated on foot.

Several Malabar squirrels (Ratufa indica)

were seen or heard in Mathikettan shola, and

tracks and droppings probably belonging to

gaur (Bos gaurus) were noted. A group of

at least 13 Macaca radiata was seen to run

STATUS OF PRESBYTIS JOHNIL IN THE PALNI HILLS

out of a wattle plantation at 2200 m adjacent

to the forest and climb down the steep open

cliffs of the escarpment.

On 6 June the scarp forest near Mariyan-

shola rest house was examined between 0905

and 1125 h. One shola of under 1 km? occupy-

ing a small valley was traversed on foot. It

extended downhill from about 2300 m. The

shola contained many Cinnamomum wightii.

Syzygium ? arnottianum was also noted, and

Calanthe veratrifolia was again abundant in

patches. A common vine was tentatively iden-

tified as Derris brevipes. A group of Macaca

radiata was sighted in this shola and the chir-

ruping calls of Malabar squirrels were heard.

A large animal, probably a sambar (Cervus

unicolor), ran off on the forest floor without

being seen. No leaf-monkeys were seen or

heard in this forest, but a whooping call was

heard from another belt of shola to the west,

-along the scarp towards “Land-Slip Hill’.

From ‘‘Pass Peak’? (2390 m) two bouts of

P. johnii whooping were heard from forest to

the east of Mariyanshola (but west of Mathi-

kettan).

Therefore sightings and calls gave definite

evidence of 4 - 5 distinct P. johnii adult males,

each probably accompanying a group, on the

scarp between Berijam and Land-Slip Hill

(a distance of approximately 10 km). It is

possible that at least twice this number of

groups was actually present.

There is also forest on the scarp to the east

of Berijam, towards Kodaikanal. P. johnii

occurs in this forest, as evidenced by a whoop-

ing bout heard below Pillar Rocks only about

6 km from Kodaikanal. Although the scarp

west of Land-Slip Hill (77°20'E) was not ex-

amined, leaf-monkeys almost certainly occur

between there and Top Station. H. H. the

Raja of Pudukkottai reports their occurrence

near Vandaravu on the road to Top Station.

The isolated groups in the scattered sholas

of this southwestern escarpment are certainly

in vocal contact with each other and occasion-

al physical contact probably occurs by means

of terrestrial movement across the open

ground between sholas. Such movement might

be expected particularly from solitary large

males without “their own’’ groups.

Kukkal

One relatively large patch of evergreen forest

survives on the northwest edge of the Palni

plateau west of the settlement of Kukkal. Over

50 years ago McCann collected a specimen

of P. johnii at Kukkal (McCann 1933) and

Forest Department officials in Kodaikanal re-

ported to me the monkey’s presence there.

I visited Kukkal from the evening of 6 June

to the morning of 8 June, and the Kukkal

Forest was explored on foot from 0725 to

1546 h on 7 June. The forest is described by

Blasco (1971). It lies on the flanks and crest

of a north-south ridge and is mostly between

1950 and 2100 m alt. Some tongues of forest

reach to a lower altitude, especially to the

west of the ridge where small valleys run down

into the broad Ten Ar valley. On the east,

drainage is inte the Kudiraiyar River valley,

which runs north off the plateau. The Kukkal

Forest is roughly rectangular, extending ap-

proximately 4 km _ north-south and 2.5 km

east-west, but there are extensive grassland

intrusions into the rectangle. There are a few

small patches of shola near Kukkal village but

there is no other extensive area of evergreen

forest in the vicinity. The climate of the north-

western sector of the Palnis is, in general, drier

than that of the southern escarpment.

My survey route through the Kukkal Forest

followed existing paths west on to the ridge

and then north, emerging on a grassy hill with

a small temple at its summit (Papalai, alt.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

2200 m). From here one could see most of

the forest, and there was a fine view west to-

wards Manjampatti in the Ten Ar valley, with

the Anaimalai range rising behind. From this

point near the north end of the forest I walk-

ed approximately south along the ridge

through the length of the forest, emerging on

another hill at the southern end. I then skirt-

ed the southeast of the forest, reentered it and

travelled northeast back to Kukkal.

There was considerable variation in the

vegetation between different parts of the forest.

Near Kukkal, in the northeast quadrant of

the forest, most of the large trees were identi-

fied as Cinnamomum wightii, Beilschmiedia

wightii, Pouteria tomentosa, Litsaea wightiana

and Elaeocarpus oblongus. These trees were

mostly estimated to reach no more than 20

m in height, but occasional specimens of Cin-

namomum were estimated to reach 30 m. In

many places their crowns were not in contact

and a thick layer of large herbs and shrubs

covered the forest floor. The forest had a

moist appearance in this area and land leeches

were abundant. The more southerly parts of

the forest examined seemed drier. Here there

was a closed canopy and the understory was

much more open. Amongst large trees Cin-

namomum wightii was again common, but

Syzygium ? arnottianum was also noted to be

particularly abundant. A common small tree

was tentatively identified as Daphniphyllum

neilgherrense. On parts of the ridge crest there

was a very stunted dry woodland.

I saw no black leaf-monkeys in the Kukkal

Forest, nor any food remains nor droppings

that might be attributed to them. However,

the local guide, who seemed reliable, reported

having seen black monkeys two months before

our visit. Other people questioned at Kukkal

said either that there were no black monkeys

to be found nearby or that they were rare.

One man said that they were found only in

the Ten Ar valley. During all the time I was

at Kukkal, no black-monkey loud calls were

heard, even though my camp had been set

within 200-300 m of the forest.

The appearance of the Kukkal Forest sug-

gested that it could support several groups of

Presbytis johnii and the monkey was certainly

present there at one time (as evidenced by

McCann’s specimen). But if it still survives

at all at Kukkal it must be rare, and it may

have been hunted to extinction. Although I

heard probable gun shots from the direction

of the forest on the evening of 7 June, people

at Kukkal denied that monkeys are hunted

there. This leaf-monkey is hunted in many

parts of South India for its fur, meat and the

supposed medicinal value of its blood and

organs (Poirier 1970a).

Amongst other mammals at Kukkal, drop-

pings and tracks of gaur were much in evid-

ence, the scrapes and pug marks of a leopard

(Panthera pardus) were seen, as were the

droppings of wild dog (Cuon alpinus). One

group of bonnet macaques was seen at the

southeastern edge of the forest, at an altitude

of 2150 m (these macaques do not have the

commercial value of P. johnii and are there-

fore not subjected to the same hunting pres-

sure). No Malabar squirrels were seen or

heard, and there was no evidence of elephants

(which had been reported to be abundant at

Kukkal by Forest Department officers). Our

guide, without any prompting, reported that

Nigiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) occurred

on cliffs to the northeast of the forest. He said

he had seen five “‘varai aadu’’ there a few

days before my visit. Davidar (1975) reports |

hearing of four tahr on the Kukkal cliffs.

However, there were signs that the grass had !

been burned not long before my visit, and |

large herds of cattle (apparently from Manna- |

STATUS OF PRESBYTIS JOHNII IN THE PALNI HILLS

vanur) were being pastured in the grasslands

below the Kukkal Forest. This interference,

combined with the possibility of unregulated

hunting, does not favour the survival of a

small, isolated tahr population.

Gundar

Several people reported to me the presence

of P. johnii at Gundar, which I visited on the

morning of 8 June. An investigation of an

area of evergreen forest on a hillside close to

the southeast of a Forest Department settle-

ment and tree nursery was made on foot bet-

ween 1000 and 1212 h. No other extensive

area of evergreen forest could be seen near

Gundar.

The Gundar shola extends south up a hill-

side from one of the upper branches of the

Gundar River, which rises on the eastern

flank of Vembadi Shola peak, close to the

west of Kodaikanal, and flows north to join

the Shenmukha River, a tributary of the Am-

aravati. It lies at approximately 2100 to 2250

m, occupies an area of about 1.0 to 1.5 km?’

and is surrounded by scrub, plantations of

gum and wattle, and newly-cultivated potato

fields. The largest shola trees were estimated

to reach at least 25 m in height, with Cinna-

momum wightii, Beilschmiedia wightii, Elaeo-

carpus recurvatus, Syzygium ? arnottianum,

Litsaea oleoides, Pouteria tomentosa and

Elaeocarpus oblongus present. What was pro-

bably Daphniphyllum neilgherrense grew in

the middle layers of the forest and climbing

Toddalia asiatica was identified. There was

a fairly open understory, containing Psychotria

sp. and Lasianthus sp. in the shrub layer, with

Calanthe veratrifolia on the forest floor. There

were some thick patches of bamboo at the

forest edge. |

This shola was traversed from east to west

close to the river and then from west to east

higher up the hillside. No leaf-monkeys were

seen or heard. Evidence of at least three Mala-

bar squirrels was obtained from calls and

sightings, and several squirrel nests were seen.

The tracks and droppings of gaur were seen

and there were signs of grubbing by pigs (Sus

scrofa). The quill of a porcupine (/ystrix

indica) was found on the forest floor. No land

leeches were noticed. :

Since people at Gundar were confident that

P. johnii was present in this shola, and since

my search had been short, I returned to Gun-

dar at dawn on 10 June. At 0604 h and at

0707 h P. johnii whooping loud calls were

heard from two separate sites in the shola.

This indicated the presence of at least two

adult male leaf-monkeys in the Gundar forest

and probably therefore the presence of at least

two social groups. No whooping was heard

from any other location near Gundar.

Pachai Malai

This hill, visited on 28 and 29 July, was

the only locality to the east of Perumal Malai

where statements from local people suggested

the possible presence of P. johnii. Many peo-

ple at Nellikuli Kadu below the hill were ques-

tioned. Several claimed that black monkeys

were present near the top of the hill. How-

ever, on closer questioning it was apparent

that some of these people were referring to

P. entellus and that most of them had not

visited the hilltop but based their reports on

hearsay, although a few claimed to have seen

the monkeys themselves. A man who hunted

in the area said that he had seen one black

monkey with a group of bonnet macaques,

one farmer described a monkey with a white

tail and black body and head, and another

described a completely black monkey with a

black beard.

Pachai Malai lies in the dry northeastern

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

sector of the Palni Hills and is isolated from

the main plateau. Most of the land surround-

ing the hill is cultivated. I climbed up to an

altitude of about 850 m on the north flank of

the hill on the evening of 28 July. The veget-

ation on the lower part of the hill bordering

cultivated land (at about 650 m) is thorny

scrub woodland with a very dense shrub layer,

much disturbed by man. At 850 m the shrub

layer is more open and the trees are larger

(some reaching to around 20 m) but their

crowns are mostly not in contact. The veget-

ation is best described as dry deciduous forest

(or woodland) and is quite different from

typical P. johniit habitat. During 1.5 h on the

hill before dusk, no leaf-monkeys were seen

or heard, but a single group of bonnet ma-

caques was encountered.

A scan of the north face of Pachai Malai

from below suggested that evergreen closed-

canopy forest exists only in a small area

(under 10 hectares) in a river valley near the

summit of the hill. The south face of the hill

was not examined.

For one hour from dawn on the morning

of 29 July I waited on the crest of a low hill

northwest of Pachai Malai, about 250 m from

the forest edge. No monkey calls were heard.

In my judgment, it is unlikely that any

black leaf-monkeys exist on Pachai Malai and

I think H.H. the Raja of Pudukkottai is al-

most certainly correct in his view that none

of these animals occurs today east of Perumal

Malai. However, the reports made by local

people cannot be entirely dismissed, especially

as P. johnii is known to exploit open wood-

land at low elevations in the Ashambu Hills.

CONCLUSIONS

A few thousand years ago evergreen forests

probably covered a major part of the upper

Palni Hills, supporting a large population of

black leaf-monkeys. Today, such forest re-

mains only in patches and only some of these

patches still contain leaf-monkeys. Even 50

years ago the leaf-monkey was quite common

in practically all the forests of the range (E.

Ugarte, S.J., personal communication), and

it was not uncommon in the environs of Ko-

daikanal town up to the mid-1950s (H.H. the

Raja of Pudukkottai quoted in Daniel &

Kannan 1967). According to the Raja, the

species is still heavily hunted in the Palni Hills,

both by local people and by hunters from the

plains. :

The largest remaining population seems to

be on the southwestern escarpment of the hills.

The number of leaf-monkeys living here pro-

bably falls somewhere between a minimum of

100 and a maximum of 300 individuals. Hunt-

ing may not be a significant problem close to

Kodaikanal and Berijam, because of the pro-

ximity of Forest Department establishments,

but it almost certainly occurs on the more

remote parts of the scarp. Agricultural en-

croachment is damaging forest on the lower

parts of the scarp. If this continues upwards

there could be a serious reduction both in the

extent of potential leaf-monkey habitat and

in the frequency of contact between groups.

A few leaf-monkey groups survive in other

areas, with at least two groups probably in

the Gundar valley (which may be protected

from hunting by its proximity to a Forest

Department establishment and to the Kodai-

kanal road), but’ it seems unlikely that more

than 15 groups (or perhaps 150-200 animals)

survive in all areas other than the southwestern

escarpment, and this could well be an over-

estimate. Tentatively I would therefore sug-

gest a possible minimum of 150 leaf-monkeys

in the Palni Hills in 1976 and a maximum (a

rather unlikely maximum) of 500.

Although present Forest Department policy

STATUS OF PRESBYTIS JOHNII IN THE PALNI HILLS

seems to be preserve the patches of evergreen

forest that remain in the Palnis, at least on the

plateau, I think that the leaf-monkey popul-

ation could still become extinct if further

action is not taken. The following actions are

recommended:

(1) Taking stronger measures to prevent

the hunting of monkeys (and of other

animals). This requires paying more

attention to areas, such as Kukkal, that

are remote from large Forest Depart-

ment establishments.

(2) Halting agricultural encroachment on

the forests of the lower hill-slopes, parti-

cularly the southern escarpment.

(3) Giving special protection from cultiva-

tion, grazing and burning to any other

vegetation which occupies a narrow

gap between existing patches of ever-

green forest, so that in the long term

the patches will be more effectively

linked for their populations of forest

animals.

Even if these actions are taken and are ef-

fective, they may be too late to save leaf-

monkeys from extinction in some isolated

forests (e.g. Kukkal) that were gnce definitely

occupied. If the monkeys do not naturally

recolonize these forests after several years,

consideration might be given to the introduc-

tion of animals from elsewhere. This would

need great care. It should not involve the

capture of wild monkeys unless they are from

a population whose own habitat is being

irreversibly destroyed. Captive animals con-

fiscated by the Forest Department might be

considered for reintroduction, but only where

there is little danger of infecting wild animals

with any diseases acquired by the captives.

Evergreen forest in the Palni Hills needs

protection not just because of its leaf-monkey

population but because of the many other

interesting species of plants and animals which

it supports (and for a summary of important

reasons for conserving shola forests in general,

see Green & Minkowski [1977]). The semi-

natural grasslands of the plateau also have

great biological interest, but they are being

converted rapidly into potato fields and plan-

tations of exotic trees. Overgrazing by domes-

tic livestock affects many parts of the foot-

hills, and illegal hunting is probably wide-

spread throughout the range. Davidar (1975)

notes the threat to the Nilgiri tahr population

on the southwestern escarpment posed by

poaching, potato cultivation and cattle graz-

ing. I understand that there are well advan-

ced plans for bauxite mining in the vicinity

of Mariyanshola. Such an operation could

cause large-scale habitat disturbance.

If a significant proportion of the natural

vegetation and its wild animal inhabitants in

the Palnis is to survive, a careful examination

must be made of the whole range of exploi-

tationary activities which are in progress or

planned to assess how their impact might be

mitigated. A detailed survey is required to

provide information on the distribution and

abundance of populations of all the large ani-

mals and to assess the status of the natural

vegetation. Serious attention should be given

to the idea of the Kodaikanal Hills sanctuary

outlined by Spillett (1968). However, a san-

ctuary should include plateau areas and the

southwest escarpment, and not just the deci-

duous forests up to 3000 ft (900 m) of the

original proposal. Properly developed, such

a sanctuary could only increase the attractive-

ness of Kodaikanal as a_ resort, which the

spread of cultivation and the decline of wild-

life surely cannot.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Field work in South India was sponsored

by the Bombay Natural History Society, which

loaned the Jeep without which this survey

could not have been made. I am grateful for

the assistance given to me in Palni Hills by

Officers of the Tamil Nadu Forest Department

and I thank H.H. the Raja of Pudukkottai

for giving me much valuable information. This

survey is part of a research project supported

by the U.S. Public Health Service (research

grant no. MH 24269 to Steven Green).

REFERENCES

BLasco, F. (1971): Montagnes du sud de l’Inde:

forets, savanes écologie. Travaux de la Section

Scientifique et Technique, Institut Francais de Pon-

dichéry 10:1-436.

DANIEL, J. C. & KANNAN, P. (1967): The sta-

tus of the Nigiri langur [Presbytis johnii (Fischer) ]

and lion-tailed macaque [Macaca silenus (Linn-

aeus)] in South India—a report. Bombay Natural

History Society, mimeographed.

Davipar, E. R. C. (1975): The Nilgiri tahr. Oryx

13 :205-211.

GAMBLE, J. S. & FISCHER, C. E. C. (1967): Flora

of the Presidency of Madras. Second reprinted edi-

tion. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Goopwin, H. A. & HoitLoway, C. W. (1972):

Red data book, 1: Mammalia. I.U.C.N., Morges.

GREEN, S. & MINKOWSKI, K. (1977): The lion-

tailed monkey and its South Indian rain forest

habitat. In Prince Rainier and G. H. Bourne (eds):

Primate conservation 289-333. Academic Press, New

York.

HorwicH, R. H. (1972): Home range and food

habits of the Nilgiri langur, Presbytis johnii. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69:255-267.

KRISHNAN, M. (1971): An ecological survey of

the larger mammals of peninsular India. ibid. 68:

503-555.

Kurup, G. U. (1975): Status of the Nilgiri

langur, Presbytis johnii in the Anamalai, Carda-

mom and Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India.

ibid. 72:21-29.

McCann, C. (1933): Observations on some of

the Indian langurs. ibid. 36:618-628.

OaTES, J. F. (in press): Comments on the geogra-

phical distribution and status of the South Indian

black leaf-monkey (Presbytis johnii). Mammalia.

PorrigR, F. E. (1969): The Nilgiri langur (Pres-

bytis johnii) troop: its composition, structure, func-

tion and change. Folia primatol. 10:20-47.

(1970a): The Nilgiri langur (Pres-

bytis johnii) of South India. In Rosenblum, L.A.

(ed.): Primate behaviour: developments in field

and laboratory research /:251-383. Academic Press,

New York.

(1970b): The communication ma-

trix of the Nilgiri Jangur (Presbytis johnii) of South

India. Folia primatol. 13:92-136.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The book of Indian ani-

mals. Third edition. Bombay Natural History So-

ciety, Bombay.

SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): A report on wild life

surveys in South and West India: November-De-

cember 1966. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:633-663.

TANAKA, J. (1965): Social structure of Nilgiri

langurs. Primates 6:107-122.

FLORA OF MUDUMALAT WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU’

B. D. SHARMA, B. V. SHETTY?, K. VIVEKANANTHAN? AND N. C. RATHAKRISHNAN

(With a map)

A floristic account of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary which lies between 11°32’-11°43’ N

and 76°22'-76°45’ E in the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu is given in this paper. A total

of 506 taxa of flowering plants and ferns are reported from the sanctuary. Five species not

reported by Gamble & Fischer (1915-1936) in the Flora of the Presidency of Madras have

also been collected from this area. A map of the sanctuary is provided.

INTRODUCTION

The creation of Wildlife Sanctuaries makes it

possible to conserve the wild animals and

plants thereby enabling the typical fauna and

flora of India to be maintained to some ex-

tent. Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary lies bet-

ween 11°32’ and 11°43’ N and 76°22’ and

76°45’ E and is situated along the eastern

slopes of the Western Ghats. It forms the

forest of the northern and north western side

of the Nilgiri or Blue Mountains. The sanctu-

ary is bounded on the north by the Bandipur

National Park of Karnataka and on the west

and south west by Kerala State (Map).

Topography: The sanctuary consists of un-

dulating hills with elevations varying from

350 to 1250 m. Many streams drain the sanc-

tuary, the principal ones being (1) Moyar

which flows along the borders of Tamil Nadu

and Karnataka (2) Benne Hole draining the

western part of the sanctuary and (3) Biden

Halla which flows into the Moyar. Moyar is

1 Accepted January 1977.

Present address:

2 Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad.

the most important source of water in the

sanctuary, since most of the other streams dry

up during the summer months.

Geology and soil: The rocks are of typical

archaean biotite and hornsblendic gneiss with

intensive bunds of charnokite and much

younger biotite-granite, pegmatite and basic

doleric dykes. Two kinds of soil, namely black

sandy loam and red heavy loam may be re-

cognised in the area. The red soil is confined

to the southern part of the sanctuary.

Climate and rainfall: The sanctuary is

warmer than the rest of the area in the district.

April, May and June are the hottest months

and December and January are the coldest

months. The rainfall varies greatly in different

parts of the sanctuary. The western side re-

ceives more rainfall than the eastern part dur-

ing the south-west monsoon period between

June and September. In the eastern side most

of the rainfall falls during the north-east mon-

soon period between October and December.

The average annual rainfall is about 1420 m.

3 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

4 Botanical Survey of India, Jodhpur.

5 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

VEGETATION

The vegetation varies in different parts of

the sanctuary due to the variation in the extent

of rainfall within the limits of the sanctuary

and the period of its occurrence, and presents

more luxuriance in October and November.

Three main types of vegetation are met with:

1. Tropical moist deciduous, 2. Tropical dry

deciduous and 3. Southern tropical thorn

forest. In certain places mixed type of veget-

ation is noticed and demarcation between the

first and second type and between the second

and third type becomes difficult.

Tropical moist deciduous: In Benne block

(western side of the sanctuary) this type of

forest is encountered because of high rainfall

when compared to the other blocks. Bambusa

arundinaceae is common and characteristic of

this type. The forest is leafless during the dry

season in March-April though there is a good

covering of evergreen species in the under-

wood with shrubs such as Toona ciliata,

Euodia lunu-ankenda, Glochidion velutinum

and Viburnum punctatum. The prominent tree

species which constitute the forest are: Ter-

minalia tomentosa, T. crenulata, T. bellerica,

Schleichera oleosa, Butea monosperma, Lino-

ciera malabarica, Schrebera swietenioides and

Pterocarpus marsupium. The undergrowth con-

sists of Antidesma diandrum, Clerodendrum

serratum, C. viscosum, Desmodium pulchel-

lum, Flemingia strobilifera, F. wightiana and

Callicarpa tomentosa.

Due to the heavy rainfall and inadequate

drainage, swamps are of frequent occurrence

in this region.

Tropical dry deciduous forest: This type of

forest is confined to the eastern side of the

sanctuary. It is composed of trees, practically

all of which are deciduous during the dry

season. It merges gradually into thorn forests

wherever the rainfall is inadequate. Anogeis-

sus latifolia is the dominant species. Other

common tree species are: Buchanania lanzan,

Tectona grandis, Diospyros montana, Seme-

carpus anacardium, Givotia rottleriformis,

Lannea coromandeliana, Dalbergia latifolia,

Bombax ceiba, Madhuca indica, Gmelina arb-

orea, Mitragyna parvifolia and Wrightia tinc-

toria. Some of the shrubs and climbers worthy

of mention are Carissa carandas, Maytenus

emarginata, Scutia myrtina, Argyreia cuneata,

Ventilago maderaspatana and Hiptage beng-

halensis.

Grasses like Heteropogon contortus and

Themeda cymbaria come up after the rains

and give good grazing for wild animals. Ha-

benaria plantaginea, a terrestrial orchid, is

found in association with Themeda cymbaria.

The forest fires begin in February and burn

the grasses over extensive areas till the dry

spell ends in April.

Southern tropical thorn forest: This type of

forest also known as scrub jungle is dominat-

ed by Acacia spp. Sometimes elements of dry

deciduous type are also mixed up in this forest

and hence a clear demarcation cannot be made

here. However, the predominance of thorny

species together with plants -of fleshy nature,

both of which are xerophytic adaptations, are

characteristics of this vegetation. Parts of

Avarihalla, Moyar and Bokkapuram reserves

constitute this type. The floristic constituents

are: Acacia chundra, A. leucophloea, Albizzia

amara, Canthium parviflorum, Xeromphis

spinosa, Zizyphus oenoplia, Capparis grandi-

flora, C. sepiaria, Barleria buxifolia, B. myso-

rensis and B. prionitis. |

Succulents like Opuntia dillenii and Caral-

luma adscendens are common in the open

forests.

On the banks of Moyar and along the

streams, narrow strips of riverine vegetation

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

is noticed. The prominent species are Lino-

ciera malabarica, Salix tetrasperma, Bischofia

javanica, Terminalia arjuna, Vitex altissima,

Diospyros peregrina, D. assimilis, Drypetes

roxburghii, Memecylon edule and Mallotus

muricatus. Homonoia riparia, a

shrub, is well adapted to water currents in

Moyar river.

Almost the entire sanctuary is exploited for

forest produce. It supports a number of Teak

plantations, particularly in the Benne Block

and plantation of Eucalyptus is found in Ma-

sinagudi area. Bamboo plantation for rayon

mills in Kerala has also gained importance

during the last few years. The timber extrac-

tio includes both clear felling and selective

cuttings.

The minor forest produce includes wild

honey, bees wax, bark lichen, soapnut, tama-

rind, galinut for medicinal use from Termi-

nalia chebula and T. bellerica, antlers, etc.

Mudumalai sanctuary, like many other

sanctuaries in India, suffers from human inter-

ference. Some of the contributing factors are

population pressure, denudation of forests,

disturbance of the natural condition by the

plantation of blue gum, wattles and other such

exotics, use of insecticides, excessive cattle

grazing which leads to soil erosion and the

passing of unhealthy cattle through the sanc-

tuary, etc. During one of our visits a big fair

was in progress inside the sanctuary at the Bok-

kapuram Temple which is said to be an annual

feature. This must certainly be a great source

rheophytic

establish as to which floristic and faunistic

constituents are utilized by the wildlife for

their needs, so that managerial practices could

be orientated in the best interest of the wild-

life.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATION

The earliest plant collections from the Mu-

dumalai Wildlife Sanctuary area were made

by R. H. Beddome, M. A. Lawson, C. A. Bar-

ber, J. S. Gamble and G. V. Narayana and

S. R. Raju. K. Subramanyam in 1956 made

collections in Benne block under the auspices

of the Botanical Survey of India. The recent

explorations, based on which this paper has

been written, were undertaken between 1970

and 1973 by B. D. Sharma, B. V. Shetty, K.

Vivekananthan and N. C. Rathakrishnan in

eight field trips. Sporadic collections of N. P.

Balakrishnan are also included. The collections

are deposited in the Madras Herbarium, Coim-

batore (MH).

This enumeration paper deals with 693 field

numbers of flowering plants and ferns. It in-

cludes 506 vascular plants belonging to 328

genera spread over 98 families. The families

of flowering plants are arranged according to

Bentham & Hooker’s Classification with cer-

tain exceptions to accommodate recent changes

in the delimitation of families. Ferns are ar-—

ranged based on the system followed by Bir ©

& Vasudeva (1971) and Holttum (1954).

Genera and species are arranged under their |

respective families in an alphabetical order. |

The currently valid names are given and wher- |

ever necessary the synonyms appearing in>

Gamble’s Flora are given below. New records |

not reported by Gamble & Fischer (1915- |

1936) in the FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF —

MADRAS are marked with an asterisk. |

of annoyance and disturbance to the wildlife.

Keeping all these factors in mind it was de-

cided to record the floral wealth of the sanc-

tuary before it is adversely affected by man.

It would be worthwhile to establish collabora-

tion between the botanists and zoologists to

16 i

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

DICOTYLEDONS

ANNONACEAE

Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wt. & Arn.

Scandent shrub with yellow fis., rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35450.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn. var. hirsuta (Buch.-Ham.

ex DC.) Forman

C. pareira Linn.

Climber with greenish yellow fis., common.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34349; Cir-

cular road, 900 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34385; Bok-

kapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma 35405.

CRUCIFERAE (BRASSICACEAE)

Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Sm.

Senebiera didyma Pers.

Small herb with white fis., occasional.

Benne, 1200 m, 19-1-1961, Shetty 11933.

CAPPARACEAE

Capparis grandiflora Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thoms.

Shrub with white or yellow fls., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 925 m, 17-4-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 37924.

C. sepiaria Linn.

Large straggling shrub in frs., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35611.

Cleome felina Linn. f.

Annual erect herb with pink fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38999.

C. monophylla Linn.

Erect herb with purple fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35404.

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) F.V. Muell.

Ionidium suffruticosum Ging.

Perennial woody undershrub with red fis., com-

mon.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35722.

BIXACEAE

Cochlospermum religiosum (Linn.) Alston.

C. gossypium DC.

Deciduous tree with golden yellow fis., rare.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39820.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia ramontchii L’Herit.

Shrub with yellow fls., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 15-2-1972, Sharma 39804.

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum floribundum Wt. & Arn.

Smail tree with yellow fis., & frs., rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 27-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43091.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn.

Prostrate herb with greenish yellow fis., & frs.,

common.

Mudumalai R.F., 900 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34388;

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35584.

P. elongata Klein. ex Willd.

Annual herb with yellow fis., occasional.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34358.

P. rosmarinifolia Wt. & Arn.

Annual herb, rare.

Masinagudi, 950 m, November 1884, Gamble

15413.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Drymaria cordata Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.

Diffuse herb, common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, Nov.

(MH 2649).

1889, Lawson s.n.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

Shorea talura Roxb.

Tree in fis., very rare.

Mudumalai R.F., 900 m, Beddome s.n. (MH

3419),

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wt. & Arn.

Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn.

Herb in frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35588.

Bombax ceiba Linn.

B. malabaricum DC.

Large tree with scarlet fis., rare.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Theppakadu, 900 m, August 1886, Gamble 17870;

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 15-2-1972, Sharma 39806.

Hibiscus lunarifolius Willd.

Erect herb with yellow fis., occasional.

Kargudi, 975 m, 28-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43101.

H. ovalifolius (Forsk.) Vahl

H. micranthus Lf.

Shrub with white fls., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35720,

19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 37959.

H. lobatus (J. A. Murray) O. Kize.

H. solandra L’Herit.

Erect herb with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Mudumalai-Kargudi, 800 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana

& Raju 18316; Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-

1970, Sharma 35497.

Kydia calycina Roxb.

Tree with white fis., common.

Kargudi, 975 m, 28-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43099.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

Undershrub with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10475.

S. glutinosa Comm. ex Cav.

Undershrub with orange fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35597.

S. orientalis Cav.

Shrub in fis., occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43051.

Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs.

. Hibiscus lampas Cav.

Undershrub with yellow fis., rare.

Benne, 900 m, November 1886, Gamble 18367;

Birala, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43080.

Urena sinuata Linn.

Undershrub with pink fis., common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38986.

STERCULIACEAE

Byttneria herbacea Roxb.

Herb with purple fis.. common.

Mudumalai, 850 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34402.

Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wt. & Arn.) Wt.

Small tree with yellow fls., rare.

Mudumalai, 900 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34386;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35447,

Helicteres isora Linn.

Shrub with red fis., common.

Mudumalai, i100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10492; Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Shar-

ma 35493.

Sterculia urens Roxb. —

Tree with reddish-brown fis. & frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35571.

S. villosa Roxb.

Tree with yellow fls., streaked with pink, occa-

sional.

Mudumalai, 850 m, February 1887, Gamble s.n.

(MH 4740).

Waltheria indica Linn.

Undershrub with yellow fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35406.

‘TILIACEAE

Grewia abutilifolia Vent. ex Juss.

G. aspera Roxb.

Shrub with white fis. & frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35385; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40764 & 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43054.

G. disperma Rottl. ex Spr.

Shrub with yellow fis., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35524:

G. hirsuta Vahl

Shrub with white fis. & frs., very common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10487; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34359;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35399; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekanan-

than 43061.

G. orbiculata Rottl.

G. rotundifolia Juss.

Small tree with yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan —

38016.

G. tiliifolia Vahl.

Small tree with yellow fis. & frs., common. |

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma |

35446; Avarihalla R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Ratha- |

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

krishnan 38030; Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vive-

kananthan 40769.

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.

Herb with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43067.

LINACEAE

Erythroxylon monogynum Roxb.

Small tree with white fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35387.

MALPIGHIACEAE

Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz

H. madablota Gaerin.

Straggling shrub with fragrant white fis., occa-

sional.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35445.

1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotch.

Small herb with white yellow fis. & frs., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivenkananthan

43060.

B. sensitivum (Lin.) DC. var. candolleanum (Wt.)

Edgew. & Hook f.

B. candolleanum Wt.

Small herb with yellow fis., common

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35391.

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

_ Small herb with yellow fis. rare.

~ Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10493.

| BALSAM INACEAE

Impatiens chinensis Linn.

_ Annual herb in fis. & frs., rare.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10477.

RUTACEAE

Atalantia racemosa Wt. & Arn.

| Small tree with white fls., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39813.

‘Chloroxylon swietenia DC.

| Small tree with white fls., common.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

38018; Avarihalla R.F., 900 m, 20-2-1972, Sharma

39864.

Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr.

Small tree with white fls., common.

Benne, 1030 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10437.

Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle

Limonia crenulata Roxb.

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 38924.

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk. var. gracilis

Gamble

Climbing shrub with white fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35386.

BURSERACEAE

Commiphora caudata (Wt. & Arn.) Engl.

Tree in frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35565.

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Tree with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Doddagatti-Kargudi, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty

34375; Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Shar-

ma 35413; Moyar R.F., 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma

39821; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40760.

MELIACEAE

Aglaia elaecgnoidea (Juss.) Benth.

A. roxburghiana Hiern.

Small tree with pale yellow fis., rare.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35709.

Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss.

Large tree with white fis., rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40762.

Cippadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq.

Shrub in frs., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m,

895825

Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss.

Large tree in frs., common.

Moyar bank, 600 m, 19-4-1971,

37978.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Cedrela toona Roxb.

Large tree in frs., rare.

12-8-1970, Sharma

Rathakrishnan

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Benne R.F., 10-4-1972, WVivekananthan

40777.

875m,

OLACACEAE

Olax scandens Roxb.

Climbing shrub in frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35436.

OPILIACEAE

Cansjera rheedii Gmel.

Climbing shrub with pale green fis. very com-

mon.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35728 &

23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan 38983.

Opilia amentacea Roxb.

Climbing shrub with pale green fis., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37968.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

Ilex malabarica Bedd.

Tree in fis., rare.

Mudumalai, 900 m, Beddome s.n. (MH 9757).

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculatus Willd.

Climbing shrub in frs., very common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35434.

Elaeodendron paniculatum Wt. & Arn.

Small tree with greenish yellow fis., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 900 m, 20-2-1972, Sharma 39866.

E. roxburghii Wt. & Arn.

E. glaucum auct. non Pers.

Small tree with yellow fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35435; Moyar bank, 600 m, 17-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 37975.

Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou

Gymnosporia montana Benth.

Small tree with white fls., common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38994; Moyar R.F., 925 m, 15-2-1972, Sharma

39801.

Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.) Alston

P. wightii Wt. & Arn.

Small tree in frs., common.

Masinagudi, 900 m, August 1886, Gamble 17910;

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1973, Sharma 35715.

HIPPOCRATEACEAE

Loeseneriella pauciflora (DC.) A. C. Smith

Hippocratea obtusifolia Roxb.

Climbing shrub with yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38982 & 16-2-1972, Sharma 39810.

RHAMNACEAE

Scutia myrtina (Burm. f.) Kurz

Straggling shrub with paie green fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35415; Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38920.

Zizyphus oenoplia Miil.

Straggling shrub with greenish yellow fis. & frs.,

common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35378; Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970,

Sharma 35537; Birala, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43077.

Z. xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.

Small tree with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35438; Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 38020; Mudumalai, 900 m, 11-4-1972, Vive-

kananthan 40789.

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus araneosa Planch.

Climbing shrub in frs., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35522: |

Cissus discolor BI.

Climber in fls., occasional.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10394. |

C. gigantea (Bedd.) Planch.

Climbing shrub in frs., rare. |

Theppakadu, 950 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n. |

(MH_ 11263).

C. glauca Roxb. !

Climbing shrub with pink fls., common. |

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan |

37965 & 16-2-1972, Sharma 39812. 1

C. quadrangularis Linn. :

Climbing shrub with yellow fis. very common.}|

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

38022.

C. pallida (Wt. & Arn.) Planch.

Erect shrub in frs., rare.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35574.

Leea crispa Linn.

Shrub in greenish fis., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35533.

L. edgeworthii Santapau

L. aspera Edgew.

Undershrub in fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam

10474: Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34353.

SAPINDACEAE

Allophylus rheedii (Wt.) Radlk.

Large shrub in fis., common.

Benne R.F., 850 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34434.

A. serratus (Roxb.) Kurz

Small tree with white fls., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35421; Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m._ 16-8-1970,

Sharma 35521.

A. serrulatus (Wt.) Radlk.

Small tree in fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram, 1000 m, August 1886, Gamble

17943.

Cardiospermum canescens Wall.

Climbing herb with white fis., common.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble

18457.

Filicium decipiens (Wt. & Arn.) Thw.

Tree with greenish buds, rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m,

35416.

Sapindus emarginatus Vahl

Tree with white fis., occasional.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, August 1886, Gamble 17969.

S. laurifolius Vahl

Tree with yellow fis., occasional.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 2-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38916.

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.

S. trijuga Willd.

Large tree in frs., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, Gamble sn. (MH _ 11613);

12-8-1970, Sharma

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40756;

Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40802.

ANACARDIACEAE

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Odina wodier Roxb.

Small tree with yellowish green fis., & frs., oc-

casional.

Theppakadu 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 12104); Moyar bank, 530 m, 16-2-1972,

Sharma 39818.

Mangifera indica Linn.

Tree along riverside in frs., occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40750.

Rhus mysorensis G. Don.

Small tree with yellow fis., & frs., common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38993 & 16-2-1972, Sharma 39819.

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.

Tree with greenish yellow fis. & frs., very com-

mon.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, November 1886, Gamble

17961; Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma

35577; Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38927.

PAPILIONACEAE

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (Linn.) DC.

Herb with light pink fls., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1870, Sharma 35582.

A. monilifer (Linn.) DC.

Prostrate herb with pink fis., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43066.

Atylosia scarabaeoides (Linn.) Benth.

Twining herb with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 15-2-1972, Sharma 39803;

Mudumalai, 850 m, 27-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43095,

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.

Small tree with red fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11959; Theppa-

kadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40761.

Crotalaria calycina Schrank

Herb with pale yellow fis., occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1886, Gamble

18372.

PDI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

C. dubia Grah. ex Benth.

Undershrub with fis. and frs. occasional.

Benne, 1125 m, November 1884, Gamble 15329,

21-1-1961, Shetty 11957.

C. laevigata Lamk.

Shrub with yellow fis., occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43050.

C. medicaginea Lamk. var. neglecta (Wt. & Arn.)

Baker

C. medicaginea Lamk.

Herb with yellow fls., occasional.

Theppakadu, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH_ 13271).

C. mysorensis Roth

Herb in frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35596.

C. pallida Ait.

C. striata DC. var. acutifolia Trim.

Shrub with yellow fis., common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38980.

C. verrucosa Linn.

Shrub with pale blue fis.. common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38996.

C. walkeri Arn.

Undershrub with yellow fils. & frs., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 19-1-1961, Shetty 11932.

Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn. f.

Medium-sized tree in frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35441.

D. latifolia Roxb.

Medium-sized tree with white fls., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35620;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma 35442.

D. paniculata Roxb.

Medium-sized tree in frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35569.

Derris indica (Lamk.) Bennet

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre

Small tree with pinkish fls. & frs., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35723;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40743.

Desmodium heterocarpum (Linn.) DC.

D. polycarpum DC. var. trichocaulon Baker

Undershrub with purple fis., common.

Birala, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43075.

D. botorium (Houtt.) Merr.

D. gyrans DC.

Undershrub with pinkish fils. & frs., common.

Benne, 1200 m, November 1886, Gamble 18405

& 21-1-1961, Shetty 11956; Birala, 850 m, 26-10-

1972, Vivekananthan 43074.

D. velutinum (Willd.) DC.

D. latifolium DC.

Undershrub with fis. & frs., very common.

Benne, 1200 m, November 1886, Gamble 18420;

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38991; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43053.

D. ormocarpoides DC.

Undershrub with pinkish fis., occasional.

Birala 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43072.

D. pulchellum (Linn.) Benth.

Shrub with pale yellow fis. & frs., very common.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11955; Theppa-

kadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43052.

D. triangulare (Retz.) Méerr.

D. cephalotes Wall. var. congestum Prain

Shrub with white fils. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10481;

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35545; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43063.

Dunbaria ferruginea Wt. & Arn.

Climber with yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38984.

Erythrina suberosa Roxb.

Tree with scarlet fis., occasional.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, Beddome s.n. (MH 15875).

Flemingia strobilifera R. Br. ex Ait.

Shrub with white fis., common.

Benne, 1200 m, 21-1-1960, Shetty 11949.

F. wightiana Grah.

Shrub in frs., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 19-1-1961, Shetty 11930.

Glycine javanica Linn.

Climber with red fis. & frs., common.

Theppakadu,

850 m, November 1884, Gamble

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

15664; Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38926.

Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC.

I. pulchella Roxb.

Shrub with purple fis. & frs., common.

Thorapalli-Kargudi, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43086.

I. cordifolia Heyne ex Roth

Herb with red fils. & frs., common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38995.

I. hirsuta Linn.

Herb with red fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-i970, Sharma 35598.

I. parviflora Heyne ex Wt. & Arn.

Herb with lilac fis., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38923.

I. spicata Forsk.

I. endecaphylla Jacq.

Trailing herb with red fils. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10468;

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35520.

I. trita Linn. f. ssp. subulata (Vahl ex Poir.) Ali

I. subulata Vahl

Undershrub with red fis., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38928.

I. vestita Baker

Undershrub in frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35580.

I. wightii Grah. ex Wt. & Arn.

Shrub with yellowish-red fls. & frs., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10496; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34357.

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Large tree with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35548.

Rhynchosia albifiora (Sims) Alston

- R. cyanosperma Benth.

Climber in fis., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1884, Gamble

15665; Mudumalai, 1100 m, 27-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43093.

R. densiflora (Roth) DC.

Twiner with yellow fis., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38922.

R. minima (Linn.) DC.

Trailing herb with yellow fis., very common.

Mudumalai, 900 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34390.

R. rothii Benth. ex Aitch.

P. sericea Span.

Climbing shrub with purple fis., scarce.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1884, Gamble

15662.

R. rufescens DC. ‘

Twining herb with yellow fis., common.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1884, Gamble

15661; Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1886, Gam-

ble 18443; Benne 1200 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11958;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1971, Sharma 35439.

Smithia geminiflora Roth

Herb with yellow fis., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11946.

Sophora glauca Lesch.

Shrub with purple fls., occasional.

Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40804.

Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers.

Herb with pink or white fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35554;

Masinagudi, 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35615.

T. tinctoria Pers.

Undershrub with pink fis., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35588.

Uraria hamosa Wall. ex Wt.

Straggling shrub with pink fis., common.

Benne, 1050 m, November 1886, Gamble 18424.

U. lagopodioides Desv. ex DC.

Undershrub with pink fls., occasional.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, Beddome s.n. (MH 14804);

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35539.

Vigna radiata (Linn.) Witczek. var. sublobata

(Roxb.) Verde. Phaseolus sublobatus Roxb.

Twining herb with yellow fis. & frs., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35527

CAESALPINIACEAE

Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth. Bauhinia

malabarica Roxb.

Tree with yellow fls., common.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Mudumalai, 1100 m, August 1886, Gamble 17933

& 20-7-1960, Subramanyam 10483.

P. racemosa (Lamk.) Benth. Bauhinia racemosa

Lamk.

Tree with yellow fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 925 m, 17-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 37981; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 40746 & 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43059.

Caesalpinia mimosoides Lamk.

Climbing shrub with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1125 m, November 1886, Gamble 18422

& 21-1-1961, Shetty 11938.

Cassia auriculata Linn.

Shrub with yellow fis., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35551.

C. fistula Linn.

Small tree with yellow fis., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35557;

Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40800.

C. hirsuta Linn.

Shrub with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35423.

*C. intermedia Sharma, Vivek. & Rathak. in Proc.

Ind. Acad. Sci. (sec. B) 80:301.1975.

Shrub with yellow fis. & frs.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35602;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40758.

C. mimosoides Linn.

Herb with yellow fis., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35523.

C. sophera Linn.

Undershrub with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Mudumalai 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10484; Kargudi, 975 m, 28-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43102.

C. tora Linn.

Undershrub in frs., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1886, Gamble

18441.

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia canescens Grah. -

Scandent shrub with yellow fils. & frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35400; Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha- —

krishnan 38911.

A. chundra Willd.

A. sundra DC.

Smail tree with pale yellow fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, i13-8-1970, Sharma

35433; Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38910.

A. leucophloea Willd.

Tree in yellow flower heads, rare.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35553.

A. torta (Roxb.) Craib

Climbing shrub with white flower heads, occa-

sional.

Kargudi, 1000 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34397; Nor-

thern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma 35529.

Albizzia amara Boivin.

Small tree with yellowish flower heads, occasional.

Avarihalla R.F., 900 m, 20-2-1972, Sharma 39865.

A. lebbek (Linn.) Benth.

Large tree with white flower heads, common.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40772.

Mimosa pudica Linn.

Undershrub with pinkish flower heads, rare.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35618.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Bedd.

Medium-sized tree with yellow fis. & frs., very

common. Pan’

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju

18314; Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970,

Sharma 35535; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972,

Vivekananthan 43070.

Combretum ovalifolium Roxb.

Climbing shrub with pale green fis... common. |

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37982 & 16-2-1972, Sharma 39807.

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wt. & Arn.

Large tree with yellow fis. on river banks, rare. |

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan |

37958. |

T. bellerica Roxb.

Tree with greenish yellow fis., rare.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40774.

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

T. chebula Retz.

Small tree with pale green fis. common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 925 m, 17-4-1971, Rathakris-

nan 37928.

T. coriacea (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn.

Tree in fis., rare.

Mudumalai, 900 m,

40791.

T. crenulata Roth

Tree in fis. & frs., common.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34427;

Northern Hay R.F., 15-8-1970, Sharma 35503; Bir-

ala-Thorapalli, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43079.

11-4-1972, Vivekananthan

T. paniculata Roth

Tree in fis., rare.

Doddagati, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34360.

T. tomentosa Wt. & Arn.

Tree with yellow fils. & frs., occasional.

Kargudi-Mudumalai, 850 m, 2Z3-9-1928, Narayana

& Raju 18313; Mudumalai, 900 m, 11-4-1972, Vive-

kananthan 40793.

MYRTACEAE

Psidium guajava Linn.

Small cultivated tree in frs., occasional.

Benne R.F., 850 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34432 &

10-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40767.

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels

Tree with pale yellow fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 925 m, 17-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 37925; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 40744.

MELASTOMATACEAE

Memecylon edule Roxb.

Small tree in frs., rare.

Moyar bank, 550 m,

37979.

19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

Osbeckia wynaadensis C.B. Cl.

Undershrub with purple fis. & frs., occasional.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11944 & 11-4-

1972, Vivekananthan 40779.

Sonerila tenera Royle

Very small herb with pink fis., rare.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, Beddome s.n. (MH 21380).

LYTHRACEAE

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Tree with white fis., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35603;

Mudumalai, 900 m, 11-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40788.

Rotala indica (Willd.) Kochne

Herb with pale pink fils. & frs., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11961.

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell

Jussiaea linifolia Vahl

Undershrub with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10450;

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

39007.

L. peruviana (Linn.) Hara

Jussiaea speciosa Ridley |

Undershrub with yellow fis. & frs., very common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38981; Theppakadu, 850 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34401

& 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40752.

PASSIFLORACEAE

Passiflora calcarata Mast.

Climbing shrub with white fis. & frs., rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35417.

CUCURBITACEAE

Diplocyclcs palmatus (Linn.) C. Jeffrey

Bryonopsis laciniosa auct. non. Naud.

Climber with yellow fils. & frs. very common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 3-10-1956, Balakrishnan 168

& 18-8-1970, Sharma 35609; Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-

1961, Shetty 11947.

Coccinia cordifolia (Linn.) Cogn.

Climber with white fis., occasional.

Avarihalla R.F., 900 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35613.

Cucumis melo Linn. var. agrestis Naud.

C. pubescens Wall.

Climber in fis. & frs., rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43071.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt. var.

tomentosa Heyne

T. palmata Roxb. var. tomentosa C.B. Cl.

Large climber with white fis. & frs., common.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Theppakadu, 850 m, 27-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43098.

CACTACEAE

Opuntia dillenii Haw.

Shrub with yellow fis., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35612.

AIZOACEAE

Mollugo pentaphylla Linn.

Herb with white fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 110 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35408.

UMBELLIFERAE (APIACEAE)

Pimpinella heyneana Wall. ex Kurz

Herb with white fis., occasional.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10457.

P. monoica Dalz.

Herb with white fis. & frs., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 23481); Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty

34366; Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Shar-

ma 35512.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Viburnum punctatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

V. acuminatum Wall.

Tree with white fis. & frs., occasional.

Benne R.F., 1230 m, 27-1-1961, Shetty 11948 &

27-6-1970, Shetty 34428.

RUBIACEAE

Aidia candolleana (Wt. & Arn.) Swamin.

Randia candolleana Wt. & Arn.

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35568.

Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F.N. Will.

B. hispida K. Sch.

Procumbent herb with pale blue fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35579.

B. ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC.

Herb with pale blue fis., rare.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10456.

Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) T. & B.

Plectronia didyma Kurz

Small tree with greenish fis., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39808.

C. parviflorum Lamk.

Plectronia parviflora Bedd.

Shrub with white fis, very common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35560 &

21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 38023; Benne R.F., 875 m,

10-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40775.

Eixallage auricularia (Linn.) Bremek.

Oldenlandia auricularia K. Schum.

Herd with white fis., very common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10397; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 37374.

Gardenia gummifera Linn. f.

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34363.

G. resinifera Roth

G. lucida Roxb.

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35727.

Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Sm.

I. parviflora Vahl

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550.m, 19-4-1971,

37970.

Rathakrishnan

Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC.

K. corymbosa Willd.

Herb with purple fis., occasional.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34369.

Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth

Large tree with pale yellow fis., rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 24020); Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 40801.

Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham.

M. tinctoria Roxb.

Small tree with white, scented flis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37971.

Neanotis indica (DC:) Lewis

Anotis leschenaultiana Benth. & Hook. f.

Herb with purple fls., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10383.

Oldenlandia affinis (Roem. & Schult.) DC.

O. dichotoma Koen.

Herb with pale blue fis.. common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35586.

——— = =

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

O. pumila (Linn. f.) DC.

O. crystallina Roxb.

Prostrate herb with white fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35595.

O. umbellata Linn.

Herb with lilac fis. and frs., common.

Mudumalai, 825 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34403.

Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn.

Undershrub with white fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10440.

Pavetta indica Linn.

Large shrub with white fis, common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 925 m, 17-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 37926.

P. tomentosa Roxb. ex Sm.

P. indica Linn. var. tomentosa (Roxb. ex Sm.)

Hock. f.

Shrub in frs., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35543.

Rubia cordifolia Linn.

Climber with white fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35380.

Tarenna asiatica (Linn.) O. Ktze. ex K. Schum.

Chomelia asiatica O. Kuntze

Shrub in frs., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35392.

Xeromphis malabarica (Lamk.) Raju

Randia malabarica Lamk.

Shrub in frs., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m,

35419.

X. spinosa (Thunb.) Keay

Randia_ brandisii Gamble

_Shrub with white fis. & frs., very common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35379; Thorapalli, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekanan-

than 43084.

12-8-1970, Sharma

COMPOSITAE (ASTERACEAE)

Acanthospermum hispidum DC.

Herb with yellow fils. & frs., occasional.

Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

35734.

_ Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sheriff

B. pilosa auct. non Linn.

Herb with yellow fls., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1250 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma

35461.

Blainvillea acmella (Linn.) Philip.

B. rhomboidea Cass.

Herb with white fis., rare.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35594.

Blepharispermum subsessile DC.

Shrub in fis., rare.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 27761); Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970,

Sharma 35600.

Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC.

Herb with yellow fis., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40759.

B. mollis (D. Don) Merr.

B. wightiana DC.

Herb in fis., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 19-1-1961, Shetty 11931.

Centratherum anthelminticum (Linn.) O. Kuntze

Herb with purple fis., rare. ;

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble

18470.

Conyza leucantha (D. Don) Ludlow & Raven

C. viscidula Wall.

Herb with pink fls., common.

Benne-Devarshola, 1225 m, 21-1-1961,

11942.

Cosmos sulphureus Cav.

Garden escape, with yellow fis.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35508.

Dichrocephala integrifolia (Linn. f.) O. Kuntze

D. latifolia DC.

Herb with yellow fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10396.

Emilia scabra DC.

Herb with red fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10402.

Shetty

Laggera alata (D. Don) Sch.-Bip.

Herb with purple fils., occasional.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1960, Shetty 11952.

Notonia grandiflora DC.

Undershrub with pale-yellow fis., common.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35605;

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39814.

Senecio zeylanicus DC.

Herb with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10480.

Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC.

S. acmella Murr.

Herb with yellow fis., common.

Benne-Devarshola, 1125 m, 21-1-196l,

11960.

Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn.

Herb with yellow fis. occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35500.

Vernonia albicans DC.

Undershrub with pink fis., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35587.

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

Herb in frs., common.

Theppakkadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40747.

Shetty

CAM PANULACEAE

Lobelia heyneana Roem. & Schult.

L. trialata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Herb with pale blue fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10455.

L. nicotianaefolia Heyne

Herb with white fis., common.

Benne-Devarshola, 1230 m, 21-1-1960, Shetty

11935.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Herb with white fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35418.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb.

Shrub with pink fis. & frs. occasional.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34351; Bok-

kapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma 35420;

Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40781.

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC.

Shrub with pale green fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35989 & 17-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 37929.

SAPOTACEAE

Madhuca indica Gmel.

Bassia latifolia Roxb.

Large tree with cream-coloured fis. & frs., rare.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 18-9-1971, Rathakrishnan

37956 & 15-2-1972, Sharma 39805.

M. longifolia (Linn.) Macbride

Bassia longifolia Linn.

Large tree with yellow fis., rare.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 162-1972, Sharma 39815.

Manilkara roxburghiana (Wt.) Dubard

Mimusops roxburghiana Wt.

Large tree with white fis. & frs., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35443; Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37987.

Mimusops elengi Linn.

Medium-sized tree with white fis., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37987; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40753.

EBENACEAE

Diospyres assimilis Bedd.

Large tree with yellow fis., rare.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39817.

D. ebenum Koen. ex Retz.

Small tree with yellow fis., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37980. ‘

D. montana Roxb.

Small tree in frs., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 900 m, August 1886, Gamble

18066; Moyar dam, 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma

35576; Avarihalla R.F., 900 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38912.

D. peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke

Tree on riverside with yellow fis. & frs., very

common.

Moyar bank, 550, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35714 &

19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 37957.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl

Climbing shrub with white fls., common. |

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1884, Gamble |

15416; Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35604. _

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

J. malabaricum Wt.

Climbing shrub with fragrant, white fis., occa-

sional.

Benne R.F.,

40766.

J. rigidum Zenk.

Climbing shrub in frs., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35619;

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37984.

J. ritchici C.B. Cl.

Climbing shrub with white fls., common.

Benne R.F.. 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10399 & 27-6-1970, Shetty 34433.

Ligustrum walkeri Decne.

Small tree with white fis. & frs. occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1889, Lawson

sn. (MH 31220); Benne, 1200 m, 19-7-1960, Sub-

ramanyam 10467.

875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

Linociera malabarica Wall. ex G. Don

Small tree with white fis. & frs., common.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 21-1-1960, Shetty 11950 &

10-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40768.

Olea dioica Roxb.

Tree with white fis. & frs., common.

Benne-Devarshola, 1300 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty

11936; Bokkapuram R.F., 925 m, 17-4-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 37927; Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972,

Vivekananthan 40770.

Schrebera swietenioides Roxb.

Tree in frs., occasional.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34365.

APOCYNACEAE

Alstonia venenata R. Br.

Shrub with white fls., occasional.

Mudumalai, 825 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34391.

Carissa carandas Linn.

Shrub with white or purple fls., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35713;

Avarihalla R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

38026.

C. paucinervia DC.

Shrub in frs., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m,

35384.

Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston

C. macrophylla G. Don

12-8-1970, Sharma

Climber with white fis., rare.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 1872, Beddome s.n.

31926).

Plumeria rubra Linn.

P. acutifolia Poir.

Tree, fls. white tinged with yellow, cultivated.

Moyar R.F., 950 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37985.

Rauwolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz

Undershrub in frs., rare.

Benne, 1200 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10463.

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.

Small tree with white fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35550 &

19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 37986.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

(MH

Asclepias curassavica Linn.

Undershrub with red fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35724;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40741.

Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw.

Fleshy herb, fils. yellow with pinkish streaks on

the corolla lobes, rare.

Avarihalla R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

38029.

Ceropegia hirsuta Wt. & Arn.

Climber, corolla greenish with pink dots, occa-

sional,

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35593.

Cryptoiepis buchanani Roem. & Schult.

Climber in frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35591;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 27-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43096.

Dregea volubilis (Linn. f.) Benth. ex Hook. f.

Marsdenia volubilis T. Cooke

Climbing shrub with green fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35607.

Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Roem. &

Schult.

Climber in frs., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 38929.

Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum.

Climber with pink or white fis., occasional.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, August 1886, Gamble 18012.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Choiv.

P. extensa N.E. Br.

Climber with yellow fis. & frs., common.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble

sn. (MH 32406); Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970,

Sharma 35606.

Sarcostemma brunonianum Wt. & Arn.

Trailing leafless herb with yellow fls., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35559.

Secamone emetica R. Br.

Climber with yellow fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35401.

Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

T. asthmatica Wt. & Arn.

Climber with yellow fls., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

38021.

T. paucificra Wt. & Arn.

Climber with yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35710.

LOGANIACEAE

Strychnos potatorum Linn. f.

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35549.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora diffusa R. Br.

Herb with pink fls., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39822.

Exacum bicolor Roxb.

Herb, fis. white tinged with biue, rare.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10478.

Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. var. pulchella

Burkill

Herb with white fis., rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 33558).

BORAGINACEAE

Carmona microphylla (Lamk.) G. Don

Ehretia microphylla WLamk.

Shrub in frs., occasional.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38925.

Cordia monoica Roxb.

Tree in frs., common.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1884, Gamble

15659; Avarthalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38917.

C. obliqua Wilid. var. tomentosa (Wall.) Kozmi

C. wallichii G. Don

Tree in frs., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m,

40757.

Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex Honem) Thunb.

C. furcatum Wall.

Herb with blue fis. & frs., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10386; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40748.

Ehretia canarensis Mig. ex Gamble

Small tree with greenish yellow fls., common.

Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

35732; Thorapalli-Kargudi, 850 m, 26-10-1972,

Vivekananthan 43085.

Trichodesma indicum (Linn.) Lehm.

Herb with blue fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., S00 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35601.

G-4-1972, Vivekananthan

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawl.

Climbing shrub with purple fis. & frs., very

common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, August 1886, Gamble 17877;

Benne, 1100 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10461;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35428; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43068.

A. pomacea (Roxb.) Choisy

Climber with purple fis., rare.

Masinagudi, 1100 m, August 1886, Gamble 18017.

A. setosa (Roxb.) Choisy

Lettsomia setosa Roxb.

Climber with pink fis., rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November

18466.

Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn.

Prostrate herb with blue fils., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35583.

Ipomoea alba Linn.

Calonyction bona-nox Bo}.

Climber with white fis., occasional.

Benne-Devarshola, 1225 m, 19-1-1961,

11941.

1886, Gamble

Shetty

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

J. hederifolia Linn.

Quamoclit phoenicea Choisy

Twiner with red fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35410.

I. muricata (Linn.) Jacq.

Calonyction muricaium G. Don

Climber with pink fils. & frs., occasional.

Kargudi, 975 m, 29-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43105.

I. staphylina Roem. & Schult.

Climbing shrub, fls. white with purple shade on

the corolla tube, occasional.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble

20431.

Lettsomia elliptica Wt.

Climber with pink fis., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1250 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma

35460.

Rivea ornata Choisy

Climbing shrub with white fis., common.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1889, Lawson

sn. (MH 34364); Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970,

Sharma 35573 & 24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan 39000.

SOLANACEAE

Datura metel Linn.

Shrub with white fis.,

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35424.

D. stramonium Linn.

Undershrub with white fis.

Kalhatti-Masinagudi,

35745.

Solanum giganteum Jacq.

Large shrub with pink fis. & frs., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35499; Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40778.

8. indicum Linn.

Undershrub with blue fis., common.

_ Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

|, 35394; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekan-

_anithan 43057.

|S. melongena Linn. var. insanum Prain

_ Shrub with pink fls., occasional.

|. Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrish-

“nan 38906.

common.

1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

& frs., common.

1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

S. nigrum Linn.

Herb with white fis. & frs., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35531.

5S. torvum Sw.

Shrub with white fis. & frs., common.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34426;

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35510.

S. verbascifolium Linn.

Large shrub with white fls. & frs., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., i100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35422.

* §. viarum Dunal

Shrub with white fils. & frs., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40749; Birala-Thorapalli, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vive-

kananthan 43073.

SCROPH ULARIACEAE

Artanema longifolia (Linn.) Vatke

A. sesamoides Benth.

Undershrub with purple fls. & frs., rare.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10444.

Lindernia antipoda (Linn.) Alston

Ilysanthes veronicaefolia Urban

Herb with pink fls., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10392.

Scoparia dulcis Linn.

Herb with white fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10447;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34400; Moyar

bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35719.

Scpubia delphinifolia (Roxb.) G. Don

Herb with purple fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 24-11-1971,

39003.

Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Sald.

S. euphrasioides auct. non Benth.

Hemiparasitic herb with white fis., rare.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

39002.

Rathakrishnan

S. lutea Lour.

Hemiparasitic herb with yellow fis., rare.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

39006.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

BIGNONIACEAE

Dolichandrone arcuata C.B. Cl.

Small tree in frs., rare.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35575.

Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K. Schum.

Tree with white fils. & frs., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35534; Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40797.

Stereospermum angustifolium Haines

Small tree with purple fis. & frs., common.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananihan

40776.

S. personatum (Hassk.) Chatterjee

S. tetragonum DC.

Tree in frs., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m,

35005.

Tecoma stans Juss.

Small tree with yellow fis., cultivated.

Benne-Devarshola, 1225 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty

11940.

15-8-1970, Sharma

ACANTHACEAE

Andrographis serpyllifolia (Vahl) Wt.

Procumbent herb with yellow fis., very common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1884, Gamble

15414; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34364;

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35578 &

24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan 39004.

Asystasia chelonoides Nees var. quadrangularis

CB. Ch

Shrub with purple fis., occasional.

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35536.

Barleria buxifolia Linn.

Small shrub with pink fis.. common.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

38024 & 15-2-1972, Sharma 39802.

B. mysorensis Heyne

Shrub in frs., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m,

35456.

B. prionitis Linn.

Undershrub with orange-yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38989.

13-8-1790, Sharma

Crossandra infundibuliformis (Linn.) Nees

C. undulaefolia Salisb.

Shrub with crange-yellow fis., rare.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39811.

Dicliptera cuneata Nees

Herb with pink fis., common.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1960, Shetty 11951; Bokka-

puram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma 35451.

Hyegrophila salicifolia (Vahl) Nees

H. angustifolia auct. non R. Br.

Herb in frs., rare.

Benne, 1050 m, November 1884, Gamble 15609.

Justicia betonica Linn.

Shrub with white fis., occasional.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11954.

Lepidagathis hyalina Nees

Herb with white fls., occasional.

Benne, 1140 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11943.

Nilgirianthus heyneanus (Nees) Bremek.

Strobilanthus heyneanus Nees

Shrub with pale blue fis., rare.

Benne, 1050 m, November 1884, Gamble 15619.

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees

Herb with pink fis., occasional.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble

18455.

Rostellularia diffusa (Willd.) Nees var. orbiculata

(Wali. ex T. Anders.) Ellis

Justicia orbicuiata Wall. ex T. Anders

Herb with purple fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1175 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma

35458.

R. pumila Nees

Justicia simplex D. Don

Herb with purple, fis., very common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10469;

Kargudi-Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34378;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43062.

Thunbergia fragrans Roxb.

Twiner with white fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m,

SST

T. fragrans Roxb. var. laevis (Nees) C.B. Cl.

Twiner with white fis. & frs., occasional.

Benne R.F., 1050 m,

10400.

16-8-1960, Subramanyam |

12-8-1970, Sharma |

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

VERBENACEAE

Callicarpa tomentosa (Linn.) Murray

C. lanata Linn.

Large shrub with purple fis., occasional.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40780.

Clerodendrum serratum Moon

Shrub with blue fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10393; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34367.

C. viscosum Vent.

C. infortunatum auct. non Linn.

Large shrub with pinkish white fils. & frs., com-

mon.

Mudumalai-Gudalur,

manyam 10482.

1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subra-

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Tree with yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39816.

G. asiatica Linn.

Shrub with yellow fis., occasional.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 20-2-1972, Sharma 39867.

Lantana indica Roxb.

Shrub with purple fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10401.

L. indica Roxb. var. albiflora Wt. ex C.B. Cl.

L. wightiana Wall.

Undershrub with white fls., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 925 m, 24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

39001.

Premna tomentosa Willd.

Tree with greenish yellow fis. & frs., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 1873, Beddome s.n. (MH

39826); Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 38017; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 40755. ;

Pygmaeopremna herbacea (Roxb.) Moldenke

Premna herbacea Roxb.

Herb with white fis., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 1873, Beddome s.n. (MH

39870).

Tectona grandis Linn. f.

Tree in frs., common.

_ Masinagudi, 1000 m,

‘18435.

November 1886, Gamble

Vitex altissima Linn. f.

Tree, fls., white, tinged with blue and in frs.,

common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35725 &

19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 37981.

V. leucoxylon Linn. f.

Tree with white fis., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971; Rathakrishnan

37983; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40742.

V. peduncularis Wall. ex Schauer

Tree with white fls., common.

Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40805.

LABIATAE (LAMIACEAE)

Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O. Kuntze

Herb with purple fis., common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43064.

Coleus forskohlii (Poir.) Briq.

C.. barbatus Benth.

Herb with blue fis., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35414.

Gomphostemma heyneanum Wall. ex Benth.

Shrub with yellow fis., very common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10384; Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Shar-

ma 35501; Thorapalli-Kargudi, 850 m, 26-10-1972,

Vivekananthan 43090.

Leucas hirta Spr.

Undershrub with white fls., very common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10485; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34361;

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35616.

L. lavandulaefolia Rees

Herb with white fls., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35388; Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekanan-

than 43065.

L. marrubioides Desf.

Herb with white fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10388; Kargudi-Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty

34376.

L. martinicensis R. Br.

Herb with white fis., common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrish-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

nan 38979; Kargudi, 975 m, 28-10-1972, Vivekan-

anthan 43100.

Ocimum americanum Linn.

O. canum. Sims.

Herb with white or purple fis., occasional.

Benne R.F., 950 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34424.

Orthosiphon glabratus Benth.

Herb with purple fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35570.

O. rubicundus Benth.

Herb with white fis., occasional.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34370;

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35538.

O. viscosus Benth.

Herb with pale purple fis., occasional.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10486; Moyar R.F., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 38019.

Plectranthus incanus Linn.

Herb with purple fls., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35504; Kargudi, 975 m, 29-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43103.

Pogostemon auricularia (Linn.) Massk.

Dysophylla auricularia Bl.

Herb with lilac fis., & frs., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10446.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhaavia chinensis (L.) Asch. & Sch.

Diffuse herb with pink fis. & frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35608;

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38988.

AMARANTHACEAE

Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss.

Undershrub with greenish-white fis.. common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35567.

Allmania nodiflora (Linn.) R. Br.

Herb with pink fls., occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35407.

Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) Juss.

Slender herb with greenish yellow fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35708.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum barbatum Linn.

Herb with white fls., common.

Theppakadu, 825 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34394.

P. glabrum Willd.

Herb with pink fls., very common.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35617;

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37963; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40745.

P. hydropiper Linn. var. flaccidum (Meissn.) Steud.

P. flaccidum Meissn.

Slender herb with pink fls., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10443

& 27-6-1970, Shetty 34425; Bokkapuram R.F., 1100

rm, 13-8-1970, Sharma 35454.

PIPERACEAE

Peperomia dindigulensis Miq.

Small succulent herb with yellow fls., common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35398 & 35426.

LAURACEAE

Litsea deccanensis Gamble

Small tree with greenish yellow fis., rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma |

35449.

Persea gratissima Gaertn.

Small cultivated tree in fils. & frs.

Benne, 1225 m, 21-1-1961, Shetty 11939.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Etting.

Loranthus longiflorus Desv.

Hemiparasitic on Tectona grandis

fls., occasional.

Mudumalai,

15660.

Macrosolen parasiticus (Linn.) Danser

Elytranthe loniceroides Engle |

Hemiparasitic shrub on Anogeissus latifolia with |

red fls., common.

Kargudi, 1000 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34396; Nor- |

thern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma 35540. |

Taxillus heyneanus (Schult.) Danser

Loranthus bracteatus Wall. |

Hemiparasitic shrub with pale green fis., occa- |

sional. : |

with scarlet |

1100 m, November 1889, Gamble

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

Moyar bank, 550 m, Rathakrishnan

37974.

T. tomentosus (Roth) Van Tiegh.

Loranthus tomentosus Roth

Hemiparasitic shrub, fils. greenish and rusty to-

mentose, occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35402.

Viscum angulatum Heyne ex DC.

Leafless parasitic shrub in frs., occasional.

Benne R.F., 850 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34430;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma 35403.

V. articulatum Burm. f.

Leafless parasitic shrub on Albizzia sp.

Zizyphus sp. in frs., very common.

- Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35437; Avarihalla R.f., 925 m, 21-4-1971, Ratha-

krishnan 38028.

V. capitellatum Sm.

Hemiparasitic shrub on Dendrophthoe falcata

which is again parasitic on Dalbergia sp. in frs.,

‘rare.

| Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35712.

'V. heyneanum DC.

| V. verruculosum Wt. & Arn. V. orbiculatum Wt.

Hemiparasitic shrub on Phyllanthus sp. with yel-

low fis. & frs., occasional.

| Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m,

35381.

V. orientale Willd.

_ Hemiparasitic shrub on Ficus tomentosa in frs.,

‘occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35566.

V. trilobatum Talbot

| Hemiparasitic shrub on Dendrophthoe trigona

which in turn grows on Ficus tinctoria ssp. parasi-

‘ica with greenish fis. & frs., rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35430.

19-4-1971,

1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

and

12-8-1970, Sharma

SANTALACEAE

Santalum album Linn.

Small tree with red fis., common.

| Kargudi, 1000 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34395; Bok-

kapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma 35383.

| EUPHORBIACEAE

: Acalypha fruticosa Forsk.

| Shrub with pale green fis., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35572.

A. indica Linn.

Herb with pale green fis.. common.

Avarihalla R.F., 950 m, 19-8-1970, Sharma 35614.

A. racemosa Heyne ex Baill.

A. paniculata Miq.

Undershrub with greenish yellow fls., occasional

Bokkapuram R.F., 1175 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma

35457.

Antidesma diadrum Roth

Shrub in frs., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, August 1886, Gamble

17876; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34352;

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35542;

Bridelia retusa (Linn) Spr.

Scandent shrub in frs.,

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35380.

B. roxburghiana (Hook. f.) Gehrm.

Tree in frs., occasional.

Kargudi, 1000 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34399; Sin-

gara R.F., 1050 m, 18-4-1971, Rathakrishnan 37955.

Croton oblongifolius Roxb.

Small tree with greenish yellow fls. & frs., rare.

Kargudi, 950 m, 12-4-1972, Vivekananthan 40803.

occasional.

1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Airy Shaw

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall.

Medium-sized tree in frs., common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35711 &

23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan 38992.

Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex Roth

Undershrub in fls., occasional.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34380.

E. hirta Linn.

Prostrate herb with greenish fis. & frs., common.

Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

35747.

E. hypericifolia Linn.

Herb with white fis. & frs., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10499; Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970,

Sharma 35735.

E. nivulia Buch.-Ham.

Shrub in fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 16-2-1972, Sharma 39809.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. 75

Givotia rottleriformis Griff.

Tree with yellow fis. & frs., very common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1000 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35440; Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37973; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40751; Mudumalai, 900 m, 11-4-1972, Vive-

kananthan 40794.

Glochidion velutinum Wt.

Small tree with yellow fis., occasional.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10476.

G. zeylanicum A. Juss.

Small tree with yellow fis. & frs., occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40754.

Homonoia riparia Lour.

Rheophytic shrub in frs., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35717.

Jatropha heterophylla Heyne ex Hook. f.

Shrub with greenish fils. & frs., occasional.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Gamble 17981;

Mudumalai, 825 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34404.

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill.

Straggling shrub with yellow fls., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35718.

Mallotus albus Muell.-Arg. var. occidentalis Hook.f.

Tree in fis. & frs., occasional.

Devarshola-Benne, 1260 m, 21-1-1961,

11937.

M. muricatus (Wt.) Mueller

Small tree with pale green fis., occasional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35730.

M. philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.

Small tree with pale green fls., occasional.

Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

35731.

Phyllanthus pinnatus (Wt.) Webster

Reidia floribunda Wt.

Herb with red fis., rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m,

35395.

P. rheedii Wt.

Herb with greenish fis., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10473;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma 35409.

P. virgatus Forst., f.

P. simplex Retz.

Herb in frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35599.

Shetty

12-8-1970, Sharma

Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

Fluggea leucopyrus Willd.

Straggling shrub with yellow frs., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35558.

S. virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baillon

Fluggea virosa Baill.

Shrub with greenish yellow fls., common.

Benne R.F., 875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekananthan

40771.

Tragia involucrata Linn.

Climbing herb with stinging bristles in frs., occa-

sional.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35721.

ULMACEAE

Celtis cinnamomea Lindl. ex Planch.

Small tree in frs., occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35564.

MORACEAE

Ficus bengalensis Linn.

Tree in red syconia, occasional.

Bokkapuram, R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35448.

F. hispida Linn. f.

Tree in yellow syconia, common.

Kargudi, 1000 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34398 & 12-4-

1972 Vivekananthan 40795.

_F. macrocarpa

F. retusa auct. non Linn.

Small tree in greenish syconia. Common. !

Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37966; Theppakadu, 850 m, 9-4-1972, Vivekanan-

than 40763.

F. racemosa Linn.

F. glomerata Roxb. |

Large tree in greenish syconia, occasional. |

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma.

35455.

F. tomentosa Roxb.

Tree in grey tomentose syconia, rare. |

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35556.

URTICACEAE

Pouzolzia auriculata Wt.

Erect herb with white fis., rare. |

Bokkapuram R.F., 1175 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma\

35459. .

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

SALICACEAE

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Medium-sized tree near streams with yellow fis.,

rare.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38998.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

ORCHIDACEAE

* Habenaria furcifera Lindl.

Terrestrial herb with greenish fis, common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju

18327; Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Shar-

ma 35513.

H. plantaginea Lindl.

Terrestrial herb with white fis., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju

18326 & 27-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43092; Moyar

R.F., 925 m, 24-11-1971, Rathakrishnan 39005.

* Liparis prazeri King & Pantl.

Terrestrial herb with greenish fis., rare.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10460.

Nervilia aragoana Gaud.

Terrestrial herb with leaves

flowers), rare.

Birala-Thorapalli,

anthan 43089.

Peristylus goodyeroides (D. Don) Lindl.

Terrestrial herb with greenish yellow fis. & frs.,

very common.

Benne, 950 m, November 1884, Gamble 15607;

(leaf appear after

850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekan-

~Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10497 & 27-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43094.

*P. lawii Wt.

Terrestrial herb with white fis., rare.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34354.

Polystachya flavescens (Bl.) J.J. Sm.

P. wightii Reichb., P. purpurea Wt.

Epiphytic herb with brownish fis. & frs., com-

-mon.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m,

| 35514.

| Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Reichb. f.

| V. parviflora Lindl.

Epiphytic herb with yellow fls., common.

| Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 13-8-1970, Sharma

35452; Moyar bank, 550 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrish-

15-8-1970, Sharma

nan 37969; Kargudi,

anthan 40786.

875 m, 10-4-1972, Vivekan-

ZINGIBERACEAE

Costus speciosus (Koen.) J.E. Sm.

Herb with white fls., common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam

Globba bulbifera Roxb.

Herb with orange-yellow fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1970, Subramanyam

10385; Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Shar-

ma 35502.

10452.

HYPOXIDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Herb with yellow fis., common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10398; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34368;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma 35431.

AGAVACEAE

Furcraea foetida (Linn.) Haw.

F. gigantea Vent.

Shrub with bulbils, common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m,

35453.

13-8-1970, Sharma

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

Climbing herb with greenish fls., occasional.

Thorapalli, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43082.

D. hispida Dennst.

Climbing herb in fis. & frs.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10488; Benne R.F., 950 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34421,

D. oppositifolia Linn.

Climbing herb with greenish fls., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35581;

Kargudi, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43078.

D. pentaphylla Linn. var. linnaei Prain & Burkill

Climbing herb in buds, occasional.

Benne R.F., 950 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34423.

D. tomentosa Koen. ex Spreng.

Climbing herb with greenish yellow fis., common.

Benne R.F., 850 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34435;

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35528; Birala-Thorapalli, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vive-

kananthan 43081.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

SMILACACEAE

Smilax perfoliata Lour.

S. prolifera Roxb.

Climbing shrub in frs., common.

Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, 16-8-1970, Sharma

35546.

LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Climbing undershrub with white fls. & frs., com-

mon.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35398.

Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker

Herb with white fils. & frs., common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-9-1960, Subramanyam

10489; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34372.

Gloriosa superba Linn.

Climbing herb with red-yellow fls., occasional.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10395.

1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

PONTEDERIACEAE

Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl

Herb in marshy places with blue fis. & frs., occa-

sional.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10445.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina undulata R. Br.

C. kurzii C.B. Cl.

Herb with blue fis., common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35592;

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35498.

Cyanotis cristata (Linn.) D. Don

Herb with blue fis., very common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10453;

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35432 & 14-8-1970, Sharma 35463.

Murdannia elata (Vahl) Brueckn.

Aneilema lineolatum Kunth

Herb with blue fis. & frs., occasional.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Shetty 10382.

M. simplex (Vahl) Brenan

Aneilema sinicum Lindl.

Herb with blue fis. & frs., common.

Benne, 950 m, November 1884, Gamble 15676 &

18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10472.

M. spirata (Linn.) Brueckn.

Aneilema spiratum R. Br.

Herb with blue fis. & frs., occasional.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10454.

M. zeylanica (C.B. Cl.) Brueckn. var. longicapsa

(C.B. Cl.) Rolla Rao & Kammathy

Aneilema zeylanicum C.B. Cl. var.

CBr Cl.

Herb with white fis. & frs., common.

Moyar, 950 m, 3-10-1956, Balakrishnan 202;

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10381.

longicapsa

ARACEAE

Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott

Herb, spathe greenish and spadix yellowish, rare.

Benne, R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1960, Subramanyam

10390.

Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott

C. antiquorum Schott

Herb, spathe pale yellowish, rare.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10451.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn.

Herb with white heads, rare.

Benne, 1125 m, 21-1-1960, Shetty 11953.

CYPERACEAE

Carex speciosa Kunth

Slender sedge, rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1889, Lawson s.n.

(MH 53946).

Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Valck.-Sur.

Mariscus cyperinus Vahl

Erect sedge with short rhizome in brownish nuts,

occasional.

_ Mudumalai, 850 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju.

18305:

C. cyperioides (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Mariscus sieberianus Nees

Sedge with creeping rhizome in blackish nuts,

common. |

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10438.

C. distans Linn. f.

Robust perennial sedge with stoloniferous rhizo-

me in brownish nuts, common.

Benne R.F., 1050 m, 16-7-1970, Subramanyam

10388.

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

C. dubius Rottb.

Mariscus dubius Kukenth. ex C.E.C. Fischer

Erect sedge with solitary head in blackish nuts,

occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35411.

C. iria Linn.

Sedge with triquetrous stem in blackish nuts, rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 53255).

C. kyllingia Endl.

Kyllinga monocephala Rottb.

Sedge with elongated rhizome in damp _ places,

nuts yellowish brown, common.

Benne, 1200 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam i0465;

Theppakadu, 850 m, 25-10-1972, Vivekananthan

43058.

1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

C. melanospermus (Nees) Valck.-Sur.

Kyllinga melanosperma Nees

Sedge with horizontal rhizome in moist places,

nuts blackish, common.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35425.

C. paniceus (Rottb.) Boeck.

Mariscus paniceus Vahl

Erect sedge in pale brownish nuts, occasional.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1250 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma

35462.

1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

C. teneriffae Poir.

Sedge in rock crevices, nuts dark brownish, rare.

Moyar dam, 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35563.

CC. tenuicalmis Boeck.

C. zollingeri auct. non Steud.

Sedge in moist places, occasional.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10441.

' Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link

Sedge in moist places, nuts white, occasional.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 17-8-1970, Sharma 35561.

: Scleria hebecarpa Nees

| Doddagatti,

Perennial sedge with woody rhizome in white or

- brownish nuts, common.

Benne, 1000 m, 1817-1960, Subramanyam 10459;

900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34350.

GRAMINEAE (POACEAE)

| Alloteropsis cimicina (Linn.) Stapf

Annual erect grass, rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n.

(MH 55182).

Aristida depressa Retz.

Annual grass, common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrish-

38908.

Arundinella leptochloa (Nees ex Steud.) Hook. f.

Perennial grass, common.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10479.

Bothriochloa pertusa (Linn.) A. Camus

Amphilophis pertusa (Linn.) Nash ex Stapf

Perennial grass, common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38913.

Brachiaria eruciformis (J. E. Sm.) Griseb.

Annual grass growing in tufts, rare.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, 12-5-1900, Barber 2599.

B. ramosa (Linn.) Stapf

Annual grass, rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1889, Lawson

sn. (MH 54764).

Centotheca lappacea (Linn.) Desv.

Perennial grass, rare.

Benne, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble 18347.

Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca

C. incompleta (Roth) Chiov.

Perennial tufted grass, very common.

Avartihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrish-

nan 38921.

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.

Perennial grass in open grasslands, common.

Benne, R.F., 850 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34429.

C. zeylanicus (Nees) Thw.

Large tufted grass, common.

Avarihalla R.F., 910 m, 20-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

nan 38915.

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats.

Perennial grass (popularly known as lemon grass)

in open grasslands, common.

Kargudi, 975 m, 29-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43109.

C. nardus (Linn.) Rendle

Probably the grass cultivated for its aromatic oil.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, Beddome s.n. (MH 88444).

Cynodon arcuatus J. S. Pres] ex C.B. Presl

C. dactylon Pers. var. intermedius C.E.C. Fischer

Perennial, creeping grass, common.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1889, Lawson

sn. (MH 88727).

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Erect or decumbent annual grass, rare.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, November 1886, Gamble

18442.

Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel.

D. marginata Link

Erect or decumbent annual grass, very common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10449;

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma 35519

Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor

Eragrostis bifaria Wt. ex Steud.

Perennial, densely tufted grass, very common.

Mudumalai, 900 m, 24-6-1970,

Northern Hay. R.F., 950 m, 16-8-1970,

35525:

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo-Lutati

Annual, tufted grass, very common.

Sharma

Masinagudi, 1000 m, April 1900, Barber 2667;

Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

35739.

E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

Annual, tufted grass, common.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35427.

Hackelochloa granularis (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Annual grass, common.

Mudumalai, 900 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34382.

Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Perennial gregarious grass in open grasslands,

common.

Kargudi,

43104.

Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) P. Beauv. var. major

(Nees) C.E. Hubb.

I. cylindrica var. koenigii (Retz.) Dur. & Schinz.

Perennial erect grass with creeping rhizome, very

common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10498; Benne R.F., 950 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34422.

Leptochloa obtusiflora Hochst.

Annual slender grass, rare.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, May 1900, Barber 2556.

Oryza meyeriana (Zoll & Mor. ex Steud.) Baill.

ssp. granulata (Nees & Arn. ex Watt) Tateoka.

O. meyeriana Baill.

975 m, 29-10-1972, Vivekananthan,

Shetty 34383;:

Annual, slender grass in marshy places, rare.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35511.

Panicum notatum Retz.

P. montanum Roxb.

Perennial grass, rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November 1889, Lawson

sn. (MH 55042).

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus

Perennial grass, common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 20-7-1960, Subramanyam

10496; Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34348.

Paspalum conjugatum Berg.

Annual, slender grass, common.

Benne, 1200 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10464.

P. scrobiculatum Winn.

Annual grass. The grain is used for food as a

substitute of rice in some Southern districts.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, 10-5-1900, Barber 2590.

Pennisetum hohenackeri Hochst. ex Steud.

Perennial, densely tufted grass, rare.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, September 1900, Barber 2615.

Perotis indica (Linn.) D. Ktze.

Tufted grass, common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m,

35526.

Pogonatherum paniceum (Lamk.) Hack.

Slender grass, common.

Moyar bank, 550 m,

37967.

Setaria pallidefusca (Schum.) Stapf et C.E. Hubb.

Annual tufted grass, very common.

Mudumalai, 900 m, 24-6-1970, Shetty 34379;

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35590.

S. palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf

Perennial grass, common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m,

35516.

S. tomentosa (Roxb.) Kunth

S. intermedia Roem. & Schult.

Annual grass, common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m,

35494.

S. verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Annual grass in shady and damp places, common.

Kalhatti-Masinagudi, 1150 m, 23-8-1970, Sharma

35746.

16-8-1970, Sharma

19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

15-8-1970, Sharma |

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI SANCTUARY

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers.

Perennial grass near streams, common.

Moyar bank, 525 m, 23-11-1971, Rathakrishnan

38987.

S. nitidum (Vahl) Pers.

Tufted grass, rare.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju

18324.

Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) W. D. Clayton

S. indicus acut. (non Linn.)

Perennial grass, common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, Beddome s.n. (MH 88662);

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10470.

S. wallichi Munro ex Trin.

Erect grass, rare.

Theppakadu, 850 m, November

sn. (MH 57399).

Themeda cymbaria Hack.

Perennial robust grass, common.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju

18323 & 20-7-1960, Subramanyam 10495.

T. quadrivalvis (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Annual, robust grass in open grasslands; com-

mon.

Kargudi, 975 m, 29-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43106.

T. triandra Forssk.

Perennial, erect grass in grasslands, very com-

mon.

Mudumalai, 1100 m, 23-9-1928, Narayana & Raju

18322 & 20-7-1960, Subramanyam 10491; Kargudi,

975 m, 29-10-1972, Vivekananthan 43108.

Tragus biflorus Schult.

Perennial grass, common.

Theppakadu, 850 m, August 1886, Lawson s.n. (MH

88644).

Tripogon wightii Hook. f.

Slender grass, common.

Masinagudi, 1000 m, April 1900, Barber 2653.

Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv.

Annual grass, common.

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m,

35518.

1889, Lawson

15-8-1970, Sharma

FERNS

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

_ Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn.

Small fern in humus soil or marshy places with

Sporangial spike, very common.

Moyar 950 m, 3-10-1956, Balakrishnan 204;

Benne, 1200 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10462;

Birala-Thorapalli, 850 m, 26-10-1972, Vivekanan-

than 43076.

SCHIZAEACEAE

Lygodium flexuosum (Linn.) Sw.

Climbing fern in sporangia, common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10458.

ADIANTACEAE

Adiantum caudatum Linn.

Small tufted fern on rocky crevices in sori, com-

mon.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35412.

A. falcatum Linn.

Small fern in sori, rare.

Moyar, 950 m, 3-10-1956, Balakrishnan 179.

A. philippense Linn.

A. lunulatum Burm. f.

Small tufted fern in marshy places, sori marginal.

Doddagatti, 900 m, 23-6-1970, Shetty 34377; Nor-

thern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma 35506.

1100 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

HEMIONITIDACEAE

Hemionitis arifolia (Burm. f.) Moore

Small fern with hastate fronds in sori, rare.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1250 m, 14-8-1970, Sharma

35464.

ACTINIOPTERIDACEAE

Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link

A. dichotoma Forsk.

Small fern usually found on rocky crevices in

marginal sori, very common.

Moyar R.F., 900 m, 18-8-1970, Sharma 35610;

Moyar bank, 600 m, 19-4-1971, Rathakrishnan

37972.

SINOPTERIDACEAE

Cheilanthes mysurensis Wall. ex. Hook.

Small fern on rocky crevices in sori, common.

Moyar bank, 550 m, 22-8-1970, Sharma 35726.

Pellaea geraniaefolia Fee

P. concolor Lang. & Fischer

Fern in moist or shady places in sofi.

Bokkapuram R.F., 1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

35393; Northern Hay R.F., 1000 m, _ 16-8-1970,

Sharma 35532.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

DAVALLIACEAE

Nephrolepis cordifolia (Linn.) Presl

N. tuberosa (Bory ex Willd.) Presl

Tufted fern in moist places, in sori.

Benne, 1000 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10471.

ATHYRIACEAE

Athyrium hohenackerianum (Kunze) Moore

Tufted fern, in sori, common.

Benne, 1000 m, 18-7-1960, Subramanyam 10439.

‘THELYPTERIDACEAE

Cyclosorus dentatus (Forsk.) Ching

Nephrodium molle Desv.

Tufted fern with oblong-lanceolate fronds, in sori,

common.

Bokkapuram R.F.,

35396.

1025 m, 12-8-1970, Sharma

POLYPODIACEAE

Drynaria quercifolia Linn.

Fern. on rocky crevices or debris collected on

tree-trunks, in sori, very common.

Benne, 1200 m, 19-7-1960, Subramanyam 10466;

Northern Hay R.F., 950 m, 15-8-1970, Sharma

35507.

Microsorium membranaceum (D. Don) Ching

Pleopeltis membranacea Wall.

Fern with short creeping rhizome, in sori, rare.

Moyar, 950 m, 3-10-1956, Balakrishnan 193.

M. punctatum (Linn.) Copel.

Pleopeltis irioides Moore

P. punctata (Linn.) Bedd.

Fern with scarcely creeping rhizome, in sori,

common.

Benne R.F., 850 m, 27-6-1970, Shetty 34431.

REFERENCES

Bir, S. S. & VasupEvA, S. M. (1971): Pterido-

phytic Flora of Kodaikanal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 68(1) :169-195.

GAMBLE, J. S. & FISCHER, C. E. C. (1915-1936) :

The flora of the Presidency of Madras. London.

HoLtruM, R. E. (1954): A Revised Flora of

Malaya. Vol. II. Ferns of Malaya. Singapore.

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE SALTWATER

CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS) IN THE

ANDAMAN ISLANDS’

R. WHITAKER AND Z. WHITAKER

(With five plates)

During April, 1975 and May-August, 1976, survey trips were made to most of the major

freshwater streams and associated tidal creeks on the east of South, Middle Andaman and

North Andaman, part of the west of North Andaman, and some of the outlying islands.

Crocodiles were found to be much depleted compared to earlier reports, mainly due to

hunting in the past and now due to human settlements

on almost all the fresh water

streams and the associated requisite nesting habitat of C. porosus. Besides intensive human

pressure, nests of C. porosus are susceptible to flooding and predation, especially by the

Water Monitor Lizard (Varanus salvator) which is common in the islands.

The junior author, accompanied by an Irula

snake catcher, arrived in Port Blair on 20th

March 1975. She proceeded to North Anda-

man and spent 25 days seeing habitats in

Date Place

2223-75 Port Blair

23, 24-3-75 South Andamans

28-3-75 Aerial Bay,

North Andaman

29-3-75 Aerial Bay

1Accepted September 1977,

which crocodiles were reportedly once plenti-

ful. The following is a brief account of her

survey.

Findings, Remarks

Interviewed local officials in Forest and other depart-

ments, local residents. Crocodiles scarce in South

Andaman. Used to be a fairly regular flow of skins

through Port Blair to the mainland; no statistics

available.

Interviewed local settlers. Two kinds of crocodiles

reported one light yellow and one dark species.

Reports of crocodile attacks on man in Middle and

North Andaman; very rare now. During early settle-

ments (early 1950’s), average of one or two people

killed a year in northern area.

Interviewed local Forest Officers and met local cro-

codile hunter Kesavan. Measured skull of crocodile

94 x 42 cm said to have measured 21 ft.

For next few days visited mangrove creeks running

inland from Aerial Bay. Tracks of several crocodiles

seen in less travelled creeks.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Date Place

3-4-75 Mayabandar

5-4-75 Kalighat

6, 12-4-75 Mayabandar

Panighat

Webe

Lucknow

13-4-75 Rangat, Middle Andaman

14-4-75 Port Blair, surrounding mangrove

swamps, Bamboo Flat etc.

In June 1976, the senior author arrived in

Port Blair and spent the following 20 days in

crocodile habitat mainly in North Andaman.

Findings, Remarks

Interviewed local residents; crocodiles killed off in

Austen Creek several years back.

Saw large 4-5 metre crocodile in main creek near

Kalighat jetty.

Interviewed Karens and others; crocodile hunting

and hooking techniques described. Formerly speared

(detachable head type), now mainly caught on bait-

ed hooks left overnight with large conspicuous buoy

attached. Followed up and pulled out next day,

crocodile despatched with axe’ blow to head.

Interviewed local settlers; crocodiles scarce since

days of first settlements (early 50’s).

Crocodiles still sporadically seen in creeks off Shoal

Bay. Level of disturbance extreme on much of

South Andaman.

He was accompanied by Mr. Ashok Sinha,

ACF, for part of the trip and by Mr. Allen

Vaughan for the whole trip.

The following is a brief account of his survey:

Date Place visited Mode of

transport

3-6-76 Arrived Aerial Bay, visited Walk

Mugger Nullah and Bazaar

4-6-76 Durgapur, Shivpur Walk

5-6-76 Smith Island, Gandhi- Launch,

Nagar in Aerial Bay Walk

6-6-76 Two largest creeks Dugout,

in Aerial Bay Walk

Diglipur market Walk

7-6-76 Badaltikeri Launch,

Walk

8-6-76 Manjunullah Launch,

(Cadell Bay) Walk

9-6-76 Creeks of Cadell Bay Dugout,

Walk

Findings, Remarks

Met several (ex) crocodile hunters and egg collec-

tors. One hunter said to have killed nearly a thou-

sand. Crocodiles scarce now.

Saw habitat, interviewed settlers.

in the Shivpur creek.

Saw major creeks, interviewed forest labour and

settlers. Crocodiles scarce but feared by the timber

raft workers. Extensive clearing and disturbance in

potential nesting areas as settlers collect cane, bam-

boo and palm fronds for construction.

Saw nesting habitat restricted to upper stream, now

settled and farmed; most perennial streams in North

Andaman (except extreme north) have been set-

tled upon.

Crocodile eggs on sale at Rs. 1/- each.

Accompanied N. A. Ranger, Mr. Mukhopadhya to

seize a crocodile skin and fat from forest labour.

Made camp and visited nearby creeks.

Few crocodiles

Searched for suitable nesting habitat which is scarce.

Saw one 4 m crocodile near camp.

SURVEY OF CROCODYLUS POROSUS IN ANDAMANS

Date Place visited Mode of

transport

10-6-76 Creeks North of Cadell Dugout,

Bay return to Aerial Bay Walk

11-6-76 Kalipur and down Walk,

Shivpur creek Dugout

12-6-76 Mangrove and cane fringes Walk

in Aerial Bay

13-6-76 Laxmipur, Milangram, Walk

Swarajgram, Radhanagar,

Shamnagar

Parseemsagar Walk,

(West coast) Dugout

14-6-76 Creeks near Shamnagar (RW) Walk

Creeks near

Parseemsagar (AV) Walk

15-6-76 |Mayabandar, Ferry,

nearby mangroves Walk

16-6-76 Parangara, Ferry,

Kishorinagar Walk

17-6-76 Kishorinagar and Walk

surrdounding area

18-6-76 Kalighat Walk

19-6-76 Mayabandar, Ferry

Port Blair —

We feel that unless survey work in more

inaccessible parts of N. Andaman turns up a

small protected breeding group, Andamans

can be considered to have a very scattered

crocodile population breeding sporadically.

Shivpur Creek near Diglipur, was observed

to have the largest adult population but no

nesting habitat. Most perennial streams in

North Andaman, East coast of Middle and

South Andaman have been settled upon.

Findings, Remarks

Found 2 crocodile skulls and bones at hunters camp

site. Little nesting habitat, no evidence of croco-

diles.

Saw fresh tracks of five crocodiles in 5 km of

creeks. No nesting habitat.

Saw 2 old nests but no other sign of crocodiles.

Interviewed settlers, saw good crocodile nesting

habitat; reportedly, most crocodiles killed several

years back. New clearing in progress, crocodile en-

counters expected.

Night visits to creeks, three crocodiles seen. Re-

ports of plenty of crocodile killing in past.

Suitable nesting habitat, no signs of crocodiles.

Extensive settlement and clearing.

Extensive rice cultivation in best habitat, no sign

of crocodiles by day.

Crocodiles finished off in the Mayabandar area

several years ago. Extensive settlement, creek traffic.

Walked through mangrove and grass habitat on

settlement edge. Located 2 old nests and one intact

nest of 51 eggs. Interviewed settlers.

Good nesting habitat near settlement but much dis-

turbance and crocodiles scarce now. One old nest

and crocodile bones seen.

Interviewed settlers, saw some good habitat but

much disturbed. One crocodile regularly seen in

main creek near jetty (ZW 775).

In South Andaman R. Whitaker visited Chidiatapu,

Bamboo Flat, Wimberleyganj and other nearby

areas, interviewing settlers and forest department

staff. Reports of crocodile scarcity in Andamans.

Most experienced people confirm that Little Anda-

man and some parts of the Nicobars still have fair-

ly intact crocodile populations.

Optimum crocodile nesting habitat and juven-

iles (intolerant to saltwater) optimum habitat

is analogous to paddy land (ie. flat stream

drainage area just prior to the brackish water

level). This steady (and continuing) loss of

habitat formerly resulted in crocodiles being

killed or moving to more remote (and perhaps

less suitable) areas. Crocodiles are reported

on several of the smaller offshore islands in-

cluding North Reef (now a sanctuary), Land-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

fall and parts of Ritchie’s Archipelago. If these

areas are assessed to be suitable (nesting habi-

tat, prey, freedom from disturbance and, most

important, fresh water), they may provide

possible reserves for C. porosus.

Visits by the senior author in June-July

1977 to larger islands such as Interview Island,

Smith Island, Sound Island, Anderson Island

in North Andaman, Rutland and Labyrinth

Islands in South Andaman yielded no evidence

of crocodiles. Interviews with police outpost

personnel, inter-island boat captains, crew and

others concerning Cinque Islands, South Sen-

tine! Island, Narcondam Island and Barren

Island (the last three now sanctuaries) con-

firms there are no crocodiles on these either.

Jackson Creek on the west coast of Little

Andaman is reported to have a fair crocodile

population. The East Coast of this Onge is-

land is now suffering from intensive clearance -

and settlement developments.

The Nicobar Islands are still inadequately

surveyed faunistically. In interviews with Police

Wireless operators formerly posted there, plus

inter-island ship captains we were able to con-

firm the presence of crocodiles on Teressa,

Bompoka, Comorta, Trincat, Kachal, Nan-

cowri, Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar.

Older reports describe seeing occasional cro-

codiles on Car Nicobar, it is not known whe-

ther Tilanchong or Chowra have any. Nico-

barese (in southern islands in particular) re-

portedly kill crocodiles occasionally to eat but

no systematic hide hunting has ever been

carried out in this group. Reports from Camp-

bell Bay on Great Nicobar where clearance

and settlement of primeval forest is now being

intensified show the same pattern of events

that led to the drastic decline of C. porosus

in North Andaman. A letter from Mr. Huma-

yun Abdulali (1977), who has been leading

Bombay Natural History Society Expeditions

to the Islands since 1964, confirms this. The

large freshwater streams of the 600 sq km

Great Nicobar: Galathea River, Alexandra

River and Dagmar River are said to contain

crocodile populations. These areas are so far

mostly unsettled and are inhabited by the

small scattered tribe called Shompen. Consi-

dering the reported relative lack of commercial-

ly valuable trees on Great Nicobar (Boning-—

ton, A & N Census, 1931) the presence of a

healthy crocodile population points to forestry

efforts toward management of crocodiles for

revenue earning. The precedent has been set

in Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh with

major Forest Department crocodilian projects

resulting from the FAO/UNDP programme

under the consultancy of Dr. H. R. Bustard,

at present in India. At this time it would be

most valuable to undertake a complete, well

supervised survey of the crocodile resources

of the Nicobars. The senior author returned

to Madras end June. From early July till late

August Allen Vaughan visited areas in Middle

Andamans not visited by the authors.

Vaughan feels the main crocodile nesting

area left in the main islands (besides the

Jarawa Reserve) is the Kalighat-Parangara

area including the creeks near Stewart I. In

1977 four nests were reported from one, re-

mote creek there. (For Vaughan’s report see

p. 48).

Other Notes:

One of the oldest extensive descriptions of

the Bay Islands is a Government of India

(Home Department) publication ““The Anda-

man Islands’, published in 1859. Reporting

on the animal life it states: “The reptiles are

snakes (several species), lizards, iguanas, tor-

toises and turtles’. No mention is made of

crocodiles. In 1863 Dr. F. J. Mouat published

his book ““The Andaman Islanders” and in a

fauna list states “Of the crocodile group, so

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

far as I can learn, no species has been obser-

ved’’. The 1908 Local Gazetteer describes the

Islands in detail but again no mention of cro-

codiles (though the abundance of sea turtles

is stated). A letter from a Moravian mission-

ary in the Nicobars in 1813 gives the first des-

cription of crocodiles in the Nicobars; this re-

ference was evidently not seen by later authors:

“Crocodiles are very numerous, wherever

there are water, lakes and streams. They are

of two kinds, the black kayman and the pro-

per crocodile the former which is smaller, is

fierce and rapacious; the latter is said never

to attack any living creatures, but only to de-

vour carrion’. |

In 1870, Dr. F. Stoliczka of the Geographi-

cal Survey of India states “‘There is no doubt

of the occurrence of a crocodile on the Nico-

bars’. Only in the Census report of 1931 is

the question of crocodiles in the Bay Islands

satisfactorily presented: ‘Some authorities

have disputed the presence of crocodiles in

the Andamans. They are common in the An-

damans and also in the Nicobar but they are

not found everywhere. They breed in the Dig-

lipur stream of Port Cornwallis, where they

are common, and in Jackson Creek of Little

Andamans’. Oddly, M. A. Smith, in a 1941

paper “The Herpetology of the Andaman and

_ Nicobar

Islands’’ lists crocodiles as being

_ found in the Nicobars but not in the Anda-

_ mans.

Later, in 1960 the author Suresh Vaidya

wrote: “In calling at Port Cornwallis we had

a special objective in view: We wanted to

shoot crocodiles in the Diglipur Creek, the

_ place was said to crawl with these creatures.”’

_and “The crocodiles have become wary since

these Bengali farmers started trapping them.

They sell the skins’. In his book on the Nico-

bars, K. K. Mathur in 1976 wrote “‘The rivers

| of Great Nicobar are full of crocodiles’’.

CONCLUSION

Crocodiles were once abundant in most of

the major streams and creeks in the Anda-

mans. Since they must drink fresh water, and

the young. probably cannot survive in highly

salty water and since optimum nesting (tall

grass, cane and bamboo fringe) is usually in

the transition swampy areas above the brackish

mangrove fringe the crocodiles were always

associated with these fresh water sources.

There are few large perennial freshwater

streams in the Andamans and all (with the

exception of the Jarawa area) have been set-

tled or illegally encroached upon. During the

time of legalized crocodile hunting (prior to

1972) interaction between man and crocodile

at the freshwater streams resulted in crocodile

hunters getting every help and encouragement

from settlers to whom the crocodile was (and

is) looked upon as a nuisance.

There are, unfortunately, few Forest De-

partment protection staff for the large and dif-

ficult area to be protected and some crocodile

killing and egg eating still prevails. Eggs now

fetch upward of Re. 1/- each, fat Rs. 80/- to

Rs. 100/- per kg. and single gall bladder

Rs. 100/-. Crocodile skin sells anywhere from

Rs. 10/- to Rs. 40/- per inch of belly width.

In talks with local tradesmen, we understood

that dealing in skins has all but ceased from fear

of the new laws; dealing in fat and gall bladder

continues on a small scale. The enforcement

of the Wildlife Act has been well publicized

in the Islands where news spreads fast. It may

take several stiffly fined example cases before

the protective laws can be fully implemented.

During a visit in June, 1977, the senior author

heard several reports of crocodiles regularly

seen on routine ferry runs indicating better

protection. The Forest Department Zoo in

Port Blair is rearing 5 crocodiles in a new

enclosure.

: 47

SURVEY OF CROCODYLUS PORGSUS IN ANDAMANS

The following are the notes of Vaughan’s trip:

Place visited

CFO Nullah joins

Betapur creek

Eratha, Bhakuntala creek, Lal tikri

Shubri_ creek

Borumbali creek

Borneo creek

Parlogi creek

Long Island, Bomlungta

Long Island

Elphinstone harbour

Papitadera

Kadamtulla, Uthra Jetty

Atargic Creek

Baratang

Port Blair

Mayabandar

Kalighat

Ramnagar (east coast,

North Andaman)

Kalara Creek-settlement

Mayabandar

Kishorenagar (Parangara)

Kalighat-Mayabandar

Creek on Kalighat

Parangara route

Karmatang No. 9

Austen Creek, 1, 2, 3, 4

Stewart I, Rahill I and

Khoda Khari

Burong Creek

Mode of

transport

Boat

Boat, Walk

Boat

Boat, Walk

Boat

Ferry

Ferry, Walk

Boat

Walk

Ferry, Walk

Ferry

Walk and

Boat

Boat, Walk

Boat

Good crocodile habitat, vast mangrove, good nest-

Findings, Remarks

One crocodile reported in each nullah; large fresh

water plains sown with paddy.

One crocodile seen (3-4 m).

Heavy disturbance—Jai Shree Plywood Company.

Tracks of three crocodiles seen. One big crocodile

4-5 metres reported by fisherman.

Border of Jarawa Reserve—good crocodile popul-

ation reported here; investigator was not allowed

ACCESS.

Good mangrove, no sign of crocodiles in day sur-

vey and interviewing.

No mangrove—sandy.

Good mangrove, but heavy logging activity.

Good mangrove habitat; few crocodiles, one big

one (5 m) reported.

Border of Jarawa reserve. Trespassing hunters and

fisherman report good crocodile population in Re-

serve.

Saw one crocodile at Khoda Khari, good mangrove,

many small creeks; main boat route, few crocodiles.

Interviewed old residents.

Interviewed ex-crocodile hunters, all concur that

crocodiles becoming rare except in the Jarawa Re-

serve.

One 4 m crocodile reported regularly in main

creek.

One crocodile killed 3 years back, none seen since >

then. Small creek, no crocodiles.

Found freshly robbed (by man) crocodile nest in —

cane near settlement. Very few nesting crocodiles |

now according to recent settlers.

No crocodiles or nests seen.

No crocodiles or nests reported. |

3 hatched nests, one full nest found in cane clumps,

female nearby. 72 eggs, observed successful hatching |

some days later. |

Good mangrove. young crocodile seen recently; |

much settlement activity.

Many settlements, boating activity. Good crocodile |

habitat but close to Mayabandar. Crocodiles clean- |

ed up long ago. |

ing areas. Too near Mayabandar so crocodiles very |

scarce. :

One crocodile reported recently killed on nest and |

eges robbed.

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75 Pirate I

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus porosus

Above: Skull at Diglipur from a C. porosus 5 m in length. Below: Mangrove lined

creek in North Andaman.

J. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 75 PLATE II

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus porosus

Above: Mugger Nullah a large freshwater stream near Diglipur was once the best

spot for crocodiles. It is now mainly cleaned and framed. Below: Remains of an old

crocodile nest at Parangara (North Andaman) in the cane and palm fringe above

the mangrove.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 75 PLATE Ill

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus porosus

Above: Intact nest of a 3 m C. porosus. The parent crocodile was hidden in bushes

in the dark area to the left of the nest. Below: View of the eggs after opening the

top of the nest.

PLATE IV

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus porosus

the Andaman Islands.

dylus porosus)

le (Croco

ing of the saltwater Crocod

A hatch

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75 PLATE V

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus porosus :

Seg Cone ine

m) 1. Diglipur

ae “a ens t 2. Shyamnagar

ANDAMAN : 3. Manjudera

4. Radhanagar

5. Milengram

6. Swarajgram

INTER- 7. Laxmipur

SAE 8. Parseemsagar

IVDDLE . 9. Shivpur-Kalipur

ANDATIAN \ > 10. Nowgram

11. Parangara

12. Kalighat

13. Ramnagar

&) 14. Stewart I.

3 3 15. Mayabandar

ANDAMAN 6 y . yy RITCHIE S 16. Panighat

: ARCHIPELAGO = 17. webe

18. Austen Strait

. Betapur

20. Eratha

21. Rangat

Wi Ros 129 Done: I

NO. GENT] RUT LANDS 23. Kadamtulla

“ELI g 24. Aturgic Creek

d | 25. Papitadera

26. Baratang

27. Bamboo Flat

28. Port Blair

29. Chidiatapu

CREEK LITTLE

| ANDAMAN ANDAMAN ISLANDS

| AUTBAY From 1931 CENSUS REPORT

SURVEY OF CROCODYLUS POROSUS IN ANDAMANS

Some offshore islands like North Reef, East

I, Landfall I and islands in Ritchie’s Archi-

pelago have been reported in the past to have

small or transient crocodile populations. Log-

ging activities, cutting of cane, grass and palms

and the growing need for fresh water and land

will continue to pressure crocodiles in the An-

damans. The Jarawa Reserve, Little Anda-

man and some parts of the Nicobar are re-

ported to have good, reasonably intact popula-

tions; the latter two areas remain to be sur-

veyed.

ANDAMAN CROCODILE CENSUS

Approximate figures based on initial field

surveys and interviews. Does not include

Jarawa Reserve.

Place No. of Breeding Total Cro-

Females codiles

North Andaman 50 100-200

Middle Andaman 20 50-100

20-30

South Andaman 10

RECOMMENDATIONS

(a) Complete survey to determine popul-

ation and habitat available for crocodiles.

(b) Optimum areas should be offered com-

plete protection as Crocodile Preserves, simul-

taneously the Wildlife Act should be enforced

through adequate field staff.

crocodile conservation/management plan for

the Islands.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to extend our thanks to the

Commissioner, Chief Wildlife Warden, Chief

Conservator of Forests and many other mem-

bers of the Andamans and Nicobar Forest

Department for their kind help. Mr. Jerry

Vaughan and family, Captain D. A. Beale,

and Mr. and Mrs. Fred Burn provided warm

hospitality enabling us to carry out the sur-

veys. Others who provided valuable informa-

tion and help are: Mr. George Allee, Mr.

Mathews, DFO, Mr. Mukhopadhya, FRO,

Captain Imtiaz, Captain Anand and numerous

settlers interviewed at many tea shops and

farms around the Islands.

REFERENCES

_ ANONYMOUS (1859): Selections from the Re-

cords of the Government of India, the Andamans,

Calcutta.

BARBE, P. (1847): Notice of the Nicobar Islands.

J. Asiatic Society 173.

| BILLE, STEEN (1849): Expeditions of the Corvette

Galathea, (Danish).

' Cuak, B. L. (1967): Green Islands in the Sea.

Delhi.

_ EACHERN, Mc & TowLe (1974): Ecological Guide-

‘lines for Island Development. IUCN.

| Kine, Woopcock & DiIcKINSON ( ):

|Guide to the Birds of S.E. Asia. London.

| Koss, C. BopEN (1971): Andamans and Nico-

bars. Delhi (Reprint).

| Matuor, K. K. (1967): Nicobar Islands. Delhi.

MATHUR, L. P. (1968): History of the Andaman

Field

MAuLE, A. F. (1974): Danish Botanical Expedi-

tions. Copenhagen.

MouatT, F. J. (1863):

London.

PARKINSON, C. E. (1972): Forest flora of the

Andaman Islands. Delhi (Reprint).

SmiTH, M. A. (1939): Fauna of British India.

Vol. I. London.

(1941): The

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

London, 153:150-158.

STOLICZKA, F. (1870): Observations on some In-

dian and Malayan Amphibians and Reptiles. J.

Asiatic Society, Bengal, Vol. 39.

The Andaman Islanders.

herpetology of the

Proc. Linn. Soc.

(1931): Census Report for Andamans & Nicobars.

(1951): Census Report for Andamans & Nicobars.

(1961): Census Report for Andamans & Nicobars.

(1908): Local Gazetteer, Andaman & Nicobar Is-

lands, Calcutta,

REVISION OF THE GENUS D/IPCADI MEDIK. (LILIACEAE)

IN INDIA AND ADJOINING REGIONS’

D. B. DEB AND SYAMALI DASGUPTA?

(With ten text-figures)

The paper presents a taxonomic revision of the genus Dipcadi Medik. (Liliaceae) in India

and adjoining regions. 9 species and two varieties are described with all synonyms and

their original citations. References of Indian regional Floras are included. A key to the

species and varieties is given. Distribution and phenology of the taxa are traced distinct-

ly. Exsiccata studied are cited. Dipcadi hydsuricum (Edgew.) Baker and D._ unicolor

(Stocks) Baker are relegated to synonymy of D. serotinum (L.) Medik. and D. eryth-

raeum Webb & Berth. respectively. D. madrasicum Fischer & Barnes is reduced to a

variety of D. montanum (Dalz.) Baker anda new combination is proposed thereon. Two

new species and one new variety are describcd.

The genus Dipcadi was postulated by Medikus

in Act. Acad. Theod. Palat. 6:431. 1790, on

the basis of Hyacinthus serotinus L. collected

from Spain. Medikus (1790) distinguished this

genus from Ayacinthus L. on the basis of

tubular, erect perianth lobes and numerous

flat seeds. Ker-Gawler (1816) described the

genus Uropetalum (Sphalm. Uropetalon) in

Bot. Reg. t. 156. 1816 on the basis of sixfid,

tubular perianth, lobes subduplicate to the

tube, and numerous flat seeds. Edgeworth

(1846), Dalzell (1850) and Stocks (1852)

subsequently added some species to this genus

from Indian subcontinent.

Reichenbach (1828), Endlicher (1836),

Lindley (1836) and Kunth (1843) did not

recognize the genus Dipcadi. Baker (1871)

however, revived Dipcadi Medik. and relegat-

ed Uropetalum Ker-Gawl. to synonymy of

the former. In his monographic studies Baker

1 Accepted December 1976.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

(1.c.) subdivided bulbous Liliaceae with race-

mose inflorescence into two groups, gamophy!-

lous Hyacintheae and polyphyllous Scilleae

and placed Dipcadi Medik. in the former

group. Bentham (1883) did not lay any im-

portance on such distinction and merged the

Hyacintheae in Scilleae, thereby placing Dip-

cadi Medik. therein. Subsequent workers fol- _

lowed Bentham (l.c.) in keeping all the genera

under a single group without subdividing the

tribe. Engler & Prantl (1930), raised it to the ©

rank of a subfamily in the name of Scilloideae. —

They, however, did not recognize any tribal —

status in it. Hutchinson (1960) on the other —

hand, did not recognise the subfamily.

About 55 species, distributed in Mediterra-

nean region, Africa, Madagascar and India

occur (Willis 1973). |

The present paper is based on the study of

specimens deposited in the Indian and few —

foreign herbaria. The species found in India

in the broad sense are treated here.

Measurements of pollens are taken after |

acetolysis.

REVISION OF THE

Herbaria consulted

Symbols for the herbaria consulted are indicated

in the parenthesis after the respective names as fol-

lows:

Central National Herbarium, B.S.I., Calcutta (CAL)

Western Circle, B.S.I., Poona (BS!)

Central Circle, B.S.I., Allahabad (BSA)

Southern Circle, B.S.I., Coimbatore (MH)

Northern Circle, B.S.I., Dehra Dun (BSD)

Blatter herbarium, Bombay (BLAT)

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (DD)

Royal Botanic Garden, Kew (K)

Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh (E)

British Museum (Natural History), London (BM)

Linnean Society of London (LINN)

Dipcadi Medik. in Act. Acad. Theod. Palat.

6:431. 1790; Baker in Journ. Linn. Soc. 11:

395. 1871; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3:809.

1883; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6:345. 1892;

Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:769. 1907; Bamber,

Pl. Punjab 441. 1916. Hyacinthus L. Sp. Pl.

317. 1753 & Gen. Pl. ed. 5:149-1754. Zuccag-

nia Thunb. Nov. Gen. Pl. 9. 127.1798 & in

Roem. Arch. Bot. 2:2. 1799. Scilla Sims. Bot.

Mag. 21. t. 859.1805. Uropetalum Ker-Gawl.

Bot. Reg. 2:t.156, 1816. Polemannia Berg. ex

Schlecht. in Linneae 1:260. 1826. Tricharis

Salisb. Gen. Pl. 24. 1866.

Taxonomic characters

The following attributes were examined in

a search of characters useful for taxonomic

and diagnostic purposes in the genus.

Habit—Plants are erect or ascending 10-

75 cm tall. Height of the plant varies within

the species. All the species are bulbous and

scapigerous. Leaves and scape arise simultane-

ously. Bulbs are globose, ovoid or ellipsoid;

_tunicated, outer scales scarious, inner fleshy;

size varying from 10 to 45 mm in length and

10-40 mm across. Leaves are radical, with

| sheathing base, linear, subulate or falcate,

parallel veined, glabrous, acute or acuminate

| at the apex. Breadth of the leaf has a chara-

Cteristic range for each species but these ranges

GENUS DIPCADI

tend to overlap. The breadth of the leaf varies

from 2 to 5 mm in D. serotinum, D. eryth-

raeum, D. montanum, D. minor, from 5 to

7 mm in D. maharashtrensis, D. saxorum, and

from 4 to 15 mm in D. ursulae and D. reidit.

Scape is narrow, as long as leaves or longer,

stiff, naked and terete. Inflorescence is a race-

me, loosely few flowered or densely many

flowered. Frequency of flowers in a raceme

varies from species to species. In D. ursulae,

the raceme is 6-14 flowered in var. ursulae

and 22-35 flowered in var. Jlongiracemosae.

Flowers are small and bracteate; bracts are

lanceolate or deltoid and acuminate or clawed.

Bracts are generally scarious, but coriaceous

in D. maharashtrensis. Length of the bract is

characteristic of the species but the range

overlaps. It is 3-5 mm long in D. concanense,

5-10 mm in D. saxorum and D. montanum

var. madrasicum, 7-9 mm in D. erythraeum,

8-12 mm in D. serotinum and 10-26 mm in

D. ursulae. Length of pedicel does not appear

to be of any taxonomic significance. It elong-

ates with maturity and varies considerably

within a species. It is 2-8 mm in D. montanum

and 6-10 mm in D. saxorum and D. reidit.

Pedicel is stout in D. saxorum, D. ursulae and

D. reidii where as in other species it is linear.

Comparative length of bract and pedicel is of

taxonomic significance in some species. The

pedicel is longer than bract in D. concanense,

whereas the bract is longer than the pedicel

in D. erythraeum, D. maharashtrensis and D.

ursulae. This together with other characters

are useful in determination of species. Peri-

anth segments are 6 in number in 2 whorls

of three each, the outer perianth camp-

anulate; lobes lanceolate, hooded, acute,

tubercled at the subapex; inner perianth tubu-

lar, lobes deltoid, hooded, tubercled at the

subapex. Flower length is more or less same

in all the species except D. concanense which

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Viol 75

is much longer, 25-36 mm. Outer and inner

perianth lobes are subequal in D. reidii, both

are 2/3 free above, whereas in D. minor both

are 1/2 free above. Stamens 6, uniseriate, at

the throat of the perianth tube, included; fila-

ment adherent to the perianth tube, free por-

tion short in some group of species whereas

longer in others. Anther is dorsifixed, versatile,

introrse and dehiscing longitudinally. Pollen

oblong, foveolate. Carpels 3, syncarpous;

ovary superior, sessile or stipitate, oblong or

obovoid, trilocular, septal nectaries present in

the ovary; style long, linear; stigma trifid.

- Ovary is commonly obovoid, but oblong in

D. montanum var. madrasicum and D. reidii.

Stipe of the ovary varies in a species, even in

the same plant. In the collection of D. sero-

tinum by Aitchson from Tons valley, W.

Himalaya, stipe of the ovary varies from 0 to

3 mm. Length of the style is more or less same

except in D. concanense where it is except-

ionally long, 23 mm. Capsule subglobose to

obovoid, trilocular, trilobed, loculicidally de-

hiscent, pericarp crustaceous, thin. Character-

istics of the capsule is diagnostic in some spe-

cies like D. montanum and D. erythraeum.

Seed 3-9 in each chamber, superposed,

brownish black, glossy, varies from orbicular

to rotund even in the same locule, flat, wrink-

led, obscurely winged.

Very little work has been done on Cytology

of this genus. Mahabale & Chennaveeraiah

(1954, 1960) have worked on the karyotypes.

Chromosome numbers of D. serotinum, D.

montanum, D. saxorum and D. ursulae are re-

ported as 2n = 8 or 64-68, 2n = 20, 2n = 10

and 2n = 20 respectively.

Indian species of this genus centre round

Deccan peninsula from Maharashtra to Tamil

Nadu and extend through Rajasthan to Kash-

mir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in

the North and Pakistan in the West and

through Madhya Pradesh to Orissa in the east.

9 species in India.

Type: Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medik.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

1. Flower small (8-15 mm long); style short (3-

6 mm long)

2. Perianth segments of the outer whorl are unit-

ed to 1/3 and those of the inner one upto 2/3

of the length

3. Pedicel filiform; fllament adherent wholely to

- the perianth protruding only at the tip

4. Fruit as long as broad

5. Scape long (20-70 cm), 10-16 flowered; capsule

SLIPItates Me we sce yee ee serotinum

. Scape shorter (15-20 cm), 4-12 flowered; cap-

Sule sessile) (8 yee erythraeum

. Fruit broader than long

6. Ovary narrowly obovoid, stipitate

var.

oe © © @

ONO DwOMOO= id. OO ONO O10) IC) On

. Ovary oblong, substipitate

3’. Pedicel stout; filament

above

Bract

i as. long as pedicel’) 5) sa

7. Bract much longer than pedicel

8. Bract coriaceous, acute.......

8. Bract scarious, long acuminate ...... ursulae

. Matured raceme short, 6-14 flowered

. Matured raceme long, 22-25 flowered

var.

oe e © © oe

CueCled OSOs OF) sOMCnrCy Ona Ole memcusOi oO) Or ON

equal, united upto iG 2 of the length

Zeta)

Oo NOrsOEC Cis OM aR Os 0 Cth OTe TCC iy Or oe lO Oi lOnO 0, -C

Be 601 da Wed eRe ANN NMR Pee oS

1’. Flower long (25-36 mm long); style longer (23 |

mm long) concanense |

Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medik. in Act. Acad. |

Theod. Palat. 6:431.

Linn. Soc..

Ind. 6:347. 1892;

1916) (Fig. 1).

Hyacinthus serotinus L. Sp. Pl. 317. 1753.

(Type: Spain, Savage Microfische No. 438.4).

1790; Baker in Journ. |

Bamber, PI.

Scilla serotinus Sims. Bot. Mag. 21.t.859. 1805.

var. ursulae |

. Bracts smaller (4-5 mm); filaments shorter (1- |

minor —

. Bracts larger (6-10 mm); filaments longer (4-

reidii '

. montanum —

montanum —

. var. madrasicum |

protruding 2-5° mm |

saxorum —

maharashtrensis |

longiracemosae

. Pertanth segments of both the whorls are sub- |

11:397. 1871: Hook. f. FI. Brit.

Punjab |

REVISION OF THE

(Type: England, hort. Woodfords s.n.—not

seen; plate cited above agrees with the descrip-

tion). Uropetalon serotinum Ker-Gawl. in

Bot. Reg. 2:156. 1816. Uropetalum hydsuri-

cum Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20:88. 1846

(Type: Ludhiana, 1844, Edgeworth 105 K).

Dipcadi hydsuricum (Edgew.) Baker in Journ.

finn. Soc. 11:397. 1871; Hook.f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

6:347. 1892; Collett, Fl. Simlens. 526. 1902;

Bamber, Pl. Punj. 441.1916.

Bulbs 20-35 x 15-30 mm, globose or ovate.

Leaves few, 18-34 x .2-.5 cm, linear, glabrous,

acuminate at the apex, attenuated to the base.

Scape 20-70 x .3-.4 cm, rigid, glabrous. In-

florescence 10-12 cm long, erect, 10-16 flower-

ed, compact in young stage, loose on matu-

rity. Flowers small, 8-14 mm long, white or

pale pink coloured; bracts 8-12 x 4-5 mm, as

long as the pedicel or longer, sometimes slight-

ly smaller, lanceolate or deltoid-lanceolate,

acuminate, scarious; pedicel 5-10 mm_ long.

Perianth persistent, segments subequal, outer

ones united upto 1/3 from the base, cam-

panulate, lobes slightly longer, lanceolate,

acute, inner 3 united upto 2/3 from the base,

tubular, spreading at the tip, obtuse; perianth

segments hooded, tubercled at the sub-apex,

5 nerved along the mid zone. Stamens at the

throat of the perianth tube; anthers 2-4 x

75 mm, linear-oblong, dorsifixed, introrse;

pollen grain oblong, 100-130 u x 60-80 », fove-

Olate; filament adherent to the perianth tube,

slightly free above. Ovary 3-5 x 2-3.5 mm, ses-

sile or stipitate, oblong or obovate, trilocular;

stipe when present may be more than 1 mm;

style 3-4.5 mm long, linear; stigma trifid. Fruit

capsule, stipitate, 8-10 x 8-10 mm, as long as

broad, loculicidally dehiscent, subglobose to

obovate; pericarp thin, brittle, with parallel

markings. Seeds 6-8 in each locule, sometimes

more, 4.5-5 x 3.5-4 mm, brownish black shin-

ing, rotund, compressed, wrinkled, hard, nar-

GENUS DIPCADI

rowly winged.

Flowering time: February-June.

Fruiting time: March-September.

Ecology: Grows on the floor of the forest.

Distribution: Western Himalaya from Nepal

to Kashmir upto an altitude of 2700 m, down

to Saharanpur District of U.P.

‘Herbarium specimens examined:

INDIA: Kashmir: Mt. Tilla, 2700 m, 31-ili-

1893, Aitchison 3 (CAL, DD, E). Himachal

Pradesh: Tons valley, 900-1200 m, 13-v-1894,

Duthie 14504 (CAL, DD); ibid. 5-v-1895.

Duthie 15580 (CAL, DD); Simla, 2000 m,

19-vii-1910, Rich. 872 (K).

Uttar Pradesh: Dehra Dun, 21-v-1894,

Gamble s.n. (flowered in Indian Botanic Gar-

den, Calcutta, in April 1896) (CAL); ibid.

(flowered in Indian Botanic Garden on 22-iii-

1898) (CAL); Advicem Sodhi, 2200 m, 13-iv-

1904, Kabir 14796 (K). Madhya Pradesh:

Raipur, 21-11-1907, Haines 2393 (K).

NEPAL: Karnali valley, 1200 m, 24-iv-1952,

Pollin, Sykes & Williams 3964 (BM); Between

Jungla and Gorgi, 2400 m, 8-viii-1952, Pol-

lin, Sykes & Williams 5029 (BM); Simkot-

Durpa, 3000 m, 17-vuil-1968, S$. B. Malla

14268 (BM); Suligad, 2700 m, 1-viii-1973, S.

Einarssa., L. Karby & B. Wetterhall 2937

(BM).

PAKISTAN: Kagan valley, 2300 m, 31-v-

1896, Inayat 20221 (CAL, DD); Jhadyor,

1700 m, May 1891, Gamble 22798 (CAL).

Note: R. Wight s.n. (E) collected from

Peninsular India, differs in fruit. Capsules

larger, straw coloured, 15-18 mm; seeds 5-6 x

4-45 mm, 14 seeds in each, locule. Another

gathering R. Wight s.n. (E) collected from

Peninsular India has unusually small bracts

and pedicels.

D. erythraeum Webb & Berth. Phyto.

Canar. 3:341. 1848: Baker in Journ. Linn.

Soc. 11:400. 1871; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

3 crn

2cm

4cm

ocm

Sod a

Fig. 1. Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medik

(a) habit of the plant, (b) dissected flower showing all the parts, (c) fruit, (d) seed.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

2:770. 1907; Blat. & Hallb. in Journ. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc. 26(4):972. 1920. Uropetalum

unicolor Stocks in Journ. Bot. 4:180. 1852

(Type: Sind, lower hills, J. C. Stocks 634

lecto. K.; iso. CAL!). U. erythraeum Boiss

Fl. Or. 5:286. 1882. D. unicolor (Stocks)

Baker in Journ. Linn. Soc. 11:397. 1871;

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6:346. 1892. (Fig. 2).

Bulbs 20-30 x 15-25 mm, ovoid. Leaves 5-6

close at the base of the scape, 15-20 x .2-

.6 cm, broader below, sheathing at the base,

glabrous, acute at the apex, falcate. Scape as

long as leaves, 15-20 x .2-.3 cm, terete, stiff,

erect, naked. Inflorescence loose, 4-12 flower-

ed. Flowers 12-14 mm long, small; pedicel

small, 2-3 mm long; bracts longer than pedicels,

7-9 mm long, deltoid, membranous to scarious,

acuminate. Perianth segments subequal, outer

ones slightly longer than the inner, united up-

to 1/3 from the base; inner united upto 2/3

from the base, lobes lanceolate, 5 nerved,

hooded, spreading at the tip. Stamens arising

from the throat of the perianth segments, in-

cluded; filaments adherent to the perianth

tube, slightly free above; anthers large, 4-5 x

.7-1 mm, linear, sagitate, dorsifixed, versatile,

introrse. Ovary sessile, = 4 x 2 mm, oblong;

style narrow, = 4 mm long. Fruit sessile, 12-

14 mm as long as broad, quadrate, retuse

above and below. Seeds rotund, 6-7 mm across,

compressed, brownish black, shining, narrow-

ly winged.

Flowering time: August-September.

Ecology: It grows on the hills of the arid

region after rain.

Local names: “‘Junglee Bussur’’ in Sind and

Baluchistan.

Use: Bulbs are eaten in Sind and Baluchis-

tan.

Distribution: Rajasthan to Sind and Balu-

chistan.

Herbarium specimens examined:

INDIA: Rajasthan:. Bairaswara, 28-8-1969,

Wadhawa 5028 (BSA).

PAKISTAN: Karachi, September

(CAL); Sind, Stocks 634 (CAL).

D. montanum (Dalz.) Baker in Journ. Linn.

Soc. 11:398. 1871; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6:

346. 1892; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:769.

1907; Bamber, Pl. Punj. 441. 1916; Mooney,

Suppl. Bot. Bih. Or. 201.1950. Uropetalum

montanum Dalz. in Journ. Bot. 2:142.1850

(Type: Bombay, Sahyadri Mt., Dalzell s.n.

K); Dalzell & Gibson, Fl. Bomb. 250.1861.

var. montanum. (Fig. 3).

Bulbs 12-20 x 10-15 mm, ovoid. Leaves 3-8,

shorter than the scape, 15-20 x .2 cm, linear,

attenuated at the base, glabrous, acuminate at

the apex. Scape 18-25 cm x 2-3 mm, erect,

stiff. Inflorescence 5-15 cm long, loose raceme,

7-15 flowered. Flowers 11-13 mm long, small;

pedicels 2-8 mm long; bracts 5-10 x 3-4 mm,

as long as pedicels or longer, lanceolate or

ovate, acuminate, clawed, scarious. Perianth

segments outer longer, united upto 1/3 from

the base, campanulate, lobes lanceolate, acute,

1895,

inner ones united upto 2/3 from the base, |

obtuse, all hooded, |

subapex, mildly perfumed; ©

nerves 5-6, colour white, or salmonpink or light |

sometimes greenish inside. —

tubular, tips spreading,

tubercled at the

brownish white,

Stamens inserted at the throat of the tube;

filament adherent along the perianth through- —

out the tube protruding at the tip; anthers 2- _

3 x .75 mm, linear-oblong, versatile, introrse; —

pollen oblong, 95-105 » x 60-65 » foveolate. _

Ovary stipitate, 3-5 x 1.5-2 mm, narrowly |

obovate-oblong, septal nectaries are present, |

stipe 1-2.5 mm; style 4-6 mm long, linear; |

loculicidally dehiscent, |

much broader than long, narrowed at the base |

5-10 x 10-15 mm, obovoid, deeply trilobed; |

stigma trifid. Fruit

pericarp thin, brittle, light brownish yellow,

tranversely striated. Seeds 3-5 in each locule,

REVISION OF THE GENUS DIPCADI

Fig. 3. Dipcadi montanum (Dalz.) Baker

(a) habit of the plant, (b) flower, (c) dissected flower showing all the parts,

(d) bract, (e) fruit, (f) seed.

58°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 4. Dipcadi montanum (Dalz.) Baker var. madrasicum (Barnes & Fischer)

Deb et Dasgupta comb. et stat. nov.

(a) habit of the plant, (b) dissected fiower, (c) fruit, (d) seed.

2mrn

1mm

Omnm

REVISION OF THE

3.5-5 x 2-3 mm, orbicular, angular or ellip-

soid, compressed, wrinkled, narrowly winged,

brownish black, glossy.

Flowering time: July-August.

Fruiting time: July-August.

Ecology: Common on the open grass land;

gregarious, on shallow soil and laterite plateau

at an altitude of 1130-2000 m.

Cytology: Chromosome number is reported

as 2n = 20 by Mahabale & Chennaveeraiah

(1954, 1961).

Distribution: From Western coast of Dec-

can upto Orissa in the east 1160 m to 1300 m

and rarely in W. Himalayas at an altitude of

2000 im.

Herbarium specimens examined:

Maharashtra: Malabar Concan, Stocks s.n.

(CAL, E); Law sn. (CAL, E); Gibson s.n.

(CAL); Junar, 6-vii-1894, Talbot (CAL); Bel-

gaum, 12-vii-1893, Talbot 2277 (BSI); ibid.,

10-viii-1891, Talbot 3763 (BSI); Belgaum, 27-

vii-1953, Chennaveeraiah 15755 (BLAT); ibid.

July, Ritchie 1454 (EB).

Madhya Pradesh: Bailadila, Bastar, 16-vii-

1939, Mooney 1048 (K, CAL).

Orissa: Khandual Mali, 1100 m, south

Kalahandi, 12-vii-1949, Mooney 3470 (K,

DD).

Himachal Pradesh: Simla, Kaleemitia/AlI-

mora, 2000 m, 1859, Maddens 700 (E).

D. montanum (Dalz.) Baker var. madrasi-

cum (Barnes & Fischer) Deb et Dasgupta

comb. et stat. nov. Basionym: D. madrasicum

Barnes et Fischer in Kew Bull. 1940: 301.

1941. (Type: Chingleput Dist., Tambaram,

70 m, Nov. 1937, E. Barnes 1801 lecto. K; ibid.

Jan. 1939, E. Barnes 2085 para.K). (Fig. 4).

Bulbs 10-30 x 10-30 mm, ellipsoid or ovate.

Leaves 2-3 on each bulb, 10-20 cm x 2-5 mm,

linear, glabrous, acute. Scape 25-75 cm xX 2mm,

Slender, glossy, erect, glabrous. Inflorescence

GENUS DIPCADI

5-12 cm long, loose raceme, 5-12 flowered.

Flowers 12-13 mm; pedicel very small, 2-4 mm,

filiform; bracts as long as the pedicel or longer,

5-6 mm, deltoid, scarious, acuminate. Peri-

anth segments outer ones united upto 1/3

from the base, campanulate, lobes obovate

lanceolate, acute; inner ones united upto 2/3

from the base, tubular, tips spreading; all are

slightly hooded, tubercled at subapex, 6 ner-

ved. Stamens inserted; filaments arising from

the base of the perianth, and adherent through-

out the tube, slightly free above; anthers 2.5-3

x .75 mm, linear-oblong, dorsifixed, versatile,

introrse. Ovary sessile or subsessile, 3.5-5 x

2.5 mm, ellipsoid or obovate-ellipsoid; stipe

upto .5 mm long; style 3.5-4 mm, long,

linear, stouter than that in var. montanum;

stigma trifid. Fruit loculicidally dehiscent,

about 7 <x 12 mm, obovoid, narrowed at the

base, deeply trilobed, straw coloured; peri-

carp thin. Seeds 4-5 in each !ocule, ovate-

ellipsoid, 4-6 x 4 mm, obscurely winged, irre-

gularly discoid, compressed, shining, brownish

black.

Flowering time: May-September.

Fruiting time: July-November.

Ecology: Common in dry _ stream beds,

sandy and marshy places, in scrub jungles and

in crevices of rocks.

Local name: ‘Katuvengaium’ in Tamil. This

name appears to be applied to other bulbous

plants also.

Use: The bulb is eaten in times of scarcity.

Distribution: Distributed in Deccan, Tamil

Nadu and also in Baiaghat Plateau.

Herbarium specimens examined:

Madhya Pradesh: Balaghat plateau, May

1912, Haines 3586 (K).

Tamil Nadu: Kodumady, Tinnevelly distt.,

333 m, 9-vii-1959, Sebastine 8403 (MH);

Coimbatore, 1700 m, 29-vii-1930, Narayan-

swamy 3961 (MH); Guduvancheri, Chingle-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

LP em

Fig. 5. Dipcadi saxorum Blatter

(a) habit of the plant, (b) dissected flower, (c) bract, (d) fruit, (e) seed.

REVISION OF THE GENUS DIPCADI

Deb et Das

cted fl

(a) habit of the plant, (b) disse

Fig. 6. Dipcadi maharashtrensis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

put distt., September 1939, Barnes 2180 (K).

D. saxorum Blatter in Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc. 32:736. 1928 (Type: Salsette,

about 330 m, Aug. 1917, Blatter & Hallberg

1 BLAT—not seen). (Fig. 5).

Bulbs 15-20 x 15-20 mm, globose; adventi-

tious roots, closely arising from the base.

Leaves 16-25 cm Xx 5-7 mm, linear, acuminate,

glabrous. Scape longer than leaves, 20-40 cm x

2-3 mm, glabrous. Inflorescence loose raceme,

15-20 flowered: Flowers about 10 mm _ long;

pedicel stout, 6-10 mm long, bracts 5-7 =

3 mm, ovate, acuminate, scarious, shorter than

pedicel. Perianth segments outer united upto

1/3 from the base, campanulate, slightly lon-

ger than inner; inner united upto 2/3 from

the base, tubular; all the perianth lobes hood-

ed at tips, tubercled at the subapex, veins 5-6,

parallel, convergent along midzone; white with

green stripes along the middle of the perianth

segments, sometimes buff coloured, turning to

orange. Stamens at the throat of the perianth

tube, included; filaments arising from the base

of the perianth, adherent throughout, protrud-

ing above; free portion 3-4 mm long, filiform,

broader at the base, acute at the apex; anthers

2 x .75 mm, oblong, dorsifixed, versatile, in-

trorse; pollen oblong, 105-120 » x 70-80 4s,

foveolate. Ovary 3.5-4 x = 2 mm, oblong-

obovoid, trigonous, conspicuous septal nect-

aries present, stipitate, stalk + 1 mm; style

= 4 mm long, stout; stigma slightly thicker

than style, trifid. Fruit 8-10 x 10-13 mm, locu-

licidally dehiscent, pericarp thin, brittle, crus-

taceous, light brownish yellow in colour. Seeds

many, 4-9 in each chamber, superposed, 4-5

x 3 mm, orbicular, ellipsoid or quadrangular,

compressed, wrinkled, hard, wingless, brown-

ish black, duil.

Flowering time: June-October.

Fruiting time: July-November.

Ecology: Very common on rocky hills.

Cytology: Chromosomes are reported as

2n = 12 by Mahabale & Chennaveeraiah

(1954), Chennaveeraiah & Mahabale (1962).

Distribution: Western Deccan, abundant in

Borivli.

Herbarium specimens examined:

Mahrashtra: Borivli, Salsette, 8-viii-43, Blat-

ter 2353-2361 (BLAT): ibid., 25-vii-1953,

Santapau 15714A-D (BLAT); ibid., 26-vii-

1959, Santapau 23159 (BLAT); ibid., 25-x-

1956; Rukmini Bai 79 (BLAT); ibid., 27-

vi-55, Rukmini Bai 303, (BLAT): | ibid.,

26-vil-59, Merchant 1194, (BLAT); ibid., 24-

vill-1957, Merchant 173 (BLAT); bulbs

brought from Kanheri caves, Salsette and

planted in St. Xavier’s College Garden, 25-ix-

56, Rukmini Bai B.R. 473 (BLAT); Borivli,

l1-vill-52, Fernandez R. 87 (BLAT); ibid.,

25-vii-53, 1351 (BLAT); ibid., 9-viii-53, 1398

(BLAT).

Dipcadi maharashirensis Deb et Dasgupta

in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3):822.

1975. (Type: Panchgani, 5-1x-1955, Rukmini

Bai BR 933 (BLAT). (Fig. 6).

Herbs bulbous, scapigerous. Bulbs globose,

small, about 2.5 cm X 2.5 cm, tunicate, root-

ing profusely from the base. Leaves radical,

about 6, shorter than the scape, 25-30 cm x

.-./ cm, linear, broadest at the middle, pli-

cate, entire, acute, coriaceous glabrous; veins,

8-14 in number. Scape about 36 cm long,

about .4 cm across at the base, narrowing up-

wards to .1 cm across at the apex, slender,

terete, glabrous, naked. Inflorescence raceme,

about 13 cm long, loose, bearing about 12

flowers. Flower 11-13 mm long; pedicels stout,

2-3 mm long; bracts persistent, much longer

than the pedicels, 10-20 x 3-3.5 mm, entire,

subulate, coriaceous. Perianth outer ones lon-

ger, united upto 1/3 from the base, campanu-

late; inner ones united upto 2/3 from the base,

tubular; lobes 2-2.5 mm broad; obovate-lance-

REVISION OF THE GENUS DIPCADI

olate, obtuse, tubercled at the sub-apex, ner-

ves 5, convergent towards the apex. Stamens

included, filaments adherent to the inner peri-

anth tube, remaining free for about 1-2 mm

above, filiform; anthers 2 celled, oblong, 2.5-

2.7 x .6-.7 mm, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscing

longitudinally. Ovary stipitate, broadly oblong,

3.5-4 x 2.5-3 mm, with numerous ovules in

axile placentation; style stout, 4-5 mm _ long

about .7 mm across.

Distribution: Localised in Maharashtra

State. 3

Herbarium specimens examined:

Maharashtra: Panchgani, 5-ix-1955, 8B.

Rukmini Bai BR 933, cultivated in St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay, where it flowered in Sep-

tember (BLAT).

D. ursulae Blatter in Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc. 32:735. 1928 (Type: Maharashtra

State, Panchgani, 1500 m August, 1925, Blat-

ter P 74 BLAT!) var. ursulae. (Fig. 7).

Bulb 10-20 mm across, globose or ovoid,

small with many fibrous roots from the base.

Leaves 4-6, longer than the scape, 15-30 cm

long, 4-7 mm broad, linear, coriaceous, pli-

cate, sheathing at the base, grass green. Scape

1 or 2 per bulb, 15-20 cm x 2-6 mm, terete,

glabrous, naked. Inflorescence raceme, 6-14

flowered, close in bud, ultimately becoming

loose, and elongating to 12 cm long. Flowers

9-12 mm long, 18 mm across, small; pedicel

5-7 mm long, stout; bracts much longer than

the pedicel, 10-26 mm long, ovate, long acu-

-minate, scarious, 2-4 mm_ beyond the bud.

Perianth segments, mildly fragrant, white to

pale cream or orange red, sometimes green

outside or lower surface of the perianth pink

brown or greenish along the midnerve and

whitish margin, outer lobes 6-7 mm long, re-

curved at the middle and bent downwards,

_tube smaller, 3-4 mm long, inner perianth

lobes shorter than the outer, connate to about

the middle, tubes 5 mm long, lobes 3-4 mm

as long as broad, recurved at right angle to

the tube, apex hooded, subapex tubercled,

veins 5, closely parallel along the middle, con-

vergent at the tip; filaments adherent to the

perianth tube, included; free part 2-3 mm

long, broader at the base, tapering at the apex;

anthers at the mouth of the tube, 2 x .5-.75

mm, oblong or linear-oblong, dorsifixed, in-

trorse, dehiscing longitudinally; pollen oblong,

85-105 » X 60-80 », foveolate. Ovary stipitate,

4-5 x 1.5-2.5 mm, narrowly obovoid-oblong,

trigonous, stipe nearly 1 mm long, conspicuous

septal nectaries are present, style 5-6 mm long,

stout or filiform linear, slightly thickened at

both ends, papillose, especially in the upper

half; stigma trifid, thicker than the style or

not. Capsule loculicidally dehiscent, as long

as broad, young capsule longer than broad;

bracts persistent to fruits. Seeds = 6 x 5 mm,

semiorbicular, compressed, glossy, black.

Flowering time: June-August.

Fruiting time: June-August.

Ecology: Abundant on gravelly, grassy hill

top.

Cytology: Chromosome number is reported

as 2n = 20 by Mahabale & Chennaveeraiah

(1954) and Chennaveeraiah & Mahabale

(1962).

Distribution: Found only in Maharashtra

State.

Herbarium sheets examined:

Maharashtra State: Trombay hills, 26-vii-

1958, Merchant 606 & 607 (BLAT); ibid.,

1-vili-1959, Merchant 1197, 1198 (BLAT);

ibid., 26-vii-58, Shah 9692 (BLAT); ibid., 10-

vill-1957, Merchant 90 (BLAT); ibid., 26-vii-

58, Balamani B. 88 (BLAT); ibid., 26-vii-58,

Shah 9894 (BLAT); Panchgani tableland, 1-

vili-1953, Chennaveeraiah 15756 (BLAT); top

of Shivneri hills (south west), 25-vii-63, Ansari

88729 (BSI); Mangni hill near Khamgaon, 6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 7. Dipcadi ursulae Blatter

(a) habit of the plant, (b) dissected flower, (c) fruit, (d) seed.

REVISION OF THE GENUS DIPCADI

Fig. 8. Dipcadi ursulae Blatter var. longiracemosae Deb et Dasgupta

(a) habit of the plant, (b) dissected flower, (c) fruit, (d) seed.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

miles N.W. of Junnar, 29-vi-64, Hemadri

99527 (BSI); Shivneri hills, (flowered and

fruited in BSI garden), 25-vi-65, Hemadri

107099 (BSI). |

D. ursulae Blatt. var. longiracemesae Deb et

Dasgupta in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

72(3):823. 1975 (Type: Girner hill, Juna-

gadh 25-viii-58, P. V. Bole 743 BLAT—

Holotype and ibid. 29-viii-52, P. V. Bole 851

BLAT—Paratype). (Fig. 8).

Herbs 2/3-1 m tall, scapigerous, bulbous;

bulbs ovoid, small, 3-4.5 x 3-4 cm, white, root-

ing from the base. Leaves 1-6, radical, 30-66

x .5-1.5 cm, linear, glabrous, entire, acute,

veins 12-20. Scape one or two, arising from

the bulb, 30-75 cm long, .4-1.2 cm across,

terete, smooth, naked, light brownish yellow

in colour. Inflorescence raceme, 10-30 cm

long, dense in early stage, loose when matur-

ed, 22-35 flowered. Flower white; bracts per-

sistent, 10-13 x 3-4 mm, deltoid, long acumin-

ate, scarious, plicate, entire, much longer than

the pedicel; pedicels 5-7 mm long. Perianth

9-11 mm long, corolline, outer ones longer,

united upto 1/3 from the base, campanulate,

lobes obovate-lanceolate, recurved at the

middle, obtuse, tubercled at the subapex; in-

ner ones shorter, united upto 2/3 from the

base, tubular, lobes obovate-lanceolate, obtuse,

recurved at the tip, all are hooded, nerves 5-

7, prominent, convergent towards the apex.

Stamens included; filaments adnate to the in-

ner perianth tube, protruding 2-3 mm above,

free portion filiform, anthers 2 celled, linear

oblong, 3-3.5 mm x about .7 mm, dorsifixed,

introrse,, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary ses-

sile, narrowly obovate-oblong, trisulcate, 4.5-

4.7 mm x about 1 mm, with numerous ovules

in exile placentas; style 4.5-4.7 mm long, stout,

broadening above; stigma trifid. Fruit 7-10 x

9-10 mm, loculicidally dehiscent, light yellow-

ish brown in colour, as long as broad. Seeds

3.5-4 x 3.5 mm, semi-rotund, obovate or ellip-

soid, compressed, glossy, brownish black in

colour, narrowly winged, wrinkled, many in

each loculus.

Flowering time: July-August.

Fruiting time: July-August.

Ecology: On wet rocky slopes of hills.

Distribution: Maharashtra and Gujarat

States.

Herbarium specimens examined:

Maharashtra: Girnar hill, Junagadh, 25-viii-

1958, P. V. Bole 743 (BLAT); ibid., 29-viii-

52, P. V. Bole 851 (BLAT); Maharashira;

Shivneri (North East), 27-vui-1963, Ansari

88785 (BSI).

D. minor Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6:346. 1892

(Type: Concon, Hewraplain, Aug. 1859,

Dailzeil sn. K a fragment only; no bulb, leaf

and fruit, oniy 5 scapes, two of which bear

flowers others without any; flowers small).

Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:770.) 1907.

Bulbs 18-20 x 15-20 mm, ovoid, with fibrous ©

roots at the base. Leaves 12-15 cm X 2-3 mm, —

linear, plicate, glabrous. Inflorescence loose

raceme, 6-12 flowered. Flowers 8-9 mm; bracts

4-5 x 3-4 mm, deltoid, acuminate, scarious;

pedicel 3-5 mm, small, filiform. Perianth seg-

ments, outer narrower than the inner, all are

united 1/3-1/2 from the base, 7-9 veined.

Stamens at the throat of the perianth tube; _

anther 2.5-3 x .7 mm oblong, dorsifixed, in-

trorse; filament adherent to the tube, free por-

tion 1-2 mm, filiform. Ovary 3-3.5 x 1.5-2 mm

narrowly obovoid, sessile; style 3-5 x .5 mm)

long, linear; stigma trifid.

Distribution: Yn Deccan, rare.

Herbarium sheets examined:

Peninsular India Orientalis, R. Wight s.n. |

(8).

Note: This is allied to Dipcadi erythraeum |

Webb & Berth. and D. serotinum (L.) Medik., |

differing from the former in having shorter |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ff i

Y }

{ re To a — /, \ / 4

| fF; iH | / ; /

\ kl ey { J /

: I| f

fr {i S Y J //

d A f

Vw, a iy wy),

te: t | ly

! /Y

UF | | | | iy

i : i /

e: |

\ |

| : |

(

i | j /

: }

Dalz.) Baker

a y ‘ “ a ae ae A. ae flower.

——"

REVISION OF THE

bracts and many flowered (6-12) inflorescence,

and from the latter in shorter size of the plant,

perianth segments 7-9 nerved and united 1/3-

1/2 from the base.

D. reidii Deb et Dasgupta sp. nov. Species

haecab D. serotino differt foliis latioribus,

bracteis latioribus P. erianthiis interioribus c.

1/3 longitudine adhaerentibus filamentorum

segmentis liberatis multum longioribus. (Type:

Malphagarh, Byauswells, about Kali valley,

2300 m, 16-vii-1886, J. R. Reid s.n. A—holo-

type, B—isotype E!). (Fig. 9).

Herbs bulbous, scapigerous, with waxy

lusture; bulbs ovoid, about 4 x 3.5 cm shining

white in colour; disk rounded, rooting below.

Leaves 3-4 in number, as long as scape or

longer, 30-40 x 1-1.2 cm, broadly linear,

‘broadest above the middle, acute, entire glab-

ous, thin in texture, light brown in colour

‘when dry; veins adpressed on the lower sur-

face. Scape 30-40 cm x .3-.4 cm, terete, glab-

‘Tous. Inflorescence raceme 4-20 cm long, bear-

ing 10-18 flowers, compact at the early stage,

loose on maturity. Flower campanulate, 13-

15 mm long, light brown in colour when dry;

‘pedicel 6-10 mm long, linear; bracts persistent,

‘as long as pedicels, 6-10 x 5-6 mm, ovate,

‘lanceolate, scarious. Perianth united upto 1/3

from the base forming tube, remaining free

above; lobes narrowly oblong, thickened along

the veins frilled; veins 5-7, subparallel. Sta-

mens included; filaments adnate to the peri-

nth tube, protruding 4-5 mm above, filiform,

broader at the base, attenuated to the apex;

anthers narrowly oblong, about 2.5 x .7 mm,

2 celled, introrse, dorsifixed. Ovary sessile,

about 5 x 3 mm, trisulcate, oblong, glabrous,

with many ovules in axile placentas; style 5.5-

6 mm long, linear: stigma obscurely trifid.

Distribution: W. Himalayas.

_ Herbarium sheets examined:

| Malphagarh, Byuswells, Kali valley 2300 m,

GENUS DIPCADI

16-vii-1886, Reid s.n. (EB).

D. concanense (Dalz.) Baker in Journ. Linn.

Soc. 11:399. 1871; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India

6:346. 1892; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:769.

1907. Uropetalum concanense Dalz. in Journ.

Bot. 2:143. 1850 (Type: Bombay, Dalzell.

sn. K!); Dalzell & Gibson, Bomb. FI. 250.

1861. (Fig. 10).

Herbs scapigerous, bulbous. Leaves 3-4 on

the bulb, 5-22 cm x = 2 mm, linear, acute,

broader at the base, Scape 18-28 cm long,

narrow, erect, terete, glabrous. Inflorescence

loose raceme, 2-6 flowered. Flowers long, 25-

36 mm, salvar-shaped; tube narrow, 8-12 mm

long and 2-4 mm across; pedicel 5-10 mm

long, filiform; bracts 3-5 mm long, deltoid,

scarious, acuminate, as long as the pedicel or

shorter. Perianth segments 6 nerved, shining

white in colour, outer lobes = 15 X 3 mm,

lanceolate, acute, fimbriate, spreading, inner

ones 3-4 x 3 mm. Stamens at the throat of the

tube; filament adherent to the tube, free por-

tion 2 mm long, filiform; anthers narrowly

oblong, 3 x .75 mm dorsifixed, introrse. Ovary

stipitate, = 2.5 x 1.5 mm, obovoid oblong;

stipe = 1.5 mm; style = 23 mm long, nar-

row, papillose; stigma, trifid. Capsule stipitate;

lobes rounded. Seeds 6 in each locules, com-

pressed, shining black, rotund.

Distribution: Malabar-Konkan coast.

Herbarium specimens examined:

Malabar-Concan, J. C. Stocks s.n. (K, E,

CAL); Law s.n. (K, E, CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Directors, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew and Edinburgh; Keep-

er, British Museum (Natural History), Lon-

don; Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay and Dr. K. Kedarnath, Officer-in-

Charge, Systematic Botany Branch, Forest Re-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

search Institute, Dehra Dun for kindly send-

ing the specimens of their respective herbaria

on loan for study. Grateful thanks are also due

to the Director, Botanical Survey of India for

the facilities to conduct this study and Heads

of Regional Circles and Central National Her-

baria, Botanical Survey of India for loan of

specimens of their respective herbaria.

REFERENCES

BAKER, J. G. (1871): Revision of the genera and

species of herbaceous Capsular gamophyllous Lilia-

ceae. J. Linn. Soc. 11:395-400.

BAaMBER, C. J. (1916): Plants of the Punjab,

pp. 441, Lahore.

BARNES, E. & FISCHER, C. E. C. (1941): New

or little known plants from Southern India. Kew

Bull. p. 301.

BENTHAM, G. (1883): Zn Genera Plantarum by

G. Bentham and J. D. Hooker 3; 809. London.

BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. (1920): The Flora

of the Indian desert (Jodhpur & Jaisalmer). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26:972.

BLATTER, E. & McCann, C. (1928): Some new

species of plants from western ghats. ibid. 32:735-

736.

BoISSIER, E. (1884): Flora orientalis sive enu-

meratio plantarum in Oriente a Graecia et Aegypto

ad Indiae fines hucuqcue observatarum. 5:286-287.

Geneve, Basel.

CHENNAVEERAIAH, M. S. & MAHABALE, T. S.

(1962): Morphological and embryological studies in

Dipcadi—Plant Embryology. A symposium. C.S.LR.

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CoLLeTT, H. (1902):

cutta & Simla.

Cooke, T. (1907): Flora of the Presidency of

Bombay 2:769, London.

Flora Simlensis, 526, Cal-

DaLzELL, N. A. (1850): Contributions to the

Botany of W. India. J. Botany 2:142-143.

DaLzELL, N. A. & GrBSoN, A. (1861): Flora of

Bombay. 250, Bombay.

Des, D. B. & DascupTa, S. (1975): New taxa of

the genus Dipcadi Medik. (Liliaceae). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) :822-824.

EDGEWworTH, M. P. (1846): Descriptions of some

unpublished species of plants from N.W. India.

Trans. Linn. Soc. 20:88.

ENDLICHER, S. (1836): Genera plantarum Ordi-

nes Naturales, 139-147 Vindobonae.

ENGLER, A. & PRANTL, K. (1930): Die Natura-

lichen Pflanzenfamillien, Band 15A, Lipzig.

Hooker, J. D. (1892):

6:345. London.

HUTCHINSON, J. (1960):

plants, London.

KER-GAWLER, J. B. (1816): Uropetalon glaucum

grey leaved Uropetalon, Bot. Reg. 2: t. 156.

KUNTH, C. S. (1843): Enumeratio Plantarum.

Stutgard & Tubingen.

LINDLEY, J. (1836): Natural System of Botany,

2nd ed. pp. 351-393 London.

LINNAEUS, C. (1753): Species plantarum, 1:317.

Stockholm.

Flora of British India,

Families of flowering

(1754):

p. 149, Stockholm.

MAHARALF, T. S. & CHENNAVEERAIAH, M. B.

(1954): Karyotypes in Dipcadi Medik. Curr. Sci.

11: 367.

Genera plantarum 5th ed.,

(1961): Cytoembryology of Dip-

cadi montanum Baker. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India

PHB 2d loa=) 7: |

MepIKuS, F. K. (1790): Uber den gynandrischen

situs der staubfaden und Pistille einiger pflanzen.

Act. Acad. Theod. Palat. 6:431. |

Mooney, H. (1950): Supplement to the Bota

of Bihar & Orissa. 201, Ranchi.

REICHENBACH, TH. L. (1928):

Vegetabilis, Lipsiae.

SALISBURY, R. A. (1866): Genera of plants. Tom

van Voorst Paternoster Row, London.

SCHLECHTENDAL, D. F. L. von (1826):

1:250.

Sims, J. (1805): Scilla serotina Brown- flowered

squill, Curtis Bot. Mag. 21: t. 859.

Stocks, J. E. (1857): Notes on Beloochistanl

plants. J. Botany. 4:172-181, London. |

Wess, P. B. & BERTHELOT, S. (1848): Histoire

Conspectus Reem

Linnaea, |

Naturelle Iles Canaries tome Troisieme deuxtmeme

partie, Phylographia Cannariensis. Sect. III: 341.

Paris. 7

Wiis, J. C. (1973): Dictionary of fowerinel

revised by H. K. Airy a |

plants and Ferns,

Cambridge.

THE ELEPHANT IN U. P. (INDIA)—A RESURVEY OF ITS

STATUS AFTER 10 YEARS?

V. B. SINGH?

(With two maps and a plate)

The first systematic census of elephants in

Uttar Pradesh was carried out during the

years 1966 and 1967. The data so collected

was Satistically analysed and the results were

published as a paper in Vol. 66 of this Journal.

A decade has elapsed since the last census

and there have been drastic changes both in

the extent and quality of the elephant habitat.

It was accordingly considered necessary to

carry out a fresh census so that the problem

could be viewed in the light of their popula-

tion trend in relation to the new factors which

have adversely affected the normal living con-

ditions of these animals.

CENSUS

The same method which was followed for

the census during 1966 and 1967 was adopted.

The details of this method are:

(i) The census was carried out simulta-

neously over the entire range comprising the

forest divisions of West & East Dehradun,

Siwalik, Lansdowne, Bijnor, Kalagarh, Corbett

National Park, Ramnagar, Tarai Bhabhar and

Haldwani under the supervision of the Wild

Life Wardens in their respective regions and

under the over all direction of the Chief Wild

Life Warden, U.P.

1 Accepted July 1977.

2 Chief Wildlife Warden, U.P.

(ii) Each region was divided into conveni-

ent units and a party of wild life and forest

guards was assigned to each unit under the

supervision of an officer of the rank of an

Assistant Wild Life Warden or Forester.

(iii) Three copies of a map of each unit

were prepared on a suitable scale for marking

the location of herds on the map during each

count and for studying the movement of herds

on subsequent counts. For the sake of accu-

racy three counts were made and between two

counts sufficient gap was provided to allow

reasonable movements of the herds.

(iv) A particular unit allotted to one party

for the first count was given to another party

for the second count and to a third party for

the third count. In order to ensure indepen-

dent assessment, the enumeration figures of

one party were not given or divulged to ano-

ther party.

(v) The whole operation was planned well

in advance and before the actual days of count

every effort was made to trace and locate the

elephants in each unit with the help of avail-

able territorial staff and local labour and other

persons.

(vi) On actual days of count, the party on

locating the elephants, wrote down the number

of herd and total number of elephants in that

herd on the map at the place of its location

as accurately as possible. Thus 3/8 meant that

the third herd encountered by the party had

eight elephants in it.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Results—Over a period of nearly one year

between March 1975 and May 1976, six counts

were carried out on the following dates:

(1975 Census)

First count 7-11-75

Second count 7-iv-75

Third count 7-v-75

(1976 Census)

First count 23-iii-76

Second count 23-iv-76

Third count 23-v-76

The abstracts of the results are given be-

low region (Wildlife) wise for all the 6 counts

under Tables 1 & 2. Detailed results for each

Forest Division is given only in respect of the

third count of 1976 census on Table 3 for

reasons of space.

TABLE 1

CENSUS OF ELEPHANTS IN 1975

Kotdw- CNP. Eoyeeteene ‘Total

Count- | Dehra:

ing dun ara region

date region region

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ist Count

7-11-75

Male 8 48 9 14 719

Female 9 85 3 16 113

Calves 3 35 cae Tf 47

Lone

tuskers — — — 6 6

Tol 20° es a as

ie, ele KARE ST Ue OES SU ee ee

7-iv-75

Male 9 61 9 22 101

Female 11 116 11 18 156

Calves 5 51 5 6 67

Totals = 25 | SHORT Beit: SOE aon

3rd Count

7-v-75

Male 12 71 10 22, 115

Female 14 111 19 24 168

Calves 10 103

Total: 36 aes

TABLE 2

Count. Dehra- Tanee CNP. Wester. “Total

ing dun ara region

Date region region

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ist Count

23-11-76

Male 33 7) 11 9 110

Female 76 99 72) | 19 22M

Calves 23 36 14 13 86

Lone

tuskers — — — 8 8

Total: 132 192,452) Oo) a

2nd Coit ae hi ee ae 3

23-iv-76

Male 18 58 Dy 18 116

Female 30 126 43 16 215

Calves 14 33 25 5) WD

Lone

tuskers — — — 11 11

Total 62 217 90 50 419

seg Lae SaaS ones ae ane at

23-v-76

Male 10 82 34 23 149

Female 18 113 59 29 219

Calves 5 51 35 20 111

Lone

tuskers — — = 11 11

Tol: 33 ate se ea eee

ELEPHANT IN U. P.

TABLE 3

DIVISION-WISE CENSUS FIGURES OBTAINED IN THE THIRD COUNT DONE ON 23-v-1976

= SE A

Wild life Name of Forest Division | Male Female = —~— Calves ~=—Ss«sLone.~———séCT otal

region tuskers

(i) Dehradun

region Siwalik 1 1 — — 2

West Dehradun 4 13 3 — 20

East Dehradun 5) 4 2 — 11

Gi) Kotdwara

region Lansdowne 64 90 38 — 192

Kalagarh 18 28} 13 — 54

Bijnor — ae = =e =

cit) C.N.P- @ANEP: 34 59 35 — 128

(iv) Western Ramnagar y 1 2 4 9

Tarai Bhabar — — = — -—

Haldwani 21 28 18 q/ 74

The census carried out during 1976 is the sequent to the filling of Ramganga reservoir.

latest and has been done after the comparative The resuiis of the 1976 census are summarised

stabilisation of the elephant population sub- in Table 4.

TABLE 4

23 11.76 23.iv.76 23-v-76

Male 110 116 149 375 125 28

Female 221 215 29 655 218 49

Calves 86 a 111 274 91 20

Tuskers (Lone) 8 11 11 30 10 3

ee ee i (a ade tt

Calculated X? = 7.93, whereas tabulated 28% males, 49% females, 20% calves and

_X? at 95% confidence and 4 df. is 9.49. This 3% lone tuskers.

_ proves the hypothesis that all the three counts In order to estimate 95% confidence inter-

, represent the same population. We may, there- val for numbers in each category the follow-

fore infer that elephant population consists of ing calculations were done:

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

MAP

SHOW ant io aie HANT

Z| | Boundary “internat ona =“

” Sr ate ee

Wy Covest Division t-----

Wi]

Ions |

ies Namvtet /f Fove sr DWIS Le. UY),

“Oy 1ityar Towns

‘ nee 310g aya

\ ie | We | Qivey or nacdt

hea * y 7 e

ee Es Ri thor 'BG8

ae 1a?

‘ ~~ Kelaniya

> \ era , Ly t ( Malar > AL,Gheat

No , yy ©

Vi \ nabs Per ws Eu A

J Lo Coma Ne ls EN

Sha h

Xe) Sane

Deveridl

@ DD

= : =

} pale aN \ 2. “Say.

Ne ! ~ Allahabat- | —

| \ Pre x eRe a : Res ,

2a F NV clin Saat! ol Vat

y a a miya2 poy (

Me :

Ym. Son i

Sc ale 4” = QO wile ) polni |

Sled,

(see Index’ on) p. 75)

ELEPHANT IN U. P.

NERO a

Name of forest division

EERE

Wildlife region Total nos. of Elephant

Divn. population

I. Dehradun 1 Siwalik forest division D

region 2 West Dehradun forest divn. 20

3 East Dehradun forest divn. 11

Il. Kotdwara 4 Lansdown forest division 192

region 5 Kalagarh forest division 54

6 Bijnor forest division —-

ih We. N.” P: 7 Corbett National Park 128

IV. Western 8 Ramnagar forest division 9

region 9 Tarai Bhabar forest divn. —

10 Haldwani forest division 74

490 Total

Dudwa National Park 25

N. Kheri Dn. 11

Category pi

Male 28 125 aD

Females 49 218 Eyl

Calves .20 91 .80

03 10 97

Tuskers

(Lone) H

On the basis of the evidence furnished by

the data as given above the population of ele-

phants in U.P. has risen to just over 500.

Discussion

A comparison of the census results carried

out in 1967 and 1976 shows that there has

been an increase of nearly 130 heads during

this period. (The maximum number of ele-

phants as per 1967 census was 380 while that

for the 1976 is 507). The maximum number

of females during 1967 census was 180 which

should produce at least 30 calves per year.

Assuming that the survival percentage is not

more than 60%, nearly 18 calves should have

been added annually and over a period of 9

years the total increase in the population should

have been by about 162. The increase in the

population as indicated by the 1976 census

10 3.0 6

SESE TERTIO

V npiqi _ V npigi _ 95% confidence

interval

90 5) 19 106 to 144

111 10.5 21 197 to 239

US) 8.5 7, 74 to 108

4to 16

is not too far off and considering the various

adverse factors which have acted against their

normal living and breeding conditions can be

taken to be quite reasonable. The sex ratio

remained stationary. The percentage of young

ones stayed at 20% of the total population.

Lansdowne Forest Division and Corbett Na-

tional Park hold more than 2/3 of the total

population in the State and the survival of

elephants in U.P. depends on the preservation

and development of their habitats in these

two arcas.

IMPORTANT CHANGES IN THE ELEPHANT

HABITAT

During the course of the last 10 years, very

drastic changes have taken place in the ele-

phant habitat in this State which have brought

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

about distinct changes in the population in

the affected regions. It will be worth while

discussing in detail the following important

factors:

(i) Reduction in the total area of the ele-

phant habitat.

(ii) Construction of Chilla-Rishikesh power

channel in Lansdowne Forest Division.

(iii) Filling up of the Ramganga reservoir in

and near the Corbett National Park.

(iv) Clearance of forest in Nepal bordering

Dudwa National Park in U.P.

(i) Reduction in the total area of the elephant

habitat:

The census carried out during 1966-67

clearly indicated their range in U.P. and was

estimated to cover nearly 2,55,000 acres of

forest land spread over Dehradun East, Dehra-

dun West, Siwalik, Lansdowne, Kalagarh and

Haldwani Divisions and Corbett National

Park. Since then not only their range in each

of the above Divisions has increased as ele-

phants have moved further into the interior

and into areas never occupied before, but they

have started spending considerably more time

in some other Divisions like Bijnor, Ramna-

gar and Tarai and Bhabhar Divisions which

are contiguous to their old habitat. The total

forest area included in all these Divisions

comes to 17,45,000 acres. While nearly,

2,950,000 acres out of this could still be con-

sidered most suitable for them, they had to

extend their range out of pure necessity to

about 1/3 of this area. During the last 10

years a total of nearly 1,65,000 acres have

been brought under mechanised plantations

after clearing the natural vegetation, which

provided food and fodder to the elephants.

The areas brought under plantations provided

optimum cover, food and water to the ele-

phants and it is difficult for them to keep to

their normal habits about movement, local

migrations etc., after the loss of these areas.

Not only grass lands have disappeared but

their main fodder which consisted of rohoni

(Mallotus philippensis) growing in sal forests

has been removed under intensive sal regen-

ration operations. The total effect of these

factors has thus been:

(i) reduction in the habitat.

(ii) reduction in food potential in the exis-

ting habitat.

(iii) movement into areas so far not used

as their range. These areas are natur-

ally not as rich in food potential and

can provide them subsistence only for

a short period. |

(ii) Construction of Chilla-Rishikesh Power

Channel:

As the census figures show, Kotdwar wild

life region comprising Lansdowne, Bijnor and

Kalagarh Forest Divisions have the maximum

number of elephants which varies between

168 (March 75 count) to 246 (May 77 count).

Lansdowne Division has always contained the

highest number of elephants not only in that

region but in the entire State. In this division

also, there are only two ranges which hold the

concentration of elephant population. These

two ranges Gohri and Laldhang are endowed

with all the requirements which go to make

an area suitable for elephants. The area has

a varicty of topography consisting of hilly,

undulating terrain and open grassland bound-

ed on the Western and Eastern borders by

two big and perennial! sources of water name-

ly the rivers Ganges and Rawasan. There are

large number of streams and nalas scattered

over the entire tract which provide water till

the beginning of summer months. There is

abundant fodder in the tract which not only

has its major portion under miscellaneous

forests, but the hill portion carries the richest

bamboo forest in the State. The open grass-

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75

Singh: Elephants

Above: Young tusker. Below:

Taking the elephant calf to camp after

its capture.

ELEPHANT IN U. P.

land between the Ganges and the forests in

Gohri range, consisting of Chilla and Kunao

Chaurs extended over an area of nearly 15 sq.

km and provided not only access to the Gan-

ges but grazing during the summer when

CHILA

Kefe rences

erases ee

‘owe rehamnel

To Jwa la pov

s SANC TUARY

Scale- {‘s =Amile

\ Fove at oclaéy bow naary_

execs 0 eee 9 0 ee 9

®, \Bioc aaa vara =

ame et of 45°

. Fs

bamboo and other forests could not provide

enough food. All these favourable conditions,

therefore, made it only logical that out of

192 elephants in the Division (May 76 count),

as many as 177 were living in these two ranges.

AW. ee ELEPH

RISH! Kets

7/1

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

A Power channel, known as_ Rishikesh-

Chilla Power channel is being dug along the

fringe of the forest on the left bank of the

river Ganges. This channel which is 10 metres

deep takes off from the Ganges at Kunao and

then runs almost parallel to the river for

about 14 km before it rejoins the river near

Chilla. The famous Kunao and Chilla chaurs

(grasslands) which provided grazing during

the lean months of summer now lie between

the channel and the river Ganges and are not

available to the elephants. During the period

of channel construction the entire chaur area

has been occupied by labour colonies and staff

and a chain of stores for machines and

material.

This channel has created the following pro-

blerns to the elephants as also to other wild

life:

(i) As the river Ganges has become inaces-

sible, the elephants of Gohri range have to

face acute shortage of water. The only places

from where the elephants can reach the river

are the two ends of the channel near Kunao

and Chilla. There will be artificial concentra-

tion of elephants at these two ends, resulting

in severe damage of the forests.

(ii) Nearly 15 sq km of area, which inclu-

des at least 800 hec of grassland has also be-

come inaccessibie and lost to them because of

the colonies etc. There has thus been consi-

derable shrinkage of their habitat.

(iii) Seasonal migration of elephants of this

area to the foresis of Doon valley (E & W

Dehradun Division and Siwalik Forest Divi-

sion) has further been reduced and more or

less stopped. This has further reduced their

range.

(iv) Stoppage of intermixing of the herds

from this area with those of Doon Valley

herds is likely to have genetic ill-effects of

inbreeding in the long run.

(v) Pressure of grazing has immensely in-

creased in Gokri and Laldhang ranges. Dam-

ages to the forest crop by elephants has very

considerably increased. An idea of the magni-

tude of damage can be had by the price ob-

tained from the sale of trees uprooted and

broken by elephants. During 1977, the sale

fetched as much as Rs. 10,00,000/-. Some

species of trees which were so far compara-

tively safe from elephant damage particularly

Sal are being badly debarked upto the top

and are drying en masse. Damage to bamboo

clumps is also more noticeable as elephants

have started climbing the hills even during

the summer for fodder and water.

(vi) Elephants appear to have become more

aggressive in behaviour. Although there is no

established ‘rogue’ at present cases of elephants

chasing labourers, graziers and passers-by are

more frequent. Some elephants have started

raiding agricultural crops of villages adjoin-

ing Kotdwara range particularly during the

winter. In the last 2 or 3 years there have

been persistent complaints from the villages

on this score.

(vit) To meet their demand of water, ele-

phant herds of Laldhang range have to visit

some areas of Bijnor Forest Division lying bet-

ween Kotawali and Ghariawali during the

summer. They visit these areas during the

night and go back to Laldhang range by

morning. During their night stay, they do con-

siderable damage to the plantations of Bijnor

Forest Division.

Efforts are however being made to mitigate

the suffering caused to elephants and other

wild life in the area. Four tanks have been

constructed on the left side of the power chan-

nel towards the forests in which water will be

fed from the channel when it is commissioned.

At one place the channel, when it crosses a

stream has been taken over a bridge which

ELEPHANT IN U. P.

provides sufficient space and height for ele-

phant herds to pass underneath. This can pro-

vide access to the Ganges provided the grass-

land between the channel and the Ganges re-

mains unoccupied. But the threat to this area

is very much there and will be discussed sepa-

rately later on in this note.

(iii) Filling up of the Ramganga reservoir:

Corbett National Park together with the ad-

joining forests of Adnala, Palain and Son-

anadi (Hathi kund) ranges of Kalagarh Forest

Division served as complete range for elephants

in that area and provided food for the entire

year. There used to be local migrations from

bamboo forests to grasslands during the sum-

mer months beginning from March. The entire

pattern of migration, herd size and population

underwent a drastic change on account of the

filling up of the Ramganga reservoir during the

1974 rains. The reservoir extends over an area

of nearly 90 sq km and cuts off the Corbett

National Park from the rest of the elephant

tange by vast stretches of water.

To assess the effect of the reservoir on the

elephant population in the Park, it will be

worth while looking at the census figures for

the Park for periods before and after the fil-

ling of the reservoir.

Date of census No. of elephants in C.N.P.

15-iv-67 41

30-v-67 38

15-vi-67 2

7-11-75 14

T-iv-75 P5)

T-v-75 46

23-i1i-76 52

23-v-76 128

_ The above figures show that there was a

considerable decrease in the elephant popu-

lation in the Park in the beginning of 1975 and

| a marked increase subsequently. At present

| (May 1977), the elephant population in the

Park stands at 128.

The forest blocks of Adnala, Palain and

Hathikund are rich in bamboo. In the past

most of the elephants migrated to these forest

blocks during the rains and winter. Towards

the beginning cf March when bamboo leaves

start drying the elephants started returning to

the Park and stayed mostly in the Patil Doon

valley near Boxar, Dhikala and Khinananli

where there are extensive grasslands. Adjoin-

ing thick sal forests mixed with miscellaneous

crop provided them shelter in the day. These

combined with abundant water supply in the

Ramganga_ river provided excellent habitat

during the summer.

The pattern of movement in and out of the

Park remained almost the same every year

till 1974, when the reservoir was formed sub-

merging the Ramganga valley upto Dhikala

and Sonanadi valley upto Hathikund. The

normal migratory routes namely (1) Sonanadi-

Dudhia-Boxar, (ii) |Halduparao-Tumeria-

Dhikala; and (iii) Baillanallah-Gaujera-Phu-

lai were blocked. Most of the elephants had

moved out of the Park before their routes

were cut off on account of submergence and

they could not find their way back to the Park

for sometime. The areas in Adnala, Palain

and Hathikund blocks were not adequate to

support a large elephant population for a

longer period during the year. The elephants

had therefore, to struggle to explore new

routes of migration in which they were ulti-

mately successful by April 1975. This route

is a long track passing through Bailanal com-

partments 1, 3, 7, 8, 14, 15 and 20, Gaujera

compartments 7, 8, & 10 and then to the Park

through Kanda compartments 4, 3 & 2.

Since the year 1975 the pattern of migra-

tion has accordingly, changed considerably.

In the rainy season also when hardly a few

lone tuskers remained in the Park before 1975,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

large herds have been noticed there from

Dhikala to Dhangarhi & Paterpani. They go

right up to Bijrani in the south-eastern corner

of the Park where they were never observed

before. During the summer months the ele-

phants coliect near Dhikala and Khinanuli.

Heavy damage to rohini trees has been no-

ticed in the forests near Dhikala and Khin-

anuli. Most of the shisham trees have their

barks ripped off in the islands along the Ram-

ganga banks. They have started debarking Sal

also, though not on a scale being done in

Gohri range in Lansdowne Division. The da-

mage being done by these herds of elephants,

who now stay in the Park in larger numbers

over the entire year is very heavy. The forests

are bound to suffer and some of the tiger ha-

bitats are bound to be ruined.

(iv) Clearance of forests in Nepal bordering

Dudwa National Park:

It was only rarely that one or two lone ele-

phants visited the forests of North Forest Di-

vision which borders with Nepal. The forests

of Nepal existed right up to the border over

long stretches. During the past few years, the

Nepal Government has adopted the policy of

clearing these border forests to settle people

from the interior of the country. In the pro-

cess vast chunks of forests have disappeared

not only along the border but also from areas

far inside the country. The elephants which

used to live in these forests were turned into

refugees and were left to find shelter for them-

selves. A herd of 23 elephants, -consisting of

9 males and 11 females and 3 calves strayed

into the forests of North Kheri Forest division

on 23rd December 1975. An area of 495 sq

km of this Division was declared by the State

Government, to be converted into a National

Park at the time these elephants moved into

our territory. Accordingly no action was taken

to drive the herd out of the area, even though

they damaged the various installations of the

Forest Department, trampled and fed on agri-

cultural crops in the chain of farms along the

southern and Southeastern border of the forest

and created terror for the Railway workers

who pestered the forest department to take

action against the elephants for the proper

running of trains in the area.

The notification about the creation of

Dudwa National Park was issued on 21-1-

1977. The herd has now become permanent

resident of the Park and has not left it since

it came into the area. The latest reports indi-

cate that since their arrival two calves have

been born and the strength has gone up to 25.

Dudwa National Park has never been an

elephant range. The rich Sal forests of the

Park do not provide adequate food to the

elephants. Except for rohini there is not much

to feed on as the grasslands in the area have

now been converted into plantations. The

crop of rohini has also diminished on account

of their persistent removal in the interest of

Sal regeneration. The paucity of food has

forced the elephants to divide into small groups —

of 3 to 10 heads. Never have all the 23 ele-

phants been observed together as one herd.

The groups have to move long distances in

search of food. They have been observed to —

travel 20 to 30 km, every night. Damage to |

farms and other interests has increased. The

shortage of food will intensify damage to the |

forests as the herd has now come to stay in |

the Park permanently. We will have now to

build up the food potential in the Park for

this herd also. Stoppage of all forest exploit-

ation in the Park which includes giving up the |

silvicultural practice of keeping down rohini —

for Sal regeneration and exclusion of other cul- |

operations will certainly help in the

augumentation of food supply. Recourse will —

and to grow |

ture

be taken to create grasslands

ELEPHANT IN U. P.

fodder trees including bamboo to provide food

throughout the year.

It is necessary to persuade the Government

of Nepal to give up the policy of clearing such

forests which form part of elephant range. A

proper survey of elephant population and

their important habitat has to be carried out

in Nepal so that such areas as provide for

elephant popuiation are not disturbed and

destroyed.

SANCTUARIES IN THE ELEPHANT RANGE

As indicated earlier, the total area of the

elephant range is 17,45,000 acres, i.e. 6,980

Sq km. This exciudes the Dudwa National

Park, which has never been its normal habitat.

The following sanctuaries and National Parks

exist in this range:

(i) Rajaji Sanctuary

(Siwalik Division) 249.00 Sq km

Gi) Motichur Sanctuary

(East Dehradun Division) 90.00 Sq km

(iii) Chiila Sanctuary

(Lansdowne Division) 249.00 Sq km

(iv) Corbett National Park 525.00 Sq km

Total: 1,113.00 Sq km

The area under parks and sanctuaries thus

forms about 16% of the total range area. An-

other sanctuary covering an area of 160 sq km

to be known as Kaladhungi sanctuary is propos-

ed to be created in Haldwani Forest Division

and it is hoped that the required notification will

be issued within two months. The total per-

centage of the range area under sanctuaries

will thus rise to 18%. If we include Dudwa

- National Park also in the elephant range, the

total range area will become 7580 sq km and

the area under sanctuaries and Parks will be

| as much as 23% of the range area. While

forest exploitation is totally stopped over 300

sq km of Corbett National Park and the en-

tire 494 sq km of Dudwa National Park, nor-

mal forestry operations continue over the rest

of the areas under sanctuaries.

The three main areas of elephant concen-

tration namely Gohri & Laldhang ranges of

Lansdowne Division, Corbett National Park

and part of Haldwani Division will be covered

by Chilla sanctuary, Corbett National Park

and the proposed Kaladhungi sanctuary re-

spectively, Forest management in Chilla &

Kaladhungi sanctuaries has to be oriented to

create suitable conditions for elephants.

Elephant trapping:

Wild elephants in U.P. have been under

complete protection for almost a century un-

der the Elephant Protection Act of 1879.

During the last 10 years there has been an in-

crease of nearly 130 in the elephant popula-

tion but what is more important is the shrink-

age in their habitat. The reduction in the suit-

able habitat combined with a variety of ad-

verse factors enumerated above has brought

the elephants in conflict with human interests.

The pressure from various quarters to reduce

their number could produce conditions similar

to that created in 1964, when the Government

of U.P. issued orders to shoot them over their

entire range. As a result of this order a general

massacre of elephants followed in which 28

elephants were shot and many more escaped

wounded to die later on. With a view to avoid

a repetition of 1964 massacre, it was decided

to catch elephants upto the maximum of their

annual recruitment.

The number of females in the elephant po-

pulation is around 200. The interval at which

a female elephant calves is nearly 5 years and

it can safely be assumed that nearly 40 calves

are born every year. Even if the survival

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

percentage is taken at 60% nearly 25 calves are

added every year to the population. We can

safely remove 20 to 25 elephants every year

and stabilise the population in the State.

We accordingly decided to catch elephants

upto a maximum of 25 in number by the me-

thod of ‘Mela Shikar’ which is practiced in

Assam and is the most humane of all elephant

catching methods known. We engaged expert

‘phandis’ from Assam and _ started depart-

mental catching operations from January 1977

in Lansdowne Division. Till the end of June

1977 we caught 18 elephant calves about 5 to

6 years of age, which include 6 males and 12

females. Training operations were carried on

simultaneously. The trapping operations have

been suspended during the rains and will be

resumed from next winter.

It is proposed to dispose of the captured

elephants in the following three ways:

(i) Export of elephant calves in exchange

for rare and valuable animals for our

Lucknow and Kanpur Zoos.

(ii) Utilisation for departmental use.

(iii) By sale in the open market.

A_ serious threat:

There is a proposal to establish a paper mill

near Chilla in the grass chaur between the

Ganges and the power channel. This mill

when established will be disastrous to the

elephants and other wild life of Chilla sanctu-

ary. During the construction period of the

power channel there was great deal of human

activity which resulted in damage to the forests.

While adverse factors created by the power

channel as enumerated earlier will persist for

all time to come, it was hoped that after the

construction work is over, the area will settle

down and peace and quiet would return

again to recoup the habitat. But if the pro-

posed plan for the establishment of a Paper

Mill materialises, there is no future for

this newly created sanctuary and for the

elephant population. The proposed location of

the Paper Mill on the left bank of Ganges

could easily be changed to the right bank. But

this is not being done on the grounds that the

Paper Mill should be located in a backward

district Garhwal which is on the left bank of the

river Ganges and net in Dehradun District

which is on the right bank of the river. This

trivial reason is going to ruin the sanctuary,

pollute the environment and create conditions

under which wild animals including elephants

will either disappear or move far into the in-

terior to create new problems for the villages

and others. It is for the conservationists to

voice their protests and move the Government

to either abandon this project or to shift it to

a different location.

CONCLUSION

In Uttar Pradesh the survival of elephants

is neither threatened by poachers for their

tusks, nor by trapping or their direct annihi-

lation. Their survival however depends upon

the manner in which their habitat is preserved

and protected. Further mutilation of the eco-

logical stability in their home range is bound

to create conditions where the elephant po-

pulation will either lay waste the vegetation

by their concentration in a limited area or

they will disintegrate by dividing themselves

into smail groups scattered over large areas.

The factors which are working against the

survival of elephants have been enumerated

above. It is imperative that immediate atten-

tion is paid to eliminate these adverse factors

and optimum conditions are created for their

survival. Chilla sanctuary in Lansdowne

Forest Division should be free from imbal-

ances being created in the ecosystem by the

construction of the power channel and the

Paper Mill.

EFFECT OF MOON PHASE AND LUNAR CYCLE ON THE

LIGHT TRAP CATCH OF TOBACCO CATERPILLAR

SPODOPTERA LITURA (FABR.) (LEPIDOPTERA:

NOCTUIDAE)’

S. M. VAISHAMPAYAN? AND S. K. SHRIVASTAVA®

(With two text-figures)

Effect of moon phase and lunar cycle onthe light trap catch of Tobacco Caterpillar

Spodoptera litura (Fabr.) was

was 250 Watt. Mercury Vapor lamp.

studied in detail during 1974-75 at Jabalpur. Light source

The fluctuations in the light trap catch observed over a period of 12 lunar cycles in

a year showed a rthythmic pattern following a lunar rhythm. At same degree of moon

phase the light trap catch was found to be higher in ascending phase (no moon to full

moon).

Several workers in the past have reported re-

lationship between the light trap collection and

moon-phase or brightness of the moon (Dina

Nath 1923; Williams 1936 and 1940; Nemec

1971; Agee et al. 1972 and Bowden & Church

1973). Most of the workers attempted to com-

pare response of insects on full moon and no

moon days oniy. They observed greatest res-

ponse of insects during no moon period and

lowest during full moon period. Bowden &

Church (1973) examined the light trap catches

of some insect species in relation to the regular

changes in night illumination of the lunar cycle.

Apparent observations with the light trap

catch of Spodoptera litura indicated existence

of such a relationship. Attempts were made

to study in detail the relationship between the

response of moths towards light trap and day

to day change in the moon phase and degree

of illumination in a lunar cycle. The data of

one year from June 1974 to May 1975, co-

1 Accepted February 1977.

2 Present address: Senior Research Officer, Re-

gional Forest Research Centre, P.O. Khamaria,

vering 12 lunar cycles were carefully analysed

and results are discussed in this paper.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One light trap unit was installed in an open

field with light source c 3 metres above the

ground level. Light trap unit was composed

of 2 components—(A) trapping device made

of 24 gauge G.I. sheet consisting of a funnel

(60 cm top diameter) three baffles (45 x 23

cm in size) mounted vertically on a rim of

the funnel placed equidistant and projecting

towards the centre of the funnel and a rain

shade over the baffles. (B) Insect collection .

cage 2 x 1 x 1 metre in size covered by a wire

mesh screen. Light source was 250 Watt. Mer-

cury Vapour lamp. :

The position of moon phase for each calen-

dar day of observation was determined from

Indian Almanac published from Bombay. For

practical purpose and data analysis the period

Neemkhera, Jabalpur 482 020.

3 Department of Entomology, Jawaharlal Nehru

Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur 482 004.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

of one lunar cycle of 293 days was corrected days each. Little adjustments had to be made

to 30 days cycle. The two halves of the lunar for these corrections.

cycle, i.e. ascending cycle (from no moon to The intensity of moon light was measured

full moon) and descending cycle (from full in terms of degree of moon phase. Full moon

moon to no moon) were standardised to 15 is considered as 360° phase and no moon as

AVERAGE PER DAY CATCH

120

110 | eee ON

100 | at te Oca © Gly

yy OO

P~29 0)

Br 30

A tae

= 10 pe rel.

\ O = eli Se UE ree ages Tie

. pe? ee ee

nein aaa

=) C jieton®) 10 i Ql og sak |

=) Ep siknig @ibne ae IM he Ass snares ae

PERIOD“ OF LUNAR CYCLE

PIGET

Fig. 1. Effect of moonphase on the light trap catch of Spodoptera litura at Jabalpur 1974-75.

LUNAR CYCLE AND CATCH OF TOBACCO CATERPILLAR

0°. With the division of 360° by 15 (days),

each day represent a change of 24°, plus or

minus depending upon, ascending or descend-

ing lunar cycle respectively. Observations were

recorded every day. Insects were collected

every moming by hand picking and killing in

cyanide killing jar. On rare occasions collec-

tion was made after 2 days. In such cases,

collection was divided half for respective days.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

At first, the response of moths around the

two extremes of lunar phases, i.e. full moon

vs. no moon, was studied. Average per day

collection during = 3 days around each phase

was compared. Data of one complete year

corresponding to 12 lunar cycles are presented

im Mable 1.

TABLE 1

EFFECT OF MOON PHASE (FULL MOON vs. NO MOON)

ON THE LIGHT TRAP CATCH OF Spodoptera litura

MOTHS DURING 1974-75

Period of

Average per day catch of moths

Lunar

Cycle Lunar Full Moon No Moon

No. cycle + 3 days + 3 days

ti July 74 0 10

Di August 3.8 61

3, September 10.8 598)

4, October 9.8 76.5

». Oct-Nov. 1.8 114.8

6. Nov-Dec. 0.7 Pops 8)

i Dec-Jan. 75 0.28 2.0

8. Jan-Feb 0.57 Baie:

2 Feb-March 2.8 46.0

10. March-April 2.8 7

1. April-May lie 2.14

12. May-June 0 0.14

| Mean of 12 lunar cycles 2.92 31.89

Results clearly show that the light trap

Catch around ‘full moon’ was consistently very

_low as compared to ‘no moon’ period. Res-

| ponse curing ‘no moon’ period was always

very high (Fig. I). Nemec (1971) and Agee et

al. (1972) also observed such a response with

boll worms Heiiothis zea (Boddie). Brightness

of moon light has been observed to be major

factor influencing the response.

To investigate whether the response is re-

lated to the intensity of moon’s light, further

analysis was made. The results of correlation

and regression analysis clearly indicated the

existence of significant negative correlation

between the degree of moon phase or inten-

sity of moon light and the light trap catch

of moths (Table 2).

TABLE D,

EFFECT OF LUNAR CYCLE AND DEGREE OF MCOON

PHASE ON THE LIGHT TRAP CATCH OF Spodoptera

litura

Average per day catch (Mean of

Degree of 12 lunar cycle of a year)

S.N. noonphase Ascending Descending

(X) lunar cycle lunar cycle

(Yi) (Y 2)

i 0 29.83 29.83

Dy 24 35.40 25.45

33 48 34.25 43.41

4, [72 24.92 34.83

ye 96 45.45 17.20

6. 120 17.40 28.50

We 144 27.50 19.75

8. 168 31.60 1775

oO 192 45.45 18.33

10. 216 45.00 18.30

11. 240 19.45 14.00

12. 264 27.63 8.58

13. 288 5.08 4.08

14. 312 3.91 1.83

15: 336 2.63 1.08

16. 360 1.66 1.66

Mean. 24.82

‘t? value 2.483. Significant at 5% level.

Correlation } .,

Coeff. ( r’ value —0.672

Regression equation Y, = 43.19 + (—0.098x)

Y, = 36.83+ (—0.1x)

17.66

—0.883

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ome ee mee ee ah

yp:

“fe

Beta 150

ipa 30

One 40

ree

o o as

a 2

uo 10 ee

s ee

BS eee @) == ,

Zc ©

360336312 288264

DEGREE

NO MOON TO FULLMOON

aoe BULL MOGN., 10 NO IMGen

240216 192 168144120 96 72 48 24 0

OF MOONPHASE

FIG.II

Fig. 2. Effect of lunar cycle and moonphase on the light trap catch of Spodoptera litura at Jabalpur 1974-75

Regression analysis showed a linear relation-

ship between the two variables. Correlation

was more strong in descending lunar cycle

(‘r’ value — 0.8836) as compared to the ascend-

ing lunar cycle (‘r’ value—0.672). Nemec

(1971) also reported such a linear relation-

ship with Heliothis zea but he explained it in

general terms.

Further observations revealed a_ significant

difference in the response of moths at the same

degree of moon phase in ascending and des-

cending cycle (Table 2). Statistical analysis

of data (t value 2.483) and the response cur-

ves (Fig. Il) reveal that with the same degree

of moon’s illumination the light trap catch

of S. litura was always higher in ascending

lunar cycle.

Although, the fluctuations in light trap catch

in our present observations followed a lunar

rhythm, lower during full moon period and |

higher during no moon period, it may not de- |

pend on the intensity of moon light only. Agee |

et al. (1972) pointed out that such a lunar rhy- |)

thm, in case of Heliothis zea, may, depend on

the synchronisation of activity and life-cycle of) i

the pest species with the moon phase. He fur- |

ther stated whether moon light per se esta-|

blishes the pattern or whether some physical

phenomenon of host plants, temperature, ete. |

was responsible for this lunar rhythm is not

known and should be determined. I

LUNAR CYCLE AND CATCH OF TOBACCO CATERPILLAR

REFERENCES

AGEE, H. R., Wess, J. C. & Tarr, H. M. (1972):

Activity of Boll Worm Moths influenced by full

moon. Environ. Entomol. 1(3) :384-85.

BOWDEN, J. & CHuRcH, B. M. (1973): The in-

fluence of moon light on catches of insects in light

traps in Africa. Part II. The effect of moon phase

on light trap catches. Bull. Entomol. Res. 63(1):

129-142.

Dina Natu (1923): Preliminary observations on

the attractions to light of moths of sugarcane

borers. Rep. Proc. Vth Ent. Migs. Pusa: 65-67.

Nemec, S. J. (1971): Effect of lunar phases on

light trap collections and populations of boll worm

moths. J. Econ. Entomol. 64(4) :860-64.

WILLIAMS, C. B. (1936): The influence of moon

light on activity of certain nocturnal insects, parti-

cularly family Noctuidae as indicated by a light

trap. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B. Biol. 226:

256-289.

(1940): The analysis of four years

captures of insects in a light trap. Part 2. The effect

of weather conditions on insects activity and the

estimation and forecasting of changes in the in-

sect population. Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond.

90 : 227-306.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF “GREENISH-YELLOW WATER”

PHENOMENON CAUSED BY THE SWARMING OF TRICHO-

DESMIUM ERYTHRAEUM EHRENBURG, IN THE SEA OFF

MADRAS AND ITS EFFECT ON THE LOCAL MARINE

FAUNA*

A. DANIEL, A. K. NAGABHUSHANAM AND P. KrRISHNAMURTHY?

The phenomenon of coloration of seawater

in various shades, ranging from white through

red, brown, yellow or green caused by the

swarming of a variety of organisms such as

Coccolithophores, Blue-green algae, Cysto-

flagellates, Dinoflagellates and Protozoans is

well known (Hart 1934; Hardy 1956). This

phenomenon has been reported from all the

major oceans of the World, and is often asso-

ciated with mass mortality, probably caused

by its adverse effect on the marine fauna

(Galtsoff 1948; Brongersma-Sanders 1957;

Raymont 1963; and Panikkar 1967). In Indian

waters, the occurrence of this phenomenon

caused by the Cyanophyceaen Alga, Trichodes-

mium erythraeum Ehrenburg, has been reported

mainly on the west coast of India, Krusadai

Island-Pamban area in the Gulf of Mannar

and Minicoy Island (Carter 1858, 1863; Hor-

nell & Nayudu 1923; Chacko 1942; Chidam-

baram 1942; John & Menon 1942; Chidam-

baram & Unni 1944; Bhimachar & George

1950; Chidambaram & Kurian 1952: Chacko

& Mahadevan 1956; Prakash & Sarma 1964;

Prabhu et al. 1965; Nagabhushanam 1967; and

Sudhakar & Doss 1967).

On the east coast of India bordering the

1 Accepted October 1976.

2 Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Madras 28.

‘ Novo

Bay of Bengal, excepting for a reference on

the occurrence of a ‘bloom’ of Trichodesmium

for eleven days during March 1965, in Porto

waters by Ramamurthy & Seshadri

(1966), there appears to be no published re-

cords on the occurrence of any type of colora-

tion of seawater caused by the blooming of

any coloured plant, flagellate or protozoan.

Therefore, it was considered worthwhile to

report on the occurrence, spatial distribution

and the bioconstituents of a greenish-yellow

coloration caused by the swarming of the

Blue-green alga Trichodesmium erythraeum

over an extensive region in the nearshore

waters off Madras for an extended period of

30 days during March-April, 1976. The oppor-

tunity was also utilized to discuss the trigger-

ing off (initiation) of the blooming, subsequ-

ent development and correlating it with vari-

ous hydrographical parameters.

During the extensive research cruises of the

Research Vessel CHOTA INVESTIGATOR of this

Station from August 1974 to date, the swarm-

ing of the alga Trichodesmium erythraeum

was first observed as a feeble greenish-yellow

discoloration of the sea on the 20th March,

1976 off Madras. Observations on the hydro-

logical conditions and the bioconstituents of

the discoloured areas were made with the aid

of reversing water bottles, closing plankton

nets, trawls, dredges and an echosounder on

SWARMING OF TRICHODESMIUM ERYTHRAEUM

the R.V. CHOTA INVESTIGATOR during its daily

routine cruises for five days in the week. At

our request, samples were provided by the

mechanized fishing trawlers and ‘catamarans’

operating in this area, which supplemented the

data obtained from R.V. CHOTA INVESTIGA-

TOR.

Data on temperature, pH, salinity, oxygen

tension, total phosphorus, inorganic phosphate,

Phytoplankters: Bacillariophyceae

Dinoflagellata

Zooplankters: Coelenterata

Scyphomedusae

Hydromedusae

Ctenophora

Crustacea

nitrate, speed and direction of wind and sur-

face currents and rainfall and air temperature

were gathered and compared with the bio-

constituents obtained from nets and trawls.

A detailed analysis of the data obtained

during the entire period of the bloom reveal-

ed that the hydrological conditions, the spatial

distribution and the bioconstituents of the

greenish-yellow water, enabled the distinguish-

ing of four phases as the swarming intensified,

climaxed and then waned, i.e., /nitiative phase,

20th March to 27th March, 1976; Ascending

phase, 28th March to 4th April, 1976; Climac-

teric phase, 5th April to 11th April, 1976;

Waning phase, 12th April to 18th April, 1976.

The details of these phases are presented

below. |

I. Initiative phase: 20th March—27th March,

1976:— |

Weakly coloured patches of 10-12 metres

Cladocera.

diameter, on surface, to a depth of one metre

and extending from the sea-area off Ennur

(at least) in the north to entrance of Madras

Harbour in the south, and from shore to the

30 metre isobath. Closing net hauls constituted

mainly of Trichodesmium erythraeum (200-250

filaments per ml of seawater), along with in-

significant numbers of phyto- and zoo-plan-

kton, listed below:

Se Tr RA AR es VEST ar ear Na ANSP eB SESE

Chaetoceros sp., Rhizosolenia sp., Navicula

sp., Nitzschia sp.

Peridinium sp., in small numbers.

Cyanea sp., Rhizostoma sp., Acromitus fla-

gellatus (Haeckel)

Aequora sp. (?pensile)

Pleurobrachia globosa (Moser)

Mysids, shrimp larvae, prawn larvae, copepods,

ST aeSNE! g a NA SEE EES PRRATE TEN

Trawl hauls made below these patches yield-

ed very few benthic forms including fish;

showing thereby that despite the fact that the

high concentrations of Trichodesmium occur-

red only at the surface—one metre depth

zone—yet its effect appeared to be felt far

below the surface. :

Hydrographical data: ‘Temperature (sur-

face) 28.20°C; salinity 33.32°/o00; pH, 8.10;

dissolved oxygen, 3.9 ml/1; total phosphorus,

0.7/4 gm at p/1; inorganic phosphate, 0.4/s

gm at p/1l; nitrate (NO.N:mg/1), 0.0019.

Current (surface): southerly directed, 2 knots.

Meteorological data: No rainfall over the

area. Wind set chiefly from NE towards SW;

with light breeze from land to sea in morn-

ings, and sea to land in evenings each day.

Alm) temperatures Maxiin34°@, (Min: 22°C.

Sky, mostly clear. No fog.

Remarks: No fish or other marine life mor-

tality was observed by us, or reported from

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

this or surrounding areas, as a result of this

bloom. However, there was evidence that fish,

prawns, shellfish, and other marine organisms

seemed to avoid the bloom area, as the me-

chanized trawlers and catamarans reported

that their catches were falling low in this area.

II. Ascending phase: 28th March—4th April,

1976:—

The sea now distinctly greenish-yellow, with

grey, gritty matter floating on the surface; faint

musty cdour over the area. The patches now

extended from off Ennur to beyond the New

Lighthouse on the Marina, from the surface

to near the seabed (in depths less than 5

metres) and from the shore to the 60 metre

isobath; each patch measuring 30-50 metres

in diameter, with clear water between the

patches very narrow. Closing net hauls con-

taining higher concentrations of Trichodesm-

ium, and filament counts of bloom samples

giving a density of 300-350 filaments per ml

of seawater; vertically the bloom was in dis-

crete layers: one layer from surface to 2

metres; another, from 6-7 metres; and (in the

60-metre isobath region) a third layer from

12-15 metre depth-range. Other phyto- and

z00-plankton .components, very rare, consist-

ing of:

SE ee

c= ae eRe

Bacillariophyceae

Phytoplankters:

Zooplankters: Scyphomedusae

Crustacea

Trawl hauls made in the area yielded only

the two species of medusae mentioned above,

and few fish (Therapon sp., Tetradon sp.).

Hydrographical data: Temperature (sur-

face) 28.2026, at .60 metresdepth) 27 \65-€

salinity 33.32°/00; pH, 8.05; dissolved oxy-

gen, 3.2 ml/1; total phosphorus, 11.2/# gm at

: Chaetoceros sp., Rhizosolenia sp.

ed by the bloom.

p/1; inorganic phosphate, nil; nitrate (NO.N:

mg/1), 0.0002; Current (surface), southerly

directed 2-24 knots.

Meteorological data: No rainfall over the

area. Wind set chiefly from NE towards SW;

light breeze from land to sea in mornings, and

sea to land in evenings, each day. Air tempe-

rature Max.: 34°C; Min.: 25°C. Sky, mostly

clear. No fog.

Remarks: No fish or other marine life mor-

tality as a result of this bloom was observed,

or reported from this area or surrounding

areas. Mechanized trawlers and catamarans

reported practically no catch from this area.

The analysis of the floating grey, gritty matter

revealed bundles of thousands of filaments of

Trichodesmium stuck together.

Ill. Climacteric phase: Sth April to 11th

April, 1976:—

The sea still discoloured; no discrete pat-

ches observed; entire area uniformly greenish-

yellow as viewed from surface; sheets of gritty

matter floating on the surface, strong iodoform

odour over the area. Concentration of the

alga: 400-450 filaments per ml of seawater;

the Secchi disc disappeared at 5-metre depth.

The sea-area from off Ennur in the north to

off Tiruvanmiyur in the south, at least, affect-

ana

Rhizostoma sp., Acromitus flagellatus.

Mysids, copepods.

Fa NS

Mechanized trawlers and

catamarans reported extension of coloured

water from beyond Pulicat in the north to

beyond Kalpakkam in the south. Our obser-

vations showed that the sea-areas from the

shore to the 60-metre isobath was exhibiting |

the bloom. Closing water bottle samples

SWARMING OF TRICHODESMIUM ERYTHRAEUM

revealed that there was heavy concentration

-450 filaments per ml of seawater- at the 10-15

metre depth-range in deeper waters, i.e., be-

yond the 30-metre isobath, and from surface

to seabed in lesser depths. Closing net hauls

contained Trichodesmium filaments almost to

the entire exclusion of all other phyto- and

zoo-plankters, as evidenced from study of

samples taken at various stations and depths

in the affected area; thus, the stratification

observed earlier in the ‘Ascending’ phase

seemed to have disappeared.

Trawl hauls made in the area yielded only

a few large medusae (Rhizostoma sp.); no

fish were taken. Trawl net fibres coated with

gritty slime which when scraped and examin-

ed, revealed Trichodesmium in large numbers.

Hydrographical data: Temperature (sut-

face)? 28.25°C! at 60-metre’ depth 27.55°C:

salinity 33.25°/o0 at surface, 33.45°/o00 at 60

metre depth; pH, 8.0 at surface; dissolved

oxygen 3.1 ml/1; total phosphorus 11.5/u gm

at p/1; inorganic phosphate, nil; nitrate

(NO.N: mg/1), 0.0001; Current (surface),

southerly directed, 2-3 knots.

Meteorological data: No rainfall over area.

Wind set chiefly from NNE towards WSW;

light breeze from land to sea in mornings, and

from sea to land in evenings, each day. Air

temperature Max.: 34°C; Min.: 25°C. Sky,

mostly clear, sometimes with light fleecy

clouds. No fog.

Remarks: No mortality of marine life oc-

curred in the area; mechanized trawlers and

catamarans reported practically no catch from

this and surrounding areas. The sheets of

floating grey, gritty matter, when analysed re-

vealed mostly living filaments of Trichodesm-

ium in bundles; interspersed were decompos-

ing filaments.

IV. Waning phase: 12th April to 18th April,

1976:—

Large patchy sea areas of feebly discolour-

ed seawater, clear stretches in between the

patches eroding deeply into the patches.

Closing net hauls showed progressive drop in

concentration of alga:— 12th April: 400 fiia-

ments/ml, 17th April: 200 filaments/ml. On

17th April along with the Trichodesmium few

copepods, mysids, shrimp larvae, ctenophores

and hydromedusae occurred in the samples

from most of the area under study. Plankton

hauls made on 19th April showed only traces

of Trichodesmium (20-25 filaments/ml) in

the area, and were chiefly made up of cope-

pods, mysids, fish post larvae, ctenophores and

hydromedusae.

Trawl and gillnet catches were reported

picking up steadily throughout the area from

20th April onwards.

FHydrographical data: ‘Temperature (sur-

face) 28.6°C, at 60-metre depth 27.30°C; sali-

nity (surface) 33.2°/00, 60 metre depth

33.35°/00; pH (Surface) 8.10 on 13.4.76,

8.05 on 17.4.76; dissolved oxygen 2.8 ml/1 on

13th, and 2.6 ml/1 on 17th; total phosphor

10.5/4 gm at p/1 on 13th, and 1.4/4 gm at p/1

on 17th; inorganic phosphate, nil on 13th, and

0.3/H gm at p/i on 17th; nitrate (NO.N: mg/

1) 0.0015 on 13th, increasing to 0.0019 on

17th April. Current (surface), southerly direct-

ed, 2-3 knots.

Meteorological data: No rainfall over area.

Wind set chiefly from NE to SW; light breeze

from land to sea in mornings, and from sea

to land in evenings, each day. Air temperature

Max.: 34°C; Min.: 25°C. Sky mostly clear.

No fog.

Remarks: life

No mortality of marine

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

occurred in the area; mechanized trawlers and

catamarans reported practically no catches

from the area upto 18th April, however from

20th April onwards the catches were reported

picking up all over the area. The sheets of

floating grey, gritty matter on analysis proved

to consist chiefly of a mass of dead and putre-

fying Trichodesmium filaments, with very few

living filaments interspersed through the mass.

The putrefying algal filaments were found to

harbour both gram-positive and gram- nega-

tive groups of marine bacteria.

GENERAL REMARKS

A comparison of the hydrographical data

obtained during the different dates reveal that

there is no significant difference in the tem-

perature, pH, salinity and surface currents;

and the meteorological data, i.e., speed and

direction of wind, rainfall and air temperature,

similarly did not show much variation. Data

on dissolved oxygen, total phosphorus, inor-

ganic phosphate and nitrate concentrations

exhibit interesting correlation with the diffe-

rent phases of the Trichodesmium bloom.

These are discussed:

Dissolved oxygen: Data on dissolved oxygen

values show that there is a depletion of oxy-

gen with the increase of the bloom, and the

lowest oxygen values occur during the waning

phase of the bloom. Similar low oxygen values

obtained by previous workers during the peak

and waning phases of mono-specific blooms

causing coloured water phenomena have been

attributed to (1) the upwelling of oxygen-de-

pleted water in these zones (vide Panikkar

1967); and (ii) the mass decay of ‘red plank-

ton’ which was aggravated by the release of

decay products (Grindley & Taylor 1962). In

the Madras inshore waters, where upwelling is

not known to take place, the first explanation

may not be suitable. Therefore, the depletion

of the oxygen during the peak period of the

bloom in Madras inshore waters can be attri-

buted to the increased oxygen demand of

the rapidly reproducing asexual, non-motile

spores and homogenes of the alga. The lowest

oxygen values occurring during the waning

phase of the bloom is probably due to the

bloom formation being followed by an up-

surge of marine bacteria, which thrive in the

putrefying algal bloom. This ultimately re-

sults in the breakdown of the algal mass and

in an aggravated deficiency condition of the

oxygen content in the seawater. The putrefy-

ing algal filaments harbouring gram-positive

and gram-negative groups of marine bacteria

during the waning phase of the bloom (vide

supra), lend support to this view.

Total phosphorus—inorganic — phosphate:

A comparison of the total phosphorus—in-

organic phosphate data with the development

of the bloom shows that (i) at the beginning

of the bloom, the inorganic phosphate in the

seawater declined while the total phosphorus

increased gradually; (11) at the peak of the

bloom, the inorganic phosphate was reduced

to Zero Value and the total phosphorus in-

creased to the maximum; and (ili) as the

bloom waned, che total phosphorus also de-

clined considerably and the inorganic phos-

phate reappeared. These results support the

view that the intensification of the bloom in-

volves the utilization of inorganic phosphate

and its conversion to the organic form (Rama-

murthy & Seshadri 1966). The reappearance

of inorganic phosphate during the waning

period of the bloom would suggest that this

is one of the parameters regulating the deve-

lopment of the bloom.

Nitrates: Nitrate values were found to de-

crease with the strengthening of the bloom,

reaching low values at the climacterization of

the bloom; increasing to normal concentrations

SWARMING OF TRICHODESMIUM ERYTHRAEUM

with the disapperarnce of the bloom.

These results suggest that during Trichodesm-

ium blooming nitrate concentration was de-

pleted to trace values, which is attributable to

the utilization of the nitrates during the

swarming period. Similar depletion of nitrate

to almost zero value with diatom-outburst has

been observed by earlier workers, and it has

been suggested to regulate the diatom-outburst

[Raymond 1963, quoting Harvey (1923), off

the New South Wales coast].

Possibly, further work will confirm that the

waning of the bloom commences when the

inorganic phosphate and nitrate values of the

sea-area fall to almost zero value.

However, it must be remembered that the

nitrate concentration in the coastal waters of

a tropical environment like that of Madras is

generally very low and the fluctuations of

maximum and minimum values as a result of

Trichodesmium bloom are correspondingly

minimal. Further, the results of culture ex-

periments on nitrogen fixation by Trichodes-

mium erythraeum conducted by Ramamurthy

& Krishnamurthy (1968) indicating that this

alga can fix free nitrogen in addition to utiliz-

ing combind nitrogen, would suggest that

when nitrate concentration of seawater falls

to zero value the organisms at the interface

zone tend to fix atmospheric nitrogen. This

may explain the occurrence of vast floating

Sheets of Trichodesmium observed during the

present study during the ascendment, climac-

terization and waning phases of the bloom.

It is evident from the above observations

that changes in dissolved oxygen, total phos-

phorus, inorganic phosphate and nitrate con-

centrations of the seawater are affected during

the different phases of the bloom, and these

in turn appear to regulate the algal out-burst.

However, the precise mechanism which _in-

fluences the triggering-off (initiation) of the

bloom is not clear. The causative factors con-

tributing to the initiation of such heavy and

sudden algal blooms have been attributed to

(i) sudden dilution of salinity in coastal waters

by addition of freshwater as drain-off from

land during heavy rains; (ii) the addition of

large quantities of nutrients cither by upwel-

led oxygen-depleted water or by jand-drainage;

and (iii) the possibility in sudden increase of

certain external metabolites or growth factors

due to the presence and interaction of micro-

organisms and phyto- and zoo-plankton con-

stituents promoting an increase in cell-division

(collated from references listed—see Ray-

mont 1963, for details of external metabolites

or growth-factors). During the present obser-

vations there was no dilution of salinity; addi-

tions of large quantities of nutrients by up-

welling and/or land-drainage will have to be

excluded, since there was no rainfall over the

area during the entire period of observations

and for some months previous to it, and no

large rivers open into this zone; further, up-

welling of water masses have not so far been

established for this area; there was no differ-

ence in the limited land-drainage in the entire

zone preceding or during the bloom period.

Thus the possibility of increased nutrients by

either of these two mechanisms, namely, up-

welling or land-drainage, is excluded. It is,

therefore, probable that increase in certain ex- —

ternal metabolites or growth factors, caused

by the presence and interaction of micro-or-

ganisms. and other phyto- and zoo-plankters,

has resulted in the promotion of the rate of

cell-division of Trichodesmium contributing

to the initiation of this vast mono-specific

bloom. )

lil-effects of this bloom on marine life:

Mass mortality of marine animals has often

been associated with the occurrence of colour-

ed water by the swarming of coloured plants,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

flagellates and Protozoans from all the major

oceans of the world (Brongersma-Sanders

1957; Grindley & Taylor 1962). Previous re-

ports of such mass mortality of marine fauna

have also been correlated to the occurrence

of heavy Trichodesmium blooms from the west

coast of India, Krusadai Island and Pamban

areas (Chacko 1942; Sudhakar & Doss 1967).

Other records in the same region and from

Minicoy Island (Arabian Sea) and from Porto

Novo (East coast) have recorded the absence

of free-moving marine fauna in the ‘blooming’

areas, although no mass mortality was observ-

ed (Prabhu et al. 1965; Nagabhushanam 1967;

Ramamurthy & Seshadri 1966). This mass

mortality reported by earlier workers has been

attributed to the planktonic blooms producing

potent toxins and/or of direct influence of

oxygen depleted water (Prakash & Sarma

1964; Panikkar 1967). During the present

study, no fish or other marine life mortality

as a result of this bloom was observed or re-

ported from this area or from surrounding

areas. There was evidence that free-moving

marine organisms avoided the bioom areas as

the mechanized trawlers and catamarans also

reported that there was practically no catch

from this and surrounding areas. It is there-

fore inferred that the free-moving marine or-

ganisms—mainly gill-breathers—avoided _ this

area due to (i) Trichodesmium filaments

choking or damaging their gills and (ii) de-

pletion of oxygen values as a result of increas-

ed oxygen demand of the reproducing algae.

It is probable that when these blooms develop

gradually, the marine animals are able to

avoid such infested zones well in time. Mass

mortality probably occurs during heavy and

sudden blooming, when the animals are un-

able to escape from the infested zone. It may

also be mentioned that some of the animals

in the food-chain may feed on this bloom

algae during the initiation phase, and though

they may not be directly affected they may

act as accumulators of the toxic or poisonous

substances produced by the algae; when the

bigger animals eat these, it proves fatal and

mass mortality may have occurred due to the

poisoning effect.

It is clear from the observation described

here, and an analysis of the factors suggested

as influencing the initiation, development and

waning of the algal bloom, that (i) certain ex-

ternal metabolites due to the presence and

interaction of micro-organisms, particularly

bacteria, play an important part in the initia-

tion of the bloom; (ii) the waning of the

bloom commences when the inorganic phos-

phate and nitrate values of the sea fall to

almost zero value, and the oxygen tension is

lowered to minimal value; and (iii) the marine

organisms avoid the affected area due to

choking or damaging of their gills and deple-

tion of oxygen values. Further investigations

on the factors influencing the occurrence and

spatial distribution of coloration of seawater

and their bioconstituents especially the micro-

organisms releasing metabolites are required,

so that some method of controlling such

blooms may be devised with a view to prevent

losses to the fisheries of the affected region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankufl to the crew of R.V. CHOTA

INVESTIGATOR and the mechanized fishing

trawlers and catamarans who rendered valu-

able help for the collection of material and

data. Our grateful thanks are also due to the

scientists of Madras University for help in the

analysis of hydrographical data.

SWARMING OF TRICHODESMIUM ERYTHRAEUM

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BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN

SOME INDIAN BATS

PART IV—HIPPOSIDEROS FULVUS FULVUS (GRAY)—HIPPOSIDERIDAE!

A. MADHAYVAN, D. R. PATIL AND A. GOPALAKRISHNA2

(With two plates)

The breeding biology of Hipposideros fulvus fulvus has been described based on the exami-

nation of 624 specimens collected at and around Nanded in Marathwada, Maharashtra State.

The specimens were collected at frequent intervals during a period of two years from Sep-

tember 1964 to October 1966. This species has a strict sexual periodicity. Copulation, follow-

ed by ovulation fertilization and pregnancy occurs in the middle of November. All deliveries

in the colony occur within a short span of about two weeks between the last week of

April and the first week of May. Gestation lasts for about 150 to 160 days. A single young

is delivered by each female during each cycle. The left side of the female genitalia is physi-

clogically dominant, and ovulation and pregnancy occur in the left side of the genitalia

more than in the right. The young are carried by the mothers at their breast continuously for

20 to 22 days during which period the young ones grow rapidly. Sexual maturity is not

attained by either sex until the animals are at least 18 to 19 months of age. There is an

uneven female-dominant sex ratio in the adult stage.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens of Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

were collected at and around Nanded, Marath-

wada region, Maharashtra State, India. The

collection was started on 29th September 1964

and continued until 17th October 1966 in

such a manner that every calendar month is

represented by one collection or more. During

the breeding season as many collections as

possible were made with a view to obtaining

closely graded developmental stages and to

arriving at an accurate pregnancy record. Al-

together 624 specimens were examined for the

present report.

Hipposideros fulvus fulvus is a small bat

which is found in underground food cellars

and dark recesses of old houses and dilapi-

1 Accepted October 1975.

2 Department of Zoology,

Nagpur.

Institute of Science,

dated buildings. The specimens were collected

at random with the help of butterfly nets. They

were killed by chloroform and their body

weights were taken, and, in the majority of

cases, the length of the forearm, ear pinna,

head and left wing were also recorded. After

recording observations on the disposition of

the external genitalia, teats, position of the

testes and other genital organs, the reproduc-

tive organs and the accessory reproductive

structures in both the sexes were dissected out >

and fixed in various fixatives such as Bouin’s —

fluid, Carnoy’s fluid and neutral formalin.

After 24 hours of fixation the tissues were

transferred to 70% ethanol, in which they

were preserved. The weight of the right testis

of all the males was recorded after fixation

and preservation in 70% ethanol. Further pro-

cessing of the tissues for preparing stained sec- |

tions was carried out as detailed in the pre-

vious parts of these studies.

}

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—IV

The group of specimens collected on a given mention of the year has a special significance.

calendar date presented almost the same con- A detailed collection diary giving the salient

dition during the two years when the obser- characters of each specimen was maintained.

vations were made. Hence, in the following Table I gives the summary of the collection

descriptions only the date and the month are diary and Table II gives the monthwise col-

mentioned where pertinent, except where the lection of the specimens.

TABLE I

SUMMARY OF COLLECTION DIARY

Males é Females

Immature Adult Immature Adult

A Attached Total Attached Non- Pregnant Lacta- Total of Grand

ate so Free of ig Free pre- “Right Left ting females total

mother males mother gnant horn horn

1 2 5 4 5 6 i, 8 9 10 11 12 13

1-1-65 a — =e iran ora aaa = === 2 = 2 2

2-1-65 = = 3 3 = —e — 1 1 al Z 5

12-1-65 = a 1 1 = — — = 1 — 1 2,

15-1-65 == 1 / 8 aa = 4 5 il = 16 24

20-1-65 — = 5 3 al = 1 1 9 a 11 14

21-1-66 a = — a a — — 3 4 = 7 7

28-1-65 == = 1 1 an _ =a = 3 = 3 4

1-2-65 — == — = aa = — 1 1 aaa 2 2

9-2-65 = = 4 4 = — — —_ 2; — Zz 6

17-2-66 == == 1 1 = —— = 2 4 — 6 il

27-2-66 = = aa a ae — _ 1 — a 1 ]

9-3-65 == = = = on —_ — a 4 — 4 J

12-3-66 a= aa 1 1 = —_— = 1 == = 1 Zz

15-3-65 = 1 = 1 = —_ 1 1 U == 9 10

18-3-65 = == 2 2 = — aa 5 8 == 13 15

23-3-65 == a an = = — — 4 5) == 9 9

26-3-65 = a 2 2 — — a 4 8 == 12 14

23-4-65 1 — 1 2 = 6 ae = 1 1 2 4

25-4-66 Z, oa = 2 7 os nee 2 aa 4 8 10

26-4-65 1 = 3 4 1 — = = 6 3 10 14

7-5-65 3 === 2 3) 6 — a = = 11 17 22

11-5-65 Z 1 3 6 3 4 == ae aa 10 17 23

16-5-66 3 — 1 4 Z — 1 = = / 10 14

19-5-65 6 5 5 16 9 8 a ote = 26 43 59

25-5-65 = 10 5 15 aati 13 = == = 9 22 37

26-5-66 1 4 = 5 1 3 aoe = = 11 15 20

5-6-65 — — 13 13 a 1 == == = 3 4 17

15-6-66 — 1 % 3 see 8 De a= == 10 20 23

16-6-65 = 4 2 6 =< 4 as = = 6 10 16

29-6-65 a — 1 1 ao 1 4 = = >) 10 11

12-7-65 a 1 = 1 — 1 — a — = 1 2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table I (Continued)

28-12-64

: TABLE II

MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS

Month Males . Females Total

Jan. 16 42 58

Feb. =) -}4 16

Mar 6 48 54

Apr 8 20 28

May 51 124 175

Jun 23 44 67

Jul. 10 4 14

Aug. 12 37 49

Sep. 10 13 23

Oct. 32 39 ant

Nov 19 20 39

Dec 12 18 30

Grand total 204. 420 624

Males Females

Immature Adult Immature Adult

ached i Pregnant

Date ne es Free otal wae Free ee Right Left Lacta- Total of Grand

mother f ales (mother nant horn horn ting females total

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 13

14-7-65 — — 9 9 — = att ede poe uit 3 12

1-8-65 -— 3 3 =H — 16 — — —- 16 19

11-8-65 — 1 1 2 = 1 13 — ~~ — 14 16

11-8-66 — — 5 5 — mst 4 wees uit eit 4 9

28-8-65 — —- 2 2 — — 3 —- — — 3 5

~10-9-65 — -- 5 5 = — = — — D 7

10-9-66 an == —— ane aT = 3 — — — 3 3

29-9-64 — — 4 4 = — 7 — — — i) 11

29-9-65 _ 1 1 — oe 1 nt ne wie 1 2

1-10-65 — — 2 zy — — 8 —- = — 8 10

8-10-65 — — 4 4 os is 1 sae si ee 1 5

11-10-64 — 6 a 13 —_ a 9 ates i, shy 9 22

17-10-66 — — 1 1 aaa 1 10 — _ _ 11 12

28-10-64 — 9 3 2. a — 10 — — — 10 22

13-11-65 — — -— — _— a 4 ae es og) 4 4

15-11-65 -~ — 3 3 — bes ste vue cole suet eu 3

16-11-64 — oo 6 6 —_ se 5 es ae eet 5 11

22-11-65 . — -— a i cat 1 == — 3 — 4 11

28-11-64 os _ 3 cree — = 7 — — _- 7 10

6-12-65 — — 1 1 — sos ae 2, 1 Bue: 3 4

10-12-64 _ 3 1 4 — eu si uae os 1 5

16-12-64 —_ — i = == —— 1 — o — 1 1

17-12-64 —_ 1 1 — — 1 4 D) _ q 9

20-12-65 — — 2 2 = -— 1 — 1 — D 4

a ae 3 3 Se a2 1 3 = 4 7

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

1. General remarks on Hipposideros ful-

vus fulvus.

Hipposideros fulvus fulvus is a small bat,

the maximum weight of the male and of the

non-pregnant female being about 10 gm. The |

other maximum measurements are as follows:

wing span—13 cm in both sexes; forearm— )

4.2 cm in both sexes; ear pinna—2 cm in|

female and 2.1 cm in male; head length—2.3

cm in female and 2.5 cm in male. The fur on

thé dorsal side is dark grey and that on the

ventral side is immaculate or greyish white.

This species chooses dark, cool and damp

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—IV

places for roosting in such a way that a water

tap or a shallow well and a shady tree are

present in the vicinity of the cellar so that the

roosting place gets as much moisture and shade

as possible. It is very seldom that these ani-

mals emit an audible sound, but the presence

of a colony of Hipposideros fulvus fulvus is

easily detected by a characteristic odour. They

are very active and swiftly fly away if there

is even a slight disturbance. In the resting

position they remain freely suspended from

the ceiling. The specimens roost isolated and

free from one another and are never seen in

clusters (fig. 1). While they are in the rest-

ing position, they show constant movements

by swinging their bodies, moving their heads

in a rotary motion, flapping their wings and

often changing their position in the colony. A

colony usually has about 50 to 100 specimens.

They leave their underground cellars late in

the evening for feeding. On several occasions,

when the roosts were visited at about 11 O’

clock in the night, the specimens were still

found flying about in the cellar, but not flying

out of the cellar. Dead bodies of cockroaches

and of beetles were often found in the cel-

lars where these animals live. Males and

females are found in the same colony irres-

pective of the age of the animals or the season.

If the roost is visited frequently for collection

of the specimens the bats leave the roost and

do not return to the same roost for several

weeks. ,

Attempts to keep them alive in the labora-

tory were not successful as the animals are

very delicate and do not survive in captivity

under normal humidity. However, the speci-

mens survive for a day or two if a wet cloth

or a wet pad of cotton is placed in the cage

and over the wire mesh of the cage.

The unweaned young ones are found to be

attached to the mothers in the head-to-tail

position during the resting non-sucking times.

The young one holds one or some times both

the pubic dugs in its mouth, and the hind

limbs are kept free, or in a loose embrace,

round the neck of the mother. While sucking

(fig. 2) the young holds the mammary nipple

by the jaws, and the claws of the hind feet

are firmly anchored to the pubic dugs. When

the young one is able to fly, it remains sepa-

rated from the mother, but occasionally at-

taches to one of the mothers in lactation for

sucking. Before doing so, it flies towards the

mother and clings to a rough surface of the

ceiling close to the mother, and, with a sudden

swing, gets a hold on the mother’s body with

the help of the claws in the hind limbs, and

then holds the mother’s mammary nipple by

its jaws. The mother sometimes holds the

skin of the back of the young in her mouth

to prevent it from slipping down. Apparently,

there is community suckling of the young

after the young ones get free from the mothers,

since it would be impossible for the young

one to seek out its own mother in the colony.

2. Female reproductive organs.

The ovary is ellipsoidal in shape measur-

ing about 1 mm long and 0.5 mm broad. The

ovarian surface is warty. Each ovary is en-

closed by a complete ovarian capsule and is

attached to the dorsal ligament by a narrow

hilus. The Fallopian tube on each side arises

from the medial margin near the caudal end

of the ovarian bursa. It takes a_ tortuous

course around about the middle of the ovar-

ian capsule, and bends caudally on the lateral

side of the ovarian capsule and open _ into

the respective uterine cornu.

As in all other bats, except in the members

of the family Phyllostomatidae, the uterus is

bicornuate ,and the two cornua are morpho-

logically symmetrical. Each uterine cornu forms

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

a twisted arch bulging anteriorly, and is about

8 mm in length. The two cornua meet mesially

and their lumina become confluent. There is

a common broad cervical canal opening into

the vagina. The vagina is about 6 to 7 mm

long and opens by a transverse vulval opening.

The mammary glands are pectoral in posi-

tion and are present on the ventro-lateral as-

pect of the thorax, one on each side. The

mammary nipples, one on each side, are

directed laterally. In the parous females there

is a pair of prominant pubic dugs without

mammary glands in the inguinal region, one

on each side.

3. Breeding habits.

The examination of the collection diary and

table I reveals some interesting features. Pre-

gnancy occurs only during the months from

about the middle of November to about the

last week of April. Figures 3-8 are photo-

graphs of entire genitalia of many female spe-

cimens collected on different dates, and are

intended to illustrate the condition of the

female reproductive organs during the diffe-

rent months of the year. From the examina-

tion of the figures it is evident that progres-

sively advanced stages of pregnancy occur

from November to the following April. The

above facts indicate that Hipposideros fulvus

fulvus experiences a single reproductive cycle

in the year .

Microscopic examination of the females

revealed that copulation had not occurred in

the females collected on October 28, but each

of the females collected on November 13 had

undergone copulation as evidenced by the

presence of sperms in their uteri and Fallo-

pian tubes. However, none of them had un-

dergone ovulation, but in each specimen one

of the ovaries had a fully formed Graafian

follicle which was about to rupture. Of the

100

five females collected on November 16, in

four specimens the ovary of one side had an

early corpus luteum, and in each of these spe-

cimens an egg in early cleavage was present

in the Fallopian tube. The remaining female

had, in one of the ovaries, a pre-ovulatory

Graafian follicle. Each of the adult females

collected on November 22 had an early blas-

tocyst. In the females captured on Novem-

ber 28, early stages of implantation were

noticed. On any given date during the period

from December to April all the pregnant

females were practically in the same stage

of gestation. The above facts lead to the con-—

clusion that all adult females undergo copu- |

lation in a sharply restricted period in about.

the second week of November after which,

within a short time, ovulation and fertilization |

take place followed by pregnancy.

The first delivered young in the year, and |

which was a couple of days old, was collected

on April 23. All the parous females collected |

on and after May 7 had delivered their young. |

Apparently, all deliveries in the colony had

taken place within a short span of two weeks

—the last week of April and the first week

of May.

Females carrying young at the breast were |

collected from April 23 until May 26. But it is’

very unlikely that each young is carried by its

mother for this duration of time. This is evi- |

The heaviest.

young attached to the mother was 4.5 gm in_

weight, and the young leave their mothers’

after they reach this weight. The first batch of |

the free young ones of about this weight was

collected on May 11. Evidently, these must

have belonged to the first batch of young ones

delivered around April 23. From this it is.

apparent that the mothers carry their young)

only for about 20 to 22 days, calculating from)

the date on which the first delivered young was |

denced by the following facts:

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75 PLATE I

Madhavan, Patil & Gopalakrishna: Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

Fig. 1. A part of a colony of Hipposideros fulvus fulvus. Note the specimens

hanging freely from the ceiling and remain isolated from one another with-

out huddling together.

Fig. 2. Photograph of a mother suckling her young. The

position of the young is reversed while it is not sucking milk.

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75

Madhavan, Patil & Gopalakrishna: Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

PLATE II

FEBRUARY

Figs. 3-8. Photographs of entire female genitalia of some specimens collected

during several months of the year. Note that progressively advanced stages of

pregnancy occur from November to April. During the pregnant season there

are a few non-pregnant specimens also (Nos. 110, 115, 121, 128, 135, 168)

indicating that not all the females become pregnant in the breeding season.

Pregnancy is not noticed during the other months.

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—IV

collected (April 23) to the date on which

the first free young was collected (May 11)

and allowing a margin of a couple of days.

However, even after they leave their mothers

the young ones probably visit lactating

mothers for sucking for some time more. This

is indicated by the facts that curdled milk was

present in the stomach of several free young,

and the mammary glands of the mothers con-

tinue to be in lactation for quite some time

after the young ones leave their mothers.

Females in lactation were collected until July

29.

From the foregoing account of the breed-

ing habits of Hipposideros fulvus fulvus the

annual life of the females of this species can

be recognized into the following periods:—

(1) Period of sexual inactivity from about

the end of June to the beginning of Nov-

ember.

(2) Copulation in the second week of Nov-

ember.

(3) Pregnancy from about the middle of Nov-

ember until about the end of April.

(4) Parturition during the last week of April

and the first week of May.

(5) Lactation until the end of June.

4. Gestation.

It has been already mentioned that the

females collected on November 13 had not

ovulated even though they had undergone

copulation. But in some of the females collect-

‘ed on November 16 very early cleavage stages

of the egg were present indicating that ferti-

lization might have taken place about a day

or two before. The first date on which a deliver-

ed young was obtained was April 23, and from

‘the condition of the young it can be presum-

ed that this might have been delivered just

-a couple of days before. This conclusion is

based on the following facts:—the young was

completely naked wihout any visible fur; the

eye lids were adherent; a withered umbilical

cord was still present; it had a body weight

of 2.2 gm, which is also the maximum weight

of the full term foetus. From the foregoing it

is evident that the gestation period of Hip-

posideros fulvus fulvus is about 150 to 160

days, allowing a margin of a couple of days

on either side.

5. Growth and maturity.

Mention has already been made that the

young are all delivered in a sharply defined

period between about April 22 and May 7.

The new born young weighs about 2.2 gm

(The maximum weight of the foetus in this

species is also 2.2 gm). Immediately after

birth the young one gets attached to the

breast of its mother, and is carried by the

mother until it attains a body weight of about

4.5 gm. After the young one reaches this

weight it leaves the mother, although it may

continue to suck milk occasionally for a few

more days as evidenced by the fact that the

young specimens weighing more than 4.5 gm

were some times noticed in the act of suck-

ing from the breast of mothers during the

later half of May. The first batch of free

young weighing 4.5 gm was collected on

May 11. It has been mentioned that the

young is carried continuously by the mother

for about 20 to 22 days only. During - this

period the young one grows from 2.2 to 4.5

gm in weight, that is, it increases about twice

in its weight. Mothers carrying young were

collected until May 26. After this date it is

hardly possible to distinguish the young from

the adults on the basis of the size of the body.

Evidently, the young one grows very rapidly

during the early period, and by the time it

leaves its mother it has grown very nearly to

the adult size.

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

In Hipposideros fulvus fulvus the size and

‘the nature of the mammary nipples and pubic

dugs, taken along with the pregnancy record,

can be used as valid criteria for determining

the sexual maturity or otherwise in the fe-

males. In the non-parous females the mam-

mary nipples and the pubic dugs are very

insignificant and are almost not visible. Dur-

ing the first lactation these structures enlarge

in size and remain as such throughout the

rest of the life. Hence, in all parous females

these are conspicuous and large. The collec-

tion diary and table I indicate that during the

breeding season (that is, from the middle of

November until about the end of April) some

females with insignificant mammary nipples

and pubic dugs were also collected. Among

these a few were found to be non-pregnant,

and their ovaries presented a _ histological

structure typical of the immature condition.

Among the males also a number of immature

ones, as revealed by the size and histological

structure of the gonads and accessory repro-

ductive organs were collected during the

breeding season. The fact that immature ones

of both sexes are present during the height

of the breeding season strongly suggests that

in this species sexual maturity is not attained

by either sex in the year of birth. Since the

young are born late in April or early in May,

and since the sexual season commences in

November, the animals take at least 18 to

19 months to reach sexual maturity, calculat-

ing from April to November of the follow-

ing calendar year. However, it is not possible

definitely to state that these animals do attain

sexual maturity in their second year itself.

Thus, at the beginning of the breeding season

early in November the females can be recog-

nized into at least three categories: —(1) non-

parous juvenile females, (ii) females experi-

encing their first breeding cycle, and (iii)

102

parous females in their second or subsequent

cycles. Category (i) and (ii) have insignifi-

cant mammary nipples and pubic dugs. Mic-

roscopic examination of the ovaries reveals

that, whereas in the females belonging to cate-

gory (i) the ovaries present a typical imma-

ture histology, in the females belonging to

category (11) one of the ovaries has a fully

developed Graafian follicle. The females be-

longing to category (iii) have well developed

mammary nipples and pubic dugs.

The adult males do not exhibit spermato-

genetic activity from January to about the

middle of September. In September the testis

seems suddenly to spring into activity, and

from about the beginning of October until

about the end of December, the testes and the

epididymides show abundant sperms, and the

accessory glands are active. Although the males

are sexually functional for nearly three

months, the sharp restriction of the season of

copulation is determined exclusively by the

female.

6. Sex ratio.

Out of a total of 624 specimens of Hippo-

sideros fulvus fulvus collected at random for

two successive years, 204 (32.68%) were |

males and 420 (67.32%) females. 46 young |

ones collected from the breasts of the mothers |

included 20 males and 26 females. This small |

number of juvenile young ones may not war- |

rant a definite conclusion regarding the sex

ratio at birth, although the figures may indi- |

cate a slightly unbalanced sex ratio even dur- |

ing the juvenile life. But the marked differ-

ence in the number of males and females in)

the total population should reflect the natural |

sex ratio in this species, since the collections |

were made at random and since there is no)

segregation of the sexes. |

- BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—IV

7. Number of young.

From the coilection diary and table I it is

evident that pregnancy can occur in either of

the uterine cornua in this species. However,

out 123 specimens, in which there was un-

questionable indication of pregnancy, 37 had

pregnancy in the right cornu and 86 in the

left. Microscopic examination of the ovaries

of the pregnant females revealed that the cor-

pus luteum was present invariably on the

same side in which the uterine cornu carried

the conceptus. This indicates that there is no

transmigration of ova. From the material

available at present it is not possible to state

if there is any physiological alternation of

the two sides of the genitalia in successive

cycles. On the other hand it is very unlikely

that such alternation of the two sides of the

genitalia occurs since in the two successive

years, when coilections were made, the preg-

nancies occurred on the left side more than

on the right side. For example in 1964-1965,

28 females had pregnancy on the right side

and 72 on the left, and in 1965-1966, 9 had

the pregnancy on the right side and 14 on the

left. If physiological alternation occurred be-

tween the two sides of the genitalia, then the

proportion of the pregnancies on the two

sides should alternate in successive years.

Evidently, in this species there is a natural

dominance of the left side of the genitalia

over the right. The factors responsible for this

are not known.

103

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF LABEO GONIUS (HAM.)

FROM THE RIVER KALI’

A. CHATTERJI, A. Q. SIDDIQUI? AND A. A. KHAN

(With three figures)

L. gonius (Ham.) feeds mainly on phytoplanktonic organisms. Diatoms, green algae and

decayed organic matter were the main food items present in the gut. The presence of sand

and mud in the gut contents showed bottom feeding habits of the fish. The intensity of

feeding was found to be maximum during post-monsoon and winter months

(October-

February) and low during post-winter and monsoon months (March-August). Maturation

of gonads also adversely affected the feeding intensity in both the sexes. The fish showed

a positive selection for all phytoplanktonic organisms.

INTRODUCTION

An important aspect of the biology of fish

is to determine its food and feeding habits.

Food composition, intensity of feeding and its

variations with season, size and sex of Labeo

gonius are reported here.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Monthly samples were obtained for a

period of 12 months, from January to De-

cember, 1974. The fishes were caught by gill

net during the early hours of morning and

brought to the laboratory in ice.

Each fish was measured upto nearest milli-

metre from the tip of the snout to the longest

ray of caudal fin, weighed nearest to 0.1 gm

and sexed. State of maturation was determin-

ed following the scheme of classification used

for Ophicephalus punctatus (Qayyum &

Qasim 1964a). The guts were taken out

1 Accepted April 1977.

Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Univer-

sity, Aligarh 202 001.

2 Present address: Department of Zoology, Ken-

yatta University, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya.

104

carefully from the oesophagus to the last

part of the intestine, weighed upto 0.5 gm and

preserved in 16% formalin.

For the analysis of gut content of the fishes,

the number method as described by Hynes

(1950) was followed. As far as possible, vari-

ous planktonic food items were identified up-

to generic level and counted. Their relative

abundance was expressed as percentage of total

number of food items in the sample. The per-

centages of decayed organic matter and

sand and mud were decided by eye estima-

tion.

The intensity of feeding was studied by de-

termining the gastro-somatic index (gut weight

expressed as percentage of body weight). The

number of fishes with empty guts was also

noted in each month and expressed as the

percentage of total number of fishes examin-

ed in that month.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Absence of teeth, a narrow mouth, depres-

sed buccal cavity, absence of tongue, modi-

fication of gill rakers for filtration, absence of

stomach and presence of long gut indicated

herbivorous feeding habit of this fish. The

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS CF LABEO GONIUS

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105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

analysis of gut contents of the fish for con-

secutive months showed that the fish mainly

feeds on small phytoplankton and decayed

organic matter.

Food composition

Seasonal variation in the composition of

gut contents of L. gonius becomes quite ap-

parent from Table 1. Phytoplankton was found

to be the main food of the adult fish. It form-

ed about 45% of the total food consumed.

Diatoms (Baciilariophyceae)

The diatoms were represented by 9 genera

which formed the chief food of the fish and

constituted about 18.6% of the total food.

This group was more abundant in the food

items encountered during October to March

and comparatively lesser percentage occurred

from April to August. The percentage of dia-

toms was very low in June. Navicula, Cyclo-

tella, Nitzschia, Gyrosigma, Cymbella and

Diatoma were the most important diatoms

TABLE

SIZE

II Taye 00

FOOD ITEMS

(201-250) (251-300)

Green Algae 16.7 10.1

Diatoms 29.5 31:3

Blue Green Algae 0.4 12

Desmids ft .2 Paes)

Phytoflagellates 0.3 0.3

Algal spores & zygotes 1.7 GuO.7,

Macrovegetation 39 5)

Decayed organic matter 14.5 19.7

Rotifers —- 0.2

Sand and mud

31.8 315

VARIATIONS IN THE FOOD COMPOSITION OF Labeo goniusS IN RELATION TO SIZE

and occurred in decreasing order. From Sep-

tember to April, Navicula was encountered

abundantly while from May to August it was

extremely scarce. Niftzschia was commonly

found throughout the year except during May,

June and July (Table 1).

Green algae (Chlorophyceae)

In L. gonius diet green algae were repre-

sented by 8 genera, they constituted about

8.6% of the total food and occurred through-

out the year in the gut content. They were

more abundant during January, March, April,

May and December and less abundant in

July. The most important genera were Scene-

desmus, Ankistrodesmus, Crucigenia and

Tetraspora. The less important genera were

Oedogonium, Pediastrum, Selenastrum and

Spirogyra (Table 1).

Blue green algae (Myxophyceae)

This group, comprising of Nostoc, Anabae-

na, Microcystis and Phormidium, formed

5.2% of the total food. Microcystis and

IV V VI

(301-350) (351-400) (401-450)

10.4 8.7 10.2

31.4 8671, & 3.7

0.9 1.6 1.0

2.5 ae —

4.2 : Qoh 7 22

1.4 1.9 -

2.4 52 6.4

19.9 10.7 10.5

0.2 — —

DD) stl 66.0

The percentage of food items in the gut contents of the fishes of size group I (150-200) could not be

studied as the specimens of this size group were not available in sufficient number,

106

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS Gf LABEO GONIUS

Phormidium were more common. Myxophyceae

was predominant in July and September.

Other food items

Desmids, phytoflagellates, algal spores and

zygotes and macrovegetation were also en-

countered in the guts of L. gonius (Table 1).

These items together formed 13.7% of the

total food. Zooplankton occurred in very

smail quantities and appear to have accidentally

entered along with phytoplankton.

Decayed organic matter

This group mainly consisted of unidenti-

fiable plant matter in decayed condition and

constituted about 16.4% of the total food.

It occurred regularly in the gut throughout

the year.

10.0}

8.0}

6.0}

6.8.1.

AO}

2.0}

Sand and mud

It formed 35.4% of the total food and

occurred in the gut throughout the year and

constituted the main bulk of the gut contents

(Table 1).

A gradual increase in the percentage of

phytoplankton along with sand and mud in

the gut contents with increase in size of the

fish reveals that this species changes its feed-

ing habit as it grows (Table 2, Fig. 1). The

occurrence of large quantities of decayed

organic matter together with sand and mud

in the gut indicates that the fish feeds at the

bottom.

No difference was noted in food composi-

tion of males and females.

% empty guts

SIZE GROUP

Fig. 1. Intensity of feeding at different size groups of L. gonius.

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

o—eM ALE

x-- - xF EMALE

10.0

Doe oy a .

Pa, Su My

8.0 a 4 ~x Gd)

ae if se a S GS

ASSN , N .

/ \ 4 \ 4 pe

ms ‘ me Ny Ul TQ ah *

a) 6.0 , Be x os

G) Bis e x \ pn

r) Ve Y\4

’ W \

4.0- * x’ 5 Baye

Legacy ts h Mm

~) Piel ¢ ‘ % 6

20 CS a ik eo. aS Re

x? Me ——— a Ae ~sy~N9Uts

x See 9.7 QT

4 a

J F M A M J J A Ss 0 N D

MONTHS

Fig. 2. Seasonal variation in the intensity of feeding of L. gonius.

; -——eoMALE

x ---XFEMALE

7.0

6.0

50]

- 40!

MATURITY STAGE

Fig. 3. Intensity of feeding at different maturity stages of L. gonius.

108

(ele)

sat

60 a

140

120

% empty guts

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF LABEO GONIUS

Intensity of feeding

The values of gastro-somatic index along

with the percentage of empty guts for differ-

ent months are given in Fig. 2. A pronounc-

ed feeding activity was recorded from Octo-

ber to March. The feeding intensity was ex-

tremely low during July and August.

In both the sexes the intensity of feeding

was high in immature, maturing and spent

fishes and low in ripening and ripe fishes. The

feeding intensity was found to be better in

males than in females throughout the year,

especially in the spent fishes (Fig. 3).

The relative precentage of different food

items varied from month to month and a par-

ticular type of food item tended to be maxi-

mum at a particular time, perhaps due to its

abundance in the environment at that time.

There appears to be a definite preference for

particular species or genus of phytoplankton.

Generally the small sized phytoplankton and

decayed organic matter were preferred.

Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding

appears to be affected by temperature and

flooding of the river as low food intake was

recorded during monsoon months (June, July

and August) and high rate of feeding during

rest of the months. The feeding intensity was

also influenced by the state of maturation of

gonads.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Prof. S. M. Alam, Head,

Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni-

versity, Aligarh for providing necessary faci- —

lities. One of us (A.C.) is also thankful to

the Council of Scientific and Industrial Re-

search, New Delhi for the award of a senior

research fellowship.

REFERENCES

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of fresh-

water sticklebacks (Gasterosteus acculeatus and

Pygosteus pungitus) with a review of methods used

in studies of the food of fishes. J. Anim. Ecol. 19:

35-58.

QayyuM, A. & Qasim, S. Z. (1964a): Studies on

the biology of some freshwater fishes. Part I—

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 61:74-98.

109

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF A TROPICAL EARTH-

WORM PONTOSCOLESE CORETHURUS (O.F. MULLER)’

S. ARUNACHALAM?

(With three text-figures)

Individuals of P. corethurus were found abundantly during rainy seasons of the year, dis-

tributed at a depth of 5 cm. These earthworms produced cocoons only during the rainy

season. The average number of cocoons produced was 14 = 2.2 cocoons per month. The

cocoons were c 3.3 = 0.4 mm in diameter and 28.3 = 1.18 mg in weight. The cocoons

hatched on the 21 + Ist day of incubation at room temperature, i. 28°C. Temperature

accelerated development. At extreme temperatures they failed to develop. Only one worm

hatched out from a cocoon. Freshly hatched P. corethurus was 1.7 = 0.18 cm in length;

14 = 0.06 mm in diameter and 13.4 + 0.87 mg in weight. The average number of

segments at birth was 230 = 10. P. corethurus attained an average body weight of 217.5

+ 38.58 mg on the 91st day.

Our knowledge of the biology of even quite

common earthworms is very inadequate; and

the life cycle of many species of earthworms

are still obscure (Edwards & Lofty 1972).

With the view that life cycle studies on earth-

worm may provide some useful information

for effective earthworm culture, the present

work on some aspects of biology of a glossos-

colecid worm of India was undertaken. The

distribution of this glossoscolecid worm Pon-

toscolese corethurus in Palni is unique since

the authorities of the British museum Natural

History state that this species is particularly

common on beaches in most of the tropical

regions of the world (in litt.).

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Individuals of Pontoscolese corethurus (O.

F. Muller: Family Glossoscolecidae) were

1 Accepted April 1977.

2Department of Zoology, Madurai University,

P.G. Centre, Arulmigu Palaniandavar Arts College,

Palni, Tamilnadu.

110

collected from shady areas in irrigated lands

during the rainy season, in and around Palni

when the soil temperature was about 27 +

1°C. These were cultured in the laboratory

using natural medium. The length, width, and

live body weight were measured. In taking

live weight suitable corrections were made for

the gut content.

20 groups of matured P. corethurus, each

group consisting of 5 individuals were reared

in glass terraria (6’’ x 9” x 12’) in the natu-

ral medium. Daily observations were made for

about 3 months (November to January) to

find out the average number of cocoons pro-

duced by single individual per month. Dura-

tion between successive ovipositions of a

single earthworm was also observed by rear-

ing them singly in a terrarium. Twenty earth-

worms were thus observed for a period of

about one month.

The fresh cocoons were weighed, using a-

sensitive (0.01 mg) balance and the width

of the cocoons was measured using screw

‘gauge. Fresh cocoons were kept with natural

medium at different temperatures, i.e. 15, 21,

BIOLOGY OF A TROPICAL EARTHWORM

28 and 34°C and allowed to develop. The

incubation period of these cocoons was noted.

After hatching, the initial length, width, num-

ber of segments, and live weight were measur-

ed.

To measure the growth rate, 10 groups (5

in each) of young ones hatched at 28°C were

cultured using natural medium in the labora-

tory for a period of 90 days. The growth was

measured at regular intervals of 15 days, by

taking live weight. Suitable corrections were

made for the gut contents.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Distribution:— P. corethurus occurred

abundantly in shady places in irrigated fields

from October to January at a depth of 5 cm,

when the soil temperature was 28°C. At other

seasons of the year, these earthworms were

hardly found even at a depth of over 25 cm,

when the soil temperature had risen to above

32°C. It appears that as the soil temperature

rises the earthworms move into deeper parts

of the soil. Gerard (1967) has pointed out

that A.chlorotica, A.caliginosa and A. rosea

were distributed at a depth of 7.5 cm of soil

at suitable climatic conditions and moved in-

to the deeper parts when the soil temperature

rose or fell to a greater extent.

2. Cocoon production:— Cocoons of P.

corethurus were collected from the fields along

with the earthworms at a depth of 5 cm dur-

ing rainy season from October to January.

The cocoons were not found during other

seasons. Similar observations were made by

Evans & Guild (1948) and Satchel (1967)

who stated that the environment influenced

the production of cocoons by any species of

earthworm. Such restricted breeding behavi-

our has also been observed in some other

glossoscolecid worms such as the marsh dwel-

ling worm Criodrilus lacuum and Alma sp.

which produced cocoons only during cold

seasons (Edwards & Lofty 1972). Bahl

(1922) also reported that few species of Phre-

jima produced cocoons during rainy months.

P. corethurus reared in the laboratory also

produced coccons only during cold. season

from October to January. After January they

did not produce cocoons, confirming the field

Fig. 1. Photograph of developing

cocoons and freshly hatched Pontoscolese

corethurus.

111

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 2. Camera lucida drawings of developing cocoons (a, b)

and freshly hatched juvenile of Pontoscolese corethurus (c).

Observation that P. corethurus produces co- dual. The duration between two successive

coons only during the rainy season of the ovipositions of P. corethurus was 3 to 13

year. The mature individuals of P. corethurus days. : .

(7.4 = 1.04 cm length; 3.2 = 0.28 mm dia- Fresh cocoons of P. corethurus were more

meter; 533.5 = 39.09 mg weight) reared as_ or less spherical in shape, opaque and milk

groups in different terraria produced as many white in colour. Cocoons were about 3.3 =

as 14 + 2.2 cocoons per month per indivi- 0.4 mm in diameter and 28.3 + 1.18 mg in |

112

BIOLOGY OF A TROPICAL EARTHWORM.

240 |

200

160

120

to)

WEIGHT (mg)

15 30

60. 75 90

TIME (DAYS)

Fig. 3. Growth of the earthworm Pontoscolese corethurus; each value represents the average

performance of 50 individuals cultured in laboratory.

weight. The shape and size of the cocoons

vary in different species of common earth-

worms (Edwards & Lofty 1972).

3. Incubation:—The cocoons were kept

at room temperature, i.e. 28°C. As develop-

ment proceeded, the cocoons became trans-

lucent; after one week white streaks appeared

in the cocoons; and after two weeks the co-

coons became slightly red in colour appar-

ently due to blood circulation (Figs. 1 and 2a

and 2b). The cocoons hatched on the 21st =

1 day of incubation. The incubation period

increased from 21 = 1 day to 26 = 1 day

when the cocoons were kept at 22°C. It

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

appears that higher temperature accelerates the

development. Similar effect of temperature on

the development of earthworm’s cocoon was

observed by Gerard (1967) who stated that

A. chlorotica hatched after 30 days of incu-

bation at 20°C; after 50 days at 15°C, and

112 days at 10°C. The cocoons of P. core-

thurus did not hatch at 15°C and 34°C. The

reason for such failure in hatching is still to

be examined. It was observed that only one

worm hatched out from each cocoon. This is

the general rule in most species of earthworms.

Evans & Guild (1948) reported that thirteen

out of fourteen species of Lumbricid worms

produced only one worm from a cocoon.

4. Growth:—Freshly hatched P. corethu-

rus was 1.7 = 0.18 cm in length; 1.4 + 0.06

mm in diameter and 13.4 = 0.87 mg in weight.

(Fig. 2c). The average number of segments

at birth was 230 + 10. These young ones at-

tained an average body weight of 217.5 +

38.58 mg on the 91st day (Fig. 3). As seen

from the fig. 3 the growth rate is found to be

linear. Phillipson (1971) working on the Eu-

ropean species, Lumbricus terrestria has also

observed a growth rate of 175 mg in 3 months

duration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. K. Arunachalam,

Principal and P. G. Professor of Zoology for

offering facilities, Dr. T. J. Pandian for his

valuable guidance and encouragement and Dr.

E. G. Easton, (British Museum Natural His-

tory) for confirming the identification of the

earthworm.

REFERENCES

BAHL, K. N. (1922): On the development of the

enteronophric type of nephridial systems found in

Indian earthworms of the genus Phretima. Q. Jl.

Micros. Sci. 66:49-103.

Epwarps, C. A. & Lorry, J. E. (1972): Biology

of Earthworms. Chapman and Hall Ltd. London,

po 283;

Evans, A. C. & GuiLD, W. J. Mc.L (1948):

Studies on the relationships between earthworms and

soil fertility. IV. On the life cycle of some British

114

Lumbricidae. Ann. appl. Biol. 35(4) :471-484.

GERARD, B. M. (1967): Factors affecting earth-

worms in Pastures. J. Anim. Ecol. 36:235-252.

PHILLIPSON, J. (1971): Methods of study in

quantitative soil ecology: Population, production and

energy flow, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Ox-

ford, p. 297.

SATCHEL, J. E. (1967): lLumbricidae. In Soil

Biology: A. Burgess and F. Raw (Eds.). Academic

Press, London and N.Y., pp. 259-322.

THE SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS ON THE

NEW DELHI RIDGE"

A. J. GASTON?

(With six text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

From July 1971 to June 1974 I was engaged

in research on babblers of the genus Turdoides

in an area of scrub and Prosopis woodland

adjacent to New Delhi. The area constitutes

part of the ridge which runs south from the

campus of the University of Delhi, on the west

side of the city. Observations were mainly con-

fined to an area about 2 km? immediately west

of Willingdon Crescent, stretching as far as

New Rajinder Nagar. During the course of

field work, which included the trapping of

nearly one thousand birds with mist nets, a

record was kept of species observed each day

and, for less common species, the number

seen. The study area was visited for 4-10 hours

on most days during 106 weeks out of the

period specified above and total observation

time amounted to about 3000 hours. From

this concentrated series of observations on a

single locality it was possible to obtain a good

impression of seasonal changes in the occur-

rence of different species.

A number of authors have contributed to

our knowledge of the birds of Delhi and in-

formation on their status is summarised in the

Check List produced in 1967 by the Delhi

Bird Watching Society, referred to through-

Out this paper as “the Check List’’. Detailed

notes on habitats and breeding seasons are

given in Major-General Hutson’s excellent

book THE BIRDS ABOUT DELHI (1947). Most

1 Accepted March 1977.

2 Edward Grey Institute, Dept. of Zoology, Oxford.

previous information was assembled from

casual or intermittent observations made in a

variety of different habitats and this has tend-

ed to obscure patterns of seasonal variation

within a particular habitat. The present paper

intends to illustrate such seasonal patterns for

birds found in dry deciduous woodland and

scrub around Delhi. Comparisons of status will

be made with the notes included in the 1967

Check List and with comments in the HAND-

BOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(Ali & Ripley 1969-74), which is referred to,

throughout as “the Handbook’’.

During the course of the study a number of

observations were made of species which had

not previously been recorded in the Delhi area

and details of these observations are given,

along with notes on species listed in the Check

List as “‘very uncommon’’ or ‘accidental’, in

a systematic list following the data on season-

al fluctuations. This systematic list includes a

few observations made inside the Union Ter-

ritory of Delhi, but away from the area speci-

fied above.

Coverage was not uniform throughout the

period of the study and there were only five

months during which the observer was present

throughout in all three years; February, March,

April, August and September. A week was

missed in October in each year. November

and part of December were missed in 1973

and January was covered only in 1972 and

for one week in 1974. The second half of May

was missed entirely and only one week of ob-

servations were made in June. Mist netting

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

was carried out mainly in August-November

and a few species were recorded only when

trapped by this means.

RESULTS

To express the seasonal pattern of records

for each species Table 1 shows the proportion

of weeks in every month during which each

species was recorded in the Ridge study area,

in relation to the total number of weeks in

that month during which the observer was

present. Four categories are used; a dash in-

dicates that the species was not recorded at

all in that month, x indicates that it was re-

corded in less than half the weeks of obser-

vation, xx in half or more of the weeks, and

xxx in all of ihe weeks of observations in

that month. Table 1 includes those species

which were recorded more than once in the

study area, but not in every week of obser-

vations. Table 2 lists species recorded only

once, with the month of occurrence, and Table

3 lists common species which were recorded

in every week. The number of weeks of ob-

servations made in each month are shown at

the top of Table 1.

For a few species of passage migrants the

number of birds seen in each quarter month

during. the autumn are illustrated in figures

1-5, to show the extent to which passage is

concentrated. Some species could be seen mig-

rating during the day over the study area and

the numbers of these and their direction were

recorded. Numbers of Drongos Dicrurus ad-

similis recorded on migration in spring are

shown in figure 6, which includes only birds

seen flying steadily north or northwest.

The peak period for the passage of most

Palaearctic migrants through the Delhi area

was the first three weeks of September. Blyth’s

Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum,

116

which was recorded in the study area through-

out August-October, moults in this part of

North India before continuing its migration

(Gaston 1976). For the other warblers there

was relatively little variation between years,

with the peaks for both Crowned leaf-warblers

Phylloscopus_ occipitalis (Figure 2) and

Greenish Warblers Phylloscopus_ trochiloides

(Figure 3), the most numerous species, falling

in the first two weeks of September in all

three seasons.

Peak passage of Ashy Drongos Dicrurus

leucophaeus (Figure 4), a summer visitor to

the foothills of the NW Himalayas, occurred

in the last quarter of September in all three

seasons. The peak passage of Rosy Pastors

Sturnus roseus (Figure 5) was probably miss-

ed in 1971, when observations did not begin

until the last days of July, but in 1972 there

was a Clear peak in the first quarter of August.

Spring passage of Black Drongos Dicrurus

adsimilis was observed throughout March and

April, with a peak in 1972 and 1973 in the

second half of March. Resident birds ap-

peared to arrive in the study area during late

February and early March.

The seasonal patterns illustrated by table 1

are summarised in table 4, which shows the

proportions of the 167 species recorded in

the study area which fell into each status class.

It is interesting to compare these figures with

those given in the Check List for the entire

avifauna of Delhi. When all 322 species are

considered 53% are listed as resident, 34%

as winter visitors, 3% as summer visitors and

6% as passage migrants.

Differences between the study area and

the entire Delhi area may partly reflect

deficiencies in the year-round coverage of the

larger area, which no doubt resulted in some |

late migrants being classified in the Check |

List as winter visitors (Acrocephalus agricola,

BIRDS ON THE NEW DEZHI RIDGE

Acrocephalus dumetorum

NUMBER OF BIRDS

3 & i 2 3 4

JULY AUGUST

1973

1972

23. 4 1.342 3, &

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

Fig. 1. Number of records of Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum in the

Ridge study area per 1 month. x = no observations.

Phylloscopus affinis) and some winter visitors

being considered passage migrants (Phyllos-

copus griseolus). The bulk of the difference,

however, probably reflects real differences bet-

ween the patterns of seasonal occurrence of

birds in the dry woodland and scrub of the

ridge and those in other types of habitat in

the Delhi area; particularly the moist riverine

tract beside the River Yamuna.

Many species that occur only during the

Summer in the study area can be seen through-

Out the year in the riverine belt. These in-

cluded Butastur teesa, Vanellus indicus, Hal-

cyon smyrnensis, Coracias benghalensis, Me-

galaima haemacephala, Dicrurus adsimilis,

Rhiphidura_ aureola, Terpsiphone paradisi,

Petronia xanthocollis, Ploceus philippinus. The

same is true of some species recorded only on

passage in the study area; Acrocephalus sten-

toreus, and Saxicola caprata. A number of

other species recorded in the study area only

on passage occur throughout the winter in the

riverine belt; Tringa spp., Hirundo rustica,

Saxicola torquata, Anthus hodgsoni, A. tri-

vialis, Motacilla flava, M. alba. A few such as

Elanus caeruleus and Lanius excubitor are

117

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Phylloscopus occipitalis 1973

1S Ff 1972

ni | ae 1971

NUMBER OF BIRDS

i ee ee me

JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER

Fig. 2. Numbers of records of Crowned Leaf-warblers Phylloscopus occipitalis in the

Ridge study area per + month.

118

NUMBER OF BIRDS

Fig. 3. Numbers of records of Greenish Warblers Phylloscopus trochiloides in the

BIRDS ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

Phylloscopus trochiloides

3 #4

JULY

2 3 4 1 2-3 A

AUGUST SEPTEMBER

Ridge study area per 4 month.

1973

1972

1971

7) ae

OCTOBER

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Dicrurus leucophaeus

1973

NUMBER OF BIRDS

1 92h 3 ae

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

Fig. 4. Numbers of records of Ashy Drongos

Dicrurus leucophaeus in the Ridge study area

per + month.

resident in the riverine belt, but occur in the

study area only in winter. The relatively larger

number of species which leave the study area

during the winter, though resident in moist

areas nearby, probably reflects a deterioration

in the habitat during the winter as vegetation

dries up following the end of the rains in Sep-

tember.

For some species the pattern of seasonal

movements in North India may be quite com-

plex. The Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis

for instance breeds around Delhi during the

summer in both dry and moist habitats. Some

120

birds winter, although many more do so in

moist than in dry areas and in spring and

autumn large numbers occur on passage. Whe-

ther the wintering birds are part of the breed-

ing population or whether different birds move

in during the winter, and whether birds leav-

ing dry habitats migrate south or merely shift

to moist areas nearby could only be determin-

ed by a concentrated ringing programme.

Similar questions could be posed concerning

Lanius spp., Dicrurus adsimilis or Petronia

xanthocollis.

Some species appear quite erratic in their

occurrence around Delhi. The nightjars Capri-

mulgus spp. form a good example. C. indicus

was present in the study area during only one

Sturnus roseus

= 300

- 200

= 100 |

100

a, 8 il eG

JULY AUGUST

Fig. 5. Numbers of records of Rosy Pastors

Sturnus roseus in the Ridge study area per 1 |

month period.

NUMBER OF BIRDS

BIRDS ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

Dicrurus adsimilts 1974

oe ee eee

oo eo oo 6

eos eo eee

eeooe ree

ee eo ee 8

ees e cee

e@eooeeoe es

De ee oe eo ff

eee .

° eo

1@ 0 ee oe e@

Fe © 0 0 @ 0 ©

eo eeeee

e@eoeeoo Gee

ooeeceo oP.

eres SO - Os ° | Cee ee ae) arr

SRR aocooos COO BPS sow ma mmm oP GOCOOOOC

1972

heeeeeoae

Spe © ee ee 6

SEREPG © © © 8 8 oo

CR | eee ee

ol pinoy on a es hana ee

1 y] 3 4 1 2 3 4

MARCH APRIL

Fig. 6. Numbers of records of Black Drongos Dicrurus adsimilis migrating N or NW

over the Ridge study area in spring, per 1 month.

121

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

period of four weeks in the autumn of 1973,

when several birds were heard singing.

C. macrurus was heard singing several times

in March 1973, while several C. affinis were

singing in June 1974. All three species were

otherwise rare and it would be interesting to

know what factors govern the arrival of the

different species.

Winter visitors such as Jynx torquilla, Mus-

cicapa parva and Sylvia hortensis remain

around Delhi in much larger numbers in some

winters than in others. None were seen during

the exceptionally severe weather of January-

February 1974. Sylvia curruca and Phoeni-

curus ochruros appear to fluctuate in numbers

less. The fact that several birds of each spe-

cies were retrapped within a few yards of sites

where they had been netted in a previous win-

ter suggests that they return to the same terri-

tories in successive seasons. During hard

weather in the Punjab Hills, Black Bulbuls

Hypsipetes madagascariensis made an appear-

ance in the study area, well beyond their nor-

mal range, and Black-throated Thrushes Tur-

dus ruficollis occurred in large numbers

(Gaston 1973).

Changes in the status of birds around Delhi

are difficult to assess because of differences in

the way that observations have been collected

over the years. One species at least, the

White-bellied Minivet Pericrocotus erythro-

pygius, appears to have declined in the Delhi

area. Basil-Edwards (1926) records it as not

uncommon in parties of up to six, but Frome

(1947) considered it was not at all common

and the species was not recorded in the pre-

sent study. The Jungle Wren-Warbler Prinia

sylvatica, noted by Hutson as a scarce resident

and by the Checklist as uncommon, was also

not recorded although the dry habitat of the

study area may not be suitable for the species.

The Whitecapped Bunting Emberiza stewarti,

122

a common winter visitor to the study area,

was recorded in the Check List as very un-

common and this species may have become

more numerous around Delhi.

While 167 species were recorded in the study

area during the course of the study the maxi-

mum number likely to be seen in a day was

about 60. Among those seen regularly, how-

ever, were several species not easily recorded

elsewhere around Delhi; Sirkeer Taccocua

leschenaultii, Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus

asiaticus, Redwinged Bush Lark Mirafra ery-

throptera and the Leaf Warblers Phylloscopus

griseolus, P. occipitalis and P. subviridis. To

have such an area of virtually undisturbed

semi-natural woodland so close to a major

city is extremely fortunate for people in Delhi

interested in birds or other aspects of natural

history. It would be useful if part at least of

the area could be set aside specifically as a

nature reserve because it has great potential

as an educational asset. There is some danger

at present that the vegetation could degenerate

under the twin pressures of grazing and wood-

cutting and an excellent facility might be lost.

Systematic list of species included in the

1967 Check List of Delhi Birds as “‘very un-

common’’, ‘accidental’, or omitted entirely,

and hence previously unrecorded in the Union

Territory. The status as recorded in the Check

List is given in brackets after the name of

the species (Acc. = Accidental, V. Unc. =

Very Uncommon, NR = Not recorded).

Accipiter nisus (V. Unc.)

-Probably largely a spring passage migrant.

Apart from singles on Dec. 19, 1971 and Feb.

13, 1972 all other records (6) were in March

and April.

Buteo hemilasius (Acc.)

One seen soaring over the study area on

March 9, 1973.

BIRDS ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

Falco subbuteo/severus (Acc.)

Small, long-winged falcons belonging to one

or other of these two species were seen over

the study area on Oct. 7, 1971, Nov. 1, 1972

and July 26, 1973.

Vanellus cinereus (NR)

One seen beside a small pool on the East

side of the river Yamuna, opposite Okhla on

Dec. 5, 1972. This bird was also seen by R.

Smith and three other experienced ornitholo-

gists. According to the HANDBOOK it winters in

NE India and is only a rare straggler in the

West.

Streptopelia chinensis (V. Unc.)

Recorded in the study area on April 15,

1972 (2), May 3, 1972, April 3, 1973 and Jan.

29, 1974.

Otus scops (Acc.)

One trapped in a mist net in the study area

on Feb. 8, 1973.

Caprimulgus indicus (Acc.)

Heard calling regularly in the evenings bet-

ween Aug. 20-Sept. 17, 1973 in the study area.

Caprimulgus macrurus (V. Unc.)

One trapped on Dec. 19, 1972 in the study

area and identified by Shahid Ali. The

‘chaunk-chaunk’ call was heard several times

in March 1973.

C. affinis (V. Unc.)

Single birds were heard singing in the study

area on Sept. 10, 1973 and March 3 and June

5, 1974: Both Frome (1947) and Donahue

(1967) record this species in the Delhi area

during July-September, but Benthall (1949)

recorded large numbers in May. The species

may be a regular passage migrant.

Anthracoceros malabaricus (Acc.)

Single birds seen in the study area on Feb.

12 and March 28, 1973.

Dicrurus leucophaeus (V. Unc.)

A regular passage migrant in small numbers

in autumn (see fig. 1), but only two spring

records. One bird trapped in a mist net was

sent to the BNHS for confirmation of identi-

fication. Most birds appeared to be in imma-

ture plumage.

Coracina novaeholandiae (Acc.)

One seen near Delhi University on Aug. 9,

1971 and one in the study area on March 28,

1973.

Pericrocotus ethologus (NR)

A regular winter visitor to the study area in

small numbers (see table 1), usually in parties

of up to six, comprising mainly females and

immature males. The Check List included the

very similar P. brevirostris, but according to

the HANDBOOK this species is unlikely to occur

around Delhi and previous records of brevi-

rostris probably refer to ethologus.

Hypsipetes madagascariensis (NR)

Two were recorded in the study area on

Feb. 12, Feb. 24 and March 7, 1972, and three

on March 9. For further details see Gaston

(1973).

Muscicapa striata (NR)

Single birds were recorded in the study area

on Sept. 9 and 15, 1972. According to the

HANDBOOK this species is a regular passage

migrant to the West of Delhi.

M. superciliaris (Acc.)

Single birds were recorded in the study area

on March 13, 15, 16 and 29, 1973. All these

sightings may have involved the same bird.

The species is not included in the 1967 Check

List but it is listed in a cyclostyled addendum.

M. rubeculoides (NR)

One female or immature trapped on Oct.

22, 1971 and sent to BNHS. Identification per

A‘S*) Cheeke.

Prinia flaviventris (NR)

Two birds were seen carrying nest material

on the edge of a Typha marsh near milepost

one on the canal road south of Okhla on

March 26, 1973. On May 12, 1973 at least

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

four birds were present in the same area and

on March 29, 1974 two were seen. The HAND-

BooK shows the distribution of the western

race, sindiana, extending as far east as Am-

bala, Punjab and the Delhi birds must almost

certainly be of that race.

Sylvia communis (NR)

Single birds were trapped in the study area

on Sept. 14, 1971 and Sept. 7, 1972. A regular

passage migrant to the west of Delhi (HAND-

BOOK ).

Sylvia hortensis (V. Unc.)

Regular passage migrant and winter visitor

to the study area in small numbers, usually

seen in open woodland.

Phylloscopus tytleri (NR)

One observed at close range feeding in the

lower branches of Prosopis woodland in the

study area on Aug. 23, 1973. Due to the dif-

ficulty of identifying this species in the field

it can only be considered ‘probable’.

P. affinis (V. Unc.)

Single birds seen in the study area on Oct.

21 and.23, 1971 and Oct. 8; 1972.

P. pulcher (NR)

Single birds seen feeding in dense woodland

canopy in the study area on Sept. 23, 1971

and Oct. 25, 1972.

P. magnirostris (NR)

Single birds seen feeding in the woodland

canopy in the study area on Sept. 1, 1971 and

Sept. 25, 1972. The first bird was trapped and

examined in the hand.

P. occipitalis (V. Unc.)

A regular passage migrant during July-

October in the study area, with up to 36 be-

ing counted in one week in September 1971.

For details of passage see fig. 1. In spring

single birds were seen on March 30 and April

16s iO72:

Erythropygia galactotes (NR)

One seen on Aug. 3 and 21, 1972 in the

124

study area. A regular passage migrant further

west (HANDBOOK).

Oenathe isabellina (Acc.)

Recorded on several occasions in winter on

ploughed land around Delhi.

Monticola cinclorhynchus (V. Unc.)

One female seen in dense woodland in the

study area on April 17, 1974.

Zoothera citrina (V. Unc.)

One bird seen in dense woodland in the

study area on Oct. 16 and 28, Nov. 10 and

Deo Le o7:

Turdus unicolor (V. Unc.)

One in woodland in the study area on Nov.

24, 1971.

Tichodroma muraria (V. Unc.)

One creeping on the walls of Humayun’s

tomb; Oct: 13, 1971.

Dicaeum agile/erythrorhynchus (V. Unc.) _

Flowerpeckers of one of these two species

were seen in Prosopis woodland in the study

area on five occasions.

Lonchura malacca (Acc.)

Six were seen in a mixed flock with Bayas

Ploceus philippinus and Spotted Munias Lon-

chura punctulata among scrub in the study

area on July 24, 1972. Many of these birds

are sold in the bird markets in Old Delhi and

these could have been escapes.

Emberiza stewarti (V. Unc.)

A numerous winter visitor to the study area

between October and May. Flocks of up to

20 were often present in scrub and open wood-

land. The status accorded to the species in

the check list is puzzling and it may have be-

come more abundant recently.

E. buchanani (V. Unc.)

A not uncommon spring passage migrant,

up to six being seen in rocky, scrub-covered

parts of the study area. One autumn record

onvOcta gi A197 |:

BIRDS ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

TABLE 1

SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF SPECIES ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

Total Status

Months ENE A Mi Se AS.) OL Ni.

Weeks of observations Sec wioe Asa wh A it Seg 4 Oe Sell 106 code

Ardeola grayii Gta here tien KOMORI ML cea ou KG ot er Me ee eX 9 O

Bubulcus ibis SS EIMIRE etrg ven van ORK | KR KKK Kae 30 Vv

_Elanus caeruleus SRK URN ORK Ne tome Ke kel Xe oe EK IN a2 W

Pernis ptilorhynchus Se ROK Ra Sea OK eerie eu TK. eX 9 O

Accipiter nisus Zola (XMS X lee XG eae eee aime eee aie mK 9 Ps

Buteo rufinus Se OX Sa nea ma i 0 3 Ps

Butastur teesa Sh es MXN ORK | eR = KKK RRR ORK UX 55 S

Aquila rapax CU Ke Meee Kn OK ich mee oe iceeeslaeN een eR eer oe 11 W

A. clanga _ Es Me Vi I KN aetna ime users thay cs 2 O

Torgos calvus et Roe Meee i eae ae eK Nn cen meh MEK) omen XK 5 O

Circus cyaneus Sah VRUEY Maier aii pee ees eer ata Guat hg 2 W

C. pyrargus = Sb aa iM eieN A NE mt) eee Moen (ies ee. ihe XK A _ WwW

C. aeruginosus ere a Ken XW eae Tey arent item Sa oan emer 2 Ps

Spilornis cheela ee WS Gi 65,0, <P IeD. Cp, Ge ME ritend, ©. CONE GIN Ths ia, ©, <n), ©, Cae, « 47 R

Falco peregrinus a ee eet yr ee ee Re eK toa, Soe! vie 2 O

F. subbuteo /severus Srihedy here Giesalc ar o tT ca aN, Oni Hoe eA, Caimi), (ene 4 Pa

F. tinnunculus DO 2) C TMD CORED, MUD, ¢), ae Wee on CE Eas ae kA, Cat este 12 W

Vanellus indicus PAX KRK, OKKIKKRK XKKIXKK) KK XXiORRe K OX 71 S

Tringa ochropus ATS I, 0, Ge ilo Lar cee eee toe Ee OE. Ge, ©, GRR, ©, Cala, ©, Gann, 4 35 P

T. glareola Se te Pe KC ay a ev Nome ig ey reetnine er comess GNC deca ft eae Ne 5 P

Burhinus oedicnemus DG iS ihaaiesd <I Nitta, C76: <0. 0,0, Gio ©, Gal ine, Gully. ©, Chet, ©, Gatien, Cae, 4 48 R

Treron phoenicoptera SE KRM KORRES ee epee no oe 7 S

Streptopelia orientalis ee ies Ria mes een gree yy yee eR KG es KI ae 7 P

S. tranquebarica Si Ces Asie, CP tap, 0, <10-0.0, Cl, @. ©, Galli. Cr uiaid>. CUM, Gita oi Maken 24 S

S. chinensis Ae RG ge ENT Neca Me anita may eee 8 Ke fy ee 5 O

Psittacula eupatoria 5°, Gin. CRs A>. Gal, 0, 0, GUM CHEE LMM, GuAPUNID, CALA WD. ©. Clamp, ©, 4 23 R

P. cyanocephala FORK OK KK KIX OKI EXO KIKI ORK Ki KK) XK US R

Clamator jacobinus Se ee on OK KKK KKK XK 30 V

Cuculus varius Chea Ibo rally < aiid al), Casta, 0, Cos, ©, @) ta ©, @ a>, ©, la ad. Qa ae 38 V

C. canorus Se sae read are Guarani gt edi eco CVE KU Ku Ue Ae eee a 6 P

Eudynamys scolopacea Sag) SID-<) HD. GHCD.©, 6 ei, 0,0, 0.0. Ua. ©, Cauip. 0, illo. ©, <li, ©, Camp. Gall a= 53 S

Taccocua leschenaultii KO MO KK GORK ORK KKRG RR ORK ORK ERK XK K UR K 66 R

Centropus sinensis KK OK RAK ER RKU KKK KKK ORK KK NRK KKK | XK 83 R

Otus bakkamoena SPR Mh RG Ee eR 2 O

Bubo coromandus SOK Meier eet os ee Vy ee me ee eK ea oe 2 O

Athene brama ER, HPI, One IRE cela eee ND, Guar Seer a 10 R?

Caprimulgus indicus Ses cee M eos tage emt tlie: fein Keer Ke mea ey 5 V

C. asiaticus eye eh mit ee reel SRR SIX RR ae oX 17 V

C. affinis BES) oS Bs Lie hy <M HL.) ©, CML NE ME ena, UR erated re 3 O

Apus affinis Sea Kye ORK HOR K KRK RK KKK OR Ke RK 46 S

Alcedo atthis ESN ake ghee Nd Wen, O, CONeaniy Ne. GANA, CaO ot 6 Vv

Halcyon smyrnensis SX XK NR OR KKK ORK MORK ERK BMP OK 0X 50 S

Merops superciliosus | persicus SU EN er a PR NE et me KONA maa Lea ORK CHK Kee eae ae 21 P

M. orientalis / KN Se Ky KKK NKR KKK, KKK KK KKK OKK SO KK XK 86 R/P

Coracias benghalensis SE gee Keb X SY Kine EK OX ORK Ke 24 S/P

Upupa epops — XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XX XX XX 67 R/P

Tockus_birostris SoM ee Meee meee ao Kan MraRea ht Kee cee tet Th tee 6 Vv

Anthracoceros malabaricus Pe aN ce cen a ey a 2 O

Megalaima zeylanica Di Lea acl, CYS, ©, GREY, ©, Cinigic MDD. ©, Gicay GU GE Uta Clady <a 34 S

M. haemacephala So) [ete eh ND. GUMS. CN e-, <>, 0,0, Gun, ©, GLAD, GMa, CANOE yg, Gaal 24 N)

Jynx torquilla OG ai Oy Cant ale. ©, audi), GNM Melee ibe AMEN, Gone, <aMn CMV. < 28 W

Mirafra erythroptera NA AK RK XK XKK MRK OKK XK SKK! OXK UOXK xX 61 R/S

Hirundo rustica Se) eee OK MRE WE IE RIK Ie ORK KKM KOK eX 38 P

Ket My AE Set RE oo aK W

Lanius excubitor x =

OS EO 16

125

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Months joer. MA.” Mo a J AS. - On UN. Ds Total Status

Weeks of observations Spl2 AS 124, OMe A Oe Se ill 106 code

EE,

L. vittatus XX X XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XX XXX XX XX XX 86 R/S

L. collurio SKC PKG APR EO as WT XG eK TX 6 W

Oriolus oriolus Sep esr eh OR) AR MONKS Tee ee Ra a 13 S

Dicrurus adsimilis — X% XX XX XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XK — x 62 S

D. leucophaeus a RSS ae) a etal etre | Uae XeMmgn Xan neXt 13 p

Sturnus pagodarum XL KKK MAK KKK KKK IRR MRK XK Keo 71 R/S

S. roseus ON Ge early. >. Gana) ©. Sah eS ca Ga tee 22 P

S. vulgaris ene NS BR a Sa a ale a gy 0 Cee XG ROX 16 W/P

Sulicontra SN Ke, RS KR EK KOK KE hes ONG GU UX OKC ENS 19 R

Corvus macrorhynchos Bete A ters MNS) ae tin need 1p. ip anaes Gain ea NS 13 O

Pericrocotus ethologus 0 Oe ae eae eats hme sean sora ay ahigae oat) «pit 1. 22 W

Hypsipetes madagascariensis eR Ne tr eum Come gr ayy Ney oo Pa hea co 3 W

Muscicapa_ Striata ee hon ee en ee a Reha Ui 74 P

M. parva 1. a aS SOS EM mT ee I OO DCN aK 39 W/P

M. superciliaris ea Te ee Thee mE EU ORL Pie. ce ay Se a = 2 Ps

M. thalassina Fo de a te ona Voc ar geetiny | Seen gale = tr an ie i Xe 5 P

Culicicapa ceylonensis a Sealer et Sia gee Wea Xe ae 4 P

Rhipidura aureola rye GOON a I ae | alae tie ania 5 ee XG ie ra 8 P

Terpsiphone paradisi eh TS CN ee 2 NG Xs ay XG eae 15 P

Prinia subflava Re Re Rg OR ete Se NCW OX KG ar: 34 R

Acrocephalus stentoreus eo ie i ee a Ray Cake od) ee 2 P

Acrocephalus dumetorum — yet ee eee eae eS OK 44 P

A. agricola ao ae Me a ee a es hae 2 P

Hippolais caligata Fe te ee ee eK 17 P

Sylvia hortensis Rog hg Ro pie are) eae wee EX WX KIO 26 W/P

S. communis ay Rea a 47 ea hee a - 2 Pa

S. curruca XX XXX XXX XXX XXX — — — XX XXX XX XXX 85 W/P

Phylloscopus collybita KK KK RK AR i i ek PKK EK KX 53 W/P

P. neglectus pent Sede Sari are ts RN ie ot). Gin 10.6 aon 4 P

P. affinis ey SE Pe ee fe ae am emu ese. CO ium ye 2 Pa

P. griseolus KX XM AX RK yo Ba ee oes XK XK KX 55 W/P

P. pulcher eee kee rcs ee a ee 2 Pa

P. inornatus BX KK KK et a is OK MOK XK OK 48 W/P

P. subviridis Cy Se cr em ae awe gir aot) is ere SS € 30 W

P. magnirostris ee Soe SE SS RO ee Oe Xe 2 Pa

P. trochiloides eee). Wee wae TR a ee tens Caen 25 P

P. t. nitidus Ce Se we we Ge eo ae ee 6 P

P. occipitalis pa hee a om, P.M OO. C a. SNE tesa wes 25 Pa

Erythropygia galactotes ic ime er tem rae Le SSNS Nias) ES 2 Pa

Erithacus svecicus DU ee ede aa ae eC eke 8 W/P

Copsychus saularis Ue RHO eee | BON aS OXON ANE KG es iXG OX 31 R?

Phoenicurus_ ochruros XX XX XXX XXX XXX —- — = XX XXX XX XXX 81 W

Saxicola torquata Be My Me. hs een eee cae 0 ee aa 11 P

S. caprata Ty eK Lippe gers ee ga DG i sae 9 RP

Zoothera citrina Tk ee ea = heh eK ER OX 4 W

Turdus _ ruficollis KX gXX EX” pK ies ge a eX aX 29 W

Sitta castanea e's ee ee oo eh le ae Oe oe psi) OX 3 O

Anthus hodgsoni eR Kee ee GG ues lc aXe eX Ky 8 P

A. trivialis moe eK Xt eS Ai eX aK eae 6 P

A. similis oko Kye ee a ee pee ae Oe UK KT RK 9 W/P

Motacilla flava Re ee a eee GI Co GEN eee ys 6 Pa

M. caspica KX UORK GK i we X po pe es eK) BRKORKK KK | OOK 54 W/P

M. alba = Wy hk Ss Gere OX EXC Mine 3 P

Dicaeum agile |

erythrorhynchos ER IK gir her” yt i real ieee Bio gee tee x 5) WwW

Zosterops palpebrosa = ok XK: eK uk) GR RW RK KK ERIKK GX Xx 53 S

Passer domesticus ml TKK Kye KR KIRK KE OX Kn XG aX 44 Ss

Petronia xanthocollis — —XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXK XK - - 62 S

BIRDS ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

SS LDL ALLL LLL EL EE LE DS EE IT TET ITI

Months Veeco Nis AL Mi Ses So OA So OL OONS D: Total Status

Weeks of observations SH 2 Meant ly leh Do lid. On Spy kt 106 code

Ploceus philippinus NS CP Clan a ell at). a >.>: Ce a ea age eee 12 N)

Lonchura_ punctulata So i ie EE D> de eee ah 3 O

Carpodacus erythrinus KORIKG ONT OC UI eee ea iret Ue I SN 19 W

Emberiza_ stewarti RO ON KU SOUIKONG ME Rar UN ee een SO EEX 49 W/P

E. buchanani Set em OK XN GE ee ve oh xX - ~ 6 P

Species recorded in every week or in only one week are excluded. xxx; recorded in every week in

which observations were made, xx; recorded in half or more of the weeks, x; recorded in less than half

of the weeks, -; not recorded in that month. For status code see table 4.

TABLE 2

SPECIES RECORDED IN THE STUDY AREA DURING ONLY ONE WEEK, WITH THE MONTH

OF OCCURRENCE

Buteo hemilasius (March) Aquila heliaca (April) Falco biarmicus (February)

Falco chicquera (September) Gallinula chloropus (April) .

Otus scops (February) Caprimulgus macrurus (December) Ceryle rudis (May)

Hirundo flavicola (December) Acridotheres ginginianus (November)

Coracina novaeholandiae (March) Aegithina nigrolutea (June)

Muscicapa rubeculoides (September) Phylloscopus tytleri (August)

Monticolla cinclorhynchus (April) Turdus unicolor (November)

Motacilla citreola (November) Lonchura malacca (July) Melophus lathami (April)

TABLE 3

SPECIES RECORDED IN THE STUDY AREA DURING EVERY WEEK OF THE STUDY

Milvus migrans Lanius schach Turdoides striatus

Accipiter badius Acridotheres tristis Prinia hodgsonii

Gyps_ bengalensis Dendrocitta vagabunda P. buchanani

Neophron percnopterus | Corvus splendens P. socialis

Francolinus pondicerianus Tephrodornis pondicerianus Orthotomus sutorius

Pavo cristatus Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Saxicoloides fulicata

Columba livia Pycnonotus jocosus Nectarinia asiatica

Streptopelia decaocto P. leucogenys Lonchura malabarica

S. senegalensis P. cafer

Psittacula krameri Chrysomma sinensis

Dinopium_ benghalense Turdoides caudatus

Dendrocopos mahrattensis T. malcolmi

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

TABLE 4

SUMMARY OF SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF SPECIES ON THE RIDGE STUDY AREA

Status

fGode Gn able

Number of spp. Percentage

Resident R 42

Resident and Passage migrant R/P 2 ; 47 28.

Resident and Summer visitor R/S 3

Winter visitor W 16 77 16

Winter and Passage migrant W/P 11

Summer visitor S 15

Summer and Passage migrant S/P 1 } 23 14

Rains visitor V fi

Passage migrant P 26

Passage, mainly autumn Pa 8 } 38 706)

Passage, mainly spring Ps 4

Occasional, non-seasonal O 32 19

167

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS also wish to thank Prof. C. M. Dass, Dept.

of Zoology, Universit Delhi faciliti

I am very grateful to the Leverhulme ey Si) fon Wek Jon waalliic

Trustees, the Royal Society and the British

Ornithologist’s Union, all of whom contribut-

ed funds to finance my research in Delhi. I

and assistance rendered during my stay in

Delhi and Peter Jackson who introduced me

to the Ridge in the first place. |

REFERENCES

ALI, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1969-1973): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vols. 1-10. Ox-

ford University Press, Bombay.

ANON (1967): Birds of Delhi and District, Field

Check List. Delhi Bird Watching Society.

BASIL-Epwarps, S. (1926): A _ contribution to

the ornithology of Delhi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

31:261-273, 567-578.

BENTHALL, E. C. (1949): The birds of Delhi and

district. ibid. 48:368-370, 811-812.

DONAHUE, J. P. (1967): Notes on a collection

of Indian birds, mostly from Delhi. ibid. 64:410-

128

429.

FRoME, N. F. (1947): The birds of Delhi and

district. ibid. 47:277-300, 751-753.

GASTON, A. J. (1973): Black Bulbuls Hypsipetes

madagascariensis (P. L. S. Muller) in Delhi. ibid.

69(3) :651-652.

(1976): The moult of Blyth’s Reed

Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum in India, with

notes on the moult of other Palaearctic Warblers

in India. Ibis 118:247-251.

Hutson, H. P. W. (1954): The Birds about

Delhi. Delhi Bird Watching Society.

CEREAL PREFERENCE AND INTAKE OF FOUR SPECIES

OF FIELD RODENTS'

SHAKUNTHALA SRIDHARA2 AND R. V. KRISHNAMOORTHY

(With a text-figure)

The preference and intake of different grains and standard rat and mice feed and the effect

of texture were assessed in four species of rodents namely Bandicota bengalensis ben-

galensis Gray, Rattus rattus Linn, Rattus meltada Gray and Tatera indica cuvieri Water-

house. The calorific and nutritional value of the food, effect of habitat, activity of the ani-

mal, body weight and palatability of the grain offered all affected preference and con-

sumption. These studies suggest that for wetlands and residential area a bait composed of

rice-ragi should be used for control by poisoning and for

would be more acceptable.

INTRODUCTION

Although some field and laboratory studies

on food selection and preference of rodents

have been conducted (Prasad, 1954; Prakash,

1962; Parrack, 1969; Prakash et al., 1970;

Bindra & Sagar, 1976 Jain et al., 1974; Pra-

kash et al., 1974; Khan 1974) more informa-

tion is needed for a variety of species. Such

studies would be of great help in formulating

bait composition for field control. The present

investigation therefore examined the feeding

preferences of Bandicota bengalensis benga-

lensis Gray, Rattus rattus Linn. Tatera indica

cuvier’ Waterhouse and Rattus meltada Gray.

Preferences for different cereals and the effect

of texture of grain on preference were assess-

ed.

METHODS

Adult lesser bandicoots (6 ¢¢ and 6 2?)

were trapped in paddy fields; soft-furred field

rats and gerbils (3 ¢¢ and 3 22 of each)

1 Accepted January 1977.

* Departments of Vertebrate Biology and Zoology

University of Agricultural Sciences, G.K.V.K. Cam-

pus, Yelahanka Post, Bangalore North 562 142.

drylands a jowar-maize bait

were captured in cultivated ragi fields. Black

rats (5 ¢¢ and 5 22) were trapped in the

residential area near the University campus.

All the rats were housed individually in metal

cages. Each cage was provided with cotton

wool and hay for bedding. Photoperiod was

regulated at 12 hours light and 12 hours dark-

ness with the light period starting at 06-00

hrs. Air temperature varied at 232°C.

Cereal preference: The cereals were offered

in a socket-cylinder type of container. The

inner component was a cylinder with 8 cm

diameter, 4.5 cm in height with a 4.4 cm cir-

cular opening in the centre. The inner con-

tainer fitted into the outer component which

was fixed to the floor of the cage. The devise

greatly reduced spillage of grain.

‘No choice experiment’: Consumption of

locally grown rice (Oryza sativa), ragi (Eleu-

sine coracana), wheat (Triticum aestivum),

jowar (Sorghum vulgare) and maize (Zea-

mays) were tested in that order, each cereal

for seven consecutive days. Similarly the rate

of consumption of standard rat and mice feed

(Hindustan Lever, India) was estimated and

compared with cereal intake. Water with add-

ed 2% multivitamins (Multivitamin syrup,

129

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Glaxo Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., India) was al-

ways available. Food consumption was ex-

pressed as g/100 g body weight/24 hrs. and

its calorific equivalent.

Paired choice experiment: Rice was paired

with ragi, wheat, jowar and maize. For prefer-

ence between two cereals, two separate con-

tainers containing 40 g each of the cereals

were placed in diagonally opposite corners

of the cage. Consumption of each cereal was

measured as before.

Texture choice: Each test grain was offered

in three forms-as whole grain, broken grain

and powder form in three different containers

simultaneously and the preference towards

texture studied.

Activity scores: The rats of each species were

observed for ten minutes each day individual-

ly for five days at 10 A.M. to overcome the

effect of diurnal rhythms. During the ten

minute counts of sniffing, drinking water, eat-

ing, exploring the cage, climbing and running

were recorded.

TABLE 2

RATE OF COMMERCIAL FEED CONSUMPTION AND ITS

CALORIFIC EQUIVALENT IN FOUR SPECIES OF WILD

RODENTS

SE A SS ES IRR TED

Pellets consumed Calorific equi- Body

Species g/100g body valent of cons- weight

weight umed pellets (Range)

a ES

B. bengalensis 12+1.8 38.4 250-300

R. rattus 10+0.9 32.0 150-200

T. indica 1116 35,0 130-150

R. meltada 10+1.5 32 70-100

Be cS RN NE

Values are mean of the means of each week observa-

tions + S.E.

130

TABLE 1

INTAKE OF DIFFERENT CEREALS BY FOUR SPECIES OF RODENTS

indica AND R. meltada)

(B. bengalensis, R. rattus, T.

Mean

cal.

intake

grain

intake

g/100g cal

MAIZE

JOWAR

g/100g cal

WHEAT

g/100g cal

RAGI

RICE

g/100g cal

Species

6+1 2144 De=O% eel ie=2 S22055= Ay a22 4821 1743 4.540.3- 1523 5+0.2 18+1

B. bengalensis

352e3 Daa0 4s 312 1220.69 24222 11+1 3oa23

11+0.8

12+0.8 4143

R. rattus

1040.8 3442

Waele) Ssise //

56225 2144 73+1

16+1.5

12+1.8 4146

48+3 18+6 59+5

14+1

T. rndica

33ee5 14+1.8 48+6 122 ie 42S 16+2 55 +6 13+1 451+4

16+0.8

Se [75 28e=5

meltada

p >.001

Values are mean of the means of each week of observations — S.E

CEREAL PREFERENCE OF RODENTS

| Statistical analysis: Student’s ‘t’? test (Croxton RESULTS

| 1953), Friedman’s two-way analysis of vari-

| ence by ranks and Krushkal-Wallis one way

| analysis of varience by ranks (Seigel 1956)

| were used to compare the preferential intake

| of cereals, the effect of texture on preference

| and activity scores respectively.

B. bengalensis: In the absence of any choice

the lesser bandicoot consumed more rice than

each of the other cereals. Ragi and wheat

were eaten more than jowar and maize (Table

TABLE 3

INTAKE OF CEREALS BY FOUR SPECIES OF RODENTS WHEN PAIRED CHOICE OF CEREALS

WAS OFFERED

RICE vs. RAGI

Rice ragi p Preference total total

cereal cal.

intake intake

bengalensis 4,2+0.9 3.240.4 =0.2 rice & ragi 7.4 25

, rattus 6.0+1.0 4.5+1.0 >0.2 rice & ragi 10.5 35

indica 1,540.5 9.542.0 >.01 ragi 11.0 37

_ meltada 25015 7.5+0.8 >.01 ragi 10.0 33

RICE vs. WHEAT

. bengalensis 4.0+0.7 1.8+0.5 >.001 rice 5.8 20

| rattus 6.3+0.2 1.6+0.3 >,001 rice 7.8 28

| indica 6341.0 2.7+0.5 >.05 rice 9.0 31

-. meltada 6.0+1.0 3.0+0.8 >.05 rice 9.0 31

i RICE vs. JOWAR

4 bengalensis 4.5+0.3 0.7+0.2 >.001 rice 522 19

.) rattus 5.7+£1.0 $.5+0.2 Sal rice & jowar 11.2 37

‘ indica 4.2+0.5 fjisel les) >.05 jowar 12.0 42

4 meltada 4.5+1.0 6.5+0°5 > .05 jowar 11.0 38

RICE vs. MAIZE

j bengalensis 4.0+0.6 0.8+0.3 >.001 rice 4.8 16

1 rattus 7.4+0.6 0,6+0.5 >.001 rice 8.0 28

| indica 5.0+0.5 3.5+0.8 >.05 rice 8.5 30

J meltada 6.5+1.0 2.51.0: >.02 rice 8.0 31

(aa A a BS PET RH A SE DS SET TE I I POE ERGO EG IE EIST DEI

Fadings are the mean of means of 7 observations + S.E.

131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

1). Bandicoots however, ate less grain than

commercial feed (Table 2). In paired choices

they preferred rice and ragi than wheat, maize

and jowar (table 3). Rice was prefered to all

other grains except ragi. No preferential order

was noticed. Similar results were reported by

Spillett (1968) for lesser bandicoots. Rice-ragi

combination was highly consumed (Table 3).

The grain consumption was higher when more

than one grain was present (Table 1 and 3).

Bindra & Sagar (1970) observed the same

trend in lesser bandicoots. Grain in powder

form was preferred to broken or whole grains

(Table 4). ° :

Lesser bandicoots registered the lowest level

of physical activity (Table 5).

_R. rattus: Black rats ate more rice, ragi and

maize than wheat and jowar when there was

no choice (Table 1). Compared to lesser ban-

dicoots, they consume less commercial feed

(Table 2), but twice as much grain (Table 1).

When a choice was offered they prefered rice

followed by ragi and jowar, wheat and maize

(Yable 3). Earlier black rat’s preference to-

wards rice when offered along with four other

food stuffs was observed by Harrison & Wood-

ville (1950). The rate of intake was not affect-

ed by the presence of more than one grain

(Table 3). Krishnamurthy et al. (1967) notic-

ed similar trend in black rats. Rice and jowar

combination was liked more than any other

pair of cereals (Table 3). Powdered grain was

prefered to broken or whole grain (Table 4).

Activity scores were higher than that of

TABLE 4

EFFECT OF CEREAL TEXTURE ON CONSUMPTION

RATES OF WILD RODENTS

. bengalensis a. 0.9+0.1 0.0

b. 3.6+0.5 0.8+0.1

c. 3.9+0.8 7.0+1.4

d. 8.40.7 7.8+1.5

. rattus ae 2-32-0'5 0.0

b. 1.9+0.6 2.7+0.5

Cl Sy) See )162) 9.0+0.5

d. 9.7+1.0 12+0.9

. indica a. 1.5+0.02 0.0

b. 0.8+0.3 6.9+1.0

Cy 32-02 4.3+1.0

d. 9.60.2 11.8+0.8

. meltada a. 2.0+0.3 0.0

ve b. 152202 1.9+0.4

c. 5.9+0.5 8.5+0.3

d. 9.4+0.5 10.4+0.4

p >.0046 p>.0046

0.4+0.3 0.3+0.1 0.3+0.2

L703 132-053 1.9+0.5

4.9+0.3 6.5+0.5 4.4+0.4

7.140. Sie 055 6.7+0.6

0.7+0.6 2.3+0.8 0.5 +0.2

0.6+0.1 0.5+0.2 0.2+0.04

8.0+0.7 9,.5+0.6 3.8+2.0

9.3+0.8 W724 3181304 4.5+1.5

5.0+0.6 4.0+0.7 3.14:1.0

3.0+0.6 3.0+0.4 0.7 +0.3

9.0+0.7 7.0+0.6 8.141.3

17.0+0.6 14.0+1.0 12.0+1.4

0.8+0.3 1.8+0.5 0.6+0.1

2.2+0.4 0.9+0.3 2.2+0.5

6.02.0 91222055) 4.2+0.5

8.8+1.5 11.9+0.6 7.0+2.0

p > .0046 _ p>.0046 p>.0046

Values are mean of the means of 7 observations = S.E.

a, whole grain; b, broken grain; c, powder form of the grain; d, total consumption.

132

| lesser bandicoots but below that of gerbils

| (Table 5).

| T. indica: Gerbils ate more maize than any

of the other grains (Table 1) when there was

no choice. The order of intake was maize >

ragi > jowar > rice > wheat. Next to lesser

bandicoots, they consume the highest amount

of commercial feed (Table 2). Mean grain

consumption was highest in gerbils (Table 1).

When faced with a paired choice the de-

creasing order of preference was: ragi-jowar;

rice; wheat-maize (Table 3). Rate of con-

sumption was more when there was no choice

(Tables 1 and 3) in contrast to earlier studies

of Bindra & Sagar (1970). Rice and jowar

combination was the most preferred pair

(Table 3).

Powdered grain was the most liked but the

extent of preference towards whole grain was

more in gerbils than in other species tested

(Table 4).

Highest physical activity was seen in ger-

bils (Table 5).

R. meltada: The soft-furred field rats

preferred all the grains except rice (Table

1). When offered a _ paired choice, pre-

TABLE 5

ACTIVITY SCORES OF WILD RODENTS UNDER CAPTIVE

CONDITIONS

Species Activity scores

SL LE LE PE ITT EET YES

B. bengalensis 15+3

R. rattus 26+3

T. indica SRE.)

R. meltada 253

>.001

Values are mean of the means of observations =

S.E.

CEREAL PREFERENCE OF RODENTS

ference for ragi and jowar was seen followed

by rice, maize and wheat (Table 3). Rate of

consumption was more when there was no

choice (Table 1 and 3) .Earlier it was re-

ported that single or multiple choice had no

effect on average daily intake of food (Jain

et al. 1974). Rice and jowar combination was

the best liked (Table 3). Powder form was

preferred to other forms of grain offered

(Table 4).

Activity scores were similar to black rats

(Table 5).

Calorific intake: The data presented in fig. 1

illustrates that gerbils consume more calories

than other species followed by R. meltada,

R. rattus and B. bengalensis. cee

DISCUSSION

Though most rodents are omnivorous and

versatile feeders, different species exhibit

subtle differences in their food preferences

(Landry 1970; Barnett 1966). Exploratory

capacity and learning behaviour help rats

adapt themselves to changing situations (Bar-

nett 1975). However, factors which influence

the food selection and food detection are not

well known.

Food preference may be affected by the

nutritive value of the food. Since the calorific

values of the foods offered in the present ex-

periment ranged from 3.2 to 3.6 calories per

gram (Aykroyd 1976), the influence of the

calorific value of the food on preferential in-

take was probably negligible. B. bengalensis

consumed twice as much commercial feed as

cereals though the calorific values are about

equal. Probably the commercial feed was more

palatable, nutritive or more easily eaten.

Food preference is also affected by the

earlier experience of the animal (Forgus &

Hutchings 1960); such an effect was not

133

pb ro)

Calorifi intake/100g body weight /24 hrs.

AN (ee)

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Scale: 1 cm= 5 calories

rm B

a @ |

5 e

2 ~

®@

ae) e

col red

Fig. 1. Average calorific intake in field rodents.

CEREAL PREFERENCE OF RODENTS

however found by Bronson (1966) or Krishna

Kumari (1973). But Barnett (1966) suggests

that given a choice rats tend to select the food

with which they are most familiar. B. benga-

lensis inhabits clay loam soils and wet paddy

fields (Srivastava et al. 1968; Urs et al. 1968; .

Sridhara 1976) where rice is readily avail-

able; thus their preference for rice and ragi in

the laboratory. In case of R. rattus, its pre-

ference for rice may again result from its

earlier experience of that food since rice was

the staple food of people in the area from

which the black rats were captured. Their

liking for ragi and jowar may be due to the

small size and smooth consistency of these

grains (Khan 1974). Both T. indica and R.

meltada inhabit a wide variety of dryland

habitats (Urs et al. 1968; Chandrahas &

Krishnaswamy 1974) and in the present study

were collected from ragi fields; hence their

preference for dryland crops.

Food consumption is also influenced by the

physical activity of the animal. Laboratory

observations showed gerbils as the most active

rodents followed by Rattus genera and bandi-

coots. Comparison of average grain intake

(Table 1) and calorific intake (Figure 1)

shows that a correlation can be drawn _ be-

tween the two.

Food consumption is related to bodyweight;

food eaten per gram of body weight declines

however with increasing body weight (Barnett

1975). Thus energy requirements of the ani-

mals are generally inversely proportional to

body weight and calorific intake is greater in

animals of low weight (R. meltada and T.

indica) than in B. bengalensis (Table 2).

Texture preferences are purely due to pala-

tability reasons since rats often prefer soft or

finely divided food to hard or coarse grain

(Barnett & Spencer 1953; Jain et al. 1974;

Prakash et al. 1974). All the four species stu-

died confirmed this (Table 4).

Rodents are characterised by ‘Omnivory’

and ‘Sampling’ of all available food in their

environment (Barnett 1975). All the four

species always sampled all available foods but

in quantities related to nutritive values of the

food, palatability, earlier food experience, phy-

sical activity and body weight.

Basing on present results it can be suggest-

ed that a bait of rice and ragi should be most

effective for control of B. bengalensis. For the

dryland species R. meltada and T. indica a

jowar-maize bait and for the commensal black

rat a rice-ragi or rice-jowar bait should be

used.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Dr. K. Ramakrishnan,

Dean, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore for encouragement and Dr. R. Na-

rayana, Director of Instruction (Basic Scien-

ces & Humanities), University of Agricultural

Sciences, Bangalore for offering facilities.

Financial aid from the Ford Foundation

(Grant No. 660-19B), New Delhi is gratefully

acknowledged. Thanks are due to Dr. P. E.

Cowan for critically going through the manus-

cript and for suggestions.

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

REFERENCES

AykroypD, W. R. (1976): The nutritive value of

Indian foods and the planning of satisfactory diets.

National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of

Medical Research, Hydrabad, India.

BARNETT, S. A. (1966): The feeding of rodents.

In: Indian Rodent Symposium. (Ed. K. L. Harris)

New Delhi: 113-123.

a (1975): The Rat: A Study in

Behaviour. 2nd Edn. Chicago. University of Chicago

Press.

AND SPENCER, M. M. (1953): Ex-

periments on food preferences of wild rats (Rattus

norvegicus Berkenhout). J. Hyg. Camb. 51:16-34.

BINpDRA, O. S. AND SAGAR, P. (1970): On food pre-

ferences and rate of food consumption by three spe-

cies of field rats. Bull. Grain Tech. 8:46-49.

BRONSON, G. (1966): Evidence of lack of influ-

ence of early diet on adult food preferences in rats.

J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 62:162-164.

CHANDRAHAS, R. K. AND KRISHNASWAMI, A. K.

(1973): Ecology of the soft-furred field rat, Rattus

meltada (Gray) in Kolar, Mysore State. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 70:447-457.

CROXTON, F. E. (1953): Elementary Statistics with

application in Medicine and Biological Sciences.

Dover Publications Inc. New York.

Forcus, R. H. AND HurTcHINGs, D. E. (1960):

Effects of early experiences of flavour preference.

Psychol. Rep. 6:410.

HARRISON, J. L. AND WoopviLLE, H. C. (1950):

Notes on the feeding habits of house rats in Ran-

goon, Burma. Annal. Applied Biol. 37:296-304.

~ JAIN, A. P., PRAKASH, I. AND RANA, B. D. (1974):

Baits for the control of soft-furred field rat, Rattus

meltada pallidior Ryley. Z. Angew. Zool. 61:183-

190.

KHAN, J. A. (1974): Laboratory experiments on

136

the food preferences of the black rat, Rattus rattus

Linn. Zool. J. Lin. Soc. 54:167-184.

KRISHNA KuMarI, M. K. (1973): Effects of early

food experience on later food experiences in adult

rats. Pest Control. Nov. 1973.

KRISHNAMURTHY, K., UNIYAL, V., SINGH, J. AND

PINGALE, S. V. (1967): Studies on rodents and their

control: I. Studies on rat population and losses of

food grains. Bull. Grain. Tech. 5:147-153.

PRAKASH, I. (1962): Ecology of the gerbils of

the Rajasthan Desert, India. Mammalia. 26:311-

331.

——————, FitzwaTer, W. D. AND JAIN, A. P.

(1970): Toxic chemicals and baits for the control

of two gerbils, Meriones hurrianae Jerdon and Tat-

era indica Hardwicke. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

66 :500-509.

—————., JAIN, A. P. AND RANA, B. D. (1974):

Baits for the control of the hairy-footed gerbil,

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SRIDHARA, S. (1976): Burrow patterns of Bandi-

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SRIVASTAVA, A. S., GupTA, R. L., PANDEY, R. K.,

SINGH, B. D. N. AND Matuur, K. P. (1968): Dis-

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Urs, Y. L., KRISHNA KuMarI, M. K. AND MAJ-

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THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION AND SATIETY ON

THE SWIMMING ACTIVITY OF AN AQUATIC COPEPOD,

ORTHOCYCLOPS MODESTUS

(CRUSTACEA: COPEPODA)'*

FRED PUNZO?

(With two text-figures)

Food deprivation for 48 h does not significantly affect the swimming activity of Ortho-

cyclops modestus. Prolonged food deprivation (10 days) results in a significant decrease in

activity presumably due to physiological deterioration. Satiety results in an almost imme-

diate cessation of swimming movements which possibly reflects an adaptive mechanism that

increases the survival capacity of the species.

One of the most common behavioural respon-

ses to food deprivation characteristic of ver-

tebrate animals is an increase in the general

level of activity (Bolles 1967; Finger & Mook

1971; Wald & Jackson 1944), coupled with a

corresponding increase in willingness to per-

form certain tasks reinforced by the attain-

ment of food (Beukema 1963; Cofer & Ap-

pley 1964; McFarland 1965; Mrosovsky 1964;

Smith & Capretta 1956). For example, it has

been demonstrated with rats that their rate of

performance on an instrumental task (bar

pressing) for an equal amount of food reward

is inversely proportional to the degree of sat-

iety of the animal (Bolles 1967; Mackintosh

1973; Miller 1955). Previous investigations,

although scarce, seem to suggest that inverte-

brates do not exhibit this direct relationship

between the level of hunger and general level

of activity (Barton & Evans 1960; Breland &

Breland 1966; Marler & Hamilton 1966). The

blowfly, Phormia regina, although capable of

registering satiety via mechanoreceptors locat-

ed in the wall of the alimentary canal which

1 Accepted February 1977.

“Department of Biology, Blackburn University,

Carlinville, Illinois 62626 (USA).

are stimulated by a distension of the gut fol-

lowing feeding, is unable to register degrees

of hunger (Dethier 1961; Dethier & Boden-

stein 1958; Dethier, Bodenstein & Rhoades

1956; Evans & Browne 1960). As a result, this

insect can only discriminate between satiated

and non-satiated states, whereas vertebrates

can differentiate between various degrees of

hunger (Beukema 1963; Bolles 1967; Mackin-

tosh 1973; Prosser & Brown 1961; Tugenhadt

1960). Similar findings have been reported for

the cockroach (Reynierse, Manning & Coffer-

ty 1972), and only two additional inverte-

brates: the amphipods Marinogammarus ma-

rinus (Fincham 1972) and WM. obtusatus

(Mackintosh 1973; Martin 1966), and the

isopod Eurodica pulchra (Jones & Naylor

1970). In view of this fact, the present study

was conducted in order to investigate the

effects of hunger and satiety on the swimming

activity of Orthocyclops modestus (Crustacea:

Copepoda), and to then compare these re-

sults with those reported for the few species

previously mentioned. Information of this

nature is not currently available for this group

of crustaceans. O. modestus is an aquatic

copepod universally distributed throughout the

plankton and littoral regions of fresh waters

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

(Culver & Brunskill 1969; Elton 1929). Cope-

pods are basically omnivorous, their food con-

sisting of unicellular plant and animal material

as well as decaying organic material (Pennak

1953; Wilson 1932).

METHOD

Subjects:

The Ss consisted of adult male Orthocycl-

ops modestus, ranging from 0.7 to 1.2 mm in

length. They were collected from a small pond

14 km south of Galena, Stone Co., Missouri.

The animals were maintained in constant tem-

perature cabinets at 16°C, and kept on a nor-

mal photoperiod regime (12L:12D). They

were housed in white porcelain trays contain-

ing pond water from the original collecting

site, and provided with algae and corn meal

daily. The animals were allotted a period of

one month to adjust to laboratory conditions

before being tested.

Apparatus:

The apparatus consisted of a circular swim-

ming chamber similar to that described by

Fincham (1972) and Mackintosh (1973). A

glass bowl, 15 cm in diam. and filled to a

depth of 5 cm with filtered pond water, was

utilized as the swimming chamber. The Ss

were introduced individually into the chamber

and allowed to swim. Affixed to the bottom

of the chamber was a circular paper grid on

which were drawn 12 equidistant radii. Swim-

ming activity was measured as the number

of line crossings made by an individual in

either direction during a given period of time.

Water temperature was maintained at a tem-

perature equivalent to that normally encount-

ered by these animals (18° = 1°C) by the use

of a controlled water bath.

138

Procedure:

The Ss were divided into two experimental

series. The purpose of the first series was to

ascertain the effects of food deprivation on

swimming activity. Twenty Ss, deprived for

48 h, were tested individually in the swimming

chamber (Group 1). Tests with the experi-

mental animals were alternated with tests on

a group of 20 normally-fed (non-deprived)

Ss serving as controls. A second experimental

group of 10 Ss was deprived of food for 10

days and tested in the same way (Group 2),

again with alternated tests on 10 non-deprived

controls. Swimming activity was recorded over

a period of 30 min in 5-min subtotals.

In the second experimental series, the effects

of satiation and food deprivation on swim-

ming activity were investigated. Three groups,

each consisting of 10 Ss, were tested under

the following feeding conditions: normally-

fed, 5-day food-deprived, and satiated. Satia-

tion was achieved by allowing the Ss to feed

ad lib for 3 h in the swimming chamber prior

to testing. Each S was confined in a small

plexiglass container and provided with algae

and corn meal. The Ss tested under the de-

prived and normally-fed conditions were also

confined for a 3-h period in the absence of

food material in order to control against any

possible effects of confinement. After this 3-h

period, the Ss were removed from the plexi-

glass holder and their swimming activity was

recorded as previously described.

RESULTS

The results of Fig. 1 show that no signifi-

cant difference was found between the swim-

ming activity of Group 1 animals (48-h depri-

vation) and the normally-fed controls. How-

ever, individuals from Group 2 (10-day de-

privation) exhibited a marked decrease in

ye TIME

ER OF CROSSING

ee en fee —

EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION ON AN AQUATIC COPEPOD

1000

800 o- % hs i oa

600

o—o CONTROLS

@e—-@® GROUP |

400 | @---@ GROUP 2

200

3) 10 IS 20 25 30

TIME (MIN)

Fig. 1. The effects of 48 hr (Group 1) and 10 days (Group 2) food deprivation on

the swimming activity of O. modestus as compared to that of normally-fed controls.

139

NUMBER OF CROSSINGS / UNIT TIME

140

400

200

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

y, O——ONORMALLY—-FED

Pe @©——@ DEPRIVED |

y, @---@ SATIATED

Gi IO 5 Oe BO

TIME (MIN)

Fig. 2. The effects of satiety on the swimming activity of O. modestus as comes

to deprived (5 days) and normally-fed individuals.

EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION ON AN AQUATIC COPEPOD

swimming activity vs. the controls (Mann-

Whitney U-Test: z = 4.71; p< 0.01).

From the results shown in Table 1 and

Fig. 2 it is evident that satiation reduced swim-

ming activity during the first 15 min. Although

the swimming activity between the three

groups over a 30-min period did not differ

significantly, if the initial 15 min of the ex-

periment are analyzed, values for satiated in-

dividuals are significantly below those for the

deprived and normally-fed Ss. Observation of

the copepods revealed that satiated animals

were highly sedentary during this initial period.

DISCUSSION

The results recorded in Fig. 1 show that

prolonged food deprivation (Group 2) not

only failed to increase general bodily activity,

but actually resulted in a significant decrease

in swimming behavior. This is in agreement

with findings reported for amphipods (Fin-

cham 1972; Mackintosh 1973). Since this

deprivation effect increased with time it can

presumably be attributed to some physiologi-

cal deficiency. Group 1 Ss, deprived for a

period of time of insufficient duration to cause

physiological deterioration (48 h), exhibited

no significant difference in swimming activity

over that demonstrated by the controls. This

is further substantiated by the results shown

in Fig. 2 for Ss deprived for 5 days, also a

period of time insufficient to cause physiolo-

gical deterioration (Pennak 1953). It can be

concluded therefore, that within the limits of

physiological tolerance, food deprivation does

not result in an increase in bodily activity for

O. modestus. This is in direct contrast to the

response of vertebrates which is characterized

by a significant increase in the general level

of activity within physiological limits of tole-

rance (Barton & Evans 1960; Bolles 1967;

Finger & Mook 1971; Marler & Hamilton

1966). It is evident therefore, that the beha-

vioural responses to hunger exhibited by some

invertebrates are very different from those

charactristic of vertebrate animals. Future in-

vestigations on many invertebrate species

should be undertaken in order to further sub-

stantiate this conclusion.

The results in Table 1 and Fig. 2 show that

satiated individuals were characterized by an

initial significant decrease in swimming acti-

vity. However, in this case, the inhibition of

activity appears to be due to a modification

of behaviour rather than to any physiological

deterioration since activity increased after the

first 15 min. It is possible that this intial de-

crease in mobility is indicative of a more gene-

ral adaptive mechanism. Barton & Evans

(1960) have reported that blowflies which

have never previously been fed exhibit spon-

taneous locomotor activity; this activity is

markedly reduced immediately after feeding.

This has also been verified for locusts (Ellis

& Hoyle 1954) and amphipods (Mackintosh

1973). It is well known that hunger induces

exploratory and foraging behaviour in animals

(Campbell & Sheffield 1953: Fowler 1965;

McFarland 1965; Mrosovsky 1964) which

ultimately terminates in a consummatory res-

ponse (Bolles 1967; Cofer & Appley 1964).

However, once an organism has fed and food-

seeking behaviour is no longer necessary, the

survivability of the organism is increased if

locomotion is inhibited. Any mechanism which

reduces activity thereby rendering the animal

less conspicuous to potential predators, is of

important adaptive significance. O. modestus

responds to satiation by an immediate drastic

reduction in swimming activity. Since cope-

pods are a potential food source for numer-

ous aquatic predators, such an immobiliza-

tion would effectively decrease the level of

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

predation and as a result increase the sur-

vival capacity of the species. Unlike the hun-

ger response, with respect to satiety O. mode-

stus exhibits a decrease in activity similar to

that found in vertebrates.

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blowfly as a function of feeding and starvation. J.

Insect Physiol. 4:27-37.

BEUKEMA, J. J. (1963): Experiments on the ef-

fects of the hunger state and of a learning process

on the risk of prey of the stickleback, Gasterosteus

aculeatus. Arch. Zool. Soc. Netherl. 15:358-361.

BoLLes, R. C. (1967): Theory of motivation.

New York, Harper & Row.

BRELAND, K. & BRELAND, M. (1966): Animal be-

haviour. N.Y., MacMillan.

CAMPBELL, B. A. & SHEFFIELD, F. (1953): Re-

lation of random activity to food deprivation. J.

Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 46:320-322.

CoFER, C. N. & AppLey, M. H. (1964): Motiva-

tion: theory and research. New York, Macmillan.

CuLver, D. A. & BRUNSKILL, G. (1969): Studies

on primary production and zooplankton in a mero-

mictic lake. Limnological Oceanography 121:862-

873.

DETHIER, V. G. (1961): Behavioural aspects of

protein ingestion in the blowfly. Biol. Bull. 14:456-

470.

& BODENSTEIN, D. (1958): Hunger

in the blowfly. Ziet. fer Tier. 15:129-140.

Sy ee OS INEONDTS, GAY

(1956): Some factors controlling the ingestion of

carbohydrates by the blowfly. Biol. Bull. 11:204-

DID:

E.uis, P. E. & Hoye, G. A. (1954): A physio-

logical interpretation of the marching hoppers of

the African migratory locust, Locusta migratoria

J. Exp. Biol. 31:271-299.

ELTON, C. (1929): The ecological relationships

of certain fresh water copepods. Ecology 17:383-

391.

Evans, D. R. & BROWNE, L. B. (1960): The

physiology of hunger in the blowfly. Amer. Midl.

Nat. 64:282-300.

FINCHAM, A. A. (1972): Rhythmic swimming

activity and rheotropism in the amphipod Marino-

gammarus marinus. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. 8:19-26.

FINGER, F. W. & Mook, D. C. (1971): Basic

drives. Annual Rev. Physiol. 22:1-38.

Fow.er, H. (1965): Curiosity and exploratory

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behaviour. New York, MacMillan.

JoNES, D. & NayLor, E. (1970): The swimming

rhythm of the sand beach isopod, Euridica pulchra.

J. Exp. Mar. Biol. 4:188-194.

MACKINTOSH, J. (1973): The effect of hunger

and satiety on swimming activity in the amphipod,

Marinogrammarus obtusatus. Comp. Biochem. Phy-

siol. 45:483-487.

MarLER, P. & HAMILTON, W. J. (1966): Mecha-

nisms of animal behaviour. New York, Wiley &

Sons.

MartTIN, A. L. (1966): Feeding and digestion in

two intertidal gammarids, Marinogammarus obtus-

atus and M. pirloti. J. Ecol. 148:515-525.

McFARLAND, D. J. (1965): The effect of hunger

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MILLerR, N. E. (1955): Shortcomings of food

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63 141-143.

Mrosovsky, N. (1964): The performance of

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motivation. Animal Behay. 12:454-469.

PENNAK, R. W. (1953): Freshwater invertebrates

of the U.S. New York, Ronald Press.

Prosser, C. L. & Brown, F. A. (1961): Com-

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REYNIERSE, J. H., MANNING, A. & COFFERTY, D.

(1972): The effects of hunger and thirst on body

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553-557.

TUGENHATDT, B. (1960): The normal feeding be-

haviour of the stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus.

Behaviour 15:284-318.

WALD, G. & JACKSON, B. (1944): Activity and

nutritional deprivation. Proc. U.S. Nat. Acad. Sci.

30:142-148.

WILSON, C. B. (1932): The copepods of the

Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts. Bull. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 158:1-635.

IMAGO CASTE OF NEOTERMES MEGAOCULATUS MEGAO-

CULATUS ROONWAL ET SEN-SARMA (ISOPTERA: KALO-

TERMITIDAE) FROM KUMAON HILLS, UTTAR PRADESH’

M. L. THAKUR?

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (1960) recorded seven

species and two subspecies of genus Neoter-

mes from the Indian Region. Since then, four

more species have been added by Roonwal &

Verma (1971), Maiti (1975), Sen-Sarma &

Thakur (1978) and Thakur (in press).

Of these, the imago caste is known only in five

species. While indentifying the termite collec-

tion from Kumaon Hills, I came across a vial

containing five- imagos, two soldiers, a few

pseudoworkers and imago nymphs. The de-

tailed examination of the material reveals that

it belongs to Neotermes megaoculatus megao-

culatus Roonwal et Sen-Sarma. The imago

caste of which is hitherto unknown in this sub-

species, and is described here. Incidentally this

happens to be a new locality record for this

subspecies. Earlier it was known only from its

type-locality Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh and

the present record therefore, extends the range

of its distribution.

MATERIAL

One vial (B114/29.5.71) with five imagos,

2 soldiers and a few pseudoworkers, from

Kanda Dhar Forest (1350 m, above sea level),

Kanda, Kumaon Hills, Uttar Pradesh, Coll.

B. K. Gupta, 29-5-1971. Ex. Mangifera indica.

1 Accepted June 1976.

_ 2Forest Entomology Branch, Forest

Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun.

Research

DESCRIPTION

I—Imago (Fig. 1; Table 1)

General: Head-capsule pale brown to deep

brown; antennae, labrum and _ pronotum

brown; postclypeus of same colour as dorsum

of head-capsule; body brownish yellow, paler

than head-capsule. Head-capsule and prono-

tum sparsely pilose, with long hairs. Total

body-length without wings c 10.00-11.90 mm;

with wings c 19.35-20.40 mm.

Head: Head-capsule suboval, sides gradu-

ally converging posteriorly; slightly broader

than long (upto lateral base of mandibles);

posterior margin roundish; frons declivous; Y-

suture distinct. Eyes: Large, subcircular, sepa-

rated from antennae by a distance of about

0.05 mm. Ocelli: Large, translucent, oval,

broadly touching the ocular sclerites. Anten-

nae: 19-segmented (in one specimen, left an-

tenna 18-segmented); segment 2 cylindrical,

broader and usually one-and-a half times as

long as 3; 3 longer than 4; 3-6 narrower than

succeeding segments; 7 to 14 gradually be-

coming broader and globular shape; 15 to

penultimate gradually becoming pyriform; last

oblong and much narrower than penultimate.

In 18-segmented condition, segment 2 only

slightly longer than 3; 4 subequal to 5. Cly-

peus: Postclypeus small, subrectangular. An-

teclypeus trapezoid; anterior margin weakly

projecting in the middle. Labrum: ‘Tongue

shaped, tip and body pilose with long and

short hairs; anterior margin subrounded.

Mandibles: Of Neotermes type.

143

144

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 1. Neotermes megaoculatus megaoculatus Roonwal et Sen-Sarma (a) Head and

pronotum, in dorsal view; (b) Head and pronotum, in side view; (c) Left antenna

(18-segmented); (d) Right antenna (19-segmented); (e) Forewing; (f) Hind wing.

Abbreviations: acl., anteclypeus; ant., antenna; C., Costa; C + Sc., Costa-Subcosta;

Cu., Cubitus; e., eye; Ir., labrum; md., mandible; ‘M., Median; pcl., postclypeus; R..,

Radius; Rs., Radial sector; Sc., Subcosta.

}

IMAGO CASTE OF NEOTERMES M. MEGAOCULATUS

Thorax: Pronotum: ‘Subrectangular; distin-

ctly broader than head-width across the eyes;

anterior margin broadly concave;

margin substraight. Legs: Slender, elongate

and hairy; tibial spurs 3:3:3; tarsi 4-seg

mented.

Wings: Wing membrane non-pigmented in

the distal half, weakly tuberculate. Forewing:

Scale much longer than in hindwing. Costa

thick, pigmented and bordering the anterior

margin. Subcosta short, extending only a short

distance and fusing with Costa near the pro-

ximal third of wing membrane. Radius pro-

minent, unbranched, extending upto nearly

half of wing membrane without scale. Radial

Sector prominent, well pigmented in the pro-

posterior

ximal half, with 7-8 branches towards the

Costa. Median well pigmented running close to

and parallel with Radial Sector, with 5-7 short

transverse branches. Cubitus with 12-15 main

branches, of which the proximal 5-7 well pig-

mented, rest colourless. Hindwing: Scale very

small. Costa-Subcosta fused and bordering the

anterior margin of wing. Radius prominent,

well pigmented, extending a little more than

half of wing membrane, where it meets Costa-

Subcosta. Radial Sector with c 5-7 branches

in the distal half. Median arising from the

Radial Sector at about 1/5 the length of wing.

Cubitus with 11-14 branches.

Abdomen: Elongate, hairy, Cerci 2-segment-

ed, hairy.

TABLE 1

BODY MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF 4 IMAGOS OF Neotermes

megaoculatus megaoculatus ROONWAL ET

SEN-SARMA

Body parts Range Mean

I—General

Total body-length without wings. c. 10-00-11.90 10.60

Total body-length with wings. c. 19.35-20.40 19.70

IlI—Head

Head-length with mandibles 2.10- 2.50 222

Head-length to lateral base of mandibles 1.75- 1.90 1.85

Maximum width of head (with eyes) 1.95- 2.15 2.04

Height of head 1.10- 1.28 1.18

Maximum diameter of eye (with ocular sclerites) 0.65- 0.73 0.69

Minimum diameter of eye 0.63- 0.70 0.65

Maximum diameter of ocellus 0.25- 0.30 0.27

Minimum diameter of ocellus 0.20- 0.23 0.21

Minimum eye-antennal distance 0.05

WI—Thorax

Length of pronotum 1.05- 1.20 1.12

Maximum width of pronotum 2.00- 2.20 2.13

Length of fore wing with scale 16.00-17.30 16.70

Length of fore wing without scale 14.10-15.50 14.80

Length of fore wing scale 1.80- 2.00 1.88

Length of hind wing with scale 14.00-16.00 14.90

Length of hind wing without scale 12.90-15.00 13.80

Length of hind wing scale 0.80- 1.20 0.95

145

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

COMPARISON

The imagos of N. megaoculatus megaocula-

tus are very close to N. bosei Snyder, but dif-

fer as follows.

(i) Comparatively larger species (11) Anten-

nae 18-19 segmented vs. 17-18 segmented and

(iii) Pronotum distinctly broader than head-

width across the eyes.

Remarks on. soldiers:

I have compared the soldiers from Kumaon

Hills with paratypes of Neotermes megaocu-

latus megaoculatus present at the Forest Re-

The soldiers from the present lot agree very

well with paratypes both morphologically as

well as bio-metrically, however they differ in

certain respect from the paratypes and which

may well be taken as locality variations, as

such differences are not uncommon in the

genus Neotermes.

Head-capsule comparatively smaller; Y-

suture distinct; marginal teeth comparatively

small and blunt. Antennae with 15-16 seg-

ments; in 15-segmented condition, segment 3

more chitinised and longer than 2; in 16-seg-

mented antennae, 2 slightly longer than 3.

Pronotum (in situ) distinctly broader than

search Institute, Dehra Dun, and have noted head-width (Pronotum-head width index

the following points. 1.037-1.04).

TABLE 2

BoDY MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) AND INDICES OF 2 SOLDIERS OF WNeotermes megaoculatus megaoculatus

ROONWAL ET SEN-SARMA

Body-parts Range

I—General

Total body-length c. 13.10-14.00

Il—Head

Head-length with mandibles 5.60-6.10

Head-length to lateral base of mandibles 3.60-3.90

Maximum width of head 2.60-2.70

Height of head 1.95-2.20

Head-index—I. (width/length without mandibles) 0.69-0.72 -

Maximum diameter of eyes (a) Left eye 0.33-0.38

(b) Right eye 0.30-0.33

Minimum diameter of eyes (a) Left eye 0.20-0.23

(b) Right eye * 0.18-0.20

Length of mandibles (a) Left mandible 2.00-2.20

(b) Right mandible 1.90-2.20

Head-mandibular index (Left mandible length/

head-length to lateral base of mandibles) 0.56

WI—Thorax

Length of pronotum 1.10-1.25

Maximum width of pronotum 2.70-2.80

Pronotum-head-width index (Pronotum width/

head-width) 1.037-1.04

146

IMAGO CASTE OF NEOTERMES M. MEGAOCULATUS

REFERENCES

Maiti, P. K. (1975): Two new species of ter-

mites (Isoptera) from West Bengal, India.—Oriental

Insects, 9(2) :139-148.

RoonwaL, M. L. & SEN-SARMA, P. K. (1960):

Contributions to the systematics of Oriental termites

(1.C.A.R. Ent. Monger. No. 1): 137-250.

———_—— & VERMA, 8S. C. (1971): A new

wood infesting termite of genus Neotermes (Isop-

tera: Kalotermitidae) from India. Proc. Nat. Acad.

Sci. India, Allahabad 4/(b) III: 251-256.

SEN-SARMA, P. K. & THAKUR, M. L. (1978): Ter-

mites of Tripura. Indian For. Rec. 13(1) :1-63.

THAKUR, M. L. (in press): A new species of ter-

mite genus Neotermes (Isoptera: Katotermitidae)

from the India Region. Indian J. Ent. (M.S. 8

pages).

147

FOOT-WETTING AND BELLY-SOAKING BY INCUBATING

GULL-BILLED TERNS AND BLACK SKIMMERS’

GILBERT S. GRANT?

(With a text-figure)

While investigating breeding adaptations to

high temperatures in charadriiform birds at

Salton Sea, California, U.S.A. foot-wetting

and belly-soaking, two interesting and previ-

ously unrecorded incubation behaviours, were

observed in Gull-billed Terns (Gelochelidon

nilotica) and Black Skimmers (Rynchops

niger). Foot-wetting is simply the dipping of

the feet and lower legs into the water by the

incubating birds while in flight (Turner &

Gerhart 1971) and belly-soaking, as defined

by Maclean (1975:74), “‘consists of wetting

the belly feathers for the purpose of trans-

porting water to eggs or chicks.”

Salton Sea is a large, man-made saline lake

about 70 m below sea level in the Sonoran

Desert of Southeastern California. Observa-

tions were made in 1975 at a skimmer nesting

site at the north end of the sea (Grant &

Hogg 1976), and in 1976 at skimmer and tern

nesting sites along the Acorn Barnacle (Bal-

anus amphitrite) bars of the southeast corner

of the sea and at the Imperial Wildlife Area

-near Niland. Intense solar radiation, daytime

shade temperatures (TA) above 40°C, soil

temperatures near the nests in excess of 50°C,

and almost total lack of cloud cover charac-

terize the area during the mid-summer breed-

ing season.

Gull-billed Termm.—On 24 June 1976 at

1258 (Ta = 40.8°C) a Gull-billed Tern flew

1 Accepted July 1977.

2 Department of Biology, University of California,

Los Angeles, CA 90024, U.S.A.

148

into my study area from an adjacent dry im-

poundment of the Wister Unit of the Impe-

rial Wildlife Area, foot-wetted three times

and drank three times while on the wing, then

returned immediately to the impounded area.

A tern coming from the same area foot-wet-

ted once and drank: once at 1311 (y=

39.8°C). At 1338 (Ta = 40.0°C) a tern flew

into view, landed in belly-deep water, remain-

ed in the water for about 15 seconds without

rocking, and flew to a mudflat and preened.

I did not see another foot-wetting episode un-

til 1523 (Ta = 40.3°C). I may have missed

some foot-wetting bouts because my attention

was focused on other nesting birds during this

and the following days. At 0910 (Ta =

31.0°C) on 25 June 1976 a tern flew in from

the same area as on 24 June, foot-wetted

once, landed briefly, and foot-wetted twice on

its return flight. A tern circled through my

study area at 1205 (Ta = 37.5°C), foot-wet-

ted twice and drank twice. At 1350 (Ta =

40.4°C) a tern foot-wetted, landed in water

at heel depth, and foot-wetted on its flight

back to the dry impoundment. A tern foot- |

wetted and drank on the wing at 1640 (Ta = |

43.4°C). At 1734 (Ta = 43.8°C) a tern belly- _

soaked once and foot-wetted four times as it |

returned to its presumed nesting site. At 1800 _

(Ta = 43.7°C) a tern belly-soaked once and |

flew back toward the presumed nest. At 1900 |

I went to the place where the terns had con- |

sistently flown after cach foot-wetting and —

belly-soaking bout and discovered one stick- |

FOOT-WETTING AND BELLY SOAKING BY TERNS AND SKIMMERS

lined tern nest with 2 eggs. The adults were

in the immediate vicinity. The colour patterns

on the eggs were obscured by a thin sheet

of dried mud and a large clump of dried mud

adhered to one egg. This nest was located in

the center of a large, nearly dry impoundment.

The impoundment may have held more water

when nest construction began. This pair of

terns had to fly over 400 metres each way to

transport water to the eggs during the two

days of observation.

On 4 July 1976 I discovered 17 Gull-billed

Tern nests with a total of 4 chicks and 33

eggs on a barnacle bar on the shoreline of

Salton Sea at Beach Road. Foot-wetting and

belly-soaking were observed many times be-

tween 1800 and 1930 on this date by Sandra

GROUND

uJ 45

aye

Be GROUND

oon

35 GK

c ATER

aes Saag pe

O06 O7 O08 O98 10 Ti te

S. Grant and the author. Only nine nests and

13 eggs were present on 13 July 1976 in this

colony. I monitored ground in shade tempe-

ratures (inside meteorological box), water

temperatures (near where soaking occurred,

2.5 cm below the surface), and ground in sun

temperatures (shading probe as I placed it on

ground surface that had been exposed to full

sun) with a Yellow Springs Telethermometer

and recorded belly-soaking bouts by the two

pairs of Gull-billed Terns close to my blind

(Figure 1). Unfortunately 11 pairs of Fors-

ter’s Terns (Sterna forsteri) were nesting be-

tween my blind and the two pairs of Gull-

billed Terns. This made it difficult to follow

individual birds and in some cases species

identification was difficult. Foot-wetting often

IN SUN

IN SHADE

NUMBER OF

BELLY=SOA-KS

CoG 1 aa WS

TIME OF DAY (HOURS)

Fig. 1. Environmental temperatures and frequency of belly-soaking by two pairs of

Gull-billed Terns at Salton Sea, California, on 13 July 1976. Upward pointing arrows

indicate recordings above 50°C, the upper limit of the instrument. See text for details

on how temperatures were obtained.

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

grades into belly-soaking and the two were

difficult to distinguish at certain times at my

observation distance (75-100 metres). There-

fore, only the known episodes of belly-soak-

ing by Gull-billed Terns are presented. At this

site, foot-wetting generally occurred in the

morning and late afternoon with belly-soak-

ing most frequent during the hotter parts of

the day. During the heat of the day a tern

occasionally left its nest uncovered, flew out

over water, dropped down briefly to wet its

belly, and flew directly back to the nest. The

nests were only a few metres from the water’s

edge and one way belly-soaking flights were

generally less than 50 metres.

To my knowledge, foot-wetting and _ belly-

soaking have not been previously reported in

Gull-billed Terns. Among terns, belly-soaking

has been reported in Sterna fuscata by Stone-

house in Drent (1972), Dinsmore (1972), and

T. R. Howell (pers. comm.); S. albifrons by

Abdulali (1939), Ali & Ripley (1969), Dhar-

makumarsinhji (1964), Hardy (1957), Mab-

bett (1890), and Tompkins (1942); S. acuti-

cauda by Ali & Ripley (1969), Currie (1916),

and Lowther (1949), and S. aurantia (Low-

ther 1949).

Black Skimmer.—Foot-wetting was obser-

ed in incubating Black Skimmers at the north

end of Salton Sea on 16 and 30 August and

13 September 1975 (Grant & Hogg 1976). In

addition, Sandra Grant and I observed belly-

soaking in skimmers from 1520 (Ta = 35.0°C)

until 1804 on 30 August 1975 at this colony.

Jeanne and Norman Hogg, Sandra Grant and

I observed and photographed several skim-

mers belly-soaking on 13 September 1975

(Ta c. 32-35°C). Belly-soaking in skimmers

is accomplished by holding wings high and

allowing the belly to plow through the water.

A typical mid-day water transport sequence

involved foot-wetting, then belly-soaking, and

150

foot-wetting again as the skimmer pulled away

from the water. Drinking frequently occurred

during such belly-soaking episodes. A nesting

colony of skimmers was found near the

above mentioned Beach Road colony of Gull-

billed Terns on 4 July 1976. This colony con-

tained 13 nests with a total of 36 eggs on 13

July 1976. Foot-wetting and_ belly-soaking

were observed on both evening visits. I did

not approach the nests during the heat of the

day on any occasion for fear of heat stressing

the eggs and chicks. Foot-wetting and belly-

soaking have not been observed in any of the

non-nesting terns and skimmers.

Belly-soaking has not been previously des-

cribed in the Black Skimmer although foot-

wetting was discussed by Grant & Hogg

(1976). Foot-wetting (Turner & Gerhart

1971) and belly-soaking (Roberts 1976) were

observed in incubating African Skimmers

(Rynchops flavirostris) in response to high

temperatures and Ali & Ripley (1969) and

Lowther (1949) stated that Rynchops albi-

collis transports water via the belly feathers

to its eggs and young. Pettingill (1937) des-

cribed foot-wetting and belly-soaking in Black

Skimmers but called it injury feigning be-

haviour. His (p. 243) description is, ‘‘Indivi-

duals nesting near this water area feigned in-

jury by swooping down upon it as upon land

and dragging their bellies along the surface,

or, flying above it, splashing their feet in the

water as if walking.’’ Unfortunately, Pettingill

did not present any temperature data other

than general comments about it being hot on

some days. Undisturbed incubating birds at

Salton Sea -belly-soaked and feet-wetted less

frequently than disturbed birds. Human dis-

turbance at temperatures greater than about

32°C on sunny days often induced a flurry

of belly-soaking and foot-wetting activities in

this skimmer colony. This suggests that belly-

FOOT-WETTING AND BELLY SOAKING BY TERNS AND SKIMMERS

_ soaking in Black Skimmers may be derived

from a distraction display (injury feigning)

rather than bathing. More study is needed to

clarify the origin of belly-soaking, as pointed

out by Maclean (1975).

CONCLUSIONS

Foot-wetting and belly-soaking consist of

acquiring and transporting water via the feet,

legs, and ventral plumage to the eggs and

chicks, possibly for 1) cooling the incubating

bird exposed to intense solar radiation, 2)

supplementing water intake of the chicks

(Cade & Maclean 1967), 3) cooling the eggs

and chicks, 4) increasing nest air humidity,

or 5) some or all of the above. Belly-soaking

has been reported in Pteroclidae, Charadrii-

dae, Glareolidae, Recurvirostridae, Laridae,

Sternidae, Rynchopidae (Maclean 1975), and

Pandionidae (Nickell 1967). Opportunistic

utilization of standing water at a leaking tap

by Vanellus malabaricus for cooling the

adults and eggs during the hotter part of the

day has been well described by Jayakar &

Spurway (1965a, 1965b). Investigations are

currently underway for monitoring egg tem-

perature and nest humidity in other belly-soak-

ing Charadriiformes at Salton Sea. It was not

possible to monitor egg temperatures of Gull-

billed Terns and Black Skimmers because of

their extremely small breeding populations in

the western half of the United States.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Sandra Grant, Jeanne Hogg, and

Norman Hogg for aid in the field; the Cali-

fornia Department of Fish and Game and the

personnel at the Imperial Wildlife Area for

permission to conduct studies on the Wister

Unit; and Thomas R. Howell and Gordon L.

Maclean for commenting on a draft of this

paper. The Frank M. Chapman Memorial

Fund and a UCLA Regents Grant provided

material support for the studies.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1939): The sun as a mortality

factor among young birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

41:433-434.

ALI, S. & RIPLEY, S. D. (1969): Handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 3. Oxford Univ.

Press, Bombay.

Cape, T. J. & MACLEAN, G. L. (1967): Transport

of water by adult sandgrouse to their young. Con-

dor 69:323-343.

Currig, A. J. (1916): The birds of Lahore and

the vicinity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24:561-577.

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, R. S. (1964): Some ob-

servations on the Small Indian Pratincole (Glareola

lactea Temminck) and some other waders breed-

ing in Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Pavo 2:1-11.

DinsSMoRE, J. J. (1972): Sooty Tern behaviour.

Bull. Florida State Museum Bio. Ser. 16(3):129-

179.

DRENT, R. (1972): Adaptive aspects of the phy-

siology of incubation. Proc. 15th Intern. Ornithol.

Congress: 255-280.

GRANT, G. S. & Hocc, N. (1976): Behaviour of

late-nesting Black Skimmers at Salton Sea, Cali-

fornia. Western Birds 7:73-80.

Harpy, J. W. (1957): The Least Tern in the

Mississippi Valley. Publ. Mus. Michigan State Univ.

Biol. Ser. Vol 1: 1-60.

JAYAKAR, S. D. & Spurway, H. (1965a): The

Yellow-wattled Lapwing, a tropical dry-season nester

[Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), Charadriidae] I.

The locality, and the incubatory adaptations. Zool.

Jd. Syst. Bd. 92:53-72.

(1965b): The Yellow-wattled Lap-

wing, Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), a tropical

dry-season nester. II. Additional data on breeding

biology. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62:1-14.

LowTHER, E. H. N. (1949): A bird photographer

in India. Oxford Univ. Press, London.

131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Mapseett, G. (1890): A query in regard to the

Least Tern. Auk 7:410-411.

MACLEAN, G. L. (1975): Belly-soaking in the

Charadriiformes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72:74-

82.

NICKELL, W. P. (1967): Breast-wetting behaviour

of the Osprey at the nest. Jack-Pine Warbler 45:

96-97.

PETTINGILL, O. S., Jr. (1937): Behaviour of Black

152

Skimmers at Cardwell Island, Virginia. Auk 54:

237-244.

Roserts, M. G. (1976): Belly-soaking and chick

transport in the African Skimmer. Ostrich 47:126.

TOMPKINS, I. R. (1942): Least Tern watering

eggs: Gideon Mabbett’s query. Auk 59:308.

TURNER, D. A. & GERHART, J. (1971): ‘Foot-

wetting’ by incubating African Skimmers Rynchops

flavirostris. Ibis 113:244.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF POLYSTICHUM FROM SHILLONG (MEGHALA

N. C. Nair? AND KALPANA NAG?

(With eight text-figures)

While examining the Polystichum sheets of

the aculeatum group present in Central Na-

tional Herbarium, Sibpur and the various her-

baria of the circles of the Botanical Survey

of India it was discovered that a specimen from

Shillong area (Meghalaya) appears very un-

like any other member of the group. It is

closely allied to P. setiferum, but is distinct in

having 3 types of scales on the rhizome and

base of stipe, adpressed scattered scales on the

upper region of stipe and rachis, and 3 types

of scales on the rachis. The pinnules are also

very different. The plant was previously iden-

tified as P. lobatum (Huds) Pr. var. 4.

Polystichum heteropaleaceum sp. nov. (Figs.

1-8).

Polysticho setifero (Forsk.) Moore ex

Woynar affine, sed squamis trium dissimilium

formarum in rhizomate, stipitum basibus, ra-

chidibusque, squamis adpressis dispersis sur-

sum in stipitibus rachidibusque differt.

Rhizome erect to suberect, closely scaly;

scales of three kinds namely 1. linear shiny red-

dish brown, fibrillose scales up to 3 cm long

and up to 1 mm broad and with ciliate margin

1 Accepted January 1977.

2 Present address: Botanical Survey of India,

Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 002.

3 Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Gar-

den, Sibpur, Howrah.

(Fig. 3). 2. Ovate to lanceolate scales up to

3.5 cm long and up to 4 mm broad with

acute or acuminate tip and having ebonaceous

thick median region and pale or hyaline mar-

gin which is irregularly ciliated towards the

base and entire towards the apex (Fig. 4). 3.

linear lanceolate scales up to 1 cm long and

up to 0.5 mm broad with highly ciliate mar-

gin; cilia 2-to 3-fid at the tip (Fig. 5). Stipe

up to 20 cm long grooved, basal region closely

covered with scales similar to those of the

rhizome, upper region stramineous with sparse

ovate brownish scales and adpressed blackish

scales. Rachis densely scaly with 3 types of

brown scales such as pale coloured linear

lanceolate scales (Fig. 6), broad ovate acumi-

nate scales (Fig. 7) and linear ovate scales

(Fig. 8); all scales strongly acuminate with

ciliate margin. Lamina up to 62 cm long;

10 cm broad, lanceolate acuminate, broadest

in the middle, bipinnate, coriaceous, pinnae

acuminate, 1.2 cm broad, midrib grooved,

raised on the lower surface, basal region co-

vered with fibrillar brown scales. Pinnules sub-

sessile to sessile, up to 0.7 cm long, 0.2—0.3

cm broad, auricled on the acroscopic side,

cuneate on the basiscopic side, few scales pre-

sent on the basal part of the costa; basal pin-

nule 2-4-lobed, auricle rounded or aristate, api-

cal lobes always aristate; other pinnules 2-

lobed and 4-5 aristate towards apex. Sori

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 1. Type of Polystichum heteropaleaceum sp. nov.

154

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Wie iHe

Polystichum heteropaleaceum sp. nov.

Fig. 2. Basal pinnule. Figs. 3-5. Rhizome scales. Figs. 6-8. Outline of scales of rachis.

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

uniseriate on either side of the costa, quite

away from the margin, 2-6 per pinnule. Indu-

sium small, peltate not covering the entire

sorus, margin crenate, caducous. Spores mo-

nolete.

Type: Peak forest, Khasia & Jaintia hills,

Shillong, G. K. Deka 3960, 22.12.1957, (Acc.

No. 6003, ASSAM); Photograph No. 7

(CAL). Isotype: G. K. Deka 3960 (Acc.

Nos. 6005, 28770, ASSAM). This fern is

abundant in the type locality.

We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Mazumdar,

Central National Herbarium, Sibpur, for the

latin translation and thanks are also due to

the Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of In-

dia, Eastern Circle, Shillong for kindly send-

ing the specimens for our study.

A NEW VARIETY OF WENDLANDIA SCABRA KURZ FROM

BURMA (RUBIACEAE)?

M. P. NAyYAR AND K. C. MALLICK?

Wendlandia scabra Kurz var. tenasserimensis

var. nov.

A typo differt, calyx tubo glabro vel per-

minute setoso, corollae tubo gracili longiore.

Frutex striatus, ramuli tereti, juniores to-

mentosi, subangulari. Folia opposita, 4-15 x

1.7-5.5 cm, elliptica ad elliptico-obovata, ad

basin cuneata, margine integra, ad apicem

abrupte acuminata, in utraqua pagina adpresse

setosa, costa nervisque brevi-pubescentibus

exceptis; nervia lateralibus 8-10 jugis; Folia

petiolo 1.5-2.5 cm longo pubescento praedita.

Stipulae interpetiolares ad basin ovato-trian-

gulares, ad apicem foliaceae emarginatae late

rotundo-suborbicularesque. Inflorescentiae ter-

minales, corymbosae vel paniculae, 12 cm

longae, 12 cm latae; Flores albi, parvi 3.5-4

mm longi, pedicellati, bracteae anguste lanceo-

latae ad ligulatae, 2-10 mm longae, pubescen-

tes; bracteolae lineares 0.5-1.25 mm _ longae,

pubescentes. Calyx 0.6 mm _ longus; calycis

dentes 0.6 mm longi, triangulares, ciliati; calyx

1 Accepted January 1977.

2Central National Herbarium, Botanic Garden

P.O., Howrah-3.

156

tubo glabro vel perminute setoso. Corolla tu-

bulosa vel salviformis 2.5-3 mm longa, glabra,

5-lobata, raro 4-lobata; lobis triangularibus

ad apicem acutis, vel recurvis; Stamina 5, raro

4, interlobos corollae inserta; filamentis 0.25

mm longis; Antherae ovoideo-oblongae, 0.75

mm longae, 0.5 mm latae, versatiles. Ovarium

0.5 mm longum 2-loculare; ovula in loculis

numerosa. Stylus 3-3.5 mm _ longus, glaber;

stigmate 2-lobo, lobis oblanceolatis praedito.

Holotypus (Gallatly 496A) et isotypi (Gal-

latly 496B-E) lecti die 27.3.1877 ad Young-

zalun, Tenasserim in regione Burma; Holo-

typus et isotypi positi CAL.

A shrub with striate, rounded branches,

young branchlets subangular, covered with

tomentum. Leaves opposite, 4-15 x 1.7-5.5 cm

elliptic to elliptic-obovate, base cuneate, mar-

gins entire, apex abruptly acuminate, minutely

appressed setose-hairy both surfaces except

the nerves which are short pubescent, lateral

nerves 8-10 pairs; petiole pubescent, 1.5-2.5

cm long; stipules interpetiolar with ovate trian-

gular base and broadly rounded suborbicular

shallowly emarginate tip. Inflorescences termi-

nal, corymbose, upto 12 cm long and 12 cm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

broad, bracts narrowly lanceolate to ligulate

2-10 mm long, pubescent, bracteoles linear

0.5-1.25 mm long, pubescent. Flowers 3.5-4

mm long; white, in clusters of 3-4, sometimes

5, pedicels short, less than 0.5 mm long, thinly

pubescent. Calyx 0.6 mm long, tube connate

with the ovary, glabrous or with few minute

setose hairs; teeth as long as the receptacle,

0.6 mm long, triangular, ciliate; corolla salver-

form 2.5-3 mm long, glabrous, 5-lobed, rarely

4-lobed, lobes triangular, apex acute, recurved,

1-1.5 mm across the mouth of the corolla.

Stamens 5, rarely 4, filaments short 0.25 mm

long, arising from between the corolla-lobes;

anthers ovoid-oblong, 0.75 mm long and 0.5

mm broad, versatile. Ovary 0.5 mm long, 2-

loculed with many ovules in each cell; style

3-3.5 mm long, glabrous; stigma bifid, lobes

oblanceolate. |

This variety differs from the typical species

in having usually glabrous or rarely minutely

setose calyxtube and slender longer corolla-

tube.

Burma: Youngzalun river, Tenasserim,

27.3.1877, Gallatly 496A—holotype, B-E-

isotypes (CAL).

NOTES ON SOME ORCHIDS FROM BHUTAN’

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN

(With four text figures)

During the course of studies on orchids of

Bhutan, one new species (Pomatocalpa bhuta-

nicum) and two new varieties (Bulbophyllum

odoratissimum Lindl. var. racemosum and

Coelogyne occultata Hook. f. var. uniflora)

were discovered and are described and illus-

trated. A rare species (Chierostylis bhotanensis

Tang & Wang) is also described with illustra-

tions.

Bulbophyllum odoratissimum Lindl. var.

racemosum var. nov. (Fig. 1).

Differt a var. odoratissimo inflorescentiis

foliis longioribus, 12-15 cm longis; pedicellis

cum ovariis longioribus, = 1 cm longis; flori-

bus laxiracemosis, magnis, = 2 cm latis, in-

odoris, omnino albis.

Epiphyte; rhizome woody, long-creeping, =

2 mm thick, brown; pseudobulbs placed at 3-4

cm apart, oblong, subcylindric, fusiform, = 2

1 Accepted February 1977.

2 Botanical. Survey of India,

Circle, Port Blair 744 101.

Andaman-Nicobar

cm long, = 1 cm thick, smooth, glossy, yel-

lowish-green. Leaves subsessile or sessile on

pseudobulbs, elliptic-oblong, subacute to slight-

ly notched at apex, narrowed at base, 5-7 cm

long, 1.3-11.7 cm broad, glossy above, pale

beneath, coriaceous, 1-nerved. Inflorescence

arising from the base of pseudobulb, 12-15

cm long, much longer than leaves; peduncle

green, covered with 5-6 tubular acute sheaths.

Flowers 15-20, laxly racemose, white, = 2 cm

across; floral bracts ovate-lanceolate, concave,

acute, = 7 mm long, = 2 mm broad, green;

pedicel with ovary = 1 cm long, 1.0-1.5 cm

thick, white, greenish at base, patent. Sepals

linear-lanceolate, falcate, broad at base, terete,

blunt at apex, 9-10 mm long, 2.0-2.5 mm

broad at base. Petals ovate, acute, = 2 mm

long, = 1 mm broad. Lip attached to the

apex of foot, mobile, ovate to lanceolate,

acute, = 2mm long, = 1 mm broad, fleshy, mi-

nutely tuberculate on upper surface, grooved

in middle. Column = 2 mm _ long, = 1 mm

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

broad, bimucronate at apex, slightly winged

below; operculum 3-lobed, = 0.5 mm broad,

papillose on midlobe. Pollinia 4, the two lat-

eral ones larger and the two inner ones smaller.

Specimens: Tashiyangtsi, E. Bhutan, 1800

m, 24 Oct. 1965 (in veg. condition), flower-

ed at National Orchidarium, Shillong, Megha-

laya State in Pot No. 3614, Balakrishnan

43070 A (Holotypus in CAL), ibid. 43070

B-D (Isotypi in ASSAM).

This differs from the type var. odoratissi-

mum in inflorescences being longer than

Fig. 1. Bullophyllum odoratissimum Lindl. var. racemosus Balakr. A. plant, c. x 4;

B. bract, c. x 4; C. flower, c. x 4; D. flower, inner view, c. x 1; E. petals, c. x 5; F. lip,

c. x 5; G. column, c. x 5; H. operculum, c. x 5; I. pollinia, c. x 5.

158

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

leaves, 12-15 cm long; pedicels with ovaries

longer, = 1 cm long and flowers laxly race-

mose, larger, = 2 cm across, inodorous, en-

tirely white. !

Cheirostylis bhotanensis Tang & Wang in

Acta Phytotax. Sm. 1:86: 1951 (Fig: 2).

Terrestrial or lithophytic herb; stem decum-

bent-ascending, moniliform, rooting at nodes,

5-10 cm long; light pink; internodes 5-10 mm

_ long, 4-8 mm thick. Leaves more or less crowd-

ed, ovate, cordate, acute at apex, 1.2-2.3 cm

long, 1.0-1.5 cm broad, greenish-red, pale pink

when dry; main nerves 3, distinct with 2 in-

tramarginal faint nerves; secondary nerves

transversely reticulate; petiole = 2 mm long;

sheaths tubular, = 3 mm long. Peduncles ter-

minal, erect, 6-12 cm long, pubescent; bracts

4, distantly placed, ovate, acuminate, stiff-

pointed at apex, tubular, clasping at base, 3-9

mm long, glabrous; rachis 3-12 mm long, hairy.

Flowers 4-8 per rachis, white, 11-13 mm long,

7-8 mm across, placed at intervals of 1.5-2.0

mm apart, subcorymbose; floral bracts equal

to ovary, ovate, acuminate, incurved and clasp-

ing the ovary, stiff pointed at apex, 5-8 mm

long, 2-4 mm wide; greenish brown; pedicels

with ovary 5-7 mm long, glabrous, green. Calyx

= 5 mm long, connate up to middle, pinkish,

glabrous; tube 2-3 mm long, gibbous at base;

lobes 3, 1-nerved; dorsal lobe obtuse at apex;

lateral lobes acute at apex. Petals free, obo-

vate, obtrullate-subfalcate, obtuse, = 5 mm

Jong, == 1.5 mm wide, white with pink tinge,

included within calyx. Lip 8-10 mm long; basal

claw boat-shaped, saccate, = 2 mm long, at-

tached to column and included within calyx,

3-nerved; lateral nerves flabellate-ridged, with

rows of fleshy subulate lobes; limb 6-8 mm

across, semicircular, with 2 green spots at

base, deeply cleft into 2 major lobes; each

lobe digitately 5-lobed. Column short, fleshy,

= 2 mm long, greenish brown with 2 erect

Sane

= 1 mm long white subulate processes; arms

of rostellum 2, erect, equal to columnar pro-

cesses; operculum ovate, = 1.5 mm _ long,

white tinged with red. Pollinia 2, granular,

connected to basal linear gland by a common

caudicle.

Specimens: Bhotan, Griffith 679 (Type in

K); Nangardzong, south of Tashiyangtsi, 1500

m, 23 Mar. 1965, Balakrishnan 41835

(ASSAM).

J. D. Hooker (in FI. Brit. Ind. 6; 106. 1890)

gives the distribution of C. flabellata Wt. as

Bhutan Himalaya (based on specimens of

Griffith), Tenasserim in Burma, Concan and

Nilgiris in peninsular India and Ceylon. The

specimens of Griffith from Bhutan have been

later described as a new species, C. bhotanen-

sis by Tang & Wang (lc.). The present col-

lection by me is the first since the type col-

lection almost a century ago. The above de-

scription is based on fresh material and agrees

closely with the description of Tang & Wang,

except for the larger leaves, sepals and lip.

The detailed description and _ illustrations

would help in the identification of the species

in field and herbarium.

Coelogyne occultata Hook. f. var. uniflora

var. nov. (Fig. 3).

Differt a var. occultata pseudobulbis longi-

oribus linearis oblanceolatis, clavatis ad apices;

foliis angustioribus; floribus singularibus, par-

vioribus; sepalis dorsalibus angustioribus.

Epiphyte; rhizome creeping-elongate, + 4

mm _ thick, covered with imbricating scarious

sheaths; pseudobulbs oblanceolate, clavate,

acute at apex, narrowed to base, 3-4 cm long,

8-12 mm thick, green, glossy, faintly grooved,

obliquely attached to the rhizome at intervals

of 1-2 cm. Leaves paired at apex of pseudo-

bulbs, narrowly elliptic, narrowed at base,

acute at apex, 6-7 cm long, 1.5-2.0 cm broad

with 3-5 main nerves; petiole grooved above,

152

160

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Above: Fig. 2. Cheirostylis bhotanensis Tang & Wang. A. plant, c. x1; B. bract, c. x 1;

C. flower, c. x 14; D. calyx, c. x14; E. petal,ci x 14; F. lip, 6 x 12; G.' claw of lip,

c. xX 34; H. column, c. x 3; I. column with arms of rostellum spread out, c. x 4; J. oper-

culum, c. x4; K. pollinia, c. x5.

Below: Fig. 3. Coelogyne occultata Hook. f. var. uniflora Balakr. A. plant, c. x1;

B. flower with peduncle and bract and without sepals and petals, c. x45 C. flower,

front view, c. x4; D. dorsal sepal, c. x 4; E. petal, c. x4; F. lateral sepal, c. x 4; G. lip,

c. X4; H. column, c. x4; I. operculum c. x 23; J. pollinia, c. x 21.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1.0-1.5 cm long. Peduncle arising from the

base of pseudobulb, slender, erect, = 4 cm

long, shorter than leaves, covered almost to

the top with wide spathaceous pale green

sheaths which enclose at the summit two

young leaves. Flower solitary, = 2.5 cm wide,

white; floral bracts oblong, acute, = 2 cm

long, = 1 cm broad, scarious brown; ovary

with pedicel green, + 1 cm long. Sepals ellip-

tic-oblong, subacute at apex, = 2.2 cm long,

+ 6 mm broad, spreading, white. Petals linear-

oblanceolate, subacute, narrowed at base,

+ 2 cm long, = 4 mm broad, white. Lip

oblong, = 2 cm long,= 1.5 cm.broad, 3-

lobed: lateral lobes large, erect, rounded at

apex with crenulate margins in front, white

with a dark yeliow spot bordered with brown-

ish-red band at the base near the midlobe,

also with many brownish-red nerves; midlobe

ovate, acute, recurved, hyaline, minutely wavy

at margins, white with 2 dark yellow spots

bordered with reddish-brown band at base;

disc with a long white band bordered on both

sides with 2 slender white undulate lamellae

extending from base of lip to the base of

midlobe and ending abruptly at the two eyes

of midlobe, also having a more slender and

smaller lamella between the other two. Column

white with orange yellow band in front at

base, broadly winged towards top with crenu-

late margins at apex, narrow at base, = 1.4

cm long, = 4 mm broad at apex. Pollinia 4,

attached together in pairs to a narrow disc,

obovoid.

Specimens: Nyoth Forest, E. Bhutan, 2000

m, 22 Oct. 1965, on moss-covered tree trunk

and rock boulders, Balakrishnan 43041 A

(Holotypus in CAL), ibid. 43041 B-D (Iso-

typi in ASSAM); Flowered in National Orchi-

darium, Shillong on 22 April 1966.

This differs from the type var. occultata in

pseudobulbs being longer, linear, oblanceolate,

clavate at apex; narrower leaves, solitary and

smaller flowers and narrower dorsal sepals.

Pomatocalpa bhutanicum sp. nov. (Fig. 4).

Affinis P. ramosa (Lindl.) Summerh. a qua

imprimis differt sepalis quam calcaribus bre-

vioribus; lobiis lateralibus labellorum longi-

oribus, acuminatis; labelli medilobo sagittato,

acuto; disco et calcari glabro.

Planta epiphytica; radices effusae, — 2 mm

crassae; caulis elongatus, gracilis, 6-7 cm

longus, opertus vaginis foliorum pluribus; in-

ternodia brevia. Folia effusa, disticha, equitan-

tia, leviter curva, lineari-oblonga, angustata et

inaequaliter bilobata ad apices, 10-13 cm longa,

1.0-1.3 cm lata; vaginae internodia quam longi-

ores, tubiformes, obliquae ad ores, manifeste

articulatae ad laminas. Inflorescentia racemosa

e interna vagina siccata exorienti, erecta ad

basim, supra patentem; pedunculus teres,

semel vel bis ramosus, 8-10 cm longus, uno

vel duo vagina scarioso ad basim, viridi-brun-

neus et purpureo-maculatus; racemi 15-18 flo-

ribus; maturescentes centripeti; bracteae late

triangulares, acutae, purpureo-virides. Flores

4-5 mm diam., non resupinati, calcari direc-

tione versus apicem racemi; pedicellus cum

ovario = 5 mm longus, viridis, purpureus ad

basim. Sepala ilavido-viridia, purpureo-macu-

latis; sepalum dorsale erectum, concavum, in-

curvatum, oblongum, obtusum, = 3 mm lon-

gum, = 1.2 mm latum; sepala lateralia con-

cavum, subfalcatum, incurvatum, ovato-oblon-

gum, obtusum, + 3 mm longum, + 1.5 mm

latum. Petala anguste oblonga, obtusa, = 2 mm

longa, = 1 mm lata, duobus longitudinalibus

purpureo-maculatis et viridi-fasciatis ad costas.

Labellum manifeste trilobatum, calcaratum,

carnosum, 6-7 mm longum; lobi laterales in-

curvi, concavi, triangulares, caudati-acuminati,

~ 1.5 mm longi; medilobus triangulariter has-

tatus, acutus, = 2 mm longus, = 1.5 mm

161

162

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 4. Pomatocalpa bhutanicum Balakr. A. plant, c. x 23; C. flower, top view, c. x 4;

D. dorsal sepal, c. x 4; E. petal, c. x 4; F. lateral sepal, c. x 4; G. column with lip

and spur, front view, c. x 23; H. lip, top view showing mouth of spur, c. x 4; I. Ls. of

spur, c. X 23; J.K. & L. t.s. of spur at three levels shown in fig. 1., c. x 24; M. column,

with operculum lifted up, c. x 24; N. pollinia, c. x 74.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

latus, incurvatus ad apicem, longistrorsum le-

viter sulcatus et biporcatus in disco. Calcar

compressum laterale et dilatatum ad basim,

supra cylindricum et anguste obtusum ad api-

cem; paries adaxialis verticalis lamellatus, lin-

gulatis, bilobatis ad discretum marginem, fere

tegenti calcaris orem; paries abaxialis anguste

verticalis porcatus. Columna = 1.5 mm longa;

lobi laterales carnosi, adnati ad labellum; ros-

tellum sulcatum, bidentatum; operculum trans-

verse oblongum, subquadrato-rhombicum; pol-

linia 4, ovoidea, compressa, inaequaliter bi-

nata; caudicula spathulata, lata ad basim, an-

gusta ad apicem.

Specimens: Tashiyangtsi, E. Bhutan, 1870

m, flowered in National Orchidarium, Shillong

on 24 June 1965, Balakrishnan 41993 A (Holo-

typus in CAL); ibid. Balakrishnan 41993 B

(Isotypus in ASSAM).

Epiphytic plant; roots spreading, = 2 mm

thick; stem elongate, slender, 6-7 cm_ long,

covered with many leaf sheaths; internodes

short. Leaves spreading distichous, equitant,

slightly curved, linear-oblong, narrowed and

unequally bilobed at apex, 10-13 cm _ long,

1.0-1.3 cm wide; sheaths longer than inter-

nodes, tubular, oblique at mouth, distinctly

jointed to leaf-blades. Inflorescence racemose,

arising from behind dry leaf-sheaths, erect at

base, patent above; peduncle terete, once or

twice branched, 8-10 cm long, with one or

two scarious sheaths at base, greenish brown

and purple-spotted; racemes 15-18 flowered,

maturing centripetally; bracts broadly triangu-

lar, acute, purplish-green. Flowers 4-5 mm

diam., not resupinate with spur directed to-

wards apex of raceme; pedicel with ovary +

5 mm long, green, purplish at base. Sepals

yellowish-green, dark purple blotched; dorsal

sepal erect, concave, incurved, oblong, obtuse,

= 3 mm long, = 1.2 mm wide; lateral sepals

concave, subfalcate, incurved, ovate-oblong,

obtuse, =~ 3 mm long, = 1.5 mm wide. Petals

narrowly oblong, obtuse, = 2 mm long, = 1

mm wide, with two longitudinal purplish-

bloches and green midband. Lip distinctly 3-

lobed, spurred, fleshy, 6-7 mm long; side lobes

incurved, concave, triangular, caudate-acumi-

nate, = 1.5 mm long; midlobe triangular, has-

tate, acute, = 2 mm long, = 1.5 mm wide,

incurved at tip, longitudinally faintly grooved

and 2-ridged on disc. Spur laterally compres-

sed and dilated at base, cylindric above and

narrowly obtuse at apex; adaxial wall verti-

cally lamellate, tongue-shaped, bifid at free

margin, almost covering the mouth of spur;

abaxial wall narrowly vertically ridged. Co-

lumn + 1.5 mm long; sidelobes fleshy, adnate

to lip; rostellum grooved, bidentate; opercu-

lum laterally oblong, subquadrate; pollinia 4,

ovoid, compressed, unequally paired; caudicle

spathulate, broad at base, narrowed at apex.

This species is closely allied to P. ramosum

(Lindl.) Summerh. but differs mainly in the

sepals being shorter than spur; side lobes of

lip longer, acuminate; midlobe of lip sagittate,

acute; disc and spur glabrous.

163

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

STUDIES ON SOME INDIAN APHELINID PARASITES

(HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA)!

S. IRFAN AHMED AND S. ADAM SHAFEE?

(With twenty-one text-figures)

An account is given of five Indian species

of the family Aphelinidae belonging to the

genera Physcus Howard, Coccophagus West-

wood and Aneristus Howard. Physcus guntur-

ensis sp. n. has been described in detail. Ma-

terial has been deposited in the Zoological

Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.

Physcus gunturensis sp. nov. (figs. 1-9)

FEMALE:

Head (fig. 1):— Yellowish brown, wider

than long in facial view (0.34:0.26 mm.);

frontovertex slightly more than one and a half

times wider than long; ocelli arranged in

obtuse triangle, basal ocellus separated by its

diameter from eye rim and about twice its

diameter from occipital margin; malar space

slightly longer than eyes width (0.1:0.09 mm.);

malar sutures distinct; mandibles with apical

acute tooth and a lower broad truncation;

maxillary and labial palpi 2 and 1-segmented

respectively.

Antennae (fig. 2):— Orange yellow except

radicle, basal three-fourths of scape and first

funicle segment are dark brown; scape three

and a half times longer than wide; pedicel

slightly shorter than first funicle segment;

funicle segments third and fourth slightly more

than one and a half times longer than wide;

club slightly more than three times longer than

wide.

1 Accepted May 1977.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

164

Thorax:— Dark brown; pronotum with an-

terior margin deeply concave in middle (fig.

3); scutum profusely setose; axilla and parap-

side each with single seta; scutellum longitu-

dinally reticulate bearing three pairs of setae

(fig. 4).

Fore wings:— Hyaline, two and a half times

longer than wide; costal cell broad; submar-

ginal vein with 11 setae and 18 bullae; stig-

mal vein one-fourth the length of marginal

vein; postmarginal vein slightly developed

(gtd):

Hind wings:— Hyaline, four and a _ half

times longer than wide; marginal fringe one-

half of wing width.

Legs Orange yellow; middle tibial spur.

as long as basitarsus (fig. 6).

Abdomen:— Brownish, longer than thorax;

subgenital plate of uniform width, central |

notch of posterior margin followed by laterally

directed ridges (fig. 7); ovipositor concealed, —

second valvifer of uniform width with a mid |

longitudinal ridge; third valvulae movably |

articulated with second valvifers (fig. 8).

Female length: 0.97 mm.

Holotype ¢, INDIA, Andhra Pradesh, Gun- |

tur, ex Aonidielle orientalis (Newstead),

10.11.1971 (S. Adam Shafee).

Paratypes 49, (Same date as for holotypelll

This species is closely related to Physcus |

reticulatus Compere & Annecke, but the two.

can be differentiated as follows: |

Se ee

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

: O-l2mm

Figs. 1-9. Physcus gunturensis sp. nov. 2: (1) Head; (2) Antenna; (3) Pronotum;

(4) Thorax; (5) Part of fore wing venation; (6) Part of middle leg; (7) Subgenital

plate; (8) Second valvifer; (9) Outer plate of genitalia.

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

__._Ol2mm

VS SSRs ~

— ~~ ~~

SS aS eS See SS

— ~~ = ~ ——s

Slee se

=> se > OS ~= ~™

= SSS ~

So —- — ——— = ~

{

hey

NVves

\\)

Figs. 10, 11. Coccophagus cowperi Girault, 9; (10) Antenna; (11) Part of fore wing venation.

Figs. 12, 13. Coccophagus bivittatus Compete, 9: (12) Antenna; (13) Part of fore wing venation.

Figs. 14-16. Aneristus ceroplastae Howard, 9: (14) Antenna; (15) Fore wing;

(16) Part of fore wing venation.

Figs. 17-21. Coccophagus longiclavatus Shafee, @, 9: (17) Antenna, 2; (18) Prono-

tum, 2; (19) Thorax, 2; (20) Fore wing, 9; (21) Antenna, ¢.

166

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

P. reticulatus Compere & Annecke

Scape white, five times longer than wide.

Pedicel as long as first funicle segment.

Club almost as long as funicle.

Abdomen yellow.

P. gunturensis sp. Nn.

Scape dark brown in basal three-fourth,

and a half times longer than wide.

Pedicel shorter than first funicle segment.

Club distinctly shorter than funicle.

Abdomen brownish.

Coccophagus cowperi Girault (figs. 10, 11)

Bere agiis cowperi Girault; Compere, 1931,

Proc. U.S. natn. Mus., 78:57.

Material examined— 25 2, 8 oOo, INDIA,

Andhra Pradesh, Nellore, Bucchireddipalam,

ex Ceroplastodes cajani (Maskell) on Psidium

guajava Linn., 27.11.1968; 9 92, ex Saissetia

coffeae Walker.

Coccophagus bivittatus Compere (figs. 12, 13)

Coccophagus bivittatus Compere, 1931, Proc.

U.S. natn. Mus., 78:73-74.

Material examined— 4 @, INDIA, Tamil

Nadu, Tenaksi, ex Coccus sp. on Psidium gua-

java Linn., 5.iii.1967 (S. Adam Shafee); 8 9°,

1 6, Uttar Pradesh, Ghaziabad, ex Anoma-

lococcus crematogasteri Green, on Prosopis

three

spicegera Linn., 5.vii.1970; 2 ¢, Rajasthan,

Jaipur, Ramgadh Bundh, ex Eriococcus lager-

stromiae Kuwana on wild plant.

Coccophagus longiclavatus Shafee (figs. 17-

21)

Coccophagus longiclavatus Shafee, 1972, Bull.

Eatso3 25.

Material examined — 2 ¢, INDIA, Utter Pra-

desh, Aligarh, ex Coccus sp. on Mangifera in-

dica Linn., (S. Adam Shafee).

Aneristus ceroplastae Howard (figs. 14-16)

Aneristus ceropiastae Howard; Compere, 1936,

Univ. Calif. Publs. Ent. 6:287-288.

Material examined— 15 2°, 5 4, INDIA,

Utter Pradesh, Aligarh, ex Coccus sp. on Hi-

biscus rosasinensis, 8.1x.1969, (S. Adam Sha-

fee).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam,

Head, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Mus-

lim University, Aligarh for providing research

facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof. Nawab

H. Khan for encouragement.

REFERENCES

ComPERE, H. (1931): A revision of the species of

Coccophagus, a genus of hymenopterous, Coccid

inhabiting parasites. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 78:1-

132.

(1936): Notes on the classifiication of

the Aphelinidae with descriptions of new species.

Univ. Calif. Publs. Ent., 6:277-322.

CoOMPERE, H. AND ANNECKE, D. P. (1961): Descrip-

tions of parasitic Hymenoptera and comments

(Hymenoptera : Aphelinidae). J. Ent. Soc. Sth.

Afr. 24:17-71.

SHAFEE, S. A. (1972): Indian species of genus Coc-

cophagus Westwood (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae).

Bull. Ent. 13:19-29.

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

A NEW MYGALOMORPH SPIDER OF THE GENUS PHLOGIODES

FROM KHASI-JAINTIA HILLS, INDIA

_ (ARANEAE: THERAPHOSIDAB)!*

M. BARMAN?

(With a text-figure)

Phlogiodes satyanus sp. nov.

General—Large, hairy spider; carapace, legs

and abdomen brown. Upper spinners long.

Total length ¢ 24.00 mm; carapace 12.00

mm long, 9.00 mm wide; abdomen 14.00 mm

long, 8.00 mm wide.

This spider lives in silk lined tunnels on the

ground near the base of pine trees. They are

found during autumn.

Cephalothorax—Longer than wide, in the

centre of thoracic region depressed procurved

fovea; infront of the fovea the cephalic region

is slightly higher. Eyes placed close together,

anterior row slightly procurved and almost

equidistant, posterior row slightly recurved,

posterior medians further from each other and

almost contiguous with the median lateral of

that side. Posterior medians silvery others dull

white; all ringed black. Carapace reddish

with a number of radiating brownish lines

from the fovea. Carapace clothed with fine

shiny yellowish white hairs. Endite large coni-

cal apically in the inner end. Posterior sternal

sigilla large and away from margin, two pairs

prominent; labium and endite reddish brown,

labium bears dark spots distally and endite

near its base. Legs long and stout, brownish,

1 Accepted June 1977.

2Lady Keane College, Shillong.

168

clothed with long spiny hairs. Leg formula IV.

LI. H, leg I 1.3 times the total body length;

carapace length equals to that of patella-tibia

plus 4 of metatarsus of leg I. Tarsal scopulae

of leg IV divided, protarsal scopulae not divid-

ed, protarsal pad on all legs.

Abdomen—Oval, brown, densely clothed

with long dark brown and white hairs. Poste-

rior spinners long and four segmented Both

pairs of lungs prominent.

Holotype—Female.

Type locality—Cantonment area, Shillong

(India). 22-10-1973. coll. S. Bhuyan. The type

specimen will be deposited in due course, in

the collections of the Zoological Survey of

India. |

Discussion—This species is closer to P.

robustus Pocock but differs from it in (1) pro-

tarsal scopulae of legs not being divided whe-

reas in P. robustus protarsal scopulae of leg II

is divided by a broad band of setae, (2) pre-

sence of protarsal pad on leg III and (3) tar-

sal pad of leg IV only being divided.

It does not seem to be female of P. validus

Pocock, where the male only was described

due to (1) variation in the leg formulae, (2)

cephalic region being high and not narrow,

(3) carapace longer than patella-tibia of leg

I and IV.

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader for con-

firmation of the identification.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. A-D. Phiogiodes satyanus sp. nov.

A. Carapace; B. Sternum with labium and endite; C. Anterior end of abdomen show-

ing lung book; D. Posterior end of abdomen showing spinners.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

FURTHER COMMENTS ON THE GENUS TAMRACA MOORE WITH

THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM CHANDIGARH

(LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)?,?

H. S. ROSE AND H. R. PAINE?

(With six text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

One hundred and forty five species of Pyra-

lidoidea were collected from North-West India

between November, 1972 and November,

1974. Out of these, six species belonged to the

sub-family Pyralinae and among these two

new species were recognised. One of these

along with the up to date characters of the

genus Tamraca is recorded in the present com-

munication.

Genus Tamraca Moore, 1887

Type-species: Asopia torridalis \ederer,

1863, Wien. Ent. Monaschr. 7: 342, 457, t. 6,

f. -15;,,.Moore, 1887; Lep. Ceylon. 3:554

Labial palpus obliquely upturned; third

joint porrect; thickly clothed with hair-like

scales, reaching well beyond maxillary palpus

and the sharp frontal tuft. Maxillary palpus

filiform. Proboscis minute. Antenna of male

with short fasciculate branches. Tegula of

male reaching posterior end of metathorax.

Tibiae hairy. Fore wing with costa nearly

straight; R, free; R. free; R;, R, and R; stalk-

ed; M. and M; approximated for their one-

third length; Cu, from distal end of cell. Hind

wing with Rs and M, stalked; M, and M;

somewhat approximated at base; Cu, from

near lower angle of cell. Male genitalia with

the uncus moderately long and slender; socii

present; gnathos well developed, drawn out

into a slender process, the latter slightly curv-

1 Accepted January 1978.

2From Ph.D. thesis of the senior author, ap-

proved for doctrorate degree by the Panjab Univer-

170

ed at tip; valva long and simple. Female geni-

talia without signum in corpus bursae; ductus

bursae long and spiral; ovipositor lobes quite

broad.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF GENUS Tamraca

MoorE

1. Ground colour of wings dark fuscous,

densely suffused with purple; uncus round-

ed at apex; aedeagus long and uniformly

narrow torridalis Lederer

Ground colour of wings brown, suffused

with fuscous; uncus truncate at apex; ae-

deagus long and broadened in distal half

moorei sp. nov.

®) (0) eyes e) apie: 6h \8 tee Lene) a) (6) 16) \ ele) 0) 10) Mele) 46!

Tamraca moorei sp. nov.

Head: Vertex covered with a tuft of brown

scales; frons rounded, with a short and con-

spicuous frontal tuft. Antenna shorter than

the fore wing; scape brown, irrorated with fus-

cous; flagellum strongly annulated with brown

scales, its base deep fuscous, with short and

well developed fasciculated branches in male.

Eye large, with a row of brown scales behind.

Ocellus indistinct. Labial palpus obliquely up-

turned, with third segment porrect; first seg-

ment short, covered with erect brown scales;

second segment longer, brown scaled, irrorated

with fuscous; third segment furnished with

minute scales. Maxillary palpus filiform, cloth-

ed with brown and fuscous scales. Proboscis

reduced. Posterior margin of head densely

adorned with long and erect brown scales.

sity, Chandigarh.

3 Department of

Chandigarh 160014.

Zoology, Panjab University,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Tamraca moorei sp. nov.

1. The adult.

Thorax: Densely scaled with brown scales

on dorsal surface, with scales on tegula slight-

ly longer; under surface of thorax fuscous

brown.

Fore wing: Costal margin straight; apex

rounded; termen oblique; tornus rounded; in-

ner margin straight. Ground colour brown;

anterior margin irrorated with fuscous and

marked with deep fuscous spots; base with

greyish tinge, followed by an inwardly run-

ning oblique dark line; a poorly defined fus-

cous discocelluiar spot; a dark fuscous post-

medial line from costa to M,, obliquely curv-

ed inwards and touching anal margin; outer

margin with fuscous spots; marginal fringe

fuscous grey, with a dark line. Discal cell lon-

ger than half the length of wing; discocellulars

oblique and straight; cell closed. Sc straight;

R, free, from well before anterior angle of

cell; R, free; R;, R. and R; stalked; M, from

base of R;+,+;; M;, and M; from lower angle

of cell, approximated at origin for some dist-

ance; Cu, from distal end of cell; Cu, roughly

at three-fourth length of cell; 3A making a

small anal loop with 2A.

cell half the length of wing; lower angle

termen, tornus and inner margin arched.

Ground colour light brown, finely irrorated

with deep fuscous; outer margin fuscous; mar-

ginal fringe brown, with a dark line. Discal

cell half the length of wing; lower angle

4mm

Figs. 2, 3 .Tamraca moorei sp. nov.

2. Fore wing; 3. Hind wing.

Abbreviations: 1A, First anal vein; 2A, second

anal vein; 3A, Third anal vein; Cul, First cubital

vein; Cu2, Second cubital vein; M1, First median

vein; M2, Second median vein; M3, Third median

vein; R1, First radial vein; R2, Second radial vein;

R3, Third radial vein; R4, Fourth radial vein; RS,

Fifth radial vein; R3+4+45, Stalk of R3, R4, R5;

Rs, Radial sector; Sc, Subcosta; Sc + R1, Stalk of

Sc and RI.

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ree SEED

O-6mm

Figs. 4, 5. Tamraca moorei sp. nov.

Parts of the male genitalia.

Abbreviations: SA, Saccus; SL, Sacculus; SOC, Socii; TG, Tegumen; TRA, Transtilla;

UN, Uncus; VIN, Vinculum; VLV, Valva.

172

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

produced; discocellulars conspicuous; cell

closed. Rs apposed to Sc + R, beyond cell for

some distance; Rs and M, stalked; M. and M,;

from posterior angle of cell, approximately at

base, diverging distally; Cu, from near angle

of cell; Cu, from two-third length of cell; three

anals present.

Legs: Densely covered with brown scales,

irrorated with dark fuscous; tibia prominently

scaled, all outer tibial spurs one-third as long

as the inner ones.

Abdomen: Brown both dorsally and ven-

trally, its first segment ringed with fuscous.

Male genitalia: Uncus moderately long and

truncate at distal end, lateral sides densely

setose with anteriorly directed setae, with api-

cal end naked; socii long and well sclerotized,

completely bare; gnathos well developed,

shorter than uncus, strongly sclerotized, its

arms united in centre and drawn out into a

long curved point; tegumen reduced; vinculum

more or less V-shaped, produced anteriorly in-

to a reduced saccus. Valva long and simple,

with costal margin straight, its saccular mar-

gin curved, distal end narrow and rounded;

costa not marked; sacculus extremely poorly

differentiated at base; harpe absent. Transtilla

complete, represented by a transverse strap;

juxta more or less oval distally, with a sclero-

tized line. Aedeagus quite long, narrow ante-

riorly and broad posteriorly, its wall well scle-

rotized; vesica without any definite cornutus,

adorned with densely packed denticles at dis-

tal end.

Female genitalia: Not studied

Alar expanse: Male: 20 mm to 21 mm.

Holotype 1 3,3 84 paratypes, India, Chan-

digarh, (U.T.), Sept., 1973. (Collected by H.

S. Rose). Material deposited in Entomologi-

cal Museum, Department of Zoology, Panjab

University, Chandigarh-160 014 (India).

Fig. 6. Tamraca moorei sp. nov.

Part of the male genitalia.

JX, Juxta.

Abbreviation:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. G. P. Shar-

ma, Senior Professor and Head, Department

of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh

for providing research facilities and to Dr. G.

S. Arora and Mr. Inderjit Gupta of Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, 34-Chittaranjan Avenue,

Calcutta for their critical suggestions in the

preparation of the paper.

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ON A NEW SPECIES OF AGRIOCNEMIS SELYS, 1869 (COENAG-

RIDAE: ODONATA) WITH DESCRIPTION OF ITS LARVA FROM

DEHRA DUN VALLEY, INDIA?

ARUN KUMAR AND MAHABIR PRASAD?

(With fifteen text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Agriocnemis Selys, 1869, is a Oriental genus

of Coenagriid damselflies comprising 11 spe-

cies from the Indian sub-region (Fraser 1933;

Sahni 1965). Subsequently Mitra (1975)

while reviewing the Indian species of Agrioc-

nemis Selys, has doubted the exact identity of

Agriocnemis nainitalensis Sahni, and suggested

inclusion of it in the genus Jschnura. Recent-

ly, we have been able to breed a new species

of this genus, from the larvae collected from

a marshy pond at Badripur Vill., Dehra Dun,

subsequently 2 more adult females were col-

lected from another marshy perennial pond

about 1 km away from type locality at

Gorakhpur Village, Dehra Dun. Detailed taxo-

nomic description of the last instar larvae is

also given and brief biological notes have been

made.

We have pleasure in dedicating this species

to Prof. Philip S. Corbet, University of Christ-

church, New Zealand, who initiated and con-

stantly encouraged one of us (A.K.) on Odo-

nata biology.

Agriocnemis corbeti sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-7)

ADULT

Male—Holotype: abdomen 19 mm, fore wing

14 mm, hind wing 13 mm. (Emerged in

laboratory).

Head: WLabrum light cream colour; labium

1 Accepted December 1977.

2 Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Dehra Dun, India.

174

yellow with anterior border black; antecly-

peus brownish-yellow; postclypeus dark

brown with anterior border black; mandibles

light blue. Frons, face and vertex black.

Light blue post ocular coloured spot present,

a fine line of same colour almost connecting

them. Eyes black above and palest blue

beneath.

Prothorax: Light reddish brown; posterior

lobe reddish; anterior lobe white.

Thorax: (Fig. 1) brownish red on dorsum;

mid dorsal carinal suture blood red; ante-

humeral stripe blue. A blue stripe present

on the metepimeron. Ventrally cream yellow.

Hooks on the anterior border of thorax ab-

sent. Legs white; distal end of femur black

dorsally; spines black; 4 spines present on

hind pair of tibiae and 7 spines on corres-

ponding femora.

Wings: (Fig. 2) hyaline; pterostigma similar

in shape and size in fore and hind wings,

covers less than one cell, diamond-shaped,

distal side more oblique than proximal; 9

postnodal nervures in fore wings, 7 in hind

wings. Discoidal cell acutely pointed at dis-

tal end, costal side of discoidal cell is near-

ly half of the distal end in forewing and

three fourth in hind wing; in fore wing basal

side is shorter than costal side; in hind

wing it is just half, distal side of discoidal

cell oblique. Sectors of arc arising from the

lower end of arc and divergent from their

origin. Arc situated more distal to the distal

antenodal nervures. Nervure A B present

and arising well proximal to the AC; A B

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

continued as nervure 1A with an angulation

(medio-anal line) at the junction of the

two; nervures RIV+V arising well before the

oblique nervure descending from the sub-

node.

Abdomen: (Figs. 3 & 4) brick-red in colour,

marked with black as follows: Apical joints

of segment 2-7 ringed with black. A black

triangular spot with a deep notch anteriorly

present on the first segment. Segment 2 with

a broad squared, black dorsal spot constrict-

ed abruptly near the apical annule. Segment

3 with a small black triangular spot on its

dorsum which is pointed posteriorly. Seven-

th segment black on dorsum, constricted in

middle and then again dilated upto apical

joint as illustrated in the diagram; 8th and

9th segment totally black; and 10th with a

small rounded basal black spot on dorsum.

Anal appendages: (Fig. 5) pale yellow; supe-

rior as long as segment 10th; pale yellow,

tipped with black. It is broad at the base

and tapering into a small curled spine at

the apices; inferior black, less than half the

superior and pointed at tip.

Female—Allotype: abdomen 17 mm, _fore-

wing 12 mm, hind wing 11.5 mm. Paratype;

abdomen 17-18 mm, fore wing 12-15 mm,

hind wing 11.5-12 mm.

Head: Labium light yellow; labrum chocolate

brown; ante and postclypeus brownish red,

with two small rounded white spot on each

side of anteclypeus; mandible light brown.

Face frons and vesicle black; occiput rose-

red. Chocolate brown post occular spot pre-

sent; a fine line of same colour almost con-

necting them. Eyes similar to male.

Prothorax: Chocolate brown; lateral side pale

yellow; posterior lobe rose-red.

Thorax: Chocolate brown; mid dorsal carina

red; antehumeral stripe black; metepimeron

yellow; ventral side white. Legs brownish

yellow with black spine; distal end of fe-

mora black; 4 spines on hind femora of

tibiae and 7 on the corresponding femora.

Wings: Similar to male except 7 postnodal ner-

vure in fore wing and 5-6 in hind wing.

Abdomen: (Figs. 6 & 7) brick-red; apical

joint ringed with black; 6-10 abdomenal seg-

ments black on dorsum with two small red-

dish spots on lateral sides of 7th & 8th

segment. Abdomen ventrally yellow.

Anal appendages: yellow, small in size and

conical in shape; vulvar scales yellow. -

Material examined:

14. Holotype: India, Dehra Dun, Badripur

Vill. Em. from larva on 10.3.1976, Coll. A.

Kumar.

1? Allotype; India, Dehra Dun, Badripur

Vill. 26.3.1976, Coll. A. Kumar.

1? Paratype: India, Dehra Dun, Badripur

Vill. Em. from larva on 10.3.1976, Coll. A.

Kumar.

3 22 Paratype: (1 2 from Badripur Vill.

26.3.1976) 222%, India, Dehra Dun, Gorakh-

pur Vill., 27.4.1976, Coll. A. Kumar.

Holotype and 2 paratype 22 will be de-

posited in the National Collection of the Zoo-

logical Survey of India, Calcutta; Allotype and

rest of paratype 2 will be retained in the

Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey

of India, Dehra Dun.

Diagnosis: This species falls under Group 2

of Fraser (1933) in which the labrum is non-

metallic and anal appendages more or less

homogeneous, the superior is longer than in-

ferior. This species can be easily distinguished

from all other known species of the genus

Agriocnemis Selys by its brownish red thorax,

brick-red abdomen and with black markings

and can be easily separted from Agriocnemis

pygmaea (Rambur), A. clauseni Fraser and

A. nainitalensis Sahni from this area in hav-

ing light reddish brown prothorax; pale yellow

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75 |

1 % |

e ee z

ore ee Pet 8S etm vere

One ale tetsen lee els.

@ ° Cr

Figs. 1-7 Agriocnemis corbeti sp. nov.: (1) thorax of holotype male, dorsal view;

(2) wing (partially) of holotype male; (3) anterior abdominal segments of holotype

male; (4) posterior abdominal segments of holotype male; (5) anal appendages of

holotype male, lateral view; (6) posterior abdominal segments of allotype female;

(7) reproductive organs of allotype female.

176

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

anal appendages; superior anal appendages

pale yellow and tipped with black.

LARVA (Figs. 8-16)

Material: India: U.P., Dehra Dun, Badripur

Vill., 8.3.1976, 3 larvae (16, 222) marshy

pond, emerged in Laboratory on 10.3.1976

(2), 11.3.1976 (¢ Holotype) and (¢ Para-.

type), Coll. A. Kumar.

Description: Length 17.1 mm (varying from

16.8 to 17.1 mm.); Caudal lamellae (para-

prect) 5.7 mm. Coloration — uniformly

pale brown except caudal lamellae which are

darker.

Antennae (Fgs. 9 & 10)—filiform, flagellar

segments beset with a few setae towards

apical half; measurements (in mm) of seg-

ments being 0.20, 0.30, 0.36, 0.27, 0.23, 0.14

and 0.11; total length 1.61 mm.

Labium (Figs. il & 12)—premental setae 4-4,

a few spiniform setae present laterally on

prementum; palpal setae 5 & 5, distal mar-

gin of palpus divided into two lobes, outer

lobe bear 4 distinct and a few small teeth,

while the inner terminates into a_ curved

end hook. Movable hook medium-sized

about half of the length of palpus.

Tibial comb (Fig. 14)—comprises a number

of scattered tridentate setae in between

which some long simple setae also present;

tarsi beset with a double row of pectinate

setae on their outer side.

Gonapophyses—in male triangular process

situated ventrally on posterior side of 9th

abdominal segment; in female arising from

anterior side of 9th segment and extending

up to posterior half of 10th segment.

Caudal lamellae (Figs. 15 & 16)—epiproct

and paraprocts in the form of fusiform, dup-

lex lamellae; leaflike, with apices ending in-

to narrow process. Mottled with 5 distinct

cross bands in paraprocts, 3 in epiproct

from middle to apical end; darkish basally.

Tracheation well developed, a number of

undulating secondary and tertiary branches

arise from the main median trachea. Ante-

nodal region beset with evenly arranged row

of spiniform setae (fig. 16). Length epi-

proct 5.1 mm.; paraprocts 5.8 mm.

Biology: Larvae have been so far collected

only from a marshy pond at Badripur Vill.,

Dehra Dun. They are active in habit and

remain attached to submerged vegetation.

The same pond also holds larval population

of Agriocnemis pygmaea (Rambur) and

Ischnura delicata (Hagen).

Adults are rare but have been observed on

wing from middle of march to end of April.

Females were seen flying amidst grass on the

marshy bank of the pond. One female was

also collected from another perennial pond

(Gorakhpur Vill.) on 27.4.1976 about 1 km

from type locality of this species.

Diagnosis:

The other two species of Agriocnemis from

the Indian subregion whose larvae are known

are A. femina (Lieftinck. 1962) and A. pyg-

maea (Kumar 1973).

Larvae of A. corbeti sp. nov. can easily

be differentiated from that of A. pygmaea

by their coloration, size and the number of

labial setae (A. pygmaea premental setae 3-3;

palpal setae 4-4). However, the larvae A.

femina are close to those of A. corbeti in hav-

ing the same number of labial setae (number

being premental setae 4-4, palpal setae 5 & 5

in both) but can be easily differentiated on the

basis of size; the larvae of A. corbeti are dis-

tinctly larger in size (larvae of A. femina are

only about 12.5 mm in length).

178

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Figs. 8-15. Agriocnemis corbeti sp. nov.: (8) last instar larva; (9) antenna; (10) apical

antennal segments, enlarged view; (11) labium, oral view; (12) distal margin palpus,

enlarged view; (13) tibial comb and tarsi; (14) epiproct; (15) antenodal region

epiproct, enlarged view.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. B. S. Lamba, Deputy Zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun, for

Director-in-Charge and Dr. Asket Singh,

Suptdg. Zoologist, Northern Regional Station,

permission to undertake this study, laboratory

facilities and constant encouragement.

REFERENCES

FRASER, F. C. (1933): Fauna of British India—

Odonata I. Taylor & Francis, London.

Kumar, A. (1973): Description of the last instar

larvae of Odonata from the Dehra Dun Valley

(India), with notes on Biology-I. Suborder Zygop-

tera. Oriental Ins., 7 : 83-118.

LIEFTINCK, M. A. (1962): Odonata.

Micronesia 5 (1): 18-37.

Insects of

Mirra, T. R. (1975): A review of Indian species

Odonata : Zy-

goptera : Coenagrionidae), with a note on Agrio-

cnemis nainitalensis Sahni. Dr. B. S. Chauhan

Comm. Vol. : 403-409.

SAHNI, D. N. (1965): Studies on the Odonata

(Zygoptera) of Nainital. Indian J. Ent., 27 : 205-

216.

of Agriocnemis Selys (Insecta :

A NEW SPECIES OF KRAIT OF THE GENUS BUNGARUS DAUDIN,

1803 [SERPENTES: ELAPIDAE] FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLAND*

S. Biswas AND D. P. SANYAL?

(With four text figures)

INTRODUCTION

In course of a study of the reptiles of Anda-

man and Nicobar Islands in the collections of

the Zoological Survey of India we came across

four specimens identified earlier as Bungarus

caeruleus (Schneider) and which showed

marked differences from B. caeruleus and are

now being described as of a new species.

Bungarus andamanensis sp. nov.

Description : Head not distinct from neck;

eye with round pupil diameter more than half

the distance of eye and the nostril; nostril be-

tween two nasals; rostral broader than long;

internasal broader than long and shorter than

1 Accepted December 1977.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-700 012.

prefrontal; prefrontal broader than long,

length more than half its breadth, touches in-

ternasal, postnasal, preocular and supraocular;

frontal slightly shorter than its distance from

the rostral and touches six shields, excepting

frontoparietal all subequal to frontal; fronto-

parietal largest; no loreal; one preocular in con-

tact with posterior nasal, two postoculars;

width of supraocular more than half its length;

temporal 1 + 2; 7 supralabials, Ist and 2nd

touching nasal, 3rd and 4th in contact with

eye, 2nd decidedly narrower than 3rd, 5th high-

est touching postocular and anterior temporal,

6th largest and broadest and touching anterior

temporal; 7 infralabials, Ist longer than 2nd

and 3rd, these touch anterior genial, 4th in

contact with posterior genial, 6th longest;

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

anterior genial longer than posterior; dorsal

scales smooth and shining, in 15 rows; verte-

bral series strongly enlarged, broader than

long and also broader than the scale of Ist

row, ventral 194; anal undivided; subcaudal

47 and undivided; tail thick, ends in a blunt

point.

Dorsal coloration of preserved specimen

in spirit, chocolate or reddish black, lustrous

and shining; 44 white linear arches or bars

across back and 12 on tail, arranged equidist-

antly; bars complete dorsally, mottled with

brown, laterally expand abruptly; top of head

chocolate fading to white on the lip, belly

glazed white, anterior and lateral margin of

ventral scales tinged with brown.

registered on Jan. 1944. Reg. No. 14628, An-

damans, collected by Major A. R. Anderson,

registered on Jan. 1947.

Remarks: The entire collection of Bungarus

caeruleus (Schneider) in the Zoological Survey

of India consisting of 51 specimens, 4 from

Andaman Island and rest from different parts

of India were examined, but the four speci-

mens from Andaman having ventral from 193

to 197, subcaudal 45 to 47, complete and equi-

distant body cross-bars from 39 to 47 and the

tail bars from 9 to 13 maintain a uniform dis-

tinction from the mainland specimens of Bun-

garus caeruleus which have ventral count from

200-217, subcaudal 33 to 52, 29 to 65 cross-

bars in pairs and tail bars 4 to 27. Moreover

Measurements (in mm) and count:

Holotype

20895 /1

Snout to vent 600

Vent to tip of tail 115

Total length 715

Total length /tail 5) 2

Head length up to parietal 19

Head breadth at broadest 16

Diameter of eye ’ Bd

Eye to snout 6.3

Eye to nostril 3.5

Number of ventrals 194

Number of subcaudals 47

Dorsal scales 15

20895 /2 2897 14628

410 Mapapo 184

i, 4] 34

437 263 218

45) 5.4 54

MESS) 8.5 8

a5) GF nye)

1.8 a) 1

4.6 Dae) D

2.8 Ws 3) 1:2

92 ory) 193

45 46 45

15 15 15

Material examined: Holotype Zoological

Survey of India, Reg. No. 20895/1, Port Blair,

S. Andaman; collected by A. Bayley de Castro,

18 June 1926.

Paratypes: Zoological Survey of India, Reg.

No. 20895/2, Port Blair, S. Andaman, collect-

ed by A. Bayley de Castro, 18 June 1926. Reg.

No. 2897, Andaman, collected by R. C. Tytler,

180

some of the anterior body cross-bars from 2

to 15 are dorsally incomplete. The body to

tail ratio in the present species is 5.2 to 5.4

whereas in caeruleus it is 8.

Wall (1908) was not able to correctly de-

cide the status of the Andaman specimen be-

cause he examined a juvenile specimen of

Zoological Survey of India (a specimen from

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Indian Museum, pl. viii, fig. 4) and assigned

this specimen to B. multicinctus (Blyth) lower-

ing the ventral count of this species from 219-

236 to 194-218 though the specimen differs

from the multicinctus not only in the ventral

count but also in other characters, such as

2nd supralabiai not decidedly narrower than

the 3rd, in the disposition and arrangement of

colour bars, body to tail ratio and in having

a different geographical distribution.

Smith (1943) also noticed these differences

in the six specimens he examined from An-

daman and noted correctly the characters as

“scales in 15 rows throughout, V.192-200,

C.40-46. Black above, with narrow white equi-

distant cross-bars, 40-46 in number on body;

these are equally distinct throughout body, and

have no vertebral spots” but he thought these

differences are due to juvenile condition of the

specimens and brought them under the broad

range of scale count, dorsal 15 to 17, ventral

194-234, caudal 42-52 along with the speci-

mens of B. sindanus (Boulenger [17 dorsal,

vertebral not broader than long, V.218-237,

C.48-52] which has got a valid claim of a dis-

tinct taxonomic status, but according to Smith

the claim is untenable due to their common

geographical distribution and variation of char-

acters.

Smith’s above quoted observation was no

doubt correct, but he was also misled like

Wall in assigning the Andaman specimens to

B. caeruleus as he examined only the juvenile

specimens in the collections of the Zoological

Survey of India, instead of the adult.

The juvenile or young specimens appear

markedly different from the adult colora-

tion. Though the body bands in juvenile (Fig.

3) are equidistant, the body colour is very

prominent and uniformly chocolate without

the mottled marking within the white bars as

in the Holotype. The latero-ventral ends of the

181

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

white bars also spread abruptly. given below show the gradual differentiation

The comparative chart of different charac- of characters within the caeruleus species com-

ters of 5 species from the Indo-Malayan region plex:

Characters B. andama- B. caeruleus B. candidus B. multic- B. ceylonicus

nensis inctus

LT ET SIE EST ECORI LSE LLL TELE TE IEEE GRE TE CEERI ELDEST ALLE D\ LAE D IL LDA EET)

Ventrals 192-197 200-217 (234) © 209-219 209-228 219-236

Subcaudals 45-47 33-52 40-50 44-54 32-42

2nd supralabial

decidedly narrower yes ee oa as ? No. yes, also

than 3rd. narrower than

Ist.

Body bands 39-47 29-- 65 20-25 27-48 15-21

Tail bands 9-13 4-27 7-10 7-13 2-5

Sa aE A I I FL IIE TS ETS ES IO TT TT TO EET BS ET EN PE OF

Coloration and Equidistant, In pairs, narrow Black body, Bars on the fore Alteranate black

compete, narrow on the vertebral bars onthefore part of body and white bands

band arrange- white bars and line wider on the part of body further apart which encircle

wider on the sides sides; broken up narrower than fromoneanother body. In old spe-

ments : : :

comparatively less into spots, some imnterspeces, than on hinder cimens dorsal

and abruptly, bars anterior bars on the hinder part, median white bands tend

are mottled. incomplete. part about portion of each to reduce to vert:

same width. bar may be ebral spots or

spotted black. sometimes

disappear.

Measurement of

largest 600+115 mm 1200+150 mm 1070-+135 mm 1100+145 mm 1000+-95 mm

(Body + tail)

BS TT I SO RS OE IT IEE ETT LIS LLL ETE LEAL EDAD,

KEY TO THE SPECIES Bungarus BELONGING TO THE V.200-217, C.33-52.

caeruleus GROUP OF SPECIES B. caeruleus Schneider. (india & St Taney

F, Bands are not arranged in pairs.

A. Scales in 15 rows. 1. Back with narrow white cross-bars, ar-

B. Subcaudals entire throughout. ranged equidistantly; V.192-197, C.45-47.

C. Vertebrals strongly enlarged, as broad as B. andamanensis sp. n. (Andaman only)

or broader than long. 2. Back with bars on anterior part further

D. Tail ending in a point, dorsal vertebrae not apart from one another than on _ hinder

forming a ridge down the back. part; V.209-228, C.44-54 .. :

E, Belly uniformly white. B. multicinctus Blyth. (Burma, lade: hina!

Back uniformly black above, C.49-56...... S. China)

B. niger Wall. (E. Himalayas and Assam) 3. Bars on the fore part of body narrower

F, Bands are arranged in pairs. than interspaces, on the hinder part about

Back with 27-48 white cross-bars; same width.

182

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Back of tail with 20-25 broad white cross-

bars, median part of each bar spotted

with black; V.209-229, C.40-50 .. .. .. ..

B. candidus (Linn.). (Thailand, Malay

Pen. and Indonesia)

E, Belly with black marks or cross-bars, some-

times absent in juvenile.

1. Back with 15-21 white cross-bars, 2-5 tail

eee

2. Back with 11-14 very broad, white, black-

cross-bars; V.214-235, C.40-48.

. B. magnimaculatus Wall

and Evans. (Burma only)

spotted

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities provid-

ed to study the material.

REFERENCES

SMITH, M. (1943): Fauna of British India, Reptilia

and Amphibia. Vol. III. Serpentes. Taylor and

Francis, London. pp. 1-vii, 1-568.

WALL, F. (1908): A popular Treatise on the com-

mon Indian snakes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18(4) : 713-735.

STUDIES ON INDIAN FILISTATID SPIDERS

(ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA)?

B. H. PATEL?

(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Since the classical work of Pocock (1900)

and the earlier contributions of other European

arachnologists on Indian spiders, no reference

has ‘been made about the occurrence of filis-

tatid forms from India. The earliest record

was by Thoreli (1895) from Burma with a

description of a new species Filistata zebrata.

Simon (1911) described F. nigra from Madura,

India; now confirmed by Benoit (1968) as

Sahastata nigra. Recently Tikader (1963, 1977)

described two and Patel (1975) described one

species of the genus Filistata Latr. from India.

Recently (May, 1977) I studied the type spe-

1 Accepted March 1978.

2? Department of Zoology, Sir P. P. Institute of

Science, (Saurashtra University), Bhavnagar-364002,

Gujarat, India.

cimens of F. poonaensis and F. nicobarensis

from the Zoological Survey of India, Poona

and found that both species belong to the

genus Pritha. The conclusion of Lehtinen

(1967) that F. poonaensis Tikader, is a species

of Pritha is thus confirmed.

Filistatidae is a family of Cribellate spiders,

living in dark places, particularly in crevices

of houses, wood and also under stones. Only

one genus, Filistata was known which was con-

sidered to have world wide distribution. Mello-

Leitao (1946) described some more Neotrop-

ical genera and summarized the characters of

the known genera. Recently Lehtinen (1967)

clearly separated four more genera Andoha-

rano, Kukulcania, Zaitunia and Pritha, and

redefined the genus Filistata, limited in distri-

bution to areas south of the Palaearctic region.

According to Benoit (1968) the first three

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

genera described by Lehtinen are monophy-

letic.

During the course of my studies on spiders

from Gujarat State, I came across some in-

teresting forms of this family belonging to the

genera Sahastata Benoit and Pritha Lehtinen.

The first genus is being recorded here for the

first time after its establishment by Benoit

and the later aiso for the first time from In-

dia. The previous records of Pritha are from

Algeria, Lybia and Tunisia. Two new species

of these genera are described here. A Key to

the Indian filistatid genera as well as the char-

acters of the newly recorded genera are given.

The type specimens will in due course be

deposited in the National Collections of Zoo-

logical Survey of India, Calcutta.

KEY TO INDIAN FILISTATID GENERA

1. —Calamistrum of curved hairs in a

single row. Cephalothorax with a

central marking and black margin.

Femora III and IV_ with baso-

dorsal spines, tarsi III and IV with

spines in a single row.

—Calamistrum in two rows (biser-

rate) = a nie ie 2

2. —Cribellum subtriangular. Cephalo-

thorax slightly marked with black

designs, cymbium horse-shoe

shaped. Tibia of maxillary palp

much swollen, femur and _ tarsi

Filistata

without spines. Abdomen with

white hairy patches. Pritha

—Cribellum subtriangular, narrow |

and elongated lengthwise. Cepha-

lothorax marked anteriorly with

black network like markings.

Cymbium short and cylindrical.

Tibia of maxillary palp is not

swollen. a Ne wie 3

3. —Outer row of calamistrum is of

short hairs and inner row has

long curved hairs. Scopulae on

inner side of femora I and II,

and numerous spines on femur II;

184

tibia, metatarsus and tarsi with

numerous spines. Sahastata

FILISTATA Latreille 1810.

Filistata Latreille, 1810. Consi. gen. Crus.

Arach. Ins., : 120.

Filistata napadensis Patel, 1975. Oriental in-

sects, 9(4) : 425.

Specimens examined: Gujarat: Napad, Dist.

Kheda, 20 9,2 o&, 18.x.1967; Vallabh Vidya-

nagar and Chaklashi, Dist. Kheda, 3 9°,

20.x1.1969; Ahwa, Dist. Dangs, 2 9°, 16.viii.

1970; . Ambaji,, Dist. Banaskantha, 2 9,

21. xigl970. Colle Ty Patel:

Distribution: Kheda, Ahwa and Banaskan-

tha Districts, Gujarat.

PRITHA Lehtinen 1967

Pritha Lehtinen, 1967. Ann. Zool.

4, DOO: 300)

Characters: Cephalothorax with light co-

loured designed and well defined clusters of

white hairs. Tarsal claws without spines, some

times a small ventral spine on the metatarsus

I present. Thoracic fovea absent. Cribellum

triangular and divided. Calamistrum biserrate.

Male: cymbiurm horse-shoe shaped. Tibia of

palp strongly bulged, the ejaculatory duct very

broad and ‘U’ shaped with embulous end

sharp and slightly arched. The palp of the

female is more swollen than in other genera.

Male cephalothorax is bordered.

Type species: Pritha mana (Simon 1868).

This common genus is heterogenous in its

composition and was divided into three groups

of species by Lehtinen (1967). Palaearctic

(nana) group comprises of P. nana Simon,

P. vestata Simon, P. debilis Simon, P. pallida

Kulcz. and P. albimaculata O. P. Cambr. to

which P. condita O. P. Cambr. from Atlantic

Islands is added. The other groups are the

Indo-Malayasian (garciai) group and_ the

Fennici,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Pritha dharmakumarsinhjii sp. nov.

a. Dorsal view of female (legs omitted); b. Sternum, labium and maxillae; c. Epigyne.

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Formosan (bakeri) group of which the first

one is closer to the Palaearctic one.

Pritha poonaensis (Tikader)

Filistata poonaensis (Tikader), 1963. J. Univ.

Poona Sci. Tech. 24:35. Specimens examin-

ed: Gujarat: Napad, Dist. Kheda, 2 9,

3.ix.1967; Chaklashi, Dist. Kheda, 2 °, 22.

vi.1970. Coll. B. H. Patel. Also type speci-

mens from the collections of Z. S. I., Poona,

collected by Dr. B. K. Tikader.

Distribution: Poona, Maharashtra; Kheda

District, Gujarat.

Pritha nicobarensis (Tikader)

Filistata nicobarensis (Tikader), 1977. Rec.

Zool. Surv. India, 72 (1-4) :160.

Specimens examined: Female holotype and

paratypes from the collections of Zoological

Survey of India, Poona, collected by Dr. B.

K. Tikader.

Distribution: India: Nicobar Islands.

Pritha dharmakumarsinhjii sp. nov.

(Fig. 1; a-c)

Female: Light brown to brown in colour.

Total length 3.83 mm. Carapace 1.46 mm long,

1.13 mm wide; abdomen 2.37 mm long, 1.46

mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Dark brown with light

coloured white patches, covered with fine

hairs and yellow coloured margin. Peculiar

oval and round patches on the clypeus and

the region just posterior to the eye group as

in Fig. 1, a. Clypeus very low and arched.

Eyes in a compact group and raised up. AM

dark in colour, rest pearly white. AL largest

of all, PM smaliest, PL smaller than AL, AM

slightly smaller than PM, AL and PL conti-

guous. Ocular quad broader posteriorly and

narrowed in front. Anterior row of eyes pro-

curved, posterior row slightly procurved. Ster-

num dark brown due to the presence of black

spots; oval pointed behind and concave ridge

in front. Sternum and labium fused together

186

without any distinct demarkation. Sternum,

labium and maxilla as in Fig. 1, b. Two white

stripes are present from the anterior edge of

sternum joining with the labium on its lateral

margin. Legs long, the first being the longest,

yellowish with dorsal sides brighter in colour,

covered with numerous hairs, no spines. Tarsi

with two pectinate claws. Legs 1 4 2 3.

Abdomen: Oblong, brownish, with light

yellow symmetrically arranged patches on the

dorsal side and a median dark coloured line

as in Fig. 1, a. Few scattered tufts of white

hairs are present on the anterior half of ab-

domen. Ventral side lighter in colour with a

wide median dark band extending from the

epigastric fold upto the spinners. Abdomen

projects a little behind the spinners. Epigyne

most simple in the form of a transverse slit

as in Fig. 1, ¢

Holotype: 1 2°, paratype: 4 2, in spirit.

Type-locality: Bhavnagar, Dist. Bhavnagar,

23.vili.1973. Coll. B. H. Patel.

Distribution: Bhavnagar and also :collected

from Hathab, Dist. Bhavnagar, Gujarat.

This species resembles to Pritha nana Leh-

tinen, but differs as follows: (1) Shape of

sternum differs with the posterior pointed end

and black spots. (2) Two white stripes on the

lateral sides of labium joining the sternum

and labium are present, but in P. nana no such

stripes are found. (3) Colour pattern on the

cephalothorax and abdomen also differ. (4)

Epigyne also differs structurally.

SAHASTATA Benoit 1968

Sahastata Benoit, 1968. Estr. Dag. Ann. Del.

Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova, 77:96.

Characters: Eyes in a compact group, rais-

ed on the turbercle like protrubrance, ocular

region marked with raised hairs. Ocular quad

wider behind. Clypeus more strongly arched.

A deep fovea present. The area between the

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Y cist ay AL ae Bi)

4 Teale i vis He, q

Ky, Apa et eat ly i TAY UR Pa} nay

[v5 C4 ptt fatty TAY) HANG sap Atal HL APA UAE,

LP ge UG SS hn yt | ely 4 | CaM ant

Ls Wisi by if Pe Vid ge! 1, Wd lt "i

hi gee! Hen,

MU Vy ]

Ata fy las \

h Dag WN rrAl! | ils | i

He ea yet LEY ania ptt i]

y fry Tl ij i aD KA fe

Mi te Mi Af ated

) (Ae Fare i £ 7 / I ii

ae Ale ey 14]! ie Seidl ai il

Ty: t yl! Mn! (

\ 4 t y U

Wrap eget fe ANG iE" A loll

yj ft halal eet fin ee nie Mi (fa Ae if

TO (| ni, ; aM f t

| CULO ; mt tle I", Ma A

PiwWivies re

* 1, CR PL ia Lael il om

pest pitt Hint! hats Wy i A '

/ 5,

Fig. 2. Sahastata ashapuriae sp. nov.

a. Dorsal view of female (legs omitted); b. Sternum, labium and maxillae; c. Epigyne

d. Left male palp—inner view; e. Left male palp—outer view.

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

eyes and fovea is covered with stiff black

hairs, pointing towards the median line. Tibia

and tarsi of palp with a number of small ven-

tral spines. Femora I and II provided with

thick scopulae, thick hairs and numerous

spines on femora II. Tibia, metatarsus and tar-

sus with a number of ventral spines. Pectinate

tarsal claws present. Labium more longer than

wide with lateral concave edges. Calamistrum

of two rows of hairs, the inner row is of long

curved hairs, towards the outer side over the

outer row which is of short straight hairs. Cri-

bellum divided transversely.

Type species: Sahastata nigra (Simon 1911)

This genus occupies an intermediate position

between the old world genera of Filistata

Latr. and Zaitunia WLeht. and Kukulcania

Leht. of the new world.

Sahastata ashapuriae sp. nov.

(Fig. 2, a-e)

Female: Brown to black brown in colour.

Total length 11.73 mm. Carapace 4.21 mm

long, 3.15 mm wide; abdomen 7.52 mm long,

5.47 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Oval, longer than wide,

widest through the region of fovea, with light

coloured margin, clothed with hairs. Eyes in

a small compact group on an elevated tuber-

cle like protrubrance. AM more than twice

smaller than AL, AM round and dark in

colour, rest oval and pearly white, PL larger

than PM, AL largest of all. Anterior row of

eyes slightly procurved, posterior row nearly

straight. Ocular quad narrower anteriorly and

wider behind. The black marbled design is

limited to the clypeus which is more or less

flat and round in front. Carapace is covered

with thick long black hairs pointing towards

the median line. Postero-lateral sides of ocular

tubercle show depression. Distinctly deep and

wide fovea present, at the posterior end of

which there is a depression as in Fig. 2, a. Ster-

188

num oval, narrow anteriorly, covered with

hairs and four yellowish circular patches on

the margin of posterior half. Labium longer

than wide, pointed at the anterior end. Ster-

num, labium and maxilla as in Fig. 2, d. Coxae

of all the legs having two light yellowish

coloured patches as in Fig. 2, b. Legs long,

covered with thick hairs. Femora I and II

provided with thick scopulae. Tarsal claws

provided with i0-12 long teeth. Legs 1 4 2 3.

Calamistrum of two rows of hairs, the inner

row is of long curved hairs, the outer row of

straight hairs. Cribellum divided transversely.

Abdomen: Gval, longer than wide, wider

in the posterior half, covered with thick hairs.

The dorsal side provided with a median elon-

gated patch of light yellowish colour ,as in

Fig. 2, a. Ventral side lighter in colour. Epi-

eyne as im Fug.)2,).¢:

Male: Similar in colour and characters but

smaller in size than the female. Total length

5.89 mm. Legs comparatively longer than the

female. Legs 1 4 2 3. Male palp longer than

the first leg and palpal organ simple as in

Fig. 2, d and e.

Holotype: 1 °, paratype: 5 2, allotype: 1

3, in spirit. :

Type-locality: Hathab, Dist. Bhavnagar, c.

25 kilometres south of Bhavnagar, 1.ix.1973.

Coll. B. H. Patel.

Distribution: Known from the type-locality

and also from Bhavnagar, Dist. Bhavnagar,

Gujarat.

This species resembles Sahastata nigra

Benoit, but differs as follows: (1) Black mar-

bled design is only on the clypeus region, but

in S. nigra it entirely covers the cephalothorax.

(2) Black, long and dense hairs cover the

median line on the slope of ocular bulb, but ©

in S. nigra this region is covered by the black

design. (3) Structure of epigyne and male

palpal organ also differ.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to P. L. G. Benoit, Chief of

the invertebrata Section, Royal Museum of

Central Africa, Tervuren for the confirmation

of the species and for valuable criticism. I am

grateful to the authorities of the Saurashtra

University, Rajkot for the sanction of grants

(3147/21199 dated 7-3-1974). My sincere

thanks are due to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Deputy

Director, Z. S. I, Poona, Prof. J. J. Shah,

Professor and Head, Dept. of Botany, S. P.

University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, and Prof. H.

B. Gohil and Principal Dr. L. D. Dave of Sir

P. P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar for their

help and keen interest in my work.

REFERENCES

BENOIT, P. L. G. (1968): Synopsis des Filistatidae

Africains (Araneae). Estr. Dag. Ann. del. Mus.

Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova, 77 : 96.

LEHTINEN, P. T. (1967): Classification of Cribellate

spiders and some allied families, with notes on

the evolution of sub-order Araneomorpha. Ann.

Zool. Fennici, 4:234, 260, 300.

PATEL, B. H. (1975): Some spiders of the family

Filistatidae and Scytodidae from Gujarat, India.

Oriental Insects, 9(4) : 425-429.

Pocock, R. I. (1900): Fauna of British India, Ara-

chnida, London.

SIMON, E. (1911): Voyage de M. Maurica Main-

dron dans l’Inde Meridional, Arachnidae, Ann.

Soc. Ent., France, 79:299-300.

TIKADER, B. K. (1963): Studies on some spider

fauna of Maharashtra and Mysore States—I. J.

Univ. Poona Sci. Tech., 24:35.

(1977): Studies on spider fauna of

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Indian Ocean,

Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 72(1-4) :160.

THORELL, T. (1895): Spiders of Burma, London,

15.

189

OBITUARY

SIR KEITH CANTLIE, K.C.LE., LCS.

Indian entomology suffered a severe loss

with the death of Sir Keith Cantlie, at the

age of 91, on April 29, 1977. He belonged

to that great band of British public servants

in India for whom India became a second

home and motherland—every Christmas he

brought me up to date with a long synopsis

of Assam affairs, and even at Christmas 1976

his comments and predictions were as clear

as ever. For men such as Cantlie the life

around them was of absorbing interest, and

everything about it had to be savoured and,

where necessary, explored and defined. A

selection from his written work well illustrates

this broad interest: a volume on the Customary

Law of the Khasis, the book “‘Assam in

Former Times’, a monograph on the Revenue

Laws of Assam and numerous notes in the

Journal of the Bombay Natural History So-

ciety, culminating in the revised edition of the

Lycaenidae section of Evan’s “Identification

of Indian Butterflies”, published by the So-

ciety.

Cantlie must have inherited his gifted mind

from his equaily talented father, Sir James

Cantlie, K.B.E., F.R.C.S., the founder and first

president of the Royal Society of Tropical

Medicine and Hygiene. He passed the I.CS.

examination in 1909 and was first posted to

the short-lived amalgamated province of East

Bengal and Assam, subsequently being placed

on the Assam list. After war time service with

a Mahratta baitalion and later in Mesopota-

mia and Persia he was appointed in 1922 Pre-

sident of the Manipur State Durbar, and it

was this appointment which probably shaped

190

his future life and interests. It was at that pe-

riod that he started collecting and studying

butterflies in Manipur and Naga Hills, but

though he never lost interest his busy service

life—-among other posts he was Commissioner

of the Assam Valley 1937-42 and later a mem-

ber of the Assam Revenue Tribunal—preclud-

ed much entomological work until his retire-

ment. When the Japanese war threatened

Assam he raised a Labour Corps of Khasis,

and his last public service was as chairman

of the Assam Public Service Commission. For

his notable war time services he was awarded

a knighthood.

Lady Cantlie died in 1945 and this made

the decision to stay on in Shillong at the end

of the war an easy one. At last he was able

to pursue his interest in butterflies whole-

heartedly, making frequent collecting trips in

the Khasi Hills and Angami Naga country as

well as buying butterflies from local collect-

ors and dealers. This phase of his life was

sadly terminated at Jhakama where he slip-

ped on the steps of the inspection bungalow

and fractured a knee cap, leaving him with

a “‘gamey leg’? which plagued him for the

rest of his life and necessitated a final return

to England. In London he worked equally

hard at the British Museum of Natural His-

tory, going laboriously through General

Tytler’s tins of Manipur and Naga Hills pa-

pered specimens dating from around 1912, and

eventually typing out and preparing for pub-

lication his revision of “‘Evans’”’, a thoroughly

exhausting and trying job at his then advanc-

ed age.

OBITUARY

I was first introduced to Cantlie in 1947,

and I owe an enormous debt to his warm en-

couragement and leading on of one who had

great enthusiasm but little knowledge. No

trouble was too great for him, and when he

left Assam he checked all my doubtful speci-

mens against British Museum material, often

obtaining the advice of Brigadier Evans and

Graham Howarth. One of the greatest plea-

sures of my life was to name my first “new”

species Ypthima cantliei, in acknowledgement

of his help and friendship and to honour for

all time a very great man whose kindly man-

ner, warm-hearted enthusiasm and sense of

humour enriched the lives of all around him.

T. NORMAN

Articles and notes published by the late

Sir Keith Cantlie in the Societys’ Journal

More Butterflies of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills,

Assam. Vol. 51:42.

Hesperidae of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Vol.

54:212.

A new variety of the butterfly Rapala rissa ranta

Swinhoe. Vol. 56:652.

Butterfly notes from Assam: The undescribed

female of Ypthima atra. Vol. 58:296.

Hesperiidae Halpe scissa sp. nov. Vol. 58:532.

Genitalia of the butterfly genus Spindasis Wallen-

gren. Vol. 60:466.

Hesperiidae: Polytremis minuta Evans. Vol. 60:747.

Genitalia of the butterfly genera Surendra Moore

and Everes Hubner. Vol. 61:201.

Genitalia of butterflies of the Hesperiid Genus

Caltoris as figured by Evans. Vol. 64:580.

PATRICK DONALD STRACEY

(1906-1977)

Born on January 31, 1906, Patrick Donald

Stracey secured his M.A. degree from Ban-

galore University and joined the Assam Forest

Department as an Assistant Conservator of

Forests on 9th November 1930, after being

recruited to the Indian Forest Service. Two

years later on the 5th February, 1933, he was

promoted to the rank of the Deputy Conser-

vator of Forests.

From 1934 Mr. Stracey was put in charge

of the elephant hunting (Kheda, Mela) ope-

rations in different parts of Assam. It was

during these operations, which kept him occu-

pied for more than 8 years, that he learned

all about the elephant wild and domesticated

that made him one of the greatest experts on

elephants in the World. During this period he

was well known to almost all the famous

‘Mahalders’, ‘Mahouts’ and ‘Phandis’ of

Assam and collected from them all the infor-

mation on the methods of elephant catching

operations in Assam, past and present. The

record catch of 892 and 437 elephants in

stockade operations in Mokakchang in Naga-

land during 1935 and 1936 respectively stand

to his credit to this day. His famous book

‘Elephant Gold’ is a testimony to his know-

ledge of the animal.

After serving for several years in the ele-

phant catching operations he worked as the

Divisional Forest Officer in different divisions

of Assam and during this period became well

known as a great sportsman and hunter in

Assam. The record pair of elephant tusks

from the Goalpara Forests displayed in the

Assam Assembiy House today were present-

ed by him. The first sports stadium in Assam

was established at Jorhat in 1951 by his un-

tiring efforts. The National Sports Club of

Assam and the Gauhati Stadium owe much

to his pioneer selfless efforts. He was a good

cricketer and golfer.

191

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Mr. Stracey was promoted to the rank of

Conservator of Forests in July, 1946, and be-

came the head of the Forest Department as

the Senior Conservator of Forests on the 15th

August, 1947, the day India got her Indepen-

dence. He became the Director of Forest

Education in the Forest Research Institute,

Govt. of India in March, 1955 and organised

the Wildlife Club at the Institute and intro-

duced wildlife preservation in the syllabus of

the Indian Forest College and Rangers’ Col-

leges. He was promoted as the Chief Conser-

vator of Forests in March, 1959 and retired

from Government service on January 31, 1961.

Mr. Stracey on retirement was given various

assignments in foreign countries and later be-

came consultant to State Governments in In-

dia in the matter of planning and develop-

ment of Forestry. One of his last assignment

was to assess the current status and future

prospects of the Asian Elephants under the

IUCN/SSC in which he was the Convenor of

the North Eastern Task Force. He was one

of the founders of the Wildlife Preservation

Society of India, and continued as its Vice-

President till his death.

A prolific writer on wildlife conservation

and management, many of his papers were

published in journals all over the world. His

books. ‘Elephant Gold’, ‘Wildlife Management

of India’ and ‘Tigers’ earned him laurels. In

1977 he was posthumously awarded the dis-

tinction of being included in its ‘Roll of

Honour’ by the World Wildlife Fund.

He died on 9th June, 1977 at Bangalore

after a brief illness.

LC. DAS

RALPH CAMROUX MORRIS

(1894-1977)

Old-timers of the Bombay Natural History

Society, and his many friends and admirers

in India and abroad will be saddened by the

death in London on 19 December 1977 of

Randolph C. Morris, one of the oldest and

most active members of the Society—an erst-

while coffee planter and owner of Honnametti

Estate in the Biligirirangan Hills of Karna-

taka. Few readers of the Journal had heard

of the Biligirirangan Hills before the 1920s.

Their introduction to this fascinating corner

of the country, and to the richness and diver-

sity of its flora and fauna, especially the Big

Game animals, came during the period bet-

ween 1920 and 1958 through the shikar and

natural history articles by R. C. Morris, a

sportsman-naturalist in the finest tradition of

an age that is past. He was a regular con-

192

tributor to the Society’s journal and I recall

the tingling anticipation with which many a

budding young naturalist of the time—and

aspiring big game hunter to boot—looked for-

ward to his evocative notes on local natural

history and his exciting encounters with rogue

elephants and cattle-slaying tigers and his

penetrating observations on the habits and be-

haviour of the abounding wildlife amongst

which he lived. Ralph’s knowledge of the

jungles around him and of their products and

inhabitants was profound. His unquenchable

thirst for inquiry and the acuteness of his

powers of observation and deduction, and the

versatility of his interests, will be evident from

the appended list of his writings in the Journal

during the period of his residence at Honna-

metti and of his greatest activity in those

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 75

RALPH CAMROUX MORRIS (1894-1977)

(Photo: Salim Ali)

PLATE

OBITUARY

enchanting surroundings. Together with the

contemporary writings of that other veteran

sportsman-conservationist, Col. R. W. Burton,

Ralph Morris’s contributions—as E. P. Gee's

at a later date—perhaps did more than any-

thing else at the time to arouse the conscience

of the thinking public and in creating an in-

formed public opinion on the pressing need

for wildlife conservation in India in the face

of the rapidly deteriorating conditions. The

destruction of forests for cultivation and settle-

ment of an ever expanding population, and for

industrial development and other purposes in

the dubious process of modernisation had ga-

thered alarming pace especially since the

1914-18 World War. Indeed it was largely due

to the crusading zeal of these stalwarts, spear-

headed by the Bombay Natural History So-

ciety, that the All-India Conference for the

Preservation of Wildlife was called by the

Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, in Delhi in 1935,

which paved the way, after our Independence,

for the creation of the Indian Board for Wild-

life and all the statutory measures for nature

conservation that have flowed therefrom.

Ralph was born in 1894 at Attikan, the

first of the four coffee estates in the Biligiri-

rangan Hills to be planted in 1888 by his

adventurous and pioneering father in the midst

of virgin evergreen forest, miles away from

civilization and without roads or communica-

tions of any sort. The country was inhabited

only by adivasis of the Sholaga tribe, and

stiff with truculent elephants who were often

vehemently resentful of the unwelcome human

encroachment on their pristine domains. By

the time the elder Morris died in 1918, as a

result of goring by a wounded boar, he and

some of his relatives had opened up three

more coffee estates in the area, the last and

largest of which, Honnametti, was planted by

Ralph himself.

Ralph was educated in England at the Blue

Coat School and Blundell’s in Devon be-

fore coming out to assist his father in the

planting business. He joined the Society in the

year 1919 being, at the time of his death, the

second oldest living member. In 1919 he mar-

ried Heather, the daughter of a Scottish

planter in the neighbouring Nilgiris, A M.

Kinlock, a well known shikari-naturalist mem-

ber of the Bombay Natural History Society

who, curiously enough, also got killed by a

-wounded wild boar! They made a harmonious

couple with a close identity of temperaments

and interests. Both were physically tough and

completely self-reliant, revelling in their se-

cluded life away from the bustle and hubbub

of civilization, and sharing a deep love of

the jungle and its denizens, both human and

animal. In Heather, Ralph had found an ideal

life partner, sagacious and efficient not only

in managing the home but also the mundane

business of running the estate with all the

taxing and tiresome chores that went with it.

Their unfailing liberality and selfless conside-

ration for the plantation labour were fully re-

ciprocated and went a long way towards

maintaining harmonious employer-employee

relations on the estate and amicable co-ex-

istence with their aboriginal neighbours. It

was the friendly ties with the tribals that help-

ed Ralph to gather his vast store of local

natural history and jungle lore from his trusty

sholaga trackers.

With the sponsorship of Mr. Arther S.

Vernay, an American business magnate, Ralph

jointly led the Vernay-Hopwood expedition to

the remote Upper Chindwin region of Burma

in 1935 to collect zoological specimens for

the Asiatic Hall of the American Museum of

Natural History, New York; in the same year

he led another field expedition for the same in

stitution, this time to the Malayan jungles,

193

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

to look (unsuccessfully) for the Javan or

Lesser Onehorned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros

sondaicus). His accounts of these expeditions,

published in the BNHS Journal, make interest-

ing reading and are valuable records.

For 18 months in 1937-38 Ralph was the

President of the United Planters’ Association

of South India and during Hitler’s war (1939-

45) he joined up as a volunteer officer, and

saw active service in the Middle East and

North Africa, notably in the siege of Tobruk.

In the six years of his absence his wife ran

the estate single-handed with unimpaired eff-

ciency and marked success.

From the time of his return from war ser-

vice, and up to India’s Independence, he re-

presented the South Indian Europeans in the

Legislative Assembly in New Delhi. In 1955

he finally sold Honnametti Estate to the Birlas

to return and settle in the U.K. where two of

his three married daughters had already pre-

ceded him, the third being in the U.S.A. In

the U.K. Ralph continued to strive for the

conservation of Indian wildlife and was for

many years, till his health began to fail, an

active council member of the Fauna Preser-

vation Society.

Those of Ralph’s naturalist and shikari

friends, like the writer, who enjoyed the pri-

vilege from time to time of being house guests

in the Morrises’ delightful home at Honna-

metti and of joining the indefatigable pair

in rambles among those fascinating hills, or

in quest of big game to shoot or photograph,

will recall with the deepest nostalgia the in-

formal graciousness of their hospitality and

the atmosphere of affectionate warmth and

sincerity pervading the entire experience.

Small wonder that their friends, and such of

the plantation labour and tribal sholagas as

are alive after these 30 years, should still re-

194

member and speak of the couple with so much

genuine admiration and respect.

SALIM ALI

Articles and notes published by the late Mr.

R. C. Morris in the Society’s Journal.

Birds

A jungle-fowl problem. Vol. 32: 274

Vultures feeding at night. Vol. 38:190

The Vernay-Hopwood Upper Chindwin Expedi-

tion. Vol. 38: 647

On the occurrence of the Banded Crake (Rallus

e€. amauroptera) and the Malabar Woodpecker

(Macropicus j. hodgsoni) in the Biligirirangan

Hills, S. India. Vol. 40: 763

Bed bugs and swifts. Vol. 42: 658

Mammals

Porcupine’s method of attack. Vol. 26: 1040

Panthers and artificial light. Vol. 27: 780

Solitaries. Vol. 31: 517

An elephant shoot on the Baragur Hills (Coim-

batore dist.). Vol. 31: 720; Vol. 33: 86

A tigress with five cubs. Vol. 31: 810

Wild dogs and further jungle tragedies. Vol. 31:

811

Wild dogs attacking cattle. Vol. 32: 211

Solitary cow Gaur. Vol. 32: 215

Worn-down tips of bison horns. Vol. 32:216

Clicking noise made by Muntjac. Vol. 32: 216

Peculiar cries emitted by Sambhar stags fighting.

Vol. 32: 216

Habits of the Porcupine. Vol. 32: 791

On natural deaths in wild elephants. Vol. 32: 794

Tiger ‘pooking’. Vol. 33: 197

Sambhar and wild dog. Vol. 33: 198

Aborted tusks in elephants. Vol. 33: 202

Wounded tiger returning to kills. Vol. 33: 425

The sense of smell in Indian Felidae. Vol. 33: 695

Are there more than one species of panther in

India?. Vol. 33: 697

Proportion of the sexes in tigers. Vol. 33: 972

Wounded panther returning to ‘kill’. Vol. 977

Elephant mistaken for a tiger. Vol. 33: 981

Encounters with elephants in the Biligirirangan

Hills. Vol. 34: 237

OBITUARY

Elephant tusk wedged in a tree. Vol. 34: 242

Partial disappearance of the wild pig (Sus crista-

tus). Vol. 34: 245

An experience with a tigress. Vol. 34: 556

Tigers eating their young. Vol. 34: 557

Hyaenas killing cattle tied up as bait. Vol. 34: 561

Body measurements of a gaur. Vol. 35: 562

Panther climbing up to a machan. Vol. 34: 797

Sounds made by porcupines. Vol. 34: 799

Observations on the Indian elephant—Solitary

elephants, size and speed. Vol. 34: 800

On distinguishing between males and females and

other controversial matters pertaining to the

gaur (Bibos gaurus). Vol. 34: 801

The heart-shot in game. Vol. 34: 804

The Indian wild dog (Cuon dukhunensis). Vol.

34: 1054

A tale of five tigers. Vol. 35: 405

Vitality of a cow mauled by a tiger. Vol. 35: 439

A panther’s strange behaviour. Vol. 35: 440

Use of artificial light in panther shooting. Vol.

35: 887

Vitality of a bison mauled by a tiger. Vol. 35: 888

Unerupted tusks of elephants. Vol. 35: 889

Carcases of animals dying of rinderpest avoided

by jackals and other carnivora. Vol. 36: 242

The duration of life of some Indian mammals.

Tigers. Vol. 36: 250

Wild dogs. Vol. 36: 491

‘White’ bison. Vol. 36: 492

Age of bison. Vol. 36: 494

Elephants eating earth. Vol. 36: 496

Habits of the muntjac (M. malabaricus). Vol. 36:

497

Panthers feeding on tiger kills. Vol. 36: 742

Wild dogs killing a panther. Vol. 36: 744

Wild dogs driving a panther from its kill. Vol.

36: 744

A newly-born bison calf. Vol. 36: 746

A spirited old bull bison (Bibos gaurus). Vol.

36: 984

The colour of ‘white bison’ (Bibos gaurus). Vol.

36: 985

A bison sanatorium. Vol. 37: 483

White bison. Vol. 37: 483

Growth and shedding of antlers in sambar (Rusa

unicolor) and cheetal (Axis axis) in South

India. Vol. 37: 484

A tailless tiger. Vol. 37: 719

Death of an elephant (Elephas maximus) while

calfing. Vol. 37: 722

Death of 14 elephants (E. maximus) by food

poisoning. Vol. 37: 722

Tiger killing solitary bull bison (Bibos gaurus).

Vol. 38: 179

A case of tiger eating salt-lick earth. Vol. 38: 385

Tiger feeding on a live cow. Vol. 38: 386

Distribution of the Hunting Leopard (Acinonyx

jubatus) in South India. Vol. 38: 386

Social behaviour of bison (Bibos gaurus). Vol.

38: 393

The white bison (Bibos gaurus) of south Coim-

batore. Vol. 38: 393

To Malaya for a rhinoceros. Vol. 38: 438

The formation and absence of tusks in elephants.

Vol. 38: 615

Early development of antlers by sambhur in the

Biligirirangan Hills, S. India. Vol. 38: 619

Tiger versus bison. Vol. 38: 609

Further records of the distribution of the cheetah

(Acinonyx jubatus) in south India. Vol. 38:610

The birth of an elephant calf. Vol. 38: 613

Why elephants turn rogues?. Vol. 38: 615

Melanism in wild dogs. Vol. 38: 813

Bison and panther. Vol. 38: 818

Season of horn development in sambhar. Vol.

38: 819

Peculiar behaviour of an elephant. Vol. 39: 164

White bison. Vol. 39: 165

Ravages of tiger and incidence of maneaters in

north Coimbatore between 1860 and 1880. Vol.

39 382

The result of -excess poison for wild dogs. Vol.

39: 388

A very large sambar stag. Vol. 39: 390

Gaur bulls attacking a wounded bull. Vol. 39: 391

Two wary tigers and two others. Vol. 39: 610

Mange on wild dogs. Vol. 39: 615

Solitary bull bison (Bibos gaurus). Vol. 39: 617

Colouration of the bison’s snout and _ tongue.

Vol. 39: 618

Measurements of tiger. Vol. 40: 114

Disappearance of jackals. Vol. 40: 117

On whistling of bison. Vol. 40: 117

Behaviour of gaur or Indian bison. Vol. 40: 325

Measurements of tiger, panther, bison and sam-

bhar. Vol. 40: 555

‘Stamping grounds’ and

Vol. 40: 560

A natural history tale. Vol. 40: 581

The record Alaskan Moose (Alces a. gigas). Vol.

41: 416

‘sore-neck’ in sambar.

195

- Measurements

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

and weights of elephant tusks.

Vol. 41: 660

Unusual behaviour of panthers and tigers.

42: 655

Elephants lying down. Vol. 42: 658

The Malayan elephant. Vol. 42: 928

Widespread rabies among wild dogs on the Bili-

girirangan Hills, S. India. Vol. 43: 100

Tiger claw marks on trees. Vol. 43: 656

Elephant and bison on roadways. Vol. 44: 113

Jackals attacking deer in Ceylon. Vol. 44: 585

A tiger’s record as a cattle killer. Vol. 45: 597

Rarity of man-eating tigers in South India. Vol.

46: 177

Death of a panther on a tiger’s kill. Vol. 46: 179

Record elephants. Vol. 46: 541

Death of six elephants. Vol. 46: 541

Destruction of cattle by tiger en masse. Vol. 46:

714

Weight of a bull bison. Vol. 47: 153

Abnormal clavicle bones in tigers. Vol. 47: 715

Sambar gnawing bark of Wendlandia notoniana.

Vol. 47: 729

Sambar neck sore. Vol. 47: 729

A diseased gaur. Vol. 48: 578

Charge by unwounded bison. Vol. 48: 578

Tiger eating panther. Vol. 48: 802

Charge by unwounded bison. Vol. 48: 803

A bull bison’s abnormal behaviour. Vol. 49:

Jeep versus elephant. Vol. 49: 783

An extraordinary find in a panther’s stomach.

Vol. 50: 390

An elephant’s stride. Vol. 50: 933

Riotous behaviour of mating bears (Melursus

ursinus). Vol. 51: 265

Cases of unwounded gaur or Indian bison (Bibos

gaurus) charging. Vol. 51: 266

How do the larger felines secure nimble prey?.

Vol. 51: 493

Unrecorded sounds made by tiger and wild dog.

Vol. 51: 494

Red porcupines. Vol. 51: 497

Jungle notes from South India. Vol. 51: 731

Man-eating tiger in South India. Vol. 52: 201

Gaur attacking man. Vol. 52: 204

Stride of elephant crossing trench. Vol. 52: 206

Extraordinary behaviour of a solitary bull bison

(gaur). Vol. 52: 916

Tusks of Indian elephants. Vol. 54: 460

Porcupines and trees of Vernonia sp. Vol. 55: 155

Vol.

114

196

Rabbits and myxomatosis in the U.K. Vol. 55:

156

Conservation & Wildlife

Game preserves and flashlight photography. Vol.

352 1891

Record of big game shot in the Nilgiri area,

OOS 3 Vole S64" 252

Game reserves and flashlight. Vol. 36: 746

Comments on Mr. Richmond’s note on the Pre-

servation of Wild Life in India. Vol. 38: 225

Close seasons for big-game—are they beneficial?.

Vol. 39: 618

The use of firework or rocket cartridges in the

protection of crops. Vol. 39: 855

Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of

the Empire. Vol. 42: 653

What are the causes of the disappearance or re-

duction of fauna species from certain areas?.

Vol. 48: 592

Our vanishing wild life. Vol. 51: 268

Game preservation in Kashmir. Report and re- |

commendations of the Bombay Natural His- |

tory Society’s delegation, 1952. Vol. 53:

(Jointly with Salim Al)

Snakes

229) |

Record of a death from the bite of a Hamadryad

or King Cobra. Vol. 31: 226

Intestinal parasites of the python. Vol. 36: 513.

Rat snakes mating. Vol. 55: 366

General

A wonderful sight. Vol. 31: 513

A night on an observation machan in the Bili- —

girirangans. Vol. 33: 191

Analysis of a salt lick in Kollegal, Coimbatore, /

S. India. Vol. 41: 898

Rivers as barriers to the distribution of gibbons. |

Vol. 43: 656

Protecting food crops from wild animals. Vol. |

49: 783

Cattle diseases and wild life. Vol. 50: 936

Domestic poultry diseases now endemic in jungle. |

Viol. 747

Flowering of Strobilanthes. Vol. 55: 185

Note on the use of bamboo gun rocket for”

scaring wild animals out of cultivation. Vol.

55: 344

REVIEWS

1. RAILS OF THE WORLD. A Monograph of the family Rallidae. By S.

Dillon Ripley. pp. xx + 460 (25.5 x 35.5 cm). With 41 paintings by J. Fen-

wick Lansdowne, 10 black-and-white photographs, 17 distribution maps, and

a chapter on Fossil Rallidae by Storrs L. Olson. David R. Godine. Boston,

1977. M. F. Feheley Publishers Ltd. Price U.S. $75.

Dr. Ripley met his first rail of the subtro-

pics 40 years ago on an expedition in the

mountains of New Guinea. Since then he has

focussed special interest on the family Ralli-

dae, and for the last 12 years he has been

sedulously active in studying rails in the field

in different corners of the world and in re-

searching all available literature concerning

this fascinating group. As long ago as 1893

Alfred Newton in his Dictionary of Birds had

drawn attention to the scantiness of our know-

ledge of the rail family, and to the need of a

comprehensive monograph on it, but the chal-

lenge remained unaccepted in the intervening

80 years. On all counts therefore, such a book

as the present was to be welcomed. It is true

that because of the secretive and retiring ha-

bits of this family, and the fact that many of

the species are crepuscular or nocturnal and

difficult to observe, not a very great deal has

been added to our knowledge of their ecology

and life history.

Details of the biology of

Many species still remain very imperfectly

known or are totally lacking. But a compre-

hensive summary of the existing knowledge

was a long felt want which this monograph

adequately fulfills.

However, though rarely

showing themseives, their presence can usually

_ be detected by their ready response to played-

back tape recordings of rail calls, and by mist

| netting. Such modern devices should help to

add more rapidly to our knowledge of these

elusive creatures.

The family Rallidae—consisting of rails,

crakes, coots, moorhens, etc.—has a practi-

cally worldwide distribution. It is represented

on all continents but is absent in the Arctic

and Antarctic. Its members inhabit widely di-

verse habitats. Most species effect freshwater

swamps; some estuaries and salt marshes.

Some species are found in littoral grassland

and savannahs, some even in tropical climax

forest and often at considerable altitudes in

the mountains. Although they have shortish

rounded wings and are generally poor fliers,

some are capable of crossing vast stretches

of ocean and even of performing regular long-

distance migrations. Herein lies the special at-

traction of the rail family for the biologist.

These birds, above all others, have spread

and colonized remote archipelagos and oceanic

islands where, after establishment, their se-

dentary and parochial habits have contribut-

ed to the evolution of a spate of endemic and

ecological races, and a tendency to flightless-

ness as an adaptive measure—a state which

some forms have fully attained. Loss of flight

renders the endemic island forms vulnerable

to the rats and various domestic animals intro-

duced via visiting ships or by sailors. Some

of these flightless species have thus become

extinct within the last hundred years or so,

197

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75 i

while others in like circumstances are similar-

ly threatened. In developing countries every-

where the prime habitats of this family are

being extinguished by the destruction of forests,

reclamation of marshes, diverting and im-

pounding streams, and so on. Thus, in spite

of the global distribution of the family and its

surprising resilience, it is evident that many

of its components especially the endemic island

populations, particularly flightless forms, are

extremely fragile and need stringent protec-

tion if they are to survive.

Against the 45 genera hitherto recognised,

the present monograph admits only 18. The

explanation given for the ‘lumping’ seems lo-

gical enough to the reviewer, but this is really

a matter for taxonomers to worry about and

battle over, because in the final reckoning any

decision must rest largely on subjective indi-

vidual taste and fancy! These 18 genera are

made up of 129 species (some monotypic,

others with subspecies) six of which are ex-

tinct and two probably so. Every species is

illustrated in colour. The text comprises five

chapters as follows: The Characteristics of

the Rails, The Distribution of the Rails, Evo-

lution and Speciation, The Species of Rails,

A Synopsis of the Fossil Rallidae. Besides

the description and general remarks on each

species, there is a description of the subspe-

cies, if any, together with synonyms. Status,

distribution, behaviour, nesting and other to-

pics of general and ecological interest are

more fully discussed in the case of the better

known forms.

This sumptuous volume is obviously de-

signed as a ‘coffee-table edition’ in the Audu-

bon/Gould tradition, for drawing room leaf-

198

ing and the library reading room table. The

utility of elaborate keys to species and sub-

species in a volume of this genre and ‘phy-

sique’ (it weighs six lbs!) which could under-

standably inhibit frequent reference as a work-

ing manual in a normally over crowded de-

partmental laboratory, may be questioned.

However, since it may be a long time before

another equally competent reviewer and mo-

nographer of the family appears on the scene,

it is as well that all the meticulously research-

ed information and the author’s own obser-

vations have been included. Considering the

importance of the work it is to be hoped that

Dr. Ripley will consider bringing out a more

portable edition, retaining all the plates in the

reduced size, and more within the budget

range of modest scientific libraries and work-

ing ornithologists and nature lovers. The mag-

nificence of Lansdowne’s superb _ life-like

paintings, which the reviewer had the privilege —

of viewing in the original, and the outstand- |

ing excellence of the colour reproduction by |

the firm of Stamperia Valdonega of Italy make |

it a joy to handle the volume. It seems a pity, —

however, that no scale of size is indicated

along with the captions, which makes it diffi- —

cult to get a proper idea in the case of un-

familiar exotic forms.

The literature cited covers 15 pages and is |

indicative of the erudition and enormous toil

that have gone into the making of this seminal

volume. It is a landmark in the field of mo- |

dern bird books:.a monument to the scienti- |

fic acumen of the versatile author, no less |

than to the skill of the gifted artist.

SALIM ALI.

REVIEWS

2. WILD LIFE AND ADVENTURES IN INDIAN

FORESTS—from

diaries of B. B. Osmaston, Imperial Forest Service, 1888-1923. pp. 178 (26 x

20 cm). Published by G. H. Osmaston in 1977. Price £7.

The diarist’s name is familiar to all who

have had anything to do with natural history

in India and to anyone who has delved into

the earlier issues of the Society's Journal—

the obituary note published on pages 709-710

of volume 60 (1963) carries a list of some

40 notes and papers contributed by him bet-

ween 18 and 19 centuries and includes some

of the natural history highlights of the present

publication. |

Brought together they present a fascinating

series of experiences of the days when large

parts of India were still forested and the Im-

perial Forest Service was still the dream of

those interested in natural history and shikar.

His first posting in Dehra Dun district brought

him face to face with the Mundali man-eater,

and we have an exciting account of the tigress

being shot as she held B.B.’s_ companion,

Hansard, by the neck. Hansard had to be

carried 60 miles across the hills on a stretcher

to get him to the Mussoorie hospital! Follow-

ing this adventure he continued his service

through Saharanpur, Garhwal, Kumaon, Chit-

tagong, Darjeeling, the Andamans, including

Narcondam and Barren islands, the Nicobars,

again in U.P., and then into Burma, and the

diary is interspersed with tigers, elephants,

king cobras, partridge, pea-fowl, jungle fowl,

trhododendrons, Strobilanthes wallichii (which

flowers every 12 years), forest fires, 12-foot

lilies and many bird notes some of which

merit abstraction and publication in a scienti-

fic journal.

The book is an enchanting account of out-

door experiences in what was then one of the

prime services and, once picked up, the book

is difficult to put away. This small volume will

also help to stress recognition of the fact that

the natural history particularly in places like

India is closely linked with Shikar, and that

while the numbers and species that can be

hunted would vary with conditions, and it is

no longer possible for anybody to shoot about

20 each of tiger and panther, it must also be

remembered, as indicated by Sir Harry Cham-

pion in the foreword, that B.B.’s victims in-

cluded no less than four man-eaters and that

the larger canivores were then so numerous

and destructive that the officers were begged

to deal with them.

Odd experiences over the period are in-

cluded—and some are really odd. While bird-

watching he comes face to face with a villager

gathering fire wood, who drops his bundle and

flees, but is, after a long chase downhill,

brought down by Osmaston jumping upon

him. After disentanglement, he produced a

permit authorising him to collect fire-wood,

and upon being asked why he had not shown

it at first, said that he had taken him (B.B.)

to be the Shaitan (Devil).

This is indeed a very fascinating record and

serves to draw attention to what can be, and

no doubt is, lost to natural history by the

failure to keep written record of ones expe-

riences.

H. ABDULALI

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

3. BACKS TO THE WALL—Saga of wildlife in Bihar—India. By S. P.

Shahi. pp. 160 (27 x 21 cm), with many illustrations in colour and black-

and-white. New Delhi, 1977. East-West Press Pvt. Ltd. Price Rs. 120/-.

What has alarmed conservationists and con-

tinues to alarm is the erosion of the areas of

wilderness and the wildlife therein in India.

Nothing draws more attention to the rapidity

of progress of this disaster than the two maps

given on p. 11 of this book showing the status

of wildlife in Bihar at the beginning of the

Century and now. Seeing the maps one wond-

ers if there is any chance of survival for wild-

life at all knowing the pressures of ever in-

creasing human needs that these remnant ha-

bitats and their fauna face daily. These pres-

sures are well expressed in the chapter on

National Parks where the author narrates the

difficulties that administrators have with their

political heads, the ministers. Forest lands are

perhaps the easiest largesse that a minister can

distribute.

The author during his long service with the

Bihar Forest Department had the opportunity

to observe and learn about the wildlife of his

State. The book provides ample evidence of

his knowledge of Bihar’s wildlife. Two chap-

ters are particularly interesting. The history of

the Mirshikars of Bihar, professional animal

trappers, relicts of a once flourishing profes-

sion, bound to disappear with the vanishing

wildlife. The Bombay Natural History Society

had used them in its bird banding programme

and found them to be amazingly good field

naturalists. The second chapter which impress-

ed was the one on the wolf, the grey ghost of

the Indian plains, a ghost that has been truly

laid over most areas of its past distribution.

The animal has almost become extinct and

yet we know so little about it.

The only complaint one has about the book

is the format which is also responsible for high

production costs putting it well beyond the

purse of those for whom it has been written.

The publisher has been prodigal with space

and the pages have needlessly increased in

number. The colour reproduction could also

have been better.

A second edition, when published, could

perhaps, be better organised. A book worth

recommending to all educational institutions,

libraries, in India and elsewhere.

J. C. DANIEL

4. BIRDS OF PREY. Their Biology and Ecology. By Leslie Brown. pp. 256

(24 x 17 cm), with many coloured and black-and-white photographs. London,

1976. The Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. U.K. Price £4.50.

Leslie Brown’s Book on Birds of Prey is

the most modern comprehensive book on the

subject. The author has spent all his life in

the study of Raptors and this excellent vo-

lume is the culmination of his deep study on

the subject. The book covers in _ detail

classification, zoo-geographical distribution,

200

habitats, anatomy, hunting methods, mig-

ration and covers breeding biology, eco-

logy, predation, conservation and protection,

in all their aspects. There is complete bibli-

ography and an index comprising all birds of

prey. There are appendices giving various ha-

bitats and mentioning categorically rare,

REVIEWS

threatened and uncommon species relevant to

their distribution.

The book gives diagrams of adaptations of

tail, wing, bill, size, eyes and feet of birds of

prey according to their flying and feeding

habits and also showing territorial movements

in flight. On page 109 a sketch shows the use

of the double-jointed leg of the Harrier Hawk

as adapted for catching its prey in crevices;

many such typical illustrations are given.

The book is full of sketches, coloured and

B & W photographs but these are not parti-

cularly for identification but to depict the

birds main adaptive features and behaviour

which also helps identification. On page 67,

Leslie Brown points out that the highest known

densities of birds of prey in world towns have

been noted in New Delhi, India, with breed-

ing territories of an average of 19.3 pairs per

sq. kilometre, mostly of Black Kites and Vul-

tures. According to the reviewer’s studies,

this gives a wrong impression of the Raptors

in Western India, where birds of prey have

crashed to very low levels and common resi-

dent birds of prey are not seen in half the

numbers as in the past. The author mentions

the effect of pesticides on page 226 and says:

“it is now generally accepted as proven by

most reasonable people that certain organi-

chlorine pesticides cause certain raptors, not-

ably Ospreys, sea-eagles, falcons and accipi-

ters, to lay thin-shelled, easily broken eggs so

that the normal reproductive biology of the

species collapses and it becomes locally ex-

tinct.” He mentions the species so affected in

parts of U.S.A. and Great Britain. He also

mentions that the more toxic pesticides are

being withdrawn from developed countries and

that D.D.T. is outlawed in many.

The author wisely uses the general English

names of birds of prey as they have been

widely known and gives scientific names where

necessary. When Leslie Brown mentions the

Hen Harrier he means the Hen Harrier, and

where the same bird is mentioned by another

English name as in US.A., he puts it in

perenthesis i.e. Hen Harrier (Marsh Hawk).

Much credit must be given to the author for

not coining his own names for Raptors which

most modern ornithologists revel in resulting

in confusing the reader. I know of no

book on Raptors which gives so much

scientific information on the subject and any-

one truly interested in birds of prey should

read it and to understand it read it over again

and again. Doubtless, it takes some time to

digest the matter as it covers World Species.

In systematic changes the author suggests

lumping Aegypius, Torgos, Sarcogyps and

Trigonoceps to be merged with Aegypius and

to have Lophaetus included in Spizaetus, as

envisaged by Amadon. It is not clear whether

our Crested Honey Buzzard (Pernis _ptilo-

rhyncus (Temminck) comes under or synony-

mous as Pernis apivorus as mentioned in the

treatise. On page 140, paragraph 2, the author

mentions as follows: ‘In India and _ tropical

Asia permanently resident races or related

species occur’. If our species is referred to as

related species then it is not mentioned in the

book.

The author has had vast experience with

birds of prey since his boyhood in India, Scot-

land and other parts of the world and finally

in East Africa, and his profound interest in

Raptors of the world has placed him on a

high pedestal amongst experts.

On pages 54 and 211, photographs in black-

and-white of the Whitebacked Vultures are

shown. The birds appear to be those of the

African Whitebacked Vulture which differs

from the Indian Whitebacked Vulture in be-

ing lighter on the lower parts and upperparts;

the birds seen in the pictures much resemble

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the Longbilled Vulture seen in India. The

author could have mentioned in the photo-

graphs that the birds are African Whiteback-

ed Vultures.

If one wants to know all about birds of

prey, this is the book and I have no hesita-

tion to repeat that one can keep on reading

it over and over again to digest the facts in

one consolidated volume about birds of prey

and their evolutionary trends since ancient

times.

All naturalists interested in Raptors should

have this excellent book in their collection

and any library without it is missing an im-

portant book of world importance.

M. K. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

5. THE MAMMALS OF PAKISTAN. By T. J. Roberts. pp. xxvi + 362

(30 x 21 cm). With 95 species illustrations, 90 text-figures, 118 distribution

maps and four colour plates. London, 1977. Ernest Benn Limited.

Price £35.00 net

In the consideration of its fauna the sub-

continent of India has been so far treated as

a whole. The MAMMALS OF PAKISTAN is the

first publication based on political boundaries.

In this case the political boundaries also re-

present the transitional zone between the Pa-

laearctic and Oriental zoogeographical regions.

This is indeed a definitive treatise and one

of the best books written on Mammals of the

Indian sub-continent. The 158 species record-

ed from Pakistan are described in detail with

a key for identification, taxonomical notes, de-

scription of morphology, distribution and

status, and detailed notes on biology covering

all available information on the species.

It is disheartening to note that the destruc-

tion of habitats and wildlife so noticeable in

India occurs at an accelerated pace in Paki-

stan and more species are in a parlous state

in that country than in India. The larger

mammals have fared disastrously. One need

quote only a few examples of the authors’ re-

marks on the status of some species to illus-

trate this point.

Hog Deer Once plentiful throughout the

riverain tracts of Sind and the Punjab, it now

202

(in U.K. only).

faces inevitable extinction within Pakistan ter-

ritory unless special reserves are created for

its preservation. Their considerable decline

even within the past ten or fifteen years has

been rapid and is due as much to a shrinking

of their natural habitat as to hunting pressure!

Goral Unless Goral are totally protected,

especially in Southern Swat region, they are

not likely to survive another decade in Paki-

stan. Despite having a wider distribution than

the Barking Deer, they are much rarer than

the latter in the Margalla hills. Almost all the

animals which are the target of hunters have

reached the stage of requiring urgent atten-

tion for their conservation.

The authors’ remarks on the state of the

environment in Pakistan could equally well

apply to any other country in South-East

Asia. The population of Pakistan increased by

51.33 per cent between the censuses of 1960

and 1973 and showed an annual high growth

rate of 3.7 per cent. The impact on the en-

vironment has been disastrous. I quote “De-

mand for fuel-wood resources from the scanty

vegetation in Baluchistan and the North West

Frontier Province has already led to total

REVIEWS

denudation of many hillsides which were for-

merly clothed with scattered scrub forest. This

has aggravated erosion problems which in

turn reduces the efficacy of the ground water

recharging cycle. Since these changes are hav-

ing a profound influence on the mammalian

population, besides limiting future resource

use and availability for human needs, it is

sincerely hoped that more careful long range

planning and consideration will be given to

this overall problem of resource exploitation.

Reference to many of the books written about

this region at the turn of the century corro-

borates the evidence of profound change. The

foothills a few miles northwest of Peshawar

were then thickly covered with forests and

wild olive, in which the Asiatic wild sheep

(Ovis_ orientalis), the Markhor wild goat

(Capra falconeri), and the Chinkara gazelle

(Gazella gazella) roamed. They could be with-

in one day’s horseback ride from Peshawar

town (Warburton 1898). Today these hills

are devoid of a single bush taller than 1 m.

and there are no Chinkara or Urial even with-

in a day’s car journey from Peshawar, though

a very few Markhor survive on some relative-

ly precipitous mountains peaks.”

The writing on the wall is written in big

bold letters but as far as conservation of na-

tural resources is concerned most people, parti-

cularly those in authority, are illiterate.

This is an excellently produced book but

unfortunately priced for an affluent Society.

Those who need to read it are not members

of that Society.

J. C. DANIEL

203

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. REACTION OF LANGUR, PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS TO A SNAKE

In Jodhpur, Western Rajasthan, there are no

large predator of the Hanuman Langur, Pres-

bytis entellus entellus Dufresne. It is of in-

terest to record that snakes produce a panic

reaction in Langurs. No case of such reaction

appears to have been reported so far.

On the afternoon of the 23rd November,

1975, during routine behavioural observations

at Vidhyasal, Jodhpur, I suddenly noticed that

some adult females, juvenile and older infants

of a group were standing in a circle screech-

ing and looking intently at the ground. On in-

vestigation, I saw that they were peering at

a foot long, moderately thick snake. As the

snake moved slowly the langurs peered, shuf-

fled and screeched loudly, and adult females

sometimes ground-slapped. The younger in-

fants also peered at the snake but did not

screech. None of the langur, went close to the

snake or touched it. Other members of the

group, including the leader, came and looked

at the snake for a moment and went away.

The leader and three other adult males did

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR,

JODHPUR-342003, (RAJ.),

May. 30; 4977.

not screech. After about eight minutes, I kill-

ed the snake while the langurs looked on

silently. They remained there until the snake

died and was motionless; and then went away

one by one.

Other langurs, not present during the kill-

ing also came one by one, looked at the dead

snake, and went away.

Next day I took the dead snake to the same

ground, tied with a thread and threw some

groundnuts around it. The langurs came and

started eating the nuts, but as soon as they

detected the snake, they stopped feeding, re-

treated at once and screeched. When I moved

the snake by pulling the thread ,the screech-

ing became louder. After a time, the langurs

circumspectly took the nuts lying about a foot

from the snake. The leader male did not

screech as before but avoided approaching

the snake.

The experiment was repeated on two other

bisexual-single male groups, and in all cases,

the reactions were as stated above.

S. C. MAKWANA

2. BIRTH AND GROWTH OF COMMON PALM CIVET

(PARADOXURUS HERMAPHRODITUS) IN CAPTIVITY

A pair of Common Palm Civets (Parado-

xurus hermaphroditus) are housed in an en-

closure measuring 4.1 x 3.4 x 1.7 m at the

Nandankanan, Biological Park, Orissa. Two

204

wooden sleeping boxes measuring 0.6 x 0.3 x

0.2 m have been provided. They are fed with

minced meat, fish, snail flesh, banana, milk

and boiled rice.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The female of this pair gave birth to three

young (one female and two males) in one

litter on 30.4.1975. The young were fully fur-

red and were able to produce a kind of feeble

noise when handled within a few hours after

birth. Their eyes were closed at birth and

Opened on the 8th day (male), 10th day

(female) and ilth day (male). At birth, the

three young weighed 92 to 98 grammes and

measured 28.5 to 30.5 cm from tip to tip

including tail lengths of 12 to 13 cm. The

mother weighed 2.975 kg and the male weigh-

ed 3.985 kg on 1.5.1975. Weekly growth re-

cords of the three young were maintained up-

to the age of 11 months and an abstract of

the same is given below:

At the age of 11 months the three young

apparently looked as large as the present.

Acharjyo & Tripathy (1974) have given the

weight at birth of three males as 69 to 102 gm

and length from tip to tip as 28 to 30 cm

including tail lengths of 11 to 13 cm. They

further stated that one young male weighed

995 gm. at the age of 3 months. The young

of this species open their eyes in six to ten

days (Acharjyo & Misra 1973). The age at

which the civets become fully adult is not

known (Prater 1971).

Weight in Kg,

Date Age in

weeks Female Male Male

30.iv.1975 At birth 0.098 0.092 0.093

14.v.1975 2 0.227 0.244 0.248

28.v.1975 4 0.390 0.417 0.400

11.vi.1975 6 0.475 0.520 0.510

25.vi.1975 8 DOW 25 0.750 0.725

9.vii.1975 10 0.865 0.880 0.895

23.vii.1975 12 1.008 0.970 1.020

6.viii.1975 14 1.198 1.067 1.187

20.viii.1975 16 1.240 1.120 1.280

3.ix.1975 18 1.225 1.000 1.260

17.ix.1975 20 1.465 1.235 1.545

1.x.1975 22 1.658 1.430 1.592

15.x.1975 24 1.455 1.480 1.587

29.x.1975 26 1.420 1.680 1.560

12.xi.1975 28 1.480 1.805 1.780

26.xi.1975 30 1.652 1.880 1.970

10.xii.1975 32 1.605 1.800 1.940

24.xii.1975 34 1.880 2.010 2.250

17.14.1976 36 2.005 2.200 2.485

21.14.1976 38 2.190 2.280 2.525.

4.ii.1976 40 2.555 2.295 2.550

18.11.1976 ne ee 42 2.265 2.285 2.540

3.iii.1976 44 2.265 2.305 2.520

17.iii.1976 46 2.280 2.325 2.560

31.11.1976 48 (11 months) 2.505 2.380 2.585

Pe NG LN ne a TS EN SS LR NTE

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Conservator of Forests, Orissa and to Sri G.

M. Das,

ILF.S., Chief Wild Life Warden,

We are grateful to Sri S. Jee, LF.S., Chief Orissa for providing facilities for observations.

VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P.O. BARANG, DIST. CUTTACK.

WILD LIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95-SAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-75 1007,

July 19, 1977.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

ACHARJYO, L. N. AND Misra, R. (1973): Cheetal-

Journal of Wild Life Preservation Society of

India, 15 (4):49-55.

ACHARJYO, L. N. AND TRIPATHY, A. P. (1974): A

note on body colour and breeding habits in capti-

vity of Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus herma-

Phroditus) of Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

17(3) :601-603.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

p. 88.

3. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECOLOGY AND STATUS OF THE

HISPID HARE IN RAJAGARH FOREST, DARRANG DISTRICT,

ASSAM, IN 1975 AND 1976

(With a text-figure)

The Hispid Hare, also called the Assam

Rabbit, Caproiagus hispidus (Pearson) (La-

gomorpha : Leporidae), is more or less of the

same body-size as that of the Common Hare.

It is; however, distinguished by its coarser,

bristly fur, dorsally dark brown in colour due

to a mixture of black and brown hairs, ven-

trally brown up to chest and whitish on the

abdomen, ear shorter than the skull and brown

outside throughout, tail brown above and be-

low and equal to or slightly shorter than the

ear; hindleg short, but slightly longer than the

forelegs.

The population of this interesting hare ap-

pears to have declined drastically in recent

206

years. At present it is said to be found along

the foot of the Himalayas in a few isolated

places from Uttar Pradesh to Assam. Till 1951

it has been recorded only from Kheri in Uttar

Pradesh, and a few spots in Goalpara and

Darrang Districts in Assam. However, on the

basis of the latest report of its capture in

Rajagarh Forest Reserve under Baranadi

Forest Range, Mangaldai Sub-division, Dar-

rang District, by J. C. Mallinson in 1971 (J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 : 443-444), I visit-

ed the area in June 1975 and January 1976,

to study the ecology and status of the Hispid

Hare there. The survey was also conducted

around Dharamjuli Tea Estate, Dimakushi,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Nonai Forest Range, Majuli, Panery and from

Bhutiachang to Kherkheria, all in Darrang-

District and about 3 to 45 km north and north-

east of Attareeckhat. From this survey and

study it was evident that the Hispid is now

found in the Rajagarh Forest Block, obviously

due to its favourable ecological conditions.

Rajagarh lies about 5 km north of Attaree-

khat Tea Estate. This forest block includes

the characteristic jungle and thatchlands of the

“Himalayan foothills, covering about 6-8 km

east-west and 3-5 km north-south. The south-

ern limit of the forest zone is bounded by

secondary forest, consisting mostly of planted

teak (Text-fig. 1). The thatch, typical grass-

land of the duars, grows up to about 3 to 3.5

metres height during the monsoon months and

withers down to 1.5 to 2 metres during Janu-

ary to March. During our two visits, although

the grass only stood about 1.5 metres tall, the

animals could not be seen for the poor

visibility in that habitat, but positive evidence

of the presence of the Hispid Hare were ob-

tained. However due to increased human

settlement in the area, patches of forest and

thatch are being cleared, thus upsetting the

ecological requirements of the Hispid Hare.

The area is more or less flat but broken with

very deep dried up ‘nullahs’ which are tribu-

taries of the Bar Nadi or Nalapara Nadi. To

the south of Rajagarh are a 2 to 3 km stretch

of cultivated fields. Further south of this area

are the tea gardens the Attareekhat and Dha-

ramjuli Tea Estates.

The Hispid is a resident of the thatch and

invades the southern cultivated fields occa-

sionally for its favourite food. During Janu-

ary to April when the grass and the forest

are set on fire, the Hispid moves to the culti-

vated fields, and shelters in tunnels and bur-

rows on the embankments of ‘nullahs’. Later,

when the grass grows taller, it retreats to the

208

thatchland where it is very difficult to locate.

When the thatch becomes too waterlogged

during tne height of the monsoon, the Hare

moves into the forested areas of the foothills.

However, just before the monsoon when the

thatch is burnt or when during the winter

months the local settlers who collect the

‘Borangamni Kher’ (Assamese name for these

grasses), One may sometimes come across the

Hare. Also, the ‘garo’ tribals who customarily

trap animals encounter this animal on many

cccasions and invariably use it for the pot.

They rarely seli the hare in the market. Their-

hunting activities are secretly done without

the knowledge of the forest officials.

The Hispid Hare, locally called as Haha-

pohu, 1s not a very common animal at Raja-

garh. On the contrary, the Rufous-tailed Hare, |

Geoffroy, is —

Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus

fairly common. This species, however, restricts

itself in and around the cultivated fields and

tea garden areas, and avoids the thatch. The

Hispid, as reported by the locals, are slow-

moving animals and do not dig burrows them-_

selves. From the information gathered from the ©

local ‘shikaris’, it appears that not more than

10 or 12 individuals of Hispid Hare have been

caught during the last three or four years and

their description of the animals—smaller ears, |

coarser coat, light brown as muga silk mixed

with black, etc. tally well with that of the His-

pid Hare. It is said that between January and

March, young are usually caught. A pair of

Hispids were said to have been raised from |

young from January 1975 by a ‘shikari’ at |

Rajagarh, but sold to a Cachari in Dimakushi |

Bazar in the last week of May 1975.

Besides occasional trapping and hunting by | ©

the local ‘shikaries’, it appear that carnivores ©

like the Leopard-cat, Felis bengalensis Kerr, |

Large Indian Civet, Viverra zibetha Linnaeus, |

and the Small Indian Civet, Viverricula indica |)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Desmarest), in the thatchland of Rajagarh

have assisted in reducing the Hispid Hare

population in the area. The village dogs are

also said to prey upon this slow-moving ani-

mal at times.

The thatchland of Rajagarh offers protec-

tion to at least two threatened species, the

Hispid Hare and the Pigmy Hog.

The following measures should be taken for

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA 700016,

July 13, 1977.

their conservation:

(1) The habitat should be preserved by pre-

venting further infiltration of human settle-

ments, (2) all hunting should be prohibited,

(3) the thatchland should be protected from

forest fire, and the seasonal collection of

‘Borangamni Kner’, banned (6) efforts should

be made to educate the local people on the

value of the two species.

R. K. GHOSE

4. BLACKBUCK (ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA LINN.)

AT POINT CALIMERE

INTRODUCTION

One of the largest remaining populations of

Antilope cervicapra Linn. is at the Point Cali-

mere Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. Daniel (1967)

estimated the population of blackbuck at 750.

Nair (1976) made a survey in 1974 and esti-

mated the population at 340. These authors

may also be referred to for habitat descrip-

tion etc. At the beginning of 1977 there were

newspaper reports that the blackbuck were

dying in large numbers. The officials of the

forest department undertook a census in early

1977 and estimated the number of blackbuck

at around 1500, and with this reassuring figure,

the forest department allayed the fears of con-

servationists.

A census of the blackbuck was however

undertaken by members of the Wildlife Con-

servation Society, Tiruchirapalli from 26th to

29th May 1977.

BLACKBUCK CENSUS

Most of the blackbuck live in the coastal

strip of the sanctuary, and only a few were

noted inside the reserve forest. The census

party of 15 members was divided into 5 groups,

each equipped with a pair of binoculars. The

total direct visual count method was adopied.

Three groups were deployed in the southern

part of the sanctuary and the remaining two

groups in the eastern part of the sanctuary.

Every group started from the base line namely,

the sea and proceed landward counting the

animals present on their rightside only. In

enumerating the animals the following classifi-

cation was followed: Adult males, Subadult

males, Females and Fawns. A total of 506 ani-

mals were counted, (Table 1) distributed in

-38 herds. The herd size varied from 1 (made

up of a lone male) to a maximum of 49.

There were three bachelor clubs consisting en-

tirely of males numbering 3 to 7. 16.4% of the

population was male; and 11.3% was adult

male. 401 or 79.2% of the total population

were females. The sex ratio is 1 male for 5

females.

BIOTIC DISTURBANCES

About 600 domestic cattle (cows and buf-

faloes) were found grazing side by side with

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the antelopes. Though there is a move on the

part of the forest department to stop issuing

grazing permits, grazing cannot be completely

ruled out till the temple lands and the village

forest are also acquired by the forest depart-

ment.

The animals did not allow the enumerators

to approach them, keeping a flight distance of

nearly 200-300 yards. This is in strange con-

trast to the observation of Daniel (1967) that

“There was no movement from the depth of

one counting sector into the next mainly due

to the fact that the animals showed little fear

of man’. The high flight distance maintained

by the antelopes shows that there is poaching

going on and that the animals have learnt to

keep out of rifle range from man. Daniel

(1967) had observed a greater percentage of

males, the sex ratio being 1:2. But at present

the number of males is much lower, the sex

ratio being 1:5. This reduction in the number

of males also indicates that poaching is going

on, the males being preferred by the poachers.

In spite of the fact that lopping is prohibited,

the enumerators met on every day of their

work in the sanctuary a number of women

cutting and carrying firewood from the sanc-

tuary. This human movement is quite likely

to disturb the antelopes. There are also a num-

ber of jackals and wild pigs roaming the

forest. The jackals are the main predators of

blackbuck, devouring the very young fawns.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our sincere thanks are due to Sri V. M.

Narasimhan, Wild Life Warden, Madras who

gave all facilities of the survey. Thanks are

due to members of Wild Life Conservation

210

Society, Tiruchirapalli, who participated in the

Survey.

TABLE 1

SHOWING THE NUMBER OF HERDS SIGHTED AND THEIR

COMPOSITION

Adult Sub adult

Group male male Female Fawn Total

I 1 » 4 — 7

4 — 8 — 12

3 1 D2 — 26

4 — 33 1 38

2 1 31 1 35

4 — 45 — 49

1 — 8 — 4

II 3 —_ — — 3

— 6 — i

— — 4 — 4

— — 9 — 9

1 — 1 1 3

Ill 1 — 26 — Ay

1 — — — 1

Z — 8 — 10

1 6 — — 7

1 — 1 — Zz

— — 1 — 1

— — 9 — 9

1 — — — 1

1 — 6 2 9

1 — 38 7 46

— — 2 — 2

3 — 2 — 5

IV 1 — 3 — 4

1 1 15 — 17

— 2 13 — 15

3 a — — 3

— — 7 — 17

1 — 3 — 4

Vv 1 — — — 1

y — 46 Z 50

2 — 1 2 5

2 — 18 2 DD

3 — 29 4 36

1 — 1 = z

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

SECRETARY,

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY,

TIRUCHIRAPALLI,

TAMIL NADU.

HEAD OF THE DEPT. OF BOTANY,

JAMAL MOHAMMED COLLEGE,

TiRUCHY, TAMIL NADU.

HEAD, DEPT. oF BOTANY,

GUJARAT UNIVERSITY,

AHMEDABAD-380 009.

August 11, 1977.

K. N. NATARAJAN

T. S$. PAUL SUNDAR RAJ

C. K. SHAH

REFERENCES

The Point Calimere Sanc-

Hist. Soc.

DANIEL, J. C. (1967):

tuary, Madras State, J. Bombay nat.

64(3): 512-523.

Narr, S. S. (1976):

A population survey and ob- .

of the blackbuck

Tamil Nadu.

servations on the behaviour

in the Point Calimere Sanctuary,

ibid. 73(2): 304-310.

5. A WILDBOAR (SUS SCROFA) SHARING WILDDOGS’

(CUON ALPINUS) KILL

On 10.vi.1977 while going along a game track

watching for wilddogs at 0635 hrs. I saw a

chital stag with 40-45 cm long horns in velvet

running past me followed by a dhole. Before

I could get into a cover the dhole saw me and

abruptly stopped. Meanwhile I heard a sambar

fawn being killed by the rest of the pack in-

side the nearby scrub. While I was searching

for the kill the wild dogs smelt and saw me,

growled and ran away. I retreated back climb-

ed a tree and waited for the pack to return.

The pack which I was studying then had 8

adults and 8 six month old pups and I could

hear the loud squeaking of the pups, audible

even at a distance of 200 metres, from the

nearby cover. At 0705 hrs one dhole went to

the kill and by 0716 hrs the entire pack was

eating. The scrub was dense and from my

perch, which was nearly 50 metres away from

the kill, only occasionally was I able to see the

dogs eating. The fawn, being a small one, was

soon torn into pieces and I could hear the dogs

feeding within a radius of 20-30 metres.

At 0740 hrs I saw 3 dogs growling and

running away. Worried and irritated that some

local villager had come to take away the kill

I was about to get down when I saw a me-

dium-sized wild boar with its mane raised,

grunting and walking amidst the dogs. The

wild boar is a good scavenger on kill remains

but I was surprised to see it among the wild-

dogs.

Here was an instance in which a wildpig,

a prey animal of the wilddog, had shared the

kill, a fact I verified later while searching for

the jaw of the fawn. The sambar fawn could

have provided each dog with hardly 1 kg meat

and this is very little when compared to the

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

amount of meat each dog gorges (2.5-3.5 kg)

while feeding on a full grown chital or a big

sambar fawn. So tolerating a prey species to

walk around and allowing it to eat at the kill

particularly when the kill was insufficient for

all members are worth recording. In the same

area on 9.vii.77 Keechanna, my tribal assis-

tant, saw a chital stag in velvet spikes being

killed by the pack. He waited till the dogs

finished eating and when he was about to go

to the kill remains to weigh them and collect

the lower jaw, he saw a wild boar making its

way through the scrub towards the kill. The

dogs returning from the kill circled around the

boar for some time and then moved away.

These, observations may suggest that once the

‘killing or hunting effort’ of the wild dog was

over the prey animals may be immune to the

wild dogs’ predation for quite some time.

Earlier reports record jackals and Hyenas

being ignored (Davidar 1975) probably by the

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,

BANDIPUR,

MYSORE,

SOUTH INDIA,

September 23, 1977.

existence of a ‘blood-brotherhood bar’ as

Brander (1931) puts it. R. C. Morris (as re-

ported in Burton 1940) has observed a pack

of wild dogs, obviously well-fed, lying about

on a grass hill-top while sambar walked, tails

stiffly erect, right up to them. Apart from eye-

ing the deer lazily the dogs did not stir. On

the evening of 2.viii.77 I saw an alarmed yearl-

ing sambar doe waik past through a single file

of 4 dogs, part of the pack of 15, which 10

minutes later killed a prime adult chital doe.

Earlier that day in the morning the pack had

killed a prime adult chital stag with 38 cm

long hard antlers but tribals took away the kill

before the dogs could consume it fully. The

pack, being 15 in number, was __ sufficiently

strong to kill tne sambar. Yet they preferred

and killed a smaller possibly an already weak-

ened animal. All these indicate that wilddogs

though they have the courage and capacity are

not wanton killers.

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

REFERENCES

BRANDER, A. DUNBAR (1913): Wild animals in cen-

tral India.

BuRTON, R. W. (1940): The Indian Wild dog. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 691-715.

DavipaR, E. R. C. (1975): Ecology and behaviour

of the dhole or the Indian wild dog Cuon alpinus

(Pallas). In: M. W. Fox (Ed). The wild canids.

Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

6. BIRD MIGRATION ACROSS THE HIMALAYAS

It would be an interesting and instructive ex-

ercise to have a collection made of all bird

migration records across the Himalayas. We

may possibly gain considerable insight into the

role of the Himalayas as a barrier or other-

wise to birds winging their way to and from

temperate Asia.

212

Here are two observations by myself which |

might be worth recording:

In the summer of 1968, I was crossing the

Rohtang Pass at the head of the Kulu Valley |

(32/30°N, 72°E). May tends to be rather an

unsettled month with sudden thunder storms |

gathering up on the snowy mountains. On the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

morning of 24th May, we had started up for

the pass in clear weather but by 3 p.m., the

time we approached the crest of the pass,

clouds had gathered and it began to snow. As

we were plodding along the level top of the

pass I heard a swish of wings and low over

me a fiock of more than a score of Swifts

Apus apus swept out of the vapours from the

Kulu side and rushed on barely a few feet

above the snow on into Lahoul.

Again, in May of 1972,—unfortunately I

do not have the exact date but it was in the

third week—we had experienced foul weather

for several days. I was walking up the Solang

Nulla when a group of trainees from the

Manali Mountaineering Institute met me on

their way down. I was asked to identify a

C/o. WWE-INDiA,

BomBay-400023,

February 17, 1977.

duck they had rescued on the scree near their

base camp at app. 3350 metres at Bias Kund.

It turned out to be a duck of the Common

Teal Anas crecca. She had apparently been

forced down by the storm as she, perhaps,

with others of a flock was attempting to cross

the Rohtang range. Though her flight feathers

were badly worn, she looked in good shape.

On my return to Manali I made enquiries

about her fate but failed to gain any informa-

tion. It is likely her migration ended in a

duck curry.

The Kulu Valley has a north-south trend

and at its head is the magnificent Rohtang

range. The Rohtang Pass 3960 metres is the

lowest part of the spectacular divide.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

7. A BUZZARD NEST IN LADAKH

Besides the not wholly unexpected small

numbers of the Tibetan Crane that we

saw in Ladakh, what struck the members of

the World Wildlife Fund sponsored BNHS

expedition to Ladakh in June-July 1976, was

the comparative scarcity of birds of prey. An

occasional European Kestrel and two sight-

ings of Lammergeier were all there was to re-

port till we reached the banks of the Indus

at Dungti. Here, on the grassy banks we saw

our first long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus

rufinus). We met it again and again in the

Hanlé Valley, in Hanlé village and in Puga

which prompted Dr. Salim Ali to quip that

the bird was probably waiting for the writer’s

carcass!

In Puga (height 4880 m) we sighted not

a loner but a pair of long-legged buzzard and

it was not long before their nest was located,

quite close to our camp on the ledge of a

cliff. The nest was at a height of about 50

metres frrom the ground. The ledge on which

it was built was quite inaccessible, there being

big rocky overhangs just below and above it.

The nest faced south while on the opposite

side the ledge narrowed into a crevice in the

rock that afforded a cool retreat to the birds

from the heat of the sun. The nest was made

up of Caragana twigs, grass tufts, cotton and

wool rags, plastic-coated cable and pieces of

manila rope, a liberal supply of man-made

items being available in the Geological Sur-

vey camp down below.

As there was no place to put up a blind

near the nest, we watched it from a convenient

look-out ledge in the open, at a distance of

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

about 25 metres but approximately at the

same level from the ground. As we could not

hide ourselves the parent birds did not dare

enter the nest, but on three occasions flew

very near it in response to fervent calls from

the juvenile occupying the nest. However,

from the ground below one could see both

the parents entering the nest by turn. One of

them, probably the female (larger size), was

a frequent visitor and had its favourite perch

on a projecting rock about 30 metres above.

The other bird was twice seen perched on the

same ridge but almost a kilometre away from

the nest.

A juvenile bird, probably two months old,

occupied the nest. It appeared to be fully

feathered and about 40 cm in height. Its head

was creamy-buff, beak black, sharply hooked

and with a lemon-yellow patch at the base.

Feathers on the back were dark-brown and

on the throat and breast dusty white with ver-

tical brown streaks. Its tail was brown with

white horizontal bars. The Tarsi were feather-

ed, feet orange-yellow and talons black.

The parent bird that frequently came into

the nest, was dark brown or chocolate in

colour, lighter on head and breast and with

a buff patch on the nape. Its beak was light

yellow with a black tip.

On the morning of 19th July 1976, the nest

was watched for about four hours. At first

the juvenile was facing away from the obser-

ver and looked at him over its back. Then

it turned and faced south. For a long time

it looked around quietly from its high vantage

184 SHANIWAR PETH,

Poona 411 030,

June 8, 1977.

214

point. It stretched its wings, spread out its

tail-feathers, jerked its body and shuffled its

feathers from time to time. Once it almost

mounted over the edge of the nest to peer

down the precipice. Then turning a full circle,

its tail dangling beyond the edge of the nest,

it defecated neatly over the edge and out in

the air. From time to time it disappeared into

the crevice to seek shelter from the sun.

For most of the time the parent bird was

seen perched on its favourite rock above the

nest. Once it rose on its wings, squealed and

was airborne for almost forty-five minutes,

calling from time to time. Its call sounded

like a broad mew. Once it was gone for almost

fifty minutes. During its absence the juvenile

began calling. First it gave three short whist-

les and repeated the performance six times.

It was probably thirsty for it stood panting

with beak agape. When it saw the parent it

called loudly and was twice rewarded with

the former’s close approach. The parent how-

ever, did not drop any food. Interestingly

enough, house martins who had their nests on

the same cliff about 10 metres below, const-

antly flitted about, sometimes coming very

close to the edge of the nest. They showed

little fear of the buzzards.

As noon approached the juvenile began

calling more frequently. It was probably both

thirsty and hungry. Soon thereafter observa-

tion was terminated as it appeared that the

human presence was preventing the parent

from entering the nest, thus prolonging the

hardships of the youngster.

PRAKASH GOLE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. RED-NECKED PHALAROPE IN SRI LANKA

The only published record of a phalarope

in Sri Lanka (Phillips 1975) is of an injured

Red-necked Phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus

(Linnaeus), observed in a wet paddy field

at Koppai near Jaffna at the north end of the

island, on Ist January, 1944 (Henry 1971:

296).

On 5 March 1977 accompanied by Dr. S.

W. Wignarajah of the Zoology Department

Colombo Campus, we were watching flocks

of waders on the salt pans at Hambantota,

at about 1300 hrs, and saw a phalarope, con-

spicuously white with black markings, swim-

ming in shallow water among Curlew Sand-

pipers, Calidris testaceus (Pallas), Little Stints

Calidris minutus (Leisler), Marsh Sandpipers

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein), Greenshanks

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) and Ruffs Phi-

lomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). Eventually six

of these phalaropes were seen—a group of five

in one salt pan, and one in another nearby.

The birds were swimming in shallow water

and only once did one emerge, briefly, on to

a bund. On several occasions they were seen

in flight, when they took off very readily with

the (mainly) Curlew Sandpipers and Little

Stints, which frequently flew short distances

when slightly disturbed. The birds were not

as tame as Henry’s bird.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN,

SCOTLAND.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

CoLOMBO CAMPUS,

UNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA.

March 19, 1977.

We had excellent views at ranges from 20-

50 metres, in good light, using 10 x50 bino-

culars. The association with other waders

permitted a useful comparison of size, and

the following descriptive notes were made.

“Conspicuously white with black markings;

swimming in shallow water; smaller than Cur-

lew Sandpiper, but larger than Little Stint;

head white, with rather broad dark stripe

through the eye, and extending only slightly

behind eye; bill black, not longer than head,

and not obviously thin; at rest conspicuous

black bars on wing; legs black; greyish mot-

tling on sides of lower breast. In flight upper

surface of wing very dark with conspicuous

broad white stripe extending the length of the

wing; upper surface equally dark in front and

behind the white stripe’.

This description, particularly the black bill

and legs indicates the Rednecked Phalarope;

the closely similar Grey Phalarope Phalaropus

fulicarius (Linnaeus) is difficult to distinguish

in ‘winter’ plumage, but has yellow or yellow-

ish bill and legs (Salim Ali & Ripley 1969:

322-325). Rednecked Phalaropes are known

to winter in the north-west Indian Ocean and

have been recorded on and near the western

coast of peninsular India.

G. M. DUNNET

S. W. KOTAGAMA

215

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

REFERENCES

Henry, G. M. (1971): A guide to the Birds of

Ceylon. Oxford University Press.

PHILLIPS, W. W. A. (1975): A 1975 Annotated

checklist of the Birds of Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

1975. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of

Ceylon.

ALI SALIM, AND RIPLEY, S. DILLON (1969): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol.

2, Oxford University Press.

9, UNUSUAL ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FOR PAKISTAN

Chlidonias leucoptera (Temminck) White-

winged Black Tern

HANDBOOK (Volume 3) indicates that there

is an eastern population which occasionally

wanders down to the east coast of India being

recorded in Assam, Sylhet and Ceylon. There

are only three definite records for the western

seaboard from Bombay and Saurashtra.

On May Ist 1977, I visited Haleji Reservoir,

an artificial lake some forty-five miles north

of Karachi. The approximately three square

mile lake is surrounded by an artificial em-

bankment on the outside of which are many

reed and tamarisk-fringed seepage pools. It is

a rich wintering ground for Anatidae (twelve

species can be seen in a day), besides having

breeding colonies of Purple and Night Herons

and Little Egrets. It has been declared a sanc-

tuary since 1970. On one of these seepage

pools there was a group of Whiskered Terns,

Chlidonias hybrida hunting in repeated up-

wind sorties in typical fashion. I was at once

attracted by a very brightly contrasted Biack

and White Tern amongst this group and to

my delight found three Whitewinged Black

Terns in full breeding plumage hunting over

the same stretch of water. They were slightly

larger than the Whiskered Terns and _ their

all black underwing coverts besides jet black

back and scapulars made them easily separ-

able and distinctive from the Whiskered Terns.

My impression in the bright sunlight was that

216

their bills were black without any red. Their

calls were more high pitched and less grating

than those of the Whiskered Terns.

In 1970 on March 21st, a visiting French

ornithologist, Jacqueus Vieillard now on the

staff of the Paris Museum, visited Manchar

Lake in Sind and thought he saw some White-

winged Black Terns amongst Whiskered

Terns. Though he was familiar with this spe-

cies from North African ornithological sur-

veys, while staying at my home in the Pun-

jab subsequently, I rather arrogantly con-

vinced him that he must have been mistaken

especially as the birds were still only partly

moulted into breeding dress. I must now re-

cord my apologies for what was almost cer-

tainly Monsieur Vieillard’s record of the first

recorded occurrence of this species in Pakis-

tan. i

Corvus corono sharpii Oates—Eastern Hood-

ed Crow

An adult male specimen was noticed on the

first day of 1976, frequenting some buffalo

stables which I daily pass on the way to work,

some twelve miles on the western outskirts

of Karachi city in an arid desert area with

scattered Prosopis juliflora scrub. The bird

was generally in the company of House Crows

(Corvus splendens) and attracted my attention

by its paler grey breast and mantle, and then

its noticeably larger size.

A specimen of the northern race, within ©

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

a few miles of the Arabian Sea coast, was

obviously a most unusual straggler so on

January 3rd I reluctantly decided to shoot it.

The skin and its endo-parasites have been

preserved and will be deposited in an appro-

priate Museum when opportunity allows.

Measurements are: Total length 460 mm; wing

315 mm; tail 175 mm; tarsus 69 mm; culmen

50 mm. These measurements indicate a slight-

ly smaller than average bird according to the

range given in Stuart Baker (1922); (Wing

32-34 cm; tail about 20 cm; culmen 47 to 54

cm; tarsus about 55 cm and total length 48

cm).

My colleague Mrs. Ismat Parveen Anwar

kindly examined the specimen for endopara-

sites and found about 50 adult males and 60

female Nematodes in its alimentary tract, iden-

tified as Diplotriaena tricuspis (Fedtsch 1874),

which has already been recorded in the Asia-

tic population of Corvus cornix (synomym

for Corvus corone cornix). Its blood stream

also contained the larval micro-filaria of Dip-

lotriaena. There were also ten female speci-

mens of Dispharynx spiralis, syn: D. nasuta

(Molin. 1858).

A review of available literature indicates

that the Hooded Crow occurs in two racial

forms in neighbouring countries as well as

inter-breeding with the Carrion Crow (Corvus

corone orientalis). A very pale grey form

(Corvus corone capellanus) breeds in south-

ern Iraq and winters eastwards as far as the

extreme south-west of Iran (Hiie & Etcheco-

par 1970). Corvus corone sharpii, which

breeds throughout northern and central Iran,

is considered only as a winter visitor to the

north western regions of Afghanistan (Palu-

dan 1959). Stuart Baker in the FAUNA OF

BRITISH INDIA: (Birds, volume 1: 1922), cites

Magrath and Whitehead, Army officers who

were keen ornithologists and served before the

first World War in these regions, for the evi-

dence that the Carrion Crow (Corvus corone

orientalis) was a regular winter visitor to

Bannu and Kohat districts, but I do not know

on what basis he claimed that Corvus cornix

sharpii (syn: Corvus corone sharpii) occurs

in winter in the north west Punjab. It is note-

worthy that in Ripley’s SYNopsiIs (1961) only

the Carrion Crow, Corvus corone orientalis,

is listed as occurring in the sub-continent, so

there must have been some doubt as to the

Hooded Crow observations. Salim Ali &

Ripley in the HANDBOOK (Vol. 5, 1972), state

that Corvus corone sharpii is a regular winter

visitor to the North West Frontier Province,

mentioning Peshawar, Mardan, Hazara, Ban-

nu and Kohat.

Since there have been no reliable ornitho-

logical records or observations from these re-

gions for the past 50 years, (neither Hugh

Whistler nor H. Waite served outside of the

Punjab), it is to be hoped that new studies

can one day be made to find out the exact

status of these crows. My own direct observa-

tions, supplemented by correspondence with

bird watchers who have worked temporarily

in these regions during the past ten or fifteen

years, have corroborated that the Carrion

Crow does still occur in winter around Bannu

and Kohat being comparatively uncommon

arcund Kohat. In the upper Kurram Valley

(Para Chinar) it probably still breeds, as I

saw one individual carrying a stick in its bill

in mid-April. It is also reported to breed in

the Takht-i-Suleiman Mountains on the border

between Zhob and southern Waziristan. I

have no reliable records of Mardan or Pesha-

war but the Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhyn-

chos) does straggle in winter down into the

plains of Hazara as well as Mardan districts

adjacent to the foothills and may account for

sightings of Carrion Crows, recorded by Stuart

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Baker (1922). In the field, silent birds of these

two species cannot be separated though this

would be possible by examination in the hand.

Because of its similarity in coloration to the

House Crow, the Hooded Crow could be over-

looked, but so far I have failed to obtain any

records even of possible sightings. Even an

experienced ornithologist like Major Magrath

believed that the Carrion Crow came into the

Murree hills after the monsoon, which suppo-

sition is now known to have been mistaken

(Whistler 1930).

Motacilla indica Gmelin—The Forest Wagtail

There are not many remnants of the original

riverain forest left along the banks of the

Indus river but an unspoiled block of about

5 square miles survives south of Sujawal

bridge along the Indus river in the Thatta

district of Southern Sind. (24° 10’ N., 67°

56’ E.). It comprises mainly Acacia arabica

with a scattering of Prosopis spicigera and Ta-

marix dioica, on the higher land and the

ground beneath is fairly bare of vegetation

even in winter, being subject to annual inun-

dation during the monsoon by upto 5 or 6

feet depth of silt-laden water. The avifauna

of such forest is restricted, but tends to be

rather unique and different from the surround-

ing cultivated areas or arid hilly tracts, and

in December 12, 1976 I took two visiting or-

nithologist friends to visit this forest being

certain of being able to show them Honey

Buzzards (Pernis ptilorhyncus) and Red-

breasted Flycatchers (Muscicapa parva) which

would not be so readily encountered elsewhere

in southern Sind.

The forest floor abounded with White Wag-

tails (Motacilla alba) and the occasional Sind

Jungle Sparrow (Passer pyrrhonotus), but it

was my friend Peter Conder (formerly Presi-

dent of the Royal Society for the Protection

of Birds and a well known author) who drew

our attention to a rather unusual pipit-like

bird, which upon examination was found to

be a Forest Wagtail. The third member, Bruce

Amstutz, of the US Embassy, was also fami-

liar with this bird from previous service in

Burma. Apart from the clearly discernible

double necklace of black and the two broad

white wing bars, it was also distinctive in its

habit of wagging its tail or rather lower body

sideways instead of up and down in the man-

ner of the surrounding White Wagtails. It was

quite tame and allowed us to follow and

watch it for some time. By chance I was able

to visit the same forest with my family in

December 27, and was amazed to encounter

presumably the same Forest Wagtail within

a hundred yards of the December 12 sighting.

This wagtail which breeds in south eastern

Russia and China, is migratory in winter but

normally visits only the southern part of India

and Ceylon, and I have twice seen it in ever-

green forest in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh,

where it was very tame. There is one record

for Kutch (Ali & Ripley’s HANDBOOK volume

9) where it was described as a straggler and

I recollect that there is one very old skin in

the Bombay Natural History Society collec-

tion labelled Karachi Sewage Farm which is

attributed to this species.t Because this wag-

tail is not rare within its normal range in

China and south eastern Russia, I decided to

try and collect it the following week but a

laborious search in the same region only re-

vealed maddening numbers of White Wastails.

It is just possibie that odd birds regularly turn

up in these riverain forests and I shall cer-

tainly be on the lookout for it next winter.

[1 There is an error here. We do not have speci-

mens of any of the Motacilla from Karachi.—Eps|

218

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

PROJECT COORDINATOR,

VERTEBRATE PEST CONTROL CENTRE,

KARACHI UNIVERSITY CAMPUS,

P. O. Box 8401,

KARACHI 32—PAKISTAN,

May, 2, 1977.

T. J. ROBERTS

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM & RIPLEY, S. DILLON (1972-73): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 5

(Corvidae) 1972 and Vol. 9 (Wagtails) 1973.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Hue F. & Ercuecorer, R. D. (1970): Les Oiseaux

due Procheoet du Moyen. N. Bouble & Cie.

Paris.

PALUDAN, KNupD_ (1959): Birds of Afghanistan.

Vidensk Medd. Dansk Naturh. For Vol. 122.

STUART BAKER, E. C. (1922): The Fauna of British

India, Birds. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis, London.

VAURIE, CHARLES (1959): The Birds of the Palaearc-

tic Fauna. H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., London.

WHISTLER, HuGH (1930): The Birds of the Rawal

District, N. W. India. Ibis., pp. 67-119.

10. NOTES ON THE STRIATED BABBLER TURDOIDES EARLEI

(BLYTH) NEAR DELHI

During 1973 and 1974 intermittent observa-

tions were made on a population of Striated

Babblers Turdoides earlei in an area of reed-

swamp (Typha) close to the Yamuna canal,

south of Delhi. The area was visited on eleven

occasions during February to May 1973 and

twice in February and March 1974. The spe-

cies was quite common in the vicinity of reed

beds and also foraged frequently in nearby

water meadows and arable land. Several

groups were seen in January, in an adjacent

area, feeding on dry fields and along bunds,

but the species was not recorded in this habi-

tat during the breeding season.

Four groups of Striated Babblers were locat-

ed in 1973 within an area estimated as 0.24

km? in extent. Three groups were counted

accurately and included eight, nine and ten

birds; the fourth was estimated as containing

five birds. The total population was therefore

estimated as 32 birds and the density 133 birds

per km.? The groups were not counted accu-

rately in 1974, but four groups were agani pre-

sent in the same area.

Nine nests were found in 1973 and two in

1974. Nest sites were of two types; either 1-2

m above the ground in a small palm tree (3

nests), tucked in at the base of the leaves, or

20-50 cm up in a dense clump of reeds (8

nests). The observed laying dates for first eggs

were 27 February, 5 March and 9 April and

two complete clutches were both of two eggs.

Only two of the nests located in 1973 succeed-

ed in fledging young and both of these were

situated in reeds.

Because none of the birds were marked, it

was not possible to tell how many group

members participated in feeding the nestlings,

but at both nests observed more than two

birds took part. At one nest, containing young

5-7 days old, at least six adults were seen

‘queuing’ to deliver food to the nestlings, out

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

of a group of nine birds and it therefore

seems likely that, as in the Jungle Babbler

(Andrews & Naik 1970) all group members

take some part in feeding the young. At both

of the nests observed with nestlings adults

took turns at maintaining a ‘sentinel’ watch

close to the nest, the sentinel perching on a

tall reed within a few metres of the nest. This

position was swapped regularly after each

bird had fed the nestlings.

Groups observed outside the breeding

season usually fed together within a radius

of 20-30 m. Some seen in January foraging

in dry fields sometimes mixed with groups of

Common Babblers Turdoides caudatus with

which there was no obvious interaction. Dur-

ing the breeding season, however, birds were

often seen foraging singly or in small parties

and this also applied to members of a group

which was feeding nestlings. Birds leaving the

nest after bringing food would fly off in dif-

ferent directions and although none of the

birds were marked it was clear that members

of the group were feeding simultaneously over

a wide area, constituting a large proportion

of the group’s home range.

During the early part of the breeding season,

in February and March, one member of a

EDWARD GREY INSTITUTE,

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

SOUTH PARK Roap,

OxFORD, ENGLAND,

May 10, 1977.

group frequently gave a loud call “‘chirrup-ee,

chirrup-ee-ee...”’, perched prominently on top

of a tall reed. This usually continued for seve-

ral minutes, being repeated after a short pause

and similar calls from birds in neighbouring

territories could sometimes be heard simult-

aneously. It seems likely that this call func-

tioned as a territorial advertisement and if so

it contrasts with the territorial calls of other

species of Turdoides (T. striatus, T. malcolmi,

T. subrufous, T. affinis) which are normally

given by several group members in chorus

(Gaston 1976).

Allo-feeding was observed several times in

February. On each occasion the food was

presented to a bird perched up on a reed

stem apparently undertaking sentinel duty, by

a bird which flew up to present the food and

then returned to feed on the ground. Allo-

feeding is a common occurrence among mem-

bers of Arabian Babbler groups (Amotz Za-

havi, pers. comm.), where presentations are

also usually made to a sentinel. Zahavi con-

siders that this behaviour plays a role in the

communication of dominance status, but ob-

servations on this behaviour in the Striated

Babbler were insufficient to provide evidence

on this hypothesis.

A. J. GASTON

REFERENCES

ANDREWS, M. I. AND Naik, R. M. (1970): The

biology of the Jungle Babbler. Pavo 8: 1-34.

Gaston, A. J. (1976): Factors affecting the evo-

220

lution of group territories in babblers. (Turdoi-

des) and Long-tailed Tits. D. Phil. thesis, Oxford

University.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. A BRIEF NOTE ON THE GRANDALA, GRANDALA

COELICOLOR HODGS.

Both Whistler in “Birds of the Kangra

District’? and Mienertzhagen in “Birds Col-

lected in Ladakh and Sikkim’’ when talking

of the Grandala mention fast flight, a restless

disposition and a predilection for settling on

top of trees. My own observations bear out the

fast flight and restless disposition but since

on all occasions but one I have met the birds

above tree-line, I have seen them only on the

ground. Overhead they have a starling-like

silhouette with triangular wings and a distinct-

ly forked tail. In flight they often circle and

glide very much like the Ashy Swallow-

Shrike. On the ground, they hop about like

chats but without the bobbing, have a very

erect stance and continually flick the wings

much in the manner a crow does. At this alti-

tude—3500 to 3960 metres—they were feed-

ing on insects—it is surprising how many

winged insects, ladybird beetles and the like

are wafted aloft on updrafts of warm air com-

ing up from the valleys. I am convinced that

quite a substantial amount of food is also

procured in flight.

C/o. WWEF—INDIA,

BomBAyY-400 023,

February 22, 1977.

The one time I saw a huge flock of Gran-

dala below tree-line was on the way to Badri-

nath (Garhwal) just above Hanuman Chalti.

There were more than a hundred birds. Here

also they were flighting on open hill slopes

just above the Alakananda and though freely

perching on midstream rocks I never saw

them alight on some deodar nearby. The birds

had been driven down by a very heavy fall

of spring snow. All my other observations

have been in the Kulu Himalayas.

The wonderful blue of the male is only

apparent in proper light; on most occasions

he looks black and is not a very arresting

bird. The females are dark brown. In over-

head flight a distinct light band shows along

the base of her primaries.

The only call I recorded was a klew....

klew....klew, which once heard is so charac-

teristic as can always draw attention to a flock

of Grandala in the neighbourhood.

All these observations were in the latter

half of May.

LAVKUMAR J. KHACHER

12. NOTES ON THE FOOD OF THE BLACKHEADED MUNIA AND

THE SPOTTED MUNIA IN SOUTH KAMRUP DISTRICT, WESTERN

ASSAM (INDIA)

In connection with studies on the ethology of

the Common Weaver Bird or Baya [Ploceus

philippinus (Linnaeus)], two other common

ploceids namely the Eastern Blackheaded

Munia [Lonchura malacca atricapilla (Vieil-

lot)] and the Burmese Spotted Munia [Lon-

chura punctulata subundulata (Godwin-Aus-

ten)] were found in company with the Baya

invading nurseries of paddy as well as the stand-

ing crop which was almost in preharvesting

stage. The seeds sown in the nurseries attract-

ed the ploceids greatly. These birds flocked

221

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TABLE II

Foop oF Lonchura punctulata subundulata (GODWIN-AUSTEN)

Tiga

Wt- of

specimen

| Feeding ground

Date of

Percentage

Items of Food

of stomach

contents

(sun dried)

(after

killing)

from which

collection was

obtained

Locality

Sex collec-

tion

No.

Example

Vegetable matter (bamboo seeds)

220 mg

Grits

15 gm

Flowering bamboo

thickets and

cultivated fields

Assam

Rani,

S. Kamrup,

10-3-75

ground

Paddy (Oryza sativa) with fragments 26.08

Vegetable matter (bamboo seeds)

230 mg

Grits

14 gm

edo:

“doz

-do-

43.48

30.44

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in hundreds from nearby sugarcane fields,

bamboo thickets and tall grass growing in

marshes.

The Eastern Blackheaded Munia is confined

to Assam, Manipur and Bangladesh west to

eastern Nepal, eastern and southern Bihar

and northern Orissa, and the Burmese spotted

Munia is distributed in Assam and Bangladesh

in the plains and up to c 1800 metres. Both

are resident species of western Assam, and are

found moving in flocks from one area to an-

other invading crop and grasses in flower. Ma-

son and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912, pp. 123-124)

stated that the Blackheaded Munia damages

ripe paddy. They also examined the stomach-

contents of three examples of the Spotted

Munia. Out of these three birds, one took two

injurious insects but all of them had taken weed

seeds. They further remarked that this com-

mon species do some considerable damage to

grain, especially paddy, but a large percentage

of food in all probability consists of small

weed-seeds and sometimes of insects. Whistler

(1963, pp. 215-216) stated that the Spotted

Munia feeds largely in low-seeding herbage.

Ali & Ripley (1974, pp. 115-118) stated that

the food of the Eastern Blackheaded Munia

consists of grass-seeds and rice; and that of

the Burmese Spotted Munia grass-seeds, rice,

lantana berries, etc.

Some 14 examples of the Blackheaded Munia

and two examples of the Spotted Munia were

collected from Rani, Kamrup district, Western

Assam in mid-March 1975. All the birds were

in non-breeding condition. The collections

were made from two different feeding grounds.

One group was obtained from cultivated fields

and the other from bamboo thickets. It was

interesting to observe that since some of the

bamboo was in flower, there was a large num-

ber of birds on these, presumably feeding on

the bamboo-seeds which blossom and seed once

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

in 20 years approximately. Birds taken in mist-

nets or shot were immediately dissected, and

the contents recovered from the crop and

stomachs, were sun-dried. Analysis of the con-

tents of the two species is given below in Table

Nos. I & I.

From the above analysis, it appears that

bulk of the food of the above two species of

munias consists mainly of vegetative matters,

(approximately 82 per cent), about 46 per cent

consist of paddy and 36 per cent seeds of bam-

boo and other weed grasses. The remaining

17 per cent have been found to be grit and

about one per cent only of animal matter.

The bayas and munias that concentrated in

large numbers in a small area of one square

kilometre approximately in Rani where this

study was made, was estimated to have a pop-

ulation of 1000+ of each species of munias.

It was observed that they congregated in large

numbers on the nursery of paddy and caused

a considerable damage to the paddy cultiva-

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CALCUTTA 16,

MIO MB NOTA.

tion. The local cultivators drive away the birds

from such affected nurseries and mature crop

employing boys to pelt stones and beat drums.

From the analysis of their crop and stomach-

contents, it is evident that their first choice as

food is grains of paddy.

It has been observed that the munias made

20 trips on average during the whole day from

their roost of sugarcane and bamboo thickets

to the nursery and standing crop of paddy.

Each bird consumed about five grams of paddy

in a day. When a flock of 2000+ munias were

Operating in an area of one square kilometre,

the average loss as estimated was nearly five

kilogrammes per day per species. This loss is

quite substantial to the cultivators.

In conclusion it may be stated that both

species, the Blackheaded Munia and the Spot-

ted Munia are definitely harmful to cultivation

and could be categorised as serious cereal pests

in Western Assam.

B. C. SAHA

A. K. MUKHERJEE

REFERENCES

ALI, S. AND RIpLey, S. D. (1974): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 10, Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Mason, C. W. AND MAXweELL-Lerroy, H. (1912):

The food of birds in India. Mem. Dep. Agric.

India. (Ent. Ser.), 3: 123-124.

WHISTLER, H. (1963): Popular Handbook of Indian

birds, 3rd edition (reprinted). Oliver & Boyd, Edin-

burgh and London.

13. NOTE ON THE STATUS OF THE GIR CROCODILES

(With a plate)

The superintendent of Gir National Park, Sanat

Chavan provided transport for me to visit Hiran

Lake the morning after my arrival at Sasan

Gir on 28 May 1975. Jeevan Lal, a maldhari

224

(herder) who had assisted Paul Joslin’s lion

study, was my guide for the next few days. I

spent the first day making a round of Hiran

Lake, the reservoir formed by the Kamleshwar

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Dam within the Park. Being a drought year

the reservoir was down to two long channels

about 30 metres wide and rarely more than 2

metres deep.

We saw 20 crocodiles (C. palustris) in the

water during the day, none basking, ranging

from last year hatchlings to adults upwards of

3 metres. The most interesting feature of the

habitat was the presence of 16 tunnels in one

high embankment, dug by the mugger appa-

rently against the eventuality of the lake com-

pletely drying up. The tunnels had flattened

oval entrances and averaged 80 cm in width

and went in 4 to 5 metres. Using a torch we

found that there was a crocodile in nearly every

tunnel. In the vicinity of the tunnels Jeevan

located a nest of crocodile eggs in the course

gravelly soil c 3 m above the water line, by

noting the disturbed nature of the nest site.

Searching the vicinity we located another nest.

Later, joined by Mr. Chavan, the eggs were

carefully collected and packed in hatching boxes

using the original nest soil. Each nest con-

tained 25 eggs, indicating smaller females of

2 to 24 metres length

Just across a thin channel from the nest

sites I stretched down over a steep ledge to

peer into a tunnel with my torch. There was

no need for a light however, an adult mugger’s

face peered at me from little more than an

arm’s length away. The crocodile made no mo-

vement and was in that position several hours

later. We assumed this was perhaps one of

the females whose nest had been found.

That night we made a complete circuit of

the two channels that make up the Hiran Lake

at this time of year. Using a powerful torch

we counted the red glowing eyes of 51 croco-

diles, estimated that we missed at least 25 for

a total of 76 mugger of all sizes. This is the

largest single concentration of mugger we know

oi in India. We spent almost the whole night

at the dam and were treated to a spectacular

lion chorus, something the unfortunate tourists

at the Sasan rest house would never hear.

30th May: Jeevan Lal and I spent the day

examining the Lake and parts of the Hiran

River, below the dam. There was evidence of

a few crocodiles in this densely wooded swampy

area. We were told by one of the old Forest

Guards that during fishing activities by the Fi-

Sheries Department, a number of crocodiles

came down to the shelter of this swamp. Com-

pared to the reservoir area, which is barren ex-

cept for a few old tree stumps, this is ideal

“alternate habitat’ for juvenile crocodiles. We

randomly examined crocodile feces and found

remains of fish, cattle egret and watersnake.

We spent the hot part of the day at the “ness”

oi a very hospitable family of Maldharis camp-

ed near the lake. They surround their camp

with a large pile of thorny branches similar to

the “‘boma” in parts of Africa. We had a long

taik about crocodiles and they told us of the

““jhurd’’, a tentacled beast that lived in deep

waiter which pulled animals and men under

water. The skin and bones of the unfortunate

victim would be found several days later. A

note on this “beast” is in JBHNS (27:175).

Later in the day we found a crocodile skull

and were told of a group of “‘mugri puckard

wala’? who came “a few” years ago. 5 or 6

men with women and children camped at the

lake and, using hooks baited with goat guts

tied to heavy line floated with peacock feathers,

caught about 15 crocodiles. The crocodiles

were killed with an axe, the skin, fat and some

parts removed. The hunters moved on after

a few weeks. We later watched two crocodiles

“trap” fish near the shore and one caught a

large fish and ate it.

June Ist: we spent the day touring the Na-

tional Park to see other crocodile habitat in the

now mostly dry Hiran River and tributaries.

225

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

We passed through the villages of Seerwan and

Madhupar of the “‘Sidhi-lok”, Africans said to

have been brought as warriors (slaves) by some

of the old Rajas. They are practicing Moslems

and now speak Gujarati. At Bonaj, a temple

in the Park, we were told there are two cro-

codiles in the pool there and there we saw

a tunnel in the embankment with fresh marks.

We also visited Mugri Guna where there were

several crocodile tunnels, one obviously occu-

pied. These tunnels were generally dug under

the shelter and support of the roots of a “‘ja-

mun” tree (Eugenia jambolana). Sodia nullah,

Pilipat Stream and Singoda Nadi are other spots

which retain water in the dry season and have

a few resident crocodiles. The Maharaj at Bo-

naj said that a crocodile was dug out of

tunnel two years back at Mugri Guna by some

‘jungle people’? not local. The crocodiles in

these streams “‘gunas’’ must nest in the water—

accumulated piles of sand. These areas are very

disturbed by the daily arrival of hundreds to

thousands of cattle. In the evening I caught a

bat downed by crows. It turned out to be a

Bearded Sheath-tailed Bat.

4th to 6th June was spent in the hospitality

of Jamsahib of Jamnagar in the Barda Hills

about 40 km from Porbandar. This is an area

of about 200 sq. km of scrub jungle with hills

up to 2,000 ft. These little hills and those in

the Gir area are just about the only water shed/

catchment areas left in the desert—like Sau-

rashtra. There are numerous small and large

tanks in the hilis, several have small crocodile

populations. Five of the larger minor reservoirs

are Rana Sagar, Gulab Sagar, Suth Sagar, Pho-

dara Sagar, Khambara Sagar.

South of Porbandar lives a group of about

4,000 people known as “‘Deemar.”’ These are

part time cultivators, hunters and fishermen.

One of these, Jumma Ismail, was camped with

his family at Khambara Sagar so I spent the

226

night there talking and watching the fishing.

Jumuna said that at least 50 crocodiles had

left this reservoir since they started fishing, as

the water went down. Now it was mostly a

shallow lake with one area of deep water up

to about 4 m. The migrant crocodiies were ap-

parently headed toward a larger tank about 8

km away. Since this was the worst drought in

40 years, this years overland crocodile activity

was unusual. Local hunter/gatherers, the Wag-

ris, (taught by professional crocodile hunt-

ers said to travel around from U.P.) now

know the value of crocodiles skin, fat and odd

parts for “medicine.” It is doubtful said Jum-

ma, if any of the crocodiles made it to the

next reservoir as he saw the Wagri follow up

and kill a number of them. It was useless to

try to spot the crocodiles at night he said, they

know about night hunting and disappear. We

saw crocodiles the next day only. Early in the

morning we made a round of the lake and

found the tracks of a sub-aduit crocodile lead-

ing up into the scrub jungle hills; naturally

we followed it. An expert shikari, Mesur, was

along so we had little difficulty locating the

slight scuff marks on the scorched packed soil.

The crocodile mostly followed cow paths but

also climbed up steep rocky faces with lizard

efficiency. We finally found the animal about

24 km from the reservoir, half hidden under a

large over-hanging rock which sheltered it for

the day. It had about 6 km to go to reach

Phodara Sagar and cow-herders were sure to

spot it. With some difficulty we caught the

metre and a half animal, tied its jaws with a

binocular strap and took turns carrying it back.

Later we released this and a juvenile Jumma

had caught in his net into a reservoir not like-

ly to dry out. At Khambara during the day

we saw several juvenile crocodiles up to 60 cm

long and one adult about 2 m. Jumma said

the same U.P. catchers who had visited Gir a

‘QUIS SIY] 0} BSOTO AIDA Pa}VdOT BI9M S]SsU OMI], “d[{POdOID vB poule}UOdS

a194 pUNOJ [eUUN} aIPOdOIO ATaAd ATIVAN ‘“UOSvdS JYSNOIP Ui IID) ‘oyeyT] ues

SIIPOIOID UO :JOyeUYyM

TLV Td SL (00S ‘LSIH “LVN AvaWog ‘f

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

few years back came here. He mentioned that

crocodile gall bladder cures cataract. Other

local “‘medicine’’ includes hyena fat for pain-

ful joints and grey hornbill flesh for women

in labour. In the rainy and winter season, Jum-

ma uses his fish nets for bird trapping.

Other crocodile habitat in Gujarat which

should be surveyed by day and night for de-

termining crocodile populations are:

a) Bhadar Dam near Gondal, Saurashira

b) Machhu Dam near Wankaner

c) Shetmuji Dam near Palitana

d) Mahi River, Vanakbori Reservoir, Kira

District

e) Mahi River, Kadana Reservoir, near Ra-

jasthan border

MADRAS CROCODILE BANK,

MADRAS,

June 9, 1977.

f) Powaghat Hills, lake at 1,500 ft, near

Baroda

g) Nagmati River, Ranjit Sagar, Jamnagar

water supply.

This year (1975) Ranjit Sagar dried up for

the first time in 40 years. Three crocodiles were

caught and transferred by the municipality;

another 25 to 30 were reportedly killed by

Wagris, Polis and other people. There may

have been no shooting during Lord Mahavira’s

anniversary year in Gujarat but the crocodile

axe was most active.

Thanks are due to Sanat Chavan, Jeevan Lal

and Jamsahib for all the help and kindness

extended during my visit.

R. WHITAKER

14. NOTES ON VOCALIZATION AND PROTECTIVE BEHAVIOUR

IN THE MUGGER

In 1972 at the Madras Park we had six 2

year old, metre long mugger (Crocodylus pa-

lustris) in an enclosure with a metre long salt

water crocodile (C. porosus). Catching the

latter for transporting to another enclosure, it

gave the crocodilian distress cry which is ap-

parently an amplified (high-pitched and open-

-mouthed) version of the typical grunts they

make from the hatching stage onward when

alarmed or in response to another crocodile

grunting (grouping mechanism).

On hearing the salt water crocodile’s distress

cry the mugger unhesitatingly charged me as I

was holding the crocodile. Only a quick jump

over the wall saved my toes. Later we record-

ed the distress cry and the young mugger zeal-

ously attacked the recorder. I learned to mimic

the juvenile distress cry and was able to ob-

serve interesting response by wild mugger in

several habitats. In Corbett National Park, with

D. Basu now of the U.P. Crocodilian Project,

we “‘called’’ crocodiles at night at the big poo!

near Gairal R.H. One mugger almost 3 metres

came slipping and stumbling out of the river

over the round boulders at quite a good pace,

white mouth wide open and reflecting the light.

It stopped 5 metres short of us and seemed to

smell us or think twice about this artificial

distress cry. After a few minutes it returned

to the water. We had heard there were croco-

diles at Maiani Tal in Corbett. To prove it I

waited there till after dark then climbed one

of the overhanging jamun trees and called. Two

adult mugger of 24 to 3 m. swam to just be-

low the tree. At Kilikudu Pond in Tamil Nadu,

in the midnight company of several colleagues

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

we had seven wild crocodiles swimming toward

us in response to a mimic distress cry when a

medium sized mugger suddenly burst out of

the bushes on the bank behind us and charged

right past us, open mouthed. In the Gir at

Hiran Lake, with Sanat Chavan, Park Warden

we had a 3 metre mugger come out almost to

our feet, again in response to the mimic juve-

nile distress cry. It only returned to the water

when we tapped with a walking stick in front

of its snout. In our experience mugger learn

about this deception quickly and it would rare-

ly work twice in the same place and sometimes

not at all. It was especially dramatic in a new,

fairly undisturbed population. In Sri Lanka last

year, in the company of a Lanka herpetologist,

R. Senanayake, we watched no less than 16

MAbDRAS CROCODILE BANK,

MADRAS,

June 5, 1977.

crocodiles approach us. Being in a low unpro-

tected spot we hastily quit the area.

We have never heard mugger bellow as do

alligators. Sometimes during threat dispiays

(and mating) one or both participants wil!

emit gargling growls, the inferior one (with

upraised head in appeasement) usually ending

in a typical crocodile grunt. The loudest sound

we heard from a mugger was a wild caught

female of just under 2 metres, caught in a net.

Brought to shore and caught by the tail the

crocodile emitted loud, deep distress cries with

a tone similar to a calf’s voice. The most ty-

pical mugger sounds are the grunts which the

juveniles start using while still in the egg to

communicate to the parent (and other eggs)

their readiness to hatch.

R. WHITAKER

Z. WHITAKER

15. NOTES ON CAPTIVE BREEDING IN MUGGER

(CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS)

The 600 ft circumference breeding pond for

mugger at the Madras Crocodile Bank holds

approximately equal land and water area. The

pond was dug to the water table and banks

for basking were created with excavated sand.

Clumps of pandanus and Casuarina and when

necessary temporary palm leaf shelters provide

shade. As far as possible, wild conditions have

been simulated. In the rains the maximum water

depth is 3 m and in the summer | m. Maxi-

mum and minimum air temperatures during

the incubation period are 42°C and 28°C.

The enclosure supports 14 mugger; 8 females

(3 adults) and 6 males (2 adults). Under nor-

mal circumstances this is a fairly compatible

group and little serious fighting occurs.

1977 was the second successful breeding

228

year and notes on nests and nesting behaviour

are given below.

Nests and hatching:

Both at the Crocodile Bank and at the Snake

Park (one pair of adults) mating commenced

from mid January.

On the night of 20th February the 13 year

old female at the Snake Park laid 10 eggs in

her nest 20 cm under the (laterite) soil. The

eggs were transierred to hatching boxes on 15th

April, and 6 hatched on 16th May.

On the night of 3rd March a 15 year old

female (‘Alpha’) at the Crocodile Bank

breeding pond laid 28 eggs under 26 cm of

sand in a Casuarina clump in the north-west

corner of the enclosure. Sand had been thrown

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

off to first create a body pit to prevent the

nest from filling up. Alpha entered the water

at 7 a.m. the following morning closely attend-

ed by Beta, her mate (largest male) and Mett

(second largest male). Mucous still hung from

her cloaca and she seemed greatly fatigued,

making only half hearted and feeble attempts

to charge while the nest was being examined.

The 28 eggs were transferred to hatching boxes

on 28th April, and all hatched on 6th May.

On the night of 2ist March a 7 year old

female in her second laying year deposited 24

eggs, slightly to the north of Alpha’s nest. The

eggs were collected in hatching boxes on 9th

May and only 3 hatched on 25 May.

A third undetected nest of 10 eggs was laid

on the south bank by a first year layer. On

25th April an open nest hole was seen with

3 empty egg shells and 7 intact eggs. One juve-

nile was spotted in the pond and netted after

considerable difficulty; during this exercise Mett

and Alpha repeatedly charged us as we mov-

ed along the south bank. The juvenile, be-

fore it was noosed, swam slowly around Mett’s

jaws. There was no sign of the other two

juveniles who were probably eaten, by a sub-

adult. On 27th April the remaining 7 eggs

were opened after candling and only one con-

tained visible remains of a very young em-

oryo. The eggs were not dessicated; they were

either infertile or the embryos had died early

from an unknown cause.

Mating behaviour:

Morning, evening and occasional nocturnal

Observations were made on Alpha (biggest

female), Beta (biggest male) and Mett (second-

largest male), during March.

Beta and Mett are the dominant males oi

this group. During the breeding season (Janu-

ary to June), they were constantly bullying

sub-adult males, chasing them around the en-

closure and biting them on the tail and back.

Mett was very much second in command how-

ever and would often make submissive gestures

(raising head to show underside of jaw) when

basking or swimming near Beta.

Alpha and Beta commenced mating in mid

January and mated regularly while Alpha was

incubating her eggs. To give an idea of mating

frequency, from 5th to 11th March mating was

observed every day except one, in the morn-

ing (8 a.m. to 11 a.m.) or late evening (5.30-6

p.m.). Copulation lasted from 7 to 10 minutes.

After Alpha had nested, mating always oc-

curred in the western end of the tank, below the

nest. Prior to mounting, the male often bites

water with a loud side-ways clap and _ hisses,

sometimes swimming to the female with his

back out of water but more often reaching her

under water. Often Beta would grunt nasally

before submerging; this display however could

also be a threat (to other males) and not ex-

clusively mating behaviour.

The following extract from our notes of 6th

March describes the mating procedure. 8.05

a.m.—Alpha slides into water from nest, Beta

on north bank. Beta swims, back slightly out

of water, to Alpha rests with nose touching her

tail. Alpha turns around, swims to west; Beta

makes long, loud nasal grunt, follows, and

mounts. Alpha submerges, Beta half submerg-

ed. Mett swims up from east of tank, circles

mating pair, stops with head parallel to Beta’s,

rests head on Beta’s back, after short submis-

sive gesture. Mett submerges as Alpha and

Beta submerge further. Alpha and Beta surface

after ten minutes, still mating. Beta hisses,

submerges again and surfaces, nee Beta

rolls over and dismounts.

On two occasions Alpha was seen making

what appeared to be a mating display, both

times when Beta was at some distance and had

not mated with her that day. She would roll

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

on her back, remain this for a few seconds,

and roll over again. Her cloaca seemed slight-

ly extruded and what were possibly the scent

(musk) glands were momentarily visible.

Although Mett did not mate with Alpha

(Alpha mated only with Beta) he enjoyed a

special status. Alpha was intolerant of other

crocodiles in the proximaty of her nest or in

the corner of the tank below the nest, and Beta

consistently chased out other males from the

area, but Mett was tolerated by both and was

allowed close proximity even while mating was

going on. He was frequently to be seen basking

not 6 ft. from Alpha’s nest.

Beta also mated with another female while

Alpha’s eggs were being incubated. Prior to

mating she was observed rubbing the underside

of her jaw on his head, swimming around him

in circles and once, when Beta ignored her

advances, she blew out a terrific mass of water

bubbles into the air.

Mating continued at least upto 4th June,

when Beta grunted nasally before mounting

Alpha. When Mett came over however Beta

left Alpha, mounted Mett, and adopted the

mating posture!

Temperatures and egg sizes:

TEMPERATURE RECORD FOR NEST 4

(SNAKE PARK)

(10 eggs—size range 7.2 x 3.8-8 x 4 mm. Average

7.5 x 4 mm)

Date Surface Egg Level

Morn: Aft. Eve Morn. Aft. Eve.

16/3 28 29 30 28.5 33 31

19/3 28 32 31 29 30 29

23/3 28). 29 30 29 30 29

30/3 30 33 31 28 29 30

2/4 30 33 30 29 30 29

6/4 30 31 30 DOES" 30 29.5

9/4 34.5 33 33 29:5) 3025) ~s3185

13/4 31 32 31 30 31 30

16/4 31 31,5): .-30 30 30 2975)

20/4 30 31 30 29 30 29

23/4 34 33 30 32 ail

Sill

Protection of the nest:

Individual females vary considerably in nest

protection. Shortly after laying her eggs, Aipha

sustained an injury on her right hind foot which

rendered the ascent to the nest a painful exer-

cise. During this period she would not attempt

coming up when nest temperatures were being

taken, but toward the end of the incubation

period when the leg was healed she would rush

out of the water to the nest on sensing the

slightest disturbance near it. She would usually

charge open mouthed and belly flop on the

nest. Crocodiles basking on the western bank

near the nest were frequently chased and biiten.

Alpha’s daily routine was: Coming to the

water (8 ft. below nest) at 7.30-8 a.m. and

unless there was disturbance near the nest, re-

turning to it only at 6-6.30 p.m. Nights were

spent on the nest. Incubation and protection

continued after the eggs were collected. On 10th

May she chased a sub adult male basking near

the nest halfway round the enclosure and bit

him on the back and tail, while he repeatedly

made submissive gestures. As late as 7th June,

a month after the eggs had hatched, she chased

RW an assistant out of the enclosure.

The other two nests did not enjoy such dedi-

cated protection and the females were never ob-

served chasing intruders. The nest to the north

of Alphas’ was often exceedingly wet in the

mornings and the theory that a broody female

urinates or evacuates water on her nest comes

to mind. A wild mugger nest in Kedarhalla in

1975 had the same degree of wetness and Reu-

ben David reports cloacal nest wetting at

Ahmedabad Zoo.

Alpha did not feed during the entire incu-

bation period, although rats, fish and frogs were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

offered to her and there was always plenty of

food in the tank. She was first seen to catch

fish in the tank on 3rd May. About this time

also, she started leaving the west end of the

tank and venturing out into the open water

expanse, with the other crocodiles.

The 13 year old female mugger at the Snake

Park which laid on 20 February guarded her

nest from a pool in the west corner of the en-

closure. She made serious charges at intruders,

followed by a furious chase which brought the

man to the other side of the wall. (Alpha had

been more inclined to reach her nest only, and

belly flop on it). It is a matter for conjecture

whether the intruder would be bitten if caught

up with. W. T. Neili (LAST OF THE RULING

REPTILES) doubis that the American Alligator

bites in similar circumstances and there are no

records of mugger actually biting in nest de-

fence. However in Orissa there are two authen-

tic records of gharial having done this.

After half the incubation period was over the

MADRAS CROCODILE BANK,

MADRAS,

July 4, 1977.

Snake Park female suddenly directed her pro-

tective instincts to the southern corner of the

enclosure, charging at any disturbance there and

allowing the actual nest to be approached with

impunity. As late as 20 May she rushed out

open mouthed when this area was approached.

This disorientation was perhaps caused by our

forceful prevention of her access to the nest

while humidity and temperature checks were

being taken.

Male mugger have not thus far been reported

to participate in nest protection. On two occas-

sions during incubation, Beta was seen to stay

in the water below the nest when Alpha took

a short turn in the open tank. However this

might be pure coincidence. But Mett’s repeated

lunges and attacks while the juvenile was being

caught, and the male mugger’s active response

to the distress cry of the young are significant

and indicate perhaps a higher degree of pro-

tective interest than we believe.

ZAHIDA WHITAKER

ROMULUS WHITAKER

16. GROWTH RATE OF CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS

From June 1975, 71 hatchlings from wild

collected and captive bred marsh crocodile

nests were reared at the Madras Crocodile

Bank. For the first three months they received

live tadpoles, live small fish and chopped fish.

The living tadpoles and fish were added to the

rearing ponds to maintain a density suitable for

easy capture. The finely chopped fish was put

on large leaves at night to ensure that even

hatchlings unsuccessful at catching live prey

would feed. In addition a sixty watt light bulb

was kept in-the hatchling enclosures to attract

insects at night. As seems to be true of most

animal groups reared together, a few grow ex-

ceptionally rapidly, a few extremely slowly and

the majority at an average rate (see table).

At the time of writing these crocodiles are

two years old and up to 1.7 metres in length

or a growth rate of up to 6 cm. per month.

One often sees captive reared crocodiles in a

very stunted condition; in fact many people who

should know better maintain that crocodiles

only grow 30 cm a year. Given the right diet,

sufficient cover and sunlight in a spacious

28)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

enclosure the growth rate of young croco-

diles will be optimum, even better than that in

wild crocodiles.

P.E.P. Deraniyagala, in TETRAPOD REPTILES

OF CEYLON, 1941 gives the following growth

rate of C. palustris (1 specimen)

Length (cm) Weight (gm)

1934 255 70

1935 41 230

1936 47.7 478

The following are mugger growth rates at Madras Crocodile Bank (71 and later, 56

Hatchling September,

Yearling June,

2 Year old May,

specimens).

Hatchling June 1975

Yearling June 1976

2 Year old tune 1977

MADRAS CROCODILE BANK,

Mapras-600 022,

June 9, 1977.

Length (cm) Girth (cm) Weight (Kg)

Range | Range / Range /

Average Average Average

26-31/28 — a

57-104 /82 22-41 /32 —

90-170/130 32-70/50 3.5-12/8

R. WHITAKER

Z. WHITAKER

17. BREEDING RECORD OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON

(CHAMELEO ZEYLANICUS)

A female Indian chameleon laid 24 eggs at

Madras Snake Park on 15.xii.75. Other fe-

males laid 33, 28, and 22 eggs. The eggs were

average of 16 mm long. They were incubated

in slightly damp, sterile sand in a plastic box

with air holes. Most spoiled but several baby

chameleons hatched 81 days later on March

MADRAS SNAKE PARK,

MaApbrRAS-600 022,

June 7, 1977.

232

6th. These measured about 3 cm including

the tail and were subsequently released. Cha-

meleons have been regularly observed mating

at Madras Snake Park in late September and

October. A good account of chameleon breed-

ing is given by Trench (JBNHS 21, pp. 687-

89).

R. WHITAKER

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 75 PLATE

Whitaker: Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus

Above: Left—T. purpureomaculatus (Melanistic phase); Right—T. pur pureomaculatus

(Normal coloration). Below: T. purpureomaculatus (Light phase @).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18. THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE CLIFF RACER,

COLUBER RHODORHACHIS (JAN.)

While conducting a survey of reptiles of

Poonch town and its vicinity (Jammu and

Kashmir) recently, one of us (B.D.S.) caught

a specimen of the Cliff Racer, Coluber rho-

dorhachis (Jan.) in the act of devouring ano-

ther colubrid, Sphalerosophis arenarius (Bou-

SOUTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Mapras 600 004.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

GOVERNMENT DEGREE COLLEGE,

PooNcH (JAMMU & KASHMIR),

December 30, 1975.

lenger) which is worth recording.

We are grateful to the Principal, Government

Degree College, Poonch for the facilities and

to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Deputy Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Madras 600028

for encouragement.

T. S. N. MURTHY

B. D. SHARMA

19. BIRTH RECORD OF THE ANDAMAN PIT VIPER

(TRIMERESURUS PURPUREOMACULATUS)

(With a plate)

In June 1976 a 1 metre long female speci-

men of the Andaman Pit Viper was collected

in the evening on the roadside near Port Blair,

South Andaman. It was considerably larger

than eight more specimens of this species col-

lected in the same area and in North Anda-

man during the same month. The large female

was brought to the Madras Snake Park and

isolated in a display terrarium. On April 24th,

1977 M. Mani, Snake Keeper, noticed four

live and one dead new born pit vipers in its

cage. These were subsequently removed and

placed in a separate enclosure for rearing.

The average length of the juveniles was 14 cm.

MADRAS SNAKE PARK,

Mapras 600022,

June 7, 1977.

The parent is a uniform yellow-brown, the

young vary from uniform dark brown to blot-

ched and speckled patterns of light brown.

It is suggested that the mating season for

this species is in February-March and that the

captive female retained viable sperm from the

1976 season mating in the wild, a phenomenon

reported in the literature for many other taxa.

This is the first breeding record for this

species of pit viper apparently the most com-

mon and widely distributed pit viper of the

islands. The young are feeding well on juve-

nile Paddy Frogs (Rana limnocharis)

R. WHITAKER

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

20.

ON SKIN SLOUGHING OF KING COBRAS, OPHIOPHAGUS

HANNAH (CANTOR) IN CAPTIVITY

It is well known that snakes shed_ their

skin at intervals which vary according to spe-

cies, age, season and perhaps sex. But, peru-

sal of the available literature (Deoras 1965;

Gowda 1963 and Misra et al. 1976) did not

reveal much information on the frequency of

skin sloughing in King Cobras, Ophiophagus

hannah (Cantor). This note, records some

observations on sloughing of King Cobras in

Captivity.

Two female King Cobras of Nandankanan

Biological Park, Orissa, India, housed in a

Spacious semi-outdoor enclosure having a

floor space of approximately 36 square me-

tres; height 1.5 metres, were kept under obser-

vation for a period of 25 months from 1.1i1.1975

to 7.i11.1977. In the Park, the King Cobras are

offered freshly killed non-poisonous snakes

such as Ptyas mucosus (Linn.) and Xenochro-

phis piscator (Schneider) once a week but the

food intake is much reduced during cooler

months.

OBSERVATIONS

At the beginning of observations, the two

King Cobras measured 244 cm (Weight 1.57

kg) and 260 cm (Weight 1.67 kg) and 267

cm (Weight 2.43 kg) respectively on 1.1.1977.

Both were therefore adults during the obser-

vation and little growth was observed.

The data summarised in Table I indicate

that the King Cobras sloughed 21 and 20

times respectively during the 25 months period.

Sloughing has been observed in all months ex-

cept January. The process of shedding was

completed in one, two and three consecutive

days, beginning from the tip of the nose. Dur-

ing sloughing the skin of the head region with

234

eye caps intact or broken was shed along with

the skin of the rest of the body. The data

indicate sloughing is more frequent during the

period May to mid-November (hot and wet

season) than in the cooler months. The inter-

sloughing period in the first snake varied from

17 to 104 days with an average of 35.70 days

and in the second from 17 to 84 days with an

average of 35.60 days. The inter-sloughing

period averaged 25.80 and 28.40 days res-

pectively for the two snakes between May and

mid-November (15 and 14 observations on

each snake) as against averages of 65.40 and

55.80 days respectively for the two snakes

during the period from mid-November and

April (5 observations on each snake).

As is usual with other snakes, before slough-

ing, the body colour of king cobras becomes

dull and the white stripes on the back become

faint. A milky white opaque covering forms

over the eyes. At this stage they cannot see

well, remain inactive and generally refuse

food. Soon after sloughing the eyes become

clear, the body colour looks brighter, the ani-

mals become active and readily accept food.

DISCUSSION

Misra et al. (loc. cit.) observed that a King

Cobra shed its skin thrice in June, September

and October during a period of 7 months

from June, 1973 to December, 1973. They

could not observe any sloughing in two other

King Cobras during the months of November,

1974, December, 1974 and January, 1975.

According to Gowda (loc. cit.) King Cobras

in captivity go on shedding their skins fre-

quently and after each discard a layer will

form like a cap on the eyes and as they are

last

Sloughing.

Piles 1 3) to

2papoed))

27.4.75

DG) 5

20.6.75

8:75, 10.

S) The

1.8.75

SleCots)

DIOS

22.10.75 to

SOUS)

18.11.75 to

20.11.75

OIVATS 1

St 12.75

4.3.76 to

5.3.76

B16

1.6.76

4.7.76

1.8.76

23.8.76

18.9.76

18.10.76 to

20.10.76

20.11.76

Dates of —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE , 1

DETAILS OF SKIN SLOUGHING OBSERVED IN TWO KING COBRAS

5 Dates of

Subsequent

Sloughing.

Specimen No. I

Dads

2O:D675

20.6.75

S775) to

9.7.75

1.8.75

31.8.75

PI 113)

22.10.75 to

23.10.75

18.11.75 to

20.11.75

30.12.75 to

S275)

4.3.76 to

5.3.76

1.6.76

4.7.76

1.8.76

23.8.76

18.9.76

18.10.76 to

20.10.76

20.11.76

SES

Inter-

Dates of

Dates of Inter-

Sloughing last Subsequent Sloughing

period in days. Sloughing. Sloughing. period in days.

Specimen No. II

53:75) to

63 6.3.75 ES. o75 69

28 15.5.7 2.6.75

24 2.6.75 30.6.75 to

De F/G les) I)

30.6.75 to

17 DIAS 287.75 25

22 2857275 28.8.75 30

29 28.8.75 19.9.75 21

28 19.9.75 15.10.75 DS

haps 15.10.75 11.11.75 26

aS 25.12.75. to

25 Poy si 2ag fe) 43

25.12.75 to 21.2.76 to

39 is TIS) 22.2.76 55

21.2.76 to 22.3.76 to

63 22.2.76 24.3.76 28

22.3.76 to 7.5.76 to

58 24.3.76 9.5.76 43

28 7-53.16 to 23.6.76 to

9.5.76 24.6.75 44

32 23.6.76 to 13.7.76 to

24.6.76 14.7.76 18

Dit 13.7.76 to

14.7.76 5.8.76 21

21 5.8.76 9.9.76 34

DS 9.9.76 5.10.76 to

6.10.76 25

5.10.76 to 17.11.76 to

29 6.10.76 18.11.76 41

17.11.76 to 132377) to

30 18.11.76 12277 84

104 L297 to

WS IAG

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

adhesive these layers are generally not remov-

ed along with the skin. He further states that

these caps are to be removed with the help

of forceps and a scalpel and attributed the

causes to unnatural conditions in captivity

such as lack of ponds, drains, thorny bushes,

and rough narrow crevices etc. in their en-

closure. This condition is not observed in the

Park’s specimens because they have been pro-

vided with suitable housing to cast off their

skin in the natural process. To achieve this,

rockeries with irregularly projecting stones,

bushes, holes, dry tree trunks, rough stony

wall and a big water pond to swim about have

been provided inside the King Cobra en-

closure.

Deoras (loc. cit.) states that the snakes

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P. O. BAaRANG, Dist. CUTTACK,

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95-SHAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-7, ORISSA.

ASSISTANT CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P. O. BARANG, DIST. CUTTACK,

ORISSA,

July 11, 1977.

slough more frequently in the summer and

less during cooler season and the periodicity

of sloughing ranges from 72 to 210 days. Re-

gular sloughing of skin is considered as a

sign of good health among snakes.

The observations on growth further suggest

that the King Cobras grew 6 to 7 cm only

during a period of two years. This suggests

that the growth of King Cobras in later part

of their lives is very slow especially in cap-

tivity.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. H. R. Bustard, FAO/

UNDP Consultant on crocodiles in India for

going through the manuscript and offering

valuable advice.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

B. MISHRA

REFERENCES

Deoras, P. J. (1965): Snakes of India, National

Book Trust, New Delhi, pp. 25-26.

Gowpa, C. D. KRISHNA (1963): Rearing King

Cobras in Captivity. The Hindu, Sunday, July

21st, 1963.

236

Misra, R., ACHARJYO, L. N. AND Kumar, H. S.

(1976): Some observations on the King Cobra

(Ophiophagus hannah) at Nandankanan Biologi-

cal Park, Orissa. Indian Forester, 102(3) :189-190.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Dale

RECORD OF THE BENTHIC LEUCOSHD CRAB, RANDALLIA

EBURNEA ALCOCK IN THE NORTHERN ARABIAN SEA

(With a photograph)

The occurrence of the Benthic Gymnopleu-

ran crab, Notopus dorsipes Fabricius in the

northern Arabian Sea based on the study of

the material collected during the Oceanogra-

phic Expedition on INS DARSHAK from Decem-

ber, 1973 to May, 1974 was reported earlier

by Daniel & Chakrapani (1977). In this note,

the record of a few specimens of a Leucosiid

Brachyuran, Randallia eburnea Alcock col-

lected from depths of 80-85 metres at latitude

19° 30’N and longitude 70° 04’ E in January

1974, is reported. This species has never been

rediscovered in the Indian seas, since its ori-

ginal record by Alcock in 1896 from off Lac-

cadive islands at a depth of 30-metres. Hence

this is the second record in the Indian seas.

This species has also been reported from off

Western Australia at 86-metres (Tyndale-

Biscoe & George 1962), in East Indies—Si-

boga Expedition—(Ihle 1918) and Japan

(Sakai 1937). This species is distinguished by

the posterior margin of the carapace being

armed with three petalloid processes (Photo-

graph 1, dorsal view).

Material from Laccadive

sea—after Alcock, 1896

No. & 1897

Material from East

Indies after Ihle 1918

Material from Western

Australia after Tyndale—

Biscoe and George 1962

Present material from

Northera Arabian Sea

1 Dactyls with few hairs

on tip only. Same as Alcock

3rd—Sth abdominal

2. segments fused, though

all clearly recognisable.

3rd-—6th abdominal]

segments fused, all cle-

arly recognisable.

ep No tooth on penul-

timate segment of

Same as Alcock

abdomen.

Distal one third of

first dactylus and

distal half of second

and third dactyls with

hairs. The last dactylus

devoid of any hairs

Distal one third of

first to third dactyls

with long hairs.

2nd - 6th abdominal

segments fused; all seg-

ments clearly discernible

demarcation between

IInd - IIIrd, Vth - VIth

deeper.

2nd - 6th abdominal

segments fused only,

faintly recognisable by

slight bulging at sides.

Abdomen with blunt

tooth on second segment

No tooth on penultimate

segment.

Distinct flattened tooth

on penultimate

segment of abdomen.

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The specimens examined agree in most res-

pects with the general description and figures

given by earlier authors, i.e. Alcock 1896, p.

197 (description); Illustration of RIMSS

Investigator 1897, pl. 30, fig. 4; Ihle 1918, p.

246, Sakai 1937, p. 132 and 1940, p. 37 and

Tyndale-Biscoe & George 1962 (diagnostic

features) except in minor morphological varia-

tions which are presented in the table.

Our grateful thanks are due to Captain K.

L. Chopra, Commanding Officer, I. N. S. DAR-

SHAK for help in the collection of samples and

to Dr. S. Khera, Joint Director-in-Charge,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for faci-

lities given to participate in the Expedition.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

69, SANTHOME HIGH Roapb,

MapbraASs-600028,

June 3, 1977.

Photo. 1.

Randallia eburnea Alcock 1896.

Dorsal view.

A. DANIEL

T. SIVANANDAM

REFERENCES

ALcock, A.. (1896): Material for a Carcinologi-

cal fauna of India J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65, Part II(2);

134-296.

(1897): “Illustrations of the Zoo-

logy of the RIMSS Investigator, Crustaceae”’. 1897.

pl. 30, fig. 4 (Calcutta).

DANIEL, A., AND CHAKRAPANI, S. (1977): Occur-

rence of the Benthic Gymnopleuran Crab Notopus

dorsipes (Fabricius) in the Northern Arabian sea.

Curr. Sci. 46(10) :358.

Inte, J. E. W. (1918): Die Decapoda Brachyura

der Siboga Expedition. III Oxystomata. Calappidae,

Leucosudae, Raninidae. Siboga Exped., Monogr.

238

39b?: 1-322.

SAKAI, T. (1937): Studies on the crabs of Japan

II-Oxystomata. Sci. Rep. Tokyo Bunrica diag. Sectn.

B, 3 supp. 2:67-192.

—————— (1940): Bio-Geographic review on

the distribution of crabs Japanese waters. Rec.

Oceanogr. Wks. Jap. (II) :27-64.

TYNDALE-BISCOE, M. AND GEORGE, R. W. (1962):

The Oxystomata and Gymnopleura (Crustacea,

Brachyura) of Western Australia with description

of Two New Species from Western Australia and

one from India. J. Roy. Soc. West. Aust. 45 Part

3: 65-96.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

22. DISCONNECTED OBSERVATIONS ON A SPECIES OF

SCOLAPENDRA

These disconnected observations and experien-

ces are probably relevant to Lavkumar Kha-

cher’s note on a predatory centipede of the

genus Scolapendra published in JBNHS Vol.

74 No. i—in all cases, the same centipede is

meant, thick-bodied and dorso-ventrally fiat-

tened and about 15-17 cm long, conspicuously

banded chrome yellow and a bluish dark slate

(almost a cold black) on the body and with

scarlet-vermilion legs.

In the summer of 1947 I was playing a game

of cards in the club-house in Sandur (now in

the Bellary district of Karnataka) before din-

ner, when a particularly large banded centipede

of this species emerged from the rolled up

cricket-mat in a corner of the room. Everyone

demanded its instant execution, saying it was a

specially deadly reptile, and on my pointing

out that no centipede was lethal to men and

anyway none was a reptile, my friend, the late

Mr. V. S. Lad, bet me five rupees that I dared

not allow the brute to bite me. Removing my

shoes, I approached the curled up centipede

and prodded it with my toes to provoke it to

bite, but this only made it run towards the

cover of the cricket-mat, whereupon I pinned

it down firmly by its middle with my great

toe. It then turned back upon itself and firmly

clasping the toe with its legs, bit me: I could

feel the pain and prick not only of the bite but

also of the clasp of the several pairs of legs.

The centipede had to be killed to remove it

from my great toe with no risk of laceration

of the skin during the removal. I felt much

irritation and some pain, and very soon the

toe swelled up, so that I had to walk home

that night carrying my shoes in my hand. The

next day the toe was still swollen, painful and

throbbing—no treatment, beyond bathing the

toe with soap and water, was given, so as to

conform to the terms of the bet. I could not

play in a cricket match that day because I

could not pull on my boots. The bite was

clearly visible, and I could feel, or imagine I

felt, the places where the centipede had grip-

ped my toe with its chitinous sharp legs, though

these were not clearly visible. Mr. Lad did not

pay the bet that day, as he prudently waited

to see if any belated consequences would en-

sue, but on the third day, when the sweiling

subsided of its own accord, he paid up like a

entleman.

One morning, a good many years ago (the

date and notes are not readily traceable, but I

did make a note of it and my son, consulted

3 days ago, remembers the incident perfectly)

my son and I were standing beneath the wood-

apple tree in my backyard (one of the biggest

in Madras) discussing a weed which had re-

cently made its appearance there, when we saw

a centipede of this species come out of the leaf

litter on the ground. A large male bloodsucker

(Calotes versicolor) which was up the tree’s

bole and well above us also saw the centipede,

and rushed down the tree, actually leaping the

last two feet down to the ground in its hurry,

rushed up to the centipede and with no pre-

liminaries swallowed it—the head and a quarter

of the length were taken in at the first bite and

the rest of the squirming, violently wriggling

length of the prey swallowed in a few seconds,

before that bloodsucker returned to the tree.

I watched it for an hour afterwards, and it ex-

hibited no signs of discomfort or even satia-

tion, coming down again awhile later to seize

and swallow a mole-cricket.

Three nights ago my cook, a nervous woman,

called me down to deal with a large centipede

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

(also of the same kind) that had taken refuge

in the bamboo basket (a little more than 2-

foot across at its mouth and about 12 inches

deep) she uses for conveying kitchen refuse to

the municipal refuse-bin. The centipede had its

head and tail inside the upside-down basket

and about 2 in. of its middle section exposed

on top: remembering past experience, I seized

this middle section in a pair of long-nosed pliers

and lifted the centipede out. To my surprise

the entire basket came up, and I had to hold

2/14 Epwarbp ELLior Roap,

Mapras-600004,

September 23, 1977.

the basket down with one hand to extract the

centipede with the other, so powerful was the

grip of its legs on the woven bamboo. Since

i had injured it badly, I killed that centipede

with a slap of my chappal, and in the process

noticed that this species of centipede does not

glow all over with a phosphorescent glow when

so killed as the reddish brown centipede, slight-

ly smaller and thinner and common in houses,

does.

M. KRISHNAN

23. A NOTE ON THE DISCOVERY OF THE MALE OF ACRITO-

CHAETA DISTINCTA MALL. (DIPTERA, MUSCIDAE)

Acritochaeta distincta (Syn. Atherigona dis-

tincta Mall.) was first collected from Guindy,

Saidpet, S. India in 1909 by W. S. Pattton and

described by Malloch (1923). The author de-

scribed the species from a series of 6 speci-

mens. The holotype 2 and 3 2 paratypes

are deposited at the British Museum (Natural

History). The male was not described. Subse-

quently, two further specimens of the female

were taken from Calcutta in 1907 and 1915

and are also lodged in the British Museum.

In the course of work at ICRISAT at the

break of the monsoon in 1976, when intensive

surveys of shoot-flies present in local grasses

and cultivated cereals were conducted using

square pan water traps baited with fish meal,

a very large number of an unusual Acritochaeta

were attracted and caught. Most of the speci-

mens were female, but males were also pre-

sent. Specimens submitted to Mr. A. C. Pont

at the British Museum were identified as A.

distincta. The male of the species needs to be

described at some future date.

240

Data from traps in the period mid-May to

mid-July (20.5.76 to 17.7.76) showed that of

a total of 2780 Atherigona and Acritochaeta

specimens attracted to 20 traps sited at various

representative locations at ICRISAT Research

Centre, 313 were males. Of these males, 84%

(266) were Acritochaeta distincta. Some 248 of

these were all taken at one particular trap. De-

tailed investigation over the next 3 weeks con-

firmed these daia in that in the period 18.vii.76

to 7.vili.76 of 8677 flies taken, 816 were males

of which 80% were A. distincta. At this stage,

whereas 554 males of the species were all re-

covered from one trap it was observed that

traps at 3 other sites became productive. It was

clear that traps in proximity to the palm, Bo-

rassus flabellifer L. (Palmae), were the pro-

ductive ones. Investigation of rotting palm nuts

revealed large numbers of eggs, larvae and

pupae of A. distincta. These are as yet unde-

scribed, but specimens have been lodged at

the British Museum (NH) for inclusion in any

revision of the genus carried out. The host

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

plant of the insect is not recorded in Malloch

& Rao 1925.

In the period 8.viii.76 to 19.viil.76 when trap-

ping was discentinuous, the numbers of A.

distincta fell considerably and an allied species

Acritochaeta orientalis became dominant. A

significant observation was the relatively local-

ised nature of the occurrence of the fly and

its apparent seasonality. This has implications

with respect to the study of Atherigona soccata

ENTOMOLOGISTS,

ICRISAT, 1-11-256,

BEGU MPET,

HYDERABAD-500016,

A.P., INDIA,

June 30, 1977.

Rond., sorghum shoot-fly which is being con-

tined at ICRISAT since it indicates that in

this related insect diapause between the fruit-

ing seasons of the palm occurs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Mr. A. C. Pont for iden-

tification of the species and for furnishing de-

tails of the existing holotype and paratypes.

J. D. SKINNER II

J. C. DAVIES

K. V. SESHU REDDY

REFERENCES

MALLocH, J. R. (1923): Exotic Muscaridae (Dip-

tera). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 12:177-194.

— & Rao (1925): Some Indian Species

of the Dipterous Genus Atherigona, Rondani. Mem.

Dipt. Agric. India Ent. Ser. 8:111-125.

Pont, A. C. (1972): A review of the Oriental

species of Atherigona Rondani (Diptera, Muscidae)

of economic importance. In control of sorghum

shoot-fly. ed. Jotwani, M. G. and Young, W. R.:

Oxford and IBH publishing Co. pp. 72-104.

24. MORMON BUTTERFLY—ITS STATUS IN BOMBAY

With the rains and the wet weather would

emerge our true ‘Spring’ and with it would

start a number of butterflies flitting about dis-

playing their showy colours for the joy of the

natuarlist. It is the right time for a butterfly

enthusiast to keep a look out for that showy

butterfly, the Mormon Papilio polymnestor. In

Bombay and Saisette among the 120 or so spe-

cies of butterflies recorded, this insect has been

put down as ‘very scarce’, though numbers of

it may be encountered in certain years.

E. H. Aitken (EHA) commenting on the

butterflies in the collection of the Bombay

Natural History Society admitted in 1887 that

he did not understand the distribution of the

butterfly and that it is absolutely unknown in

Bombay and imagined that it was so through-

out the Konkan, but became one of the most

familiar species as soon as one reached a level

of 2000 ft. According to EHA the butterfly

did not occur in the Deccan generally, but in

Poona it frequented old gardens in the city.

In response to EHA’s comments W. F.

Melvin recorded in the Society’s Journal two

ragged but strong in flight specimens in Sivadi

(present Sewree in Bombay) woods and the

cemetery in March 1889. J. A. Betham recall-

ed of having seen it frequently at Dapoli (70

miles south of Bombay in S. Konkan) in his

early days and how its appearance in their

241

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

garden used to cause a display of the liveliest

interest, the younger members of the family

rushing out to get a nearer view and possibly

secure a good specimen (JBNHS 1889).

The next recorded instance in Bombay of

the butterfly is by A. E. G. Best in 1951 when

he saw two individuals at Tulsi Lake and

again came across an individual on 6.xi in

1955. J. I. Alfrey, a knowledgeable lepidopterist

editorially referred to Mr. Best’s note of hav-

ing seen an individual in the garden of ‘Silver

End’, Strand Road, Colaba (Bombay) travel-

ling across the harbour.

The concensus of opinion among lepidop-

terists was that the butterfly was a ‘very scarce’

migrant in Bombay until D. E. Reuben studied

the butterfly (1960-62) in his garden in Pali

Hill, Bandra, and suggested that Pali Hill is

not merely a point on the local migration of

the butterfly and that there is a seasonal ap-

pearance on Pali Hill, which he hoped might

be tested by extended observations.

An opportunity of studying the butterfly at

Pali Hill came my way when my services were

put at the disposal of Dr. Salim Ali to work

on the ten volumes of HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS

OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. The garden around

his study was ideally suited for the purpose.

I first saw the butterfly on 23rd September

c/o. BomBAy NATURAL History SOCIETY,

HorRNBILL HousE, Opp. LION GATE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roapb,

BomMBAY 400 023,

June 14, 1977.

1970, a solo flighting purposefully in an east-

west direction, and never even alighting to feed

on the crossandra bloom in the garden, the

nectar of which is its favourite food in the

south. From 23rd September till 27th Octo-

ber, a number of individuals were seen in the

same steady purposeful flight, always east to

west, and hardly higher than about 2 m above

the ground, and never even alighting on the

blooms in the garden. An exception to the

above behaviour was one individual seen on

4th October 1970 at Tulsi Lake, leisurely

flighting from bush to bush and alighting on

blossoms to feed. Observations from mid Nov-

ember 1970 to mid March 1971 showed that

the butterfly was no more engaged in the pur-

poseful flight as in September-October, and

were flighting aimlessly from one flowering

plant to another to feed.

Since March 1971 I have not come across a

single specimen in the Bombay area, though I

have looked particularly for it, and it is intri-

guing why a butterfly so commonly met dur-

ing certain years is completely absent in others.

Aiter writing the above Mr. Salman Abdu-

lali informs me of a Papilio polymnestor he

saw at Bandra Station (Bombay) on 10th

June 1977.

J. S. SERRAO

25. NEW RECORD OF MYRMECINE ANTS AS PESTS OF BHENDI,

ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS MOENCH.

Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders, Phidologiton

diversus (Jerdon) and Tetramorium smithi

(Mayr.) (Myrmecinae); Formicidae; Hyme-

242

noptera) were recorded as serious pests of the

bhendi crop in the Instructional Farm attach-

ed to the College of Horticulture, Mannuthy,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kerala during December 1976—January 1977,

for the first time. Among the three species,

T. smithi was relatively more abundant.

The feeding habits of all the forms are quite

similar. They cut and feed on the petals,

the ovarian tissues and the pollen grains. The

buds as well as the flowers are equally pre-

ferred for feeding. The infested flower buds

and flowers do not develop further and are

quite often shed.

The ants also cause serious damage to the

developing fruits by scraping the epidermal

layer in irregular patches and later by inter-

nal burrowing inside the pulp through tor-

tuous tunnels. The development of the infested

fruits is arrested and these are often badly

malformed. On each plant 80-90 per cent of

the developing fruits are thus damaged. In-

festation by the ants was brought under rapid

control by spot dusting of flower buds, flowers

and fruits with phosalone 4% DP. As a pro-

phylactic measure, ringing around the base

of plants with either BHC 10% DP or pho-

salone 4% DP was found to be quite effective.

COLLEGE OF HorTICULTURE, |

MANNUTHY 680 651,

TRICHUR, KERALA,

May 31, 1977.

Bingham (1903) reported the distribution

of M. brunnea throughout India, of P. diver-

sus in W. India, Poona, Kanara and JT. smithi

in Bengal West and south India, without men-

tioning their host range. M. brunnea, which

occurs almost every where on the plains of ~

India occasionally feeds on the foliage of the

garden plant Arctotis grandis (Fletcher 1920).

According to Ayyar (1963) M. brunnea is of

common occurrence in households in South

India.

The other species of Myrmicaria reported

as crop pests include M. eumenoides Gerst.

on citrus in Nyasaland (Smee 1931) and

M. natalensis F. on flowering plants and veget-

able crops in Tanganyika (Ritchie 1935).

T. caespitum L. is recorded to feed on crucifer-

ous vegetables and brinjal in Virginia (Smith

1916) and on sugar beets in California (Lange

1961).

We are grateful to Dr. M. G. Ram

Das Menon, Emeritus Scientist, Kerala Agri-

cultural University, Mannuthy for identifica-

tion of the insects.

C. C. ABRAHAM

K. S. REMAMONY

REFERENCES

AYYAR, T. V. R. (1963): Household insects. Hand

Book of Economic Entomology for South India,

Madras, p. 395.

BINGHAM, C. T. (1903): The Fauna of British

India—Hymenoptera, Vol. II, pp. 118-119, 162-164,

188-189. Taylor and Francis, London.

FLETCHER, T. B. (1920): Annotated List of Indian

Crop Pests—Hymenoptera p. 34, Report of the

Proc. of the third Entomological Meeting held at

Pusa on the 3rd to I5th Feb. 1919, Supt. Govt.

Printing, India.

LANGE, W. H.

(1961): Pavement ant attacking

Sugar beets in California. J. Econ. Ent. 54 (5):

1063-64.

Ritcuig, A. H. (1935): Report of the Entomo-

logist, Department of Agriculture, Tanganyika. pp.

95-103.

SMEE, C. (1931): Report of the Entomologist,

Department of Agriculture, Nyasaland 1930-31, pp.

44-46.

SMITH, L. B. (1916): The pavement ant Tetra-

morium caespitum L. Virginia Track Expt. Sta. Nor-

folk, Bull. No. 116, pp. 15.

243

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

26. DOES ADIANTUM AETHIOPICUM LINN. EXIST IN INDIA?

(With six text-figures)

Beddome (1863, 1883, 1892) reported

Adiantum aethiopicum Linn. from Nilgiri and

Palni mountains at high altitudes. Hope (1901)

endorsed a South Indian distribution for the

plant. Blatter & D’Almeida (1922) reported

it to be a rare species of higher elevations

from Bombay Presidency. Kachroo & Nayar

(1952) seem to have collected the plant from

Eastern India. Kachroo (1953) in his account

on the ferns of Assam also mentions the spe-

cies. Nayar (1962) states that the species exists

in Western Ghats at higher elevations and in

the Assam plains, reaching up to 1500 m. Bir

& Vasudeva (1971) reported it from Kodai-

kanal, Tamil Nadu. However, Pichi-Sermolli

(1957) does not include India in the distri-

bution of the taxon. According to him (p.

695), “it represents the species distributed in

South Africa, Australia and New Zealand’.

This statement as well as study of the speci-

mens of Adiantum present in the Central

National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah, Indus-

trial Section of the Indian Museum, Calcutta,

and the regional circles of the Botanical Sur-

vey of India at Allahabad, Coimbatore, Dehra

Dun, Poona and Shillong raised doubts in our

minds as to whether A. aethiopicum exists at

all in India. From the data at hand, we believe

that the Indian plant which was up till now

called A. aethiopicum is another species, A.

thalictroides Willd. ex Schlecht. Beddome

(1863) did infact treat A. aethiopicum as con-

specific with A. thalictroides but later on he

(Beddome. 1883, 1892) did not mention A.

thalictroides in the synonymy of A. aethiopi-

cum Linn.

In the nineteenth century A. thalictroides

was regarded as a good species by some

244

authors (see Kunze 1845; Braun 1867) al-

though others had considered it as similar to

A. poiretii Wikstr. Pichi-Sermolli (loc. cit.)

has clearly shown how A. poiretii is distinct

from A. thalictroides. Other than Beddome

(1863), no Indian worker seems to have equat-

ed A. aethiopicum with A. thalictroides. Pro-

bably, Beddome realised his mistake and

omitted A. thalictroides from the synonym of

A. aethiopicum in his HANDBOOK (1883) and

supplement (1892). The difference between

A. aethiopicum and A. thalictroides are so

very clear cut that they can be identified easily

by the following key (see also the figures)

provided by Pichi-Sermolli (loc. cit.)

“Fronds 25-60 cm long, borne on the rhizome far

from each other; paleae of the rhizome brown-

straw or straw-coloured, thin, nearly transparent,

entire on the edges and loosely reticulate; ultimate

pinnules closer to each other, persistent; the sterile

pinnules with dentate edges; veins ending in the

bCOLTA SEER SO ren so ee a oe A. aethiopicum

Fronds 35-100 cm long, borne on the rhizome not

too far from each other; paleae of the rhizome

brown-copper-coloured, thick irregularly ciliate-de-

ntate and, densely reticulate; ultimate pinnules far

from each other, divericate, and easily and precoci-

ously caducous, sterile with crenate edges; veins

running to the sinuses between the crenae

A. thalictroides

In none of the collections from the various

herbaria mentioned above, could we come

across even a single sheet of A. aethiopicum.

All the material kept as A. aethiopicum be-

long to A. thalictroides. Therefore, the earlier

reports regarding the existence of A. aethio-

picum in India need confirmation. It is to be

pointed out that Aitchison (1879), Hope Coc.

cit.) and Stewart (1957) mention that the pin-

nules fall off in A. aethiopicum. From this it is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

° Sim

=—_——a

Figs. 1-3. Adiantum aethiopicum Linn. Fig. 1

Fig. 5. Fertile pinna. Fig. 6. Rhizome scale.

[Figs. 1-3 are drawn from specimen Koondak, Travancore, 13-v-1883, Levinge s.n.

(CAL 6046) and Figs. 4-6. are drawn from specimen Polynesia, 1854, Thomas Moore’s

Fern Herbarium, s.].s.n., purchased in 1885 and distributed by Herbarium Royal Botanic

Garden, Kew (CAL) 6644)].

. Sterile pinna. Fig. 2. Fertile pinna.

Lg: 3. Rhizome scale. Figs. 4-6. A. thalictroides Willd. ex Schlecht. Fig. 4. Sterile pinna.

245

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

clear that the species they refer to are not.

A. aethiopicum. Similarly, Nayar (1962) in

his account of A. aethiopicum states (p. 39)

that the scales have “more or less smooth

margins with a few short blunt protuberances

towards the base and a few narrow teeth to-

wards the apex’? which means that his speci-

mens are also not true A. aethiopicum.

Baddome (1883) combined A. emarginatum

Bory and A. aethiopicum L. We have shown

elsewhere (Nair & Ghosh 1976) that these two

taxa are clearly distinct from each other.

Nayar (1962) cites A. assimile Sw. as conspe-

cific to A. aethiopicum Linn. We have criti-

cally examined the sheets of A. assimile Sw.

from Australia (Specimen No. N. Holland,

S. Mossmou 612, 1850; Between Perth and

K. B. Sound, W. Australia W. H. Harvey s.

n. April, July 1854; Sydney, New South

Wales, S. 1., s. n.) and we agree that A. aethi-

opicum Linn. and A. assimile Sw. are con-

specific.

The Indian material which were earlier id-

entified as A. aethiopicum Linn. agree in all

respects with specimens of A. thalictroides

Willd. ex Schl. from Africa present in the Cen-

tral National Herbarium.

Since A. thalictroides is not previously re-

ported from India and has been confused with

A. aethiopicum a full description of the Indian

plant is provided here.

Adiantum thalictroides Willdenov ex Sch-

lechtendal, Abumb. Pl. 5: 53. 1832; Pichi-

Sermolli in Webbia 12: 687, 1957. A. aethio-

picum auct. pl. non Linn.

Rhizome creeping, 0.3-0.5 mm in diameter,

densely covered with brown or copper-colour-

ed, ovate-lanceolate, thick, 0.4-0.5 cm _ long,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

SIBPUR, HOWRAH,

July 23, 1976.

246

1 mm broad scales with ciliate to ciliato-den-

tate to ciliato-dentate margin and cordate base

with dense reticulations; laminae oblong-ovate

or ovate; bi- to quadripinnate; stipes 7-20 cm

long, dark brown to purplish-black, glossy,

glabrous, grooved above; rachis up to 80 cm

long, dark brown to black, glossy glabrous;

pinnae broadly ovate-lanceolate; pinnules

divaricate with slender, 0.2-0.7 cm, glossy,

black stalk, 1 to 1.4 cm, caducous, thin in tex-

ture, often with cartilagenous and thickened

surfaces, glabrous crenate margin and veins

running into the sinusus between the crenae;

fertile pinnule slightly and broadly notched in

correspondence with reflexed flaps of leaves

with inconspicuous veins; sori elongated, sub-

reniform; annuius 16 to 18 celled; spores

tetrahedral, brown, 36-37 x 50 u.

Icon. Zenker, Pl. Ind. t. 11, 1835, Sim, Ferns

S. Afr. ed. 2, t. 124, 1915 (sub A. aethiopi-

cum); Pichi-Sermolli in Webbia 12: fig. 10,

WA, SDS 7h

Material examined: Commina, Beddome 36,

Aug. 1, 1878 (CAL 5925); Deviculam (Devi-

kolam), 1819 m, Travancore, A. Meebold

13427, Dec. 1910 (CAL 6045); Koondak, 1677

m, Travancore, H. C. Levinge s. n., May 13,

1883 (CAL 6046, 6050); May 2, 1883 (CAL);

Madras, Hooker f. & Thoms. s. n. (CAL

6049); Nilgiri, Blanford s. n. (CAL); G. Bidie

s. n. 1873 (MH 59141); Ootacamund, G. King

s.n. Aug. 1, 1878 (CAL 5925), Aug. 15, 1878

(CAL 6047); Peninsular India, Wight 3118,

distributed at the Royal Botanical Garden,

Kew, 1866-68 (CAL 6051); Pumbarai, Pul-

neys, Madurai Dist., Anonymous 16607, July

21, 1920 (MH 59145, 59147).

N. C. NAIR

S. R. GHOSH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

AITCHISON, J. E. T. (1879): The vegetation of the

Kuram and Hariab valleys. Indian For. 5: 179-

188.

BEDDOME, R. H. (1863): The ferns of southern

India being descriptions and plates of the ferns

of the Madras Presidency, 1863 (Reprinted, 1970).

Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers,

New Delhi.

BEDDOME, R. H. (1883): Handbook to the Ferns

of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Penisula.

Thacker Sprint and Co., Calcutta.

—-___—+_—_—\—(1892): Handbook to the Ferns

of British India with a Supplement. (Reprinted

1969). Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publi-

shers, New Delhi.

Bir, S. S. AND VASUDEVA, S. M. (1971): Pteri-

dophytic Flora of Kodaikanal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

DOG. O85 169-195.

BLATTER, E. AND D’ALMEIDA, J. F. (1922): The

ferns of Bombay. Taraporevala and Sons, Bombay.

BRAUN, A. (1867): Pteridophyta in G. Schwein-

furth: Beitrage zur Flora Aethiopiens, Berlin.

Hope, C. W. (1901): The ferns of North Western

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13:236-251.

KACHROO, P. (1953): Ferns of Assam. J. Asiatic.

Soc. (Science) 1/9: 161-174.

—_———_————AND Nayar, B. K. (1952): Mor-

phology of Adiantum. I. A. aethiopicum. J. Univ.

Gauhati 3: 103-171.

KuNzE, G. (1845): Hooker:

(Recensio). Bot. Zeit. 3:286.

Nair, N. C. AND GHosH, S. R. (1976): Taxono-

mical notes on a few species of Adiantum. (in

Press).

Nayar, B. K. (1962): Ferns of India. I. Adian-

Species Filicum

tum. Bull. nat. Bot. Gard. Lucknow. 52: 1-41.

PICHI-SERMOLLI, R. E. G. (1957): Adumbrato

Flora Aethiopicae. 5. Parkeriaceae, Adiantaceae,

Vittariaceae, Webbia /2: 645-703.

STEWART, R. R. (1957): The ferns and fern allies

of West Pakistan and Kashmir. Biologia 3: 133-

164.

27. NEW RECORDS OF FABACEAE FOR MAHARASHTRA STATE

In this note two species of Fabaceae not ear-

lier); recorded by either Cooke (1903) or

Haines (1916) have been recorded for the

first time from Chandrapur district, Maha-

rashtra State, thus extending their distribution.

The specimens cited have been deposited in

the herbarium of Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Poona (BS/).

1. Desmodium brachystachyum R. Grah.

ex Benth. in Mig. Pl. Jungh. 223, 1852; Baker

in Hook.f. Fl. Brit. India 2: 171, 1876; Duthie

Pi Wpp: Gang. Bl 1: 265; 1960:(Repr. Edn);

Haines Bot. Bih. Or. 2: 277, 1861 (Repr.

Edn.); Prain Beng. Pl. 1: 305, 1903.

Herb with unifoliate leaves. Flowers light

blue; pods included, greenish. Rare, in moist

areas.

Fl. & Frt.: Sep.-Nov. Loc. Devada forest

(Ghot range) Malhotra 123181.

General distribution: Chota Nagpur, Upper

Gangetic Plain, Bihar.

2. Uraria alopecuroides Wt. Ic. t. 290,

1840. U. repanda Wall. ex Baker in Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. India 2: 156, 1876; Doodia alopecu-

roides Roxb. Fl. Indica iii, 368, 1820; Prain

Beng. (Pl k: 301, 1903.

Undershrub with trifoliate leaves; flowers

light pink, pods glabrous 1-2 jointed. Rare in

shady areas.

Fl. & Frt.: July-Sept. Loc. Laggam forest,

Laggam range, Mathotra 140040.

General distribution: N. Circars, N. E. India

and Burma.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah for facilities and also

to the Deputy Director, Central National Her-

barium, Howrah, for help in identification.

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CIRCLE, Poona-l,

June 28, 1976.

S. K. MALHOTRA

S. MOORTHY

REFERENCES

CookE, T. (1903): Flora of the Presidency of

Bombay.

HAINES, H. H. (1916): Descriptive list of trees,

shrubs and economic herbs of the southern circle,

Central Provinces.

28. NICOTIANA PLUMBAGINIFOLIA VIV. (SOLANACEAE)—

A NEW RECORD OF DISTRIBUTION FOR N.W. HIMALAYAS

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. (Elench. Pl.

Hort. Dinegro 26, t 5, 1802; Haines, Bot. Bih.

& Or. 616), is a species native to Mexico and

West Indies, introduced in India in the past

and is now a weed. Raizada (1936)! recorded

it from Dehra Dun in the Upper Gangetic

Plain.

During floristic studies of district Chamoli I

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

MEERUT UNIVERSITY,

MEERUT, INDIA,

September 7, 1976.

1 RAIZADA, M. B.

(1936) :

collected on 4-4-1975 this species near Gauchar

on the walls separating cultivated fields under

collection No. 2146 Nautiyal. It appears that

the taxon has recently appeared within the

area. This species is characterised by rosette

of large radial leaves, smaller cauline leaves

and salver-shaped corolla of greenish-white

flowers.

K. N. NAUTIYAL

Recently introduced

or otherwise imperfectly known Plants from upper

Gangetic Plain. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 15:149-167.

29. A NOTE ON KAEMPFERIA ANGUSTIFOLIA ROSCOE

During the identification of a collection of

plants from different districts of West Bengal,

we came across some specimens of a taxon of

Kaempferia Linn., which were later indenti-

fied as Kaempferia angustifolia Roscoe. Ear-

lier reports of its occurrence as a cultivated

plant were made by (Roxburgh 1814; Voigt

1845) in Bengal. Hooker (1890) also recorded

this taxon from undivided Bengal on the basis

248

of observation made by Roxburgh (1814).

Prain (1903) recorded same taxon from the

hills of Northern Bengal and no report of its

occurrence as wild plant has so far been made

by any investigator. We collected specimens of

this plant from Baruipur, 24-Parganas and the

species was also seen growing wild in the dis-

trict of Hooghly. Hence, this appears to be the

first record of the species in the wild condition

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

among the plants of West Bengal.

Kaempferia angustifolia Roscoe in Trans.

Linn. Soc. VIII. 351. 1807; Roxb. Hort. Beng.

SI Ely Inds V. I 17, 1832. Carey ed;

Voigt, Hort. Suburb. Cal. 566, 1845; Fl. Brit.

Ind. V. 219, 1890 K. undulata Link., Teysm.

& Biennen in FI. Ind. Bat. III 598. Stemless

herb with large white, faintly purple flowers

tinged towards the apex with lilac lip and

dark-purple at centre.

Specimens examined: ASSAM: Jowai, Jain-

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

HowrAH-3,

wuiby 29, 1976:

tea Hills. May 13, 1896, S. G. Rita s.n. Acc.

No. 466239 (CAL): Herb. Sulp. Kurz. H.B.

Acc. No. 466238 (CAL): WEST BENGAL:

Baruipur, 24-Parganas. 10th May, 1971, J. C.

Das 45 Acc. No. 572440 (CAL).

Flowering & Fruiting: May—July.

Distribution: Trop. Asia.

Ecological Notes: The plants grow gregari-

ously along drains and nallahs on damp soil

under the shade of large trees (Polyalthia

longifolia Sonn.) Thw.

R. B. GHOSH

BARIN GHOSH

J. C. DAS

REFERENCES

Hooker, J. D. (1890): Flora of British India. 2:

219.

PRAIN, D. (1903): Bengal plant. 2:780.

RoxBuRGH, W. (1814): Hortus Bengalensis. 1.

VoicT, J. C. (1845): Hortus Suburbans Calcutt-

ensis : 566.

30. CARDUUS TENUIFLORUS CURTIS, (ASTERACEAE): AN

ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF INDIA

(With a text-figure)

While studying the Asteraceae of the Western

Himalayas, the senior author came across a

species of Carduus, which on critical study and

perusal of the literature was found to be C.

tenuiflorus Curtis so far not recorded from

the Indian subcontinent. The specimen was

sent to Dr. S. M. A. Kazmi of Peshawar Uni-

versity (Pakistan), who confirmed the identi-

fication. The pliant has been described and

illustrated. The voucher specimens have been

deposited in the Herbarium, Kashmir Univer-

sity.

Carduus tenuiflorus Curtis, Fl. Lond. Fasc.

6, pl. 55.1790-98; Clapham, et al. Fl. Brit. Isl.

ed 2), (1962):

Annual herb with a stout tap root; Stem

16-18 cm long, erect, ribbed, cottony above,

branched, continuously spinous winged. Leaves

3-9 cm long and 1-8-4.5 cm broad, sessile,

oblong-oblanceolate, acute, decurrent, pinnati-

fid, lobes and apex strongly spinous, cottony

beneath. Heads 15-17 mm long and 8-10 mm

broad, cylindrical, sessile, usually 2-4 clustered

at the apex of branches, wooly at the base,

stem leafy close beneath them; Phyllaries in

many series, imbricate, outer phyllaries 5-6

249

250

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

i |

G an

Fig. 1. Carduus tenuiflorus Curtis

A. Plant; B. Lower leaf; C. Head; D. Outer phyllary; E. Middle phyllary; F. Inner

phyllary; G. Floret; H. Achene.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mm long and 2 mm broad, ovate, acuminate,

scarious margined, slightly woolly below the

rigid apical spine; middle phyllaries 10-12 mm

long and 2 mm broad, broadly lanceolate, acu-

minate, scarious margined, margins scabrous

below the = erect or outwardly curved rigid

spine, slightly wooly beneath the spine; inner

phyllaries 15-17 mm long and 1.5-2 mm broad,

lanceolate, acuminate with long pointed apex,

scarious, glabrous; receptacle densely bristled;

florets tubular, pinkish, 12-15 mm long; corolla

lobes long, acute, glabrous; androecium 4.5-5

mm long, filaments 1-1.5 mm long, hairy be-

low, anthers with acuminate apex and sagit-

tate base; style 7-11 mm long, arms with divid-

ed tips, obtuse, glabrous, brownish; achene 3-4

mm long, 1-2 mm broad, compressed, oblong,

truncate, narrowed at the base, finely 10-11

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

SRINAGAR-190 006,

KASHMIR,

August 24, 1976.

nerved, glabrous, brownish; pappus copious,

10-12 mm long, in many series, bristles un-

equal, scabrous, sordid white, forming a basal

deciduous ring.

A R A 1098 Uri (Kashmir) road sides, dry

waste land, July 26th, 1975.

The plant is common in the valley and it

appears that the species has been confused

with C. pycnocephalus L. reported from

N.W.F. provinces (Pakistan) which it re-

sembles closely. C. pycnocephalus L. how-

ever, differs from C. tenuiflorus Curtis in hav-

ing stem discontinuously winged and naked

beneath the heads.

We are greatiy indebted to Dr. S. M. A.

Kazmi, P.C.S.I.R. Lab., Peshawar University,

(Pakistan) for the confirmation of the identi-

fication.

A. R. AZAD

G. N. JAVEID

31. MALVA VERTICILLATA—A LITTLE KNOWN PLANT OF

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The leaves of various species of Malva—both

wild and cultivated are consumed (Uphof

1968). In India, the tender leaves and shoots

of Malva parviflora, M. rotundifolia, M. syl-

vestris and M. verticillata—confined to tropi-

cal and/or temperate habitats, are used (Watts

1971). Of these, M. verticillata is grown as a

cultigen in West Bengal, Assam and adioining

tracts. (Prain 1963, Watts 1971). During plant

exploration in Assam in October, 1970, some

variations in the cultivated types of this spe-

cies were collected and the collections were

subsequently grown during the winter season

(rabi) each year. This note briefly records the

observations on its growth etc. in Delhi condi-

tions and emphasizes on its possible utility as

a leaf vegetable in other areas of India.

The crop is raised during winter. In the

Delhi area, seeds were sown in October. The

plants picked up vegetative growth slowly and

attained a height of 40-50 cm by January when

flowering started. By February end these grew

about 1.5 m in height. The tall mature plants

were hardy with rough and hairy stems/bran-

ches as compared to the younger soft-stemmed

types of three-months growth. The fruits ripen-

ed by March-April when the plants started

withering.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The collections grown could be segregated

morphologically into two lots:

1. The pigmented types: with plant parts

especially stem and leaf, pinkish green; the

plants flowered profusely and were compara-

tively slow growing and with smaller leaves;

and

2. The non-pigmented types: with plant

parts perfectly green; the plants bore less

flowers but were comparatively fast growing,

with more leafy growth and bigger leaves.

Plucking of both the tender shoots and

leaves for consumption as a green leaf vege-

table can be commenced from mid-December

onwards upto March. At later stage the mature

plant can be fed to cattle.

The tall, erect habit of the plant suggests

that it can also be grown as an additional food

plant along the margin/border of fields. In

Assam and neighbouring tracts, the herb is

grown in patches on home-stead land and the

NATIONAL BUREAU OF PLANT INTRODUCTION,

LA.R.A., CAMPUS,

New DE .HI-110012,

August 26, 1976.

natives eat it as a spinach with rice (Watts,

op. cit.). No cultivation of this plant, however,

exists in other parts of the country, where,

except in the drier zone, it deserves a trial both

in the plains and hills. Only local types are

known in Assam and adjourning areas, no im-

proved types exist.

To get an idea about its nutritive value ana-

lysis (on even dry basis) of the young shoots

and leaves of green-stemmed types was ar-

ranged in the Division of Biochemistry, I.A.

R.I., New Delhi. The plant is seen to be fairly

rich in protein and fats (results of leaf analy-

sis on oven dry basis (%): Moisture 82.87;

N 3.86; Ca 0.27; P 0.66; ether ext. 3.93; Solu-

ble mineral matter 10.07; insoluble mineral

matter 2.91, ash 12.98 and crude protein 24.13.

We are grateful to Shri M. W. Hardas,

Head, National Bureau of Plant Introduction

for going through this note and offering valu-

able suggestions.

R. K. ARORA

R. PRASAD

REFERENCES

PRAIN, D. (1963) :

print ed.).

UpuoF, J. C. Tu. (1968): Dictionary of Economic

Bengal Plants, Vol. I. (re-

Plants, Verlag Von J. Cramer.

Watts, G. A. (1971): Dictionary of the Econo-

mic Products of India: Vol. 5, (Reprinted).

32. LECTOTYPE OF MAESA CASTANEIFOLIA MEZ (MYRSI-

NACEAE) AND A NEW ADDITION TO THE INDIAN FLORA

(With a text-figure)

C. Mez [Pflanzenr. 9 (IV. 238): 44. 1902]

described a new species Maesa castaneifolia,

from the province of Yunnan based on the

collections of Henry 9464, 9464A and 11625

and these collections were deposited at the

piso

Berlin Herbarium. Mez (l.c.) did not design-

ate the holotype and the above cited speci-

mens are considered as syntypes. Unfortuna-

tely these specimens were lost during the

Second World War (H. Sleumer, Kew Bull.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Maesa castaneifolia Mez

A. Plant; B. Corolla with stamens; C. Calyx with pedicel; D. Stamen; E. Pistil.

Za:

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

1949: 172-175. 1949). Henry’s duplicate col-

lections are available at the Central National

Herbarium and it is proposed to designate

Henry 11625 (CAL) as the Lectotype of

Maesa castaneijolia Mez. On critical study of

several unidentified herbarium specimens at

the Central National Herbarium, it is seen that

this species occurs in Sikkim and Assam in

Eastern India and incidentally is being report-

ed for the first time in the Flora of India. The

nomenclature and distribution of the species

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANIC GARDEN P.O.,

HowraAH-711103,

December 24, 1976.

is given below. An illustration of the species is

given for the purpose of ready identification

as Mez (l.c.) did not provide any diagram of

this species.

Miaesa cas‘aneifolia Mez in Pflanzenr. 9 (iv.

238): 44. 1902. [Lectotype Henry 11625

Collector (CAL).

Distribution: INDIA: Assam, Golaghat, Feb.

1891, G. Mann. sn. (CAL); Ibid. Dr. King’s

Collector sn. (CAL); SIKKIM: Mungpoo, Sine

Collector (CAL).

M. P. NAYAR

G. S. GIRI

33. ALYSICARPUS OVALIFOLIUS (SCHUMACH.) J. LEONARD—

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Alysicarpus ovalifolius was collected while

surveying different areas of Gujarat state, for

species of Alysicarpus for cytological studies.

The species is not recorded in floristic works of

India. In this note we report the occurrence of

this interesting species for the first time.

Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) J.

Leonard in Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux. 24:88, fig.

11 (1954)—Verdc., Fl. Zam., Kirkia 9 (Part

IT): 7547, (1974).

= Hedysarum ovalifolium Schumach., Beskr.

Guin. pl. 1359, (1827).

Erect or spreading herb reaching 20-50 cm in

height, branches rooting at nodes with longer

internodes, - pubescent, later almost glabrous.

Leaves unifoliolate, leaflets eliptic to oblong,

1-6 cm long, 0.9-1.0 cm broad, acute and mu-

cronulate at the apex, base subcordate, finely

puberulous on the nerves beneath; Petioles

254

0.5-1.5 cm long, channelled on the upper side;

Stipules lanceolate, 0.6-1.2 cm long, striate and

acuminate. Inflorescence terminal or leaf op-

posed lax racemes with usually seven pairs of

flowers; peduncles :2.5-3.5 cm long; pedicels

1.0-2.0 mm long; bracts ovate to lanceolate

4.0-5.0 mm long, 1.5-2.0 mm broad, acuminate

deciduous. Calyx puberulous, tube 0.8-1.2 mm

long, teeth narrow 3.5-4.5 mm long; 0.5-1.0

mm broad. Corolla excluded, standard pink to

orange buff, 4.0-5.0 mm long, 3-4 mm wide,

wings purplish, keels pale pink. Stamens dia-

delphus. Ovary pubescent, style (1|3 from its

base) bearded with long hairs. Pods 1.0-3.0

cm long, exerted, joints 5-7, flattened, 2.0-3.0

mm long, 1.5-2.0 mm wide with raised reti-

culate ridges, puberulous. Seeds brown, ellip-

soid, slightly compressed with reddish black

patches.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

S 8

Med GAUADAYS LAVA BAAD UMYERETY OF DEADRA

Fig. 1. Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.)

J. Leonard.

The plant was found growing in the Uni-

versity Campus and Laxmi Vilas Palace com-

pound at Baroda.

Flowering time: August—September.

Fruiting time: September—October.

Herbarium specimens Nos.: S-112, 113, 114,

115, 116.

Critical notes: Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Sch-

umach.) J. Leon. is widespread in tropical

Africa, Madagascar and Asia (See Verdcourt,

Kirkia 9 (Part II): 548 (1974). It resembles

A. vaganalis, but differs from it in being an

annual, having laxer inflorescences with longer

distance between the pairs of flowers.

We grateful to Dr. R. M. Polhill, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, for confirm-

ing the identification of the plant.

DEPT. OF BOTANY, M. SANJAPPA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE, R. P. BHATT

_M. S. UNIVERSITY,

BaroDA (INDIA),

February 2, 1977.

255

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CONTENTS

THE STATUS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN BLACK LEAF-MONKEY ee yks fee) IN THE

PALNI Hitits. By J. F. Oates a 5a an a gS

FLORA OF MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL Nabu. By B. D. Sharma, io V.

Shetty, K. Vivekananthan and N. C. Rathakrishnan

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus pores IN THE

ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By R. Whitaker and Z. Whitaker

REVISION OF THE GENUS Dipcadi MEDIK. (LILIACEAE) IN INDIA AND ADJOINING RE-

GIONS. By D. B.-Deb and Syamali Dasgupta .. oy me

THE ELEPHANT IN U.P. (INDIA)—-A RESURVEY OF ITS STATUS AFTER 10 YEARS.

By V. B. Singh

‘EFFECT OF MOON PHASE AND LUNAR CYCLE ON THE LIGHT TRAP CATCH OF TOBACCO

CATERPILLAR Spodoptera litura (FABR.) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE).

By S. M. Vaishampayan and S. K. Shrivastava

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘GREENISH-YELLOW WATER’ PHENOMENON CAUSED BY. THE

- SWARMING OF Trichodesmium erythraeum EHRENBURG, IN THE SEA OFF MADRAS ©

AND ITS EFFECT ON THE LOCAL MARINE FAUNA. By A. Daniel, A. K. Nagabhush-

anam and P. Krishnamurthy Li ue ie

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PART IV—Hippo-

sideros fulvus fulvus (GRAY) —HIPPOSIDERIDAE. By A. Madhavan, D. R. Patil

and A. Gopalakrishna

-FooD AND FEEDING HABITS OF Labeo gonius (HAM.) FROM THE RIVER KALI.

By A. Chatterji, A. Q. Siddiqui and A. A. Khan ..

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF A TROPICAL EARTHWORM Pontoscolese corethurus

(O. F. MULLER). By S. Arunachalam

THE SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS ON THE. New DELHI RIDGE. By A. J. Gaston .

CEREAL PREFERENCE AND INTAKE OF FOUR SPECIES OF FIELD RODENTS. By Shakunthala

Sridhara and R. V. Krishnamoorthy

THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION AND SATIETY ON THE SWIMMING ACTIVITY OF AN

AQUATIC COPEPOD, Orthocyclops modestus (CRUSTACEAE: CoPEPoDA).

By Fred Punzo

IMAGO CASTE OF Neotermes megaoculatus megaoculatus ROONWAL ET SEN-SARMA

(ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE) FROM KUMAON a UTTAR PRADESH.

By M. L. Thakur oe ee Us ee :

FOOT-WETTING AND BELLY-SOAKING BY INCUBATING GULL-BILLED TERNS AND BLACK

SKIMMERS. By Gilbert S. Grant

New DESCRIPTIONS

OBITUARY te i e ek ae

REVIEWS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

PAGE

110

is.

129

137

143

148

153

190

197

204

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400092

and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay

Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Bombay Natural a

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Vol. 75, No. 2

Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

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ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’ S. Oe |

Hornbill House, EDITORS,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 75(2): AUGUST 1978

Date of Publication: 2 -— 2 -— 1979

CONTENTS

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN RELATION TO VEGETATION ON THE NEw DELHI. RIDGE.

By A. J. Gaston. (With two text-figures)

FEEDING, GROWTH AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIAN TrouT, Barilius (Opsarius)

bola Ham. By C. V. Kulkarni and S. N. Ogale. (With five text-figures)

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND SEASONAL PATTERN OF VEGETATION OF PINE FORESTS OF

SHILLONG IN MEGHALAYA. By R. R. Rao and P. Kharkongor. (With a text-figure)

OCCURRENCE OF THE HERMIT CRAB Dardanus setifer (H. MILNE-EDWARDS) (DECAPODA,

ANOMURA) AT KARWAR WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE FIRST ZOEAL STAGE.

By V. N. Nayak and V. S. Kakati. (With two text-figures)

PHEASANT SURVEYS IN PAKISTAN. By Z. B. Mirza, Abdul Aleem and M. Asghar

EFFECTS OF CONTINUGUS REMOVAL OF FIELD-RATS ON THE MOVEMENTS AND SEX RATIO

OF FIELD-MICE. By G. S. Mann and O. S. Bindra. (With a text-figure)

OBSERVATIONS ON Anopheles (Cellia) aconitus DoNitz, 1902 (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE)

IN BASTAR District, MADHYA PRADESH. By Zakir Husain Husainy. (With four

text-figures)

A STUDY OF THE AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS OF JHALAWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN.

By V. Singh

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS SURVEY OF THE LIONTAILED MACAQUE, Macaca

silenus (LINNAEUS). By G. U. Kurup. (With four text-figures)

THE DOUBTFUL FUTURE OF THE PIGMY HOG AND THE HISPID HARE. PART I—A CONSER-

VATION REPORT. By William L. R. Oliver. (With a plate and three text-figures)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SociETY—21. By Humayun Abdulali .

SWARMING BEHAVIOUR IN NATURE AND COLONY FORMATION UNDER LABORATORY CONDI-

TIONS IN Odontotermes obesus (RAMBUR) (ISOPTERA: ‘TERMITIDAE).

By V. B. Agarwal

FooD AND FEEDING HABITS OF Labeo boggut (SYKES) FROM KULGARHI RESERVOIR

(MADHYA PRADESH). By S. J. Karamchandani and D. N. Mishra. (With two text-

figures)

SOME ASPECTS OF THE ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN FOxX—Vulpes benga-

lensis (SHAW). By A. J. T. Johnsingh

BEHAVIOURAL VARIANTS OF BONNET MACAQUE (Macaca radiata) INHABITING CULTIVAT-

ED GARDENS. By Hafeezur Rahaman and M. D. Parthasarathy. (With a text-figure)

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PART V—Pipis-

trellus dormeri (DOBSON)—VESPERTILIONIDAE. By A. Madhavan

CRITICAL TAXGNCMIC NOTES ON SOME SPECIES OF Cassia LINN. FOUND IN INDIA.

By Vijendra Singh. (With three text-figures)

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME INDIAN VULTURES (Gyps bengalensis, G. indicus,

- G. fulvus, AND Torgos calvus). By Robert B. Gru&Sh. (With three plates)

STUDIES ON THE GENUS Cymbopogon SPRENG. VIII: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE CLASSI-

FICATION OF INDIAN SPECIES OF Cymbopogon. By B. K. Gupta

PAGE

257

266

273

321

341

373,

385

289

397)

406

426

434

44A

450

NEw DESCRIPTIONS:

Studies on some spiders of the Genera Tegenaria and Agelena from Khasi and Jaintia

Hills, India (Araneae: Agelenidae). By M. Barman. (With thirteen text-figures) 454

Choerospondias auriculata (Ancardiaceae) —A new species from India.

By Dali Chandra. (With a text-figure) ays oe Qe aoe,

Ascomycetes of Western India—V. By Alaka Pande. (With two text-figures) .. 460

A new Hoya R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) from south India. By A. N. Henry and

M. S. Swaminathan. (With five text-figures) af an ee eA Ge

REVIEWS:

1. The wild Canids. (Robert B. Grubh) ie: ae .. 465

2. Contributions to Estuarine Biology. (B. F. Chnaen a .. 466

3. The flora of eastern Himalaya. (P. V. Bole) as ne ip 467

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

GENERAL: 1. List of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in Madhya Pradesh. (With a

text-figure). By N. K. Sinha (p. 469).

MAMMALS: 2. On the occurence of Horsfield’s shrew, Crocidura horsfieldi (Tomes) in

penisular India. By S. Krishna Rao and N. V. Aswathanarayana (p. 473); 3. Parturition

in the Indian Rufous bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck). By P. A. Ramakrishna (p. 473);

4. Paternal behaviour of the Rhesus Macaque, Macaca mulatta in nature. By S. C. Makwana

(p. 475); 5. Recent sightings of Macaca silenus (Linnaeus, 1758), at Mastimane Ghat, North

Kanara Dist., Karnataka. By H. R. Bhat and M. A. Sreenivasan (p. 476); 6. The rusty-

spotted cat, Felis rubiginosa I. Geoffroy, in Jammu and Kashmir. By S. Chakraborty (p. 478);

7. Census of Blackbucks in the Velavadar National Park of Gujarat State. By M. A. Rashid

(p. 479).

Birps: 8. Lost pelicanry. By S. N. Guttikar (p. 482); 9. Breeding of the Mallard (Anser

platyrhynchos) in Nepal. By James O. M. Roberts (p. 485); 10. Occurrence of redheaded

Merlin (Falco chicquera Daudin) in Bangalore, Karnataka. By P. M. Govindakrishnan,

Abraham Verghese and A. K. Chakravarthy (p. 487); 11. Orangerumped honeyguide (Indi-

cator xanthonotus) in the Garhwal Himalayas. By S. A. Hussain (p. 487); 12. Some obser-

vations on the Warbler (Aves: Sylvinae) populations of the upland perennial wetlands in

the Eastern Ghats. By Trevor Price (p. 488); 13. Faecal feeding in the whiteheaded Babbler,

Turdoides affinis (Jerdon)—A rejoinder. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 490); 14. Occurrence

of the thickbilled warbler Phragmaticola aedon rufescens Stegmann at Baj Baj, West Bengal.

By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 491); 15. On the occurrence of the Burmese blackbrowed

flycatcher warbler. Seicercus burkii tephrocephalus (Anderson) at Baj Baj, West Bengal. By

Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 492); 16. Occurrence of the blueheaded rock thrush, Monticola

cinclorhynchus (Vigors) (Muscicapidae: Turdinae) in Orissa. By N. Majumdar (p. 493);

17. On the taxonomic status of the Eastern Ghats Rufousbellied munia, Lonchura kelaarti

vernayi (Whistler and Kinnear, 1933) [Aves: Ploceidae]. (With two text-figures). By N.

Majumdar (p. 493).

REPTILES: 18. Permanent marking systems for crocodilians. By R. Whitaker (p. 496); 19

Notes on Phelsuma andamanense, the Andaman day gecko or green gecko. (With a photo-

graph). By R. Whitaker and Z. Whitaker (p. 497); 20. Breeding of Tokay Gecko. (With a

photograph). By R. Whitaker and Z. Whitaker (p. 499).

FISHES: 21. Range extension for the snakehead Ophiocephalus gachua Wamilton-Buch-

anan (Osteichthyes: Channidae) in Iran. By Brian W. Coad (p. 500).

AMPHIBIA: 22. On the occurrence of Ichthyophis peninsularis Taylor, (Gymnophiona:

Caecilidae) from Alamcholai (District Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, India). By P. Jaisingh

(p. 501).

INSECTS: 23. Insects visiting lac insect for honeydew. By R. S. Gokulpure and B. P. Mehra

(p. 502); 24. Dragonflies. By A. S. Bhaduri (p. 505); 25. A new record of a species of

Spilosmylus (Neuroptera: Osmylidae) from India. By S. K. Ghosh (p. 506); 26. Indian

species of the genus Nezara Amyot and Serville (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). (With nine

text-figures). By M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee (p. 507); 27. The black ant, Cam-

ponotus sp., feeding on urea. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 511); 28. Danaid butterflies attract-

ed to Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae), an alkaloid containing plant. By D. G. Sevasto-

pulo (p. 512); 29. An unusual food-plant for Argina syringa Cr. By D. G. Sevastopulo

Ge 512)

ARACHNIDA: 30. Breeding season and gestation period of the scorpion, Heterometrus fulvipes.

By V. Subburam and T. Gopalakrishna Reddy (p. 513).

ACARINA: 31. A preliminary examination of the parasites recovered from the Indian wild

dog (Cuon alpinus). By Bruce D. Barnett, M. W. Fox, J. A. Cohen and A. J. T. Johnsingh

(p. 515).

CRUSTACEA: 32. Crabs summering in lakeside hotel. By D. E. Reuben (p. 516); 33. Des-

cription of Isopod Cirolana parva Hansen parasitic on the eye balls of Dolphin, Delphinus

delphis Linnaeus with a key to the Indian species of the genus Cirolana Leach. (With eleven

text-figures). By K. M. S. Amer Hamsa and P. Nammalwar (p. 516).

Mo.LLusca: 34. Shell characteristics of the spat of the two species of oysters, Crassostrea

madrasensis (Preston) and C. cucullata (Born). (With two text-figures). By M. Mohan

Joseph (p. 519).

BoTANY: 35. Geranium pusillum L—A _ new record from Garhwal Himalaya. By C. M.

Arora and R. Prasad (p. 523); 36. Arthraxon echinatus (Nees) Hochst—a new record

from Hamirpur Dist. (U.P.). By B. P. Uniyal and S. C. Srivastava (p. 524); 37. New orchid

records from Kerala State. By B. D. Sharma and N. C. Rathakrishnan (p. 524); 38. Occur-

rence of three Taxa in West Bengal. By Barin Ghosh and Gopal Maity (p. 525); 39. Some

neteworthy plant species from Agra. By A. K. Sharma and J. S. Dhakre (p. 526); 40. Mor-

phological variations in Silene indica Roxb. (Caryophyllaceae) due to change in habitat—

a study with allied Wallichan specimens. By N. C. Majumdar (p. 528); 41. Kallstroemia

pubescens (Don) Dandy—a new record for Maharashtra State. (With a text-figure). By

A. V. Bhide (p. 529); 42. A note on distribution of some grasses in Assam. By B. Neogi

and S. K. Jain (p. 531); 43. New localities for Leptosporangiate ferns in Rajasthan, India.

By T. N. Bhardwaja, A. K. Yadav and C. B. Gena (p. 533); 44. Pine forests in Nepal. By

Ashok K. Bhargava (p. 535).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1976-77 537

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ve ao 543

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ne ae ee ae 555

JOURNAL

OF T HE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1978 AUGUST

Vol. 75

No. 2

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN RELATION TO VEGETATION

ON THE NEW DELHI RIDGE'

A. J. GASTON?

(With two text-figures)

The resident, breeding, and wintering avifauna of an area of 0.7 Km? of woodland and

scrub on the Delhi ridge was studied over a period of three years. The paper describes

four main vegetation types, and their distribution in relation to topographic and biotic

factors. The bird species found in each are listed.

Species diversity was found to be greatest in dense scrub, the vegetation type least

affected by human interference. Species diversity in all habitats was found to be greater

in winter than in summer.

The ratio of passerines to non-passerine species was found to be higher in winter

than summer.

Turnover of species between winter and summer was found to be highest in wood-

land habitats, and this may reflect the preponderance of summer visitors amongst the

woodland avifauna of the Palaearctic.

Habitat specialisation was found to be greater among non-passerines, but the

degree of specialisation was equal when resident passerines were compared with winter-

ing palaearctic passerines.

INTRODUCTION

This paper deals with the ecology of birds

on the New Delhi Ridge, describing the vege-

tation of the area and the distribution of birds

in relation to the different vegetation types.

Studies were carried out during the period

1 Accepted May 1977.

2 Edward Grey Institute, Dept. of Zoology, South

Parks Road, Oxford, England.

from August 1971 to June 1974 in an area

of reserved forest immediately to the west of

Rashtrapati Bhavan. Observations were con-

centrated in about 1 km? of broken, rocky ter-

rain, rising gradually from East and West and

bounded to the west by Upper Ridge Road,

which roughly follows the crest of the ridge,

to the north by Shankar Road and to the

south by the edge of Buddha Jayanti Park.

There is no previous work dealing specifi-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

cally with the birds of this area, but it is fre-

quently referred to in Hutson’s “The Birds

about Delhi’? (1954), which describes the

status around Delhi of most of the species re-

corded in the present study. A comparison

with Hutson’s records, and also with the status

as described in ““The Birds of Delhi and Dis-

trict, Field Check List’? (1967) provides much

useful information, because many _ species

which are to be seen throughout the year in

the moist riverain areas along the River Jum-

na, 4 miles to the East, occur only at certain

seasons in the dry scrub of the ridge.

The data on which the present analysis is

based consists of field notes taken during the

course of research on Turdoides spp. As a re-

sult, observations were not systematic, but re-

sulted from casual notes on habitat and feed-

ing niches. Field notes did not specify the

four categories of vegetation defined below,

but usually consisted of a general description

of the vegetation in which the species was en-

countered. Notes on feeding situations were

not always included and these have been filled

out from memory. Species were described as

residents or summer visitors on the basis of

seasonal records summarised elsewhere (Gas-

ton 1978). Only resident species recorded in

the study area in at least thirty weeks and

summer and winter visitors recorded in at

least fifteen weeks during the three years of

the study are included. Avian nomenclature

follows Ali & Ripley (1968-74) and botanical

nomenclature follows Maheshwari (1963).

STRUCTURE AND VEGETATION OF THE STUDY

AREA

_A description of the vegetation of the Delhi

area is given by Maheshwari (1963), and both

he and Donahue (1967) briefly describe the

gcology and ecology of the Delhi ridge.

258

The coarse quartzites which form the under-

lying rocks of the ridge are the Northernmost

extension of the Aravalli Hills, which reach

moderate elevations in Rajasthan. Although

the overall form of the ridge is gently rounded,

it is cut by several deeply incised watercourses.

These carry water only during rainy season.

Within the study area the ridge reaches a

height of 260 m above sea level in the west,

sloping to 230 m in the South-East where it is

still 60 m above the level of the River Jumna.

A profile taken roughly WNW-ESE §across

the area (Fig. 1) shows it to be stepped, 2

sloping zones being separated by a more or

less level one, which may be the result of a

structural weakness. The 2 major watercourses

are incised in the sloping zones, but meander

without incision in the level area. Soil accu-

mulates principally in the level area, and con-

sists of a coarse alluvial sand with a low

humus content.

The development of the vegetation is con-

trolled both by the slope, with its effect on

the accumulation of soil, and by biotic influ-

ences, particularly grazing and wood-chopping.

The effect of biotic factors on the develop-

ment of vegetation seems to be greatest in the

rorthern part of the area, adjoining Shankar

Road. This part is particularly frequented by

people in search of firewood. The least disturb-

ed vegetation occurs in the South-West cor-

Her ot the area.

Fig. 2 shows the distribution of closed can-

opy woodland within the study area. The

broad belt of woodland running through the

centre of the area coincides roughly with the

extent of the level shelf, and its consequent

accumulation of soil. A second alluvial area,

in the North-East corner, lies at the foot of

the lower slope.

The trees making up the woodland belt in-

crease in species diversity from North to South,

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS ON NEW DELHI RIDGE

presumably along a gradient of decreasing

biotic interference. The dominant species

throughout is Prosopis juliflora. In the North

this is mixed only with Albizzia sp. which was

probably planted along Shankar Road, but

towards the South there is a_ progressively

greater admixture of Acacia senegal, Acacia

leucophloea, Acacia modesta, Prosopis spici-

gera, and Cassia fistula. The woodland ranges

in height from 6-18 m.

A gradient of species diversity is also notice-

able in the composition of the woodland shrub

layer. The dominant species throughout is

Adhatoda vasica, mixed in the North with

Capparis sepiaria. ‘Towards the South there

is an increasing amount of Carissa spinarum,

Grewia tenax, Flacourtia indica, and Maytenus

senegalensis. 3

The sloping areas are characterised by the

outcropping of much bare rock. In the North

they support only scattered trees, mainly Pro-

sopis juliflora, and the perennial vegetation is

dominated by stunted clumps of the prickly

Zizyphus nummularia, growing up to 1 m in

height. Towards the South-West a taller scrub

composed of Carissa spinarum, Securinega leu-

copyrus, Dichrostachys cinerea, Zizyphus ma-

uritiana, and Flacourtia indica develops with

scattered patches of Anogeissus pendula wood-

land, up to 5 m high. Butea monosperma

ce}

fm €

ao oP

ae ay g

cy | : C2

bes ed : eno, Lo

a a Lantana

en ALLUVIAL AREA

ie |

}

STREAM

SECTION

ee 5 ilk tettion 8

SCRUB

WOODLAND

SCRUB

Fig. 1. Section WNW-ESE across the Ridge study area showing generalised pattern

of vegetation in relation to slope. Vertical scale greatly exaggerated.

259

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

occurs commonly, scattered throughout this

area, growing up to 8 m high, but nowhere

forms dense stands.

Other shrubs which occur in localised pat-

ches are Jatropha gossypifolia, which grows

on steep rocky places, and Balanites roxbur-

ghii, which grows in the level zone on the

margins of the woodland, and apparently re-

quires some depth of soil. Severai dense

clumps of Lantana indica occur where water-

courses cross the level zone, and this shrub

seems to prefer a combination of perennial

moisture and some soil accumulation.

The herbaceous vegetation of the study area

flourishes almost exclusively during the rainy

season, which lasts from July to October. Dur-

ing this period open areas become clothed in

grasses and other herbs, and shrubby peren-

nials such as Hibiscus micranthus and Teph-

rosia spp. put out luxuriant growth.

AVIAN HABITATS

Four main vegetation types can be recog-

nised in the study area as providing distinct

habitats for birds:

1) Closed canopy woodland with an open

understory, mainly of Adhatoda vasica.

2) Closed canopy woodland with a dense un-

derstory of Carissa spinarum, Capparis se-

piaria, and Lantana indica, as well as Ad-

hatoda.

3) Dense scrub with Carissa spinarum, Secu-

rinega leucopyrus, Dichrostachys cinerea,

and Anogeissus pendula up to 3m_high,

with scattered Butea monosperma.

4) Low scrub dominated by Zizyphus num-

mularia, up to 1 m high, with scattered

Prosopis juliflora, up to 5m high, and many

bare rocky outcrops which support an ep-

hemeral flora during the rains.

The distribution of these 4 vegetation types

is shown in Fig. 2.

260

Fig.

SRS GAK®

Closed canopy woodland + dense understorey

Closed or open Canopy woodland + sparse understorey

Tall scrub, 3m with scattered trees

Low scrub, 1m or bare rocky ground

Parks and gardens not included in the study area

Roads ae Seasoral watercourses

Sy Footpaths

Pipelines

2. Map of the Ridge study area showing the

distribution of different vegetation types.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS ON NEW DELHI RIDGE

TABLE 1

DISTRIBUTION OF BREEDING BIRDS AND WINTER VISITORS AMCGNG FOUR DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES ON

THE NEW DELHI RIDGE

Residents (R) & Summer

visitors (SV)

Accipiter badius R

Butastur teesa SV

Francolinus pondicerianus R

Pavo cristatus R

Vanellus indicus SV

Burhinus oedicnemus R

Streptopelia decaocto R

S. tranquebarica SV

S. senegalensis R

Psittacula krameri R

P. cyanocephala R

Clamator jacobinus SV

Cuculus varius SV

Eudynamys scolopacea SV

Taccocua leschenaultii R

Centropus sinensis R

Caprimulgus asiaticus SV

Merops orientalis R

Coracias benghalensis SV

Upupa epops R

Megalaima zeylanica SV

M. haemacephala SV

Dinopium benghalense R

Dendrocopos mahrattensis R

Mirafra erythroptera R

Lanius vittatus R

Lanius schach R

Dicrurus adsimilis SV

Sturnus pagodarum SV

Acridotheres tristis SV

Dendrocitta vagabunda R

Corvus splendens R

Tephrodornis pondicerianus R

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus R

Pycnonotus jocosus R

P. leucogenys R

P. cafer R

Chrysomma sinensis R

Turdoides caudatus R

T. malcolmi R

T. striatus R

Prinia hodgsonii R

godiand ‘g ae

open understory dense understory

- -

4F G

+ G

a G +

spe wake +

+ SC +

2p C

SC 4

GS +

+ G

+ C +

Beg OR +

=F He +f

an G

+ G

+ SC +

+ CG

+ C +

a fC +f

S* +

+ SC +

S* +

ae G

+ GT +

ae SC =f

Weodland i

| Tall : eh +

Butea

+f +++

ae Sp oe

Open

scrub

Total

types

eee ee ee ee es eS ee ee a

RE SSR CE EE EEE DE LE ET EEL ET EY OP IES TIT LE TA IETS TT I I SS EE SE EL LR IT OE I TE BI EE EEE

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Residents (R) & Summer | Woodland + = ~~ Woodland +

Tall scrub + Open Total

visitors (SV) open understory dense understory Butea scrub types

P. buchanani R + + 2,

P. subflava R | + 1

P. socialis R S + + 2

Orthotomus sutorius R ~ ST + + 3

Copsychus.-saularis R G + 1

Saxicoloides fulicata R + G + + a 4

Nectarinia asiatica R 2 SC eu dt 3

Zosterops palpebrosa R + SC + Z

Passer domesticus SV + °C + D |

Petronia xanthocollis SV + = z

Lonchura malabarica R + + 2

Winter visitors

Elanus caceruleus + + 2 |

Jynx torquilla Je 1

Lanius excubitor + 1 |

Pericrocotus ethologus + C + Z

Muscicapa parva ++ C + 2D

Sylvia hortensis S + + 2

S. curruca + SC + + 3

Phylloscopus collybita “+ GSC + 2

P. griseolus + GT + + 3

P. inornatus © ++ (S + 2

P. subviridis + C + DZ,

Phoenicurus ochruros ++ G + + 3

Turdus ruficollis GS* + + 2

Carpodacus erythrinus + 1

Emberiza stewarti 4. 2

Woodland feeding zones: G; Ground ‘TT; Trunks S; Shrubs C; Canopy

*; species associated particularly with dense stands of Lantana indica

TABLE 2

THE NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES FOUND IN EACH VEGETATION TYPE

Ce ee fe

Resident Ratio Res/

Non-passerine Passerine Total None

(1). Woodland + Summer 13(43%) 17(57%) 30 20 1.11

- open understory Winter 7(25%) 21(75%) 28

(2) Woodland + Summer 10(42%) 14(58%) 24 19 1.35

dense understory Winter 5(18%) 23(82%) 28

(3). Dense scrub Summer 13(37%) 22(63%) 35 29 1.81

Winter 12(31%) 27(69%) 39

(4) Open scrub Summer 7(47%) 9(53%) 16 AY 16:5

262.

Winter

6(33%)

10(67%)

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS ON NEW DELHI RIDGE

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD SPECIES IN RELATION

TO VEGETATION TYPES

Because of the small size of the study area

relative to the mobility of most birds, practi-

cally all species were seen in all 4 vegetation

types at one time or another. Table 1 shows

the distribution of nesting and wintering spe-

cies among the vegetation types, judged on

the basis of their preferred feeding habitats

during the breeding season (resident species

and summer visitors) or winter (winter visi-

tors). Resident species generally seem to move

about more outside the breeding season, when

food is probably least abundant.

Species found in the 2 woodland vegetation

types are further classified according to their

preferred feeding niches; ground (G), shrub

(S), trunk (T) and canopy (C). Those spe-

cies particularly associated with the occurrence

of dense clumps of Lantana indica are also

indicated.

Omitted from Table 1 are 3 species which

occur in the study area only in the vicinity

of water: Halcyon smyrnensis (resident), and

Erithacus svecicus, and Motacilla cinerea (win-

ter visitors).

Table 2 shows the number of species found

in each vegetation type, and the ratios of pas-

serine to non-passerine species. The largest

number of species is found in the dense scrub

(type 3). This may be because it is interme-

diate in character between the woodland and

the open scrub, but its floristic composition

is relatively diverse, and must resemble the

original flora of the area more closely than do

the other 3 vegetation types.

In all except vegetation type 4, bird species

diversity is greater during the winter than dur-

ing the breeding season. This is due to an in-

flux of passerine species during the winter.

While there is a 28% increase in passerines,

there is a decrease of 33% in the number of

non-passerine species.

The increase in passerine species is most

marked in the two woodland habitats which

show 24% (1), and 64% (2) increases. The

other two habitats show increases of 23% (3)

and 11% (4). The numbers of non-passerine

Species in the two woodland habitats fall by

46% (1), and 50% (2) respectively, while in

the other two habitats they decrease by 8%

(3) or by 14% (4).

At first sight these figures suggest a replace-

ment of breeding non-passerine summer Visi-

tors by passerine winter visitors, but the two

groups tend to occupy quite different niches.

The majority of passerine winter visitors are

small insectivorous birds, and 7 of the 11

found in woodland feed partly or whoily in

the canopy. In fact this feeding zone shows

a 78% increase in passerines between summer

and winter. The non-passerine summer visitors,

on the other hand include only two insectivor-

ous species, Clamator jacobinus and Cuculus

varius, araong those found in woodland. The

rest fall into two categories:

a) frugivorous species: Eudynamys _ scolo-

pacea, Megalaima zeylanica and Megalaima

haemacephala. b) moderate-large insectivor-

ous species found in scrub; Caprimulgus spp..

Merops orientalis, and Coracias. benghalensis.

SEASONAL TURNOVER OF SPECIES.

Thirty-eight species are resident in the study

area throughout the year. This number does

not include species such as Pernis ptilorhyn-

chus, Milvus migrans, Gyps benghalensis,

Neophron_ percnopterus, and Spilornis cheela

which are seen throughout the year, but which

are not known to nest in the area. }

Fourteen species are summer visitors, and

sixteen winter visitors. The overall ratio of

resident: non-resident species is 1.33.

263

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Tabel 2 gives the ratios of resident: non-

resident: species for the four vegetation types

separately. This ratio is lowest in the wood-

land habitats where turnover of species is

highest, and highest in the scrub, where most

species are resident. This observation paral-

lels the findings of MacArthur (1959) for 29

stations across North America, where he

found the proportion of resident species to be

lower in woodlands than in open habitats at

the same latitude.

The higher proportion of winter visitors in

the woodland around Delhi may be a corollary

of the situation which MarArthur found in

temperate North America. As more species

leave woodland habitats in the temperate zone

during the winter they might be expected to

seek similar habitat in their winter quarters.

The greater turnover in the woodland avifauna

around Delhi may not necessarily, therefore,

reflect differences in the seasonal abundance

cf food in different vegetation types.

LocaL MIGRANTS

Among species classified as summer and

winter visitors in Table 1, several are only

local migrants, and are found throughout the

year in areas adjacent to the ridge. The sum-

mer visitors which come in this category are

Butastur teesa, Streptopelia tranquebarica,

Merops orientalis, Coracias benghalensis, Me-

galaima zeylanica, Megalaima haemacephala,

Dicrurus adsimilis, Sturnus pagodarum, Acri-

dotheres tristis, and Petronia xanthocollis. This

includes all the passerine summer visitors.

Among winter visitors Psittacula cynaocephala,

and Lanius excubitor both breed around Delhi,

and their presence on the ridge during the win-

ter may reflect a general dispersal at this

season.

TABLE 3

SETS PETES

THE NUMBERS OF BIRD SPECIES OCCUPYING 1, 2, 3 AND 4 VEGETATION TYPES

No. of species occupying Mean

X vegetation types vegetation Totals

1 Z 3 4 types/species

Passerines—

Resident 4 12 6 yi 2 25 24

Non-resident 3 3 0 0 1.50 1.89 6

Palaearctic winter visitors 2 7 3 0 2.08 } : 12

Non-passerines—

Resident a 4 4 0 1.81 15

Non-resident 5 5

Testing the proportion of group a (narrow habitat preference) species to group b species,

among both

passerines and non-passerines X2 = 4.6, p < 0.05. Comparing resident to non-resident species, using

passerines and non-passerines combined, X2 =0.44, p > 0.5.

264

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS ON NEW DELHI RIDGE

DEGREE OF SPECIALISATION IN HABITAT

SELECTION

The number of different vegetation types

occupied by a species can be treated as a

measure of the degree to which the species is

specialised in that dimension of its ecological

niche. The mean number of vegetation types

eccupied, calculated for all species, is 1.97.

Only two resident species, Pycnonotus cafer,

and Saxicoloides fulicata occupy all four (see

Table 3), as does the summer visitor Clama-

tor jacobinus.

Passerine species seem to be less specialised

in this respect than non-passerines. Among

passerines 9 out of 42 species are found in only

one vegetation type, while the corresponding

preportion for non-passerines is 12 out of 26

(<?=4.6, p< 0.05).

This supports the hypothesis put forward by

Klopfer & MacArthur (1960), suggesting that

non-passerine birds, being more stereotyped in

their behaviour than passerines, occupy smaller

niches.

Another suggestion, forming part of the

same hypothesis, is that tropical passerines

show greater specialisation, and_ therefore

occupy smaller niches than temperate passe-

rines. This is not supported by a comparison

of the mean number of vegetation types occu-

pied by resident passerines, with the same in-

dex for palaearctic winter visitors. The means

are practically identical (2.25, 2.08). The

habitat preferences of the resident species are

assessed on the basis of their distributions

during the breeding season, however, and many

species tend to range further afield during the

winter. The average resident may actually be

less specific in its habitat requirement than the

average winter visitor during the period when

the two groups co-exist.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

For financial assistance while in the field

I should like to thank the Leverhulme Trus-

tees, the Royal Society and the British Orni-

thologist’s Union. I am grateful to Prof. C.

M. Dass, Dept. of Zoology, University of

Delhi for assistance during my stay in Delhi

and to Peter Jackson who introduced me to

the Ridge in the first place.

REFERENCES

AI, S. AND RipLey, S. D. (1968-74): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vols. 1-10.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

ANONYMOUS (1967): Birds of Delhi and District,

Field Check List. The Delhi Birdwatching Society,

Delhi.

DONAHUE, J. P. (1967): An annotated list of the

butterflies of Delhi, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

63 :235-269.

GASTON, A. J. (1978): The seasonal occurrence

of birds on the New Delhi ridge. J. Bombay nat.

Hist Soc. 75(1): 115-128.

Hutson, H. P. W. (1954): The Birds about Delhi,

compiled by H. Williams. The Delhi Birdwatching

Society, Delhi.

KLopFEeR, P. H. AND MacArtuHour, R. H. (1960):

Niche size and faunal diversity. Amer. Nat. 94:

293-300.

MacArtTuHur, R. H. (1959): On the breeding dis-

tribution pattern of North American migrant birds.

Auk 76:318-32S.

MAHESHWARI, P.

C.S.ILR., Delhi.

(1963): The Flora of Delhi.

265

FEEDING, GROWTH AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE

INDIAN TROUT, BARILIUS (OPSARIUS) BOLA HAM.’

C. V. KULKARNI? AND S. N. OGALE?

(With five text-figures)

Study of feeding habits, growth and early development cf the Indian trout, Barilius

(Opsarius) bola Ham. which was introduced in the Lonavla lakes near Poona, indi-

cates that it is a carnivorous fish thriving largely on small fish such as Rasbora, Chela,

Oxygaster, Danio, etc. In lakes it grows to about 620 g. in 27 months and breeds in

the third year. The male develops rough, tubercled scales on the sides and bright

coloration on fins during breeding season which begins early in the monsoon.

On hypophysation and stripping, the fertilised eggs took about 65 hours to hatch.

The hatchlings had medium sized yolk sac and were comparatively more active than

those of major carps and started swimming very soon. The post-larva developed

chromatophores only on the fourth day and started feeding on minute Moina etc. On

the seventh day it reached 8 mm length and on 18th day a well-grown 18 mm fry

stage.

INTRODUCTION

Barils or the Barilius group comprising mostly

small sized fish have scarcely attracted the

attention of fishery biologists in the past.

Chacko (1945) wrote a short note on B. ben-

delisis, a tiny form hardly weighing 20 g.

when full grown and 12 cm in total length. Day

(1878) referred to Indian trout as Barilius

bola Ham. but Hora (1937) reviewing the

taxonomic position of the fish, preferred to

call it Barilius (Opsarius) bola Ham. It is the

largest species among the group Barilius and

attains 1.5 kg in weight. It is quite outstand-

ing for several reasons; yet except for a few

notes about its angling qualities by Thomas

(1897) and Macdonald (1948) and about its

suitability for introduction in Lonavla lakes

(Evans 1926) and in Peninsular India _ by

Spence & Prater (1932), very little has been

1 Accepted October 1977.

Present address: B/4 Shardashram, B. Shankar

Road, Bombay-400 028.

3 Tata’s Electricity Office, Lonavala, Dist. Poona.

266

said about the breeding habits or early life

history of this fish. It was not recorded from

anywhere south of the Vindhya hill range in

India till its introduction in the Walwhan lake

of the Tata Electric Co. at Lonavla, District

Poona (Kulkarni 1975). This introduction en-

abled recording of some of the observations

made on this fish and very recently, it could

be bred, with the help of pituitary harmone.

The eggs and early stages thus obtained are

described below.

FEEDING, GROWTH AND BREEDING

Unlike the feeding habits of most of the

members of the Cyprinoid group, the B. bola

is largely a piscivorous form, rejecting all in-

animate food in the natural environment. It

is largely a riverine fish, frequenting shallow

marginal waters for hunting small fish life. In

lacustrine conditions, it inhabits the upper

columns of the lake waters and feeds voraci-

ously on small live fish such as Rasbora,

Chela, Oxygaster and Danio, but it studiously

BREEDING OF THE INDIAN TROUT

avoids any dead ones among them even in

small ponds. This endorses the presumption

made by Hora (1937) that “‘the form and

structure of its alimentary canal leaves no

doubt that it is a highly carnivorous species’’.

Groundnut cake which is liked by most of

the carps is disdained by this fish; neither does

it take any green algae in the water. However,

the rapacious nature of the fish indicates that

it might take to artificial feed of animal origin

after certain amount of training, as is found

in the case of Murrels.

As regards the rate of growth, no data are

available based on commercial catches but it

can be stated that the fish could grow to about

620 g in 27 months in the large open water

of Walwhan lake, which has a water spread

of 556 ha. This growth is based on the actual

recoveries of specimens from the lake which

was stocked with fingerlings obtained from

tributaries of Chambal river in northern India

in 1974 (Kulkarni 1975).

- Breeding: From observations which have

been reliably reported, the fish approaches

running streams for the purpose of breeding

in the early months of the monsoon (June)

but prefers quieter inundated areas by the side

of such freshets for spawning where they were

actually seen in nuptial movements. A _ pair

which was captured contained ripe eggs and

oozing milt; they would have probably spawn-

ed in that area had they not been roughly

handled by their captors. This habit of ap-

proaching freshets shows considerable simi-

larity between them and other large carps like

Rohu, Mrigal etc. Taking into consideration

its age at the time of introduction, the fish can

be said to breed in the third year of its age

and in the early part of the monsoon, the

aforesaid mature pair of fish having been en-

countered in the last week of June 1977.

Chacko (loc. cit.) reports breeding of B. ben-

delisis from July to December in tributaries

of Krishna and Cauvery.

In respect of secondary sexual characters in

B. bola, there are no structurally clear cut dif-

ferences, but in the male, scales on the sides

of the body, particularly the posterior half of

it become rough during the spawning season;

so much so that it enables distinguishing the

sexes by mere touch and without removing the

fish out of the water. The roughness was

found to be due to a wart like concretion in

the middle of the exposed part of the scale

(fig. 1) and it disappears after the spawning

WART

Fig. 1. Scale from male Barilius (Opsarius) bola.

season. Secondly, the outer rays of the lower

lobe of the caudal fin are distinctly pink in

colour in the male while they are of lighter

shade in the female. The pectoral, pelvic and

anal fins are yellowish orange in the male and

lighter in female. Further the dark spots on

the opercles are much more prominent in the

male. In short, like many other animals the

male shows his best colouration during this

season. In the case of B. bendelisis also the

267

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

males are reported to be more brightly colour-

ed and have tiny tubercles on both jaws

(Chacko, op. cit.), but no rough scales on the

body are mentioned.

Some of the Indian trouts were grown in a

pond for ascertaining whether they would

breed naturally like Cyprinus carpio. This ex-

pectation was, however, belied, though two fe-

males weighing 400 gm appeared spent in the

first week of July. The remaining three females

though they were small in size, being hardly

between 260 and 300 gm in weight and in

the second year of their age were injected with

extracts of pituitary glands at the rate of 2

mg per kg of body weight at 7 a.m. on

8-vii-1977. The first injection was followed by

a second one at 4 mg per kg body weight,

four hours after the first injection. The males

were given only one dose of 2 mg per kg per

body weight along with the second injection to

the females and the both sexes put together

in the breeding enclosure (hapa). Tempera-

ture of water varied between 21° and 22°C

as intermittent showers and cloudy skies con-

tinued all along. As no natural spawning oc-

curred even after seven hours after the second

injection, the females were stripped by dry

method and the eggs fertilised with the help

of milt similarly obtained from the males.

After washing the eggs in the usual manner,

they were found to be absorbing water and

also indicating normal fertilisation, thus ensur-

ing success in breeding the Indian trout arti-

ficially, for the first time.

EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT

Eggs: The egg of the Indian trout, when

freshly laid is about 1.5 mm and on absorb-

tion of water is 2.8 mm in diameter (Fig. 2a).

Being slightly heavier than water it settles at

the bottom in still water but with slightest

268

disturbance or movement it moves along with

the water like the eggs of other large carps

(Rohu, etc.). It is spherical and almost trans-

parent except at the yolk portion which is dull

creamy in colour. The perivetelline space is

somewhat narrow as compared to that in the

large carps.

The eggs were observed at an interval of

every four hours in the early stages. They

passed through the usual cell divisions and

the blastula stage, including the elevated blas-

toderm on the germinal pole of the yolk mass

which flattens later on and gives rise to the

embryonic shield and also the cephalic groove

(Figs 2b; ici).

At 18 hrs, the development of the embryo

had progressed considerably, the size of the

yolk mass reduced and the cephalic area and

tail end became distinct thus representing a

coma shaped stage (Fig. 2d). The temperature

of water in which the eggs were hatched

varied from 26 to 28°C.

At 24 hrs, the head region seems to have

developed fairly fast; the optic vesicles were

seen and also a few myotomes in the body

region. The yolk mass had-been further ab-

sorbed and the tail end had been free. At in-

tervals slight movement of the embryo was

also perceptible within the eggs. The stage of

development in all eggs of the same batch

was not the same, some having lagged behind

even in the same water temperature.

At 36 hrs, the yolk mass was further reduc-

ed and the development of the embryo pro-

gressed internally in respect of additional myo-

tomes, cerebral lobes and other organs. The

embryo started twitching and moving within

the egg shell, the rate of such movement being

as much as 30 to 38 times per minute. How-

ever, at this stage the development became

considerably uneven in other eggs of the same

lot.

BREEDING OF THE INDIAN TROUT

-” % fal

oe 9, 9! GF

. 0,08 0 D4 § Fe

of ri,

of 6 * fe

amM™ |

Fig. 2. a. Newly fertilised egg of Barilius (Opsarius) bola Ham.

b-f. Developing stages of eggs of B. (O.) bola (Ham.)

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

At 42 hrs, the twitching action of the body

of embryo continued vigorously. The head re-

gion and the cerebral lobes had developed

distinctly. The optic vesicles and the optic

lens were clearly visible but no chromatophores

were perceptible. The muscle segments and the

yolk sac of the embryo with its anterior round-

ed portion and the posterior tubular portion

and also the caudal lobe were clearly observ-

able. The heart tube was indistinctly seen and

as the demarkation was not clear, pulsation of

the heart had not commenced. However, after

three hours heart formation became apparent

and feeble pulsation could be watched. The

eyeball was distinct and glistening, but no

pigment was seen. The optic capsules had de-

veloped though otoliths were yet absent. For

better oxygenation of water the eggs were kept

in a petridish, with an electric fan kept going

all the time. This had also helped in main-

taining the temperature of water at 260°C. The

embryo continued to develop its organs and to

wriggle around within the egg case with mo-

derate jerking movements of the tail.

At 11 a.m. on 11-vul-1977, i.e. 64 hours after

it was fertilised one of the eggs hatched into

first hatchling or a larva with a prominent yolk

sac (fig. 3). It measured 5 mm in total length,

whitish grey in colour, with double lobed yolk

sac slightly silver grey. The anterior portion of

the yolk sac though rounded was a slightly

oblong while the posterior one was more elon-

gated with a wide notch or constriction

between the two. The length of the yolk sac

(both lobes) was almost half of the total length

of the larva. The rudiments of jaws were in-

distinctly perceptible.

The black pigment in the eyes had fully

developed. The eyes appearing distinctly large

and black. Similarly the heart also was fully

formed and pulsating and the blood corpuscles

had become red as usual. Auditory capsule

270

with otoliths in them were perceptible. No

large chromatophores were seen on the head

or the body except a row of small elongated

dash like black pigmented streaks above the

dorsal side of the yolk sac. Very thin pectoral

fin fold was seen with no rays in it. The ver-

tical median fin fold starts dorsally slightly

anterior to the mid point of the yolk sac and

continues around the caudal end, terminating

near the position of the anal opening. Second

vertical fin fold is seen on the posterior por-

tion of the yolk sac and proceeds backwards

to end near the expected anal opening. As

compared to the hatchlings of other large carps

which are rather semi quiescent, settling at the

boitom and only occasionally twitching and

wriggling, the hatchling of the Indian trout is

more developed and starts swimming about as

soon as it is hatched. The earlier helpless con-

dition common in large carps is probably pass-

ed in this case in the egg stage itself.

Aiter about 30 hours of hatching, i.e. on the

second day, the length of the hatchling had not

extended beyond 6.2 mm but jaws which were

rudimentary were well formed and even move-

able. The eyes had become more prominent

with a well formed pale golden ring around the

lens. The heart was vigorously pulsating and

the division between the anterior and posterior

portions of the yolk sac had further progressed

leading to a constriction. The anterior one

shorter and the posterior elongated. The tail

end is slightly up turned. There were yet no

chromatophores on the head or the body, ex-

cept the small fine dots on the upper side of

the yolk sac.

On the fourth day, the hatching _be-

comes quite active and the movements of

its jaw indicated its attempts to feed on small

food particles. Small sized Moina sp. sifted

through a strainer was supplied to these hatch-

lings and it was found that they did attack

BREEDING OF THE INDIAN TROUT

them and thus feed on them. The hind gut

had also developed along with its opening. The

pectoral fin fluttered actively. At this stage

large chromatophores had developed on the

head and dorsal portion of the body above

Caan ie Thee age meets ems ee - marc gees Porcine’

ON ge EE cea PORES Mw rattan wen SPREE Te

Maieealauiel igen w acs Tp CIOS AIS Br Oe yO

disappeared and portion of intestinal tube was

visible so also a small air bladder. The dorsal

and caudal fin folds were developing fin rays

but there were no traces of anal or pelvic fin

rays. The preanal fin fold was also reduced in

BEY, bom Be Or aie see . oa ry ° aia Piece hie a lire! PSAs CMT cr

Slee ie eit cheetgere om. 2 3 sp . SR GT a ae 6 GENIC OED CIAO dag ay Pisum

ore mos aCe ee CSO CR CO oon euro kone GH onl uc 5 ean GAAS =

z RS ° : BS OC =e

ES Sate e aT; ea

4 tasGogsen ie ts oO

-o * Og

ot be of to i.

°s

Fig. 3. Newly hatched larva (hatchling) of B. (O.) bola Ham.

the pectoral and a few behind it. Smaller mela-

nophores were seen above the anterior portion

of the yolk sac which was considerably re-

duced in size, its posterior portion had almost

been tube-like and functional.

size. The fry continued to feed on sifted Moina

and moved about elegantly.

On the seventeenth day, the fry (fig. 5) had

reached total iength of 18 mm with all the

fins well developed. The body continued to be

Fig. 4. Seven day old fry of B. (O.) bola Ham.

On the seventh day, the hatchling (fig. 4)

had almost become a tiny fry of 8 mm

length. The body was covered with large num-

ber of chromatophores right from the head to

the tail portion. The yolk sac had completely

covered with melanophores scattered all over

as in the earlier stage. They appeared even

on the caudal fin-rays and a part of the caudal

peduncle. The nature of the jaws, prominent

eyes and sleek elongated body were character-

Fig. 5. Seventeen day old fry of B. (O.) bola Ham.

271

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

istic of the adult Indian trout. However, it is

felt that the large number of melanophores

seen at this stage may be due to captive con-

dition and is likely to be much less in natural

open bodies of water.

It was seen that the rate of development of

embryos was different in individual cases. Al-

though the first egg hatched out in 64 hrs,

other eggs in the same batch took 68 to 72

hours in water of 26°C. Further, the eggs which

were being hatched in floating trays with con-

tinuous sprinklers of water of 21°-22°C at

Lonavla (Walwhan) hatchery, the hatching pe-

riod varied from 58 to 68 hours, some of them

taking even longer time. In these floating trays

a large number of eggs perished on account

of some unidentified infection. Hence 68 hours

can be taken as average hatching period. It

was further seen that these eggs were more

delicate than the eggs of other carps and easi-

ly susceptible to disease.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our indebtedness to the Tata

Electric Companies for affording necessary fa-

cilities for conducting the studies embodied in

this paper at their Walwhan (Lonavla) fish

farm. Our sincere thanks are also due to Dr

S. N. Dwivedi, Director, Central Institute of

Fisheries Education, Versova, Bombay 400061,

for providing laboratory facilities and to Shri

P. N. Roy for deligent attention, preliminary

drawings.

REFERENCES

CHACKO, P. I. AND VENKATARAMAN, R. S. (1945):

On the Bionomics of the Baril, Barilius bendelisis

(Ham.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45:438-439.

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India.

EvaANS, F. (1926): Fishing in Lonavla. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 31:828-830.

Hora, S. L. (1937): The Game Fishes of India.

McDonaLp, A. S. T. J. (1948): Circumventing

the Mahseer and other sporting fish in India. Bom-

272

bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

SPENCE, R. AND PRATER, S. H. (1932): Game

Fishes of Bombay and neighbouring Districts. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36:29-66.

KULKARNI, C. V. (1975): Introduction of Indian

trout in Lonavla waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

USPS Sy:

THomas, H. S. (1897): The Rod in India, Lon-

don.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND SEASONAL PATTERN OF

VEGETATION OF PINE FORESTS OF SHILLONG

IN MEGHALAYA'

R. R. RAo AND P. KHARKONGOR?

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Assam, one of the richest and interesting ‘Bot-

anical Provinces’ of India is still botanically

incompletely known. This is more so with

Khasi hills in Meghalaya which is predomin-

antly occupied by pine forests. These pine

forests shelter a host of other species. The

ecology and phytosociological aspects of these

are little known. Even the floristic composition

of these forests remains unknown.

The only regional account of the flora is

that of Kanjilal et al. (1934-40) which is in-

complete and has a strong bias towards the

woody forest species. Though collections have

been made since the time of Hooker (1872-

97), a consolidated flora of this region is lack-

ing.

A series of studies on the flora of Shillong

have been undertaken by the North-Eastern

Hill University at Shillong and the present ac-

count deals with the floristic composition of

pine forests of Shillong in Meghalaya.

Location and soil:

Shillong is situated at 25°34’N, 91°56’E.

Physiographically the entire area is hilly with

a luxuriant growth of pine forests (Pinus

kesiya). The altitude varies from 1250 to

1960 m.

1 Accepted April 1977.

2 School of Life Sciences, North-Eastern Hill Uni-

versity, Shillong 793 003.

The soil is fertile, loamy and dark-brown.

In many places it is acidic with pH ranging

from 6.1 to 6.9.

Climate and Rainfall:

Shillong has a cool climate. As it is evident

from the graph*® (Fig. 1), winter temperatures

go down to 5.2°C in the month of January

and maximum temperature is observed in the

month of April at about 25.5°C.

Rainfall is spread over all the months except

December. The average total rainfall recorded

for the period between 1972-74 is 219.86 cm.

During December-January frost occurs on

some days in the early mornings and this kills

almost all the herbaceous vegetation, leaving

the ground bare and covered with a mat of pine

needles.

Previous work and present approach:

The area under study is floristically incom-

pletely known, though systematic collections

have been made ever since the time of Hooker

(1872-97). The only flora which covers this

part is that of Kanjilal et al. (1934-40), which

is more a forest flora. Besides, except for

Poaceae by Bor (1940) the monocot part is

not treated. Mitra (1958) has given an account

of the monocotyledonous plants of NE. region.

Though this area has received much atten-

tion, after the establishment of the regional

3 Meteorological data for the year 1975. Thanks

are due to the Meteorologist-in-charge, Khasi hills,

Shillong for the meteorological information.

273

274

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ortte.f e= Morning humidity (7%)

e--—e- Evening » (%)

owns Rainfall (mm)

efi e> Minimum temp (°%)

eococcoe= Maximum >»

Oe? or @w, noe?

eo” °- eer ®

Humidity (%)

- Temperature (c)

J75 F

Asis J oJ AS

Fig. Showing humidity rainfall 8 temperature for 1975

Fig. 1.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF PINE FORESTS

circle of the Botanical Survey of India at Shil-

long, a consolidated flora of Shillong is still

lacking. Except for few publications on the

flora of Shillong proper not much is known

(Rao & Deka 1970; Rao & Rao 1976). Some

significant contributions on the flora of NE.

region have been made by various officers of

the Botanical Survey of India at Shillong. These

include Shillong also (Naik 1964; Rao &

Verma 1969; 1970; 1972). The flora of the

pine forests, however, remained unexplored.

The present account is based on the collec-

tions and study made by us during 1975-77.

Plants have been collected from different pine

forests in and around Shillong. Care was taken

to collect minute herbs and other ephemeral

plants. Abundant field notes were made at the

time of collection with special reference to

their habitats and associates. Normal herbarium

procedures were followed in pressing, poison-

ing and mounting the specimens.

All the collections are deposited in the Her-

barium of North-Eastern Hill University, Shil-

long (*NEHU).

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND SEASONAL

PATTERN OF VEGETATION

Predominantly the forests are of Pinus kes-

lya with trees like Schima khasiana, Quercus

sp.. Myrica esculenta, Acacia mollissima, AI-

nus nepalensis interspersed. The shading by the

tree canopy keeps the area moist and offers a

suitable habitat for a number of herbaceous

species. These cover the ground throughout

the year except between November-February

the coldest months in Shillong when all the her-

baceous vegetation dies. Only the introduced

* The abbreviation NEHU is yet to find a place

in Index Herbariorum.

Eupatorium, E. odoratum, E. riparium and

F, adenophorum manage to flourish and resist

the severe cold season. Eupatorium adenopho-

rum forms the dominant herbaceous vegeta-

tion in all pine forests at higher elevations.

Moderately shaded areas support grass-

legume association which are subject to graz-

ing and scrapping in some places. The com-

mon leguminous species are Trifolium repens,

Desmodium heterocarpon, Crotalaria ferru-

ginea, and Smithia blanda. The other common

species which are predominant during monsoon

are Artemisia nilagirica, Lantana camara vat.

aculeata, Plectranthus coetsa, Osbeckia crinita,

Hypochaeris radicata, Galinsoga parviflora,

Cardainine_ hirsuia, Eragrostis nigra, Sporo-

bolus fertilis, Polygonum punctatum and Cen-

tella asiatica. Aeginitia indica, a member of

Orobanchaceae is common in some forests

among pine litters during August-October.

The severe coid of November-January checks

and kills the growth of these herbaceous spe-

cies, and only the hardier species like Lantana

camara and Eupatorium manage to survive. In

early March, Eupatorium adenophorum and

—&. riparium produce profusely their white

flowers and form a conspicuous feature of the

vegetation.

Though forest fires are not common in these

forests, less densely wooded areas covered with

grasses often readily catch fire and this again

kills all the herbaceous species, and young

shoots of the perennial species.

In marshy areas and along the ravines hy-

drophytes and marsh plants like Eriocaulon

brownianum, Lindernia cordifolia, Rotala

rotundifolia, Lobelia colorata, Smithia blanda,

Polygonum capitatum and Impatiens chinensis

and many sedges are very common. Brugman-

sia suaveolens with large, pendent, white flow-

ers forms a striking feature of vegetation all

along the streams in Shillong.

275

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

EENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF

PINE FORESTS

In the following enumeration, the families,

genera and species under each family are al-

phabetically arranged. Common synonyms are

given in brackets immediately after the valid

names. Vernacular names (Khasi names) are

given where available; followed by brief notes

on cach taxon and its common associates.

Flowering and fruiting period is also shown

and this refers to our collections studied.

Species not mentioned by Kanjilal eft al.

(1934-40) are indicated by an asterisk. This

does not refer to monocots except for Poaceae.

ACANTHACEAE

Hypoestes triflora R. & S.

Herb in shady places, associated with Eupa-

torium adenophorum and Galium rotundifo-

lium; sparse. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 582.

Strobilanthes coloratus Anders.

Undershrub in moist shady places; not com-

mon. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Schizie 474.

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera L. vern. ‘Soh byrthied’.

Herb in partially shaded areas, associated

with Drymaria cordata; rare. Fls. June-Qct.

Rao 321 A.

APIACEAE (Umbelliferae)

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

(fTydrocotyle asiatica L.)

Prostrate herb rooting at nodes; common in

marshy places. Fls. June-Oct. Kharkongor 828.

ARACEAE

Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott.

Tall herb among grasses in open places; rare.

Fls. Sept. Kharkongor 548.

276

ASTERACEAE

Ageratum conyzoides L.

Herb with violet heads, common on grassy

areas, associated with Drymaria cordata and

Mimosa pudica; sparse. Fls. Major part of the

year. Kharkongor 701.

* Ainsliaea latifolia (D. Don) Sch.-Bip.

(A. pteropoda DC.)

Slender herb common among grasses in open

places. Fils. Nov. Kharkongor 762.

* Anaphalis adnata DC.

Fluffy herb common in grassy areas, asso-

ciated with Eupatorium and the next species;

common. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 531.

* Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hk. f.

Herbs commonly found in shady, gravelly

soils, associated with Desmodium spp. and

Centella asiatica; common. Fils. Sept.-Oct.

Kharkongor 542.

* Anaphalis griffithi Hk. f.

Like the previous and often associated with

it; common. Fls. Sept.-Nov. Schizie 2008.

Artemisia nilagirica (Cl.) Pamp.

(A. vulgaris auct. non L.)

Tall, aromatic herb growing at higher eleva-

tions and associated with Eupatorium sp. and

Bidens biternata; very common. Fls. Oct.

Kharkongor 570 A.

* Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff.

(B. pilosa auct. non L.)

Tall erect herb common at higher elevations,

often associated with Artemisia nilagirica and

Eupatorium adenophorum; very common. Fils.

Octo.-Nov. Kharkongor 388.

* Chrysanthemum coronipifolium Vill.

Tall slender herb very common in open

grassy areas, probably an escape from cultiva-

tion. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 533.

* Cosmos bipinnatus Cav.

Tall, slender herb met with in open places,

associated with grasses. An escape from culti-

vation. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 570.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF PINE FORESTS

Crossocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.

Moore |

Erect herb in open places having a preference

for moist shady location; heads reddish; asso-

ciated with grasses. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor

Sel.

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.

Slender herb on open sandy soils; leaves

both radical and cauline; common. Fls. Sept.-

Oct. Kharkongor 553.

* Erigeron canadensis L.

Erect herb common on margins of forests,

among grasses. Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor

550.

* Erigeron mucronatus DC.

Decumbent herb, very variable in leaves and

colour of heads; common among grasses and

on walls, associated with Drymaria cordata,

Polygonum punctatum and Oxalis corniculata;

Fls. Feb.-Mar. Kharkongor 532.

* Kupatorium adenophorum Spreng.

(E. glandulosum H.B. & K.)

The commonest adventive weed found ab-

undantly in all forests, associated with other

Eupatorium spp.; heads white. Fls. March-

April. Kharkongor 718.

Eupatorium riparium Regel.

Like the previous species and very common-

ly associated with it. Fls. Feb.-Mar. Kharkon-

gor 716.

Eupatorium odoratum L.

Another adventive very common at lower

elevations. Fls. Dec.-Feb. Rao 326.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Erect glabrous herb; ray florets white; com-

mon in open places. Fis. Sept.-Nov.; April-

Sept. Kharkongor 527.

* Galinsoga ciliata (Rafn.) Blake

Like the previous species and associated with

it; differs in hairy nature of the plant; common

Fls. Sept.-Nov. Rao 527 A.

* Gerbera maxima (D. Don) Beauv.

(G. macrophylla Benth.)

Herbs of shady places; associated with gras-

ses and Eupatorium. Fls. Dec. Kharkongor 707.

Gnaphalium luteo-album L.

Woolly herb in marshy places among grass

and Centella asiatica, occasional. Fls. Oct.-Feb.

Kharkongor 715.

* Hypochaeris radicata L.

Slender herb with bright yellow heads; leaves

basal only; common on open grassy soils. Fls.

Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 525.

Inula cappa DC.

Stout, woolly herbs to undershrub, common

on open grassy soils. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkon-

gor. 580.

Sonchus oleraceus L.

Herb with yellow heads; common outside

the pine forests and near human habitations;

Fls. Major part of the year. Rao 360.

Sonchus wightianus DC. subsp. wightianus

Boulos

GS. arvensis L.)

Erect herb with glandular hairy stems and

heads; common in open and shady places, as-

sociated with grasses. Fls. Mar.-July. Rao 3061.

Tagetes patula L.

Probably an escape from cultivation; com-

mon on the outskirts of the pine forests in

grassy areas. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 590.

* Vernonia saligna DC.

Undershrub, common in shade, associated

with Eupatorium adenophorum and Rubus

micropetalus. Fis. Nov.-Feb. Schizie 2018.

XManthium strumarium L.

Hairy herb to undershrub, not common; FIs.

Nov. Rao 177.

BALSAMINACEAE

* Impatiens benthamii V. Steen.

Slender herb in moist and shady places, as-

sociated with Anaphalis sp. Occasional. Fls.

Aug.-Sept. Schizie 461.

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

* Impatiens chinensis L.

Glabrous slender herb in similar localities as

the above; associated with Eriocaulon spp. and

grasses, frequent. Fls. Aug. Kharkongor 503.

BETULACEAE

Alnus nepalensis D. Don

Large deciduous trees;

pine trees. Fis. Oct.-Dec.

occasional among

BORAGINACEAE

* Cynogiossum lIanceolatum Forsk.

Tall, hispid herb in shady places, associated

with grasses. Fis. Sept. Kharkongor 556.

BRASSICACEAE (Cruciferae)

Cardamine hirsuta L.

Suberect herb, glabrous; common in parttial-

ly shaded areas, associated with Polygonum

punctatum. Fls. Feb. Kharkongor 561, 714.

* Nasturtium montanum Wall.

Slender herb in shade, associated with Cen-

tella asiatica and Hypochaeris radicata; sparse.

Fls. Oct. Kharkongor 577.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Cassia mimosoides L.

Diffuse herb on shaded grassy areas; flowers

light yellow; sparse. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkon-

gor 540.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

* Drymaria cordata Willd.

Slender herb common in marshy places, as-

sociated with Galinsoga spp. and grasses. Fils.

Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 522; Thanchuma 608.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina paludosa BI.

(C. obliqua Ham.)

Slender herb found in moist, grassy soils

278

along the ravines; Fls. Sept. Kharkongor 538.

Cyanotis vaga (Lour.) Schult.

Slender glabrous herb in moist places, asso-

ciated with grasses and sedges. Fils. Sept.-Oct.

Kharkongor 507, 517.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth

(/. hederaceae auct. non Jacq.)

Climber on bushes and small trees; occasion-

al. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 706.

CUSCUTACEAE

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. vern. Jerini-uthri.

Leafless, twining parasite, common on Dur-

anta, Eupatorium and Cestrum. Fls. Oct.-Nov.

Kharkongor 592.

CYPERACEAE

Carex baccans Nees

Tall sedge on grassy areas, sparsely distri-

buted in some pine forests. Fils. Sept.-Oct.

Kharkongor 523.

Carex spiculata Boott.

Like the previous species and in similar lo-

calities; Fls. Aug.-Sept. Myrthong 1048.

Cyperus rotundus L.

Erect tufted herb, common in open places

at the margin of forests. Fils. Aug.-Sept. Khar-

kKongor 520.

Cyperus sesquiflorus Matt. f. et Kukanth

Erect tufted sedge in grassy places in shade.

Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 512.

Cyperus zollingeri Steud.

Common at lower -elevations, like the pre-

vious species. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 510.

Fimbristylis tenera Schult.

Slender herb, common in open, moist areas,

associated with grasses and other sedges. Fis.

Aug.-Oct. Myrthong 1040.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF PINE FORESTS

ERIOCAULACEAE Brunclla vulgaris L.

Herb in shady places, associated with Arun-

dinella spp; sparse. Fls. Aug.-Sept. Schizie

2006.

Clinopodium umbrosum (Bieb.) Koch

(Calamintha umbrosa Benth.)

Procumbent herb in grassland; sparse. FIs.

Sept. Kharkongor 509.

Eriocaulon brownianum Mart.

Slender herb of marshy places; flowers in

dense globose heads at the terminal ends of

culms; associated with grasses and sedges and

Plantago sp. Fls. Aug.-Sept. Kharkongor 501.

RiGe HOR RIACE aE Dysophylla auricularia (L.) BI.

Phylianthus urinaria L. Coarse annual in open, moist places, asso-

Erect herb in marshy areas; not common. ciated with Osbeckia crinita, and Cyanotis

Fls. Oct.-Nov. Schizie 487. vaga, sparse; Fls. Oct.-Dec. Schizie 494.

Elsholtzia pilosa Benth.

GENTIANACEAE Erect hairy herb common among grasses;

Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 578, 704.

Gentiana quadrifida BI. Leucas ciliata Benth.

Slender decumbent herb on open, grassy ~ traggling, aromatic herb in shade; common.

areas, associated with Centella and Arthraxon. Fs. Sept.-Oct. Schizie 458.

Fis. Feb.-Mar. Kharkongor 712. Plectranthus coetsa Buch.-Ham.

Tall herb to undershrub in _ grasslands,

GERANIACEAE sparse. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 574, 595.

Plectranthus striatus Benth.

(P. hispidus Benth.)

Herb to undershrub occasionally met with

in shady places on slopes; Fls. Oct.-Nov.

Schizie 463.

HYPERICACEAE Scutellaria discolor Coleb.

Frequent, associated with the previous spe-

cies. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 518.

* Geranium nepalense Swect

Small herb in open grassy areas; common.

Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 600.

Hypericum napaulense Chois.

Herb of marshy places; occasional. Fls. Oct.-

Nov. Kharkongor 493.

LINACEAE

JUGLANDACEAE Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr.

Engelhardtia spicata Bl. vern. Dieng-lyba (D. pullum Salisb.)

Small tree; racemes pendent; fruits winged; Erect herb in shady places, associated with

common. FIs. May-Sept. Eupatorium Spp. Fls. Sept. Schizie 484.

LAMIACEAE (Labiatac) LINACEAE

* Ajuga macrosperma Wall. ex Benth. * Reinwardtia indica Dumont.

Short, decumbent herbs in shade; sparse. Stout herb with bright yellow flowers; rare.

Fls. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 599. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 567.

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

LOBELIACEAE

* Lobelia colorata Wall.

Tall herb in marshes, associated with Ervio-

caulon, and sedges. Fls. Oct. Thanchuma 665.

* Lobelia angulata Forst.

Procumbent herb, associated with Ovxalis

corniculata and Centella asiatica. Fls. Sept.-

Oct. Kharkongor 524, 563.

LYTHRACEAE

Rotala rotundifolia (Don) Koechne

Slender herb in marshes, associated with

sedges and grasses; Fls. April Kharkongor 719.

MALVACEAE

Sida cordifolia L.

Herb in shady places; common at lower ele-

~ vations, associated with Eupatorium and Lan-

tana. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 516.

Urena lobata L. vern. Soh byrthit

Undershrub common at the outskirts of

forests; leaves lobed, flowers pinkish; common.

Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 815.

MELLASTOMATACEAE

Osbeckia crinita Benth. vern. Dieng-

Shokthem

Pubescent shrub, common on grassy slopes,

associated with Eupatorium sp. Fils. Oct.-Nov.

Schizie 462.

Osbeckia cristata

Occasional on slopes, in shady places; Fls.

Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 543.

* Osbeckia glauca Naud.

Slender herb in open places, associated with

Cyanotis vaga; sparse. Fls. Oct.-Nov. Khar-

kongor 597.

* Osbeckia nepalensis Hk. f.

Undershrub to shrub in open places, asso-

280

ciated with Lantana and Eupatorium; frequent.

Fis. Sept.-Oct. Schizie 482.

MIMOSACEAE

* Acacia mollissima Willd.

Tree with yellow flowers in globose heads;

not common; Fls. Feb.-Mar. Kharkongor 713.

Mimosa pudica L. vern. Kombatsamthia

Procumbent herb with sensitive leaflets;

common in open places; Fls. Sept. Schizie 488.

MoRACEAE

Ficus hirta Vahl: vern. Dieng-soh-rompain

Small tree in shady places, not common; Fls.

Sept. Schizie 478. )

Ficus hispida L. vern. Dieng-lapong

Small tree, occasional in lower elevations;

Fls. Sept. Schizie 477.

MyRICACEAE

* Myrica esculenta Ham. ex D. Don: vern.

Soh-phi

Small tree with tubercled fruits which are

eaten.

ORCHIDACEAE

Anthogonium gracile Lindl.

Slender herb in open, moist places during

monsoon. Schizie 495.

Cymbidium macrohizon Lindl.

Terrestrial orchids, in shaded, grassy places;

rare. Fls. Nov. Kharkongor 596.

Herminium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth.

ex Hk. f.

Slender ground orchid common during mon-

soon, associated with Imperata and other

grasses. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 555.

Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schl.

Ground orchid common during monsoon, in

open places; Fls. Oct. Kharkongor 572.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF PINE FORESTS

OROBANCHACEAE

Aeginitia indica L.

Small, leafless parasite, in damp, shady places

among the pine litter; associated with Anapha-

lis adnata and other species; frequent; FIs.

Sept. Kharkongor 546.

OXALIDACEAE

* Oxalis corniculata L.

Small diffuse herb with stolon; flowers yel-

low and capsules bursting explosively when

touched; common. Fls. Feb. Kharkongor 516.

PAPILIONACEAE

Clitoria mariana L.

Prostrate climber in partially shaded loca-

lities among grass; Fls. Sept.-Oct. Schizie 466.

* Crotalaria albida Roth

Tall slender herb in shade, associated with

Eupatorium and Bidens; flowers yellow. Fls.

Nov.-Dec. Schizie 2016.

Crotalaria ferruginea Grah. ex Benth.

Herb in grassy places, not common; Fls.

Oct.-Nov. Schizie 2004.

Crotalaria occulta Grah. ex Benth.

Suffruticose herb in shade at the margin of

pine forests; Fls. Sept. Kharkongor 547.

Desmodium concinnum DC.

Common undergrowth in pine forest at lower

elevations; Fils. Oct. Kharkongor 544.

Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC.

Occasional in open places; Fls. Oct.-Nov.

Schizie 454.

Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC.

Prostrate, diffuse herb in moist places; asso-

ciated with grasses; common. Fls. Sept. Khar-

kongor 505.

Desmodium heterocarpum (L.) DC.

(D. polycarpum DC.)

Suffrutescent plants, frequently seen associat-

ed with other Desmodium sp. Fls. July-Sept.

Kharkongor 579.

Desmodium pseudotriquetrum (DC.) Prain

Slender, woody plant in shady places; asso-

ciated with Lantana camara. Fils. Aug.-Oct.

Schizie 480.

Desmodium racemosum (Thunb.) DC. vern.

Ja-top-rit

Decumbent plants in open and shady places;

Fls. Aug.-Sept. Schizie 479.

Desmodium sinuatum BI.

Occasional on grassy slopes; Fls. Sept.-Oct.

Kharkongor 569.

* Erythrina indica Lamk.

Tree with bright red flowers; occasional at

lower elevations at the margin of pine forests.

Fls. March-April.

Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. ex Don

Slender diffuse herb in moist places among

mosses; associated with Oxalis sp. and Dry-

maria cordata; Fls. Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 568.

Pucraria lobata Willd. vern. Suting-rit

Twiner on small bushes; occasional; FIs.

Sept.-Oct. Schizie 489.

Smithia blanda Wall. vern. Bat-shakuriao

Erect herb of marshes, associated with gras-

ses and sedges; Fls. Aug. Thanchuma 602.

Smithia ciliata Royle

Like the previous species and often found

in similar localities. Kharkongor 571.

Tephrosia tinctoria Pers.

Undershrub in partially shaded areas; com-

mon in lower elevations; Fls. Sept.-Oct. Khar-

kongor 519.

Trifolium repens L.

Small trailing herb in shady places; occasion-

al. Fls. Feb.-Mar. Kharkongor 708.

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major L.

Herb of moist places; frequent along the

281

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ravines, associated with grasses. Fils. Sept.-

Oct. Kharkongor 564.

POACEAE (GRAMINAE)

Arthraxon quartinianus (Rich.) Nash.

Common. Fils. Oct.-Nov. Kharkongor 594.

Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce

Tall grass with brown spikelets, associated

with Bidens and Eupatorium. Fis. Sept.-Oct.

Kharkongor 511.

Arundinella nepalensis Trin.

Common in shade; Fls. July-Sept. Kharkon-

gor 376.

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.

Slender grass, associated with Oxalis sp. and

other grasses. Fls. Sept. Kharkongor 366.

Bothricchloa pertusa (Willd.) A. Camus

Tufted grass with brownish culms; occasion-

al. Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 560.

Brachiaria villosa A. Camus

Frequent at the margin of forests; Fls. Sept.-

Oct. Kharkongor 396.

Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A. Camus

Tall slender grass, associated with Eupato-

rium adenophorum and Artemisia nilagirica.

Kharkongor 552.

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.

Tufted grass, common in open places, asso-

ciated with Centella and other grasses; Fis.

Sept.-Oct. Kharkongor 390.

Cymbopogon khasianus (Hack.) Stapf ex

Bor

Tall grass with greenish red spikelets, asso-

ciated with Eupatorium spp. common inside

the forests; Fls. Nov. Kharkongor 705.

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Common in marshy places during monsoon.

Kharkongor 549.

Eragrostis migra Nees ex Steud.

Slender grass with dark-green spikelets, as-

282

sociated with Eupatorium, common in shade;

Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 530.

Eragrostis untoloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

Like the previous species, but not so com-

mon; Fls. Nov. Neogi 2573.

Eulalia fastigata (Nees) Haines

Tall grass with brownish spikelets, associat-

ed with other grasses; common on loose soils;

Fls. Nov. Kharkongor 703.

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.

Tall slender grass in open places; spikes

white when mature; not common; Fls. Oct.-

Nov. Kharkongor 387.

Isachne clarkei Hk. f. ;

Tall grass in shade and among Lantana

bushes; occasional. Fls. Sept. Kharkongor 521.

Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus.

Common in open places; Fls. Oct.-Nov.

Kharkongor 377.

Oplismenus burmanii (Retz.) Beauv.

Very common in moist shady places, speci-

ally in loose soils, associated with Drymaria

cordata, and Oxalis corniculata. Fls. Sept.-

Oct. Kharkongor 529.

Oplismenus compositus (L.) Beauv.

In similar localities as the above, but more

common in lower elevations. Myrthong 1183.

Oryza meyeriana Baill.

Tall grass in shade, associated with Eupato-

rium, and Lantana. Kharkongor 373.

Panicum brevifolium Roxb.

Common in open places. Fis.

Kharkongor 515.

Paspalum dilatatum Poir.

Tall grass in open places, associated with

other grasses and Eupatorium sp., occasional;

Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 513.

Pennisetum typhoides Stapf ex Hubb.

Procumbent herbs, associated with HEupato-

rium spp.; frequent. Myrthong 1124.

Poa annua L.

Small, tufted grass, very common in open

Sept.-Oct.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF PINE FORESTS

places, associated with other grasses; Fls. July-

Sept. Kharkongor 364.

Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase

Common in marshes; Fls. July-Sept. Myr-

thong 1405.

Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.

Tufted grasses, occasional in lower eleva-

tions, associated with Plantago and Drymaria;

Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 566.

Setaria palmifclia (Koen.) Stapf

Common in open places, associated with

Eupatorium; leaves palm-like with prominent

veins. Fis. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 528.

Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton

(S. indicus auct. non L.) R. Br.

Common in open places, associated with

other grasses. Fis. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 551.

Themeda villosa Dur. et Jack.

Stout grass in moist shady places, associated

with Osbeckia sp. and Lantana; not common.

Fls. Sept.-Oct. Schizie 481.

POLYGALACEAE

* Polygala persicariaefolia DC.

Herb, common in shady places at lower ele-

vations. Fls. Sept.-Oct. Schizie 481.

POLYGON ACEAE

Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara

Tali puberulous herb, common in moist

places; Fis. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 537.

Polygonum hydropiper L.

Tall herb, lower nodes rooting; common in

marshes along the ravines. Fls. July-Oct. Neogi

2284.

Polygonum punctatum L.

(P. alatum Buch.-Ham. ex Spreng.)

Slender herb with globose heads; common

in marshes and in open places; Fls. Sept.-Nov.

Kharkongor 526.

RANUNCULACEAE

* Delphintium denudatum Wall. ex Hk. f.

oe Un,

Herb with purplish-blue flowers; rare. Fs.

Nov. Kharkongor 599.

Ranunculus diffusus DC.

Smali diffuse herb in marshes, associated

with Drymaria cordata and grasses; sparse.

Fls. July-Sept. Kharkongor 541.

ROSACEAE

Agrimonia eupatorium L. vern. Lynniang-

lynning

Herb in shady places; sparse.

Schizie 468.

Duchesnea indica (Ander.) Focke

(Fragaria indica Ander.)

Small procumbent herb’ with bright red

fruits; Fis. & Frts. Sept. Kharkongor 504.

Neillia thyrsifiera D. Don vern. Torsuin

Shrub, branches drooping; occasional in

shady places; Frts. Oct. Kharkongor 585.

Potentilla fulgems Wall. ex Lehm. vern.

Lyngiang-bru

Herb with stout rootstocks, common in par-

tially shaded places in grassland; Fls. Sept.

Kharkongor 565.

* Potentilla mooniana Wt.

(P. polyphylla Wall.)

Decumbent herb in shade, associated with

Cyanotis vaga and Eupatorium spp., sparse;

Fls. Aug.-Sept. Schizie 464.

Rubus ellipticus Sm. vern. Sia-soh-bru

Prickly, straggling shrubs; occasional in the

shrubby stratum in pine forests; Fls. Feb.-

March; Kharkongor 709.

Rubus micropetalus Gardner

Shrub with straggling prickly branches; com-

mon in shade; Fils. & Frts. Aug.-Nov. Khar-

Kongor 393.

Fls. Dec.

283

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

RUBIACEAE

Borreria articularis (L.f.) Will.

(B. hispida Schum.)

Procumbent herb, branches quadrangular;

flowers white; very abundant in some pine

forest, at lower elevation; Fls. July-Sept.

* Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC.

Like the previous species, but not so com-

mon; Fils. July-Sept. Kharkongor 554.

Galium elegans Wall.

(G. rotundifolium Hk. f.)

Hairy herb, branches climbing or straggling;

very common among Eupatorium bushes; FIs.

July-Sept. Kharkongor 506.

* Oldenlandia corymbosa L.

Slender herb in marshy places; not common;

Fls. Sept. Kharkongor 539.

Rubia cordifolia L. vern. Soh-misem

Scabrid climbing herb; common on Lantana

and Eupatorium in Pine forests. Kharkongor

506A. ,

SCROPHULARIACEAE

*Lindernia anagallis (Burm. f.) Penn.

(L. cordifolia Merr.)

Decumbent herb of marshy places, along

the ravines, associated with grasses and sedges

and Drymaria cordata; Fls. Sept., Kharkongor

514.

SOLANACEAE

Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Bercht. &

Presl.

Shrubs with large white, pendent flowers;

common all along the ravines and streams;

Fls. Major part of the year; Mahanta 404.

Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl.

Probably an escape from cultivation; flow-

ers orange coloured. Fls. Oct. Kharkongor 568.

284

Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn.

Large herb with blue flowers; common in

waste places; Fls. July-Nov. Schizie 460.

Solanum myriacanthum Dun.

(S. khasianum Cl.) |

Prickly shrub with bright yellow, globose

berries, frequent in open places; Fls. Aug.-

Sept. Mahanta 413.

Solanum sisymbrifolium Lamk.

Very prickly shrub; flowers bluish; berries

red when ripe; not common in pine forests;

Fls. July-Sept. Mahanta 414.

Solanum torvum Sw. vern. Dieng-soh-nonag

Pubescent shrub with white flowers, and glo-

bose berries; not common. Fls. June-Sept.

Mahanta 404.

SMILACACEAE

Smilax sp.

Climbing on other bushes; not observed in

flowers.

SYMPLOCACEAE

Symplocos racemosa Roxb.

Small tree with globose, scarlet fruits; fre-

quent; Fis. June-Oct.

THEACEAE

Kurya japonica Thunb.

Shrub associated with Eupatorium spp.

TERNSTROEMIACEAE

Schima khasiana Dyer.

Tree, occasionally found associated with

pine trees; Fils. June-Aug.

TILIACEAE

Triumfetta pilosa Roth.

Hispid undershrub to shrub, flowers pinkish;

Schizie 2015.

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF PINE FORESTS

URTICACEAE

Pouzolzia hirta Hassk. vern. Jamynsleh

Common in marshy places; Schizie 486.

VALERIANACEAE

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Common undergrowth in pine forests, flow-

ers white; Fls. Sept.-Nov. Kharkongor 545.

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon vern.

Rilong-phlang

Undershrub to shrub, flowers white; frequ-

ent. Kharkongor 586.

Duranta plumieri Jacq.

Shrub, commonly found in hedges near pine

forests; rarely found inside the forests; flowers

blue; fruits orange when ripe; Rao 309.

Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.)

Moidenke vern. Soh-pang khlich

Straggling, prickly shrub, very common and

abundant in some places. Fls. major part of

the year; Kharkongor 535.

VIOLACEAE

Viola serpens Wall. ex Benth.

Slender herb in shady places; not common;

Fls. Feb.-Mar. Kharkongor 491.

ZINGIBERACEAE

Costus speciosus (Koenig.) Sm.

Tall, stout herb with red, cone-like spikes;

occasionally found in shaded areas; Fls. Nov.

Schizie 475.

Hedychium gardnerianum Rosc.

Tall herb in marshy places; flowers white,

fragrant; common. Fls. Sept. Schizie 476.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. P. S. Ramakrishnan,

Head of the Department of Botany for facilities

and encouragement; also to the Deputy Direc-

tor, Botanical Survey of India, Shillong for

Herbarium facilities.

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1940): Graminae. In: Kanjilal et al.

Flora of Assam. Shillong.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British

India 7 vols. London.

KANJILAL, U. N. et al. (1934-40): Flora of As-

sam. vols. 1-5 (Vol. 5 by N. L. Bor).

Mirra, J. N. (1958): Flowering plants of Eastern

India, Calcutta.

Nalk, V. N. (1964): A note on Hydrocharitaceae

of Assam and NEFA. Bull. bot. Surv. India 6:301-

303.

Rao, A. S. & Deka, G. K. (1970): Two adven-

tives to Shillong Flora. Bull. bot. Surv. India 12:263-

264.

Rao, A. S. & VERMA, D. M. (1969): Notes on

Zingiberaceae of Assam. Bull. bot. Surv. India 11:

245-248.

(1969): Notes on Hedychium

Koenig, including four new species from Khasi and

Jaintia Hills, Assam. ibid. /7:120-128.

—— (1970): Materials towards a Mono-

cot flora of Assam: (Hydrocharitaceae and Burman-

niaceae). Bull. bot. Surv. India 12:139-143.

(1972): Materials towards a Mono-

cot flora of Assam—II. (Zingiberaceae & Maran-

taceae). ibid. 14:114-143.

Rao, R. R. & Rao, M. K. V. (1976): Galinsoga

ciliata (Rafn.) Blake in Shillong—a new distribu-

tional record. Geobios 3:71.

285

OCCURRENCE OF THE HERMIT CRAB DARDANUS

SETIFER (H. MILNE-EDWARDS) (DECAPODA,

ANOMURA) AT KARWAR WITH A DESCRIP-

TION OF THE FIRST ZOEAL STAGE’

V. N. NAYAK? AND V. S. KAKATI?

(With two text-figures)

Dardanus setifer (H. Milne-Edwards) origi-

nally described as Pagurus setifer is a widely

distributed hermit crab of the genus Dardanus

recorded from various parts of the Indo-Pacific

region from 2-50 fathoms (Henderson 1893;

Alcock 1905: Southwell 1906; Sundara Raj

1927; and Barnard 1950). However, so far

no record has been made of the genus from

the northern part of the west coast of India.

A berried female was collected on 14.iv.1976

from the intertidal rocky shore at Binga, about

7 km from Karwar. The crab was kept alive

in an aquarium until the eggs hatched on

22.iv.1976. After hatching of the eggs, the adult

was preserved and dissected for taxonomic

studies.

Dardanus setifer (H. Milne-Edwards)

(Fig. 1)

Pagurus setifer: Milne-Edwards, 1836, p. 274;

Milne-Edwards, 1837, p. 225; De Haan, 1849, p.

209; Muller, 1886, p. 472; Henderson, 1893, p. 420;

Alcock, 1905, p. 83; Southwell, 1906, p. 214; Lenz,

1910, p. 563; Terao, 1913, p. 379; Balss, 1921a, p.

19; Sundara Raj, 1927, p. 131; Barnard, 1950, p.

426.

Pagurus scultipes: Stimpson, 1859, p. 246; Ort-

mann, 1892, p. 287; Ortmann, 1897, p. 275; Doflein,

1902, p. 646; Rathbun, 1903, p. 34; Stimpson, 1907,

p. 205;" Lenz, JOO) {pp 563: Balss e193) cop. 48:

Parisi,” (908) py sil.

1 Accepted February 1977.

2 Karnatak University Marine Station, Post-gradu-

ate Department of Marine Biology, Kodibag, Kar-

war 581 303. Present address: Government Arts

286°

Pagurus pavimentatus: Hilgendorf, 1878, p. 816;

Whitelegge, 1889.

Eupagurus setifer: Haswell, 1882, p. 154.

Distribution: IND1Ia—Malabar coast, Gulf of

Mannar, Madras; Sri Lanka; East Africa;

Mauritius; East Indies; Hongkong.

Diagnosis (Fig. 1, a & b): Shield almost as

long as broad; eye-stalks elongated, cylindrical,

equal in length to the distal border of carapace,

and as long as antennular peduncle. Antennal

flagellum nearly 24 times longer than the shield,

with inner-distal joints produced in the ante-

rior half. Upper surface of chelipeds and of

2nd and 3rd legs densely covered with bristles,

and black-tipped, thorn-like tubercles; the

bristles being fine and short and fail to hide

the tubercles and surface sculpture. On the

propodus of the left cheliped (large) the brist-

les form wreathes around the bases of the

tubercles, and along the lower margin the

spines are grouped in palisade fashion (best

seen from the outside). The dactylus and pro-

podus of 3rd left leg (Fig. 1, b) broadened

(breadth of propodus nearly 3/5th the length)

with a sort of toothed or crenulated edges,

outer surface flattened and concave, with a

longitudinal ridge or keel, the surface with

pavement-like sculpture of regular transverse,

and Science College, Karwar 581 301.

3 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Post

Bag 1912, Cochin 682018.

OCCURRENCE OF THE HERMIT CRAB D. SETIFER

—

A |

1:0 CM

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1. Dardanus setifer lat Milne-Edwards), adult female: a. entire animal (dorsal

view); b. third pereiopod (left).

28> -

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

deep-cut grooves or tessellations. This form

and sculpture of the 3rd left leg is characteris-

tic.

Eggs oval, orange red (when immature)

changing to pale and semi transparent (when

about to hatch); egg size 0.22 to 0.26 mm x

0.25 to 0.28 mm.

Colour: The general body colour is reddish

brown with scattered white spots all over the

body. Antennule, antenna and maxillipeds light

yellow. Palm of the large cheliped dark brown.

Joints of pereiopods pale blue.

Ecology: The specimen was collected from

the exposed rocky bed of intertidal zone dur-

ing low tide, on the seaward side of a rock.

The rock was encrustated with green and

brown algae and shells of Babylonium occupi-

ed by hermit crabs.

Material examined: Binga bay, 1 berried

female, in the shell of Babylonium sp.; date of

collection—14.iv.1976; shield length—9 mm.

Remarks: The present collection is a north-

ward extension of its range on the west coast.

FIRST ZOEA

(Fig. 2)

Rostrum length: 0.37 mm; Carapace length:

0.99 mm; Abdomen length: 1.10 mm.

Rostrum extends well beyond the antennule

and antennal scale, sides almost parallel up

to nearly 2/3rd of the distance and then taper-

ing to a sharp point; presence of a short carina

at the base of the rostrum; posterior carapace

smooth and postero-lateral angle rounded;

abdomen smooth except for a pair of curved

lateral spines situated subterminally on the Sth

segment; absence of terminal spine on the

antennal scale.

No distinct chromatophores, but the rostrum

and abdominal regions light orange; mouth

parts pale like the remaining parts of the body;

288

diffused light yellow chromatophores around

the icye:

Antennule (Fig. 2, b): extends nearly to

1/2 of the rostrum and bears 3 aesthetascs

and 3 unequal setae terminally and a single

large plumose seta sub-terminally on a papilla

representing the inner ramus. Antenna (Fig. 2,

c): Endopod more than half as long as the

scale and terminally bears 2 long subequal setae

and a short outer one about 1/7th as long;

scale bears 10 setae on its inner margin, the

outermost being the smallest; outer margin of

the scale with fine hairs; Basipod with a stout

spine, serrated on the inner margin, distally.

Mandibles (Fig. 2, d): Asymmetrical and with

numerous strong teeth; no palp. First maxilla

(Fig. 2,¢): Coxal endite with 5 + 2 setae; basal

with 2 stout serrated teeth-like and 2 small

setae; endopod unsegmented and _ elongated

with 2 unequal setae terminally. Second maxilla

(Fig. 2, f): Scaphognathite with 5 plumose,

marginal setae; endopod bears 2 + 2 setae ter-

minally; basal endite with 4 + 5 and coxal

with 4 + 6 setae as illustrated. First maxilliped

(Fig. 2, g): The unsegmented exopod bears

4 natatory setae terminally; the setation on the

5-segmented endopod being 3, 2, 1, 2 and 4+ 1

respectively from Ist to 5th segments; inner

margin of 2nd and 3rd segments bear fine

hairs; the latero-proximal corner of the basipod

is terminated in a blunt curved lobe with a

tiny spine-like seta; basipod bears 8 setae. Se-

cond maxilliped (Fig. 2, h): Exopod as in

first maxilliped; endopod 4-segmented with

setation 2, 2, 2 and 4 + 1 distalwards; basipod

with 3 setae and the latero-proximal angle

smooth. Third maxilliped (Fig. 2, 1): Small

uniramous bud. Pereiopods: Not yet develop-

ed. Telson (Fig. 2, r): Maximum width of the

telson is slightly greater than the combined

length of the telson and the 6th abdominal

somite, to which it is fused; presence of a

OCCURRENCE OF THE HERMIT CRAB D. SETIFER

Fig. 2. Dardanus setifer (H. Milne-Edwards), First zoea: a. entire larva (lateral view);

a,. entire larva (dorsal view); b. antennule; c. antenna; d. mandible; e. first maxilla;

f. second maxilla; g. first maxilliped; h. second maxilliped; i. third maxilliped; r. telson.

289

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

longitudinal ridge on either side of the telson;

process formula 7 + 7; Ist, rather long, unarti-

culated and incurved spine, next a_ typical

‘anomuran hair’; 3rd to 7th, plumose setae,

3rd being the longest; 7th with spinules on the

outer margin; telson notch and posterior bor-

der with fine hairs.

DISCUSSION

First stage zoea of Dardanus arrosor has

been described by Issel (1910), Boraschi

(1921), Pike and Williamson (1960), Bourdil-

lon—Casanova (1960), DeChance (1962) and

Kurata (1968). DeChance obtained larvae of

3 species of Dardanus from plankton duly com-

paring with D. arrosor. But this identification

is Only upto the genus level. Moreover, the

complete larval development in the laboratory

is known only in one species, D. arrosor, as

described by Kurata (1968). Therefore, in the

present discussion only D. arrosor has been

considered for comparison.

The first stage zoea of D. setifer differs from

that of D. arrosor mainly in the following:

1. The surface of cuticle has a scaly appear-

ance in D. arrosor (Pike & Williamson and

DeChance) whereas no such scales are seen

in the present “matemal 2) Sizey Pike, and

Williamson give the length of the Ist stage

larva of D. arrosor as 3.1 mm whereas in the

present material it is only 2.09 mm; carapace

length in D. arrosor is 1.6 mm while in the

present material 0.99 mm. 3. Antennule: Pike

and Williamson show single aesthetasc and a

seta in the former whereas in our material

there are 3 aesthetascs and 3 setae in addi-

tion to a long plumose seta common to both

species. 4. According to DeChance the palp

of the Ist maxilla in D. arrosor bears 3 setae

whereas Pike and Williamson observe only two

setae. In the present material the unsegment-

ed palp consists of 2 setae only.

The following characters may be considered

as important generic features of first zoea.

1. Presence of a lobe at the latero-proximal

angle of the basipod of Ist maxilliped (Fig.

Ds ()).

2. Presence of a longitudinal ridge on either

side of mid-dorsal line of telson (Fig. 2, r).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are greatly indebated to the au-

thorities of the Karnatak University for pro-

viding the laboratory facilities and the C.S.LR.,

New Delhi, for financial assistance. Also, thanks

are due to Dr. K. N. Sankolli for his unfailing

encouragement.

REFERENCES

Atcock, A. (1905): Catalogue of the Indian De-

capod Crustacea in the collection of the Indian

Museum II. Anomura. Fasc. 1. Pagurides. Indian

Museum. Calcutta: 1-197.

BaRNARD, K. H. (1950): Descriptive catalogue of

South African Decapod crustacea (crabs and

shrimps). Ann. South African Mus., 38:406-470.

DECHANCE, M. (1961): Nombre et characteres

des stades larvaires dans le genre Dardanus (Cru-

stace Decapode Paguride). Ext. Comp. Rend. Sea.

Acad. Sci., 253:529-531.

(1962): Remarques sur les premiers

290

stades larvaires de plusieurs especes Indo Pacifiques

du genre Dardanus (Crustaces Decapodes Paguri-

des). Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. ser. 2, 34(1) :82-94.

HASWELL, W. A. (1882): Catalogue of the Aus-

tralian stalk-eyed and sessile eyed crustacea. The

Australian Mus.: 152-161.

HENDERSON, J. R. (1893): A contribution to In-

dian Carcinology. Trans. Linn. Soc., London ser. 2,

V: 325-426.

Kurata, H. (1968): Larvae of Decapoda Ano-

mura of Arasaki, Sagami Bay-II. Dardanus arrosor

OCCURRENCE OF THE HERMIT CRAB D. SETIFER

(Herbst) (Diogenidae). Bull. Tokai Reg. Fish. Res.

Lab. No. 56:173-180.

Pike, R. B. & WILLIAMSON, D. I. (1960): Larvae

of Decapod crustacea of the families Diogenidae

and Paguridae from the Bay of Naples. Pubbl. Staz.

Zool. Napoli 31(3) :493-552.

SOUTHWELL, T. (1906): Report on the Anomura

collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon, in 1902.

Report to the Govt. of Ceylon on the pearl oyster

fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar, Part V., (35) :211-

Ppl,

SUNDARA RAJ, B. (1927): The littoral fauna of

Krusadai island in the Gulf of Manaar. Bull. Madras

Govt. Mus., new ser. Nat. Hist. Sec., I (1) :129-134.

291

PHEASANT SURVEYS IN PAKISTAN’

Z. B. Mirza2, ABDUL

All the five species of Pheasants of Pakistan

are getting rare year by year mainly because

of poaching and destruction of their habitat.

Their range of occurrence is shrinking. Some

of these have become so rare that they are

considered threatened with extinction and are

registered in IUCN Red Data Book. These are:

1. Western Horned Tragopan Tragopan me-

lanocephalus once occurred in Indus Kohistan,

District Swat, in Hazara Kohistan and Kaghan

Valley, District Hazara and in Azad Kashmir

mainly in Neelam Valley.

2. Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii was

once common in foot hills of NWFP, Punjab

and Azad Kashmir.

The other three species are Monal Lopho-

phorus impejanus which occurred in Safed Koh

mountains of NWFP, in Swat, Gilgit, District

Hazara including Gallies and Azad Kashmir.

White Crested Kalij Lophura leucomelana in

Swat, District Hazara in Kaghan Valley and

Gallies, District Rawalpindi in Murree foot

hills and Margala hills and in Azad Kashmir

and the Koklas Pucrasia macrolopha found on

forested slopes of mountains of Chitral, Dir,

Swat, Hazara, Rawalpindi and Azad Kashmir.

Very little information is available regarding

the status of these species. There is no basis

to designate the status of any of these species

cxcept scme published accounts (Roberts 1970,

Mirza 1971, Wayre 1971 and Khan 1976).

1 Accepted October 1977.

2,4 World Wildlife Fund Pakistan, P.O. Box 1312,

Lahore, Pakistan.

3 Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshwar, Pakistan.

> World Wildlife Fund Pakistan /World Pheasant

Asscciation Pakistan.

2pn)

ALEEM?, AND M. ASGHAR*

In May and August, 1977 WWEP/WPA?®

crganized the first systematic survey of habitat

and population of Pheasants.

HABITAT DESCRIPTION

Neelam Valley: Kuttan forest, Salkhala

Game Reserve and Machyara Game Reserve

are most suitable habitats for Koklas, Monal

and Western Horned Tragopan. The eleva-

tion varies between 1500 to 4500 metres. These

are thickly forested, with sparse to thick under-

growth. The forests are in a transition zone

between moist temperate and dry temperate

and show the mixed characteristics. Koklas and

Monal Pheasants were observed to prefer dense

forests with plenty of undergrowth, where they

could roost at night on’ the trees and find

shelter in the undergrowth during day time.

Monal were also seen inhabiting alpine zone

just above the tree line or in some areas where

birch trees grow.

Tragopan were found occupying steep hill

slopes with some vegetation where there were

not much chances of disturbance of any sort.

However, in August these. were seen also on

gentle slopes with thick vegetation.

Hazara: Parts of Kaghan Valley (Shogran,

Malakandi, Manshi and Gallies), Dunga Gali

Pipe Line Forests, Retli, Darwaza Forest, were

also visited. The areas are suitable for Koklas.

The forests are moist temperate type.

The main tree species in Kaghan (the parts

visited) is blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) oc-

curring equally mixed with deodar Cedrus de-

odara in Shogran and Malakandi forest. In

Gallies forests, fir (Abies pindrow) and spruce

PHEASANT SURVEYS IN PAKISTAN

(Picea smithiana) are the predominant spe-

cies, whereas blue pine forms a major part

of the mixture on elevations lower than 2500

m. Quercus dilatata and Quercus semicarpifo-

lia are found here.

The forests are moist temperate. Deodar

(only in Malakandi forests) and blue pine are

the dominant species whereas fir and spruce

are mixed along with it in smaller proportions.

Thick bushy cover provided shelter for the

Pheasants and trecs over them for roosting.

Gallies: The forests are moist temperate. Fir

and spruce are the dominant species on higher

elevations whereas blue pine is associated as a

co-dominant (dominant on lower elevations).

Lower elevations is Gallies forests are the

habitat for Kalij Pheasant. Thick shrubby

growth of Myrsine africana, Rosa macrophylla,

R. moschata and Berberis lycium offers maxi-

mum protection to the bird.

SURVEYS

Koklas Census:

The census of this Pheasant was carried out

from 4th to 23rd May, 1977 in some areas

of Kaghan Valley, Gallies and Neelam Valley

and again from 13th August to 23rd August,

1977 in Neelam Valley. The bird occurs at

elevations between 1600-2800 m. In May and

August it was recorded as high as 2900 m. It

prefers moist temperate coniferous forests with

shrubby undergrowth, spending the whole day

feeding and hiding in the shrubs and roosting

on trees at night. In May these birds start

calling in the morning, just before dawn, 20

to 30 minutes before alighting from trees and

then for about another one hour they keep

calling from ground. The first call was heard

at 4.30 a.m. in May. However, in August the

first call was recorded at 5.00 a.m. The inten-

sity of calls was comparatively less. The popu-

lation was estimated by listening to the morn-

ing calls only for 20 minutes after the first

call because when the birds alight from trees

they change their positions and the new calls

are most likely to be confused as coming from

new birds. The position of each member of

the team for listening to the calls was _ pre-

determined during the reconnaissance survey

which was done one day before for each area.

Elevation of each person’s position was also

recorded by altimeters during the preliminary

survcys. This enabled each person to estimate

approximate elevation of each calling bird.

Each person also made a sketch map of the

area where he was listening to the calls and

plotted the approximate position of each call-

ing bird on the sketch map. After listening

to the calls the members of the team with

adjacent positions compared the marked posi-

tions of the calling birds on their sketch maps

and eliminated the common counts.

In Kaghan Valley 200 calling birds were

counted in 164 sq. mile areas; Shogran 105

birds in 9 sq. mile area; Malakandi 33 birds

in 44 sq. mile area and Manshi 62 birds in 3

sq. mile area.

Similarly in Gallies 88 calling birds were

counted in 64 sq. mile area; Retli, Dungagali

Pipeline Forest and Darwaza forest.

In Neelam Valley there were 100 calling birds

in 22 sq. mile area in May 1977; Salkhala 60

birds in 12 sq. mile area and in Kuttan 40

birds in 10 sq. mile area. In this area the teams

were concentrating more on Tragopan count

and Koklas count was not as thorough as in

other areas. The calls were estimated from

higher elevation comparative to the range of

occurrence of Koklas Pheasant at that time

of the year. In August the counting was ex-

clusively for Koklas in Machyara area where

538 calling birds were counted in 20 sq. mile

area.

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Monal Estimate:

In May 1977 some Monals were heard call-

ing in the morning and some were flushed with

the help of a dog at elevation 2450-3200 m.

in Kuttan and Salkhala areas. Only 41 Monals

could be listened or flushed in 16 sq. mile area.

The calls of the Monal is less audible from

distance as compared to Koklas Pheasant.

Since the terrain in which it occurs is very

difficult, therefore, call method estimate of

population was found to be impossible by the

members of the team. Although attempts were

made but much of the area remained unco-

vered. Only 10 calling birds were heard in

Salkhala and 15 calling birds were heard in

Kuttan.

Attempts were made to flush the birds with

the help of a dog but that method was also

impossible for several areas. In order to get

some idea of the population of this bird this

method was adopted on some comparatively

easy slopes. 8 males and 5 females were flush-

ed in Salkhala and 7 males and 3 females were

flushed in Kuttan area. In August 1977 in Ma-

chyara Game Reserve area estimate of Monal

population was made by listening to the calls

of the males, by beating some areas with the

help of beaters and also by chance sighting

of some birds in the range of their occur-

rence which was at that time of the year bet-

ween 2875 to 3800 m. high. The topographical

features of this area are more gentle slopes,

some plateaus, few steep hills and very few

precipitous cliffs, therefore, it was possible for

some members of the team to get better idea

of these birds. 50 calling birds were recorded,

6 males and 2 females were flushed and 2

males and one female were just sighted on

steep floor of the forest in a 13 sq. mile area.

It was observed that Monal also occur on very

gentle slopes. Their main concentration, how-

ever, was on steep and precipitous cliffs. We

294°

now believe that steep and precipitous hill

slopes are not the particular habitat criteria

of this Pheasant. Occurrence in such area is

perhaps their adaptation for survival from their

enemies, of which the man is the worst. To

further endorse our view we refer to Roberts

(1970) who recorded ‘“‘in early 1950s in gal-

lies the Monal was regularly seen and shot in

Mukshpuri hills, but according to the local

people it had not been seen there for the last

8 or 9 years’. Mukshpuri hills 2875 m has

gentle slopes all around and the eradication

of Monal from this area is due to man’s action.

Western Horned Tragopan Count:

Philip Wayre 1971 could only get indirect

evidence of occurrence of this Pheasant in

Kaghan Valley. During our census of Koklas

no evidence of its occurrence in Kaghan Valley

could be obtained. Although two years ago a

male Tragopan was obtained by NWFP Wild-

life Department for. captive breeding of this

species. This specimen was reportedly collect-

ed from Bichela Valley. This valley is adja-

cent to sub valley in Azad Kashmir where the

bird is still thriving. It is also likely that this

bird was actually trapped from across the

border in Azad Kashmir. Robert 1970 reports

the obtaining of a skin allegedly killed in Mur-

ree hills. He states ‘occasional birds wander

in winter in the Murree hills and are shot

there’. But on the basis of present position

of this bird in Azad Kashmir, it appears un-

likely. |

Tragopan is still common in Azad Kashmir

in some pockets. In May 1977 its counting

was attempted by call method as well as by

flush method in Salkhala and Kuttan Game

Reserves and again in August 1977 in Machy-

ara, Neelam Valley, Azad Kashmir.

In Salkhala mainly around Charehan 12 call-

ing males were recorded at an elevation 3000

to 3175 m. With the help of beaters 2 males

PHEASANT SURVEYS IN PAKISTAN

and 4 females were flushed. All these 18 birds

were recorded in 12 sq. mile area. In Kuttan

Game Reserve 9 birds were recorded by call

method and 7 males and 4 females were flush-

ed with the help of a dog in 10 sq. mile area.

Due to the very difficult terrain it was impos-

sible to survey the area thoroughly and totally.

Therefore, we believe the population of this

bird in these areas is much more higher than

the figures given by us. Another reason for

this indication of higher population is that in

the month of May the breeding season had

commenced and as we feel the females have

the tendency to remain inconspicuously hidden

in sheltered places, whereas the males usually

easily flush out, probably to divert the atten-

tion of the intruders.

In Machyara, in August 1977, a total of 7

males and 6 females were sighted by beat me-

thod. Out of these 1 male in full plumage, 2

young males and 3 females were sighted to-

gether on almost horizontal slope of a hill

covered with thick Quercus forest at an eleva-

tion 2825 m. In the total area of 20 sq. miles

all these birds were found in one patch of 3

sq. miles Quercus forest. In Machyara our

census was more thorough because of compa-

ratively easy terrain. Tragopan has the ten-

dency to live in undisturbed areas even if it is

a plateau. However, apparently because of

great disturbance due to heavy human popula-

tion this bird mainly survives in the most diffi-

cult terrain.

Red Jungle Fowl—An erroneous record:

Red Jungle Fowl Gallus gallus was reported

to occur in the Margala hills by the Wildlife

Enquiry Committee. Khan (1976) reported 573

Red Jungle Fowl in District Hazara. This spe-

cies was also reported by various other authors

(Ripley 1961), Ali (1962), Siddiqui (1969)

and Newland (1973). Roberts (1970) reported

that White Crested Kalij was mistaken as Red

Jungle Fowl by Wildlife Enquiry Committee

which compiled its report perhaps on the basis

of the information obtained from local people

who call the White Crested Kalij as Jungli

Murghi (Wild Fowl). We did survey in the

Gallies exactly in the same areas where Khan

(1976) counted Red Jungle Fowl. It was re-

vealed that he also repeated the mistake of

Wildlife Enquiry Committee. We, therefore,

report the non-occurrence of Red Jungle Fowl

atleast in Gallies.

Cheer Pheasant:

In August 1977 two members of our team

Mr. A. Qaddus and Mr. Sharif reported hear-

ing the calls of Cheer Pheasant in Machyara

area at elevation about 2450 m. This bird is

known as “‘Rayar”’ in Azad Kashmir and is

still reported from various areas in Neclam

Valley and other valleys of Azad Kashmir and

even near Muzaffarabad. Its census was not

attempted for the time being. It has not been

reported in recent years from anywhere in

Pakistan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the many people and

organizations whose help made these surveys

possible. Foremost among these is the Gov-

ernment of the Punjab, Forestry and Wildlife

Department for transferring a PL-480 Research

Project to Mr. Z. B. Mirza. This Research

Project provided the major financial assistance

for the survey. Secondly we are much indebt-

ed to WWEP for some financial support in

the project and for providing a Land Rover.

We are also thankful to Wildlife Department,

Government of Azad Kashmir and Wildlife

Department, NWFP for providing maximum

facilities of accommodation, guides and trans-

port.

2»

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM AND RIPLEY, S. DILLON (1962): Hand-

book of the birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

KHAN, YAR MunHAmMmMap (1976): Wildlife Popul-

ation Census of NWFP January-July, 1976. NWFP

Wildlife Department report.

Mirza, Z. B. (1971): Note on the distribution and

status of Western Horned Tragopan in Azad Kash-

mir. Pheasant Trust, Annual report.

NEWLAND, A. WILLIAM (1973): Proposal for the

Conservation of Himalayan Game Birds submitted

to WWE.

296

RIPLEY, SIDNEY DILLON (1961): A synopsis of

the birds of India and Pakistan together with those

of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Bombay

Natural History Society, India.

Roserts, T. J. (1970): A note on the Pheasants

of West Pakistan. Pakistan J. For. 20(4) :319-326.

SIDDIQUI, M. SiFAT ULLAH (1969): Fauna of

Pakistan. Agricultural Research Council, Government

of Pakistan, Block 79, Pakistan Secretariat, Karachi.

WayreE, PHILIP (1971): Advisery report on the

Pheasants in Kaghan Valley with particular reference

to Western Horned Tragopan, submitted to WWEP.

EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS REMOVAL OF FIELD-RATS ON

THE MOVEMENTS AND SEX RATIO OF FIELD-MICE"”

G. S. MANN AND O. S. BINDRA?

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

There are many reports that the control meas-

ures against rats resulted in the increase in the

population of Mus spp. (Barnett et al. 1951:

Bentley 1967). Similarly, Hood (1968) report-

ed that Rattus norvegicus was as numerous as

R. exulans in fields not subjected to routine

baiting, but the latter was predominant in areas

with a history of baiting, and this suggested

a change in species composition as a result

of the baiting programme. To verify this, the

influence of controlling rats on various aspects

of Mus spp. ecobiology namely; (1) propor-

tion of nomadic and settled individuals, (2) the

duration of stay in the experimental area, (3)

the migratory behaviour, and (4) the changes

in sex-ratio etc. were determined to ascertain

the cause for changes in the behaviour of Mus

spp. if any.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Studies on the movements were made by

using the “capture, mark, release and recap-

ture’, method described by Davis (1964). The

wonder traps fabricated at the Deccan Rat-

Trap Factory, Jalgaon, Maharashtra were used

for trapping. The bait used was a mixture of

1 Accepted May 1977.

2 Based on Ph.D. thesis of the senior author, pre-

sently Assistant Entomologist at the University.

3 Head, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agri-

cultural University, Ludhiana.

husked rice, pearl-millet and wheat. It was

placed in the main chamber of the trap on a

piece of paper. In winter, dry grass was also

put in the traps to provide some protection

against cold. The schedule of 10-day observa-

tions (two-weeks study of 5 days each) was

adopted in all the experiments. The observa-

tions on the sex and trap-site of individuals

were made during the first fortnight of each

month in the undisturbed ecosystem and in the

second fortnight of each month in the disturb-

ed ecosystem (by the regular control of rats).

The specific details in respect of different ex-

periments were as follows.

1. Measurements of field-mice in wheat and

groundnut fields:

A 6-hectare field, under a wheat-groundnut

rotation, was selected. In this field, the traps

were laid out at intervals of 15 metres in a

grid, having 18 <x 3 rows. Thus a grid of

270 x 45 metres, consisting of 54 traps was

laid in a homogeneous vegetation, with a belt

of more than 30 metres of similar vegetation

all around. The movement studies were made

throughout 1970.

2. Movements of field-mice after the regular

control of field-rats:

The control of rats was accomplished during

January 1971 to November 1972 during the

first 15 days of each month. Killing of new

entrants was done, by resorting to burrow

fumigation, using aluminium phosphide (Cel-

phos tablets) and by trapping. In the centre

of this block, a 2-hectare area was selected

297

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

to make counts of the field-mice, namely Mus

musculus bactrianus Blyth and Mus booduga

(Gray). The lay out and the field was the

same as in the experiment on ‘Movements of

field-mice in wheat and groundnut fields’.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Movements

1. Number of settled and nomadic field-mice:

The number of nomadic and settled mice

of both the species did not differ significantly

in all the wheat crops, i.e. 1970, 1970-71 and

1971-72 and of M. m. bactrianus in ground-

nut crop of 1970. The nomadic individuals of

both the species were more (p=0.10) than

settled ones in the ground crops of 1971 and

1972 and of M. booduga in 1970 (Tables 1

and 2). :

crop of 1969-70 was still higher (p = 0.10). In

the groundnut crop, the number of settled in-

dividuals was higher (p = 0.10) in 1971 than in

1970. In the groundnut crop of 1972, there

was a significant (p = 0.05) decline in the num-

ber of settled individuals from that in the

groundnut crop of 1971, and there was no dif-

ference in the population of settled indivi-

duals in the groundnut crops of 1972 and

1970.

The number of settled individuals of M. m.

bactrianus did not differ in the three crops of

wheat. However, in the groundnut crop of

1972, there was a significant (p=0.10) decline

in the number of settled individuals of this

species from that in the groundnut crop of

1970 (Table 2). |

In the wheat crop of 1970, there was no

TABLE 1

NUMBER OF SETTLED AND NOMADIC FIELD-MICE IN A 2-HA GRID OF WHEAT AND GROUNDNUT FIELDS AT

LUDHIANA DURING 1970

Naniber of eenled bind MO amate fcldeaies in }

Period Crop M. booduga M.. bactrianus

Nomadic Settled* Nomadic ‘Settled

February Wheat 1 0 7 5

March -do- 5) 7 9 20 |

April -do- 0 5 6 4

May -do- = — 1 0

July Groundnut — — a —

August — -do- 7 3 3 2}

September -do- 5 0 3 5

October -do- 6 OF 13 10

November -do- 9 4 19 6

settled (Newsome 1970).

* The rats/mice trapped more than once during a trapping-period of 10-days were considered to be

In June and December, observations were not recorded as the land was under preparation.

The number of settled individuals of M.

booduga was significantly (p = 0.20) higher in

the wheat crop of 1971-72 than that in the

wheat crop of 1970-71, and the increase in the

wheat crop of 1971-72 over that in the wheat

298

real difference between the number of settled

individuals of the two species, but in the

groundnut season of 1970, the number of settl-

ed individuals of M. m. bactrianus were signi-

ficantly (p=0.20) more than those of M.

EFFECT OF REMOVAL OF FIELD-RATS ON MOVEMENT OF FIELD MICE

booduga (Table 1). In the wheat crop of 1970-

71, there was no difference between the num-

ber of settled individuals of the two species,

but in groundnut crop, the number of settled

individuals of M. booduga was significantly

(p=0.05) higher than that of M. m. bactrianus.

In the wheat crop of 1971-72, the number of

settled individuals of M. booduga was signi-

ficantly (p=0.05) higher than that of M. m.

bactrianus. In the next crop (groundnut) there

was no difference between the number of set-

tled individuals of the two species. |

Thus the ecosystem disturbed through re-

gular control measures against rats was more

suitable for M. booduga than for M. m. bac-

TABLE

trianus. However, there was a significant dec-

line in the number of settled individuals of M.

booduga during the groundnut season of 1972.

This may be due to some physiological changes

(Chity 1962) in the overcrowded population

of this mouse in the previous crop, namely

wheat of 1971-72 (Mann 1973) and this may

be responsible for the low number of settled

individuals during the groundnut season of

1972. In the groundnut crop of 1972, the num-

ber of settled individuals of the two species

was almost equal. This may be due to increas-

ed immigration of M. m. bactrianus in the

area vacated by the crash in the population

of M. booduga. :

NUMBER OF SETTLED AND NOMADIC FIELD-MICE IN A 2-HA GRID OF WHEAT AND GROUNDNUT. FIELDS | AT

LUDHIANA, WHERE THE FIELD- RATS . WERE. CONTINUOUSLY ELIMINATED: \ i i

, SR ecies |

Period : fh Crop M. booduga M. m. bactrianus

Nomadic Settled Nomadic Settled

January 1971 Wheat 2 —_ 1 =

February 1971 -do- q 3 5 10

March 1971 -do- 8 10 5 5

April 1971 -do- 6 1 6 16

May 1971 -do- a — 4d 1

July 1971 Groundnut 2 a 1 aa

August 1971 -do- 15 10 14 1

September 1971 -do- 28 23 11 10

October 1971 -do- 23 15 2D, 6

November 1971 -do- 11 11 7 1

January 1972 Wheat il) 12 — 1

February 1972 ~ -do- 6 ib) = ae

March’ 1972 -do- 9 10 3 1

July 1972 Groundnut — — = —

August 1972 -do- 6 2 5 —

September 1972. -do- ND) — di 2

October 1972 -do- 4 1 6 2

November 1972 -do- 1 1 4 4

In June 1971,

December 1971 and April to June 1972, observations were not recorded as the land was

under preparation.

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ROUND

NUT

Q—

oS @

m~nwr werwr rece en 2 wee ee weew wee ew ow = @

ZO-AYDYUMDD DMOZC OZrr

ZO-AP>Dd>OMDV DMOZC OZz>_-

ZO-AYPDFUMDD BDMOZC VZPr

ZO—-+4PDFrumMDD DMOZC O2ZFr

ZO-A>DBD>vUMDD DMOZC OZP>EK

OE Oe ens as [eh a a a law anon ee Ola oe eas Se

M.m. bectrionus

Az NN

t Kia

M. booougea

NUMBER OF SETTLED ANIMALS

S & A &

]

| AAA /K

OJFMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJJASONDJF MA MJJASON

1970, ——>--——_ 97. ———_>--+—_ 1972

UNDISTURBED see i Fe, DISTURBED BY REGULAR

ECOSYSTEM ~ CONTROL OF RATS

Fig. 1. Number of settled field-mice in wheat and groundnut fields at Ludhiana

during 1970-72.

(2) Duration of settled life:

The duration for which field-mice remained settled in a 2-ha grid was as follows:

THE DURATION OF SETTLED LIFE IN DAYS

Before the elimination of Field-rats continuously

field-rats eliminated

SPECS Sex Number Mean + Range Number Mean Range

of animals S. D. of animals Se

observed observed S.D.

M. m. Male 35 Th ea The 2-29 36 11.4 = 13.9 2-53

bactrianus Female DD 8. Ooee OS 2-34 12 D2 == Oe7. 2-33

Average/total 57 8.2 =. 8.4 2-34 48 1.4022 712,,9 2-53

M. booduga Male 8 L145 teil On2 2-27 36 1386254503 2-59

Female 10 Viet 16e0 2-48 41 152 == lol 2-55

Average/total 18 1426: == aly 2-48 Val 14.5 = 14.4 2-59

a pe A ET RT RENE ED LETS EE a, 0 I aD

300

EFFECT OF REMOVAL OF FIELD-RATS ON MOVEMENT OF FIELD MICE

A comparison of the above data suggests

that the period of stay of both the species re-

mained the same in the disturbed ecosystem

as in the undisturbed ecosystem.

(3) Migration:

The migration was studied by determining

the interval after which the field-mice re-enter-

ed the experimental area and the results are

summarized below:

males outnumbered the females in both wheat

and groundnut during 1971 and 1972. In the

wheat crop of 1971-72, there were no females

in the experimental area, confirming no repro-

ductive potential in the population of this

mouse. In the next crop (groundnut) there

was a slight build-up of reproductive potential

as indicated by the sex ratio. The males were

more numerous than the females (Table 4).

(2) Mus booduga (Gray). In the case of

THE INTERVAL OF RE-ENTRY (DAYS)

<==

Before the elimination of

Field-rats continuously

field-rats eliminated

Species Sex Number Mean Range Number Mean Range

of animals of animals

observed observed

M. m. Male 11 49.0 24-150 3 96.0 61-136

bactrianus Female 11 77.0 27-121 3 29.0 25-36

Average/total 22 63.0 24-150 6 63.0 25-136

M. booduga Male 4 116.0 31-289 8 99.0 51-130

Female 2 73.0 34-112 8 138.0 54-279

Average/total 6 102.0 31-289 16 119.0 51-279

The long interval after which re-entry took

place suggests that both the species of field-

mice move at random, and it is only by chance

that the nomadic animals re-enter a given area.

A comparison of the above data suggests that

the migratory behaviour of both the species

remains unchanged by the change in the habitat

owing to the adoption of control measures

against field-rats.

(B) Sex ratio

1. Mus musculus bactrianus Blyth. In the

undisturbed ecosystem, the males were slightly

more numerous than the females in the wheat

crop, whereas the two sexes were equal in

number in the groundnut crop (Table 3). In

the ecosystem disturbed owing to the adoption

of regular control measures against rats, the

this mouse, the number of females remained

approximately equal to or slightly in excess

of the number of males both in 1970 (i.e. be-

fore the use of control measures against field-

rats) and in 1971-72 (i.e. after the elimination

of field-rats) (Tables 3 and 4).

From the above account of the sex ratio,

it appears that the habitat changed owing to

the regular control of field-rats was less suited

to M. m. bactrianus up to the wheat season

of 1971-72 than to M. booduga. This may be

due to the interspecific relationship of the two

species of Mus in the absence of field-rats. In

the groundnut crop of 1972, the crash of M.

booduga population (Mann 1973) led to the

reinvasion of the area by M. m. bactrianus.

This mouse then started building up its num-

bers, as shown by an increase in the number

301

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

TABLE 3

SEX RATIO OF FIELD-MICE AT LUDHIANA DURING 1970

Period Crop

February . Wheat

March -do-

April -do-

May -do-

Total / Average -do-

July Groundnut

August -do-

September -do-

‘October -do-

November 3 -do-

Total / Average -do-

Grand total / Average

Figures in the parentheses are number (male + female) of animals observed.

Number of females per male |

M. booduga M. m. bactrianus

— 0.33(9+3)

1.00(6+6) 0.76(17+13) ©

1.50(2+3) ~1.50(446) ©

== | (170)

1.13(8+9) i eomieea

1.50(2+3)

233301)

022545) 4 0.14(74+1)

2.00(2+4) 0.50(1246)

3.33(3+10) 3,80(5+19)

1. 88(12422) | 1.11 (26429)

1.50(20431) 0. 89(57+51)

In June and December, observations were not recorded as the land was under preparation.

of females over males during this period as

compared with the number in the wheat crop

of 1970-71, the groundnut crop of 1971 and

the wheat crop of 1971-72. This change in sex

ratio of M. m. bactrianus may be due to less

of interspecific competition between the two

species of Mus owing to the crash in the popu-

lation of M. booduga (Mann 1973).

SUMMARY

(1) These studies were made from Feb-

ruary 1970 to November 1972 and the regular

control of field-rats was done from January

1971 to November 1972.

(2) The changed ecosystem owing to the

absence of the fields-rats was initially less suit-

able to Mus musculus bactrianus Blyth as evi-

denced by decrease in number of settled ani-

302

mals and also less suitable sex ratio as com-

pared to undisturbed ecosystem, while this was

reverse in M. booduga (Gray) and this process

was continued till the wheat season of 1971-

72 was over and in the next groundnut season,

ic. Of 1972, there was a sudden decline in the

number of settled animals of M. booduga and

some recovery was present in M. m. bactrianus.

This sudden decline in M. booduga was con-

sidered due to its high population during wheat

season of 1971-72.

(3) The other characteristics of the popula-

tions, i.e. proportion of nomadic and settled

individuals, period of stay and the migratory

behaviour of both the species remained the

same in both the habitats i.e. undisturbed eco-

system and in ecosystem disturbed by regular

control of rats. .

EFFECT OF REMOVAL OF FIELD-RATS ON MOVEMENT OF FIELD MICE

TABLE 4

SEX RATIO OF FIELD-MICE IN A 2-HA GRID, WHERE THE FIELD RATS WERE CONTINUOUSLY ELIMINATED

A ais TR ee tk? oc A? Te OREN, RAS BIRT AA A OI OIE IE GE IA NI EIDE LAE DOT LDL SEL DOSE LE NN PL LL ET IID IIE P LES! LLL LEE ALIEN LEI EI III FS

Number of females per male

Period Crops M. booduga M. m. bactrianus

January 1971 Wheat —(0+1) —(0+1)

February 1971 -do- 0.43(74+3) 2.00(3+6)

March 1971 -do- 0.22(942) 1.83(6+11)

April 1971 -do- 0.58(14+8) 0.75 (443)

May 1971 -do- aa t0) ea)

Total / Average -do- 0.42(33+14) | eo 1,62(13421)

July 1971 Groundnut EE aYO) — (042)

August 1971 -do- 0.15(1342) 0.33(18+6)

September 1971 -do- 0.62(13+8) 0.78(274+21)

October 1971 -do- 0.83(12+10) 1.77(13+23)

November 1971 -do- 0.60(5+3) 1.63(8+13)

-0,52(44423) | 0.98 (66465)

Total / Average |

January 1972 Wheat —(1+0) 0.80(15+12)

February 1972 -do- —(—) 0.82(114+9)

March 1972 -do- —(2+0) 2.33(6+14)

— (340) 1,09(32435) _

Total / Average : -do-

July 1972 Groundnut —(—) —(—)

August 1972 -do- 0.25(44+1) 1.75 (447)

September. 1972 -do- 0.57(74+4) —(2+0)

October 1972 -do- 0.83(6+5) 1.50(2+3)

November 1972 -do- 0.67(64+4) 1.00(1+1)

Total / Average -do-. 0.61( 23414) 1.22(9411) ©

Figures in the parentheses are number (Male + Female) of animals observed. | |

In June 1971, December 1971 and April to June 1972, observations were not recorded as the land

was under preparation.

REFERENCES

BARNETT, S. A., BATHARD, A. N. AND SPENCER,

M. M. (1951): Rat population and control in two

English Villages. Ann. appl. Biol. 38:444-63.

BENTLEY, E. W. (1967): The control of rodents.

W.H.O. chronicle, 21:363-68.

Cuity, D. (1962): Population process in the vole

and their relevance to general theory. Can. J. Zool.

38:99-113.

Davis, D. E. (1964): Manual for Analysis of

Rodent Population. The Pennsylvania State Univ.

Pennsylvania, p. 82.

Hoop, G. A. (1968): Rat control research in Ha-

waiian sugarcane. Proc. Rodents as factors in di-

sease and economic loss. Jan. 17-27, 1968. Honolulu

Hawaii, pp. 88-94.

MANN, G. S. (1973): Analysis of field-rat and

field-mouse population at Ludhiana along with their

intraspecific and interspecific relationships, Ph.D.

Thesis, Punjab Agri. Univ., Ludhiana (Unpublish-

ed).

NEWSOME, A. E. (1970): An experimental at-

tempt to produce a mouse plague. J. Anim. Ecol.

39 :299-311.

303

OBSERVATIONS ON ANOPHELES (CELLIA) ACONITUS

DONITZ, 1902 (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE) IN BASTAR

DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH’

ZAKIR HUSAIN

HUSAINY2

(With four text-figures)

A total of 117 specimens of Anopheles aconitus

were taken in 18 villages of Bastar District,

Madhya Pradesh out of 105 surveyed in 1206

man/hours. This mosquito was mainly distri-

buted in forests of Hot-Wet climatic belt found

between 304 and over 761 m (a.s. 1.). This

species appeared to be an exophilic species.

The feeding was generally completed before

midnight. The greatest numerical abundance

was found in the Hot-Wet region in October

and November. This Anopheles was not cap-

tured from human bait nor any anthropophilic

index detected.

INTRODUCTION

Anopheles aconitus has a wide range in

South East Asia stretching from Central and

Eastern India, to Vietnam, Sulawasi and Timor

(Soerono et al. 1965). This species has not

been recorded from the Philippine Islands

(Ramos and Darsie 1970 and Baisas. 1974)

and from Afghanistan (Puri 1960). Christo-

phers (1933) pointed that the species Anophe-

les aconitus, a component of the oriental ele-

ment, has a wide distribution in the oriental

region to the east and extends into the Indian

area upto northwest frontier or nearly so.

1 Accepted October 1977.

2 Assistant Entomologist, National Malaria Eradi-

cation Programme, Jagdalpur, Dist. Bastar, (M.P.).

Present address: Assistant Entomologist, Qr. No.

G-53, Panchsheel Nagar, Raipur, M.P.

304

There is practically no area in India where

Anopheles aconitus is known as a vector how-

ever the species is the main vector of malaria

in Indonesia and Indo China (Pal and Sharma

955)

Fig. 1. Map of Bastar District showing physio-

graphic divisions and distribution of A. aconitus.

(For locality serials please refer text).

OBSERVATIONS ON ANOPHELES ACONITUS

Vaid & Nagendra (1964) reported malaria

as hyper-endemic in Bastar District and Ano-

pheles culicifacies Giles, 1901 and Anopheles

fluviatilis James, 1902 were considered as the

primary vectors of malaria. The present ob-

servations were made to study the bionomics

of the anopheline fauna of Bastar District since

information on this aspect from Madhya Pra-.

desh was not available. Earlier Prakash &

Husainy (1974) discussed the distribution pat-

tern of the anopheline mosquitoes of Bastar

District. In this paper some aspects of the bio-

nomics of Anopheles aconitus are described. —

AREA AND CLIMATE

The Bastar District lies in the southeast

corner of Madhya Pradesh and_ extends

from 17°46’ to 20°34’N latitude and from

80°15’ to 82°1’ E longitude. It has an area

of 39,086 sq km which falls into five main

physiographical divisions (Fig. 1).

The altitude ranges from 48.5 m (village

Konta) above sea level (a.s.l.) to about 1275.5

m (village Bailadila) a.s.1. This district shares

the monsoon type of climate with the general

Indian landmass, although the diversity of its

topography does not encourage a uniform cli-

mate. There are three distinct temperature di-

visions namely, 22 to 24°C, 24 to 27°C

and 27 to 29°C. The period from June to

October covers the general rainy season. There

may be two annual rainfall seasons of 152 to

178 cm and 127 to 152 cm. With the three

temperature and two rainfall divisions, the dis-

trict is divisible into five climatic regions (Fig.

2) (Agarwal 1968).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

General and routine collections were made

during night and day inside houses, cattlesheds

and outdoor vegetation of selected villages. In

order to determine feeding times and the den-

| ya

YAR

sity buildup, all night collections were made

between 1800 and 0600 hr at intervals of two

hours for half an hour each. The mosquitoes

were collected by an aspirator and torch light

and were identified at the end of collection

¥.> Moderately x

+: Hot-Wet | :

a A

Fig. 2. Map of Bastar District showing climate

regions.

on the spot in bright petromax light and their

species and abdominal conditions were noted.

Collections were also made by the pyrethrum

spray technique inside houses to detect the

indoor resting Anopheles. Man-biting rates

were determined by placing a man as a bait

and another collecting the mosquitoes actually

feeding on the bait. The degree of anthropo-

philism/zoophilism was determined by precipi-

305

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

tin tests. The females were dissected to deter-

mine parity status and sporozoite infection.

OBSERVATIONS

The studies were carried out from August,

1969 to January, 1975. In this period a total

of 21,716 specimens representing 19 species of

Anopheles were captured in 1206 man/hours

which had 117 specimens (25 unfed, 91 fed

tudinal distribution ranges from 304 to over

761 m. It has been secured from Hot-Wet,

Moderately Hot-Moist and Hot-Moist climatic

regions of the district.

Diurnal Resting Places: Anopheles aconitus

was not found during day time in house or

cattlesheds. A total of 111 specimens (94.8%)

were taken from cattlesheds in the night

(Table 1).

TABLE 1

COMPOSITION OF Anopheles aconitus CAPTURED AT VARIOUS SITES IN BASTAR DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH

Habitat Man / Hours Nos. Collected Per cent

Spent Male Female

Cattlesheds :

A. From 0500 to 1800 hrs 144 0 0 —

B. From 1800 to 0500 hrs 702 0 111 94.8

Houses:

A. From 0500 to 1800 hrs 139 0 0 —

B. From 1800 to 0500 hrs 117 0 0 =

Outdoors:

From 0600 to 1800 hrs 104 1 5 5.2

Total 1206 1 116

females, 1 male) of Anopheles aconitus secur-

ed from 18 villages out of 105 surveyed (Fig.

1). The numbers of specimens taken from

each village is given within brackets, while

the name of each village is preceded by a nu-

meral which marks its location on the map.

Specimens Collected: 1. Asna (1); 2. Aghan-

pur (9); 3. Adhawal (11); 4. Hat Kachora

(12); 5. Kurandi (2); 6. Barsoor (2); 7. Chote

Dongar (5); 8. Paknar (1); 9. Kotamsar (18);

10. Tirathgarh (3); 11. Mamadpal (6); 12.

Bispur (1); 13. Kamanar (10); 14. Kukalgur

(2); 15. Darbha (21); 16. Burdum (1); 17.

Tuswal (5); 18. Tongpal (7). Total = 117.

Distribution: The species was recorded from

Abujh Marh Hills, North-Eastern Plateau, In-

dravati Plains and Southern Plateau. The alti-

306

Specimens in full gravid/partgravid state

were never captured indoors. Out of doors, one

male and five fed females (5.2 per cent) were

encountered in village Adhawal in the fences

alongside ricefields. It appears to be an ex-

ophilic species in Bastar District.

Feeding time of adult female: Between

October, 1969 and September, 1971 a total of

147 routine all night catches were made which

fetched 45 freshly fed females of Anopheles

aconitus resting in cattlesheds of the study

villages at different hours of night collection.

The biting cycles (Fig. 4) are prepared from

the combined data for each hour from collec-

tions in all seasons. It was seen that Anopheles

aconitus generally completed feeding before

midnight. In November, this mosquito was

OBSERVATIONS ON ANOPHELES ACONITUS

500

BEALE oO A22wsed 75

KMS

e ll

ig o13 fy

eae ele a)

5 16915 ez WS 3° 039

14 beer | :

eee 49

ee B\ ise joe

Madhya 49

Pradesh of p 198 57 54°° 0

. soe ‘$5

43 |

ae 4 0

23 21° KEY 0

| @ 22 @ Species Recorded )

25 @ 6

bi Dane 6@ 20 | ==} sastar District A)

\ ©26 1

027 0)

44°

@28 0 6

| Fig. 3. Map of India showing distribution of A. aconitus.

| (For locality serials please refer text).

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

most active between 1800 and 2000 hr and

the numbers caught declined progressively

through the night. In July and December slight

activities were noted beyond midnight also.

Density Build Up: It was not regularly taken

in village Darbha between October, 1969 and

September, 1970. Out of a total of eight ex-

amples captured in this period, seven were

found in October while a solitary female was

taken in June.

Seasonal Prevalence: The majority of speci-

mens of Anopheles aconitus (76) were taken

in October and November. In other months

the species was less numerous while in the

peak of winter (January) and summer (May)

this species was not encountered (Table 2).

| 100% FEB

| a :

-—

< 1oe7 JUL

ree

w i7

<——

Area of Abundance: The majority of the

villages positive for the species are located in

the Indravati Plains, 457 to 609 m elevation

and Hot-Wet climatic region. Table 3 shows

the collection of Anopheles aconitus in diffe-

rent climatic belts of the district. It will be

seen that 70 examples (59.8%) were taken in

the Hot-Wet Region. This area is mostly co-

vered with forest. In Hot-Moist region 36 ex-

amples (34%) were captured. This belt re-

ceives less rainfall than the Hot-Wet. In Mo-

derately Hot-Wet and Moderately Hot-Moist

Regions, which are coolest areas of the dis-

trict, Anopheles aconitus was less numerous,

while in the Very Hot-Moist Region where least

rainfall and highest temperatures of the district

MAR

JUN

NOV DEC

"2400 06001800

2400 G600

TIME —»> _

Fig. 4. Feeding times of A. aconitus female adults in Bastar District, Madhya Pradesh.

308

OBSERVATIONS ON ANOPHELES ACONITUS

are recorded, this anopheline was not captured.

Man Biting Rate: No female of. Anopheles

aconitus was found biting human bait in the

houses of three villages where man biting rates

were determined for 80 man/hours although

67 anopheline females belonging to five species

were captured along with 263 culicine females.

Anthropophilic Index: A total of 14 smears

of the gut contents proved to be zoophilic in

the precipitin test. These females were captur-

ed in the cattlesheds of three villages Tong-

pal, Darbha and Kukalgur.

Dissections: A total of 102 females which

were dissected, had 81 nulliparous females in-

dicating their fresh arrivals for feeding. The

remainder (21) were found one parous proving

the age of those females of less than a week.

Sporozoite of Plasmodium spp. were not found

in the salivary glands of any female dissected.

TABLE 2

SEASONAL PREVALENCE OF Anopheles aconitus AT

THREE PLACES IN_ INDIA

Numbers taken at

Bastar Nilgiris Puri,

No. Month District* District** Orissa***

Actuals Per man Per man Actuals

Hour Hour

1. January 00 — — WD

2. February 07 O22 — 47

3. March 04 0.1 — 10

4. April 07 0.2 — 1

5. May 00 — — 8

6. June 05 0.2 0.1 1

fe duly OS 0.2 1

8. August 06 0.2 — 17

9. September 04 0.1 0.1 8

10. October 23 0.8 i 21

11. November 53 Ss 0.1 131

12. December 03 ORT 0.1 100

TNL EE ELS LR CN ET BS EE LE I ES OL EEE SE

Total Wty) 420

* Present studies. ** Russell and Jacob (1942).

*** Panigrahi (1942).

TABLE 3

COMPOSITION OF Anopheles aconitus COLLECTED IN

VARIOUS CLIMATIC BELTS OF BASTAR DIstTrRICT, MaA-

DHYA PRADESH

No. Climatic Region No. collected Per cent

1. Moderately Hot-Moist Region 5 5.6

2. Moderately Hot-Wet Region 6 5.6

3. Hot-Wet Region 70 59.8

4. Hot-Moist Region 36 29

Very Hot-Moist Region 0 —

DISCUSSION

The distribution of the oriental element An-

opheles aconitus was noted in forest area at

higher altitudes of the district. In plain areas,

it was not encountered. It is not a widely dis-

tributed and numerically dominant species in

the district. Russell & Jacob (1942) secured

Anopheles aconitus larvae upto 1219 m (a.s.1.)

in Nilgiris District, India. The present distribu-

tion of this species in India is shown in Fig. 3

(Puri 1955). The mosquito appeared to visit

cattlesheds in the night while diurnally it took

asylum out of doors. Biittiker (1958) describ-

ed this behaviour as a complete deliberate type

“A” exophily (Endophagy of Senior White).

Muirhead-Thomson (1963) noted in the in-

land areas of Java that very few specimens

of Anopheles aconitus rested during day time

in houses and very few are secured in the

usual type of cattleshed which has a roof but

no walls, and a great majority of Anopheles

aconitus are found outdoors in the banks of

streams and other sheltered places at densities

much higher than in houses, and about 23%

of these outdoor resting females are found to

be freshly fed. Russell & Jacob (1942) took

one female each in houses and mixed dwell-

ings and two females in cattlesheds of Nilgiris

west from February, 1940 to January, 1941.

Pal & Sharma (1955) stated that adult fe-.

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

males of Anopheles aconitus as a tule, feed

and rest indoors.

Though feeding times in individual months

varied however this was generally completed

before midnight. This Anopheles was taken

all round the year except during the peak of

winter and summer. It appears that peaks of

rain and extreme temperatures, both low and

high, discourage the numerical abundance of

Anopheles aconitus. The main period of abun-

dance may be considered in early winter after

the rains have stopped. Russell & Jacob

(1942) while working in Nilgiris west, record-

ed this species in equal numbers in June, Sep-

tember, November and December. Panigrahi

(1942) reported the prevalence of Anopheles

aconitus in Puri, Orissa, throughout the year

with peak densities in November after which

it declined. This mosquito was not numerically

dominant in the anopheline fauna, for its 117

specimens captured formed only 1.9% of the

total collection (21,716 specimens) of the dis-

trict. Panigrahi (1942) took 45,123 examples

of anopheline mosquitoes in Puri, Orissa, which

had 420 specimens of Anopheles aconitus

(0.9% of total).

No anthropophilic index was detected in

Anopheles aconitus nor was it taken from hu-

man bait. Pal & Sharma (1955) pointed out

that the females readily feed on man. In Java,

biting takes place indoors and outdoors and

can reach extremely high levels if the human

bait is in the vicinity of cattle (especially water

buffalo) (Soerono et al. 1965). Anthropophilic

indices of 11.2% (caught from houses) and

0.5% (caught from stables) have been record-

ed from Indo-China and 12% (cattle present)

and 61% (cattle scarce) from Indonesia (Pal

& Sharma 1955). Sporozoite infection was not

found in salivary glands of females dissected.

None of the earlier records suspects this Ano-

pheles as a vector of malaria in India although

Senior White et al. (1943) found sporozoite

infection in the salivary glands of two female

adults of this species out of 951 from Coastal

Orissa, dissected.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. Ronald A. Ward, Pro-

ject Manager, Mosquito Entomology Project,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. for

critical comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

AGARWAL, P. C. (1968): Human Geography of

Bastar District. Garg Brothers, Allahabad.

Baisas, F. E. (1974): The mosquito fauna of

Subic Bay Naval Reservation, Republic of the Phi-

lippines. Tech. Rpt. 72-2 Hd. Qr. First Med. Ser.

Wing (PACAF), APO San Francisco. pp. 170.

BUTTIKER, W. (1958): Notes on Exophily in Ano-

phelines in South East Asia. Bull. Wid. Hlth. Org.

19: 1118-1123.

CHRISTOPHERS, S. R. (1933): .The fauna of Bri-

tish India, Diptera, Vol. IV Fam. Culicidae, Tribe

Anophelini, London.

MUIRHEAD-THOMSON, R. C. (1963): Practical

Malariology in Malaria Eradication. Pt. I & II.

Wld. Hlth. Org. Geneva.

310

PaL, R. AND SHARMA, M. I. D. (1955): Malaria

control by the use of Insecticides—A global review.

Ind. J. Mal. 9, 4, 385-401.

PANIGRAHI, R. G. (1942): Malaria in Puri. J. Mal.

Inst. Ind. 4, pp. 423.

PRAKASH, R. & HUSAINY, ZAKIR HUSSAIN (1974):

Studies on the Anopheline mosquitoes of Bastar

District, Madhya Pradesh. Pt. I Distribution Pattern

of Adults. Ann. of Zool. X: 2, 13-52.

Purt, I. M. (1955): The distribution of anophe-

line mosquitoes in India. Hlth. Bull. No. 17, Bur.

No. 8, IV edn., Govt. of India Press, Delhi. pp. 38.

(1960) : Synoptic Table for the iden-

tification of the Anopheline Mosquitoes of India.

Vth Edn., Hlth. Bull. 10, Govt. of India Press, Delhi.

OBSERVATIONS ON ANOPHELES ACONITUS

Ramos, A. C. AND DARSIE, RICHARD F. (1970):

Illustrated keys to the Anopheles mosquitoes of the

Philippine Islands. Tech. Rpt. 706, U.S.A.F. Vth

Epid. Flight, PACAF, APO San Francisco. pp. 49.

RUSSELL, P. F. AND JAcos, V. P. (1942): On the

epidemiology of malaria in the Nilgiris District,

Madras Presidency. J. Mal. Inst. Ind. 4:349-392.

SENIOR WHITE, R., ADHIKARI, A. K., RAMA-

KRISHNA, V., AND Roy, B. B. (1943): On malaria

transmission on the Orissa Coastal Plain. J. Mal.

Inst. Ind. 5:159-186.

SOERONO, M., DAVIDSON, G., AND Muir, D. A.

(1965): The Development and Trend of Insecticide

Resistance in Anopheles aconitus Do6nitz and Ano-

pheles sundaicus Rodenwaldt. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org.

32:161-168.

VAID, B. K. AND NAGENDRA, S. (1964): Malaria

eradication in Madhya Pradesh. A_ report. Direc-

torate of Health Services, Malaria, Indore. pp. 9.

311

A STUDY OF THE AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS

OF JHALAWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN’

V. SINGH®

The present study gives an account of the floristic composition, phenology, ecology and

detailed distribution of aquatic and marshland vegetation of Jhalawar district. The

area has remained under-explored on account of its lack of facilities. Important aquatic

habitats of the area have been selected for detailed study and a description of each

habitat alongwith characteristic species occurring there, has been given. The hydro-

phytes have been classified into six life-forms based on their contact with soil, water

and air. Proportion of monocots to dicots with regard to species (1:0.8) is interesting

as the hydrophytic vegetation is represented by a better number of monocotyledons in

this area. Four species have been mentioned as new records for Rajasthan. Detailed

distribution of the species in the area surveyed has been tabulated and important

aquatic and marshland communities are described.

INTRODUCTION

The flora of Rajasthan has been studied in

great detail since the publication of Blatter and

Hallberg’s (1918-21) ‘The Flora of the Indian

Desert”. In recent years, studies have also been

undertaken on the hydrophytic and marshland

flora of the terrain (Ratnam & Joshi 1952;

Sarup 1958, 1961; Nair & Kanodia 1959; Vyas

1962, 1964; Gupta 1966; Maheshwari & Singh

1974; see also Biswas & Calder 1937; Subra-

manyam 1962; Majumdar 1971). There is,

however, a lacuna in our knowledge of the

structure and composition of aquatic and

marshland flora of Jhalawar district in south-

eastern part of Rajasthan. The present paper

includes fairly comprehensive data on the flor-

istic composition, phenology, ecology and the

distribution of hydrophytes from Jhalawar dis-

trict. The region was surveyed in different

1 Accepted August 1977.

2A part of Ph.D. thesis approved by Meerut

University, Meerut.

3 Botanical Survey of India, Arid Zone Circle,

Jodhpur.

312

seasons during the years 1968 to 1973 and the

specimens collected during this study are pre-

served in the Herbarium of Floristic Botany

Division, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow

(LWG).

LOCATION, SOIL AND CLIMATE

Jhalawar district is situated in the southeast

corner of Rajasthan at the edge of Malwa

plateau between 23°45’ and 24°52’N. latitude,

and, 75°27’ and 76°56’ E: longitude? AG xis

bounded on the north by Kotah district, on

the east, west and south by Madhya Pradesh.

The district occupies an area of about 2310 sq.

kilometres and is situated at an altitude of

302 m above m:.s.l.

The climate of the area is dry monsoonic

and shows three well marked seasons, namely

rainy, winter and summer seasons. During the

months of May and June, the mean maximum

temperature of 43°C has been recorded. The

mean minimum temperature of 7°C has been

recorded in the months of December and

January. Out of the total annual rainfall, the

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS OF JHALAWAR

months of July to October receive 700-900 mm

of rains which is 99% of the total fall of the

year. The rains are infrequent during winter.

The soils can be broadly classified into clay

and clay-loam types. The clay content varies

from 25-48%, and shows 25-50% silt and 25-

50% sand. The dispersion co-efficient has been

found to be very low, thus indicating a good

water-table structure and a resistance to de-

tachability by flood water.

HABITATS AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

The study was conducted over a greater

part of the district with special reference to

the following habitats.

Rivers and streams: The rivers and streams

of this district belong to Chambal system and

they generally flow from south to north. For

the sake of convenience, they may be classt-

fied into two groups—(i) Western rivers, (11)

Eastern rivers. Ahu and Kalisindh, with their

many tributaries, belong to the first category.

The source of Ahu is a tank in Madipur tehsil

of Madhya Pradesh. It flows northwards form-

ing boundaries between Dag and Pirawa and

Pachpahar and Jhalarapatan tehsils of the dis-

trict. On meeting Mukandara hills, the river

is deflected north to east and then abruptly

changes its course to south-east to join Kali-

sindh near Gagrain. The important tributaries

of Ahu include Piplaj, Kyasri, Kantli and Rewa.

Kalisindh, entering the district from Madhya

Pradesh, flows northwards forming boundaries

between Bakani and Jhalarapatan tehsils. Its

important tributary is Chandrabhaga which is

dammed near Mundliakheri to form a tank.

It joins Kalisindh near Khandia village.

Parwan is the important river of the second

group. It is formed by the combination of

Ajnar and Ghorapachar rivers which flow

northwards and meet near Manoharthana

town. Parwan flows north-westwards through

Manoharthana tehsil and then turns west-

wards forming the northern boundary of

Aklera tehsil. Eventually, it joins the Kali-

sindh. On its way it receives Kalikhar, Newaj,

Ghar, Ujar, Nagli and Roopli tributaries.

During the monsoon season, the rivers flow

very swiftly, regularly causing floods. But, by

the summer, they are almost all dry excepting

a few places where a trickle of water is preser-

ved in the pools which are the most favourable

spots for the growth of aquatics. Though, the

river beds are rocky with big boulders, they

carry a considerable amount of sand which

is poor in humus, porosity and nitrate content,

and is rich in carbonates and chlorides. The

soils, geology, seepage, silting, substratum,

physiochemical properties of water and the

biotic interferences are almost identical in all

the rivers. The true aquatic species are very

poorly represented in these habitats, and no

where in the district attached aquatics domi-

nate the vegetation. The free-floating or sus-

pended submerged forms dominate the aquatic

plant communities of the rivers and their tribu-

taries. The paucity of aquatic species, espe-

cially of attached forms, is mainly due to the

rocky bottom of the rivers.

The amphibious emergent species are com-

paratively better represented in these habitats.

The vegetation is more luxuriant and conti-

nuous along the banks of the rivers, perhaps,

due to better soil formation. However, patches

of emergent forms, particularly Cyperus, Fim-

bristylis, Scirpus and Crinum together with

Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum, Zannichellia and

Potamogeton, may be noted in midstream also.

Some exposed rocks in the centre of the rivers

are covered with Rotala serpyllifolia (Roth)

Bremek. This indicates that there is no parti-

cular zonation of plants in the rivers. How-

ever, Nymphaea and Nymphoides disappear

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Val. 75

gradually towards the shore. The following

plant associations have been noted in the rivers

at different places.

Ceratophyllum-Hydrilla-N ymphoides

Hydrilla-Zannichellia-Potamogeton

Hydrilla-Nymphoides-Nymphaea

Potamogeton-Ceratophyllum-V allisneria

Cyperus-Fimbristylis-Scirpus-Zannichellia

Polygonum-Cyperus-Scirpus

Marsilea-Fimbristylis-Polygonum

Ammannia- Alternanthera-Eclipta

Phyla-Eclipta-Bacopa-Marsilea

Cyperus-Phyla-Eclipta

Ammannia-Caesulia-Bacopa-Scirpus

T ypha-Caesulia-Cyperus

Besides these, there are pure communities

of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Pota-

mogeton pectinatus L., Rotala rotundifolia

(Ham.) Koehne and R. serpyllifolia (Roth)

Bremek. Members of Cyperaceae are sparsely

distributed among the rocks in the rivers.

Tanks and Lakes: There are two artificial

lakes—Kadila and Mansarowar in the district

which are formed by building embankments

between two parallel ridges of Mukandara in

the north-east of Asnawar town. These lakes

support thick growth of wetland plants and

only few true aquatics. The other large sized

tanks of the area are Chandra Sarowar—in the

south of Jhalawar, Durgapura tank—near Dur-

gapura village, Kishan Sagar—in the west of

Jhalawar, Tandia tank—near Khandia village,

Gomti Sagar—near Jhalarapatan, Mandawar

tank—near Mandawar village, Gordhanpura

tank—near Gordhanpur village, Kadila tank—

in the north-west of Asnawar etc. In Pach-

pahar tehsil, Naka-sarna and Niwas-ghatod,

and in Bakani tehsil, the Molkia are the not-

able tanks. Most of these tanks lie in depres-

sions and are fed by a number of ‘Nallas’ dur-

ing the rainy season. They are being used for

irrigation and are exposed to heavy biotic in-

314

terferences by the way of weed removal, wash-

ing of clothes and animals. They are more or

less naked in the centre. However, the margins

often have a sparse growth of Hydrilla verti-

cillata (Linn. f.) Royle, Vallisneria natans

(Lour.) Hara, Potamogeton crispus Linn. and

Zannichellia palustris Linn. together with cer-

tain algae (Spirogyra sp. and Oedogonium sp.).

The free floating plants are mostly represented

by Spirodela polyrrhiza Schleid., Lemna pauci-

costata Hegelm. and Azolla pinnata R. Br.

Occasionally, the species of Mymphaea and

Nymphoides may also be noted in these habi-

tats. The marshy banks support comparatively

thick growth of emergents, particularly the

members of Cyperaceae together with many

creeping plants like Phyla nodiflora (L.)

Greene, Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC., Ecl-

ipta prostrata (L.) Linn., Marsilea minuta

Lete:

The interesting tanks from hydrophytic ve-

getation point of view are situated in the vil-

lages of Dalanpur, Bakani, Brahmpura, Kush-

alpura, Patlai, Rijol, Richwa, Dhudalia, Rat-

anpura, Singhpur, Unhel, Semli, Sheopura,

Panwasa, Bager, Bordi, Jolpa, Mirsoli, Adak-

heri, Govindpura, Koldi-choti and Sherpura.

The depth of these tanks varies from 1-3 feet

and they are mostly fed by run off water dur-

ing rainy season. They hold a variety of aqua-

tic and amphibious plants. The vegetation of

some of these tanks shows an interesting zonal

distribution. The gently sloping marginal zone

exhibits a carpet of marshland species; the

shallow middle zone supports a rich emergent

vegetation; and the central zone, which is al-

ways under water, is favourable for the attach-

ed and floating aquatic forms.

A. Central zone associations:

1. Zannichellia-Hydrilla-Nymphoides

2. Nymphaea-Ceratophyllum-Potamogeton

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS OF JHALAWAR

Azolla-S pirodela-Lemna

Nymphaea-Nymphoides-Zannichellia

Nymphaea-H ydrilla

Trapa-H ydrilla-Ceratophyllum

DP ANPwW

. Middle zone associations:

. Typha-Aeschynomene-Fimbristylis-

Hydrilla

. Cyperus-Scirpus-Ceratophyllum

. Typha-Caesulia-Cyperus-Zannichellia

. Marginal zone associations:

Phyla-Marsilea-Eclipta

Cyperus-Ammannia- Alternanthera

Ammannia- Alternanthera-V eronica

Cyperus-Phyla-Marsilea

Fimbristylis-Scirpus-Bacopa-

Alternanthera

Besides these, at certain places Eichhornia

crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Nechamandra alterni-

folia (Roxb.) Thw. and Potamogeton pecti-

natus Linn. occur in pure stands.

Puddles, Ponds, Nallas and _ Rice-fields:

There is a number of shallow bodies of water

distributed throughout the area in the form of

Puddles and Ponds. The vegetation of these

habitats is dominated by the species of Fim-

bristylis, Cyperus, Aeschynomene, Typha,

Monochoria, Limnophila, Veronica, Polygo-

num etc. Among the floating forms, the spe-

cies of Lemna, Spirodela, Hydrilla, Zannichel-

lia, Ceratophyllum, Eichhornia, Nymphoides

etc. are more common. The species of Nym-

phaea represent the group of attached forms.

At certain places Potamogeton pectinatus Linn.,

Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Thw., Pistia

stratiotes L. and Typha angustata Bory &

Chaub. form pure communities. It is also in-

"PWN —&

teresting to note that certain ponds devoid of

aquatic and marshy vegetation when with water,

maintain luxuriant growth of Glossostigma

spathulatum (Hook. ex Wt.) Arn. ex Benth.,

Dentella repens (L.) Forsk. and Polygonum

plebeium R. Br. as soon as the habitats be-

come marshy.

There are many ‘nallas’ in the area which

feed the large tanks and lakes. They maintain

a thick growth of semi-aquatic or marshy plants

in the post monsoon period. The most com-

mon species are Aeschynomene, Typha, Hygro-

phila, Caesulia, Marsilea, Ottelia, Eclipta, AlI-

ternanthera, Bacopa, Veronica, Ipomoea, Am-

mannia, Bergia, Monochoria etc. At certain

places, where a trickle of water is preserved, an

association of Potamogeton-Zannichellia-Hy-

drilla was noted. It is interesting to note that,

though, the seeds of the species growing in

‘nallas’ are brought to the respective tanks fed

by them, yet, the hydrophytic flora of the

tanks is very poor. This is, perhaps, due to

the rocky bottom, poor aeration and wide am-

plitude of water in the tanks and lakes.

Rice-fields are other favoured spots for the

growth of aquatic and marshland plants. Utri-

cularia inflexa Forsk. var. stellaris (Linn. f.)

Taylor, U. gibba L. subsp. exoleta (R. Br.)

Tayl., Spirodela polyrrhiza Schleid., Lemna

paucicostata Hegelm., Ammannia baccifera L.

and the members of Cyperaceae together with

Oryza sativa L. behave like a community. It

is also interesting to note that the seeds of weed

species grow a few days later than crop-seeds

and complete their life cycle before the crop

is harvested, except the few members of Cy-

peraceae like Fuirena wallichiana Kunth. No

zonal distribution of plant communities was

noted in these habitats.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

TABLE 1

SHOWING THE HABIT, FLOWERING PERIOD AND DETAILED DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROPHYTES AND MARSHLAND

SPECIES*

Species. ne t ae Habit Flowering Localities

period 1 2 3%

MARSILEACEAE

Marsilea minuta Linn. B Aug.-Oct. + + +

SALVINIACEAE

Azolla pinnata R. Br. A Not seen = + =F

EQUISETACEAE

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp.

ramosissinum BE, F Not seen ah — _

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. B July-Nov. + a +

N. stellata Willd. B July-Nov. ae + ap

ELATINACEAE

Bergia ammanioides Roxb. EB, F Oct.-Dec. ap + +

B. capensis Linn. |S si Aug.-Nov. = — at

PAPILIONACEAE

Aeschynomene indica Linn. E July-Oct. + + +

LYTHRACEAE |

Ammannia baccifera Linn. E, F July-Oct. ab JE ae

A. multiflora Roxb. Bak Aug.-Nov. = + aif

Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne E, F Oct.-Feb. a = +

R. rotundifolia (Ham.) Koehne A Dec.-March a. zal pil

R. serpyllifolia (Roth) Bremek. F Aug.-Nov. + = —

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia adscendens (Linn.) Hara A Aug.-Nov. = + am

L. perennis Linn. | Anda) Aug.-Nov. A A. +

TRAPACEAE )

Trapa bispinosa Roxb. A Sep.-Dec. + es.

RUBIACEAE

Dentella repens (Linn.) Forst. F Jan.-March ug a, a

COMPOSITAE

Caesulia axillaris Roxb. E, F Sept.-Dec. + ae 4°

Eclipta prostrata (L.) Linn. EOE Most part of year + a +

Sphaeranthus indicus Winn. F Oct.-Feb. ae & a

Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. E Dec.-April ae = +

LIMNANTHACEAE

Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) Ktze. Jan.-March + ap ar

316

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS OF JHALAWAR

Species

N. indicum (Linn.) Ktze.

HYDROPH YLLACEAE

Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl

BORAGINACEAE

Rotala aquatica Lour.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.

SCROPH ULARIACEAE

Bacopa monniera (Linn.) Pennell

-Glossostigma spathulatum (Hook. ex Wt.)

Arn. ex Benth.

Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce

Veronica anagallis-aquatica Linn.

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia inflexa Forsk. var. stellaris

(Linn. f.) Taylor

U. gibba Linn. subsp. exoleta (R. Br.) Tayl.

ACANTHACEAE

Hemiadelphis polyspermus Nees

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine

VERBENACEAE

Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene

AMARANTHACEAE

Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil.

A. sessilis (Linn.) DC.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum barbatum Linn. subsp.

gracile Dan.

P. glabrum Wiild.

P. plebeium R. Br.

CERATOPHYLLACEAE

Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.

IH YDROCHARITACEAE

Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.) Royle

Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Thw.

Ottelia alismoides (Linn.) Pers.

Vallisneria natans (Lour.) Hara

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum defixum Ker-Gawl.

Q) ee} leat. teal

So oe

Flowering

period

Jan.-March

Sept.-Oct.

Oct.-Feb.

Dec.-March

Sept.-Dec.

Dec.-Feb.

Oct.-April

Jan.-March

Oct.-Dec.

Jan.-April

Sept.-March

Oct.-March

Throughout year

Sept.-Jan.

Most part of the year

Aug.-Dec.

Aug.-Nov.

Aug.-Nov. & March-June

July-Oct.

Sept.-Jan.

Jan.-March

Jan.-April

Most part of the year

Localities

1 2 3

+ + +

eerie ich

aL + a

+ + +

Se ane

+ + +

See

= oe

ED ailoaees a ete

+ + +

ee ee

+ + +

fob +

+ + +

Se ee

=p ER eee

+ + +

+ = er

S17,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Species Habit Flowering Localities

period 1 2 3

PONTEDERIACEAE

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms A May-Oct. + + +f

Monochoria hastata (Linn.) Solms E Aug.-Nov. = + +

M. vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl. E Aug.-Nov. a ae +

TYPHACEAE .

Typha angustata Bory & Chaub. E July-Aug. oa =F +

ARACEAE

Pistia stratiotes Linn. A April-June al + a

LEM NACEAE ,

Lemna paucicostata Hegelm. A Not seen En + +

Spirodela polyrrhiza Schleid. A Oct.-Jan. + + +

POTAMOGETONACEAE

P. perfoliatus Linn. D Feb.-May = + +

P. pectinatus Linn. C Jan.-March + a +

P. perfoliatus Linn. D Feb.-May + a ae

ZANNICHELLIACEAE

Zannichellia palustris Linn. C Feb.-March + + +

NAJADACEAE

Najas minor Linn. C Sept.-Dec. aft at a

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn. E, F Dec.-April = + +

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. EB Aug.-Dec. ++ ae te

C. compressus Linn. Bak Aug.-Dec. + + +

C. digitatus Roxb. E, F July-Sept. + a =

C. difformis Linn. BE, FE Sept.-Dec. ue + +

C. eleusinoides Kunth E Sept.-Feb. + + +

C. exaltatus Retz. E Aug.-Nov. “+ a +

C. flavidus Retz. E, F Dec.-March + + +

C. iria Linn. E, F Aug.-Nov. + + +

C. michlianus (L.) Link subsp. pygmaeus

(Rottb.) Asch. & Graebn. F July-Oct. at + =!

C. niveus Retz. F July-Nov. a Edie. 2

C. pangorei Rottb. E Dec.-April st + a

C. pumilus Linn. F Aug.-Nov. + = +

C. rotundus Linn. E, EF July-Dec. + + +

Eleocharis atropurpurea Kunth E Jan.-May = = +

Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl 135 18) Sept.-Dec. oP ar ap

F. ovata (Burm. f.) Kern F Aug.-Oct. as a

F. quinquangularis Kunth E, F Aug.-Nov. =F =F +

E, F +

Fuirena wallichiana Kunth

f oo.

Sept.-Jan. Ee ull

318

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND PLANTS OF JHALAWAR

ORR ee a? VE EP SE OTT SERN TOS ET OY ID

Species Habitat Flowering Localities

period 1 2 3

Scirpus affinis Roth E Jan.-May ue i +

S. littoralis Schrad. IB ale Feb.-April + as +

S. roylei (Nees) Parker Bide July-Nov. 28 = +

S. supinus Linn. Ea Oct.-Dec. ak ak a

GRAMINEAE

Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link E, F Jan.-Oct. + ls ae

Hygroryza aristata Nees A April-June as 4 wa

Isachne miliacea Roth E Nov.-Feb. a = a

Oryza sativa Linn. Jaya s) Oct.-Nov. as ae +

O. rufipogon Griff. E Sept.-Nov. me ie +

Paspalidium punctatum Stapf E Sept.-Nov. + a ae

Phragmites maxima Blatt. & McC. B Sept.-Jan. a a 2

* Explanation of symbols:

+= = present; — = absent; A =

1 =. Rivers and streams; 2 = Tanks and lakes;

DISCUSSION

The area, apparently unsuitable for the

growth of luxuriant vegetation, is rich in aqua-

tic and marshland species. The present study

shows that 88 species belonging to 56 genera

and 34 families inhabit the riverain and marsh-

land areas of the district. The floristic com-

position of the vegetation is as follows:

Family Genera Species

Pteridophytes 3 3 3

Monocotyledones 1 26 47

Dicotyledones 19 Dn 38

This indicates that the monocots are less

represented by their families and genera, and

are better represented in their species. Of these

species 27 show restricted distribution and are

confined to a_ single habitat and 40 occur

throughout the area. The amplitude of water

level, physical and chemical nature of the sub-

Free floating; B = Attached with floating leaves and si shoots; C = Sus-

pended submerged; D = Attached submerged; E = Aquatic or amphibious emerged; F

3 = Puddles, ponds and rice-fields.

= Marshland plants;

strata and water, and more specially the bio-

tic activities seem to control the distribution

of these species. The type of bottom is also

very important in the ecesis of hydrophytes.

The poorest growth occurs on gravel or rock,

whereas the best growth is organic, silty or

loamy soils. In this area, 12 species are free

floating, 5 attached with floating leaves and/or

shoots, 6 suspended submerged, 4 attached

submerged, 21 aquatic or amphibious emerged,

12 marshland and 28 species occur both in

aquatic and marshy habitats. About five species

form their communities and the rest are either

sparsely distributed or grow in different asso-

ciations. The six dominent families according

to the number of species are Cyperaceae (22),

Gramineae (7), Lythraceae (5), Scrophular-

iaceae (4), Hydrocharitaceae (4), Compositae

(4).

The species rather uncommon in the flora

of Rajasthan but collected during the course

319

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

of present study are: Spilanthes paniculata

Wall. ex DC., Fimbristylis ovata (Burm. f.)

Kern, Fuirena wallichiana Kunth and Oryza

rufipogon Griff.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Director, National Botanic Gar-

dens, Lucknow and C.S.I.R., New Delhi for

the facilities provided.

REFERENCES

Biswas, K. & CaLper, C. (1937): Handbook of

common water and marsh plants of India and Bur-

ma. Delhi.

BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. (1918-1921): The

flora of the Indian desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

26 & 27: on different pages.

Gupta, R. S. (1966): A study of hydrophytes and

marsh plants of Kota and Environs (India). Trop.

Eco. 7:153-160.

MAHESHWARI, J. K. & SINGH, V. (1974): The

aquatic and marshland plants of Bundi district, Raj-

asthan. J. Bombay. nat. Hist. Soc. 70(3) :438-446.

MAJUMDAR, R. B. (1971): Synoptic flora of Kota

division. Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 13(1-2): 105-145 (in-

complete).

Nair, N. C. & KanopiA, K. C. (1959): A study

of the vegetation of Ajit Sagar Bundh, Rajasthan.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56:524-557.

320

RatNnaM, B. V. & JosHi, M. C. (1952): An eco-

logical study of the vegetation near about a tem-

porary pond in Pilani. Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci.

e) alec loys

SARUP, S. (1958): Hydrophytes of Jodhpur. Univ.

Rajasthan Studies (Bio. Sci.). 3:61-70.

———_—— (1958): Hydrophytes of Indian de-

Serie Tonal HSyeTheye,

— (1961): Hydrophytes of Bharatpur.

A preliminary study. ibid. 4:1-10.

SUBRAMANYAM, K. (1962): Aquatic Angiosperms.

C.S.LR., New Delhi.

Vyas, L. N. (1962): Vegetation of Jaismand lake,

Alwar. Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 9:45-63.

(1964): A study of hydrophytes

and marsh plants of Alwar and Environs. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:17-31.

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS SURVEY OF

THE LIONTAILED MACAQUE, MACACA SILENUS

(LINNAEUS )*

G. U. KURUP?’

(With four text-figures)

The present distribution range of the liontails south of 21°N, their major habitats

and the status of populations in each of these habitats are reported, based on surveys

carried out during last six years. It is seen that south of 12°N, the distributional range

is between 11°30’ and 8°21’N. i.e. from south-western face of Nilgiris down to

Kalakkadu slopes in the Agasthya Ranges of southern spurs. Distribution within this

range has now come to be in extremely localised, widely discontinuous patches holding

only very sparse populations in each. A tentative estimate would place the liontail

population at about 50 troops of 570 individuals south of 11°30’N. Assuming another

five troops in habitats lying north of this range total estimated liontail population is

placed at 55 troops of about 800 individuals in areas covering about 2800 sq km in

the Western Ghats. Structure of the rainforest habitat, variants of vegetational features

and phenological succession are given. Major conservation problems faced by liontails

are identified as habitat conversion and eventual destruction on the one hand and

direct decimation on the other. A set of recommendations involving both immediate

and long range measures, necessary for liontail survival is also offered.

The status of the Liontailed Macaque, Ma-

caca silenus (Linnaeus) one of the rarest and

most beautiful of the macaques, confined to

the Western Ghats of India has been a cause

for concern. Inhabiting dense evergreen forests,

the species has never been common and there

is very little information available, although

surprisingly enough it does well in captivity.

Jerdon (1874) gave its range as “‘the more ele-

vated forests of the Western Ghats of India

from 14°N to the extreme south but most ab-

undant in Cochin and Travancore.’’ Blanford

(1888), Pocock (1939) & Prater (1965) most-

ly relied on Jerdon for their accounts of the

species. Jerdon also stated that it is said to

1 Accepted September 1977.

2 Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, 3, Chandrabaugh Avenue Extn., Mylapore,

Madras 600 004.

occur still further north up to Goa (15°N) but

could not authenticate it. Much later, Editors,

JBNHS (1956) reported a sighting on the

Anshi Ghat between Kadra and Kumbharwada

c. 15°N lat. which remains the northern most

reported range limit. Apart from Jerdon’s ac-

count there are only a few other original acco-

unts of this species. Kinloch (1923) describes

them in Nelliampathy hills, Webb-Peploe

(1947) gives observations on them in south

Tirunelveli hills and Hutton (1949) deals with

the species in the High Wavy mountains, the

eastern spurs of the Western Ghats in Madura

district of Tamilnadu. Sugiyama (1968) made

a two month study of the ecology of the spe-

cies at Panniyar in the High ranges of Kerala

near Munnar and Karr (1973) gave some

notes on the species at Manjolai in the Singam-

patti area of Tirunelveli district. Pocock (1939)

and Prater (1965) contain good descriptions

321

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

_|W.GHAT TREE FORESTS

T| LIONYAIL RANGE

KARNATAKA

“SCHIKMAGALUR

A eats DRIMUKH

2 hasan

poleh | “TaCAMU ND

xattapadt

* COIMBATORE

ys.@ PALAGHAT

yy . oe & pollach]

} nate

pee

TRIVANDRUM *

Fig. 1. Distributional range of Liontailed Macaque.

322

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

of the species and Kurup (1963) deals with

the littlke known cranial characters.

Daniel & Kannan (1967) in a report sum-

marise the information on the distribution of

the species gained from a questionnaire and

also gathered from some of the above works.

Additional localities revealed by the question-

naire were Agumbe, Shimoga district (lat. 14°-

13°N), Mysore; between Kudremukh and

Bhagavaty, Kadur District, Sakeleshpur area,

Hassan District (lat. 13°-12°N) Karnataka; 18

miles south west of Gudalur (lat. 12°-11°N)

Nilgiri District, Tamilnadu; and Courtallam

alterations that have taken place in the Western

Ghats in recent times, a series of status cum

habitat surveys of individual species and also

general ecological surveys of specific areas in

the Western Ghats were initiated and carried

out since 1968 (Kurup 1971, 1973, 1975).

In addition to considerable information—but

mostly negative—collected and made available

on this species as a result of this series of

surveys, a status cum habitat survey speci-

fically for the Liontails was initiated in Feb-

ruary 1974 and after an unfortunate break

finally concluded in October-November 1974.

APPENDIX 1

COMPOSITION OF TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN RAINFORESTS OF WYNAAD, W. GHATS (FROM PURI

1960 COMPILATION )

| Top Storey

Dichopsis, Vaterea,

(specially near water courses)

Calophyllum tomentosum,

Cullenia,

Dysoxylum malabaricum,

Artocarpus hirsuta

Cedrela toona,

Machilus macarantha,

Mesua, Elaeocarpus

tuberculatus,

Bischofia, Eugenia spp.

Canarium, Ochlandra.

Vateria, Eugenia

munronii,

longana, Litsaea,

Cinnamomeum

zeylanicum,

Middle Storey

Dichopsis, Myristica

Actinodaphne hirsuta,

Ostodes, Nephelium

Meliosma simplicifolia,

Polyalthia coffeoides,

Lower Storey

Lea sambucina

Rubiaceae spp.

Areca, Strobilanthus

Psychotria spp.

Lasianthus

Pandanus, Glycosmis,

Calamus

Laportea crenulata

Elaeocarpus serratus

Climbers gen-

erally are not heavy though locally they may be so. No grass in undisturbed forest.

(lat. 9°-8°N) Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu.

In most of the reported areas, the status of the

Species was described as rare to uncommon

except as not uncommon in Anamalai Hills

in 1939-47 and in the South Tirunelveli Hills

in 1947.

In view of the paucity of recent information

on the status and distribution of many endan-

gered species of wild life in the context of

developmental activities and consequent biotic

Following report, therefore incorporates the re-

sults of surveys carried out at different times

during the last six years.

DISTRIBUTION

Wynaad-Nilgiri area (12°-10°45’N)

This segment of Western Ghat lies between

the border of Karnataka State with Kerala and

Tamilnadu on the north and the well marked

Palaghat gap on the south. The Nilgiri area

323

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

is a compact summit plateau with its highest

elevation of 2,920 m at Dodabetta peak. Wy-

naad area lies below and west of the Nilgiris

forming the bulk of the Western aspect of the

W. Ghats. Most of the Nilgiris, being high

table land consists of rolling downs with patches

of high level wet temperate evergreen shola

forests in wind sheltered mountain folds. Con-

tiguous tropical wet evergreen shola or rain

forests are confined to its submontane aspects

along the border with Wynaad to the north-

southern aspects adjacent to Attapadi hills.

There are some patches of wet evergreen sholas

on the leeward eastern side, but these do not

have any liontail populations.

Data collected for the upper or north Wy-

naad forests from the Mananthavadi forests on

the extreme north to Sultan battery forests

bordering Nilgiri district of Tamilnadu to the

north west of Gudalur make it extremely

doubtful that any liontail populations survive

in the Wynaad. It seems therefore, that with

west and southwest of Gudalur and on its regard to the areas covered in the present

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. 2. Liontail habitat range, containing isolated evergreen (shola) forest in the

Nilgiri-Malabar section of the Western Ghats.

324

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

surveys, the liontail range in the north com-

mences from south of Gudalur from N. lat.

11°.30’. South of this, however, in the east

Malabar region bordering the Nilgiris, there is

a major habitat-range of liontails. This area

stretches from the forests adjacent to the Peria-

shola forests near Gudalur through Amaram-

balam reserve, covering the Silent Valley

forests of eastern Malabar down to Mukkali in

the Attapadi hills and then along the Bhavani

river to some extend to the east along upper

Attapadi hills (Fig. 2). All along this, the

northern limit of the range is the precipitous

escarpments of the Nilgiri massif. This range

would approximately cover about 540 Sq. km.

It is quite likely, however, that liontail range

in this region might extend further south in the

south Attapadi and upper Palaghat hills, but

there is very little data available for this area.

As such this is indicated separately in the map.

The only cther liontail range in this segment

under consideration lies somewhat removed

and isolated in the Nilambur forests situated

to the north west of the above area. Troops

were located by actual surveys or reliable re-

ports, in the forest along Bhavani river, around

Mukkali in Attapadi, in Silent Valley reserve

and along the upper reaches of Karim puzha

(river) in Amarambalam and Kanhira puzha

(river) in the Nilambur forests. Nilambur

range covers only about 185 Sq. km. but avail-

able data indicate that liontails are propor-

tionally more numerous here.

Anamalai-Cardamom Ranges (10°.30'-9°27'N)

Anamalai segment lies south of Palaghat

gap between approximately N. lat. 10°.30' and

10° covering parts of Coimbatore district of

Tamil Nadu and Idikki district of Kerala State.

These ridges are divisible into higher and lower

ranges. Average elevation of lower ranges is

around 700 m with peaks and ridges covered

by luxurient forests rising to 1,300 to 1,800 m.

The higher ranges lying more westward con-

sist of extensive open grassy hills and valleys

with high level shola forests similar to those

of Nilgiris and varying from c. 2,000 to 2,900

m in elevation. Tropical wet evergreen forest

is seen between 700 to 1,600 m in elevation

where the trees obtain a height of 50 m or

more.

Cardamom Hills lic immediately to the south

of Anamalai Hills between N. lat. 10°4’ and

9°27’ with elevations ranging from 650 to 1,300

m. From the northern Anamalais it is divided

APPENDIX 2

COMPOSITION OF TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN

FORESTS OF ANAMALAIS, WESTERN GHAT.

Puri’s 1960 COMPILATION)

RAIN-

(FROM

Top Storey

Hopea parviflora, Messua ferrea, Vetex altissina,

Agalia roxburghiana, Elaeodendron glaucum, Poly-

althia fragrans, Diospyros microphylla, Eugenia

gardneri, Canarium strictum, Artocarpus hirsuta,

Bischofia javanica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Trewia

nudiflora, Alstonia scholaris, Machillus macarantha,

Filicum decipiens, Tetrameles nudiflora, Carellia

lucida, Mangifera indica, Beilschmiedia bourdilloni,

Pygeum wightianum, Calophyllum elatum, Salmalia

malabaricum.

Middle Storey

Cyclostemon macrophyllus, Gomphandra _ poly-

morpha, Dimorphocalyx lawianus, Nephelium long-

ana, Scolopia crenata, Diospyros bourdilloni, Acro-

nychia_ laurifolia, Adenochlaena indica, Garcinia

sp., Canthium didymum, Mallotus _ philippensis,

Flacourtia sepiaria, Sapindus_ laurifolius, Har-

pullia imbricata, Xanthoxylum rhertsa, Hydnocar pus

wightianum, Actinodaphne_ hirsuta, Cinnamomum

wightianum, Pterospemum heyneanum, Mimusops

elangi, Amoora canarana, Holigarna grahaii, Pro-

sorus indicus, Ostodes zeylanica, Myristica laurifolia,

Casearia_ esculenta.

Lower Storey

Strobilanthus spp., Orphea zeylanica, Nothopegia sp..,

Saxora parviflora, Entada scandens, Calamus app.

Sores SIELCS

a gs Dae = |

325

1 EEE TE LA lv

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

by the Devikolam plateau. On the south, the

ranges extend as far down as the Aryankavu

pass separating it from the lower southern

spurs, wet evergreen forests are not as exten-

sive as in Anamalais but are similar to those

in composition. Wet evergreen forests of Ana-

malais are sometimes sub divided into lower

evergreen, middle evergreen and upper ever-

green subtypes. Liontails are mostly confined

tees | ae ed ;

nmi My

nn WY MIN THY 7

Ge cs spent US

Dorf NT

=== a

ANAMALAIS

Digg iT Ti

to the second type between 900 and 1700 m

in elevation.

The northern and western most range of

Liontails in the Anamalais is the Nelliampathy

hills (Fig. 3). Since Kinloch’s (1923)

account of these animals in this area, coffee

estates have grown in extent and the area has

been opened up otherwise also by more roads

and settlements. Liontail area has thus been

77° 1

oS Tm

ner

f s

30°

ia te

Dig

E=3 Lion tail range Likely Lton tail range

15’ wrewinterstate boundary ul) Forest Limit an so

. °

Be Aa: fF ——— Saw 0 EN Om, (10°)

River Road A a 8 = ceed

ees \ Ey

(76°) 45. ae 77°

Fig. 3. Liontail habitat range, containing isolated evergreen (shola) forest in the

Anamalai section of the Western Ghats.

326

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

much reduced, but small populations are re-

portedly existing still in the area. The range

then extends south to the Parambikulam forests

and then eastwards to the south of Topslip

in the area of Vargaliyar and Ulandi Sholas

till a little distance short of Valparai. (A local

report that a troop has recently arrived and

settled very near Topslip could not be verified).

Fortunately much of the range in the Ana-

malais falls within Anamalai and Parambi-

kulam wild life sanctuaries which is one reason

of the continued survival of the species here.

Actually the troops located in the sholas with-

in 6 km of Vargaliyar as well as the one locat-

ed in the Anakunthi shola in the Ulandi block

were seen on either side of the forest roads,

and but for the protection afforded by the

sanctuaries they would have been poached.

In the Cardamom high ranges, areas

previously known’ to _ contain liontails

were the Periyar wildlife sanctuary and Pan-

niyar to the north of it. The present survey

succeeded in locating another major habitat

around the Kallar Valley in the Achankovil

basin north of Aryankavu pass. Kanayar

moozhi shola where the animals were located

in the Kallar valley is about 25 km

from Achankovil proper. Unfortunately exten-

sive teak plantations are being raised in this

area where the clear felling in preparation for

plantation is followed for a brief two to three

year period of tapioca coupes. These tapioca

coupe contractors and their labourers, as for

that matter contractors for any such forest ope-

rations, have often sizeable temporary settle-

ments in the midst of otherwise undisturbed

forests, and this is a major factor in decimat-

ing and driving away the wild life from their

Original habitats. There are extensive sholas

in the Kallar Valley area and this is probably

the most important liontail habitat in the Car-

damom hills.

In the Periyar Sanctuary Liontails are prac-

tically limited to the Pachakanam and near by

sholas below the Sabarimala plateau and then

in the Malappara pakuti to the east near the

border with Tamilnadu. But the road initially

opened by the Sabarigiri project which runs

through the Pachakanam area has, it appears

driven the liontails to abandon much of their

habitat in the area. The relative inaccessibility

of Malappara has afforded some protection to

the populations there. Similarly the Panniyar

valley has also been further opened up by

expanding Cardamom plantations and also due

to the Panniyar hydroelectric project. Conse-

quently liontail habitat in this area might be

shrinking towards the very upper reaches of

the Panniyar river. :

Southern Range (9° to 8°.15’ N)

This section lies in between the Aryankavu

pass near Shenkotta in the north and the Aram-

boli pass in the south near Nagarcoil. These

ranges are much lower than other northern

segmants with average height of less than 1000

m, with a few peaks between 1700-2000 m in

height with the highest peak Agasthyamalai

rising to 1869 m. The main sections are the

Kulathupuzha hills in the north and _ the

Agasthya and Mahendra ranges to the south.

Unlike other areas, these ranges receive, in

addition to the full quota of southwest mon-

soon, substantial rainfall from the northeast

monsoon also, so that the forests especially

evergreen are damper almost throughout the

year. For this reason wet evergreen forests

are also more contiguous and extensive. This

segment of the western Ghat has therefore the

maximum potential to hold liontail popula-

tions.

This is the only section where the liontail

habitats seem to be rather contiguous Fig.

4). It is said to have extended till recently

to areas north of the present range in the Ku-

327

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

> SOUT

‘Beuennor Tr ia OCOTHERN SPURS

ey 1 KUTTALAM \ LIONTAIL RANGE

LIKELY LIONTAIL

RANGE

INTER STATE

BOUNUARY

FOREST LIMIT

RIVER

Sit

3476

SS Nancign at Asus

Sih oan

a ee

CAL AKKAD dee 2S

S$ ee 5 467 B

Fig. 4. Liontail habitat range, containing isolated evergreen (shola) forest in the

Agasthya Ranges (Southern Spurs) in the Western Ghats.

[Height in feet—Eds.]

328

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

lathupuzha-Tenmala forests as well as in the

Kuttalam forests to the east. But surveys con-

ducted in the first area could not establish

the presence of Liontails there and Krishnan

(1971) mentions that they are no longer found

in the Kuttalam forests. Liontail populations

were located or reliably reported in the Asham-

bu ranges from the upper Valayar and Papa-

nasam slopes, Kakachi of Manjolai in the Sin-

gampatti forests, Narakkadu and adjacent Kal-

akkadu slopes and then Kodayar and Tat-

chamalai forests and other areas to the north

and north east on the Western slopes which are

contiguous with the above areas in the east.

This range now must represent practically the

whole of its area in the southern most part

of the liontail range in the Western Ghats.

EcoLoGICAL ASPECTS OF LIONTAIL HABITAT:

TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN RAIN OR SHOLA

FORESTS

According to the classification of Indian

forest types, by Champion & Seth (1967) the

habitat of Liontails belongs to the category

of tropical wet evergreen forests. These forests

are known in southern India as Shola forests,

but this term includes the high level wet tem-

perate forests containing stunted evergreens

found in wind sheltered folds of hills above

1700 m in elevation. These high level sholas

are excluded here. Tropicai wet evergreen

Shola forests are characterestically developed

between 500 and 2000 m elevation on the wind

ward side (western) and in other areas of

Western Ghats where, the annual rainfall ran-

ges from 250-500 cm. The general climate

is ordinarily within the limits defined for the

low level rain forest climate, with a mean rain-

fall for the driest month not less than 60 cm

and mean temperature of coldest month above

18°C. Relative humidity throughout the night

is said to be at or near saturation, falling to

65% during dry daylight hours. Most of the

general features of the low level rain forests

described by Richards (1952) holds good also

for the Sholas of Western Ghats. These sholas

are three storied forests of very tall trees, emer-

APPENDIX 3

COMPOSITION OF TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN RAIN-

FOREST OF SOUTHERN SPURS, WESTERN GHAT (PURI

1960 COMPILATION)

Top Storey

Hopea_ parviflora, Balanocarpus utilis, Artocarpus

hirsuta, Gordonia obtusa, Salmalia malabaricum,

Elaeocarpus oblongatus, E. tuberculatus, Pterocar pus

marsupium, Ormoria travancorica, Hardwickia bin-

ata, Pithecolobium subcoriaceum, Myristica atten-

uata, M. laurifolia, Tectona grandis, Litsaea sebifera,

Villebrunea_ integrifolia.

Middle Storey

Garcinia spp., Semecarpus spp., Baccaurea courtal-

lensis, Eugenia spp., Hydnocarpus wightianum.

Lower Storey

Shrubs and herbs of a rich number of species of

Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Acanthaceae, Compositac,

Gramineae, Scitamineae and Companulaceae.

Ferns and selaginellas abundant in moist hollows.

Balanophora indica invariably present near the base

of tall trees. Climbers and twiners include Mucuna

atropurpurea, Derris scandens, Piper niligerianum,

Hoya pauciflora, Jasminum spp., Thunbergia frag-

rans, Dunbaria ferruginea, Rubia cordifolia, Diosco-

rea pentaphylla and D. spicata.

gents often above 40 m in height, overwhelm-

ing vegetation being woody, extremely rich in

variety of species without any gregarious stand

of single dominant species. Trunks often deve-

lop buttresses and cauliflory. Foliage being ge-

nerally leathery dark green, mesophyll size

(2025 to 18225 sq mm leaf area) and large and

strikingly coloured flowers being uncommon,

the overall impression is one of sombreness

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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)

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

and monotony heightened by the absence of

marked seasonal changes. Plant growth and re-

production are continuing processes through

the year. Only colour relief is afforded by the

frequently red or crimson of the newly sprout-

ing leaves which have anthocyanine pigment

in the cell sap instead of chlorophyll.

Composition of communities in rainforests

of W. Ghats is locally variable on account of

edaphic, altitudinal and micro climatical fact-

ors. Variants of major communities and their

associations in the W. Ghats as also the pheno-

logical succession in the rainforests are shown

in Appendices 4 and 5.

From the phenological succession data given

in appendix 5, it appears that the optional pe-

riods of successions are leaf fall during Dec.-

January, leaf bud opening in January-Feb-

ruary, flowering during February-March and

fruiting during May-June. But intraspecific and

spatial specific variation in phenological pe-

riods must be considerable which are little

studied in the Western Ghat rainforests. While

the boundary between rainforests and deci-

duous forests in the plains is mostly climatic

in nature (Richards 1952), Champion (1967)

considers, the evergreen forests in the Ghats

as truly climax, and deciduous forests as de-

graded due to biotic interference which change

to evergreen climax through semi evergreen

communities when the interference is excluded.

Semi evergreen and even semi deciduous occur-

ting adjoining to evergreen are similarly biotic

and sometimes bioedaphic. But these types

rarely progress to the original climax even

when biotic factors are cleminated. According

to Champion wet evergreen forest in virgin

condition presents a great contrast to those

that have been slightly opened, specially in the

vegetation of hollows, windswept ridges, and

hill tops.

POPULATION

The inescapable conclusion from these sur-

veys is that the liontail distribution is dis-

tributed in extremely localised, widely discon-

tinuous patches which hold only very sparse

populations in each. Almost all the habitat

range surveyed are extremely underoccupied.

In fact not more than two troops could be

located in any one particular area during an

average period of one week in each area. In

contrast the frequency of sighting Nilgiri langur

troops was almost six to one compared to

that of Liontail. Of course, here one fact to

be considered is the extent of the home range,

but according to Sugiyama the troops had only

2 km? home range area which overlapped.

But information gathered on some aspects of

their habits would indicate that home range is

dependent on seasonality of preferred food

sources and that Liontail troops might cover

considerable extent of area to visit fruiting

trees. It is also possible that troops in foraging

exploration might settle in new territories. Un-

like in Nilgiri Langurs, this aspect of Liontail

ranging make the work of locating and census-

ing them more difficult.

This, especially the mode of progress during

daily foraging as also the extent of its terres-

trial or arboreal propensity seem to be vary

according to the nature of habitat. According

to Hutton (1949) “they much prefer to reach

out and slowly walk into the next tree or else

they descend to the ground and climb up”

and “never jump from one tree to another

unless disturbed.” Webb-Peploe (1947) also

mentions their habit of ‘“‘climbing slowly down

one tree and walking along the ground to the

next’ and repeating the process in “their usual

deliberate way.’ Daniel & Kannan (1967) cite

a report of twice seeing a troop in grassland

333.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

some distance away from the trees and on the ground, troops he observed almost always

being disturbed retreating to a timbered ravine proceeded along the trees. Karr (1973) again,

and settling down in the bushes. Sugiyama mentions their disinclination to leaping among

(1968) states however, that although he ob- and between trees even while fleeing but did

served signs of their spending some time on not observe ground contacts. However, troops

TABLE 1

POPULATION STATUS OF M. silenus (HABITAT SURVEY ESTIMATE)

Number of troops

*Habitat Area Sq. Remarks

km. previously presently Estima-

known known ted

Latitude 11°30°-11°N :

Nilgiri, Amarambalam Silent Valley, previously

Attapadi Hills 540 inexact 4 10 known only

from Nilgiris

Nilambur Hills 185 nil 1

Latitude 11°-10°N :

Palaghat Hills 80 nil nil 2

Anamalais :

Nelliampathy hills 110 PM 1 3

Parambikulam-Varagaliyar 290 inexact 3 6

Latitude 10°-9°N :

Cardamom Hills :

Panniyar 270 2 2,

Periyar Sanctuary to Kollar Valley 535 inexact 5 10 previously

known only

from Periyar

Sanctuary

Latitude 9°-8°24*N:

Southern-Spurs :

Kuluthupuzha-Agasthya ranges 500 2 2 10

el ln SS Sa SN a NM

x 15 (mean

troop strength)

Total 2510 5 18 30 750 individ

als.

Latitude 15°-11°30’ N:

Northern Wynaad and areas in Karnataka Ca Ca Areas not in-

State 300 3 3 5 cluded in the

present survey

x 15 (mean

troop strength)

Total 2810 8 21 55; ie 825 individu-

als.

* Denotes general area containing disjointed sholas.

334

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

observed during two days at Varagaliyar in

the present survey never descended to the

ground which here was somewhat cleared due

to forestry operations. But when disturbed, the

entire troop bolted along the trees which in-

cluded much leaping, ascending to the top most

tree layer, but subsequently the sub adults,

descended to the middle layer. It appears that

while in the primary evergreen forests relative-

ly undisturbed and with abundant third level

vegetational cover the liontails descend down

to the ground while in disturbed habitats like

cardamom plantations where the lower storey

canopy and the undergrowth have been clear-

ed, they are mostly arboreal.

No attempt at censusing the population in

any of their range was made. This must neces-

sarily await further work. However, the follow-

ing estimate is offered based on the experience

of these surveys. (Table 1). :

It is thus estimated that in their main dis-

tributional range below N. lat. 11°30’ covered

during the present surveys there is approxi-

mately 2500 sq km of Liontail region con-

taining about 5O troops and assuming an aver-

age troop strength of 15 members, the popu-

lation of liontails would number about 750

individuals. Assuming another 300 sq km of

liontail region holding about 5 troops in Kar-

nataka State not covered in these surveys the

total liontail population would be about 55

troops of about 825 or say 800 individuals.

CONSERVATION PROBLEMS

The basic and primary problem confronting

conversion process, the undergrowth and to

some extent the third level canopy are destroy-

ed. Of the labour force employed, some remain

behind as permanent employees and the general

human foraging into the vicinity is increased.

Soon there is competition for some of the

food sources of the liontails, like mango, guava

and other fruits. A certain amount of damage

to the Cardamom shoots from the monkey is

inevitable as it forms its occasional food and

soon the population is decimated or driven

away. Even if some protection is afforded to

the monkeys, these habitats are used only as

secondary ranging habitat from the adjoining

primary evergreen forests. If all the Sholas

in the area are converted or disturbed, the

population simply disappears from the area.

By the very nature of the liontail habitat,

its restriction to evergreen rainforests, the dis-

tribution of the liontails has to be patchy, as

even in contiguous areas of favourable climate

and edaphic factors, biotic interference has de-

stroyed the continuity of evergreen forests.

Rainforests being climax formations where

rate of growth is very slow, once altered or

destroyed, take very long to be restored. Much

of the grassland and rolling downs in the

higher zones of W. Ghats are but the end pro-

ducts of destroyed high level evergreen forests.

A second factor is the direct decimation by

poachers, forest coupe contractors and the

like. There is strong local belief in the aphro-

disiac and medicinal property of the black

monkey and although this mainly pertains to

the other black monkey of these jungles, the

Nilgiri Langur, the two are easily mixed up

_liontail survival in W. Ghats is the habitat

_ conversion and eventual destruction. Here the

_Most serious factor is the conversion of pri-

mary shola or rainforest into Cardamom plan-

in ignorance and for many both will equally

do. However, in most of the localities it was

found that the tribals and others in intimate

contact with forests readily distinguish the two,

tations on a very wide scale and also for tur-

_Meric cultivation on a restricted scale. In the

and the liontail is referred to very aptly as

Sinkalan (Leonine) with some reverence and

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the Nilgiri langur as Karimanthy (black mon-

key) or simply manthy. Capturing for live sale

in animal markets of big cities is also consider-

able as the liontail is quite a striking animal:

with beautiful fur. Often the young one is

caught after killing the mother. On the whole,

direct decimation is a factor for immediate re-

medial action.

CONSERVATION MEASURES AND

RECOM MENDATIONS

Conservation of liontail habitat does not

pose any serious problems. Preservation of

climatic climax community is inherently in the

interest of good forestry management. One of

the factors little realized is the importance of

the ecological role of the evergreen shola

forests in the Western Ghats. Most of these

forests especially those in mountain folds and

valleys contain several water courses at the

bottom which contribute significantly to the

drainage of the area. In summer, such water

courses would be the only source of water

available to the Wildlife and the shola forests

affording the only effective cover for many

of these species. Destruction of these forests

would naturally result in soil erosion and con-

sequent silting up of these water channels,

conversion of biota and disappearance of many

species of wild life from the area.

Evergreen forests of the Western Ghats are

commercially not very remunerative. Among

the multiplicity of species, only few are of any

economic utility and these forests are gene-

rally worked under the selection system where

minimum exploitable size of usable trees are

felled on their rate of growth and feasible fell-

ing cycle. As the rate of tree growth of ever-

greens is slow, felling cycles are long. On the

whole total economical yield including that

of minor forest produce (products other than

336

wood) is relatively unimportant. It will not be

therefore, difficult to stop any type of extract-

ing and cropping operations in these forests.

As such the only serious threat to these forests

is from the expanding Cardamom and turmeric

plantations.

Legally liontail is a protected animal. Its

killing or capturing and export are banned. But

poaching, while restricted in the habitats fall-

ing under wild life sanctuaries, continues un-

abatedly in other areas. This is an aspect which

can be remedied immediately by more stringent

statutory and implementation procedures.

Recommendations:

Considering all factors, the following mea-

sures are recommended for immediate action:

1. (a) Wet evergreen rainforests of the West-

ern Ghats form only a very narrow band

mostly along the Western aspect and this is

at present much fragmented. This, being

the original climax formation of the W.

Ghat, should be declared inviolable and

preserved eliminating all disturbing forestry

operations and preventing all further en-

croachments of plantations and the like.

(b) Later, a well thought out plan may

be drawn up to restore the continuity of

the evergreen belt, through probably allow-

ing the adjoining deciduous strips to na-

turally progress towards evergreen climax,

and if necessary by afforestation.

2. When new forest or public roads are built

in the area, care should be taken not to

cut across any major shola forest but as

far as possible circumvent the same.

3. A concerted publicity drive may be launch-

to educate the public regarding the rarity

and need of conserving the liontail, base-

lessness of the belief of any medicinal pro-

perty of its flesh etc. Suitable hoardings

could be erected at strategic areas in its

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

habitat depicting the animal and exhorting

the people to assure its survival.

4. Forest authorities will have some informa-

tion on the animal poachers and dealers

in their locality. A closer watch should be

maintained of their premises, for live ani-

mal traffic. Similarly wild life Inspectorate

or Forest authorities should periodically in-

spect the animal dealers’ facilities in the

big cities.

5. Major liontail habitats (as per the figures

provided) which are outside wildlife sanc-

tuaries, may be declared as liontail reserves

and the regulatory system of check posts,

road bars etc. may be installed at the

approach and exit areas with necessary

staff.

6. As a more long term measure, a project

for a two to three year comparative study

of the conservational aspects of the ecology

of licntails may be initiated with a view

to propose long term measures not only to

conserve the species but also to augment

its populations and habitat range.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Director, Zoological Sur-

vey of India for sanctioning the survey project,

to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Deputy Director,

Southern Regional Station, Z.S.1. for all faci-

lities provided and to the various forest autho-

rities of the areas visited, for their kind help

and co-operation.

REFERENCES

BLANFoRD, W. T. (1888): The fauna of British

India. Mammalia (1), pp. 250, London.

DANIEL, J. C. & KANNAN, P. (1967): Status sur-

vey of the Lion-tailed Macaque and Nilgiri Langur.

(Mimeographed Report). Bombay Natural History

Society.

CHAMPION, H. G. & SeruH, S. K. (1967): Forest

Types of India. Government of India, Delhi, pp. 404.

Epitors (1956): Distribution of Liontailed mon-

key (Macaca silenus) (Linn.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53(4) :687.

Hutton, A. F. (1949): Notes on the snakes and

mammals of the High Wavy mountains, Madura

district, South India. Part 2. Mammals. ibid. 48:

681-694.

JERDON, T. C. (1874): The Mammals of India,

London. John Weldon, pp. 355.

KADAMBI, K. (1950): Evergreen montane forests

of the Western Ghats of Hassan district, Mysore

State. Indian For. 18-30; 69-82; 121-132.

Karr, J. R. (1973): Ecological and behavioural

notes on the Liontailed Macaque (Macaca silenus)

in South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70:191-

193.

KRISHNAN, M. (1971): An ecological survey of

the larger mammals of Peninsular India. ibid. 68:

03-555.

Kurup, G. U. (1963): On the Cranial characters

of Macaca silenus (Linn.) (Primates: Cercopithe-

cidae). ibid. 60(1) :246-249.

(1971): A _ preliminary ecological

survey of the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, Kerala

State. Cheetal 13(2) :5-18.

(1973): Present status of the Nilgiri

Langur, Presbytis johni in the Anamalais, Western

Ghats. Indian For. 99(8) :518-521.

(1975): Status of the Nilgiri Langur

Presbytis johni in the Anamalai, Cardamom and

Nigiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India. J. Bom-

bay nat. Mist. Soc. 721) :21-29:

Pocock, R. I. (1939): The Fauna of British In-

dia 1. London. Taylor and Francis.

PRATER, S. H. (1965): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, pp. 324.

Puri, G. S. (1960): Indian Forest Ecology, 1 &

2. New Delhi, Oxford Book and Stationery Co.

pp. 710.

RICHARDS, P. W. (1952): The Tropical Rain

Forest. Cambridge. Cambridge Univ. Press, pp. 540.

SUGIYAMA, Y. (1968): The ecology of Liontailed

Macaque (Macaca silenus)—A pilot study. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(2) :283-292.

WEBB-PEPLOE, C. G. (1947): Field notes on the

mammals of south Tinnevelly, South India, ibid.

46 :629-644.

337)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

APPENDIX ADDED IN PROOF

Fodden (1975) has listed liontail localities culled

from literature. Green and Minkowski (1978) have

also given those reported during last fifty years.

Below is given an up-to-date gazetteer of all known

liontail localities, containing also information ob-

tained from recent surveys conducted between 1975

(when the manuscript of the present paper was

prepared) and May 1978. This summarises the pre-

sent state of cur knowledge of liontail distribution

and

status.

GAZETTEER OF KNOWN LIONTAIL LOCALITIES WITH PRESENT STATUS

Localities

Near “Goa _ District”

Anshighat

Jog Falls

Scuth Kanara, North border

Agumbe ghat, Someshwar

Kundremukh — Bhagavati

Sakaleshpur, Hassan

Coorg, W. Border

South Wynaad

Kuttiyadi pass

Vayithiri forests

Vellarimala

Nilgiri:

Gudalur ghats

Amarambalam—Silent valley—

Upper Bhavani valley

Palghat Forests

Anamalai

Nelliampathy forests

Palagapandy

Seethagundy

Kollengode forests

Cottangadi

Anamalai Wild Life Sanctuary

Karianshola

Anakunthy shola

Varagaliyar shola

Manamboli shola

Water falls (near Valparai)

Grass hills shola

Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary:

Vengolimala shola

<uriarkutty

Lat.

15°16’

14°56’

14°16’

he Sey"

eS:

13°14’

12°42’

12430:

il sie.

tls

i e25y

dele,

10°50'

10°26’

10°36’

10°27’

10°20’

Area Around

Long.

74°00’

74°22’

74°43’

74°40’

74°55’

Yous!

ID Sl

S50:

76°00’

1SEAS,

76°28’

VO 2S

76°45’

Onsale

76°45’

70° 36’

TOS,

76°45’

Altitude

360 ?

3090

500

600

500

900

709

800

1000

900

1000

700

1200

Source

Baker, H. in Blyth (1859)

Daniel & Kannan (1967)

Shortridge, C. in Ryley (1913)

Daniel & Kannan (1967)

Shortridge, C. in Ryley (113)

Kurup, G. U.

Jerdon (1867)

Kurup, G. UU.

Kurup, G. U.

Kurup, Gi Us

Kurup, G. U. also Green &

Minkowski (1977)

Kurup, G. U.

Kinloch, A. M. 1920

(BNHS)

Lindsay (1926)

O’Brien, F.R.O. 1921 (BM)

Kurup, G. U.; also Green &

Minkowski (1977)

Padmanabhan, S. (Personal)

Davidar, E.R.C. (1971)

unup, Ga:

Kurup. Gs Ur

Biddulph (1953) (BM)

Status

ne] (es! ) iach WO) WS) tel te} tee! feo wl

gal Fre

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND STATUS OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE

Area Around

Altitude

Localities Lat. Long. Source Status

N E

Chalakudi—Sholayar river basin 10°20’ 76°45’ 900 P

Between Upper and lower Kurup, G. U.

Sholayar dams Vazhachal @ates, Jick:

Munnar Kurup, G. U. P

Kadalar estate 10°05’ did 203" 1350

Karadipara, Pallivasal 10°02’ Tih OD:

Kallar, Pallivasal

Cardamom Ranges:

Panniyar 9°59’ Pi al, G00 Sugiyama (1968) P

Erachippara Kurup, G. U

Santhampara 9557’ Ta ly SOO Kurup, G. U P

Moolathara Kurup, G. U P

Peythotti Kurup, G. U P

Mathivettankuzhi Kurup, G. U P

Periyar Sanctuary OF 33) 77°06! $00 Kurup, G. U. also Green &

Pachakanam I F120) Minkowski (1977) P

Uppupara

Vallakadavu

Puiladi Estate

Malappara

Moclakaliu

Kallar Valley 9°10’ TIE Ls 900 Kurup, G. U. P

Varushanad Valley 92357 Ti 3) 900 Hutton, A. F. (1949) D

_ (High Wavy mountains)

Bhagavathipuram— 9°01’ TU 500 Oates, J. F. P

puliyara (Shenkotta) 659 Kurup, G. U.

Agasthya Ranges

Kuttalam 8°45’ TT LO: Krishnan, M. (1972) A

Mundanthurai Sanctuary

Walayar 8°38’ AE 900 Kurup, G. U. also Green and P

Kannikkatti Minkowski (1977)

Kanthappara Estate

Kattalamalai

Kalakkadu Sanctuary 8°34’ Tam 900 Daniel, Je ©. (970) P

Kakkachi to Chengaltheri 8°24’ TTS: 1300 Green and Minkowski (1977),

Manjolai

Singampatti

Upper Kodayar

Mahendragiri

Narakkad

REEL LTR SEPT SEI 5 =

A—Absent, P—Present,

L—Likely,

ees

D—Doubtful

Gu:

(1973)

Kurup,

Karr, - Ji OR:

389;

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Reference cited in source:

BAKER, H. (see Blyth 1859); BippULPH, C. H. Col-

lector of specimen Catalogued 1953 in British Mu-

seum; BLYTH, E. (1859): Report of Curator, Zoo-

logical Department for February to May meetings

1859. Proc. Asiatic. Soc. Bengal 20, pp. 271-298;

DANIEL, J. C. (1970): The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemitra-

gus hylocricus Ogilby, in the High Ranges, Kerala

and the southern hills of the Western Ghats. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(3): 534-542; DANIEL,

J. C. and KANNAN, P. (1967): The status of the

Nilgiri Langur Presbytis johni (Fischer) and Lion-

tailed Macaque [Macaca silenus (Linnaeus) ] in S.

India. A Report. (of Bombay Natural History So-

ciety) (seen only in MSS); Davipar, E. R. C.

(1971): A note on the status of the Nilgiri tahr

(Hemitragus hylecrius) on the Grass hills in the

Anamalais. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2): 347-

354; FoppEN, J. (1975): Taxonomy and evolution

of liontail and pigtail macaques (primates: Cerco-

pithecidae). Fieldiana Zoology 67, pp. 164; GREEN,

340

S. and MINKowsKI, K. (1977): The Liontailed

Monkey and its south Indian Rain Forest Habitat,

Primate Conservation. pp. 289-337, Academic Press;

Hu7TTon, A. F. (1949): (see main reference); JER-

DON (1967): (see main reference); Karr, J. R.

(1973): (see main reference); KINLOCH, A. M.

(1920): Collector of specimen in Bombay Natural

History Society Museum; KRISHNAN, M. (1971):

(see main reference); Kurup, G. U. Author’s own

surveys; LinpsAy, H. M. (1926): Bombay Natural

History Societys Mammal Survey of India, Burma

and Ceylon. Report Nos. 43-45, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 31: 591-614; Oates, J. F. (Personal com-

munication); O’BREIN, F. R. (1921): Collector of

specimen in British Museum; PADMANABHAN, S.

(Wild Life Warden Anamalai sanctuary, personal

communication); RyLty, K. V. (1913): Bombay

Natural History Societys Mammal Survey of India.

Report Nos. 10, 11. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22:

464-513; SHORTRIDGE, C.: (see Ryley 1913); Suai-

YAMA, Y. (1968): (see main reference).

THE DOUBTFUL FUTURE OF THE PIGMY HOG AND

THE HISPID HARE’

Part I—A Conservation Report

Pigmy Hog Field Survey, 1977

WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER?

(With a plate and

INTRODUCTION

Following the dramatic reappearance of the

pigmy hog Sus salvanius and the hispid hare

Caprolagus hispidus in March 1971, much in-

terest has been generated in these species.

The events leading up to their rediscovery and

the subsequent history of the captive animals

has been well documented elsewhere (Mallin-

son 1971; Tessier-Yandell 1971) and it is

unnecessary to review it here. The seemingly

unlikely close association of the two species

is both interesting and pertinent, though the

reasons for it are not hard to find since they

apparently show a similar distribution and

habitat preference, i.c. the ‘thatchlands’ of

north-western Assam. They were both unjusti-

fiably considered extinct by some authorities

on the purely negative evidence that stemmed

from a common lack of knowledge owing to

poor feedback from local sources of informa-

tion. However, their apparent scarcity is not

merely a function of the remoteness of their

distribution. The fact that their distribution is

limited has been appreciated, as has their scar-

city even within the narrow confines of this

distribution range and both species deservedly

merit Schedule I categorisation in the Indian

1 Accepted August 1977.

2Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres

Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands.

3 As a result of the findings of this report the

three text-figures)

Wild Life Protection Act (1972). This known

scarcity has been attributed to the limited dis-

tribution and to habitat destruction though the

real species situation and its underlying causa-

tive factors have been poorly understood.

Hence the ‘indeterminate’ Category 4 status

accorded to both species at the present time

by LU.C.N. Red Data Book.®

There are actually relatively few documented

accounts of either pigmy hog or hispid hare

in the intervening period between the 197]

reappearance and their original published des-

criptions in the mid-19th century. This lack

of data is not altogether surprising in view of

their small size and secretive nature, their

dense and _ observationally-unsuitable habitat

and their (scientifically) remote distribution.

What little knowledge we have is therefore

based primarily ‘shikar’ accounts but would

indicate both species always had a somewhat

restricted distribution within recent historical

times. Thus over the last century or so, his-

pid hare had been recorded at intervals along

the Southern Himalayan foothill belt that

stretches from northern Uttar Pradesh in the

West, through Nepal, Sikkim, North Bengal,

southern Bhutan to north-western Assam. As

far as we know pigmy hog had a similar dis-

1.U.C.N. Red Data Book categorisation for this

species has now been changed from Category 4 (in-

determinate) to Category 1 (endangered).

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

tribution though there are no accounts avail-

able for the species as far west as Uttar Pra-

desh. Within the last few decades both species

have been declining steadily and all post-1971

records (with one exception) appertain to

north-western Assam, though the distribution

of both species may stretch into east North

Bengal and southern Bhutan where the thatch-

scrub jungle continues into these areas. (Fig.

1).

° present distribution

“s: probable former distribution ®

Fig.

Eye witness accounts support this steady

decline with reports of observations over a

much larger area of Assam 15 years ago or

more. In 1964 a U.S. expedition from the

Hormel Institute spent four weeks looking un-

successfully for pigmy hog in Nepal. A recent

and apparently reliable report of pigmy hog

in Cachar in south-eastern Meghalaya (G. S.

Chaudhury, pers. comm.) is most interesting

for it implies a much extended former distri-

bution for this species owing to the necessity

for circumnavigation of the Brahmapuira river

barrier to the south. However, neither species

has been reliably recorded south of the Brah-

342

maputra river before or in Arunachal Pradesh

or north-western Assam. Both latter districts

are high rainfall areas with a preponderance of

evergreen forest and little thatchland in the

forest belt. :

In the interim the present-day known dis-

tribution of both species is exclusively the

forest belt of north-western Assam. It is quite

likely therefore that both species are now

unique to this vicinity and anyway should be

eot

i. Present and Former distribution of Pigmy Hog (Sus salvanius).

regarded as such until reports from other areas

are positively confirmed or negated. By the

very nature of the habitat and of the species

it is not possible to be categorical about dis-

tribution, but even if other populations do

materialise, it is very likely that the popula-

tion/habitat pressures that are so strongly

evident in Assam (but which are not unique

to this area) would apply equally strongly else-

where.

The story is a familiar one, for which pro-

gressive human settlement is largely respon-

sible by making further and yet further in-

roads into former natural habitat. Whilst

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

some may feel this is deplorable, it is of course

objectively irreversible and practical conser-

vation measures must be directed at the pro-

tection and salvage of the small remaining

habitat areas. As far as pigmy hog and hispid

hare are concerned, the situation is immeasur-

ably worsened by the degradation of the small

remaining thatch-scrub areas for the exploita-

tion of forest resources and the tradition of

burning during the dry season.

Since 1971, there has been considerable ex-

pense and effort engendered in efforts towards

their conservation, particularly of pigmy hog.

However, this effort has been primarily direct-

ed towards the acquisition of specimens for

captive husbandry and no action has_ been

taken towards the underlying causative factors

in the decline of the wild populations. That

the wild populations are declining is in no

doubt as the known distribution and remain-

ing habitat dwindles and becomes increasingly

discontinuous and increasingly under pressure.

Moreover, the captive breeding projects for

these species have not been an unqualified suc-

cess. Hispid hare are probably ‘non-starters’

in captivity anyway as the few specimens that

have been caught have amply demonstrated by

succumbing within remarkably short time after

capture. Hares are notoriously difficult to

maintain in captivity cwing to their tempera-

ment and disease-susceptibility, and consider-

able expertise is required even to maintain

them without breeding. By contrast, the pigmy

hog captive breeding effort has shown promis-

ing indications of its potential as a safeguard

to the species survival, though in retrospect

this potential has been far from realised. Des-

pite an apparent ease of breeding and the suc-

cessful long-term maintenance of a few indi-

viduals, mortality has remained unjustifiably

high owing to crude methods of capture, the

hervous disposition of the newly caught ani-

mals themselves and a lack of expertise result-

ing in poor husbandry practices. However, the

captive stocks that remain are still potentially

viable even if much depleted, and they have

provided much valuable information on repro-

ductive and behavioural biology. Perhaps

equally important is that the considerable

efforts that have been made with regard to

captive pigmy hogs have also generated con-

siderable public and official interest and aware-

ness in this species and this could be of great

significance to future policy regarding their

conservation.

However, though captive breeding efforts

are meritorius in that they are conservation-

oriented, they ignore the basic and much more

significant and important aspects of the spe-

cies’ predicament, i.e. the fundamental pro-

blems of the wild situation. Captive breeding

however successful, does not represent a solu-

tion to the endangered species problem, even

though it is a very valuable tool that may pro-

vide a hedge against extinction, a study source

and (ideally) a source for reintroduction

should that become necessary. Thus the con-

tinued efforts of research and breeding captive

pigmy hogs must go hand in hand with efforts

at reversing the current trends of the continu-

ing degradation of wild habitat and wild

populations. It is hoped that this study wil!

provide some information as to the causative

and fundamental problems faced by the wild

stocks and provide a framework for their con-

servation. Problems faced by the wild popu-

lations are profound but not irreversible pro-

vided they are looked at objectively and any

action that may be generated is not merely

legislation on paper.

The survey in which this report is based

was undertaken as a result of the realisation

that an objective analysis of population trends

and pressures was required before any action

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

was contemplated. It was also intended to in-

vestigate the biology of these species in the

field and the survey was arranged to coincide

with the period following the annual burning

of the thatchlands where these animals were

Known to occur. This was to facilitate be-

haviour study as it is during this period that

most observations of pigmy hog have occurred

as the thatch grass is naturally at its shortest

following burning. The survey was of admit-

tedly short duration, i.e. March-June 1977, but

in the event has proved to encompass the most

critical period for the biology and conservation

of these species. Finally it is necessary to add

(by way of excuse) that the survey was not as

fully comprehensive as would have been desir-

able owing to the author’s movements being

limited by time, by foreigner’s permit require-

ments, poor communication facilities and for

the most part, poor weather conditions. Hav-

ing said that, the pattern that emerges is till

startlingly apparent even though it was not

possible to visit all the probable or known

areas of distribution.

THE RESERVE FoREST BELT

Before analysing the results obtained it is

important to establish the present context with

respect to the wild situation. Thus there is

comparatively little ‘wilderness’ left in Assam

owing to the continuous and progressive settle-

ment and cultivation of an expanding and im-

migrating people. Land is under tremendous

pressure and the rate of transformation of for-

mer habitat has been dramatic in the past few

decades. This is a continuing process and

human population increases have been accele-

rating disproportionally owing to immigration,

particularly of Nepalese peoples, but also to

a lesser extent some Bengali and other peoples.

This process has resulted in the replacement

344

of practically all natural habitat up to (and

frequently beyond) declared forest boundaries.

The north-western forest belt, where these

species occur is a semi-continuous series of

forest and thatchland areas that run from east

North Bengal to Upper Assam. Immediately

to the north the primary forest (the so called

‘bhabar’ forest) continues into the foothills of

Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. The eastern

side a higher rainfall area and is comprised

mainly of evergreen forest with little or no

thatch-scrub jungle which accounts for the

likely absence of either species to the east of

North Lakhimpur.

This forest belt is intersected by tributaries

of the Brahmaputra River and is divided into

Reserve Forests, Unclassed State Forests and

two wildlife sanctuaries (Manas and Sonai-

Rupa). Neither Reserve Forests or Unclassed

State Forests are regarded as wildlife areas in

as much as legislation for wildlife protection is

governed only by the individual species cate-

gorisation according to the Indian Wild Life

Protection Act and regulations governing ac-

cess to persons entering the Reserve Forests.

Essentially Reserve Forests are geared towards

the commercial exploitation of the forests by

the Forestry Department, i.e. Reserve Forests

have an afforestation or reafforestation pro-

gramme. Thus primary forest is felled for tim-

ber extraction and thatchland areas are affore-

sted with commercial species plantations.

Most of the thatchland areas are also subject

to annual harvesting for thatch (thatch-mahal)

under permits issued by the Forest Depart-

ment as thatch is a very important building

material which is used for roofing for the vast

majority of dwellings in Assam. Some Reserve

Forests also have grazing concessions and some |

have sand and stcne mahals.

The Unclassed State Forests which are in- |

terspresed between the Reserve Forests, do not

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 75

Oliver: Pigmy Hog and Hispid Hare

(Photos: Author)

ae (Captions overleaf)

Above: Adult male pigmy hog photographed on a tea estate in Assam. This animal

weighed approximately 8 kg and stood about 11 inches at the shoulder. n.b. marked

streamlining for a very dense habitat. Below: Adult female hispid hare caught accid-

enly in Barnadi Reserve Forest in late April 1977, whilst trapping for pigmy hogs

under permit for the attachment of radio harnesses. The animal was immediately

released after being photographed. n.b. heavily pregnant.

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY

have an afforestation programme and are not

actively managed by the Forest Department,

and most of them are being progressively en-

croached upon and many are unlikely to sur-

vive as forest areas. The degree of encroach-

ment varies considerably from negligible at the

present time to almost complete encroachment.

Many Reserve Forests are also subject to en-

croachment to a greater or lesser degree. The

majority of setthkement in Unclassed State

Forests and Reserve Forests is actually en-

croachment but there are official settlements

particularly in Unclassed State Forests. In

some places little or no action has been taken

against illegal settlement, but elsewhere suc-

cessful eviction proceedings have been insti-

gated though sometimes with difficulty owing

to the claims of squatter rights.

These processes have a particularly serious

efiect on the thatchland and _ scrub jungles

which are highly susceptible to human disturb-

ance particularly by dry-season burning. This

habitat (unlike the true forests) has now be-

come discontinuous and forms a series of dis-

crete and highly vulnerable units within de-

clared forest boundaries. Moreover these that-

chland areas tend to be along the southern

edge of the forest boundaries and are there-

fore often in particularly close proximity to

human habitation and few of these areas too

remote to be easily accessible. There are actu-

ally two classes of thatch savannah, i.e. high-

land and lowland savannahs. The latter is sub-

ject to heavy waterlogging or even prolonged

inundation during the monsoon. In the north

these areas are typically the ‘char’ grasslands

along river boundaries which probably never

support these animals. The better-drained high-

land savannah basically comprises typical

thatch-scrub jungle (when left unburnt) which

is the habitat of these species.

HOG AND HISPID HARE

THE BARNADI RESERVE FOREST

The main study area was the Barnadi Re-

serve Forest in the Rajagarh area of Mangal-

dai in Darrang District. This locality was an

obvious choice as it was from this region that

both species originally reappeared and _ has

been the source of the original (and nearly all

subsequent) captive stock. Together with the

Manas Sanctuary it is also the only area from

which these species were widely known to

occur.

This area was therefore thoroughly surveyed

as to distribution of the species, habitat pre-

ferences, behaviour and animal movements.

The report on many of the aspects of the

study are published elsewhere (Oliver 1977)

and I have only touched upon behaviour

where this is directly relevant to the conser-

vation issues. For example it is very easy to

prove or negate the species activity in any

particular area by screening for behavioural

indicators such as the distinctive forage marks

of pigmy hog or the thatch cuttings/faecal de-

posits of hispid hare. Therefore a careful exa-

mination of the whole area together with the

questioning of forest officials, local villagers

and shikaris easily establishes the population

distribution and habitat preference. A critical

analysis of an area such as the Barnadi Re-

serve Forest, manifestly demonstrates the

reasons for the continued decline of the wild

populations.

Barnadi lies about four miles north of At-

tareekhat and one mile north of Rajagarh vil-

lage. It is bordered in the west side by the Bor-

nadi River and to the east by the Nalipara

Nadi. The northern boundary is the common

international border with Bhutan and the pri-

mary forest belt is continuous with that of the

Bhutan foothills. The Bornadi river is a com-

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

mon boundary with the Darranga Reserve

Forest to the west (where pigmy hogs have

also been recorded) but to the east there is

an Unclassed State Forest which is extensive-

ly cultivated by encroachment and some offi-

cial settlement. All southern boundaries verge

cnto cultivation areas and though much of the

perimeter is fenced, this fencing is in poor

repair and is completely ineffective in restrict-

ing unofficial human and domestic animal

movements. There is therefore free access to

the reserve areas along the south-west, south

and south-east boundaries. The reserve area

was formerly entirely surrounded on the south-

ern sides by mixed highgrass scrub jungle, but

with progressive settlement over the last 10-

15 years these areas are now purely rice-paddy

cultivation and village settlements. The total

reserve area iS approximately 24.6 sq. kilo-

metres of which approximately 8 sq. kilometres

(20%) along most of the western side is ex-

tensively encroached. Approximately 7 sq.

kilometres is mixed deciduous and evergreen

forests and thus is largely undisturbed.

The central and south-western section is an

extensive and continuous thatchland belt and

afforestation area with plantations of simul,

gomari, bonsom and some (exotic) teak and

Eucalyptus. This thatchland is subject to a

thatch-mahal and this thatch concession covers

the entire area. The thatch is officially harvest-

ed between Ist November and 30th April by

a contractor (permit holder) or private indivi-

duals with contractors permission. There are

no grazing concessions, but in fact the thatch

area is extensively and illegally grazed daily

by about 250 head of cattle and a few domes-

tic bufialoes and sheep. The whole thatch area

is approximately 12.6 sq. kilometres (i.e. about

50%: of the total Reserve Forest).

Nearly all the thatchland is burnt annually

during the dry season. This burning is prima-

346

rily ‘accidental’ by local people as opposed to

‘controlled’ by forest officials. The extent of

burning varies year by year as it is illegal and

uncontrolled, trough there are some attempts

at control by thatch cutting and burning ‘fire-

lines’. The accidental burning is_ essentially

undertaken by ‘miscreants’, i.e. by carelessness

(e.g. herdsmen cooking or smoking in the

forest) or the deliberate firing by villagers to

improve grazing and thatch yield. The uncon-

trolled burning in the height of the dry season

(late February to early April) is more harmful

to plantations than earlier controlled burning

when the grass 1s not tinder-dry. The forest

department takes on extra staff as “firewatch-

ers’ in an attempt to control burning during

this period, though burning is difficult to pre-

vent and very difficult to control at this time,

and to judge from the acreage burnt in 1977

these precautions are completely ineffective.

Deliberate or accidental burning by miscreants

is greatly facilitated by the case of access to

the forest by the long perimeter between the

thatch area and the surrounding cultivated

land, i.e. about 10 kilometres.

This burning has a catastrophic effect on

the hispid hare and pigmy hog population and

the fauna and flora of this thatchland ecosys-

tem in general. There is a profound difference

between the rich and diverse biological com-

plex of the unburnt mixed high thatch-scrub

biotope and the relatively simple uniformity

of regrown burnt thatch!and. The difference

is clearly a function of the varying species sus-

ceptibility to the fire hazard and the ecological

instability caused by annual burning. Fire is

highly selective and generally speaking only

well established trees and plants with well de-

veloped root systems are likely to survive.

Firing completely destroys all ground cover

(and therefore also most food supplies) in the

post-burning period prior to the “chota’ (small)

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

rains which usually occur in April. Plants with

well developed root systems and rapid vegeta-

tive growth can exploit this situation and thus

burnt habitat is characterised by poor diver-

sity but extensive and rapid growth of certain

species (e.g. in Barnadi, Saccharum sponta-

neum, Phragmites karka, (both thatch species),

Eupatorium ordoratum, Lea robusta and Salvia

sp.) Recolonisation by other plant species

naturally depends on their reproductive poten-

tial and/or seed and spore dispersal mechan-

isms. Similarly faunal recolonisation depends

on such factors as particular species mobility

(thus birds can recolonise quickly), reproduc-

tive potential and the local availability of un-

burnt habitat or (dubiously) alternative tem-

porary fire-displacement habitat.

It is important to acknowledge that not all

typically thatch-scrub jungle species are affect-

ed to the same degree. Animals that migrate

during the dry season avoid the problems of

food and water supplies and it has been argued

that grazing ungulates may even benefit by dry

season burning with improvement of fodder.

Other species avoid the problems of dry sea-

son survival by aestivation (e.g. reptiles and

some insects) or life-history cyclicity (many

invertebrates) may also be less seriously affect-

ed, though this would clearly depend on the

behaviour or mechanisms associated with this

torpor phase. [t is equally clear that species

such as pigmy hog and hispid hare (which we

can positively demonstrate remain resident and

active in the thatch-scrub during the dry

season) must be very seriously affected by

burning through the loss of their habitat. It is

immaterial that cover is only lost for a rela-

tively short period (two to three months prior

to regrowth of vegetation) as there is no suit-

able alternative habitat and anyway the habi-

tat is seriously modified by the ‘selective

effects’ of burning. Furthermore, it is evident

(and amply demonstrated by field analysis)

that thatchland areas take several years to fully

recover from the effect of burning (one of the

reasons for deliberate annual burning is to pre-

vent ‘good’ thatchland from reverting back to

mixed thatch-scrub jungle). Thus annual burn-

ing seriously modifies ecosystem composition

as long as it is maintained and even a single

chance fire can be reasonably expected to show

its effects for at least a few years owing to the

differing fire resistance of species and other

factors already outlined.

The distribution patterns of hispid hare and

piemy hog in Barnadi Reserve Forest mani-

festly demonstrates these arguments. The burn-

ing in late February/early March 1977 was

severe in its extent and approximately 80%

(i.c. 10 sq. kilometres) of the thatch area was

burnt. The population distribution was moni-

tored at regular intervals between late March

to early June and remained resident and con-

stant during this period, i.e. entirely restricted

to the larger areas of remaining unburnt habi-

tat as shown in Fig. 2.

This pattern of distribution is extremely

significant to the conservation of both species

and from it we can extrapolate several! import-

ant facts: —

(1) Both species are found only in unburnt

thatch-scrub jungle at this time cf year.

There is actually no other suitable habitat with

dense cover available in this vicinity. Burnt thatch-

land offers absolutely no cover and a dearth of

foodstuffs in the post-burning period. They have

never been reliably recorded from primary forest

except in areas immediately adjacent to unburnt

habitat, i.e. foraging excursions, or consequent to

forced movement of animals displaced by burn-

ing. There is actually very little ground cover in

the typical primary forest of this region.

(11) Unlike many of the larger indigenous

mammals, these species do not migrate but are

resident in this type of habitat during the dry

season.

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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348

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

This is evident as they are found throughout the

dry season in suitable unburnt habitat. All ob-

servation of these species movements during the

day season are directly consequent of displacement

from their former habitat by burning, e.g. pigmy

hog etc. most frequently seen (and caught) after

burning when they are forced out of dense thatch

into surrounding cultivation areas seeking cover.

Indeed, the original captures in the Attareekhat

Tea Estate in March 1971 was consequent of an

extensive fire in the thatch-land in the Rajargarh

area (Tessier-Yandell 1971). Similarly, pigmy

hogs are observed on Budlapara Tea Estate to

the south-east of Barnadi every year immediately

after burning (D. K. Mukherjee, pers. comm.).

(III) Despite the lack of suitable habitat

elsewhere, animals forced to move through

habitat destruction by burning, cannot accu-

mulate in the remaining suitable unburnt habi-

tat.

Because burning is so extensive, suitable unburnt

habitat is at a premium. The ecological equili-

brium of habitat supporting an existing popula-

tion, cannot support additional animals, because

resources are at their lowest during the dry

season. Moreover, the socio-territorial behaviour

of resident conspecifics would preclude this pos-

sibility. The fact that they cannot accumulate is

evident by their appearance in unsuitable habitat

elsewhere as already outlined.

(1V) The (maximum) resident population

of Barnadi during the dry season is therefore

roughly proportional to the amount of habitat

that is not burnt (see also VI).

(V) The animals displaced by burning and

forced into moving to unsuitable alternative

habitat can reasonably be expected to suffer

a very high percentage mortality.

Through the mere unsuitability of alternative

cover (e.g. tea estates which provide cover but

poor food supplies, owing to constant insectici-

dal and herbicidal spraying and are also much

disturbed by plantation employees), and direct

hunting pressure of animals that are known to be

killed in the surrounding paddy cultivation areas

and tea estates at this time of year. In Barnadi

thatch growth is relatively slow and the _ inter-

vening period to regrowth of vegetation may be

as much as two or even three months. The habi-

tat distortion consequent of burning severely re-

duces the quality of regrown habitat and _ this,

together with the other factors may result in the

complete loss of a displaced population. Burn-

ing that is very severe in extent could therefore

easily result in the extermination of an _ entire

population in any given area.

(VI) The extreme vulnerability of the small

pockets of remaining unburnt habitat further

exacerbates a precarious situation resulting in

the loss of part of the small remaining popu-

lation in unburnt areas.

These areas are isolated in the post-burning period

and in Barnadi are subject to very considerable

human and domestic animal disturbance, i.e. these

areas are the only source of thatch for cattle

fodder and the only source of thatch, firewood

and forest vegetables for local villagers in the

immediate post-burning period and are much dis-

turbed as a consequence. Similarly these are the

only areas where game is to found and all hunt-

ing is concentrated .on them, moreover game is

very easily killed by driving it out of cover into

the surrounding open areas.

As has been stated, approximately 80% of

the total thatch area was burnt in 1977. Pigmy

hog occur in isolated patches of unburnt habi-

tat that total = 16% of the available areas.

All these patches have not been burnt for at

least 2-3 years and vary in size considerably,

by far the largest being 83.5 hectares. Accord-

ing to my estimation and conversation with

forest officials the remaining 3-4% thatchland

that was not burnt in 1977 was in fact burnt

in 1976. The cover in these areas was subst-

antial but not nearly as dense as in the areas

unburnt for several years (i.e. the 16% habi-

tation areas). Again these comprise small iso-

lated pockets and pigmy hog and hispid hare

are definitely not resident in these places,

though there is frequent evidence of pigmy

hog foraging excursions where a_ particular

patch in contiguous with a known habitation

area. The actual distribution pattern of the

unburnt habitat in Barnadi is also significant

in view of the fact that burning is undertaken

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

illegally by local villagers and herdsmen. Thus

the most important unburnt habitat areas are

in the immediate vicinity of the range oifice

and beat office and are near or between good

firebreaks namely the perimeter road and jecp-

able tracks.

The estimation of total populated habitat

in Barnadi was undertaken simply by measure-

ment and compass bearings of each patch of

unburnt habitat. From the sum total area of

this habitat it is possible to derive a maximum

population estimate by determining the den-

sity of animals per unit area. For pigmy hog

density was deduced by random sampling (..e.

by measuring areas covered during drives to

capture two males for the attachment of radio

harnesses and counting numbers of animals

seen in each area) and by the subsequent de-

termination of home range by telemetry hav-

ing given consideration to average sounder

composition, i.e. an average 4.5 animals per

sounder at this time of year (Oliver 1977).

Both methods are rather crude but in the event

produced remarkably similar results ie. 1 pig-

my hog/+5.5 hectares. Therefore the maxi-

mum estimated population (prior to an ex-

pected birth peak in late April/early May

(Mallinson 1977) is approximately 35-40 ani-

mals for the whole Barnadi area (though the

population is actually lower than this due to

direct hunting mortality; see later text for ex-

planation).

Similar figures for hispid hare were not de-

termined and no real data was obtained on

current population levels of this species. How-

ever the population of hispid hare is undoubt-

edly low in view of the general scarcity of

their distinctive demarcation deposits even in

ideal habitat. Moreover their distribution in

Barnadi is even more restricted than that of

pigmy hog as they were found only in the

largest areas of unburnt habitat.

350

M. K. Ranjitsinh visiting the Barnadi Forest

in April 1972 wrote “In the reserve itself there

is very little grazing and other factors of hu-

man disturbance though I saw evidence of

grass cutting for thatch purposes and a few

head of cattle on the southern side. On the

whole however the reserve has been very well

preserved as the areas has been converted to

a plantation. There has been effective protec-

tion from fire and the area remains a dense

high grass biotope’’.

It is therefore quite apparent that this area

has deteriorated dramatically in the last few

years. The simple fact of burning has had eco-

logicaliy disastrous consequences on these re-

sident species. Moreover, the species-habitat

vulnerability consequent of burning is exacer-

bated disproportionately so that hunting,

thatch collection and other human disturbance

causes further disruption and erosion of the

smali remaining areas and ‘float’ populations.

The latter being the viable nucleus that repre-

sent the future population continuity of these

areas.

ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

LEVELS IN BARNADI AND ELSEWHERE

The association between pigmy hog sight-

ings and burning is well known but its pro-

found effects on their population has not been

appreciated. Even Hodgson (1847) publish-

ing his original description of the pigmy hog,

wrote “that when the annual clearance of the

undergrowth of the forest by fire occasionally

reveals pigmy hogs, the herd may be assailed

to advantage’. As has been pointed out, burn-

ing is not a new phenomena, it has been prac-

tised for generations and yet these species have

survived. However, we must consider the spe-

cies/habitat situation in the present context

for it has changed dramatically in the last few

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

decades with the progressive erosion of habitat

and its replacement by agricultural settlements.

Burning is undoubtedly the single most im-

portant criteria affecting the population of

these species in Barnadi. Barnadi however is

by no means unique in this respect as annual

burning is an accustomed and accepted prac-

tice that is widely considered to be beneficial.

Whilst its impact on Barnadi is now self-

evident, the issues raised by annual burning

are complicated by several related factors.

These factors naturally vary from place to

place and it is important to analyse them in

some detail.

1. Loss of Habitat through settlement or en-

croachment

The demand for new settlement areas with

an increasing human population is, of course,

the fundamental reason for the reduction in

wildlife areas. This demand for land could

reasonably be expected to apply to the whole

spectrum of Indian wildlife, but in fact pres-

sures for land are unequally applied. The phy-

sical difficulties and erosion problems associat-

ed with hill settlement have not so far affected

these areas in Assam as seriously as elsewhere

and as a consequence the primary deciduous

and evergreen hill forests are still continuous

and extensive.

By contrast thatchlands which are essen-

tially well drained savannah are under the

greatest demand for land for settlement and

cuitivation for they are flat, thinly forested and

fertile. This land demand has effectively re-

sulted in the loss of all former high grass

habitat for wildlife except in the forest and

wildlife reserve areas. Wildlife Reserves and

Sanctuaries are few in number and it can be

argued that Reserve Forests have assumed a

new significance as wildlife areas. Yet as poten-

tial wildlife refuges, these remaining thatch

areas are very unsatisfactory for they are also

under very considerable encroachment, gov-

ernment settlement and exploitation pressure.

This pressure is likely to be maintained if

not increased as land becomes increasingly at

a premium as established encroachment areas

tend to expand rapidly and eviction proceed-

ings are lengthy, expensive and difficult owing

to the human problems involved. Additionally

the close proximity of forest areas to agricul-

tural settlements not only isolates these areas

but inevitably leads to abuses of forest reserves

such as poaching, illegal grazing and _ illegal

thatch collection .Control is difficult owing to

poor communication facilities and the ease of

access to forest areas owing to the jong peri-

meter boundaries common to both forest and

the surrounding cultivation areas.

The lack of an intervening ‘buffer zone’ be-

tween cultivation and forest areas is highly

significant because the forest reserves are now

essentially peripheral to human habitation and

the close proximity of thatch areas to human

habitation and activity, inordinately increases

the risk of accidental or deliberate burning.

2. Loss of habitat through annual dry season

burning

Annual burning is by no means a new phe-

nomena as systematic and extensive grass-

scrub burning has been practised for hundreds

of years. However, the situation has changed

drastically in the last few decades. Where pre-

viously burning extended well into forest

areas, there were always areas too remote to

be regularly burnt, if at all. Now with settle-

ment extending as far as the Reserve Forests

themselves all thatch-scrub areas are in the

burning zone and virtually all areas are subject

to deliberate burning or liable to accidental

burning. At the present time the practice of

burning would seem to be comprehensive and

351

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the long practised tradition of dry season burn-

ing has not taken this change in circumstances

into consideration.

As burning effectively destroys a vast per-

centage of available (potential) habitat, an-

nual burning obviously serves to keep popu-

lation of these species at low levels. Any sys-

tematic population increases by reproduction

will be offset by the amount of available habi-

tat and further reduced by poaching and other

factors.

Direct mortality by burning is probably in-

significant for pigmy hog (owing to their re-

lative mobility and the coincidental appearance

of displaced animals elsewhere) though one

hunter assured me he had eaten pigmy hog

that had been killed in this way. Alternatively

by virtue of their delayed flight reaction (i.e.

the tendency to freeze typical of hares) hispid

hare may well suffer high mortality during

burning.

Undoubtedly however the factor most affect-

ing their population is the temporary loss of

ground cover clearly essential for both spe-

cies. The fact that pigmy hog travel long dist-

ances (say two or three miles) to reach the

cover afforded by tea estates amply demons-

trates this contention. Food and other inciden-

tal factors are of secondary importance to the

predominant desire to seek cover. In this con-

text we may quote a foremost Indian autho-

rity, the late P. D. Stracey (1966):

“Food and shelter are the essential requirements

for existence in an area and the adequacy of

supply determines the degree of attraction of an

area for a species. These are obviously to be

measured at the period of lowest supply which

may be in the wet or dry season and the number

which an area can carry at such times is called

the ‘carrying capacity’. All numbers produced in

excess of the carrying capacity are obviously sub-

ject to loss”.

It is evident therefore that the extreme loss

of habitat renders the ‘carrying capacity’ small,

3352

i.e. directly proportional to the amount of un-

burnt habitat. There is no doubt at all that the

dry season is anyway the period that the popu-

lation of these species are subject to the

greatest natural pressure as resources, food/

water supply etc. are at their lowest and the

consequent destruction of habitat (shelter) by

fire therefore has disastrous consequences on

the resident population. Stracey goes on to

say:

“Similarly shelter may be measured in terms of

quantity and|or quality and lack of mal-distribu-

tion of this factor is reflected in a low population.

Shelter must protect the species from the ele-

ments as well as from enemies and must ensure

safe feeding and breeding facilities. It must also

satisfy the instinctive needs of the species and the

‘animal pattern’. The instinctive behaviour pattern

of a species is relatively fixed and modification of

the conditions of shelter which it requires will

bring about a reduction in its numbers in the

locality”.

Thus burning not only reduces habitat avail-

ability enormously, it also isolates remaining

unburnt habitat so that other deleterious fac-

tors are concentrated on what is left to further

reduce the remnant population.

Thus the situation for these species is very

serious because of burning and becomes acute

for the remaining population in the post-burn-

ing period.

3. The destruction of habitat by forestry

The advantages of burning for forestry prac-

tices are quite clear cut but must be reviewed

here in the context of general discussion. Not

unnaturally the primary consideration with

respect to burning the Reserve Forests is its

effect on forestry practices and its effect on

wildlife is at best a secondary consideration, if —

it is considered at all.

Annual burning is an official Forest Depart-

ment policy in many areas partly as an aid

to forestry itself and partly to prevent burning

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

by other persons at a later date which would

be more harmful to forest plantations. In

essence therefore most burning by forestry

Officials is ‘early’ controlled burning in plots

by fireline demarcation. This deliberate con-

trolled burning is undertaken when the grass

is not ‘tinder-dry’ in December-early Febru-

ary. Whilst this controlled burning does in fact

sometimes get out of control it is far less harm-

ful to young plantations than later uncontrolled

burning in the height of the dry season. The

latter can easily destroy a whole and very valu-

able plantation area, as happened in Khaling-

daur Reserve Forest in the early 1970’s. Thus

early burning effectively clears thatch-scrub

undergrowth which represents a serious fire

‘hazard at a later date. The fact that the ‘thatch-

lands’ are the main target for afforestation pro-

grammes renders this fire hazard a very real

threat in view of the ease with which dry

season fires are started, particularly when so

many persons, both official and unofficial, have

access to forest areas.

Another reason for deliberate burning has

already been outlined, i.e. the clearance of

thatch-scrub which competes with young plan-

tations for light and other resources. This clear-

ance is a necessary prerequisite for the suc-

cessful growth of young trees and for this

reason thatch may also be regularly cut follow-

ing rapid growth after the ‘chota’ rains.

Similarly thatch burning is also necessary to

maintain high thatch yield as regular annual

burning inhibits the growth of most other spe-

cies and ensures an even growth of thatch that

is of high quality and quantity. By the same

token this also facilitates its harvesting as a

commercial crop which is sold on a tender

system, the thatch being collected into bundles

and auctioned. The thatch-mahal itself is col-

lected between September and April (though

specific dates vary from locality and locality)

and it provides an important source of revenue

to the Forest Department. Nearly all large ex-

panses of thatchland are therefore subject to

mahal, though not all areas are burnt by for-

estry officials. However virtually all areas are

in fact burnt one way or the other and thatch

collection (whilst not a serious disturbance in

itself as it concentrates mainly on burnt areas)

obviously encourages burning as thatch yield

is undoubtedly improved. Moreover, many

areas of thatch that are not subject to an offi-

cial mahal are still burnt for domestic thatch

collection by villagers or by local forestry offi-

cials for their own purposes even though the

thatch thus produced is often far in excess of

their actual needs.

In view of the ecologically disastrous conse-

quences of burning on resident wild species,

forestry for afforestation and _ thatch-mahal

purposes, directly results in the destruction of

the vast majority of otherwise suitable habitat.

It is therefore apparent that there is a direct

conflict of interests between wildlife and fore-

stry in these areas. It is true that the Reserve

Forests are not wildlife areas, but for the pigmy

hog and hispid hare they represent the only

areas of distribution except for the Manas

Sanctuary. It is irrelevant whether the burning

consequent of forestry and thatch collection

is the early controlled burning by forest officers

or later uncontrolled burning by other persons

for the effect on the habitat is equally disastr-

ous for the ecology and conservation of these

species.

Whilst burning is necessary for the success-

ful growth of young trees, mature plantation

could easily support thick thatch-scrub, but in

areas like Barnadi thatch-mahal effectively

precludes this possibility. Though most plan-

tations are mono-culture, where trees are wide-

ly spaced the effect on undergrowth is negligi-

ble, but close planting for species like teak also

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

prevents the growth of cover in mature plan-

tations. Elsewhere, undergrowth burning is

undertaken (e.g. for sal in Balipara Reserve

Forest) to prevent competition to germination

from mature seeding trees.

Lastly the oft-mentioned argument that if

thatch-scrub is not regularly burnt it would be

completely superseded by forest, is in my view

highly questionable. Basically the contention

of this argument is that open thatch or grass-

land as a habitat is only maintained by burn-

ing and if burning was discontinued it would

be quickly and _ successively displaced by

secondary and eventually primary forest. It

is, of course, true that there is a long term

dynamism in the structure of habitat, but long

term trends are irrelevant to these species when

the short term effects of burning are so cata-

strophic. Moreover it is not possible to have

it both ways, if the thatch-scrub of natural sav-

annah is burnt to facilitate the growth of young

trees in plantation, then that same cover will

also inhibit the growth of natural forest. Cer-

tainly forest clearings revert back to forest if

left (assuming erosion is not severe), but we

are dealing mainly with natural savannah that

has survived largely unburnt in formerly remote

and inaccessible areas. This natural savannah

may be thinly forested and still survive as

thatch-scrub, indeed mature plantations of wid-

ely spaced trees could well represent a most im-

portant possible refuge for these species. There

is evidence that if left unburnt, there is a noti-

ceable increase in secondary forest growth with

the relatively rapid appearance of such fast

growing trees as simul, sishu and khier (D.

K. Lahiri Choudhury, pers. comm.) though

these tend to be widely spaced and the thatch-

scrub is not deleteriously affected by this pro-

cess. In fact one area of Barnadi approximate-

ly 63 hectares in extent was comprised entire-

ly of mature secondary forest and had a very

354

heavy thatch-scrub undergrowth and this was

one of the best areas for both species. It seems

unlikely that the typical primary forest would

entirely displace this habitat and if burning

continues at its present rate the argument

would anyway be academic (as it would take

too long for consideration in the urgently re-

quired short term conservation of these spe-

cies). The management of open savannah for

wild species would therefore be much better

directed at actual management of tree growth

(c.g. by ringing trees) than by burning entire

areas to remove this doubtful eventuality.

4. The destruction of habitat by burning for

grazing

Whilst the arguments about afforestation and

thatch-mahal do not, or should not apply to

Sanctuaries and other declared wildlife areas,

annual burning of the grasslands is nonetheless

undertaken to a great extent in these areas.

Part of the reason given is that controlled burn-

ing is also less destructive to habitat and wild-

life than the likely subsequent uncontrolled

burning at a later time. There is a very real

risk of fire even in Sanctuaries during the dry

season from tourists, sanctuary Officials,

labourers and bordering settlements and con-

trolled burning does enable large and mobile

stock to get cut of the way of fire and it is

less destructive to forest. The additional argu-

iment that most species migrate during the dry

season and are therefore not affected is falla-

cious and is anyway inapplicable to these and

other resident -species as we have seen.

However, controlled burning is also under-

taken in Sanctuaries and elsewhere to improve

fodder for grazing herbivores and I would con-

tend that there is considerable fault to find

with this argument. Whilst it is true that grass/

thatch yield (i.e. fodder) is undoubtedly in-

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY

creased by burning in the same way as that

undertaken for thatch-mahal, there is no evi-

dence that shortages of fodder is the factor

that is controlling the population of any of

the grazing ungulates in these Sanctuaries.

Species populations are always controlled by

the least favourable factor in any particular

environment, and it is highly doubtful that in

a high-grass biotope fodder is in short supply

(except perhaps ironically in the post-burning

period). It is true that the young shoots that

grow after the ‘chota’ rains in burnt areas

are a favoured fodder, but it is hardly possible

to justify the distortion caused to the habitat

by the selective effects of burning on_ this

account. Even if burning could successfully

bring about an increase in herbivore popula-

tion resulting from improved fodder yield, the

pursuance of this policy would result in the

artificial maintenance of an over-optimum

population of a few species at the expense of

a whole variety of others.

Stracey (1963) summarises a section on the

protection of game habitat by writing:

“The lesson to be drawn from all this is the need

to preserve intact, as far as possible, the biotic

complex so as to ensure the free interplay of these

forces of nature of which we have so little real

comprehension. Any attempts at protection of the

forest as such or as a game habitat by artificial

means, must be embarked upon with the utmost

caution, particularly when they aim at the reduc-

tion or elimination of one or more species and

the maximum reliance should be placed on biolo-

gical or natural methods of control.”

It need hardly be said that burning is neither

| biological or natural, certainly electrical

storms can cause fire but the frequency with

‘which this happens in the dry season is negli-

| gible, electrical storms are essentially a wet

| season phenomenon.

| There are only two Sanctuaries in the known

area of distribution of the species, i.c. Manas

and Sonai-Rupa, and both are subject to ex-

HOG AND HISPID HARE

tensive burning. Manas is probably the most

important area for the future conservation of

pigmy hog/hispid hare but it is extensively and

deliberately burnt over most areas for the

above mentioned reasons even though it does

not support a very heavy population of graz-

ing herbivores. Hispid hare have not been re-

corded from Sonai-Rupa and pigmy hog are

probably extinct now in this area though they

were formerly known to occur there. Regular

burning for thatch-mahal in this sanctuary until

two years ago may well have caused the dis-

appearance of this species. Part of Sonai-Rupa

is still burnt and this is not controlled burn-

ing but ‘accidental’ burning primarily by herds-

men from a mixed cattle and buffalo ‘khutr

(permanent graziers camp) who have grazing

rights in the sanctuary.

Burning by villagers and herdsmen for the

improvement of grazing for domestic herbi-

vores is a very important factor in some areas

such as Khalingdaur Reserve Forest where

herdsmen from a two hundred head buffalo

khuti have totally burnt approximately 9 sq.

miles of thatchland in an area that was pre-

viously known to support pigmy hogs. No pig-

my hogs have been seen this year which is

most unusual, and quite conceivably represents

the loss of this population. This burning may

have been deliberate to improve grazing (there

is no thatch-mahal in this area) or accidental

as the herdsmen are smoking or cooking their

meals in the forest. Grazing concessions in

forest areas enormously increases the risk of

burning even if the burning is not deliberate.

In Barnadi the illegal grazing by domestic

cattle represents a source of fire from atten-

dant herdsmen and in some paris the intensive

grazing severely curtails the growth of thatch

following the ‘chota’ rains. More significant-

ly perhaps the only source of thatch for fodder

is the immediate post-burning period in the

305

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

unburnt areas that support the residual popu-

lation of pigmy hog and hispid hare. These

areas in Barnadi are therefore subject to con-

siderable and continual disturbance by both

cattle grazing the area and more particularly

by herdsmen and villagers collecting bundles

of thatch for fodder for domestic animals and

for their own purposes. Relatively few Re-

serve Forests have grazing concessions in this

area and grazing of domestic animals is not

allowed without prior permission that may be

eranted in special cases (e.g. to forest villagers

who have grazing rights for their own cattle

on a ten head per household basis and these

are censused every year). The heavy iilegal

grazing is exceptional in Barnadi and in view

of the shortages of game species in this highly

disturbed areas, grazing itself is probably not

particularly deleterious if it was not so con-

centrated, especially on the unburnt areas fol-

lowing seasonal burning. However, even light

grazing by a few domestic animals involves

human activity with an inherent and serious

associated fire hazard that is much more signi-

ficant in these respects, e.g. Khalingdaur.

Hunting

Direct mortality by hunting or poaching is

also a serious threat to these species. Again

we are faced with this problem that hunting,

particularly of pigmy hog, becomes far more

significant in the post-burning period. Barnadi

is regularly visited by hunters (poachers) work-

ing independently or in small parties from

village settlements and tea estates. These people

naturally concentrate their activities mainly on

unburnt areas for the obvious reason that

these are the only areas where cover (and

therefore game) is to be found in the high

grasslands following burning. The isolation of

the small unburnt areas therefore facilitates

hunting enormously as hunters can be deploy-

356

ed only in these areas and can screen random-

ly for game, set snares or gin traps or drive

animals out of cover. I can testify to the effec-

tiveness of the last method because this was

the method used under permit to catch pigmy

hog in nets for the temporary attachment of

the radio harnesses during the study. Game

such as pigmy hog, that is driven out of cover

is either run to exhaustion on surrounding open

land or killed with bow and arrow or shot

gun as it breaks cover. To my own certain

knowledge at least five animals were killed in

Barnadi in this way during the late March to

May period. This may not seem a particularly

high mortality but this in fact represents direct

poaching on the very small remnant breeding

population that is the main basis for the con-

tinuance for the species in the area. Therefore

those pigmy hog known to be killed in this

pericd in 1977 is actually approximately 14%

of the total estimated population for this whole

area.

It is well known that pigmy hog and other

species are most easily caught after the grass-

lands have been burnt and it is no coincidence

that all captive animals caught since 1971

have been captured in the period. As one

hunter told me “If you want to catch pigmy

hog you have to do it after burning but before

the rains when the grass grows so there is more |

cover and hunting is difficult.”

Not all hunting takes place in the Reserve |

Forests for the main pigmy hog actual hunt-

ing mortality is likely to occur in the dis-

placed populations found on local tea estates |

as already outlined. But whatever the source, |

pigmy hogs were formerly commonly to be |

in local bazaars |

observed for sale as food

during this period and the original Attareekhat

are rarely sold in bazaars now as they are |

likely to be recognised by forest officials and |

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

the hunters and retailers are therefore liable

to prosecution. There have been no prosecu-

tions to date however, though they are still

hunted regularly in Barnadi during this period,

though animals are usually butchered imme-

diately so that they cannot be easily recognised.

Gin traps are also easily available for sale

in bazaars and the large number of disabled

animals purchased for the tea estate captive

stocks testify to this method of hunting (Mal-

linson 1971). Hispid hare also caught and

killed in this way. Of course, gin traps are

largely indiscriminate, but so too are the hunt-

ers themselves for almost any animal caught

is liable to be eaten or parts of it sold for

medicinal purposes.

This lack of discrimination is even more di-

rectly significant for hispid hare as most local

people simply do not distinguish between his-

pid hare and ordinary hare (Lepus nigricol-

lis) and the latter can be hunted legally in

agricultural areas. Some hunters of course do

appreciate differences between the two sorts of

‘rabbit? (hence the local dialect names: ‘Nul

Keria’, ‘Khagra Katta’ or Ekra Kata Shoha’

for hispid hare and ‘Loha-Pohw’ or ‘Khargosh’

for the Indian hare) but they still fail to appre-

ciate that you can hunt one sort and not the

other or the reasons for it. Unlike pigmy hog

which hunters are cautious about hunting, the

rarity of hispid hare is not known and even

most local forestry officials do not recognise

the species or its status. Information about

hispid hare is consequently much harder to

come by and this is reflected to some extent

in the incompleteness of the data collected

about this species. Apart from gin traps and

snares, both sorts of hare are mainly hunted

at night with a torch and this method may be

so refined by experienced shikaris that animals

can be approached over open ground within

physical striking distance. Hunting parties with

torches were to be regularly seen screening

paddy fields systematically for foraging hares

that have emerged from the Reserve Forest.

The villagers claim that they are not poaching

as the animals are outside reserve boundaries

and are anyway damaging their crops. The

author never saw hispid hare whilst looking for

them at night with a torch, though there were

many Indian hare active in these fields. How-

ever reliable sources of information assure of

the similar activity of hispid hare and I saw

a skin of one that had been killed in this way.

Poaching in Barnadi is probably more se-

rious than in most Reserve Forests and in

some poaching is probably negligible at the

present time. In Barnadi the long common perti-

meter to settlement areas is again significant

as it renders anti-poaching policing difficult.

Poaching in Manas for these species is prob-

ably not serious if it occurs at all, as other

game is more profitable and anti-poaching mea-

sures have reduced poaching significantly (P.

Lahan, pers. comm.). However most pigmy

hog and hispid hare populations are unlikely

to be in the vicinity of settlement areas owing

to the extensive burning.

Other sources of disturbances

Primarily these include such (illegal) acti-

vities as collection of forest vegetables, fire-

wood, domestic thatch collection out of season

(i.e. between 31st April and Ist September)

and other forest resources. Some areas such

as Barnadi also have by-ways through the forest

which are used by local settlers as well as

forest villagers. These activities themselves are

not particularly harmful other than the fact

that they again disturb the small unburnt areas

for they are the only source of such resources

in the post-burning period. More particularly,

such activities are also a serious fire hazard

especially if the burning of most areas has

35)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

been undertaken early, thereby leaving the re-

maining unburnt areas highly vulnerable to

fire for two to three months prior to the chota

rains.

Areas of distribution in N. W. Assam

Owing to the difficulties mentioned earlier

it was not possible to visit all known or likely

areas of distribution. Where it was not pos-

sible to visit personally, attempts were made

to gather as much information as possible from

local forestry officials or employees, local vil-

lagers and shikaris and similar sources of in-

formation. For some of these areas there is

no information available regarding the pre-

sence or absence of the species, but particular

Reserve Forests or Unclassed State Forests

have been included in a summary of known

distribution as they fall within or between

known localities and are known to encompass

similar habitat areas.

There are four ‘divisions’ 1n north-western

Assam that fall within this known area of dis-

tribution, i.e. (from west to east) Kachugaon,

Haltugaon, North Kamrup and Darrang Divi-

sions. The two most important districts are

Darrang and North Kamrup Divisions; and

these areas have been assayed as well as time

and circumstances permitted.

1. Darrang Division

Gophur Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog are de-

finitely known from this area at the present

time and there are also recent records of his-

pid hare. There are approximately 16 sq. kilo-

metres of thatchland on the north-eastern edge

of the Reserve, but this whole area is subject

to two separate thatch-mahal concessions and

as nearly all areas are burnt the pigmy hog

population must be small. No grazing in this

area, but formerly much encroachment al-

though over 3,000 people have been evicted.

358

The thatchland reclaimed in this way is being

afforested with simul and udal plantations how-

6Ver:

The geography of this area would make it

suitable for the prevention of burning in some

areas as access to thatch area is limited to the

western river boundary, as it is otherwise sur-

rounded by primary forest.

Naudaur Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog are

also definitely known from this area at the pre-

sent time though again the population is very

low. No records of hispid hare. Total reserve

area is 67 sq. kilometres but more than half

of this area is leased as a firing range. Only

about 30 hectares of grassland within Reserve

boundary and most of this borders the Bordu-

kari River and as it tends to get waterlogged

is unlikely to support pigmy hog. A large

thatch-bari on the outskirts of the reserve is

under disputed ownership but is, like the ‘char’

thatch area within reserve, subject to mahal

and is totally burnt. Small patches of thatch

within the forest itself are not subject to official

mahal but are burnt for private thatch collec-

tion by forest officials, though much of the

thatch produced is superflous to their domestic

requirements. These latter areas could well be

protected from burning. Pigmy hogs are only

seen in these latter areas and always in early

April following burning.

Balipara Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog occur

in one small area of this Reserve but no re-

cords of hispid hare. The population must be |

very small for this area is only approximately |

200-300 acres and is comprised of mixed

thatch—tara (Cardaman sp.) jungle, though

this is presently undisturbed. However there |

is a government-granted collective farm imme-

diately to the south-east of this area which

might easily affect it. Only other thatch is char |

grassland on the north-east side of the Borelli

River, which is subject to a thatch-mahal but |

VTE GAURORE VOR (RIGMY,

as it also gets waterlogged or flooded during

the monsoon it does not support pigmy hog.

Efforts should be made to maintain protection

of the one small area where pigmy hog are

believed to occur.

Sonai-Rupa Sanctuary: Pigmy hog probably

extinct in this area, no records for hispid hare.

This sanctuary is part of the Charduar Reserve

Forest, but it has not been maintained or de-

veloped as a wildlife area. Regular burning

and thatch-mahal was stopped in 1975 but

pigmy hog had long disappeared by that time

having last been seen about 30 years ago. Some

arcas within an approximate 13 sq. mile thatch-

scrub belt are still burnt by herdsmen from

a mixed cattle and buffalo khuti who have

permanent settlement and grazing rights in the

sanctuary. The State Government has also

Icased approximately 63.8 sq. kilometres of

the sanctuary to the army as a firing range,

including heavy artillery and for large scale

troop manoeuvres. The army has applied to

lease a further area of approximately the same

acreage, though the Forest Department has re-

quested the army to vacate as it hampers ope-

rations to develop the sanctuary. There are no

reports of the army actually killing any game

but the disturbance is obviously considerable.

This would be an ideal area for the reintro-

duction or translocation of pigmy hog if the

sanctuary was brought up to its nominate

status.

Rowta Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog definite-

ly known to occur in this area but the popu-

lation must be extremely low. No records of

hispid hare. The one area of thatchland, ap-

proximately 80 hectares in extent, has a com-

plete mahal and the whole area is subject to

uncontrolled burning usually in March. Only

a very small strip of mixed thatch-scrub forest

running along the edge of this mahal area is

unburnt. Pigmy hogs were seen this year in

HOG AND HISPID HARE

late March after burning. There is no grazing

in this area, but extensive timber extraction.

The geography of this area could well pro-

tect the thatch against fire as access is well

guarded and the thatch area is well within

the confines of the forest. Moreover the value

of the thatch-mahal is very small.

Corromore Unclassed State Forest: Pigmy

hog occur in this area but again population

probably very low as nearly all areas burnt.

No record of. hispid hare. Wild elephant in

the area prevented closer examination of the

one small area likely to support pigmy hog

on the western side. Little encroachment as yet

but dwellings have appeared over the last year.

Khalingdaur Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog de-

finitely found up to 1976, though now much

reduced if they survive at all. No definite re-

cords of hispid hare. Very large areas of thatch

on north and western side of this area, but

these have been entirely burnt mostly by herds-

men of a buffalo khuti. Records of pigmy hog

on Nonaipara Tea Estate are derived from po-

pulation formerly living in Khalingdaur which

is immediately to the north of this garden.

However this population area has now been

converted into a plantation and this whole

habitat zone is now subject to controlled burn-

ing and no pigmy hogs have been seen this

year. There is no thatch-mahal. Two large

thatch areas to the east are also deliberately

burnt despite having a natural fire break

afforded by the Dhansiri River. Previous re-

cords of pigmy hog in Haltigaon and Majuli

Tea Estates are derived from animals on this

side. This eastern area could be protected from

fire and would be an ideal area for pigmy hog

if the animal still survives there.

2. North Kamrup Division

Barnadi Forest Reserve: Pigmy hog and his-

pid hare definitely found here. Still one of the

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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360

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY

most important regions for these species, this

area has undergone progressive deterioration

and it is unlikely that either species will sur-

vive if this pressure continues. Thatch-mahal

and afforestation programmes over whole area,

coupled with a tremendous amount of illegal

human activity. This area is very difficult to

protect owing to long perimeter boundary to

surrounding cultivation area and it is doubtful

that proposed protection measures will be effec-

tive long term. For details see previous section.

Darranga Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog defi-

nitely known to occur in the eastern side

though population probably low. No definite

records of hispid hare. There is a continuous

strip of thatch and all along southern half of

this forest, but nearly all thatch is burnt and

there is a thatch-mahal concession for this

entire region. There is an army firing range

on the western side. Fire protection measures

should be taken in the eastern side though

long common forest-cultivation boundary, si-

milar to Barnadi, may render this difficult.

Subankhata Reserve Forest: Pigmy hog

probably found in this area though flooding

of access roads prevented confirmation. No

definite records of hispid hare. A small thatch

area on southern side may well support pig-

my hog, though this area is subject to mahal

and is largely burnt. This thatch area runs

north-south, so there is a relatively short com-

mon boundary with cultivation areas to the

south which would facilitate protection against

burning and the value of the thatch-mahal is

small. An additional small Reserve Forest area

to the south-east, i.c. Morapgaldia Reserve

Forest, is a good thatch area, but is entirely

burnt and all parts subject to mahal and af-

forestation and therefore unlikely to support

this species.

Batabari and Doadhari Reserve Forests: No

definite records of pigmy hog or hispid hare,

HOG AND HISPID HARE

but flooding prevented access to the region.

Small thatch areas in these reserves may sup-

port pigmy hog, but despite lack of thatch-

mahal, nearly all areas are burnt.

Manas Sanctuary: Pigmy hog and _ hispid

hare both found in this region which is prob-

ably the single most important area for the

future conservation of these species. However

the population of both species must be much

lower than it should be owing to the very

extensive early burning for prevention of acci-

dental burning and the improvement of fodder.

There is a total of approximately 40 sq. kilo-

metres of thatchland in sanctuary area, of

which approximately 12 sq. kilometres on

southern side and 15 sq. kilometres on the

western side of the Manas River make up the

bulk of this total though practically all of both

these areas are burnt. Small areas within

forest belts and at the edges of the large thatch

belts remain unburnt and harbour the resident

populations of these species. Pigmy hog have

been recorded from several places in the sanc-

tuary including the eastern side in the former

Kakihabari Reserve Forest, in patches in the

central and southern areas and on the western

side of the Manas River. Fire prevention mea-

sures in Manas are wholly directed at early

controlled burning by firelines to prevent the

likely accidental burning from persons having

access to the sanctuary and from neighbour-

ing border settlements. However efforts must

be made to reduce the extent of burnings in

view of the importance of Manas for these

species.

3. Hultugaon Division

This area was not visited. There is a re-

ported sighting of pigmy hog near Rumikhati

(D. K. Lahiri Choudhury, pers. comm.). Other

reports of pigmy hog and hispid hare have

been recorded in the vicinity of Goalpara

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Forest Division to the south but these have not

been confirmed recently. A hispid hare was

collected there in 1956. There is a large belt

of approximately 60 sq. kilometres of mixed

thatch-scrub to the north of this division bet-

ween the Sarbhanga River in the west to the

Kanamakra River in the east (S. K. Chetia,

in litt.) which may well support these species

though no reports of them have filtered through.

There is some human habitation in this latter

region and much of this area is burnt by the

villagers who collect thatch for their own pur-

poses though there is no official thatch-mahal.

This area needs further investigation.

4. Kochugaon Division

This area was not visited and there is very

little information available appertaining to it.

However pigmy hog have been recently report-

ed from one locality, i.e. near Raimona Forest

Rest House between the Janali and Rouya

forest areas (D. K. Lahiri Choudhury, per.

comm.). This area also needs further investi-

gation.

The apparent poor distribution of hispid

hare is significant, for it reflects not only a very

poor local knowledge of this animal but a

probable real paucity of the species over this

known range. Whilst it is important to con-

sider that some of these areas may well sup-

port small populations of hispid hare, some

almost certainly do not (e.g. Balipara Reserve

Forest) as local shikari knowledge is sound

and if the species were to be found there it

would have been reported. By contrast, whilst

the range of the pigmy hog may seem consi-

derable, it must be remembered that in view

of the ecological instability brought about by

the burning of the vast majority of all these

areas, this species must have an extremely

tenuous hold in most places.

The only way of estimating resident popula-

362

tions in these areas is by ascertaining the total

area of inhabited unburnt thatch-scrub, and

this of course varies year by year. Whilst this

was done in Barnadi in 1977, it was clearly

not possible to do this over the entire range

of distribution and I have made no attempt at

a total population estimate for pigmy hog,

though it is felt that it is unlikely to be more

than one hundred and fifty to two hundred

animals and may well be considerably less than

this. Moreover any population estimate is large-

ly meaningless in view of the extreme vulner-

ability and instability of the habitat, and there-

fore of the species. Suffice to say that popula-

tion levels are certain to reflect this ecological

instability and it is certain that pigmy hog and

hispid hare numbers will continue to decrease

unless their environment can be stabilised by

the prevention of burning in some areas.

CONCLUSIONS

It is quite apparent that these species have

undergone a dramatic decline in distribution

over the past few decades and that this pro-

cess is continuing in the last remaining habita-

tion areas of N. W. Assam. Even such a cur-

sory analysis of the pressures affecting this

remaining habitat and its resident populations

of these species shows that their future is also

extremely precarious throughout most, if not

all, of their present range of distribution. The

fact that the ‘thatchlands’ are essentially flat,

well-drained savannah which is ideal for agri-

culture and forestry, has meant a dispropor-

tionate loss of habitat for hog and hare over

their entire former range. Furthermore, not

only have the processes of settlement and en-

croachment reduced former habitat areas to

within or even beyond declared forest boun-

darics, but that the vast majority of whatever

natural habitat remains is further despoiled

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

by burning and other forestry practices.

The situation for these species is particu-

larly acute for a number of reasons, not least

of which is that the surviving populations are

largely restricted to Reserve Forests, and these

areas are not actually wildlife areas and have

no real policy regarding wildlife conservation.

Of declared wildlife areas, only Manas Sanc-

tuary supports known populations and the vast

majority of otherwise suitable habitat in Manas

is spoilt by the widespread seasonal burning.

Therefore whilst we must appreciate that the

primary function of the Reserve Forests is the

commercial exploitation of the forests as a

resource, it should also be appreciated that

they must have additional significance as an

extremely important last refuge for these spe-

cies, and they do support most of the total

surviving populations.

Forestry and wildlife are largely incompat-

able however, and at the present time we are

witnessing the progressive decline of wildlife

habitation areas that is primarily a function

of dry season burning coupled with the in-

creasing exploitation of thatchland for affore-

Station, thatch-mahal and grazing. So great is

the rate of destruction of this environment, that

it is somewhat surprising that they have con-

tinued to survive at all in many of these areas.

As it is, we can certainly expect the systematic

loss of most of these populations over the next

few years if the present pressures on this ha-

bitat continue, as they are almost certain to do.

All results lead to the inevitable conclusion

that the long tradition of dry season burning

as the fundamental problem affecting the re-

maining populations. However the effect of

burning on small resident species has never

been seriously considered or appreciated.

Neither has the change in circumstances been

taken into account, i.e. the reduction in wild-

life areas so that few are now too remote not

to be subject to burning. As we have seen,

this burning of thatch-scrub effectively destroys,

or severely distorts, the vast majority of other-

wise suitable habitat. This serves to keep re-

sident populations at low levels that are ap-

proximately proportional to the amount of ha-

bitat left unburnt for several successive years.

Moreover the nature of uncontrolled burning

obviously results in a good deal of variance

in the extent (severity) of burning year by

year, and a particularly severe burning can

reasonably be expected to result in the com-

plete extermination of whole populations by

the total, or near total, destruction of available

habitat.

Official fire policy in Reserve Forests is

essentially the controlled early burning where

fire is a hazard to plantations and though un-

controlled burning is not actually allowed, it

has not caused much concern where it has

not directly affected such interests. The early

burning that is an integral part of many forestry

operations does serve to inhibit or prevent

later accidental or deliberate uncontrolled burn-

ing and it is therefore undoubtedly good for

forestry purposes, as tree growth is less afiect-

ed and thatch yield is improved. This is parti-

cularly true where later uncontrolled burning

is not so much a risk as a definite probability

owing to human activity in forest areas or the

close proximity of thatchland to bordering

settlement and cultivation areas, e.g. Barnadi.

This incidental burning by other persons is a

very real problem as burning during the dry

season is a tradition of long standing and in

fairness it must be said that even if the pro-

hibition of burning was better enforced by the

Forest Department, it would still be unlikely

to be prevented in some areas (M. A. Islam,

pers. comm.). Moreover fire prevention is

costly and difficult and though easily started,

fires are very difficult to control.

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Even so, the present extent of burning, either

controlled or uncontrolled, cannot possibly be

justified. Many areas, e.g. parts of Naudaur

Reserve Forest, are burnt by forestry officials

solely for their own domestic purposes even

though they are unlikely to be burnt by other

persons and there are no forestry operations

in these small areas. The thatch yield produc-

ed by this burning is far in excess of these

domestic requirements, which could easily be

met without burning. There is no justification

for burning for thatch when optimum yield is

not required. In other areas, e.g. Rowta Re-

serve Forest, optimum yield is required for

a total mahal is the only area of thatch, yet

the revenue obtained from this mahal was only

six thousand rupees in 1976 (approximately

four hundred pounds sterling). Almost the en-

tire thatch area in Rowta is burnt for this

mahal and as a consequence the pigmy hog

population is so small that it is almost cer-

tain to disappear altogether if the present burn-

ing continues. In Khalingdaur Reserve Forest

the known indigenous pigmy hog population

is now quite probably extinct as a result of

thatchland burning even though there is no

mahal. Controlled burning in Khalingdaur is

undertaken only in plantation areas and the

indiscriminate uncontrolled burning that occurs

everywhere else in the Reserve is undertaken

according to the whim or carelessness of herds-

men that have access to these areas from the

official buffalo khuti. The total of approxima-

tely 9 sq. miles of otherwise prime thatch-

scrub habitat that was burnt in 1977 is a result

of these herdsmen’s activities. Yet the revenue

obtained from the grazing rights of this two

hundred head khuti is only six rupees per

head of buffalo, i.e. one thousand two hund-

red rupees (approximately eighty pounds sterl-

ing). Clearly therefore the revenue obtained

from such activities is very small, whilst the

364

cost 1s very high in terms of wildlife and typi-

fies the way in which these Reserve Forest po-

pulations are being (unwittingly) squandered

at the present time.

It is of course unrealistic to think that much

thatchland savannah will be left for wildlife

in Reserve Forest areas for there is an un-

doubted conflict of interests between forestry

and wildlife. Moreover forestry exploitation is

not just revenue—dependent for there is a ge-

nuine human interest in much of this exploita-

tion particularly for thatch in view of its im-

portance as a cheap and satisfactory roofing

material. Burning for thatch-mahal will thus

continue to account for a majority of this

habitat for burning does improve thatch yield

and facilitates its extraction and there is very

little thatch available outside Reserve Forests

(though many tea estates have thatch-bari’s

and auction thatch surplus to their own re-

quirements). But there are many _ official

mahals in areas where these species do not

occur, but in those indigenous areas that have

been listed, the burning (usually uncontrolled)

consequent of mahal is very likely to eliminate

these populations. In this context G. S. Chau-

dhury (pers. comm.) is intending to institute

a policy in Barnadi of early and _ restricted

thatch extraction (September to January) with

no burning and this could be most significant

for the populations there. Optimum yield

would however be sacrificed, and in view of

the ease with which Barnadi is burnt by mis-

creants at the present time, fire prevention

measures would have to be improved enor-

mously. It would be much more preferable if

mahal were abolished totally (or in certain

parts that could be protected) in the most im-

portant pigmy hog and hispid hare areas, as

this would eliminate much of the necessity for

burning. By the same token unofficial thatch

collection by villagers for domestic purposes

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

would also be outlawed, as such activities are

an inherent fire risk and greatly disturb the

pockets of unburnt habitat in the post-burning

period. The discouragement of private and

illegal thatch collection by the prosecution of

offenders would do much to prevent thatch

fires by reducing the risk of accidental or de-

liberate arson. Similarly the domestic thatch

requirements for forest settlements and forestry

officials should be met without burning, or

preferably with thatch supplied from elsewhere

or thatch substitutes (such as rice straw, palm

fronds or ideally, corrugated iron). Localised

incidental burning for such purposes is parti-

cularly destructive as it tends to occur in the

only areas likely to support species that have

been eliminated elsewhere by official mahal.

Yet forestry itself need not necessarily re-

sult in the exclusion of resident species from

these thatch areas even though this is un-

doubtedly the current trend. Most burning for

thatch-mahal is presently uncontrolled, but if

burning was carefully controlled there could

be room for compromise, such as is envisaged

for Barnadi. Mahal could be restricted to spe-

cified mahal areas within particular thatchland

belts where these species are known to occur.

Afforestation could also be adapted so that

it did not conflict directly with wildlife interest.

M. K. Ranjitsinh (in litt.) has suggested rota-

tional planting and extraction actually as a

means to conserve thatch-scrub habitat. Many

plantations are on long cycles even fifty or

sixty years (P. C. Das, pers. comm.) and thin-

ly planted established trees could support a

thick thatch-scrub undergrowth that would be

ecologically stable for many years provided

it was no burnt. Such areas support pigmy

hog and hispid hare in Barnadi and the area

of mature mixed secondary forest also in that

locality, demonstrates that even fairly substan-

tial cover does not preclude the heavy under-

growth that will support a rich fauna. Thus

young plantations could be subject to con-

trolled seasonal burning until established, as

would suit forestry purposes, whilst adjacent

plots could support these species. Such a sys-

tem would have decided advantages provided

a policy of fire prevention was adopted (rather

than undertake controlled burning to prevent

uncontrolled burning) as animals eventually

displaced by the cropping of sufficiently ma-

ture plantation, would have spill-over habitat

in the young but established plantations. In

this way, what are at present highly negative

aspects of forestry in terms of wildlife, could

be made to make a very positive contribution

to conservation, without loss of revenue.

The present policy of controlled burning to

prevent uncontrolled burning is not a solution

for wildlife as controlled burning is basically

just as destructive to habitat (and therefore

to wildlife) as uncontrolled burning. Both re-

sult in the total short-term loss of cover and

other resources and the long-term distortion

of habitat brought about by the differing fire

resistance of plant and animal species. Thus

the current practise of controlled early burning

in Sanctuaries to minimise the risk of uncon-

trolled burning is merely a ‘soft option’ that is

highly unsatisfactory. To prevent wholesale

uncontrolled burning is one thing, but to justi-

fy wholescale controlled burning for fodder

requirements for grazing ungulates is grossly

irresponsible in my view. But many remote

or inaccessible parts of the Sanctuaries in

Assam, Manas included, are deliberately burnt

on these grounds, even though there is very

small chance that they would be burnt acci-

dentally. Not only should such places not be

burnt, but access to many such areas could

easily be restricted to tourists and labourers

during the height of the dry season to mini-

mise the risk of accidental burning. Also pro-

365

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

paganda about the risks of burning should be

displayed in areas where access cannot be res-

tricted. There should be absolute prohibition

of burning in areas which are also naturally

less susceptible to fire hazard by virtue of the

topography of the region, e.g. with natural

firebreaks such as wet or dry watercourses or

stretches of primary forest. Moreover other

methods of control should be sought in Sanc-

tuary areas where there is a high fire risk

owing to their proximity to human activity.

At the present time the cutting and burning

of firelines is undertaken for the controlled

burning of large areas, but these methods

should be adapted to inhibit or prevent the

spread of fire over large areas.

Moreover, not only is burning highly dele-

terious for these species, it is now actually

illegal in Sanctuaries under Chapter IV, Sec-

tion 30, of the Indian Wild Life (Protection)

Act, 1972, which was ratified by Assam on

16th January 1977. Under this Act the argu-

ment about burning for the improvement of

fodder is important as it could be argued that

burning should be allowed under Section 33,

Clause (c) as “measures for the improvement

of any habitat.’ In my view this is clearly in-

applicable as burning is totally destructive to

the habitat of some species, and is only of

highly doubtful merit for grazing ungulates,

as argued earlier. However, this same section

could allow for the burning and cutting of fire-

lines to prevent the widespread uncontrolled

burning, for which widespread controlled burn-

ing is partly undertaken.

These Sections of the Act are only applic-

able to Sanctuaries and National Parks and

there is no legislation for the protection of

their habitat over most of their range of dis-

tribution, i.e. in the Reserve Forests. The le-

gislation applicable to these animals by their

Schedule I categorisation only applies to hunt-

366

ing (in its widest sense) or possession of live

animals or the whole or parts of their bodies.

Hunting is anyway not allowed in Reserve

Forests and although hunting still remains a

problem in some areas (particularly in Bar-

nadi Reserve Forest), it is not the major pro-

blem. The major problem is the destruction

of their habitat.

This is a crucial argument. By virtue of the

fact that these species are primarily endanger-

ed by the destruction of their habitat, they

remain effectively unprotected in Reserve

Forests. Thus as it stands at the moment, the

Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act has little

meaning or relevance to most populations of

either of these highly endangered species. (This,

of course, also serves to emphasise the tre-

mendous importance of reducing the high level

of burning in Manas, for this is the only area

where the habitat of these species is legally

protected).

Whilst reviewing the conservation measures

that need to be adopted for the protection of

pigmy hog and hispid hare, we must realise

that these species are not only excessively

threatened by the degradation of their environ-

ment, but they are actually symptomatic of

that degradation. It is true that there is some

direct pressure on the population of these spe-

cies by hunting, but this pressure is insignifi-

cant compared to the large scale destruction

of their environment. For conservation purpo-

ses it is irrelevant whether this destruction is

official or unofficial burning or whether it is —

burning for afforestation, thatch-mahal or graz-

ing. This is the irony of the situation, for the

protective legislation for these animals is only

related to hunting, and hunting only exacer-

bates a situation brought about by burning.

Worse, hunting is actually facilitated by the

process of burning as we have seen. Present

methods of hunting would not be so effective

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

or even inapplicable in a non-burning situation

and the mortality consequent of hunting would

be comparatively negligible if the population

was not so curtailed by the shortage of un-

burnt habitat.

Thus we should not just be considering the

conservation of hog and hare, but the conser-

vation of the thatch-scrub ecosystem itself. As

has been said ‘‘faunal conservation depends on

habitat conservation” (R. Strahan 1972). This

is undoubtedly the most important considera-

tion, for the conservation of pigmy hog and

hispid hare in the wild also has implications

for a host of other plant and animal species

that are an intrinsic part of that ecosystem

complex, but of which we have little or no

knowledge. Again and again we meet the phi-

losophy in amateur conservation proposals

where the recognised dominant species (such

as pigmy hog) are considered in terms of

particular individual species problems. To con-

sider the conservation of individual species in

isolation, is not only putting them out of con-

text it also carries a penalty clause, ie. the

alleviation of a pressure source to conserve a

particular environment (and therefore its in-

-digenous species).

Thus all the well intentioned conservation

efforis directed towards captive breeding of

pigmy hog in Assam, have not only been large-

ly unsuccessful, but they have also ignored the

fundamental problems of the wild situation.

Captive breeding should not be regarded as

a solution for the conservation of pigmy hog.

Rather the conservation of pigmy hog should

provide a lever for the conservation of the

thatch-scrub ecosystem.

This is not to say that captive breeding is

not important as it is very important for the

reasons outlined in the introduction and must

be maintained and improved. However, cap-

tive breeding must also be viewed in context

and conservation priorities should first and

foremost be shifted to positive measures for

the protection of their natural environment.

Such a policy also has obvious implications

for hispid hare for which captive breeding is

of very doubtful viability. The husbandry of

hares is notorious difficult as already stated,

and efforts to maintain this species in captivity

have been undertaken with only the flimsiest

understanding of their biology. For example,

two pairs of hispid hare that were caught for

Gauhati Zoo in March 1977 in Manas Sanc-

tuary, all died within a few days of capture.

In view of their previous captive record it is

doubtful if these would have survived even

had they reached their destination and these

captures served no useful purpose whatever.

It is very unlikely that similar efforts will be

any more successful in the future without a

much better understanding of their require-

ments and a specialist knowledge and expe-

rience of comparable species (which are more

expendable at the individual specimen level).

By contrast, translocation may well be ap-

plicable to hispid hare and this technique

could well have conservation potential for this

species in view of their doubtful future over

most of that present range. The same argu-

ment applies to pigmy hog in which the trans-

location attempt at Orang Sanctuary showed

promising indications of success, despite the

unfortunate choice of local and poor manage-

ment of the project. Translocation as a tech-

nique applicable to these species has been

dealt with at length within a separate report

(Oliver 1977), but for our purposes here,

it is as well to note that as some of the popu-

lations also have no future in their present

locale, they could well be translocated. Un-

fortunately burning is so widespread that there

is no locality in N. W. Assam that is suffi-

ciently stable for introduction (or preferably

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

re-introduction) to be warranted, though Sonai-

Rupa Sanctuary could well serve this purpose

if it were brought up to its nominate status.

Conservation measures must be primarily

directed at the protection or salvage of at least

some of the small remaining habitation areas

of these species. What is really required is a

change of attitude about burning and an ap-

preciation of its very serious consequences on

natural habitat and resident species. A realisa-

tion of the ecological consequences should do

much to reduce the present extent of burning.

However specific conservation measures are

needed and these require prompt and sustain-

ed action on the behalf of the authorities. That

this action is against the habitual practice of

dry season burning and may therefore conflict

directly with forestry practices, is. a meter of

the problems faced. What has been lacking is

an understanding of the casual factors in their

continuing decline; but it is hoped that we can

now demonstrate not only rarity, but also its

cause and effect. That the pigmy hog and per-

haps even more particularly, the hispid hare,

have a precarious future should be in no doubt

and they must be regarded as seriously threat-

ened. However an objective analysis of the

environmental problems faced by these species

(admirably demonstrated by Barnadi) does

not lead to optimism with regard to their fu-

ture. The human responsibility for these spe-

cies survival must not only be appreciated,

but positive action must be taken quickly. If

it is not, the empirical reprieve consequent of

the reappearance of these presumed extinct

submitted to the Forest Department. These

suggestions, together with further recommen-

dations, are outlined below.

In making proposals, attempts have been

made to be as objective and rational as pos-

sible about conservation, whilst at the same

time acknowledging the primary function of

the Reserve Forests as exploitation areas.

Therefore whilst a blanket approach to the

preservation of all known populations is not

feasible and is not envisaged, it is felt that

there must be room for compromise even if

that conflicts to some degree with the interests

of forestry. It must be appreciated that the Re-

serve Forests are very important distribution

areas for these species and that human activi-

ties, official and unofficial, in these areas are

the main reason for their continuing decline.

Their situation is precarious and this is pri-

marily a function of the degradation of their

habitat and the conservation of these species

therefore depends on the conservation of their

habitat.

It is therefore recommended that:—

1. In Reserve Forests certain areas known

to support these species must be protected

from total annual burning. This could be

achieved in a number of ways depending

on circumstances within each particular

forest area, e.g.

a) Those areas with natural firebreaks —

such as wet or dry watercourses, or

small pockets of thatch-scrub surround- —

ed by forest, should be left unburnt |

(which generally speaking they are not |

at the present time), e.g. the eastern’)

side of Khalingdaur Reserve Forest and |

Naudaur/Balipara Reserve Forests res-

pectively. This should cause no serious |

problem as there are no forestry oper- |

ations in these areas apart from the |

domestic thatch requirements for forest |

species may weil prove to be short lived.

RECOM MENDATIONS

A number of suggestions regarding the con-

servation of these species have been requested

by M. A. Islam, Chief Conservator of Forests,

Assam, and some of these have already been

368 |

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG

villagers and officials and these require-

ments should be met from elsewhere

and access to these areas should be

restricted, at least during the dry season.

Burning for domestic thatch require-

ments by villagers and forest officials

should be prohibited.

These Reserve Forests presently sup-

porting populations of these species,

but which are subject to total thatch-

mahal, should have that mahal con-

cession reduced to clearly defined areas

and burning in these areas should be

carefully controlled (which generally

speaking is uncontrolled at the present

time). This way areas could be set

aside for these species that should be

protected from incidental burning by

fireline demarcation. Such areas would

have to be at least three or four hund-

red hectares in extent in order to sup-

port viable resident populations. Such

an area should be ecologically stable

and it would be large enough to be less

likely to be totally destroyed in the ad-

vent of accidental uncontrolled burning,

and less susceptible to present hunting

methods.

—

AND HISPID HARE

years. Early burning of such plantation

in plots by demarcation could be rotat-

ed so that each plot was burnt not more

than every 4 or 5 years so that there

was always unburnt displacement habit-

at available in another adjacent plot.

In those Reserve Forests where total

thatch-mahal concessions are of small

value, e.g. Rowta and Subankhata Re-

serve Forests, this mahal could be ab-

olished with only smali loss of revenue.

Such areas are more easily protected

from burning and mahal encourages

burning and unofficial access to Forest

areas.

e) Better efforts should be made to control

illegal burning in other areas where

there are no maha! concessions and the

‘fringe’ practices of forest exploitation,

e.g. grazing concessions, which represent

an unjustifiable risk to habitat in terms

of burning, hunting and other disturb-

ances. These aspects should be consider-

ed when grazing or settlement rights are

granted and preferably such_ rights

should not be granted (or renewed) in

areas where these species occur, e.g.

Khalingdaur Reserve Forest.

This may result in the loss of revenue 2. In actual declared wildlife areas the extent

by the reduction of the thatch conces- of burning must be severely reduced.

sion, but these areas could be located a) At least one other area should be de-

where there are established plantations.

Areas suitable for protection in this

way are the eastern side of Darranga

Reserve Forest, parts of Barnadi and

Gohpur Reserve Forest (see later text

also).

c) Additionally afforestation programmes

could be subject to carefully controlled

rotational burning so that mature plant-

ations could support thatch-scrub that

is left unburnt for several successive

clared a Sanctuary, National Park or

Wildlife Reserve for these species in

view of the possible, if not probable,

restriction to N.W. Assam and the fact

that habitat protection measures are

legally enforced only in those areas.

Suitable areas would be Barnadi or

Gohpur Reserve. Forest (the latter

would be easier to protect from acci-

dental burning) as only these areas are

definitely known to support both spe-

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

cies at the present time.

The level of burning must be reduced

in Manas (and other Sanctuaries) and

controlled burning should be under-

taken only for firelines to prevent or

reduce the extent of accidental burning.

Access by tourists and labourers to

some areas should be restricted during

the dry season to reduce the risk of

accidental burning.

It is felt that most, if not all of these re-

commendations, could be operated simultane-

ously as even if a conservation programme in

any one area is successfully maintained for

several successive years, a single chance fire

could quite conceivably exterminate a small

population by the total destruction of the avail-

able habitat. It is therefore necessary to main-

tain several populations in these different small

areas in order to establish safety margins for

the species survival. An additional safety mar-

gins for pigmy hog, i.e. captive breeding, must

also be maintained and refined with the co-

operation and information exchange of all or-

ganisations involved in the husbandry of these

animals.

—

SUMMARY

(1) This report is based on a three month

field study of pigmy hog and hispid hare that

was undertaken in N.W. Assam in March-

June 1977. The survey was of admittedly short

duration, but in the event its timing proved

fortuitous as this dry season period is un-

doubtedly the most critical time for the bio-

logy and conservation of these species. The

survey was sponsored by the Assam Valley

Wildlife Society and the Wildlife Preservation

Trust. I thad the full co-operation and sup-

port of the Assam Forest Department.

(2) Since the dramatised re-appearance

370

of these supposedly extinct species in March

1971, there has been much interest in their

conservation and there has been a concerted

effort to maintain and breed the pigmy hog

in captivity, though in retrospect this has not

been successful in conservation terms, and

anyway it is felt that captive breeding does

not represent the solution to the conservation

of these species which are much better pro-

tected in the wild state. However, the funda-

mental problems of the wild situation (which

are resulting in the continuing decline of these

species) have been poorly understood and an

objective analysis of these factors has been

urgently required.

(3) That these species are declining should

be in no doubt as more and yet more of their

thatch-scrub habitat is eroded and despoiled

by encroachment, or dry season burning and

other forestry practices. By the continuing pro-

cess of settlement of an expanding and immi-

grating peoples, the natural thatch-scrub sav-

annah habitat of these animals has been re-

duced to the Reserve Forest belt of N.W. As-

sam and the Manas Sanctuary. This habitat

now forms a series of discrete isolated patches

so that their population is subdivided into

small units that are highly vulnerable to dis-

turbance. The bulk of this population is in

Reserve Forest and the remaining thatch-scrub

in these areas is under tremendous exploitation

pressure by thatch-mahal, afforestation and

grazing. Moreover these areas (and the Manas

Sanctuary) are almost universally subject to |

dry-season burning and burning has been

shown to have an ecologically disastrous effect

on the habitat of these animals. It is irrele-

vant whether this burning is the early con- |

trolled burning by forestry officials (for fores-

try purposes) or the later uncontrolled burn-

ing by other persons. Virtually all areas are

burnt to a greater or lesser degree and these

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

animals now only occur in small pockets of

unburnt thatch-scrub habitat that have been

left unburnt, mainly by chance.

(4) There is clearly a direct conflict of in-

terests between forestry and wildlife. As the

main distribution areas are the Reserve Forests

and these are not wildlife areas they have no

real policy for wildlife conservation. These

species are declining through habitat destruc-

tion, and their habitat is not legally protected

in the Reserve Forests and is in fact being

systematically destroyed by burning and fores-

try practices. It is admitted that burning is

difficult to control and almost impossible to

prevent in some areas, but much burning is

deliberate even where there are no forestry

operations or even if accidental burning is un-

likely. The present level of burning is totally

unjustified and the populations of these ani-

mals are being unwittingly squandered in the

process.

(5) Both species deservedly merit Schedule

I categorisation in Indian Wild Life (Protec-

tion) Act, 1972, and this Act has recently

been ratified by Assam. However, this Act is

mainly effective as regards declared wildlife

areas and direct hunting pressure. Hunting is

a problem in some areas, but is a very small

factor compared to the widescale destruction

of their habitat and only serves to exacerbate

a situation brought about by burning. In fact

it has been shown that hunting is actually faci-

litated by burning. Even in Manas Sanctuary

where habitat should be legally protected most

of it is being systematically destroyed by con-

trolled burning to prevent uncontrolled burn-

ing. It is felt that this Act has little meaning

or relevance to the protection of these species

over their entire range of distribution.

(6) If the present population/habitat pres-

‘sures continue as they are very likely to do,

|it is almost certain that most of these present-

ly known populations will disappear during

the next few years. Effective action must be

taken quickly by the authorities if the present

rate of decline is to be curtailed or even re-

duced. Suggestions to this effect have been in-

cluded at the end of the report in the Con-

clusions and Recommendations sections.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express sincerest appreci-

ation to the officials of the Assam Forest De-

partment for their constant help and support.

This encouragement was universal but I would

particularly like to thank Shri R. M. Das, Shri

M. A. Islam and Shri G. S. Chaudhury for

the very considerable effort they extended on

my behalf. I would also particularly thank the

officials of the Assam Valley Wildlife Society

and Macneill and Magor Ltd. for their spon-

sorship and their tremendous kindness and

hospitality, particularly that of Mr. and Mrs.

G. Simpson, Mr. and Mrs. J. G. Oliver, Mr.

S. Sayeedulla, Mr. and Mrs. M. Singh-Sidhu,

Mr. R. Magor, Mr. N. Rome, and Mr. P.

Surita. Special mention must also be given to

Shri I. K. Bhattacharyya, Mr. S. K. Das, and

to R. and L. Hazirika for their friendship and

help. Many other persons were extraordinarily

helpful including Mrs. Anne Wright and Miss

Depika Bhagat, Mr. M. K. Ranjitsinh and

Mr. D. K. Lahiri Choudhury. I would like to

thank the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust

and the Wildlife Preservation Trust Internation-

al, particularly Mr. G. M. Durrell and Mr.

J. J. C. Mallinson, for sponsorship and assist-

ance at all times. I would also like to thank

Mr. S. Mahadevan and Miss R. Dickens for

preparation of the manuscript. Finally apolo-

gies must be extended to the many persons not

mentioned specifically but for whose help I

am deeply grateful. Thank you.

371

THE FUTURE OF PIGMY HOG AND HISPID HARE

REFERENCES

Hopcson, B. H. (1847): On a new form of hog

kind or Suidae. Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal. Vol. 16:423-428.

ANONYMOUS (1972): The Indian wild life (Pro-

tection) Act (1972): Government of India.

ANONYMOUS: I.U.C.N. Red Data Book 1:

malia. Morges, Switzerland; IUCN.

MALLINSON, J. J. C. (1971): The Pigmy Hog

Sus salvanius (Hodgson) in northern Assam. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2) :424-433.

—————— (1977): Breeding of the Pigmy

Hog Sus salvanius (Hodgson) in northern Assam.

ibid. 74(2) :288-298.

OLIVER, W. L. R. (1978): Observations on the

Biology of the Pigmy Hog, with a footnote on the

Hispid Hare (in press).

(1977): Report to the Assam Val-

Mam-

372

ley Wildlife Society on the Pigmy Hog Project at

the Orang Sanctuary. (Unpublished).

RANJITSINH, M. K. (1972): A note on the future

conservation plan for the Pigmy Hog (Sus salvanius)

and Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus Pearson

1939). D.O. No. 682/DSIF 1023/72 New Delhi,

India.

STrRACEY, P. D. (1963): Wild Life in India, Its

Conservation and Control. Publ. Ministry of Food

and Agriculture, Dept. Agric. Government of India.

STRAHAN, R. (1975): Breeding Endangered Spe-

cies in Captivity, Ed. Martin, R. Academic Press,

London.

TESSIER-YANDELL, J. (1971): The Pygmy Hog

(Sus salvanius). Cheetal, Vol. 14, No. 3, India.

—— (1972): The Hispid Hare (Capro-

lagus hispidus). Cheetal, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 34-36,

India.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY—21

Sturnidae

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

[Continued from Vol. 73(3):515]

530 specimens of 42 species and subspecies up to No. 1018 in INDIAN HANDBOOK and

registered No. 24315 are covered by this part.

984 Saroglossa spiloptera (Vigors) (Hima-

Jayan Mountains, restricted to Simla-Almora)

Spottedwinged Stare 3225

DONO ere (juve), Il oo Ci ajuyv.), 202 Juv.

6 Bhagat State, N.W. Himalayas, 3 Lohaghat,

Almora; 2 Jalai, Guptakashi, i Karuprayag, Garh-

wal; 4 Dehra Dun; 2 Margherita, 1 Longview T.E.,

Pankabari, 6 Cachar; 2 Jade Mines, Tawman; 1

Tunkomaw, Prome_ Dist.; 1 Kungawk, Henzada,

Burma.

In both sexes there are some differences in

the extent of grey mottling on the head and

upperparts, specimens from Dehra Dun and

westwards appearing paler than those from

Assam and Burma. However, all the pale birds

(in worn plumage) are dated between 4 April

and 3 July, while the others are 20 Nov. to

March, suggesting that the dark birds are all

in fresh plumage. Among the males there is

considerable variation in the amount of rufous

on the underparts.

INDIAN HANDBOOK (5:148) queries the

juvenile plumage of the male and female being

different. The juvenile @ (No. 6612 Dehra

Dun 18 June 1910) in which the bill is not

yet fully grown agrees with Marien’s (1950,

JBNHS 49:472 et seq.) description, except that

the streaking on the throat is very restricted

possibly due to the manner of skinning. The

plumage is generally like that of the adult male

‘but lacks the dark chin and rich rufous of the

—~-B61]

underparts; the upperparts are as in the adult

female but grading into rufous on the lower

back and rump. The legs and feet are now

paler yellow than in the juvenile females con-

tra dark in adults of both sexes.

Specimen 17657 (Bhagat State, 25 June) is

marked “Juv. 2” by A. E. Jones and is simi-

lar to two unsexed birds from Lohaghat, Al-

mora, also marked young. They differ from

the adult females in being slightly paler all

over and with the spotting on the throat and

upperbreast replaced by faint streaking. The

upperwing coverts have pale edges.

The extent of rufous and white on the un-

derparts varies in different males and the adult

plumage is perhaps attained after more than

one moult.

Measurements on p. 381.

Though males average slightly larger, the

measurements are not exclusive.

985 Aplonis panayensis affinis (Blyth)

(Tipperah) Tipperah Glossy Stare 3:24

Measurements on p. 381.

986 Aplonis panayensis tytleri

(Andamans) Andaman Glossy Stare

[ANS ESEES (Bh hiatal ys) OH ole

1 Mannarghat, 1 Wimberleygunj, 1 Maymyo, 1

Long I., 1 South Andamans; 9 Car Nicobar.

Measurements on p. 381 under No. 985/6a.

(Hume)

3:23

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

986a Aplonis pamnayensis albiris Abdulali

(Great Nicobar) Great Nicobar Glossy Stare

21: 12 Si (5-amm.)) 9-49) 2876 mm.)

2 Camorta, 10 Nancowry, Central Nicobars; 9

Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

In both 986 and 986a, the females in series

show less gloss on the underparts. Some of

them (d's 23205 Andamans, 22415 Nan-

cowry, 22403 and @ 22422 Great Nicobar)

have the chin and upper breast almost com-

pletely dark. |

Measurements on p. 381 under No. 985/6a.

987 Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus

(Gmelin) (Malabar Coast, as migrant) Grey-

headed Myna 3:39

Die AD Oudt. Di Oren sO”,

1 Kihim, Kolaba, Maharashtra; 1 Maraiyur, Tra-

vancore; 1 Robinson’s Park, Madras; 1 Cumbum

Valley, 2 Godavary Delta, 1 Sankrametta, Vizaga-

patam; 1 Barkul, Chilka Lake, 1 Bumt (?), Bala-

sore, Orissa; 1 Rajputtee, Saran, Bihar; 2 Gorakh-

pur, 1 Ganai, Almora, 3 Naini Tal; 2 Bankulwa

Morang, Nepal; 1 Naunati, 24-Parganas, Bengal;

1 Bagho-Bahar, 2 Dibrugarh, 2 Tezu, Lohit Valley,

Upper Assam; 1 Lanang, N. Cachar, 1 Dinapur

Road, Manipur; 1 Akyab, Burma.

Measurements on p. 381.

988 Sturnus malabaricus blythii (Jerdon)

(Malabar) Whiteheaded Myna 3:40

26: Ta-8g S102 CFO (3 juvayel 0?

1 Ajwa, Baroda, 1 Bulsar; 1 Tulsi, Bombay, 1

Shil, Thana, 4* Ratnagiri; 2 Karwar, 1 Alanki, 1

Santgal, 1 Gundbala, 1 Gotegali, 2 N. Kanara; 1

Telguppa, 1 Lingadelly, Sagar, 1 Jagan Valley,

Kadur, 2 Gudalur, Nilgiris, 1 Wynaad, 2 Thekadi,

1 Tenmalai, 1 Kotathrupali, Travancore. (*1@4

missing).

Measurements on p. 381 under 987}.

989 Sturnus malabaricus nemoricola (Jer-

don) (Thayetmyo, Upper Burma) Whitewinged

Myna 3:42

VBS OS ea See AS HO (lea)

1Some notes on this and other subspecies are in-

corporated in a separate contribution (in press).

374

2 Kaming, Upper Burma, 1 Tounggyi, S. Shan

States, 1 near Mindon Chaung, Thayetmyo district,

1 Kyethe, 1 Pakkaing, 1 Prome, Prome district, 4

Pegu, 2 Ataran, Burma.

Measurements on p. 381 under 987.

990 Sturnus erythropygius andamanensis

(Tytler) (Andamans) Andaman Whiteheaded

Myna 3:41

Mes PAs Ge Op) Sd

1 Long Island, 1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans;

1 Wrightmyo, 1 Chirria Tapoo, S. Andamans.

These specimens have been measured and

commented upon in my Nicobar paper

(JBNHS 64, pp. 179-180).

991 Sturnus erythropygius crythropygius

(Blyth) (Car Nicobar) Nicobar Whiteheaded

Myna 3:41

523 (aid 2 O59 All @ar Nicobar

Measurements as under 990.

992 Sturnus erythropygius katchalensis

(Richmond) (Katchal, Nicobars) Katchal

Whiteheaded Myna 3:42

nil.

993 Sturnus senex

Ceylon Whiteheaded Myna

nil.

(Bonaparte) (Ceylon)

994 Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin) (Mala-—

bar) Blackheaded or Brahminy Myna = 3:47

36: 20 64 (2 imm.) 14 22 (1 imm.) 2 o?}

(imm.)

5 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Shikohpur, Jullunder; 3

Bhagat State; 1 Kishtwar, Kashmir; 3 Delhi, 4

Bharatpur; 1 Pali, Jodhpur; 1 Kharirohar, 1 Kuar-

bet, Kutch; 1 Gir, 1 Nadiad, 1 Dediapada, Raj- |

pipla; 1 Santa Cruz, Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba, 1

Panchgani, 1 Satara, 1 Ratnagiri; 1 N. Kanara; 1

Cassimode, Kerala; 1 Palkonda Hills,

Naini Tal dist., U.P.; 1 Mowli?

There is considerable variation in the grey

of the upperparts and the rufous below; the |

birds from Chitral Drosh going back to April/—

May, 1902/3 are the palest above and may |

be of the pale form afghanorum described by

[362] |

1 Seshacha- |

lam Hills; 1 Bulandshar, 1 Bareilli, 1 Kumaon & |

3:46

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—21

Koelz. But though in addition, the northern

birds measure slightly larger than the southern,

the seasonal movements of the species are not

yet understood and the material available does

not permit any definite opinion.

Measurements on p. 382.

995 Sturnus

Dauria Myna

1 0? Pegu, Burma (C. W. Allan) Wing

pill 05:3: ‘tail-"S2.

(Pallas) (Dauria)

3:43

110;

s{urminus

996 Sturmus roseus (Linnaeus) (Lapland,

Switzerland) Rosy Starling 3329

juv.)

1 Felujah, Traq; 1 Kasvin, Persia;

(Pelar), 180 m. sw’ of Kalat, 8 Mastang,

1 Ziarat, Baluchistan; 2 Peshawar, N.W.F.P.; 1

Multan, 1 Pipli, Karnal, Punjab; 3 Delhi, 1 Bharat-

pur, 1 Bhujia, 1 Kharirohar, 1 Kuarbet, 1 Chotari,

Kutch; 1 Radhanpur, 1 Bhavnagar, 1 Nadiad, 1

Vagjipur, 1 Ajwa; 1 Borivli, 3 Santa Cruz, 2 Ban-

dra, 1 Byculla, 1 Bombay, 1 Kaneri I.; 1 Satara;

1 Saugor, M.P.; 1 Karwar; 1 Pt. Calimere, T.N.;

1 Chilka, 1 Attegarh, 1 Tigeria, 2 Khanar, Pal Lo-

hara, Orissa; 2 Baghowni, 1 Jamiya, Darbhanga,

Bihar; 1 Kallianpur, Kanpur, U.P.; 3 no data.

The typical pink on the upper back and

rump is only visible in specimens taken in

June/July/August and then reappears in

March/April, those taken in the intermediate

period having their backs sullied by the brown

tips to the feathers which look very much as

if due to staining. According to BRITISH HAND-

BOOK, 1945, (1, p. 47) this is due to the tips

being worn off.

In addition to the difference in size (q.v.),

the females are duller in colour, and most of

them show ali-brown feathers on the back,

father than pink with brown tips which hide

the pink in the male.

Measurements on p. 382.

EL Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris

(Sweden) European Starling

22: details below:

2 Kornah

Linnaeus

[363]

(a) 1 o? Isle of Wight, U.K.

Cop VO IS ON GVO R35 (0?

1 Dohuk, 3 Bait-u-Khalifa, 1 Samara, 3 Baghdad,

1 The Narrows, 16 m. n.e. of Kut, 2 Magasin, 6 m.

e. of Kut, 2 Sheikh Saad, 1 Felujah, 1 Sulaimaniya,

1 Amara, Iraq; 1 Shustar, 2 Katunak, 8 m. and 2

Pir-e-Banu, 9 m. s. of Shiraz, Iran.

All obtained between 12 November and 11

March.

It must be mentioned at the outset that

though the differences among the starlings

have been discussed at length, and many sub-

species have been described in the Palaearctic,

it is impossible to identify all the specimens

in widely differing plumages, some of which

do not exhibit the characters on which they

have been described. The material from Iraq

and Iran has been particularly difficult, for

in several instances the specimens are marked

with one name and referred to in literature

by ancther. Several under (b) above were

marked sophiae by Ticehurst, who later cut

this out and inserted “vulgaris” and in his

subsequent reports (JBNHS 26: 382 and 28:

275) does not think them separable. The ori-

ginal description of sophiae refers to a purple

head and a green eye patch. Of the 35 skins

of 4 subspecies examined by Ticehurst, 25 are

now availabie. All mentioned under (b) have

purplish heads contra greenish in the single

specimen under (a), and may well be included

with poltaratskyi below.

The spotting in several is also much more

prominent and displays a more whitish bird

than in any other race, or exhibited in any of

the coloured illustrations available of the nomi-

nate race. The identifying characters (or the

differences) are mentioned in brief but it is

not possible to be very certain of some of the

identifications.

Measurements on p. 384.

EL Sturnus vulgaris caucasicus Lorenz

(Northern Caucasus) Caucasian Starling

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FTIST.

Ae (8 Guv)n2 Sie. irorie Gun.)

1 Amara, Iraq; 1 Meshed, N. Persia; 1 Kangwai,

Iran; 1 Mishun, Persian Gulf.

Adult female 6669 (Meshed, 23 February)

has the head and ear-coverts greenish and the

rest of the upperparts similar to those of

nobilior. This appears to be a resident form

in Iran and the two juveniles are included

herein. The other @ No. 6682 from Amara,

Iraq, was collected by R.E.Cheesman on 4

February, 1918 and though marked caucasicus

by Ticehurst, the head is purple and only the

ear-coverts slightly green (?). In the absence

of any alternative, it is left here.

No. 6683 from Kangwai is the all-brown

fledgling with a white chin and more white in

the centre of the lower belly, as illustrated in

European ornithological literature. The other

is older and dark sooty all over spotted (ex-

cept head and throat) buff above and white

below, with the spots on the lower breast and

belly being larger. The primary coverts are

edged with rufous.

Measurements on p. 384.

997 Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi Finsch

(Marka-Kul, Eastern Kazakhstan) Common

Indian Starling 3:34

40: 166.4) Gi juv.) 20°22) (1 juy,)'4 0?

1 Mishin, Persian Gulf; 1 Wana, Waziristan; 1

Peshawar; 2 Kesun 4500’, Chitral; 1 Campbellpur,

2 Rawalpindi, 1 Mianwali, 2 Jhelum, 1 Madhopur,

2 Shikohpur, Jullunder, 1 Chandigar, 2 Darazpur,

2 Ambala, 1 Dankuri, Karnal, 1 Mubarakpur, 1

Bahawalpur; 1 Bhagat State, Simla; 2 Delhi; 1 Shah

Hasan, Manchar, Sind; 3 Santanwara, 1 Gwalior;

2 Sait, Kaira, 2 Rewana Tank, Jasdan; 4 Rewas,

Kolaba, Maharashtra; 1 Tirhut, 1 Baghowni,

Bihar.

The amount of purple following that of the

head along the back varies to an appreciable

extent; birds with spotted heads, November to

January, appear to show less purple and more

green.

Two from Jhelum (20 March 1897) have

376

SOCIETY, Vol. 75

dusky heads with no gloss and appear juve-

niles and their 125 and 127 mm wings appear

too large to belong to indicus.

Measurements on p. 384.

993 Sturnus vulgaris nobilior Hume (Kan-

dahar) Afghan Starling 3:34

TARR OIS SEIT sD on

2° Sheikh Saad, lrag; \ Sitarbo, 2\ mm. isesjnon

Khwash, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Wano, Waziristan;

1 Chaman, Baluchistan; 1 Mianwali, Punjab; 1

Parjah, Bettial, Champaran, Bihar (?)

As in poltaratskyi, there is a purple head

followed by green but both colours are brighter

and the wing-coverts purple and not green. The

spots on the upperparts are also white contra

buff, smaller and less abundant and the under

wing-coverts are darker with narrow white

edges to each feather.

Hume described this with great enthusiasm

but subsequent workers do not appear to have

agreed. The maie and female from Sheikh Saad

have large 135 mm wings and of which the

former (No. 6679) was named caucasicus by

Ticehurst (loc. cit) though the label reads

nobilior. All the other five of both sexes have

their wings under 130 (125-129). Unsexed Sp.

No. 6692 from Chaman, Baluchistan, is in the |

spotted phase but it has a purple head, green |

back spotted with white (?) and a little purple |

on the wing-coverts.

Sp. No. 6713 is marked as Parjah, Bettial

and said to have been collected by F.J.R. Field |

on 16-2-1892. A Mr. Frank Field is included

in the list of members of the Society for 1892,

from Behar. If the place name is read as Bet- |

tiah in Bihar, and the identification is correct, |

this is a considerable extension of its presently |

accepted range.

Measurements on p. 384.

999 Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus Sharpe |

(Yarkand) Central Asian Sarling 3:32

HOPS O38 1S 2 Don,

[364] |

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—Z1

2 Kiba Drosh, 2 Jinjoret, Chitral; 1 Campbellpur,

1 Jagadhri, 1 Madhopur, 2 Ambala; 1 Baghowni,

Bihar.

These are distinguished by the greenish head

followed by the all purple upperparts, includ-

ing upper wing-coverts. The Baghowni speci-

men if correctly named extends the recorded

distribution of the subspecies.

Measurements on p. 384.

1000 Sturnus vulgaris minor Hume (Lar-

kana, Sind) Sind Starling 3:33

ene 2

1 Dalipata, Hyderabad, 1 Audalbad, Sukkur,

Sind.

Both (3rd March and 12th April) are in dark

plumage and have yellow bills. The same re-

marks apply to all dated specimens (8) under

1001 indicus below, and which were obtained

between 3rd March and 17th May. Ticehurst

(Ibis 1922, p. 622) states that the winter spot-

ting and the juvenile plumage are much the

same as in the typical race.

Measurements on p. 384.

1001

Kashmir Starling

OED 26 OS e 24 2 xO,

2 Kupwara Road, 2 Srinagar, 2 Kashmir Valley,

4 Kashmir.

See remarks under 1000 above. No. 20607

(17th May) is sooty all over, with almost no

gloss, presumably juvenile.

All the specimens have a greenish tinge on

the ear-coverts.

Measurements on p. 384.

1002 Sturnus contra contra Linnaeus

(Chandernagore, Hooghly District, W. Bengal)

Indian Pied Myna 3:63

Zo OGr 66118 Oo 1 o%simm:

2 Jagadhri, Ambala; 3 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 1

Trombay, 1 Malad, Bombay; 3 Saugor, 1 Jubbul-

pore, 3 Geedam, Bastar, M.P.; 1 Nelipaka, Hydera-

bad, 1 Parvatipur, Vizagapatam; 1 Nilgiri, 2 Bar-

kul, Chilka Lake, Orissa; 1 Baghowni, 1 Manjhaul,

Bihar; 2 Meerut, 1 Manhofe, Terai, 1 Nawepur,

Sturnus vulgaris indicus Blyth (Nepal)

3:31

[365]

Nepal.

The upperparts of the females are browner

than in the males.

The immature bird has a brown head con-

trasting with the already black feathers of the

back and wings.

Measurements on p. 382.

1003 Sturnus contra sordidus Ripley (Sa-

diya, Northeastern Assam, Lohit Division,

NEFA) Eastern Pied Myna

Ie 2 QuGn one (Ge juve): 3.07

1 Sadiya, 1 Tez, Lohit Valley; 2 Dibrugarh, As-

sam; 3 Upper Burma.

The two males from Sadiya and Lohit Val-

ley are distinctly greyer below and have sepia-

coloured (not whitish) streaks on the shoulders.

Nominate contra do not show streaks on the

nape as stated in the key in IND. HANDBOOK.

The female from Dibrugarh is not so dis-

tinctly different as the male and the three un-

sexed birds from Upper Burma though not

separable from nominate contra are left here

(2):

The juvenile has a brown head slightly dar-

ker than the back.

Measurements on p. 382.

1004 Sturnus contra superciliaris (Blyth)

(Rangoon) 3:64

DSO

1 Hkamti, Myitkyina District,

Henzada, Burma.

In both birds the back is very brown contra

black head.

Measurements on p. 382.

1005 Sturnus sinensis (Gmelin)

Chinese or Greybacked Myna

nil.

1006 Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus)

(Pondicherry) Indian Myna BS)5)

51: 216 6 2692 @ (1 juv. 2 albinoid) 4 o? (1 juv.)

1 Ornach, Baluchistan; 1 Miranshah, N. Waziris-

tan; 1 Chitral Drosh, 1 Pandach Valley, 1 Srinagar,

1 Kashmir Valley, 1 Lalroo, 2 Ambala; 6 Simla;

Upper Burma; 1

(China)

S237

SUT.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

2 Bharatpur; 2 Kharirohar, Kutch; 1 Amreli, Gir,

1 Bodeli, Baroda; 1 Bhiwandi, 1 Mumbra, Thana,

1 Mulund, 1 Andheri, 1 Bandra, Bombay; 1 Kon-

kan; 1 Karwar; 1 Cassimode, 1 Aramboli, 1 Tri-

vandrum Beach; 1 Bhadrapur, 1 Talguppa, 3 An-

andpurna, Sagar, Mysore; | Chitteri Range; 1 Nal-

lamalai Range; 1 Rajputtee, Saran, 1 Bhagowni, 1

Manjhaul, 1 Bairia, Patharghatta, Bihar; 1 Chamolli,

Gharwal, 1 Rampur, 2 Kurseong; 1 Dibrugarh, 1

Goalpara, 2 Sadiya, Assam; 1 Wrightmyo, Anda-

mans.

There is appreciable variation in the depth

of the brown both above and below, and

in the measurements, including the length and

thickness of the bill, but it is not possible to

localise any of these differences. The darkest

birds from Kerala can be matched with speci-

mens from Simla, but all the several specimens

with paler underparts appear to be from the

north and northwest, i.e. 1 Chitral, 2 Khariro-

har, Kutch, 1 Bodeli, Baroda, 2 Bombay area.

A o& No. 6834 from Aramboli, S. Travancore

has the black of the neck and breast extend-

ing towards the abdomen in the centre grading

towards melanosternus of Ceylon, as suggest-

ed by Vaurie (1959).

I recently (Oct? 21975) assisted, Dr AL Ir

Baker from Royal Ontario Museum in collect-

ing a series of 20 males and 16 females around

Bombay and the measurements of these birds

are mentioned separately. The single @ from

Wrightmyo, Andamans, where it was intro-

duced in the 1850s, is the smallest. Though

no separate subspecies is now accepted from

Burma, it may be worth recalling that in /bis

1868, p. 220 Blyth is quoted as referring to

specimens from Port Blair, Andamans, being

smaller and darker than those from Bengal

and resembling those from Burma. The birds

are said to have been introduced in the Anda-

mans by Col. Tytler.

The collection includes two almost pure

white specimens from Ambala, Punjab and

Rajputtee, Saran, Bihar. No. 17697 from Simla

378

is pale brown all over with the head slightly

darker, but not black. No. 6826 from Miran-

shah, N. Waziristan is pale fewnish all over,

with the head slightly darker, and whiter wings

and tail. No. 17699 juv. 2. Simla is dull brown

with wings and tail largely white; the white

stripes over the eyes meet at the nape, which

is black as also the cheeks, creating a very

distinctive effect.

After completion of these notes I saw R. K.

Brooke’s MORPHOLOGICAL NOTES ON Acrido-

theres tristis IN NATAL [Bull. B.O.C. 1976:

96 (1), pp. 8-13] in which he revives Hodg-

son’s Maina tristoides (1836) holding that

birds from peninsular India are paler and

duller below and less reddish on the back than

birds from Burma and Nepal. The differences

are expressed in Ridgway’s (1912) colours.

We have no material from Nepal or Burma,

but the variations in colour visible in the spect-

mens available do not appear to support any

definite cclour change in that direction.

Measurements on p. 382.

1007. + Acridotheres tristis melanosternus

Legge (Pasdun Korale, Ceylon) Ceylon Myna

3258

1 @ Pasvala, W.P., Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 382.

1008

(Gingee) Bank Myna

CA Be G2 Tone) Oe or

1 Shikohpur, Jullunder, 1 Jagadhri, Ambala; 1

Delhi; 1 Kutch, 1 Ajwa, Baroda; 1 Ghoti, Nasik;

1 Saugar, M.P.; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Bul-

andshar, U.P.

There is some variation in the tone of grey

on the upperparts but the number available

is insufficient to warrant any remarks. The

juvenile male from Baghowni, Bihar (24 Nov-

vember) has its head a paler brown than in

the other from Ajwa, (2 November Baroda)

and which is generally browner on the back

Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham)

5 5)5)

[366]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—21

and wings. Both have whitish chins which im-

mediately separate them from the adults.

Measurements on p. 383.

1009 Acridctheres fuscus fuscus (Wagler)

(Sikkim) Northern Jungle Myna 3:57

PSE GM Osi | Oo Or

1 Rawalpindi, Punjab; 2 Solon, Simla Hills; 2

Supkar, Balaghat, M.P.; 1 Tigeria, 1 Beriberi, Puri,

Orissa; 2 Baghowni, 1 Madhubani, Bihar; 1 Mus-

soorie, U.P.; 2 Calcutta Market.

All three races have been arranged largely

on the basis of the distribution in INDIAN HAND-

BOOK, but none of them appear to be very

easily separable. Except for two from Tigeria,

Orissa and Mussoorie, all the above have

paler underparts which are more distinctive

than any other character.

Measurements on p. 383.

1010 Acridotheres fuscus mahrattensis

(Sykes) [the Ghats (near Poona)] Southern

Jungle Myna 3:57

15: details below.

(a)eiG: 4/6.51..2,:2)9

1 Raita, Kalyan; 1 Kihim, Alibag, Kolaba; 4 Rat-

nagiri.

(b) 9: 6424 30?

1 Karwar, N. Kanara; 2 Hirebhaskar, | Lingad-

hally, Sagar, Mysore; 4 Shembaganur, Palnis; 1

Travancore.

Birds in group (a) are slightly paler, both

above and below, than those from North

Kanara and southwards, some of the latter

being barely separable from fumidus, except

for the browner upperparts of the former.

Measurements on p. 383.

1011 Acridotheres fuscus fumidus Ripley

(Sadiya, N.E. Assam) Eastern Jungle Myna

9: details below.

(a) 366 4292 (2 juv.)

1 Goalpara, 1 Sadiya, 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley; 2

Margherita, Dibrugarh, 1 Assam, 1 Upper Burma.

(b) fo 9

1 Prome, 1 Ataran, Amherst, Burma.

Wing ¢@ 122, 2 121

[367]

The specimens date back to 1913 and 1929

but compared with older specimens under (a),

show more brown tending towards mahrat-

tensis.

Measurements on p. 383.

1012 Acridotheres javanicus infuscatus

(Baker) (Lower Chindwin, Burma) Orange-

billed Jungle Myna 3259

S21 DS} Zor

1 Myitkyina, 1 N. Shan State, 1 Yawmyo, Pak-

koku, Magye district, Burma.

These were listed under A. fuscus, but lack

the dark patch (blue in life?) at the base of

the bill, are darker both above and below and

also larger than the nearest race of fuscus 1.e.

fumidus (No. 1011 above).

Measurements on p. 383.

1013 Acridotheres albocinctus: Godwin-

Austen & Walden. (Manipur Valley), Collared

Myna 3:60

3 26 a on

1 Moirang, Manipur;

Maymyo, Burma.

The smaller male (also the unsexed bird)

is browner above and duller below than the

larger.

1 Kamaing, Myitkyina, 1

Measurements on p. 383.

1014 Mino coronatus (Blyth) (Tenasserim)

Goldcrested Myna 3:44

nil.

EL Sturnus cineraceus Temminck (Japan)

Grey Starling

1 0? Kamaing, Myitkyina, Burma (H. H. Harring-

ton 10 Feb. 1901).

Wing 131 (122-132), bill — (23-25); tail 64 (61-

65).

EL Sturnus burmannicus burmannicus

(Jerdon) (Thayetmyo, Upper Burma) Vinous-

breasted Starling 3:50

le DBS 931212) Zico? -Giuv;)

2 Shwebo, 1 Pakokku, 2 Prome, 2 0?

Unsexed Sp. No. 23977 with no data, has

the white head and throat of the adult replaced

379

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

by a rufous which suggests a stain but is said

to be the plumage of the juvenile. Its bill

however is noticeably longer than in the others

235, mm eG. 195218 sav. 21.

The two without data, viz. one with the

longer bill, and the other collected by J.P.

Cook, both have their underparts slightly dark-

ker than in the others.

EL Sturnus nigricollis (Paykull) (Canton,

China) Blacknecked Myna 3:49

Aa oF OOo? (uve)

1 Shwebo, 2 Maymyo; 1 Nangpens, N. Shan

States.

Wing 153, 157 *158 (150-159); bill 27.5, 28.6,

29.5*. (29-30); tail 83, 89, *92 (87-91).

1015 Gracula religiosa intermedia A. Hay

(Cachar) Northern Hill Myna S29

Oe BSG Gly iUva) 4a ee! Don

2 Bankulwa, Morang, Nepal; 1 Berrik, 600’, Sik-

kim; 1° Margherita, Assam; 1 Wuntbo district, 1

Thayetmyo, 1 Ataran, 1 (?) Burma; 20 m west of

Meetaw, 1 Siam.

See remarks under 1017.

Measurements on p. 384.

1016 Gracula religiosa indica (Cuvier) (S.

India) Southern Hill Myna SB)b//

We OG On On 2) 2 On

1 Kumta, 2 Patoli, 2 N. Kanara; 1 Gamorthag-

hatta, 1 Lingadhally, Sagar, Shimoga district, Kar-

nataka; 1 Kallar, 2500’, 1 Honametti, 1 Gudalur,

5000’, 2 Wynaad, Nilgiris; 3 Shambaganur, Palnis,

1 Thekaddy, 1 Balamore, Ashambu Hills, Travan-

core.

Measurements on p. 384.

1017 Gracula religiosa peninsularis Whistler

& Kinnear (Sambalpur, Orissa) Eastern Hill

Myna

Hie eae 6). ©

1 Bastar; 1 Gomia, 1 Kutri, Daspalla, Orissa; 1

Bihar.

Some time back, at the instance of Dr. Rip-

ley I had a look at these specimens and was

unable to separate them from intermedia (No.

1015) above. As will be seen from the mea-

surements on page 384 they are not separable

380

by size and do not differ in having a “‘finer”’

bill. The 4 specimens could be picked out by

their “higher” and apparentiy shorter bills,

but this impression is not substantiated by the

measurements as taken. |

1018 Gracula_ religiosa andamanensis

(Beavan) (Andaman) Andaman Hill Myna

3:20

2 Betapur, M. Andamans; 1 Wrightmyo, 1

Chauldhari, 1 Port Blair; 2 Narcondam Island.

Measurements on p. 384.

See remarks (1976) JBNHS 71:

Narcondam specimens.

502 re.

1018a Gracula religiosa halibrecta Ober-

holser (Little Nicobar Island) Nicobar Hill

Myna

7: details below.

(a) 4: 266 222 Great Nicobar

(b) 3: 16 22 @ Central Nicobars.

1 Camorta, 1 Dening, | Nancowry.

In 1967 (JBNHS 64: 180-1) I accepted this

race for its larger size and the lappets on the

back of the head “being joined and _ bearing

no feathered portion in between”. This could

perhaps be better expressed by saying that the

joint of the lappets is some distance away

from, and free of the feathered portion of the

head contra flush with, and sometimes hidden

by the feathers.

Specimens in Group (b) from Central Nico-

bars do not show this character and are larger

than birds from the Andamans, approaching

the two from Narcondam Island (see under

1018). Stuart Baker in FAUNA (3:20) refers

to two specimens from South Andamans, in

the British Museum, having very strong, coarse

bills and being much nearer to G. r. javana.

Without any material from Java and consider-

ing the curious fact that the species has not

been recorded from Car Nicobar, no. further

remarks are possible.

Measurements on p. 384.

[368]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—21

984 Saroglossa spiloptera

Wing Bill Tail

Western oo ~ 109-114 av. 110 17:5-20.1 av. 19.3 55-60 av. 57:8

Eastern oo 107-113 av. 109-5 17-9-19-3 av. 16-3 55-62 av. 58.5

(1H ex Marien 110-115 Nites 56-61)

Western @ 9 (101-112 av. 105-4 18.2-20-4 av, 19-3 54-61 av. 56 |

Eastern 9 9 103-108 av. 105-6 18.2-19-2 av. 18-6 50-62 av. 56-6

(t4 ex Marien 105-106 54-58)

985/6a Aplonis panayensis affinis, A. p. tytleri, A. p. albiris

Wing

from feathers

19-21-4 av. 19-9

17,18-7,19

118-120 av. 118-4

109,117,117

A.p. tytleri Jo

A.p. tytleri oo (imm.)

A.p. albiris 3S 115-121 av. 119 17-5-20:5 av. 18:8

A.p. albiris $f (imm.) 109-121 av. 114 18-6-19-7 av. 19

A.p. affinis 1 9 110 17:2

Tail

from nostril

14-4-15-6 av. 14.9

13-4,14,14-7

13-5-15:6 av 14-1

13-5-15:2 av. 14-5

1322 70

(tH ex Ticehurst «9 106-113 = =)

A.p. tytleri 2 9 111-116 av. 113 18:19 av. 18:7 13-5-15-2 av. 14:3 67-70 av. 69

A.p. albiris @ 9 112,115,116 18,18.2,19.3 14,14-2,15 67,71,71

A.p. albiris 2 9 (imm.) 103-108 av. 106 17:6-19:3 av. 18:1 13-5-15-2 av. 14-3 63-68 av. 64-5

(7 @ 112-120 a

= -)

987/9 Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus, S. m. blythii and S. m. nemoricola

Wing. Bill

ot! i

nominate 109-102 av. 101*

101-103 av. 102

17:5-18:7 av. 18

18-2-19-7 av. 18:5

northern (6)

southern (5)

(1H 98-106 from skull 21-24

blythii (12) 102-106 av. 104 ( 19-21.8 av. 20.2

(IH 96-107 from skull 23-24

nemoricola (7) 98-103 av. 101.5 16-20

(94-103 ay

nominate northern (4) 97-104* av. 100 17-19-5 av. 18-8

(iH 94-104 from. skull 20-22

blythii 100-104 av. 102-5 18-4-20 av. 19-3

(iH 97-104 from skull 22-25

nemoricola (5) 95-99 av.96:3 16-17.2

(How Q 94-103 =

Tail

61-64 av. 62-5

61-65 av. 61-4.

59-65)

60-67 av. 63:5

62-67)

59-66 av. 62

56,57,60,65*

55,60,60

_ 55-65)

60-64 av. 61:4

59-65)

57-61 av. 59-5

* The large male No. 6751 from Dibrugarh, referred to in the text is not metuded but

70-78 av. 74.2

67,71,71

71-76 av. 73:3

67-69 av. 67.4

[369]

females include No. 6771 from Tezu with the largest wing* and tail.*

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

994 Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin)

Wing Bill Bill from nostril Tail

Northern fo (11) 104-112 av. 109.8 17-20-2 (18-1) 13-5-15.3 av. 14:2 65-71 av. 67:3

Southern 7 (5) 102-104 av. 103.4 16.9-19-5 (18) 14-2-15.7 av. 14:7 62-66 av. 63:4

(in 99-112 from skull 20-24 — 60-75)

Northern 9 9 (7) 101-108 av. 106 18-20 (18-6) 13-5-15 av. 14.3 61-69 av. 65

Southern 9 9 (6) 100-105 av. 102-6 16.6-17.5 (17-1) 12-1-15-1 av. 13.6 59-65 ay. 63

(1H 99-109 from skull 20-21 - 58-68)

996 Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus)

Wing Bill Tail

oiKos 127-138 av. 132-4 20-22.6 av. 20-7 62-76 av. 69-7

GH 125-136 from skull 24-26 67-73)

QQ 123-131 av. 126 19-3-23-5 av. 21-5 61-68 av. 64.7

(IH 122-126 from skull 22-24 65-72)

1002-4 Sturnus contra subspp.

euee Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

S. c. contra 117-125 av. 121 28.4-30-5 av. 29:3 30-32 av. 31-3 64-72 av. 67-4

(iH 118-126 from skull 30-35 32-35 63-75)

S. c. sordidus 118, 121 31 (2) 29,32 67

(in 116, 124 from skull 33, 35 - -)

S. c. contra 110-123 av. 118.6 27-3-30 av. 28.8 28-34 av. 31 62-72 av. 66

(iH 114-120 from skull 31-33 32-34 64-72)

S.c. sordidus 120 31-5 32 65

S.c. superciliaris 114 (2) 29-2, 30-6 28,30 62,67

1006-7 Acridotheres tristis subspp.

fotos Wing Bill Tarsus Tail |

A, t. tristis 139-153 av. 146-5 20:3-22:7 av. 21.4 34-43 av. 38-5 81-91 av. 87-3 |

Bombay (AJB) 138-147 av. 144-5 20-2-24:3 av. 22:1 — 83-96 av. 87.5

(iH_ 138-153 from skull 25-30 34-42 79-86)

29 133-150 av. 141-5 20-24-4 av. 22-4 35-41 av. 38 72-96 av.82.3)

1 Andaman 130 21 36 V2

Bombay (AJB) 134-144 av. 139 19-4-23.9 av. 21.4 - 73-90 av. 85

(IH 138-147 from skull 25-28 35-41 79-86)

Dr. Baker weighed his specimens oo 112-150 gm av. 132:5gm 9? 9 99-141gm av.120 gm

melanosternus 133 18.7 32 W2

382

[370]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—21

1008 Acridotheres ginginianus

Wing Bill Tarsus

oo’ (2) 117, 119 19.5 (2)

(tH 118-129 from skull 24-25 -

99 120-124 19-5-21.3 -

(tH 114-123 from skull 24 -

1009-11 Acridotheres fuscus subspp.

otos Wing Bill Tarsus

A. f. fuscus 120-131 av. 125.6 19-5-22-5 30-35 av. 32-7

(tH 122-130 from skull 26-28 -

A. f. mahrattensis (a) 120-129 av. 125 20-20-2 av. 20-1 30-32 av. 31.5

A. f. mahrattensis (b) 122-132 av. 126-8 20-21-2 av. 20-5 30-32 av. 31.5

(tH 126-134 from skull 26-28 c. 36

A. f. fumidus (a) 118, 123 (2) 21.3, 21-6 32, 34, 35

(1H 47h 120-128 - -

(b) 122 21-7 32

A. f. fuscus 115-126 av. 120 19-5-21-2 av. 20-5 31-35 av, 32-7

(ta 120-125 from skull 25-27 -

A, f{. mahrattensis (a) 121, 130 19-5, 20 32 (2)

(ta 121-131 from skull 25-27 c. 36

A. f. fumidus (a) 124, 127 21-7,22-6 34 (2)

(b) 121 21 33

1012 Acridotheres javanicus infuscatus

1 ¥ 20? 137, 139, 144 21-4, 23, 23-6

(iH 120-130 22-23

1013 Acridotheres albocinctus

2 wo 1o? 135, 135, 131* D2. 2645424"

[371]

36, 36.4, 37-4

37-43

33:5, 36:5, 34-3

Tail

62, 64

65-74)

65-73

60-71)

Tail

70-73 av. 71

72-76)

69-75 av. 73-2

69-82 av. 74.3

73-79)

(0A TES AS)

63 (worn)

67-73 av. 70

67-75)

(PAE

70-78)

TIGETS

73, 81,81

77-88)

IZ, 83,13"

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

1015-18a Gracula religiosa subspp.

ih Wing Bill Tail

G. r. intermedia 167, 170, 171 25:7, 26:5 70, 80

(1H 166-176 from skull 31-32 75-85)

G. r. peninsularis 166 . 79)

(HH FQ 150-165 from skull 29-31 | 72e74)

G.r. indica 138-146, 156, av. 144-3 23-26:5 av. 25 62-74 av. 66-5

(in 139-155 from skull 29-32 55-72)

G. r. andamanensis 168 (2)-175 (2) 28-5, 28-6, 29-1, 30 (2) 71, 82-85

Central Nicobars 180 av. 29.2 30 87

G. r. halibrecta 171, 180, 182, 185 25-7, 20-5, 30, 30-4 86, 89 (2), 85

ey ©

G. r. intermedia 160, 164, 165, 170 Mss W535), D505} ah

(iH 163-169 from skull 31-33 80-84)

G. r. peninsularis 155, 164, 166 26:8, 26-7 (2) 72, 73, 74

(Id o Q 158-165 from skull 29-31 72-74)

G. r. indica: 136-149, av. 142 24-26:5 av, 24:8 60-66 av, 62

: (iH 140-149 from skull 29-31 60-70)

G. r. andamanensis 163, 169, 170 28-5, 29, 30:5 78, 80, 86

Central Nicobars 170, 172 28-4, 29-2 : 78, 80

G.r, halibrecta 175, 180 29 84,88

Sturnus vulgaris subspp.

Wing Bill Tail

1 0? nominate vulgaris 137 DET] 2 64

(Br. Handbook 9122-132 from skull 7 25-27 (one 28) os 64-68)

id “sophiae” ? 130-136 av. 133-1 25-3-28.8 av. 27:1 61-65 av. 62.5

@ Q “‘sophiae”* 127-135 av. 130-6 25.9-28.5 av. 27 59-65 av. 61.4 |

os poltaratskyi 127-136 av. 131-3 24-5-27-6 av. 26.4 59-66 av. 63 |

aH ex HW 125-135 from skull 28-32 62-69)

2 9 poltaratskyi 125-134 av. 129 23-5-28:7 av. 26-6 57-65 av. 61-3

(ig ex HW 124-131 from skull 28-37 59-65 )

oo’ nobilior 128; 135 Dee S, HS) 64 (2)

(JH & from skull 31-34 -)

o Q nobilior 125,128,135 2825, 29 61,65

(iH 127-134 from skull 31-34 -)

2 2 caucasicus 127, 128 26:6, 27:7 63, 65

jo) porphyronotus 130-134 av. 132 26-2-30 av. 28 63-64

(1H 129-137 from skull 32-34 62-69)

2 9 porphyronotus 126, 128, 129 26-6, 28, 28-2 59, 62

(11 122-129 from skull 31-34 62-66)

2 Q minor 111, 114 26, 26-1 55,50

(1H 110-120 26-27 -)

of Q indicus 113-121 25-27-5 50-55

(iH 113-121 from skull 28-32 54-59)

(to be continued) |

384 [372]

SWARMING BEHAVIOUR IN NATURE AND COLONY

FORMATION UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS IN

ODONTOTERMES MICRODENTATUS ROONWAL &

SEN-SARMA AND ODONTOTERMES OBESUS

(RAMBUR) (ISOPTERA: TERMITIDAE)’

V. B. AGARWAL?

INTRODUCTION

Swarming behaviour and colony foundation in

primitive termites have been studied in detail

by Pickins (1934), Buchli (1950), Herfs

(1951), Liischer (1951), Roonwal & Sen-

Sarma (1955), Weesner (1956), Wilkinson

(1962) and Nutting (1965, 1966) and on higher

termites some observations have been record-

ed by Williams (1959), Arora & Gilotra

(1959), Sen-Sarma (1962) and Sands (1965).

However, besides those of Arora & Géilotra

(1959) and Sen-Sarma (1959), no other study

seems to exist in the literature on the nuptial

flight and colony foundation in the higher

fungus growing termites of India. The pre-

sent study was taken up in order to fill up this

lacuna.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

For field studies wire mesh tents were put

up for two years covering five mounds of O.

microdentatus and five mounds of O. obesus

every year in the month of January and Feb-

tuary. The wire mesh tents did not interfere

with either ventilation or wetting of the mounds

during the rains, thus maintaining the normal

1 Accepted April 1977.

This is a part of the thesis approved by the

Meerut University for the Ph.D. Degree. The work

Was carried out in the Forest Entomology Branch

natural conditions. After the start of monsoon

rains, observations were taken daily in order

to note the actual swarming date.

OBSERVATION AND DISCUSSION

In Dehradun, swarming of both species was

noticed inside the wire mesh tents in the third

week of June (17th) at 23 hr in 1973 and in

the fourth week of June (26th) at 5 hr in

1974, which coincided with the date and time

of swarming that took place in other uncover-

ed mounds existing in the vicinity. The swarm-

ing was preceded by a good shower of rain

and continued for six hours in 1973 while in

1974 it was not preceded by rain but at the

time of swarming, the sky was overcast with

dark clouds and the light was dull. The air

temperature and the relative humidity at the

time of swarming ranged from 24.2 to 24.9°C

and 95% r.h. in 1973 and 20.9 to 21.8°C and

80% r.h. in 1974 which may provide major

stimulus for initiating the flight period (Nut-

ting 1965). For purpose of swarming only a

few (4-8) vents were made by the workers

mostly on the top of the mound connecting

it to a wider chamber (Probably acting as the

launching platform) in O. microdentatus. In

of Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehradun.

2 Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey

of India, Dehra Dun (U.P.).

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

case of O. obesus, the vents were made in the

hollow shafts of the mound. No holes on the

ground as reported by Mathur & Sen-Sarma

(1962) in O. obesus were observed in either

O. microdentatus or in O. obesus.

No fixed time for swarming as reported by

Harris (1958) in O. badius (one hour after

sunset) and Sen-Sarma (1962) in O. assmuthi

(at 4.30 p.m.) was observed. Only a single

swarm was observed in a year. Single swarm-

ing in a year has also been recorded in O.

obesus (Annandale 1923, Beeson 1941, Arora

& Gilotra 1959, Mathur & Sen-Sarma 1962 and

Roonwal 1970) and in O. assmuthi (Sen-Sarma

1962). This is in contrast to the swarming ha-

bits of the primitive termites where two or

more swarming per year have been recorded

(Herfs 1951, Roonwal & Sen-Sarma 1955, Har-

ris 1950 and Nutting 1965, 1966). The swarm-

ing of few alates at a time in primitive termites

has the advantage of reducing the chances of

predation. This is necessary as the population

in these termitaries is comparatively lower than

in the termitaries belonging to Odonitotermes.

The alates were collected from wire mesh

tents as well as at light. Each sample compris-

ed of about 200 alates. On an average, the

male-female proportion in samples collected

from wire mesh tents was 21.2% and 78.8%

in O. microdentatus, and 28.1% and 71.9% in

O. obesus. In the samples collected from light,

the average male: female proportion was

22.1% and 77.9% in O. microdentatus, and

25.5% and 74.5% in O. obesus. Sands (1965)

in five species of Trinervitermes also observed

that in swarms, females were predominant in

number over the males. However, an extreme

case of male predominance was reported by

Uchanco (1919) in Microtermes gilvus phili-

ppinensis (95% and 5% in the swarm). Thus

it is significant to note that male:female do not

exhibit the typical 1:1 ratio.

386

Dealation: The process of dealation was stu-

died in the fields as well as in the laboratory.

The alates after the dispersal flight settled

down on the ground or bushes and cast oif

their wings by raising the abdomen frequently

and rubbing it against rough surfaces which

causes breaking of the wings at the basal

suture.

In the laboratory more than 100 alates of

each species mostly with wings intact, were

kept overnight in large glass troughs. It was

observed that majority of alates had not shed

their wings and they congregated at one corner

of the glass trough. Wings were, however, shed

when the alates were transferred singly or in

pair to separate giass troughs. The alates were

observed to shed their wings within 5 to 7

minutes after their separation from the group.

The inhibitory factor against the shedding of

wings in alates when kept together in the la-

boratory seems to be due to the crowding of

alates which simulated the conditions in the

nest. That the isolation of the individuals from

the group seems to be needed to stimulate

dealation was also observed in Anacanthoter-

mes ochraceus (Ciement 1956) and in O. ass-

muthi (Sen-Sarma 1962).

Calling attitude: Female alates were observ-

ed to adopt calling attitude only after the dea-

lation. The abdomen of the female was char-

acteristically raised at an angle of 30°C from

the horizontal plane. Females move their ab-

domen laterally rather violently. The abdomi-

nal movement was stopped as soon as contact

with the male was established. The male thus,

seems to use visual clue in locating the fe-

male. It was further observed that if the male

was withdrawn after the contact or was lost,

the calling attitude was again adopted by the

female. |

Tandem behaviour: With the approach of

males, the females stop movement of abdomen

SWARMING BEHAVIOUR OF TWO TERMITE SPECIES

and start moving forward with the males fol-

lowing in tandem very closely. The following

males caressed the anal tip of female by means

of their antennae. Duration of tandem lasted

10-15 minutes. Only female-male tandem was

observed. Neither the male-female tandem as

observed by Liischer (1951) in Kalotermes

and Cryptotermes nor tandem comprising

only one sex was observed. The pair ultimately

settled down by preparing a small chamber

in soil matrix on the side of the trough. This

indicates thigmotactic response and return to

photonegative behaviour.

Colony foundation: For colony foundation

in the laboratory, pairs of both species in tan-

dem were released in medium sized round

glass troughs filled up with 15 to 20 cm deep

moist soil. A few holes were made in the mat-

trix. Water was added as and when needed.

These troughs were kept in the cellar having

a temperature of 28°C = 1°C and 90%

= 5% relative humidity. The female with the

following males entered slowly into the holes,

went deep and ultimately prepared a copu-

larium. The tunnel connecting the cell to the

outside was sealed up immediately. As the

alates cannot take food by themselves, the pair

apparently live on the food reserves in their

body, till the hatched workers grew up to feed

them. Out of 100 pairs 50 for O. microdentatus

and 50 for O. obesus released in the glass

troughs, only twenty two pairs survived, ten

from O. microdentatus and twelve from O.

Oobesus and laid the eggs. The preoviposition.

period was about 11-13 days. The female laid

14-16 eggs in the first batch and 24-28 eggs

in the second batch on the following days. Fe-

males were observed to lay eggs continuously

and the number of eggs laid increased pro-

gressively. Eggs adhered together by means of

a jelly like fluid.

First batch of eggs hatched out after 40 days

in O. microdentatus and after 40-43 days in

O. obesus. Period from hatching to develop-

ment of mature workers was 32 days in O.

microdentatus and 30 days in O. obesus. First

batch of workers were relatively smaller in

size. The development of soldier caste could

not be observed as the colonies died after

ninety two days.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The investigation was carried out under the

guidance of Dr. P. K. Sen-Sarma. I am also

grateful to the President, Forest Research In-

stitute & Colleges, Dehradun for permission

to conduct the work. My thanks are also due

to Dr. B. K. Bakshi, D.B.R. and Sri Pratap

Singh for encouragement.

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1923): The fauna of an island

in the Chilka Lake. The habits of the termites of

Barkuda Island. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 25:233-

251.

Arora, G. L. & GiLotra, S. K. (1959): The bio-

logy of Odontotermes obesus (Rambur). Res. Bull.

Punjab Univ. Sci., Chandigarh, 10:247-255.

BEESON, C. F. C. (1941): The ecology and con-

trol of forest insects of Indian and neighbouring

countries. The Vasant Press, Dehra Dun, India, pp.

1-1007.

BUCHLI, H. R. (1950): Recherches sur la founda-

tion et la development des nouvelles colonies chez

la termite lucifuge (Reticulitermes lucifugus Rossi).

Physiologia Comp. Oecol., The Hague, 2:145-160.

CLEMENT, G. (1956): Observations sur L’essa-

image d’ Anacanthotermes ochraceus Burm. (Isop-

tera). Bull. Soc. ent. Fr., Paris, 61:98-103.

Harris, W. V. (1958): Colony formation in the

Isoptera. Proc. 10th Int. Congr. Ent., Montreal, 2:

435-439,

Heres, A. (1951): Der Schwarmflug von Reticu-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

litermes lucifugus Rossi. Z. Angew. Ent., Berlin, 83:

69-77. :

Liiscuer, M. (1951): Beobachtungen tiber Ko-

loneigriuindung bei Verschiedenen afrikanischen ter-

mitenarten—Acta trop. Basel, 2:36-43.

MaTHurR, R. N. & SEN-SARMA, P. K. 1962): Notes

on the habits and biology of Dehradun termites.

J. Timb. Dry. Pressrv Ass., India, Dehradun, 8:

1-18.

NuTTING, W. L. (1965): Observation on the nest-

ing site and biology of the arizona damp wood ter-

mite Zootermopsis laticeps (Banks) (Hodotermiti-

dae). Psyche, Berkeley, 72:113-125.

(1966): Colonizing flights and as-

sociated activities of termite Paraneotermes simpli-

cicornis (Kalotermitidae). Psyche, Berkeley 73:

131-149.

PICKENS, A. L. (1934): The biology and econo-

mic significance of the western subterranean termi-

tes, Reticulitermes hesperus. In “Termites and Ter-

mite control” (C. A. Kofoid ed.) 2nd ed. Univ.

California Press, Berkeley, California: pp. 157-183.

RoonwaL, M. L. (1970): Termites of the orien-

tal region. In “Biology of Termites” Vol. II (K.

388

Krishna & F. M. Weesner, ed.). Academic Press,

New York & London: pp. 315-384.

ROONWAL, M. L. & SEN-SARMA, P. K. (1955):

Biology and ecology of oriental termites (Isoptera),

No. 3, Some observations on Neotermes (Snyder).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 53:234-239.

SANDS, W. A. (1965): Alate development and co-

lony foundation in five species of Trinervitermes

Isoptera, Nasutitermitinae) in Nigeria, West Africa.

Insects Soc. Paris, 12:117-130.

SEN-SARMA, P. K. (1962): Some observations on

swarming in nature and colony foundation under

laboratory conditions in Odontotermes assmuthi

(Holmgren) at Dehradun (Isoptera: Termitidae).

Beitr. Ent., Berlin, 12:292-297.

UcHanco, L. B. (1919): Generai facts

Biology of Philippine mound building

Philipp. J. Sci., Manilla, 15:59-65.

WEESNER, F. M. (1956): The biology of colony

foundation in Reticulitermes hesperus Banks. Univ.

Calif. Publ. Zool., California, 6/:253-314.

WILKINSON, W. (1962): Dispersal of alates and

establishment of new colonies in Cryptotermes havi-

landi (Sjostdt) (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae). Buli. ent.

Res., London, 53:265-286.

in the

termites.

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF LABEO BOGGUT

(SYKES) FROM KULGARHI RESERVOIR

(MADHYA PRADESH )*

S. J. KARAMCHANDANIE? AND D. N. MISHRA?

(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The cyprinid fish, Labeo boggut (Sykes), is

one of the common minor carps of Madhya

Pradesh. According to Day (1889), the fish is

distributed in the “Central Provinces, Bengal,

the Punjab, Bombay, Deccan, common to Jub-

bulpore and in Cutch; and Madras’’. The maxi-

mum length attained by this species has been

recorded by Day (op. cit.) as more than 191

mm and Job et al. (1955) as 355 mm in Ma-

hanadi. However, the largest specimen record-

ed in the present investigations measured only

198 mm in total length.

As this species does not grow to a large size,

it cannot be regarded as an economical spe-

cies. For the successful development of fish-

eries resources in the reservoir, some know-

ledge on the food and feeding habits of un-

economic species of fish is necessary, as they

are likely to compete with cultivable major

carps for food and space, resulting in the lat-

ter’s poor growth. Natarajan eft al. (1975)

have stated that many of the carp minnows

and trash fishes are harmful to the producti-

vity of major carps because of the similarity

in feeding habits. For the same reason the im-

portance of control of these fishes has been

emphasised by Bennett (1962), Jhingran

1 Accepted April 1978.

2 Small Reservoirs Unit, Central Inland Fisheries

Research Institute, Rewa (M.P.).

Present address: Central Inland Fisheries Re-

(1965) and Natarajan (1971).

Barring a brief account on food composi-

tion of Labeo boggut by Chacko (1951), no

detailed information on its food and feeding

habits appears to be on record. The studies

on this important aspect of biology of this

uneconomic species were, therefore, undertaken

in Kulgarhi reservoir where it is encountered

in fairly large number, being an indigenous

species of the surrounding waters.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material for the present study was ob-

tained from cast net fishing. Altogether, 546

specimens of Labeo boggut measuring 63-198

mm in total length were examined from July

1970 to June 1971 for studying its food and

feeding habits.

The guts were removed from fresh specimens

and preserved in 5% formalin for subsequent

study. The contents of the preserved guts were

pooled monthwise in order to save time and

labour and to minimise error in the estimation

of food components, following a method given

by Karamchandani & Desai (1962). While

drawing samples for microscopical examina-

tion, the pooled gut-contents were thoroughly

mixed and the gut-contents were analysed by

24 Pannalal Road, Allahabad

search Sub-Station,

GUAR):

3 Central Fisheries, Jaunpur (U.P.).

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

PROTOZOA

0.5 MYXOPHY CEAE

BACILLARIACEAE

PE RC ENE:

SAND & MUD

{II Hl Intl] ie

M AMS

Fig. 1. Fluctuations of broad groups of the gut contents of Labeo boggut (Sykes) in

various months. (The samples were not available in the months of August and

December).

390

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF LABEO BOGGUT

modified points method adopted by Bhatnagar

& Karamchandani (1970).

The feeding intensity was measured by re-

cording the ‘condition of feed’ of the guts

which were classified as full, ? full, 4 full, 4

full, trace and empty, depending on the degree

of distension of the guts and the amount of the

gut-contents. The ‘condition of feed’ as re-

corded in the present study is expected to de-

pict a correct picture of feeding intensity, as

the fish samples were obtained from the cast

net catches and the guts were removed from

fresh specimens and immediately preserved in

formalin. The feeding intensity as expressed by

“condition of feed’ was correlated with condi-

mon factor IK? (kK=Wx10°/L°®, where W=

weight of fish (gm), L=Total length (mm) of

fish) and relative condition ‘Kn’ (Kn = Wo/

Wc, where Wo-observed weight (gm), Wec=

calculated weight (gm) by Length-Weight rela-

tionship formula), with a view to determine

whether wide variations, if any, in ‘K’ and

‘Kn’ values were due to feeding or some other

factor.

OBSERVATIONS

(1) Composition of gut-contents:— The

Overall picture of the broad groups of gut-

contents, by volume, of Labeo boggut for the

period July 1970 to June 1971 is given in

Table 1 and their fluctuations in various

months are shown in Text-fig. 1. The month-

wise fluctuations of various components are

presented in Table 2 and the salient features

thereof are enumerated below:

(a) Mud mixed with sand: This item which

was encountered in the guts throughout the

year constituted the main bulk of the gut-con-

tents and its volume ranged from 65.0% in

September to 90.0% in July, the average be-

ing 72.0%.

TABLE 1

BROAD GROUPS OF THE GUT-CONTENTS OF

Labeo boggut (SYKES)

Broad groups of gut- Percentage

contents composition

Mud mixed with sand 72.00

Decayed organic matter 23.30

Planktonic food

Bacillariaceae 4.59

Myxophyceae 0.08

Protozoa 0.03

4.70

(b) Decayed organic matter: This mainly

comprised unidentifiable mucilaginous mass of

decayed plant matter of greenish dirty colour.

It occurred regularly in the guts throughout

the year. Next only to mud and sand, this mat-

ter made up considerable bulk in the gut-con-

tents, constituting on an average 23.3% by vo-

lume. The large quantities of this matter oc-

curred in September (34.0%), November

(30.0%) and June (29.0%). It was moderate-

ly encountered from January to May (17.0%

to 25.0%) and poorly in July (10.0%).

planktonic organisms, belonging to Bacillaria-

ceae, Myxophyceae and protozoa and made

up 4.7% in the total gut-contents. The con-

tent of planktonic forms in the guts was maxi-

mum during January and February (15.0% in

each month).

Bacillariaceae (Diatoms): Among the iden-

tifiable planktonic food, the diatoms were the

most abundant (4.59%) in the total gut-con-

tents. This group was represented by genera

Diploneis (2.31%), Melosira (1.44%), Gyros-

igma (0.71%), Navicula (0.11%) and Am-

phora (0.02%). Of these, Diploneis, the most

important genus, occurred abundantly in Ja-

nuary (13.47%) and February (6.85%), scar-

cely in March (1.45%) and May (1.29%) and

391

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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392

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF LABEO BOGGUT

0.80.

0.60,

1.00,

1.10

RELATIVE CONDITION (Kn)

1.30)

CONDITION FACTOR (K)

H H E ; i i 5

aes

100, FEEDING INTENSITY oe ar stone

80, i z : |

60] | a |

40] | : | ia

20). mul ier

baa ae

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PERCENT

Fig. 2. Fluctuations in the feeding intensity, condition factor (K) and relative condi-

tion (Kn) of Labeo boggut (Sykes) in various months. (The samples were not avail-

able in the months of August and December).

393

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

was totally absent in rest of the months of

observations. Melosira, the next important

genus, occurred in fairly large quantity in Feb-

ruary (7.74%), scarcely in January, March to

June and September (0.11 to 2.0%) and was

totally absent in rest of the months of obser-

vations.

Myxophyceae (Blue-green algae): The blue-

green algae, represented entirely by genus, Me-

rismopedia, made up 0.08% in the bulk of the

gut-contents. It was found to occur in the

months of March (0.63%) and April (0.15%)

only.

Protozoa: This group, comprising genus

Difflugia only, made up 0.03% in the bulk

of gut-contents and occurred in the months of

April (0.28%) and May (0.08%) only.

(ii) Feeding intensity and ‘condition’ of fish:

The percentage of 3 full and full guts, indi-

cating feeding intensity and the values of con-

dition factor (K) and relative condition (Kn)

are depicted monthwise in Text-fig. 2.

As may be seen from Text-fig. 2, the feed-

ing intensity was pronounced almost through-

out the year, the percentage of } full and full

guts mostly ranging from 92.65 to 100. Where-

as, the values of ‘K’ and ‘Kn’ varied regularly,

having two minima in November and May

and two maxima in July and March. A posi-

tive correlation was found between the feed-

ing activities and condition factor (K) in Tor

tor (Ham.) by Desai (1970) and in Labeo fim-

briatus (Bloch) by Bhatnagar & Karamchand-

ani (1970). However, in the present case, there

is no direct correlation between these vari-

ables.

(iii) Competition for food with major carps:

With a view to evaluate the status of L. bog-

gut in the economy of fish culture in Kulgarhi

reservoir, its food has been compared with

that of Mrigal and Rohu in Table 3, as the

394

former feeds entirely and the latter partly at

bottom, like L. boggut.

TABLE 3

COMPOSITION OF GUT-CONTENTS OF Labeo boggut,

Cirrhina mrigala AND Labeo rohita FROM KULGHAHI

RESERVOIR

Percentage composition

of gut-contents

Items of

Gut-contents

L. GC: yb

boggut mrigala_ rohita

Mud mixed with sand 72.00 65.66 57.24

Decayed organic matter 23.30 24.69 29.16

Diatoms 4.59 8.14 5.68

Green algae 0.00 0.94 B)3)f/

Blue-green algae 0.08 0.27 jp

Dinoflagellates 0.00 0.17 2.44

Rotifers 0.00 0.13 0.62

Protozoans 0.03), 7.7000 0.07

Total 100.00 100.00

100.00

Of the planktonic food, Melosira, Navicula

and Gyrosigma among diatoms, Merismopedia

among blue-green algae and Difflugia among

protozoans were commonly encountered in the

guts of L. boggut and the two major carps.

As the bulk of the gut-contents of L. bog-

eut, C. mrigala and L. rohita (99.89%, 98.49%

and 92.08% respectively) comprises mud mix-

ed with sand, decayed organic matter and dia-

toms (Table 3), the food and feeding habits

of three species are almost comparable, indi-

cating their bottom feeding habits in the re-

servolr.

REMARKS

Uneconomic species of fish which are invari-

ably abundant in the reservoirs are considered

responsible for low fish production in such

waters as they are reported to compete, for

food and space, with cultivated species of

major carps. Labeo boggut contributes a major

share (27.6% by number) to the catches of

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF LABEO BOGGUT

uneconomic species of Kulgarhi reservoir,

which called for detailed investigations on one

of the important aspects of its biology—the

food and feeding habits.

The observations made in the present study

indicated that though the feeding intensity, as

determined by ‘condition of feed’ in the guts,

was pronounced almost throughout the year

(92.65% to 100.00% 2 full and full guts), the

‘condition’ of fish (‘K’ and ‘Kn’) showed wide

variations giving two maxima and two minima

(Text-fig. 2) during the course of the year.

Generally, the ‘condition’ of a fish is greatly

influenced by its feeding activities (Desai, op.

cit. and Bhatnagar & Karamchandani, op. cit.).

But, in the present case, the two variables do

not exhibit any direct correlation between

them. It is, however, interesting to note that

when the fluctuations of main components of

the gut-contents (Text-fig. 1) are compared

with those of ‘K’ and ‘Kn’ values, the mud

mixed with sand which forms the bulk of the

gut-contents exhibits almost the same trend as

those of “K’ and ‘Kn’ values.* This gives strong

indication that the fish in all probability draws

nutrition from mud and sand (72.0%) mixed

with fine organic matter and also from decay-

ed organic matter (23.3%), particularly when

the plankton content in the guts is strikingly

very low (4.7%). These observations amply

lend support to those by David et al. (1969),

who have stated to the effect that the deposit-

ed particulate organic matter (in ooze) and epi-

phyton form considerable part of food for bot-

tom feeders as well as young stages and smal-

ler species of fishes.

Job et al. (1955) have stated that the culti-

vation of slow growing fish, Labeo boggut,

4 However, as may be expected, during the matur-

ing period of gonads from March to June, ‘K’ and

‘Kn’ values show downward trend opposite to that

of mud mixed with sand.

along with fast growing, economically import-

ant species—the major carps should be avoid-

ed evidently because the former does not at-

tain a very large size in its life time and com-

petes for food and space with the latter species.

The composition of the gut-contents of L.

boggut, in the present case, has confirmed

that it is a bottom feeder as its guts were

found gorged with mud mixed with sand and

debris (Text-fig. 1 and Table 1) and its com-

parison with that of Cirrhina mrigala and

Labeo rohita has indicated that its feeding

habits are highly identical to those of the two

major carps (Table 3).

Though in the present study the food of

Labeo boggut measuring below 63 mm was

not studied, it seems very likely that the young

fry of this bottom feeding fish, like adult, does

not feed on zooplankton, as the carp fry in

general have been found to subsist mostly on

phytoplankton by some workers. Hora (1943)

cbserved that the micro-phytoplankton serves

as food of the fry of carps in their earlier

stages of growth. According to Mookerjee

(1944, 1945), 5 to 10 mm long fry of Indian

major carps namely Catla catla, Labeo rohita

and Labeo calbasu feed exclusively on unicel-

lular algae and from 10 to 20 mm stages, they

feed on protozoa of various kinds. Chacko &

Kuriyan (1948) stated that the food of fry of

Labeo fimbriatus is similar to that of the

adult but lacks crustacean and insect remains.

Bhatnagar & Karamchandani (op. cit.) found

the food of fry of L. fimbriatus comprising of

mostly phytoplankton, the zooplankton (cope-

pods) being only 0.2%.

Since in Kulgarhi reservoir L. boggut and

the two major carps have been found to sub-

sist mostly on bottom mud mixed with debris

and draw nutrition from it the plentiful avail-

ability of this item at the reservoir bottom is

not likely to cause active competition for food

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

among them. It is, therefore, apparent that the

presence of L. boggut, the indigenous species

of the reservoir, would not adversely affect the

culture fishery of the reservoir, but, on the

contrary it would add substantially to the re-

servoir fishery, it being abundant there.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our gratitude to Dr. V. G.

Jhingran, Director for his constant encourage-

ment and to Dr. A. V. Natarajan, Scientist

S-3 for kindly going through the manuscript

critically and for giving valuable suggestions.

REFERENCES

BENNET, G. W. (1962): Management of artificial

lakes and ponds. Reinhold publishing Corporation,

New York.

BHATNAGAR, G. K. AND KARAMCHANDANI, S.J.

(1970): Food and feeding habits of Labeo fimbriatus

(Bloch) in River Narboda near MHoshangabad

(M.P.). J. Inland Fish Soc., India, 2:30-50.

CuHACKo, P. I. (1951): Progress Report (Period,

Ist April 1950 to 3lst March 1951). Madras Rural

Pisciculture Scheme, Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, p. 11.

CuHacko, P. I. AND KuriyAN, G. K. (1948): A

survey of the fisheries of the Tungabhadra river.

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 28(5) : 166-176.

Davip, A., RAy, P., GoviNpD, B. V., RAJAGOPAL,

K. V. AND BANERJEE, R. K. (1969): Limnology and

Fisheries of Tungabhadra reservoir. Cent. Inl. Fish.

Res. Inst. Barrackpore (ICAR), Bulletin No. 13,

November 1969, p. 188.

Day, F. (1889): The fauna of British India, in-

cluding Ceylon and Burma, Fishes. London, 1-xvili,

1-548.

Desal, V. R. (1970): Studies on the fishery and

biology of Tor tor (Ham.) from River Narboda.

1. Food and feeding habits. J. Inland Fish. Soc.,

India. 2:101-112.

396

Hora, S. L. (1943): Role of vegetation in fishery

tanks. Sci. and Cult., 7(8) :324-327.

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1965): Report on Inland Fish-

eries Research and Management and fish culture in

the U.S.S.R. Cent. Inl. Fish. Res. Inst., Barrackpore.

Misc. Contr. (5), Mimeo.

Jos, T. J.,. DAvip, A. AND Das, K. N. (1955): Fish

and Fisheries of Mahanadi in relation to Hirakud

Dam. Indian J. Fish 2(1) :1-40.

KARAMCHANDANI, S. J. AND Desai, V. R. (1962)

On a modified method of volumetric analysis of

food of predatory fishes. Sci. and Cult., 28:237-239.

MooKERJEE, H. K. (1944): Cannibalism among

freshwater fish. Sci. and Cult, 10(2) :96.

(1945): Life history of some major

carps of Bengal. Sci. and Cult., 10(9) :400-402.

NATARAJAN, A. V. (1971): Problems of fisheries

Development in reservoir. Proc. First Workshop on

all India Co-ord. Res. Proj. on Ecology and Fish-

eries of Freshwater reservoirs.

NATARAJAN, A. V., RAMAKRISHNAIAH, M. AND

KHAN, M. A. (1975): The food spectrum of trash

fishes in relation to major carps in Konar and Til-

aiya reservoirs (Bihar). J. Inland Fish. Soc., India,

7 :65-75.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR

OF THE INDIAN FOX—VULPES BENGALENSIS

(SHAW )’

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH?

This brief report on the Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis) is based on intermittent

obervations in the grassy plains and rocky areas lying to the North West of Nanguneri

(8°30’N and 77°70’E) in Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. The foxes inhabiting the

open lands littered in complex cavernous dens with many entrances but in the rocky

area dens dug under the rocks and into the rock crevices were preferred. The pups

were observed to frequently play around the den entrances in the months of April

and May, when they were around 2-3 months old. Though the Indian Fox is a solitary

hunter it seems to be more sociable in nature. Hunting was mostly done early in the

morning, late evening and night. Insects and terrestrial rodents formed the staple

food of this canid. The Indian Fox was observed to tolerate the presence of the com-

mon mongoose (Herpesies edwardsi) in the vicinity of its den. Mortality was mostly

due to man and dogs. The future of the Indian Fox in the rocky area appears to be

safe.

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Fox, Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw),

is the common fox of the Indian plains found

in the whole of India from the foothills of the

Himalayas to Cape Comorin (Prater 1971).

Its successful survival is presumably due to its

small size, reproductive capacity, denning and

feeding habits and its general adaptability.

The Indian Fox, though common in the study

area, is absent from the neighbouring Western

Ghats, which rise 16 km away in the west. The

probable reason for this could be that foxes as

they chase and hunt small prey such as insects

and rats are more adapted to hunting in the

plains than the vegetation covered hills. Like

Other foxes, the Indian Fox is also a solitary

hunter. Although common in India, within my

knowledge, not much work has been done on

1 Accepted September 1977.

2 Asst. Professor of Zoology, Ayya Nadar Janaki

Ammal College, Sivakasi - 626 123.

Present address: Bandipur National Park, Bandipur,

Mysore Dist., 570001, Karnataka.

this animal. The study presented here is a pre-

liminary attempt made on some aspects of the

ecology and behaviour of this canid.

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

I have been familiar with the Indian Fox for

over the last fifteen years in the field but only

from the summer of 1974 did I start observing

and studying them intensively. The observa-

tions could only be sporadic as the study area

was visited only during the holidays.

The study area was the grassy piains with

rocky hillocks, lying to the North-West of

Nanguneri (8° 30’ N and 77° 70’ E) in Tiru-

nelveli District, Tamil Nadu. This is a good

habitat for the Indian Fox and sighting of

foxes is assured to any one who walks in this

area either in the early morning or late in the

evening. Temperature data for Nanguneri which

lies 17 km East to the Kalakadu hills of the

Western Ghats are not available. But the tem-

perature of the nearest town Palayamkottai,

29. km to the North, varies between 24°C and

40°C. The area gets most of its rain from the

North East monsoon and most of the rainfall

39%

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

is between the months of October and Decem-

ber. The precipitation varies between 50 and

70 cm per year. (Sivasailam, Pers. Commu-

nication).

I concentrated my study on two areas. One

was a square kilometre open land with

four waterless sandy streambeds meandering

through it. On the western and Northern sides

of this plot are fields; on the eastern side the

Kasi-Kannyakumari Trunk Road and on the

southern side an industrial complex. From

dawn to dusk, the area was intensively disturb-

ed by cattle, sheep and people. An average of

2-4 adult foxes were seen in this area. In

total, the area had 8 dens, both old and new.

The other area selected was rocky and was

surrounded by a vast plain, dotted with palmy-

ra palms (Borassus flabellifer) and rocky out-

crops. This area has been a favourite home of

foxes for years.

Observations were made mainly in the even-

ing and some times in the morning. A total

of approximately 60 hours. was spent in the

field in search and observation of foxes. In the

open land the foxes were observed from the

cover of bushes or by stalking upwind. The

den among the rocks was easy to observe as I

had a suitable hideout in the neighbouring

rock outcrop. But observations were possible

only when the wind was in favour. Occasion-

ally droppings from the den sites and nearby

areas were collected to study the food habits.

Two foxes killed by dogs were examined for

parasites and stomach content. My observa-

tions on the pups were mainly carried out in

the summer of 1976. When I was successful

in locating 5 active dens inclusive of the two

from the study area. Of the rest, two were

among the rocks and one amidst hardened

sand outcroppings on the banks of a sandy

stream bed.

The flora of this semi-arid area is spiny and

398

many have milky latex characteristic of desert

plants. Common trees were the palmyra palm

(Borassus flabellifer) and Acacia planifrons.

The exotic thorny shrub Prosopis juliflora had

also established itself successfully. Common

herbs were the Calotropis gigantea, Cassia spp.

Alysicarpus parviflorus, Triumfetta rhomboidea

and Barleria spp. Aristida setacea, Aristida hy-

strix, Perotis indica, Heteropogon contortus,

Tragus biflorus, Chloris barbata and Cyanodon

dactylon were the common grasses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Food and feeding habits

My observations on the feeding habits of

the Indian Fox were limited by the fact that

they were crepuscular and nocturnal. The most

widely applicable statement that can be made

safely is that foxes are opportunistic feeders

and so take any acceptable food in proportion

to its availability (Ables 1975). Melons, ber

fruit, and the shoots and pods of Cicer arietum

are eaten in season (Prater 1971). Local shep-

herds have seen the foxes eating the freshly

voided pellets of sheep. They were scen hunt-

ing insects such as the winged termites and

grasshoppers. They used their jaws to snap _

them in the air and their forelegs to pin them

on the ground. Stomach analysis of one fox

showed that they eat beetle grubs and of an-

other showed only the hairs of the soft furred

Field Rat.

From scat analysis it was found out that the

food of the Indian fox was mainly composed

of beetles, grasshoppers, crabs, ground lizards,

soft furred Field Rat and Field Mouse. Occa-

sionally, they ate scorpions (Buthus spp.), ants

(Componotus compressus), termites (Acanth-

optermes spp.) and spiders. A search around

the dens yielded the scales and ventral plates of

a Ratsnake, the skin of the Hedgehog, fea-

Common name

Garden lizard

Fanthroated lizard

Rock lizard

Grey Partridge

Redwinged Bushlark

Blackbellied Finchlark

Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Indian Myna

Indian Pipit

Little Ringed plover

Cattle Egret

Indian Courser

Hedgehog

Softfurred Field Rat

Three stripped Palm _ squirrel

Field mouse

Blacknaped hare

Scientific name

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX

<r Fw

Colotes versicolar

Sitana ponticeriana

Psammophilus sp.

Francolinus

Pondicerianus

Mirafra_ erythroptera

Eremopterix grisea

Vanellus malabaricus

Acridotheres tristis

Anthus novaeseelandiae

Charadrius dubius

Bubulcus ibis

Cursorius coromandelicus

Paraechinus nudiventris

Millardia meltada

Funambulus palmarum

Mus booduga

Lepus_ nigricollis

COMMON VERTEBRATE FAUNA OF THE STUDY AREA

Remarks

Probable food

Occasionally roosts on the ground

Probable food

Roosts on the ground. Probable

food

Roosts on the ground

Roosts on the ground. Probable

food

Local Migrant

Probable food

Young ones

thers of the Indian myna, Blackbellied Finch

Lark and Grey Partridge. As the foxes groom

and bite themselves to get rid of the ectopa-

tasites there is a possibility, as evidenced by

faecal analysis, of their swallowing their own

hairs. Besides the hairs, the hard bones, teeth,

chitinised mandibles, insect legs, elytra of

_bectles, wings of grass hoppers and fragments

of grasses formed part of the droppings. In

general it can be said that the food of the In-

‘dian fox in the study area was mainly com-

posed of insects, ground nesting birds and

smaller mammals. The small size of the prey

is the major possible reason for the fox to be

‘a solitary hunter. In fact, the expenditure of

energy of two or more foxes cooperating to

kill one mouse would be maladaptive (Fox

11975).

_ Droppings of the cubs, that had not started

following the adults for hunting, mostly had

Probable food

digested meat, and hair of either the soft furred

Field Rat or the Field Mouse. This suggests

the possibility that their principal diet was of

milk and small rodents brought to the lair by

the adults.

Dens and denning behaviour

The dens of the Indian Fox could be group-

ed into three types: 1) Simple short dens with

two openings; 2) Complex cavernous dens with

many entrances; 3) Dens under rocks and rock

crevices.

One den belonging to the first type was seen

in the study area in the open land. Its interior

was 45 cm long, 40 cm broad and 30 cm high.

This was seen at the edge of a man-made pit.

Obviously such dens are used for brief periods

of rest. Such short and simple dens could be

called ‘cooling holes’ or protective ‘bolt holes’.

But this type of den was rare.

The second type was the commonest. In the

392

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

one square kilometre study area there were

eight such dens. During the non-breeding sea-

son all the dens had a deserted appearance

and during the breeding season, as the need

rose, the dens were freshly dug out. The num-

ber of entrances varied between 6 and 23. In

the number of den openings the early observa-

tions done on the other species of foxes can

be recalled here. The Alaskan fox had dens

with upto 19 entrances (Murie 1944), the Red

Fox in North America had 12 or more open-

ings (Ables 1975) and the Arctic Fox in North

Alaska has 26 entrances (Chesemore 1969).

Two dens were on sand mounds. Owing to the

grass cover, the dens dug on the plains were

mainly hidden from view at a distance. But on

going nearer the den, one may be attracted

by the sand thrown at the entrances, especially

with the arrival of the breeding season when

foxes reexcavate their dens. The structure of

such a complex den is described by Prater

(1971) and it needs no further elaboration

here. As there are many holes leading into such

a complex den, the interior is presumably well

ventilated and is certainly not in total dark-

ness. Most of the abandoned den openings

were clogged by wind-blown grasses and de-

bris. Vegetation in the area of a complex ca-

vernous den appeared slightly better than that

of the surrounding area. This phenomenon

more prominently seen in the den site of the

Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus) has been noted

by Chesemore (1969). According to him the

change is due to the addition of organic ma-

terials to the soil plus the physical disturban-

ces, aeration and mixing of the soil that occur

when a fox digs and uses a den site.

The Indian Fox seems to be attached to

favourite den sites. According to Murie (1944)

and Ables (1975) there is strong evidence that

adult Red foxes in North America remain in

the same home area for life. The dens report-

400

ed by Ables (1975) were used more or less

continuously for periods of at least 35 years.

He says that such dens are traditional and are

at a premium because of the scarcity of suit-

able sites. The den among the rocks in the

study area was seen tenanted for well over 15

years, and in the study area in the plains, in-

spite of the growing disturbance, the foxes pre-

ferred to stick to their den sites. One den site,

which was active in the summer of 1976, had

six Openings and was about 70 metres from a

cart track that was often used by pedestrians,

cyclists and occasionally by heavy traffic. The

foxes, when disturbed while resting away from

the dens, very often took refuge in the den in-

stead of running away. Some of the dens, dug

out in hard-baked earth, gave the foxes need-

ed protection from the piedogs which are their

main enemy besides man in the study area.

The Indian fox also has the habit of sleep-

ing under bushes during the hot hours of the

day. Such places are easily identified by their

concavity, absence of grass and by the presence

of well churned fine sand. Such places could

be called ‘cool earth pits’. The Indian fox does

not seem to be particular about den cleanliness

as their den surroundings were littered with

their droppings, especially when the dens were

occupied.

Reproduction, family unit and home range

In the Indian Fox there appears to be a per-

sisting bond between the members of a pair.

This is based on three sightings of the pair

of foxes. Twice they were seen in the month

of April (post reproductive period) and once

in September (pre reproductive period), when

the pair was observed in April once the vixen

was lying fully stretched on the ground and

the male lying nearby nibbled at the pinna

of the female. But when the time for hunting

came both parted. Further study is needed to

confirm the valid evidences for or against this

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX

speculation. According to Acharjyyo & Misra

(1976) mating in the Indian Fox is just as in

domestic dogs. The birth of the young in the

Indian Fox, as in all wild canids occurs with

maximum availability of prey that is, when the

latter are rearing their young and in the study

area this happens around January. During this

season the lush vegetation after the North East

Monsoon affords not only cover but also abun-

dant insect food. The gestation period lasts for

53 days (Prater 1971), 50-51 days (Acharjyo

& Misra 1976) and usually 2-4 young ones

are born. The vixen observed by Acharjyo &

Misra (1976) gave birth to 4 pups towards

March end. Both the active dens in the study

area had four pups each.

The age of the pups in the beginning of the

observation period was nearly 2 months and

observations were carried out till the pups were

almost 4 months old. The pups were very play-

ful till they were 3 months old. The male was

observed with the pups four times. During

this only once did the male rebuff a pup,

which attempted to play with it, with a growl

and an inhibited bite. At all other times the

male played with the pups. The inhibited bite

of the male on the pup suggests the possibility

that the male was confirming its dominance

over it.

_ During the observation on the play beha-

-viour of the pups, I watched them making

vertical leaps, back-arching, hip and shoulder

body slams, foreleg stabs, and submissive dis-

play by rolling on the back and exposing of

‘the throat. Play soliciting was common. Occa-

| sionally, the pups left their play—partners

| abruptly and indulged in digging up the soil.

‘The pups in the open land used to remain im-

‘mobile while watching the pedestrians, cyclists,

cattle, sheep and the occasional stray dogs

which sometimes went as close as 30 metres.

‘But on the least suspicion the pups always ran

inside. While coming out of the den in the open

land the pup that came out first always look-

ed around, keeping the head level with the

ground. Once it had come out, other pups

mostly followed it without looking around.

Twice the pups were watched while defecat-

ing. They moved 4-5 metres from the den and

defecated. The African wild dog pups observ-

ed by Kuhme (1965) defecated one or two

metres from the entrance.

The pups in the openland den seldom play-

ed in the absence of adults. But the pups of

the rocky den were full of play even in the

absence of the adults. This may be due to the

confidence engendered by the safe position of

the den. The Red Fox in mid-wales in Britain

will move pups with little provocation (Lloyd

1975) and as reported by the local people this

is said to occur in the Indian Fox also. Other

canids that shift the dens are the African

wild dog (Kuhme 1965; Schaller 1972; H. &

J. Van Lawick - Goodall 1970); the wolf (Mu-

rie 1944; Mech 1970), the Indian Wild Dog

(pers. observation) and the Indian Jackal

(Samuel, pers. communication).

On the evening of 24th April 1976 four

pups were being watched beside the den in the

open land. At 1830 hours a female came out

of the den and all the four pups ran to it and

were suckled for half a minute. Then came

out another female. The pups leaving the first

female ran to it and were suckled for 2 mi-

nutes. From the den a male also came out.

This type of suckling behaviour has been ob-

served in the bat-eared Foxes (Otocyon mega-

lotis) CH. & J. Van Lawick-Goodall 1970),

in African Lion (Kruuk 1972, Schaller 1972),

in African wild dogs (Kruuk 1972, Schaller

1972, Kuhme 1965).

There could be two possible reasons for the

two females to have suckled the 4 pups. One

reason could be that both the females might

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

have littered in that den and the entire sur-

viving bunch of pups was being fed by both

the vixens. The other reason could be that one

mother could have lost all her young in the

early postnatal period and it could have ‘help-

ed’ the other in raising the litter. Another time,

in the rocky area five almost full grown foxes,

prcebably of the same family, were sighted rest-

ing under a rock in the noon day sun. Aggre-

gations like this suggest the possible fact that

the Indian Fox is sociable in nature.

In the open land study area, in the summer

of 1974 there were two breeding pairs. In the

nearby Farm forest which lies barely 100 metres

from the study area on the eastern side there

was another active den. In such areas there is

a liability for the home ranges to overlap

and a possibility for conflicts too. But as inter-

preted by Leyhausen (1965) these conflicts

may seldom arise.

Communication in the Indian Fox:

The common vocal sound produced by the

Indian Fox is the chattering cry which may

be used as an alarm call also. Besides, they

growl, whimper, whine, and they make a sound

which could be called a growl bark. Once a

male was seen urinating like a domestic dog

but there was no smelling ceremony preceding

it. The Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

defecates along road sides in or beside trails

often in small concentrations. These scent posts

may aid them in marking territories (Trapp

1973). Other animals that have been observed

to defecate at specific latrine sites are the spot-

ted Hyena (Kruuk 1972) the members of a

banded mongoose group (Schaller 1972) and

the Indian Wild dog (pers. observation). The

Indian fox does not defecate in_ particular

places or in small groups. Whether they use

their droppings for communication is to be

examined.

402

Behavicur of the Indian Fox:

The Indian Fox moves around at dawn and

in the evening. In the hot hours of the day

they retire to cover. If the temperature is

mild as in rainy days, they hunt even at mid-

day. Twice during hot weather a pair was seen

resting in their hiding place close by a water

hole. Often they were seen spending consider-

able time lying on the rocks or other vantage

points, basking in the rising or setting sun.

The Indian Fox usually waited for darkness

to descend beforve starting its evening hunt. But

the cessation of a downpour and a cloudy day

brought it out of dens even in midday.

Once they get used to the farmers and shep-

herds they do not get easily frightened. Local

shepherds have seen them playing with their

sheep and the yelling of shepherds from a dis-

tance of 200-300 metres did not make them

scurry into their dens. When cornered in a

rocky terrain, a fox crouched flat on the ground

trying to escape attention. Foxes do have a

fairly good sense of smell and once a male

smelt me hiding 10 metres away.

Foxes do not run long distances to capture

prey but to escape from dogs they run fast

and long. When chased by dogs their speed is

remarkable. They seem to adjust their speed |

in accordance with the chasing animal. When

it was a man they ran slowly and when it was

a dog they ran fast. While running fast the

tail was kept horizontal and the foxes were

able to deceive many times the chasing dogs

by dexterously twisting the black bushy tail.

Possibly, this was achieved by misdirecting the

bites of the chasing dogs and in quick turn- |

ings, naturally, the bushy tail gave one direc- |

tion while the body went in the other direction.

Interspecific relations:

The rocky den area was inhabited by the |

Rock-lizard (Psammophilus), Three Striped |

Palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) and

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX

Common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi). The

den of the mongoose was 10 metres away from

the fox den that was under observation. The

Palm Squirrels which nest in the nearby palmy-

ta palms and Euphorbia (Euphorbia anti-

quorum) often came very close (3-4 metres)

to the playing and resting foxes but they were

very wary. The squirrels are potential prey

and were afraid of the foxes and this was in-

dicated by the fact that whenever the foxes

went down from the rocky den the squirrels

feeding closeby on the ground ran for safety

sounding their alarm call.

The Common mongoose which weighs

around 2 kg and the foxes were afraid of each

other and they lived in ‘armed neutrality’. The

mongoose which can prey upon a half grown

black naped hare (personal observation) occu-

pied the same ecological niche as the fox and

seemed to live without any major conflict.

Once near the rocky den a fuil grown fox was

sitting and grooming. A half-grown mongoose,

feeding nearby, suddenly rushed at it forcing

it off. Latter the fox followed the mongoose

and twice charged at it. The first time

the mongoose ran off screeching but the se-

cond time when the fox attacked, the mon-

goose crouched defensively and bristling its tail

hairs fended off the attack.

The Indian Fox was indifferent to Cattle

Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) and the latter also were

mot unduly alarmed when the foxes moved

about in their proximity. Once a cattle Egret,

‘that had been shot, was left by the side of

‘the rocky den but it did not interest the vixen

and her two cubs playing nearby. But a Com-

‘mon mongoose, as soon as it came out of its

‘den, dragged the cattle egret into its den but

by this time the foxes had retreated into their

den.

| The Yellow-wattled Lapwing (Vanelius ma-

labaricus) and the Indian Myna (Acridotheres

tristis) were overtly alarmed by the Indian Fox

and whenever the foxes moved about in their

vicinity they flew off with their characteristic

alarm call. The Indian Robin (Saxicoloides

fulicata) which nested in the nearby Euphor-

bia antiquorum gave its warning notes when-

ever the foxes passed close to its abode. An

Indian pipit (Anthus novaseelandiae) in the

act of feeding, once went nearer (3 metres)

to a male fox resting in the shade of a rock

from the morning sun. But the fox simply

eyed it without making an attempt to pounce

on the bird.

Dangers and early mortality

In the study area the major danger to the

fox comes from man especially from the no-

madic Narikuravas and dogs. Occasionally the

Narikuravas visit the area and with their abi-

lity to mimic the sound of foxes they easily

net and kill the foxes for flesh, teeth, claws

and skin. They also use hand made animal-

fat-covered country bombs to kill the foxes.

Further danger comes from the local ‘hunters’

who do not hesitate to shoot at or attempt to

kill this small canid with their dogs. In sum-

mer, 1976, the active den of the Farm forest

had 3 young pups but the mother was killed

by dogs. My efforts to trace the fate of the

pups were not successful. In the same sum-

mer, towards the end of my observation pe-

riod, I found most of the entrances to the

active den in the open land, where I had watch-

ed the four pups, two females and one male,

jammed with stones. There was no trace of

the foxes. Early mortality owing to natural

causes may also be a danger to their lives.

During the first week of April in the summer

of 1975, the den among the rocks had 3 pups

but around the end of May I continued to

see only one pup. Two Indian Foxes killed by

dogs were checked for macro endoparasites but

none were found. This does not mean that the

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY Vol. 75

foxes were devoid of endoparasites. The In-

dian Fox has the habit of biting often at places

like the base of the tail and this may be due

to infection of ectoparasites.

Any account of the Indian Fox ecology will

be incomplete without considering the econo-

mic values, both positive and negative. On the

negative side, predation on Partridges and

young Hare which are valuable small game

can be considered. Foxes are potential carriers

of rabies. There is record of the Arctic Fox

in Alaska having rabies during high popula-

tion period (Rausch 1958). But there was no

local report of the Indian Fox suffering from

or transmitting rabies. Further there was no

local record of the Indian Fox raiding either

poultry or attacking sheep.

On the positive side, foxes prey on rodents,

land crabs and insects which cause consider-

able damage to our crops. At present a ba-

lance sheet would probably show the Indian

Fox with more positive values. While judging

from my findings it would appear that the

vermin status of the Indian Fox as declared

by the wild life Act 1972 is unjustifiable. Prater

(1971) is also of the opinion that the Indian

Fox by its constant destruction of rats and

land crabs does real service to the farmer. In-

tensive studies on this aspect of the Fox eco-

Jogy in other parts of the country are urgently

needed to re-avaluate its status.

Finally while mentioning about the future

of the Indian Fox in the study area it can be

said that before the ill-informed local people

and the rapidly expanding human exploitation

of the habitable areas one cannot be optimis-

tic about the survival of the Indian fox tenant-

ing the open land. But the rugged terrain of

the rocky area, being suitable neither for cul-

tivation nor for human settlement, hopefully

may continue to give safety to and support

a population of the Indian fox for many more

years to come.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Dr. Michael Fox and to

Mr. J. C. Daniel for their invaluable com-

ments on the note. The ideas I got from my —

discussion I had with Dr. Alfred Mohandoss,

are also grateful acknowledged.

I wish to thank Mr. P. K. Sasidharan (De- |

partment of English, Ayya Nadar Janaki Am- |

the manuscript and offered valuable sugges- |

tions and corrections.

REFERENCES

ABLES, E. D. (1957): Ecology of the Red Fox

in North America In: The Wild Canids—Edited by

M. W. Fox, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New

York.

ACHARJYO, L. N. AND Misra, R. (1976): A note

on the Breeding of the Indian Fox Vulpes benga-

lensis in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(1):

208.

*CHESEMORE, D. L. (1969): Den Ecology of the

Arctic Fox in Northern Alaska. Can. J. Zool. 87:

121-129.

Fox, M. W. (1975): Evolution of Social Beha-

viour in canids. In: The Wild Canids—Edited by

404

M. W. Fox, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New

York.

VAN Lawick, H. AND VAN LAWICK GOODALL, J. |

Jame’s |

(1970): The Innocent Killers. Collins St.

Place, London.

KRUUK, H. (1972): The spotted Hyena. Univer- |

sity of Chicago Press, Chicago.

KUHME, W. (1965):

mas 1902). Z. Tierpsych. 22(5) :495-541.

translation by Mrs. A. Baker.

*LEYHAUSEN, P. (1965): The communal organi- |

sation of solitary mammals. Symposia of the Zoolo- |

Freilandstudien Zur Sozio- |

logie des Hyanenhundes (Lycaon pictus lupis Tho- |

English —

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX

gical society of London.

Lioyp, H. G. (1975): The Red Fox in Britain

In: The Wild Canids. Edited by M. W. Fox. Van

Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.

Mecu L. D. (1970): The wolf: the Ecology and

Behaviour of an Endangered species. Doubleday and

Co.; Garden city, New York.

Murig, A. (1944): The wolves of Mount Mckin-

ley, U.S National Parks. Fauna series 5, Washington

D.C.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The book of Indian ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society.

RAuSscH, R. (1958): Some observations on rabies

in Asaska, with special reference to wild canidae.

J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22:246-260.

*SARGEANT, A. B. (1965): Cedar Creek Radio

tracking Project—U.S. Department of the Interior

Fish and Wild Life Service Branch of Predator and

Rodent control, Minnesota—Wisconsin District An-

nual Report.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1972): The Serengeti Lion.

University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

*TRAPP, G. R. (1973): Comparative behavioral

Ecology of two southwest Utah carnivores: Bassa-

riscus Astutus and Urocyon cinereoargenteus. Un-

published doctoral dissertation, University of Wis-

consin, Madison, Wisconsin.

* Not referred in original.

405

BEHAVIOURAL VARIANTS OF BONNET MACAQUE

(MACACA RADIATA) INHABITING CULTIVATED

GARDENS'

HAFEEZUR RAHAMAN? AND M. D. PARTHASARATHY?

(With a text figure)

Bonnet macaques, Macaca radiata, inhabiting cultivated gardens were studied. The

number of troops per km? was small but the troop size was large. Three troops with

a mean of 40 individuals per troop were located in a 10 km? area. Main activities like

feeding, grooming and breeding were regulated by seasonal fluctuations and there was

a selective breeding among females and dominant males. Two distinct peaks in the

grooming frequency were recorded, one when the copulation frequency was high and

the other when the babies were 2-4 months old. There was an association and inter-

action between monkeys and other species.

Inspite of a large number being killed, they were on the increase mainly because

of their ability to keep out of harm’s way and to readjust themselves to changing

habitat.

A linear social ranking order was noticed during aggressive and submissive episo-

des.

INTRODUCTION

The Bonnet macaque, Macaca radiata occurs

in the southern half of Indian Peninsula from

the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats to

the dry areas of the Deccan Plateau. It coexists

with the lion-tailed macaque, Macaca silenus

in the evergreen high forests of the South In-

dian high ranges; with the Hanuman langur,

Presbytis entellus in the dry, deciduous forests

of the Western Ghats (Sugiyama 1964, 1968

& 1971); and with the Nilgiri langur, Presbytis

johnii in the Nilgiri Hills (Poirier 1970).

Nolte (1955) began the study of the socio-

ecology of this primate and investigations have

1 Accepted December 1977.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Agricul-

tural Science, Hebbal, Bangalore 560024, India.

3 Department of Zoology, Bangalore University,

Bangalore 560001, India.

406

later been undertaken by Simonds (1965), |

Kaufman & Rosenblum (1966), Rahaman & |

Parthasarathy (1967, 1968, 1969 a, b, and 1971 |

a, b) and Sugiyama (1971).

All these investigations were on monkeys '

inhabiting forests, roadsides or parks with nei- |

ther much human interference nor seasonal |

fluctuations.

The present study is on bonnet monkeys that |

were forced to readjust themselves to modi- |

fied ecological factors due to conversion of

their original habitats into gardens. As they

were originally forest dwellers, a comparison

between present findings and the data gathered |

in other areas would present a true picture of

their behavioural pattern and adaptability.

STUDY AREA

The study site lies west of Hassan District,

between 12°31’ and 13°33’ N. & 75°33’ and

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

76°38’ E. at an altitude of 960 m. It consists

mainly of forested hills. The hot season is

from March to the end of May and is follow-

ed by the southwest monsoon lasting to the end

of September. October and November are post-

monsoon and December to February are dry

months. The mean annual rainfall is 1041

mim; the western part having the heaviest rain-

fall, upto 2349 mm. Most of the rainfall is from

May to October with a peak in July. Rainfall

during the southwest monsoon constitutes

about 59% of the total.

From the beginning of March the tempera-

ture increases steadily. April is generally the

hottest month with a mean daily maximum at

19.7°C. During summer, on individual days,

it may reach 35°C, but with an advancing

Monsoon it falls considerably. Towards the

close of the monsoon, there is a slight increase,

and a secondary maximum is reached in Octo-

ber. December is generally the coolest with a

mean daily maximum of 14°C. The highest

maximum temperature recorded at Hassan was

37.8°C. and the lowest minimum 6.7°C. Re-

lative humidity is high during the southwest

monsoon and the post monsoon. February and

March are the driest months when the relative

humidity is less than 35% in the afternoon

(Mysore State Gazetteer, Hassan District,

1971).

The bonnets inhabited cultivated coffee

(Coffea arabica and C. robusta) gardens.

Though they descended to the ground or cof-

fee plants to feed on, or for other activities

like roosting, grooming etc., they occupied

large trees meant to protect coffee plants from

direct sunlight and these formed an almost

continuous forest canopy where primitive

forest remnants form part of the shade tree

complex as reported for the habitat of

Leontopithecus (Coimbra Filho & Mittermier

#973).

METHODS

The method adopted was that used in earlier

studies of bonnets (Rahaman & Parthasarathy

1967 and 1969 a, b) and langurs (Rahaman

1973). Most of the observations were made

from hidden perches because the monkeys were

initially extremely shy of man. To know the

home range and encounters between troops, all

the troops were regularly observed throughout

the study period. For behaviour within a troop,

troop B was chosen.

To distinguish social status, threats resulting

in the displacement of or submission by the

Opponent were recorded. Repeat counts were

taken to analyse the group composition. To

ascertain their numbers the animals were driven

into areas of sparser vegetation where they

could be properly counted as they leaped from

one tree to another after a short pause, the

distance between trees was long enough to pre-

vent an immediate leap. Precautions were taken

not to harass them unduly. During counts,

dogs were made use of, to prevent them from

TABLE 1

DATE ON FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATION

eA aio — or

From No. of observation days

20-4-72 13-5-72 24

17-5-72 28-5-72 12

2-6-72 25-6-72 24

1-7-72 28-7-72 28

1-8-72 13-8-72 13

18-8-72 30-8-72 13

9-9-72 15-9-72 if

21-9-72 30-9-72 10

3-10-72 23-10-72 21

6-12-72 8-12-72 3

1-1-73 16-1-73 16

27-2-73 4-3-73 6

18-4-73 28-4-73 11

12-7-73 16-7-73 5

10-8-73 19-8-73 10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

hiding on the ground under the cover of coffee

plants, as they generally did.

On all other occasions observations were

made using binoculars from concealment at

50-100 m. All adult males and females of troop

B were individually identified. Table 1 gives

the frequency of observations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Monkeys studied in various parts of Karna-

taka exhibited a number of behavioral variants.

In this study the effect of man made and na-

turally occurring disturbances in the environ-

ment on monkey life was investigated. Obser-

vations on the responses of primates to modi-

fications of their environment may yield in-

teresting information on the adapatability of

the species to new or rarely occurring situa-

tions and comprehensive studies enable a bet-

ter understanding of the ecology and adaptive

mechanisms of the species and they require in-

vestigations in several localities (Washburn &

Hamburg. 1965). Bonnets of the present study

responded differently to natural variations and

human interferences.

Human interferences to a large extent were

instrumental in behavioral changes in the

monkeys of the present study and as such

the situation might be regarded as a little un-

natural but the study is of importance in that

these interferences have become a part of the

monkey’s life and there is no escape from

them.

Three troops with a mean of 40 individuals

per troop were located in a 10 km? area (Table

2) as against 14 troops with a mean of 21 per

troop in a 25 km? area in Bangalore, Rahaman

& Parthasarathy (1967). Though the number

of troops per km? was less than that found in

other study areas, Sugiyama (1971), the troop

size was large and was contradictory to Si-

408

TABLE 2

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF THREE TROOPS

aah 8 AD AACE:

Troop Adult Adult juvenile

Index Male Female Baby Total

A 7 14 11 8 40

B 9 16 10 10 45

C 6 12 9 a 34

Worl Bower of) lapaawls6 D5 aia9

mond’s (1965) findings who recorded larger

troops in open lands.

Adult male/adult female ratio was 0.526,

while that for Bangalore Monkeys was 0.785

(Rahaman & Parthasarathy 1967); South Kar-

nataka 0.94 (Simonds 1965) and Dharwar

0.828 (Sugiyama 1971). In this respect they

resembled the Japanese macaque, Macaca fus-

cata (Itani et al. 1963) and the rhesus maca-

que, M. mulatta (Southwick et al. 1965).

One male associated with 2 to 3 females at

a time, while those in Dharwar and South Kar-

nataka consorted with one female (Sugiyama

1971: Simonds 1965) and no consort relation

was observed for Bangalore Monkeys. |

Adult female/infant ratio was 0.571 as.

against 0.445 for. Bangalore Monkeys suggest-

ing a higher birth rate and a correlation with

environmental factors is drawn (Table 10).

They lived as heterogenous, polygamous

units like most primates and unlike gibbons

which occasionally occur as monogamous so-

ciety (Carpenter 1940). |

As a corollary of cultivation all predators.

have been exterminated from the study site and

bonnets are thriving. The cultivators are striv-

ing hard to reduce their numbers but in vain.)

During the harvest the cultivators take strin-|

gent measures to keep the bonnets out of gar-

dens. Use of dogs, fire and crackers was com-|

mon. Professional trappers were paid for every)

amputated tail produced in evidence of mon-

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

keys killed. Several animals were shot every

year and a few corpses hung by their tail on

high branches to deter other monkeys. Inspite

of these measures, the population of monkeys

increased. Their population structure was of

expanding type having a large number of breed-

ing animals in contrast to a declining one hav-

ing too few young ones to replace the older

ones (Stephen & Lockie 1969). This was main-

ly because they kept out of harm’s way and

readjusted themselves to new situations. When

a monkey was shot in one section of a coffee

estate, the whole troop kept out of it for a

long period and on re-entry the monkeys were

nervous, fidgety and alert. They were extre-

mely good at concealing themselves behind the

barest cover available. Even a baby froze into

inactivity and went undetected from a close

range. They were afraid of men with guns and

never allowed a close approach unless confi-

dence was built up by repeated harmless en-

counters. When a shot was fired at troop B,

two peripheral males took refuge in an Ery-

thrina tree and remained concealed for 48 h

without moving out even to feed. The third

day they stealthily moved away and rejoined

the troop.

Neither solitary monkey nor all-male parties

were encountered unlike the langur monkey

(Jay 1965; Sugiyama & Parthasarathy 1969;

Rahaman 1973) and the howler monkey (Car-

penter 1940).

SOCIAL RANK AND ENCOUNTERS WITHIN

‘TROOP

The social ranks of members of troop B were

studied by recording the frequency of agonis-

tic interactions. Aggressive actions resulting in

withdrawal or submission were taken as indi-

cators of relative dominance-subordination of

the interacting animals. The method is the

same as that used for the pig-tail monkey by

Tokuda & Jensen (1968).

The adult bonnet monkeys, especially males,

exhibited a linear social ranking during aggres-

sive and submissive interactions as in baboons

(DeVore 1965) and the expression became

more obvious when the episodes occurred on

ground. The dominant male assumed a patri-

archal role and prevented disturbances in the

troop, reassembled members that strayed away

and defended troops, in contrast with the patas

monkey (Hall 1967). There was no instance

of a peripheral male dominating members of

higher ranks.

Dominance was clearly observed when one

male approached another and the second male

expressed fear or moved away. Relative do-

minance among most individuals was clear

when the troop was kept on the move conti-

nuously by one of us (Rahaman), to create

tension. Different investigators use different as-

pects of behaviour as criteria for dominance.

Carpenter (1954) and Jay (1965) stressed pri-

ority to incentives as the key criterion where

the incentives could be food, sex or any other

activity. But under uncontrolled conditions the

correlations between such incentives and status

would be less and hence Hall (1968) conclud-

ed that food test was not at all useful even to

approximate the dominance relations. Nowlis

(1941) correlated between status and age in

chimpanzee, which was not applicable to bon-

net monkey as the oldest monkey was never

the most dominant. Schaller (1963) indicated

relation between dominance and size in goril-

la; this index detected the bonnet male at the

head of rank as the most dominant male was

the Jargest, but the subdominants with further

dominance and subordination were not identi-

fiable by size differences. Rowell (1966) con-

cluded that approach and withdrawal episodes

were the best indicators to relative status, as

followed by us in this study.

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

ore =

Strict hierarchies are prevalent among ba-

boons and macaques (Carpenter 1950, 1954),

Hamburg (1968) suggested strict hierarchies

as fundamental to all primates and he opined

that ground living enhanced the expression of

dominance relation and this applied to mon-

keys of the present study as most of their time

spent on ground was in social interactions. Hall

(1967) found that male patas monkeys were

more concerned with conspecific males than

troop defence. Bonnets defended their groups

or members against internal and external dis-

turbances and exhibited strong dominance re-

lations.

Sugiyama (1971) observed peripheral bonnet

males M; and M, being dominated by M,, M;

and Ms; on being reinforced by M, or M,. No

instance of reinforced dominance was witness-

ed in the present study and this might be due

to different method; Sugiyama used wheat or

Jowar to determine social ranks under fixed

spatial distribution and it is possible that such

instances occur in activities involving compe-

tition. Each animal expressed its position by

behaving differently; the dominant attacking

subdominants and the latter screeching or

crouching or moving away. However, no true

leadership in strict sense existed.

It was the most dominant animal that in-

variably intervened when less dominant ani-

mals quarelled and it was he who vocalised

most shrilly, the one to run first to the site of

disturbance or danger and often the last to

move away from them and the one to call

to members which might have strayed away

during disturbances.

The extent of intertolerance was more among

bonnets of different sex and of same age

groups, in that males gave a wider berth to

females. Intratroop fights occurred in various

contexts and with varying degrees of involve-

ments of combatants. Fights over food, distur-

410

bance, and close approach accounted for over

80% and were directed at subadults, juveniles

and babies. This is similar to the behaviour

of gibbon (Carpenter 1940) and this compli-

cated the issue and arriving at a conclusion

was difficult unless a single facet of behaviour

was used as indicator.

Individuals quarrelled quite frequently. The

quarrels ranged from a few seconds of chase

to prolonged vocal and physical attacks last-

ing about 10 m. The attacked individual was

often badly mauled but never actually killed.

The attacks were usually one sided and the

attacked animal just submitted to it and latter

moved to a secluded spot to nurse wounds.

Other members of the troop, more often the

juveniles and females, approached and groom-

ed it. A wounded animal was groomed more

frequently than others and it too reciprocated

inspite of its wounds.

On 3.3.1973, a subadult male of troop B was

attacked by the dominant male and was se-

riously wounded in the right flank. The fight

lasted four minutes over reasons unknown. The

TABLE 3

FREQUENCY OF WOUNDED ANIMALS BEING GROOMED

IN A SINGLE FIGHT

Animal Groomed reciprocation

(Wounded male)

Groomer lis SS Seen i ut ei

No. Total No. Total

Groom- time Groom- time

ings”) (iat) = mess 7 Gane)

Adult female 3 48 — ==

Juvenile male (1) 1 6 = cae

Juvenile male (2) 1 3) 1 i

Juvenile female 1 3 -— —

Female with

baby (1) 1 10 1 6

Female with

baby (2) 1 7 1 2

Total

FREQUENCY OF ATTACKS ON A NORMAL AND A HARASSMENT DAY DURING 2 HR

OBSERVATION (0800 H To 1000 H)

Attacker

Date

8.1.73 Male A

-do- Male A

-do- Male D

-do- Female B

-do- Male B

-do- Female C

4.3.73 Male A

-do- Male A

-do- Male C

-do- Female A

-do- Male I

1.3.73 Male D

-do- Male F

4.3.73 Female C

-do- Female B

-—do-

Male D

“dane

Food

Baby harassment

Close, silent approach

Sudden startle by some-

thing falling (more often

on ground)

Branch snapping

Direct approach

Blocking way

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

Miacked

Male C

Male J

Male H

Female D

Juvenile

Male I

Juvenile

Female F

Juvenile

Male H

TABLE 4

Incentive

Not known

Blocking way

Not known

Direct approach

Not known

Baby harassing

Breaking branch

Not known

Blocking way

Not known

Falling bark

Over food

Not known

Baby harassment

Close approach

Falling bark

| Result

Serious wounds

Slight bite

Vocal & Physical attack

Chase & bite

Chase & attack

Vocal & Physical attack

Serious wounds

Slight wound

Vocal attack

Attack & bite

Remarks

Harassment

day

doe

_do-

“do-

Edo=

Sdoe

“do!

do-

“do-

Normal day

Slight wound -—do-

Slight wound -do-

Chase -do-

Slight wound

-do-

TABLE 5

ANALYSIS OF FIGHTS WITHIN THE TROOP

Attacker

Dominant male

Mother

Dominant animal

Peripheral animal

Juveniles

Peripheral animal

Peripheral animal in the

immediate neighbourhood

Juveniles

Peripheral animal

: Result

and

facial

Chase, bite,

vocal threats.

Chase away, vocal threat

and head bobbing.

vocal and/or physical

attack.

Physical attack, often

Vocal and gestural.

Vocal threat, rarely

physical attack.

Head bobbing, vocal

threat following attack.

Push aside and/or bite.

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

wounded male lay on the branch for some time

and then moved away further and sat nursing

its wounds. An adult female, 3 juveniles and

a female with baby groomed him (Table 3).

More displays and fights occurred when the

troop was disturbed by human action. On a

day when the troop was harassed for a long

time the dominant monkeys attacked others at

the slightest provocation and even threatened

the author (Rahaman). On a normal day, how-

ever, there were fewer attacks. Two attacks

were noticed on 1.3.73. (a normal day) while

on a tense day 5-6 were common (Table 4)

in 2 hrs. of observation. This phase of study

could not be extended for longer periods with-

- out making the monkeys panic and seek re-

fuge on tree tops.

While the adults attacked subadults and ju-

veniles more frequently, the juveniles attacked

other juveniles and babies, expressing a cer-

tain amount of dominance among themselves.

While short fights of demonstrative type occur-

red without much provocation (Table 5) when

the troop was feeding, longer and more serious

fights occurred mainly when the animals had

settled down to rest.

When a serious fight was in progress, the

other individuals suspended their activity and

watched the fight. After the fight both com-

batants settled down to relax for a while be-

fore resuming their normal routine, but conti-

nuously vocalized for a long time. The domi-

nant male growled while the subordinate utter-

ed soft calls.

If there was a vocal exchange between mem-

bers of subordinate status, the dominant male

vocally reprimanded them; but if the former

got into physical combat the dominant physi-

cally intervened. If a fight developed between

dominant males (A & B) a few peripheral

animals approached the attacker, crouching

low and screeching from a short distance. The

412

attacker then disengaged and the attacked ani-

mal ran away. But if the duel was between an

animal of A or B status and a peripheral ani-

mal of say, E to I status then, after the dis-

engagement, the attacked animal lay down

screeching till the attacker moved away or lost

interest.

By the difference in vocalisations it was pos-

sible to determine with certainty the status of

combatants without actually seeing the com-

bat. If the fight was between two individuals

of high rank, the fight was quite long and there -

were pleading vocalizations by other members

of the troop, but if it was between any two

members of lower rank then the angry repri-

manding growls of the dominant male accom-

panied by branch shaking could be heard at a

distance.

An animal atiacked by the most dominant -

male was most likely to be seriously mauled.

The interesting feature of such a duel was that

the attacked individual, after running a short

distance away, surrendered by crouching down.

But on occasions the dominant male, after a

short chase, gave up and lost interest, but if the

chased animal came back within close range

he was attacked again. The intensity of second

attack was mainly governed by the time bet-

ween the first encounter and the second. The

juveniles sometimes behaved differently in this

context. On being chased they ran away but,

after the chaser had stopped, they came back

to him smacking lips. This elicited either an

attack or grooming by the attacker.

To evade attack by a dominant animal an

attacked individual may in turn attack its sub-

ordinate if close by; on this the dominant at-

tacker gave up or tried to stop the fight. This

was observed only twice.

The dominant males attacked more often

during the months when the copulation fre-

quency was high (Table 7) a period coincid-

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

ing with the rainy season. Their close associa-

tion with females, either to copulate or take

shelter from rain by huddling in groups, pre-

vented the peripheral males’ approaching fe-

males (Table 6).

TABLE 6

COPULATION AND FIGHT* FREQUENCY ON A 5 DAY

OBSERVATION PER MONTH

ree ee No. of

j t

Period oe ee rae: aS we By ales

mounts mounts A &B

Aug. 72 12 SM 8

Sept. 72 23 38 18

Oct.) 72 17 45 14

INoVv. 72 5) 42 6

Deen) 72 4 22 2t

Han. 73 9 19 12

Feb. 73 3 Sih 9

March 73 5 11 8

April 73 5) 15 6

May 73 — — —§

June 73 — — —§

7 1, 5

July 73

Total 90

= ve =F

* Fights recorded in Table 4 are excluded.

§ No observations made.

+3 days of observation.

Branches were shaken by dominant males

to express anger, announce danger or deter

fights. The animal chose a branch not occu-

pied by other members, moved to the extre-

mity and shook it. If the branch was slender

it was agitated vigorously; if stout and hori-

zontal, the animal jumped on it and by side

stepping changed direction or ran hopping

Over a distance of 4 to 6 m. Occasionally lop-

ped stumps were also shaken. On rare occa-

sions a relaxing animal reached out to the

nearest branch and shook it but less vigorous-

ly, the reason for this action is not clear. On

occasions a male held one slender branch with

both hands and another with legs and rocked

his body to and fro to agitate both branches.

Branch shaking was not noticed after dark.

Fights appeared to serve five main purposes,

i.e. confer dominance; punish miscreants or

nonconformists; reinforce social bond; relieve

tension; and warn others to refrain from in-

volvements in unpleasant situations.

While a peripheral male or female provoked

wrath of a dominant animal in a fight it arous-

ed sympathy in many others and hence fights

formed a useful tool in strengthening social

bond. Fights formed a complex system cover-

ing both detectable and undetectable reasons.

The detectable ones were food, baby harrass-

ment, blocking the way, close approach and

on being suddenly startled (Table 5).

Branch shaking is reported for gibbon (Car-

penter 1940) and bonnets of other areas (Nolte

1955; Simonds 1965; and Rahaman and Partha-

TABLE 7

GROOMING FREQUENCY OVER 5 DAY OBSERVATION PER

MONTH AS IN TABLE 6

Mother

Period Self grooming Social grooming grooming

infant

Aug. 72 16 45 —

Sept. 72 13 58 —

Oct. 72 8 33 —

Nov. 72 20 28 —

Dec. 2% 5) 19 —

Jane3 11 14 —

Feb. 73 2, 18 15

March 73 — 2 28

April 73 7 15 31

May 73 — — —

June 73 — — —

July 73 19 17 12

Totals 10 ion

* 3 days of observation.

+ Observation not made.

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

4:4

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AWN WSs

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S = ES .

2 = Sparta

ww! {soem rate ao

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SCRUB JUNGLE WITH

FEW LARGE TREES

Q e

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PACOY FIELOS

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LINGAPURA

ESTATE

UDEVAR VILLAGE

Fig. 1. Home range, sub-zones and core areas of 3 troops in Hassan District, Mysore.

414

BEHAVIOUR OF BCNNET MACAQUE

sarathy 1968). In the present study branch

shaking occurred with variations not observed

elsewhere and no branch was shaken after dark

suggesting that it was a means of not only

producing sound but also of visual warning.

It could also mean that animals could not move

and select a branch unoccupied by others after

dark.

HOME RANGE, CORE AREAS AND ROOSTING

PLACES

Bennets did not observe territoriality but

noved within circumscribed areas as does coati

(Kaufman 1962); a trait common to bonnets

studied in various sites.

The pattern of daily movement of the three

trocps indicated restriction of their movement

to specific boundaries but occasionally extend-

ing it to neighbouring ranges under human in-

terference. The dominant troops occasionally

invaded neighbouring ranges, after which they

returned to their own range after a short vocal

display. There were no serious fights and all

troops usually kept within their ranges, (Fig.

1). The daily movement of the troops covered

a mean area of about 1 Km»; the linear extent

was about 3 Km, depending mainly on food

and physiographic conditions. Troop size did

not influence the area covered.

As a result of this pattern of movement the

| ranges of the three troops overlapped. The

of troop C. Likewise the home range of troop

_C overlapped at one point to north-east with

| that of troop A and on the other to north-

| west of range B (Fig. 1).

range of troop B overlapped with that of A at

two points, one to south-west and the other to

north-west of troop A range but to south-east

Maximum overlaps occurred to the north of

| troop C range. The only source of water avail-

_able to troop A and C was located here, while

the troop B had a tank in the west. But

since this tank was close to Udevar road, the

troop seldom used it. On the other hand the

other tank located in the overlapping zone to

the north-east of B range was more or less free

oi human interference, in that the land was

eroded and the terrain difficult for man to ne-

gotiate. There were large trees in the area that

offered sheiter also. In addition the area to

the north of troops A and C ranges and north-

west of B range was scrub jungle with lantana

bushes and the troops kept an eye on the area,

the only possible way by which man could

approach. The area also had a patch of aban-

doned paddy field where monkeys went hunting

grasshoppers, a rarity in coffee estates.

TABLE 8

GROOMING FREQUENCY IN RELATION TO AGE GROUP

SEA A!

Groomer Grooms

Adult male 97 82 35

Adult female 185 109 plus 86* 47

Juvenile 30 74 19

Baby 2 49 plus 86* —

314

314 plus 86*

* Mother grooming infant.

Though they spent much time on the ground,

major activities like feeding, resting and groom-

ing were more frequently performed in tree

tops. On a rough estimate they spent about

20 to 25% of their time on ground. Those of

other areas spent about 30% of the time on

the ground, and those of the high forest of

south the about 10% (Sugiyama 1971). This

suggested that predator pressure influenced the

time spent on ground and that the bonnets of

the present study spent more time on ground

than true forest animals as there were no pre-

dators, but less than urban monkeys as the

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

habitat in which they lived was semijungle and

as they were stiil in the process of recognizing

it as being predator free.

There were fluctuations in the home range

mainly influenced by season, food availability

and human interference. During the rainy sea-

son they stuck to one particular part of the

range for a number of days and these areas

could be regarded as subzones. During sum-

mer the excursions were longer than during

winter or rains. Troop B had 4 subzones (B

1 to B 4 in Fig. 1) of about equal area; in each

of these it spent from 2 to 9 days.

At other times they moved about in the

whole range except when rains hindered their

daily movement.

Functionally the range was related to the

process of reproduction, feeding and _ safety,

and was invariably restricted unless interfered

by man. Within the confines of home range

the animals appeared more relaxed and readi-

ly engaged in normal activities, but once forc-

ed out of it, their sole concern was to return

to it. No social interactions of amicable type

within the troop members were witnessed out-

side the range and though territories were not

defended by bonnets, they did not move about

without fixed boundaries.

That the subzones were components of home

range was demonstrated by the fact that during

summer the troop temporarily split up on occa-

sions and occupied two subzones for a short

time but no party left the confines of the home

range. When individuals stayed behind

in one zone while the others had moved away

into another, the dominant male vocalised tll

there was a reunion.

Within the home range were a few selected

places where monkeys spent much of their

time. These core areas, were selected for the

maximum amount of safety they provided.

These areas were rich in tall trees and offered

416

a good amount of shade in the lower storey

while the canopy provided sunshine. The mon-

keys moved between lower and upper storeys

as they desired. The core areas might or might

not hold food trees. While maximum aggres-

sive displays occurred in the feeding areas,

friendly displays occurred in core areas. These

areas were distributed inside or outside sub-

zones. The ones outside held large trees like

Erythrina, Casuarina, Artocarpus etc., and

were held more during summer; the ones in-

side held trees like Derris whose thick foli-

age offered shelter against rain and wind and

were occupied more during the rainy season.

On being evicted from one core area they head-

ed for the next and seldom settled down out-

side. Sugiyama (1971) noticed 5 stages in the

occupancy of home range by bonnets in Dhar-

war similar to that discussed above.

The extent of home range was 1 to 3 km

similar to ranges in Bangalore (Rahaman &

Parthasarathy 1969 b). This suggested that

there was a certain fixed area required to ful-

fill the necessities of bonnet troop members

as individuals rather than whole troop as a

unit; that once this area was occupied there

was no further exploitation of the neighbour-

ing land inspite of the absence of monkeys

there.

Home range study poses one important

question—Why there should be range overlap?

If the troops just shifted their respective ranges

a bit or shortened them a little, there would

be no overlap. The study of troop B suggest-

ed a few points of interest. Its range overlap-

ped that of troop A at 2 points and that of

C at one point. Exploration of the area to

north, south and west of its range did not

yield any other troop, though the vegetation

was uniform and confluent. If the troop want-

ed to avoid contact with others, it could just

move slightly to north-west and the same ap-

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNEL MACAQUE

TABLE 9

COMPARISON OF BONNET .MONKEYS OF BANGALORE WITH THOSE OF HASSAN

Feature

Bangalore monkeys ae

Hassan monkeys

ei i

Number of troops

Total area inhabited

Nature of habitat

‘Mean number of adult males

per troop

Mean number of adult females

per troop

Mean number of animals per troop

Adult male/infant ratio

Adult female /infant ratio

Home range: Gross area

linear extent

Special features

Core areas

Ovelapping area

Roosting places

-Movement

Feeding

‘Social grooming

‘Breeding

Interspecific behaviour

25 km?

Urban

6.0

7.6

21.1

0.526

0.448

1 km?

sto: #3) kam

Generally whole area covered

throughout the year.

Few selected ones.

About 30%

Few selected ones with no special

preference during different months.

of the total area.

Free of seasonal fluctuations, fre-

quent human interference.

Proffered or stolen items, often

discarded garbage.

Almost uniform frequency

throughout the year.

Peak in October-November, with

no selective breeding.

None

other species.

10 km2

Cultivated coffee gardens

He.

14.0

3953

0.785

0.571

1 km?

1 to 3 km

Within the range are sub-zones

with restricted movement in

different seasons.

As for Bangalore.

15 to 20% of the total area.

Special preference for different

sites in different seasons.

Governed by seasonal fluctuations

and human interference during

harvest.

Exclusively natural and cultivated

items.

Fluctuating with seasons.

Peak in August-October with

dominant male siring most young

females during peak.

Associate with a number of

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST. SOCIETY Vol. 75

plied for the other two troops. Instead, their Bonnet monkeys selected large trees at

range did overlap and they engaged in inter-

troop alterations suggesting that overlap was

intentional, and this had a few advantages to

trcops. If the home range was divided into

charge zone (overlap zone) and retreat zone

(free zone) as suggested by Boughey (1971),

it was in the charge zone that one troop met

another and engaged in duels. It was in this

zone that maximum number of animals parti-

TABLE 10

COMPARISON OF BIRTH RATE AMONG HASSAN AND BANGALORE MONKEYS: CORRELATION WITH

ENVIRONMENT

Feature

Adult female/infant ratio 0.448 0.571

Food Meagre, often discarded and rot- Plenty, mainly fruits, leaves, flow-

ting garbage with competition, ers and animal matter (insects) no

sometimes even with man. competition.

Harassment Much by children and dogs. Harassment by man only during |

harvest. |

Strain Lot of nervous strain caused None

by children, dogs and vehicles

during progression. |

Copulations Often interrupted by dogs and None

children.

Protection Maximum. Indiscriminate killing during har-

Physical state of animals

cipated in aggressive feats and yet remained

unscathed by the dominant ones of their troop.

The overlap thus provided an opportunity for

peripheral animals to engage in fights, express

anger etc., which in turn conferred interdomi-

nance and the troops became closed soci-

etics. The juveniles still in the process of learn-

ing here recognised other troops as inaccessi-

ble to them and to restrict themselves to their

range.

418

Bangalore monkeys

Majority weak; suffer from

various diseases.

pe _

random to roost. But since the core areas held

such trees, the sleeping sites were usually lo- |

cated within and were repeatedly used.

Settling down to night’s rest was mainly gov-

erned by light. During bright days they fed }

as late as 1800 hr to 1900 hr, but on a cloudy |

and specially on rainy days they settled down

to roost early and the activity started as late

as 1000 hr the next morning. They broke up

Hassan monkeys

vest.

Very healthy and robust.

into parties of 2 to 5 and slept, and the con-|

gregations were larger during rains. A mother |

with baby was accompanied by juveniles and |

subadults who encircled her. Adult males and:

females formed their own congregations. The!

dominant male kept vigil from the tree top

till dark and then joined an adult party to)

sleep. |

During non-crop season with less harass-)

ment by man, they spread out wider but dur-

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

ing the harvest they settled down on fewer

but large trees. While resting, an animal dozed

or slept but immediately opened its eyes at

the slightest noise. During the rainy season

they were silent and formed large parties and

huddled closely. Few individuals consistantly

selected swaying slender branches for the pur-

pose.

Once they had settled down and it was dark,

they were difficult to locate by the beam of

a torch. Occasionally they vocalized as late as

2100 h, unlike Bangalore monkeys. These

vocalization marked relative position. On wak-

ing the next morning or after an afternoon

nap, they stretched limbs, yawned a few times

and sat motionless surveying the area for some

time, before feeding. The juveniles on waking

started feeding immediately.

Maximum numbery of micturitions and defe-

cations occurred in core areas and roosting

sites after the animals had settled down to rest

after feeding. This might mark zones and pre-

vent invasions by neighbouring troops (Raha-

man & Parthasarathy 1969 a).

MOvEMENT

The movement of monkeys was influenced

by three main factors; food availability; rain-

fall; human interference.

Food availability: When food was in plenty

the movement was restricted. From January

to February when coffee was harvested the

movement was much less but the animals were

sometimes driven out of their range. Occa-

sicnally they made long excursions in quest

of different items of food.

Rainfall: Heavy rains hindered the move-

ment and feeding. During continuous, light

drizzles there were intermittent feeding and

resting bouts but the movement was minimum.

Human interference: During harvest, the

monkeys were forced to taking shelter in tall

trees against gunfire or into leaving the con-

fines of the range. ,

From March till about the end of Novem-

ber the monkeys moved without human inter-

ference. Movement was relatively more during

morning and evening hours.

Progression on ground or trees depended

mainly on rains and maximum ground pro-

gression occurred when the animal took fright

and tried to hide under coffee bushes. ‘Two

types of ground progression were noticed.

(a) Movement playfully initiated by juve-

niles by moving away from one section to an-

other followed by others. The animals cover-

ed short distances and not in any fixed direc-

tion.

(b) Movement started by adult males and

females with the dominant male sometimes

taking lead. The troop moved in a definite

direction; to or from the feeding and sleep-

ing sites. Long distances were covered and

monkeys moved in a file under coffee plant

cover; long progressions in open areas were

avoided and on coming to a path the animals

broke up into parties of 2 to 5 and moved

into the next section with a short interval of

time in between. The party that moved first

into the new section scanned the area for pre-

sence of danger; other parties walked in slow-

ly.

Out of the 58 instances of ground progres-

sion studied 43 times adult males, led the party

followed by adult females; females with ba-

bies; juveniles; remaining adult males brought

up the rear. Other 15 times juveniles led the

party. The dominant male was found either

in the male-party in the lead or to the rear.

Juveniles did not strictly adhere to this pat-

tern of movement, but stayed behind for a

short while. When the troop was on the move

to feeding or roosting sites, the movement was

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

quick and monkeys often ran, but the move-

ment within one site was slow.

During tree progression this pattern of pro-

cession was more or less observed but going

ahead of one individual from one tree to an-

other was dependent upon availability of con-

fluent branches. When one animal crossed one

tree with case the other might stop for a while

or select a suitable branch before crossing

over. Taking lead was thus governed by the

availability of suitable avenues and any ani-

nal moved ahead first but waited to observe

the formation of pattern. However on finding

man or dog in the vicinity the animals did not

stick to this pattern.

They took horizontal leaps of 8 to 10 m

with ease if the branch on which to land, had

thick foliage; if it was bare, the animal paus-

ed to locate suitable perches. Falling leaps of

10 to 15 m also were common while the ver-

tical leaps covered a maximum distance of 4

to 5 m. The hind limbs propelled the animal

and the fore limbs gripped the branch on

landing.

Two types of leaps were recorded; leaps

without initial ‘build up’, where the animal

on reaching the extremity of a branch stopped

a while, scanned the distance and leaped; leaps

with initial “build up’, where the animal in its

run leaped indiscriminately. The momentum

built up in the run carried the animal over

long stretches. This. mode was resorted to

when the animals were bounding away in fear

or in chase or in avoiding fights.

While leaping from one branch to another,

some monkeys lost footing and fell. Such ani-

mals were not rescued by the troop. Three

falls from heights of 20 to 25 m were observ-

ed but within a few minutes the animals mov-

ed to safety by themselves. On one occasion

a monkey on losing grip of a branch caught

a lower branch in its fall and reached safety.

420

If branches broke under the weight of the

animals, they clung to it till touching ground.

During tree progression large chunks of dry

bark or decaying stumps of branches were

broken and dropped and the area was search-

ed for insects and the like, or the animal just

moved ahead. On slanting branches they walk-

ed on icurs or bipedally and to descend in a

hurry they came down head first.

An injured mother followed her baby rather

than lead. In general, the troop members did

not match their movement with that of mo-

thers with infants but moved away and were

later joined by them.

The monkeys were not disturbed, when a

section of their habitat was on fire, and they

fed only a short distance away. There were

mcre incidence of ground progression during

the summer than the rainy season.

FEEDING

Bonnets fed on a variety of fruits, flowers,

leaves, stems, bark, pith, gum and stilt. roots.

Main food trees were Artocarpus lakhucha,

A. hirsutus, A. heterophyllus, Erythrina varie-

gata, Eugenia malaccensis, Emblica officinale,

Ficus drupacea, Lantana americana, Mangi-

fera indica, Derris glabra, Syzygium cumini

and Tamarindus indica. Feeding started

around 0700 to 0800 h and concluded around

1800 h.

By inhabiting cultivated gardens they da-

maged plants and fruits of coffee (Coffea ara-

bica), paddy (Oryza sativa), orange. (Citrus

reticulata), and cardamom (Flettaria carda- |

momum). The amount of damage is dealt

with separately. It was established that fema-—

les with infants caused the greatest damage,

especially in the morning hours. But the mon-

keys aided in the dispersal of seeds by extrud-—

ing the swallowed seeds intact.

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

_ While feeding was regulated by food avail-

ability the rainfall regulated feeding and other

activities too. When rains were continuous the

monkeys fed and moved during lulls at any

hour of the day. They were generally less

active in inclement weather.

When food was plentiful they finished feed-

ing by 1200 h and settled down to rest. They

supplemented diet with birds’ eggs, insects and

pupae. While feeding on large trees they were

more relaxed than on smaller trees or culti-

vated crops and spread out wider, contrary

to Bangalore monkeys (Rahaman & Partha-

sarathy 1969), as the crops were protected

and the animals apprehended danger in rfe-

maining on low trees. Occasionally they locat-

‘ed ripe Artocarpus fruits and the like by

smell; the powerful teeth help them in rip-

ping open the fruits. During progression on

‘trees or ground, crevices, mud moulds etc.,

| were scanned for the presence of insects and

| the like. Bark of young Erythrina saplings was

also eaten.

_ After harvest, they invaded paddy fields free-

ly and searched for grasshoppers. Mushrooms,

Agaricus sp., were crushed but not eaten. Su-

| giyama (1971) reported that bonnets in Dhar-

‘war ate Calotes, but the animals of this study

‘ate it neither in the laboratory nor in the field.

‘Food was selected by smelling and_ tasting.

‘Certain items were discarded on smelling,

-while a few others after smelling and tasting.

While feeding on paddy, the animals twist-

ed a few stalks together and made a high perch

to keep out of water. An animal fed on its

own faeces while others too shared it. Semen

'extruded on copulation was eaten by either or

both partners and occasionally the others who

‘groomed the female. Water consumption was

less as the animals fed on plant products and

|lived in the shade while those of Bangalore

‘fed on what was proffered or discarded by

{

man with low water content. Latex adhering

to hands and muzzle after feeding was got rid

of by rubbing it on a branch.

GROOMING, MATING, MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR

AND PLAY

Frequency of grooming is tabulated (Table

7). While there was a decrease in other facets

of behaviour during rains, there was an in-

crease in grooming frequency. The percentage

of animals offering to be groomed was assess-

ed at 60% of the total number of grooming ~

instances, and out of which the offer was ac-

cepted 40 times. Out of the 20 rejections it

groomed 15 times. The percentage of groomer

volunteering was 40.

A prospective groomer on being rejected,

groomed another which provoked a grooming

response; in 90% of cases there was recipro-

cation. Observations on groomer-groomee ire-

quency for all age groups are recorded (Table

8). There was no correlation between groom-

ing frequency and the status of participants.

Grooming frequency between mother and

her infant gradually decreased as the baby

grew older and then declined considerably:

around the time of weaning. 7

In their grooming behaviour, bonnets of the

present study differed but little from those of

other areas. It was regulated by seasonal varia-

tions and two peaks were recorded; one coin-

ciding with the peak in copulations and the

other when the babies were 2 to 4 months

old.

Copulation frequency was at its peak from

August to October, while for Dharwar mon-

keys from April to September (Sugiyama

1971); for Bangalore monkeys from October

to November (Rahaman & Parthasarathy

1969) suggesting environmental factors in-

fluencing the onset of breeding period.

421

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Maximum number of copulations occurred

at this time as there were larger congrega-

tions, precluding infant delivery during rains.

Out of the 362 copulatory mounts studied 166

occurred from August to October (Table 6),

197 took place on ground and the rest in trees.

During the rainy season the maximum copu-

lations occurred when other activities were res-

tricted and when there were more amicable

and hostile interactions. The dominant males

were more aggressive during this season owing

to restricted activity, a phenemenon not ob-

served in other areas. The aggressive beha-

viour of males and their closeness to females

prevented peripheral males from gaining fre-

quent access to females during this time which

also coincided with breeding season, thus re-

sulting in selective breeding.

Hall & DeVore (1965) and Jay (1963) re-

ported that mating pattern in a troop maxi-

mised the reproductive success for dominant

male. Simonds (1965) did not observe this

in bonnet monkeys. The copulations in mon-

keys of this study were restricted to troop

members only unlike the gibbon (Carpenter

1940) which mated with a suitable individual

from some other troop. Maximum number

of infants were born from January to May.

Babies and juveniles mounted among them-

selves more frequently than on older ones and

this activity bred more familiarity and a

stronger bond among them. If this trend was

maintained, there could be fewer chances of

inbreeding among members of different age

groups and consequently between parents and

their offsprings and between older and younger

siblings.

Maternal instinct and the instinct to safe-

guard young ones was highly developed.

On December 18, 1973, Shafeequr Raha-

man (personal communication) shot a female

with an infant sitting close by on an Erythri-

422

na tree. The female on being hit immediately

took hold of a few slender branches and twist-

ed them in a bunch and left the baby in it.

Whether the female did this on impulse or it

was intentional could not be recorded. The

twisted mass formed an ideal cover and a

suitable platform for the baby. After leaving

the baby, she moved to a distance of about

150 m and sat down in a fork for nearly 50

min and then staggered back to where she had

left her baby thus again exposing herself to

danger. Before reaching the baby she died and

fell. The baby was in the twisted clump till

dark but was gone the next morning.

On September 5, 1966 in Kadegurje estate,

a monkey trying to cross a tree was shot to

collect parasites by the author (Rahaman).

The animal was at a height of 40 to 50 m.

Being hit, the animal sank low and sat mo-

tionless for a while clutching a branch with

ene hand while the other rested on chest.

After a few seconds lapse, the animal swung

down but still held the branch and the other

hand still rested on its chest. Within a few

seconds a small object fell to ground among:

coffee plants without a thudding sound, then

came down the monkey. On approach it was

found that the animal was a female with a

young baby that must have been delivered a

day or two earlier as the vagina was still dilat- |

ed. Near her lay the baby that had actually.

fallen just before she fell, with a number of

pellets in it. It was obvious that the mother)

was trying to prevent her baby from slipping

down by placing her hand on her chest while,

she struggled to keep hold on the branch with |

the other, though mortally wounded. She kept

hold on the branch as long as the baby clung:

to her and released it only after it had fallen.

Other monkeys of both sexes fell without any

such struggle on being shot.

Mothers with young babies interacted less)

with other members but more among them-

selves. It was the close association of mother

with her baby that prevented undue harrass-

| ment to it by other monkeys and especially

_ by juveniles.

A female of troop C carried two babies,

| ene about 2 months old and the other about

4 months. These were neither twins nor born

'to her both suckled at her breast. Contrary

‘to this a female in Bangalore not only dis-

couraged others’ babies from clinging to her

but also removed them (Rahaman & Partha-

-sarathy 1968).

_ Juveniles and babies played frequently and

the adults sometimes participated. The play

of juveniles was more on tree tops but when

the babies joined, it was performed more on

the ground. To a certain extent mothers tole-

‘rated others playing with their babies but

reacted if overdone. The dominant male pre-

vented juveniles from overplaying and if a

‘branch broke during play, the former attack-

ed them.

_ Play was indulged in mainly when the si-

‘tuations were normal and there was no danger

‘close by. Even the babies could appraise si-

-tuaticns and either play or be very silent.

_ There were, few inter troop fights. When

‘trcop B was found in the overlap zone the

other troops were scen a short distance away

‘in their respective ranges indicating that the

‘troops were aware of the presence of troop

-B and that there was a certain amount of do-

‘minance and subordinate manifestation among

‘neighbouring troops; troops A and C appear-

ed more relaxed in their own ranges and never

| approached the overlap zones without prior

confirmation to the absence of troop B in the

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

area; troop B was thus the most dominant.

On meeting, troop B displaced both troops

A and C and troop C invariably displaced

troop A emphasising that the large troop size

does not make it dominant. The two possible

factors conferring dominance are aggression

and longer occupancy of the area.

As there were withdrawals no instance of

actual physical attack was witnessed as in the

case of monkeys of Dharwar (Sugiyama

1971). No direct invasions and replacement

of one troop leader by another was seen un-

like langurs (Sugiyama 1968). On spotting

danger, when one troop gave warning calls,

the neighbouring troop immediately recipro-

cated the call and its members sought safety

without actually seeing the source of danger.

The message was thus relayed from one troop

to another.

When two troops were in close proximity

and a shot was fired at one of them, the ani-

mals ran aimlessly in any direction and often

trcops intermingled; but later they separated.

Occupancy of neighbouring ranges was advan-

tageous to troops at times of danger, brought

about spacing, familiarity with the area and

mobilisation of group defence.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Senior author is indebted to CSIR, New

Delhi for a Senior Research Fellowship and

to the University of Agricultural Sciences,

Hebbal, Bangalore for providing facilities to

conduct this research work. Junior author is

beholden to the University Grants Commis-

sion, New Delhi for the U.S.O.R.T. Scheme

Award and the Bangalore University for af-

fording facilities to conduct research.

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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(1973): Distribution and Ecology of the Genus

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DeVore, I. (1965): Male dominance and mating

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and ape societies. In: ‘The Natural History of Ag-

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(1967): Social interactions of the

adult male and adult females of a Patas monkey

group. In: ‘Social communications among Primates’.

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keys. In: ‘Primates’, P. C. Jay (ed): 383-394. Holt,

Rinehart & Winston, N.Y.

& DEVorE, I. (1965): Baboon so-

cial behaviour, In: ‘Primate Behaviour’, I. DeVore

(ed): 53-110. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, N.Y.

HameBurcG, D. A. (1968): Evolution of emotional

responses: Evidence from recent research in Non-

human Primates. Scie. Psychoanal, 12:39-54.

ITANI, J., TokubA, K., Furuya, Y., KANo, K.

AND SHIN, Y. (1963): Social construction of na-

tural troops of Japanese monkeys in Takasakiyama.

Primates, 4:2-42.

JAY, P. (1963): The Indian langur monkey (Pre-

sbytis entellus). In: ‘Primate Social Behaviour’. C.

H. Southwick (ed.): 114-123. D. Van Nostrand,

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(ed): 197-249. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. N.Y.

KAUFMANN, J. H. (1962): Ecology and _ social

behaviour of Coati, Nasua narica on Barro Colo-

424

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95-222.

KAUFMAN, I. C. AND ROSENBLUM, L. A. (1966):

A behavioral taxonomy for Macaca nemestrina and

Macaca radiata: Based on longitudinal observations

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205-258.

Noite, A. (1955): Field observations on the

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Nowltls, V. (1941): The relation of degree of.

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Poirier, F. E. (1970): The Nilgiri lungur (Pres-

bytis johnii) of South India. In: ‘Primate Behavior’,

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PARTHASARATHY, M. D. AND RAHAMAN, H. (1973):

Some preliminary observations on the Ecology and

Behaviour of the slender loris, Loris tardigradus

(Cabra). Ethol. Soc. India 1(1): Abstract.

RoweEL., T. E. (1966): Hierarchy in the organi-

zation of a captive baboon group. Anim. Behav.

14:430-443.

RAHAMAN, H. AND PARTHASARATHY, M. D. (1967) :

A Population survey of the bonnet monkey (Ma-

caca radiata Geoffroy) in Bangalore, South India.

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(1968): The Expressive movements

of the Bonnet Macaque. Primates 9(3) :259-272.

(1969a): The Home range, Roost-

ing places and the Day ranges of the bonnet maca-

que. J. Zool. 175:267-276. |

(1969b): Studies on the social be-

viour of bonnet monkeys. Primates 10(2) :149-162.

(1971a): Infant dependence on its_

mother among bonnet macaque. Commun. Behav.

Biol., Part A. No. 5:315-320.

(1971b): The role of Olfactory

signals in the mating behaviour of bonnet monkeys

(Macaca radiata). Commun. Behav. Biol. Part

A. No. 6:97-104.

RAHAMAN, H. (1973): The Langurs of the Gir

sanctuary: A Preliminary Survey. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 70(2) :295-314.

SCHALLER, G. (1963):

The Mountain Gorilla.

BEHAVIOUR OF BONNET MACAQUE

Univ., Chicago Press.

SIMONDS, P. E. (1965): The Bonnet Macaque

in South India. In: ‘Primate Behavior’, I. DeVore

(ed.): 175-196. Holt. Rinehart & Winston, N.Y.

SOUTHWICK, C. H., BEG, M. A. AND Sippiqi, M.

R. (1965): Rhesus monkeys in North India. In:

Primate Behaviour’, I. DeVore (ed): 111-159. Holt,

Rinehart & Winston, N.Y.

SUGIYAMA, Y. (1964): Group composition, Popu-

lation density and some sociological observations on

Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus). Primates, 5:

7-48.

————— (1968): Ecology of the lion-tailed

macaque (Macaca silenus Linnaeus): A Pilot Study.

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(1971): Characteristics of the So-

cial life of Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Pri-

mates 12(3-4): 247-266.

—————., YOSHIBA, K. AND PARTHASARATHY,

M. D. (1965): Home range, Mating Seasons, Male

groups and Inter troop relations in Hanuman Langur

(Presbytis entellus). Primates 6:73-106.

TOKUDA, K. AND JENSEN, G. D. (1968): The

leader’s role in controlling aggressive Behaviour in

a monkey group. Primates 9:319-322.

425

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

IN SOME INDIAN BATS

Part V—Pipistrellus Dormeri (Dobson)—Vestpertilionidae’

A. MADHAVAN?2

Pipistrellus dormeri collected from Nanded, Maharashtra State, India has no restrict-

ed breeding season, but breeds all the year round. The females experience postpartum

oestrus and there is a quick succession of pregnancies. Pregnancy may be unilateral

or bilateral and not more than one embryo is carried in the uterine cornu during a

given cycle. There is an uneven sex ratio with the females outnumbering the males in

the adult stage although the sex ratio during juvenile life is balanced.

INTRODUCTION

Detailed reviews of the literature on the

breeding habits of bats have been given in

earlier communications in this series of papers

(Madhavan 1971; Gopalakrishna & Rao 1977).

Among the Indian species of vespertilionids

the details of the reproductive behaviour have

been reported only in Scotophilus temmincki,

S. wroughtoni (Gopalakrishna 1947, 1948,

1949) and Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix

(Madhavan 1971, Gopalakrishna & Madha-

van 1971). Although both these species have

an annual reproductive cycle the exact breed-

ing season is different. Scotophilus temmincki

(Gopalakrishna 1947, 1948, 1949) comes to

heat in the middle of March when copulation

occurs, and this is immediately followed by

pregnancy. The young are delivered towards

the end of June or early in July. Pipistrellus

ceylonicus chrysothrix (Madhavan 1971; Go-

palakrishna & Madhavan 1971) breeds in the

rainy season in and around Nanded in Maha-

rashtra. This species undergoes copulation

1 Accepted May 1978.

2Department of Zoology, Institute

Nagpur. Present address: Professor

Bharat Mata College, Cochin - 21

of Science,

of Zoology,

(Kerala).

426

during the first week of June and the insemi-

nated spermatozoa, which are stored in the

female genital tract, fertilize the ova released

in the second week of the following July. De-

liveries in the colony take place between the

last week of August and the second week of

September. The foregoing account and the ob-

servations on the biology of several Indian

vespertilionids (Brosset 1962 a, b, c, 1963)

reveal that there is no common breeding pat-

tern even among Indian vespertilionids.

A detailed study of the breeding habits of

Pipistrellus dormeri has been undertaken be-

cause this bat exhibits features not noticed

in any Indian vespertilionid so far studied but

resembles the Indian emballonurid bat, Tapho-

zous longimanus (Gopalakrishna, 1954, 1955)

in several respects.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens of Pipistrellus dormeri were

collected at random from old houses in and

around Nanded, Maharashtra. The specimens

were collected during the period between Feb-

ruary 1965 and 30th May 1970 in such a man-

ner that every calendar month is represented

by one collection or more. Altogether 673 spe-

BREEDING HABITS OF

cimens were studied for the present report.

The body weights were taken with a spring

balance and the weights of the sucklings at-

tached to the teats of the mother and those

of the young ones which had accidentally

dropped from their mothers’ breasts were

taken with a chemical balance. Body measure-

ments and the length of the testes were record-

ed. The characters of the external genitalia,

the condition of the mammary teats in the

females and the position of the testes and the

condition of the penis in the males were also

recorded. The genital organs and the acces-

sory reproductive structures were dissected

out and fixed in different fixatives. The tissues

were processed in the usual manner and the

sections were stained with Ehrlich’s haemat-

oxylin and eosin.

A detailed collection diary showing the

description of each specimen was maintained.

Table 1 gives the summary of the collection

diary and Table 2 gives the monthwise collec-

tion of the specimens.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. General remarks on Pipistrellus dormeri.

Pipistrellus dormeri is a small bat that roosts

during the day time inside crevices in the

wooden frames of doors, rafters in the ceil-

ing or below the tiles of the roof of houses.

The animal lies with its ventral surface applied

to the object to which it clings either with

head up or down. Each roost has about three

to six specimens which remain deep inside the

crevices and they can be evicted out of the

crevices by fumigating the crevices with to-

bacco smoke. Normally the males come out

first. This indicates that the males probably

occupy the peripheral part of the roosts. The

fur on the dorsal side of the body is light

brown and that on the ventral side is white.

SOME INDIAN BATS—V

There is a white streak on each side on the

dorsal surface at the flank between the pata-

gium and the trunk.

The body weight of the adult male and that

of the adult nonpregnant female ranges from

6.0 to 7.0 g; average length of the fore-arm

3.6 cm; wing-span 24.0 cm; and head length

1.7 cm. A single large incisor is present on

either side of the upper jaw.

Although Pipistrellus dormeri often fides in

association with other bats such as Pipistrellus

ceylonicus, Pipistrellus mimus mimus and Hip-

posideros fulvus fulvus the different species

remain in small isolated groups in the same

house. The males and females live together

throughout the year, there being no sexual

segregation at any time. The newly born young

ones are naked and its skin darkly pigmented.

2. Breeding habits

A persual of the collection diary and table |

shows that pregnant females occur in all the

months of the year. This leads to the conclu-

sion that Pipistrellus dormeri does not have

a sharply restricted breeding season but breeds

throughout the year. |

The adult females collected during any ca-

lendar month were at various stages of sexual

activity, and the pregnant females collected

during any month carried conceptuses at dif-

ferent stages of development as revealed by the

differences in the size of the uterine swellings

in different females. :

Each female becomes pregnant more than

once in an year and each female experiences

quick succession of pregnancies as revealed

by the fact that several females which were

collected during different calendar months of

the year were not only in lactation and carri-

ed young at the breast, but also showed preg-

nant uterine cornua on dissection.

Females in lactation were collected during

all the months of the year except February

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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BREEDING HABITS OF

when no females in lactation could be col-

lected. However, this does not in any way

violate the conclusion that females in lacta-

tion occur throughout the year since a suck-

ling young which had become accidentally de-

tached from the mother was obtained in Feb-

ruary. Apparently it was an accident that

female with sucklings were not collected in Feb-

ruary. The percentage of pregnancies in only

one uterine cornu is higher than those which

carry pregnancy in both the cornua in all the

months except January, November and De-

cember where the situation is reversed. The

percentage of pregnant females in the total

population of iemales was higher during the

months of February, March, June, July and

August than during the rest of the year. There

is greater percentage of females in postpartum

pregnancy during September than in any other

month.

In all the cases of unilateral pregnancy the

contralateral ovary and the uterine cornu pre-

sented a typically an oestrous condition.

The adult testis exhibited spermatogenetic

activity during the entire year.

Most of the bats, both tropical and tempe-

rate species, have a strict reproductive pe-

riodicity and breed in a sharply defined season

(Baker & Bird 1936; Wimsatt 1942, 1944;

Gopalakrishna 1947, 1948, 1949; Ramaswamy

1961; Madhavan 1971). Very few species

have been known to breed more than once

a year (Matthews 1941; Gopalakrishna 1964;

Golapalakrishna & Chaudhary 1977; Gopala-

krishna et al. 1975). Unrestricted continuous

breeding throughout the year has been report-

ed to occur in Desmodus rotundus murinus

(Wimsatt & Trapido 1952) and Taphozous

_longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955). Pi-

_ pistrellus dormeri is unlike all Indian vesperti-

_lionids so far studied but resembles the In-

_ dian emballonurid bat Taphozous longimanus

SOME INDIAN BATS—V

in having an unrestricted breeding season, and

in experiencing quick succession of pregnan-

cies with postpartum oestrus.

TABLE 2

MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS

SE A ES PS SS EE Pe

Month Male Female Total

January 21 41 62

February Map 82 104

March 14 56 70

April 13 26 39

May lS) 16 31

June 14 19 33

July 12 26 38

August 8 28 36

September 23 63 86

October 13 29 42

November 11 44 2p)

December 22 30) 77

3. Sex ratio

Table 2 reveals that in a total of 673 speci-

mens collected at random for a period of over

five years 485 were females and 188 males

giving a sex ratio of approximately 388 males

for one thousand females. It is significant that

among the 32 sucking young attached to

mother’s teats there were 17 females and 15

males giving nearly even sex ratio during the

carly juvenile stage. Evidently, there appears

to be a preferential mortality of the males as

the young ones reach the adult stage resulting

in the unbalanced adult sex ratio in this spe-

cies. An uneven sex ratio with females pre-

dominating the males has been reported in

several species of Indian bats (Abdulali 1949;

Gopalakrishna 1947, 1945; Ramaswamy 1961;

Brosset 1962 a, b, c; 1963; Madhavan 1971;

Gopalakrishna & Madhavan 1970; Gopala-

krishna & Chaudhary 1977; Gopalakrishna &

Rao 1977; Gopalakrishna & Madhavan 1977;

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Madhavan et al. 1978). Taphozous melano-

pogon (Abdulali 1949) appears to be the only

Indian Chiroptera in which there appears to

be a predominance of males.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to Professor

Dr. A. Gopalakrishna, Director, Institute of

Science, Nagpur for giving me facilities, con-

stant encouragement and guidance to prepare

this paper.

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ABDULALI, H. (1949): Sex ratio in Indian bats.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48:423-428.

BAKER, J. R. & Birp, T. F. (1936): The seasons

in a tropical rain-forest (New Hebrides), part IV.

Insectivorous bats (Vespertilionidae and Rhinolo-

phidate). J. Linn. Soc. London, 40:143-161.

BROSSET, A. (1962a): The bats of Central and

Western India. Part 1. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

59:1-57.

(1962b): The bats of Central &

Western India. Part II—ibid., 59:584-624.

————— (1962c): The bats of Central and

Western India. Part I[[—ibid., 59:707-746.

(1963): The bats of Central

Western India. Part IV—ibid., 60:338-355.

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies on the em-

bryology of Microchiroptera. Part I—Reproduction

and breeding seasons in the South Indian vesper-

tilionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas).

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 26:219-312.

— (1948): Studies on the embryology

of Microchiroptera. Part Il—Reproduction in the

male vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni

(Thomas). ibid., 27:137-151.

(1949): Studies on the embryology

of Microchiroptera. Part II[—Histological changes

in the genital organs and the accessory reproductive

structures during the sex cycle of the vespertilionid

bat Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas). ibid.,

17-45.

and

— (1954): Breeding habits of the In-

dian sheath tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus

(Hardwicke). Curr. Sci., 23:60-61.

—_———_—— (1955): Observations on the breed-

ing habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath

tailed bat Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke).

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India., 21:29-41.

(1964): Post partum pregnancy in

432

BOs.

the Indian fruit bat Rousettus leschenaulti (Desm.).

Curr: (Si, 33559598-5599.

= AND MApHAvAN, A. (1970): Sex

ratio in some Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 67(2) :171-175.

(1971): Survival of spermatozoa

in the female genital tract of the Indian vesperti-

lionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix

(Wroughton). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 73(1) :43-49.

Se THAKUR, R. S. AND MADHDVAN, A.

(1975): Breeding biology of the southern dwarf

pipistrelle, Pipistrellus mimus mimus (Wroughton)

from Maharashtra, India. Dr. B. S. Chauhan Comm.

Vols.,: 225-240.

————— AND CHOUDHARI, P. N. (1977):

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some

Indian bats. Part I—Rousettus leschenaulti (Desma-

rest)—-Megachiroptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

74(1) :1-16.

AND Rao, K. V. B. (1977): Breed-

ing habits and associated phenomena in some In-

dian bats. Part II—Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck)

—Rhinolophidae. ibid., 74(2) :213-219.

AND MapDHAvAN, A. (1977):

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some

Indian bats. Part HWIl—Hipposideros ater ater (Tem-

pleton)—Hipposideridae. ibid., 74(3) :511-517.

MApDHAVAN, A. (1971): Breeding habits in the

Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia 35(2) :283-306.

———_—— Patn, D. R., AND GOPALAKRISHNA,

A. (1978): Breeding habits and associated phe-

nomena in some Indian bats. Part IV—Hipposi-

deros fulvus fulvus (Gray)—Hipposideridae. ibid.,

PCL) 3 Nell,

MATTHEWS, L. H. (1941): Notes on the genitalia

and reproduction of some African bats. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond. Ser. B., 111.

RAMASWAMY, K. R. (1961): Studies on the sex

cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma lyra

lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 27:

| 287-307.

| Wimsatt, W. A. (1942): Survival of sperma-

tozoa in the female reproductive tract of the bat.

Anat. Rec., 83:299-307.

BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—V

(1944): Growth of the ovarian fol-

licle and ovulation in Myotis lucifugus lucifugus.

Amer. Jour. Anat., 74:129-173.

AND TRAPIDO, H. (1952): Repro-

duction and the female reproductive cycle in the

tropical American vampire bat, Desmodus rotun-

dus murinus. Amer. Jour. Anat., 91:415-446.

433

CRITICAL TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SOME SPECIES OF

CASSIA LINN. FOUND IN INDIA’

VIJENDRA SINGH?

(With three text-figures)

About thirty species of Cassia Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae) are known to occur in India.

The present paper deals with the correct identity, nomenclature, taxonomic status and

descriptive notes on thirteen most confusing species of the genus. The keys for identi-

fication of closely related taxa are given along with the figures of important parts of

taxonomic value and distribution of the taxa concerned.

While studying the herbarium specimens of

the species of Cassia Linn. found in India and

the literature dealing with the genus, it was

noted that inspite of many recent publications

on the genus Cassia Linn. (Ali & Quraishi

1967; Bentham 1871; Brenan 1958; Britton

1930; Chatterjee 1960; de Wit 1955; Panday

1971 and Steyaert 1950 etc.), some species of

Cassia Linn. like C. italica (Miull.) Lem. ex

Andrews, C. obtusifolia Linn. and C. tora

Linn., C. javanica Linn. and C. nodosa Buch.-

Ham. ex Roxb., C. mimosoides Linn. and its

varieties, C. surattensis Burm. f. and C. suffru-

ticosa Koen. ex Roth and C. pumila Lamk.,

have been mixed up in Indian herbaria and

literature. Besides misidentification of several

taxa and considering a quite different taxon

conspecific with other related taxa, there are

cases in some Indian herbaria where two speci-

mens of same field number, identified as one

species, actually belong to two different taxa.

Hence, it seems worth while to publish the

present note, based on detailed critical taxono-

mic and experimental studies on the genus

Cassia Linn.

1 Accepted November 1977.

2 Botanical Survey of India, D-7, Shastri Nagar,

Jodhpur.

434

1. Cassta italica (Mill.) Lem. ex Andrews,

Fl. Pl. Anglo-Egypt. Sudan 2: 117. 19528

Brenan (1958) recognised three subspecies

under this taxon namely italica, micrantha

and arachioides, and mentioned that all the

Indian material belongs to subsp. micrantha

Brenan. He has distinguished these infra-

specific taxa on the basis of following char-

acters:

Petiole 1-3.5 cm long. Racemes 6-23 cm _ long,

longer or equal to subtending leaves. Sepals 8-13

mm long. Petals 9-20 mm long. Large anther 8-14

mm long; middle one 4-6 mm long and staminodes

1.5-2.5 mm long. Distributed in Persia,

Israel, Egypt, Ethiopia,

Africa, North Africa and Punjab and Sind

Wie) keno!) eeu 9) Je) je) enielveieN | me} )e)sejt'e\\se) 10)" Kel Aeiiel\ieiteiie), wi cuelte) Tene) velie

Petiole 1-2.5 cm long. Racemes 2-8 cm_ long, |

smaller than subtending leaves. Sepals 5-8 mm long. |

Petals 8-9 mm long. Large anther 5.5-6 mm long; |

middie one 2.5-3.5 mm long; staminodes 1.25 mm |

British Somaliland, |

long. Distributed in Ethiopia,

Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika,

Africa, Pakistan and India

Bechuanaland, S.

subsp. micrantha

eo ee oe

Petiole 0.3-1.2 cm long. Racemes 7-22 cm long, |

longer than subtending leaves. Sepals 8 mm long.

Petals 10-12 x 5-6 mm. Large anther 8 mm long;

Arabia, —

Sudan, Nigeria, West. T.

subsp. italica |

middle one 2.5-3 mm long and staminodes 1 mm |

long. Distributed in S. Africa ..

It is evident from the diagnostic characters |

mentioned above that they are greatly over-

subsp. arachioides

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SPECIES OF CASSIA

lapping and are not correlated with one ano-

ther. The character, that the racemes are short-

er than subtending leaves, can be taken as a

base for distinguishing subsp. micrantha from

the cther two subspecies. The present study

on the Indian material of C. italica (Mill.)

Lem. ex Andrews reveals that this character

also does not hold good as there are different

degrees of relationship between the length of

racemes and their subtending leaves. The

length of flowering and fruiting racemes is

much variable even in the same plant. Brenan’s

work indicates that he has taken the flowering

racemes into consideration, while classifying

these taxa. A close experimental study indi-

cates that the length of leaves, racemes, sepals,

petals and anthers etc. varies greatly in dif-

ferent regions of the same plant at different

times. The racemes, shorter than subtending

leaves in flowering state, exceed the leaves in

fruiting stage or become at least as long as

the leaves, if there are no biotic interferences.

The Indian plants also vary in indumentum,

size and shape of leaves and in general ap-

pearance. But, these variants do not show any

distinct distribution and Brenan (1958) has

himself admitted great variants in the size of

leaves, racemes and floral parts in subsp.

italica. About eighty per cent of the Indian

material, definitely, comes under C. italica

~(Mill.) Lem. ex Andrews proper and rest

twenty per cent is doubtful as the specimens

-have been preserved in a very young flower-

Ing stage and some are not in good condition

to make comments on them. It seems appro-

priate to recognize the occurrence of proper

species, 1.e. C. italica (Mill.) Lem. ex Andrews

‘in India (Fig. 1) and not subsp. micrantha

as mentioned by Brenan (1958). Further ex-

_ perimental studies on the validity of Brenan’s

| infra-specific taxa are under progress and in

near future, I shall be able to throw more

light on this problem.

The synonymy and distribution of the taxon

is as follows:

CASSIA ITALICA (Miil.) Lem. ex Andrews, Fl. PI.

Anglo-Egypt. Sudan 2: 117. 1952.

Senna italica Mill. Gard. Dict. ed 8. no. 2. 1768.

Cassia senna Burm. f. Fl. Ind. t. 33. f. 2. 1768

non Linn. 1753).

C. aschrek Forsk. Fl. Aegypt—Arab. 86. 1775.

C. obtusa Roxb. Hort. Beng. 31. 1814 nom. nud.

C. obovata Collad. Hist. Cass. 92. t. 15 A. 1816

nom. illegit. :

C. obtusata Heyne in Arzneyk. Gewachse 9: t.

43. 1825.

Senna obtusa Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 344. 1832.

Cassia obovata var. genuina Bischoff in Bot. Zeit.

8: 882. 1850.

C. obovata var. obtusata (Heyne) Bischoff in Bot.

Zeit. 8: 883. 1850.

Senna obovata (Collad.) Batka var. genuina

Batka in Monogr. Cassien Gruppe Senna 46.

1866.

S. obovata (Collad.) Batka var. pilosa Batka in

Monogr. Cassien. Gruppe Senna 33, 49. 1866.

Distribution: West T. Africa, North Africa,

Ethiopia, Sudan, Nigeria, Israel, Egypt, Iran,

Arabia, Pakistan and India.

2. Cassia obtusifolia Linn. Su. Pl. 1: 377. 1753.

AND

Cs tora Vinn, SpysPl. 1: 4376, 1753.

C. obtusifolia L. resembles closely C. tora

Linn. and hence, in most of our Indian floras

and herbaria, they have been mixed up. Ben-

tham (1871) treated the former under C. tora

Linn. and this concept was followed by many

other workers like Fawcett & Rendle, 1910-

36; Baker 1878; Maheshwari, 1963. Prain

(1897) separated C. obtusifolia L. and C.

tora L. on the basis of one and two glands

respectively on the rachis between one or two

lowest pairs of leaflets. The same concept was

followed by de Wit (1955). Recently, Brenan

(1958) pointed out that some African and

American specimens of C. obtusifolia Linn.

have two glands on the rachis and this may

435

Sem:

oem

BS.L A.C.)

—

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 1. Cassia italica (Mill.) Lem. ex Andrews—1. Flowering and fruiting twig;

2. Large anther; 3. Small anther; 4. Staminodes; 5. Seed.

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SPECIES OF CASSIA

lead to confusion. He mentioned two more

characters based on the shape of large anthers

and size of secd-areole to distinguish these

two species. A close examination of Indian

material reveals that the gland-character is

not constant. Both the species may have one

or two glands and resemble very closely in

most of the morphological characters. How-

ever, the following characters, not given due

consideration by the earlier workers, are of

much taxonomic value to recognize the exist-

ence of the two species in India.

Three longer anthers distinctly necked at the

apex and rest four rounded. Seed-areole slit-like,

narrow, not more than 1 mm wide, never extending

upto hilum. Testa slightly muricated, not distinctly

weined (Fig. A,, A,) C. obtusifolia

All the seven anthers rounded at the apex. Seed-

areole broad, 1.5-2 mm wide, always extending upto

hilum. Testa not muricated, but distinctly veined.

giz. A, A.) C. tora

The synonymy and distribution of the taxa

are as follows:

mx: CASSIA OBTUSIFOLIA Linn. Sp. Pl. 1: 377. 1753.

C. toroides Roxb. Hort. Beng. 31. 1814 nom.

nud,

Senna toroides Roxb», Fis ind” 2 341. 1832.

Cassia tora Linn. var. B. Wt. & Arn. Prod. FI.

Pen. Ind. Or. 291. 1834.

C. tora sensu Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

2 263. (Sie, ios part, (mom «Minn. 1753).

@. tora WW. ‘var. obtusifolia (L:). Haines, Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 304. 1922.

Distribution: Native of America; distribut-

ed in tropical regions of the world except

Polynesia and Australia.

im. CASSIA TORA Linn. Sp. Pl. 1: 376. 1753.

C. sunsub Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 86. 1775.

C. gallinaria Coilad. Hist. Cass. 96. 1816.

C. humilis Collad. Hist. Cass. 96. 1816.

Senna tora (L.) Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 340. 1832.

Cassia regeonii Ghesq. in Rev. Bot. Appliq. 14:

2385 1934

Distribution: Native of America; distribut-

ed in Africa, Arabia, Pakistan, India and east-

wards to Polynesia.

3. Cassia javanica Linn. Sp. Pl. 1: 379. 1753.

AND

C€. nodosa Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. FI. Ind.

Dev 334 (1832)

These two species resemble closely in flo-

wer and fruit characters. Baker (1878) sug-

gested that the former may be reduced to a

variety of C. nodosa Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.

This concept, however, has not been follow-

ed by recent workers like de Wit (1955), Ali

& Quraishi (1967). They have failed to find

out some more constant characters of taxono-

mic value. Ali & Quraishi (1967) have sepa-

rated the two species merely on basis of the

size of leaflets, i.e. leaflets 6 cm long and acute

in C. nodosa Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. and less

than 6 cm long in C. javanica Linn. The pre-

sent study shows that, undoubtedly, these

taxa are quite distinct and can be separated

by the following characters:

Leaves upto 15 cm long; rachis not terete; leaflets

not more than 10 pairs, not exceeding 2.5 x 1.3

cm; basal lobe of the stipules acute, much pro-

duced downwards; upper lobe acuminate, never

aristate. Flowers long pedicelled (pedicel upto

2 cm long), in racemes, borne on the entire

length of mother axis. Connective of the dorsi-

fixed anthers produced into a mucro at the apex;

anther-lobes rather distinct (Fig. A,;, A,)

C. javanica

Leaves always more than 18 cm long; rachis

terete; leaflets more than 12 pairs, always exceed-

ing, 205. 13cm, often retuse or, emareginate:

Flowers short pedicelled (pedicel not exceeding

1.5 cm in length), in corymbs, borne at the distal

end of mother-axis. Connective of dorsifixed an-

thers not produced into a mucro; anther-lobes

not so distinct. (Fig. A,, A,) C. nodosa

oe eo © © © ow

The synonymy and distribution of the taxa

are as follows:

A. CASSIA JAVANICA Linn. Sp. Pl. 1:

G. bacillus ‘Gaertn’ “Sem. °27°°313.

Find: 422338. 1832:

37 9R* LIS3:

1791; Roxb.

437

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

¢ oe een

ese ee 22 G2ee 200

Fig. 2. Cassia tora Linn. — 1. Large anther, 2. Seed; C. obtusifolia Linn. — 3. Large

anther, 4. Seed; C. javanica Linn. — 5. Stipule, 8. Dorsifixed anther; C. nodosa Buch.-

Ham. ex Roxb. — 6. Stipule, 9. Dorsifixed anther; C. pumila Lamk. — 7. Leaf.

438

: see ; :

| Distribution: Native of Sumatra and Java,

| also occurs in eastern India. Planted in gar-

| dens and road-sides in many countries.

| B. C. NoposA Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 334.

| 1832.

Distribution: Eastern Himalaya to Borneo.

| Cultivated in the gardens of many countries.

4. Cassia mimosoides Linn. Sp. Pl. 1: 379.

| 1753 and its varieties.

Baker (1878) distinguished three varieties

under C. mimosoides Linn. namely dimidiata

(Ham. ex Roxb.) Baker, wallichiana (DC.)

Baker and auricoma (Grah. ex Benth.) Baker.

He censidered C. leschenaultiana DC. as a

synonym of his var. wallichiana. Prain (1897)

pointed out that var. wallichiana (DC.) Baker

consists of two distinct elements, one is var.

wallichiana (DC.) sensu Baker and other is

C. leschenaultiana DC. and advocated the

separation of the latter as a species, distinct

from var. wallichiana (DC.) Baker. More re-

cently, Ghesque (1932) described a species

C. hochstetteri Ghesq., which is the same as

var. dimidiata (Ham. ex Roxb.) Baker [based

on Senna dimidiata Ham. ex Roxb. (1832),

non D. Don, 1825]. Steyaert (1950) raised var.

wallichiana (DC.) Baker and var. auricoma

(Grah. ex Benth.) Baker to the rank of spe-

cies, 1.e. C. wallichiana DC. and C. auricoma

(Grah. ex Benth.) Steyaert. Again, de Wit

(1955) reduced C. auricoma (Grah. ex Benth.)

Stey. to the varietal rank and transferred it to

C. leschenaultiana DC. instead to C. mimo-

soides Linn. Ali & Quraishi (1967) further

transferred C. auricoma (Grah. ex Benth.)

Stey. as a variety of C. wallichiana DC., as

it is more related to it. Ohashi (1975) con-

sidered C. wallichiana DC. as conspecific with

C. mimosoides L. and C. leschenaultiana DC.

as a subspecies of latter, and C. auricoma

(Grah. ex Benth.) Stey. as a variety under

C. mimosoides L. subsp. leschenaultiana (DC.)

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SPECIES OF CASSIA

Ohasni. The study of Indian material of the

C. mimosoides group reveals that the treat-

ment given by Ali & Quraishi (1967) is more

satisfactory and should be followed.

The most suitable key to classify the vari-

able elements of C. mimosoides group is as

follows:

1. Stamlems HS) tom 4 0 he kd. C. hochstetteri

booStamens 7) to 710:

2. Rachis serrate. Leaves 8-10 cm long;

leaflets 40-60 pairs. Pods 2.5-5 cm long,

1S tor 25-3 seeded, (30%. a. 3 C. mimosoides

2. Rachis entire, not serrate. Leaves 2.5-5 cm

long; leaflets 16-24 pairs. Pods 1-2 cm long,

8 to 16-seeded:

3. Fertile stamens 10. Plants hairy:

4. Hairs on the stem and branches ap-

pressed not Spreading Se Ce)

rete C. wallichiana var. wallichiana

4, Hairs on the stem and _ branches

spreading, not appressed ............

aaa a C. wallichiana var. auricoma

3. Fertile stamens 7, 9 or very rarely 10.

Plants glabrous or glaucous ............

See nN USER Ae C. leschenaultiana

The synonymy and distribution of these taxa

are as follows:

A. C. HOCHSTETTERI Ghesq. in Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux.

Oe 596 P1932:

C. nictitans Hochst. ex Oliv. Fl. Trop. Afr.

2: 28. 1871 (non Linn. 1753).

C. dimidiata Roxb. Hort. Beng. 32. 1814 (nac

Ham. ex D. Don, 1825).

Senna dimidiata Ham. ex Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 352.

1832 (non C. dimidiata Ham. ex D. Don,

1825).

C. mimosoides Linn. var. dimidiata (Ham. ex

Roxb.) Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:

266. 1878.

C. sparsa Stey. in Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux. 21:

399-1951 pro parte:

Distribution: Pakistan, India, Ethiopia,

China and Japan.

B. C. MIMOSOIDES Linn. Sp. Pl. 1: 379. 1753.

C. sensitiva Roxb. Hort. Beng. 32. 1814 nom.

nud.

C. tenella Roxb. Hort. Beng. 32. 1814 nom. nud.

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

C. roxburghiana Grah. in Wall. Cat. 5323. 1831-

32)

C. amoena Ham. in Wall. Cat.

Senna sensitiva Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 353. 1832.

S. tenella Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 354. 1832.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka and Malay-

sian peninsula.

C. C. WALLICHIANA DC. Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat.

Geneve 2(2): 133. 1824. var. WALLICHIANA.

C. dimidiata Ham. ex D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep.

247. 1825.

C. mimosoides Linn. var. wallichiana (DC.)

sensu Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 266.

S821.) 1931-32.

1878 (in part, ie. excl. C. Jleschenaultiana

DC.).

Distribution: Pakistan, India, Bhutan and

Nepal.

D. C. WALLICHIANA DC. var. AURICOMA (Grah. ex

Benth.) Ali in Sind Univ. Sci. Res. Journ. 3: 10.

1967.

C. mimosoides Linn. var. auricoma Grah. ex

Benth. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 27: 580. 1871.

C. auricoma (Grah. ex Benth.) Stey. in Bull.

Jard. Bot. Brux. 20: 246. 1950.

C. leschenaultiana DC. var. auricoma (Grah. ex

Benth.) de Wit in Webbia 11: 282. 1955.

Distribution: Pakistan, India Sri Lanka &

Nepal.

EB, C. LESCHENAULTIANA DC. Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist.

Nat. Geneve 2: 132. 1824.

C. mimosoides Linn. var. wallichiana (DC.)

sensu Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 266.

1878 (in part, ie. excl. C. wallichiana DC.).

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka and Malay-

sian peninsula.

5. Cassia surattensis Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 97.

1768.

AND

C. suffruticosa Keon. ex Roth, Nov. PI.

Sp./213. 182

It would have been unnecessary to discuss

the nomenclatural problem of C. glauca

Lamk. and C. surattensis Burm. f., as there

is unanimity of opinion regarding the validity

of the published name C. surattensis Burm. f.

for C. glauca Lamk. But. unfortunately, a dis-

440

tinct taxon named C. suffruticosa Koen. ex

-Roth has been wrongly interpreted as con-

specific with C. surattensis Burm. f. (Bentham,

1871; Ali & Quraishi, 1967 etc.) or as its

variety (Baker 1878; Chatterjee 1960 etc.).

Britton (1930) placed this plant under his

newly created genus Psilorhegma and named

it P. suffruticosa (Koen. ex Roth) Britton.

Fischer (Kew Bull. 1932: 56) examined

Koening’s specimens from India, now kept at

Lund Herbarium, but did not find any speci-

men of C. suffruticosa, C. glauca or C. surat-

tensis. A close examination of all available

Indian material of C. suffruticosa Koen. ex

Roth and C. surattensis Burm. f. reveals that

these two taxa are quite distinct and clearly

distinguishable on the basis of the following

characters, which have not been given due

consideration so far, and they should be con-

sidered as two distinct species rather than

reducing C. suffruticosa Koen. ex Roth to the

variety of C. surattensis Burm. f.

Leaflets 4-6 pairs, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate,

4.5-7 x 2-3 cm; stipules ensiform, persistent. Pet-

als subequal, 2-3 cm long. Bracts broadly ovate,

acuminate, reflexed. Tip of anthers straight, not

reflexed backwards. Pods 10-15 x 1-2 cm, 15 to

30-seeded. Seeds narrowly oblong, 6-7 x 2.5-3

mm; cotyledons slightly wrinkled; areole reticul-

ately veined without transverse septa (Fi. B,-B;)

eat C. surattensis

Leaflets 8-9 pairs, oblong or obovate-oblong, 2-4

<x 1.3-2 cm; stipules linear-lanceolate, deciduous.

Petals distinctly unequal, 1.5-2 cm long. Bracts

narrowly ovate-lanceolate, not reflexed. Tip of

anthers reflexed backwards. Pods 5-9 x 1-1.5 cm,

6 to 12-seeded. Seeds obovate, 4-5.5 x 1.5-2 mm;

cotyledons not wrinked; areole longitudinally

straited, with transverse septa (Fig. B,-B,,)

LA Tee Os C. suffruticosa

The synonymy and distribution of these taxa

are as follows:

A. C. SURATTENSIS Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 97. 1768.

C. glauca Lamk. Encycl. 1: 647. 1785.

C. arborescens Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 56.

(non Mill. 1768).

ee) ef ere) eile.) \, ene) 10) 26) .ejueire)y |) (rerulenne ennentele

1794

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SPECIES OF CASSIA

omm

EATS

=tR,. "C

<aanees

O60:

ore

‘SP,

Fig. 3. Cassia surattensis Burm. f. — 1. Leaf (dorsal view), 2. Stipule, 3. Seed, 4. T.S.

of Seed, 5. Anther; C. suffruticosa Koen. ex Roth — 6. Leaf (dorsal view), 1. Stipule,

8. Seed, 9. Anther, 10. T.S. of Seed.

44]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

C. discolor Desv. Journ. Bot. 3: 73. 1814.

C. sulphurea DC. Prodr. 2: 495. 1825.

Senna arborescens Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 345. 1832.

Distribution: Indigenous in S.E. Asia, Malay

peninsula, Sumatra, Java, India, Burma, Sri

Lanka, S. China, Formosa, Australia. Culti-

vated in many countries.

B. C. SUFFRUTICOSA Koen. ex Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp.

213. 1821; in DC. Prodr. 2: 496. 1825; W. &

A. Prodr. 289. 1834; Benth. Pl. Austral. 2: 285.

1894.

Senna speciosa Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2:

Cassia horsfieldii Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 1: 99. 1855.

Cassia acclinis F. Muell. Fragm. 4: 13. 1864.

C. glauca Lamk. var. suffruticosa (Koen. ex

Roth) Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 265.

1878.

Psilorhegma suffruticosa (Koen. ex Roth) Brit-

ton in North Am. Fl. 23: 255. 1930.

Cassia surattensis Burm. f. var. suffruticosa

(Koen. ex Roth) Chatt. in Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc. 57(3): 695-698. 1960.

Distribution: Malaya, Java, Burma, India,

Australia and cultivated in many countries.

Further, Cassia fastigiata Vahl (Symb. Bot.

3: 57. 1794) excl. descr. ‘glandulis inter omi-

nia paria’ probably belongs here as indicated

by Wight & Arnott (Prodr. 290. 1834) and

Prain (J. As. Soc. Beng. 66: 477. 1897). The

varietal name C. glauca Lamk. var. suffruti-

cosa (Koen. ex Roth) Baker has been wrong-

ly ascribed to Prain in Gamble’s FLORA OF

MADRAS (403, 1919) instead of to Baker.

6. Cassia pumila Lamk. Encycl. Meth. 1: 651.

178m:

So far, typical C. pumila Lamk. is believed

to possess upto 20 pairs of leaflets of maxi-

mum 13 X 2.5 mm size and a single stalked,

peltate gland on the petiole below the lowest

pair of leaflets. The specimen No. Shetty

1800, collected from Chang Chittar Forest

Range (Pali), lodged in Central National

Herbarium, Calcutta and Arid Zone Circle,

Jodhpur and specimen No. Kanodia 1975,

collected from Ramnagar (Pali) and lodged

347. 1832.

442

in the herbarium of Central Arid Zone Re-

search Institute, Jodhpur, differ from proper

C. pumila Lamk. in that they possess more

than 20 pairs of leaflets (usually 28 pairs) of

maximum 18 x 3.5 mm size and besides the

solitary glands on the petioles, there are siimi-

lar glands between each pair of leaflets in

young leaves. The older leaves are without

such glands between the pairs of leaflets. The

stalks of rachis-glands are very weak and soon

fall down, while those of petioles are stout

and persistent. An examination of large ma-

terial from different parts of the country re-

veals that there are many intermediate forms

as regards the number and size of leaflets and

the presence of glands between the leaflets is

almost a universal feature of this taxon, but

young leaves are to be examined because their

stalks are very weak and soon fall down. Fur-

ther, Deflers (1889) had recognised a variety

yemensis Defl., endemic to Wasil, under C.

pumila Lamk. (Blatter 1919-36). As the ori-

ginal material and description of variety yerm-

ensis Defl. are not yet available to me, it is

not possible to comment upon it. But, in the

light of present observation, an addition in

the description of C. pumila Lamk. is neces-

sary and it is presented below.

Plants erect, suberect or prostrate, upto 50

cm high or long. Leaves upto 8 cm long; leaf-

lets upto 28 pairs, upto 18 x 3.5 mm. Solitary

gland on the petiole and on the rachis bet-

ween each pair of leaflets; former persistent;

latter deciduous. Anthers unequal. Pods upto

4.5 cm long, straight or slightly falcate (Fig.

A,;).

The synonymy and distribution of the taxon

is as follows:

CASSIA PUMILA Lamk. Encycl. Meth. 1: 651. 1785.

C. prostrata Roxb. Hort. Beng. 32. 1814 nom.

nud. (non Humb. & Boupl. ex Willd. 1809).

Senna prostrata Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 352. 1832.

Distribution: Africa, Arabia, Afghanistan,

Pakistan, India, Malaya and Australia.

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SPECIES OF CASSIA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Director, Nationai Botanic Gar-

dens, Lucknow and Director, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, Calcutta, for the facilities and

the C.S.IL.R., New Delhi for providing financial

assistance during the year 1968-1971. I am

also thankful to the authorities of various

Indian herbaria for herbarium and library

facilities and to the Regional Botanist, Arid

Zone Circle, Jodhpur for taking keen interest

during the course of present study.

REFERENCES

ALI, S. I. AND QuRAISHI, S. (1967): A taxonomic

study of the genus Cassia Linn. from West Pakistan.

Sind. Univ. Sci. Rec. Journ. 3:1-13.

BAKER, J. G. (1878): In Hook. f., The Flora of

British India. Vol. 2. London.

BENTHAM, G. (1871): Revision of

Cassia. Trans. Linn. Soc. 18:503-592.

BLATTER, E. (1919-30): Flora Arabia. Rec. Bot.

Surv. India 8:1-519.

BRENAN, J. P. M. (1958): New and noteworthy

Cassias from Tropical Africa. Kew Bull. 13:231-

D2:

Britton, N. L. AND Rose, J. N. (1930): North

American Flora. Vol. 23. New York.

CHATTERJEE, D. (1960): The correct name of

Cassia glauca and its’ varieties. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 57(3) :695-698.

CookE, T. (1901-1908): The Flora of Presidency

of Bombay. Vol. 2. London.

DEFLERS, A. (1889): Voyage au Yemen. Journ.

dune Excursion Bot. faite 1887 dans les mantagnes

de’] Arabie Heureuse. Paris.

genus Cassia (Caesalpiniaceae) as occurring in Ma-

laysia. Webbia 11:197-292.

DuTtHiE, J. F. (1903-29):

the genus

Flora of the Upper

Gangetic Plain and adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Him-

alayan tracts. Vol. 2. Calcutta.

FAWCETT, W. AND RENDLE, A. B. (1910-1936) :

Flora Jamaica. London.

GAMBLE, J. S. AND FISCHER, C. E. C. (1915-36):

The Flora of Presidency of Madras. 11 parts. Lon-

don.

GHESQUE, J. (1932): Contribution a l’etude des

Legumineuses principalement du Congo Belge 1.

Les Cassia africains de la section Chamaecrista

Benth. Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux. 9:139-169.

HAINES, H. H. (1921-24): The Botany of Bihar

and Orissa. London.

MAHESHWARI, J. K. (1963): Flora of Delhi.

C.S.ILR., New Delhi.

OHASHI, H. (1975): Nomenclatural changes in

several Himalayan Leguminosae. J. Jap. Bot. 50

(10) :305-310.

PANDAY, Y. (1971): Cassias commonly occurring

or cultivated in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

68(2) :311-318.

PRAIN, D. (1897): Some additional Leguminosae.

J. As. Soc. Beng. 66(2) :347-518.

STEYAERT, R. L. (1950): Notes sur des Cassia

Africains description de nouvelles especes. Bull.

Jard. Bot. Brux. 20:233-268.

443

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME INDIAN VULTURES

(GYPS BENGALENSIS, G. INDICUS, G. FULVUS, AND

TORGOS CALVUS)*

RosBert B. GRUBH?

(With three plates)

Five species of vultures were regularly obser-

ved in the Gir Forest, western India, during

the study period of two years from 1970 to

1972. | Vhese were, three: species) "of; critions

(whitebacked Gyps hengalensis, longbilled G.

indicus and fulvous griffon G. fulvus), the

king vulture Torgos calvus and the Egyptian

vulture Neophron percnopterus. The continual

observation of these vultures enabled me to

distinguish them in various plumage stages.

Based on this knowledge the following field

identification keys and tables were prepared

particularly for the griffons (Gyps spp.) and

the king vulture. In addition to observing birds

in the field thirty specimens were studied in

captivity and eleven as freshly killed spect-

mens. Immature birds were studied at nests

and at carcasses.

Field identification keys to recognise these

vultures in flight form the first part of this

paper. Plumage characteristics and colours of

bare parts that can be observed on vuitures

that are perched, or sitting on the ground close

at hand, have been presented in the second

' section as tables for easy comparison. Satis-

factory and comprehensive keys to distinguish

Indian vultures in the field have not been work-

ed out by earlier workers.

The Egyptian vulture can be easily separat-

ed from other vultures by its eagle-like flight,

1The paper is based on a portion of the Ph.D.

thesis ‘The Ecology and Behaviour of Vultures in

Gir Forest’ submitted by the author to the Univer-

444

much smaller size, and wedge-shaped | tail

(Plate 1), and hence it is not described here.

The king vulture too has been excluded from

the tables as it is never confused with the grif-

fons when at rest.

Part 1. KEYS To IDENTIFY VULTURES IN FLIGHT

The keys are of three categories. The first

key is for identifying vultures flying high over

head when the colours of their plumage are

indistinguishable, except the sharply contrast-

ing shades. The second and the third keys

are to identify species when they fly close

enough to enable the observer to distinguish

the different markings and hues of the plum-

age. Whereas the second key is to identify

vultures flying low overhead, enabling a closer

view of their ventral aspect, the third key is

to recognize the species by viewing their dor-

sal aspect which is possible when viewed from

above or when the bird banks while circling

low overhead. The third key is especially use-

ful for observers on hills when vultures glide

past below eye level.

Key 1: Ventral view in. flight; only sharply

contrasting hues visible (Plate I)

I. Underwing coverts white, rest blackish

. G. bengalensis (adult)

sity of Bombay in 1974.

2 Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural

Society, Bombay 400 023.

History

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 75

Grubh: Indian Vultures

WHITEBACKED (adult)

WHITEBACKED (imm.)

KING (adult)

LONGBILLED (adult)

LONGBILLED (imm.)

FULVOUS GRIFFON (adult)

Low ventral view of vultures in flight. Colours visible.

PLATE

“(MAIA [eIUTA) SoINj[NA SuIAy-Yysry JO sany suljse1yUOD pue sadeys pa}jonoy]IsS

(WWI Jo INpe)

ONIM

(qimpe)

CITUADNOT

(3[Npe)

dayOWVEALIHM

I alvid

(UMOQ {][e ST aanqeuruyy )

(4INpe)

NVILdADd

(JINpe )

NoddTuo

SNOATAd

(UWI) CAMDVATLIHM

(WWE) GITTIGDNOT

SoInyNA UeIpUy :yqnIH

CZ ‘00§ “LSI “LYN AvaWog ‘f

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME INDIAN VULTURES

II. Broad white oval marking on either

side oiethe oody) rest blackish’...

T. calvus (adult & immature)

Light body plumage; black head and

meck’ rectnices!) and femiges’ merge

with the blue sky but stand out in

white cloud background ... G. indicus

(adult)

IV. Darker, more or less uniform huc....

G. bengalensis (immature)

G. indicus (immature)

G. fulvus (ammature & adult)

Hil.

When flying high overhead, only the king

vulture and adult longbilled and adult white-

backed vultures can be identified with cer-

tainty. It is difficult to tell apart the fulvous

griffon and immature individuals of white-

backed and longbilled. But when fulvous grif-

fon is seen in flight alongside other species

it can be easily separated by its larger size.

Key 2: Ventral view in flight: colours visible

(Plate IT)

I. Underwing coverts bright white and

rest of the plumage blackish

G. bengalensis (adult)

II. Broad oval white marking on either

flank and rest of the plumage dark...

T. calvus (adult & immature)

(a) Pale pink head and legs, and

dark brownish to black general

plumage... 7. calvus (immature)

(b) Bright red head and legs; black

general plumage ... 7. calvus

(adult)

Isabelline (yellowish grey) plumage

contrasting with blackish quill feathers

. G. indicus (adult & immature)

(a) Head, neck and crop black

adult

(b) Head, neck and crop paler

immature

Ill.

IV. Light to dark brown uniform plumage

(a) Size large G. fulvus (m-

mature)

(b) Size small G. bengalensis

(immature)

V. Bright cinnamon brown plumage; quill

feathers blackish; large bird... G. ful-

vus (adult)

Key 3: Dorsal view in flight: colours visible

(Piate IIT)

I. Whitish lower back (by contrast)

G. bengalensis (adult)

T..calvus (adult & immature)

T. calvus (adult & immature)

(a) General plumage isabelline buff,

contrasting with black rectrices and

remiges ... G. indicus (adult &

immature)

(i) Black head and neck ... adult

(ii) Whitish head and neck ... im-

mature

(b) General plumage blackish

(i) Head and _ neck bare, dark

brown... Gs \bengalensis

(adult)

(ii) Head bare and red or pale pink;

neck feathered ... J. calvus

(adult & immature)

If. Lower back, of the same colour as the

rest of the dorsal plumage.

(a) Bright cinnamon brown body and

dark quill feathers G. fulvus

(adult)

(b) Light brown body and darker quill

feathers

(i) Size large G. fulvus (im-

mature)

(ii) Size small G. bengalensis

(immature)

In keys 2 and 3, immature individuals of

fulvous griffon and whitebacked have been

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

separated only by size and it might appear

ambiguous. However, when seen at low heights,

the size difference is sufficiently conspicuous

even when both species are not seen side by

side. The approximate wing span of white-

backed is 2 m while that of the fulvous grif-

fon is about 2.4 m (Brown & Amadon 1968).

Part 2: PLUMAGE STAGES AND COLOUR OF

BARE PARTS

Only the whitebacked and the longbilled

vultures were studied in detail. The descrip-

tions given in the tables (Tables 1 & 2) are

limited to characters which are rather conspi-

cuous in the field when the birds are at rest

and are reasonably close.

Three different plumages were observed in

the whitebacked. and longbilled vultures. Birds

possessing similar plumage to that of fiedg-

lings at nest were considered to be of the first

category and their plumage referred to as ini-

tial plumage. Although not definitely known

it is generally believed that this initial plum-

age lasts for one year (studied in the African

Whitebacked Gyps africanus by Houston—

pers. com.), and hence birds in this plumage

are considered to be first year birds. In this

plumage both the longbilled and the white-

backed have contour feathers with pointed

tips which is readily noticeable from a distance.

The initial plumage is later on replaced by

an intermediate plumage in whitebacked vul-

tures. The feathers are brown and have round-

ed tips. The third and final plumage too has

feathers with rounded tips, but are brownish

lack all over except on the back and under-

wing coverts which are pure white and the

partially greyish inner remiges. That the ‘inter-

mediate’ plumage precedes the black-and-

white plumage was confirmed by the fact that

some of the intermediate individuals still re-

tained a few ‘first year’ feathers while some

446

others had a few fresh black feathers. Also

majority of the breeding birds possess the

black-and-white plumage.

The Indian whitebacked was not known to

have three types of plumages although in the

African whitebacked vulture (Gyps africanus)

it has been noticed (Houston, pers. com.).

Sexual dimorphism is not known in any of

the griffons (Gyps spp.) although Lowe

(1929) has indicated possible sexual dimor-

phism in the African whitebacked vulture.

In the longbilled vulture there appear to

be more than one transitional plumage stage

before attaining the final plumage which is

almost uniformly isabelline (yellowish grey)

contrasting with the blackish wing and _ tail

feathers, and black head and neck. These

intermediate stages appear very similar to each

other, differing only in the extent of darkness

in the plumage. Perhaps it is merely individual

variation and not definite plumage types at

all. Therefore the post juvenile-and-preadult

stage has been taken here as a single inter-

mediate plumage.

So far the longbiiled and whitebacked were

thought to be inseparable in the field in the

initial plumage (Salim Ali & Ripley 1968).

But as indicated under keys, and tables 1 and

2, there are definite differences in their plum-

age which are unmistakable even in the field.

Whitebacked and fulvous griffons in non-

adult plumage stages resemble each other to

a large extent. But the fulvous griffon is a

much larger bird (weight: c 7.1 kg n. 1) than

the whitebacked (weight: c 4.4 kg n. 29) and

hence it is easy to distinguish them by their

size difference.

Gyps fulvus

Since the fulvous griffons did not visit the

Gir in large number, and the birds in non-

adult plumages formed only a small portion,

it was not possible to make a satisfactory

‘Q[QISIA SINO[OD “JYZIY Ul SoIN}[NA JO MIA [eSIOP ssOo[D

(inpe) NOJIIYD SNOATAd Qinpe) DN

(WUT) CATIIAONOT CUT) dIXdVETLIHM

Qinpe) daTH@ONOT (Wnpe) daydvasLIHM

soInyNnA uUeIpuy :yqnig

Ill aLv1d CZ (00S “LSI “LVN AVaWog ‘f£

das Py cae

pW ELaRee) a Coney

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME INDIAN VULTURES

Asis yied

UMOIG Ysryovyg

uowl[nd Jo Jey yeseq

pue opis 1oyjIa UO 9o1}U90 AD13

gjed peoig YUM AdIs YyIVG

UMOIQ Yslyorig

YsIwessg

sIsyyeoy UMOIQ Ystyoviq

Oylj-InJ ‘yJoows ‘roys AIDA

UMOIQ Yiep

UIYS 9Y} pue o1eq jSsoI Syoou

Joddn 0} peoyoioy woly Ayes

-IOp SdfJslIq s}YM YsIwedIg

Ayny surieadde sny} ‘sajnqieq

NOYyYM pue ‘SYM YSwUedsig

ystAo1s satreutid

JOUUL pue solIepuoses ‘papunor

sd Joyjesy “UMOIQ Yslyor[g

suYM ond

popunol

Sdi} Joujesy ‘fyovjq yYsiumorg

oYyM 3ing

yovyq YsIuMoIg

Aois yieq

Asis yiIed

UMOIG Uslyor[g_

uowyns jo Jey

jeseq uO SurTyrewu Adis ayed

MOIIEU YA UMOIQ YsTyorig

UMOIG YSsIyor[g

Ysiwueaida

SIOY Vs} UMOIQ YS]

Iyl[-InJ ‘yJoous ‘yroys AOA

OV1YM YSIUMOIG

Oy op Ysingq UlysS SU}

pue oleq jsol ‘Ajjesiop uMop

aM Ysiwuesld 0} UMOIG eq

JOYS ‘poyelosoury]

sospo yep jUuIey YUM snoa[ny

popunol

Sdij Joyyeoy fysiuvss9

poyeens Ajpjog ‘uMOoIg

YSIWesID poyes4js ‘UMOIG YIVC

popunol

Sdiyy oyjeoy ‘UMOIQG 1Y43IT

urefd “UMOIg YSIT

UMOIQ JYSIT

Asis yieqd

AoIs YyIVeqd

UMOIG YSIyOr][g

UMOIG YSIyOr[_

UMOIg YsTyory[g

Yysiueaic

SI9y}VoJ UMOIG Yep

O¥l[-InJ Yoous ‘y1oys AOA

OWYM YSIUdIIS

UIyS OY} pue oieq jyso1 ‘ATVs

-I0p UMOP UMOIQ [[Np 0} YyIeq

SUOT ‘poje[ooouR], “SnOA[Ny

poyeeys A[peoiq ‘uUMOIg [ING

pojyutod sdiy

‘Stoyyesf poyeyooour, snoAyjny

poyeoms A[pjoq ‘UMOIq yIedq

SNOA[NJ poyeoijs ‘UMOIG YyIeq

pojurod sd) Joyjeoy

‘SNOA[NJ poyeoys “UMOIG YIed

duini oy} UO snoAtn}y pod

-yeors A[MOLIeU ‘UMOIG YyIeEd

UMOIG USI] 0} UMOIGQ yIed

SMPID

sooy, pue snsivy

J[qipuvcul IaMOFT

afqipuew sisoddq

O19

UIYS Ie[NIARD

doiy

YOON pue prox

osevunyd [eUsA soy

SJI9AO9 SUIMIOpUuy:

aseun[d [vsiIop Jo soy

dumni pue yorq IoMOoT

souvivodde [e1ousey

rr a eae

eseulnjd jeulyz

eseunyjd o}eipowi43jUy

eseumnyd [erniuy

sjied Apog

sisuajpsuag SdkH AAINLINA GAMOVEALIHAA NVIGN]I

[| aTaVyL

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Aoiz 3[eq

Adis yieqd

Adis oed

Adis aed

Asis yIeqd

o1eq soll

yorjq + yYsiuMoirg

Ayng sutreodde sny} ‘soynqieq

ynNOyuyIM pue s}yIYM Ysiuvaiy

pue ulys

pepunor sdy ‘umoig yYsiyorlg

Sd) popunol YUM sioyeoy

Iapeolq sUuUl[[aqesl JYsIg

AdIZ YSIUMOIG seg

popuno.

sd) pue Ayjjeseq ystAoi3

‘sIoyjeot sUl[[oeqest jYysIIg

sdiy royyesy

pepunor ‘UMOIG YsIAoIH

A[1OLIOyUe

Ioylep surosaq ‘aul[joqesy

sulTTaqes! Wsiig

Asis oe

Asis yIeq

UMOIQ Sor ‘A[[eseq AoIs seg

UMOIG O18 YOIyA

sepis uo 3ds0x9o Adis sed

Asiz oed

Asis yieq

UMOP po9i9}}eOs

YUM UTYS YstAoIs AIG

JIOYS ‘pojejooour], ‘saspa

yep iurIey YM snoajny

pepunor sd ‘uMolq ysryprig

Ssdij} popunol YUM sioy}eoy

polejosour] ‘ourjjoqesi [[nq

Syeodjs

SNOA[NJ YUM UMOIQ YstAaIH

popunol

sdiyj ‘Aas ysiuMoiqg Ayjeseq

‘sIoyjeoj sul[yjaqesi [Ing

Sdij Joy}eoy

pepunol ‘UMOIG YsiAdIH

Aj1O119}uUe

Ioyiep SuIWIODNg ‘oUTT[aAqQes]T

oulpjaqest TING

Asis + yieq

Aois yieqd

Asis oyed

o1e YIYM sospo [esIp pue

jeumxoid ydooxo Aois yYsiyovlg

uowy[ns

oy} JO OAInNS 94} UO AjjesIop

Asis ojyed ynq Adis Ysryovlg

Asis yYsiyoritg

YsIwiediIg

UMOp pole}}eVIsS fpeoy uo Adis

gjed posun ‘oyIyM Ysiuresiy

SUO[ ‘pojJejoooUR, ‘SnoATNy

poyeons Ajpeoiq ‘UMOIq [ING

pojutod sdiz ‘uMOIq YsIyoelg

sdij pojurod YUM

slayyeoy poyejoooury, ‘ourjjeqest

poyeons A[peoiq ‘UMOIQ 9[ed

syeols

SNOA[NJ YUM UMOIQ YstAsIH

pojurod sd

‘so1]U99 SUT[[OQeSI IYslIgq peoiq

YAM sioyyesy UMOIQ YsIAoIH

pojurod sd sjey}eoy

‘ulvjd jsowye ‘UMOIq yiIed

SYVOI}S SUI[[aqes! peoIq IM

sIoyjeof AIS YSIUMOIQ 9[ed

ourffeqes! [Nd

SMEID

sod} pue snsiey

Q[qipuew IOMOT

g[qipuew = sisddqQ

e109

UlyS Ie[NoIA[VD

yoou pue prof

poy

SosIWol pue sodImooy

oseumjd jeijusa jo jsoy

S}ISAOD BUIMIOPUL),

eseunjd fesiop jo 4soy

yoeq sioddQ

dumi pue yorqg IoMoyT

souvivedde j[eisuey

eseunid jeury

eseuIN[d 9) eIpowi4s}Uuy

oseunjd [enuy

syed Apog

snoipul sdk AANLINA GATIIGONOT

~ aAlavy,

448

| study of the plumages. However, two distinct

plumages were noticed. The adult plumage

| was bright cinnamon and the feathers were

‘rounded at the ends. The head and neck were

densely covered with creamish white down.

The immature plumage was more of brown

with pointed feathers and the head and neck

sparsely covered with darker down. An inter-

mediate plumage resembling that of the im-

mature plumage also has been observed by

Others (Witherby et al. 1943).

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOME INDIAN

VULTURES

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

The study was sponsored by the Gir Pro-

ject of Bombay Natural History Society and

Yale University with financial assistance from

Smithsonian Foreign Currency Programme

Grant No. SFG-0-1894. Dr. Salim Ali guided

my research during the entire period. The

Gujarat Forest Department provided conti-

nuous co-operation during the study. Mr. J. C.

Daniel (Curator) and Mrs. Almitra Patel

(Gir Project officer) provided all practical

assistance and the former also read through

the manuscript.

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM AND RIPLEY, S. D. (1968): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan Vol. 1.

Page 308. Oxford University Press. i

BROWN, LESLIE AND AMADON, DEAN (1968):

Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World Vol. 1.

‘Hamlyn Publishing Groups Ltd.

Lowe, WILLOUGHBY P. (1929): Notes on_ the

nesting and plumages of vultures. Ibis: 439-442.

WITHERBY, H. F., JOURDAIN, F. C. R., TICEHURST,

NoRMAN F. AND TUCKER, B. W. (1943): The Hand-

book of British Birds Vol. 3: 102. H.F. & G. Wit-

herby Ltd., London.

449

STUDIES ON THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. VjqjJ:' |

A contribution to the classification of Indian species of Cymbopogon |

B. K. Gupta? |

An artificial key has been prepared for 23 Indian species of Cymbopogon Spreng., which

have been placed under 3 series. The original rank of Cymbopogon confertiflorus (Steud.)

Stapf has been restored.

During the course of a cytosystematic study

of the Indian Cymbopogon, I had the oppor-

tunity of studying natural populations of vari-

ous species of this genus in different parts of

‘India besides the herbarium specimens at the

principal Herbaria of India. (BLAT, CAL,

MH, LWG, BSD, DD and Fyson collections

maintained in the Herbarium of the Presid-

ency College, Madras). Many of these were

also grown in the Sir Ram Nath Chopra gar-

den of medicinal plants at Regional Research

Laboratory, Jammu and detailed observations

made on their growth habits and floral char-

acters. In all, 23 species were studied which

included three new species and seven new

varieties described by me (Gupta 1970a,b,c,

d). Bor (1963) reported that C. schoenanthus

(Linn.) Spreng. does not occur in India and

assigned all the Indian specimens included

under this species to C. olivieri (Boiss.) Bor.

Similarly Cymbopogon tibeticus Bor has been

transferred to Andropogon tristis Nees ex

Hack. (Bor 1973). All these facts have neces-

sitated provision of an artificial key to the

Indian Cymbopogon including the newly des-

cribed taxa.

The classification of the Indian species of

Cymbopogon has been attempted in the past

1 Accepted January 1977.

* Department of Botany, D.A.V. (P.G.) College,

Dehra Dun.

450

by Hackel (1889), Hooker (1896), Stapf

(1906), Camus (1921) and Bor (1953). Bor

reduced C. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf to

varietal rank under C. nardus (Linn.) Rendle:

which is considered as the mother plant of

the latter (Bor 1953, p. 895). However, no

uniform criteria have been followed in plac-

ing different races or forms under a specific

or varietal rank. For instance C. confertiflo-

rus (Steud.) Stapf has been reduced to varie-

tal rank because the oil obtained from this

species is similar to C. nardus (Linn.) Ren-

dle (Bor 1953, p. 895). On the other hand, the

erection of two species C. nardus (Linn.)

Rendle and C. winterianus Jowitt from C.

nardus Rendle on slight morphological diffe-

rences has been supported, although the oil

obtained from both is similar (Bor 1953, p..

907). Secondly, a support for a specific rank

to C. caesius (Nees) Stapf and C. marti-

nii (Roxb.) Wats. var. sofia Gupta, on mor-—

phological grounds has been expressed, al-

though the oil obtained from C. martinii var.

sofia and C. caesius is similar (Bor 1953, p.

896). Thirdly, C. jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.

and C. olivieri (Boiss.) Bor have been treated

at the specific rank though they yield a simi- |

lar oil (Gupta 1969c).

There are now two possibilities, either to

treat C. confertiflorus as a variety of C. nar-—

dus or to consider it as a separate species ir-

respective of the nature of oil obtained from

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON

it. In my opinion, the restoration of an origi-

nal rank of species to this plant is most de-

sirable for the following reasons.

1. Bor transferred C. confertiflorus under

C. nardus as a variety in the light of Mr.

Jowitt’s findings on these grasses (Bor 1953,

p. 890).

2. Jowitt’s opinion about the nomencla-

ture of ‘nardus complex’ is recorded here in

his own words which runs thus “It may be

that it is possible to recognize two species of

mana, an awned and awnless one, but neither

of them includes Mahapangiri’” (Jowitt 1908,

p. 187).

3. In India—C. nardus is found under cul-

tivation only and usually not allowed to

flower.

4. The Indian specimens placed under

C. nardus var. confertiflorus are quite different

from the Sri Lanka ones, i.e. the upper lemma

of sessile spikelet is always bilobed up to the

middie and awned in the sinus. The difference

has been found to be constant with Indian

specimens. Haines (1921) even went a step

further in not recognizing the awnless plant

as a valid species since no definite locality is

known for its occurrence in India, and has

described another awned species under the

name C. nardus Linn. which is probably a

pliant belonging to C. confertiflorus.

5. The concentration of Cymbopogon con-

fertiflorus is more in south India than in Sri

Lanka (Bor 1953, p. 905). It is also probable

that Jowitt sheets of ‘Nardus complex’ might

be representing a case of introgressive hybri-

_dization—as all the ten specimens examined

by him did not show constancy in their awn

and upper lemma characters and represented

a mixture of these two species and their dis-

tribution is also overlapping in Sri Lanka.

Both interspecific and intraspecific hybridiza-

tion are also prevalent in this genus (Bor

1953, Gupta 1971).

6. Both the species under consideration

have been grown side by side by me and they

do give a different facies.

7. If the ciassification is considered on

the basis of the constituents of the oil, then

C. caesius demands a varietal rank under C.

martinii; C. nardus and C. winterianus Jowitt

should be merged together under a single spe-

cies; a similar consideration also applies to

C. citratus Stapf and C. pendulus (Nees ex

Steud.) Wats. where the main constituent of

the oil is the same, citral.

Considering all these facts and for the sake

of simplicity and to avoid further change in

nomenclature, it is desirable to treat all these

species reported by Bor (1953, 1963, 1973)

as distinct and valid and also raising C. con-

fertiflorus to its original rank.

In providing a key to the species reported

here, it has been found convenient to place

them under the following three series of Stapf

(1906) :—

A. Basal leaves linear, more or less fili-

form and rarely exceeding 0.6 cm in their

breadth at the middle of the leaf; panicles

more often narrow, of short, dense fascicles

of raceme pairs or of 1-2 raceme pairs—series

Schoenanthi.

B. Basal leaves more or less lanceolate,

always more than 1 cm in breadth at the

middle of the leaf with well developed midrib

on the ventral side; panicles more often large

and compound—series Citrati.

C. Basal as well as other leaves cordate,

subcordate or rounded at the base: old culms

naked at the base or with the withered re-

mains of the basal leaf sheaths; lower glume

of sessile spikelets with a slit like groove in

the lower half which appears as a rib on the

inner surface—series Rusae.

451

2. Joints

. Sessile

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

KEY TO THE SPECIES

. Grasses aromatic

and pedicels prefusely hairy, hairs

more or less concealing the sessile spikelets;

. Pedicel of the lowest spikelet of sessile race-

me swollen.

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet lanceolate,

acute, not oblique at apex and with broad-

er groove on the back C. parkeri

. Keel nerves of lower glume of sessile spike-

lets scabrid C. parkeri var. parkeri

. Keel nerves of lower glume of sessile spike-

let winged C. parkeri var. jammuensis

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet elliptic-acute,

slightly oblique at apex and without any

ereove.on! the: back ey yi. : C. ramnagarensis

. Pedicel of the lowest spikelet of sessile race-

me not swollen.

. Basal leaves filiform,

. Sessile spikelets always less than 5 cm long,

lower glume elliptic-acute ...... C. olivieri

spikelets always over 5 mm _ long,

lower glume oblong-acuminate

coe © oe ew

oa hak C. ladakhensis

. Basal leaves linear, flat or V-shaped in trans-

VERSE. SECON hs «aes ere C. jwarancusa

. Lowest pair of spikelets of sessile raceme

more or less homomorphous and homogam-

OUSH Eee C. jwarancusa var. jwarancusa

. Lowest pair of spikelets of sessile raceme

heteromorphous and heterogamous

afta Ne C. jwarancusa var. assamensis

Joints and pedicels hairy but not concealing

the sessile spikelets:

. Sessile spikelets less than 4.75 mm long, low-

er glume with a deep groove in the lower

half C. stracheyi

. Sessile spikelets over 5.5 mm long

Of lef ee se) enh \@) pore) lel ete) wee) 0; 8) He Ke)

eee eee

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet with a con-

cave groove from base to apex, puberulent

at the bottom, not oblique C. hookeri

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet with a shal-

low, continuous or interrupted groove from

base to apex, usually oblique C. distans

1 to 2 branches (rarely 3) arising from each

node of the axis and ending in a pair of

racemes, intercarinal nerves more than 2 on

the back of the lower glume of sessile spike-

Statist Moneta nt ae C. distans var. distans

ee © © © e

Aye

IW)

14.

16.

Wh.

Whe

18.

NON

. Grasses almost non aromatic. |

. Spikelets less than 3.5 mm long, lower glume |

of sessile spikelets without prominent boss

microtheca |

. Spikelets over 4 mm long, lower glume of

sessile spikelet with a prominent boss in the |

C. gidarba |

. Basal leaf sheaths persistent when old and

More than 2 branches arising from each node

of the axis and ending into a pair of race-

mes, intercarinal nerves 2 or absent on the

back of the lower glume of sessile spikelet

C. distans var.

In wihe. slower ahialiin) yer see ae (Bis

lower half

not bright reddish inside:

. Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet in

the sessile raceme swollen:

. Basal leaf sheaths do not curl spirally when |

old, panicle narrow, interrupted and congest- |

C. coloratus))

Side asc sapere Ee ieee Si ea near

Basal leaf sheaths curls spirally when old,

panicles effuse, spreading and drooping

Fe er Cant RUM Regie MEET Le CRE ean CF

mundensis |

travancorensis |

Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet in >

the sessile raceme not swollen:

Sessile spikelets always less than 5 mm long —

Panicles large and dense

Panicles large, lax, spreading or drooping:

Panicles long, slender, erect,

epinastically deflexed

Secale see Oe SL CMW OUS aval

Panicles very large, much branched and the

drooping branches with numerous

pairs:

Keel nerves of the lower glume of sessile

spikelet narrowly winged from the apex....

or two

let broadly winged little below the apex

C. flexuosus var. coimbatorensis

grooved from base to apex .... C. pendulus

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet flat:

. Sessile spikelets awnless

. Sessile spikelets awned

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet glabrous

UD aor C. citratus

C. khasianus

ee © © © eo

C. khasianus var. khasianus

C. flexuosus@

C. flexuosus —

var. flexuosus —

bearing very ©

raceme pairs |

microstachys —

raceme ©

C. flexuosus var. sikkimensis —

. Keel nerves of lower glume of sessile spike-

. Sessile spikelets always more than 5 mm

long:

. Lower glume of sessile spikelet concave,

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON

22. Lower glume of sessile spikelet hairy

NS CoE aR .C. khasianus var. nagensis

13. Basal leaf sheath persistent when old and

always brick red inside*

23") Sessile. spikelets awnless) 47474... C. nardus

. Pedicel of the lowest-pedicelled spikelet of

sessile raceme not swollen:

25. Sessile spikelets awnless

25. Sessile spikelets awned.

26. Inflorescence a simple panicle, one or two

branches arising from each node of the axis

and ending into a divaricate raceme pair at

maturity C. polyneuros

26. Inflorescence a large, much branched com-

pound panicle C. motia

24. Pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet of

sessile raceme grossly swollen:

27. Leaf blades linear, round at the base; in-

florescence not bright red at maturity......

C. caesius

27. Leaf blades cerdate or subcordate at base;

Inflorescence bright red at maturity

C. martinii

28. Lower glume of sessile spikelet elliptic-acute

C. osmostonii

OOO: COL ORO cet HO RON Oe>? 10) 0 SOlnd, Oo: f0.76

a}res olen leiielc eee turiei terete) gerle\) «ile

* Based on Stapf’s findings (1906, p. 320) besides

author's own observations.

(excluding the wings) and broader at apex

br ehies SEG a abs eas Case) C. martinii var. martinii

28. Lower glume of sessile spikelet lanceolate

acute (excluding the wings) and narrower at

apex C. martinii var. sofia

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical

Swamy, Presidency College, Madras, Director

N.B.G. Lucknow and President, Forest Re-

search Institute, Dehra Dun for allowing me

to work in their respective herbaria. I am

equally thankfui to the Director, Royal Bota-

nic Gardens, Kew and in particular to the

late Dr. N. L. Bor for the verification of some

Cymbopogon species under investigation. I

also owe sincere thanks to Dr. K. Subraman-

yam, Ex-Director, Botanical Survey of India

for critically going through the manuscript

and for helpful suggestions. Thanks are also

due to University Grants Commission for

financial help.

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1953): The genus Cymbopogon in

India, Pt. I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51:890-911.

(1963): A new name in Cymbo-

pogon Spreng. Notes. Roy. Bot. Gdn. Edinburgh,

25 :61-62.

(1973): The grasses of Burma, Cey-

lon, India and Pakistan. Netherlands.

Camus, A. (1921): Les Andropogonees odorates

des region tropicales. Rev. Bot. Appl. 1.z70-306.

Gupra, B. K. (1969): Studies in the genus

Cymbopogon Spreng. II. Chemocytotaxonomic stu-

dies in Indian Cymbopogons. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.

70-B: 241-247.

—— (1970a): Studies in the genus

Cymbopogon Spreng. IV. A new species of Cymbo-

pogon from Ladakh, ibid. 77 B: 9-12.

(1970b): Studies in the genus Cym-

bopogon Spreng. V. A new species of Cymbopogon

from Ramnagar. ibid., 77 B: 86-89.

———(1970c): Studies in the genus Cym-

bopogon Spreng. VI. A new name in genus Cym-

bopogon. ibid., 71 B: 90-93.

(1970d): Studies in the genus Cym-

bopogon Spreng. VII. Some new varieties in Indian

Cymbonogons. ibid., 71 B: 94-100.

(1971): A note on the occurrence

of natural hybrids in Indian Cymbopogons. Plant

Science 3° 120.

Hacket, E. (1889): Andropogoneae in D’Can-

dolle Monographic Phanerogamin. 6:1-716.

HAINEs, H. H. (1921): The Botany of Bihar and

Orissa. London. Part V. 1044-1048.

Hooker, J. D. (1896): Flora of British

London. 7:164-210.

STaPF, Otto (1906): The oil grasses of India and

Ceylon. Kew Bull. 1906: 297-363.

Jowirr, J. F. (1908): Notes on Dr. Otto Stapf’s

nomenclature of Cymbopogon nardus Rendle and

C. confertiflorus Stapf. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gdn. Pera-

deniya 4:185-193. |

India.

453

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

STUDIES ON SOME SPIDERS OF THE GENERA TEGENARIA AND

AGELENA FROM KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS, INDIA

(ARANEAE: AGELENIDAE)?*

M. BARMAN?

(With thirteen text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Our information about Indian Agelenids be-

gins only with the recent contribution of Tika-

der (1962, 1968). Till the present work Indian

Agelenid fauna was represented by a few spe-

cies of Agelena, mostly from Khasi and Jaintia

Hills area. In the present paper two more spe-

cies (Tegenaria shillongensis and Agelena

oaklandensis), new to arachnology are des-

cribed and short report of the known species

is also added.

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Deputy

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Poona,

for confirmation of the identifications.

The type specimens will be deposited in the

National Collection of Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta in due course.

1. Tegenaria shillongensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-7)

General: Moderately large spider, carapace

and chelicera dark brown, legs reddish brown,

abdomen light grey with white chevron. Total

length (2) 10.20 mm. Carapace 4.50 mm.

long, 4.00 mm. wide; abdomen 5.50 mm.

long, 5.00 mm. wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, cephalic

region narrow, convex and higher; thorax

1 Accepted December 1977.

2Lady Keane College, Shillong, Meghalaya.

454

broad and almost flat. Both rows of eyes pro- |

curved, laterals of each side almost contigu-

ous by a ridge. Laterals slightly larger than |

medians; all on small tubercles, ocular quad |

wider behind. Carapace dark brown, clothed

with short hairs. Clypeal width more than the)

diameter of eyes. Chelicerae curved, inner

margin of fang groove armed with six teeth.

Labium 1.5 times longer than broad. Sternum

shield shaped pointed behind, in front of

coxae IV. Endite and chelicera with scopulae. |

Legs clothed with long hairs and few spines; |

tibiae and metatarsi with three pairs of ven-

tral spines.

Abdomen: Oval, light grey with yellowish. |

white chevrons on the dorsum. Ventral lighter

with few faint patches. Both surfaces clothed

densely with hairs. Spinnerets almost of same

colour, anterior pair small, posterior pair long’

and with two segments. Epigynum paired with

a median ridged as in text-fig. 4. Internal)

genitalia as in text-fig. 5. Male palpus as in

text-figs. 6, 7.

Holotype:

lotype male. |

Type-locality Kenches Trace (inside

room), 25.8.1973, other females and male from

same locality, 24.10.74. Coll. M. Barman. |

Discussion: This species is closer to Tege-|

naria lunakensis Tikader but differs from it

in (i) Body colour, (ii) Absence of foveal

female, paratype 3 females, a

]

imark, (iii) Structure of epigynum and male

palpus.

Figs. 1-7. Tegenaria shillongensis sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 2. Sternum

with maxillae and labium; 3. Ventral view of post-

erior end of abdomen showing spinners; 4. Epigy-

num; 5. Internal genitalia; 6. Lateral view of male

palpus; 7. Ventral view of male palpus.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

These spiders live in funnel web built in the

corners of houses or in near by bushes but

are common in houses and become active

in the night and are found to come out of the

webs. They are found from April till Nov-

ember.

2. Agelena gautami Tikader

Agelena gautami Tikader, 1962, J. Linn.

Soc., London, 44(300): 569. Tikader, 1968,

Io Assan’ Scie Soca Whee 198.

Specimens examined: 3 females, Shillong,

21.6.1965 and 2 males, 16.7.1969. Coll. M.

Barman.

Diagnosis: Body elliptical, covered with

deep brown hairs, carapace light brown, late-

ral regions darker, longitudinal foveal line

prominent; legs yellowish brown, clothed with

long hairs and spines. Abdomen brown, an-

terior spinnerets separate, posterior spinnerets

longer and provided with two segments. Total

length (2): 13.75: mm: Carapace -5.00. mm.

long, 4.00 mm. wide; abdomen 9.00 mm.

long, 4.10 mm. wide. Both rows of eyes pro-

curved but the posterior row more strongly

arached, posterior medians smaller, rest equal

in size. Ocular quad almost a square anterior-

ly slightly narrower.

These spiders live in funnel like web with

retreat, commonly they weave their webs in

the corners of houses, bathrooms etc., wait for

their prey in the opening of funnel and hide

in the retreat when disturbed.

Distribution: So far this species is known

only from its type locality, i.e. Shillong, Meg-

halaya, India.

3. Agelena shillongensis Tikader

Agelena_ shillongensis ‘Tikader, 1968, J.

ASSaM. Si. SoG, 10: 158:

Specimens examined: 4 females. Lawsoh-

tun (Khasi Hills), 2 males, Shillong. Coll.

M. Barman. 28.2.1969 and 10.7.1971 respecti-

vely.

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Diagnosis : Carapace flat, oval, light brown,

the middie of thoracic region with a fovea;

laterally broad longitudinal deep brown pat-

ches and margins with a thin line, clothed with

hairs and few spines. Eyes white, anterior row

nearly straight, posterior row slightly procurv-

ed, medians nearer to each other than from

adjacent lateral. Legs greenish brown, leg Il

shortest, trichobothrium prominent on leg IV.

Abdomen oval, dark brown with light brown

design, clothed thickly with greenish hairs.

Total length (2) 10.00 mm. Carapace 4.00

mm. long, 3.10 mm. wide; abdomen 5.20 mm.

long, 3.10 mm. wide.

This spider is found in its sheet web with

funnel like retreat in the bushes.

Distribution: Laban, Shilong, Lawsohtun

(Khasi Hills), Meghalaya, India.

4. Agelena oaklandensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 8-13)

General: Large spiders, cephalothorax

brown, legs yellowish with brown bands. Total

length (2) 19.00 mm. Carapace 8.00 mm. HA

long, 5.50 mm. wide; abdomen 11.00 mm.

long and 8.00 mm. wide.

Cephalothorax : Cephalic region narrower,

higher and convex, thoracic region flat, fovea

in the centre. Carapace dark brown in the

cephalic region and from there a broad lon-

gitudinal patch extends on each side upto

posterior end of carapace as in text-fig. 8; the

area in between the patches and the outer

lateral margins light brown. All eyes white,

anterior medians larger, rest almost equal.

Anterior row of eyes straight, posterior row

strongly procurved; laterals nearer to each

other. Ocular quad longer than wide and nar-

rower in front as in text-fig. 8. Clypeus high

and vertical. Chelicerae strong, inner margin

with four teeth and outer with five teeth;

fang unarmed. Sternum heart shaped, point-

ed behind, clothed with long spiny hairs and

456

scattered spines. Legs light brown with deep

brown bands prominent near the ends of seg-

ments. |

Abdomen: Oval, dark brown to grey, in ~

the mid-dorsal region a longitudinal light i

brown line from which a number of oblique |

narrow lines laterals. Sub-lateral regions dar-

Figs. 8-13. Agelena oaklandensis sp. nov.

8 Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 9. Maxillae

and labium; 10. Epigynum; 11. Internal genitalia;

12. Lateral view of male palpus; 13. Ventral view

of male palpus.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ker longitudinally. Dorsum clothed with pro-

minent hairs. Venter light brown. Anterior

spinnerets separate, longer and two segment-

ed. Epigyne as in text-fig. 10. Internal geni-

talia as in text-fig. 11. Male slender and much

smaller; carapace light brown and abdomen

lighter and lines not prominent. Male palpus

as in text-figs. 12, 13.

Holotype : female allotype male.

Type-locality : Oakland, Shillong,

Coll. M. Barman, 22.7.1972.

Discussion : This species resembles Agelena

shillongensis Tikader in general appearance

but differs from it in (1) Abdominal colour,

India.

(ii) Anterior median eyes larger than others,

whereas in A. shillongensis anterior median

eyes smaller than others. (ii) Structure of epi-

gyne and male palpus different.

These spiders are commonly found from

May onward. They spin funnel like web on

bushes usually in the hedges of Duranta, with

tube like retreat. During the day they wait

near the opening of the retreat and hide very

quickly when alarmed. When approached

sometimes withdraw their legs and fall down

like pebbles to safety. Egg cases are found in

July and August, and is cared for by the

mother.

REFERENCES

CAMBRIDGE, R. V. & Iviz, W. (1937): New spi-

ders of the family Agelenidae from Western N.

America. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 30:211.

Comstock, J. H. (1910): The palpi of male

spiders. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 3:161.

— (1940): The spider Book (Com-

stock publishing Inc.).

Pocock, R. I. (1900): Fauna of Brit. India,

Arachnida.

TIKADER, B. K. (1962): Studies on some Indian

spiders (Araneae: Arachnida). J. Linn. Soc. 44

(300) :569.

(1963): Zoological results of the

Indian Cho-Oyu Expedition (1958) in Nepal. Rec.

Indian Mus., 59(3) :257.

(1968): Studies on spider fauna of

Khasi and Jaintia Hills. J. Assam Sci. Soc., 11:154.

YAGINUMA, T. (1970): Spider fauna of Japan

(Revised). Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus., 13(4) :639.

CHOEROSPONDIAS AURICULATA (ANACARDIACEAE) — A NEW

SPECIES FROM INDIA’

Dali CHANDRA?

(With a text-figure)

During the revision of the genera Pistacia

L. and Choerospondias B. L. Burtt, I came

across some specimens which needed re-exa-

mination of identification. A few of such speci-

mens collected by P. W. Mackinnon, and pre-

1 Accepted January 1978.

2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey

of India, Botanic Garden, Howrah-3.

viously identified as Pistacia integerrima Ste-

wart. On careful examinations it proved to

be different from Pistacia L. Its characters

indicate an undescribed species of Choeros-

pondias B. L. Burtt.

The genus Choerospondias B. L. Burtt was

till recently known to be represented in India

by only (one species; C. auallans (Roxb:) B.

457

458

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 75

Fig. 1. Choerospondias auriculata sp. nov.

A. Twig; B. Bud; C. Calyx; D. Petal; E. Expanded flowers; F. L.S. of flower;

G. Stamens; H. Single leaflet.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

L. Burtt. One more has been found, collected

by P. W. Mackinnon (date: 15-5-1899, with-

out Coll. no.) from Mussoorie, Uttar Pradesh

and is named and described here.

Choerospondias auriculata sp. nov.

A C. axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt. Praecipue

differt ramulis pubescentibus, venarum paribus

lateralibus numero minoribus (6-8), folioliis

molliter pubescentibus, foliolibasis auriculata,

paniculis in ramulorum extremitatibus verti-

cillatis.

Arbor; ramules teretes, molliter pubescen-

tes, cicatricibus foliorum delapsorum obcorda-

tis manifestis et lenticellis parvis linearibus.

Folia alterna imparipinnata, 20-34 cm _ longa;

petioli angularis, 10 cm longi, pubescentes;

gemmae axillares parvae, apice tomentosae;

foliola 9-13, opposita vel sub-opposita, infer-

iora superioribus majora, membranacea, ovata,

6-9 x 2.5-4 cm, apice caudato-acuminata, mar-

gine integra, basi oblique-rotundata cum auri-

culata prominenti in quoque latere, paribus

venarum 6-8, arcuatis, marginem non attin-

gentibus, supra obscuris et infra prominenti-

bus, utrinqgue molliter pubescentia, plus ita

infra; petioluli rare pubescentes, 0.5-1 cm

longi. Panicula terminalis, in ramulorum ex-

tremitibus, verticillata, 16-19 cm longa, glabra,

axe angulari, ramibreves patentes, flores ag-

gregati in ramulorum- extremitibus. Flores

unisexualis, regulares, ebracteati. Flores mas-

culus 5 mm diametro per anthesin; pedicellus

1 mm. longus, pubescens. Calyx 5-lobatus, 1

mm diametro, lobis ovatis, imbricatis, parce

pubescentibus. Petala 5, libera, oblongo-lan-

ceolata, 2 x 0.6 mm, margine intro curvato,

costa singularis prominens et venulae laterales

inconspicuae, supra glabra, infra basi hirsuta.

Discus 5-lobus, tenuis, 1 mm diametro. Sta-

mina 10, libera, 3 mm. longa, ad basin disci

inserta, filamenta filiformia, basis subulatus,

antheris multo longiora, ad partem basalem

hirsuta, dorsifixa, anthera oblonga, biloba, in-

trorsa, longitudinaliter dehiscens. Carpellum

nullum.

Holotypus: Lectus a P.W. Mackinnon ad

locum India, U.P., Mussoorie, die 15-5-1899,

et positus in herbario indico nationali (CAL)

sub numero accessionis 98623.

Choerospondias auriculata sp. nov.

This species differs from C. axillaris (Roxb.)

B. L. Burtt mainly in its pubescent branch-

lets, less numerous of vein pairs (6-8), finely

pubescent leaflets, prominent auricle on each

side of the lamina base and terminally whorl-

ed inflorescence axes.

Tree; branchlets terete, softly pubescent

with prominent obcordate leafscars and small

linear lenticels. Leaves alternate, imparipin-

nate, 20-34 cm long; petiole angular, 10 cm

-long, pubescent; axillary bud small, tomentose

at apex; leaflets 9-13, opposite or subopposite,

lower leaflets larger than upper, membranous,

ovate, 6-9 x 2.5-4 cm, apex caudate-acuminate,

margin entire, base obliquely round with a

prominent auricle on each side, 6-8 vein pairs,

arched, not reaching the margin, faint on dor-

sal side and raised on ventral side, both sur-

faces softly pubescent but more on ventral

side; petiolule thin, 0.5-1 cm long, pubescent,

Panicle termina!, whorled at the extremity of

the branchlets, 16-19 cm long, glabrous, axes

angular, branches short, flowers aggregated at

the ends of the ultimate branchlets. Flowers

unisexual, regular, ebracteate. Bud obconic, 2

mm in diameter. Male flower 5 mm in dia-

meter when in full blossom; pedicel 1 mm

long, pubescent. Calyx 5-lobed, 1 mm in dia-

meter, lobes ovate, imbricate, sparsely pube-

scent; petals 5, free, oblong-lanceolate, 2 x

0.6 mm, margin inwardly curved, midvein

prominent with faint lateral veins, dorsal sur-

face glabrous, hirsute at base on ventral sur-

face; disc 5-lobed, 1 mm diameter, thin; sta-

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

mens 10, free, 3 mm long, inserted at the

base of the disc, filament filiform above subu-

late at base, much longer than anther, hirsute

at base, dorsifixed, anthers ablong, bilobed,

introrse, longitudinal dehiscence; no carpel.

Holotype: NDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Mussoorie,

15-v-1899, P. W. Mackinnon s.n. (CAL) Acc.

No. 98623.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Deputy Director and Keeper,

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, for facilities; to Dr. N. C. Ma-

jumder, Systematic Botanist, Central National

Herbarium, for latin diagnosis of the species

and to P. R. Sur, Botanical Survey of India,

for encouragement.

ASCOMYCETES OF WESTERN INDIA — V!

ALAKA

(With two

During the examination of mycological col-

lections made from various forests of Western

India, two interesting Ascomycetes were iden-

tified and determined as new to science, one

of which namely Leptospora constitutes a new

generic record to Indian Fungi.

Leptospora Rabenh.

Hedwigia 7: 116, 1857

This loculoascomycetous genus is_ charac-

terised by ascostromata which are immersed

to erumpent on herbaceous stems, _ slightly

beaked with bitunicate asci in basal layers,

producing brown, filiform, multiseptate ascos-

pores which are of uniform diameter through-

out their length and having no constrictions

at any septum (Dennis 1968; Luttrell 1973;

Hoim 71957).

Leptospora indica sp. nov.

(Eig. 1)

Stromata erumpentia, dispersa, nigra, ple-

1 Contribution No. 632 from the Department of

Mycology and Plant Pathology. Accepted January

1978.

2M.A.C.S. Research Institute, Law College Road,

Poona 411 004.

460

PANDE?

text-figures)

rumgue unilocularia. Pscudothecia subglobosa,

ostiolata, rostellata, 360-450 x 640-800 sm.

Asci in basilaris strato, brevistipitati bitunicati,

paraphysoidibus, clavati, vel cylindrici 130-

180 x 16-20 um. Ascosporae 8, scolecosporae,

multiseptatae, brunneae, in spirem contortae,

uniformium diametriorum, seine constrictis ad

septis, tumida cellula nulla, 120-160 x 3.5-4

em.

On dead herbaceous stems, dt. 10-7-1971.

Leg. D. N. Mhaskar, Type Loc. Sinhagad

(Poona), Holotype—AMH 3641.

The present collection when compared with

the type species [L. rubellus (Pers. ex Fr.)

Rabenh.] was found to differ in non-produc-

tion of stain in substratum as against red pig-

mentation in the type species and in dimen-

sions.

This constitutes a new generic record for

India.

Trematosphaeria Fuckel

Jahrb. Nass. Vereins f. Naturkunde 23-24,

Hote NS 70:

The pseudothecia are partly immersed in

substratum with septate phragmosporous

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

tas

A iZ

aye Wesieee on

DPI ES

Roe

aoa

(Ty,

ors)

S i

ay 8

A) A

al tay

CARS

ety

aie a)

aoe a0 208

bY ST

A oy.

200m

) pate et

30pm

2 <

if &

\We a)

\! i\ e

: ine

Nites

Above: Fig. 1. Leptospora indica sp. nov.

A. V.S. Pseudothectum; B. Ascus; C. Ascospores.

Below: Fig. 2. Trematosphaeria gramminicola sp. nov.

A. V.S. Pseudothecium; B. Ascus; C. Ascospores.

brown ascospores and asci arranged in basal

layers.

Trematosphaeria graminicola sp. nov.

(Fig. 2)

Pseudothecia globosa, erumpentia, parietes

125-160 um crassi, nigra, ostiolata, 640-700 x

800-900 um. Ostiolo conico. Asci in basilaris

strato, paraphysoidibus, cylindrici vel clavati,

brevistipitati, bitunicati, 150-200 x 16-20 sm.

Ascosporae 8, brunneae, pallide brunneae ad

apices. 3-septatae, fusoideae, apices acutati,

distichae ordnatae, 60-80 x 6-8 um.

On graminaceous host. Type locality—

Castle Rock, dt. 20-10-1970, Leg. D. N. Mhas-

kar, Holotypus AMH 3642.

Four species of this genus have been report-

ed previously from India. The present collec-

tion was compared with all these species along

with the type and found to be distinct in mor-

phological characters as well as dimensions

and is hence described as a new species.

Grateful thanks are offered to Prof. M. N.

Kamat, for his interest and guidance and to

the Director, M.A.C.S. for facilities.

REFERENCES

DENNIS, R. W. G. (1968): British Ascomycetes.

Cramer. Lehre, pp. 455.

Hoim, L. (1957): Etudes taxonomiques sur les

Pleosporacees. Symb. Bot. Upsal. 14(3) :1-188.

LUTTRELL, E. S. (1973): Loculoascomycetes.

pp. 135-222. (In Ainsworth, G. C., F. K. Sparrow

and A. S. Sussman, The Fungi, Vol. 4A, Academic

Press, N.Y. & London).

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

A NEW HOYA R. BR. (ASCLEPIADACEAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA?

A. N. HENRY AND M. S. SWAMINATHAN?

(With five text-figures)

Hoya kanyakumariana sp. nov.

Herba epiphytica, pendula; caules scanden-

tes, tereti, verrucati, cinerei, puberuli, demum

glabri, radices adventitiae a tota superficie

emittentes. Folia 1.5-3.3 x 1.5-2.2 cm, obovata

ad obcordata, integra, carnosa, glabra, apice

rotundata vel emarginata, basin contracta;

nervi et medii et laterales obscuri; petioli 2-6

mm longi, crassi, puberuli, demum _ glabri.

Flores multi, cymis solitariis, umbellatis et

lateralibus ad nodos; pedunculi ad 1.6 cm

longi, inter petiolos orientes, tereti, crassi,

puberuli; pedicelli ad 1.8 cm longi, crassi,

minute puberuli, unusquisque cadens pedun-

culo cicatricem relinquens; bracteae minutae,

scariosae, Calyx glaber; lobi 5, unusquisque

1.5 x 1 mm, ovatus, rotundatus, imbricatus.

Corolla 1-1.2 cm diam., subroseo-alba, rota-

ta, extus glabra, intus vero tomentosa; lobi

4 x 3 mm, in dimido inferiore partita, ovata,

subacuta; margines recurvae. Corona singula,

5-6 mm diam., subroseo-rubra, lobis 5 car-

nosis; lobi stellatim patenti, infra columnam

staminalem adnati, apice liberi; superficies

concava, margines interiores cuspidibus super

gynostegium incumbentes. Gynostegium breve,

sessile. Antherae, connectivo in apicem mem-

branaceam, prodientes; massae pollinis ovato-

oblongae, in utroque loculo solitariae, ascen-

dentes, margine angusto et pellucido; corpus-

cula cornea, alata. Ovarium glabrum, plurio-

vulatum; apex styli inclusus, 5-angulatus, ad

medium leviter apiculatus. Fructus non visus.

1 Accepted May 1978.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore - 2.

462

Hoya kanyakumariana sp. nov.

An epiphytic herb, pendulous; stems climb-

ing, terete, warty, grey, puberulus, at length

glabrous, giving out adventitious roots from

all over the surface. Leaves 1.5-3.3 x 1.5-2.2

cm, obovate to obcordate, entire, fleshy, glab-

rous, rounded or emarginate at apex, taper-

ing at base; mid and lateral nerves obscure;

petioles 2-6 mm long, thick, puberulus, at

length glabrous. Flowers many, in lateral, um-

bellate cymes solitary at nodes; peduncles up

to 1.6 cm long, arising from between the

petioles, terete, stout, puberulus; pedicels up

to 1.8 cm long, stout, minutely puberulus, each

leaving a scar on the peduncle when it falls

off; bracts minute, scarious. Calyx glabrous;

lobes 5, each 1.5 x 1 mm, ovate, rounded, im-

bricate. Corolla 1-1.2 cm across, pinkish white,

rotate, glabrous without, tomentose within;

lobes 4 x 3 mm, divided half way down, ovate,

subacute; margins recurved. Corona _ single,

5-6 mm across, pinkish red, of 5 fleshy lobes;

lobes stellately spreading, adnate below the

staminal column, free at the tip, the upper

surface concave; and the inner margins with

cusps imcumbent upon the gynosiegium. Gyn-

ostegium short, sessile. Anthers with connective

produced into a membranous tip; pollen mas-

ses ovate-oblong, solitary in each anther locule,

ascending, with a narrow pellucid margin;

corpuscula horny, winged. Ovary glabrous,

many ovuled; style-apex included, pentangular,

slightly apiculate at the centre. Fruit not seen.

Holotype (Henry 48243A) and_ isotypes

(Henry 48243B-I) were collected from Valla-

chithodu—Lower Kodayar in Kanyakumari

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

‘

Figs. 1-5. Hoya kanyakumariana sp. nov.

1. Portion of plant; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Calyx; 4. Flower: Front view; 5. Pollen-masses.

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

district, Tamil Nadu at an altitude of about tore for facilities and encouragement, Rev.

600 m on 6-ix-1976; holotype has been depo- K. M. Matthew of the Rapinat Herbarium,

sited in CAL and isotypes in MH. Tiruchirapalli for rendering the Latin trans-

lation, Mr. J. L. Ellis of Central National

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Herbarium (CAL) for his valuable opinion on

the specimen, and Mr. M. Chandrabose, Bot-

We are thankful to Dr N. C. Nair, Deputy anist, B.S.I., Coimbatore for helpful sugges-

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coimba- tions.

464

REVIEWS

1. THE WILD CANIDS. Their Systematics, Behavioural Ecology and

Evolution. Edited by M. W. Fox. pp. xiv + 508 (15.5 x 22.5 cm.), with black

and white photographs.

THE WILD CANIDS is a much needed scientific

document giving behavioural and taxonomic

details of all species of animals belonging to

the dog family Canidae.

The book has 30 chapters, each by a dif-

ferent author including the Editor arranged

into five sections, namely, Taxonomic and

Morphological Studies, Behavioural Ecology,

Social Behaviour, Genetics and Physiology,

and Behavioural Evolution.

‘The distribution and taxonomy of the

canidac’, illustrated with good photographs,

forms the introductory chapter and this en-

ables the readers to ‘meet’ the various mem-

bers of the dog family. The next two chap-

ters of the first section, namely ‘molecular

approaches to taxonomic problems in the

canidae,’ and ‘the chromosomes of the canidae’

are informative. The fourth chapter, deals

with sexual dimorphism and geographical dist-

ance as factors of skull variation in the wolf.

This could have been published in a Journal

and the conclusions merely referred to in this

bock for information. This paper falls out-

side the scope of this book which requires

more comprehensive information. These com-

ments are also applicable to the chapter on the

relationships of north American Canis shown

by a multiple character analysis of selected

populations. ‘Morphological and_ ecological

variations among grey wolves (C. lupus) of

Ontario, Canada’ is an excellent work, but the

reader would have been more benefitted if

the remaining races too were covered either

New York, 1975. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

in the same chapter or separately. The’ final

chapter in this section namely, ‘the origin of

dingo: an enigma’ is an interesting paper fur-

nishing almost everything that is known about

the origin of the dingo—the Australian wild

dog.

The second section namely, Behavioural

Ecology, includes good information on the In-

dian wild dog. It also includes varying degrees

of interesting information on the behavioural

ecology of the Arctic fox, the grey fox, the

Pampas grey fox, the large fox, the red fox,

the coyote, the red wolf and the wolf. There

are also compact chapters on the behavioural

ecology of the African and South American

canids.

Under the Section of Social Behaviour we

have six chapters: two on the feral dog; one

each on the golden jackal, the dingo and the

wolf; and one chapter on a comparative study

of the behaviour of the wolf and the cape hunt-

ing dog. The chapter on the dingo namely

‘Dingo society and its maintenance’ as well

as the chapter on the hunting behaviour of

two similar species of social canids are well

written documents reviewing all information,

up to date, an essential requirement for a book

of this kind. However, the rest of the chapters

in this section are limited observations of the

authors which could have been published in

a Journal.

The section on Genetics and Physiology

contains two papers: “Genetics of behaviour

variations in colour phase of the red fox’ and

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 75

‘Some genetic and endocrine effects of select-

ion for domestication in silver foxes’. These

papers too fall outside the scope of this book

and it would be desirable to do without these

and some others in the next edition.

The final section, contributed by the Editor,

comprises a single chapter on the evolution

of social behaviour of canids. It is highly in-

‘formative and comprehensive, and it reviews

the hunting techniques, methods of communi-

cation and patterns of social organization in

the canids.

A portion of the book that considerably

enhances its value is the Foreword by Konrad

‘Lorenz. While talking about his favourite sub-

jects: the dingo, the wolf, and the origin of

the dog, he imperceptibly carries the readers

with him in his pursuit for understanding the

deg family—a fascinating group of animals,

intimately associated with man from the be-

ginning.

The book is somewhat incomplete and one

would expect much more information on many

species. However, we should realize that this

book is the first of its kind, and should agree

with the editor that ‘the inadequacies or

“holes”? in the text are in fact gaps in our

knowledge about the social ccology of the

field biologist to investigate.

Barring the few shortcomings already re-

ferred to, the WILD CANIDS is a valuable source |

of reierence for students and scientists. The |

list of references given at the end of the book |

is exhaustive and hence valuable for fresh

rescarchers. Even general readers of natural

history books will find many of the chapters

absorbing reading. The photographs are uni-

formly good and the paper and binding are

excellent.

ROBERT B. GRUBH

2. CONTRIBUTIONS TO ESTUARINE BIOLOGY. (Papers presented

at the Third All India Symposium on Estuarine Biology.) Edited by C. V.

Kurian. pp. 1008 (25 x 18 cm.), with 30 plates and many illustrations. Cochin,

1975. The Department of Marine Sciences, University of Cochin.

Price Rs. 100.00.

Estuaries, at first sight, may not present the

fascinating facets that the sea or ocean does.

Nonetheless, they harbour some of the richest

flora and fauna, both in number and variety,

besides serving as breeding grounds for a mul-

titude of marine fishes and commercially im-

portant shellfish. If they offer to the casual

observer a sore sight, besides offending his

sense of smell, it is only because of man’s

callous ill-treatment, resulting from their being

considered as a convenient dumping ground

for his wastes—both domestic and industrial.

Journals for publication of papers dealing

466

with marine and fresh-water biology abound;

however, the subject of estuarine biology, not

falling in either of the aforestated two cate-

gories, suffers thereby. By catering to the need,

therefore, of workers on estuarine biology, in —

the form of organizing a symposium on this

subject, the Department of Marine Science,

University of Cochin, and more particularly

Dr. C. V. Kurian, the Editor, have done yeo-

man service to estuarine biologists.

The specialized subjects in the Contributions

range from aquaculture and commercial fish-

eries to hydrology, plankton, foulers and _ bor-

REVIEWS

ers, physiology, parasitology and bacteriology,

thus covering a wide gamut of aspects of life

sciences. A review of the individual papers

would require a coverage amounting to many

pages, so it may suffice to say that most of

the papers in the compiled contributions are

of a high standard.

Unfortunately the papers on a_ particular

subject have not been grouped together. Thus

one finds some papers, say, on plankton, fol-

lowed by bacterial resistance to an antibiotic,

then the use of chlorine to prevent fouling,

followed by a few papers on Foraminifera,

then a paper on effects of pollution. Had the

papers been arranged subjectwise, say com-

mercial fishery, hydrology, laboratory and

field aquaculture, pollution, bacteriology, foul-

ing, physiology, etc., the reader would not have

had to waste time locating papers of his speci-

alized interest among the scattered literature.

Finally, in the rat-race among Indian scien-

tists to have their manuscripts published early,

papers—albeit excellent in quality by them-

selves—that deal with marine life have also

been included in the present compilation. It

is fortunate for the authors that the plant or

anima! they have worked on happens to toler-

ate estuarine conditions. Glaring examples are

the papers on marine bacteria, laboratory

culture of crustaceans in seawater of “‘normal”’

salinity (1.e. 35 to 37.5%,), or field culture in

salt pans (salinity 38 to > 39%,).

The papers show careful and_ laborious

editing, and the printing has been done on

good quality paper, so that the contributions,

running to over a thousand pages, are worth

the price of Rs. 100/- in these days of ex-

pensive printing.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

3. THE FLORA OF EASTERN HIMALAYA + Third Report: Compiled

by Hirovoshi Ohashi. pp. xv + 458 (26 x 19 cm.), with 33 plates (including

7 coloured plates), and 82 illustrations. Japan, 1975. University of Tokyo

Press. Price Yen 8200.

This publication, the third of the series on

the subject contains reports by 21 scientists

and their collaborators of the fifth botanical

expedition to the Eastern Himalayas in 1972,

organised by the University of Tokyo. It also

includes reports on collections made by Dr.

Hiroo Kanai during his stay in Nepal from

1969 to 1971 as a Colombo Plan Advisor to

the Department of Medicinal Plants of His

_ Majesty’s Government of Nepal; and contains

data supplementary to the preceding two re-

ports. Critical comparative studies on corres-

ponding taxa in Japan and Himalayas have

' continued in this volume.

Besides systematic enumeration of plants

collected—Spermatophyta, Pteridophyta and

Bryophyta—this volume also contains the fol-

lowing critical revisions:

1. A revision of the Eastern Himalayan

Species of the Subgenus Rhodiola of the

genus Sedum (Crassulaceae) by Hideaki

Ohba.

2. The genus Hedysarum (Leguminosae)

in the Himalayas, by Hiroyoshi Ohashi

and Yoichi Tateishi.

3. A revision of the genus Helwingia by

Hiroshi Hara and Sachiko Kurosawa.

A very interesting and exhaustively docu-

mented (58 tables) article on ‘Vegetation Sur-

vey of Central Nepal’ by Hiroo Kanai, Pushpa

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Ratna Shakya and Tirta Bahadur Shrestha, is

also included.

This volume stands on par with the pre-

vious two in the excellence of botanical reports

and the production values. The photographic

reproductions of Helwingia and all the other

taxa are fascinating and make very valuable

468

contributions to the botanical studies of this

montane region. How one wishes that at least

a few of the Universities or other Institutes

in India will bring out similarly illustrated re-

ports of the vegetable wealth of India!

P. V. BOLE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

IN MADHYA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

Madhya Pradesh with forested areas, totalling

37.52% of the area of the state, has so far

established 3 national parks and 15 wildlife

sanctuaries duly notified under the Wild Life

(Protection) Act, 1972 (Anon, 1976). There

are 10 more areas which are not yet constitut-

ed as wildlife sanctuaries but are under pro-

cess of notification and development. There

were 9 wildlife sanctuaries which existed prior

to enactment of Wild Life (Protection) Act,

1972 and were originally notified under Forest

Rules. These 9 wildlife sanctuaries have not

been found useful and therefore no action has

been taken so far to renotify them under the

present Act. The national parks and wildlife

sanctuaries are scattered all over Madhya

Pradesh. Out of 45 districts, the 3 national

parks are spread over 4 districts. The 15 ex-

isting notified wildlife sanctuaries occur in 13

districts of which Raipur and Raigarh have

2 wildlife sanctuaries each. Ten proposed

wildlife sanctuaries are distributed in 8 dis-

tricts with one wildlife sanctuary in each dis-

trict except for Raipur and Sarguja where 2

wildlife sanctuaries are proposed. The old and

now non notified 9 wildlife sanctuaries existed

in 4 districts, 1 in Rewa, 3 in Sidhi, 3 in

Panna and 2 in Shahdol. The following are

the list of national parks and wildlife sanctu-

aries existing, proposed, and dropped, with

their location in the forest division, district

and their legal status.

TABLE 1

LIST OF NOTIFIED NATIONAL PARKS EXISTING IN MADHYA

National Park/ Wildlife Sanctuary Forest division

1. Kanha National Park

2. Madhav National Park

P38. Bandhavgarh National Park

Shivpuri

Umaria

Kanha National Park

PRADESH

Declared under

District Old Rules/Pre- Remarks

sent Act

Mandla/ Present Act The park is now

Balaghat under Tiger

Project

Shivpuri -Do- -

Shahdol -Do- -

469

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Ff MORENA ©":

<<" | SHIVPURI

| cunatansiis Cy 22 eee

LA. AO i} ~

MANDSAUR 4 : Shire) 5 Ou

* RAIGARH “sy

Om e . ¢ 0% °

aoe "° o. th oa

ere

SO, ae kaa BHOPAE” RAISEN

b ee”

ed Yom

TOG Once °° OD ° State MeN! a at eae Fane atten OTe ta Y

x ee i ° 5 ;

eon, ®

eset”

ee wee ag HOSHANGA

BAD :

EEMAGHAT

4 ® é oO

y RAIPUR

REFERENCES oure to Gt

dy NOTIFIED NATIONAL PARKS ) QO : @ f Af

Cl NOTIHED WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES ( ct, OG

@ PROPOSED WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

¢.

BASTAR

Fig. 1. Map of Madhya Pradesh showing the distribution of National Parks and

Wildlife Sanctuaries in various districts.

TABLE 2

LIST OF NOTIFIED WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES EXISTING IN» MADHYA’ -PRADESH*

Declared under

National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary Forest division District Old Rules/Pre- Remarks

sent Act

1. Narsinghgarh Wildlife Sanctuary Sehore Rajgarh Present Act -

2. Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary Indore Mandsaur -Do- -

3. Sitanadi Wildlife Sanctuary South Raipur Raipur -Do- -

470.

* Duly notified under present Act,

. Noradehi Wildlife Sanctuary

. Bori Wildlife Sanctuary

. Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary

. Dubri Wildlife Sanctuary

. Badalkhol Wildlife Sanctuary

Gomarda Wildlife Sanctuary

. Gangau Wildlife Sanctuary

- Kutru Wildlife Sanctuary

. Sispur Wildlife Sanctuary

. Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary

. Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary

. Sindhori Wildlife Sanctuary

South Sagar

Hoshangabad &

Sohagpur

Bilaspur

West Sidhi

Jashpur

Raigarh

North Panna

South Bastar

Mahasamund

Bhopal

North Raipur

Raisen

TABLE 3

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sagar

Hoshangabad

Bilaspur

Sidhi

Raigarh

Panna

Bastar

Durg

Bhopal

Raipur

Raisen

Declared under

2 wildlife sanctuaries of Balaghat district namely, Maikal and

Supkhar have been merged with Kanha National Park in 1976.

LIST OF WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES PROPOSED FOR NOTIFICATION UNDER THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION )

AcT, 1972

National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary Forest division District Old Rules/Pre- Remarks

sent Act

1. Kheoni Wildlife Dewas Dewas Old Rules Proposal awaited from

Sanctuary D.F.O. for getting it

notified under the Act.

2. Torenga Wildlife East Raipur Raipur —Do- -Do-

Sanctuary

3. Shiksasar Wildlife East Raipur Raipur -Do- Proposal under scrutiny -

Sanctuary for notification under the

| Act.

4. Rangakhar Wildlife Kawardha Durg -Do- Proposal awaited from

Sanctuary D.F.O. for getting it

) ontified under the Act.

| 5. Balaghat Bird Balaghat Balaghat -Do- —-Do-

| Sanctuary

_ 6. Kuno Wildlife Sheopur Morena -Do- -Do-

| Sanctuary

_ 7. Khajuraho Wildlife Chhatarpur Chhatarpur —Do- -Do-

Sanctuary

471.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

8. Pingla Wildlife Sarguja Sarguja -Do- Proposal under scrutiny

Sanctuary for notification under

the Act.

9. Udaipur Wildlife South Sarguja Sarguja —Do- Proposal submitted to

Sanctuary Govt. for notification

under the Act.

10. Ramdaha Wildlife West Sidhi Sidhi -—Do- -Do-

Sanctuary

TABLE 4

LIST OF EXISTING WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES NOTIFIED UNDER OLD FOREST RULES BUT NOT UNDER THE WILD

LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972

|) EE ET ET ES a

Declared under

National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary Forest division District Old Rules/Pre- Remarks

sent Act

1. Shikarganj Block II North Shahdol Shahdol Old Rules -

Wildlife Sanctuary

2. Shikarganj Block III North Shahdol Shahdol —Do- -

Wildlife Sanctuary

3. Shikarganj Block I West Sidhi Sidh’ -Do- =

Wildlife Sanctuary

4. Shikarganj B West Sidhi Sidhi —-Do- -

Wildlife Sanctuary

5. Majholi Wiidlife West Sidhi Sidhi -Do- -

Sanctuary

6. Siri Wildlife South Panna Panna -Do- -

Sanctuary

7. Talegram Wildlife South Panna Panna -Do- -

Sanctuary

8. Shyamgiri Wildlife South Panna Panna -Do- -

Sanctuary

9. Narohil Wildlife Rewa Rewa —-Do- -

Sanctuary

paths GR nome

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS am also grateful to Dr. S. D. N. Tiwari, Chief

Conservator of Forests and to Shri J. J. Dutta,

Chief Wildlife Warden, Madhya Pradesh for

the cooperation provided by them.

I am thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India and to Officer in Charge,

Central Regional Station, for the facilities. I

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, N. K. SINHA

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION,

1544-A NAPIER TOWN,

JABALPUR, M.P.,

July 4, 1977.

472

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF HORSFIELD’S SHREW, CROCIDURA

HORSFIELDI (TOMES) IN PENINSULAR INDIA

While making a collection of small mammals

_ for chromosomal analysis, we came across a

few individuals of small shrews under litter,

grass heaps and other waste materials in the

| University campus (Manasa Gangotri, Mysore,

§. India) in July 1976. These specimens were

identified by the British Museum (Natural

History), London, as Crocidura_ horsfieldi

Tomes. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951)

have mentioned the approximate distribution

of this species in Ceylon, Kashmir,

China, Siam, Northern Burma and Liukiu

Islands (page 75). The occurrence of this

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE,

MANASA GANGOTRI,

Mysore 570 006,

November 17, 1977.

Indo- ©

genus has not so far been recorded from pen-

insular India and this is the first report of the

occurrence of this species from this region.

This species resembles the pygmy shrew, Sun-

cus etruscus in appearance. But, Crocidura

horsfieldi is slightly larger than Suncus etrus-

cus in size. The average body measurements

of the Horsfield’s shrew, Crocidura horsfieldi

are: Head and body = 61 mm; Tail = 47 mm;

Hind foot = 11 mm; and Ear = 7 mm. So far

fifteen specimens of both the sexes have been

collected in the environs of the University

campus.

S. KRISHNA RAO

N. V. AAWATHANARAYANA

3. PARTURITION IN THE INDIAN RUFOUS BAT,

RHINOLOPHUS ROUXI (TEMMINCK)

The natural inverted resting posture of the

bats has resulted in unique behavioural adap-

tations of these animals during parturition and

makes the study of this process a very fasci-

nating one since the young has to be ejected

against gravity. Unfortunately the details of

this interesting aspect of the biology of the

bats is known with respect to very few species

although this is one of the largest groups

among mammals including over a hundred

genera and several hundreds of species (Simp-

son 1945). Even among the few species of bats

in which parturition has been studied there are

interesting differences with regard to the pos-

ture the mother assumes during labour and

the behaviour of the mother and the young

one during and immediately after delivery.

Whereas delivery occurs while the mother

hangs in the normal inverted posture in a few

species (Ramakrishna 1949, 1950; Gopala-

krishna et al. 1976) the mother normally

reverses her natural posture during delivery

in Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (Wimsatt 1960).

In Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Gopa-

lakrishna & Madhavan 1972) and some times

in Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (Wimsatt 1960)

the mother hooks her toes and also her wings

to the ceiling so that her body assumes a

cradle-like structure during labour. Further,

while in most cases the young are delivered

by breech presentation (Sherman 1930, 1937;

Wimsatt 1945, 1960; Gopalakrishna & Ma-

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

dhavan 1972) delivery by head presentation

occurs in a few species (Ramakrishna 1949,

1950; Gopalakrishna et al. 1976). Since

there is no information regarding parturition

in any rhinolophid bat it was felt that a study

of this process in Rhinolophus rouxi would

be of interest and value.

The present description is based on _ the

observation of parturition in seven specimens

of Rhinolophus rouxi during the first week of

May. Full term pregnant specimens were

brought to the laboratory early in the morn-

ing and they were kept under continuous ob-

servation in a wire cage. In all the cases the

delivery occurred late in the afternoon on the

same day on which the specimens were

brought to the laboratory.

After a short period of restlessness after

being released into the cage the mother quiet-

ened and hooked her toes to the wire mesh

at the roof of the cage and remained hanging

freely until about an hour before the onset

of labour except for occasional shifting of her

position inside the cage. On the approach of

labour the mother became restless and cons-

tantly shifted her position in the cage. This

was a definite indication of impending deli-

very in all the cases. After a few minutes of

such restlessness she finally settled in one place

and did not normally change her position in

the cage unless she was disturbed by some

sound or movement in the laboratory. Before

the onset of labour the mother hooked her toes

to the wire mesh with her hind limbs kept

wide apart. The onset of labour was indicated

by alternate dilatation and contraction of the

vulval opening accompanied by the mother

bending her neck acutely ventralwards and

frequently licking the vulval opening. Often

the mother would bend her head dorsally as

if to streatch her abdomen before suddenly

bending ventrally as if to press her abdomen.

474

After a few sharp contractions of the body in

six of the seven cases observed here the head

of the young one was seen to emerge out of

the vulval opening. By constant licking of the

emerging head and by actively biting the am-

nion with her teeth the mother tore off the

amnion and licked away the oozing amniotic

fluid. The head emerged with its crown first

and slowly the rest of the head, shoulders and

the rest of the body of the young one emerged

out of the vulval opening. The ycung one was

born with its ventral surface facing the ab-

domen of the mother. The entire process of

parturition beginning with the first sign of

labour as revealed by the dilatation of the

vulval opening until the ejection of the young

took between 30 to 40 minutes. In all the

cases the mother severed the umbilical cord

by biting it off and freed the young. The new

born young is flesh coloured, nearly naked and

has adherent eyelids. The weight of the young

ranged between 1.8 and 2.1 gm. After com-

plete emergence, the young became active and

crawled towards the thoracic mammary nip-

ples of the mother and attached itself firmly

to one of the nipples with its mouth and im-

mediately showed sucking movements of the

lips and the jaw muscies.

The placenta was extruded half to two

hours after the delivery of the young one and

in four cases the mother chewed and ate up

the placenta. In the rest of the cases the plac-

enta dropped to the floor of the cage, and the

mother took no further notice of it.

In one case the young was delivered with

its hind limbs emerging first followed slowly

by the rest of the body. The behaviour of the

mother in this case, however, was similar to

that of the cases described above. |

In all the cases the mother retained her

freely hanging posture with her two legs wide

apart during the entire period of labour, and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in all the cases the mother actively used her

wings as a barrier to prevent the accidental

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

CENTRAL COLLEGE,

BANGALORE-560 O01,

September 19, 1977.

dropping away of the young one after its

emergence.

P. A. RAMAKRISHNA

REFERENCES

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. AND MADHAVAN, A. (1972):

Parturition in the Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrel-

lus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton). J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 68:666-670.

KHAPARDE, M. S. AND SAPKAL, V. M.

(1976): Parturition in the Indian false vampire bat,

Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 73(3) :464-467.

RAMAKRISHNA, P. A. (1949): Head presentation

in Indian Chiroptera. Nature, London. 163: 176.

(1950): Parturition in certain In-

dian bats. J. Mammal. 31: 274.

SIMPSON, G. G. (1945): The principles of classi-

fication and classification of mammals. Buil. Mus.

Nat. Hist. New York: 85:1-350.

SHERMAN, H. B. (1930): Birth of the young of

Myotis austroriparius. J. Mammal. 11:495-503.

= (1937): Breeding habits of the free-

tailed bat. J. Mammal. 18:176-187.

Wimsatt, W. A. (1945): Notes on the breeding

behaviour, pregnancy and parturition in some ves-

pertilionid bats of the eastern United States. J.

Mammal. 26:23-33.

(1960): An analysis of parturition

in Chiroptera including new observations on Myotis

lucifugus lucifugus. J. Mammal. 41:183-200.

4. PATERNAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE RHESUS MACAQUE,

MACACA MULATTA IN NATURE

Much information is available on the mate-

rnal behaviour of the rhesus macaque, Macaca

mulatta (Zimmermann) but little is known

about its paternal behaviour, particularly in

nature, and the available information is sum-

marised in Hrdy (1976) and Roonwal &

Mohnot (1977).

During a nine-month field study of the

rhesus macaque from January to October

1976, in the Asarori Forest near Dehra Dun,

Northern India, I came across some instances

of paternality, and can categorise these beha-

viours under two main headings:

A. Active paternality:

In this type the male directly indulges in

the care and fostering of an infant. That is,

he holds, carries, grooms and protects from

other monkeys and dangerous situations and

roosts with it.

Two such cases were observed in a big

group of about 90 individuals:

Case 1: The leader male showed paternal

care of an 8-month old male infant over a

period of about five months during which I

observed the dyad for a total of seven days

(3 days in February and 2 each in April and

June). The first instance was obsered on 22

Feb. after an intra group struggle at 4.05-4.20

p.m. The leader carried (ventro-ventrally),

held, “‘reassured’’ and roosted with the infant.

Episodes of the paternal behaviour decreased

with time. Occasionally when some males

and females of the group were threatened by

the leader, they transferred the threat to the

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

infant; at this the male again threatened them.

Case 2: An adult lower ranking male some-

times carried (ventro-ventrally), held and pro-

tected a nearly 5-month old female infant.

When the mother (considered abnormal due

to a surgical operation) rejected or avoided

the infant, the latter approached and followed

the male.

B. Passive paternality:

In this type on the screeching or screaming

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR,

JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN,

August 17, 1977.

of an infant, the leader male forced the mother

by threat and/or chase, to take care of the

infant. Occasionally a lower ranking male

(Beta Male) of a group (size 31) showed a

similar behaviour. The leader also threatened

the observer, while consistently looking at in-

fant or approaching a mother with infant.

Thus a great variation is found in care and

quality of paternal behaviour with the indi-

vidual monkey, however, passive paternality

was observed in most of the group leaders.

S. C. MAKWANA

REFERENCES

Hrpy, S. B. (1976): The care and exploration

of non-human primate infant by conspecifics other

than the mother, In. Advances in the study of be-

haviour (Eds. Rosenblatt, Hinde and Shaw) Vol.

6, pp. 101-158. Academic Press, New York.

RoonwaL, M. L. AND Mounor, S. M. (1977):

Primates of south asia: Ecology, sociology and be-

haviour. . Harvard University Press, Cambridge,

Mass.

5. RECENT SIGHTINGS OF MACACA SILENUS (LINNAEUS, 1758),

AT MASTIMANE GHAT, NORTH KANARA DIST., KARNATAKA

Macaca silenus (Liontailed Macaque) is a

rare and unique species of primate inhabiting

the evergreen forests on the upper elevations

of the Western Ghats from North Kanara in

Karnataka southwards to Kerala (Blanford

1888; Prater 1948).

Hitherto the observations have been restrict-

ed to the southern part of its ecogeographic

range (Sugiyama 1968; Krishnan 1971; Karr

1973 and Pruett 1973). Sugiyama recorded the

species in Nilgiri, Annamalai and Cardamom

Hills and in the vicinity of Periyar Lake, be-

tween 9°31’ and 11°30’ N. Krishnan limits

its range to a few evergreen forests of the

476

Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

This note presents first hand information

on the status of a troupe of Macaca silenus

at Mastimane Ghat on the right bank of Sha-

ravati river in North Kanara district, Karna-

taka. |

Earlier in 1966 Virus Research Centre,

Field Station at Sagar obtained an adult male

specimen trapped by a resident of Kuggve

village 20 miles east of Mastimane. How the

animal strayed into the village is not known.

The known habitat of the species is about 20

miles west of Kuggve. The monkey lived in

captivity at Sagar, partly at VRC Field Sta-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tion and partly at the local College, till it was

transferred to Wild Life Park at Bannerghatta

in 1974.

The first sighting of a troupe in its natural

habitat was made on 3rd April 1973 in Masti-

mane Ghat on the right bank of Sharavati

river on the Bangalore-Honnavar Road at

about 160 m from sea level. The troupe was

slowly moving on the trees on the road side.

As soon as the vehicle was stopped they cros-

sed the road and entered deep forest. There

were 18 animals of different age including a

female with an infant. Second sighting was

made in the early part of 1975 by the monkey

trappers hired by the forest department for

trapping a mate for the male taken to the

Wild Life Park at Bannerghatta. The trappers

reported that the troupe had 13 individuals,

three individuals of the troupe were surround-

ed and one juvenile female was trapped. The

first author accompanied Dr. Steven Green

of Rockefeller University, New York in 1975

and made an enquiry about its homing range.

It was gathered from the local people that

the troupe has been generally sighted between

the miles 242 and 247 along the Bangalore-

Honnavar Road. The home range is estimated

to be between 14°16’ to 14°18’ N. and 74°42’

to 74°44’ E.

The latest

sighting was made on _ 1Ith

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,

INDIAN CoUNCIL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH,

PooNaA-411 001,

September 3, 1977.

August 1977 at 09.00 hrs at the same location.

The troupe was slowly moving from road side

down into the valley. Only the rear part of the

troupe was sighted and 10 adults and juveniles

were counted. The number in the front part

cf the troupe could not be estimated.

Prater (1948) records that the species in-

habits the tropical evergreen forest belt be-

tween 615 to 1070 m (2000 and 3500’), Sugi-

yama (1968) between 800 to 1300 m. How-

ever both the sightings by the present authors

were made at 160 m and the highest elevation

in the estimated home range reaches about

770. m.

The terrain has steep ridges and deep ravi-

nes clad with evergreen and semievergreen —

forests. The habitat of the monkey has been

abused since 1958 by selective felling opera-

tions and encroachment by needy agricultur-

ists. Another possible factor which threatens

this species is Kyasanur Forest disease which

has been rampant during the last four years

in the forests of the immediate neighbourhood.

However, as yet the susceptibility of Macaca

silenus to Kyasanur Forest disease is not

known. The other two species of monkeys,

Macaca radiata and Presbytis entellus have

been known to be highly susceptible to Kya-

sanur Forest disease and hundreds of monkeys

succumb to this disease every year.

H. R. BHAT

M. A. SREENIVASAN

REFERENCES

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888): The Fauna of British

India—Mammalia. Tailor and Francis, London.

Karr, J. R. (1973): Ecological and behavioural

notes on the Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus)

in South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70:191-

193.

KRISHNAN, M. (1971): An ecological survey of

the larger mammals of peninsular India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 68:503-555.

PRATER, S. H. (1948): The book of Indian ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

3rdiredas 1971.

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Pruett, C. (1973): A trip to Silent Valley—

March 1972. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70:544-548.

SUGIYAMA, Y. (1968): The ecology of the Lion-

tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) (Linnaeus)—a

pilot study. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:283-292.

6. THE RUSTY-SPOTTED CAT, FELIS RUBIGINOSA I. GEOFFROY,

IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR

The Rusty-spotted Cat, Felis rubiginosa I.

Geoffroy is one of the little known lesser cats

of India. Judging from the few specimens pre-

served in the British Museum and from the

failure by the collectors of the Mammal Sur-

vey to collect it, Pocock (1939) opined that

this species is ‘apparently rare’ in India. In

recent years several surveys were conducted

by the Zoological Survey of India in different

parts of the country with special reference to

mammals, but not a single specimen of this

species could be seen or collected till 1975,

which warrants that the Rusty-spotted Cat is

indeed very scarce and probabiy one of those

species whose number is gradually decreasing.

So far this interesting cat is recorded only

from certain localities in southern India and

Sri Lanka (Jerdon 1867, Blanford 1888, Po-

cock 1939, Prater 1965, Ellerman and Morri-

son-Scott 1966). Sterndale (1884) recorded it

from Seoni in Madhya Pradesh, but Blanford

mentioned that it appears to be very rare so

far north. Jerdon stated that ‘in the British

Museum there is a specimen stated to be from

Malacca, but Mr. Blyth is inclined to think

this a mistake.’

During the faunistic survey of Jammu and

Kashmir in 1975, the author collected an ex-

ample of this species from Jammu _ region.

The occurrence of this species in Jammu and

Kashmir region is a matter of great interest

and indicates that though very rare, its range

extends much further north in India. A short

note on this specimen is appended. Measure-

478

ments are taken after Pocock and given in

millimetres, and the colours according to Rid-

gway’s (1886) nomenclature.

Felis rubiginosa I. Geoffroy

Felis rubiginosa |. Geoffroy, 1831, Belanger

Voy. Indes Orient. Zook, 140 (Pondicherry,

southern India).

Material:

1? : Jhajjar Koili, Udhampur, Jammu and

Kashmir; 16 Oct. 1975.

Measurements:

EXTERNAL: Head and body 370; tail 200;_

hindfoot 86; ear 32.

CRANIAL: ‘Total length 67.8; zygomatic

width 47; postorbital width 23.7; interorbital

width 11.7; maxillary width 17.3; mandibular

length: 43-7.) om. eo.) 1 So.

Remarks:

Fur short but soft, smooth and woolly.

Ground colour above from head to tail tip

and on the outside of limbs smoke gray, but

more drab-gray in regions of head, back and

tail. Hands pale buff. External surface of ear

dark brown with an usual large pale spot on

each. There is a small tuft of white hairs (12-

13 mm long) at the base of each ear. Pattern

and colour of other parts of body exactly tal-

lies with the description of the South Indian

population of this species given by Blanford

and Pocock. Apart from size, Pocock men-

tioned a number of cranial differences be-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tween this species and Felis bengalensis Kerr,

namely ‘shortening of the upper jaw, accom-

panied by the downward curve of the end of

the nasals and the nearly vertical plane of the

anterior nares and of the maxillo-premaxil-

lary suture; also the maxillae are greatly ex-

panded above and the nasals strongly cons-

tricted in their posterior portion;....and as

an accompaniment of the shortening of the

muzzle the area behind the upper canine is

also short and has lost the normal small pre-

molar in front.’ All the above mentioned dif-

ferences hold good for the present specimen,

but from a cursory examination of the 19

skulls of F. bengalensis present in the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India collection it is found

that in three skulls the maxillo-premaxillary

suture is nearly vertical and in one specimen

anterior small premolar is absent.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA 16,

January 16, 1978.

The present specimen is an young adult

and appears to be slightly smaller than those

from South India and Sri Lanka.

Jerdon stated that ‘this pretty little cat fre-

quents grass in the dry beds of tanks, brush-

wood, and occasionally drains in the open

ccuntry and near villages, and is said not to

be a denizen of the jungles’. The present spe-

cimen was first noticed at about 23.00 hours

in an open scrub forest, with low thorny

bushes and stunted trees about one and half

kilometres away from the nearest human ha-

bitation. When chased, it ran for a certain

distance and then climbed very quickly up

a tree (about 4 metres high) from where it

was shot. Its stomach contained no food. No

additional specimen could be seen, though

attempts were made to find more during the

next five days.

S. CHAKRABORTY

REFERENCES

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888): The fauna of British

India, Mammaiia. Taylor and Francis, London.

ELLERMAN AND Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1966):

Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. Brit.

Mus., London.

JERDON, T. C. (1867): The mammals of India.

Roorkee.

Pocock, R. I. (1939): The fauna of British India,

Mammalia, I. Taylor and Francis, London.

PRATER, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian ani-

mals (2nd ed.). Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

RipGway, R. (1886): Nomenclature of colors.

Little Brown and Co., Boston.

STERNDALE, R. A. (1884): Natural History of

Mammalia of India and Ceylon. Thacker, Spinck

and Co., Calcutta.

7. CENSUS OF BLACKBUCKS IN THE VELAVADAR NATIONAL

INTRODUCTION

_Blackbucks are now mostly found in scatter-

ed groups in the coastal plains of the Sau-

PARK OF GUJARAT STATE

rashtra region of Gujarat State. However,

except in the coastal area known as ‘Bhal’,

the number of animals found in different

pockets is very small. In the Bhal area of

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Bhavnagar and Dhandhuka Talukas, large

herds of blackbucks still occur. To protect

these herds, a Sanctuary for blackbucks in

the 890 ha. Government Vidi area at Velava-

dar was established in the year 1969 and in

the year 1976, the whole of the Velavadar

Vidi area admeasuring 1783.88 ha. was con-

stituted into a National Park for blackbuck.

This National Park is situated about 70 km.

north of Bhavnagar off the highway to Ahme-

dabad. For want of camping facility, the Park

has not been thrown open for general visitors

so far. However, a forest lodge is now under

construction and by next year, the general

public will be able to visit this unique area

for viewing blackbuck.

When the Velavadar Sanctuary was _ first

constituted, it was roughly estimated to con-

tain about 400 blackbuck. With adequate pro-

tection, these continued to multiply at a rapid

rate. However, in the first week of June 1976,

there was a severe cyclonic storm accompanied

by heavy rain which continued for more than

five days in the Bhal area and as many as

923 blackbuck died due to prolonged exposure

and starvation. It therefore became necessary

to know the exact number of blackbucks left

in the National Park. It was decided to carry

out a systematic and detailed census of black-

buck in the National Park area (including the

surrounding villages where some of the ani-

mals are known to stray) during the summer

of 1977. The 5th of May 1977, was finally

fixed as the date for the census. The Wildlife

Conservation Society of Bhavnagar was asso-

ciated with the census and nine members of

the Society volunteered to work as enumer-

ators.

Method of Census:

The area of the Park was divided into con-

venient blocks and counting animals in each

480

block was done by the enumerators moving

on foot.

Black-bucks are known to commonly stray

out of the National Park area into the sur-

rounding villages. It was therefore decided to

include 24 villages surrounding the National

Park in the census operations.

The area of the National Park (including

its buffer zone) was divided into 30 enume-

ration blocks. These blocks were demarcated

on the ground by fixing bamboo poles with

white flags. Outside the National Park Zone,

each village was constituted as one block for

the purpose of enumeration. As the village

boundaries are known to the local persons

(enumerators), it was not considered neces-

sary to demarcate the boundaries of such

blocks.

The whole area was divided into the follow-_

ing zones:

Zone No. 1 National Park Zone (includ-

ing Buffer Zone) with 30

blocks |

Zone No. 2 Mewasa Zone consisting of

11 villages, ie. with 11 blocks”

Zone No. 3 Bavaliyali Zone containing 13

villages, i.e. with 13 blocks

The Census: |

There was a heavy thunderstorm on 4th |

evening which blew off the roof of the watch-_

tower in the National Park. The ground had |

also become wet, making it difficult for vehi- |

cles to move about freely. However, as the |

animals were to be counted by moving on |

foot, there was not likely to be much practi- |

cal difficulty in carrying out the census.

The census operation was conducted in the |

National Park Zone between 8.00 to 8.30 and |

recounting of the animals was carried out.

from 8.30 to 9.00 hours. After the census |

operation was over, it was decided to recheck

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the counting of animals in the whole National

Park Zone by sending out three independent

checking parties moving in vehicles and count-

ing the animals with the aid of binoculars.

For this purpose, the National Park Zone was

divided into three sub-zones by prominent

features and one checking parity was assigned

to each sub-zone. The census result is repro-

duced below:

No. of Blackbucks

| Total

Male Female Young ones

National Park

(including buffer

zone) 338 1052 164 1554

Surrounding

122

villages 31 ie. 19

369

As suggested by Shri M. K. Shivbhadrasinh-

ji, of the Wildlife Conservation Society a cen-

sus of blackbucks was also carried out sepa-

rately in Dhankaniya Vidi of Botad Taluka

situated about 50 kms. from Velavadar where

also blackbucks were reported to occur. The

result of this census is as under:

Male Female Young ones _ Total

eee

However, as this area is a separate entity,

these figures are not included in the official

census figures for Velavadar National Park.

In addition to the above, small herds of

blackbucks are unofficially reported at the

following places:

Bhavnagar District

Amreli District

Junagadh District

Surendranagar District

Vadodara District

@15

Some blackbucks are also known to occur

in and around the Rann of Kutch. Thus it is

estimated that the present total population of

blackbucks in the whole of Gujarat State may

be roughly around 2500.

Discussion of the data and Conclusions:

The following conclusions can be drawn

from the result of the census:

(1) There is roughly 1 blackbuck to every

hectare of the National Park area.

More than 92% of the animals are found

in the National Park area while less than

8% of animals are found in the surround-

ing villages in the morning hours.

Generally small herds of blackbuck and

solitary males go outside the National

Park.

The sex ratio of male to female is rough-

ly 1:3. Normally it should be 1:6. There

is thus a preponderance of males in the

area. This clearly indicates the urgent

need for culling or translocation of the

surplus animals.

The young ones make up more than 10%

of the population which can be consider-

ed to be a very satisfactory breeding rate.

Conducting census by moving about in

vehicles and counting the animals with

the aid of binoculars has given about 90%

accuracy. This method is cheap and can

be adopted for preparing rough estimates

of animals every year. The elaborate me-

thod of dividing the area into enumera-

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Near Victor Port .. 40

Near Rajula 25 to 30

Near Damnagar ie 1S\t0,20

Near Lathi LS:

Near Jhanjhmer “2 20 tos 25

Near Kotda SO

Near Limdi . 150

Sunderpura about 150

Total about 500

Se Se TPT TED

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

tion block and counting of the animals

in each block by enumerators moving on

foot may be adopted only at intervals of

three to five years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks

ADDL. CHIEF CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,

WILD LIFE,

GUJARAT STATE,

June 13, 1977.

to M. R. Shivbhadrasinhji and his band of

wild life enthusiasts for their active partici-

pation in the blackbuck census. The local staff

also deserve all praise for the systematic and

disciplined manner in which they performed

the tasks assigned to them.

M. A. RASHID

8. LOST PELICANRY

The Spottedbilled or Grey pelican (Pelicanus

philippensis Gmelin) was first recorded in

India well over a century ago (Blyth 1844—

quoted by Lamba 1963) and is known to fre-

quent well watered tracts throughout the

country. However, for a long time very little

was known regarding its breeding in India.

Earlier ornithologists believed that the bulk

of the Grey pelicans found in India went to

Burma to breed (Hume 1890). In later years

only two small breeding colonies were report-

ed. One at Buchepalle, Cuddapah District,

Andhra Pradesh and another at Kundakolam,

Tinnevelley District, Tamil Nadu (then Mad-

ras Presidency) (Campbell 1902, Rhenius

1907). Thus the question “‘where do pelicans

breed in India?’’ had remained to a greater

extent unanswered until Neelakantan (1949)

discovered, perhaps, the largest pelicanry of

India near village Aredu, West Godavari Dis-

trict, Andhra Pradesh. He stated “‘According

to the villagers this sanctuary has been in ex-

istence from time out of mind’’. He also

roughly counted more than 800 adults and

1200 chicks of Grey pelicans, in March 1949.

Lamba while studying the nidification of this

species at the same site, in 1956-57, discover-

ed some more pelicanries in the close vicini-

482

ties and called them all the “‘Kolleru Pelican-

ries”. During that period, I was a member of

the field team and had seen hundreds of Grey

pelicans nesting on palmyra trees. Gee (1960)

had counted not less than 3,000 pelicans in

an area of two square miles at the same spot.

Spillett (1968) made a very brief mention of

these pelicanries in his report on the survey

of wildlife in South and West India, Since

then no information seems to have been re-

corded on these pelicanries.

{ had an opportunity to visit this area again

after 18 years between 4th December 1974

and 4th February 1975. To my dismay, not

a single pelican was found nesting or other-

wise.

Enquiries from the local people revealed

that pelicans have stopped coming to this area

for breeding for the last few years. One old

man informed me that sometime in 1964, birds

died in large numbers and since then, the peli-

cans have disappeared. Some other villagers

and one educated farmer from Akividu con-

firmed the deaths, but said that they were

mostly among paddy-birds and egrets. None

of them were sure whether pelicans also died.

Some of these people suggested that the deaths

may have been due to endrin poisoning and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

claimed that even fishes, frogs and crabs had

died. They informed me that a heavy dose of

endrin was used on paddy crops, during that

period. There was no way to check the auth-

enticity of these reports and the exact year

of the reported large scale deaths.

Later, during August-September 1975 and

July-August 1976, while looking for heron-

ries, I had covered an area of about 15 miles

radius around Kolleru lake. We located quite

a few cattle egrets, little egrets, paddybirds

and little cormorants, breeding either in mix-

ed or pure colonies. A search was made for

pelicans also by making enquiries from the

local people and scanning possible habitats.

No pelicans were observed. A nomadic poa-

cher who was well aware of heronries in the

area had not seen any pelicans. The enquiries

were aided by showing pictures of pelicans and

other birds to villagers from the HANDBOOK

OF BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN by Salim Ali

and S. D. Ripley (1968).

Apart from the Kolleru area, we twice visit-

ed the rivers Krishna and Godavari near

Vijaywada and Narsapur respectively, and the

Nagarjunasagar Dam once as possible alter-

native breeding sites, but could not see or get

any information on pelicans.

Apparently the Spottedbilled or Grey peli-

cans have deserted their traditional home at

the Kolleru lake, as my first visit was during

the known breeding season (October-April)

when no pelicans were seen and even though

the later trips were in July and September, it

is unlikely that the villagers would miss such

a large bird. 7

I wonder why pelicans have disappeared

from Kolleru lake and where they have gone?

The disappearance of these magnificient birds

must have been the effect of change in the

ecosystem brought about by human interfer-

ence.

The palmyra trees on which most of the

pelicans used to nest, have been cut down and

replaced by coconut palms. As the weight and

droppings of birds damage the trees, and co-

conut is of commercial value, villagers prevent

the birds from nesting on them. Noise pollu-

tion has also increased due to tractors, trains,

motor launches and other vehicular traffic.

Pesticides are being used widely on paddy

crop.

The decrease in the bird population where

pesticides are used is long suspected. DDT. in

the diet of domestic fowls reduces the egg

production, hatchability and sperm production

(Rubin et al. 1947, Thomas 1962). The mor-

tality among adult and young robins has been

proved to be due to DDT. (Twiest 1965,

Wurster et al. 1965). However, in India, no

studies seem to have been done on wild birds

on these lines. In August 1976, I found two

Cattle egrets in breeding plumage, lying dead

in paddy fields about half a kilometer apart

near Kaikalur, Krishna District. They were

examined for possible marks of injury or gun-

shots, none were seen.

Even though no direct evidence is available

to incriminate pesticides for the disappearance

of the pelicans, in view of the large scale

deaths reported by villagers, the possibility of

pesticides being a major contributory factor

cannot be ruled out. Another important factor

for the total disappearance of these pelican-

ries must have been the shortage of food creat-

ed by human interference. The Kolleru lake

is reduced to large canals and fishing is a

major industry. Man’s competition, perhaps,

left no other alternative to these spectacular

birds except to give up their traditional home.

Both Neelakantan and Gee had expressed

the fear that if Kolleru is drained out for irri-

gation, the reduced fish supply would end-

anger the pelicanries. This has happened, and

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

one wonders where the new home of pelicans

is?

Gee had hoped that the new reservoirs form-

ed by hydro-electric and irrigation projects

in India may provide new homes for these

birds. Can such reservoirs really serve the pur-

pose, unless they are made suitable for breed-

ing colonies of birds? Proper nesting trees,

feeling of safety and abundant food supply

are necessary prerequisites for the breeding

of birds. Fish being the sole food of pelicans

its supply must be really large to meet the

needs of adult and young birds. The amount

of fish required can be estimated from the

figures of ‘‘Kolleru_ pelicanries’. Gee had

counted over 1,500 nests of Grey pelicans.

This means 3,000 adult pelicans were in the

area at least for a period of 5 months to com-

plete the breeding. On an average a single

pelican is estimated to consume 2 kg of fish

per day (Ali and Ripley 1968). So 2 kg x

3,000 birds x 150 days = 9,00,000 kg of fish

would be required for the adults alone. Add

to this the requirement of the young ones.

This, of course, was the requirement for the

largest pelicanry which only Kolleru lake

could have provided as there is no other simi-

lar lake on the East Coast. In the absence of

any other large lake in the area, the pelicans

might have dispersed into smaller breeding

colonies.

The most recent report I have seen on the

breeding haunt of Grey pelicans is that of the

pelicanry at Bellur and Bennali, Mandya Dis-

trict, Karnataka (Neginhal 1976). However,

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,

PUNE 411 OO1,

July 11, 1977.

484

the strength and the antiquity of this pelicanry

is not known. If this pelicanry has come into

existence only in the recent past, then it is

possible that some of the Kolleru birds are

nesting here.

The intriguing question is whether these

thousands of pelicans disappeared all of a

sudden as stated by a villager, or did the peli-

canries diminish gradually? The latter seems

to be more probable. If so, why could we not

save them? In the developing countries, in the

name of progress, human needs take prece-

dence over everything else. But what is pro-

gress? As Darling and Darling (1963) say “It

certainly is not an anthill existence where total

human mass is all that matters’’.

Disappearance of a pelicanry is not a unique

phenomenon of Kolleru. The immense peli-

canry near Shwe-gyen on the Sittang river in

Burma—20 miles long and 5 miles broad,

containing millions of pelicans—also disap-

peared (Smythies—quoted by Gee). The

thought crosses my mind that if pelicans get

driven from place to place due to shortage of

food, paucity of nesting trees, human interfer-

ence, pesticide pollution and their own over-

crowding then will this species, over the years,

change its habits or become extinct?

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. N. P. Gupta, Director

and Dr. F. M. Rodrigues, Deputy Director,

Virus Research Centre, Poona for their en-

couragement and to Dr. Salim Ali for his

valuable suggestions and keen interest.

S. N. GUTTIKAR

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

ALI, S. AND RIPLEY, S. D. (1968): The Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford

University Press. p. 29.

BLYTH, E. (1844): On the Ornithology of the

neighbourhood of Calcutta with notes by H. E.

Strickland. Ann. Nat. His. (1) 14, pp. 34-48 and

114-125. (Original not seen—cited by Lamba, 1963).

CAMPBELL, W. H. (1902): Nesting of Grey Peli-

can (Pelecanus philippensis) in Cuddapah District,

Madras Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 14:

401.

DARLING, L. AND DARLING, L.

Methuen and Co. Ltd., London.

GEE, E. P. (1960): The breeding of Grey or

(1963): Bird.

Spotted-billed Pelican, Pelecanus philippensis Gme-

lin. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 57: 245-251.

Hume, A. O. (1890): Nests and Eggs of Indian

Birds. Vol. II. Edited by Oates, E. W. 2nd Edi-

tion. R. H. Porter, London. p. 276.

NEELAKANTAN, K. K. (1949): A South Indian

Pelicanry. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 48: 656-666.

NEGINHAL, S. G. (1976): Discovery of a peli-

canry in Karnataka. Newsletter for Birdwatchers.

Vol. 1/6, pp. 14-15.

SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): A report on Wild Life

Surveys in South and West India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 65: 1-14.

9. BREEDING OF THE MALLARD (ANSER PLATY RHYNCHOS)

IN NEPAL

The HANDBOOK Vol. I, p. 162 states that a

large proportion of the Mallard visiting the

subcontinent in the winter come from Siberia.

This duck also (now) breeds in ‘“‘very small

numbers”’ on the Kashmir lakes. In the Birds

of Nepal (1976) the Flemings write (p. 38)

“Thought to nest on Titi Lake (South of the

Nilgiri peaks of Annapurna)’’.

In May/June 1977 I was able to confirm

this conjecture with actual sight records.

The Titi lake is situated in north central

Nepal (28° 38,N; 83° 377 B) ata height of

2622 metres (8600 feet) in a bend on the

east side of the Kaligandaki, about 24 Km.

from that river. At its nearest point the Chi-

| nese Tibetan border is 45 Km. away. The

_ situation is spectacular with the main peak of

Dhaulagiri (8169 m) towering above the lake

to the north west. The lake is quite small, very

roughly 300 metres long by 200 broad, mostly

thickly covered with grass and water plants:

less than half consists of clear water, indeed

| just a “duck pond”’.

I first visited Titi from 30 April to 2 May

1977. At this time of the year the main spring

migration from the subcontinent to the north

has passed over the Himalayas, although some

stragglers may remain until the end of May.

There were five Mallard on the lake, one pair

and three apparently unattached males. It was

not unreasonable to speculate that three fe-

males might be sitting in the thick cover, but

we caught no sight of them over the three

days. The local people assured us that numer-

cus Mallard did indeed nest and breed there.

(Also that they did not molest the birds—

apparently, and fortunately for the Mallard,

the shooting of one some years ago had been

followed within hours by a hail storm which

caused considerable devastation!)

Roughly 6 weeks later, from 11 to 13 June,

I sent one of my Nepalese boys to look at

the lake again. This young man had been with

me in May, and on other expeditions into the

meuntains. He has worked on our farm in

Pokhara, where we breed Mallard. I consi-

485

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

der his testimony completely reliable. On this

visit he counted eleven females and seven

males. As far as he could estimate, there were

twenty five ducklings about 2 weeks old, the

property of three or four mothers. Each even-

ing the drakes flighted to the nearby Kali-

gandaki river, returning in the very early

morning. All the females were visible most of

the day, indicating that nesting was over, but

not precluding the possibility of some addi-

tional females sitting unseen in the thick

cover.

It is fascinating to speculate, with other

known breeding places 1000 Km to the

north west and 2-3000 km to north, how

this population of breeding Mallard became,

apparently, fully established on such a small

lake. Admittedly Titi does lie immediately on

a known (but probably not major) migration

route along the line of the Kaligandaki river.

Considering that the lake lies just two hours

off a main trade route, it is not impossible

that an examination of other small lakes in

remoter areas might yield interesting results.

Rare at 2987 m in N.W. Nepal, the largest lake

in Nepal, is an obvious candidate for investi-

gation at the correct time of year, but it lacks

cover for nesting. This might be established

and it would be an interesting experiment, in

this National Park, to discover if duck could

be induced to breed there by the introduction

MOUNTAIN TRAVEL,

P.O. Box 170,

KATHMANDU, NEPAL,

LID ZO MOTT

436

of natural food and cover plants.

It would also be interesting to learn the

true extent of the “‘very small numbers” breed-

ing in Kashmir, why the numbers have de-

clined, and whether anything can be done to

increase them.

In addition to the Mallard, we can record

this year the first (apparently) properly auth-

enticated sight record of the Ruddy Shelduck

(Tadorna ferruginea) breeding in Nepal, in-

deed in the subcontinent outside Ladakh. The

HANDBOOK mentions the Everest region as a

strong possibility and the Flemings, the Man-

angbhot Valley.

Almost certainly the ““Brahminy”’ breeds in

both these localities, but our sight record is

by Mr. H. S. Nepali (Kaji) of Kathmandu

who saw ducklings near the source of the

Kaligandaki, about 6 km from the Tibetan

border, an June) 1977.

Apart from the strictly resident species, the

only other normally migratory duck known

to nest south of Ladakh and Tibet seem to

be the Marbled Teal (in Pakistan) and White-

eyed Pochard (in Kashmir). The discovery

of the Mallard nesting far to the south of its

former limits prompts the question whether a

good food supply and congenial surroundings

may be more important than longer hours of

daylight. However, the Mallard is probably

the most adaptable of all ducks.

JAMES O. M. ROBERTS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

10. OCCURRENCE OF REDHEADED MERLIN, (FALCO

CHICQUERA DAUDIN) IN BANGALORE, KARNATAKA

The distribution of Redheaded Merlin in S.

India as given by Sélim Ali & Ripley (1968)

shows that this bird has not been recorded

from Karnataka. There is a definite record

of this bird from Cudappah (Koelz 1947).

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,

BANGALORE 560 024,

July 16, 1977.

in 1960, Neelakantan recorded this bird from

Kerala. On 28th June, 1975, a pair of this bird

wes sighted just on the outskirts of Bangalore.

As the distribution of this bird is still not clear,

this record may be of interest.

P. M. GOVINDAKRISHNAN

ABRAHAM VERGHESE

A. K. CHAKRAVARTHY

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM AND Ripley, S. D. (1968): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

KoELz, W. (1974): Notes on a collection of birds

from Madras Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

lt,

47-141.

NEELAKANTAN, K. K. (1960): On the occurrence

of the Red-headed Merlin (Falco chiquera) in

Kerala. ibid. 57:409-412.

ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE (INDICATOR

XANTHONOTUS) IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYAS

Blyth, describing J/ndicator xanthonotus in

1842, regarded it as rare and sporadically

occurring in the Himalayas. Hume in 1870

described a new subspecies I. x. radcliffi based

cn a single specimen obtained from Hazara

in the western Himalayas. Recently Ripley

(1951) described a third subspecies fulvus

from the eastern Naga Hills in Assam.

It is intriguing to note that this species was

either overlooked or not particularly looked

for by later ornithologists who did extensive

study of the avifauna of certain portions of

the Himalayas. Perhaps the lack of informa-

tion has led to the belief that the species is

exceedingly rare in the subcontinent.

In 1973 Drs Sdlim Ali, Ripley and myself

spotted quite a number of these birds in cer-

tain areas in central Bhutan, where I subse-

quently carried out some detailed study of

their habits (in press). In the meantime Cro-

nin and Sherman (1977) have reported on

certain aspects of the behaviour of the species

they studied in eastern Nepal.

Recently while on a nature trek with So-

ciety's members to the Valley of Flowers in

the Garhwal Himalayas, I spotted Honeguides

487

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

feeding on bee-wax near Gangharia village

c. 9000 ft, on the Govindghat—Valley of

Flowers bridle path, on 23 July 1978. Four

active beehives and several old broken combs

were situated on an overhang of a rocky

slope close to the bridle path. Three birds

were noted frequenting the site of feed on that

occasion. On subsequent observations I could

spot the territorial male from other birds that

frequently visited to feed on the wax. From

the behaviour of the birds it was apparent that

the breeding season was still on. The habitat

around the site consists mainly of stands of

Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Rhododendron sp.,

and Quercus sp.

According to available literature the popul-

ation in this part of the Himalayas is radcliffi.

However, this subspecies is described from a

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

HorNBILL HOUSE,

BomBay 400 023,

August 25, 1978.

single specimen and since the first description

no specimen has been collected. Salim Ali &

this bird on 24 April 1923 at Truin, Dhar-

masala, c. 2900 m and consider it as the last

authentic record. Friedmann (1974) mentions

Walter Koelz’s collection in 1940’s of several

specimens of Honeyguides from Garhwal

(exact localily not specified). Koelz noticed

them feeding on exposed bee combs and seve-

ral of the birds collected had beeswax in their

gizzards.

The evidence gathered recently indicates that

this species is not so rare as it is made out to be

and therefore it should be possible to obtain

more data of biology and ecology of this uni-

que bird.

S. A. HUSSAIN

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM AND RIpLEy, S. D. (1970): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 4.

Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp. 265.

CRONIN JR. E. AND SHERMANN, P. N. (1977):

A resource based mating system—The Orangerump-

ed Honeyguide. Living Bird. Lab. of Ornithology,

Cornell University, Ithaca, pp. 5-32.

FRIEDMANN, HERBERT (1974): The Asian Honey-

guides. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(3) :426-432.

RipLey, S. D. (1951): Some recently collected

birds from Assam. Postilla, New Haven, Conn. No.

6:2.

12. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE WARBLER (AVES:

SYLVINAE) POPULATIONS OF THE UPLAND PERENNIAL

WETLANDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS

There is an extensive perennially wet area (at

least 300 sq miles) mainly in the Paderu

taluk (c. 17°57’N, 82°40’E), Vishakapatnam

district, Andhra Pradesh. The area is at about

3500 ft m.s.J. with hills rising up to 5000 ft.

The habitat consists of (1) Paddy fields (two

438

crops per year), (2) several acres of mature

forest around each village, (3) regenerating

scrub and woodland along the hillsides where

shifting cultivation is practised, (4) grassy hill

tops.

This area has not been ornithologically sur-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

_veyed before and there are several species of

birds, e.g. a partridge, quail and red Munia

(Estrida amandava) which are not found at

lower, drier altitudes, the ghats (ic. on the

Chintapalle plateau) (Price, in prep.). Some

species are held in common with the coastal

plains while others are confined to this area.

Particular attention was paid to the Warblers

(Sylviinae) and here I detail the complete list

noted in two visits to Locheli, about 15 miles

south of Paderu on 6th May and 25 June 1977.

Unfortunately adverse weather conditions pre-

vented successful trapping of the birds.

INDIAN PALEFOOTED BUSH WARBLER (Cettia

pallidipes) :

Known previously in the Eastern Ghats

from only one specimen (Whistler & Kinnear

1933), this bird is extremely common in the

better wooded areas. Males were in song on

both occasions, more so in May. Birds were

twice heard along water courses on the Chin-

tapalle plateau, both near to the Paderu pla-

teau and it is likely that they had spread from

there.

STREAKED FANTAIL WARBLER (Cisticola

juncidis)

Abundant on the paddy fields.

FRANKLIN’S WREN WARBLER (Prinia hodgsonii)

Uncommon in the thicker more advanced

regenerating growth.

PLAIN WREN WARBLER (Prinia subflava)

Found around the periphery of the paddy-

fields. This species and C. juncidis are the com-

mon resident warblers of the coastal plain.

During my only visit to the plains, both spe-

cies were noted near Vizianagram on 2nd

August 1977. They were much less common

than at Lacheli, possibly because the area is

not under wet cultivation throughout the year.

P. subflava was not seen on the Chintapalle

plateau. C. juncidis was recorded occasionally

and probably breeds in very low numbers.

JUNGLE WREN WARBLER (Prinia_ sylvatica)

Common on the drier slopes right up to

the hill tops. The territories of this and P.

subflava abut (with no overlap) possibly re-

flecting the abrupt change from wet areas to

those on the slopes that are well drained and

with poor soil. They are extremely difficult

to separate by plumage although P. subflava

is notably smaller. All birds were in song and

this was the best identification character.

TAILOR BIRD (Orthotomus sutorius)

A few pairs around every village. This bird,

P. hodgsonti and P. sylvatica are all represent-

ed on the Chintapalle plateau (e.g. at Lama-

singhi, Price, in prep.) in similar habitat to that

at Locheli. This means that P. sylvatica is less

common and the other two species more com-

mon at Lamasinghi. The Ashy Wren Warbler

(Prinia socialis) is the commonest wren warb-

ler at Lamasinghi and although a few pairs

extend up to the Paderu plateau, it is totally

absent at Locheli. This presumably reflects the

absence of sufficient lush regenerating growth

as is found on the Chintapalle plateau.

BROADTAILED GRASS WARBLER (Schoenicola

platyura)

A pair seen near the village of Chinagada

(26 June 1977) in and around thick grass and

bush cover above a paddy field. Apart from

one specimen, probably a straggler, at Point

Calimere, Tamil Nadu (Hussain 1977), this

species was only previously known from the

southern Western Ghats (Ali & Ripley 1973).

The male was watched for over half-an-hour,

constantly repeating a five to ten second song,

mostly in display flight but also from perch.

Description taken at the time: Upper parts

uniform warm brown. Under parts white,

489

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

throat conspicuous against the ochraceous

breast. Tail darker underneath, strongly gra-

duated, finely cross rayed. Bill and eye black.

Song: a twittering almost goldiinch-like, end-

ing with a tit like call. Also ‘pinks’ from a

perch at times. The birds were breeding but

no nest could be found. I later examined the

DEPT. OF ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION,

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, U.S.A.,

August, 12) 1977.

specimens in the Bombay Natural

Seciety collection and am convinced of its

identification.

During this survey I was supported by a |

grant from the Leverhulme Trust Fund and