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a

JOURNAL

of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ-

ing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other

journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be

submitted.

♦ ■ ..

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only,

and the sheets properly numbered.

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4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica-

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Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on

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7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha-

betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or

periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type),

thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat.

Hist . Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers

should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s

name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,

clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge.

In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed

among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi-

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of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage

and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem-

ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hombill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 80, NO. 1: APRIL 1983

Date of Publication : 28-11-1983.

CONTENTS

Page

Large mammalian prey-predators in Bandipur. By A. J. T. Johnsingh. ( With

eight plates & fourteen text-figures ) . . 1

An east-west Aquila eagle migration in the Himalayas. By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. 58

A Catalogue of species added to Gamble’s “Flora of the Presidency of Madras”.

By S. Karthikeyan and B. D. Sharma . . 63

Studies on spawning migration and spawning of hillstream fish Discognathus

mullya (Sykes). By G. Loviah Joseph and S. V. Job. {With a text-figure) 80

Observations on the movement of two captive- reared mugger crocodiles,

Crocodylus palustris Lesson when returned to the wild. By Lala A. K. Singh 86

Records of Mesostigmata, Ereynetidae and Pterygosomidae (Acarina) in

western Himalayas, Sikkim and hill districts of West Bengal. By H. R.

Bhat, S. M. Kulkarni and A. C. Mishra . . 91

Biology of Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ) with reference

to Western Baluchistan. By Afsar Mian and Mohammad Ibrahim Surahio.

{With two text-figures ) .. Ill

The food and feeding of juvenile Bengal Monitor Lizards {Varanus benga-

lensis ). By Walter Auffenberg and Ipe M. Ipe . . 119

Courtship and copulation in Myllocerus undecimpustulatus maculosus Desb.

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) . By K. Thangavelu. {With two plates containing

seven figures) . . 125

The genus Lindernia All. (Scrophulariaceae) in India. By V. V. Sivarajan

and Philip Mathew .. 131

Survey of South Indian Pelicanries. By V. Nagulu and J. V. Ramana Rao 141

Field key to Rana alticola Annandale (Anura: Ranidae) tadpoles. By A. K.

Sahu and M. K. Khare. {With five text-figures) . . 144

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society-27. By Humayun Abdulali . . 149

New Descriptions:

Descriptions of three New Subspecies of butterflies found in Nepal. By C. P. Smith.

{With four text-figures) . . 166

Description of a New Genus Nirmaladia for the species Culladia dentilinealis

Hampson (Lepidoptera : Crambinae). By H. S. Rose. {With seven text-figures) 171

First record of Clausenia Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from India with descrip-

tions of two new species. By S. Adam Shafee and Rajendra Kumar Avasthi.

{With a text- figure) . . 176

A New Species of Parablastothrix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from India. By M.

A. Khan. {With seven text-figures) . . 180

Description of a New Species of Anicetus Howard (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from

India. By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi and S, Adam Shafee. ( With a text- figure) 182

A New Species of T etrastichus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from India. By M. A.

Khan. ( With eleven text-figures) . . 185

On a New Species of Genus Aspidomycter Marshall (Coleoptera: Curculionidae :

Eremninae) from India. By H. R. Pajni and C. S. Sidhu. (With six text- figures) 188

A New Species of Cladocera of Genus Indialona Petkovski, 1966 (Family Chydoridae)

from India. By Pramod Rane. (With four text-figures) . . 194

Tripogon narayanii — A New Species of Poaceae from Kerala, India. By P. V.

Sreekumar, V. J. Nair and N. C. Nair. (With nine text-figures) . . 196

Chrysopogon tadulingamii : a New Species of Poaceae from Kerala, India. By P. V.

Sreekumar, V. J. Nair and N. C. Nair. (With fifteen text- figures) . . 198

Reviews :

1 . Wild is Beautiful. (Humayun Abdulali) . . 201

2. A Checklist of the Birds of Punjab and Chandigarh. (Humayun Abdulali) . . 202

3. The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.

(B. F. Chhapgar) . . 202

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Albinism in the House Shrew, Suncus m. murinus Linnaeus. By H. Khajuria

(p. 206); 2. Occurrence of Pipistrellus paterculus Thomas, 1915 (Chiroptera: Vesperti-

lionidae) in Bihar: An addition to the Indian Mammal Fauna. By Y. P. Sinha (p. 206);

3. Further notes on the birth and growth of the Leopard-Cat (Felis bengalensis) in

captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 207); 4. Abnormal horns in the

Nilgai. (With a text-figure). By M. B. Chitampalli (p. 209); 5. Grooming of chital by

langur in Kanha National Park, India. By Mark S. Boyce, Kenneth Reed and Jacob V.

Cheeran (p. 209); 6. Mating behaviour of the Plumbeous Dolphin, Sousa plumbea, Cuvier,

1829. By T. J. Roberts, Khan Mohammed Khan and Janet Knuckey (p. 210).

Birds: 7. Some observations on breeding of the Chinese Whitebreasted Waterhen Amaurornis

phoenicurus chinensis (Boddaert). By Manjit S. Dhindsa, P. S. Sandhu and H. S. Tool*

(p. 213); 8. Occurrence of the Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu.

By V. C. Ambedkar (p. 215); 9. Pigeons (Columba livia) nesting on the ground — some

more bird notes from the Vengurla Rocks. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 215); 10. Golden

Oriole (Oriolus oriolus) nest in Bombay. By S. G. Monga and J. Rodriques (p. 218);

11. Nocturnal habits of Black Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis). By Nitin Jamdar (p. 218);

12. Habits of the Bank Myna, Acridotheres ginginianus. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 219);

13. Some observations on the intelligence of crows. By K. D. Muthana (p. 219); 14. Nest

building error by a female Purplerumped Sunbird. By Erach K. Bharucha (p. 220);

15. Community bathing by Sunbird and White-eyes in summer. By Erach K. Bharucha

(p. 221); 16. Reciprocal predation between a Weaver birds and a lizard species. By

Manjit S. Dhindsa and H. S. Toor (p. 221); 17. Sight record of Serinus pusillus at

Manang, Central Nepal. By David S. Melville and Vicky J. Hamilton (p. 222); 18. Occur-

rence of Emberiza cia near Pune. By Shrikant Ingalhalikar (p. 223); 19. Unusual bird

records from the Bombay area. By D. Summers-Smith (p. 224).

Reptiles: 20. Growth rates in sub-adult gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia,

Crocodilia). (With a text-figure). By H. R. Bustard and S. Maharana (p. 224); 21. Notes

on little known lizards from Jammu & Kashmir state. By Deep N. Sahi and P. L. Duda

(p. 227); 22. On Flying Lizard in Mundanthurai Sanctuary. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 229).

Fishes: 23. Longevity of fish Megalops cyprinoides (Brouss). (With a text-figure ). By

C. V. Kulkami (p. 230); 24. Extension of range of the Dadio, Chela ( Neochela ) dadi-

burjori (Menon) (Pisces: Cyprinidae). (With a text-figure) By S. R. Sane and B. F.

Chhapgar (p. 232); 25. An interesting method of fishing in Dhanbad district, Bihar. (With

a text-figure). By G. M. Yazdani and P. D. Gupta (p. 234).

Insects: 26. Field observations on the occurrence of Micronecta scutellaris Stal. (Hemi-

ptera: Corixidae). (With a text- figure) . By Mukhtar Ahmad and Suhela Ahmad (p. 236);

27. Systematics of undescribed males of some Thysanoptera from India. (With four text-

figures). By S. K. Kulshrestha and Vijay Veer (p. 240).

Botany : 28. Studies on Kashmir Himalayan Umbelliferae III — some new records. By I.

A. Hamal and A. K. Koul (p. 243); 29. Phenotypes of Sandal (Santalum album L.).

By R. A. Srimathi, H. D. Kulkami and K. R. Venkatesan (p. 245); 30. Occurrence of

Eleocharis geniculata (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. (Cyperaceae) in Uttar Pradesh. (With four

text-figures). By Veena Chandra (p. 247); 31. On the occurrence of Oleandra neriiformis

Cavanilles in India. By S. R. Ghosh (p. 248); 32. Paliurus Mill. (Rhamnaceae) — A Genus

New to India. (With three text-figures) By B. Safui (p. 250); 33. Occurrence of Elaeocarpus

grandifolius Kurz in Assam. (With a text-figure). By H. B. Naithani (p. 252); 34. New and

interesting plant records from Maharashtra. By S. Karthikeyan and Anand Kumar (p. 254);

35. Notes on Viola pilosa Bl. (Violaceae). By S. P. Banerjee and B. B. Pramanik (p. 258);

36. Some noteworthy plants from Kolaba district (Maharashtra state). By M. J. Kothari

and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 259); 37. The Genus Deschampsia in N. W. Himalaya. By B. P.

Uniyal and U. C. Bhattacharyya (p. 260) ; 38. Additions to the Grasses of Bihar, Orissa

& West Bengal. By B. P. Uniyal and (Mrs.) R. Dutta (p. 262); 39. A little known Fern

from the Himalaya — Asplenium nesii Christ, and the Nomenclature of A. exiguum Bedd.

( Aspleniaceae) . (With a text-figure). By S. P. Khullar, Shanti S. Sharma and Paramjit

Singh (p. 262); 40. Onychium plumosum Ching, O. tenuifrons Ching — Two new records

of Fem for India. (With a plate and four text-figures). By Anjali (Das) Biswas and S. R.

Ghosh (p. 265); 41. Elaphoglossum ceylanicum Krajina ex Sledge — A new record of

Fern for India. (With five text-figures). By Anjali (Das) Biswas (p. 267).

Minutes of a Special General Body Meeting of the Bombay Natural History

Society . . 269

Minutes of the Second Special General Body Meeting of the Bombay Natural

History Society

270

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1983 APRIL

Vol. 80

No. 1

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS

IN BANDIPUR1

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH2

{With eight plates & fourteen text-figures)

Large mammalian prey species and predators were studied in a 32 Km2 area

around Bandipur village in the Bandipur Tiger Reserve, Karnataka, between August

1976 and July 1978. Chital ( Axis axis ) comprised 69% and sambar ( Cervus unicolor)

13 to 14% of prey number. The fertility rate of chital does was 1.3 and that of

sambar does was 1. The average biomass of the hoofed prey species was 3320 Kg/Km2;

including elephant ( Elephas maximus) the average ungulate biomass was 9831 Kg/Km2.

Dholes ( Cuon alpinus) accounted for 80%, leopards ( Panthera pardus) 15% and

tiger ( Panthera tigris) 5% of the 379 kills collected. Ratio of predator to prey biomass

was 1:124. Annually the predators removed nearly 20% of the standing crop of the

hoofed prey. This high predation rate was possibly because of the sudden removal

of 100 + cattle from the study area which were grazing till the beginning of the study.

Hunting habits of dholes are described. Antipredator behaviour of the prey species,

their ecological adaptations to breeding, biomass, and various ecological parameters

which separate the predators are discussed. Calculations on the effect of predation on

chital and sambar and the impact of stealing kills are presented.

Introduction

In the last two decades some important field

studies on the large carnivores have been con-

ducted in the Indian subcontinent (Fig. 1 and

Table 1). Species studied include leopard

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Project Scientist, Endangered Species, Bombay

Natural History Society, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023.

Panthera pardus (Eisenberg and Lockhart

1972, Muckenhirn and Eisenberg 1973, Seiden-

sticker 1976a), sloth bear Melursus ur sinus

(Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972, Laurie and

Seidensticker 1977), tiger Panthera tigris

(Schaller 1967, Seidensticker 1976a, McDougal

1977, Panwar 1979, Sunquist 1981) and lion

Panthera leo persica (Joslin 1973, Berwick

1976). The techniques adopted varied from

natural history observations (Schaller 1967,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

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LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

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4

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BAN DIPUR

Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972, Joslin 1973,

Muckenhirn and Eisenberg 1973, Berwick 1976,

Laurie and Seidensticker 1977, McDougal 1977,

Panwar 1979) to radio telemetry (Seidensticker

1976a, Sunquist 1981).

I observed large ungulates and their preda-

tors in Bandipur from August 1976 to July

1978. The major purpose of this study was to

assess the effect of dhole ( Cuon alpinus) pre-

dation on chital ( Axis axis) as Sharatchandra

and Gadgil (1975) found dhole to be the major

predator of chital and concluded that the chital

population was declining. To compare the pre-

datory habits of the dhole with those of the

leopard and tiger kill data were collected for

all three carnivores. Information was also col-

lected on population density, movement

patterns, reproduction, mortality, antipredator

behaviour and biomass of the prey species.

Study Area

Bandipur, one of the 15 Tiger Reserves in

India, offered an excellent opportunity to study

the impact of dhole, leopard and tiger preda-

tion on chital and sambar ( Cervus unicolor)

and understand the ecological separation bet-

ween a courser (dhole) and the stalking pre-

dators (leopard and tiger).

Because the study was carried out mainly on

foot an area of 32 Km2 was chosen around

Bandipur (Fig. 2) and collection of kills, scats

and prey censuses were restricted to the core

area of the study pack, an area of 20 Km2

(Fig. 3). Water in the study area was restrict-

ed to pools, some of which were perennial.

Dense vegetation bordering pools and stream

beds provided excellent cover for both ungu-

lates and predators. The core area was divided

into 219 quadrats for data analysis. In addition

to the above mentioned animals the large mam-

mal fauna in the Reserve included wild ele-

phant ( Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus),

wild pig (Sus scrofa ), muntjac ( Muntiacus

muntjak) and four horned antelope ( Tetra -

cerus quadricornis) .

The vegetation was dry deciduous forest

dominated by Anogeissus lati folia and Tectona

grandis. Exotic weeds ( Lantana camara and

Eupatorium glandulosum) had established in

many places. Bamboo ( Bambusa arundinacea

and Dendrocalamus strict us) regeneration was

poor, after flowering in 1964 (Spillett 1966).

Krishnan (1975a) gives a detailed account of

the vegetation of Bandipur. The vegetation

cover of the core area was classified into short

grass scrub tree jungle (98 quadrats), scrub

tree jungle (97 quadrats) and tall grass tree

jungle (24 quadrats). Eleven of the 219 qua-

drats had permanent pools (Fig. 3).

Heavy premonsoon showers began in late

April and May and the south west monsoon

commenced in June and ended in August. The

north east monsoon began in the later part of

September and extended through November.

Three seasons hot, wet and cool were distin-

guished (Neginhal 1974). The cool season

started in November and lasted until mid

February. During this period temperature sel-

dom exceeded 25 °C, relative humidity at noon

was 70% and there was enough light to make

field observations until 1800 h. Vegetation was

green and dense after the retreat of the north

east monsoon. Within a month, however, the

grass turned yellow and began to seed. In

January Forest department personnel burnt the

road side grass and fire watchers patrolled the

area during February, March and April.

The hot season commenced in late Febru-

ary and lasted until the middle of April. Dur-

ing March, the hottest month, temperature rose

to 30°C even in shade and humidity was 42%.

Sunset was around 1835 h. and there was suffi-

cient light for field work until 1900 h.

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

o

sr

6

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BAND1PUR

The wet season was the longest, extending Methods

from May to October. The sky was overcast general

throughout, temperature seldom exceeded 27 °C

and humidity rarely went below 60%. From the The study was conducted between 1st August

beginning of April premonsoon clouds drifted 1976 and 13th December 1977 and 4th Febru-

across the study area and showers activated the ary 1978 and 31st July 1978. Two local tribes-

emergence of winged termites ( Odontotermes men served as field assistants throughout the

spp.) and swarms of butterflies. study. Working on foot afforded an excellent

Fi<j. U. Sightings of elephants, solitary as well as herd,

from August 1976 to July 1977 (512 sightings).

7

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

opportunity to understand the terrain and its

microhabitats but it imposed severe limitations

on mobility. Elephants were common in the

study area (Fig. 4) and their presence eliminat-

ed the possibility of working at night.

Twenty nine sites safe from elephants were

used as observation points. The daily schedule

began at 0630 h. when 3 observers went off

in different directions looking for dholes.

Observers stayed in one of the observation

points or walked listening for the alarm calls

of chital, sambar, common langur ( Presbytis

entellus). Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) and Grey

jungle fowl ( Gallus sonneratii). Jungle Crows

(Corvus macrorhynchos) were of great help

in locating kills. Fifty five per cent (n = 219)

of fresh dhole kills, 72% (n = 58) of leopard

kills and all (n = 19) tiger kills were located

by observing crows. Tracking resumed again

between 1500 h. and 1800 h. During the mid-

day heat we searched the scrub for kills or

remained in hides near water holes.

Whenever a prey species gave an alarm call

we attempted to discover the cause when pos-

sible. For instance during the first year of study

alarm calls of chital were heard 157 times,

sambar 109 times and langur 56 times. Obser-

vations and indirect evidence helped to ascer-

tain the reason only 12 times (8%) for chital

alarms, 21 times (19%) for sambar alarms and

15 times (27%) for langur alarms. When alarm

calls were recorded on the quadrats we acquir-

ed additional information on prey concentration

and dispersion and preferred habitats of

predators.

Whenever dholes were sighted we followed

them at a distance of approximately 100 m.

If a kill was made, the pack was approached

as close as possible without detection, and

while the pack was feeding it was possible to

observe them for longer periods of time. The

pack size, location, weather and time of day

were recorded at each sighting. Tiger and

leopard numbers were assessed on the basis of

sightings, tracks and location of different fresh

kills.

Kills and their age estimation

In cases where direct observation was not

possible the prey’s wounds, tracks and trampl-

ed vegetation helped to determine the identity

of the predator. Tiger kills were distinguished

from leopard kills mainly by the tracks and

hair seen around the kill.

Whenever possible kill remains were weigh-

ed to estimate amount of meat eaten. Lower

jaws were collected and teeth were inspected

for dental deformities. Size and condition

(velvet or hard) of antlers were also recorded.

Eruption and wear of premolar and molar

teeth was used to determine the relative age of

prey. Chital were classified into 9 age cate-

gories (Schaller 1967) and sambar were

classified as young fawns, large fawns, yearlings

and adults. Fawns with erupting premolars

were classified as young fawns. Fawns with

fully erupted milk premolars were considered

large fawns. Sambar fawns completely eaten by

dholes were also included in the young fawn

group.

Six chital carcasses were checked for ecto-

and endoparasites. Lungs of 9 partly eaten

chital and of 2 sambar fawns were checked

for parasitic cysts.

Scat study

Dholes use scats for marking their home

ranges and one or two scats were, therefore,

collected from latrine sites. It was assumed

that fresh droppings represented the previous

meal and I was thus able to investigate the

sequence of kills.

8

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Johnsingh: Predator-Prey in Bandipur

Plate I

A herd of chital in a pool in Bandipur.

Sambar leaving a pool.

(Photos: Author )

Plate II

A gaur herd in Bandipur tree jungle.

Wild pig - dominant mammalian scavenger in Bandipur.

(Photos: Author )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Johnsingh: Predator-Prey in Bandipur

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

Leopard and tiger defecate either on the

central grassy strip of forest roads or on grass

immediately bordering them. These areas were

searched for scats.

The scats were later soaked in water and

dissected thoroughly to separate hair, bones

and other components. Hair samples donated

by Bombay Natural History Society and those

collected from kills were used as reference.

Whenever identification was not possible with

the naked eye a binocular microscope and the

key by Koppikar and Sabnis (1976) were used.

Adult and fawn remains in scats were

visually differentiated by the nature of the hair,

presence of hooves teeth and digested calcium.

Presence of soil and grass was taken into

account if 50% or more of the droppings con-

sisted of these items (Schaffer 1967). When the

remains of more than one species was found

in a scat, all hair types were identified and all

species that had contributed to the scat con-

tent were considered eaten by dholes. A total

of 509 dhole, 70 leopard and 36 tiger scats

were collected. Sixty seven scats of jungle cat

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

(Felis chaus) and 86 of sloth bear were also

analysed.

Prey density estimates

Population estimates of prey species were

based on direct counts. In Bandipur from May

to October chital formed large herds in certain

parts of the core area (Fig. 5). In these months

nearly 500 chital from Sommayanakatte,

Mysore lodge pool and Huvinkatte came to

Bandipur campus to spend the night. They

were counted from trees near trails either when

they came to the campus or left.

Chital in other areas were counted either

from vehicles or from a distance with bino-

culars. Counting was difficult during the dry

season when chital were dispersed. Chital were

classified as adult cf cf in hard and velvet

antlers, yearling cf cf with spike antlers, does

and fawns (Table 2). Males in shed antler

were included in the velvet group.

Accurate estimation of sambar numbers is

difficult as they prefer dense cover and are soli-

tary or found in small groups (Fig. 6). In un-

disturbed parts of the study area sambar were

active during the day, but in disturbed areas

they retired to cover at day break and emerged

late in the evening. Sambar were counted and

observed as they came out of cover in the

evening to feed and when they returned to rest

sites. From May to September sambar visited

waterholes during the day time more frequently

than in other months (X2 = 34.57, d.f., 1,

Table 2

Age and sex ratios of chital counted in the core area

10

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

40 r

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16 18 39

Number of individuals in a group

Fig. 6. Frequency of sightings of sambar groups o.f various sizes

(Total 1995 sightings).

11

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 80

Fig. 7. Concentrations of sambar in the Core area during July 1977.

P< 0.001, Table 3). Preferred localities of

sambar are marked in figure 7. Sambar were

classified into adult <$ d in hard and velvet

antlers, yearling c? c? with spike antlers, does

and fawns (Table 4).

The abundance of other prey species includ-

ing elephants, gaur, wild pig, muntjac, common

langur, porcupine ( Hystrix indica) and Black-

naped hare ( Lepus nigricollis ) was also esti-

mated. Peafowls were counted at roost sites.

A line transect study was carried out in

other parts of the study area to document the

abundance and seasonal migration of prey

species. Eight 4000 m long transects were laid

out at intervals of 600 to 800 m (Fig. 2). Every

month from September 1976 to August 1977

ungulate counts were made from these tran-

sects. The study area was then divided into 27

sectors and sightings were recorded on the

map. In addition a monthly watch was kept on

waterholes between October 1976 and August

1977. Animals were counted as they came to

drink between 0900 and 1600 h. two days each

month (Table 3). Temperature, humidity and

12

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

-Months

Fig. 8. The total number of rutting calls of chital stags

heard daily between 0630 and 0930 h and between

1600 and 1830 h over the period February 1977 to

January 1978.

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

Table 3

Number of large mammalian herbivores visited

THE WATERHOLES DURING THE DRY SEASON (5 MONTHS)

AND THE WET AND COOL SEASON (6 MONTHS) —

(October 1976 to August 1977)

Wet and Cool Season Dry Season

time of visit were recorded. Observation points

were chosen in such a way that the observer’s

presence could not be detected. Chital rutting

calls were counted between February 1977 and

January 1978 (Fig. 8). Jungle cat ( Felis chaus),

jackal ( Canis aureus), stripe necked mongoose

( Her pest es vitticollis) , Indian rock python

{Python molurus) and Crested Hawk-Eagle

{Spizaetus cirrhatus) were also observed.

Biomass estimation

While estimating the weight and biomass of

the species the procedure largely following

Schaller (1967, 1972) was adopted. In ele-

phants, gaur, sambar and chital there is large

variation in size of different sexes and sex

ratio. The biomass was calculated based on

Table 4

Age and sex ratios of sambar seen in the core area

14

Plate III

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Johnsingh: Predator-Prey in Bandipur

An elephant family group in Bandipur. The matriarch is drinking from a rock puddle.

Dholes have an excellent sense of smell.

Dhole on the right hand side tried to smell out the author’s presence.

(Photos: Author)

Plate IV

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Johnsingh: Predator-Prey in Bandipur

Common langur was the prominent primate in Bandipur.

An alert pea hen. Peafowls are potential prey of large carnivores.

(Photos: Author)

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

the actual composition of the population.

Weights of elephants were obtained from

Mudumalai elephant camp (John Joseph pers.

comm.) and for other animals data given in

Prater (1971) were used. The biomass of

langur, porcupine, hare and Peafowl was ob-

tained by multiplying the three quarters of the

weight of an adult 9 by the number in the

population. For pig and muntjac approximate

minimum adult weight and number in the

population was used. Since lone gaur bulls were

mostly seen in the core area weight of an

average sized bull was used.

Prey species

chital

Density and population composition

Chital were the most common and conspicu-

ous mammal of the study area. From May to

October 857 to 900 chital congregated within

a 7 to 8 Km2 area around Bandipur and reach-

ed a density of 120 /Km2. These large herds

fragmented at the onset of the dry season and

formed bachelor herds, small groups of does

and mixed parties. The dispersion of chital

during the dry season may be influenced by a

number of factors such as scarcity of green

forage, availability of fruit and permanent

water sources.

The movement pattern of chital in Bandipur

(aggregation after rains) was different from

that of Wilpattu where chital at the onset of

rains dispersed from concentrations at selected

villus (tank) toward villus which were dry

during the drought (Eisenberg and Lockhart

1972). During the dry season it was estimated

that nearly 800 chital remained in the core area,

a dry season density of 40 /Km2. Density in

Bandipur can be compared with the ecological

density of 12. 3 /Km2 in Bharatpur (Spillett

1967), 12/ Km2 in Wilpattu (Eisenberg and

Lockhart 1972) and 17.3/Km2 in Chitawan

(Seidensticker 1976b). Extensive patches of

short grass and dense thickets (fawning and

escape cover) were the major reasons for the

high density of chital in the core area.

Chital in Bandipur showed a sex ratio biased

in favour of 9 9 throughout the year. During

the peak months of rut (1977 and 1978) the

c? to 9 ratio was 84:100. The highest fawn:

doe ratio averaged for May, June and July

1977 was 68:100 and for the same period in

1978 the ratio was 61:100. In Bandipur 44%

of the population was < 2 years old and for

Kanha the figure was 53% (Schaller 1967).

Reproduction and peak in fawning

In Bandipur the peak rutting season was

between April and July (Sharatchandra and

Gadgil 1975 and Fig. 8). Extrapolating from

the April to July rutting peak and assuming

an 8 month gestation period (Schaller 1967)

more fawns should have been seen from Dec-

ember to March. Young fawns, however, re-

mained hidden during the early weeks and

could only be reliably counted when they began

to accompany the does. This occurred in May,

June and July after the summer rains and

sprouting of grass. Twin fawns were observed

on 5 occasions.

Peak in fawning could be confirmed by

distributing fawn kills, number of scats with

fawn remains collected in Bandipur and fawn

births recorded by Crandall (1964) over diffe-

rent months of the year (Fig. 9). In total 100

fawns killed by dholes, 1 1 by leopard and 1 by

tiger were collected. Fawn remains were seen

143 times in dhole scats. Twenty five scats of

leopard and 8 of tiger had fawn remains. When

distributed over the year it was clear:

a) fawn kills showed a peak from February

to July;

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 9. Chital fawn kills, scats with fawn remains and birth

of fawns in different months of the year.

16

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

b) scats with fawn remains were common in

December, February and March;

c) birth of fawns showed a peak from

March to July.

Young fawns are said to be scentless. (Bran-

der 1927, Graf and Nicholas 1966). Scat ana-

lysis, however, showed that in December,

February and March many fawns were killed

than in other months (X2 = 25.885, d.f., 1,

P < . 100). Pooled together the data indicated

a fawning peak from December to March.

Fawn sex ratio (Graf and Nicholas 1966, Schal-

ler 1967, Acharjyo and Padhi 1972) indicates

an even sex ratio at birth. Adult sex ratio how-

ever, favoured $ $ and this could be attribut-

ed to a higher mortality of cf fawns.

Mortality

Possible causes of mortality include accident,

disease and predation. Two does and one stag

were killed by vehicles. Deep wounds were fre-

quently seen on rutting stags and one stag kill-

ed by dholes had a deep stab wound in the

lower jaw. In May 1977 one stag was killed

by another stag.

All chital examined had ticks ( Haemophy -

salis spp) and flies ( Lipoptena spp). Of the 13

checked for cysts, one young stag with 40 cm

long hard antlers, had an infestation of 30

Cysticercus cysts in the lungs and a prime adult

doe had 3 cysts and Setaria spp worms in its

peritoneal cavity. Deformities which can affect

feeding efficiency and lead to debility are listed

in Table 5.

The major cause of mortality was predation.

Chital accounted for 74% of the 379 kills by

predators. An analysis of 509 dhole, 70 leopard

and 36 tiger scats showed chital hair in 52%,

51% and 39% respectively.

Local people frequently stole kills of preda-

tors. This probably had a deleterious effect on

chital population as predators were forced

to make more kills. During August and Sept-

ember 1976 there were 18 dhole and 3 leopard

kills of chital. All 3 leopard kills and 10 of the

18 dhole kills were stolen.

Antipredator behaviour

Chital have an excellent sense of smell and

hearing but they often failed to detect me at

distances of 5 to 7 m when I sat and froze close

to a tree. They were alerted by the alarm calls

of other animals, and sensed the presence of

dholes which were not noticed by me (see Ap-

pendix I, hunt 17). When attacked by dholes

(e.g., hunt 9) even chital with long hard antlers

fought ineffectively. Chital employed a variety

of antipredator strategies including:

(a) Bunching: Chital were seen to bunch

in the presence of dholes (n=16) and in the

presence of leopard (n = 2) and tiger (n = l).

Bunching was seen 17 times in wet and cool

months.

Dholes were not observed to attack chital

in a herd. The fear of being trampled and the

inability to concentrate on a particular indivi-

dual may deter dholes. Stags on seeing dholes

moved either to the front or to the middle of

the bunched fleeing herd. When 7 dholes went

past a herd of nearly 100 chital the stags ran

to the middle and 4 to 6 chital does with raised

tails and stamping feet came forward to investi-

gate. Once a leopard walked by and nearly

25 chital bunched and with raised tail sounding

alarm and stamping their forefeet trailed at a

distance of 40 to 50 m behind the cat, similar

to an incident reported by Eisenberg (in

Smythe 1970). The behaviour of the chital was

like the curiosity behaviour reaction of hoofed

mammals towards African predators (Kruuk

1972).

(b) Distraction display: Does with young

fawns ran off and left the fawn on two occa-

sions. A doe with a young fawn as soon as it

17

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 5

Deformities seen in chital killed by predators

SI. Date or

No. month

Particulars of Prey, Sex,

age class and antler Deformity

length in cm.

Predator

1 . August, 1976

2. March, 1977

3. 12 June, 1977

4. 1 August, 1977

5. 20 August, 1977

6. January, 1978

7. 28 February, 1978

8. 14 April, 1978

9. 21 June, 1978

$, VIII

9, VIII

Stag, V, 82 cm hard

antlers

$,VIII

Stag, V, Velvet antlers

eaten

9, VIII

.9, VIII

Stag, V, 18 cm hard

10. 3 July, 1978 Stag, IV, 45 cm hard

11. 11 July, 1978 Stag, V, 72 cm hard

Exerstosis on the left maxilla

on the medial aspect at the

first molar level. Both the first

molars not well developed.

Differential wear. No wear on

the first premolar and heavy

wear on the last molar.

Differential wear. First premo-

lar was not worn down. Pos-

sibly the upper apposing molar

was absent.

Excess callus formation at the

junction between the last

maxilla and the maxillary sym-

physis probably due to a pierc-

ing wound.

Differential wear on molars.

First premolar and last crown

of the 3rd molar were not

worn down.

Congenital maldevelopment

(hypoplacia) of the first molar

on the right maxilla

Differential wear conspicuous

on the second molar on the

left maxilla.

Exerstosis on the right maxilla.

Maldevelopment of teeth ex-

cept the last molars.

Left antler of the stag had bro-

ken and had healed when it

was in velvet at a height of

50 cm.

First crown of the last molar

and the last crown of the

second molar were broken. Left

antler was broken at a height

of 12 cm from the base.

Extra third premolars

Dhole

Leopard

Dhole

Leopard

Dhole

18

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

saw me, lay flat on the ground and kept the

head level with the grass. When I approached

her closer she rose, spronked, heavily thumped

her forefeet and the fawn ran away.

(c) Remaining motionless in cover: Adult

chital sometimes hid in dense cover when

alarmed by dholes (n = 3). One doe, took

refuge in a bamboo clump when chased and

attacked by a village dog in Sigur an adjoining

forest tract. Chital fawns were also found hid-

ing in dense cover (n = 7) (Appendix I, hunt

18). When chital were surprised in the scrub

they gave a startled call and dispersed abruptly

in different directions. This may confuse a pre-

dator.

(d) Flight: Chital flight distance varied in

different parts of the study area. Near Bandi-

pur they could be approached to a distance of

30 m but in the more remote parts of the study

area, where poaching occurred, flight distances

in excess of 80 m were common. When directly

approached by hunting dholes the flight dis-

tance was usually 60 m or more. When pursued

by dholes chital fawns called in distress.

(e) Seeking refuge in water: On 4 occa-

sions during the study chital stood at bay in

water to escape dholes but all were killed.

Chital twice ran across the river in Sigur when

pursued by dholes, probably in an attempt to

lose them. On another occasion a chital doe

stood at bay in Sigur river to evade a village

dog. Only our intervention saved the doe.

Sambar

Distribution

Sambar were the most widely distributed

large prey species in the study area. Their dis-

tribution and abundance appear to be influenc-

ed by dense cover, water and by their ability

to subsist on a wider variety of plants. During

the wet and cool season cover was afforded

by Lantana and bamboo while grass Imperata

arundinacea under shady trees (e.g., Shorea

talura ) provided cover during the dry monfhs.

Rest sites near water were preferred. In con-

trast with chital sambar were found in hilly

terrain (e.g., sectors 3 and 19) and tall grass

(e.g., sectors 10 and 15).

Group size, density and biomass

Sambar in the study area formed large

groups only at water holes and feeding sites.

Otherwise single animals and groups of 2 form-

ed 36% and 31% respectively of the 1995 sight-

ings. An unusually large aggregation formed in

response to a dhole pack; a total of 39 sambar

(6 stags in hard, 4 in velvet, 3 spike bucks, 19

does and 17 fawns) was observed standing in

a pond where they sought refuge. The popula-

tion estimate for the core area in July 1977

was 160 to 180 or a density of 8 to 9 /Km2.

This concentration was not seen during dry

months when nearly 140 sambar stayed in the

core area which gave a dry season density of

7/Km2.

The high wet season density of sambar form-

ed 13 to 14% of the total number of prey

animals (excluding porcupine, hare and pea-

fowl) and 36 to 38% of the prey biomass ex-

cluding elephant. The wet season density gave

a total biomass of 24, 875 to 27, 984 Kg. or

1244 to 1399 kg/Km2 (Table 6). The related

figure from Wilpattu is 158 kg/Km2 (Eisenberg

and Lockhart 1972) and Chitawan 443 Kg/Km2

(Seidensticker 1976b). The high density in the

core area was mostly due to dense patches of

escape cover ( Lantana and bamboo) around

water holes, which are distributed evenly in the

core area.

Sex ratio

Sex ratio of sambar at birth appears to be

even; of the 35 births recorded by Acharjyo

19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

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Proportion in velvet and hard

antler stags

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BAN DIPUR

Velvet antler

I~1 Hard antler

Fig. 10. The proportion of sambar stags in velvet and

hard antlers.

21

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

and Padhi (1972) there were 14 d d and

21 $ $ or a ratio of 2:3. The null hypothesis

that d and 9 sex ratio was even is acceptable

(Z = 1.645, P > .05). Nevertheless the sex

ratio showed a bias in favour of $ $ through-

out the year (Table 4). Average d to $ ratio

during November, December and January was

41:100. Schaller sexed 11 kills and found the

ratio of d and $ to be 120:100 and ratio in

the population was 30:100. Male kills were

more common than expected (X2 = 11.46, d.f.,

1, P < .005). My data (see discussion: preda-

tion and sex of prey) and Schaller’s confirm

preferential predation on yearling and

adult d d ■

Rut

In Bandipur sexual activity was indicated by

antler development, sore patch, wallowing and

courtship behaviour. Stags in hard antlers were

observed mainly between November and April

and most d d had shed their antlers by May

(Fig. 10).

Fawning period

Sambar fawn population is difficult to esti-

mate because they do not consistently follow

the 9 9 during the first 3 months (Eisenberg

and Lockhart 1972). Lone resting fawns were

flushed out of cover on 24 occasions (Janu-

ary, February and June each 3, March 4, April

5, May and August each 2 and November and

December each once). This does not coincide

with the beginning of rut (November) and may

be the result of young fawns freezing in cover

instead of running away when approached.

Forty one kills of young sambar fawns (38 by

dhole, 2 by leopard and 1 by tiger. Fig. 11)

show that more fawns were killed from August

to March than expected (X2 = 11.2, d.f., 1,

P < 0.001) which assuming an 8 month gesta-

tion period (Acharjyo and Misra 1971) indicat-

ed these fawns were conceived during the rutting

season, November to April. Fawn to doe ratio

averaged for May, June and July 1977 was

32:100 and for the same period in 1978 the

ratio was 41:100.

Mortality

The major cause of observed mortality was

predation. Of the 379 kills found in this study

sambar accounted for 17%. Sambar remains

were found in 14% of dhole (n = 509) and

leopard scats (n = 70) and 31% of tiger scats

(n = 36). Predation took a heavy toll of sam-

bar fawns. Of the 66 sambar kills 41 (62%)

were of fawns < 4 months of age. An exami-

nation of 93 predator scats with sambar re-

mains (72 of dhole, 11 of tiger and 10 of

leopard) showed 71 of them (76%) had sam-

bar fawn remains. I removed 5 snares set for

sambar.

Antipredator behaviour

Sambar have an excellent sense of smell but

like chital they seem unable to distinguish im-

mobile objects. Sambar have the ability to sense

danger from the excitement created by the pre-

sence of a predator (hunt 3). The sambar’s

preference for dense cover may be an adapta-

tion against dholes but could be disadvantage-

ous when stalked either by tiger or leopard.

Sambar do not have any white markings on

their bodies which may be a cryptic adaptation

for a life in the scrub. Sambar antipredator

behaviour include:

(a) Watching: Schaller (1967) mentions

the ability of sambar to remain motionless for

long periods of time. This was observed many

times and may enable them to remain unseen

while investigating the movement of predators;

(b) Investigation of curious objects: When

wind was not in their favour sambar were

curious to know the identity of the object which

,22

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

Fig. 11. Bachelor herds of sambas stags in hard antlers with

does and fawn kills seen over the period August 1976 to

July 1978

23

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

attracted their attention. Once a sambar mis-

took me for a predator and keeping the tail

vertical, thumping forelegs and jerking the head

it approached me 7 to 10 m. A solitary adult

tusker interrupted the observation. This type

of curious approach may be advantageous if

the stalking predator is forced to launch a

preemptive attack;

(c) Belling: Sambar called when they saw

predators including jungle cat. Their alarm calls

varied in tone and intensity depending on the

type of predator and whether or not it was

hunting. When hunted by dholes sambar with

young were not observed to call but adults

without young did (hunt 6). When dholes

hunted, 9 9 with fawns were seen to leave the

area (hunt 3). A leopard going through a scrub

prompted a sambar to call in a subdued tone

but the sambar did not run. Once 2 tigers kill-

ed a sambar doe in a patch of scrub and their

movements were indicated by sambar alarms

from the same scrub. It appeared that for the

2 days the tigers remained in the scrub the

sambar of that area were not unduly disturbed.

But on 6 different occasions when a tiger was

hunting in the same scrub 1 to 14 sambar

emerged giving alarm calls. Probably on these

occasions the tiger was hunting;

(d) Remaining motionless in cover: Bran-

der (1927) noted that sambar squat like a hare

so they would be passed undetected. Once a

fawn and another time a stag stayed in cover

allthrough aware of my approach. The fawn

placed its chin on the ground and lay crouched

until I passed 5 m of it. The stag remained

motionless until I was within 8 m;

(e) Seeking refuge in water: This was the

most common and successful strategy against

dholes and was seen 15 times. On 6 occasions

sambar ran over a 3 m high tank bund to get

into water. On 2 occasions they ran through

scrub to get into 6 to 7 m wide puddle. While

24

in the water sambar seemed to have control

over the situation. Together an adult and a

yearling doe successfully kept off the study

pack from a fawn (hunt 21). While in water

sambar kept their rumps together as moose

( Alces alces) do (Mech 1966) (hunts 20 and

21). They also rose on their hind feet and

struck at dholes with forefeet (hunt 20). The

fear of being chased again often forced sambar

to stay in water even after the dholes left (hunt

21). In Bandipur dholes did not press home

their attack when sambar retreated to water

(hunt 21) as chital were the main prey species;

(f) Attack: On land sambar were not able

to protect their fawns successfully from dholes

(hunts 5, 16, 17 and 19). But on 3 occasions

in open areas adult sambar chased dholes —

on two occasions solitary does chased 3 to 5

dholes and another time 2 does, watched by 2

yearling does, drove off 3 dholes (e.g., hunt

19). When sambar faced dholes on land they

bristled their body hair, held their tails vertical

laid back the pinnae and exposed the white

of the eyes. Snorting was also heard. While

approaching dholes they kept the head low to

the ground extended the neck and stamped

their forefeet.

On two occasions sambar fawns screamed

when chased by dholes even though not physi-

cally assaulted (hunt 20 and 21). When chased

by dholes sambar did not enter Bandipur

village as was done by chital on 6 occasions.

Ecological adaptations of breeding in

CHITAL AND SAMBAR

Continued optimal season is seen in tropics

and equatorial regions where the seasons vary

so little that young may be born at any time

of the year and have an approximately equal

chance of survival (Sadleir 1969). Although

Bandipur is a tropical monsoon forest its envi-

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

ronment has seasonality in food availability

which presents a situation some what similar

to the ‘fixed optimal season found in temperate

areas’ (Sadleir 1969).

In Bandipur food for ungulates was scarce

and was of low nutritional value from January

to April. Grass was tender and green from May

to August. Chital fawns, however, were born

even in very dry months. Although chital fawns

nibble grass when they are a week old they

begin eating it in quantity by 5 weeks (Graf

and Nicholas 1966). By the time many chital

fawns were weaned and had greater food re-

quirements the fodder condition had dramati-

cally improved which enabled them to feed

exclusively on grass.

A continued supply of tender grass from

May to August would also enhance the deve-

lopment of the embryo conceived at the end

of April. Further more the arrival of the north

east monsoon by the end of September and the

sprouting of more grass in October may pro-

vide the embryo with all essential nutrients.

Thus at Bandipur chital are finely adapted to

their environment by evolving weaning and

pregnancy to synchronize with the time of

abundant growth of grass.

In sambar rut commenced after the end

of the May to September aggregation. Assem-

blage before the rut could lead to the forma-

tion of new breeding herds, social order and

exchange of gene pool. Sambar hinds conceiv-

ing between November end and the beginning

of May may have nutritional difficulties. The

ability of sambar to eat a wide spectrum of

forage, however, may nullify this hardship.

Sambar fawns born in dry months have thin

vegetation cover but their ability to remain

hidden may help them overcome this difficulty.

solitary cT cT - Lone $$ were seen 81 times

(53%) and the largest group had 32 (8 adults

and 24 young). Of the 155 sightings 123 (79%)

were seen in wet and cool months and 32

(21%) during the dry season. Pigs may be

mostly nocturnal in their activity during the

dry months.

The estimated number of pigs in the core

area in July 1977 was 50 animals, a density of

2.5/Km2. Stripers (young piglets) were seen

in the months of June, July and August which

implies littering after rains in May.

Wild pigs were the major terrestrial scaven-

gers of the area. Five times they were seen

eating the kill remains of dhole; three times in

the presence of the pack (Johnsingh 1978). A

chital fawn killed by a leopard and a chital

doe killed by a tiger were also scavenged.

Table 7

Frequency of occurrence of food items in 509

DHOLE SCATS COLLECTED IN BANDIPUR

Wild Pig

There were 155 sightings of sounders and

25

Sightings of wild pig, gaur* and muntjac correlated with rainfall

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Tt rH OO

O m Tt

Daniel (1967) suggests that pigs may kill and

eat fawns but this was not observed during this

study.

Only 5 pig kills were collected. Four of

these were adult boars killed by tigers and one

was an unsexed adult killed by dholes. This

latter pig had attempted to escape the dholes

by backing into a pit and facing the dholes. Pig

remains were seen in 6% of tiger scats (Fig.

12) and 1% of dhole scats (Table 7).

Gaur

Gaur was one of the most common large

mammals of Bandipur before the 1968 rinder

pest epidemic. During the study there were 48

sightings of gaur; lone bulls were seen 25 times

(52%). The largest herd consisted of 45 to 60

animals. It was not possible to classify the ani-

mals with regard to sex except that mature bulls

were black and females and young bulls were

brown. Six herds were classified and within

these there were 19 black adults (22%), 43

brown adults (51%) and 23 young (27%).

There is a positive correlation (+569) bet-

ween the number of sightings of gaur and rain-

fall (Table 8). Nearly 96% of gaur sightings

were in wet and cool months.

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Muntjac

This deer was not seen close to human habi-

tation and its habitat was more often shared

by sambar than by chital. In total 86 animals

were seen belonging to 66 groups. Six animals

could not be sexed. The rest were classified as

25 d d (31%), 39 $ $ (49%) and 16 young

(20%). The sex ratio was 64 S : 100 $ $ .

Of the 66 groups solitary animals were seen

50 times (76%) groups of 2 12 times (18%)

and groups of 3 or 4 4 times (6%).

26

Group size of elephants counted in the core area — August 1976 — July 1977

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

Muntjac showed a distinct movement pattern

in relation to rain. Sixty one (71%) animals

were seen during dry months when water was

restricted to certain ponds. An estimate of 20

animals for the core area gave a density of 1

animal /Km2.

No muntjac kill was collected ; 3% of leo-

pard, 3% of tiger and 2% of dhole scats had

muntjac remains in them.

Porcupine

Tracks and droppings of porcupine were

commonly seen. The estimate for the core area

was 100 animals, a density of 5 /Km2. Signs

indicated that they centered their activities

around water holes in summer. Six per cent of

tiger and 1% of leopard scats had porcupine

remains.

Hare and Rodents

The number of black naped hare was assess-

ed to be 200 animals for the core area or a

density of 10/ Km2. Fourteen per cent of dhole,

11% of leopard, 10% of jungle cat and 3% of

tiger scats had hare remains. Crested Hawk

Eagles were seen eating hare three times and

once a hare, to escape the aerial attacks of a

Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela),

abruptly crouched 3 times. Rodents were

found in 64% of jungle cat, 14% of leopard

and 6% of dhole scats.

Elephants

Elephant was not a common prey animal

but its contribution to the biomass was signifi-

cant. During the first year 2283 sightings were

classified: adult tuskers 18%, juvenile tuskers

11%, Cows 40%, juvenile cows 17% and calves

15%. Mean group size between November and

April varied between 6 and 8.7 and for May

27

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

to October it was between 5.8 and 12.5 (Table

9). During the wet and cool season there were

nearly 100 elephants in the core area and for

the dry season the estimate was around 20.

One calf was killed and eaten by a tiger. A

leopard was chased by an adult tusker and

dholes were chased 8 times.

Peafowl

This potential prey was restricted to the core

area and there were nearly 180 birds. The sex

ratio in the population was biased in favour of

males throughout the year. In April, a month

prior to the active breeding season, the ratio

was 224 d d : 100 9 9. This can be compar-

ed with the ratio of 47 d d : 100 9 9 at In jar

(Johnsingh and Murali 1980).

Peahens lay 3 to 5 eggs (Ali 1972) and in

Bandipur chick mortality was high. Of the 27

broods seen 8% had 1 chick, 48% 2 chicks,

22% 3, 19% 4 and 4% had 5. Five kills (2

d d with trains, 1 $ without, 1 9 and 1 chick)

were collected. Crested Hawk Eagles killed all

3 d d and a jungle cat killed the chick. Many

brooding females killed in the scrub may go un-

noticed.

Antipredator behaviour of Prey Species

The response of the prey species to the pre-

dator depends on the activities of the preda-

tor. If the predator is not hunting and happens

to go past the prey the latter becomes alert,

curious, and subdued alarm calls may be pro-

duced. When the predator is hunting the res-

ponse entirely changes and any one of the fol-

lowing strategies — hiding in cover, flight or

attack may be adooted. In general the antinre-

dator behaviour is influenced by the size, habi-

tat, sex, renroductive condition, sociability of

the prey and size of the predator. Eisenberg and

Mckay (1974) give a detailed sequence of

events and their alternatives which may be

followed by a terrestrial herbivore upon per-

ceiving a predator. Table 10 summarizes the

various antipredator behaviours seen in Bandi-

pur. Certain antipredator behaviour are dis-

cussed further.

Bunching

Gregarious behaviour is a form of cover

seeking in which an animal tries to reduce its

chance of being caught by a predator (Hamil-

ton 1971). Bunching of chital in the presence

of dhole was first reported by Sharatchandra

and Gadgil (1975). Reproductive investment of

chital cf d (sperms) is insignificant when com-

pared with those of 9 9 which carry the em-

bryo for 8 months and nurse the fawn for 3 to

4 months. This high reproductive investment

may prompt the 9 9 to come forward and

investigate the danger while the d d run to the

safety of the middle of the herd. Bunching was

seen in truly social mammals such as wild pig,

gaur and elephants.

Remaining motionless in cover

This is an excellent means of escape for small

animals and was often shown by hare and occa-

sionally by chital. Sweeny et al. (1971 ) observed

this in white tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginia-

nus) when chased by dog ( Canis familiaris)

and call this behaviour ‘holding’. Older black-

tailed stag ( Odocoileus hemionus) remain

bedded to escape hunters (Dasmann and

Taber 1956). Interestingly this behaviour was

shown by the much larger sambar. If sambar

remains bedded when a predator approaches

the bush down wind there is every chance the

deer, whose dark brown coat blends well with

the dim interior of the scrub, may escape un-

noticed.

28

Antipredator behaviour seen in Bandipur

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Alarm calls

Kin selection (Hamilton 1964, Maynard

Smith 1965) and individual selection (Trivers

1971) have been evoked as two explanations

for the evolution of alarm calls. Yahner (1980)

discusses the functions and adaptiveness of

barking in muntjac. Alarm calls of chital in

the presence of a stalking predator may be a

‘pursuit invitation signal’ (Smythe 1977).

Though chital form social groups late prenatal

and early post natal care of the young rests

only with the individual does and in that type

of situation alarm calls may have evolved

through individual selection. This is more so

in sambar.

Through direct and indirect evidence many a

time I recorded chital calling in the presence

of leopard and tiger but never I saw chital

calling when they clearly saw dholes. A stalking

predator could be dangerous only at close quar-

ters and repeated alarms could be given while

the distance between them is sufficiently large

for a reasonable chance for chital’s escape if

the stalking predator is hunting. This may not

be the case with dholes. When dholes ran

through the scrub chital gave subdued single

alarms. Presumably the deer did not identify

the predator.

Seeking refuge in water

Burton (1940) suggested that water is not a

place of refuge and the habit of animals run-

ning to water or being killed near water is the

result of their down hill race which accidentally

takes them to water. Observations in Bandipur

indicate that sambar purposely ran to water.

A study of 9 kills including those of 5 adults

(e.g., hunt 3) showed that certain prerequisites

are necessary for this tactic to be successful :

(a) Water should be shallow enough to

allow sambar to use forelegs powerfully;

(b) Water should not be too shallow which

would permit dholes to walk in and

attack;

(c) It would be better for sambar if there is

scrub bordering the edge of water not

affording space for the intercepting

dholes.

Attacks

Wild pig, sambar, gaur and elephant actively

chased dholes. Muntjac are said to attack and

kill domestic dogs Canis familiaris (Hoogerwerf

1970). If the size of the prey determines the

capability to attack then chital which are larger

than muntjac and wild pig should attack. Horns

and tusks evolved primarily as the weapons

for the fight between the members of the same

species rather than as defence against preda-

tors (Geist 1966). Chital is another example for

this speculation. Probably shorter weapons like

the canines of muntjac and pig can be effective-

ly used against a predator than a longer antler.

Sheer size of gaur and elephants enable them

to intimidate dholes. Observations of sambar

does and gaur cows chasing dholes in the pre-

sence of their young support the hypothesis

that ‘chasing predators may give naive prey in-

dividuals the opportunity to learn to recognize

predators by participating in low risk chases’

(Kruuk 1972, Berger 1979).

Biomass

For understanding the effect of predation a

calculation of biomass is necessary. The first

attempt to estimate the biomass in the oriental

region was made by Schaffer and Spillett (1966)

for the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary. Recently

Eisenberg and Seidensticker (1976) reviewed

the data on ungulate communities and their

biomass in the Indian subcontinent.

In Bandipur if the contribution of other small

30

Plate V

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Johnsingh: Predator-Prey in Bandipur

Leopard was the second common predator in Bandipur.

A young tiger in Bandipur

(Photos: Author)

Plate VI

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Johnsingh: Predator-Prev in Bandipur

Jackal was rare in the study area.

Sambar-dhole interaction.

(Photos: Author)

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BAN DIPUR

prey species such as porcupine (8x 100 = 800

Kg.), hare (2x200 = 400 Kg.) and peafowl (3

x 180 = 540 Kg.) was added to the figure deriv-

ed in Table 6 the biomass of prey animals was

between (68,825 + 1740) 70,565 Kg. and

(73,587 + 1740) 75327 Kg. or 3528 Kg.

to 3766 Kg/Km2. The average was 3647 Kg/

Km2. With the contribution of elephants the

biomass ranged between 289,765 and 294,527

Kg. or 14,488 to 14,726 Kg/Km2. The average

was 14,607 Kg./Km2.

This biomass was maintained almost through-

out the wet and cool season. During the dry

season owing to the dispersal of chital and sam-

bar and the absence of gaur the prey biomass

went down to 2863 Kg/ Km2. The prey biomass

for dry months (2863 x 5 = 14,315) and for

wet and cool seasons (3647 x 7 = 25,525) gave

an average of 3,320 Kg/Km2 for the year. In

dry season hardly 20 elephants remained in the

core area and their biomass (2,192 Kg /Km2

with prey biomass 2,863 Kg/Km2) gave 5055

Kg/ Km2 which was 35% of the average bio-

mass of the wet and cool season (14,607 Kg/

Km2).

Another aspect of the study of biomass con-

cerns the relative proportions contributed by

the different species in the community (Mckay

and Eisenberg 1974). In the core area during

the wet and cool season numerically less and

highly mobile elephants formed 76% of the

total biomass, chital 11% and sambar 9%. The

prey biomass of the core area is much higher

than the biomass of 465 Kg/ Km2 for the entire

Reserve (calculated from Wesley 1977). Major

reasons for the core area having a high prey

biomass were evenly distributed water holes and

heterogeneous vegetation which afforded forage,

escape cover and rest and fawning sites.

PREDATORS

Number and Densities

In the core area there was a pack of dholes

varying in number between 7 and 18 giving a

density between 0.35 and 0.9 dholes/ Km2.

Mean number of adults was 8.3; when pups

were present the mean number was 16. Dholes

were the major predators and accounted for

80% of the kills (n = 379). Two or 3 leopards

and at least a d1 and a $ tiger hunted in the

core area. Leopards accounted for 15% of the

kills and tigers for 5%.

Hunting Habits of Dholes

Time of hunt

The exact time was recorded for 124 kills

made in the morning. Of these 96 (77%) were

made after sunrise and 28 (23%) before sun-

rise. Of 67 kills in the evening 52 (78%) were

seen before sunset and 15 (22%) after sunset.

Three kills were made at different nights (e.g.,

hunt 11) of which 2 nights were moonlit.

Prelude to hunt

When prelude to the hunt was observed (4

instances) the dholes rested and played on

roads and on 3 occasions near their defecation

sites. While resting close to one another they

nuzzled and rubbed their bodies together. Active

submission, tail wagging, chase and ambush

were common. Mounting was noted once. On

3 occasions some dholes playfully walked on

branches of fallen trees. Once this peaceful get

together suddenly gave way to vigorous play

which abruptly subsided as the pack started off

to hunt. Vocalization at the climax of play,

reported in Lycaon (Estes and Goddard 1967)

and in wolves (Mech 1970) was not heard.

At the beginning of the hunt dholes often

moved in single file and the trotting speed was

31

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

around 9 km /hr. Occasionally one or two

dholes lagged behind sniffing a tuft of grass,

lapping water or scavenging a bone.

Locating prey

Dholes have an excellent sense of smell and

were able to locate the observer more than

100 m away (hunt 12). Dholes located prey

by sight but they also depended on smell (hunts

3, 4, 8 and 12). In scrub where visibility was

limited they primarily depended on smell.

When the prey ran sight and hearing aided

them to follow the quarry. Running sounds of

prey in the scrub informed other dholes of the

progress of the hunt. In one case 6 or 7 dholes

approached a herd of gaur by stalking through

the tall grass.

Dholes adopted two hunting strategies. In

one strategy they moved through the scrub in

an extended line formation (e.g., hunts 5, 8, 16,

18, 19 and 24) and any adult may begin the

attack when it locates prey. In the other strategy

some pack members remained at the periphery

of the scrub to intercept fleeing prey as it was

flushed (e.g., hunts 1 to 5, 15 and 19). Both

formations are effective for locating hidden

fawns and resting adults. Dholes adopted the

former strategy 39 times and the latter 14 times

in total.

Rush and chase

Other than gaur, wild pig and occasional

sambar all prey ran when chased by dholes.

Handicapped prey trailed behind (e.g., hunt 6).

Dholes may determine vulnerability by the

prey’s initial reaction. During the early phase

of the chase dholes run faster than the prey.

Owing to this and team work most of the chases

did not last long. In 92% of 48 occasions the

chase ended within 500 m of its starting point.

Twice the chase went beyond 500 m (e.g., hunt

1) and on two occasions the distance could not

be assessed.

One widely prevalent belief is dholes hunt in

relays pursuing prey casually at a loping canter

until the quarry is exhausted (Burton 1940,

Davidar 1975, Krishnan 1975b). In a dense

habitat especially where many animal tracks

crisscross it would be difficult for dholes to run

in relays or follow a prospective prey animal

for a long distance. Even in the African plains

Lycaon hunt occasionally in brief relays

(Kruuk and Turner 1967, Schaffer 1972) but

Estes and Goddard (1967) never saw a true

relay chase.

Attack and kill

Small mammals like hare and chital fawn

were seized by any part of the body as they

ran. With a single head shake such small prey

were killed instantly (e.g., hunts 8 and 14).

Dholes were capable of inflicting serious wounds

on the rump and flanks of the larger prey

(hunts 5 and 6) and consequently even large

chital stags were brought down (e.g., hunt 10).

Generally larger animals are attacked from

behind and the usual points of attack are rump

and flank. Dholes are wary if prey are capa-

ble of injuring either with antlers or forelegs

(hunt 9). The nose hold seen in wolves (Mech

1970) and Lycaon (Estes and Goddard 1967,

Van Lawick 1971, Schaffer 1972, Malcolm and

Van Lawick 1975) was used by dholes when

the speed of the prey was arrested. Nose hold-

ing enabled dholes to accelerate their attack

on the rump and flank which ultimately sub-

dued the victim. If the prey’s nose is caught

while it stands in water the weight of the dhole

may drown the prey before the dhole frees

itself from suffocation. This was interpreted as

intentional drowning of the prey by dholes

(Sankhala 1977). However, I cannot believe

32

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BAND1PUR

that dholes drown their prey intentionally. Once

the nose hold was used to drag a chital fawn

out of water (hunt 13).

During this study 27 out of 40 fresh kills had

snout injury (4 sambar $ c? , 6 chital stags in

velvet, 15 chital stags in hard antlers, 1 chital

doe and 1 sambar fawn). Snout injury occurred

in all sambar males, in 55% of chital stags in

velvet and in 82% of chital stags in hard antler.

More chital stags in hard antler were injured

on the snout by nose hold than expected

(Hypergeometric distribution, p. 0878, p > .05).

Attack on the rump and flanks led to evis-

ceration. Bite wounds, shock and loss of blood

eventually killed the prey. Of 40 fresh kills

checked none had throat wounds. Dholes re-

moved the scrotum during hindquarter attack

and this has led to the popular belief that they

deliberately emasculate their prey. The scrotum

was usually eaten as it was found on only 4

occasions (n = 33).

Prejudice against dholes arises from their

method of disemboweling prey and eating them

alive (hunts 3 and 9). Ten direct observations

showed that prey weighing 50 Kg or less were

killed within 2 minutes after the attack began.

The maximum time was 15 minutes (hunt 9).

Killing was delayed by human interference as

‘some members of the pack hung back appre-

hensively and were not able to do their share

in killing’ (Van Lawick 1971). In the absence

of human interference a yearling c? sambar was

killed within 7 minutes by the pack of 15 (hunt

3).

Dholes do not deserve the reputation as cruel

hunters as their method and time required to

kill are not much different from those of other

predators. Hyenas take 1 to 13 min. (Av. = 6.3)

to kill wild beast (Kruuk 1972). A lioness took

more than 8 min. to kill a warthog and 3

lionesses more than 7 min. to kill a zebra (Schal-

ler 1972). Tigers (Burton 1925) and lions

(Schaffer 1972) have been reported to eat their

prey alive. Obviously natural selection has led

to effective means of disabling prey (incapaci-

tation) rather than quick and painless death.

When the pack moves through the scrub

there may be opportunities to attack 2 or 3

large prey animals. There was only one inci-

dent of dholes, however, killing 2 large chital

stags at one time. This suggests dholes are not

wanton killers. Kills were not made by a parti-

cular dhole (see hunts 1, 6, 10, 11 and 13).

Sequence of eating a carcass

Dholes fed excitedly soon after killing. The

belief that every dhole gets its share was not

true when kills were small (e.g., hunt 1). Even

for medium sized animals like chital doe and

sambar fawn, especially when the undivided

pack was around, there was always squabbling

until the excitement of the hunt was over. Fawns

were torn to pieces within seconds after killing

and each dhole ran away with its share (e.g.,

hunt 8). Even when the kill was as large as a

yearling sambar or an adult chital stag all

pack members did not lie around the kill and

eat. When my presence was noted they dragged

the kill away (e.g., hunts 2, 5, 12 ana 17) and

once a male weighing nearly 18 kg dragged a

49 kg chital doe for 5 m through grass and

creepers.

As all dholes could not eat at the rump

they tugged at the carcass from all directions.

Belly and loin were soon torn open and the

entrails were puffed out. The viscera were drag-

ged aside (hunts 3, 9, 13 and 24). If it was a

fawn the intestine was eaten spiffing the con-

tents. The rumen was usually left though its

tissue was some times eaten. Lungs were often

torn out but were not always eaten. There was

always a scramble for the liver and the heart.

Dholes seemed to relish the eye balls. Of the

40 fresh kills checked 21 had both eyes remov-

33

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ed, in 8 cases left and in 6 cases right eye were

removed. Five animals had intact eyes. In 4

hunts dholes removed the eye balls as soon as

the kill was made. Pinnae were also eaten. Of

the 40 kills both the pinnae were removed in

17 animals, left pinnae in 12 and right in 5.

In 16 cases pinnae were present. Uneaten dis-

membered pinna was (three times) found close

to kills.

When a kill was fully eaten dismembered

parts of the prey were left around the kill site.

Usually the vertebral column with the attached

ribs and the skull formed the main piece. The

limb bones and pectoral girdle were usually

separated. If the prey was large the skin was

neatly removed of meat and then left with the

head attached. When dholes ate a mature chital

stag (around 75 kg) the remains weighed

around 25 kg. (33%). However, on 4 occasions

the remains varied between 51 and 68% (Av. =

55). Dholes left these kills in the absence of

human disturbance. This contradicts the belief

that dholes leave only bone fragments even

from large kills such as adult sambar.

Feeding dholes frequently drank if water was

nearby. If water was some distance away they

headed for the nearest waterhole soon after

eating. When the day became hot before the

kill was eaten dholes did not go to their dis-

tant rest sites. Instead they found shelter under

dense thickets near the kill till the evening.

Speed of eating and meat consumption rate

As Kruuk (1972) noted in hyena competi-

tion between feeding dholes expressed itself

mostly in the speed of eating rather than in

fighting. Dholes consumed their kills quickly.

The pack (9 adults + 9 pups) once ate 50 kg

of meat from a 70 to 75 kg chital stag within

90 min. They were aware of my presence and

had a brief uninvited interaction with 4 village

dogs. Another time 8 adults and 7 pups ate 14

kg of meat from a yearling chital doe (30 to

35 kg) within 4 min.

For three periods I collected almost all the

kills made by the pack (Table 11). The prey

varied from chital fawn to chital stag, number

of dholes ranged from 15 to 18 and the meat

available per dhole varied between 0. 7 kg and

3 kg. The total meat consumed by a dhole dur-

ing the 15 day period was 27.9 kg (1.86 kg

of meat per day or 0.103 kg of meat per kg

of 18 kg dhole). This is comparable to the con-

sumption rates for wolves (2.6 to 6.3 kg per

wolf per day or 0.09 to 0. 19 kg per kg., Mech

1966) and for Lycaon (2.0 to 4.0 kg per

Lycaon per day or 0.11 to 0.15 kg per kg,

Estes and Goddard 1967). The estimate for the

dhole may be a little lower than the actual

amount of meat eaten as they may be feeding

on smaller animals which would go unrecorded.

My observations indicate that when dholes ate

about 2 kg in the morning they did not hunt in

the evening. On 7 occasions when the morning

kill provided each dhole < 2 kg of meat they

hunted again in the evening. On 6 occasions

when the first kill was a fawn one more kill

was made in the same hunting session.

Scavenging and attendant scavengers

Dholes scavenged once on a tiger kill (John-

singh 1979b) and 7 times on leopard kills.

Dholes returned and ate their own kills for the

second time either on the same day or 2 or 3

days after (n = 1 1 ) . Although dholes were not

seen hunting langurs remains of langurs were

seen in 6 dhole scats. This may have been the

result of scavenging. Food caching was not

observed though it is seen in wolves (Murie

1944) and rarely in Lycaon (Malcolm 1980).

The jungle crow was the major scavenger at

Bandipur. Besides this there were King Vul-

tures ( Torgos calvus), Whitebacked ( Gyps

bengalensis) , Longbilled ( Gyps indicus). Pariah

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate VII

Johnsingh: Predator-Prey in Bandipur

Dholes at a sambar kill.

Sambar skin removed of meat by Dholes.

(Photos: Author)

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

Table 11

Estimation of meat consumption rate of dhole

Kites ( Milvus migrans) and on one occasion

a White Scavenger Vulture ( Neophron perc-

nopterus). Village dogs scavenged on dhole kill

remains four times.

Observations on Other Predators

Tiger

There were 18 sightings. The tigress of the

area was followed by 2 cubs from the end of

May 1977. Sightings of the 3 till March

1978 indicated that the tigress was successful in

rearing the cubs.

Once when I mimicked the whistle of a dhole,

suspecting the presence of a predator in the

scrub, a tiger came out growling and stood at

the edge of the scrub with pinnae laid flat. I

35

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 12

Frequency of occurrence of food items in 67

JUNGLE CAT SCATS COLLECTED IN BANDIPUR

3 scats had grass — 2 in combination with rat re-

mains and 1 with bird remains.

9 scats had insect remains — 7 along with rat re-

mains, 1 with bird remains and 1 with hare

remains.

mimicked dhole whistle another time when a

tiger 16ft a waterhole. The tiger turned back

came forward two steps and then sat and look-

ed for 2 minutes in my direction.

Sloth bear

There were 16 sightings but tracks and drop-

pings showed that sloth bear were not rare.

During April 1977 when water was restricted to

the perennial ponds tracks showed that 3 adults

and 1 young made use of the core area.

Of the 95 scats analysed over the period

August 1976 to July 1977 one had bones and

hairs of hare and another a beetle wing. Forty

nine had earth, termites and ants probably of

the genus ( Componotus spp.); 35 had earth

and fruit, 4 earth and grass and 5 earth and

beeswax. Cassia fistula seeds were seen in Dec-

ember, March, April and May; Zizyphus jujuba

fruits in January; Cordia myxa and Syzygium

cumini in June and July. These findings are

similar to those of Laurie and Seidensticker

(1977).

Jungle cat

There were 28 sightings; 14 were in Septem-

ber and October. Results of the scat analysis

are presented in Table 12. One dead jungle cat

was seen and cause of death could not be

ascertained as crows had mutilated the carcass.

Jackal and others

There were 13 sightings of jackals 5 of which

were of pairs. Eleven sightings were in dry

months.

Stripe-necked mongoose were seen 8 times

hunting for small animals along pond margins.

Python was seen 5 times and once a python

killed a chital fawn.

Crested Hawk Eagle was the most common

avian predator of hare and peafowl.

Kills located

In the core area 233 chital, 56 sambar, 1

wild pig, 3 hare and 2 cattle calves, all killed

Table 13

Collected kills of dholes, leopard and tiger in Bandipur (August 1976 — July 1978)

Chital* Sambar Wild Hare Langur Cattle Ele- Village Dhole Leo-

Fawn $ $ Fawn $ $ Pig phant Dog pard

Dhole 100 68 64 46 3 7 1 3 — 3 — — — —

Leopard 11 18 9 2 — 1 — — 1 10 — 5 1 —

Tiger 1 31 1514 __ i 1 — — 1

Seven chital kills by dholes could not be aged and sexed.

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

DNOLE

SCAT DATA

LEOPARD

SCAT DATA

TJGER

SCAT OATA

KILL OATA

KILL DATA

FIG. 12. FOOD ITEMS OF DHOLE, LEOPARD AND TJGER AS SHOWN BY SCAT AND KILL DATA.

ClCHITAL, S: SAMBAR, H:HARE, WP;WILDPIG, R: RODENTS, CL: CATTLE, P-.PORCUPINE

G:GAUR, Gr: GRASS, VD : VILLAGE DOG, LC : LEOPAPD CUB, E: ELEPHANT CALF,

M: MISCELLANEOUS.

by dholes, were collected. Outside the core

area 6 chital and 1 cattle calf kills of dholes

were seen. In total 302 dhole kills were seen

(Table 13 and Fig. 12).

Of the 58 kills by leopard (Table 13 and

Fig. 12) 66% was chital and 5% sambar. In-

ability to collect sambar fawns killed by

leopard may be due to their occurrence in the

scrub. Ten cattle and 5 village dogs were also

killed by leopard.

A classification of tiger kills (n = 19) is

shown in Table 13 and Fig. 11. Chital and

sambar fawn kills of tiger are well represented

in scats (Fig. 12) but 1 chital and 1 sam-

bar fawn killed by tiger were collected. This is

mostly due to tiger’s ability to consume more

than 20 kg of meat in one night and to dispose

of small kills within hours.

Scat Data

Dhole

Of the 509 scats 24 had remains of more

than one animal species. Chital was the most

common prey eaten (Table 7, Fig. 12) followed

by hare and sambar. Although only 3 cattle

calves were killed by dholes 14 dhole scats had

cattle remains. Nearly 500 cattle were driven

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

through the Reserve to the slaughter houses in

Kerala. Weak and unfit cattle abandoned on

the road were frequently killed by the local

people and leopard. Scavenging on the remains

of these cattle may account for 14 dhole scats

having had cattle remains. In the months of

September and October, after the onset of

north east monsoon, partly chewed remains of

the beetle ( Dorysthenes rostratus) were found

with other animal remains.

Thirty five scats consisted almost entirely of

fresh grass. On two occasions grass was seen

wrapped around chital fawn hoof and bone

splinters of hare. A scat had 5 Lantana leaves,

Themeda and Cymbopogon spp grass, 3 tape

worms ( Taenia spp.) and mucous. Estimation

of the number of kills from scats is given in

Appendix II.

Leopard

Results of the analysis of leopard scats

(n = 70) are presented in Figure 12. Of these

chital formed 51%, sambar 14% and the rest

was composed of cattle, langur and hare. Calcu-

lation of the number of kills from scats is given

in Appendix II.

Tiger

Results of the analysis of tiger scats (n = 36)

are presented in Figure 12. Three scats con-

tained soil along with the remains of chital

fawn (1 scat) and porcupine (2 scats). Two

scats (one with sambar fawn remains and the

other with cattle remains) had large quantities

of grass. Thirty nine per cent of the scats con-

Table 14

A CORRELATION OF SCAT AND KILL DATA TO ESTIMATE THE EXPECTED KILLS AND BIOMASS OF WILD PREY RE-

MOVED FROM THE FOCAL AREA BY THE DHOLES

♦Average weight, derived from actual weights, is used in computation.

♦♦Biomass of corrected estimate of kills was calculated based on the sex ratio seen in the kill (94$ : 100$).

38

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

Table 15

Correlation of scat and kill data of the leopard

Prey species and

their weight used

in computation

(in Kg.)

No. of No. of Probable oc- Corrected Observed Expected Kill Biomass

meals a scat currence of estimate of Kill (in Kg.)

leopard samples scats with scats

can have with 95% confi-

the re- dence

mains of interval

Yearling

Total . .

Lower Upper

Limit Limit 5

2 1% 8% Lower Upper

66**

4218***

* Biomass is calculated for the kill observed. (9 $ : 18$)

** Excluding 4 scats with cattle remains,

*** Biomass of 10 cattle and 5 village dog kills is not included.

tained chital, 31% sambar and the rest was

composed of cattle, pig and gaur remains.

DISCUSSION

In this report I have presented observations

on the large mammalian prey predators in the

core area of my study in Bandipur. While

dholes were primarily diurnal, tigei and leo-

pard were essentially nocturnal. All the three

predators chiefly preyed on chital and sambar

and the local people derived their animal pro-

tein stealing chital and sambar kills. The basic

questions that are to be answered to fully under-

stand the interactions among the prey, preda-

tors and local people are as follows :

a) What was the prey-predator ratio?

b) What ecological and behavioural features

isolated the predators in the core area?

c) What ecological conditions permitted the

co-existence of predators?

d) What was the effect of predation on chital

and sambar population? and

e) What was the impact of people stealing

chital and sambar killed by predators?

The answers to the last two questions are

presented in Appendix III and IV.

Prey-Predator Ratio

From the scat data it was inferred that dholes

killed 19,310 kg (Table 14), leopard 4,218 kg

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

(Table 15) and tiger 3203 kg including the

elephant calf (Table 16) of prey biomass in

the core area. This was nearly 20% of the

66,400 kg (average biomass was 3,320 kg/Km2

and the core area was 20 Km2), the average

total biomass calculated for the core area. This

serious predation is probably because of the

sudden removal of 100 + cattle from the study

area at the onset of the study. Inspite of this

heavy predation there was a significant increase

in chital and sambar population (Appendix III

and IV).

Average predator biomass 534 kg (13

dholes = 234 kg; tiger =180 kg, 2 leopards =

120 kg) and prey biomass showed a ratio of

1:124. In Ngorongoro Crater the ratio was

1:100 and in Serengeti 1:250-300 (Schaller

1972).

Ecological Separation of Predators

When several predatory species hunt in the

same area competition in the sense of joint de-

mand for a limited prey resource is likely to

occur. One way in which such competition can

be reduced is for the predators to occupy diffe-

rent habitats or to use the same one at diffe-

rent times (Schaller 1972). Table 17 lists 15

Table 16

Correlation of scat and kill data of tiger

Lower Upper

** Biomass is calculated for the observed kills.

*** One more scat with grass and earth was collected.

**** If the elephant calf weight is added the biomass reaches 3203 Kg.

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

mechanisms that reduce competition between

Bandipur predators.

Differential use of habitat

Signs of predators were seen in 138 quadrats

of the core area (n = 219). Hard terrain and

tall grass were the major reasons for not re-

cording predator occurrence in other quadrats.

Of the 138, indications of all the 3 predators

were seen in 31 (23%). Evidence for dhole

alone were seen in 35 (25%) and such figures

for leopard and tiger were 13 and 7 respectively.

Thirty seven quadrats (27%) contained sign of

dhole and leopard. Dhole and tiger signs and

clue to tiger and leopard occurrence were seen

in 9 and 6 quadrats respectively. This suggests

possible ‘tolerance’ (mutual use of space) bet-

ween dhole and leopard and ‘intolerance’ bet-

ween leopard and tiger. This ‘intolerance’ led to

a tiger killing and eating a leopard cub ( John-

singh 1979a) and ‘tolerance’ resulted in a

leopard killing a dhole pup. Schaller (1967)

and Seidensticker (1976a) report avoidance

between tiger and leopard.

Large cats like the tiger (Schaller 1967,

Sunquist 1981) and the lion (Wright 1960)

rarely kill prey on short grass or open habitats.

In areas north east of Bandipur, where vege-

tation was thin, 56 quadrats were checked for

predator signs. Dhole, leopard and tiger signs

were found in 21, 13 and 2 quadrats respec-

tively. Fifty six quadrats in dense vegetation,

south west of Bandipur, yielded 47, 39 and 28

quadrats with signs of dhole, leopard and tiger

respectively. This indicates preference of tiger

for dense vegetation.

Table 17

Ecological differences and behavioural separation between predators

41

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

All 19 kills by the tiger and 55 of the leo-

pard (n = 58) were found in scrub. Sixty three

per cent of fresh kills of dholes (n = 219) were

in scrub, 17% in meadows, 9% on or near

roads, 8% in or near water and the rest in tree

jungle and near stream beds. Dholes like leo-

pards and tigers, entirely do not require cover

for killing prey.

Prey size

All three predators were capable of killing

large prey but in tiger kills the > 100 kg class

formed 42% (Table 18). Larger species must

Table 18

Weight classes of kills of the tiger,

LEOPARD AND THE DHOLE

rely upon energy source that occur in large

food items unless they can collect smaller prey

with great efficiency (McNab 1963) and carni-

vores usually prey upon herbivores of about

their own size and weight (Bourliere 1963).

Excluding 8 adult cattle kills 69% of leopard

kills weighed < 50 kg. Kruuk and Turner

(1967), Pienaar (1969) and Schaller (1972)

have recorded that leopards very rarely kill

prey heavier than 100 kg. Of the dhole kills the

> 100 kg class formed 1%, 50 to 100 kg group

25%, 25 to 50 kg group 32% and < 25 kg

class 42%.

No evidence of leopard killing wild pig was

seen in Bandipur which was frequently observed

in Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972) and

in Chitawan (Seidensticker 1976a). Dholes also

very rarely killed wild pig. On the contrary tiger

killed 4 adult boars which formed 21% of their

total kills. When chital, an easier prey to kill,

are abundant leopard and dhole may not risk

attacking either a solitary boar which may be

difficult to kill or a member of the sounder

which can trigger off the protective instinct of

the sounder. The ability of the tiger to hunt

prey ranging from hare to elephant calf indi-

cates that tigers use a much wider spectrum of

food resources.

Prey density and utilization by predators

In July 1977 the total number of prey ani-

mals in the core area (excluding porcupine,

hare and peafowl) was 1247 to 1310. Of this

chital constituted 69%. Kill data show that

chital formed 79, 66 and 26% respectively of

the prey of dholes leopard and tiger. Fifty two

per cent of dhole, 51% of leopard and 39%

of tiger scats had chital remains (Fig. 12).

Fewer chital remains in the scats of dholes is

due to the occurrence of the remnants of hare

and rodents in scats which are not included in

the total number of prey (1247-1310). It is also

due to the scavenging by the dholes on cattle

and langur which are poorly represented in kill

data. The same situation lowers rhe occurrence

of chital remains in the scats of Jeopard.

Tiger scat and kill data reveal that propor-

tionately fewer chital were killed than were

present in the population. This can be

attributed to the antipredator behaviour of

chital which assemble in the campus and in

open areas to spend the night where they are

immune to tiger predation. More over, prefer-

42

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

ence of chital for areas around Bandipur, where

tiger may not be able to hunt in lay time, keeps

a major fraction of the population free from

tiger predation.

Sambar were only one fifth as abundant as

chital. Yet tiger proportionately preyed more

on sambar (Fig. 12). Sambar use the scrub

intensively, live in small groups and do not rest

in open areas. These ecological and behavioural

factors make the less abundant sambar more

vulnerable to tiger predation or tiger may speci-

fically hunt sambar.

Predation and sex of prey

Males are said to be more susceptible to

predation. Weakened condition after rut (Hor-

nocker 1970) and territorial contest (Estes

and Goddard 1967, Schaller 1972) make <$

vulnerable to predation. During this study 132

yearling and adult chital killed by dholes were

collected. The ratio in the kill was 94 <d cf : 100

$ $ and in the population it was 84 cf cf :

100 $ $ . Predation of cf cf was not signifi-

cantly different from expected.

Dholes very often killed stags with long

antlers (Figs. 13 and 14, Table 19). Two hypo-

theses could be offered for stags with long

antlers being vulnerable to predation:

a) Stags with long hard antlers which take an

active part in rut (Sharatchandra and

0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90

ANTLER LENGTH IN CM

Fig. 13. Antler length and age classes of 20 chital stags in velvet

killed by dholes ; 3 animals in shed antlers are included in

0-10 category (August J976 to July 1978).

43

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 14. Antler length and age classes of 31 chital stags in hard

antlers killed by dholes {August 1976 to July 1978).

Table 19

Hard antler lengths of chital $ $ from the

POPULATION AND FROM DHOLE KILLS

August 1976-July 1978 — Bandipur

Preference to kill stags with longer antlers was signi-

ficantly greater than expected.

X2 = 15.6, d.f., 1, P < .001.

Gadgil 1980) are indifferent to predators

and are spent after the rut;

b) there is strong sexual selection among males

for large antlers but there is also counter

selection by predators against large antlers.

Number of chital stags in hard antlers killed

by dholes in different months (Table 20) did

not indicate any significant concentration

during or after rut. Nor any significance was

seen when the kill data were compared with

chital stags in hard antlers in the population

(Table 21). Hence the first hypothesis is reject-

ed. The explanation for the second hypothesis

is that stags with large antlers may be hampered

when running through dense vegetation and are

easily killed.

During fawning does frequently visit scrub

which may make them more vulnerable to tiger

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

Table 20

Number of chital stags killed by dholes in different months (August 1976 to July 1978)

JFMAM JJASOND Total

Stags in hard antlers — — 434 363344 — 34

Stags in velvet antlers 33483 — 1221 12 30

Table 21

Chital stags in hard antlers killed by dholes

August 1976-July 1978, Bandipur

Preference to kill stags from May to October (rut-

ting season) was not significantly greater than

expected.

X2 = 0.4, d.f., 1, P > .05.

Table 22

Relating chital kills with

PROBABLE NUMBER OF SCATS PRODUCED

and leopard predation. Tiger Kills (1 c? + 4 $ $ )

and leopard kills (9 c? c? + 18$ $) had more

does than stags; however, even leopard preda-

tion of does was not significantly more common

than expected (X2 = .463, d.f., 1, P > .5).

Sex ratio in the sambar population was 41

d d : 100 $ $ and in dhole kills the ratio was

233 : 100$ $ (n=10). Dholes killed

more males than expected (X2 = 11.95, d.f., 1,

P < .005). All males killed were yearlings or

young adults which suggests that their solitary

habits may have made them prone to dhole

predation.

Predation and age of prey

Chital of the age class II, III and IV because

of their agility and alertness may escape dholes

but often fall prey to leopards which hunt by

stealth and surprise. Chital belonging to the

above mentioned classes formed 25% and 37%

of the total yearling and adults killed by the

dholes (n=131) and leopard (n = 27) respec-

tively. Forty three per cent of chital killed by

dholes (n = 231) were fawns and the corres-

ponding figure for leopard was 23% (n = 38).

The inability of dholes to kill more yearling

and young adult chital is similar to coyote pre-

dation where deer between 2 and 6 yrs. of age

appear most secure from coyote caused morta-

lity (Ogle 1971). Similarly wolf predation is

heaviest on fawns and old animals (Murie

1944, Mech 1966, Pimlott et al. 1969, Kole-

nosky 1972).

45

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Yearling females of age class II and III were

much more susceptible to dhole predation

(19% of 9 kills, n = 67) than yearling males

(6% of cf kills, n = 64). The probable reason

was pregnancy.

Caching food

Dholes did not cache food and this may re-

sult from the absence of any significant remains

from a meal. Tiger and leopard usually cached

the kill when it was large enough to afford more

than one meal. Curiously leopards in Bandipur

had left 6 chital kills, all < 50 kg, in open

and a hind leg of only one chital was covered

with litter and earth. The leopard carries its kill

up a tree when potential food thieves are about

(Ewer 1973). In Chitawan leopards pulled

about half of their kills up trees (Seidensticker

1976a) and in Wilpattu kills were kept in trees

to keep them safe from hunting packs of jackals

(Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). In Bandipur

in spite of the frequent scavenging by dholes

and human beings leopards hauled their kills

up trees only three times.

Ecological conditions permitting the

CO-EXISTENCE OF PREDATORS

Large prey biomass, a large proportion of

ungulate biomass in the smaller size classes and

dense vegetation structure enabled tigers and

leopard coexist in Chitawan (Seidensticker

1976a). The prey biomass of the core area

(3320 kg/Km2) is higher than the 2400-2500

kg/ Km2 of wild and domestic prey biomass of

Kanha (Schaller 1967) and 766 kg/Km2 of

Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972) and

the 2789 kg/Km2 of Chitawan (Seidensticker

1976b). As in Chitawan in the core area there

were not many species of ungulates in the small

size classes and chital alone formed 69% of

prey number or 48% of large hoofed mammal

biomass. The heterogeneous habitat of the core

area with many stream beds may be much

more ideal for the predators and the prey

species than the tall grass /riverine forest of

Chitawan and the open short grass meadow/

Shorea forest habitat of Kanha.

Complexity of vegetation types, high prey

biomass and a large number of chital as the

optimum prey for dhole and leopard and a

sizable population of sambar and wild pig for

the tiger allowed these predators to coexist in

the core area. An analysis of the factors men-

tioned in Table 17 shows that the first 12 para-

meters could determine the survival of the

three predators. A predator which can survive

in a deteriorating habitat should be both noctur-

nal and diurnal and should have the ability to

feed on small and large prey. Further the

capacity to cache food, climb trees and

scavenge would also promote survival. Hence

leopards would survive in a much disturbed

habitat where dholes would be rare and tigers

totally absent.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

This paper is part of my Ph D. thesis sub-

mitted to Madurai Kamaraj University in 1980.

I wish to thank Mr. J. C. Daniel, Drs.

Madhav Gadgil, S. Krishnaswamy and Michael

W. Fox for their various help when in the field

and while writing up the thesis.

I kindly acknowledge the ideas of Dr.

Madhav Gadgil for inferring the number of

prey killed from scat analysis. Dr. Niranjan

Joshi helped me assess the effect of predation

on chital and sambar.

Dr. John Seidensticker, Mrs. Fiona Sunquist,

Dr. Mel Sunquist and Dr. Chris Wemmer pro-

vided valuable comments and criticism of this

paper. Ms. Pat Schoknecht helped in statistics.

Financial support for the dhole study was

46

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BAN DIPUR

provided by World Wildlife Fund, India and

International Appeals; Centre for Theoretical

Studies, Indian Institute of Science; Fauna and

Flora Preservation Society; Bombay Natural

History Society and by M.K.S. Ranjit Singh.

The Karnataka Forest Department kindly

permitted me to work in Bandipur and Ayya

Nadar Janaki Ammal College, Sivakasi gave

Refei

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sexual maturity of three species of wild animals in

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This paper was written during my tenure as

a Friends of the National Zoo Post Doctoral

Fellow, Smithsonian Institution at their Depart-

ment of Zoological Research. Mr. T. Gopal

efficiently and patiently typed the manuscript.

ences

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47

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

(1979a) : Evidence for a tiger

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(1979b) : An instance of wild

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— and Murali, S. (1980) : The

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48

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY

(1977) : The function of mammalian

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-PREDATORS IN BAN DI PUR

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Killers, pp. 47-101. H. and J. Van Lawick Goodall,

Collins, London.

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Bandipur Tiger Reserve. My Forest. 13 : 15-19.

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Africa. J. Wildl. mgmt. 24: 1-15.

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ungulate, Muntiacus reevesi: function and adaptive-

ness. Am. Nat. 116: 157-177.

49

4

APPENDIX I

Details of 25 Dhole Hunts

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

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53

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

APPENDIX II

Estimation of number of kills from scats

Dhole

This aspect of research is difficult as bias could

occur from the following:

a) an adult sambar can provide two meals for the

pack and two sets of scats can be derived from

one kill;

b) young chital fawn or hare could be eaten by

one member of the pack and a random collection

of one or two scats from the scat group may not

represent the prey eaten;

c) confusion over differentiating hair of big fawn

from that of young adult.

Assumptions'. The following assumptions were made:

a) the mean size of the pack including pups was 13;

b) two chital fawns (average weight 15 kg, an

average of 81 kills) or one sambar fawn (average

weight 32 kg, an average of 34 kills) or 12 hare

(average weight of each 2 kg) or 240 rodents

(average weight of each 100 gm) are needed to

provide the pack its minimal rate of 1.86 kg

meat per dhole per day. It is not possible, how-

ever, for the pack to feed exclusively either on

hare or on rodents;

c) there was much variation in the contribution of

stolen kills to the scat formation; chital adults

in Bandipur hardly provided more than one meal

(138 kills gave 134 scats or 1 kill provided 0.97

meals or scat groups) (See Table 22).

Deriving expected kills: There was discrepancy bet-

ween observed and expected kills. The observed kill

of adult sambar was 10 and the expected kill based

on the assumption that a kill gave 2 sets of scats

(18 scats were collected) should be 9. Entire adult

sambar was not stolen. On 5 occasions dholes ate

sambar kills for the second time (10 sets of scats).

Once part of a tiger kill (a prime adult sambar stag

in velvet) was eaten (1 set of scats). Two sambar

kills, before dholes could feed on them for the second

time, were stolen (2 sets of scats). All these account-

ed for 13 scats and the rest 5 could have been de-

rived from 2.5 or 5 kills. Hence it was assumed that

the number of adults killed was between 9.5 (10)

and 12.

Adult chital remains were seen 127 times and as

one kill could give 0.97 scats the expected kill would

be 131 and the number derived was also 131. This

is explained as follows. Total number of adult kills

dholes ate was 138 and of this 4 were of leopard

(Table 22). The observed dhole kills, therefore, were

134. Scats produced from the total kills eaten should

be 134 (113 scats from 113 kills eaten once, 14 scats

from 7 kills eaten twice and 3 scats from 6 partly

eaten kills and 4 from 4 leopard kills). While cal-

culating the expected dhole kills from scats 4 scats

derived from leopard kills and 7 from dhole kills

eaten twice should be deducted. This gives 123 kills

and with the addition of 8 kills stolen figure 131 is

derived.

There is a difference of 3 between the observed

(134) and expected kills (131) of adult chital. This

may be due to the failure to collect the representa-

tive samples of all scats or misclassification of year-

lings as big fawns.

While correlating sambar fawn remains in scats with

the kills a difference of 8 was found. It is possible

that dholes may have scavenged on large sambar

fawn kills for the second time or they would have

eaten the kills of other predators or it may have

been due to the inability to collect all the sambar

fawn kills.

Within my knowledge 3 chital fawn kills were

stolen and dholes may have eaten much of the fawns

before they were removed. Dholes scavenged on 2

chital fawn kills of leopard. If chital fawn remains

were seen 143 times in the scats the minimum ex-

pected kill should be (143 X 2) 286.

Correction factor and corrected estimates of kills:

Another correction was made to account for the

representative scats not collected. This was based on

the assumption that the number of scats with adult

sambar remains was equal to the number of scat

groups produced by the dholes with adult sambar

remains. The average of minimum (10) and maxi-

mum (12) adults killed was 11. Of these 2 kills gave

rise to 2 sets of scats and the other 9 could have led

to 18 scats. One set of scats was derived from the

tiger kill and so 21 sets of scats with adult sambar

remains may have been produced and 18 were col-

lected. Hence the correction factor 21/18 or 7/6 was

applied to assess the corrected estimate of number

of scats and kills (Table 14).

The application is explained as follows: There were

54 scats with sambar fawn remains and the corrected

estimate of scats was (54 x 7/6) 63 and the corrected

estimate of kills 63. The corrected number of scats

with chital adult remains was (127 x 7/6) 148, which

54

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — FRED ATORS IN BANDIPUR

could be derived from (131/127 x 148) 153 kills.

Floyd et al. (1978) have found that 0.41 kg of snow

shoe hare can form one wolf ( Canis lupus ) scat.

If this is applicable to black naped hare — dhole

feeding interactions 3 hares can provide enough food

for each pack member to produce one scat. There

were 74 scats with hare remains which means a mini-

mum of (74 x 3) 222 hare were killed and the

corrected estimate of scats would be (74 x 7/6) 86

and the corrected estimate of kills (86 x 3) 258.

As small prey are composed of relatively more

indigestible matter (Floyd et al. 1978) each rodent

remains could be voided out as one scat. Thirty four

scats with rodent remains were collected and it is

estimated (240 x 34) 8160 rodents were killed. The

corrected estimate of scats containing rodent remains

was (34 x 7/6) 40 and the corrected estimate of kills

was 240 x 40) 9600. Biomass of prey killed was cal-

culated based on the estimated number of kills.

Tiger

As the sample size of collected scats of tiger

and leopard was smaller than that of dhole sampling

error is likely to be inflated. Therefore, I resorted to

specifying 95% confidence interval. In both cases

collected sambar kills and scats with adult sambar

remains were used as the basis for estimating the

corrected estimate of expected kills. The reason for

this was all the adult sambar kills were collected

and the possible number of scats resulted from the

kills and the number collected in the field could be

used to derive a correction factor. This could aid in

estimating the corrected number of scats and kills.

It was assumed that:

a) an adult sambar can give 4 full meals either

to a tiger or a leopard;

b) a full meal was eaten once a day;

c) each meal resulted in one pile of scats.

Six adult sambar killed by tiger were collected

and as one kill was partly scavenged by dholes the

expected number of scats was 22. Number of scats

collected was 2, 6% of the total 35 scats (one scat

entirely of earth is not included in the calculation).

The expected proportion of scats with sambar re-

mains should have been between 1% and 22% or

0.35 and 8 scats with 95% confidence. From this a

correction factor of 3 and 63 was derived by divid-

ing the corrected estimate of 22 scats by 8 and 0.35.

This correction factor was used to find the corrected

estimate of scats and corrected estimate of expected

kill with 95% confidence (Table 16).

The corrected number of scats with sambar fawn

remains was between 27 and 567, with chital adult

between 18 and 378 and with chital fawn between

24 and 504. The expected kill of sambar fawn was

between 18 and 378 (1 sambar fawn can give 1.5

meals or lead to 1.5 piles of scats and 27 scats can

be derived from 18 kills), chital adults between 9

and 189 and chital fawns between 24 and 504 etc.

Regular search for the kills led me to conclude

that kills of tiger were near the lower estimate.

Leopard

One yearling $ sambar (age class III) killed by a

leopard was collected. It was estimated to have weigh-

ed 130 kg and could have provided 4 full meals and

consequently 4 piles of scats. Two scats were collect-

ed that contained adult sambar remains. One was

probably from a kill and the other, I concluded, was

due to scavenging. These 2 scats constituted 3% of

the total 66 scats (4 scats with cattle remains are not

included in the calculation). Using 95% confidence

limits the proportion of scats with the sambar remains

should have been between 1% and 8% of the total

66 scats or 1 and 6 scats. Correction factors of 0.8

and 5 were derived from this for the upper and

lower bounds by dividing the corrected estimate of 5

scats with 6 and 1.

The corrected estimate of scats based on 95% con-

fidence and the corrected estimate of expected kills

were calculated (Table 15). Examples:

a) a sambar fawn can give 2 meals and there were 8

scats with sambar fawn remains. When multiplied

by the correction factors 0.8 and 5 the corrected

estimate of 6 to 40 scats was obtained. The cor-

rected number of kills was 3 to 20;

b) three hares can give a full meal to a leopard.

There were 8 scats with hare remains and the

corrected estimate of scats was 6 to 40. The

corrected number of kills was 18 to 120. I assum-

ed that the number of leopard kills was near

the upper limit.

APPENDIX III

Estimation of the effect of predation and

STEALING KILLS ON CHITAL POPULATION

The following details are necessary for the calcula-

tion:

(a) the number of chital fawns killed averaged 224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

for one year (167 by dhole, 45 by leopard and 12

by tiger) and the corresponding figure for adults

was 95 (Tables 14, 15 and 16);

(b) during May, June and July 1977 there were 333

does and 224 fawns on the average (Table 2).

Total fawns produced in 1977 was 448 and the

fertility rate of does (333) was 1.3;

(c) the mortality rate was (448/224) 0.5. The life

span of a chital as a fawn is 6 months after

which it becomes either a spike $ or a yearling

doe. During a year if 100 fawns are seen and

50 are killed it means in 6 months there must

have been 50 fawns and 25 kills giving 0.5 survi-

val for 6 months;

(d) sex ratio at birth was even and the survival rate

of 9 fawn was 0.54 and of $ fawn 0.46. This

estimate was based on adult sex ratio in the

population (84 $ $ : 100 9 9);

(e) annual adult mortality rate (0.13) was calculat-

ed by dividing the total adult kills (95) by the

total adult number (95+612) 707. (Six hundred

and twelve is an average of May, June and July

1977 adult $ number). Adult mortality rate for

6 months was 0.07 and survival rate 0.93;

(f) One adult kill (average weight 57 kg) is equiva-

lent to 3.8 fawns.

I assumed that there were 100 does. In 6 months

7 will die and 93 will survive. In 6 months 100 does

100 x 1 . 3

can give birth to ( ) 65 fawns and at an

2

even sex ratio there will be 32.5 $ fawns and at a

survival rate of 0.54, 18 fawns will grow into does

and at the end of 6 months with the existing preda-

tion rate the number of does would be 111.

The same calculation was projected for $ $ whose

population based on adult sex ratio was assumed to

be 84. The survival rate of $ fawns is 0.46 and

(32.5 X 0.46) 15 fawns will grow into spike $ $.

By the end of 6 months $ number (84) with the

survival rate (0.93) would be 78. With the addition

of 15 animals it would increase to 93 giving a

growth rate of 11% for 6 months and 23% for one

year. The same growth rate was also seen in the case

of does.

Stealing of kills and chital population : Calculations

are projected here to assess what would happen if

50% of adult chital kills were stolen. This would

increase predation rate on both fawns and adults. A

total of 585 fawns (95x 3.8 + 224) would be killed

under these circumstances. If 50% of adult kills were

stolen (47.5) and if dholes compensated their loss

by preying exclusively on fawns then 181 additional

fawns (47.5x3.8) would be killed. When the pro-

bable number of additional fawns killed was calculat-

ed (181 x 224/585) 69 was obtained. The likely

number of adults killed with reference to total con-

verted fawn number (585) and fawn number derived

from 95 adult kills (361) would be (47.5 x 361/585)

29. With the additional adult kill the annual mortality

rate would be (95 x29/707) 0.18 and survival rate

0.82 and survival rate for 6 months would be

V0.82 = 0.91. Fawn mortality rate would be (224 +

69/448) 0.65 and survival rate 0.35. The survival

rate of $ fawns (0.35x54/50) would be 0.38 and

$ fawns (0.35x46/50) 0.32.

With the increased mortality rate 100 does will be

reduced to 91 at the end of 6 months. At the fecun-

dity rate of 1.3 100 does can produce 65 fawns by

the end of 6 months. Of this 32.5 will be $ $ . With

the given $ fawn survival rate (0.38) 12 fawns will

grow into does and at the end of 6 months there will

be 103 does. Growth rate of $ population will be

of the same order and on the average at the end of

6 months the population would have increased by

3%. When uncontrolled scavenging by man removes

> 50% of kills to the population will decline in

the long run.

APPENDIX IV

Estimation of the effect of predation and

STEALING OF KILLS ON SAMBAR POPULATION

The following particulars are necessary for com-

putation :

(a) on the average in a year there were 51 fawn

kills and 9 adult kills (Table 14, 15 and 16);

(b) age and sex ratio of the population, averaged

over the period May, June and July 1977 and

1978 had 58 adult and yearling does and 8 year-

ling $ $ (Table 4). Percentage of yearling $ 9

in the population was assessed to be 8. Hence

the percentage of adult 9 9 in the population

would be (58- 8) 50. Based on this the adult

doe number in July 1977 population (160 to

180, average 170) was calculated to be 85. Dur-

ing May, June and July 1977 and 1978 the ave-

rage fawn: doe ratio was 36: 100 or 85 does had

31 fawns. With this the total fawn killed (51)

was added and the fecundity of does was cal-

56

LARGE MAMMALIAN PREY — PREDATORS IN BANDIPUR

culated to be (82/85) 1.

(c) by considering total fawn production (82) and

fawn mortality (50) the mortality rate of fawns

was calculated to be (50/82) 0.6 and the survi-

val rate 0.4;

(d) fawns after 6 months were considered either as

spike $ $ or as yearling does;

(e) survival rate of both $ and $ fawn is supposed

to be 0.4;

(f) more yearling and adult $ $ were killed than

$ $ (see discussion: predation and sex of prey).

Total kills collected were 17 (9 $ $ + 8 $$)

and based on scat data it was assessed that on

the average 9 adults were killed in a year (see

estimation of number of kills from scats). If the

sex ratio seen in the kills is projected for the

9 kills derived from scat study a ratio of 5 $ $ :

4 2 $ is obtained;

(g) total adult sambar in the population was 134

(79% of the population was adult and in July

1977 there were 160-180 animals or 170). Num-

ber of adult $ $ and $ $ in the population as

per the sex ratio (41 $ $ : 100 $ $ ) was 39

$ $ and 95 $ $ ;

(h) annual adult $ mortality rate (0.11) and survi-

val rate (0.89) were calculated by dividing $

kills (5) by the total number of $ $ in the

population (39 + 5) 44. Annual adult $ morta-

lity rate (0.04) and survival rate (0.96) were

derived by dividing doe kills (4) by total does

in the population (95+4) 99.

I assumed that there were 100 does. In 6 months

2 of these will die. In 6 months 100 does can give

birth to (100 x y) 50 fawns. At an even sex ratio

25 will be $ $ and with a survival rate of 0.4 10

fawns will be added and there will be 105 does. This

is an increase of 8% in 6 months or 17% in one

year. If calculations are made for $ $ with the

assumption that 41 $ $ were present at the beginning

at the end of 6 months with the survival rate of

(\ 0.89) 0.94, 39 will survive. Male fawn survival will

be (0.4 x 25) 10 and adult $ $ at the end of 6

months will be 49 and the growth rate will be 8%

for 6 months and 17% for one year.

Stealing of kills and sambar population : Stealing

an adult sambar kill is difficult and it is specu-

lated that mostly fawn kills were stolen. An assess-

ment is made here to know what would happen to

the population if 50% of the fawn, kills is stolen.

It is presumed that in the absence of many adult

sambar kills additional mortality will be borne by

fawns. If this is the case, fawn mortality rate would

51+25

be ( ) 0.93 and survival rate 0.07. This survi-

82

val rate is the same for the $ and the $ fawns.

Hundred does in 6 months would be reduced to 98

and would produce (100 Xy) 50 fawns of which

25 will be $ $ and 25 $ $. At the survival rate of

0.7 2 animals will be added to the population and

the doe number would be 100 showing no growth

rate. In the case of $ $ (41) with the survival rate

of 0.94, 39 will survive and at the survival rate of

0.07 2 $ fawns would grow into spike $ $ and the

$ population at the end of 6 months will be 41

indicating no growth rate. This indicates that sambar

population can be seriously suppressed by the stealing

of kills.

57

AN EAST- WEST AQUILA EAGLE MIGRATION

IN THE HIMALAYAS1

Robert L. Fleming jr.2

An autumn east-west Aquila migration in the Himalayas is reported in detail for the

first time. A. nipalensis predominates with A. clanga and A. heliaca also occurring.

The migration period lasts for more than a month. A high count of 275 birds per

hour is reported and a minimum estimate indicates that over 45,000 birds may be

involved. The migration has been noted at different points over a distance of some

1000 kilometres (from Dzongri, Sikkim to Naini Tal, Kumaon). Where these birds

winter is unknown.

Introduction

That many birds from accentors to cranes

and geese migrate across the Himalayas in a

north-south direction is well known (see Flem-

ing, Fleming and Bangdel 1979:13), although

how high most of the birds fly while crossing the

chain, at what points they actually pass over

the crest, and in what numbers they appear

needs much additional investigation. That some

raptor species, notably Aquila eagles, use the

Himalayas as an east-west pathway, moving

westward in a steady stream during the autumn

has remained largely unreported although

Hutton in Mussoorie and Donald near Dharam-

sala mention sightings (Donald 1924: 1054-

1055). While our current understanding of this

Aquila migration is still far from complete, we

present our data hoping to encourage additional

study of this phenomenon.

Observations

The initial first-hand information that eagles

migrate from each to west in the Himalayas

was gathered on 28 Oct. 1971 during a visit

to the delightful Lariya Kanta Hill [elevation

1 Accepted November 1982.

2 Box 229, Kathmandu, Nepal.

just over 2440 m (8000')] five kilometres north-

east of Naini Tal in the Kumaon Himalayas.

While silting on top of this hill, we noticed an

Aquila nipalensis circling in the east below us.

It rapidly gained height, soaring quite near, and

then glided away to the west. This was at 12.30

hrs. Then we found a group of six birds that

again started out below us but rose on broad

wings to pass nearby and glide west. More fol-

lowed. In the first hour of observation, 17

Aquila eagles passed our field of view. Between

13.30 and 14.17 hrs (47 min.), an additional

36 birds appeared. At 14.17 the clouds, already

building for some time, enveloped us and

obscured further observations. All birds as far

as we could tell were A. nipalensis.

Subsequently, in 1975, my father, R. L.

Fleming, Sr., noted a similar concentration of

Aquila eagles in late October on a ridge called

“Two Trees” at the southern edge of the Kath-

mandu Valley. On this occasion he spotted, at

about 10.30 hrs, some 16 birds approaching

from the east. They soared near him and then

glided west along the north side of the Chandra-

giri ridge. About 30 minutes later he noted a

“rather haphazard” collection of some 30 birds

following in exactly the same manner. These

were identified as A. nipalensis.

Similarly, on 19 Nov. 1975, we noted eagles

along the northern edge of Kathmandu Valley

58

AQUILA MIGRATION IN THE HIMALAYAS

where they circled over the Shivpuri monastery

and then glided to Ahale Dara above which

they soared again to gain height. A total of

44 birds were counted between 11.13 and

12.13 hrs.

Thus we were aware that Aquila eagles

migrate from east to west, but were unprepared

for the numbers that appeared during a visit

to the Annapurna area. Central Nepal in the

autumn of 1976. On this occasion, we were

climbing towards the Dhampus ridge from

Suikhet valley when at about 16.00 hrs on 31

Oct. we noted 17 eagles circling closely over-

head. The eagles were at about 1708 metres

(5600') with heavy clouds above them.

That night we camped on the Dhampus ridge

and the following morning (1 Nov.) kept an

early and sharp lookout in the direction where

the eagles had been seen the previous evening.

But as we saw no further activity, our atten-

tion was drawn to the nearby forest.

Early on the morning of 2 November we

shifted our operations to a campsite one kilo-

metre further north and suddenly spotted eagles.

They appeared on a route approximately three

kilometres north of where we had been them

on 31st Oct. During these observations (see

Table 1). the weather remained clear and the

eagles passed over within about 305 metres

(1000') of the ridge, flying at an estimated alti-

tude of between 2745 metres (9000') and 3050

metres (10000'). Three species of eagles appear-

ed to be represented.

We continued our observations on 3 and 4

November and noted the following concentra-

tions (numbers of birds here reflect totals for

the time period, not aggregations of large size

travelling together).

By 5 November we had noted that in this

general area, eagles used three different routes,

depending on the time of day. At first, eagles

passed far to the north, close to the snow peaks.

Table 1

But when cloud buildup covered the northern

route, they moved to a “middle” section (the

Dhampus ridge) which they used until clouds

forced them to a southern flyway (the Kaski

ridge). On 5 November, the shift from the

middle to the southern route occurred between

15.55 and 16.00 as the following data shows:

59

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

In October 1978 we found a north-south

migration along the Kali Gandaki valley near

Lete. These eagles circled over Lake Titi area

and then, crossing the Kali Gandaki, they con-

tinued around a spur of Dhaulagiri, staying close

to the mountainside. On the same day, we

again observed numbers circling about the cliffs

immediately above Ghasa. From here the birds

glided away in a south-south-west direction and

would likely join the main east-west stream

somewhere southeast of Dhaulagiri.

Observations in the Kali Gandaki valley, near Lete,

24 Oct. 1978:

10.30 to 10.45 27 birds

10.45 to 11.00 26

11.00 to 11.15 23

Total of 76 birds in 45 mins.

We have very little data from the eastern

parts of Nepal or from the eastern Himalayas.

Phil Hall and Jack Cox reported that on the

13th of November 1978, between 12.00 and

13.00 hrs they noted 10 eagles circling over the

ridge above Xlam, eastern Nepal, and then glid-

ing west. These were identified as 8 A. nipalen-

sis and 2 A. clanga.

On 3 Nov. 1980 we noted five A. nipalensis

soaring at about 12,500' over the Dzongri ridge

in western Sikkim. No further sightings ensued.

In addition, we have scattered observations

of eagles moving south along the Arun river

valley as well as the Dudh Kosi valley, both in

eastern Nepal.

Remarks

From the foregoing data, it can be seen that

an east-west Aquila eagle migration occurs in

the Himalayas in the autumn. The birds use

updrafts to gain height and then glide to attain

horizontal distance. The exact route used (speci-

fic hilltops and ridge lines) does not remain

static, but varies according to local cloud build

up. Himalayan autumn days usually begin with

clear skies but by mid-morning clouds appear

that by late afternoon may develop into tower-

ing thunderheads. Eagles avoid these cloud and

the change of route, in the Annapurna area, is

from Machapuchare to over Pokhara Bazaar,

an estimated shift of about 8 km.

Eagles begin flying just after 9.00 hrs and

this coincides with the beginning of sun-generat-

ed updrafts. The migration continues fairly

steadily throughout most of the day. Most birds

moving after about 16:00 hrs need to beat their

wings in order to maintain altitude and migra-

tion ceases for the day at about 16.30 (with

sunset at about 17.00 hrs). Eagles passed as

single birds or in groups of up to twenty indivi-

duals.

60

AQUILA MIGRATION IN THE HIMALAYAS

As for the “flow rate” of the migration, we

noted (on 3 November) 145 birds in the first

50 minutes of the period which would allow

approximately 174 birds per hour. At the end

of the day, on 4 November, we observed 171

birds in the final 1 hour and 15 minutes which

equates with about 137 birds per hour. The

highest count recorded was of 275 birds per

hour between 9.55 and 10.55.

In discussing total numbers of eagles involv-

ed in this migration, we are on shaky ground.

But if we allow an average of 200 birds per

hour ovei a seven and a half hour span, this

gives a total of 1,500 birds per day. The migra-

tion lasts for at least 38 days (24 Oct. to 30

Nov.) and very likely carries over to about 45

days, so that using a conservative figure of 30

days multiplied by 1500 birds, we reach a total

of 45,000 individuals. Also it should be noted

that these figures are based on sightings from

the Pokhara area of Nepal. Thus all the eagles

coming down the Kali Gandaki valley (i.e.

about 100 in an hour) would join the main

flow west of Pokhara and would not be includ-

ed in the 45,000. While these figures are ex-

trapolated from grossly insufficient data, they

do show considerable movement and indicate

that a further detailed study of this pheno-

menon is much needed.

The exact species composition of this migra-

tion is yet to be determined. Certainly three

species take part: A. nipalensis, A. clanga and

A. heliaca with the majority appearing to be

A. nipalensis. Eagle identification can be diffi-

cult and we were unable to determine exact

percentages due to the speed of the migration,

the distance of many birds from the observer,

and unfavourable sighting angles.

Curiously, this migration appears to be res-

tricted almost entirely to Aquila eagles. On one

occasion we saw two Hen Harriers ( Circus

cyaneus) with the eagles and one time a Eura-

sian Buteo ( Buteo buteo ) came past, but the

eagles remained surprisingly free of migratory

associates. In many cases, various vulture

species also used the updrafts and while the

vultures were not on migration, one had to be

careful to distinguish eagles from vultures when

counting birds at a distance.

Most birds appear to be coming from the

direction of Tibet. Besides the sightings in the

Kali Gandaki valley, we also noted birds in the

Arun and Dudh Kosi valleys. It is likely that

the eagles cross the Himalayas on a broad front,

using valley systems as navigational aids, and

then join forces for a mass westward progres-

sion.

Where these birds are going we do not know.

In winter on the plains of India one sees some

Aquila eagles but unless there is some as yet

undiscovered concentration of eagles in the

subcontinent, it is hard to see where 45,000

eagles might winter. Africa appears to be a

favourite wintering ground for A. nipalensis and

the eagles are common in east and central

Africa (Williams 1963: 55) and they occur

as far south as South Africa (McLachlan and

Liversidge 1978: 99). Might our Himalayan

eagles not be going to Africa? In the autumn

and spring we frequently see little knots of the

Redfooted Falcon ( Falco vespertinus) and the

Lesser Kestrel ( Falco naumanni) as they pass

through from China to Africa (and reverse in

the spring). Possibly the eagles are following

suit?

We have been discussing an autumn migra-

tion; curiously we lack figures for any concen-

trated form of Aquila migration in the spring.

We do note scattered birds in high altitude

valleys (such as in the Everest National Park)

in spring, but have never seen substantial num-

bers. Obviously a great deal of additional in-

vestigation will be necessary before we will be

61

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

able to determine the full extent of this Aquila

migration.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

We take this opportunity to thank a number

of friends who have sponsored treks on which

eagle data have been gathered. Thus we express

Re fe

Donald, C. H. (1924): Migration of Eagles. J.

Bombay tiat. Hist. Soc. 29 (4) : 1054-1055.

Fleming, R. L. sr., Fleming, R. L. jr. and Bang-

del, L. S. (1979) : The Birds of Nepal. Avalok, Kath-

mandu. pp. 358.

McLachlan, G. R. and Liversidge, R. (1978) :

our appreciation to Bessie Fleming and Jimmie

Brooks (Annapurna 1976), Frank Wheat and

Ronald Klein (Manang 1977) and Dennis and

Barbara Farrar (Tilicho 1978 and West Sikkim

1980). Thanks also to Robert L. Fleming, Sr.,

Phil Hall and Jack Cox for their contributions

and to Linda F. Fleming for her spotting and

recording.

E N CES

Roberts Birds of South Africa. John Voelcker Bird

Book Fund, Cape Town. pp. xxxii+660.

Williams, J. G. (1963) : A Field Guide to the

Birds of East and Central Africa. Houghton Mifflin,

Boston, pp. 288.

62

A CATALOGUE OF SPECIES ADDED TO GAMBLE’S

“FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS”1

S. Karthikeyan and B. D. Sharma2

Sebastine (1962), Sebastine and Ramamurthy (1966) and Karthikeyan (1971) have

compiled the species that have been added to Gamble’s “Flora of the Presidency of

Madras”. In the present list 6 genera, 403 species, 10 subspecies, 61 varieties and 4

forma have been enumerated.

Gamble’s “Flora of the Presidency of

Madras” covers the present States of Andhra

Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil

Nadu. A total of 4516 species have been des-

cribed from these areas, (Gamble & Fischer,

1915-1936).

Since the publication of the Flora many new

species and new records have been described

from this area. Sebastine (1962), published a

list of 80 such species. Sebastine and Rama-

murthy (1966) further enumerated 47 species.

Karthikeyan (1971) listed 78 grasses alone.

Since then many species have been added to

this area and the publications are scattered. All

such information has been gathered here to be

of use to research workers on taxonomic botany

in general and of this area, in particular. Some

species which have been recorded earlier and

did not find a place in earlier lists have also

been included here.

A total of 6 genera, 392 species, 10 sub-

species, 61 varieties and 4 forma have been

enumerated here. They have been arranged in

the same family sequence as that of Gamble’s

‘Flora’. Under each family, the species have

been arranged alphabetically. The names of

species have been followed by original citation

1 Accepted September 1981.

2 Present address : Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra.

of publication in case of new taxa only. For

new records reported from this area as new

for India or for the region alone, the publica-

tion reporting it is cited and not the original

publication. The abbreviated name of the State

from where the species have been collected has

been given. The following abbreviations have

been used to save space.

ENUMERATION

Ranunculaceae

Thalictrum foliolosum DC.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 12: 208. (1970) 1972. AP.

Dilleniaceae

Dillenia aurea Sm., Bull. bot. Surv. India 12:

208. (1970) 1972. AP.

Menispermaceae

Parabaena sagittata Miers; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 81. (1964) 1965. AP.

Tinospora malabarica (Lam.) Miers; Ibid. 9:

186. (1967) 1968. AP.

63

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Cruciferae

Lepidium ruderale Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

14: 157. (1972) 1975. TN.

L. virginicum Linn.; Ibid 14: 157. (1972) 1975.

TN.

Capparaceae

Cap paris flavicans Kurz; Blumea 12: 451-452.

1965. AP.

C. nilgiriensis Subbarao, Kumari & Chandra-

sekaran, J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 78: 146.

1981. TN.

Gynandropsis speciosa DC.; Biol. Mem. 2: 14.

1977. TN.

Bixaceae

Scolopia crenata (Wt.) Clos var. brevifolia N.

Mukh., J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 394.

(1972) 1973. TN.

S. pusilla (Gaertn.) Willd.; Blumea 20: 37.

1972. K.

Taraktogenos kurzii King; Indian Forester 96:

527. 1970. K.

PlTTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum anamallayense Nayar & Giri, Fasc.

FI. Ind. 6: 4. 1980. TN.

P. viridulum Nayar, Giri & Chandrasekaran,

Ibid. 11. TN.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala arillata Buch. — Ham. forma char-

tacea Mukerjee, Cent. Souv. Mad. Herb. 50.

1954. K., TN.

P. arillata Buch. — Ham. forma meeboldii

Mukerjee, Ibid. 50. 1954. K., TN.

P. arillata Buch. — Ham. forma revoluta Muker-

jee, Ibid. 50. 1954. TN.

P. chinensis Linn. var. linarifolia (Willd.)

Chodat; Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 12: 40. (1958)

1960. AP., TN.

P. dunnii Panigrahi, Kew Bull. 29: 655-657, fig.

7. 1974. TN.

P. erioptera DC. var. vahliana (DC.) Chodat;

Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 12: 47-48. (1958)

1960. AP., K., TN.

P. furcate. Royle; Indian Forester 94: 682, fig.

8. 1968. AP.

P. glomerata Lour.; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

53: 523. 1956. TN.

P. jacobii Chandr., Bull. bot. Surv. India 9:

288. 1968'. TN.

P. javana DC. var. angustifolia Thw.; Bull. bot.

Soc. Bengal 12: 45. (1958) 1960. K., TN.

P. ramaswamiana Mukerjee forma devicola-

mensis Mukerjee, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

53: 56. 1955. K.

P. ramaswamiana Mukerjee var. palinsensis

Mukerjee, Ibid. 53: 56. 1955. TN.

P. raoi R. N. Ban. & L. K. Ban., Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 82B: 218-220, fig. 7. 1975. TN.

P virgata Thunb., Biol. Mem. 2: 16. 1977. TN.

Caryophyllaceae

Dry maria villosa Cham. & Schlecht.; Indian

Forester 94: 645. 1968.

= D. cordata Willd. TN.

Scleranthus annuus Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

13: 347. (1971) 1974. TN.

Guttiferae

Garcinia echinocarpa Thw. var. monticola

Maheshwari, Bull. bot. Surv. India 6: 126-

127, fig. 3. (1964) 1965. K., TN.

G. spicata (Wt. & Arn.) Hook. f. var. glome-

rata Vesque; Ibid. 6: 113. (1964) 1965. AP.

Mesua ferrea Linn. ssp. pulchella Vesque; Ibid.

5: 339. (1963) 1964. K.

64

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLE'S FLORA

M. ferrea Linn. ssp. pulchella Vesque var.

coromandeliana (Wt.) Maheshwari, Ibid. 5:

340. (1963) 1964. TN.

M. ferrea Linn. ssp. thwaitesii Vesque; Ibid. 5 :

339. (1963) 1964. K., TN.

Dipterocarpaceae

Dipterocarpus barryi Dunn, Kew Bull. 1920:

337. 1920. TN.

Malvaceae

Abelmoschus crinitus Wall.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 81. (1964) 1965. AP.

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet ssp. albescens

(Miq.) Borss. var. australiense Hochr.; Ibid.

12: 276-277, fig. 7. (1970) 1972. AP.

A. theophrasti Medic.; Ibid. 15: 160. (1973)

1976. TN.

Hibiscus beddomei Rakshit & Kundu, Sci. &

Cult. 27: 192. 1961. S. India.

H. macrophyllus Roxb. ex Hornem.; Blumea

14: 47.48. 1966. Pen. India.

Sida ovata Forsk.; Curr. Sci. 33: 593-594. 1964.

AP.

Sterculiaceae

Cullenia exarillata Robyns, Bull. Jard. Bot. Nat.

Belg. 40: 249-252, pi. 2. 1970. K., TN.

Pterospermum acerifolium Willd.; FI. Hassan

Dt. 143. 1976. KA.

Elaeocarpaceae

Sloanea sterculiacea (Benth.) Rehder & Wil-

son; Bull. bot. Surv. India 12: 208. (1970)

1972. AP.

Linaceae

Hugonia belli Sedgwick, Indian Forester 46:

424. 1920. KA.

H. ferruginea Wt. & Arn..; Ibid. 101 : 569. 1975.

AP.

Geraniaceae

Biophytum proliferum (Arn.) Wt.; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 657. (1969) 1970. TN.

Impatiens hooderiana Arn.; Biol. Mem. 2: 24.

1977. TN.

Oxalis acetosella Linn.; Ibid. 2: 23. 1977. TN.

O. corymbosa DC.; Rec. bot. Surv. India 6:

337-340. 1919. TN.

O. latifolia H.B. & K.; Ibid. 6: 335-337. 1919.

TN.

O. pescaprae Linn.; Ibid 6:239. 1919. TN.

O. pubescens H.B. & K.; Ibid. 6: 333. 1919. TN.

O. tetraphylla Cav.; Ibid. 6: 334-335. 1919. TN.

O. variabilis Jacq.; Ibid. 6: 329. 1919. TN.

Rutaceae

Clausena excavata Burm. f.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 66: 658. (1969) 1970. K.

Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. var.

tirunelvelica Henry & Chandr., Bull. bot.

Surv. India 15: 144. (1973) 1976. TN.

Glycosmis macrocar pa Wt.; Ibid. 12: 3. (1970)

1972. TN.

Meliaceae

Aglaia littoralis Talbot, Trees, Shrubs & Woody

climbers, Bomb. Pres. 76. 1902 & For. FI. 1 :

235, f. 139. 1909 (non Miq. ex Zipp. 1868).

-A. talbotii Sundara Raghavan. KA.

Khaya senegalensis A. Juss.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 56: 370-373. fig. 4. 1959. Pondi-

cherry.

Celastraceae

Bhesa paniculata Arn.; Blumea 4 (Suppl.):

151. 1958. S. India.

Maytenus rothiana (Walp.) Lobreau-Callen,

FI. Hassan Dt. 320. 1976. KA.

65

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

VlTACEAE

Cayratia anemonifolia (Zippl. ex Miq.) Sussey;

Bull. bot. Surv. India 13: 158-159. (1971)

1973. TN.

Tetrastigma bracteolatum (Wall.) Planch.; Ibid.

6: 82. (1964) 1965. AP.

Anacardiaceae

Not hope gia beddomei Gamble var. wynaadica

Ellis & Chandrasek., Bull. bot. Surv. India

12: 257. 1970. K.

LEGUMINOSAE

Papilionaceae

Aeschynomene americana L.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 18: 236. 1979. K.

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. var. hybri-

dus DC.; Ibid. 21: 191. (1979) 1981. KA.,

TN.

A. roxburghianus Thoth. & Pramanik, Ibid. 21 :

189. AP., KA., TN.

Canavalia podocarpa Dunn, Kew Bull. 1922:

137. 1922. K., TN.

Centrosema virginianum (L.) Bth.; Curr. Sci.

39: 353. 1970. = C. pubescens Benth.

K., KA.

Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf.; Biol. Mem. 2:

37. 1977. TN.

C. anagyroides H.B.K.; Ibid. 2: 37. 1977. TN.

C. incana Linn.; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67:

132-133. 1970. K.

C. madurensis Wt. var. kurnoolica Ellis &

Swamin., Ibid. 66: 227. 1969. AP.

C. paniculata Willd. var. nagarjunakondensis

Thoth., Bull. bot. Surv. India 6: 67-68. 1964.

AP.

Dalbergia tinnevelliensis Thoth., Ceylon J. Sci.

(Biol. Sci.) 12: 47-48. fig. 1. 1976. TN.

D. travancorica Thoth., Reinwardtia 8: 329-

330. 1972. K.

Derris brevipes Baker var. coriacea Baker

emend. Thoth., Bull. bot. Surv. India 3: 185.

(1961) 1962. K., TN.

D. brevipes Baker var. travancorensis Thoth.,

Ibid. 6: 67-68. (1964) 1965. K.

Desmodium concinnum DC.; FI. Hassan Dt.

249. 1976. KA.

D. heterocarpon (Linn.) DC. var. strigosum

van Meeuwen; Biol. Mem. 2: 41. 1977. TN.

D. tortuosum (Sw.) DC.; J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 66: 658 (1969) 1970. TN.

D. velutinum DC.; Ibid. 66: 659. (1969) 1970.

K.

Erythrina subumbrans (Hassle.) Merr.; Biol.

Mem. 2: 42. 1977. TN.

Flemingia iuberosa Dalz.; Ibid. 2: 42. 1977. TN.

Glycine wightii Verde, ssp. wightii var. coimba-

torensis Ajita Sen, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

74: 330-332, fig. 1. (1977) 1978. = Neono-

tonia wightii (Wt. & Arn.) Lackey ssp.

wightii var. coimbatorensis (Ajita Sen)

Karthik. in Ind. J. For. 4: 65. 1981. TN.

Indigofera benthamiana Hance; Ibid. 73: 242-

243, pi. 1. 1976. K.

/. stachyodes Lindley; Biol. Mem. 2: 43. 1977.

TN.

/. vicioides Jaub. & Spach.; Sci. & Cult. 33:

406-407. 1967. TN.

Kunstleria keralensis C. N. Mohanan & N. C.

Nair, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.)

90: 208-209. 1981. K.

Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb., J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 357. (1980) 1981.

TN.

M. bracteatwn (Nees & Mart.) Verde.; Ibid.

77: 359. AP.

Moghania prostrata (Roxb.) Mukerjee; Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 6: 82. (1964) 1965. AP.

Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steudel; Ibid. 6: 83.

(1964) 1965. AP.

Rhynchosia jacobii Chandr. & Shetty, Ibid. 15:

139-141, fig. 15. (1973) 1976. TN.

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLE’S FLORA

Trifolium cernuum Brot.; Ibid. 17: 186-187,

fig. 6. (1975) 1978. TN.

Zornia quilonensis Ravi, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 66: 489. 1969. K.

Caesalpiniaceae

Amherstia nobilis Wall.; Biol. Mem. 2: 48.

1977. TN.

Cassia intermedia Sharma, Vivek. & Rathak.,

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 80B: 301-306, fig.

15. 1974. K., TN.

C. sericea Sw.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 21: 203

(1979) 1981. KA.

Mimosaceae

Acacia megaladena Desv., FI. Hassan Dt. 227.

1976. KA.

Albizzia sikharamensis Sahni & Bennett, Indian

Forester 101: 337-338, pi. 1. 1975. AP.

Dichrostachys muelleri Benth.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 63: 227-228. 1966. TN.

Mimosa barberi Gamble, Kew Bull. 1920: 5.

1920. AP.

M. invisa Mart.; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61:

469-471. 1964. K.

Prosopis gland ulosa Torr.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 8: 359. (1966) 1967. KA., TN.

P. glandulosa Torr. var. torreyana (L. Benson)

M. C. Johnst.; Ibid. 8: 359. (1966) 1967.

TN.

Rosaceae

Prunus jcnkinsii Hook, f.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

13: 155. (1971) 1973. AP.

Crassulaceae

Kalanchoe cherukondensis Subbarao & Kumari,

Bull. bot. Surv. India 17: 177-179, fig. 8,

t. 1. (1975) 1978. AP.

Haloragaceae

Laurembergia agastyamalayana Henry, J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 603-605, pi. 1. (1965)

1966. = L. coccinea (Bl.) Kan. var. zeyla-

nica (Arn. ex. Cl.) Meyden. TN.

L. hirsuta (Wt. & Arn.) Schindl.; Rec. bot.

Surv. India 6: 128. 1914. K., TN.

Myriophyllum oliganthum (Wt. & Arn.) F.v.M.;

Blumea 17: 308. 1969. KA., TN.

M. tuberculatum Roxb.; J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 64: 391-394, pi. 1. 1967. K.

Myrtaceae

Eugenia mabaeoides Wt.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

12: 2-3. (1970) 1972. TN.

Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f.) Alston; J. Bom-

bay nat Hist. Soc. 63: 227. 1966. TN.

Lecythidaceae

Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. ssp. spi-

cata (Bl.) Payens, Blumea 15: 231-233. 1967

TN.

B. asiatica (L.) Kurz.; Ibid. 15: 184. 1967.

Coromandel coast.

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don; Kew Bull. 20:

161. 1966. K.

Medinilla fuchsioides Gardn.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 18: 215. 1979. TN.

Memecylon hookeri Thw.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

13: 165, fig. 8. (1971) 1973. TN.

M. subramanii Henry, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 77: 492. (1980) 1981. TN.

Osbeckia kewensis C.E. C. Fischer, Kew Bull.

1938: 34. 1938. TN.

Sonerila devicolamensis Nayar, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 71: 632-633. (1974). 1976. K.

S. pedunculosa Thw.; Curr. Sci. 45: 527. 1976.

KA.

67

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

S. sadasivanii Nayar, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

69B: 256-258, fig. 1. 1969. K., TN.

S. wynaadensis Nayar, J. Indian bot. Soc. 48:

322-323, fig. 1. (1969) 1970. K.

Lythraceae

Ammannia auriculata Willd.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 10: 238-239, fig. 17. (1968) 1969. K.

A. pygniaea Kurz; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

63: 784-785, fig. 18. (1966) 1967. K.

Rotala malampuzhensis Vasudevan Nair [Ibid.

72: 57-60, fig. 18. 1975] ex C.D.K. Cook,

Boissiera 29: 98. 1979. K.

Samydaceae

Casearia rubescens Dalz. var. gamblei N.

Mukh., J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 393-

394. 1972.

Passifloraceae

Passiflora antioquiensis Karst.; Adansonia 7:

385. 1967. M. Pr.

P. biflora Lam.; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967. M. Pr.

P. caerulea Linn.; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967. M. Pr.

P. gracilis Jacq. ex Link.; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967.

M. Pr.

P. holosericea Linn.; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967. M. Pr.

P. incarnata Linn.; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967. M. Pr.

P. mollissima (H.B.K.) Bailey; Ibid. 7: 385.

1967. M. Pr.

P. subpehata Ortega; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967. M. Pr.

P. trifasciata Lemaire; Ibid. 7: 385. 1967. M. Pr.

CUCURBITACEAE

Momordica balsamina Linn.: Indian Forester

96: 527. 1970. K.

Thladiantha cor difolia (Bl.) Cogn.; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 6: 84. (1964) 1965. AP.

Trichosanthes brevibracteata Kundu; J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 373. 1942. K.

T. brevibracteata Kundu var. sublobata Kundu;

Ibid. 43: 373. 1942. K.

T. villosula Cogn. var. nilgiriensis Kundu; Ibid.

43: 375-376. 1942. TN.

Cactaceae

Cereus forbesii Hort. Berol. ex Forester; Proc.

natn. Acad. Sci. India 43B: 128, PI. 1. 1973.

K.

Umbelliferae

Bupleurum andhricum Nayar & Ban., Bull. bot.

Surv. India 12: 255. 1970. AP.

Eryngium foetidum Linn.; J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 70: 597. (1973) 1974. K.

Pimpinella bract eat a Haines; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 83. (1964) 1965. AP.

Rubiaceae

Anotis nummularia (Arn.) Benth. & Hook. f.

ex Hook, f.; Sci. & Cult. 31: 376-377, fig. 8.

1965 = Neanotis nummularia (Arn.) W. H.

Lewis. TN.

Borreria eradii Ravi, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

66: 539-540, fig. 10. (1969) 1970. K.

B. verticillata (Linn.) G.F.W. Meyer; Curr. Sci.

33: 379-380, fig. 1. 1964. KA.

Dentella serpyllifolia Wall, ex Airy Shaw; Bull,

bot. Surv. India 10: 389-390. (1968) 1969.

A.P.; TN.

Hedy otis erecta Manilal & Sivarajan, Bot. Noti-

ser 129: 191-192, fig. 1. 1976. K.

H. eualata (Gamble) Henry & Subr. var.

agastyamalayana Henry & Subr., Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 76B: 28-29, fig. 6. 1972. TN.

H. gamblei Henry & Subr., Ibid. 76B: 26-28,

fig. 5. 1972. TN.

H. pinifolia Wall, ex G. Don; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 21: 212. (1979) 1981. AP.

H. santapaui Shetty & Vivek., Bull. bot. Surv.

India 11: 448-449, fig. 11. (1969) 1972. K.

68

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLES FLORA

Meyna spinosa Roxb. var. pubescens Robyns;

Indian Forester 94: 682, fig. 3. 1968. AP.

Mitracarpus verticillatus (Schum. & Thonn.)

Vatke; Bull bot. Surv. India 9: 291. 1967.

K., TN.

Neanotis monosperma (Wt. & Arn.) Lewis var.

tirunelvelica Henry & Chandr., Ibid. 17: 188-

189, fig 5. (1975) 1978. TN.

Oldenlandia hygrophila Bremek., Kew Bull. 29:

359. 1974. K.

Ophiorrkiza tirunelvelica Henry & Subr., Bull,

bot. Surv. India 12: 277-278. (1970) 1972.

TN.

Paederia foetida Linn.; Ibid. 6: 84. (1964)

1965. AP.

Psychotria canarensis Talbot; FI. Hassan Dt.

588. 1976. KA.

Richardia scabra Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

6: 85. (1964) 1965. AP.

Tarenna agumbensis Sundara Raghavan, Ibid.

10: 341-343, fig. 9, pi. 1. (1968) 1969. KA.

COMPOSITAE

Anaphalis adnata DC.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

6: 85. (1964) 1965. AP.

Centratherum sengaltherianum B. M. Narayana,

Curr. Sci. 50: 279. 1981. TN.

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robinson;

FI. Hassan Dt. 608. 1976. KA.

Conyza floribunda Kunth; Ibid. 608. 1976. KA.

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.

Moore; Ibid. 610. 1976. KA.

Emilia alstonii Fosberg; Ibid. 613. 1976. KA.

E. exserta Fosberg; Ibid. 613. 1976. KA.

Enhydra fluctuans Lour.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

13: 155. (1971) 1973. AP.

Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng; J. Univ.

Poona (Sci. & Tech.) 48: 77-78, fig. 1. 1976.

TN.

Galinsoga ciliata (Rafin.) Blake; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 13: 158. (1971) 1973. TN.

Gnaphalium purpureum Linn.; Curr. Sci. 42:

368-369. 1973. TN.

Hypochoeris radicata Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 5: 247-249. 1963. TN.

Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) B. L. Robinson;

Sci. & Cult. 34: 254-255, fig. 5. 1968. K.

Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 234. 1969. AP., TN.

Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz.;

Bull. bot. Surv. India 9: 186. (1967) 1968.

AP.

Silybum marianum (Linn.) Gaertn.; Indian For-

ester 102: 685-68 6. 1976. TN.

Spilanthes paniculata Wall, ex DC.; FI. Hassan

Dt., 624. 1976. KA.

Struchium sparganophorum (Linn.) O. Kuntze;

Bull. bot. Surv. India 8: 202-203, fig. 18.

(1966) 1967. K.

Taraxacum javanicum van Soest; Biol. Mem.

2: 81. 1977. TN.

Vernonia anaimudica Shetty & Vivek., Bull,

bot. Surv. India 12: 266-268, fig. 11. (1970)

1972. K.

Xanthium pungens Wallroth emend Widder;

Curr. Sci. 42: 327-328. 1973. AP., KA.

Ximenesia encelioides Cav.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 53: 523-524. 1956. KA., TN.

Campanulaceae

Laurentia longiflora (Linn.) Endl.; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 323-324. 1965. Pondi-

cherry.

Lobelia beddomeana E. Wimm.; Pflanzenr.

Campanulae 2: 645. 1953. TN.

L. courtallensis K. K. N. Nair, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 87B: 105-107, fig. 1. 1978. TN.

Vacciniaceae

Vaccinium leschenaultii Wt. var. zeylanica C.

B. Cl.; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 366.

(1980) 1981. TN.

69

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Ericaceae

Andromeda leschenaultii Broughton, Pharm. J.

3, 2: 281. 1872; Rec. bot. Surv. India 18: 3.

1959. TN.

Primulaceae

Lysimachia alternifolia Wall.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 85. (1964) 1965. AP.

L. decurrens Forst. f.. Ibid. 6: 86. (1964) 1965.

AP.

Sapotaceae

Madhuca insignis (Radik.) H. J. Lam; Blumea

10: 79. 1960. KA.

Ebenaceae

Diospyros crumenata Thw.; FI. Hassan Dt. 195.

1976. KA.

D. saldanhae Kostermans, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 74: 326, pi. 1. (1977) 1978. KA.'

Oleaceae

Ligustrum confusum Decaisne; Blumea 24:

144. 1978. S. India.

Apocynaceae

Wrightia indica P. t. Ngan, Ann. Mo. bot. Gdn.

52: 140-141. 1965. TN.

Asclepiadaceae

Brachystelma elenaduensis M.B.S. Char, Curr.

Sci. 47: 965-966, fig. 2. 1978. KA.

B. ciliatum Arekal & Ramakrishna, Ibid. 50:

145. 1981. KA.

B. kolarenses Arekal & Ramakrishna, Proc. In-

dian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 90: 203-205.

1981. KA.

Caralluma nilagmana Kumari & Subba Rao,

J. Bombay nat Flist. Soc. 73: 194-196. 1976.

TN.

Ceropegia omissa Huber, Mem. Soc. Broter.

12: 67. 1957. K., TN.

Gymnema alterniflorum (Lour.) Merr.; Curr.

Sci. 37: 595. 1968. TN.

Hoya kanyakumariana Henry & Swamin., J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 462, fig. 5. 1979.

TN.

Janakia Joseph & Chandrasekaran, J. Indian

bot. Soc. 57: 308-309. 1978. K.

/. arayalpathra Joseph & Chandrasekaran, Ibid.

57: 309.

Marsdenia raziana Yog. & Subr., Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 83B: 147-149. fig. 10. 1976. KA.

M. tirunelvelica Henry & Subr., J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 73: 186-187. 1976. TN.

Tylophora dalzellii J. Hooker; FI. Hassan Dt.

453. 1976. KA.

T. subramanii Henry, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

65B: 161-164. 1967. TN.

Gentianaceae

Nymphoides macros per mum Vasudevan, Kew

Bull. 22: 101-106, fig. 3. 1968. K.

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium keralense Sivarajan & Maniial, J.

Indian bot. Soc. 51: 348-350, fig. 5. 1972. K.

Tournefortia argentea Linn, f.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 63: 226-227. 1966. TN.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia arakuensis Balak., Bull. bot. Surv.

India 3: 163-165, fig. 12. (1961) 1962. AP.

A. roxburghii Chois, var. ampla C. B. Cl.; Ibid.

13: 155. (1971) 1973. AP.

Cuscuta approximata Bab.; Geobios 3: 180.

1976. AP.

70

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLE’S FLORA

Evolvulus nummularius Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 86. (1964) 1965 & 12: 279. (1970)

1972. AP., K.

Ipomoea macrantha Roem. & Schult.; Geobios

2: 122-123. 1975. K.

1. triloba L.; Indian J. For. 2: 23-24, fig. 6.

1979. K.

I. pescaprae (Linn.) Sw. ssp. brasiliensis (Linn.)

Oostr.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 17: 197-198, fig.

8. (1975) 1978. K.

SOLANACEAE

Datura quercifolia H. B. & K.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 53: 524. 1956. TN.

Solarium elaeagnifolium Cav.; Curr. Sci. 43:

734. 1974. KA.

S. hispid um Pers.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 11:

197-198, fig. 8. (1969) 1971. TN.

S. khasianum CL; FI. Hassan Dt. 461. 1976. KA.

S. khasionum Cl. var. chatterjeanum Sen Gupta,

Bull. bot. Surv. India 3: 413-415, fig. 9.

(1961) 1962. = S. viarum Dunal. TN.

S. maurianum Scop.; Sen Mem. vol. 426. 1969.

TN.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Limnophila glandulifera Philcox, Kew Bull. 21 :

157-160, fig. 4. 1967. K.

Linder nia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst.; J. Bom-

bay nat Hist. Soc. 67: 611-613, fig. 5. (1970)

1971. K.

L. manilaliana Sivarajan, Kew Bull. 31: 151-

153, fig. 9. 1976. K.

Melasma avense (Benth.) Hand.-Mazz.; Bull.

bot. Surv. India 12: 208. (1970) 1972. AP.

Striga lutea Lour. var. coccinea (Bth.) O. Ktze.;

Ibid. 5: 69. 1963. K.

Torenia lindernidides C. J. Saldanha, Ibid. 8:

129-130, fig. 4. (1966) 1967. K., KA.

T. violacea (Azaolo ex Blanco) Pennell; Ibid.

8: 128. (1966) 1967. K.

Orqbanchaceae

Christisonia keralensis Erady, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 64: 10-12, pi. 1. 1967. K.

Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia australis R. Br.; FI. Hassan Dt. 563.

1967. KA.

U. minutissima Vahl; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

62: 180-182, fig. 20. 1965.

( U . lilliput Subr. & Balak. non Pellegrin,

Bull. bot. Surv. India 2: 347-348. 1960, is

this species only). K., KA., TN.

U. nivea Vahl; Curr. Sci. 43: 571. 1974. (con-

sidered to be a synonym of U. caerulea Linn,

by Gamble) AP., K., KA., TN.

Gesneriaceae

Chirita hamosa Wall, ex R. Br.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 9: 187. (1967) 1968. AP.

Pedaliaceae

Sesamum ekambaramii Naidu, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 51: 698, 1953. TN.

Acanthaceae

Andrographis nallamalayana Ellis, Bull. bot.

Surv. India 8: 362. (1966) 1967. AP.

A. neesiana Wt. var. rotundifolia Sreem., Ibid.

9: 9L 1966. TN.

Barleria vestita T. And.; J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53: 524-525. 1956. TN.

B. pratt ensis Santapau, Kew Bull. 1948: 487.

1949. TN.

Kanjarum Ramam., Bull. bot. Surv. India 13:

153. (1971) 1973. K.

K. palghatense Ramam., Ibid. 13: 153. (1971)

1973. K.

Rostellularia vahlii (Roth) Nees var. rupicola

Ellis, Ibid. 11: 435-437. (1969) 1972. AP.

71

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Strobilanthes walkeri Arn. ex Nees; Ibid. 15:

280. 1976. TN.

Sympagis petiolares (Nees) Bremek.; J. Bom-

bay nat Hist. Soc. 71: 176-177. 1974. AP.

Verbenaceae

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 86. (1974) 1975. AP.

Clerodendrum bracteosum Kostel.; Allg. Med.-

Pharm. FI. 3: 831. 1834; Rec. bot. Surv.

India 18: 12. 1959. K.

C. paniculatum Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 10:

240-241. (1968) 1969. K.

Lantana veronicifolia Hayek in Fedde, Repert.

Nov. Sp. 2: 163. 1906. KA., TN.

Lippia asperifolia A. Rich. ex. Marthe; Bull.

bot. Soc. Bengal 23: 69-70, fig. 1. 1969. TN.

Verbena officinalis Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

6: 87. (1964) 1965. AP.

Labiatae

Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O. Ktze. var. albi-

flora (Hassk.) Backer; Proc. nat. Acad. Sci.

India 42B: 225-226, fig. 6. 1972. K.

Hyptis pectinata Poit.; Rec. bot. Surv. India 14:

64. 1940. Madras.

Lavandula bipinnata O. Kze. var. rothiana O.

Ktze.; Ibid. 14: 65. 1940. AP., KA., TN.

Leucas lavanduliifolia Rees var. decipiens

(Hook, f.) Chandr. & Srin., Bull. bot. Surv.

India 17: 165. (1975) 1978. K., TN.

L. lavanduliifolia Rees var. nagalapuramiana

Chandr. & Srin., Ibid. 17: 165-167, fig. 6. (1975)

1978. AP.

L. mollissima Wall. var. sebastiana Subba Rao

& Kumari, Ibid. 11: 452-454, fig. 7. (1969)

1972. AP.

L. mukerjiana Subba Rao & Kumari, Ibid. 10:

358-359, fig. 8. (1968) 1969. AP.

L. veslita Bth. var. devicolamensis Shetty &

Vivek., Ibid. 10: 236-237, fig. 12. (1968)

1969. K.

Plectranthus parvifolius Talbot, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 11: 238. 1897. KA.

Pogostemon travancoricus Bedd. var. devicola-

mensis Shetty & Vivek., Bull. bot. Surv. India

15: 155-157, fig. 7. (1973) 1976. K.

Plantaginaceae

Planiago exigua Juss. ex Murray; Kew Bull.

30: 671-672. 1975. TN.

Nyctaginaceae

Oxybaphus himalaicus Edgew.; Geobios 2: 196.

1975. KA.

Amaranthaceae

Alternant hern paronychioides St. Hil.; J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 525. 1956. TN.

A. pungcns H. B. & K.; Ibid. 58: 551-553. 1961.

AP.

Amaranthus polygonoides Linn.; Ibid. 69: 687.

(1972) 1973. K.

Cyathula tomentosa Moq.; Indian Forester 96:

529. 1970. K.

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium carinatum R. Br.; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 683. (1972) 1973. TN.

C. pumilio R. Br.; Curr. Sci. 38: 173-175, fig.

13. 1969. TN.

Polygon aceae

Polygonum barbatum Linn. ssp. gracile Danser;

Bull. bot. Surv. India 6: 87. (1964) 1965.

AP., TN.

P. orientale Linn.; Ibid. 6: 88. (1964) 1965.

TN.

Rumex crispus Linn.; Biol. Mem. 2: 120. 1977.

TN.

72

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLE'S FLORA

PODOSTEMACEAE

lndotristicha tirunelveliana Sharma, Karthik. &

Shetty, Bull. bot. Surv. India 16: 157-161, pi.

1, fig. 17. (1974) 1977. TN.

Polypleurum munnarense Nagendran & Arekal,

Bot. Notiser 132: 49-50, fig. 1. 1979. K.

PlPERACEAE

Peperomia meeboldii C. DC. in Fedde. Repert.

13: 297. 1914. KA.

Piper ootacamundense C. DC. in Candollea 1 :

184. 1923. TN.

P. trioicum Roxb.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 12: 4.

(1970) 1972. (Gamble considered this to be

conspecific with P. attenuatum Buch.-Ham.

ex Miq.) TN.

Myristicaceae

Myristica laurifolia Hook. f. & Thoms.; Biol.

Mem. 2: 122. 1977. TN.

Lauraceae

Beilschmiedia sikkimensis King ex Hook, f.;

Bull. bot. Surv. India 9: 188 (1967) 1968.

AP.

Loranthaceae

Viscum articulatum Burm. f. var. thelocarpum

(Danser) Rolla Rao; Biol. Mem. 2: 126.

1977. TN.

V. heyneanum A. P. DC. var. liocarpum Dan-

ser, Blumea 4: 305. 1941. TN.

Balanophoraceae

Balanopkora abbreviata Bl.; Curr. Sci. 44: 96-

97. 1975. KA.

Euphorbiaceae

Antidesma walkeri (Tulasne) Pax & Hoffm.;

Curr. Sci. 35: 106, fig. 1. 1966. TN.

Bridelia pubescens Kurz; Bull. bot. Surv. India

6: 88. (1964) 1965. AP.

Euphorbia agowensis Hochst. ex Boiss.; Ibid.

15: 126. (1973) 1976. TN.

E. coudercii Gagnep.; Kew Bull. 26: 263. 1972.

S. India.

E. laciniata Panigrahi, Ibid. 30: 531. 1975. TN.

E. linearifolia Roth var. nallamalayana Ellis,

Bull. bot. Surv. India 8: 345-346, fig. 9.

(1966) 1967. AP.

E. longistyla Balak. & Subr., J. Madras Univ.

29B: 45-47. 1959. AP.

E. serpens H.B.K.; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

68: 852-856, fig. 9. (1971) 1972. AP., TN.

Jatropha villosa Wt. var. ramnadensis Ramam.,

Bull. bot. Surv. India 9: 278. (1967) 1968.

TN.

Mallotus intercedens Pax & Hoffm., Pflanzenr.

4: 147, 7: 179. 1914. K.

Meineckia parvifolia (Wt.) Webster; J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 237. 1975. and Sci. &

Cult. 41 : 436-438. 1975. AP., K., TN.

O st odes integrifolius Airy Shaw, Kew Bull. 16:

362-364. 1963. = Fahrenheitia integrifolia

(Airy Shaw) Airy Shaw, Ibid. 20: 410. 1966.

K.

Phyllanthus kozhikodianus Sivarajan & Manilal,

J. Indian bot. Soc. 56: 165-168, fig. 6. 1977.

K.

Sapium eugeniaefolium Hook, f.; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 12: 209. (1970) 1972. AP.

Moraceae

Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex. Tree. ssp.

zeylawcus Jarrett, J. Arnold Arbor. 41 : 90-

91. 1960. K., KA.

73

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Cudrania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Kudo &

Masaru.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 6: 89. (1964)

1965. AP.

Ficus auriculata Lour.; Ibid. 6: 89. (1964)

1965. AP.

F. geniculata Kurz; Gdn’s Bull. Singapore 21 :

9. 1965 Madras.

F. lacor Buch.-Ham.; Ibid. 21: 8. 1965. Madras.

F. rumphii Blunie; Bull. bot. Surv. India 6: 90.

(1964) 1965. AP.

F. trimemi King; Gdn’s Bull. Singapore 21 : 24.

1965. KA.

Urticaceae

Boehmena scabrella Gaud.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 90. (1964) 1965. AP.

Urtica hyperborea Jacq.; Biol. Mem. 2: 137.

1977. TN.

Orchidaceae

Acampe ochracea (Lindl.) Hochr.; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 323. 1964; Ibid. 75: 525.

(1978) 1979. AP., K.

Aphvllorchis prainii Hook, f.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 10: 97-99. 1968. K., KA., TN.

Brachvcoryphis wightii Summerhayes, Kew Bull.

1955: 242. 1955. K.

Bulbophyllum densiflorum Rolfe; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 12: 209. (1970) 1972. AP.

Cheirostylis parvifolia Lindl.; Ibid. 13: 2.

(1971) 1973. TN.

CoeIo%yne glandulosa Lindl. var. bournei Das

& Tain, Bull. bot. Surv. India 18: 244. (1976)

1979. TN.

C. glandulosa var. sathyanarayanae Das & Jain,

Ibid. 242. TN.

Cymbidium ensifolium. (L.) SW. var. haema-

todes (Lindl.) Trimen; FI. Hassan Dt. 817.

1976. KA.

Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl.; Ibid. 820. 1976.

KA.

D. lawianum Lindl.; Ibid. 821. 1976. KA.

D. mabelae Gammie; Ibid. 821. 1976. KA.

Diploprora championi (Lindl.) J. Hooker; Ibid.

824. 1976. KA.

Eria microchilos (Dalz.) Lindl.; Ibid. 828. 1976.

KA.

E. muscicola (Lindl.) Lindl. var. brevilinguis

Joseph & Chandrasek., Bull. bot. Surv. India

15: 267-269, fig. 6. (1973) 1976. K.

Eulophia emilianae Saldanha, Indian Forester

100: 566-569, fig. 1. 1974. KA.

E. explanata Lindl.; Bull. bot. Surv. India: 9:

188. (1967) 1968. AP.

E. hirsula Joseph & Vajravelu, Ibid. 17: 192-

194, fig. 10. (1975) 1978. K.

Gastrochilus flabelliformis (Blatt. & McC.)

Saldanha, FI. Hassan Dt. 830. 1976. KA.

Habenaria furcifera Lindl.; Bull. bot. Surv.

India 6: 91. 1964. AP., K., TN.

Liparis prazeri King & Pantl.; J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 66: 233. 1969. AP., K., TN.

Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McC.; FI. Hassan

Dt. 835. 1976. KA.

Nervilia prainiana (King & Pantl.) Seidenfaden

& Smith; Ibid. 837. 1976. KA.

Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McC.; Ibid.

838. 1976; Bull. bot. Surv. India 20: 169.

(1978) 1979. KA., K.

O. gammiei King & Pantl.; J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 75: 524. (1978) 1979. K.

O. iridi folia Lindl.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 13:

2. (1971) 1973. K.

O. josephi Saldanha, Indian Forester 100: 568-

571, pi. 1. 1974. KA.

O. sebasliana Shetty & Vivek., Bull. bot. Surv.

India 17: 157-159, fig. 8. (1975) 1978. K.

& TN.

O. seidenjadeniana Joseph & Vajravelu, Ibid.

13: 344. (1971) 1974. TN.

Peristylus lawii Wt.; Biol. Mem. 2: 143. 1977.

TN.

74

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLES FLORA

Phaius luridus Thw.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 16:

147-149, fig. 9 (1974) 1977. K.

Phalaenopsis mysorensis Saldanha, Indian For-

ester 100: 571-572, pi. 1. 1974. KA.

Proteroceras Joseph & Vajravelu, J. Indian bot.

Soc. 53: 189-193, fig. 6. 1974. TN.

P. holttumii Joseph & Vajravelu, Ibid. 53: 190-

192. 1974. TN.

Smithsonia Saldanha, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

71: 73. 1974. KA.

S. macuiata (Dalz.) Saldanha; FI. Hassan Dt.

850. 1976. KA.

S. st rammed Saldanha; J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 71: 73-74, pi. 1. 1974. KA.

S. viridijiora (Dalz.) Saldanha; FI. Hassan Dt.

851. 1976. KA; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75: 525. (1978) 1979. K. [as Gastrochilus

dalzelllanus (Sant.) Sant. & Kapadia.]

Trias stocksii Benth. ex Hook, f.; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 10: 241. (1968) 1969. K.

Tropidia curculigoides Lindl.; Ibid. 10: 365-

366. (1968) 1969. K.

ZlNGIBERACEAE

Boesenhcrgia pulcherrima (Wall.) O. Ktze.; FI.

Hassan Dt. 766. 1976. KA,

Paracautleya Smith, Notes, R. bot. Gdn. Edinb.

35: 365. 1977. KA.

P. bhatii Smith, Ibid. 35: 365-368, fig. 1. 1977.

KA.

Musaceae

Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) E. E. Cheesm.; Bull,

bot. Surv. India 14: 164-166. (1972X 1975.

AP.

Musa acuminata Colla; Kew Bull. 25: 332.

1971. TN.

M. balbisiana Colla; Ibid. 1948: 11-17 1948.

KA., TN.

M. kattuvazhana Jacob, Monogr. Madras Bana-

nas 129. 1952. K., TN.

M. ornata Roxb.; Kew Bull. 25: 331-333. 1971.

AP,

M. sapidisiaca Jacob, Monogr. Madras Bananas

129. 1952. K., TN.

Liliaceae

Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Sprengel; Curtis,

Bot. Mag. 173: t. 386. 1962. TN.

Asparagus racemosus Willd. var. javanicus

(Kunth) Baker; FI. Hassan Dt. 795. 1976.

KA.

Chlorophytum acaule Baker; Bull. bot. Soc.

Bengal 29: 81. 1975. TN.

C. bharuchae Ansari, Sundararaghavan &

Hemadri, Indian Forester 96: 304-306, fig.

10. 1970. KA.

C. nimmonii Dalzell; Kew Bull. 30: 565. 1975.

K., TN.

Iphigenia mysorensis Arekal & Swamy, Bot.

Notiser 125: 220-222, fig. 5. 1972. KA.

I. pallida Baker; FI. Hassan Dt. 798. 1976. KA.

/. sahyadrica Ansari & Rolla Rao, Bull. bot.

Surv. India 20: 163. (1978) 1979. KA.

Urginea govindappae Boraiah & Fatima, Bull,

bot. Surv. India 12: 128-130, pi. 2. (1970)

1972. = Drimta indica (Roxb.) Jessop [U.

indica (Roxb.) Kunth]. KA.

U. polyantha Blatt. & McCann; Ibid. 16: 122-

123. (1974) 1977. TN.

Comm ELI N ACE AE

Amischotolype mollissima (Bl.) Hassk. var.

glabrata (Hassk.) Rolla Rao, M. V. M.

Patrika 6: 53. 1971. AP.

Aneilema pulneyensis Fyson, Kew Bull. 1914:

332. 1914. TN.

Commelina alisagarensis Kumar & Deodikar,

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 13B: 168. 1941.

= C. imberbis Ehrenb. ex Hassk. AP.

75

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

C. maculata Edgew.; Blumea 14: 353. 1966.

Pen. India.

C. tricolor Barnes, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

49: 79-80. 1946. TN.

Cyanotis arcotensis Rolla Rao, Blumea 14:

346-348, fig. 1. 1966. K. TN.

C. cerifolia Rolla Rao & Kammathy, J. Linn.

Soc. (Bot.) 59: 306-308, fig. 6. 1966. TN.

C. obtusa Trimen; Blumea 14: 349. 1966. Hill

tops of Pen. India

C. thwaitesii Hassk.; FI. Hassan Dt. 646. 1976.

KA.

Forrestia mollissima (Bl.) Koorders var. gla-

brata (Hassk.) Backer; Bull. bot. Surv. India

12: 209. (1970) 1972. AP.

JUNCACEAE

J uncus effusus Linn.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 14:

19. (1972) 1975. K., TN.

Palmae

Calamus delessertianus Becc., Ann. Roy. Bot.

Gard. Calc. 11: 276-277. 1908. S. Peninsular

India.

C. nagbettai Fernandez & Dey, Indian Forester

96: 223-225, pi. 1. 1970. KA.

Araceae

Allocasia fornicata (Roxb.) Schott; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 6: 91. (1964) 1965. AP.

Pauella Ramam. & Seb., Ibid. 8: 348. (1966)

1967. = Theriophonum Bl.

P. sivagangana Ramam. & Seb., Ibid. 8: 348-

351, fig. 9 (1966) 1967. = T. sivaganganum

(Ramam. & Seb.) Bogner. TN.

Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott; Ibid.

13: 155. (1971) 1973. AP.

Sauromatum pedatum (Willd.) Schott; FI.

Hassan Dt. 789. 1976. KA.

Lemnaceae

Lemna eleanorae McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 43: 154-155, pi. 3. 1942. K., TN.

Pseudowolffia hyalina (Del.) Hart. & Plas;

Aquatic Bot. 1: 71-73, fig. 1. 1975. AP.

Alismataceae

Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn. ssp. leucopetala

(Miq.) Hartog: FI. Hassan Dt. 632. 1976.

Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 169. 1980. K.

Aponogetonaceae

Aponogeton appendiculatus van Bruggen, Blu-

mea 16: 265. 1968. K.

A. echinatus Roxb.; Biol. Mem. 2: 152. 1977.

TN.

Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon christopheri Fyson, Kew Bull. 1914:

330. 1914. TN.

E. heterolepis Steud.; FI. Hassan Dt. 652. 1976.

KA.

E. hookerianum Stapf ; Ibid. 653. 1976. KA.

E. infirmum Steud.; Ibid. 653. 1976. KA.

E. luzulifolium Mart.; Bull. bot. Surv. India 9:

188-189. (1967) 1968. AP.

E. mariae Fyson, Kew Bull. 1914: 331. 1914.

TN.

E. oliveri Fyson, Ibid. 1914: 331. 1914. TN.

Cyperaceae

Carex capillacea Boott; Biol. Mem. 2: 153.

1977. TN.

C. eluta Nelmes, Kew Bull. 6: 271. 1940. TN.

C. indica Linn.; FI. Hassan Dt. 660. 1976. KA.

Cyperus atroglumosa Govindarajalu, Proc. In-

dian Acad. Sci. 81B: 187-189, fig. 1. 1975.

KA.

76

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLES FLORA

C. curvibracteatus Govindarajalu, Ibid. 88B:

231-233, fig. 1. 1979. TN.

C. flabelliformis Rottb.; Biol. Mem. 2: 155.

1977. TN.

C. haspan L. ssp. juncoides (Lamk.) Kuekenth.;

FI. Hassan Dt. 666. 1976. KA.

C. latiglumijera Govindarajalu, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 69: 161-162, fig. 1. 1972. TN.

C. latovaginata Govindarajalu, J. Indian bot.

Soc. 52: 74-76, fig. 1. 1973. TN.

C. lurida Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 81B: 189-192, fig. 1. 1975. TN.

C. melanospermus ssp. bifolius (Miq.) Kern;

Bull. bot. Surv. India 8: 352-353, fig. 9.

(1966) 1967. KA., TN.

C. plumbeonucea Govindarajalu, J. Indian bot.

Soc. 52: 76-78, fig. 1. 1973. TN.

C. plurinodosa Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 81B: 192-194. fig. 1. 1975. KA.

C. polyant helus Govindarajalu, Ibid. 88B: 234-

236, fig. 1. 1979. TN.

C. pulchellus R. Br.; Indian Forester 103: 412-

413. 1977. KA., TN.

C. rubriglumosus Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 88B: 229-231, fig. 1. 1979. TN.

C. sesquiflorus (Torr.) Mattf. & Kukenth. var.

subtriceps Koyama; Biol. Mem. 2: 156. 1977.

TN.

C. stricticulmis Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 81B: 194-196, fig. 1. 1975. TN.

Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl, var. tricho-

poda Kern, Blumea 12: 27-28. 1963. K.

F. alboviridis Cl.; FI. Hassan Dt. 675. 1976. KA.

F. amplocarpa Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 80B: 41-44, fig. 1. 1974. TN.

F. crystallina Govindarajalu, Ibid. 79B: 166-

169, fig. 1. 1974. TN.

F. dauciformis Govindarajalu, Ibid. 76B: 181-

184, fig. 1. 1972. K.

F. eligulata Govindarajalu, Ibid. 76B: 184-187,

fig. 1. 1972. TN.

F. eragrostis (Nees) Hance; Biol. Mem. 2: 157.

1977. TN.

F. latiglumijera Govindarajalu, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 69: 161-162. (1972) 1973. TN.

F. latinucifera Govindarajalu, Ibid. 69: 159-

160, fig. 1. 1972. TN.

F. longistigmata Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 76B: 190-193, fig. 1. 1972. TN.

F. monospicula Govindarajalu, Ibid. 79B: 169-

172, fig. 1. 1974. KA., TN.

F. podocarpa Nees & Meyen ex Nees; FI.

Hassan Dt. 680, 1976. KA.

F. rectifolia Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 80B: 46-49. fig. 1. 1974. TN.

F. rigidiuscula Govindarajalu, Ibid. 78B: 45-48,

fig. 1. 1973. TN.

F. rugosa Govindarajalu, Ibid. 78B: 48-51, fig.

1. 1973. TN.

F. semidisticha Govindarajalu, Ibid. 78B: 51-

54, fig. 1. 1973. KA., TN.

F. sieberiana Kunth; FI. Hassan Dt. 680. 1976

& Indian Forester 103: 416-417. 1977. AP.,

KA.

F. squarrosa Vahl. var. esquarrosa Makino; FI.

Hassan Dt. 681. 1976. KA.

F. strigosa Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 78B: 54-57, fig. 1. 1973. TN.

F. woodrowii CL; FI. Hassan Dt. 682. 1976. KA.

Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. var. stellulata

(Valck.-Sur.) Hooper, Ibid. 687. 1976. KA.

Lipocarpha raynaleana Govindarajalu, Adanso-

nia 2, 20: 369-375. 1981. TN.

Pycreus diaphanus (R. & S.) S. Hooper &

Koyama; Flora Hassan Dt. 691. 1976. KA.

P. diaphanus var. gracilescens (Kueken.) S.

Hooper, Ibid. 692. 1976. KA.

P. polystachvos (Rottb.) Beauv. var. laxiflorus

(Benth.) Cl.; Ibid. 693. 1976. KA.

Rikliella kernii (Raymond) J. Raynal; Ibid.

696. 1976. KA.

Scleria africana Benth.; Bull. bot. Surv. India

9: 301, fig. 4. (1967) 1968. KA.

77

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

S. foliosa Hochst. ex. A. Rich.; FI. Hassan Dt.

700. 1976. KA.

S. lithosperma (Linn.) Sw. var. multispiculata

Govindarajalu, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 7 IB:

221-222, fig. 1. 1970. TN.

S. lithosperma (Linn.) Sw. var. muricata Govin-

darajalu, Ibid. 71B: 222-225, fig. 1. 1970. K.

S. pergracilis (Nees) Kunth; FI. Hassan Dt.

700, 1976. KA.

Gramineae

Alloteropsis semialata (R. Br.) Hitchc.; FI.

Hassan Dt. 707. 1976. KA.

Anthoxanthum borii Jain et Pal, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 92-94. 1975. TN.

Arundinella hookeri Munro ex Keng; Indian

Forester 103: 513-524. 1977. TN.

A setosa Trin. var. nilagiriana Subba Rao &

Kumari, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 827-

828, fig. 7. (1975) 1976. TN.

Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) Blake; Ann. Arid

Zone 17: 255. 1978. KA.

B. concanensis (Hook.) Henr.; FI. Hassan Dt.

713. 1976. KA.

B. ischaemum (Linn.) Keng; Ann. Arid Zone

17: 256. 1978. KA.

Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) C. E. Hubb.

ex Robyns; Bull. bot. Surv. India 15: 162.

(1973) 1976. TN.

B. nilagirica Bor, Bot. Tiddskrift 67: 325. 1973.

TN.

Capillipedium magdaleni Almeida, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 813-814, pi. 1. (1975)

1976. KA.

Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro; Indian

Forester 102: 596. 1976. AP.

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats,

var. coimbatorensis Gupta, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 71B: 94-95. 1970. TN.

C. martinii (Roxb.) Wats. var. sofia Gupta,

Ibid. 71B: 97-98. 1970. K.

Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf; FI.

Hassan Dt. 720. 1976. KA.

Digitaria bicornis (Lamk.) R. & S. ex Loud.;

Ann. Arid Zone 17: 256. 1978. KA.

D. biformis Willd.; Ibid. 17: 256. 1978. KA.

D. stricta Roth ex R. & S. var. denudata (Link.)

Henr.; FI. Hassan Dt. 724. 1976. KA.

Enteropogon coimbatorensis K. K. N. Nair,

Jain & Nayar, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 86B:

84, fig. 7. 1977. TN.

Eulalia thwaitesii (Hack.) O. Ktze; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 15: 276-278. (1973) 1976. K.

Garnotia exaristata Gould, Kew Bull. 27: 558.

1972. ( =G . tectorum Hook. f. nom. illegit.)

K., TN.

G. fergusonii Trimen; Kew Bull. 27: 537-538.

1972. TN.

Isachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Ktze; FI. Hassan

Dt. 736. 1976. KA.

/. mysorensis Sundararaghavan, Indian Forester

97: 304-307. 1971. KA.

Ischaemum barbatum Retz.; FI. Hassan Dt.

737. 1976. KA.

/. vembanadense Patil & D’Cruz, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 324-325, pi. 1. (1973)

1974. K.

Lepturus radicans (Steud.) A. Camus; FI.

Hassan Dt. 739. 1976. KA.

Ochlandra ebracteata Raizada & Chatterij,

Indian Forester 89: 362-364, pi. 1. 1963. K.

Oropetium villosulum Stapf ex Bor; Bull. bot.

Surv. India 9: 284-285, tab. 1. (1967) 1968.

AP.

Oryza perennis ssp. balunge; Curr. Sci. 33:

515-517, fig. 3. 1964. K.

Paspalum compactum Roth var. fimbriatum

Bor; FI. Hassan Dt. 746. 1976. KA. = P .

canarae (Steud.) Veldk. var. fimbriatum

Bor) Veldk.

Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud.; J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 232-233. 1975. TN.

78

ADDITIONS TO GAMBLE’S FLORA

Tripsacum laxum Nash; Biol. Mem. 2: 170.

1977. TN.

Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. var. pubescens

(Konth) Bor; FI. Hassan Dt. 758. 1976. KA.

Zenkeria sebastinei Henry & Chandr., Bull. hot.

Surv. India 15: 142-144, fig. 9. (1973) 1976.

TN.

Gamble, J. S. and Fischer, C. E. C. (1915-1936) :

“Flora of the Presidency of Madras” Part I to XI.

Karthikeyan, S. (1971) : A contribution to the

family Gramineae of the “Flora of the Presidency

of Madras”. Bull . bot. Surv. India 13: 175-179.

ADDITIONAL FAMILIES

Butomaceae

Limnocharis flava (Linn.) Buchenau; J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 389-390. 1967 & In-

dian Forester 94: 641-644, pi. 1. 1968. K.

Cabombaceae

Cabomba aquatica Aubl.; Curr. Sci. 47: 136-

137, fig. 5. 1978. K.

iNCES

Sebastine, K. M. (1962): Some additions to

“Flora of the Presidency of Madras”, ibid. 4: 219-225.

and Ramamurthy, K. (1966) :

Some additions to the “Flora of the Presidency of

Madras” — 2. ibid. 8: 80-81.

79

STUDIES ON SPAWNING MIGRATION AND SPAWNING

OF HILLSTREAM FISH D1SCOGNATHUS MULLYA

(SYKES)1

G. Loviah Joseph2 and S. V. Job3

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

Migration of fishes from their native habitat

prior to spawning to another area, which may

offer favourable conditions for spawning, and

their subsequent return to their original home

has been recorded in many riverine forms

(Cadwallader 1976), and first migration of

Discognathus was reported by Hora (1921).

An excellent account of the prespawning migra-

tion of D. mullya was given by Jones (1941),

who observed the migration of this species in

the Kallar river of Western Ghats in Peermedu

Taluk, Travancore.

In this study the migration of D. mullya was

investigated in a hillstream called Ulakkaruvi,

situated at an altitude of 1255 m above MSL

in the southern slopes of Western Ghats in

Ashamboo hills of Kanyakumari District,

Tamilnadu. This hillstream has two major water

falls — upper and lower, several pools and

rapids.

Material and Methods

An area of approximately 1 Kilometre from

upper falls down to the lower beds of the

Ulakkaruvi stream, embracing several pools

1 Accepted December 1980.

2 Scott Christian College, Nagercoil-629 003,

Kanyakumari Dist., India.

3 School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj

University, Madurai-625 021, India.

and rapids was taken up for study. The area

taken for observation was divided arbitrarily

into three major zones (Fig. 1 ) for convenience

and the study was carried out from November

1977 to March 1978. The area of the upper

falls lying at an elevation of 614 m above MSL

has two major pools and ten rapids, called

zone A, while the lower falls (537 m above

MSL) and area around it including a side

stream constituted zone B. In this area, there

are five medium sized pools and nine rapids.

Zone C consisted of the lower reaches of the

main stream lying at an elevation of 502 m

above MSL. Here there are three pools one

major and the other two medium sized, and

five rapids.

Preliminary investigations were carried out

in the laboratory to find out a suitable mark-

ing method on the fish so that they could be

easily identified on recovery. Tagging (plastic)

of either the operculum or fin was found to be

unsuitable, since the tagged fishes behaved

abnormally, and there was considerable morta-

lity. This method was abandoned and a group

marking technique (Nikolsky 1963, Brian Stott

1971) was adopted. Group marking is perform-

ed either by painting or branding the fish, or

by cutting part of the fin, was found to suit

well for Discognathus and hence this method

was employed, and the following procedure was

followed in the field.

Fishes were captured in the early hours of

the day (8 a.m.), and those with length range

80

SPAWNING MIGRATION AND SPAWNING OF DISCOGNATHUS MULLYA

Fig. 1. Showing a section of the Ulakkaruvi stream probed in migration studies.

P — Pools R — Rapids

Arrows radiating from the pool at Zone-C indicate the direction and areas of

prespawnal migration.

Arrow from pool at Zone-B towards Zone-A indicate the direction of post-spawnal

migration.

Small arrows inside the pools and rapids show the direction of the flow of water.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 80

55 mm and above were only taken for study.

The netted fishes were released in net cages

(3 x 1 m) kept half submerged in a pool. From

this sample the fishes were taken individually

in a small hand dip net; its length was measured

and the dorsal lobe of the caudal fin was spread

and the postero-dorsal edge (> 3 mm) was

clipped off. On the amputated surface methy-

lene blue solution was rubbed using cotton.

The marking was done as rapidly as possible

and the marked fishes were released in another

net cage kept half submerged in the same pool.

The amputation of very small portions of the

caudal fin caused no change in the mobility

of the fish and the time lag between their re-

lease and recovery was too short for full regene-

ration of the cut portion. All the marked fishes

were allowed to swim inside the net cage for a

period of four hours. The stain lasted for a

few hours and in many cases it faded off. Any

fish which showed abnormality in mobility was

isolated and not used in the study. All the

other fishes were released in the major pool

at zone C around 3 p.m. Following the above

modalities fishes were captured and released

on five occasions (20th, 22nd, 25th, 28th Nov-

ember and 2nd December 1977) in zone C and

a total of 293 fishes were released. As there

was no sexual dimorphism in D. mullya, the

sex of the released fishes could not be ascer-

tained.

To find out the possible presence of any

early migrants from the lower beds (zone C)

of the stream to the upper reaches (zones A &

B), intensive netting was done in these latter

areas at regular intervals from 7th December

to 30th January 1978. Only accessible pools

and rapids were searched for the marked fishes,

while a few pools located in the steep (35 m)

slippery part of the main stream could not be

probed due to their inaccessibility. If any mark-

ed fish was caught, after measuring its length,

a small mutilation was made on the inner mar-

gin of one of the pelvic fins and it was released

again. This had to be done to identify the

recaptured from other marked fish. Fishing was

done in areas beyond zone C also to find out

any possible downward movement of the mark-

ed fishes.

Result

The number of fishes captured with their

size range and the number of them marked and

released are given in the Table I. The percen-

tage of recapture was rather low (17.06%)

and this was due to the different terrain and

uneven topography of the area where no stan-

dard netting device could be employed. An-

other difficulty faced was the inaccessibility of

a few pools lying on the main stream.

Discussion

Though the total percentage of recapture in

migration study (17.06%) was low, it fairly

reflects the mode of migration of D. mullya at

Ulakkaruvi. From the place of recapture of

marked fishes it can be inferred that these fishes

ascended from Zone-C climbing along the 35 m

high slippery rocky terrain to the rapids and

pools present around the base of the lower

falls and side stream. Thus their movement was

against the current. Intensive movement of

fishes were observed on 18th January 1977 at

dawn among the rapids and pools of the side

stream and spawning of the fishes was observed

in a rapid, and eggs were collected immediately

after spawning and thereafter (vide spawning).

From the dates of recovery of marked fishes,

observation of spawning and subsequent egg

collection, it is reasonable to assume that D.

mullya might have undertaken a prespawnal

migration from the last week of December 1977

to the second week of January 1978.

82

Number of D. mullya released and recovered in migration studies

SPAWNING MIGRATION AND SPAWNING OF DISCOGNATHUS MULLYA

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Veil. 80

In the month of March 1978, the water level

in most of the pools and rapids dwindled and

adult fishes were scarcely seen. In order to find

out whether these fishes ascend further upward,

undertaking a post-spawning migration, fishing

was done on several occasions (25th, 28th, 30th

March and 5th, 7th and 10th April 1978), in

the major pool lying at the base of the upper

falls, 19 marked fishes (2 previously captured)

were recovered during this intensive probing.

This recapture emphasizes the fact that D.

mullya undertakes post spawning migration

when the water level in their breeding grounds

goes down to a precarious level. Though water

level had gone down and most of the rapids

and pools were cut off without any water flow,

the pools and rapids were full of larval fish in

various stages of development. Several observa-

tions made by Jones (1941) may be pertinent

in understanding the migration of D. mullya.

While observing the prespawning migration of

these fishes in Kallar stream of Western Ghats

in Peermade Taluk, Travancore, he stated that

the migration ‘does not seem to have any rela-

tion to rain, as no rainfall had been recorded

in this area for over 2 months’. Around Ulak-

karuvi stream too there was little or no rainfall

during the breeding month.

Spawning :

The first spawning at Ulakkaruvi was observ-

ed in the early hours of 18th January 1978 in

a rapid, where the temperature of the water was

19°C while that of the atmosphere was 20° ±

1°C. Small shoals of D. mullya moved in pre-

spawning period mostly from the main stream

and pools to the rapids which hardly had a

depth of 750 mm, where water flows over slow-

ly. The bottom of the rapids was filled with an

admixture of sand and mud, gravel and small

boulders measuring less than 500 mm in size.

The entire bottom had abundant detritus.

It was group mating, where some 15 to 20

fishes took part. Courtship behaviour involved

movements such as following, chasing, and but-

ting which appeared again and again during

which extrusion of ova was clearly visible, but

shedding of sperm was not observed. Eggs were

shed in the water in staggering quantities and

simply left to the mercy of the environment.

A noteworthy feature was that the fishes were

not scared by the presence of the observer.

One odd thing about Discognathus during

spawning was that they were often found to

move in groups underneath boulders. The

whole process took place up to 8.30 a.m.; by

that time most of the eggs were shed and their

haphazard movements almost ceased. Thirteen

fish were captured around 11 a.m. from the

breeding rapids, out of which 8 were females

and 5 males — all between 72-96 mm length

range. The females were dissected in the field

itself and all of them showed fully spent ovaries,

thus emphasizing the fact that they had shed

all the matured ova in one burst of spawning.

Eggs were highly adhesive and heavily yolk-

ed, and demersal. They adhered to the sides of

the rocks and submerged decaying vegetation

such as leaves and twigs; thus they were not

likely to be washed down by the flowing water.

When a few boulders were lifted in the evening

around 4 p.m., hundreds of eggs were found

to have been laid by the fishes in trough-like

depressions carved out of the mud. Though

95% eggs were found to be fertilized, 5%

appeared whitish (obviously unfertilized). Eggs

were collected at different intervals after spawn-

ing.

On the early morning of 19th January 1978

it was surprising to find that the rapid in which

spawning was observed on the previous day,

no water found and the entire water had pro-

bably drained down to the neighbouring smaller

crevices on the rocky terrain. This exposed the

84

SPAWNING MIGRATION AND SPAWNING OF DISCOGNATHUS MULLYA

entire bottom of the rapid to the atmosphere.

The whole area was however wet and the under-

lying mud and sand held a good amount of

water, thus not allowing the bottom to dry up.

When the decaying vegetation and boulders

were removed, it was a pleasant surprise to

find that the hundreds of eggs lying beneath

them had well developed embryos, which show-

ed normal movements. A good harvest of em-

bryos was made. The eggs showed a high degree

of adhesiveness and clumped together when

held in the hand. Eggs with live embryos were

R E F E ]

Brian Stott (1971) : Marking and tagging, IBP

Hand Book No. 3 pp 78-92, Methods for assessment

of fish production in fresh waters — (Ed) W. E.

Ricker.

Cadwallader, P. L. (1976) : Homage range and

movements of the common river Galaxias, Galaxias

vulgaris Stokell (Pisces: Salmoniformes) , in the

Glentui river, New Zealand. Aus. J. mar. Freshwater

Res. 27: 23-33.

taken from the rapid along with some stream

water and detritus, and were brought to the

laboratory. They were left inside large, well-

aerated tanks to observe their further develop-

ment. Unfortunately they survived for only a

few hours.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

One of us (L.J.) is grateful to Mr. M. Maru-

thanathan for accompanying him throughout

the work at Ulakkaruvi in spite of the hard-

ships of travel in the hills.

EN CES

Hora, S. L. (1921) : Indian Cyprinoid fishes be-

longing to the genus Garra (with notes on related

species from other countries). Rec. Ind. Mus. 22:

633-687.

Jones, S. (1941) : An interesting case of migra-

tion of the stone licking fish, Garra mullya (Sykes)

for breeding. Current Science X: 445-446.

Nikolsky, G. V. (1963) : The Ecology of Fishes.

Academic Press, London. New York.

85

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOVEMENT OF TWO

CAPTIVE-REARED MUGGER CROCODILES,

CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS LESSON WHEN RETURNED

TO THE WILD1

Lala A. K. Singh2

Two mugger crocodiles, at six-months age and 56.9 and 54.3 cm size escaped from

captivity at GRACU into the river Mahanadi during October 1975. The maximum

distance moved during the first three months after escape was 4.0 km and during the

entire observation period of 18 months was 10.8 km. Growth of these mugger in the

wild was similar to the ones in captivity. It is recommended that mugger when reach

a size of about 55 cm can be rehabilitated ii

Introduction

In August 1975 the Gharial Research and

Conservation Unit, Tikerpada received fifteen

mugger crocodiles ( Crocodylus palustris

Lesson) from Tamil Nadu. Of these fifteen

mugger, five hatchlings were collected from

Hogenakal waterfall on Cauvery River in

Dharmapuri district, five were collected from

Kedarhali stream on Moyar River in Nilgiri

district and five had hatched in captivity from

eggs laid by parents collected from Mettur Dam

of Salem district and captive reared in the

Madras Snake Park.

Since the mugger varied in size even within

the individual group, they were sorted out ac-

cording to size and kept in three different pools,

five per pool. Pools were 2 m x 2 m x 30 cm

in size with a slope of 1.3 on one side and

with one metre width sand area on all the sides

for basking. Ample vegetation was provided as

cover to give a feeling of security to the ani-

mals. The pools were covered by wire-mesh on

1 Accepted November 1981.

2 Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tiker-

pada 759 122, Orissa, India.

the wild for conservation purposes,

the sides and roof. Adjacent pools were separat-

ed by 50 cm vertical wire-mesh partitions.

All mugger had the habit of moving, during

the night, along the side of the enclosure facing

the river (River Mahanadi), flowing at a dis-

tance of about 40 metres on the west. Presu-

mably this resulted from their water orientation

behaviour, as reported for gharial, Gavialis

gangeticus (Gmelin) (Singh 1978).

On 29th October 1975, two mugger juveniles

of average size from the largest group escaped

by breaking through a rusted portion of the

wire-mesh enclosure at a height of 15 cm above

the ground. Interestingly, the side through

which the mugger had escaped faced the river.

This information has been published earlier

(Singh 1976) but in the present paper observa-

tions relating to the detection of these mugger

in the Satkoshia Gorge of Mahanadi and the

subsequent movements executed by these juve-

niles on the next eighteen months in the wild

are discussed. It is to be noted that according

to a survey made earlier by Bustard (FAO

1974) and the author (unpublished data) the

Satkoshia Gorge had seven wild gharial and

seven wild mugger. None of the wild mugger

were of sizes similar to the ones escaped from

86

MOVEMENT OF CAPTIVE REARED CROCODILES

captivity. Furthermore, observations made by

ten Gharial Guards regularly patrolling the

river by boat had no report of any other mug-

ger of this size during their observations through

eighteen months.

Observations

Exactly one month after their escape, at

about 1 . 5 km downstream from the Unit, a

crocodilian track and a faecal pellet were de-

tected on a rocky shore having an interspersed

thick deposition of clay. Nature of the spoor,

and size of the pug marks and the faecal pellet

indicated that the animal that had come out

to the spot for basking was a 0.5 m long

mugger crocodile (Unpubl. MS.). Since the

Gorge didn’t have any of its recorded mugger

of this size the findings suggested that perhaps

both the mugger escaped out from the Unit had

come into the Gorge. In confirmation to this

assumption, the length of these two escaped-

juveniles, taken six days before the detection

of their escape, was 56.9 cm for one and 54.3

cm for the other.

A week later, two mugger were sighted at

this locality both by the fishermen and the

Gharial Guards. One of these juveniles moved

to the opposite bank, later followed by the

second one, and remained near the mouth of

a stream that drains off into the river. At that

time of the year (March) the spot receives a

slow stream of water and it forms an ideal place

to harbour a large number of fishes in small

pools among half submerged rocks. Observa-

tions subsequent to these (25th December 1975

to 9th June 1977) are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 does not show the movements sepa-

rately for these two juveniles; yet a close study

of the data shows that after remaining near

the nullah for sometime, both the juveniles

moved downstream and then separated, one

87

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Upto 9.6.77 no more sightings.

having moved upstream and the other moving

further downstream. The numbers denoted in

the Table for different localities refer to the

distance of the place from the foot of the gorge.

When the place is on the right bank, if viewed

from downstream, the number is followed by

an asterisk (*). The numbers in the column

showing water level shows the height of the

water level above the datum on the particu-

lar date at a time close to the time of sighting.

During the period of observations, the highest

flood was 1323 cm above the datum on 14th

August 1976.

During the eighteen months observation re-

corded in Table 1, there were 22 sightings

recorded between the places 14.0 to 17.6, and

23 sightings recorded between 6.8 and 11.2.

These data clearly form two different sets of

observations, apparently denoting the approxi-

mate areas occupied by the two juveniles. The

location from which the juveniles had escaped

was near 17.5*. The observations recorded on

11th September 1976 followed by the observa-

tion on 14th September 1976, and the observa-

tion on 7th May 1977 followed by the

observation on 9th May provide further

evidence to support the view that the two juve-

niles had occupied two different areas separat-

ed by a distance of 3-11 km. The most

convincing evidence, however, is that recorded

on 2nd May 1977. On that day one of the

juveniles was sighted at 11.2 and the other was

sighted at 16.0. The time lapse between the

two observations was only an hour.

Irrespective of the fact about which particu-

lar juvenile was sighted, the number of sightings

were 2 each during the months December 1975

and January 1976. From February 1976 to

July 1976 there were only one sighting a month.

During 1976 monsoon the sightings were more

— August 3, September 5 and October 3. From

November 1976 to February 1977 the sightings

were 2, 3, 4 and 2 respectively. During the

summer months of March 1977 to May 1977

the sightings were 3, 5 and 5 respectively.

When these mugger were last observed, they

were of the size of our average captive juveniles

among the largest ones of the remaining thir-

teen, and they had a definitely slim body when

compared to the girth attained in captivity. The

length and the weight of the five large juveniles

among the remaining thirteen in early May

1977 are given in Table 2.

Table 2

Length and weight of the five large captive

MUGGER MEASURED DURING EARLY MAY 1977

(age 25 month)

Discussion

Table 1 shows that after escape, between

the period 25th December 1975 and 3rd April

1976, the maximum distance moved by the two

animals was 4.0 km and during the entire

eighteen months the movement was through a

maximum distance of 10.8 km.

The two different localities occupied by the

two juveniles are small stretches of the river,

probably because the mugger, if receiving all

their requirements, show very restrictive move-

88

MOVEMENT OF CAPTIVE REARED CROCODILES

ments, as is observed in the Satkoshia Gorge fc

its resident adults. To give an example, during

1975 winter an adult mugger estimated to be

about 3 m long had dug a tunnel near 6 . 8 and

in the following winter the same mugger had

dug the tunnel near about 7.0* in the opposite

bank.

It is noteworthy that these two escaped

mugger maintained in the wild the normal

growth rates (length) of their captive groups.

However, as is normally the case with captive

crocodilians the latter were considerably stockier

than the wild ones.

Since 1975 Government of India has been

offering assistance to several State Crocodile

Projects in order to conserve the remaining wild

populations of all three species of Indian croco-

dilians Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin), Croco-

dylus palustris (Lesson) and Crocodylus poro-

sus (Schneider). In order to restore good popu-

lations in the wild within a short period of time,

grow and release techniques are carried out

(Bustard in FAO 1975). This technique involves

collection of wild -laid eggs, hatchery incubation,

rearing the hatchlings in captivity and ultimately

rehabilitating the young in suitable protected

areas. Rearing of mugger is easy compared to

the more delicate gharial. Moreover, mugger

juveniles appear to be much more resistant to

disease than gharial juveniles. Mugger, how-

ever, consume much more food than equal

sized gharial (Singh 1978). This, therefore,

makes it important to determine a suitable

release size for mugger in order to minimise

expenditure on husbandry.

When the mugger had escaped at that time

the flood level was 169 cm above the datum

(29th October 1975) and the animals were only

six months old. Their escape was soon after-

wards followed by the winter, and the highest

flood (1323 cm: August 1976) came when the

mugger reached an age of sixteen months.

These observations suggest that mugger of

about half a metre length can be released at

an age of six months and will readily adapt to

the changing conditions of the river. However,

the main criterion should be the size of the

mugger, not the age. Growth of crocodilians is

greatly dependent upon food and temperature

besides best husbandry conditions. Therefore,

in rehabilitation programmes these factors

should be maximum to achieve best growth

and thus release the animals into the wild as

quickly as possible thereby minimising expense

and also possible changes in behaviour. It is

observed that during the time of high flood

the crocodilians go into the side tributaries or

the backwater areas. The Satkoshia Gorge has

a number of such places. For that reason it

was possible for the juveniles to withstand such

high flood, and this also recommends for selec-

tion of releasing sites with good zones for

retreat during the flood.

Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the help received from

Orissa Forest Department (Crocodile Project),

Government of India and FAO /UNDP. Dr. H.

R. Bustard, Chief Technical Adviser to Gov-

ernment of India provided necessary guidance

during the course of the study and preparation

of the reports.

89

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

References

Cott, H. B. (1961) : Scientific results of an inquiry

into the ecology and economic status of the Nile

Crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus ) in Uganda and

Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 29 (4) :

211-356.

F. A. O. (1974): India: A preliminary survey of

the prospects for crocodile farming. Based on the

work of H. R. Bustard. FO: IND/71/033. pp. i-iii+

1-66.

Singh, L. A. K. (1976) : Back to the wild. Cheetal

18 (1, 2) : 22-24.

— (1978) : Ecological Studies on the

Indian gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Repti-

lia, Crocodilia). Ph.D. thesis, Utkal University,

Bhubaneswar, pp. i-xvi+1-325.

90

RECORDS OF MESOSTIGMATA, EREYNETIDAE AND

PTERYGOSOMIDAE (ACARINA) IN WESTERN

HIMALAYAS, SIKKIM AND HILL DISTRICTS OF

WEST BENGAL1

H. R. Bhat, S. M. Kulkarni and

A. C Mishra2

During a survey of haematophagous arthropods in the western Himalayas, Himalayan

districts of West Bengal and Sikkim, between 1966 and 1970 a large number of

Mesostigmatid, Ereynetid and Pterygosomid mites were collected. They represent 10

families, 23 genera and 54 species. Eighteen of them are new records to India and

seventeen await description. They are recorded in this communication with additional

notes on their ecogeographic distribution.

Introduction

Parasitic Mesostigmata, Ereynetidae and

Pterygosomidae are very little known groups of

ectoparasites in India. A thorough faunistic

study has been still pending. The known species

are very small in number, and the available

information deals either with the records of

small number of species come across during

ectoparasitic surveys (Mehta 1937, Mitchell et

al 1966, Wattall et al 1965, 1967a and b),

description of new species (Hirst 1921, Rad-

ford 1941, 1947, 1953), or inclusion of Indian

species in the faunistic reviews of the group

(Strandtmann and Wharton 1958). The last

authors record only 12 species from India under

Mesostigmata. Allred’s (1969) list of 39 species

of mites infesting rodents in the northern part

of Kashmir and Prasad’s (1974) list of 17

species infesting rodents in Nepal throw some

light on the group elsewhere in India, particu-

larly the western and central Himalayas.

1 Accepted November 1980.

2 National Institute of Virology, Indian Council of

Medical Research, Pune, India.

The Mesostigmatid mites infesting bats form

a distinct group themselves. The literature on

this group, particularly on the families Macro-

nyssidae and Spinturnicidae deals very little

with Indian species, except a monograph on bat

parasites by Hiregaudar and Bal (1956), which

lists only eleven species. The revisions of

Macronyssidae and Laelapidae of bats by

Radovsky (1967) and Spinturnicidae by

Rudnick (1960) add very little to the Indian

species.

The families Ereynetidae and Pterygosomidae

are also very little studied in India. The 699

species of mites listed by Prasad (1974) in his

Catalogue of mites of India is poorly repre-

sented by mites associated with vertebrates,

particularly the mesostigmatid mites, as com-

pared to our rich reptilian, bird and mamma-

lian fauna.

The present communication deals with Meso-

stigmatid, Ereynetid and Pterygosomid mites

collected as ectoparasites from Mammals, Birds

and Reptiles during a haematophagous arthro-

pod survey conducted in western Himalayan

region, Sikkim and Himalayan districts of West

Bengal, between 1966 and 1970, under the

91

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

auspices of Indian Council of Medical Re-

search (Ramachandra Rao et al. 1973). The

collection represents 23 genera and 54 species

belonging to 10 families, 18 of which are new

records to India and 17 need description. Per-

haps this is the largest collection of Mesostig-

matid mites ever made in India. Each species

is recorded here with additional notes on

ecology.

Material and Methods

The material was collected as ectoparasites

from small mammals, birds and reptiles. The

small mammals were trapped in wire cage

traps, popularly known as wonder traps and

portable Sherman traps which were set up in

different habitats. A few animals were also

collected by shooting. The birds and bats were

collected by trapping them in mist nets. Some

specimens of birds were also collected by shoot-

ing. A few specimens of reptiles were collected

by beating them with stick.

Each animal trapped was put inside a plastic

bag and killed with chloroform vapour. The

killed animal was wrapped in white lint cloth

and held for four to six hours. Every animal

was given a field number and entered in a field

register giving details of the species, sex, date

and locality of collection. The mites were comb-

ed out along with other ectoparasites and pre-

served in 70 per cent alcohol. Each sample was

given an arthropod collection card number and

entered in a specially designed card giving all

the collection data. As much care was taken

as possible to avoid the mixing of mites from

different individual hosts or contamination at

the time of brushing and preserving.

A few collections of mites were also obtained

from the habitats of the hosts.

Representative specimens of each species of

small mammals were skinned and the skins and

skulls were preserved for confirming the identity

and further reference. Bird and bat specimens

were skinned and stuffed while reptiles were

preserved in formalin or as dry specimens.

The mite specimens were partially cleared in

10 per cent KOH and mounted in Hoyer’s

medium. The mounted specimens were identi-

fied under the microscope. The small mammals

were identified on the basis of classification by

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) and

Ellerman (1961) and the identity of the birds

were determined on the basis of Fauna of

British India volumes and according to Ripley

(1961).

Inspite of utmost care, due to large body of

collections there is every possibility of conta-

mination while processing a large number of

hosts at a time and error in determining the

identity of the host specimens, particularly the

juveniles.

RESULTS

A. Systematic list of mites collected

Order ACARINA

Suborder mesostigmata Canestrini, 1891

Cohort gamasina Leach, 1815

Family Laelapidae Berlese, 1892

Genus Androlaelaps Berlese, 1903

1 . Androlaelaps aduncus Allred, 1969

2. Androlaelaps casalis (Berlese, 1887)

3. Androlaelaps marshalli Berlese, 1911

4. Androlaelaps zuluensis (Zumpt, 1950)

5. Androlaelaps sp.

Genus Hypoaspis Canestrini, 1884

6. Hypoaspis pavlovskii (Bregetova, 1955)

7. Hypoaspis miles (Berlese, 1892)

Genus Laelaps Koch, 1836

8. Laelaps agilis Koch, 1836

9. Laelaps algericus Hirst, 1925

10. Laelaps buxtoni Radford, 1941

11. Laelaps jugalis Allred, 1969

12. Laelaps nuttalli Hirst, 1916

13. Laelaps traubi Domrow, 1962

14. Laelaps turkestanicus Lange, 1955

92

RECORDS OF AC ARINA IN HIMALAYAS

15.

16.

17.

Genus

18,

Family

Genus

19.

Genus

20.

21.

22.

23.

Genus

24.

Genus

25.

Genus

26.

27.

28.

29.

Genus

30.

31.

Family

Genus

32.

33.

Genus

34.

35.

Family

Genus

36.

Family

Genus

37.

38.

Genus

39.

40.

Family

Genus

41.

Family

Genus

Lae laps sp. 1

Laelaps sp. 2

Laelaps sp. 3

Echinolaelaps Ewing, 1929

Echinolaelaps echidninus Berlese, 1887

Macronyssidae Oudemans, 1936

Macronyssus Kolenati, 1858

Macronyssus kumaonicus Bhat, 1973

Omithonyssus Sambon, 1928

Omithonyssus bacoti (Hirst, 1913)

Omithonyssus bursa (Berlese, 1888)

Omithonyssus sylviarum (Canestrini and

Fanzago, 1877)

Omithonyssus sp.

Sauronyssus Sambon, 1928

Sauronyssus sp.

Hirstionyssus Fonseca, 1948

Hirstionyssus musculi (Johnston, 1849)

Steatonyssus Kolenati, 1858

Steatonyssus javensis javensis Oudemans,

1914.

Steatonyssus sp. 1

Steatonyssus sp. 2

Steatonyssus sp. 3

Pellonyssus Clark and Yunker, 1956

Pellonyssus passeri Yunker, 1956

Pellonyssus sp.

Dermanyssidae Kolenati, 1859

Liponyssoides Hirst, 1913

Liponyssoides muris (Hirst, 1913)

Liponyssoides sanguineus (Hirst, 1914)

Dermanyssus Duges, 1834

Dermanyssus gallinae (DeGeer 1778)

Dermanyssus sp.

Myonyssidae Strandtman and Wharton,

1958

Myonyssus Tiraboschi, 1904

Myonyssus sp.

Haemogamasidae Oudemans, 1926

Eulaelaps Berlese, 1903

Eulaelaps indiscretus Allred, 1969

Eulaelaps stabularis (Koch, 1836)

Haemogamasus Berlese, 1889

Haemogamasus nidiformis Bregetova, 1955

Haemogamasus gyrinodes Allred, 1969

Rhinonyssidae Trouessart, 1895

Tinaminyssus Strandtmann and Wharton,

1958

Tinaminyssus sp.

Spinturnicidae Oudemans, 1901

Spinturnix von Heyden, 1826

42. Spinturnix pindarensis Bhat, 1973

43. Spinturnix plecotinus (C. L. Koch, 1839)

44. Spinturnix sp.

Genus Paraperiglischrus Rudnick, 1960

45. Paraperiglischrus rhinolophinus (C. L.

Koch, 1841)

46. Paraperiglischrus sp.

Genus Ancystropus Kolenati, 1856

47. Ancystropus eonycteris Delfinado and

Baker, 1963

48. Ancystropus kanheri Hiregaudar and Bal,

1956

49. Ancystropus taprobanicus (Turk, 1950)

50. Ancystropus zeleborii Kolenati, 1856

Genus Meristaspis Kolenati, 1857

51. Meristaspis lateralis (Kolenati, 1856)

Family Macrochelidae Vitzthum, 1930

Genus N othroholaspis Berlese, 1903

52. Northroholaspis sp.

Suborder trom bidiformes Reuter, 1909

Family Ereynetidae Oudemans, 1931

Genus Boydaia Womersley, 1953

53. Boydaia sp.

Family Pterygosomidae Oudemans, 1910

Genus Pterygosoma Peters, 1849

54 . Pterygosoma sp.

B. Records and notes

The detailed host and locality records for

each species together with taxonomic and gene-

ral ecological notes are given below in a syste-

matic sequence. The altitudes given are

approximate.

1. Androlaelaps adunais

Described and recorded from Tat era indica

from several localities in Pakistan (Allred

1969).

Present records :

93

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kangra :

Nurpur (580 m) Uttar Pradesh : Naini Tal :

Garjia (450 m); Pauri : Dalmisain (900 m);

Dehra Dun: Ramgarh (620 m). Sikkim: Shyari

at Gangtok (1350 m).

Notes: These are the first records of this

species from India.

The generic differentiation of Androlaelaps

Berlese, 1903, Haemolaelaps Berlese, 1910 and

Hypoaspis Canestrini, 1884 is still under con-

troversy (Allred 1970). In this communication

the genera and species of Androlaelaps and

Hypoaspis are sorted out on the basis of the

keys provided by Allred (1969).

2. Androlaelaps casalis

Cosmopolitan, recorded from a wide variety

of birds and mammals and from straw, hay,

and detritus (Strandtmann and Wharton 1958).

Earlier the species was recorded from Mus

musculus at Kanha National Park, Madhya

Pradesh (Mitchell et al. 1966).

Present records :

Localities : Jammu & Kashmir : Baramulla :

Sopore (1630 m); Dehari (750 m); Rajouri :

Naushera (750 m). Plimachal Pradesh: Mahasu:

Bhadras (1300 m). Sikkim: Shyari at Gangtok.

Notes: First record from Suncus murinus.

3. Androlaelaps marshalli

Recorded earlier from Pakistan (Allred 1969).

Present records:

Host and Habitat No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Mus platythrix 1 7 $

Patera indica 3 9 $

Rodent burrow 1 1 $

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Rajauri:

Naushera. Himachal Pradesh: Kangra: Nurpur.

Uttar Pradesh: Dehra Dun: Ramgarh; Tehri:

Munikireti (450 m).

Notes: First record from India.

4. Androlaelaps zuluensis

Recorded earlier from Pakistan (Allred 1969).

Present records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Udhampur:

Udhampur (750 m). Uttar Pradesh: Tehri:

Ghonti (900 m).

Notes: First record from India.

5. Androlaelaps sp.

Apparently a new species related to Andro-

laelaps casalis.

Records :

94

RECORDS OF AC ARINA IN HIMALAYAS

Localities: Jammu Sc Kashmir: Udhampur :

Dehari; Doda : Bhadarwah (1800 m); Rajauri :

Naushera. Himachal Pradesh : Kulu: Bhuin

(1100 m), Hurla (1000 m), Larji (1000 m);

Mahasu : Dukolad (1000 m); Bilaspur : Deoli

(510 m); Kangra : Baijnath (1350 m), Nurpur;

Chamba : Krain (900 m), Chamba. Uttar

Pradesh : Nam/ Pal : Bilaspur at Bhim Tal

(1450 m), Dugada (750 m), Haldwani (420

m), Basutia (750 m), Garjia, Ranibag (700

m); Almora : Sukhidhang (1400 m), Chalthi

(750 m); Pithoragarh : Aat (950 m); Chamoli :

Bagrigad (1850 m), Didoli (900 m); Dehra

Dun : Ramgarh, Sahasradhara (900 m) : Tehri :

Munikireti; Uttarkashi : Sukrala (1400 m).

JTes? Bengal : Darjeeling : Tashiding (450 m);

Jalpaiguri : Chunabhatti (180 m). Sikkim :

Shyari at Gangtok.

Notes: The species comes close to Androlae-

laps casalis (Berlese, 1887), but differs by hav-

ing metapodal plate less than two times as long

as wide; which in A casalis is three times as

long as wide.

6. Hypoaspis pavlovskii

Recorded earlier from Pakistan (Allred

1969).

Present records:

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Khilani (1400 m). Himachal Pradesh: Lahul

& Sp/tf: Keylong (3250 m); Kulu: Bhuin;

Kangra: Baijnath; Kinnaur: Sangla (2700 m).

Rakcham (3120 m), Chitkul (3400 m). Uttar

Pradesh: Naini Tal: Mukteshwar (2150 m),

Latoli (1800 m), Dugada; Almora: Kalika at

Ranikhet (1800 m); Chamoli: Gwaldam (1900

m); Dehra Dun: Asarodi (700 m), Mussoorie

(2000 m); Uttarkashi (1000 m).

Notes: First records from India.

7. Hypoaspis miles

Recorded earlier from Pakistan (Allred

1969).

Present records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Udham-

pur: Phalata (710 m), Dehari; Rajauri: Nau-

shera. Himachal Pradesh: Mahasu: Pipty at

Rampur (1100 m), Ratanadi at Baghi (2700

m).

Notes: First records from India.

8. Laelaps agilis

The species is known to be distributed in

Europe and USSR on Apodemus, Clethriono-

mys and Tal pa (Strandtmann and Wharton

1958). Also recorded from Turkey on Apode-

mus, Cricetulus and Mus (Garret and Allred

1971).

Present records:

95

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir : Ladakh :

Kargil (2700 m), Brass (3200 m), Fraw (3200

m), Baru (3200 m), Leh (3500 m). Baramulla :

Chektreran (2250 m), Chetternar (2000 m); Sri-

nagar: Sonamarg (2750 m); Anantnag: Pehalgam

(2450 m). Himachal Pradesh: Chamba: Kaia-

top (2450 m), Surkhigalli (1650 m), Thirot

(3150 m), Tindi (2500 m); Lahul & Spiti:

Kelong, Sissu (3120 m), Yongkirting (2800

m); Kulu: Kothi (2460 m); Kinnaur: Kalpa

(2750 m), Sangla, Rakcham, Chitkul; Mahasu:

Ratanadi at Baghi. Uttar Pradesh: Pit hor agar h:

Milam (3540 m), Relkote (3000 m); Chamoli:

Badrinath (3170 m); Uttarkashi: Harsil (2600

m), Choolmie (2750 m).

Notes: Allred (1969) recorded Laelaps pav-

lovskyi Zachvatkin, 1948 from Pakistan. His

further comparative studies of L. pavlovskyi

and L. agilis from Turkey led him to the pre-

sumption that the two species are synonymous,

and represent only intra-specific variant as is

typical with several other species of Laelaps

(Garrett and Allred 1971). The senior author

of the present paper has examined USSR speci-

mens of both the species, L. agilis from Apode-

mus flavicollis and L. pavlovskyi from A.

agrarius. The species appear to be quite dis-

tinct and associated with A. flavicollis and A.

agrarius respectively. The specimen of L.

pavlovskyi differs from those of L. agilis main-

ly by having the posterior setal pairs on geni-

toventral plate wide apart, in addition to other

specific characters.

In the Himalayas the species has been col-

lected only in the upper temperate and alpine

zones, the ecogeographical limit of the distri-

bution of Apodemus flavicollis. This is the first

record of this mite from India.

9. Laelaps algericus

The species has been recorded from Algeria,

Egypt, Israel, Turkey, Pakistan, USSR; from

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Ladakh:

Kargil, Baru; Shrinagar: Sonamarg; Anantnag:

Pehalgam, Mondilan (3200 m); Baramulla:

Ferozpur (2460 m), Chektreran, Sopore, Bandi-

pore (1850 m), Chetternar, Erin (2000 m),

Marder (2000 m), Rampore (1400 m); Doda:

Bhadarwah, Khilani; Udhampur: Phalata.

Himachal Pradesh: Chamba: Salooni (1770

m), Rakh (1070 m), Schuin at Bharmaur (2300

m), Bharmaur (2300 m), Gothalhu at Bhar-

maur (2150 m), Durgathi (1500 m), Tissa

(1570 m), Dikrund at Tissa (1700 m); Lahul

& Spiti: Morang (3820 m); Kangra: Dadh

(1080 m), Bagsunag (1900 m); Kulu: Bharie

at Kulu (1400 m), Bhuin, Gutkar (710 m),

Sooma (1400 m), Palchan (2350 m), Kothi at

Mandi, Hurla, Kasol (1550 m), Naggar (1550

m), Jibi (1900 m), Khundan (1420 m), Larji,

Manali (1824 m), Vaishista (1820 m); Mahasu:

Pipty, Rachauli (1450 m), Dukolad, Nirith

(990 m), Khaneri (1300 m), Sarhan (2500 m),

Manjagaon (2150 m), Gangtoli & Kapoori at

Rohru (1600 m), Samoli (1700 m) & Somala

96

RECORDS OF AC ARINA IN HIMALAYAS

(1600 m) at Rohru, Kotkhai (1800 m), Chhoi

(1700 m), Darhar at Kothaki (1800 m), Gumma

(1700 m), Jugatkhana (1200 m), Bhadras,

Jeori (1400 m), Gaura, Ratanadi at Baghi,

Bhagi (2740 m), Sungri (2650 m); Kinnaur :

Jeorit, Karcham (1800 m). Uttar Pradesh :

Naini Tal : Bhim Tal (1380 m); Almora :

Sukhidhang, Silagadi (1400 m); Khati (2350

m); Pithoragarh : Kotera at Dharchula (1050

m); Chamoli : Gwaldam, Radki (750 m), Sun-

yala (1050 m), Badrinath, Joshimath (2000 m),

Sonia (900 m); Tehri : Ghansali (1050 m);

Uttarkashi : Sukhi (2650 m), Choolmie (2700

m), Kuthnaur (1600 m), Sukrala. Sikkim :

Lachung (2750 m).

10. Laelaps buxtoni

Originally described on specimens collected

from “a gerbille”, probably Tatera indica, at

Madras (Radford 1941).

Present record :

Locality: Uttar Pradesh: Naini Tal: Garjia.

Notes: The species appears to be rare. A

dozen specimens of Tatera indica collected in

Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh were

found negative for this mite. The record

appears to be the first, subsequent to its des-

cription by Radford.

1 1 . Laelaps jugalss

Described on the basis of specimens collected

from Rattus rattus, Nesokia indica and Tatera

indica in Pakistan (Allred 1969).

Present records:

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Rattus ( Millardia )

meltada 11 lc?,193$

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Udhampur:

Dehari; Rajauri: Naushera. Himachal Pradesh:

Kangra: Nurpur; Mandi: Gutkar.

Notes: First record from India and on

Rattus ( Millardia ) meltada.

12. Laelaps miftalli

Originally described on specimens collected

from R. rattus and R. norvegicus in Ceylon,

by Hirst. Subsequently it has been recorded

from several genera and species of rodents. The

preferred hosts of this mite are species of the

genus Rattus. The mite is found throughout

tropical and warm temperate zones wherever

its host is found, with the apparent exception

of Europe (Strandtmann and Wharton 1958).

Present records:

Localities: Jammu Si Kashmir: Udhampur:

Dehari; Rajauri: Naushera. Himachal Pradesh:

Mandi: Gutkar; Kangra: Dadh, Nurpur,

Baghany (600 m); Kulu: Palcham; Bilaspur:

Deoli, Ghumarwin (740 m); Mahasu: Baghi.

Uttar Pradesh: Naini Tal: Bhim Tal, Dugada,

Basutia, Dwan (250 m), Garjia, Ranibag (650

m); Almora: Chalthi; Pithoragarh: Dharchula

(1050 m); Pauri: Raitoli (770 m), Shrinagar

(560 m), Dugadda (700 m), Dalmisain, Hanu-

97

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

manti (770 m); Chamoli : Radki, Sunyala,

Didoli at Sonia; Dehra Dun : Ramgarh, Barkote

(450 m), Satyanarayan (370 m), Asarodi;

Tehri : Ghansali; Uttar has hi: Sukrala.

Notes : From the record this species appears

to be distributed in the tropical and subtropical

zone only.

13. Laelaps traubi

This species was described on the basis of

specimens collected from Rattus fulvescens, R.

edwardsi, Rattus sp. and Dremomys rufigenis

from Gunong Brinchang, Camerol Highlands,

Malaya by Domrow (1962). Recently the

species was recorded from R. nitidus, R. eha,

R. fulvescens and Rattus sp. in Nepal (Prasad

1974).

Present records :

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kangra :

Dadh; Kulu : Jibi, Rashala (1900 m); Sirmaur :

Moginand (500 m). Uttar Pradesh: Naini Ted :

Mukteshwar; Almora: Khati, Dwali (2750 m);

Pithoragarh : Munshiari (2300 m); Chamoli :

Gwaldam, Sunilgaon at Joshimath (2300 m),

Bagrigad (1800 m); Uttar kashi : Kuthnaur.

West Bengal : Darjeeling : Kurseong (1400 m),

Jorepokhri (2350 m). Sikkim: Chungtang

(1850 m).

Notes: This is the first record from India.

The species appears to be associated with the

subgenus Myxomys of the genus Rattus. The

record from Rattus rattoides is probably due

to its overlapping distribution with the species

of Myxomys, because the specimens of R.

rattoides collected from other localities where

this subgenus was not found did not yield this

species.

14. Laelaps turkestanicus

Original description and record is based on

specimens from Rattus turkestanicus in Tadzhi-

kistan, USSR. Allred (1969) recorded it in

Pakistan and Prasad (1974) in Nepal.

Present records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Baramulla:

Rampore; Doda: Bhadarwah. Himachal Pra-

desh: Chamba: Banikhet (1700 m), Surkhi-

galli, Kalatop; Kulu: Kothi at Manali, Palcham,

Jibi, Vaishista at Manali; Simla: Simla (2000

m); Mahasu: Sarhan, Chool, Guara, Dobhdha

(2000 m), Baghi, Sungri (2650 m); Kinnaur:

Kalpa, Sangla, Rakcham. Uttar Pradesh:

Naini Tal: Mukteshwar, Latoli; Almora:

Khati, Dwali; Pithoragarh: Kuity (1250 m),

Munshiari; Chamoli: Gwaldam, Sunilgaon,

Bagrigad, Pangarpoora (2450 m), Dogalbita

(2350 m); Dehra Dun: Mussoorie, Polu at

Mussoorie (1800 m); Tehri: Chirbatia (2450

m); Uttarkashi: Sukhi, Kuthnaur, Sukrala.

West Bengal: Darjeeling: Jorepokhri.

Notes: This is the first record from India.

98

RECORDS OF ACARINA IN HIMALAYAS

The species appears to be primarily associated

with Rattus rattoides and secondarily adapted

to the subgenus Myxomys wherever there is

geographical overlapping between rattoides and

Myxomys in the Himalayan temperate zone.

Records from other host species appear to be

spurious.

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kangra :

Dharamashala (1250 m). Baijnath; Simla :

Malkumajara (500 m); Sirmaur : Beradwala at

Nahan (520 m), Moginand (500 m). Uttar

Pradesh : Almora : Silagadi; Pauri : Narkota

(750 m); Chamoli: Radki at Karnprayag;

Tehri : Munikireti, Ghonti.

Notes : The species closely resembles L.

algericus by heavily chitinized thickened ante-

rolateral margin of the dorsal plate, but the

specimens are much larger. The larger size and

the association with Mus platythrix distin-

guishes this species. The species awaits descrip-

tion.

16. Laelaps sp. 2

Records'.

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir : Udham-

pur : Dehari; Rajauri : Naushera. Himachal

Pradesh: Mandi: Gutkar. Uttar Pradesh:

Pauri: Raitoli; Chamoli: Radki.

Notes: Somewhat resembles L. nuttalli, but

differs from it by having slender and longer

coxal spurs. A distinct species, apparently asso-

ciated with Golunda ellioti. The species is await-

ing description.

17. Laelaps sp. 3

Records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Udhampur:

Dehari; Rajauri : Naushera. Himachal Pradesh :

Mandi: Gutkar. Uttar Pradesh: Chamoli:

Radki.

Notes: This is a distinct species awaiting

description.

18. Echinolaeps echidninus

(= Laelaps echidnina)

A cosmopolitan species found on commen-

sal Rattus ( Rattus ) spp., but occasionally found

on non-commensal species. It is not known to

bite man and is never found on birds. The re-

cords from mammals other than Rattus pro-

bably represent accidental associations (Mit-

chell et al. 1966, Strandtmann and Wharton

1958).

Present records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Udhampur:

Phalata, Dehari; Rajauri: Naushera; Doda:

99

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Khilani. Himachal Pradesh : Kulu\ Jibi; Kan-

gra\ Dadh, Dharamshala, Nurpur, Baghany,

Dugaclda at Hamirpur (900 m); Mandi : Mandi

(1050 m); Mahasu : Jagatkhana; Bilaspur :

Ballu at Ghumarwin. Uttar Pradesh : Naini Tal :

Bhim Tal, Sat Tal (1400 m), Dugada, Basutia,

Dogaon, Nandpur (400 m), Dwan, Garjia,

Bilaspur (1400 m), Bhowali (1650 m), Ranibag;

Almora : Sukhidhang, Chalthi, Silagadi, Lohar-

khet (1750 m), Bageshwar (750 m); Pithora-

garh : Tadigaon (1550 m), Dharchula, Aat at

Gocher, Kuity, Tejam (950 m), Lilam (2000

m), Gocher (950 m), Pithoragarh (1800 m);

Pauri : Narkota, Raitoli, Gugadda, Dalmisain,

Hanumanti; Chamoli : Galdam, Radki, Sunyala,

Guliyo (1050 m), Debal (1350 m), Bagrigad.

Didoli, Sonia, Nandprayag (900 m), Phata

(1700 m); Dehra Dun : Dehra Dun (600 m),

Ramgarh, Sahasradhara, Asarodi (620 m);

Tehri : Munikireti, Ghansali; Uttar has hi:

Basunga (1050 m), Uttarkashi, Jnanasu (1050

m), Kathnaur, Sukrala. West Bengal : Darjee-

ling'. Tashiding; Jalpaiguri: Chunabhatti (170

m).

Notes: As many as 93 specimens of this mite

were collected from one individual of Rattus

rattus gangutrianus and 115 specimens from a

Rattus fulvescens.

19. Macronyssus kumaonicus

The species is new to science and was des-

cribed in a separate paper (Bhat 1973a).

20. Ornitlionyssus bacoti

A cosmopolitan mite associated with rodents,

particularly Muridae (Strandtmann and Whar-

ton 1958).

Present records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Ladakh:

Kargil; Baramulla: Marder, Rampore. Hima-

chal Pradesh: Chamba: Salooni, Dikrund at

Tissa, Shekari (1540 m); Kangra: Baghany,

Lad (900 m), Dugadda (900 m), Jintnu (1000

m); Kulu: Naggar, Rashala, Palchan; Mandi:

Gutkar, Jogindernagar (1250 m); Mahasu:

Sirhan Samala at Rohru (1600 m), Jagatkhana;

Bilaspur: Ballu at Ghumarwin, Bakrol (800

m); Sirmaur: Moginand (500 m). Uttar Pra-

desh: Naini Tal: Dugada, Mukteshwar;

Almora: Kalika; Pithoragarh: Aat, Milam;

Chamoli: Sinhdhara at Joshimath (1800 m),

Dogilbita, Baniakund (2500 m), Gwaldam;

Dehra Dun: Satyanarayan; Tehri: Ghansali;

Uttarkashi: Uttarkashi, Jnanasu, Sukhi, Kuth-

naur, Sukrala.

2 1 . Omithony ssus bursa

The species has been commonly known as

tropical fowl mite and is tropicopolitan in dis-

tribution. Commonly found on birds and rarely

on mammals in peridomestic surroundings

(Strandtmann and Wharton 1958).

100

RECORDS OF AC ARINA IN HIMALAYAS

Present records :

Host and Habitat No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Localities : Jammu & Kashmir : Baramulla :

Marder. Himachal Pradesh : Chamba : Kala-

top; Mindi : Gutkar; Bhuin; Kangra;

Dugadda, Hamirpur, Lad. Uttar Pradesh :

Chamoli : Dogalbita, Baniakund.

22. Ornithonyssus sylviarum

The species has been known in the temperate

regions of all the continents on mammals and

birds (Strandtmann and Wharton 1958).

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Pycnonotus leucogenys 1 2 $

Rat t us nitidus 1 2 $

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Mandi :

Mandi. Uttar Pradesh: Uttarkashi : Jnanasu.

Notes : This is the first record of this species

from India and appears to be rare in Indian

area.

23. Ornithonyssus sp.

The identity of 2 $ and IN collected from

Herpestes auropunctatus at Bandipore, Bara-

mulla district, Jammu & Kashmir on 2 Nov.

1969 has yet to be determined. The specimens

come close to O. bursa but differ from it by

the broader scutum.

24. Sauronyssus sp.

Records :

Localities: Himachal Pradesh: Kinnaur:

Wangtu (2040 m). Pooh (2700 m); Kulu:

Naggar; Mahasu: Pipty. Uttar Pradesh: Pitho-

ragarh: Lilam, Thalkedar J2600 m), Bogdyar

(2850 m), Khela (1400 m); Chamoli: Lohar-

jungdhar (2400 m).

Notes: Very little information has been avail-

able on the acarines of Indian reptiles. This is

a virgin field for acarologists.

25. Hirstionyssus mtiscuSi

The species has been known from Rodent

genera Apodemus, Clethrionomys, Microtus,

Micromys and Rattus in Europe and Asia

(Strandtmann and Wharton 1958).

Present records:

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Ladakh:

Kargil, Honaki (2800 m), Bodhkharbu (3250

m), Dumgal (2500 m), Drass, Fraw, Bam

(Kargil); Anantnag: Mondilan (2250 m),

Pehalgam; Baramulla: Chektreran near Tang-

marg, Rampore. Himachal Pradesh: Chamba:

Sindwadi, Tindi; Lahul & Spiti : Keylong, Chhe-

tru (3450 m), Thirot, Yongkirting (2700 m);

Kulu: Palchan; Mahasu: Jeorit, Baghi; Kin-

naur: Kalpa, Sangla, Rakcham, Chitkul. Uttar

Pradesh: Pithoragarh: Relkote, Munshiari,

Milam; Chamoli: Badrinath.

Notes: The specimens were compared with

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

identified material from Russia and were found

identical with them. This is the first record of

this species from India.

26. Steatonyssus javensis javensis

The species was earlier recorded from Maha-

rashtra (Prasad 1974) and Pakistan (Allred

1969).

Present record :

Locality: Jammu & Kashmir : Udhampur :

Phalata.

27. Steatonyssus sp. 1

A total number of 1 1 nymphs were collected

from the following species of Chiropteran hosts.

The specific identity of the specimens could not

be determined due to the lack of adequate asso-

ciated adult material and the inadequacy of the

literature on the immature stages.

Records’.

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Rhinolophus pearsoni 1 3N

Scotophilus healthi 2 1 ? , 6N

Pipistrellus mimus 2 2N

Localities: Uttar Pradesh : Naim Tal :

Haldwani, Ramnagar; Pauri : Narkota. Hima-

chal Pradesh : Simla : Malkumajara.

Locality: Jammu & Kashmir : Udhampur :

Phalata.

Notes: The species could not be placed

under any known species. Apparently this is a

new taxon.

29. Steatonyssus sp. 3

Present record :

Locality: Uttar Pradesh : Almora : Sukhi-

dhang.

Notes : The species closely resembles S.

javensis javensis (Oudemans, 1914), but differs

from it by having divided peritremal plate. The

earlier record of S. javensis javensis from Pipi-

strellus babu needs confirmation.

30. Pellonyssus passeri

The species was first described from Passer

domesdcus in United States (Clark and Yunker

1956).

Present records :

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Ladakh:

Pratapgunj (2750 m) near Kargil. Himachal

Pradesh: Mandi: Mandi. Uttar Pradesh:

Uttarkashi: Kuthnaur, Sukrala.

Notes: The senior author of this communi-

caton has examined specimens from Ploceus

philippinus (Weaver bird) collected around

Poona and specimens of Pellonyssus passeri

collected from Passer domesdcus at College

Park, Md., U.S.A. All these specimens includ-

ing the present collections are identical and

102

RECORDS OF AC A RINA IN HIMALAYAS

they conform with the description of Pellonys-

sus passeri. This is the first record of this

species from India.

3 1 . Pellonyssus sp.

1 9 and IN, collected from a Munia

( Lonchura sp.), Phalata, Udhampur, Jammu &

Kashmir, 27 Nov. 69.

Notes : The species closely resembles P. viator

(Hirst, 1921) in many respects; but differs from

it by having proportionately longer anterior

sternal setae, which are approximately three

times longer than the length of the sternal plate.

The anterior pair of sternal setae in P. viator

is as long or slightly longer than the length of

sternal plate.

32. Liponyssoides muris

The species has been recorded from Africa

and Asia ex rodents (Strandtmann and Whar-

ton 1958).

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Rattus rattus

gangutrianus 3 1 cf , 4 9 , 2N

Suncus murinus 3 3 9

Passer rutilans 1 1 9

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir : Doda :

Bhadarwah. Uttar Pradesh : Naim Tal : Nav-

kuchia Tal, Dugada; Pithoragarh : Aat, Kuity;

Dehra Dun : Satyanarayan.

Notes : The authors have examined several

other populations of this species. The species

obviously differs from Liponyssoides (= Allo-

dermanyssus) sanguineus and has a distinct

identity.

33. Liponyssoides sanguineus

A very common parasite of rodents with a

wide geographic range including North Africa,

Asia and North America (Strandtmann and

Wharton 1958). Recently it was recorded from

Pakistan (Allred 1969).

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Rattus rattus

Kargil, Dumgal, Fraw, Leh, Bodhkharbu

(3400 m); Doda : Bhadarwah, Khilani; Udham-

pur: Phalata. Himachal Pradesh : Chamba :

Rakh, Sindwadi (3000 m), Tissa; Lahul &

Spiti : Keylong, Yongkirting, Kaza (3650 m),

Morang; Kangra : Baghany, Dugadda at Hamir-

pur; Mandi: Gutkar; Simla : Simla, Dassuma-

jara, Malkumajara, Pud at Nalagarh (600 m);

Mahasu: Nirith, Sarhan, Gangtoli at Rohru,

Chool, Darhar, Jagat-Khana, Jeori, Bhagi;

Sirmur : Moginand. Uttar Pradesh: Almora:

Gania Deoli (1800 m); Chamoli: Guliyo,

Dogalbita; Dehra Dun: Satyanarayan; Tehri:

Ghansali; Uttarkashi: Jnanasu.

34. Dermanyssus gallinae

The common fowl mite found in temperate

and tropical zones. Apparently an obligate

parasite of birds (Strandtmann and Wharton

1958).

103

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir : Ladakh :

Pratapgunj (2700 m), Kargil. Himachal Pra-

desh: Chamba: Pukhri (1150 m).

35. Deraianyssus sp.

1 $ ex Dendrocopos auriceps was collected

at Naggar, Kulu Dist., Himachal Pradesh on

20 Apr. 1968. The identity of the specimen has

not yet been determined.

36. Myonyssus sp.

A single female specimen was collected from

Ochotona roylei at Salgran (2650 m), Chamba

Dist., Himachal Pradesh on 20 Sept. 1968.

37. Eulaelaps indlscretus

This species was described ex Apodemus

flavicollis, Crocidura sp. and Rattus from

Pakistan by Allred (1969).

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir : Baramulla:

Rampore. Himachal Pradesh : Chamba : Tindi;

Mahasu : Ratanadi at Baghi, Sungri; Kinnaur :

Sangla, Rakcham, Chitkul. Uttar Pradesh :

Naini Tal : Mukteshwar; Pauri: Dogadda;

Chamoli : Badrinath.

Notes : The species has a wide ecological

range from tropical to alpine in distribution.

This is the new record in India.

38. Eulaelaps stabularis

This is the oldest known species under the

genus. The species has a very wide distribu-

tion and has been recorded from North Africa,

Europe, Asia and North America. The record-

ed hosts include several species of rodents, in-

sectivores and birds (Strandtmann and Whar-

ton 1958).

Present records :

Localities: Jammu Si Kashmir : Ladakh :

Kargil, Dumgal, Drass; Anantnag : Pehalgam;

Baramulla : Rampore, Chektreran, Sopore,

Marder; Doda : Bhadarwah, Khilani; Ud ham-

pur: Dehari. Himachal Pradesh: Chamba:

Salooni, Tindi; Lahul & Spiti : Keylong, Thirot,

Chhetru; Kangra: Baijnath; Kulu: Palchan at

Manali, Naggar, Largi; Mahasu: Pipty and

Rachauli near Rampur, Dukolad, Khotkai,

Chool near Khotkai, Ratanadi near Baghi, Sun-

104

RECORDS OF AC A RINA IN HIMALAYAS

gri, Baghi; Kinnaur: Sangla, Baring-Suring near

Sangla (2700 m), Chitkul, Rakcham. Uttar

Pradesh : Naim Tal : Mukteshwar; Pauri :

Dogadda; Chamoli : Badrinath.

Afote: This is the new record in India.

39. Haemogamasiis gyrinodes

The species was described from Pakistan ex

Alticola roylei.

Present record : 1 9 , ex Apodemus flavicollis,

Chitkul (3400 m), Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh,

22 June 1970.

Note : This is the new record of this mite in

India.

40. Haemogamasiis nidiforaies

The species was described and recorded from

Europe and Asia — U.S.S.R., ex Microtus

gregalis by Eregetova (Strandtmann and Whar-

ton 1958). Recorded from Pakistan by Allred

(1969) and from Turkey by Garrett and Allred

(1971).

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Localities: Jammu & Kashmir: Baramulla :

Chektreran. Himachal Pradesh : Kulu : Vai-

shista at Manali; Lahul & Spiti: Chhetru,

Thirot; Mahasu : Ratanadi at Baghi, Kinnaur :

Sangla, Chitkul. Uttar Pradesh : Naim Tal :

Mukteshwar, Latoli, Pithoragarh : Milan;

Chamoli : Dogalbita, Baniakund.

Note : This is the new record in India.

41. Tinaminyssus sp.

Very little information is available on the

Rhinonyssid mites of Indian birds. The field

remains open for the acarologists.

Present record :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Psittacula cyanocephala 1 10 9

Garrulax erythrccephala 1 3 9

Localities: Himachal Pradesh: Mandi:

Gutkar, on 21 May ’67. Uttar Pradesh:

Chamoli: Wan (2500 m), on 18 Oct. ’67.

42. Spinturnix pindarensis

The species was described on the specimens

collected from Myotis siligorensis in Kumaon

and Garhwal regions of Uttar Pradesh during

the present survey (Bhat 1973b).

Additional records:

Localities: Himachal Pradesh: Kulu: Kothi.

Uttar Pradesh: Chamoli: Dogalbita.

Notes: The specimen from N. leisleri slightly

differs from the type specimens by the absence

of shoulders on the sternal plate, otherwise

identical with type specimens in all other

characters.

43. Spinturnix plecofinus

Described by C. L. Koch (1839) from Pleco-

tus auritus in Europe. Since then the species

has been recorded from several European

countries from the type host-species. There is

one record from Nyctalus noctula (Rudnick

1960).

105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Mahasu :

Ratanadi near Baghi. Uttar Pradesh : Pithora-

garh : Martoli (3500 m).

Notes : This is the first record from P. a.

homochrous in India.

44. Spsnturnix sp.

The species closely resembles Spinturnix para -

cuminatus Baker and Delfinado, 1964, describ-

ed from Miniopterus sp. and Pipistrellus sp. in

Borneo and New Guinea, but differs from it

by the absence of tritosternum. The species

awaits description.

Present Record :

Locality: Uttar Pradesh : Tehri : Ghonti.

45. Paraperiglischrus rhinolophinus

This species was first described under the!

genus Periglischrus as P. rhinolophi by Hiregau*

dar and Bal (1956) on the basis of specimens

collected from Rhinolophus rouxi, and later

transferred under the new genus Paraperiglis-

chrus and synonymised with the species P.

rhinolophinus (C. L. Koch, 1841) by Rudnick

(1960).

Present record :

Locality: West Bengal : Darjeeling : Tashi-

ding.

Notes : Apparently several taxa have been

included under this species due to the absence

of differentiating characters. But the specimens

collected from different host species show con-

sistent difference in size. The species appears

to be polyvalent and needs revision.

46. Paraperiglischrus sp.

Records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Hipposideros armiger 1 2c? , 1 9

Locality: Uttar Pradesh : Almora : Katar-

mal.

Notes : The specimens collected from this

host are distinctly larger than all the known

taxons under the genus and await description.

47. Ancystropus eonycteris

The species was described by Delfinado and

Baker (1963) ex Eonycteris robusta from Min-

danao. It is similar to Ancystropus zeleborii in

general morphology, but the leg I lacks lateral

hooks on distal 4 segments; femur I and genu

I each with only 1 large ventral projection; and

the ventral setae on region above and shield

strong and stout.

Present record :

Locality: Uttar Pradesh : Pithoragarh:

Thai.

Notes : This is the first record of this species

in India. Ancystropus nakatae described on the

basis of a single mutilated female specimen

by Prasad (1969b) is identical with A. eonyc-

teris and is obviously a synonym.

106

RECORDS OF AC ARINA IN HIMALAYAS

48. Ancystropus kanheri

This species was first described by Hiregau-

dar and Bal (1956) under the genus Ancystro-

pus on the basis of specimens collected from

R. leschenaulti from India. Delfinado and Baker

(1964) recorded this species ex R. amplexi-

caudatus from Philippines, O. Sumba and

Solomon Islands; and ex bats from New Guinea.

They transferred this species under a new genus

Oncoscelus. Prasad (1969a) recorded the species

from Philippines ex R. amplexicaudatus. Dom-

row (1972) brought back the species under the

former genus Ancystropus because of its strik-

ing similarity to other co-generas. He also re-

corded this species ex R. stresemanni from

New Guinea.

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Rousettus leschenaulti 8 15 $ , 2N

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kulu :

Sooma, Bandrol; Kangra : Dadh. Uttar Pradesh:

Pauri : Dalmisain; Almora : Kapkote; Pithora-

garh : Thai.

49. Ancystropus taprobanius

This species was originally described from

Rousettus seminudus from Ceylon. Later re-

described from R. leschenaulti by Hiregaudar

and Bal (1956) under the name A. indicus and

from Rousettus sp. by Baker and Delfinado,

1964 under A. rudnicki. Prasad (1969a) record-

ed some more material from New Guinea and

Philippines under A. rudnicki Both the latter

species are synonymised with A. taprobanius

by Domrow (1972), who records this species

from R. stresemanni

Present records :

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Rousettus leschenaulti 16 81 $

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kangra :

Dadh; Kulu: Sooma, Bandrol; Mandi: Gutkar.

Uttar Pradesh: Pauri: Raitoli, Shrinagar, Dal-

misain; Almora: Kapkote, Kataithbara; Naini

Tal: Dugada; Pithoragarh: Patet, Tejam, Thai.

50. Ancystropus zeleborii

Recorded from Egypt and Cyprus ex Rouse-

ttus aegyptiacus, Uganda ex Lavia pons rex,

Thailand ex bat, and India ex R, leschenaulti

(Rudnick, 1960). A. palawanensis Delfinado and

Baker (1963) is synonymised with A. zeleborii

by Domrow (1972).

Present records:

Localities: Himachal Pradesh: Kulu:

Sooma, Bandrol; Kangra: Dadh; Mandi:

Mandi; Bilaspur: Ballu. Uttar Pradesh: Naini

Tal: Dugada, Garjia, Haldwani; Almora: Kap-

kote, Khati, Loharkhet, Phaltaniya, Kataith-

bara; Pithoragarh: Dharchula, Kotera, Kuity,

Tejam, Dummer, Khela, Thai, Aat; Pauri : Dun-

gripanth, Narkota, Raitoli, Dalmisain; Chamoli:

Guliyo, Dogalbita; Sahranpur: Fatehpur; Dehra

Dun: Ramgarh, Sahasradhara.

Notes : C. sphinx and S. blanfordi are the

two new hosts recorded.

51. Meristaspis lateralis

Recorded from Egypt, Palestine and Cyprus

ex R. aegyptiacus; from Ceylon ex R. seminu-

dus (Rudnick, 1960); from India ex R. lesche-

naulti (Hiregaudar and Bal, 1956); from

Yemen ex Eidolon sebaem (Rudnick, 1960);

from Philippines ex E. robusta, R. amplexicau-

datus and C. brachyotis; from New Guinea ex

Rousettus sp. and on undetermined sp. of bat;

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

from N. Borneo ex Tupaia ; and from Timor

ex an undetermined host species (Delfinado and

Baker, 1963; Baker and Delfinado, 1964); and

again recorded from New Guinea ex R. strese-

manni (Domrow, 1972).

Present records :

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kulu :

Sooma, Bandrol; Kangra : Dadh; Mandi :

Mandi. Uttar Pradesh: Naini Tal : Dugada;

Almora : Kapkot, Dhakuri, Loharkhet, Phalta-

niya, Kataithbara; Pithoragarh: Dharchula,

Kuity, Patet, Tejam, Girgaon, Khela, Tawa-

ghat, Thai; Pauri : Dungripanth, Narkota, Rai-

toli, Shrinagar, Dalmisain; Chamoli : Dogalbita;

Dehra Dun : Sahasradhara, Sahaspur.

Notes : New record from E. spelaea, C.

sphinx and S. blanfordi in India.

52. Nothroholaspis sp.

Nothroholaspis sp. are extremely common

and are found in the soil and on invertebrates

and vertebrates. Although they are regularly

associated with various hosts they are probably

not parasitic in the actual sense (Baker and

Wharton 1952).

Present records :

Host and habitats No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Localities: Himachal Pradesh : Kulu: Pal-

chan; Kinnaur: Chitkul, Baring Suring at

Sangla, Sangla, Bilaspur: Deoli. Uttar Pra-

desh: Pithoragarh: Aat. Sikkim: Gangtok

(1500 m).

53. Boydaia sp.

27 specimens were collected from the nasal

chambers of Blueheaded rock thrush ( Monti -

cola cinclorhynchus) at Sundargaon (1100 m)

near Karnaprayag, Chamoli dist., Uttar Pra-

desh, on 14th May 1967.

54. Pterygosoma sp.

The family Pterygosomidae, for the most

part, are parasites of lizards, usually being

found beneath the scales of their host. Very

little is known about their biology (Lawrence

1935, 1936). Indian Pterygosomidae still awaits

systematic study.

Present records:

Host No. of coll. Specimens coll.

Agama tuberculata 3 6L, 8N, 13d\ 18 $

Localities: Himachal Pradesh: Kulu:

Naggar. Uttar Pradesh: Pithoragarh: Lilam,

Thalkedar.

Discussion

The present survey lists 54 species of mites,

of which 52 are Mesostigmatid mites. A num-

ber of species recorded here need confirmation

of their identity, some of which are apparently

new species.

Among the Mesostigmatid mites most of the

species, except Spinturnicidae, Laelaps spp. and

Sauronyssus, did not show a close host specifi-

city at the species level. Laelaps spp. have been

observed to have some host specificity at the

specific or generic level of the host. While the

family Spinturnicidae did show a high degree

108

RECORDS OF AC ARINA IN HIMALAYAS

of host specificity by having associated with

one or a few species of Chiropteran hosts.

The species of Ornithonyssus, Steatonyssus,

Pellonyssus, Liponyssoides, Dermanyssus and

Haemogamasus were found to have fresh blood

within them and are obviously haematophagous

parasites. Actual blood was not observed in

other species of Mesostigmatid mites.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are grateful to Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao,

Refer

Allred, D. M. (1969) : New Mesostigmatid mites

from Pakistan with keys to genera and species. J.

Med. Ent. 6: 219-244.

(1970) : Two new mites (Laela-

pidae) from West Pakistan. /. Med. Ent. 7: 107-111.

Baker, E. W. and Delfinado, M. D. (1964) : Spin-

turnicidae of South East Asia and the Pacific Region.

Pacific Ins. 6(4) : 571-591.

Baker, E. W. and Wharton, G. W. (1952): An

introduction to Acarology. Macmillan Co., New York.

Bhat, H. R. (1973a) : Macronyssus kumaonicus sp.

nov. (Acarina, Mesostigmata, Macronyssidae) infest-

ing bats in the Himalayan region of Uttar Pradesh,

India. Indian J. Med. Res. 67(8): 1158-1160.

(1973b) : Spinturnix pindarensis sp. n.

(Acarina, Spinturnicidae) infesting Myotis siligorensis

(Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) in the Himalayan re-

gion of Uttar Pradesh, India. Oriental Ins. 7(4) : 471-

474.

Clark, G. M. and Yunker, C. E. (1956) : A new

genus and species of Dermanyssidae (Acarina: Meso-

stigmata) from the English sparrow, with observa-

tions on its life cycle. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash-

ington 23: 93-101.

Delfinado, M. D. and Baker, E. W. (1963) :

Mites of the family Spinturnicidae from the Philip-

pines (Acarina). Pacific Ins. 5(4): 905-920.

Domrow, R. (1962) : Seven new species of Laelaps

from Malaysia (Acarina, Laelaptidae) . Acarologia

4(4): 503-519.

(1972): Acari Spinturnicidae from

Australia and New Guinea. Acarologia 13(4): 552-

584.

former Director, Virus Research Centre (now

National Institute of Virology), Pune, under

whose direction the survey has been carried

out. The material was collected under a scheme

for the survey of Haematophagous arthropods

in the mountainous regions of India, financed

by the Indian Council of Medical Research.

The assistance rendered by the Armed Forces

Medical Services and the State Governments

during the collection tours is gratefully acknow-

ledged.

EN CES

Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The fauna of India, in-

cluding Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 2nd

edition, Vol 3, parts 1 & 2, Govt, of India.

Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. S.

(1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals, 1758 to 1946, British Museum (Nat. Hist.),

London.

Garrett, D. A. and Allred, M. D. (1971) : Meso-

stigmatid mites from Turkey, with keys to genera

and species. J. Med. Ent. 8: 292-298.

Hiregaudar, L. S. and Bal, D. V. (1956): Some

ectoparasites of bats from India. Agra Univ. Jour.

Res. (Sci.) 5 (pt. 1 ) : 1-134.

Hirst, S. (1921) : On some new parasitic mites.

Proc. Zool. Soc. London: 769-802.

Lawrence, R. F. (1935) : The Prostigmatic mites

of South African lizards. Paarasitol. 27(1) : 1-45.

(1936) : The Prostigmatic mites

of South African lizards, ibid. 28: 1-39.

Mehta, D. R. (1937): Studies on Typhus in the

Simla Hills, Part VIII: Ectoparasites of rats and

shrews with special reference to their possible role in

the transmission of Typhus. Indian J. Med. Res. 25

(2): 353-365.

Mitchell, C. J., Hoogstraal, H., Schaller, G. B.

and Spillett, J. J. (1966) : Ectoparasites from mam-

mals in Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh,

India, and their potential disease relationships. J. Med.

Ent. 3(2) : 113-124.

Prasad, V. (1969a): Bat mites (Acarina: Spintur-

nicidae) mainly from southeast Asia and the Pacific

region. Acarologia 11 : 657-677.

— (1969b): New species of bat mites

109

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

from southeast Asia and the Pacific region, with a

note on Perigischrodes gressitti Bak. & Delf. Proc.

Ent. Soc. Wash. 77(4): 533-540.

(1974) : A Catalogue of Mites of India.

Indira Acarology Publishing House, Ludhiana, pp..

320.

(1974): Parasitic Mesostigmatic Mites

from Nepal (Acarina: Mesostigmata) . Oriental In-

sects 8(1) : 63-70.

Radford, C. D. (1941) : Notes on some new

species of parasitic mites, IV. Parasitol. 33: 306-315.

— (1947) : Parasitic mites from snakes

and rodents (Acarina: Cheyletidae, Listrophoridae

and Laelaptidae) . Proc. Zool. Soc. London 117: 228-

240.

(1953) : Notes on mites (Acarina:

Entonyssidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 48: 106-110.

Radovsky, F. J. (1967): The Macronyssidae and

Laelaptidae (Acarina: Mesostigmata) parasitic on

bats. Univ. Calif. Publ. Ent. 46: 1-288.

Ramachandra Rao, T., Dhanda, V., Bhat, H. R.

and Kulkarni, S. M. (1973): A survey of haema-

tophagous arthropods in western Himalayas, Sikkim

and hill districts of West Bengal. Indian J. Med. Res.

61: 1421-1461.

Ripley, S. D. II (1961): A synopsis of the birds

of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal,

Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Bombay Natural History

Society.

Rudnick, A. (1960): A revision of the mites of

the family Spinturnicidae (Acarina). Univ. Calif.

Publ. Ent. 77(2) : 157-284.

Strandtmann, R. W. and Wharton, G. W.

(1958): A manual of Mesostigmatid mites parasitic

on vertebrates, Contribution No. 4 of the Institute of

Acarology, Department of Zoology, University of

Maryland, pp. 330-69.

Wattall, B. L. and Tandan, S. K. (1965): An

entomological survey of Dehra Dun valley (Uttar

Pradesh). Part I: A note on ectoparasitic fauna of

seven species of small mammals and four species of

domestic mammals. Bull. Indian Soc. Mai. Com. Dis.

2(4) : 297-307.

Wattall, B. L., Kalra, N. L., Srivastava, S. P.

and Raghavan, N. G. S. (1967a): Vertical distribu-

tion of free living and ectoparasitic haematophagous

arthropods in three landscape zones of district Naini

Tal, Uttar Pradesh, India, and their potential disease

relationships. Bull. Indian Soc. Mai. Com. Dis. 4(4) :

342-359.

Wattall, B. L. and Srivastava, S. P. (1967b):

Ectoparasite fauna of small mammals and domestic

animals in the neighbourhood of Alwar city (Rajas-

than). Bull. Indian Soc. Mai. Com. Dis. 4(3): 191-

202.

no

BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD ( CHLAMYDOT1S

UNDULATA MACQUEENI) WITH REFERENCE TO

WESTERN BALUCHISTAN1

Afsar Mian2 and Mohammad Ibrahim Surahio3

{With two text -figures)

Introduction

The Asian race of Houbara Bustard

{Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni) mainly

breeds in Kirgiz steppes of USSR, as far as

Mongolia and migrates in winter to Iran, Afgha-

nistan, Pakistan and part of India (Collar

1979). Pakistan receives one of the largest win-

tering populations of this bird and is found in

high densities of about four birds per ten square

miles (Goriup 1981). The vast desolate steppes

of western Baluchistan, spread over thousands

of square kilometre is said to receive a reason-

able proportion of the total population of this

bird, wintering in Pakistan.

There is a general feeling that the wintering

population of Houbara is declining at an alarm-

ing rate and that there is an eminent need for

conservation (Goriup 1980). However, where-

as effective conservation needs an elaborate

study of the biology and distribution of the

wintering population of the bird, very few

studies are presently available (Mirza 1971;

Sorahio 1981, 1982), and only certain guess

estimates exist for Baluchistan. These facts and

the presence of a sizeable population alongwith

the existence of certain optimistic speculations

regarding the residential nature of Houbara in

Baluchistan prompted us to collect first hand

1 Accepted September 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Baluchi-

stan, Quetta, Pakistan.

3 Houbara Bustard Conservation and Research

Scheme, Sind Wildlife and Forest Department.

information regarding the population of the bird

wintering in the area. This paper attempts at

presenting a preliminary report regarding the

biology and ecology of the bird with particular

reference to Baluchistan.

Methods and material

An extensive tour of western Baluchistan

was undertaken in April, 1982, with the active

collaboration of the Baluchistan Forest Depart-

ment in order to collect first hand information

on the biology and ecology of Houbara in

various wintering grounds of western Baluchi-

stan and to ascertain whether the birds breed

in the area. For this purpose Dasht area of

Mustung; Dak plains spread along the border

area around Inam Bostan; Zangi Nawer area

towards northwest of Nushki; the vast plains

along the road from Nushki to Sathiar, the

vast plains in remote areas of Chagai and the

plains around Yakmuch, falling in Chagai dis-

trict were visited. Similarly the vast plains of

Gwash, Padak, Jalawar, Hurmagai and Washuk

of Kharan district were also toured. Local

people, forest staff and watchers and reputed

shikaris were contacted and were questioned

regarding feeding habits, population dynamics,

migration patterns and routes, local techniques

pertaining to capturing the live bird, hunting

bag data of the hunters from Middle East and

Gulf States, and evidences of breeding activities

in the area. While analysing the data, due im-

portance was given to the status of the informer

111

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 1. A line sketch of the enclosure, used by local people of the western Baluchistan for

live trapping of Houbara.

and data lacking a consensus of opinion were

excluded from the final analysis. The topo-

graphy and the distribution of vegetation of the

wintering grounds were examined by us.

Results and discussions

Habit: Houbara is basically a very shy bird

and avoids human interference. However, it is

approachable within reasonable shooting dis-

tance on camel back or from behind a herd

of slowly moving camels. This finding is in

conformity with similar observations reported

by Ali and Ripley (1969). It is generally be-

lieved that the bird is not scared of slow mov-

112

BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD

MIGRATION TO U.S.S.R.

Fig. 2. A line sketch of Baluchistan depicting the probable migration routes of Houbara.

ing larger objects and is said to take little notice

of a gradually approaching man, camouflaged

in a haphazard tented structure. The bird can

be captured alive by forming a special triangu-

lar trapping enclosure. The blind and narrow

end is provided with a suitable trapping net.

The boundaries of the net and the further exten-

sions are bounded by locally available shrubs,

specially by Haloxylone ammodendron, locally

known as Tagaz (Fig. 1). The birds are then

gradually driven towards the open and wider

end of this enclosure by riding on a camel back

and are then further pushed deep into the net,

where the bird gets trapped.

Houbara is solitary in nature and occurs in

a dispersed population in accordance with the

availability of protection and food, except at

the time of migration. However, it appears that

the bird probably does not exhibit territorial

behaviour and some 4-5 birds can be seen to-

gether under good conditions of food and

shelter. The call of the bird has never been

heard. This confirms the earlier report of Ali

and Ripley (1969).

113

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Habitat and Distribution in Baluchistan :

Houbara is very widely distributed in Western

Baluchistan, which is an extensive cup shaped

valley surrounded by high mountain ranges on

three sides leaving a northern open area which

extends deep into Afghanistan (Fig. 2). The

eastern side of the valley is traversed by the

Central Brahui Range while the southern and

western sides are partially bounded by two

parallel ranges, i.e. the Siahan Range and the

Central Makran Range. The western side has

Kuh-i-Birg and Kuh-i-Tuftan, which extend

deep into Iran with an northwestern orienta-

tion. The western range is further supported

by an extremely arid tract from west of Nok

Kundi. Within this valley, there are two isolated

ranges of mountains with an east-west orienta-

tion, i.e. Chagai Hills in the north and Raskoh

in the central area. Topographically, most part

of this valley is an extensive plain having sandy

soil sometimes with loose stones. Generally the

plains gradually slope towards the mountain

ranges. The vegetation of the area includes cer-

tain xerophytic shrubs, various annual herbs

and scattered grasses (Table 1).

During winter, the Houbara is widely dis-

tributed, preferably in open plain steppes,

having sandy or loose stony background with

small shrubs, which offer sufficient protection

and camouflage from predators, especially man,

and through which the bird can see from a long

distance an approaching predator. It generally

avoids hilly terrain though it inhabits the un-

even plains in the vicinity of a hill range, having

dried water courses, which provide shelter from

sun and human predation. It lives in compara-

tively arid uncultivated areas, away from

human populations, without caring for water.

The bird has never been seen in the vicinity

of water bodies or while drinking water. It is

expected that the bird mainly depends upon

the metabolic water for the purpose of its water

requirements. Further studies on the adapta-

tions of the bird to the arid conditions could

yield interesting information. The vast plains

of Baluchistan provide ideal wintering grounds

for the bird, having a sparsely distributed

human population, sparse but sufficient amount

of vegetation for feeding activities and a camou-

flaging background of sandy buff coloration

of the soil. All these features are in conformity

with similar reports regarding Punjab and Sind

(Ali and Ripley 1969, Sorahio 1981, 1982).

From the initial studies it seems that the

Plains around Kharan are rich with the win-

tering population of Houbara, followed by

Yakmuch and Chagai plains. The birds are pre-

sent abundantly in Dak, Zangi Nower and

Dasht area in October but their population

decreases in the area by December, and in the

later period these areas have a scanty popula-

tion. Further detailed studies are still needed

about the population levels of the different

areas, to prepare reliable concentration maps

of the wintering population of the bird.

Migration : The probable migration routes

for Houbara are presented in Fig. 2. A look

at the figure would reveal that the migration

routes in Baluchistan are very much dispersed.

This is in conformity with an earlier guess

(Goriup 1980). The Houbara exhibits a north-

south migration from the various adjacent areas

of Afghanistan right from Muslimbagh to the

western side of Chagai upto Manzil. The first

batch of the migrating birds is said to enter

Baluchistan in late September or early October,

depending upon the conditions of temperature.

It first reaches the areas located in vicinity of

Pak-Afghan border, i.e. Muslimbagh, Dak

plains (Inam Bostan), Zangi Nawer (northwest

of Nushki) and whole of the Chagai plains.

They stay there, consuming the available food

and gradually move southwards to Dasht plains

of Mustung, Kharan and Yakmuch area. Some

114

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE TOPOGRAPHY, BACKGROUND SOIL, VEGETATION AND APPROXIMATE PERIOD

OF STAY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD IN THE CERTAIN LOCALITIES OF WESTEkN BALUCHISTAN

i

BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

of the Kharan and Yakmuch populations may

further move southwards to the coastal areas of

Makran. The Dasht population may move

southwards and thence finally going to Sind.

The bird is said to follow almost the same

routes, while migrating back to their residential

areas in USSR, in March. Ringing data is need-

ed to confirm these findings. There is very

little evidence in favour of the immigration of

Houbara into Baluchistan, from adjacent areas

of Iran. In this regard our findings differ from

an earlier report (Anon. 1972), which predicts

that the major migrating population enter

Makran, Kharan and Chagai districts from Iran,

which bifurcate at Mach so that one group

move towards Sind, while the other towards

northern Baluchistan. However, possibilities for

such a migration directly to the southern coastal

area cannot be completely ruled out.

Houbara is said to enter Baluchistan in

groups of 10-15 birds, having a slower south-

ward movement. They usually rest after every

1-2 miles, consuming the available food and

gradually disperse in the area alongwith their

southward movement. The bird migrates during

night, spending the day in various hideouts. The

arrival of the Houbara in the northern areas

of Baluchistan seems to be well coordinated and

synchronized, as it is usually believed that one

could see many birds in Dak and Chagai plains

on one fine morning of the September/ early

October, whereas there was hardly any in the

previous evening. However, birds keep arriv-

ing for the next 15-20 days. It seems that the

further southward movement of the bird is

mainly in response to the availability of food

and in search for better and unutilized feeding

grounds.

The migration of birds, back to their resi-

dential areas in USSR, is said to be in larger

groups of 20-30 birds. During this migration,

the bird is said to take much longer stretches

of flight and generally passes over the various

areas falling in their route without stopping.

Food and Feeding Habit : Houbara is omni-

vorous and nocturnal in habit and is said to

consume whatever is available. Thus the food

of the bird varies with type of the vegetation

in the area and the season. It is said to depend

upon the seeds, and the young shoots of

Calligonum comosum (Phog), Koeleria phleoi-

des (Gayab), Malcolmia africana (Chammar),

Haloxylon ammodendron (Tagaz), Ephedra sp.

(Gomazg), Salsola arbuscula (Narrunk) and

Polygonum afghanicum, in Dak, Zangi Nower

and Kharan area. The Houbara prefers the dry

seeds of Polygonum afghanicum, Calligonum

comosum, Haloxylon ammodendron and Pani-

cum sp. in these areas. In Chagai and Yak-

much plains the bird consumes Tribulus terres-

tris (Sarang), Tribulus alatus (Korka), Ero-

dium sp., Plantago ciliata, Rhazya stricta, and

Holosteum umbellatum. Though certain detail-

ed quantitative studies of the stomach contents

of the bird, at different times, are needed in

order to work out the food preferences of the

bird in different areas, the present information

can prove helpful in organizing such studies.

A comparison of these studies with the reports

of Mirza (1971), regarding Punjab and Sorahio

(1981), regarding Sind reveals that Haloxylon,

Tribulus and Crotalaria are the preferred food

of Houbara, which is consumed everywhere.

Population Levels and Hunting Stress : The

partial hunting bag data collected by officials

of Baluchistan Forest Department from visiting

foreign hunters for Chagai and Kharan districts

suggests that the bird is present in high den-

sities in western Baluchistan, specially in certain

areas of favourable habitat. Our initial calcula-

tions reveal that the wintering Houbara in the

area is present around one bird per 3 . 0 square

kilometre. Comparing this figure with the one

suggested by Goriup (1981) for Punjab and

116

BIOLOGY OF FIOUBARA BUSTARD

Sind, i.e. one bird per 6.25 square kilometre,

suggests that this area is richer in Houbara. A

detailed population census is required to know

exact biological potentials of this population of

the bird and to construct certain reliable con-

centration maps for the area.

The initial information collected from the

officials of the forest department, local people

and the reputed hunters, present in the area;

suggest that population of Houbara, wintering

in remote areas of western Baluchistan is also

under a tremendous hunting pressure. Accord-

ing to some very conservative estimates the

total hunted birds during the year 1981-82 can

be any figure between 2,000 to 3,000. The exact

effect of this heavy hunting toll on the popula-

tion is hard to be assessed with the limited in-

formation available regarding the population

size and population structure; but such a figure

sounds too high for the bearable limits of the

population wintering in the western Baluchistan.

Breeding : There are certain reports in lite-

rature regarding the presence of the breeding

activities of the bird in Chagai, Kharan and

Makran areas (Ali & Ripley 1969, Roberts &

Savage 1971 and Siddiqi 1972). We tried our

best for some evidence in favour of occurrence

of this activity of the bird in the area, however,

we could not find convincing proof of egg lay-

ing and nesting in Chagai, Kharan and Nushki

areas. During our tour some enthusiastic

workers and hunters did report the presence of

some very sporadic cases of nesting and breed-

ing in Booto Jungle (a protected reserve forest

near Nushki); towards the north of Chagai,

Refei

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University

Press. Bombay, London, New York.

Anon. (1972) : Houbara in Baluchistan. Outdoor-

man 2(6) : 15.

adjacent to Afghanistan border; Yakmuch

plains. However, we could not physically

ascertain these reports though it was an egg

laying season for the bird. In the light of the

available information, it seems that the chances

of breeding of Houbara in the area are very

remote, and even if, at all, occasional breeding

occurs in the area, it is a chance occurrence

and sparse. The available information on the

breeding activities in the coastal areas of

Makran are not very conducive (Hamidullah

1982).

It seems that the major support for the belief

in the breeding of Houbara in the area mainly

emerges from the fact that C. undulata undulata

(the African race of Houbara) can breed in

similar inhospitable hot and arid conditions and

that there are high densities of this bird in

unapproachable areas of Baluchistan. However,

it seems that C. undulata macqueeni (the Asian

race of Houbara) is adapted to a colder climate

and hence it breeds at higher latitudes in USSR

or Afghanistan.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Mr. K. M. Shams, Chief

Conservator, Mr. M. Shafiq, DFO (Wildlife),

Mr. Arbab Inayat Ullah, Sub Divisional Officer

(Wildlife) and several other members of the

Baluchistan Forest Department for affording us

all possible help, cooperation and guidance dur-

ing our tour. Thanks are also due to Mr.

Mohammad Ali, of the Department of Zoology,

University of Baluchistan for typing.

EN CES

Collar, N. (1979): The Birds of the Western

Palaearctic. Vol. II. (Eds: S. Cramp and S. Kel).

Oxford University Press, London, New York, pp.

649-655.

Goriup, P. D. (1980): Report to the Secretary,

117

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

Sind Wildlife Management Board on Houbara Bus-

tard ( Chlamydotis undulatd) in Pakistan. (Unpub-

lished document.).

(1981): The Houbara Bustard.

Houbara conservation and research in Pakistan.

Western Tanager, Los Angeles Audubon Society, 48

(4): 1-2.

Hamidullah (1982) : Breeding of Houbara in

Makran. (Personal communication with senior

author) .

Mirza, Z. B. (1971): Houbara faces trial. Out-

doorman, 7(8): 40-45.

Roberts, T. J. and Savage, C. D. W. (1971) :

Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni )

and its management, ibid. 1(8): 37-39.

Siddiqi, M. S. U. (1972): Identifying the bustards,

ibid. 2(7&8) : 29-39.

Sorahio, M. I. (1981): Houbara Bustard in Pakis-

tan-Research and conservation” WWF/IUCN, Project

No. 855, Annual Report, (Unpublished document).

(1982): Houbara Bustard in Pakis-

tan-Research and conservation” WWF/IUCN,

Project No. 855, Annual Report, (Unpublished

document) .

118

THE FOOD AND FEEDING OF JUVENILE BENGAL

MONITOR LIZARDS (VARANUS BENGA LENS1S ) 1

Walter Auffenberg2 and Ipe M. Ipe3

A sample of 29 juvenile Varanus bengalensis were examined for prey remains in the

gut. Results show that most probably find several individuals of about two species of

insect prey per day. While both sexes take the same prey species, males caputure a

somewhat higher number of prey items per unit time. The most common prey are

orthopterans and coleopterans. Weight of individual prey to predator weight is .0169 :1

— a low ratio when compared to that known for other monitors, but probably due to

the insectivorous feeding habits of the Varanus bengalensis juveniles.

Introduction

During September to December, 1979, the

senior author was afforded the opportunity to

study several aspects of the ecology and habits

of two species of monitor lizards in northern

India — Varanus bengalensis and V. flavescens.

One of the projects suggested by the available

material was a study of the food habits of V.

bengalensis. This paper is the result of a joint

study of that material by the two authors.

The study was prompted by (1) the fact

that extremely little information is available re-

garding the food of juvenile varanids of any

species (though the species studied by Pianka,

1968, 1970, 1971), are all less than 1 m total

length, and (2) what little information is avail-

able on the food of varanid lizards is largely

in the form of prey lists (Stirling 1912, Bur-

den 1928, Waite 1929, Cowles 1930, Zakhidov

1938). Few publications concerning the feeding

of varanids provide data useful in determining

their predatory strategy; exceptions are Dry den

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Florida State Museum, University of Florida,

Gainesville FL 32611.

3 Department of Zoology, St. John’s College, Agra

282 002, India.

(1965), Pianka (1968, 1970, 1971), and Auffen-

berg (1981).

Most published food data for Varanus ben-

galensis are very general (Smith, H. 1931,

Deraniyagala 1931, Smith, M. 1935, Minton

1966). The most detailed study is that by

Sharma and Vazirani (1977). In no case are

results based on an examination of more than

five individuals. The following study is based

on the food remains found in the digestive

tracts of 29 juvenile Bengal monitor lizards

and records several previously unknown facets

of the feeding biology of this species. While

the number of specimens examined may be

considered small, and the fact that they were

obtained from supply houses less than entirely

satisfactory, the chances of obtaining more

material of this species (listed as endangered

in IUCN Red Data Book and protected by

Indian law) is extremely remote.

Methods and Materials

After the law protecting Varanus bengalensis

was passed, several Indian biological supply

houses in the Agra area were left with a num-

ber of preserved individuals originally intended

for sale to university anatomy classes. Because

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

the species could no longer be sold, most

supply houses discarded their stock of pre-

served V. bengalensis several years ago; some

did not, and most of these had apparently

been forgotten in the interim. The senior author

visited each of these supply houses and re-

quested that their old stocks of preserved speci-

mens of this species be donated to this

scientific project. Several houses generously

responded, so that 29 juveniles were accumu-

lated. They were sexed, measured, examined

for a number of scale characters, and then

dissected to obtain data on food in the gut.

Average snout vent length (= SVL) of

the sample studied was 180 mm (range 155-

286) and Av. weight 124.7 g. There was no

significant difference in either SVL or weight

between males and females. Estimated age of

individuals in the sample was one year. The

sex ratio was 1:1.

Stomach contents were kept separate from

those of the large intestine of each individual.

The food remains (often completely macerat-

ed) in each of these collections were identified

as closely to species as possible.

Estimates of the number of individuals of

each of the prey species eaten were based on

the number of identical anatomical parts. The

weight of prey species were obtained by weigh-

ing a sample of five average-sized complete

adult specimens of each of these prey species.

Results

Number of Prey. — Only two lizards con-

tained food in the stomach, suggesting that few

individuals had eaten in the 48 hours previous

to capture. On the other hand, 59 . 6 per cent of

the lizards contained food remains in the large

intestine. Assuming gut passage rate in V.

bengalensis is the same as in V. komodoensis

(4-6 days, 96-114 hr; Auffenberg 1981), over

half had eaten during the last several days be-

fore they were killed.

The number of prey items in the two

stomachs were 3 and 14. The number of prey

species per stomach were 2 and 8. These data

suggest that each daily feeding foray usually

results in the capture of several different prey

species, each represented by several indivi-

duals.

In those monitors containing food in the

large intestine, the number of prey items varied

from 1 to 273. The highest item numbers were

represented by two cases in which many ants

had been eaten. When these are excluded the

prey items per individual range from 1 to 27

(Av. =14.14). If this prey load represents a

maximum of 6 days, as suggested by the V.

komodoensis passage rates mentioned above,

2.12 prey items represent the normal stomach

daily load.

Of all the males available for dissection,

64.13 per cent had food in their gut (stomach

and intestines combined), with the range in

number of prey items from 1 to 27 (Av. = 13.00,

SD 7.49); and the total number of prey species

in the gut of the same sex varied from 1 to 8

(Av. = 3, SD 5.33). Of the females available,

71.4 per cent had prey in the gut, with the

number of prey items ranging from 1 to 17

(excluding those with ants, due to the large

number of individual prey items represented

per individual monitor in which ants occurred)

(Av. = 5.29, SD 5.33), with the number of

snecies ner gut ranging from 1 to 3 (Av. =2.29,

SD 1.33). There is no significant difference

between number of males and females with

food in the gut, or in the number of prey

snecies per gut. However, there is a significant

difference in the means of the number of prey

items in the gut of males and females (t test

2.61, df 48, p = 0.25), with males having a

significantly greater number. Thus it appears

120

FOOD OF MONITOR LIZARDS

Table 1

Number of individual prey items eaten by

juvenile Varan us bengalensis

that males and females probably hunt in equally

diverse areas and capture an equally diverse

number of prey species, but that males obtain

a larger number of the same species than

females do. This agrees with the behavioural

data presented in Auffenberg (1979), showing

that at least captive males of this species of

monitor lizard eat more food and are generally

more active than females of the same general

size and age. Thus I suspect that in the wild,

juvenile males of this species are probably also

more active than females, travel further, or

hunt more actively in the same amount of

time.

Table 1 shows the prey species recorded in

the guts, the total prey individuals of each in

the total sample, the number of individuals per

predator sex, and the per cent of the total. We

found a total of 761 individual prey items, of

which ants were the most numerous, and all

were the same species — Campanotus compres-

sus. The 513 ants recorded were found in five

monitors, and in these the greatest proportion

was found in two females (270, 240, and 1

per three females possessing ants, 1 ant was

found in each of two males). Although the

females may eat ants more commonly than

males, it is clear that ants are often taken in

large numbers at the same time. The fact that

both soldiers and workers occurred in the

samples suggests that nests of these ants were

uncovered. Mertens (1942) speculated that the

tongue may be used to transfer small food

particles to the mouth. This is substantiated

by observations made by the senior author of

captive monitor lizards of the same species,

which frequently feed on carpenter ants by

licking them up individually.

Prey of the family Gryllidae were common

in terms of number of individuals preyed upon.

Both nymphs and adults were eaten, though

the latter make up most (80%) of the total

crickets taken.

Excluding ants, tenebrionids were the most

commonly eaten. The differences between

these and both dermapterans and gryllids are

probably not significant. The overall number

of prey items in the gut (to 270 if ants are

included) was 1 to 54. The remaining prey

items represent a second prey category of

121

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 2

Average dry weight of major prey species of juvenile Varanus bengatensis

much less common prey species (1-4 per gut).

Size of Prey. — Table 2 lists the most com-

mon prey species taken, the average dry

weights of individuals in each prey category,

the average number eaten when preyed upon,

and the overall range and average total dry

weight of each of the prey species found in

each monitor. These data show that (exclud-

ing ants) the dry weights of individuals of

common prey species taken by juvenile vara-

nids vary from 0.19 to 9.95 g (curculionids

to scorpions), representing an overall weight

increase of 523 per cent from the smallest to

the largest prey. The mean individual prey

weight is 2.11 g, and the overall range in

prey-to-predator weight is 0.16 to 7.98 per

cent (Av. = 1.69%). The mean total weight of

each prey species expected in the gut varies

from 0.38 (curculionids) to 19.21 g (scor-

pions), with a mean of 4.88 g, or 3.91 per cent

of the total average predator weight.

The largest prey are scorpions, though they

are not often eaten. Gryllidae and Tenebrio-

nidae are probably the most important prey

taken in terms of their size and number.

Prey Habitat. — Table 3 shows that of the

10 most common prey categories, most (60%)

are found in and under decaying vegetation

debris, and one moves back and forth through

shallow burrows in the soil. Thus, 70 per cent

of the prey categories are represented by

secretive species, all of which can be obtained

at or near the surface. Observations on captive

Table 3

General habitat and food of insect prey of

Varanus bengatensis .*

* After Lutz, 1948.

122

FOOD OF MONITOR LIZARDS

V. bengalensis make it clear that the most prey

are obtained by rooting through surface debris

with the snout, or by scratching through it with

the front feet. The habit of using the snout

so extensively in prey-seeking may be an ex-

planation for the posterior position and slit-like

narial opening in this and certain other monitor

species. Only 2 of the 10 prey categories (both

are beetle families) are not found near or on

the soil surface, but on leaves.

The same table also shows that almost all

prey categories are injurious to agricultural

crops. Dryden (1965) came to the same con-

clusion regarding the prey of Varanus indicus

on Guam.

Vegetation as Food. — Though both Parry

(1932) and Sharma and Vazirani (1977) im-

plied that Varanus bengalensis occasionally

feeds on vegetation on the basis of stomach

contents, there is no behavioural data that they

do so. While eating animal prey that is either

dead or alive, vegetal debris is regularly in-

gested accidentally and this apparently accounts

for the vegetation sometimes found in the sto-

mach. However, Varanus grayi, an arboreal

species from the Philippines, regularly feeds

on several types of fruits (Auffenberg 1979),

and Varanus prasinus, another arboreal species,

from New Guinea, has also been reported to

occasionally feed on bananas in captivity

(Mertens 1942). Other than these two species,

no other members of the family Varanidae are

known to deliberately feed on any vegetation.

Discussion

The data presented above show that juvenile

Varanus bengalensis are probably completely

insectivorous. This agrees with the data pre-

sented by Sharma and Vazirani (1977), for a

very small sample of the same species from

the same general part of India, and taken in

the same part of the year. Additionally, in both

studies the Order Coleoptera makes up most

of the diet, with tenebrionids the major beetle

group represented. Sharma and Vazirani

(1977) also reported that termites are occa-

sionally taken. This largely insectivorous feed-

ing habit of juvenile V. bengalensis provides

a rather low prey to predator weight ratio

(.0169:1). While no accurate comparable data

are available for adult Bengal monitor prey

weight preferences, Minton (1966) listed pro-

portionately larger prey in five adults from

West Pakistan. Thus large individuals can be

expected to have a larger prey to predator

weight ratio. The same trend has been demon-

strated in Varanus komodoensis (Auffenberg

1981), in which the largest adults, who often

attack and kill deer, some weighing up to 204

kg (= prey to predator wt. 365:1), or even

water buffalo up to 340 kg (= ratio of 608 : 1 ) .

These predator-to-prey ratios are probably the

highest of any lizard species. However, the

ratio for juvenile V. komodoensis (.0208:1)

is approximately the same as in the present

sample of V. bengalensis , though somewhat

higher because juvenile Komodo monitors also

feed on small lizards.

Though literature data are scanty and rarely

comparable, I conclude that varanids may

generally exhibit a higher predator-prey ratio

than other lizards, for, in additon to V. komo-

doensis (Auffenberg 1978, 1981), proportiona-

tely large prey are also eaten by several other

varanid species (Dryden 1965, Pianka 1968,

1970, 1971).

The data presented above, plus general ex-

perience, suggest that there are relationships

existing between the mass of reptile predators

and their prey that have not yet been brought

to light by previous studies of reptilian food

habits. These relationships may change from

juveniles to adults in some species, and show

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

no change in others. Considerable differences

in these relationships are expected between

various reptilian groups. They probably con-

stitute one of the most important factors in

feeding behaviour and functional morphology

of feeding mechanisms.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

The study could not have been completed

without an Indo-American Fellowship provid-

ed the senior author through the University

Refer

Auffenberg, W. (1978): Social and feeding be-

haviour in Varanus komodoensis. In Behavior and

Neurology of Lizards (N. Greenberg and P. D.

MacLean, Eds.). National Institutes of Mental

Health.

(1979) : A monitor lizard in the

Philippines. Oryx 75(1): 38-46.

(1981): Behavioral ecology of

the Komodo dragon. University Presses of Florida,

Gainesville.

Burden, W. D. (1928): Observations on the

habits and distribution of Varanus komodoensis.

Amer. Mus. Nov. (316) : 1-10.

Cowles, R. B. (1930): The life history of Vara-

nus niloticus (Linn.) as observed in Natal, South

Africa. J. Entomol. Zool. 22: 1-31.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1931): Some Ceylon

lizards. Spolia Zeylanica 16 (2): 139-180.

Dryden, G. L. (1965): The food and feeding of

Varanus indicus on Guam. Micronesia 2: 72-76.

Lutz, F. E. (1948): Field Book of Insects. G. P.

Putnam’s Sons: New York. 510 p.

Mertens, R. (1942): Die Familie der Warane

(Varanidae). Abh. Senckenb. Naturforsch. Ges. Parts

1-3, (465): 1-39.

Minton, S. (1966): A contribution to the herpe-

tology of West Pakistan. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.

134(2): 31-184.

Grants Commission (India), the American In-

stitute of Indian Studies (U.S.A.), and the

International Communications Agency (U.S.A.).

The authors also wish to fully acknowledge

the cooperation of Dr. Santokh Singh, Chair-

man, Entomology Department, St. John’s

College, and Dr. J. C. Dickinson, Jr., then

Director, Florida State Museum. Special thanks

are also extended to Mr. Sadar Singh (Agra)

for assistance locally and to the biological

supply houses for the donation of the speci-

mens.

ENCES

Parry, N. E. (1932) : Some notes on the water

monitor in the Garo Hills, Assam. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 35: 901-905.

Pianka, E. R. (1968) : Notes on the biology of

Varanus eremius. Western Australian Nat. 11(2) :

39-44.

(1970) : Notes on Varanus salva-

tor. ibid. 11(5): 113-116.

(1971): Notes on the biology of

Varanus tristis. ibid. 77(8) : 180-183.

Sharma, R. C. and Vazirani, T. G. (1977) : Food

and feeding habits of some reptiles of Rajasthan.

Rec. Zool. Surv. India 73 : 77-93.

Smith, H. C. (1931): The monitor lizards of

Burma. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 367-373.

Smith, M. A. (1935) : The fauna of British India.

Reptiles and Amphibians. Vol. 2 Saurians. Taylor

and Francis: London. 305 p.

Stirling, E. C. (1912) : Observations on the habits

of the large central Australian monitor (Varanus

giganteus), with a note on the fat bodies of this

species. Trans. Proc. Soc. South Australia 36: 26-33.

Waite, E. R. (1929): The reptiles and amphibians

of South Australia. Govern. Printer, Adelaide. 183 p.

Zakhidov, T. (1938) : Biology of reptiles of south-

ern Kyzl-Kumy desert and the Noura-Tan Moun-

tains. Acta Univ. Asiae Zool. 54: 1-126 (in Russian).

124

COURTSHIP AND COPULATION IN MYLLOCERUS

UNDEC1MPUSTULATUS MACULOSUS DESB.

(COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)1

K. Thangavelu2

(With two plates containing seven figures)

Introduction

Several aspects of the ethology of reproduc-

tion in Coleoptera are well documented in the

families Buprestidae (Alcock 1976), Carabidae

(Lorochelle 1973), Cicindelidae (Master 1976),

Coccinellidae (Wang et al. 1977), Dermestidae

(Barak and Burkholder 1977, Chaudhary and

Kapil 1976 and Hammack et al. 1976), Hydro-

philidae (Scheloske 1974), Lucanidae

(Mathieu 1969), Meloidae (Selander 1964,

Selander and Pinto 1967, Pinto 1972, 1974,

1975, 1977a and 1977b); Scarabaeidae (Ben-

nett 1974, Halffter and Yrma 1977, Hardy 1976)

and Staphylinidae (Peschke 1978). Though the

family Curculionidae is a very large one and

several species are economically important re-

productive behaviour is known only in a few

species, Hylobius abietis (Selander and Jans-

son 1977), Microlarinus laervnii (Kirkland and

Geoden 1978) and Anthonomus grandis (Villa-

vaso et al. 1975). Therefore an attempt, though

preliminary in nature is made on the ethology

of reproduction in the ash-weevil, Myllocerus

undecimpustulatus maculosus Desb, which is

Oriental in distribution. It is a polyphagous

species and a serious pest on Cotton (Gossy-

pium barbadense and G. hirsutum), Brinjal

1 Accepted April 1980.

2 Entomology Division, Central Institute for Cotton

Research Regional Station, Coimbatore-641 003,

South India. Present address : Joint Director, Regional

Sericultural Research Station, Central Silk Board,

Titabar 785 632 (Assam).

(Solanum melongena) and other crops in India.

The previous works on M. maculosus pertain

to control measures (Krishan Kumar and

Rattan Lai 1966); recording the host plants

(Bhutani 1975) and unusual occurrence

(Kareem et al. 1977) etc. are of preliminary

nature only.

Material and Methods

Late instar grubs and pupae were brought

from the fields and reared on cotton root in

petri dishes. Newly emerged adults were re-

leased in pairs in glass jars to observe their

courtship and mating. Fresh cotton leaves were

provided as food for the adults. To avoid

possible behavioural variability due to “learn-

ed” sexual behaviour, studies on courtship

were performed on virgin adults.

The following different combinations of

male and female were maintained separately to

study the reaction of the adults in various

mating types that exist under natural condi-

tion. (1) Newly emerged males and females,

(2) Newly emerged males and unmated females

of different ages (5-10 days after eclosion), (3)

Newly emerged males and previously mated

females, (4) Newly emerged females with pre-

viously unmated males, (5-10 days after eclo-

sion), (5) Newly emerged females with previ-

ously mated males, (6) A few males along with

more number of females, (7) Several males

along with less number of females. The labo-

ratory observations were compared with obser-

125

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

vations made in the field during September

1976 to December 1978.

Set up 1 shows the normal mating behaviour.

Set up 2 to 5 show the effect of age on

mating response.

Set up 6 and 7 show the mating competition

and aggression when one sex is predominent

in a colony.

Observations and Results

Normal mating (Mating type 1):

Adults start mating 2-3 days after eclosion.

When the male encounters the female, it in-

stantaneously strikes the antennae of the female

with its own antennae (Fig. 1). A receptive

female remains motionless while an unrecep-

tive female escapes with jerky movements. The

male advances its fore legs and rubs the fore

tarsi of the receptive female (Fig. 2) and the

responding female reciprocates with a few

antennal strokes on the attempting male. Then

the male moves to the side of the female (Fig.

3) and with its fore legs rubs the pronotum of

the female. This tactile stimulus rouses the

female to raise the tip of its abdomen after

disengaging the pygidium. Meanwhile, the male

having released its aedeagus finds no resistance

to establish genital connection (Fig. 4). The

entire courtship does not extend beyond two

minutes. Among virgin males and females the

antennation and fore tarsal stimulation conti-

nues for 5-10 seconds. Once genital connection

is achieved the male remains docile through-

out and keep its antennae either straight or

bent midway. The female, on the other hand,

moves about dragging the male to suitable

secluded places. Both males and females do

not feed during copulation. When undisturbed

the copulation lasts for 5-7 hours. Mating is

quite common during early hours of the morn-

ing (05.00 hrs to 09.00 hrs). After copulation

the male and female move away and occasion-

ally the males continue to pester by dorsal

riding (Fig. 5). The various sequences involved

in the courtship and copulation are shown

diagrammatically in Fig. 7.

Effect of age on mating response

(Mating type 2) :

Though the females are sexually active, they

never initiate mating behaviour. Newly emerg-

ed males and virgin females behave in a similar

fashion as described above, the females readily

responding to the mating attempts initiated by

the males. (Mating type 3): When newly

emerged males are released among already

mated females, the latter do not readily res-

pond and, therefore, the pre-courtship beha-

viour is a bit more elaborate. Occasionally

such females run away while the males persis-

tently run after them and grab them with the

fore legs and forcibly detain them by suddenly

jumping upon them and lifting the posterior

tip of the female’s abdomen with their hind

legs. An un receptive female shakes off the male

convulsively or only allows dorsal riding (Fig.

5) without separating the pygidium. But a

virgin male persists in coaxing the female by

gently drumming on the antennae and head of

the female with its antennae, also frequently

lifting the female’s abdomen with its hind legs.

When the female responds by straightening the

abdominal segments and opening its genital

aperture, the male secures genital connection

while remaining on the dorsal side itself and

releasing its aedeagus. Male releases its aedea-

gus only when the genital aperture of the

female is opened and never in anticipation.

This type of pre-courtship and dorsal riding

by the male may last for more than 30

minutes. Occasionally, inspite of the coaxing

of the male, the female remain unreceptive,

dissection of such females show gravid

126

§

8

"a

o

g

§

a

_ o

Oo ^3

u *

0

in

co

a

j*.

.o

X

o c

PQ g

^ H

Fig. 1: Antennation. Fig. 2: Fore tarsi rubbing. Fig. 3: Male attaining lateral position to the female. Fig: 4: Copula position.

(Photos: Author )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Thangavelu: Myllocerus u. maculosus

Plate II

Fig. 5: Dorsal riding (without genital connection). Fig. 6: Intruding male attempting to sit in between copula pairs.

Fig. 7: Sequence diagram of mating in M. maculosus. (Numbers within the circle refer to figure number)

COURTSHIP & COPULATION IN M. U. MACULOSUS

ovarioles with already matured eggs. (Mating

type 4) : When newly emerged females are

paired with aged as well as virgin males the

latter start antennation and fore tarsal rubbing,

but the newly emerged females never show

any receptivity, either they run away or allow

dorsal riding by the males and final separation.

Aged and virgin males remain excited and

aggressive as indicated by the forcible lifting

of the posterior tip of female’s abdomen and

pulling by his fore legs and violently stop-

ping her from running away. Occasionally the

males suddenly jump on the other male but

separate quickly as the typical feminine res-

ponse is not evoked by the male. (Mating type

5) : When newly emerged females are placed

along with previously mated males, the males

are not aggressive and therefore the females

move around the males. Mating is rarely

attempted. In mating types 3, 4 and 5, fre-

quency of successful mating is comparatively

less (Table 1).

Table 1

Effect of age on mating response

Mating Competition and Aggression when one

sex is predominent (Mating type 6) :

When few males are placed along with seve-

ral females, normal mating similar to mating

type 1 is observed, the females without mates

wander around and do not disturb the other

pairs engaged in courtship and copulation.

(Mating type 7): When males predominate in

a colony of few females, the males without

mates often disturb the copula pairs. Invaria-

bly the disturbing male persists by drumming

on the mating female or rubbing the foretarsi

of the female, but such female never responds.

If the disturbance persists, then the female

carries the male to a more isolated place.

Occasionally the disturbing male is allowed to

rest in between the mating pair (Fig. 6). In

such cases the mating male raises its ventral

side to accommodate the intruding male, the

position of the mating male under such situa-

tion become almost perpendicular to the

female. The intruder may thus rest for more

than an hour — this type of unusual three in a

mating position is also seen in the field fre-

quently.

Field Observations

The ashweevil, M. maculosus lives and re-

produces throughout the year in South India.

They are abundant in the field during winter

months, October to January. During this period

mating is quite common. Newly emerged adults

are sexually not active and require a matura-

tion period. Hence mating is initiated only

after 2-3 days of adult emergence. The males

live 25-30 days while the females live for 30-45

days. During the entire adult period, females

mate only 4-5 times, while the males mate more

frequently. Receptivity in females decreases

with age and previous mating attempts. The

cool part of the day (05.00-09.00 hrs.) is pre-

ferred for mating in the field. In the laboratory

conditions they mate throughout the day.

Halffter and Yrma (op. cit.) recorded noon

time to be the most favoured time for mating

in Phanaeus (Scarabaeidae). During hotter

times, the adults rest between the bracts and

bolls or underneath the foliage.

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Discussion

Sexual identification is apparently visual.

Morphologically the male and female look

similar except for the size, the female is con-

siderably larger than the male. Similarly vision

plays the major role in the sex identification in

Pantorlytes szentivanyi (Curculionidae) (Has-

sen 1975). The entire courtship is very brief

and never lasts more than 2 minutes. Court-

ship is initiated by males only. When the male

sights the female, he swings his antennae over

the female. Similarly brief series of antennal

contacts were recorded in Microlarinus lareynii

(Curculionidae) (Kirkland and Goeden, op.

cit.). Antennation detains the responding

female, otherwise the unwilling female runs

away swiftly. When the female stops, the male

rubs with his fore legs the fore tarsi and pro-

notum of the female, which further stimulates

the female. Engelmann (1970) refers this kind

of tactile stimulus during courtship and mating

in many species of Coleoptera. Apart from tac-

ticle stimulation, Selander and Jansson (op.

cit.) reported stridulation in males to be asso-

ciated with the mating behaviour of the large

pine weevil Hylobius abietis. Once the genital

connection is secured the male rides on the

female, fully supported by her body and re-

mains motionless with his antennae erect or

bent. This is the most dominant feature during

mating in M. maculosus and Pinto (op. cit.)

also records such behaviour in blister beetles

of the subtribe Eupomphina (Meloidae).

Whenever the intruder persists, the agitated

male rubs the pronotum of the female with his

fore legs, compelling the female to move to

suitable isolated sites. While mating is in pro-

gress, the fore and mid legs of the male grip

the lateral sides of the female’s abdomen just

over the mid and hind legs and the hind legs

of the male hold the genital segments of the

female. The tibiae, tarsi and claws of the fore

and mid legs and tibial tips of the hind legs of

the male are engaged in holding the female.

The tarsi and claws of the hind legs of the

male are kept bent and do not hold the female

when at rest. Only when the female moves

rapidly these organs are engaged in holding the

venter of the abdominal tip of the female. In

the mating position the female spreads all the

three pairs of her legs on the resting surface.

When copulation is intensive the foretarsi of

the male are firmly placed on the elytra of the

female and the male is almost vertical to the

female. The percentage, of successful matings

decrease when aged and previously mated

adults were tested (Table 1). Fresh and unmat-

ed females are invariably receptive to mating,

with 80% of successful mating (mating type

2 — Table 1). Only 50% of successful mating

resulted with previously mated females (mat-

ing type 3). The percentage of successful mating

is lowest (33%) when mated and aged males

were tried with virgin females (mating type 5).

Just mated females and those with fully matured

eggs (confirmed by dissection of ovaries)

never allow copulation. When the female is

decidedly not receptive, the male does not

persist in establishing genital connection but

climbs over the female (Fig. 5) and sits for a

considerably time and then lifts the genital

segments in order to secure genital connection.

However the male’s aedeagus is only released

when the female responds by opening the geni-

tal aperture. Unmated males, when coupled

with newly emerged females, become sexually

more excited when the newly emerged females

do not respond to the repeated mating attempts

of the males (mating types 2 and 6) indicating

more sexual drive in the males than in the

females. It also appears that the females do

not become violent but the males become aggres-

sive if denied an opportunity for mating.

128

COURTSHIP & COPULATION IN M. U. MACULOSUS

Females never disturb other copula pairs while

males do.

Summary :

Males and females of Myllocerus maculosus

live and reproduce throughout the year, how-

ever sexual activity is more vigorous only dur-

ing October- January. Mating in the field is

quite common in the early hours of the day.

Mating started only after 2-3 days of adult

emergence. Sexual identification is mainly

visual. Antennation and rubbing of fore tarsi

and pronotum provides the mating stimulus for

the female. The male only initiates courtship

and thereafter remains docile, whereas female

is very active during courtship and mating.

Refer

Alcock, J. (1976): Courtship and mating in

Hippomelas planicosta (Coleoptera : Buprestidae) .

College Bulletin 30 (4) : 343-348.

Barak, A. V. and Burkholder, W. E. (1977) :

Behaviour and Pheromone studies with Attagenus

elongatulus Casey (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). Jour-

nal of Chemical Zoology, 3 (2) : 219-237.

Bennett, G. (1974) : Mating behaviour of the

Rosechaefer in Northern Michigan (Coleoptera:

Scarabaeidae) . Coleopterists Bulletin, 28: 167-168.

Bhutani, D. K. (1975): Crops pests and their

control-1 Cotton. Pesticides 9 (3) : 21-27.

Choudhary, J. P. and Kapil, R. P. (1976): Re-

productive biology of Khapra beetle, Trogoderma

granarium EV. (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). Zeitsch-

rift fur angewandte entomologie, 81 (1) : 30-37.

Engelmann, F. (1970): The Physiology of Insect

Reproduction. Pergamon Press.

Halffter, G. and Yrma Lopez, G. (1977) : Deve-

lopment of the ovary and mating behaviour in

Phanaeus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Annals of

Entomological Society of America. 70(2) : 203-213.

Hammack, L. et al. (1976): Sex Pheromone re-

leasing behaviour in females of dermestid beetle

Trogoderma glabrum (Col.). Journal of Insect

Physiology, 22(4) : 555-561.

Hardy, A. R. (1976): Observations on the mating

behaviour of Pseudocotalpa ginlianii Hardy (Col.,

Courtship is not elaborate, it lasts for two or

three minutes only. Females mate only 4-5 times

in their life. Gravid females do not mate. Males

mate quite frequently. Mating efficiency de-

creases with age and previous mating in both

sexes. Males disturb other copula pairs in

crowded condition and, if denied a chance for

mating, become aggressive. Males are sexually

more vigorous than females.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. J. G. Bhatt, Project Coordinator

& Head, Central Institute for Cotton Research,

Regional Station, Coimbatore-3 for facilities

provided and encouragement.

EN CES

Scarabaeidae). College Bulletin 30(3): 301-302.

*Hassen, E. (1975) : Sex characteristics and mat-

ing behaviour of Pantorhytes szentivanyi Marshal

(Col., Gurculionidae). Anz. Schadlingskd. Pflanz .

Umweltschutz. 48 (2) : 25-27.

Kareem, A. et al. (1977) : Unusual large-scale

occurrence of the cotton ashweevil grub and its con-

trol. Pesticides 11 (3) : 27-28.

Kirkland, R. L. and Goeden, R. D. (1978) : Bio-

logy of Microlarinus lareynii (Coleoptera: Curculio-

nidae) on Puncturvine in Southern California.

Annals of Entomological Society of America 71 (1) :

13-19.

Krishan Kumar and Rattan Lal (1966): Com-

parative toxicity of recently introduced organic in-

secticides to some insects pests of crops. Indian Jour-

nal of Entomology, 28 (2) : 258-264.

Lorochelle, A. (1973): Notes on the mating

periods of some carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Cara-

bidae). Proceedings of Entomological Society of

Ontorio. 104: 50-52.

Master, C. 1976: Notes on sexual behaviour of

Cicindela Oregona (Col. Cicindelidae) . Cicindela 8

(1): 13-14.

Mathieu, J. (1969): Mating behaviour of five

species of Lucanidae (Col. Insecta). Canadian Ento »•

mologist. 10 (1): 1054-1062.

Peschke, K. (1978): Functional and morpholo-

129

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

gical investigations on the copulation of Aleochara

curtula Goeze (Col. Staphylinidae) . Zoomorphologie :

89 (2): 159-184.

Pinto, J. D. (1972) : Comparative courtship be-

haviour of Neqalius, Phodaga and Cordylospasta,

three closely related genera of blister beetles (Coleo-

ptera: Meloidae). Journal of Kansas Entomological

Society, 45 : 459-476.

(1974) : Courtship behaviour in

Linselya compressicornis (Coleoptera: Meloidae) and

its taxonomic significance. Canadian Entomologist,

50: 1-8.

(1975) : Intra and inter specific court-

ship behaviour in blister beetles of the genus Tegro-

dera (Meloidae). Annals of Entomological Society of

America. 68: 275-285.

(1977a) : Sexual behaviour in the

blister beetle Cysteodemus (Meloidae). Canadian

Entomologist. 109: 389-396.

(1977b) : Comparative sexual beha-

viour in Blister beetles of the sub-tribe Eupomphina

(Coleoptera: Meloidae) and an evaluation of its

taxonomic significance. Annals of Entomological

Society of America. 70: 937-951.

* Scheloske, H. W. (1974) : Reproductive behavi-

our and sound production in Laccobius minutus (L.)

(Col., Hydrophilidae). Verh. Dtsch. Zoologie Gazette.

67: 329-334.

Selander, J. and Jansson, A. (1977) : Sound pro-

duction associated with mating behaviour of the

large pine weevil, Hylobius abietis (Col. Curculio-

nidae). Annals of Entomological Society Fennici, 43

(2): 66-75.

Seleander, R. B. (1964) : Sexual behaviour in blis-

ter beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae) I. The genus

Pyrota. Canadian Entomologist. 96: 1037-1082.

Seleander, R. B. and Pinto, J. D. (1967) : Sexual

behaviour in blister beetles (Coleoptera : Meloidae) II.

Linsleya conuexa. Journal of Kansas Entomological

Society. 40: 396-412.

Villa vAso, E. J. et al. (1975) : Response of virgin

vs. mated and sterile vs. fertile female bollweevils to

male baited traps ( Anthonomus grandis (Col., Cur-

culionidae). Environmental Entomology, 4{ 4): 566-

568.

Wang, T. S. et al. (1977): Observations on the

reproduction of Coccinella septumpernctata L. Acta

Entomologie Sinai. 20 (4) :

* original not consulted.

130

THE GENUS LINDERNIA ALL. ( SCROPHULARIACEAE )

IN INDIA1

V. V. Sivarajan & Philip Mathew2

The Indo-Burmese species of the genus Lindernia All. have been revised by Mukherjee

(1945). Since then, there have been considerable change in the circumscription and

nomenclature of many of the taxa. The present paper is a taxonomic revision of the

Indian species of the genus. In all, 22 species have been recognised, two of them,

L. molluginoides and L. elata, being new records for India. A new variety, L. tenuifolia

var. pygmaea Sivarajan & Philip Mathew is recorded from Kerala. An artificial key

for the species, their current nomenclature, and notes on their salient features, habitat

and world distribution are provided.

The genus Lindernia All., as currently re-

cognised, has about 100 species described under

various generic names, viz. Lindernia All., Van-

dellia Linn., Bonnaya Link & Otto and llysan-

thes Rafin., circumscribed mainly on the basis

of number of fertile stamens and nature of

staminodes. However, generic alignments with-

in this group has long been a matter of dis-

cussion and controversy. Linnaeus treated

Lindernia and Vandellia, both with four perfect

stamens, as two distinct genera (cf. Mukherjee

1945) though Bentham and many others pre-

ferred to unite them, llysanthes and Bonnaya

are characterised by two perfect stamens and

two staminodes but differ in their relative posi-

tion. In llysanthes , the posterior pair is fertile

and the anterior staminodal whereas in

Bonnaya they are in the reverse order. Ben-

tham (1835, 1846, 1876), J. D. Hooker (1884)

and many others have preferred to keep them

as distinct genera while others have united them

under llysanthes. Blatter and Hallberg (1918)

have pointed out the inadequacy of the stami-

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Department of Botany, University of Calicut,

Kerala-673 635.

nal characters to circumscribe genera within

this group but, have still opted not to disturb

the then prevailing system of treating them

under different generic names. Haines (1922)

reduced the four genera into two but, in a

different manner. He included Bonnaya in

Vandellia and llysanthes in Lindernia, thus

mixed up taxa with four and two perfect sta-

mens. He recognised these groups mainly based

on major vein configurations in their leaves,

Vandellia with penninerved leaves and Lin-

dernia with basally veined ones.

Neither staminal nor venation characters

have provided adequate and reliable taxonomic

criteria for circumscribing the different genera

within this group. In fact, ‘it would have been

more appropriate for him (Haines) to go one

step further and combine the four into a single

genus’ (Mukherjee 1945). This was however,

done by Pennell (1935, 1943) who combined

all these taxa under the single generic name

Lindernia, a natural assemblage characterised

by ‘the remarkably uniform corolla, curiously

recurving anterior filaments and by similar

septicidal dehiscence of capsule’.

Indian species of this genus have been re-

vised by Mukherjee (1945). He recognised 28

131

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

species in all, from the Indo-Burmese region.

Subsequent studies have however, altered the

concept of species in this genus very drastically

(Philcox 1964, 1968). Circumscription of seve-

ral species have been expanded. For instances,

L. anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell, currently in-

cludes several taxa which were previously des-

cribed under different binomials like L. cor di-

folia and L. angustifolia. L. sessiliflora is under-

stood to be conspecific with L. nummularifolia

and L. laxa with L. pusilla. Several species

described by Blatter and Hallberg (1918) have

been reduced to synonymy while one of them,

L. quinqueloba (Blatt. & Hallb.) Mukherjee,

which almost crosses the generic limits in the

nature of corolla is no more considered to be

a natural species (Saldanha 1963). Consequent

to this change in the concept of species, several

species recognised by earlier workers have

been reduced to synonymy. The purpose of this

paper is to bring the Indian species of this

genus in line with the current concept of species

in the genus. A study of the materials avail-

able in the various herbaria (mentioned at the

end) have revealed that 22 species are avail-

able in India of which L. data and L. mollu-

ginoides have hitherto not been known to occur

here.

Key to the species

1. Perfect stamens usually two:

2. Capsules linear, much longer than the calyx:

3. Lvs broadly ovate/ elliptic •

4. Lvs petioled ruellioides

4. Lvs sessile or subsessile:

5. Lvs aristate-dentate ciliata

5. Lvs crenate-serrate antipoda

3. Lvs linear /oblong:

6. Lvs distinctly serrate oppositifolia

6. Lvs shallowly toothed or subentire:

7. Lamina 15 cm or more long

estaminodosa

7. Lamina not more than 4 cm long

tenuifolia

2. Capsules subglobose or ovoid:

8. Capsules equalling the calyx:

9. Lvs ovate /oblong minima

9. Lvs orbicular/ rounded rotundifolia

8. Capsules longer than the calyx:

10. Pedicels deflexed in fruit:

11. Corolla twice as long as the calyx

parviflora

11. Corolla 3-4 times longer than calyx

hyssopioides

10. Pedicels not deflexed in fruit

manilaliana

1 . Perfect stamens usually 4 :

12. Capsules equalling or shorter than calyx:

13. Flowers in terminal racemes, also axillary,

solitary :

14. Calyx shortly toothed Crustacea

14. Calyx deeply divided:

15. Plants hairy viscosa

15. Plants glabrous multiflora

13. Flowers never in terminal racemes,

always axillary, solitary:

16. Calyx shortly toothed:

17. Plants glabrous molluginoides

17. Plants hairy hookeri

16. Calyx divided to the base:

18. Plants glabrous:

19. Lvs pinnately veined elata

19. Lvs basally veined procumbens

18. Plants hairy:

20. Lvs ovate /oblong, densely hairy

on both sides montana

20. Lvs ovate/ orbicular, sparcely hairy

pusilla

12. Capsules much exceeding the calyx:

21. Calyx shortly toothed at apex

nummularifolia

21. Calyx deeply divided anagallis

L. ruellioides (Colsm.) Pennell, Brittonia 2 :

182. 1936 & J. Arn. Arb. 20: 81. 1939;

Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 133. 1945;

Philcox, Kew Bull. 17: 484. 1964 & 22: 54.

1968. Gradola ruellioides Colsm. Prod. Desc.

Grat. 12. 1793. Bonnaya reptans (Roxb.)

Spreng. Syst. 1: 41. 1824; Hook. f. FI. Brit.

Ind. 4: 284. 1884. I lysanthes reptans (Roxb.)

Urb. in Berl. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 2: 436. 1884;

Gamb. FI. Madr. 962. 1923.

132

GENUS LINDERNIA IN INDIA

Stem usually creeping and rooting at nodes;

leaves ovate /elliptic, obtuse; flowers lilac or

purple; pedicels slender; capsules linear, acute,

to 2 cm long.

In moist or swampy grasslands, cultivated

fields and waste places, throughout tropical and

subtropical Asia. In India Eastern Himalayas

and W. ghats.

Selected specimens studied :

Deb 25817, 26005, Panigrahi 14692, 14890

(NEFA), Joseph 37410 (Nongpoh), Kanjilal

927 (Khasi & Jaintia Hills), 5370 (Garo Hills),

Bor 21017 (Naga Hills), Sharma 9770, 16813,

13395 (Khasi & Jaintia Hills), Kanjilal 3377

(Lakhimpur), Sworoopanandan 381, 403 (Pal-

ghat), Calder & Ramaswami 374, Rama Rao

1501 (Kerala), Clarke 25171, King 4843

(Sikkim), Deb 27095 (Tripura), Clarke 45671,

Hook. f. & Thoms, sn. 323542 (Meghalaya).

L. ciliata (Colsm.) Fennell, Brittonia 2 : 182.

1936 & J. Arn. Arb. 24: 253. 1943; Mukher-

jee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 133. 1945. Gratiola

ciliata Colsm. Prod. Desc. Grat. 14. 1793.

Bonnaya brachiata Link & Otto, Ic. PI.

Select. 25, t. 11. 1820; Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind.

4: 284. 1884; Blatt. & Hallb, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 418. 1918. llysanthes

serrata (Roxb.) Urb. in Berk Detsch. Bot.

Ges. 2: 436. 1884; Gamble FI. Madr. 962.

1923. Vandellia brachiata (Link & Otto)

Haines, Bot. Bih. & Or. 632. 1922. Lindernia

bracteoides (Blatt. & Hallb.) Mukherjee, J.

Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 133. 1945.

Erect annuals; leaves elliptic-oblong, aristate-

dentate; flowers bluish or pink, rarely white;

pedicels upto 1 cm long; capsules linear, 1.5

cm long.

Very common in moist or wet lateritic slopes

and grasslands during monsoon, in South and

S. E. Asia and Australia. In India throughout.

Selected specimens examined :

Deka 20283 (Assam), Panigrahi sn. 16007

(Orissa), Blatter & Hallberg 1514 (type mate-

rial of Bonnaya bacteoides from Mt. Abu. S.

K. Mukherjee has noted on the sheet that the

characters selected by the authors to distinguish

this from B. bracteata do not hold good); A.

S. Rao 47924 (NEFA); Sebastine 8761 (Rewa,

M. P.), Panigrahi 13207 (Bilaspur), Arora

4706 (Allahabad); Reddi 99032 (Lonavla),

Billore 113184 (Thana, Pune); Balakrishnan

11021 (Andhra); Sivarajan 283 (Calicut),

Thomson sn. 323506 (Karnataka); Fischer

2248 (Coimbatore); Clarke 25128 (Sikkim).

L. antipoda (Linn.) Alston in Trimen FI. Ceyl.

6. suppl. 214. 1931; Philcox, Kew Bull. 17:

484. 1964 & 22: 57. 1968. Ruellia antipoda

Linn. Sp. PI. 635. 1753. Bonnaya grandiflora

(Retz.) Spreng. Syst. 1: 41. 1824. B. vero-

nicifolia (Retz.) Spreng. Syst. 1: 41. 1824;

Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 285. 1884. llysan-

thes veronicifolia (Retz.) Urb. in Berl.

Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 2: 436. 1884; Gamb. FI.

Madr. 962. 1923; Lindernia veronicifolia

(Retz.) Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 634. 1922, excl.

Vandellia augustifolia, Mukherjee, J. Ind.

Bot. Soc. 24: 133. 1945. L. anagallis (Burm.

f.) Pennell, var. grandiflora (Retz.) Mukher-

jee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 133. 1945.

Prostrate or diffuse herbs; leaves variable, ser-

rate; flowers blue with yellow mouth, axillary,

solitary and in terminal biparous racemes;

fruiting pedicels spreading, 1.5 cm long; cap-

sule twice as long as the calyx, 1-1.5 cm long.

Common in swamps, grasslands, waste places

and also as a weed in cultivated fields. Tropi-

cal and subtropical Asia, from India eastwards.

In India throughout.

Selected specimens examined :

Ellis 19984, Sivarajan 389, 1014 (Calicut),

Sebastine 20826, Fischer 1814 (Palghat);

Ramamurthy 25994 (Trichur), Fischer 4508,

Hook. f. & Thomas, sn. 323584 (MH, Kerala);

Sebastine 16547 (Kottayam); Rao 26764,

133

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Karthikeyan 26880, Rao 26880 (This sheet in

MH contains two different elements, L. anti -

poda and L. hyssopioides), Deb 31296

(Salem); Subrammanyam 9379, 8290 (Madu-

rai), Sharma 35822, Subba Rao 36146, Subra-

manyam 10392, (Nilgiris), Henry 45547 (Chin-

galpet), Shetty 32233, Vajravelu 38861 (Tinne-

velly); Sebastine 2486, Chandrabose 31135

(Coimbatore); Bourne 149, Fischer 226, 817

(Tamilnadu); Meebold 10114 (Pondicherry);

Subba Rao 32019 (Chittoor), 19720, Bala-

krishnan 10792 (Visakhapatanam); Panigrahi

13218 (Bilaspur, M. P.); A. S. Rao 39140

(Assam); Biswas 5159 (Tripura); Meebold

10114 (Pondicherry); Fischer 1814, 4508

(Kerala); Haines 575 (Bihar); Panigrahi 8475

(Orissa).

L. oppositf folia (Linn.) Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 24: 134. 1945. Gratiola oppositifolia

Linn. Sp. PI. (Ed. Willd.) 1: 105. 1797.

Bonnaya oppositifolia (Linn.) Spreng. Syst.

1: 41. 1824; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 286.

1884. Vandellia oppositifolia (Linn.) Haines,

Bot. Bih. Or. 634. 1922. llysanthes oppositi-

folia (Linn.) Urb. in Berl. Deutsch. Bot.

Ges. 2: 435. 1884; Gamble FI. Madr. 962.

1923.

Erect, annuals; leaves oblong-obtuse, serrate;

flowers blue in terminal racemes; capsules

linear, much exceeding the calyx; pedicels de-

flexed in fruits, almost as long as the fruit.

Common weed in wet low lands and paddy

fields, in India.

Selected specimens examined :

Ramamurthy 22720 (Ramnad), 17652 (N.

Arcot), Joseph 3956, Sivrajan 317 (Calicut);

Henry 45549 (Chingalpet); 2110 (Coimbatore);

Reddi 97926 (Lonavla); Panigrahi 12584

(Mirzapur, U.P.); Hooper 39629 (Orissa);

Fischer 2110 (Coimbatore); Thomson sn.

322701 (CAL).

L. estaminodosa (Blatt. & Hallb.) Mukherjee,

J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 133. 1945. Bonnaya

estaminodosa Blatter & Hallberg, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 25 : 416 1918.

Erect, profusely branched annuals, 20-40 cm

tall; leaves oblong to oblanceolate, entire or sub-

entire; flowers in terminal racemes; staminodes

absent; fruiting pedicels and capsules about

four times as long as the calyx.

In wet low lands. This species is extremely

rare and was collected from the back waters

at Cherukunnu, Cannanore Dt. Distributed

along the western peninsular India.

Specimens examined :

Sivarajan 518 (Cannanore), Talbot 1930,

1584 (Karnataka).

L. tenuifolia (Colsm.) Alston in Trim. FI. Ceyl.

6. suppl. 214. 1931; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 24: 134. 1945; Philcox, Kew Bull. 22:

62. 1968. Gratiola tenuifolia Colsm. Prod.

Desc. Grat. 8. 1793. Bonnaya tenuifolia

(Colsm.) Spreng. Syst. 1: 42. 1842; Hook. f.

FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 286. 1884. llysanthes tenui-

folia (Colsm.) Urb. in Berol. Deutsch. Bot.

Ges. 2: 435. 1884; Gamb. FI. Madr. 962.

1923. Vandellia tenuifolia (Colsm.) Haines,

Bot. Bih. Or. 634. 1922.

Erect, or diffuse annuals, branches 5-8 cm

long; leaves narrow, linear-oblong, upto 3x0.3

cm; flowers solitary axillary or leaf-opposed,

8 mm long; pedicels deflexed in fruit, 1.2 cm

long; capsules linear, 8 mm long.

In wet lowlands and along backwaters in

Malaysia, Indochina, Sri Lanka and India. In

India, Bengal and S. India.

Specimens examined :

Meebold 12684 (Quilon), CAL (erro-

neously identified as Bonnaya oppositifolia );

Sivarajan 517, Sivarajan & Suresh 21627 (Cali-

cut). These specimens match well with the

Koenig’s material kept at Vahl’s Herbarium at

134

GENUS LINDERNIA IN INDIA

the University of Copenhagen (only photo-

graph seen) based on which Colsmann describ-

ed the species.

var. pygmaea Sivarajan & Philip Mathew,

var. nov.

Haec varietas habitu multu diverso, pyg-

maea, foliis pseudo-acicularibus, floribus roseis

et capsulis brevioribus habit ut in L. tenuifolia

typica quae maior est et folia plana, flores

caeruleos, capsula et pedicellos fructigeros lon-

giores habet.

Erect, tufted herbs 3-5 cm long; leaves linear,

apparently acicular, up to 2 cm long; flowers

axillary or leaf-opposed, solitary, pale blue,

much smaller than in the typical form; pedicels

almost as long as the capsule, deflexed in

fruit; capsules linear, 5 mm long.

Holotype Sivarajan 1368 (Kallai, Calicut) is

deposited in the Central National Herbarium,

Howrah and isotypes in the Calicut University

Herbarium.

L. minima (Benth.) Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 24: 132. 1945. llysanthes minima Benth.

in DC. Prodr. 10: 420. 1846; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 4: 284. 1884; Gamb. FI. Madr.

961. 1923.

Leaves only 2-3 pairs, entire, flowers yellow;

pedicels capillary; capsules subglobose, equal-

ling the fruiting calyx.

In wet or moist grounds, in S. India.

This species has been added on the authority

of Mukherjee. We have not seen any material

of this species from India.

L. rotundifofiia (Linn.) Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 24: 132. 1945. Gratiola rotundifolia

Linn. Mant. 274. 1767. llysanthes rotundi-

folia (Linn.) Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 420.

1846; Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 254. 1884;

Gamb. FI. Madr. 962. 1923.

Erect or diffuse herbs; leaves sessile, orbicular

or ovate, entire or serrate; flowers white with

purple blotches; capsules globose, equalling the

fruiting calyx.

Common in wet or marshy lowlands, during

monsoon, in S. India, Sri Lanka, Mauritius and

Madagascar.

Selected specimens examined :

Vivekanandan 21347, 22993 (Kottayam),

Sharma 41674 (Idukki), Sivarajan 433, 1343

(Calicut), Subramanyam 8220 (Madurai).

L. parviflora (Roxb.) Haines, Bot. Bih. Or.

645. 1922; Pennell, Acad. Nat. Soc. Phil.

Mon. 5: 29. 1943; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 24: 132. 1945. Gratiola parviflora Roxb.

Cor. PI. 3: 3, t. 204. 1811. llysanthes parvi-

flora (Roxb.) Benth. Scroph. Ind. 34. 1835

& in DC. Prodr. 10: 419. 1846; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 4: 283. 1884; Gamb. FI. Madr.

961. 1923.

A variable species, branched or unbranch-

ed; leaves ovate-acute, sessile, 3 -veined from

base, entire; flowers axillary, solitary, white

with purple blotches; pedicels long, deflexed in

fruit; corolla variable in size, capsules ovoid

or ellipsoid, almost twice as long as the calyx.

In wet low lands and cultivated fields during

rainy season, in Trop. Africa, Indo-China and

major part of India. The typical form of the

species is branched from base, slightly suffruti-

cose with well developed leaves and axillary,

solitary flowers. Some of the specimens collect-

ed by the authors are delicate, sparcely branch-

ed, and fleshy with the upper leaves reduced

to bracts giving the inflorescence an appearance

of a raceme.

Selected specimens examined :

Sethi & Negi 25900 (Kottayam), Barnes sn.

106065 (Vandalur), Lawson 154 (Travancore),

Fischer 1812 (Palghat), Sivarajan 1658, 21632

(Calicut); Subramanyam 5108 (W. Godavari),

Sebastine 9767 (Nalconda), 8045 (Hyderabad),

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Chandrabose 29760 (Coimbatore), Rama-

murthy 21036 (Ramnad), Vajravelu 34010

(Tinnevelly), 22443 (Salem), Talbot 864 (N.

Canara), Sebastine 13926 (Jubbulpore), Pani-

grahi 16777 (Bilaspur), Rolla Rao 77744

(Bombay), Raizada 22768— with white flowers

— (Gir, Saurashtra), Santapau 475 (Khan-

dala), Clarke 26263, 26275, Hook. f. sn.

323428 (CAL) (W. Bengal); Gamble 8905,

Clarke 34279 (Bihar) Fischer 836, 839 (Tamil

Nadu), Lawson 154 (Travancore) ; Fischer

1812 (Dhoni).

L. hyssopioides (Linn.) Haines, Bot. Bih. Or.

635. 1922; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24:

132. 1945; Philcox, Kew Bull. 22: 50. 1968.

Gratiola hyssopioides Linn. Mant. 174. 1767.

llysanthes hyssopioides (Linn.) Benth. in

DC. Prod. 10: 419. 1846; Hook. f. FI. Brit.

Ind. 4: 283. 1884; Gamb. FI. Madr. 961.

1923.

Erect herbs, leaves variable in size and shape,

basally veined, entire; flowers blue, axillary,

solitary; pedicels very variable in length, de-

flexed in fruit; capsules ovoid, twice as long as

the calyx.

Common in wet low lands in South and S.

E. Asia. In India it is reported from South and

also East Himalayas. It is difficult to diffe-

rentiate this species and L. parviflora as has

been mentioned by Santapau (1967). Both are

variable and the range of variations often over-

lap. However, shape of leaves and relative size

of the reproductive parts provide rather relia-

ble diagnostic characters, to distinguish the two.

Selected specimens examined :

Vajravelu 27597, Joseph 17724 (Palghat),

Rama Rao 1674, Ellis 18589, Sivarajan 47,

21632, 21633 (Calicut), Rama Rao 2187

(Quilon), Fischer 1811 (Palghat), Calder &

Ramaswami 965 (Travancore), Balakrishnan

10210 (Coimbatore). Subramanyam 6591, 7524

(Salem), Ellis 34662, Subba Rao 36603 Nil-

giri). Bourne 1132 (Pulney), Perottet 51

(Shevaroi Hills), Subba Rao 22579 (Visakha-

patanam), Chandra Bose 45179 (Chittoor),

Gamble 21807 (Visakhapatanam), Meebold

8237 (Karnataka), Balakrishnan sn. 83875 j

(S. Canara), Deka 19324 (Chirapunjee), Bala-

krishnan 47034, 47196 (Khasia & Jaintia Hills),

Subramanyam 7182 (Bastar), Reddi 99079

(Poona).

L. maniialiana Sivarajan, Kew Bull. 31: 151-

153. 1976.

Annual fleshy herbs, rooting at lower nodes, :

closely resembling the two preceeding species >

but can readily be identified by undivided

staminodes, erect fruiting pedicels and unreduc-

ed upper leaves.

Reported from Calicut (Kerala), in wet

swampy low lands.

Specimens examined :

Sivarajan 435 (Calicut), Sivarajan & Suresh

21629 (Calicut).

L. Crustacea (Linn.) F. Muell. Syst. Cens.

Austral. PI. 1: 97. 1882; Mukherjee, J. Ind.

Bot. Soc. 24: 130. 1945; Philcox, Kew Bull.

22: 17. 1968. Capraria Crustacea Linn. Mant.

1: 87. 1767. Vandellia Crustacea (Linn.)

Benth. Scroph. Ind. 35. 1835 & in DC. Prod.

10: 413. 1846; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 279.

1884; Gamb. FI. Madr. 959. 1923.

Erect or diffuse herbs, often purplish in

colour; leaves ovate to elliptic, crenate-serrate or

subentire; flowers pink, axillary, solitary and in

terminal racemes; pedicels long; capsules

equalling the calyx.

A variable species growing in almost all

types of habitats, in South and S. East Asia,

tropical Africa and America. In India through-

out.

Selected specimens examined :

Rama Rao 1346 (Alleppy), Calder & Rama-

136

GENUS LINDERNIA IN INDIA

swami 14 (Konni), Sivarajan 23, 322, 360, 1369

(Calicut), Thomson 316, Fischer 2075 (Nil-

giri), Talbot 9, 469 (N. Canara), Raju 548

(Godavari), Balakrishnan 934 (Srikakulam);

Cooke 64 (Mahabaleshwar), R. S. Rao 92497

(Maharashtra), Abraham 164 (Orissa), Clarke

34173 (Chota Nagpur); Prain sn. 322990

(CAL), Malick 265 (Purulia), Ghosh 2444

(Hoogly), Balakrishnan 39282, Panigrahi 11206

(Assam), R. S. Rao 8823 (Tripura), King

sn. 322971 (CAL), Duthie 4247, 4249 (U.P.),

Panigrahi 12958 (Bilaspur), Sebastine 8756

(Rewa), Ansari 63825 (Gujarat), R. S. Rao

19969 (NEFA).

Panigrahi 238354, 23867 and Janaki Ammal

9268 (CAL) labelled as L. Crustacea are

Lobelia alsinoides and Fischer 859 is Torenia

lindernioides. It is observed that this species

is usually confused with L. nummularifolia

(Narayanaswamy 3359 CAL) and L. pusilla

(T. A. Rao 8037 CAL, Panigrahi 21534, Deb

29162 (assam), also besides the earlier men-

tioned species.

L. viscosa (Hornem.) Merr. Sp. Blanc. 14. 1918

& En. Philip. PI. 3: 349. 1923; Philcox, Kew

Bull. 22: 38. 1968. Gratiola viscosa Hornem.

En. PI. Hort. Hafn. 19: 1807; Vandellia

hirsuta Benth. Scroph. Ind. 36. 1835; Gamb.

FI. Madr. 959. 1923; Linder nia hirsuta

(Benth.) Wettst. in Engl. & Pr. Pfam. 4 (3b) :

79. 1891; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24:

131. 1945.

Erect or diffuse herbs, softly hairy through-

out leaves ovate-oblong to obovate, obtuse, cre-

nate-serrate; flowers white with a yellow mouth;

capsules subglobose, almost as long as the

fruiting calyx.

In moist, shady places, in Malaysia and Indian

subcontinent. In India, along Himalayas and

S. India.

Specimens examined :

Erady 2170, Sivarajan 343 (Calicut), Deka

21550 (K.&J. Hills), Bor 17246 (Aka Hills);

Naithani 1953 (Dehra Dun), Nafday 32 (Nag-

pur), Sharma 515 (Calcutta).

L. multiflora (Roxb.) Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot.

Soc. 24: 131. 1945. Philcox. Kew Bull. 22:

36. 1968. Torenia multiflora Roxb. FI. Ind.

(ed. Carey 3: 96. 1832 Vandellia multi-

flora (Roxb.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 549.

1838; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 280. 1884.

Erect or diffuse, glabrous herbs with variable

leaves; flowers in terminal racemes, short pedi-

celled; calyx deeply divided; capsules equalling

the calyx.

In marshes and lowlands of Malaysia and

India.

Specimens examined :

Mandal 9(?); Kurz sn. 323068, Chatter jee

729, Sen Gupta 72, Dutt 472 (W. Bengal); King

56, Banerjee 432 (Champaran, Bihar).

L. molluginoides (Benth.) Wettst. in Natur.

Pflanzen. f. iv. 3b: 80. 1891. Vandellia mol-

luginoides Benth. Scroph. Ind. 35. 1835.

Erect or diffuse herbs; leaves ovate-elliptic;

flowers in apparent terminal racemes; pedi-

cellate; calyx pubescent; capsules equalling the

calyx.

This species can be distinguished from the

related New Guinean species, L. glabra Philcox,

by the pubescent calyx and much smaller

flowers.

In wet or moist places in India and Burma.

Specimens examined :

We have come across only a single speci-

men of this species (Aroong 3661, CAL) from

Orissa.

L. hookeri (Clarke ex Hook, f.) Wettst. in

Natur. Pflanzen. f. iv. 3b: 79. 1891; Mukherjee,

J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 130. 1945. Vandellia

137

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

hookeri Clarke ex Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4:

280. 1884. V. stemonoides Haines, Bot. Bihar

& Orissa, 661. 1922, non Miq.

Diffusely branched, hairy herbs; leaves ovate-

oblong or lanceolate, hairy; flowers in terminal

and axillary verticillate clusters; pedicels hairy;

calyx hispid; strongly ribbed, cleft to the base.

In moist or wet places in Bihar, Bengal and

N. E. Himalayas.

Specimens examined :

Meebold 6356 (Manipur); Clarke 40642,

40647 & sn. 323054 (CAL) and Clarke’s illus-

tration of the species. Panigrahi 16766 (NEFA)

in the Shillong Herbarium of Botanical Survey

of India labelled as L. hookeri is actually

Torenia thourasii.

L. hookeri var. kumaunensis Pennell (Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phil. Monogr. 5: 29. 1943) is record-

ed here on the authority of Pennell & Mukher-

jee (1945). The authors did not come across

materials of this taxon in any of the Herbaria

consulted.

L. elata (Benth.) Wettst. in Natur. Pflanzen. f.

iv. 3b: 79. 1891; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc.

24: 131. 1945. Vandellia elata Benth. Scroph.

Ind. 36. 1835 & in DC. Prodr. X: 414. 1846;

Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 280. 1884.

Slender, wiry herbs with short-petioled,

ovate-acute, serrate leaves; flowers short pedi-

celled; calyx deeply divided, linear; capsules

subglobose, as long as the calyx.

Andaman & Nicobar.

Specimens examined :

Mukherjee (l.c.) has recorded this species

from Burma. This species is represented in the

Calcutta Herbarium by a single specimen.

Heifer 3908 from Andamans & Nicobar and

hence included here.

L. procumbens (Krick.) Philcox, Taxon 14: 30.

1965 & Kew Bull. 22: 29. 1968. Anagalloides

procumbens Krock. FI. Siles 2: 398 t. 1790.

Lindernia pyxidaria Linn. Mant. 2: 252.

177; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 131.

1945, nom. illeg. Vandellia erecta Benth.

Scroph. Ind. 36. 1835, in part; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 4: 281. 1884.

Erect annuals; leaves sessile, ovate-obtuse;

flowers white, long-pedicelled; capsules ellip-

soid, 3-4 mm long.

In wet lowlands in South and S. E. Asia. In

India throughout.

Specimens examined :

Meebold 10380, Arora 3747 & 3952 (?);

Hooker J. D. sn. 32175, Anderson sn. 323174

(Sikkim); Verma 1976 (Rajasthan); Thomson

sn. 323185 (Punjab); Kurz sn. 323176, Dutta

51, Prain sn. 323179 (W. Bengal); Clarke

31357 (Kashmir); Duthie 8362, 9626, 9630

(M.P.); Duthie 4248 (U.P.); Brekett 298

(Bihar).

L. montan a (Blume) Koord. Exk. FI. Java 3:

178. 1912; Philcox, Kew Bull. 22: 44. 1968.

Diceros montanus Blume, Bijdr. 752. 1826.

Vandellia mollis Benth. Scroph. Ind. 37.

1835; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 281. 1884.

Lindernia mollis (Benth.) Wettst. in Natur.

Pflanzen. f. iv. 3b: 79. 1891; Mukherjee, J.

Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 131. 1945.

Diffuse, profusely hairy herbs; leaves ovate

to oblong, crenate-serrate, subsessile; flowers

axillary, solitary or in few-flowered cymes;

capsules shorter than calyx.

In marshy lowlands, in Indochina, Malaysia

and India.

Specimens examined :

Bor 17244 (Aka Hills), 6480 (Naga Hills);

Deka 23324 (K.&J. Hills), 16898 (Lakhim-

pur); Craib 182 (Haflong); Gammie 149, Watt

11728 (Assam); Hook. f. & Thoms, sn. 323158

138

GENUS LINDERNIA IN INDIA

(CAL) (Meghalaya); Panigrahi 14976, R. S.

Rao 19976, 20084, Deb. 26644, 25870 (NEFA);

Cousins 65, 167, Ripley 20. 47 (W. Bengal);

Ribu 848, Watt 5717, King sn. 323148, Ander-

son 24816 (Sikkim).

L. pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh, Zakfl. Land-

bowstr. Java 165. 1916; Philcox Kew Bull.

22: 41. 1968. Gratiola pusilla Willd. Sp. PI.

1 : 105. 1797. Vandellia scabra Benth. Scroph.

Ind. 36. 1835; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 414.

1884. Lindernia hirta (Cham. & Schlech-

tend.) Pennell, J. Arn. Arb. 24: 250. 1943;

Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 131. 1945.

L. laxa (Benth.) Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc.

24: 1945. Vandellia laxa Benth. Scroph. Ind.

36. 1835; Blat. & Hallb. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 25: 416. 1918.

Prostrate or diffuse herbs rooting at nodes,

hirsute all over; leaves ovate to orbicular, basally

veined; flowers white with a yellow throat; dis-

tinctly pedicellate; capsules subglobose, less

than the fruiting calyx.

In marshy lowlands, in South and S. E. Asia

and S. Africa.

Specimens examined :

Fischer 4526 (Puttur), Meebold 8551 (S.

Kanara), Calder & Ramaswamy 1618 (Travan-

core), Meebold 12153 (Cochin); Sivarajan 44,

436 (Calicut), Wight 2381 (?), Bennet 986

(Howrah), Saxena 1352, Panigrahi 23867

(Orissa), Clarke 26555 (W. Bengal), Prain sn.

323102 Banerjee 516 (Bihar), 4210

(Assam), Prain sn. 323107 (Nagaland), Ribu

3702 (Sikkim), Debbarman 742 (Tripura).

L. numimilarifolia (D. Don) Wettst. in Natur.

Pflanzen. f. iv. 3b: 79. 1891; Mukherjee, J.

Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 132. 1945; Saldanha &

Nicolson, FI. Hassan Dt. 522. 1976. Van.

dellia nummularifolia D. Don. Prodr. FI.

Nep. 86. 1825; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 282.

1884; V. sessilijlora Benth. Scroph. Ind. 37:

1835; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 282. 1884;

Lindernia sessilijlora (Benth.) Wettst. in

Natur. Pflanzen. f. iv. 3b. 79. 1891; Mukher-

jee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24: 132. 1945; Philcox,

Kew Bull. 22: 10. 1968.

Erect annuals, 4-5 cm tall; leaves sessile,

ovate, serrate; flowers sessile or pedicellate; cap-

sules ellipsoid, much longer than the fruiting

calyx.

In shaded grasslands in Malaysia, India and

Burma.

Specimens examined :

Vajravelu 41889, Sharma 35901 (Nilgiri);

Barner sn. 131561 (Gudalur), Meebold 10113,

11537, Fischer 174, Clarke sn. 323219, 40053

(Tamil Nadu), Sexton 1264 (Maharashtra),

Mukherjee 3894 (Bihar), Kinghorn 3, Gamble

3454 (W. Bengal), Johnson sn. 323199,

King sn. 323201, Gill 117, Gupta 1546,

Hooper 38962, Gamble 15091, Duthie sn.

323234 (CAL), Meebold 2826 (U.P.); Clarke

23712 (Himachal), 40053, Balakrishnan 658

(Assam), Clarke 40957, Prain sn. 323216

(CAL) (Nagaland), Panigrahi 14739, R. S.

Rao 16451 (NEFA); Kurz sn. 323205 (CAL),

Thomson sn. 323234 (CAL) (Sikkim).

L. anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell, J. Arn. Arb.

24: 252. 1943; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc.

24: 133. 1945; Philcox, Kew Bull. 17: 484.

1964 & Kew Bull. 22: 45. 1968. Ruellia

anagallis Burm. f. FI. Ind. 135. 1768. Van-

dellia pedunculata Benth. Scroph. Ind. 37.

1835 & DC. Prodr. 10: 416. 1846; Hook. f.

FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 282. 1884. V. angustifolia

Benth. Scroph. Ind. 37. 1835 & DC. Prodr.

10: 417. 1846; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4:

282 1884; V. cordifolia (Colsm.) G. Don,

Gen. Syst. 4: 549. 1838; Haines, Bot. Bihar

& Orissa 633. 1922. Lindernia angustifolia

(Benth.) Wettst. in Natur. Pflanzen. f. iv.

3b: 79. 1891; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc.

139

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

24: 132. 1945. L. cor difolia (Colsm.) Merr.

En. Born. PI. 524. 1921 & En. Philip. PI. 3:

437. 1923; Mukherjee, J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 24:

132. 1945.

Prostrate or diffuse annuals rooting at lower

nodes; leaves very variable, ovate to linear-

lanceolate, crenate-serrate to sub-entire; flowers

white or pink axillary, solitary or in terminal

racemes; capsules linear.

Specimens examined :

Sethi & Negi 25831 (Kerala), Si vara j an

1664, 1665 (Calicut), Rama Rao 2188

(Quilon), Ritchie 1134 (S. Concan), Wight

2380, Gamble? (CAL) (Tamil Nadu), Sebas-

tine 3130 (Coimbatore), Rodriguez 2069 (Pul-

neys), Fischer 4551 (S. Canara), Dalzell sn.

323267 (CAL) (Maharashtra), Narayana

Swamy 530 (Kota), Talbot 2129 (Orissa), (Of

the 5 sheets of Panigrahi 8725 from Orissa

(CAL) labelled as Vandellia pedunculata four

belong to Mecardonia procumbens), Ribu 942

(Sikkim), Craib 542, King sn. 323251 (CAL),

Clarke 37854 (Assam), R. S. Rao 1641, Deb-

barman 190, Biswas 4962 (NEFA), Thothathri

R E FE ]

Bentham, G. (1835) : Scrphularineae lndicae. A

synopsis of the East Indian Scrophulariaceae, London.

(1846): Scrophulariaceae: in de

Candolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni

vegetabilis 10: 409-422.

(1876): Scrophulariaceae: in Ben-

tham, G. & J. D. Hooker, Genera Plantarum 2: 954-

956, London.

Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. (1918): New Indian

Scrophulariaceae and some notes on the same order.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 416-429.

Haines, H. H. (1922) : The Botany of Bihar and

Orissa 4: 629-635, London.

Hooker, J. D. (1884): Flora of British India 4:

279-286, London.

Mukherjee, S. K. (1945) : Revision of Indo-

10002 (Bihar), Kurz sn. 323243, Mukherjee

5615 (W. Bengal), Panigrahi & Arora 8557

(Madhya Pradesh), Duthie 224 (Garwal).

In marshy lowlands in South and S. E. Asia.

In India throughout.

Excluded species :

llysanthes capensis Benth. The single sheet

(Meebold 10380, sn. 323467, CAL) from Tari-

kerem, Mysore (?) at an altitude of 2000 feet is

labelled llysanthes capensis by Meebold who

has also noted that it is a novelty to India. How-

ever, it seemed to us to be L. parviflora.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Dr. Philcox, Kew and Dr.

C. J. Saldanha for advice and discussions dur-

ing the course of the work. We are also thank-

ful to the Ofhcers-in-Charge of the Calcutta

Herbarium, Shillong Herbarium, Madras Her-

rium and the Herbarium of Forest Research In-

stitute, Dehra Dun for making the required

materials available and to Dr. Vaczy, Romania

for the Latin diagnosis.

en c ES

Burmese species of Lindernia Allioni. J. Ind. bot. Soc.

24: 127-134.

Pennell, F. W. (1935) : Scrophulariaceae of

Eastern temperate North America. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philad. Monogr. 1: 137-159.

(1943) : The Scrophulariaceae

of the Western Himalayas. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.

Monogr. 5: 27-32.

Philcox, D. (1964): Typification of Ruellia anti -

poda Linn, and clarification of its synonymy. Kew

Bull. 17: 481-484.

(1968): Revision of the Malesian

species of Lindernia All. (Scrophulariaceae). Kew.

Bull. 22: 1-72.

Saldanha, C. J. (1963): Taxonomic revision of

Scrophulariaceae of Western Peninsular India. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Bombay.

140

SURVEY OF SOUTH INDIAN PELICANRIES1

V. Nagulu and J. V. Ramana Rao2

A survey was undertaken as part of a docto-

ral programme to assess the grey pelican

( Pelecanus philip pensis Gmelin, 1789) popula-

tion and its distribution in the Indian sub-

continent. As a first step we concentrated on

known pelicanries in South India. Since the

abandonment of the famous Kolleru Pelicanry

(Neelakantan, 1946), Gee (1960), Guttikar

(1974) and personal observation in 1980, a

survey has become necessary to locate and cen-

sus existing birds.

Keeping Nelapattu (Nagulu et al, 1980),

Nagulu & Ramana Rao (1981), as a field

station for continuous study of the ‘Breeding

and Feeding Biology of grey pelican or the

spottedbilled pelican ( Pelicanus philip pensis),

we visited the known Pelicanries during the

breeding season on the dates mentioned against

each

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Osmania University,

Hyderabad 500 007.

Vedanthangal :

The grey pelican is an occasional visitor

but not as a breeding bird to this ancient bird

sanctuary. Grey Pelicans come here in flocks

of 5-10 spend some time and depart (accord-

ing to Forest Guard). We did not see any

during our visit.

T elineelapuram :

A small hamlet of 40 to 60 houses in Srika-

kulam District, Andhra Pradesh, close to

Tekkali off a by-pass road to Naupada on the

east-coast. The village has Tamarind, Neem,

Acacia and Prosopis trees. Of these, the tama-

rind and Neem are used by grey pelicans and

painted storks (Ibis leucocephalus) .

Though the Forest Department notified this

pelicanry only in 1978, according to local

people the pelicanry has been traditionally pro-

tected.

This village has a small tank which is practi-

cally dry and cannot store sufficient water as its

bund is breached at more than one place.

During our visit we recorded 65 nests of

pelicans on the 3 tall tamarind trees and in all

about 65 young. The pelican population is

around 200-250 birds including young. The

young were in the age group of 30 to 45 days.

As it was 11.00 in the morning the adult

birds were returning from feeding. Pelicans

regularly nest here during the months of

October /November, every year without fail

irrespective of climatic conditions. The Vamsha-

dhara river, its estuary and Naupada swamp

are the source of food.

The painted storks nested on 3 neem and 1

tamarind tree opposite to the pelicanry. About

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

500-600 painted storks were counted. The young

were in the age group of 30-45 days. The peli-

cans and painted storks visit about the same

time (October/ November). However, the arri-

val date requires personal confirmation as the

painted storks arrive two months later than

the pelicans in other places like Bellur, Karna-

taka, Edurupattu, Andhra Pradesh.

Kundakolam & Moondraidapu :

At the extreme south of Tirunelveli District,

Kundakolam is a small interior village with

200-300 houses spread over 1 sq km in area.

It has a very old Pelicanry first re-

ported by C. E. Rheinus (1906). Since then it

has been attracting grey pelican and painted

storks every season but unfortunately this year

the birds had not come for want of water as

most of the tanks were dry due to paucity of

rains (personal communication from village

head and also news item in Hindu daily, Sun-

day Magazine, May 23, 1982).

In the same weekly edition, it was reported

that the grey pelicans and painted storks have

shifted to new refuge in Ariyakulam of Tiru-

nelveli District.

Moondraidapu, a small village on national

Highway No. 7, 20 km from Tirunelveli on

the road to Nagercoil has 2 large tamarind trees

which accommodates painted storks and grey

pelicans every year but this year grey pelicans

came and left without nesting while the few

painted storks stayed throughout to rear their

young. Here the colony has been established

for the last 17 or 18 years. It is the youngest

Pelicanry of those listed above.

In the new refuge at Ariyakulam the peli-

cans nest on a Banyan tree ( Ficus bengalensis)

and an “illuppai” tree ( Bassia latifolia). The

Tirunelveli District has several tanks and re-

servoirs, which satisfy the needs of the birds.

Kokkare Bellur & Bannalli :

These two adjoining villages in Mandya

District, located 12 km from Rudrakshapuram

on the Halgur Road, between Bangalore and

Mysore is one of the oldest Pelicanries in India.

It is probably the place visited by Jerdon

(1864) a century ago, when he was told that

the Pelicanry had been in existence for ages.

Only recently Neginhal (1976) drew attention

to it again. The villagers fear that the birds

will get disturbed and may desert their village

if undue disturbance follows publicity.

The village receives its name Kokkare as a

prefix to Bellur because of the presence of the

birds (Kokkare = Heron). Recently, we made a

visit to the Pelicanry on hearing that the pelicas

came there in the month of January /February

for breeding. Unfortunately the pelicans were

not sighted but we confirmed the arrival and

departure timings of the pelicans. Though the

pelicans were not seen, we had the chance of

seeing the painted storks. There are about 22

trees big and small located in the dry-non-

irrigated fields along the road side and in court

yards. These were exclusively occupied by

painted storks numbering 800 to 1000, each

tree had on an average about 16 nests with

either one or two young. None had three young.

Almost all the young were flying.

The place is undisturbed and the young

move under the trees in perfect harmony with

cats and dogs in search of dropped fish. The

Brahminy kites were present usually in large

numbers with their immature young, and were

seen scanning below the trees.

An interesting feature was that as the local

people were engaged in transporting the scrap-

ed guano in bullock-cart, the young birds

moved around them as if tame and domesti-

cated. But when we approached they took to

flight and started soaring.

142

SURVEY OF SOUTH INDIAN PELICAN RIES

The following trees are used for nesting:

Ficus bengalensis 4, Ficus religiosa 2, Tama -

rindus indicus 11, Acacia arabica 3 and an

Avenue tree with yellow flowers 2.

We were told by the villagers that of these

trees, only three were used by grey pelicans,

two being Banyan trees located in the fields and

a tamarind located in the middle of village. All

the trees are reasonably tall about 30-40' in

height and it is very difficult to photograph a

bird with 200 mm telephoto lens. We were told

that about 12 grey pelicans still visit the village

for roosting though majority of them left in the

month of May.

The local people keep strict vigil on these

birds, poachers and egg lifters are heavily fined.

The bird excreta is rich manure and is scraped

from the ground for use as manure in the fields.

The landless however, sell the manure at

Rs. 400/- per tree.

It was said that painted storks use tanks and

irrigated fields as their foraging ground whereas

pelicans exclusively feed in the tanks.

The whole Mandya District of Karnataka is

well irrigated by tanks and rivers. Simsa a

tributary of River Kaveri is barely half kilo-

metre from the Pelicanry site, which again is

a source of food for fish eating birds.

According to the local people about 100-150

pelicans breed in the village every year.

Discussion

The spottedbilled or grey pelican (Felica-

Refer

Ali, Salim (1967): The Book of Indian Birds,

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Gee, E. P. (1960): The Breeding of the Grey &

Spotted billed Pelican ( Pelecanus philippensis philip -

pensis Gmelin). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57(2):

245-251.

Guttikar, S. N. (1979) : Lost Pelicanry. /. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 482-84.

Neelakantan, K. K. (1980) : “A Pelicans Pathetic

Plight”. Tiger paper VII (2), pp. 21-24.

Nagulu, V. et al. (1981): Pity the Pelican. Tiger

nus philippensis Gmelin 1789) frequents well

watered tracts throughout the country and

Pelicanries have existed in well watered tracts

without increasing in numbers. It appears that

the trees and water sources were same even

before, no improvement has been made in the

habitat of the areas. Probably this may be

one of the reasons for maintaining the almost

balanced number all through the years.

The southern states with their rich natural

resources can provide a suitable habitat for

such avifauna and attract increased numbers,

especially where villagers themselves have re-

cognised a mutualism and find that bird’s pre-

sence helps in their rural economy.

As the birds are mostly fish dependent, its

excreta contains high percentage of Phosphates

and Nitrogen and is a very good substitute for

chemical manures.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Andhra Pradesh Forest Depart-

ment; Mr T. Radhakrishnamurthy, Asstt. Direc-

tor of Fisheries, Srikakulam; Mr A. N. Jagan-

natha Rao, Mr Menon of Range Rovers

Foundation, Madras; Dr Victor of Bird

Foundation, Bangalore; Mr K. S. Iyer, Photo-

grapher, Karnataka Forest Department, Banga-

lore, for their timely help during our Survey.

A travel grant from the Salim Ali-Loke Wan

Tho Ornithological Research Fund of the Bom-

bay Natural History Society is gratefully

acknowledged.

iNCES

Paper VIII (2), pp. 19-20.

Nagulu, V. & Ramana Rao, J. V. (1981) : Andhra

Pradesh still the Traditional Home of the Pelicans.

Hornbill (3) : 30-31.

Neginhal, S. G. (1976) : Discovery of a Pelicanry

in Karnataka. Newsletter for Bird watchers. Vol. 16,

pp. 14-15.

Saxena, V. S. (1980): Kokkare Bellur Pelicanry,

Cheetal 27(4): 20-24.

Suresh Kumar, V. K. (1980): Kondakulam

Heronry. Hornbill (2) : 10-16.

143

FIELD KEY OF RAN A ALT1COLA ANNANDALE

(ANURA: RANIDAE) TADPOLES'

A. K. Sahu and M. K. Khare1 2

(With five text-figures)

Rana alticola tadpoles are characterised by the presence of 2 clusters of parotid glands

on the body, one ocellus on each side of the tail and marginal teeth rows in the oral

disc with a large number of keratodonts having a formula 2: 5+5/ 1+1: 6.

Introduction

Rana alticola is one of the high altitude frog

species found in the north eastern hill regions

of India. Earlier reports on Rana alticola tad-

poles by Annandale (1905 and 1912) and

Smith (1924) are not adequate to identify and

connect them to the species to which they be-

long. During the present investigation the

tadpoles were reared and metamorphosed in the

laboratory to the young froglet stage. The pre-

sent description is based on at Gosner’s (1960)

stage 38 as per the criteria of Van Dijk (1966),

which has been found to be most acceptable for

the description of the tadpoles. It includes mor-

phometric ratios also which are almost constant

from species to species whereas the absolute

measurements vary. The measurements given

in the present description are mean of the sam-

ples collected ranging from smallest to the

largest sizes.

Habitat and Habits : The tadpoles are gene-

rally found in the coves of mountain tor-

rents, where they usually graze in large num-

bers on the stream bed. They are also found

swimming up side down and filtering the plank-

1 Accepted February 1980.

2 Developmental Biology Laboratory, School of

Life Sciences, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong-

793 014, Meghalaya.

ton from the water. They occur in almost all

months of the year in the mountains streams.

Sometimes they turn out to be scavengers feed-

ing on their dead relatives and other dead

organisms.

Description

Body size and shape : Size 65.0-98.0 mm.

Stream lined body, more or less ovoid and with

a rounded snout. The tadpoles have two kidney

shaped parotid glands on the dorsal side be-

hind the eyes.

Mouth : The mouth is more or less subtermi-

nal in position with a round opening.

Oral disc : The oral disc is slightly emarginate.

Lateral sides of the oral disc are somewhat

expanded to form wing like structures. The

width of the oral disc is 6.0-10.0 mm and that

of the head at the level of the disc is 7.0-12.0

mm.

Oral Papillae : The marginal row of oral

papillae is single. The margin is scalloped with

a rostral gap (4. 0-7.0 mm) and without a

mental gap. Supra and infra-angular intra-

marginal oral papillae are arranged in rows.

Rostrodonts (Supra and infrarostrodonts) :

The suprarostrodont has lateral inflexions and

serrated in the medial convex region. Serrations

are longer (0.06 mm) than wide (0.04 mm).

144

FIELD KEY OF RANA ALTICOLA ANNANDALE

blunt and entirely keratinized. The infra-rostro-

dont is with medial inflexions, deeper than wide

and serrated along with the entire margin.

Serrations are longer (0.05 mm) than wide

0.035 mm) and entirely keratinized.

Keratodonts : Individual keratodont is com-

pound, complex and longer (0.12 mm) than

wide (0.05 mm). There are 2 uninterrupted

and 5 interrupted rows of Supra 1 interrupted

and 6 uninterrupted rows of infra-angular Kera-

todonts. The mental and aboral rows of

Keratodonts are almost equal in length.

Keratodont formula: 2: 5+5/ 1+1: 6.

Nostrils : The nostrils are oval in shape and

without raised rim. The nasal openings are visi-

ble from the anterior side which open antero-

dorsally in the general body surface.

Fig. 1. Lateral view of a tadpole of Rana alticola.

Fig. 2. Ventral view of a tadpole of Rana alticola.

Abbreviations : Od, Oral disc; Pg, Parotid gland; Sg, Secretory glands; Sp, Spiracle;

Sp.t, Spiracular tube.

Morphometric ratios :

1 . Distance between nostrils

Internarial distance

== 8.0-10.0 (Av. 8.6; SD 0.73)

Nostril Width

Head width-distance

between lateral margins

of nostrils

2. Extranarial proportion 2.0-2. 8 (Av. 2.27; SD 0.28)

Distance between lateral

margins of nostrils

145

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

3. Longitudinal position of the Rostronasal distance

nostrils in relation to the eyes. = — = 1.1- 1.6 (Av. 1.38; SD 0.17)

Orbitonasal distance

4. Eyes: The eyes are dorsolateral in position

Head Width-distance

between lateral margins

of the eyes

Extraocular proportion = 0.3-0.4 (Av. 0.35; SD 0.07)

Distance between lateral

margin of the eyes

The orbitonasal line is visible as an unpigmented or slightly pigmented line. The pineal spot

is visible as an unpigmented spot.

5. Spiracle: There is a single sinistral spiracle. The spiracular tube and the opening are visi-

ble from the dorsal side. The opening is raised constricted and opens posterodorsally.

Rostrum to spiracle

distance

Spiracular position = =

anteroposteriorly Rostrum to trunk distance

a) Posterior displacement along the trunk = 0.53-0.6 ( Av. 0.57; SD 0.01)

b) Posterior displacement along the tail - 0.19-0.26 (Av. 0.23; SD 0.01)

6. Vent: The vent is dextral, marginal and basicaudal with a folded aperture.

Proctodocal tube length

Vent ratio = 1 1.6-2.0 (Av. 1.85; SD 0.18)

Vent Width

7. Tail: The tip of the tail is rounded. Maximum height of the dorsal fin is at 40.0-59.0 mm

from the snout and that of the ventral fin at 42.0-61.0 mm. The height of the tail is more

or less equal to the height of the trunk. The fins originate in fleshy crests approximately

near the base of the tail. The tadpole is euthyoural and the tail axis extrapolated forward

passes through the ventral margin of the eye. There are some secretory glands near the

margins of the tail fins and in the fleshy crest of the dorsal fin.

Tail length

Tail length = 1.6-1.9 (Av. 1.68; SD 0.11)

Head length & trunk length

Tail height

8. Trunk height = 1.0-1.2 (Av. 1.09; SD 0.08)

Trunk height

Pigmentation : Some of the stream forms are Discussion

yellowish while the pond forms are brownish The keratodont formula js one of the most

m colour. The concentration of the melano- . , . . _ t A . -

, important characteristics of the tadpoles tor

phores is more near the margins of the tail .....

fins. Pigmentation near the posterior margin of t^r sPec^es identification. Annandale (1912)

the eye is greater than the surrounding. Two reported that the keratodont formula of Rana

large ocelli are present on either sides near the alticola tadpoles was 2:5+5/ 1+1:8. In the present

base of the tail. investigation we have invariably found it to be

146

FIELD KEY OF RANA ALTICOLA ANNANDALE

Fig. 3. Oral disc of a tadpole of Rana alticola.

Fig. 4. Single keratodont of Rana alticola.

Fig. 5. Freshly metamorphosed young one of Rana alticola.

Abbreviations: Ir, Infrarostrodont; K, Keratodont; LI, Lower lip; M, Marginal teeth;

Op, Oral papillae; Rg, Rostral gap; Sr, Supra-restrodont; Ul, Upper lip.

2:5+5/ 1+1:6. He further reported that there

were numerous large and small ocelli on the tail

of the young tadpoles which gradually disappear

with age and only one remained on each side of

the tail of fully grown tadpoles. In the present

investigation only one ocellus has been recorded

on each side of the tail. The black spots on the

fin membranes have been found to be secre-

tory glands. Annandale recorded that the tad-

poles grew at least up to 57 mm whereas in the

present investigation they were found up to 98

mm in length which is comparable with the size

(96 mm) reported by Smith (1924).

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

We are grateful to Prof. R. George Michael,

Refer

Annandale, N. (1905) : On abnormal ranid larvae

from north-eastern India. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 6:

58-61.

(1912) : Zoological results of Abor

Expedition 1911-12, Batrachia. Rec. Ind. Mus. 8: 7-36.

Gosner, K. L. (1960) : A simplified table for stag-

ing anuran embryos and lavae with notes on iden-

Head of the Zoology Department for neces-

sary facilities provided for this work.

e n c e s

tification. Herpetologica. 16: 183-190.

Smith, M. A. (1924) : Descriptions of Indian and

Indo-Chinese tadpoles. Rec. Ind. Mus. 26: 137-143.

Van Dijk, D. E. (1966) : Systematic and field keys

to the families, genera and described species of

southern african anuran tadpoles. Ann. Natal Mus.

18(2): 231-286.

148

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION

OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 27

Muscicapidae (Timaliinae) ( contd .)

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol. 79(3): 619]

This part covers 459 specimens of 67 species

and subspecies (Nos. 1272-1332 in Indian

Handbook together with 8 extra-limitals), the

last specimen handled is Register No. 26290.

Mr. Eric D’Cunha, Research Assistant helped

with the work.

1272 Garrulax cinereifrons Blyth (Ceylon)

Ashyheaded Laughing Thrush 1:196

1 o? (juv.) Petragalla, Balangoda, Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 159.

1273 Garrulax albogularis whistleri Baker

(Simla) Western Whitethroated Laughing

Thrush 1:154

26: 10^ 5 12$ 9 4 o? (1 juv.)

5 Simla, 4 Koti State; 1 Narkanda, 1 Mundali

N. W. Himalayas, 1 Moundkhal, 1 Yorltnath, 1

Pothibassa, 5000', Garhawal; 3 Ranibag, 1 Mornaula,

1 Binsar, 1 Pindari Glacier, 3 Dakuri, 1 Kumaon, 1

Mussoorie; 1 no data.

There is some local variation in the extent

of rufous on the underparts and also the colour

of the upperparts which do not appear as “a

cline of increasing saturation towards the east”,

as stated in Vaurie (1959, p. 424). Nominate

albogularis, infra, are more uniformly deeper in

colour both above and below, and slightly

smaller.

Measurements on p. 159.

1274 Garrulax albogularis albogularis

(Gould) (Nepal) Eastern Whitethroated

Laughing Thrush 1:153

12: 75 5 5$ $

1 Nagarcot, 1 Kakeni, Nepal; 1 Yigong Valley,

Sikkim; 1 Gedu West, 1 Tongsa, 3 Tama, 2 Sham-

gong Central, 2 Wamrong East, Bhutan.

See remarks under 1273.

Measurements on p.

1275 Garrulax moniliger moniliger (Hodg-

son) (Nepal) Necklaced Laughing Thrush

1:151

7: 4 5 <5 2$ $ 1 o?

1 Pershoke, 1 Poomong 2500', Sikkim; 1 Samchi,

West, 1 Mangdechu, Central, Bhutan; 1 Dening, Lohit

Valley, 1 Miao, 1 Hornbill Camp, A.P.

The key in Indian Handbook (7, p. 2) sepa-

rates this species from pectoralis as having a

tarsus under 40 mm. and wanting a black chin

stripe. The tarsus, wing and bill are noticeably

smaller, and the chin is a misprint for cheek,

an error repeated on p. 6.

In addition to the size, all pectoralis have a

large ear-patch with a varying amount of white

and/or black, but which can generally be

termed grey. Only a few grey feathers are visi-

ble in moniliger. Biswas in Birds of Nepal

(JBNHS 59, p. 211) refers to subadults of

nominate pectoralis having “rufous anterior to

the pectoral band” but all such birds in our

collection now are moniliger, the area being

white in all pectoralis.

Measurements on p. 159.

1276 Garrulax moniliger badius Ripley

(Tezu, Mishmi Hills) Mishmi Necklaced

Laughing Thrush

[473]

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

10: 63 3 49 9

1 Margherita, 1 Gujuri, Aka Hills, 1 Tezu, Lohit

Valley, 2 Haflong, North Cachar, 1 Roopchena, 1

Cachar; 1 Haibum, 1 Tawkmane, Chindwin; 1 s. e.

of Maymyo, Kywizen, Henzada dist., Burma.

This race said to be darker and more satu-

rated with rufous is not very easily separable in

the absence of topotypes or a more diagnostic

description. Most of the above do have a

rufous wash on the upperparts, though the 2

birds from the Chindwin River lack it and it

is not quite clear if the distribution is restrict-

ed to the Mishmi Hills or how much further

it extends into Cachar and Burma.

The species however can be easily separated

from pectoralis by its smaller wing, bill and

tarsus linked with the few grey feathers form-

ing the earpatch detailed under 1275.

Measurements on p. 159.

1277 Garrulax pectoralis pectoralis (Gould)

(Nepal) Nepal Blackgorgeted Laughing

Thrush 1:150 (part)

nil.

1278 Garrulax pectoralis melanotis Blyth

(Arracan) Assam Blackgorgeted Laughing

Thrush 1:150 (part)

21: 1 13 3 7$ $ 3 o?

3 Rinchingpong, West, 1 Pershoke, Sikkim; 1

Samchi, West, Bhutan; 1 *Goalpara, 1 Dibrugarh, 2

Sadiya, 1 Lakeri, Assam; 2 *Haflong, North, 1

♦Rupachena, Cachar- 1 Kaira, 1 Pavtha, Lower Chind-

win, 1 *Kawaya, Chindwin, 1 Jade Mines, 2

**Maymya, 1* Ruby Mines, Burma ; 1* no data.

There are no specimens from Nepal and

Garrulax waddelli described from Ranjeet

River, Sikkim, being synonymised with mela-

notis, it would appear that all the present speci-

mens are melanotis, though none of them can

be said to have all-black ear-coverts as required

in the original description. There is considera-

ble variation in the amount of chestnut on the

upper and underparts, being almost absent be-

low in some and leaving an almost all-white

undersurface. This phase* cannot be associated

with any specific age, season or area and among

them No. 780 from Maymyo is marked as “a

most unusually coloured specimen” by the col-

lector J. P. Cook.

All the pale birds have the black coverts to

their primaries tipped with grey, a character

which appears in the others also.

Measurements on p. 159.

1279 Garrulax striatus striatus (Vigors)

(Himalayas, restricted to Naini Tal) Western

Striated Laughing Thrush 1:184

18: 8338992 o?

4 Simla, 2 Koti State; 8 Mornaula, 3 Dakuri,

Almora, 1 Kumaon, U.P.

These have larger wings and tails than the

other races.

Measurements on p. 159.

1280 Garrulax striatus vibex Ripley (Goda-

vari, Central Valley, Nepal) Nepal Striated

Laughing Thrush 1:184 (part)

4: 33 3 19

2 Godavari, 2 Mayam, Nepal.

This is not very easily separable from the

next form sikkimensis , though paler in series.

Of the two from Mayam, the female No. 20350

was first separated as sikkimensis and also so

marked by Biswas, but the other a male No.

20351, agrees with vibex. These and the next

group have been subspecifically named largely

on geographical grounds.

Measurements on p. 159.

1281 Garrulax striatus sikkimensis (Tice-

hurst) (Sikkim) Sikkim Striated Laughing

Thrush 1:184 (part).

5: 23 3 39 9

1 Nawrong, 1 Singhik, 1 Dikchu, Sikkim; 1 Dar-

jeeling (purchased); 1 Crawford Market, Bombay

(purchased).

Measurements on p. 159.

1282 Garrulax striatus cranbrooki (Kinnear)

(Adung Valley, Burma) Assam Striated

[474]

150

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 27

Laughing Thrush 1:185

13: 2$ $ 10$ 9 1 o?

1 Tongsa, 1 Batase, Central Bhutan; 6 Narphong,

2 Wamrong, 1 Gomchu, 1 Rongtong, Eastern Bhutan;

1 Mishmi, Abor Country, Assam.

The “broad black stripe from eye to nape”

is given as the key feature to separate this

race from the others. A reference to the “dark

edge of the bushy crest” would be more appro-

priate for the stripe disappears if the crest is

brushed aside.

The two males from Central Bhutan lack

this character, but are left here for they do

not quite agree with sikkimensis.

Indian Handbook (7 p. footnote to p. 13)

refers to 13 out of 14 sikkimensis obtained in

Sikkim & Bhutan in different years being

females. A similar anomaly is found under

cranbrooki which is appreciably smaller, and

has the head less streaked than the other 3

races.

Measurements on p. 160.

1283 Garrulax leucolophus leucolophus

(Hardwicke) (Mts. above Hardwar) Hima-

layan White-crested Laughing Thrush 1:146

(part)

26: 143 3 109 9 2 o?

2 Kalka, 3 Simla; 1 near Gurnu, 1 Kumaon; 2

Hathiban, 1 Pathibajan 8000', 2 Firping, Nepal; 2

Longview, Darjeeling; 2 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1

Kurseong, 1 Sikkim, 1 Mangdechu, 1 Shamgong, 1

Khosala, Central Bhutan; 1 Dibrugarh, 2 Margherita,

1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Rotung, Mishmi Hills, Assam.

The three recent specimens from Bhutan

(1967) lack the rufous on the hind neck pre-

sent in all the others and so prominent in the

five under patkaicus q.v.

Measurements on p. 160.

1284 Garrulax leucolophus patkaicus Rei-

chenow (Patkai Range, Upper Burma)

Assam White-crested Laughing Thrush 1:146

(part)

10: 8 4 $ 1$ (imm.) 1 o?

2 Longkam, 1 Mehuri-Phek Rd., 59 m. east of

Kohima, Naga Hills; 1 Leisung, 1 Haflong, N.

Cachar; 1 Dimapur, Manipur; 1 Mowlaik, Chind-

win River; 2 Mindon Yomas, Thayetmyo; 1 Loikan,

N. Shan States.

These birds do not agree with the description

of patkaicus in Indian Handbook, the first 3

from the Naga Hills as also the one from Mow-

laik being very similar to nominate leucolo-

phus, but which are kept apart for they are

from south of the Patkai Hills.

Five more from further south have large

rufous patches on the back of the neck. The

sixth c? (727) also from Cachar, has the white

of the breast running into the abdomen as in

belangeri, but lacks the heavy rufous wash on

the upperparts as in that form. It has a small

wing and may well be a juvenile indicating its

origin.

cf 754 from Mowlaik, Chindwin River, was

marked hardwickii at the American Museum

of Natural History, but this name is synonymis-

ed with patkaicus in Indian Handbook.

Measurements on p. 160.

EL Garrulax leucolophus belangeri Lesson

(Pegu Div., Lower Burma) Burmese White-

crested Laughing Thrush 1:148

6: 1$ 39 9 2 o?

1 Upper Burma; 1 Pankaung, 1 Prome Dist.; 1 S.

Irawaddy; 2 Ataran, Tenasserim.

These are distinguished by the heavy rufous

wash on the upperparts and the white of the

breast running further downwards.

Measurements on p. 160.

1285 Garrulax chinensis nuchalis Godwin-

Austen (Khasi-Naga Hills, N. Bengal) Chest-

nut-backed Laughing Thrush 1 : 140

29 9 .Margherita, Assam.

The type locality in Peters’ Checklist (X p.

358) is said to be Lhota, Naga Hills, Assam.

Measurements on p. 160.

EL Garrulax chinensis lochmius Deignan

(King Chian Saen, lat. 20° 15' N., long. 100°

05' E.) Black-throated Laughing Thrush

[475]

151

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

4: 13 1$ 2 o? (1 imm.) N. Shan States.

All collected by J. P. Cook in Aug-Oct. 1913.

The racial idenitfication is based on the

distribution in Peters’ Checklist (X p. 359).

Immature (?) No. 714 is more rufous both

above and below.

Measurements on p. 160.

1286 Gamilax galbanus galbanus Godwin-

Austen (Manipur Valley, N. E. Bengal)

Yellowthroated Laughing Thrush 1:107

1 $ Imphal area, Manipur (March 1946)

Wing 95 (3$ 92-96); bill 22.5 (20-22); tar-

sus 32.5 (c. 35); tail 98 (c. 105-110).

There is no trace of yellow on the under-

parts and no white supercilium which is re-

placed by thick black lines over the eyes meet-

ing on the forehead and presenting the only

black on the head.

1287 Garrulax delesserti delesserti (Jerdon)

(Wynaad, S. India) Wynaad Laughing Thrush

1:149

5: 33 3 2$ $

1 N. Canara; 1 Wynaad, 1 Kottamalai, Cheram-

badi, Gudalur, Nilgiris; 1 Nelliampathy Hills; 1

Thattakad, N. Travancore.

Measurements on p. 160.

1288 Garrulax delesserti gularis (Mc-

Clelland) (Assam) Yellow-breasted Laughing

Thrush 1:152

5: 13 4$ (1 juv.).

1 Deothang, E. Bhutan; 2 Margherita; 1 Mugiva,

Naga Hills; 1 Laisung, N. Cachar.

Though the yellow on the front is very pro-

minent in the plate in Gould’s Birds of Asia

(1969) none of the specimens available, (the

most recent being from Bhutan, 1966), show

any trace of this colour. The text on the oppo-

site page by A. Rutgers refers to the cheeks,

throat and chin being white, though the next

sentence says they are yellow’.

Measurements on p. 160.

1289 Garrulax variegatus simile (Hume) (Far

Northwest — Gilgit) Western Variegated Laugh-

ing Thrush 1:174

8:3^4$$ 1 o?

1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 2 Murree, Rawalpindi; 1

Dachigaum, 1 Pijos Kishtwar, Kashmir; 1 Dalhousie,

Gurdaspur, 1 Dharamsala, Kangra.

The specimens available are slightly smaller

than of the next form.

Measurements on p. 161.

1290 Garrulax variegatus variegatus (Vigors)

(Himalayas-Simla-Almora) Eastern Variegat-

ed Laughing Thrush 1:173

30: 203 $ 8 $ $ 2 o?

3 Summer Hill, 12 Simla; 3 Kheri, Koti State, 2

Fagoo, Keonthal State; 1 Kaliaghat, Ramni, Garhwal;

8 Dakuri, Kumaon; 1 Bodier?

This is another instance of the difficulty of

identifying birds in which the colour fades and

disappears rapidly. Jerdon (2 p. 45) refers to

the outer webs of primaries being ashy white,

tinged yellowish (probably bright yellow in the

fresh bird), while Hume after separating simile

for lacking the yellow even suggested (S. F. 3

p. 407) that his name may apply to what was

described as variegatus, leaving the yellow

tinged bird without a name. He later (S. F.

4:457) withdrew this suggestion for Gould had

illustrated Vigors’ type with yellow. Though

the Old Fauna (1 p. 95) refers to the outer

webs of the primaries and secondaries being

bright golden yellow, a difference in colour is

barely visible, the yellow now showing as a

slightly stained effect contra a purer grey in

simile.

Measurements on p. 161.

1291 Garrulax cineraceus cineraceus (God-

win-Austen) (Manipur Valley, N. E. Bengal)

Ashy Laughing Thrush 1:156

2: 13 1 o?

1 Phik, 54 m. east of Naga Hills, Assam; 1 Chin

Hills, Burma. Wing 82, 85 (86-89), bill 21.4, 20.9

(c. 20), tarsus 29.2, 30.9 (c. 32), tail 92, 89 (c. 100).

Measurements on p. 161.

152

[476]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 27

1292/3 Garralax rufogularis occidentals

(Hartest) (Dehra Dun) Western Rufouschin-

ned Laughing Thrush 1:159

8: 3^ 3?? 2 o?

2 Gama-ki-hatti 4500', 1 Dharni State; 1 Bhagat

State, 2 Simla Hills, 1 Simla; 1 Naini Tal, U.P.

ltf (No. 812 Simla) and 1$ No. 15889

Dharni State) have the tips of several rectrices

projecting in hair-like strands 3-4 mm. long.

Both have the black of the head broken up and

together with the short (90 mm.) wing and the

more rufous upperparts are no doubt juve-

niles. The curious character of the tail does not

appear to have been noted.

Measurements on p. 161.

1294 Garralax rufogularis rufogularis

(Gould) (Sikkim) Rufouschinned Laughing

Thrush 1:158

11: 6$ $ 42 9 1 o?

1 Rinchingpong, W. Sikkim; 2 Kurseong Div., Dar-

jeeling; 1 Honka, W. Bhutan; 4 Tama, 1 Mangdechu,

C. Bhutan; 1 Rongtong, E. Bhutan; 1 Buxa (Duars?),

Assam.

These show more grey on the underparts

than the last 1292/3. d* 21564 from Rinching-

pong, Sikkim, has the underparts very faintly

spotted. Three (2 Kurseong, Darjeeling, and

1 Honka, W. Bhutan) have pure white chins,

the rufous chin being quite absent in one of

the former No. 809, by measurements a juve-

nile.

Measurements on p. 161.

1295 Garralax rufogularis rufitinctus (Koelz)

(Pynursla, Khasia Hills) Khasi Rufouschinned

Laughing Thrush 1:159 (part)

nil.

1295a Garralax rufogularis rufiberbis

(Koelz) (between Langyang and Htawgaw,

Kachin State, Upper Burma) Burmese Rufous-

chinned Laughing Thrush

nil.

1296 Garrulax rufogularis assamensis (Har-

tert) (Margherita, Assam) Assam Rufouschin-

ned Laughing Thrush 1 : 159 (part)

3: 2$ $ 1$ Margherita, Assam.

The upperparts and the vent are darker

rufous than in nominate rufogularis and the

rufous lores are distinctive.

Measurements on p. 161.

1297 Garrulax ocellatus maximus (Ver-

reaux) (Mouping) Giant Laughing Thrush

nil.

1298 Garrulax ocellatus griseicauda Koelz

(Wan, Garhwal, U.P.) Garhwal Whitespotted

Laughing Thrush

4: 3$ $ 1 $ Dukari, Kumaon, U.P.

In both wing and tail the rufous is more

prominent than in ocellatus. The upperparts

are paler and less heavily spotted.

Measurements on p. 161.

1299 Garrulax ocellatus ocellatus (Vigors)

(Darjeeling) Whitespotted Laughing Thrush

1:155

5: 13 39 9 1 o?

2 Tongloo, Darjeeling, 1 Laching, N. Sikkim; 2

Chapecha, W. Bhutan.

See remarks under 1298. The spots are more

triangular.

Measurements on p, 161.

1300 Garrulax caerulatus caerulatus (Hodg-

son) (Nepal) Himalayan Grey sided Laughing

Thrush 1 : 141

8: 3$ $ 39 9 2 o?

1 Rinchingpong. W. Sikkim; 1 Darjeeling (purchas-

ed); 1 Gedu, West Bhutan, 4 Wamrong, 1 Rongtong,

East Bhutan.

The first two from Sikkim and Darjeeling

have a pale yellow wash on the underparts and

the earcoverts are less white and more incon-

spicuous than in those from Bhutan, cf No

24941 from Wamrong, East Bhutan, has traces

of barring on the lower half of the upper sur-

face of the central tail feathers.

Measurements on p. 162.

[477]

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1301 Garrulax caemlatus subcaemlatus

Hume (Shillong) Khasi Hills Greysided Laugh-

ing Thrush 1:142

nil.

1302 Garrulax caerulatus livingstoni Ripley

(Mt. Japvo, Naga Hills, Assam).

nil.

EL Garrulax caerulatus kaurensis (Rippon)

(Kauri-Kachin tract, to east of Bhamo, and

bordering on the south of the Taping River)

Nagaland Greysided Laughing Thrush

1:141 (part)

2 o?

1 Loishong . 1 N. Shan States.

These collected by H. Wood were acquired

by the Society in 1907 and presumably subse-

quent to his paper on the birds of Paholkar

Hills (1902, JASB 71, p. 121).

Peters’ Checklist says it is only known from

the type locality. It differs from the others

available in having white tips to the tail and

the white earcoverts much less pronounced.

Measurements on p. 162.

1303 Garrulax ruOcollis (Jardine & Selby)

(Sikkim) Rufousnecked Laughing Thrush

1:139

24: 6$ $ 89 9 10 o?

2 Rinchingpong, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, Sikkim;

3 Longview Tea Estate, Darjeeling; 2 Samchi, West

Bhutan, 1 Deothang, East Bhutan; 2 Sadiya, 1 Mishmi,

Abor Country, 1 Miao, 1 Firm Base, A.P.; 1 Dibru-

garh, 1 Roopachena, 1 Laising, N, Cachar; 1 Debu,

Chindwin River, 3 Upper Burma; 1 Hsipaw, 2 N.

Shan States, Burma.

There are some differences in colour, no

doubt due to fading. A few of both sexes have

faint barring on the upper surface of the tail

feathers.

Measurements on p. 162.

1304 Garrulax merulinus merulinus Blyth

(Cherapunji, Khasi Hills) Assam Spottedbreast-

ed Laughing Thrush 1:186

nil.

1305 Garrulax merulinus toxostiminus

(Koelz) (Karong, Manipur) Manipur Spotted-

breasted Laughing Thrush 1:186

1 $ 40th mile from Miao, Tirap Div., Arunachal

Pradesh.

In Indian Handbook (7 p. 3) the key to

species requires a white supercilium, but as

stated under Field Characters, p. 37, the white

is behind and not over the eye. In the absence

of any material for comparison it is not pos-

sible to decide the race of the single specimen

though it agrees with the original description

of merulinus.

Measurements on p. 162.

1306 Garrulax sannio albosuperciliaris

Godwin-Austen (Nr. Kaiba, Manipur) White-

browed Laughing Thrush 1:144

6: 2$ $ 4 o?

3 Maymyo; 2 Chatgi-Shia, 1 Loi Cuppara, N . Shan

States, Burma.

The 3 from Maymyo (J.P. Cook, 1913) are

more rufous below and paler above than the

others which were collected by H. Wood, The

latter bear no date but there is another speci-

men (No. 1439) of Si bia picaoides collected

by H. Wood in N. Shan States on 16 January

1903 and these would be about the same period.

Measurements on p. 162.

1307/8 Garrulax cachinnans (Jerdon) (Nil-

giris) Nilgiri Laughing Thrush 1:176

10: 3 $ 5 59 9 2 o?

1 Kodanad, beyond Kotagiri; 4 Ootacamund, 1

Upper Bhavani, 2 Avalanche, 2 Naduvattam, Nilgiris.

There is some variation in the extent of grey

on the head and the depth of rufous on the

underparts.

Measurements on p. 162.

1309 Garrulax jerdoni jerdoni Blyth (Bana-

sore Peak) Coorg Whitebreasted Laughing

Thrush 1:177

nil.

In Indian Handbook (7 p. 2) in the key to

154

[478]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 27

species, this is separated from several others

by having the throat and breast grey, contra

black chin in the others. On p. 41 in the key

to subspecies this form is said to. show a black

chin! The original description says the black is

less developed than in cachinnans.

1310 Garrulax jerdoni fairbanki (Blanford)

(Palni Hills) Palni Laughing Thrush 1:178

19: 10$ $ 4$ $ 5 o?

The birds from the Palnis are slightly larger

than those from N. Travancore and are listed

separately: —

(a) Palnis 8: 3$ $ 5 o?

(b) N. Travancore 11: 1$ $ 4$ 9

Measurements on p. 163.

1311 Garrulax jerdoni meridionale (Blan-

ford) (Mynall, S. Travancore) 1:178

4: 2$ $ 29 9 Muthukuzi, Ashambu Hills, S.

Travancore.

The eye stripe turns grey behind the eye

while the grey of the breast turns white and

runs down the middle of the belly. The head is

less distinctly “capped” than in those under

fairbanki.

Measurements on p. 163.

1312 Garrulax lineatus bilkevitchi (Zarudny)

(Kulyab, Tadzhikistan) Baluchistan Streaked

Laughing Thrush 1:182

nil.

1313 Garrulax lineatus gilgit (Hartert) (Gil-

git) Gilgit Streaked Laughing Thrush 1:182

6: 3$ $ 29 9 1 o?

1 Chitral, N.W.F.P., 1 Base of Diobani Mt., 12000',

Bagrot, 1 Godai, Astor; 1 4m. below Yusmarg

(7500'), 1 7500' above Banihal village, 1 7200'

Kashmir.

The second and third in the list above agree

best with the description, while the three from

Kashmir verge towards nominate lineatus.

Measurements on p. 163.

1314 Garrulax lineatus lineatus (Vigors)

(Simla-Almora) Simla Streaked Laughing

Thrush 1:142

25: \2$ $ 11 (1 juv.) 9 9 2 (1 juv.) o?

1 Dalhousie, Punjab; 12 Simla, 1 Koti State, 2

Mussoorie, 1 Dhanaulti, east of Mussoorie; 2 Yoshi-

nath, 1 Lohaghat, 1 Adabadri, Garhwal; 2 Dakuri,

Almora, 2 Marnavla, Kumaon, U.P.

The key to subspecies in Indian Handbook

(7 p. 44) first divides the five races into two

groups on the basis of the subterminal band

on the undersurface of the outer rectries as

over and under 1 cm. We have no specimens

of G. 1. bilkevitchi, but those available can be

more readily divided on the basis of the broad

(1 cm.) whitish tips in lineatus and gilgit contra

very narrow white tips in setafer and imbrica-

tus. The terminal band is more easily seen than

the subterminal.

Measurements on p. 163.

1315 Garrulax lineatus setafer (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Nepal Streaked Laughing Thrush

2 : 1 $ 19 collected by Lt. Col. R. L. Kennion at

Kakani 7000' and Thunsi 11000' Nepal on 9 Sept.

1920.

The cf agrees with the description in Indian

Handbook regarding the throat, breast and ear

coverts being rufous, but the 9 is very worn

and with almost no rufous. Hodgson’s original

description refers to the bird as the Spiny

Cinlosoma “slaty blue, overlaid with ruddy

brown ”. The feathers on the head

and neck are said to be rigid and spinous. This

description does not apply to the present speci-

mens. Neither show any streaks on the ear-

coverts.

Measurements on p. 163.

1316 Garrulax lineatus imbricatus Blyth

(Bhutan) Bhutan Streaked Laughing Thrush

1:183

11: 5$ $ 49 9 2 o?

1 Gedu, West, 2 Batase, 3 Shamgong, Central, 2

Gomchu, 2 Wamrong, 1 Rongtong, East Bhutan.

The earcoverts and a patch around are pro-

minently pale shafted. The tail is longer than

[479]

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

in the other races.

Measurements on p. 163.

1317 Garrulax virgatus (Godwin- Austen)

(Razam, under Kopamedza Ridge, Naga Hills)

Manipur, Streaked Laughing Thrush 1:179

nil.

1318 Garrulax austeni austeni (Godwin-

Austen) (Hengdan Peak, N. Cachar) Brown-

capped Laughing Thrush 1:160

nil.

EL Garrulax austeni victoriae (Rippon) (Mt.

Victoria) Chin Hills Laughing Thrush 1:161

2: 1$ 1$ Mt. Victoria, Burma.

In the absence of any specimens of the nomi-

nate form the subspecific identification is based

on their place of origin. The measurements on

p. 163 are slightly smaller than those given for

the nominate form in Stuart Baker’s Fauna.

1319 Garrulax squamatus (Gould) (Sikkim)

Bluewinged Laughing Thrush 1:174

6: 1$ 3$ $ 2 o?

1 Kurseong, Sikkim; 1 Honka, West, 1 Batase,

Central Bhutan; 1 Miao (Deban), Tirap Div., Aruna-

chal Pradesh; 2 Pimpri Bam, N. Shan States,

Burma.

Measurements on p. 164.

1320 Garrulax subunicolor subunicolor

(Blyth) (Nepal) Plain Coloured Laughing

Thrush 1:171

7: 5$ $ 2 o?

1 Mogam, Nepal; 1 Runjeet Valley, Sikkim; 2

Shamgong, Central, 1 Wamrong, East Bhutan; 1

Dreyi, Lohit Valley, N. E. Assam; 1 Loi Song, N.

Shan States, Burma.

There is some variation in the amount of

buff on the underparts and the extent of grey

on the earcoverts. The last bird has buff ear-

coverts and the place of origin suggests the

subspecies griseatus (Rothschild) (Shweli- Sal-

ween Divide, Yunnan) of which the original

description is not available, but which is said

to occur in Kachin State (just north of N. Shan

States) in Peters’ Checklist.

Measurements on p. 164.

1321 Garrulax henrici (Oustalet) (South

Tibet = Aio Soutu) Prince Henry’s Laughing

Thrush 1:183

nil.

1322 Garrulax affinis affinis Blyth (Central

Nepal) Western Blackfaced Laughing Thrush

1:172

According to the distribution in Indian

Handbook, none of the specimens available

would be of this form.

1323 Garrulax affinis bethelae Rand &

Fleming (Thangu, Sikkim) 1:172 (part)

10: 3$ $ 6$ $ 1 o?

2 Phalut, Darjeeling; 2 Lachung, Sikkim; 2

Chapcha, W. Bhutan, 1 Ganglipoketi, Central Bhutan,

1 Rongtong, East Bhutan; 2 Leu Tsu River, Mishmi

Hills.

Measurements on p. 164.

EL Garrulax affinis oustaleti (Hartert)

(Tzeku, Yunnan)

1 o? Shaung Mawphy.

This specimen was collected by F. Kingdon

Ward and received at the Society on 24 Octo-

ber 1919. The place cannot be located and

the specimen differs from the others in lacking

markings on the undersurface. It is marked

oustaleti by a previous worker (?).

Measurements on p. 164.

1324 Garrulax erythrocephalus erythroce-

pbalus (Vigors) (Himalayas, restricted to

Chamba by Baker 1920) Redheaded Laughing

Thrush 1:163

15: S$ $ (2 juv.) 79 $ (1 chick).

3 Koti State, 1 Simla Hills, 2 Simla; 1 Almora,

4 Dakuri, 2 Mornaula, 1 Deoban, Jamsar, Kumaon;

1 Dhanaulti, e. of Mussoorie, U.P.

The two juveniles have no spots on the back

and to this extent do not agree with the key to

species in Indian Handbook (7, p. 3). One (cf

156

[480]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 27

819 Dakuri) is more rufous than the other

(c? 15896 Koti State). The juveniles and the

chicks are dated August-September.

Measurements on p. 164.

1325 Garrulax erythrocephalus kali Vaurie

(Lete, Kali River Valley, Baglung dist., West-

Central Nepal) Nepal Redheaded Laughing

Thrush 1:163

nil.

1326/7 Garrulax erythrocephalus nigrimen-

tum (Oates) (Himalayas, from Nepal to Dafla

Hills in Assam, restricted to Sikkim) Sikkim

Redheaded Laughing Thrush 1:164

27: 14^ $ 92 2 (1 juv.) 4 o?

1 Kewzing-Temi, 2 Dentam, W. Sikkim; 3 Kur-

seong, Darjeeling; 1 Honka, 1 Chimakothi, 4 Chapcha,

West, 2 Batase, 3 Shamgong, 2 Bhumthang, Central,

1 Deothang, 3 Gomchu, 1 Wamrong, 1 Rontong,

East Bhutan; 1 Gujir, Aka Hills,, 1 Shengarh, Dafla

Hills, Assam.

There is some variation in the extent of

rufous in different parts of the plumage and

the last from Shengarh, Dafla Hills (24 Oct.

1876, collected by Godwin- Austen) is very

rufous all over.

$ No. 828 from Kurseong (30 Sept. 1920)

with no spots on the upperparts and a 100 mm.

wing is presumably a juvenile.

The specimens are quite unlike the illustra-

tion in Indian Handbook (7: op. p. 16).

Measurements on p. 164.

1328 Garrulax erythrocephalus chrysopterus

(Gould) (Khasi Hills) 1:166

1 $ Dumpep, Shillong, Assam.

The spots on the back are brownish and cres-

centic rather than black and more oval. The

rufous on the head forms a cap extending al-

most to the forehead.

Measurements on p. 165.

1329 Garrulax erythrocephalus godwini

(Harington) (Hengdan Peak, N. Cachar Hills)

Nagaland Redheaded Laughing Thrush 1:165

1 $ Mt. Japu, Naga Hills, Assam.

The marking on the breast is very indistinct.

Measurements on p. 165.

1330 Garrulax erythrocephalus erythroce-

phalus (Hume) (Matchi, E. Manipur Hills)

Manipur Redheaded Laughing Thrush 1:164

3: 15 2$ $

1 Fort White, 2 Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills, Burma.

Measurements on p. 165.

EL Garrulax melanostigma (?)

2 o? Loi Wong, N. Shan States, Burma.

Both are without markings above and below

and have black wing coverts. G. e. woodi was

described by Harington (JBNHS 23 p. 318)

from Loi Song, N. Shan States and though this

may not be the same as Loi Wong, it is notice-

able that Harington referred to these two (?) at

the same time as G. melanostigma and not ery-

throcephalus though they are referred to as the

same species in Peters’ Checklist (1964, 10 p.

378).

Measurements on p. 165.

1331 Garrulax phoeniceus phoeniceus

(Gould) (Nepal) Himalayan Crimsonwinged

Laughing Thrush 1:168

6: 35 5 1$ $ 2 o?

1 Buxa Duars, Bengal; 1 Gedu, West, 1 Tama, 1

Shamgong, Central, 1 Deothang, 1 Narphong, East

Bhutan.

There appears to be no colour difference to

separate this from bakeri, infra, and the sepa-

ration is made on geographical grounds.

Measurements on p. 165.

1332 Garrulax phoeniceus bakeri (Hartert)

(Laisung, North Cachar) Assam Crimsonwing-

ed Laughing Thrush

9: 3$ $ 42 2 2 o?

2 Embiong, Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Kohima,

Nagaland; 2 N. Cachar; 3 Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills;

1 Sima, Upper Burma.

Some show a little grey on the lower parts,

but the same shows in some under nominate

[481]

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

phoeniceus. In series this group (1332) is per-

haps a slightly paler brown both above and

below.

Measurements on p. 165.

EL Gamilax phoeniceus ripponi (Oates)

(Fort Stedman, Shan States, Upper Burma)

Burmese Crimsonwinged Laughing Thrush

1:170

2 o?: 1 Loi Song, 1 Chatzesha, N. Shan States,

Burma.

Measurements on p. 165.

EL Garrulax milnei sharpei (Rippon)

(“Kauri-Kachin tract to the east of Bhamo, &

bordering on the south of the Tapeng River”,

Kachin State, Burma) Burmese Redtailed

Laughing Thrush 1:170

2 o? : 1 Pimpri Bam, 1 Loi Lem, N. Shan States,

Burma.

The bird from Pimpri Bam is appreciably

grey on the underparts.

Measurements on p. 165.

158

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[488]

1324/1330 Garrulax erythrocephalus

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 27

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[489]

165

EL. Trochalopterum milnei sharpei

O? (2) 102, 106 22.5, 23.8 35, 36.5 112, 113

( to be continued )

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SUBSPECIES OF BUTTERFLIES

FOUND IN NEPAL1

C. P. Smith2

( With jour text-figures )

(1) Pamassius epaphus chiddii spp. nov.

The Common Red Apollo, P. epaphus

(Oberthur 1891) is widely distributed all along

the Himalayan range. In Nepal it is generally

rarer than the Common Blue Apollo, P. hard-

wickei (Gray 1831) being restricted to higher

altitudes, and it therefore seems more naturally

to form isolated races. This is indeed the fourth

one to be described from Nepal, the others

being —

P. epaphus boschmai (Eisner 1964) from

Solu Khumbu in E. Nepal.

P. epaphus robertsi (Epstein 1979) from

Manang in C. Nepal,

P. epaphus capdevillei (Epstein 1979) from

Mustang in C. Nepal.

P. epaphus chiddii was found in one locality

in the remote Mugu district of N. W. Nepal in

the Summer of 1980.

Description

Male — upperside: Ground colour-forewing is

transparent white heavily dusted with black,

hindwing is opaque white. The black markings

follow the usual pattern and are heavy. The

forewing submarginal black spots are comple-

tely joined up to form a diffuse band, leaving

only a narrow band of white spots between

this and the almost entirely grey margin. The

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 139 Hivings Hill, Chesham, Bucks. England, HP5

2PN.

marginal white spots are small and faint. The

hindwing submarginal spots are also joined into

a chain of black lunules, again leaving only a

very narrow band of white between that and

the marginal grey. The hindwing red spots are

large and bright.

The underside corresponds with the upper,

having heavy black, and prominent red mark-

ings.

Female — This is identical in markings to the

male. Note that in many forms of P. epaphus

the female is darker.

Differences with other subspecies

The main difference with the other three

subspecies given above is the submarginal band

of both fore and hindwings. The closest ap-

proach to this is found in some P. epaphus

robertsi females. A summary of the main fea-

tures of all four subspecies is given below. Note

that the following features are not significant —

(a) The forewing preapical red spots — two

specimens have 2, one has 1 and two have none

(under and uppersides the same in each case.)

(b) The upperhindwing anal red spot — pre-

sent in three, absent in two.

Size

Measurement — forewing — base to apex = 25

mm. (both sexes.)

Habitat

It was found on an open rocky ridge above

the tree-line. The south side was a precipitous

166

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1. Dallacha hyagriva hyagriva (for comparison with others)

male — male underside

female — female underside

Courtesy : British Museum, Natural History.

slope with little vegetation, and the north side

was a very steep grassy one. Further up the

ridge was entirely of rocks with scarcely any

vegetation.

Data

Holotype — female — Lekh above Chiddi —

13000 ft. (=4000 m.) 1 Aug. 80.

Allotype — male — Lekh above Chiddi —

13000 ft. (= 4000 m.) 2 Aug. 80.

Paratypes — 1 m, 2 f — Lekh above Chiddi

— 13000 ft. (= 4000 m.) 2 Aug. 80.

(2) Metaporia leucodice debdice ssp. nov.

The Himalayan Blackvein, M. leucodice

(Eversmann) occurs commonly in the Western

Himalayas, but until 1980 had not been re-

corded as far east as Nepal. It was found locally

plentiful in the little explored Jumle area of

N. W. Nepal, and has been named after the

Nepali collector who obtained the first speci-

men (the Holotype).

Description

Male — Upperside white, forewing with

black discocellular bar and postdiscal band

(from 2 to costa, bulging outwards in 4), veins

and termen narrowly black. Hindwing — ends

of veins and termen narrowly black; discal sagi-

ttate line showing through from below. Under-

side-Forewings white, apex pale creamy yellow;

black markings as above, but post discal band

and termen less heavily marked. Hindwing pale

creamy yellow, precostal area bright yellow;

veins uniformly black, fine but clearly defined

discal sagittate line.

Female — above as male, but very slightly

yellowish, and forewing postdiscal band heavier.

Below — exactly as male, except the yellow on

hindwing is one shade deeper.

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

2. Dallacha hyagriva nepalica

male — female

male underside female underside

Courtesy : Natural History Museum, Nepal.

Size

Measurement — forewing (base to apex) —

Male — 26-31 mm. (average 30 mm.)

Female — 30-32 mm.

Discussion of subspecies

M. leucodice soracta (Moore 1857) would

be the subspecies expected in Nepal (reported-

ly common at Mussoorie.) But this ssp. has the

upperforewing postdiscal band obsolete in 3,

which is certainly not the case of these Nepal

specimens.

M. leucodice sara (Evans 1932) from

Kumaon would also be possible, but that has

the upperhindwing discal sagittate line strongly

marked in the female which is hardly true of

the present specimens. Also the upperforewing

is supposed to have large spots in 2 and 4,

which isn’t how the present specimens would

normally be described where those spots are

part of a line also going through 3.

It is therefore suggested that these Nepal

specimens should be considered a new sub-

species.

Habitat

It was found at first in open country, mostly

around flowering bushes, often settling high on

the leaves, and sometimes on flowers. Later on

it was found at slightly higher altitude on the

edge of the jungle area. Total altitude range —

7600-8500 ft. (2320-2600 m.) All specimens ex-

cept the paratypes (e) were from the Jumla

area.

Data

Holotype — male — Bora Gau, JUMLA 19

May ’80 7800 ft. (2380 m.)

Allotype — female — Bora Gau, JUMLA 20

May ’80 7600 ft. (2320 m.)

Paratypes — (a) 1 m type locality 19 May

’80 7800 ft. (2380 m.)

(b) 9 m type locality 20 May ’80 7800 ft.

(2380 m.)

(c) 2 m Jagard Khola 20 May ’80 7900-

8000 ft. (2410-2440 m.)

Fig. 3. Metaporia leucodice debdice

Male — female

male underside female underside

Courtesy : Natural History Museum, Nepal.

168

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 4. Parnassius epaphus chiddii

male — female

male underside female underside

Courtesy : Natural History Museum, Nepal.

(d) 13 m Poi Village 23 May ’80 8000 ft.

(2440 m.)

(e) 2 m Gumgardhi W. (MUGU) 30 May

’80 8300 ft. (2530 m.)

(f) 7 m Jumla N. W. 3 June ’80 7900 ft.

(2410 m.)

(g) 4 m, 3f type locality 4 June ’80 7800-

8500 ft. & above (2380-2600 m.)

(h) 8 m, 2f type locality 5 June ’80 7800

ft. (2380 m.)

(3) Dallacha hyagriva nepalica ssp. nov.

It is difficult to tell who to attribute this to,

since the species has been recorded in Nepal

for a number of years. There are Nepal speci-

mens of the Brown Argus, D. hyagriva (Moore

1857) in the British Museum Collection which

are obviously different from those from the

Western Himalayas. It appears that no-one has

yet described them. The types were obtained

by me in 1975.

Description

Male — above dark brown with very slight

submarginal dark bands, a large bipupilled

apical ocellus on the forewing, and a smaller

single pupilled tornal one on the hindwing;

sometimes additional minute ones on the fore-

wing in space 2 or on the hindwing in space 1.

Below — forewing plain brown, hindwing

mottled; submarginal bands pronounced. Fore-

wing ocellus as above; hindwing with two pairs

(apical and tornal) of conjoined ocelli: apical

one has black rings always joined, and some-

times a third white pupil, tornal one has black

rings touching or nearly so.

Female — As male but larger and with ocelli

larger. The yellow ring round the apical ocellus

of the upperforewing of the holotype is 7 mm.

in diameter.

Difference with nominate race

The main difference is the larger size of these

ocelli, also the fact that the underside tornal

ones are subequal, and the underside colour

slightly more greyish.

Size

Measurement — forewing base to apex —

Male — 22-23 mm.

Female — 26-28 mm.

Habitat

It inhabits open jungly hillsides, and is less

confined to shady places than the related

Callerebias. It is often found by streams, but

usually singly, and has not been observed to

congregate on damp ground as the Callerebias

have.

Distribution

It occurs in both far East Nepal (East of

Arun), and in Central Nepal in Gandaki basin

(paratypes (l)-(3)) with a total altitude range

of 2600-4900 ft. (800-1500 m.).

Note — Specimens from Kathmandu Valley

(between the two localities, but at higher alti-

tude) appear to belong to the nominate race, as

do those from further west in Nepal.

Data

Allotype male — Ham 24 Sept. ’75 4300 ft.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Comparison of the four Nepal subspecies of Parnassius epaphus

(1300 m.)

Holotype female — Ham 3 Oct. ’75 4400 ft.

(1340 m.)

Paratypes (1) m. Barang Barung GORKHA

8 Oct. ’77 3400 ft. (1040 m.)

(2) f. Maikot, GORKHA 12 Oct. ’77 3900

ft. (1200 m.)

(3) m. Phaewa Lake, POKHARA 23 Sept.

’79 2700 ft. (820 m.)

(4) m. Sallari Ban, DANKUTA 18 Oct.

’79 4400 ft. (1340 m.)

(5) f. Kowrini, TERATHUM 21 Oct. ’79

4900 ft. (1500 m.)

(6) f. Phidim 23 Oct. ’79 3600 ft. (1100

m.)

(7) f. Chisso Pani, ILAM 1 Nov. ’79

2600 ft. (800 m.)

References

Epstein, H. J. (1979): Interesting & New Papi-

lionids from central Nepal, Himalaya. Ent. Gazette

30: 157-188.

Evans, W. H. (1932) : The Identification of Indian

Butterflies — 2nd ed. Bombay Natural History So-

ciety.

Moore, F. (1857): Cat. Lep. Ins. E. I. C.

Oberthur, C. (1891) : Faunes Entomologiques.

Descriptions D’Insectes Noveaux Ou Peu Connus.

Etudes D’Entomologie 14, Rennes.

170

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS NIRMALADIA FOR THE SPECIES

CULLADIA DENT ILJNEALIS HAMPSON

(LEPIDOPTERA: CRAMBINAE)1

H. S. Rose2

(With seven text-figures)

Culladia dentilinealis Hampson is not congeneric with other species of genus Culladia

Moore, as evidenced from the structure of different body parts. The species has been

accordingly put under a new genus Nirmaladia.

Introduction

During an exhaustive collection survey of

Pyralid moths from North India in the last

five years or so, I collected one hundred and

forty-five species belonging to different sub-

families of family Pyralidae. Out of these,

seven species are referable to the subfamily

Crambinae. One of the Crambin species name-

ly, Culladia dentilinealis Hampson does not

agree with the description of the diagnostic

features of its type-species ( Araxes admigra-

tella Walker) and is also not congeneric with

other described species under this genus

(Hampson 1895, 1896; Bleszynski 1970). The

characters possessed by the species, Culladia

dentilinealis are so unique and conspicuous

that it requires a new genus and, accordingly,

the genus Nirmaladia is proposed to form a

new combination N. dentilinealis (Hampson).

Observations and Discussion

The genus Culladia was first erected by

Moore (1886) in order to replace the pre-

occupied generic name Araxes (Walker 1863),

the latter being established on the type-species

admigratella Walker. This type-species along

with other Culladia spp. were further examined

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala - 147 002.

by Hampson (1895, 1896, 1919), who slightly

improved the diagnostic characters of this genus

by adding the venation of the fore and hind

wings. Later, Bleszynski (1963, 1970) revised

and redefined the genus Culladia, which he

considered to be a waste basket for species be-

longing to several distinct genera. He, thus,

suggested a rearrangement of the species referr-

ed to this genus alongwith the erection of new

genera allied to Culladia (Bleszynski 1970a).

He however, reluctantly retained the species

dentilinealis Hampson under the genus Culladia

although he made a mention of the exceptional

features possessed by this species. Recently,

Gaskin (1973) pointed out that Bleszynski has

failed to give characters exclusive to Culladia

and distinct from the characters of other allied

genera.

In the course of present studies, I examined

fifteen specimens of the species under refer-

ence and identified it as Culladia dentilinealis,

first described by Hampson (1919). Its identity

is definite because it completely agrees with

the description given by Hampson (1919) and

its genitalia are similar to those figured by

Bleszynski (1970). A careful examination of

the present species reveals that the structure

of the antennae, the venation of the wings and

the various constituent parts of the genitalia

are quite distinct and different from those of

Culladia.

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Nirmaladia dentilinealis (Hampson)

Fig. 1. Photograph of the adult moth.

The structure of the antenna in male denti-

linealis Hampson, is not serrate as in other

Culladia spp. and also the ocellus is extremely

poorly developed in the former as compared

to the well developed ocellus in latter. In Culla-

dia, the vein R5 of the forewing is very short

and stalked with R4 but in the species under

reference, the veins R3 and R4 are stalked and

vein R5 is quite long and arises independently

from the discal cell. The veins M? and of the

hind wing are stalked in dentilinealis whereas

one of them is either absent or vestigial in

Culladia. The male genitalic structures of the

present species differ drastically from Culladia

in many important characters namely, lacking

a fine hook at the distal end of the uncus, the

complete absence of apical processes of the

aedeagus and in having a single long cornutus

in the vesica. The structure of the valvae is

very unique and of rare occurrence (I have

dissected one hundred and forty-five species of

family Pyralidae and this is perhaps the soli-

tary example where such type of valva occurred).

The female genitalia in dentilinealis Hampson

is conspicuous in lacking a scobinate signum in

its corpus bursae and by the absence of ante-

rior apophyses. The abdomen of the female in

Culladia is furnished apically with broad scales

and such scales are completely wanting in den-

tilinealis.

Keeping in view these differences of the

species, I am proposing a new genus for it.

The genus is named as Nirmaladia gen. nov.,

which is characterised below :

Genus : Nirmaladia gen. nov.

Type-species: Culladia dentilinealis Hampson

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9) 3: 286.

2

4 mm

Nirmaladia dentilinealis (Hampson)

Figs. 2 & 3. Fore and hind wing.

172

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

0-5mm

04mm

Nirmaladia dentilinealis (Hampson)

Fig. 4. Male genitalia with one valva and aedeagus removed. Fig. 5. Valva.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Nirmaladia dentilinealis (Hampson)

Fig. 6. Aedeagus. Fig. 7. Female genitalia.

174

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

(Type-locality: India, Punjab)

(Figs. 1-7)

Labial palpus porrect, extending about thrice

the length of head, thickly scaled. Maxillary

palpus triangularly scaled. Frons rounded.

Antenna of male thickened but without any

serrations. Ocellus poorly developed. Fore-wing

with vein Rx free; R2 free; R3 stalked with R4;

R5 arises from below upper angle of cell; M1

absent; M2 and M3 stalked. Hind wing with Rs

anastomosing with Sc + Rx; veins M2 and M3

stalked. Abdomen of the female tapering dis-

tally and without any prominent scales.

Male genitalia : Uncus moderately long,

slender, tapering to apex, densely setose with

anteriorly directed setae, extreme tip naked and

without any hook; gnathos well developed,

almost equal to uncus, strongly sclerotized;

tegumen very long, with sides almost parallel

and strongly sclerotized, without pons; vincu-

lum produced anteriorly into an extremely rudi-

mentary saccus. Valva of unique type, with

basal half without any differentiation of costa

and sacculus; distal half sharply and deeply

bifurcated, its dorsal lobe slender and densely

setose, ventral projection pointed and naked.

Refei

Bleszynski, S. (1963) : Studies on Crambinae

(Lepidoptera) . Part 40. A review of the genera of

the family Crambidae with data on their synonymy

and types. Acta. Zool. Cracov., 8: 91-132.

(1970): A revision of the genus

Culladia Moore. Studies on the Crambinae, Lepidop-

tera, Part 50. Tijdschrift voor, Ent., 113 : 44-59.

(1970a) : New genera and species

of tropical Crambinae. Studies on the Crambinae,

Lepidoptera, Part 48. Tijdschrift voor Ent., 113 : 1-26.

Gaskin, D. E. (1973): Revision of New Zealand

Chilonini (Lep. Pyralidae) and redescription of some

Australian species. N. Z. Journ. of Sci., 16: 436-463.

Hampson, G. F. (1895) : On the classification of

Transtilla inconspicuous; juxta small and notch-

ed. Aedeagus long, rounded anteriorly (with-

out any apical process), finely tapering towards

distal end; vesica impregnated with a heavily

sclerotized long cornutus and small patches of

short setae below the curvature of cornutus.

Female genitalia : Corpus bursae relatively

short, membranous with a few sclerotized lines;

signum absent; ductus bursae long, semi-mem-

branous, denticulate around the middle; ante-

rior apophyses absent; posterior apophyses

moderately long and thick, each with an angu-

lar thickening near base; ovipositor lobes broad

and fringed with different sized setae.

Distribution : India and Nepal.

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my deep gratitude to Dr

H. R. Pajni, Dept, of Zoology, Punjab Uni-

versity, Chandigarh, for his valuable sugges-

tions during the course of preparation of this

manuscript. Thanks are also due to Mr. I. J.

Gupta, Lepidoptera Section, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta for his comments on the

identity of the species.

E N ces

Schoenobiinae and Crambinae, two subfamilies of

moths of family Pyralidae (Lepidoptera). Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond., 1895: 897 -97 4.

(1896): Fauna of British India.

Moths, 4: 1-594. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.

(1919) : Description of new Pyra-

lidae of subfamilies Crambinae and Signiae. Ann.

Mag. nat. Hist., 3 : (9) : 275-292.

Moore, F. (1886) : Lepidoptera of Ceylon, 5: 305-

392.

Walker, F. (1863) : List of the specimens of Lepi-

dopterous insects in the collection of the British

Museum. Part 27, Crambites and Tortricites, 286,

pp., London.

175

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

FIRST RECORD OF CLAUSEN l A ISHII (HYMENOPTERA:

ENCYRTIDAE) FROM INDIA WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW

SPECIES1

S. Adam Shafer

and

Rajendra Kumar Avasthi2

( With a text -figure)

Clausenia Ishii is reported for the first time from India. Two new species (C. longi-

pennis sp. nov. and C. indica sp. nov.) are described and illustrated. Key to species

of Clausenia is also provided. Types deposited in Zoological Museum, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Genus Clausenia Ishii

Type-species: Clausenia purpurea Ishii, 1923

(by original designation and monotypy).

The genus Clausenia was first proposed by

Ishii (1923) with C. purpurea Ishii as type-

species. The generic characters of this genus

have been given in detail by Kerrich (1967).

Some additional generic characters are suggest-

ed which are as follows: Female genitalia, first

valvifer (fig. 1 G) semicircular, second valvi-

fers -(fig. IF) very narrow at apical one-third;

subgenital plate (fig. 1 E) with anterior margin

concave, anterolateral apodemes long.

The genus Clausenia Ishii is reported for the

first time from India. Two species are describ-

ed here as new. Kerrich’s (1967) key to species

of Clausenia Ishii has been revised in order to

accommodate C. indica sp. nov. and C. longi-

pennis sp. nov.

Revised key to species of Clausenia Ishii, based

ON FEMALES

1 . Abdomen not much shorter than thorax; sub-

genital plate (=hypopygium) boat-shaped, point-

ed at apex 2

— Abdomen much shorter than thorax; subgenital

plate (-hypopygium) semitruncated and notched

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

in the middle, scarcely boat-shaped; antennal

club with second suture not strongly curved or

oblique; frontovertex shining, with reticulate

microsculpture very fine and punctation sparse:

Africa C. confusor Kerrich

2. Antennae having funicle segments 5 and 6 only

a little longer than broad 3

— Antennae having 6th funicle segment about one

and a half times as long as broad and 5th still

longer 5

3. Mesoscutum less densely punctate; marginal vein

of fore wing almost twice length of stigmal vein;

head not dominantly dark green 4

— Mesoscutum more densely punctate; marginal

vein of fore wing only moderately longer than

stigmal vein; head usually dominantly dark green:

Asia, U.S.A C. purpurea Ishii

4. Postmarginal vein distinctly longer than margi-

nal vein; legs with coxae and trochanters except

at apex, and femora except at base and apex,

pale blackish brown with weak, mostly purplish,

metallic reflections; mesoscutum with setigerous

puncts separated by about twice their own dia-

meters: West Africa C. corrugata Kerrich

— Postmarginal vein distinctly shorter than margi-

nal vein (fig. 1 K); legs orange yellow; mesos-

cutum with setigerous puncts separated by more

than four times their own diameters: India

C. indica sp. nov.

5. Fore wings with marginal vein less than twice

the length of stigmal vein; eyes moderately

setose . .6

— Fore wings with marginal vein almost twice as

long as stigmal vein; eyes weakly setose 7

6. Fore wings broad, about twice as long as wide.

176

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

H.-K. Clausenia indica sp. nov., $ : H. Mandible; I. Maxillary and labial palpi;

J. Antenna; K. Part of fore wing venation.

12

177

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

disc proximal to speculum with thin setae be-

neath submarginal vein (Rosen, 1965: fig. 6);

antennae with first funicle segment slightly longer

than wide (Rosen, 1965: fig. 4): Israel

C. josefi Rosen

— Fore wings moderately narrow, more than two

and a half times longer than wide, disc proximal

to speculum with numerous coarse setae beneath

submarginal vein (fig. ID); antennae with first

funicle segment twice as long as wide (fig. 1 C) :

India C. longipennis sp. nov.

7. Head in side view (Kerrich, 1967: fig. 42) with

cheeks not sharply narrowed to mouth; punc-

tures on mesoscutum not very fine, many sepa-

rated by less than twice their own diameters;

hind tibiae usually mainly pale, darkened above,

but if more extensively darkened then at least

broadly pale at apex: West Africa

C. quineensis Kerrich

— ■ Head in side view (Kerrich, 1967: fig. 41) with

cheeks rather sharply narrowed to mouth; punc-

tures on mesoscutum very fine, mostly sepa-

rated by well over twice their own diameters; hind

tibia only rather narrowly pale at apex: South

Africa, Eritrea C. com per ei Kerrich

Cfiausenia longipennis sp. nov.

(Fig. 1 A-G)

Female:

Head— Dark, slightly wider than long in

facial view; antennae inserted below lower level

of eyes; space between antennal sockets about

one-third width of frons between eyes; malar

space shorter than eye width; eyes moderately

setose; maxillary and labial palpi (fig. IB)

4- and 3 -segmented respectively; mandibles

(fig. 1A) bidentate. Antennae (fig. 1C) dark

brown except basal three-fourth of scape orange

yellow; scape long and slender, about 8 times

as long as wide; pedicel distinctly longer than

1st funicle segment; funicle segment 1st shor-

test, 2nd and 3rd subequal in length and each

about twice as long as wide, 5th and 6th one

and a half times as long as wide; club 3-

segmented, as long as preceding 3 funicle seg-

ments together.

Thorax. — Dark brown; mesoscutum coarsely

setose and with distinct parapsidal furrows

anteriorly, axillae and scutellum finely setose

and reticulately sculptured. Fore wings slightly

infuscated, about two and a half times as long

as wide; disc proximal to speculum with nume-

rous coarse setae beneath the submarginal vein;

submarginal vein slightly widened at apical

third; marginal vein slightly longer than post-

marginal vein and less than twice the length of

stigmal vein (fig. ID); marginal fringe small,

spaced by a distance equal to one-fourth their

length. Hind wings hyaline, about five and a

half times as long as wide (1.01:0.19 mm);

marginal fringe small, spaced by a distance

equal to one-fourth their length. Legs dark

brown except fore and mid tibiae at apical

halves, hind tibiae completely, and tarsi

yellowish; middle tibial spur as long as basi-

tarsus.

Abdomen. — Dark, slightly longer than thorax;

tenth tergum long; paratergites long and

narrow; subgenital plate boat-shaped, pointed

at apex, reaching beyond apex of abdomen.

Body length : 1.6 mm.

Holotype $ . India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,

ex. Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green), on Sola-

num melongena L., 2. viii. 1977 Coll. S. Adam

Shafee.

Paratypes. $ , same data as holotype.

Clausenia indica sp. nov.

(Fig. 1 H-K)

Female.

Head. — Dark, slightly wider than long in

facial view; antennae inserted below lower level

of eyes; eyes dark brown and sparsely setose;

space between antennal sockets about one-half

the width of frons between eyes; maxillary and

labial palpi (fig. II) 4 and 3-segmented respec-

tively; mandibles (fig. 1H) bidentate. Antennae

(fig. 1J) dark except scape orange yellow;

scape four and a half times longer than wide.

178

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pedicel about twice the length of first funicle

segment, first funicle segment shortest and slight-

ly longer than wide; funicle segments 2-6 sub-

equal in length, 2-4 one and a half times as

long as long as wide, 5th slightly longer than

wide, 6th as long as wide; club 3 -segmented,

slightly longer than preceding three funicle

segments combined.

Thorax. — Dark and recticulately sculptured

with setigerous puncts sparsely distributed and

separated by more than four times their own

diameters; mesoscutum with parasidal furrows

as in C. purpurea Ishii (Rosen, 1965: fig. 16);

axillae triangular, meeting medially. Fore wings

hyaline, about two and a half times as long as

wide; submarginal vein long, slightly dilated

at apical third, marginal vein slightly longer

than postmarginal and twice the length of stig-

mal vein (fig. IK); marginal fringe small,

spaced by a distance equal to one-third their

length. Hind wings hyaline about five and a

Refe

Ishii, T. (1923): Observations on the Hymenop-

terous parasites of Ceroplastes rubens Mask., with

descriptions of new genera and species of the sub-

family Eucyrtinae. Bull. Imp. Pi. Quarant. Stn. Yoko-

hama 3: 69-114.

Kerrich, G. J. (1967): On the classification of

half times longer than wide; marginal fringe

small, spaced by a distance equal to one-fourth

their length. Legs uniformly orange yellow;

middle tibial spur as long as basitarsus.

Abdomen. — Dark brown, as long as thorax;

subgenital plate boat-shaped, reaching slightly

beyond apex of abdomen.

Body length : 1.2 mm.

Holotype $, INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Coimba-

tore, ex. Rastrococcus sp. on Acacia monili-

formis, 27. iii. 1979. Coll. R. K. Avasthi.

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to Prof. Nawab H.

Khan, Head, Department of Zoology, for pro-

viding research facilities. Thanks are also due

to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam for encouragement.

One of us (R. K. Avasthi) is grateful to

C.S.I.R, New Delhi, for financial assistance.

EN CES

the Anagyrini Encyrtidae with a revision of some

of the genera (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) . Bull.

Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. ( Ent .) 20: 141-250.

Rosen, D. (1965) : A new species of Clausenia

Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from Israel. Proc.

R. ent. Soc. Lond., (B) 34: 61-64.

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

A NEW SPECIES OF PARABLASTOTHRIX (HYMENOPTERA:

ENCYRTIDAE) FROM INDIA1

M. A. Khan2

(With seven text-figures)

Parablastothrix Mercet 1917

The genus Parablastothrix was erected by

Mercet (1917) for the Palaearctic species P.

vespertinus. Holier (1960) considered Matrella

Erdos as synonym of Parablastothrix Mercet.

Miller (1965) has given a very good diagnostic

key for its separation from the closely related

genus Tetracnemus Westw. Shafee et al. (1973)

recorded the genus for the first time from India,

represented by P. indicus Shafee et al.

So far only one species of the genus is known

from India. A new species has been described

and key to species of Parablastothrix Mercet

has also been proposed.

Key to the species of Parablastothrix Mercet

1. Body black or bright, metallic, greenish-blue..

2

— Body blue; mid legs white with base of femur,

2. Body black; front and mid legs and coxa, femur

& tarsus of hind leg white; integument of head

finely, densely punctate with widely scattered

large punctures P • nearcticus Miller.

— Body blue; mid legs white with base of femur,

tibia and last tarsal segment dark; hind leg

with coxa bluish, femur blackish with white apex,

tibiae darkish, tarsus white; integument of

head finely and densely shagreened, the shagreen-

ing becoming rugose .P. vespertinus Mercet.

3. Ocelli arranged in obtuse angle triangle; antennae

uniformly dark brown; club two times longer

than wide; marginal vein as long as Post mar-

ginal vein; abdomen yellowish brown with slight

metallic reflections P. indicus Shafee et al.

— Ocelli arranged in equilateral angle triangle,

antenna dark brown with funicle segments 5th,

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Department of Entomology, College of Agricul-

ture, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture 8c Tech-

nology, Pantnagar-263 145, U.P., India.

6th and club white; club less than three times

longer than wide; marginal vein longer than post

marginal vein; abdomen dark brown.

P. zygonomus sp. nov.

Parablastothrix zygonomus sp. nov.

Male:

Head (Fig. 1): Dark brown with metallic

bluish reflections, wider than long in facial

view; fronto vertex reticulate punctate with sil-

very setae, less than twice longer than wide

(0.14:0.08) and more than one third of head

width (0.08:0.26); ocelli arranged in equila-

teral angle triangle, basal ocellus separated by

less than its own diameter from eye rim and

two times its diameter from occipital margin;

eyes black; mandibles tridentate (Fig. 2), maxil-

lary (Fig. 3) and labial (Fig. 4) palps 4 and

3 segmented respectively.

Antennae (Fig. 5): Dark brown with funicle

segment 5th, 6th and club white, scape delat-

ed, more than three times longer than wide

(0.19:0.06); pedicel as long as wide (0.06:

0.06), distinctly longer than first funicle seg-

ment, funicle segments 1-4 with branches, funi-

cle segments longer than wide except first

which is wider than long, third funicle seg-

ment as long as basal two funicle segments

united, 4th funicle segment as long as 5th

and 6th less than twice as long as 5th funicle

segment; club less than three times as long as

wide (0.15:0.055), distinctly shorter than

preceding two funicle segments combined.

Thorax (Fig. 6) : Dark brown with metallic

bluish reflections, scutum twice wider than long

(0.24:0.12); axillae narrowly united; scutellum

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-7. Parablastothrix zygonomus sp. nov., $

1. Head, dorsal aspect; 2. Mandible; 3. Maxillary palp; 4. Labial palp;

6. Thorax; 7. Part of fore wing venation.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

wider than long (0.19:0.17), longer than

scutum, posterior margin of scutellum rounded.

Fore wings : Hyaline, slightly more than two

times longer than wide; costal cell broad, mar-

ginal vein (0.07) (Fig. 7) longer than post-

marginal vein (0.05), stigmal vein very long

(0.09), speculum absent, basal triangle with

few setae.

Hind wings : Hyaline, less than four times

longer than wide, apex of marginal vein with

three curved hooklets.

Legs : Dark brown, except apex of femora,

bases and apices of tibiae and tarsi white.

Abdomen'. Dark brown with slight metallic

reflections, slightly shorter than thorax.

Male length : 0.95 mm.

Holotype: d\ 1 cf paratype, India, U.P.

Pantnagar Ex. Leaf miner Acrocercops zy go-

noma (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae) on wild

plant 3.7.1978 (M. A. Khan).

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. K. C. Sharma, Dean,

College of Agriculture, Prof. B. P. Pandya,

Director Research, Experiment Station and

Prof. B. P. Khare, Head, Department of

Entomology, for all the necessary facilities.

Thanks are also due to Dr. V. K. Sehgal, Asso-

ciate Professor, Entomology, for the identifica-

tion of Lepidopterous leaf miner.

References

Hoffer, A., (1960) : A revision of the Czechoslo-

vak genera of the sub-family encyrtinae with reduced

number of funicle joints (Hym. : Chalcidoides) . Acta

faun. Mus. nat. Pragae, 6: 93-119.

Mercet, R. G., (1917) : Generos nuevos de Encir-

tinos (Himenopteros : Calcidos). Bol. R. Soc. Esp.

Hist. Nat. 17: 538-544.

Miller, C. D. F., (1965): A nearctic species of

Parablastothrix Mercet (Hymenoptera : Encyrtidae).

Cand. Ent. 97(7) : 750-753.

Shafee, S. A., Alam, S. M. and Agarwal, M. M.,

(1973): Taxonomic Survey of Encyrtid parasites

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in India. Alig. Musi.

Univ. Publ. (Zool. Ser .) Ind. Ins. Typ. 103-105.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF ANICETUS HOWARD

(HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Rajendra Kumar Avasthi

and

S. Adam Shafee2

(With a text-figure)

Anicetus tibimaculatus sp. nov. (Fig. 1 A-F)

Female :

Head. — Yellowish brown, distinctly wider

than long in facial view; frontovertex slightly

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

less than twice as long as wide; ocelli red,

arranged in equilateral triangle, lateral ocelli

less than their own diameters from orbital and

occipital margins; antennae inserted below

lower level of eyes; space between antennal

sockets as long as the width of frons bet-

ween eyes; malar space slightly shorter than

182

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. A.-F. Anicetus tibimaculatus sp. nov., $ : A. Antenna; B. Mandible; C. Part

of fore wing; D. Part of fore wing venation; E. Part of external genitalia; F. Apex

of abdomen in dorsal view.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

eye width; malar sutures absent; maxillary and

labial palpi 4- and 3 -segmented respectively;

mandibles (fig. IB) tridentate. Antennae (fig.

1A) yellowish brown, except inner margin of

scape dark; scape much flattened, distinctly

longer than wide; pedicel much longer than

wide with dorsal edge flattened; funicle flat-

tened, 6-segmented, gradually increasing in

width distad; club flattened, 3 -segmented,

greatest length distinctly longer than funicle.

Thorax. — Yellowish brown; mesoscutum

entire, densely setose and about twice as wide

as long; scutellum distinctly wider than long

and with 30 setae, apex triangular; mesopost-

phragma well developed, reaching beyond the

propodeum. Fore wings (fig. 1C) infuscated

except a triangular area at base hyaline, two

and a half times as long as wide; costal cell

well developed, marginal vein as long as stig-

mal and distinctly longer than postmarginal

vein (fig. ID); speculum proximally with 50

coarse setae; marginal fringe short, spaced by

a distance equal to one-third their length. Hind

wings hyaline, four times as long as wide; mar-

ginal fringe short, spaced by a distance equal

to one-third their length. Legs yellowish, except

hind legs with two bands on tibiae and basal

apical tarsal segments dark brown; middle tibial

spur as long as basitarsus.

Abdomen. — Yellowish, slightly shorter than

thorax; paratergites absent (fig. IF); Female

genitalia (fig. IE): ovipositor hidden, arising

from basal one-third of abdominal venter, first

valvifers triangular with basal and apical angles

at different levels, second valvifers of uniform

width, third valvulae long and movably articu-

lated with second valvifers.

Body length : 1.33 mm

Holotype $ ; 3 $ $ paratypes, INDIA: Tamil

Nadu, Coimbatore, ex. Ceroplastodes cajani

(Maskell), on Abutilon indicum, 27. iii. 1979

( R . K. Avast hi). Types deposited in Zoologi-

cal Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Ali-

garh, India.

In the key to species-groups of Anicetus

proposed by Annecke (1967), the new species

comes under the group Anicetus abyssinicus

Annecke. Annecke’s (1967) key to the species

in the group of Anicetus abyssinicus Annecke

has been revised in order to accommodate

Anicetus tibimaculatus sp. nov.

Revised key to species in the group of Anicetus

abyssinicus Annecke, based on females

1. Marginal vein slightly longer than stigmal and

about twice the length of postmarginal vein; base

of fore wing proximal to speculum with 30 or

less coarse setae 2

— Marginal vein as long as stigmal and slightly

longer than postmarginal vein; base of fore wing

proximal to speculum with about 50 coarse setae;

ocelli arranged in equilateral triangle; hind tibiae

with two infuscated bands

A. tibimaculatus sp. nov.

2. Ocelli in a right angle; middle and hind tibia

each with two well-marked brown bands

A. abyssinicus Annecke

— Ocelli in a strongly acute-angled triangle; middle

tibia not marked with spots or bands, hind tibia

with two brown spots or incomplete bands

A. deltoideus Annecke

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to Prof. Nawab H.

Khan, Head, Department of Zoology, for pro-

viding research facilities. Thanks are also due

to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam, for encourage-

ment. One of us (R. K. Avasthi) is grateful to

C.S.I.R., New Delhi, for financial assistance.

Reference

Annecke, D. P. (1967): The genera Anicetus allies, with descriptions of new genera and species

Howard, 1896, Paracerapterocerus Girault, 1920 and (Hymenoptera : Encyrtidae). Trans. R. ent. Soc.

Lond., 119 : 99-169.

184

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF TETRASTICHUS (HYMENOPTERA:

EULOPHIDAE) FROM INDIA1 - 2

M. A. Khan3

(With eleven text-figures)

Tetrastichus Haliday 1843

Genotype: Cirrospilus attatus Walker by

original designation [= miser (Nees)].

The genus Tetrastichus Haliday is a useful

member of the Chalcidoidea which attacks a

wide variety of hosts, including important pests

of agriculture crops such as caterpillars, stem-

borers, leaf miners, aphids, beetles, midges and

thrips. The parasites attack different stages of

the host including eggs, larvae, nymphs and

pupae. They are either primary parasites or

hyperparasites. Some of the species of Tetras-

tichus have also been reared as secondary para-

sites. The species described here has been rear-

ed as a secondary parasite upon cocoons of

Apanteles sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) on

the larvae of Bihar hairy caterpillar, Diacrisia

obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera : Arctiidae).

The genus has been revised by Burks (1943)

and the generic characters proposed by him

apply well to this species.

Tetrastichus pantnagarensis sp. nov.

Female:

Head : Brownish with yellowish reflections,

reticulate sculpture, wider than long in frontal

aspect (0.6:0.48) (Fig. 1), width of frons

between eyes less than twice the width of head,

frontovertex wide (0.35), sparsely setose, ocelli

arranged in obtuse angle triangle, basal ocelli

removed from eye rim by almost twice the dia-

meter of an ocellus: eyes setose; distance bet-

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Research paper No. 2213 through the Experi-

ment Station, G.B.P.U.A. and T., Pantnagar, Nainital,

U.P., India.

3 Deptt. of Entomology, G. B. Pant Univ. of Agric.

& Tech., Pantnagar, U.P. 263 145, India.

ween antennal sockets less than one sixth width

of frontovertex at median ocellus, antennal

sockets with their basal margin well above the

level of the basal ocular line, distance between

antennal sockets and eye twice the distance

between two antennal sockets; malar space

shorter than eye length, subocular suture dis-

tinct; mandibles tridentate with two teeth and

a truncation (Fig. 2), maxillary (Fig. 3), and

labial palpi (Fig. 4) one segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 5) : Uniformly brown except

scape yellowish, sparsely setose, scape cylindri-

cal, more than three times longer than wide

(0.16:0.05), pedicel twice as long as wide

(0.09:0.045), funicle with a ring, segments

elongated, first funicle segment very long (0.14:

0.05), 2nd and third segment subequal in size

(0.11:0.06), club three segmented, three times

longer than wide (0.21:0.07), shorter than

preceding two funicle segments united; first

funicle to last club segment with 9,10,12,12,10

and 5 sensoria respectively.

Thorax (Fig. 7): Brown with yellowish re-

flections, with fine reticulate sculpture, prono-

tum (Fig. 6) wide with a notch in the middle

of anterior margin, posterior margin convex

with 16 setae, scutum convex with longitudi-

nally fine striate, wider than long (0.4:0.27)

with a median groove, seven small setae at

each lateral side of the scutum, scutellum shor-

ter than the scutum, with distinct longitudinal

grooves and with two pairs of strong setae;

postscutellum, slightly shorter than the propo-

daeum measured in the middle; mesopost-

phragma long, notched at apex.

Fore Wings (Fig. 8) : Hyaline, twice as long

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Figs. 1-11. Tetrastichus pantnagarensis sp. nov., $

1. Head, frontal aspect; 2. Mandible; 3. Maxillary palp; 4. Labial palp;

5. Antenna; 6, Pronotum; 7. Thorax; 8. Forewing; 9. Subgenital plate;

10. Ovipositor; 11. First valvifer.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

as wide, costal cell narrow with three distinct

setae, submarginal vein with 10 setae, post-

marginal vein wanting, stigmal vein (0.04)

almost one third length of marginal vein (0.11),

marginal fringe short.

Hind Wings: Almost four times longer than

wide, apex of marginal vein with three hook-

lets, marginal fringe long, spaced by a distance

almost equal to one fifth length of a fringe.

Fore Legs : Coxae, trochanter and almost

three fourth of the tibiae dark brownish, rest

of the leg yellowish, femora compressed.

Middle Legs : Coloration same as of forelegs

except the last tarsal segment brown; tibial spur

short, apical rim of tibial with 3 short pegs.

Hind Legs: Coloration same as of fore legs

except the last tarsal segment brown, two long

setae on outer face of the base of coxae, femora

much compressed, tibial spur short.

Abdomen: Brown with yellowish reflections,

triangular, longer than thorax; subgenital plate

(Fig. 9) with anterior margin concave in the

middle, the central notch of its posterior mar-

gin with laterally directed ridges; outer plates

of ovipositor with a ridge in the middle (Fig.

10), first valvifers (Fig. 11) semicircular with

articular knobs prominent, second valvifers

(Fig. 10) thickened on dorsal margin through

out, third valvulae long, lanceolate (Fig. 10),

movably articulated with second valvifers; ovi-

positor slightly exserted.

Female Length: 1.51 mm.

Male : Not known.

Holotype $ , India, U.P., Nainital, Pant-

nagar, 10-4-1979, emerged from the cocoons of

Apanteles sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) on

the larvae of Diacrisia obliqua (Walker) on

sugarbeet (R. C. Chibber), Cat. No. Eulo.

1004.

Paratype 8 $ $ same data as holotype. Cat.

No. Eulo. 1005. Material will be deposited in

the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Tetrastichus pantnagarensis sp. nov. resem-

bles Tetrastichus inferens Yoshimoto, 1970 from

which it can be distinguished as follows:

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ACK NO WLEDGE M ENTS

I am thankful to Prof. K. C. Sharma, Dean,

College of Agriculture, Prof. B. P. Pandya,

Director Research, Experiment Station and

Prof. B. P. Khare, Head, Department of Ento-

mology for providing the necessary facilities.

Thanks are also due to Mr. R. C. Chibber for

providing the specimens for identification.

Reference

Burks, B. D. (1943): The north American para- Yoshimoto, C. M. (1970): A new species of

sitic wasps of the Genus Tetrastichus — A contri- T etrastichus (Hymenoptera : Eulophidae) parasitizing

bution to Biological control of insect pests. Proc. U.S. pupae of Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

Nat. Mas. 93: 505-608. Cand. Ent. 102 (12): 1607-1609.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ASPIDOMYCTER MARSHALL

(COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE : EREMNINAE) FROM INDIA1

H. R. Pajni and C. S. Sidhu2

{With six text-figures)

A new species, A. laesicollis has been described under genus Aspidomycter Marshall.

A key to the three so far known Indian species in this genus has been included and

the characters of the genus have been elaborated. The structure of the male and

female genitalia of A. lunalus Marshall has also been included.

Introduction

We have studied more than one hundred

species of subfamily Eremninae during the

course of a five year U.S. PL-480 project on

Indian Curculionidae. As many as 49 new

species and 9 new genera have been proposed

under this subfamily. The present communica-

tion deals with a new species of genus Aspido-

mycter Marshall.

The genus Aspidomycter was raised by Mar-

shall (1943) on a type species, A. lunatus. He

also described a new sub-species namely A.

lunatus lefroyi to which he later on (Marshall

1944) accorded the status of a valid species.

The present new species thus marks the record

of a third species under the same genus. Keep-

ing in view the current knowledge on the genus

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjab University,

Chandigarh- 160 014.

Aspidomycter, the characterization of this genus

has been revised and a key to all the three In-

dian species has been given. The structure of

the male and female genitalia of A. lunatus

Marshall, also studied by us, has been included.

Results and Discussion

Genus Aspidomycter Marshall

Marshall, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11) 10, p.

108 (1943): (11) 11, pp. 77, 81 (1944).

Head with dorsal area of rostrum broadly

ascending its anterior part, and terminated pos-

teriorly by a deeply impressed transverse line;

eyes circular, somewhat convex. Rostrum very

broad, dorsal area elevated and without any

median sulcus or carina; epistome elongate, its

margins carinate and forming an acute angle

behind; scrobes short, curving inwards, sud-

denly effaced behind; mentum with four setae.

Antennae with scape curved, gradually clavate;

188

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

funicle with joint 2 longer than 1. Prothorax

deeply bisinuate at base, its ocular lobes feeble

or moderate, with obliquely prominent shoul-

ders. Legs with corbels of hind tibiae fully

enclosed, each having two rows of setae on

external edge. Male genitalia with aedeagus

sinuate at apex, there produced into a process

in middle in which lies exophallic valve, orifi-

cial plates prominent, aedeagal apodemes more

than twice as long as aedeagus. Female geni-

talia with bursa copulatrix sclerotized towards

apex.

Type species: Aspidomycter lunatus Marshall

Aspidomycter laesicollis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1, 3, 5)

Head with frons ferrugineous, covered with

shining blue-green and brownish scales and

some greenish sub-erect setae, only slightly

wider than base of rostrum and separated from

it by an incision; eyes black, somewhat convex,

moderately large and circular. Rostrum ferru-

gineous, almost as long as broad, running

parallel from base to scrobes and only slightly

dilated at apex, posteriorly ascending frons to

form a raised plate, broadly truncate at base,

almost flat and shallowly depressed behind the

epistome and there provided with a fine cen-

tral carina; surface of rostrum covered with

shining blue-green and brownish scales and

short spathulate pale setae, area close to epis-

tome bare; epistome long, with its delimiting

carinae high and forming and acute angle be-

hind; scrobes short, broad, open behind, almost

1. Photograph of Adult Aspidomycter laesicollis sp. nov.

2. Photograph of Adult A. lunatus Marshall.

189

UJULlOO I

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

visible from above; mentum with 4 setae.

Antennae lerrugineous, long; scape stout, curv-

ed, gradually clavate, reaching three-fourth of

prothorax, its surface densely covered with

brownish-green scales and sub-recumbent pale

setae; funicle with second joint 1.3 times as

long as first, third and fourth subequal but

shorter than first, fourth to seventh subequal

Fig. 3. Male genitalia of A. laesicollis sp. nov.

Fig. 4. Male genitalia of A. lunatus Marshall.

Abbreviations

ADA, Aedeagal Apodeme; AED, Aedeagus; END, Endophallus; ENDP, Endophallic

plate; OP, Oriflcial plate; PHB, Phallobase; PHBA, Phallobasic apodeme;

PHT, Phallotreme.

190

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

and shortest, all joints covered with brownish-

green scales and sub-recumbent pale setae; club

dark brown, fusiform, finely and uniformly

pubescent.

Prothorax ferrugineous, as long as broad,

its anterior margin arcuate dorsally, with feeble

ocular lobes and fine vibrissae laterally; dorsal

surface of pronotum marked with small dense

punctures; each puncture having a pale, sub-

recumbent and spathulate seta; surface also

furnished with blue-green scales, with a central

and two dorso-lateral indistinct longitudinal

stripes of brown scales, also with two deep and

broad depressions near basal angles on brown

stripes; lateral sides almost straight, about as

broad at apex as at deeply bisinuate base, nar-

rowly constricted near base. Scutellum small,

rectangular, with anterior margin rounded, com-

pletely covered with blue-green scales. Elytra

ferrugineous, oblong, their dorsal outline con-

vex, running parallel from base to behind

middle in male and widening in female,

shoulders prominent and roundly rectangular;

striae narrow, formed by small deep punctures,

each puncture containing a minute recumbent

seta; intervals broad, flat, covered with shining

blue-green scales, with some scattered spots of

dark-brown scales, each interval with numer-

ous short and pale setae with long erect ones

on and near top of declivity.

Legs ferrugineous, covered densely with blue-

green and brownish scales, and small recum-

bent setae; forecoxae contiguous, placed a little

towards anterior margin of prostemum; femora

clavate, each with a sharp tooth; tibiae slender,

each with a fringe of brownish bristles and a

mucro at apex; anterior and middle tibiae with

a row of spines on inner apical halves, corbels

of hind tibiae enclosed, each with an outer

row of short and an inner row of long bristles.

Tarsi densely setose; hind tarsus with first joint

nearly twice as long as second, third bilobed

joint spongy beneath; claws free. Thoracic

sterna ferrugineous, covered with blue-green

and pale scales, punctate and each puncture

with a pale seta. Abdominal sterna ferrugine-

ous, covered with blue-green scales laterally

and with narrow pale scales in the middle, pun-

ctate and each puncture with a pale seta, setae

becoming long, dense and broad towards apex.

Male genitalia with aedeagus straight, bilobed

at apex and produced in middle in a long and

narrow process, apex and sides strongly sclero-

tized; phallotreme subapical, with an orificial

plate on each side; aedeagal apodemes very

long and slender, nearly thrice as long as aedea-

gus; phallobase ring-shaped, its ventral

apodeme longer than aedeagus and thicker

than aedeagal apodemes; endophallus surpass-

ing aedeagal apodemes anteriorly, with much

dense rows of spine-like setae laterally and

strongly denticulate centrally, papillate towards

apex, with a small curved plate at apex. Female

genitalia with long and weakly sclerotized ovi-

positor, with coxites comparatively more sclero-

tized and sparsely setose; bursa copulatrix

well-developed, sclerotized towards apex; spicu-

lum ventrale long and much slender, spathu-

late at apex. Spermatheca with cornu pointed,

collum somewhat bent towards ramus.

Measurements

Length :

Male body: 6.1 to 6.6 mm;

rostrum : 0.9 to 1.0 mm.

Female Body: 7.3 to 7.7 mm;

rostrum : 1 . 0 to 1 . 1 mm.

Breadth :

Male body: 2.0 to 2.2 mm;

rostrum: 0.9 to 1.0 mm.

Female body: 3.0 to 3.2 mm;

rostrum : 1 . 0 to 1 . 1 mm.

Holotype, Male, India: Assam, Sylhet, from

Euphorbia indica , C. S. Sidhu. Material in

Entomology Section, Department of Zoology,

191

lOOmm

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 5. Female genitalia of A. laesicollis sp. nov.

Fig. 6. Female genitalia of A. lunatus Marshall.

Abbreviations

BC, Bursa copulatrix; C, Cornu; CO, Collum; CX, Coxite; OV, Ovipositor; R, Ramus;

SD, Spermathecal duct; SV, Spiculum ventrale; V, Vagina; VIII, 8th sternum.

192

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Punjab University, Chandigarh (11.x. 1977).

Paratypes, 4 males and 4 females (same data

as for holotype) (11.x. 1977).

Remarks’.

The present species can be easily made out

from the only two other species known from

India under this genus. Both the described

species namely, lunatus Mshll. and lefroyi

Mshll. carry distinct longitudinal bands of green

and fuscous scales on the pronotum and elytra.

This species is completely devoid of such dis-

tinct bands on the body.

A. lunatus Marshall

(Figs. 2, 4, 6)

Marshall, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11) 10, p.

109 (1943).

The following information on the male and

female external genitalia is being added.

Male genitalia with aedeagus straight, bilob-

ed at apex, produced into a process in middle,

its apical half strongly sclerotized; phallotereme

subapical, with an orificial plate on each side;

aedeagal apodemes more than twice the length

of aedeagus; phallobase ring-shaped; phallo-

basic apodeme about as long as aedeagus,

thicker than aedeagal apodemes; endophallus

surpassing aedeagal apodemes anteriorly, with

much dense rows of spine-like setae in basal

half and strongly denticulate thereafter, papil-

late towards apex, having a small curved plate

at apex. Female genitalia with ovipositor long

and weakly sclerotized; coxites comparatively

more sclerotized and sparsely setose; bursa

copulatrix well-developed, with apical half scle-

rotized, provided with a membranous lobe at

apex; spiculum ventrale long and slender. Sper-

matheca with cornu broadly pointed and curv-

ed, collum displaced and lying over ramus.

Key to the Indian species of Genus Aspidomycter

Marshall

1 . Prothorax and elytra not marked with longi-

tudinal bands of green and fuscous scales

laesicollis sp. nov.

Prothorax and elytra marked with distinct longi-

tudinal bands of green and fuscous scales 2

2. Each elytron with a green sub lunate band at

the top of the declivity lunatus Mshll.

Each elytron with two transverse green bands —

one about middle on intervals 4-6, the second

posterior band not lunate and ceasing internally

on interval 3 lefroyi Mshll.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to U.S. Department of Agri-

culture and Indian Council of Agricultural

Research for financing a five year project on

Indian Curculionidae, We are also thankful

to Mr. R. T. Thompson of British Museum

(Natural History), London and Dr. P. K. Sen-

sarma of F.R.I., Dehradun for allowing the

comparison of collection and for generous loan

of material. The laboratory facilities provided

by the Chairman, Department of Zoology, Pan-

jab University, Chandigarh are also gratefully

acknowledged.

References

' Marshall, Sir G. A. K. (1943): New Indian (1944): On the genera

Curculionidae (Col.). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., London, of the tribe Cyphicerini (Col. Cure.), ibid. (11)77:

(11) 10: 105-119. 73-98.

193

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

A NEW SPECIES OF CLADOCERA OF GENUS INDIALONA

PETKOVSKI, 1966 (FAMILY CHYDORIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Pramod Rane2

(With four text-figures)

Introduction

While examining the Cladocera collection

from various localities of Madhya Pradesh, I

came across several new species of Cladocera.

The present paper describes a new species of

the genus Indialona. The type specimens were

deposited in the National Zoological Collec-

tion of the Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta-12.

Indialona jabalpurensis sp. nov.

Description : Body 1.2 time as long as high.

Valve oval compressed laterally. Posterodorsal

corner of valves slightly projecting. Posteroven-

tral corner rounded, with 6 equally spaced

denticles, placed at some distance from each

other. Ventral margin of valve with a row of

setae at its whole length. Valve with longitudi-

nal'lines which are only marked in the freshly

preserved specimens. Rostrum blunt. Anten-

nules ending less than their length before apex

of the rostrum. Sensory setae longer than ros-

trum. Distal segment of the antennae coming

out from the apex of rostrum. Postabdomen

narrowing distally, with distinct preanal round-

ed corner. Anal denticles about 30, first are

slightly recurved and placed closely associated

with each other. Distal anal denticles are small

and in groups. Claw with a basal spine which is

more than half as long as the claw and with

out setae on its cancave margin. Postabdomen

has two spine like setae on the distal portion

above the natatorial setae. Ocellus one third as

long as eye, situated nearer to the eye than

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional

Station, 1544/ A, Napier Town, Jabalpur 482 002.

to the apex of the rostrum. Legs typical for

this genus, outer ramus of endite of the first

leg with curved hook like setae. Length 0.51

mm. Male unknown.

Type specimens : 1 $ , Holotype, paratype two

females. Two females are in 5% formalin and

one is on slide. Cat. No. C 2890/2.

Type-locality: A hill-top tank near Madan

mahal, 1 km. south-west of Premnager, Jabal-

pur, Madhya Pradesh, India, Coll. Pramod

Rane, 8-3-1982.

Discussion

This species closely resembles Indialona

macronyx (Daday 1898) but can be separated

from it as follows: (i) Setae on the concave

margin of the claw absent, but in I. macronyx

these setae present (ii) Number of anal den-

ticles about 30 and first 8 slightly recurved,

closely placed nearer to each other but in /.

macronyx they are 12-14, all are straight and

of same length, (iii) Postero ventral corner of

valve with 6 small equally spaced denticles,

but in /. micronyx they are absent, (iv) Head

portion with slight evagination of the valve

above the eye region, but in /. micronyx that

region is evenly round, (v) Sensory setae of

antennules coming out of the rostrum but in

/. macronyx these end before apex of rostrum.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. K. Reddiah, Deputy

Director-in-charge of this office for facilities

to carry out this work. Thanks are also due to

Professor C. H. Fernando, University of Water-

loo, Canada for reprints of his valuable contri-

butions on Cladocera and answering my in-

quiries about identification from time to time.

194

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-4. lndialona jabalpurensis sp. nov.

1. Lateral view of female; 2. Posteroventral corner of valve, showing denticles; 3.

Postabdomen, showing anal denticles; 4. Outer ramus of endite of first leg with

curved hook like setae.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

TRIPOGON NARAYANII — A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE FROM

KERALA, INDIA1

P. V. Sreekumar, V. J. Nair and N. C. Nair2

(With nine text-figures)

Tripogon narayanii sp. nov.

Tripogon bromoides Roem. et Schult. affinis,

sed ligulis membranaceis; spiculis viridoluteis

ubi no vis et cremeoalbis ubi exsiccatis; paleis

angustioribus, ellipticis, glabratis, apicibus

rotundis, carinis dimidiis superis ciliatis; anthe-

ris purpureis differt.

Tripogon narayanii sp. nov.

Densely tufted perennial herbs. Culms 10-20

cm high, nodes glabrous. Leaves 10-25 x 0.15-

0.25 cm, linear, flat, densely villous on upper

surfaces and sparsely villous below, midrib in-

conspicuous. Ligule a thin membrane. Sheaths

villous, basal ones breaking up into fibres. Race-

mes 6-12 cm long, contracted. Rhachis smooth,

glabrous. Spikelets 5-10 mm long, greenish-

yellow when fresh and cream-white when

glumes c. 5.5x1 mm, lanceolate, 1 -nerved,

notched at apex with a very short mucra c. 0 . 5

mm. Lemmas c. 4x1.75 mm (excluding

awns), coriaceous, 3-nerved and 3-awned; lobes

on either side of median awn short, acute. Awns

unequal, median awn c. 2.5 mm long, lateral

ones c. 1 mm long, scabrid. Paleas c. 3x0.5

mm, elliptic, rounded at apex, 2-nerved, 2-

keeled; keels ciliate along the upper halves,

glabrous elsewhere. Lodicules 2, c. 0.25 x 0.15

mm, obovate, 3-lobed at apex. Stamens 3,

anthers c. 1 mm long, narrow, purple coloured;

filaments c. 2.5 mm long. Ovary c. 0.5 mm

long, obovate. Styles 2, each c. 0.4 mm long,

slender. Stigmas c. 0.6 mm long, feathery.

The present species is closely allied to Tripo-

gon bromoides Roem. & Schult. with which it

differs as given below:

Tripogon bromoides Roem. et Schult.

Tripogon narayanii sp. nov.

1 . Ligule obscure

2. Spikelets pale grey when fresh and dark grey

when dried

3. Upper glumes prominently aristate

4. Paleas c. 1 mm broad, obovate, tip acute

5. Keels of palea scabrid throughout

6. Paleas hairy on the dorsal surface

7. Lodicules 2-horned at apex

8. Anthers cream coloured.

Lingule a thin membrane

Spikelets greenish yellow when fresh and creamy

white when dried

Upper glumes acute, not aristate

Paleas narrow, c. 0.5 mm broad, elliptic, tip rounded

Keels ciliate in the upper half

Paleas glabrous on the dorsal surface

Lodicules 3-lobed at apex

Anthers purple.

dried, with 4-6 florets. Callus bearded. Lower

glumes c. 3.5 x 1 mm, ovate-lanceolate, 1-

nerved, shallowly notched on one side. Upper

1 Accepted February 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

The holotype P. V. Sreekumar 68412 (CAL),

Isotypes (K, MH) and paratype P. V. Sree-

kumar 68421 (MH) were collected from Era-

vikulam National Park, Idukki District, Kerala

at an altitude of 2000 m on 28-8-1980.

The specific epithet is after Prof. N. Nara-

196

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-9. Tripogon narayanii sp. nov.

1. Plant; 2. Spikelet; 3. Lower glume; 4. Upper glume; 5. Lemma; 6. Palea; 7. Stamen;

8. Pistil; 9. Lodicule.

197

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

yana Pillai, first author’s teacher and Head of

the Department of Botany, S. D. College, Allep-

pey, Kerala, who suggested Eravikulam area

for intensive study.

Dr. Thomas A. Cope, The Herbarium, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, has given the follow-

ing opinion (personal communication) about

our specimen, “almost certainly a new species

of Tripogon. Only two other Indian species

share the same kind of lemma (3 awns, 2

lobes), T. bromoides and T. filiformis. It is

clearly neither of these”. We are thankful to

him for his constant help and valuable sugges-

tions.

CHRYSOPOGON T ADXJ LIN GAM II: A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE

FROM KERALA, INDIA1

P. V. Sreekumar, V. J. Nair and N. C. Nair2

( With fifteen text-figures)

Chrysopogon tadulingamii sp. nov.

Chrysopogon lancearius (Hook, f.) Haines,

lamina folii convoluta glauca ad basim rotun-

data, costa non prominenti, ligula tenui fim-

briata membranacea, panicula parviore laxa,

ramis paniculae breviores (usque 4 cm), spicu-

lis perpaucis, pilis pedicelli brevioribus differt.

Chrysopogon tadulingamii sp. nov.

Perennials. Culms 30-100 cm tall, tufted,

erect, slender; nodes glabrous. Leaves 5-15 x

0. 1-0.2 cm, acicular or linear, rigid, convolute,

glaucous, base rounded, glabrous or with a

few long hairs near the collar. Sheaths 2-6 cm,

equal to or shorter than the internodes, closely

fitting, rounded, striate and glabrous. Ligule a

thin fimbriate membrane. Panicles 5-15 cm

long; branches 1-4 cm long, whorled in the

lowest node, alternate above, with very few

spikelets, capillary, slender, terete and glabrous;

nodes bearded; spikelets in groups of three

with a middle sessile spikelet and two lateral

pedicelled ones. Sessile spikelet 5-6 mm long,

oblong or oblanceolate, laterally compressed.

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

grooved; callus 3-4 mm long, densely bearded

with stiff chocolate-brown hairs 1-2 mm long;

lower glume 5-5.5 x 0.75-1 mm, linear-lanceo-

late, coriaceous, brownish, setose towards apex;

upper glume 5-6 x 1-1.5 mm, oblong, obtuse

and awned at apex, awns 10-15 mm long, straight

or slightly curved, scabrid; lower floret empty;

lemma 3.5-4 x 0.75-1 mm, linear-oblong,

acute, delicate, hyaline, margins long ciliate;

upper floret bisexual; upper lemma 4-5 x 0.5-1

mm, linear or oblong ending in a very long,

stout awn, 3 -nerved, delicate and hyaline in the

lower half, coriaceous and rigid in the upper,

awn 50-60 mm long, geniculate, column 20-30

mm long, villous with short golden-yellow hairs,

bristles scabrid; lodicules 2, each c. 0.4 x 0.3

mm, obovate, 2-lobed at apex; stamens 2-3,

anthers 3-4 mm long, deep-yellow, filaments

short; ovary 0.4-0. 5 mm long, ovate, styles

0.75-1 mm long, slender, stigmas 1-1.5 mm

long, pale-yellow, plumose. Pedicelled spikelets

8-10 mm long, purplish; pedicels 5-6 mm long,

angular, dialated at the tip, covered with short

golden-yellow hairs, callus hairs 0.5-1 mm long,

brownish; lower glume 7-8 x 0.75-1 mm, lan-

ceolate, acute or shortly acuminate, 3 -nerved,

purple, margins infolded, hyaline glabrous or

198

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-15. Chrysopogon tadulingamii sp. nov.

1. Plant; 2. Pedicelled spikelet; 3. Sessile spikelet; 4. Sessile spikelet-enlarged with a

portion of awn; 5. Lower glume of sessile spikelet; 6. Upper glume; 7. Lower lemma;

8. Upper lemma with a portion of awn; 9. Lower glume of pedicelled spikelet;

10. Upper glume with a part of awn; 11. Lower lemma; 12. Upper lemma; 13.

Stamen; 14. Pistil; 15. Lodicule.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 1

Characters Chrysopogon lancearius Chrysopogon tadulingamii

1 . Leaf-blades

2. Midrib

3. Culms below panicles

4. Ligule

5 . Panicle

6. Branches of panicles

7 . Spikelets

8. Hairs on pedicels

Flat, green, narrowed towards

base and quite glabrous

Prominent

Minutely hairy

A row of hairs

Dense

5-10 cm long

Numerous

1-1.5 mm long

Convolute, glaucous, rounded

at base with a few long hairs

near the collar

Not Prominent

Glabrous

A thin fimbriate membrane.

Lax

up to 4 cm

Very few

At the most 0.5 mm long

with a few shaggy hairs; upper glume 8-10 x

1-1.5 mm, lanceolate, acuminate ending in a

straight or slightly curved awn, 7-nerved,

purple, margins infolded, hyaline, with a few

setose hairs especially towards apex, awns 10-

15 mm long, straight or slightly curved, scabrid;

lower floret empty; lemma 6-8 x 0.75-1 mm,

pblong-lanceolate, faintly 3-5 nerved, delicate,

hyaline, villous especially along the margins;

upper floret male; lemma 4-5 x 0.5-0.75 mm,

oblong, acute, faintly 2-3 nerved, delicate, hya-

line, shortly ciliate along the margins; lodicules

2, each c. 0.4 x 0.3 mm, obovate, 2-lobed at

apex; stamens 2-3, anthers 3-4 mm long, bright-

yellow, filaments short.

Holotype: kerala, Cannanore District,

Periye, ± 50 m, 18th October 1981, P. V.

Sreekumar 71758 (CAL). Isotypes in K, MH.

Rare, along dry rocky hill-slopes and open

grasslands, usually in very dry habitats, along

with other grasses such as Themeda triandra

Forssk., Dimeria bialata C. E. C. Fischer, Arun -

dinella mesophylla Nees etc.

This species is allied to Chrysopogon lancea-

rius (Hook, f.) Haines, but markedly differs

from it as shown in the table 1.

The specific epithet is in honour of C.

Tadulingam one of the pioneers in agrostologi-

cal studies in Southern India.

We thank Dr. Thomas A. Cope, The Her-

barium— Grasses, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

for kindly examining our specimens and giving

his opinion.

REVIEWS

1. WILD IS BEAUTIFUL. (Introduction to the magnificent, rich and varied

Fauna and Wild Life of Nepal). Edited by Trilok Chandra Majupuria.

pp. 507 (21 x 14 cm) with 59 colour, 45 black and white, 321 live draw-

ings. Gwalior, M.P., 1981-1982. S. Devi. Price Rs. 200/- (post free for

US $50.00).

The title is odd and puzzling but the subtitle

explains it more clearly. Until 1950 Nepal was

The Forbidden Land and the dream goal of

naturalists and tiger-cum-rhino hunters. The

latter are now practically extinct but the enor-

mous wealth of animal life available in the

area is mainly known from the collections made

by members of the British Embassy in the last

century. After the war and with changed cir-

cumstances others have had access and Japa-

nese, German, American and other expeditions

have made collections of various items adding

to our taxonomic knowledge, but except for

birds and perhaps the game animals our field

knowledge is in almost all instances “nil”.

There are chapters on Zoogeography,

National Parks, Invertebrates, Insects, Aphids,

Mosquitoes, Butterflies, Fishes, Amphibians,

Reptiles, Birds, Mammals (and separately on

several species) with others on Bird Migration,

Pheasants, Spiny Babbler, Gharial, Yeti etc.

The book is dedicated to Robert L. Fleming

Sr., while the chapter on Birds by R. L. Flem-

ing Jr., is undoubtedly the most complete sec-

tion. The other contributors and the Editor

are mostly persons associated with the Tribhu-

van University at Kathmandu, and other

organisations like Ground Water Board

(Physiography), National Parks, Deptt of Agri-

culture, Nepal Malaria Eradication Organisa-

tion etc., etc.

With the publishers, producers, composers,

the printers of the colour plates and of the

subject matter and photos all being different

organisations as far apart as the Punjab and

Thailand, it is difficult to determine who is to

be blamed for the innumerable typographical

errors which have found their way on to almost

every page. Some are quite amusing: A pair

of pelicans visiting Nepal presumably refers to

two species, while it is not difficult to guess

the identity of the Openbellied Stork. Some of

the photographs and sketches are amateurish

and also poorly reproduced.

Inspite of all this, the whole is indeed a

magnificent effort at an “Introduction to Fauna

and Wildlife of Nepal” (printed on the cover),

particularly by a person whose interest was

first aroused by seeing the Rhino diorama at

the American Museum of Natural History. An

attempt has been made by most of the authors

to get together the relevant literature which is

referred to in a Select Bibliography at the end,

making the book a valuable reference for any

work on the fauna of Nepal.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

201

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

2. A CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF PUNJAB AND CHANDIGARH.

By H. S. Toor, A. K. Chakravarthy, M. S. Dhindsa, P. S. Sandhu and

P. K. Ananda Rao. pp. 37 (21x14 cm). Ludhiana, 1982. Punjab

Agricultural University. Price Rs. 4/-.

The publication of checklists of birds of

different parts of the country is an indication

of growing interest in Bird Watching. We have

over 2100 different species and subspecies in

India and a checklist of an average state would

cover 400-600 species, thus lessening the search.

The frequency of local names raised the

hope that the authors had been more success-

ful than most workers until a more careful

scrutiny revealed that the name Jal Kukkri

applied to the Little Grebe, the Common Teal,

The Whitebreasted Waterhen and the Moor-

hen, Chaha meant both Common Sandpiper

and Fantail Snipe, and neel sir stood against

the Mallard and Purple Coot! With the Collar-

ed Bush Chat as the Kalar Wala Pidda and

the Spanish Sparrow as Speni Chiri it became

evident that most of the names are manufac-

tured. This may be a final necessity but the

actually existing local names must first be ex-

hausted before the improvisation starts.

Though a skeletal bibliography exists at the

end, the total number mentioned adds up to

240 species and subspecies (against 416 in the

checklist of the adjoining area of Delhi, Agra

& Bharatpur). Together with the complete ab-

sence of all sandgrouse (3 loc. cit.), the omis-

sion of 11 out of 29 ducks and geese (in the

same Checklist) 3 out of 4 Cranes, 6 of 11

Rails and Crakes, 11 of 15 Plovers, 8 of 17

Larks and many more including 32 out of 39

Warblers, makes it evident that the list is based

on the personal observations of the authors as

is said in the text (p. 3). But the term Check-

list is then a misnomer and we can only hope

the same or other authors will take up the

matter more seriously and prepare a genuine

one.

Though a Checklist can never be complete

and final, it must bring together all that has

been recorded. It must also be noted that Bird

Watching by itself is not Ornithology, though

it may lead to it.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

3. THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF INDIA, PAKISTAN, BANGLA-

DESH, BURMA AND SRI LANKA — a handbook. By K. C. Jayaram.

pp. xxii+475 (24 x 16 cm) with 13 plates and 208 text-figures.

Calcutta, 1981. Director, Zoological Survey of India. Price Rs. 100/-.

Every Indian zoologist, whether at under-

graduate college level or as an accomplished

ichthyologist, has had occasion to refer to the

century-old monumental treatise by Francis

Day, popularly known as “The Fishes of India”,

but whose full title reads : “The fishes of India,

being a natural history of the fishes known to

inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India,

Burma and Ceylon.” It is a tribute to his

methodical, painstaking study that, even after

the lapse of a century, his work of 1875-1878,

comprising 1418 marine and freshwater species,

is still invaluable for a taxonomic study of our

fishes. And Day, to start with, was not even a

professional zoologist; he was an Assistant

Surgeon of the East India Company who came

to India in 1852.

Taxonomy, especially of fishes, is notorious

202

REVIEWS

for its frequent — and to a neophyte, annoy-

ingly perplexing — change in nomenclature,

and the century since Day’s work has been a

proliferation of such changes. So it was but

natural that ichthyologists would try their hand

at revising updating the subject in India. The

authority pre-eminently suited for such a revi-

sion was the late Dr. S. L. Hora who, in the

early thirties of this century, was assigned this

work. But, although he had to his credit well

over 92 technical papers spanning a period of

33 years, his preoccupation with administration

as Director of the Zoological Survey of India,

and his untimely death in 1955, deprived him

of the opportunity of a full-scale revision of

Day’s (1889) two volumes on Fishes in the

“Fauna of British India” series. K. S. Misra

then took up this work with his “An aid to the

identification of the common commercial fishes

of India and Pakistan”, published from 1952

to 1962 and covering 402 species. For the re-

vived “Fauna of India” series, he wrote three

volumes, the last two of which were published

posthumously in 1976. The need for a tho-

roughly revised book on Indian fishes continu-

ed to be felt. Dr. K. C. Jayaram’s book now

fills this important lacuna.

When ichthyologists first came to hear of

Jayaram’s new book, the general feeling was

that it would be a re-hash of Francis Day’s

work. By browsing through the book, however,

I could see that he has done his homework

well, having taken great pains to bring out a

well-researched survey of the taxonomic posi-

tion of the 742 species covered by him.

Day had given a fairly detailed description

of each and every species covered by him,

together with half-tone illustrations for all of

them (with very few exceptions). This necessi-

tated a compilation running to 778 pages and

195 plates, bound as two voluminous tomes.

By restricting his coverage to distribution lists

and keys to species, Jayaram has successfully

managed to have the book in a conveniently

handy (and not heavy) single volume compris-

ing 475 pages. This condensation may some-

times lead a novice to confusion in the identifi-

cation of a species; one wishes the author would

have at least given colour descriptions of all

species, which he has done for quite many.

The author has included, in addition to the

territories covered by Day (Pakistan and

Bangladesh are encompassed in pre-independent

India), fishes from Nepal and Bhutan as well.

His revision of nomenclature is thorough,

and he has given previous generic positions

wherever synonymic changes have taken place,

thus clearing up a lot of confusion which would

have otherwise prevailed. A few examples of

new names for familiar old (but now discard-

ed) fishes are: the genera Pseudoxygaster,

Dangila, Clupanodon, Chatoessus and Jerdonia

are now named Securicula , Labiobarbus, Ano-

dontostoma, Goniolosa and Enobarbichthys,

while Laubuca dadiburjori, Gagata itchkeea,

Colisa chuna and Muraenesox talabonoides are

now Chela ( Neochela ) dadiburjori , Nangra

itchkeea, Colisa sota and Congresox tala. The

author prefers to use the generic name Harpa-

don instead of the more familiar Harpodon.

A few technical mistakes have crept in. Thus,

on page 13, the definition of “Scales from the

back to lateral line” states: “generally the

count is taken from the insertion of the first

dorsal fin including the small scales, counting

downward and backward following the natural

scale row to but not including the lateral line

scale.” But Fig. 2 A on page 8, illustrating this,

shows the count as taken from two scales for-

ward of this row, and the scale on the lateral

line is included.

For Fig. 11 on page 18, the caption states

“Outline drawing of Tetraodon ” (puffer fish),

but the illustration is of Balistes (trigger fish).

203

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

On page 52, for the family Notopteridae

(feather backs or razor fishes), it is stated:

“Dorsal profile not so convex as of ventral

profile.” Apart from faulty construction of the

sentence, the reverse is true.

On page 56, the key no. 1 identifying Salmo

gairdnerii gairdnerii states: “Body without spots

below lateral line.” But Fig. 34 of this fish

shows a few such spots.

Again, although the author has taken care

to revise the distribution of Indian fishes, on

page 176 (footnote) he has wrongly retained

Babu Rao & Yazdani’s (1977) record of occur-

rence of Botia dayi ( = Botia rostrata) from

Mahableshwar. This has been subsequently

found to be a wrong identification of Botia

striata [see Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16

(3): 525-528].

A few errors /omissions in framing sentences

have also crept in, which tend to confuse the

reader. For instance, on page 22: Cranial air-

bladder diverticula are lodged within bullae

formed principally from to intercalare of each

side (word missing between “from” and “to”).

On page 52: The air-bladder diverticula is

closely applied to the lateral aspects of two

otic region (word “two” is wrong). On page

53: Eyes moderate, superior, in part of head.

On page 60: Lips reflected from one of

the other. On page 61 : Scales without any tile-

like or sheath of scales (word “row” is missing

between “tile-like” and “or”). On page 9’:

“ a single row of degenerate along base

of dorsal fin occasionally extending as far as

scales tail”. On page 144: Caudal fin to be

almost of equal length (words “to be” should

actually be “lobe”). On page 317: Mouth wide,

protractile, one extending to front border of

orbit or slightly beyond. On page 392: Skin

covering modified into small or large spines or

laminae in the form of a beak, having a cut-

ting edge and covered with a layer of ivory-

like substance (One line is missing between

“laminae” and “in the”).

The “Remarks” on Garra, comprising ten

lines on the bottom of page 136, are repeated

on top of page 139.

The technical perfection of the book is mar-

red by very slipshod and careless editing. The

reviewer could count well over a 105 spelling

mistakes alone; an erratum sheet from the pub-

lisher is definitely needed. (A list of these mis-

takes is being sent to the author, as they are

too numerous to be listed here.)

Apart from the numerous spelling mistakes,

the text also suffers from the annoyingly fre-

quent omission or misplacement of commas,

which changes the meaning of many sentences.

In consideration of the handicap faced by a

novice, the author has included in his book an

elaborate glossary of words, as well as methods

of various measurements. Had he given some

illustrations about skull bones and/or included

these in his glossary, the budding ichthyologist

would have had his work still more easy. For

example, words like ethmoid, hypural, parietal,

pterosphenoid, post-temporal and zygapophyses

are bewildering to the beginner.

The plates at the end of the book appear

to have been added as an after-thought, or be-

cause money was available to print them. Many

of them are redundant, as the same fishes are

depicted as line drawings in the text, which

latter are far superior in quality of print.

The first plate, depicting Salmo levenensis,

Carassius auratus and Cyprinus carpio commu-

nis, are poor quality photographs of specimens

with folded fins and drooping tails and do not

give a correct idea of the fish’s shape.

Plates II to XIII are, fortunately, half-tone

illustrations, superior in quality to the photo-

graphs of Plate I. But one wishes that the

author had depicted those fishes which had not

been illustrated in the text. As many as 14

204

REVIEWS

species are repeated both in line drawings in

the text as well as in the plates. (See Table

below)

The colour in the last two plates is highly

distorted and not at all like the natural colora-

tion of the live fishes.

If we neglect these lapses on the part of the

author, we find that he has turned out an ex-

cellent treatise. His inclusion of brackish water

fishes which visit fresh water is also welcome,

inasmuch as 185 additional species are thus

covered. A detailed bibliography at the end

will help ichthyologists searching for original

literature referred to in the text.

One wishes that Dr. Jayaram or some other

fish taxonomist brings out a companion volume

treating Indian marine fishes on the same lines.

The book is a “must” for every college and

fisheries institution as well as to individual fish

taxonomists, affordable at its modest price of

Rs. 100/-.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

205

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. ALBINISM IN THE HOUSE SHREW, SUNCUS M. MURINUS

LINNAEUS

Albinism in the house shrew does not

appear to have been recorded before. A

beautiful albino female was collected alive in

Jabalpur city, Madhya Pradesh on 16 October

1975 and kept alive in a wooden cage with

glass top for about three days. The general

colour ranged from pure white to dirty white.

Natural History Research Centre,

Baghdad, Bab Ul Muadham,

Iraq,

June 9, 1982.

2. OCCURRENCE OF PIPISTRELLUS PATERCULUS THOMAS,

1915 (CHIROPTERA : VESPERTILIONIDAE) IN BIHAR: AN

ADDITION TO THE INDIAN MAMMAL FAUNA

The naked parts and colour of iris was pin-

kish. The measurements in mm are: Head

and body, 126; tail, 92; hind foot, 19.5; ear

(from intertragal notch to the tip of the ear),

14.4. The specimen has been deposited in

the collection of Central Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India, Jabalpur.

H. KHAJURIA

While examining the collection of bats from

Bihar present in the National Zoological

Collections (Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta), I came across two specimens of a

pipistrelle (15, 1 $ : Collector N. A. Baptista,

15 Aug. 1922, Z. S. I. Reg. No. 19899 and

16990 respectively) from Buhnar, Darbhanga

Dist., Bihar, labelled as Pipistrellus mimus

Wroughton. On detailed examination of the

skulls, these were identified as Pipistrellus

pater cuius Thomas. The skull characters as

mentioned by Tate (1942) for pater cuius;

‘profile sloping uniformly from brain-case to

rostrum, top of rostrum broad, smooth and

flat and basial pit absent’, are present in these

two specimens. Although externally the speci-

mens are very much alike to P. mimus, the

above mentioned skull characters clearly diffe-

rentiate them from the latter.

' This is, incidentally, the first record of

Pipistrellus pater cuius from India and extends

its distribution much westwards from Mt.

Poppa and Chindwin both in Burma to Bihar,

India.

Measurements — External: Length: Head

and body 39, 41; tail 29, 31; ear 11, 11 (taken

by the collector); Forearm 26.6, 28.7; tibia

9.7, 11; foot including claw 6.2, 6.6 (taken

from dry skins).

Skull: Total length 11.4, 11.7; zygomatic

width 6.9, 7; length of brain-case 6.4, 6.6;

length of rostrum 5, 5.1; maximum height of

rostrum 3.6, 3.4; width of brain-case 6, 5.9;

maxillary width (m3-m3) 5.2, 5.1; length of

upper tooth row (c-m3) 4.2, 4.4; length of

lower tooth row (c-m3) 4.5, -; length of man-

dible 8.3, -.

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Gangetic Plains Regional Station, Y. P. SINHA

Zoological Survey of India,

Rajendra Nagar, Road No. 7,

Patna 800016 (Bihar),

April 28, 1982.

Reference

Tate, G. H. H. (1942) : Review of the vesperti- species of the Archibold Collections. Bull Am. Mus.

lionine bats, with special attention to genera and nat. Hist., 80: 221-297.

3. FURTHER NOTES ON THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF THE

LEOPARD-CAT {FELIS BENGALENSIS ) IN CAPTIVITY

Acharjyo and Mishra (1980) reported the

birth of four litters to the female of a pair of

Leopard-Cats ( Felis bengalensis) at the Nan-

dankanan Biological Park, Orissa upto Decem-

ber, 1978. The present note is intended to

place on record the details of three more lit-

ters born to the female of the same pair of

Leopard-Cats in the same Park.

The pair of Leopard-Cats were housed in

an enclosure having the floor space of

approximately 7 square metres, height 2.80

metres. There were two cave like retiring

dens one above the other at a height of half

a metre from the ground. Each of them was

fed with 300 gms of goat meat and 50 gms of

beef daily. One live chicken to each was given

once a month in place of goat meat and beef.

Out of three litters born during the period

from January, 1979 to August, 1980, two

were recorded in March and one in June.

The size of each of the three litters was always

two and interestingly all the six kittens were

females. The eyes of all these kittens were

closed at birth and the eyes of four kittens

under observation opened on 14th day (two

kittens), 15th day (one kitten) and 16th day

(one kitten). The canines of two kittens

under observation erupted on 29th and 30th

day respectively. The inter-parturition inter-

vals recorded thrice (Dates of birth: 4.7.1978,

30.3.1979, 9.3.1980 and 30.6.1980) were 267

days, 344 days and 112 days respectively gene-

rally depending upon the period of survival

of the kittens after birth. Unfortunately the

female died in August, 1980. During the

period from April, 1976 to August, 1980, she

had given birth to seven litters.

The four kittens born on 30-3-1979 and

9-3-1980 weighed 113 to 120 g with a mean

of 115.75 g and measured 24 to 26 cm from

tip of nose to tip of the tail with a mean of

24.88 cm including tail lengths of 7 cm each

at birth.

Growth: Weekly growth records of two (one

female and one male) mother- reared kittens

born in the Park on 4-7-1978 was maintained

upto 37 weeks (about 81 months) and the

details are given in the Table.

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

A study of this table reveals that the weight

of the kittens were almost doubled at the age

of two weeks and quadrupled at the age of

five weeks. There is a little over ten fold in-

crease of birth weight at the age of 13 weeks

and appeared almost as large as the parents

at the age of 37 weeks (8J months). The

table also reveals that the growth rate of the

male kitten was comparatively faster than the

female kitten.

Both kittens were able to come down from

the upper cave like den on 4-8-1978 (32nd

day) and started licking minced goat meat

along with their mother.

The litter size of three births of this species

at West Berlin Zoo was 1, 3 and 2 respectively,

there were two females and four males and

the births were recorded in April, July and

October (Frese 1980). He has further given

the estimated birth weight of four kittens as

between 100 to 130 g.

The four births of this species were record-

ed as follows: February, 1; March, 1; May,

1; and July, 1 and the litter size was one to

two with a mean of 1.75 kittens per litter

(Acharjyo and Mishra 1980). They have fur-

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack.

Wildlife Conservation Officer,

145-Saheed Nagar,

Bhubaneswar 751007,

October 4, 1982.

Refer

Acharjyo, L. N. and Mishra, Ch. G. (1980):

A note on the Breeding of the Leopard-Cat ( Felis

bengalensis) in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

77: 127-128.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian

Reproduction. Second Edition, Cornell University

Press, Ithaca, New York. pp. 490.

ther stated that there were four females and

three males; at birth seven kittens weighed 93

to 120 g. (mean 113.14 g.) and measured 22

to 25 cm. (mean 24.14 cm.) tip to tip in-

cluding tail lengths of 6.5 to 7 cm. and the

inter-parturition intervals recorded thrice were

81,305 and 104 days respectively mostly de-

pending on the period of survival of the young.

Prater (1971) states that the young of this

species have been obtained in March and May

and 3 to 4 kittens may be born in a litter.

In India, this species mates in May and has 3

to 4 young per litter after a gestation period

of 56 days (Asdell 1964).

Weekly growth record of a female kitten

of this species maintained upto the age of 11

weeks and reported by Acharjyo and Mishra

(1980) reveals the weight of 1.156 kg. at the

age of 11 weeks. A single male kitten born

in a litter doubled its birth weight in 11 days,

quadrupled in 26 days and by 50th day there

was an eight-fold increase in weight whereas

the three male kittens born in another litter

have doubled their birth weight in 25 days,

quadrupled in about 44 days and increased

eight fold in 60 days (Frese 1980).

L. N. ACHARJYO

'

CH. G. MISHRA

E N CE S

Frese, Reinhard (1980) : Some notes on Breed-

ing the Leopard Cat Felis bengalensis at West

Berlin Zoo. International Zoo Year Book, 20 :

220-223.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Third (Revised) Edition. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, pp. 73-74.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. ABNORMAL HORNS IN THE NILGAI

{With a text-figure)

In April 1978 during my study of the wild

dogs of Nagzira Wildlife Sanctuary (Bhandara

District), I located a pack at the water hole

Asstt Manager,

Forest Development Corpn.,

Tilak Nagar,

Nagpur 440 010,

'November 5, 1982.

at Umarzari, While walking towards them I

saw a Nilgai-bull grazing in a plantation. The

shape of its horn was unusual. It was curved

down like a sheep’s horn instead of the straight

and vertical normal horn.

I inquired with local Shikaris and tribals

and understood that such horns among the

Nilgai, though rare, have been noted and such

bulls are known as Mendha nilgai meaning

sheep nilgai.

M. B. CHITAMPALLI

5. GROOMING OF CHITAL BY LANGUR IN KANHA NATIONAL

PARK, INDIA

A close association is known to exist bet-

ween Hanuman langurs {Presbytis entellus )

and chital deer (Axis axis) (Beck & Tuttle

1972, Nagel & Lohri 1973). Langurs drop

large quantities of foliage, buds, flowers and

fruits from trees while foraging which are sub-

sequently utilized by chital. Close affinity may

develop between a band of chital and a troop

of langurs with the chital following a langur

troop about the forest (Paul Newton, pers.

comm.). In this note we record an observation

of a langur grooming a chital in Kanha National

Park in Madhya Pradesh in central India.

At 1320 hrs on 12 January 1982, we were

travelling on elephant back through a mature

Sal (Shorea robusta Roxb.) forest 5 km. S.

of Kanha Village when we disturbed a small

band of chital and associated troop of at

least 10 langurs. One adult chital doe ran

several metres, and stopped to watch us. When

she stopped adjacent to an adult langur of

unknown sex, the langur immediately walked

toward the chital and began grooming its right

rear flank while sitting on the ground behind

the chital. We watched the grooming behaviour

for at least 1 minute as the chital remained

alert and motionless.

Langurs have been observed grooming

domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) in Jodhpur

(Sharma 1977) in an artificial association crea-

ted by man. Toque macaques ( Macaca

sinica) in Sri Lanka have been observed

grooming langurs but reciprocation has not

been observed (W.P.J. Dittus, pers. comm.).

The natural association between chital and

langurs appears to offer distinct advantages to

chital since langurs knock food down from

trees, and also elicit alarm calls when preda-

209

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

tors are observed. The relationship may be and Roonwal and Mohnot (1977) suggest their

symbiotic commensalism because chital also sense of smell is keener than that of langurs,

give alarm calls when predators are detected

Department of Zoology and Physiology, MARK S BOYCE

University of Wyoming,

Laramie, WY. 82071,

U.S.A.

H. D. R. Associates, KENNETH REED

804 Anacapa,

Santa Barbara, CA.,

U.S.A.

College of Veterinary and Animal JACOB V, CHEERAN

Sciences,

Kerala Agricultural University,

Mannuthi 690 651,

Kerala, India,

May 14, 1982.

References

Beck, B. B. and Tuttle, R. (1972) : The Behavior

of Grey Langurs at a Ceylonese Water Hole. Pages

351-377. In : R. Tuttle (ed.), The Functional and

Evolutionary Biology of Primates. Aldine, Ather-

ton, Chicago, 487 pp.

Nagel, U. and Lohri, F. (1973) : Die Languren

der Kanha-Wiesen. Stellung im Okosystem, Kom-

mensalismus mit Axishirschen und Press-Soziologie.

Vierteljahrsschrift naturl. Ges Zurich 118 (1) : 71-85.

Roonwal, M. L. and Mohnot, S. M. (1977):

Primates of South Asia. Ecology, Sociobiology and

Behavior. Harvard University Press, Cambridge,

Massachusetts, U.S.A. 421 pp.

Sharma, I. K. (1977) : Development of Com-

mensalism between Prey and Predator. Am. Nat.

Ill : 1009-1010.

6. MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE PLUMBEOUS DOLPHIN,

SOUSA PLUMBEA, CUVIER, 1829

Free wild cetaceans are notoriously diffi-

cult to study for obvious reasons. Most of

their activity and behavioural repertoire must

take place beneath the water and out of sight

of the human observer. Because there are so

few written accounts of the behaviour of even

the smaller dolphin species outside of the

artificial conditions of aquaria and captivity,

it seems worthwhile recording in detail obser-

vations made of a group of Plumbeous Dol-

phins in the Indus delta which corresponds

closely with previous reported possible mating

behaviour (see Pilleri et al. “Cetaceans of

Southwest and Monsoon Asia”, 1973-74).

The Plumbeous Dolphin ( Sousa plumbed),

is a neritic species preferring to feed close in

shore and in tidal creeks and mangrove chan-

nels. It is a relatively large dolphin (adults

210

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

measure 2.3 to 2.75 m. in body length and

may weigh up to 200 kg.), with a prominently

developed narrow rostrum or beak armed with

about 36 sharp pointed and non-differentiated

conical teeth in each jaw (Roberts, 1977).

Such a physiognomy would enable it to prey

upon quite large and swift fish species, but

there is also evidence that small cuttle fish

( Sepia spp.) and even prawns form a large

part of their diet in Pakistan coastal waters.

Along the Mekran coast and particularly in

Sonmeani lagoon and the Indus delta creeks,

the Plumbeous Dolphin is quite common, be-

ing usually encountered in small groups of 5

or 6 animals and allowing smaller motor ves-

sels to approach as close as 5 metres before

diving deeply and taking evasive action by

swimming underwater and at right angles to

the passage of the boat.

The ususual behaviour recorded hereunder

occurred between 12.00 and 14.30 hours on

January 15th 1982 in clear sunny weather at

a location known as Pitiani Creek, a wide

channel some 60 miles southeast of Karachi

and inside the labyrinth of the Indus mangrove

channels. The observations were made from

a hired fishing boat of approximately 16 feet

beam, by Mr. Khan Mohammed Khan, De-

puty Conservator of Forests and administrator

of the Sind Wildlife Management Board, and

by Miss Janet Knuckey, a New Zealand

national who has previously made extensive

studies of the Indus Dolphin ( Platanista indi).

An unusually large school of Plumbeous

Dolphins caught the attention of the party

because individuals were leaping completely

out of the water and producing loud splashes.

Normally this species is relatively sluggish and

does not leap bodily out of the water and

keeps in small pods of 3 to 6 animals. In

this instance an estimated 25 to 30 animals

were observed in scattered groups over a radi-

us of about 400 metres. They were in shallow

water of about 3 metres depth and 50 to 100

metres from a sandy beach. Quite frequently

silt from the bottom was stirred up by the

cavorting dolphins which exhibited the follow-

ing striking behaviour.

Broad side leaping : Adult animals would

leap suddenly wholly out of the water, always

on their sides or twisting while in mid-air and

invariably trying to land back in the middle

of the swimming pod of dolphins and always

hitting the water on their right side. Only

one individual at a time would do this, usually

from amongst a group of 3 or 4 animals.

Vertical rising : This appeared to be the

most significant behaviour pattern. Two ani-

mals would rise vertically out of the water,

belly to belly and sometimes almost until

three-quarters of their bodies were wholly out

of the water. They would hold this position

for 1 to 2 seconds only before sinking in the

same vertical position back into the water.

It is speculated by Dr. G. Pilleri who saw

similar behaviour in the Persian Gulf (loc.

cit.), that this was probably copulatory behavi-

our. Whenever this behaviour was deserved

it appeared to involve only two animals with

no evidence of any third dolphin in the vici-

nity. Moreover vertical rising always occurred

well out in mid-channel where the water was

presumably deepest, probably a necessary con-

dition to achieve the acceleration required for

breaching vertically (Khan Mohammed Khan,

pers. comm.).

Tail slapping: One animal out of a group

would raise its tail almost vertically out of

the water until the dorsal fin was exposed and

then slap it downwards onto the surface with

a smack like a rifle shot. This did not cause

any panic amongst the others in the group

and was not a preliminary to diving and eva-

sive action but seemed rather an expression

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

of “high spirits”.

Surface rolling : Two or three animals in

one group would roll horizontally around one

another and either on the surface or just

beneath it.

Resting on the surface : A single animal

would separate itself from its group, often ap-

proaching very close to the boat where it

would hang motionless on the surface for

several seconds, most of its dorsal surface

being exposed. During this short interval it

would expire audibly two or three times.

Whenever a single individual was observed

“resting on the surface”, it appeared relati-

vely close in shore and in the shallow waters.

Generally before broadsiding, tail slapping or

vertical rising was observed, a tight group of

three animals would appear to synchronise

their movements very closely, swimming close

alongside each other and rising simultaneously

to breathe.

Interpretations : These can only be specu-

lative, but since these Dolphins rarely associate

in groups of more than 6 to 12 animals, the

aggregation of over 25 dolphins would appear

to be associated with the oestrus state of cer-

tain females.

In a dolphin which normally never breaches

out of the water, and if it does so it is with its

body held in a vertical plane, the broad-side

leaping within a close formation group could

P. O. Box 3311,

Malir City Post Office,

Karachi-23,

Pakistan,

November 9, 1982.

be an attempt by rival males to displace a

consort and get close to an oestrus female.

Tail slapping has been observed in Delphinus

species as a warning signal, invariably follow-

ed by panic dispersal (Knuckey, pers. comm.)

but in the case of these Plumbeous Dolphins

no reaction was observed from associated ani-

mals and the display, if not one of “joie de

vivre”, was certainly not associated with panic

or danger warnings. In fact until the group

dispersed and swam purposefully away after

almost 21 hours of continuous observation,

they appeared quite undisturbed by the proxi-

mity of the boat (which was of course drifting

with the engine switched off).

Surface rolling certainly appears to be as-

sociated with courtship or mating behaviour

whilst the surface resting could possibly be

in associating with a second individual invisi-

ble beneath the water’s surface or it might be

the deliberate separation of one individual

from a group while it rapidly inhales an extra

supply of oxygen. If copulation actually took

place at this time it would indicate a gestation

period of approximately nine months, since

females of this species are generally observed

with small calves from late September and

during October, and pregnant females have

been autopsied in late August and early

September.

T. J. ROBERTS

KHAN MOHAMMED KHAN

JANET KNUCKEY

References

Pilleri, G. AND Gihr, M. (1973-74) : Investiga- Switzerland,

tions on Cetacea. Vol. V. “Cetaceans of Southwest Roberts, T. J. (1977): Mammals of Pakistan.

& Monsoon Asia”, Brain Anatomy Institute, Berne, Ernest Benn Ltd. 315 p.

212

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON BREEDING OF THE CHINESE

WHITEBREASTED WATERHEN AMAURORN1S PHOENICURUS

CHINENSIS (BODDAERT)

The Chinese Whitebreasted Waterhen

Amaurornis phoenicurus chinensis (Boddaert),

locally known as jal kukkari, has become

quite a common bird in the Punjab with the

spread of rice cultivation during the last few

years. Inspite of its common occurrence

throughout the northern India, Sikkim, Bhu-

tan duars, Assam, Nepal and West Pakistan,

very little is known about its breeding habits

(Ali and Ripley 1969). Even the incubation

period had not been recorded so far.

We recorded some observations on a nest

of this bird at Ludhiana (30°56'N, 75°52'E),

Punjab and have been able to add some new

information. A brief account of the observa-

tion follows:

Nest : The nest was located on a small

mango ( Mangifera indica Linnaeus) tree at

about 1130 hr on 23 June 1981 near a stock-

ing pond at the Fisheries Research Complex

of the Punjab Agricultural University. It was

built among branches of the tree 3.73 m high

from the ground level. The material used to

construct the nest was dry twigs, feathers,

grass, dry leaves and pieces of polythene.

Some thin iron wires and two comparatively

thicker spokes of cycle wheel were entangled

into the nest to strengthen it.

The nest was a cone-shaped structure hav-

ing a cup at the top. The length (from lower

to upper end) and diameter of the cone were

17 cm and 28 cm respectively. The cup was

8 cm deep and 14 cm in diameter. After

completion of the clutch, the cup of the nest

was lined with a layer of grass which decreas-

ed its depth by about 1 cm.

Eggs: The eggs are oval with light pink

background and blotches of light brown, dark

brown and light violet colour. The blotches

are denser on the blunt ends of the eggs.

On 23 June, 1981, when the nest was first

discovered there were four eggs in it. These

were marked 1 to 4 with a lead pencil, mea-

sured with vernier callipers and weighed with

a two-pan field balance true to 100 mg. Ano-

ther egg was laid on 24 June and the clutch

of six eggs was completed on 25 June. Earlier

workers have reported the clutch size of this

bird to be four to eight (Baker 1929, Whistler

1949, Ali and Ripley 1969).

The data on size and weight of the eggs

and the dates of their laying and hatching

have been shown in Table 1. Average size

Table 1

Size, weight and the dates of laying and hatching

OF EGGS

S.D. = standard deviation.

* = not exactly fresh weight as these eggs were

weighed on 23 June.

Incubation period on the basis of last egg =19 days.

of 6 eggs was 38.75 ±0.92 x 28.70±0.34 mm.

Earlier, Baker (1929) reported average size

of 100 eggs of this bird as 40.5 x 29.7 mm.

Average weight of the eggs was 17.47 ±0.55 g.

The first four eggs could not be weighed

afresh. This, however, does not seem to in-

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

troduce error in the average egg weight be-

cause the birds probably started incubation

after laying of the third egg (i.e., on the day

the fourth egg was laid) as revealed by the

hatching of first three chicks on single day

(12 July). The weight of eggs starts decreas-

ing only when the parents supply heat during

incubation .

Incubation Period : Sixth egg of the clutch,

which was laid on 25 June, hatched on 14

July. Therefore, the incubation period (on

the basis of last egg of the clutch) was 19

days.

Newly Hatched Chick : The newly hatched

chick of the Chinese Whitebreasted Waterhen

is precocial and nidifugous. It is covered with

silky black down feathers throughout the body

excepting legs and bill. The bill is greyish

black with sides of about l/3rd anterior part

of upper mandible and distal half of lower

mandible whitish in colour. At the tip of

the upper mandible is present a pure white

egg tooth. Legs and feet are greyish black.

The measurements of one chick at hatching

were as follows: weight 11.7 g, culmen 10.5

mm, tarsus 19 mm and wing 23 mm.

Department of Zoology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana- 141 004,

Punjab,

August 13, 1981.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1969): The Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan together

with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon,

Vol. 2, pp. 168-170. Oxford Univ. Press, Bombay,

London, New York.

Baker, E. C. S. (1929): The Fauna of British

Fate of the Chicks : It is already known

that the chicks of this bird at hatching are

very active (Ali and Ripley 1969). Therefore,

the first hatched chicks probably leave the

nest before hatching of all eggs of the clutch.

According to Ali and Ripley (1969) this

species usually constructs its nests either on

the ground or “in the interior of a shrub or

bamboo clump up to 2 to 3 metres from the

ground”. The present nest, however, was

built among branches of a small mango tree

at a height of 3.73 m. There was no vegetation

at the base of this tree and the bare ground

was quite hard. This unusual site of the nest

and its more height from the ground proved

fatal for the chicks. Three chicks which

hatched on 12 July died by falling to the

ground while attempting to leave the nest

around noon of the same day. Two more

chicks hatched and died similarly on 13 July.

The sixth chick also met with the same fate

on 14 July. The nesting success of the pair

was, therefore, zero. Selection of the wrong

nesting site seems to be the cause of repro-

ductive failure of the pair.

MANJIT S. DHINDSA

P. S. SANDHU

H. S. TOOR

EN CES

India, including Ceylon and Burma, Birds Vol. VI,

p. 24. Taylor and Francis, London.

Whistler, H. (1949) : Popular Handbook of

Indian Birds (Fourth Edition), pp. 437-438. Oliver

and Boyd. Edinburgh and London.

214

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. OCCURRENCE OF THE SOOTY TERN ( STERNA FUSCATA) AT

POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU

After the publication of the earlier note

( JBNHS , Vol. 78 (2) : 377) I picked up ano-

ther specimen of this species on the seashore

at Point Calimere (10°18'N; 79°51'E), Than-

javur Dist., Tamil Nadu, on 17th June 1981.

Only the wings (287 mm.) are preserved in

the B.N.H.S. collection (Reg. No. 26083).

This is the first record of its occurrence on

the eastern side of Tamil Nadu, one storm-

tossed (?) individual having been for id at

Tirunelveli (ind. hb. vol. 3: 62). It would

appear that the species is occasionally found

on the mainland, being swept inland or cast

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

January 8, 1982.

ashore.

In the meantime Mr. H. Abdulali (Per.

comm.) again visited the Vengurla Rocks,

West Coast, India on 10th May 1981 and saw

several dessicated wings and remains of terns.

They included one body and wings which are

undoubtedly of this species and his first re-

cord (1942, JBNHS, 43 (3): 446-451) was

no doubt correct. See his note below.

I thank Dr. R. Sugathan for providing faci-

lities for the field work. This observation is

part of the Society’s Avifauna Project.

V. C. AMBEDKAR

9. PIGEONS ( COLUMBA LIVIA) NESTING ON THE GROUND —

SOME MORE BIRD NOTES FROM THE VENGURLA ROCKS

Twelve species of terns have been recorded

from the neighbourhood of Bombay and seve-

ral of the marine forms were known to nest

on the Vengurla Rocks, 4 to 5 miles off-shore

about 200 miles south of Bombay and one

of the few places where they are known to

do so.

As far back as February 1875, Hume (Stray

Feathers 4: 420) visited Burnt Island the

largest of the group and found innumerable

addled and broken eggs with dessicated corp-

ses of young and old birds, which he confi-

dently named as the Brown- winged Tern

Sterna anaetheta. In addition he found a few

very much larger eggs which were too decayed

for preservation but which had “the charac-

teristic markings of one of the larger Laridae”

and which may well have been of Sterna bergii.

In February 1938 and March 1941, I visited

the island again ( JBNHS 41: 661-664, and

43: 446-451) and though no terns were seen

on the island we found evidence similar to

that obtained by Hume for the nesting of

Sterna anaetheta, fuscata, bergii, repressa and

dougalli. In view of the element of uncertainty

attached to the identification of S. dougalli and

the possibility of having over-looked some of

the other oceanic species occasionally washed

into Bombay during the monsoon, I had always

wanted to make a visit during, or as close as

possible to, their breeding period, presumably

during the monsoon i.e. June to September.

215

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

'

Early this year I was able to get the assist-

ance of Vice-Admiral M. P. Awati, Flag Offi-

cer Commander-in-Chief, Western Naval

Headquarters, Bombay, who offered to have

us dropped on the island by a naval frigate

en route to Goa and to pick us up on its

return a day or so later.

Accompanied by Rishad Naoroji, a keen

photographer of birds, we boarded the I.N.S.

“Himgiri” on the night of Friday 8th May

1981. The ship sailed on the following morn-

ing and during the coming night anchored

about 1 mile south-east of Burnt Island.

When forty years younger, I had discovered

that the rocks were “the hardest in the world

to sleep upon” and this did not make me

very anxious to be marooned thereon for

twentyfour hours or more with no terns to

look at. It was therefore arranged that we

land early in the morning and decide in half

an hour if we would like to be taken off at

11 a.m. or stay till the morrow. A helicopter

recce put out at 6 a.m. came back to report

some “sparrow-like” birds. We took off in

a motor-propelled whaler at about 6-30 a.m.

with the paraphernalia necessary to stay over-

night. As we approached the rocks a large

flight of birds in the distance which appeared

to have taken off the island raised hopes. A

little nearer, we saw small flocks of pigeons

(Columba livid) come off the lighthouse rock,

and it was evident that the others could only

be the same, though as many as a hundred

were seen together at one time.

On the first trip we had seen a small flock

of 10 to 15 pigeons, including an albino, and

noted that one collected had fed on grass

seeds. Hume had also seen them in 1875.

The second time he noted a few flying out of

the cave. Their numbers had now multipled

enormously. There can be no doubt that these

are feral and must have originated from those

on the lighthouse island half a mile away.

They have probably resorted to nesting on

the flat ground after the standard ledge sites

inside the cave and elsewhere were exhausted.

There is no evidence of their going to the

mainland to feed, but the large flight first seen

may suggest some form of concerted move-

ment. I would estimate about 200 pigeons

on the island.

Landing had to be made by jumping on to

tide-washed rocks, and our luggage, including

the camera, was left behind. The island was

more broken up than I remembered and we

clambered through the coarse grass and other

low vegetation which covered every inch of

the island which was not bare rock. The dried-

up remains of birds picked up in the opener

areas included mummified chicks and wings

of pigeons and terns but the latter appeared

to be fewer than before.

Out of the dense grass and other vegetation

numbers of pigeons rose with a fluster in the

manner of the Painted Partridge when beaten

out near Bombay (though of course never

so numerous ! ) . A closer examination revealed

that the birds were rising off their nests most-

ly with 2 eggs or young. Some 15 nests were

examined. As I did not remember seeing or

reading of pigeons nesting on flat ground in

the shelter of small overhanging stones or

tussocks of grass in the manner of game birds,

the apparent sparsity of the remains of terns

and the abundance of the pigeons, prompted

the suggestion that the latter had driven off

the terns and appropriated the island to them-

selves. I put this to Derek Goodwin of the

British Museum (N. H.) at Tring and though

he did not think this likely he suggested that

I put my notes on record, for they were un-

usual. He also referred me to Moreau in

Ibis 1944: 36 where he noted the surprising

predilection of the dove Streptopelia semitor -

216

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

quota Ruppel for islets in the Mafia group all

down the east African coast. Here Piggot

found many of them nesting (with eggs) in

bushes on the coral islets, “where they come

flighting in to roost from the mainland every

evening.”

The cave where we had seen numbers of

the Edible-nest Swiftlet was examined from

the fallen-in-skylight. Some of the Swiftlets

were seen (9.30 a.m.) flying about near the

entrance both over the sea and the island.

On our earlier visits we had only seen them

when they left at daylight and returned in

the evening. No nests were visible from the

skylight and it was difficult to imagine how

we had reached the mouth of the cave at sea-

level without any ropes.

Four Turnstones were seen on the tide-flood-

ed floor of the cave entrance. This was rather

late in the season.

Except for the remnants referred to above,

there was no trace of the terns until at about

10 a.m. Rishad drew attention to some 50

birds circling up in the air east of the island

over the water half-a-mile away. They were

largish birds with the upperparts showing

brown and the underparts pure white when

they turned in flight. The bill and feet were

dark. They were undoubtedly Sterna anae-

theta. After some watching they appeared to

be of 2 distinct sizes, the larger birds show-

ing black and not brown above. These were

fuscata a fact confirmed by the measurement

of the dry wings picked up on the island.

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay-400 003,

January 8, 1982.

This removes the doubt regarding this species

expressed after examination of the material

collected on the second trip. There were

many more anaetheta than fuscata. They flew

in circles fairly high over the water making

no attempt at fishing. They would occasion-

ally scatter and reassemble on the other side

of the island. Single birds or pairs often

separated and flew in a line towards the is-

land, but did not reach it.

Three large terns with orange bills ( S . her -

gii) flew across, calling loudly.

On the west of the island about half-a-mile

away large numbers of small terns were scat-

tered over the water, many moving together

but all more or less staying in the same area.

The mummified chicks were identified by

Dr. Jon Fieldsa, Zoological Museum, Univer«

sity of Copenhagen, Denmark, as of the Little

Tern ( Sterna albifrons subsp.) and this is the

first record of this species nesting on this is-

land. The subspecies could not be deter-

mined but the nearest breeding records from

near Bombay are of S. a. sinensis the White —

shafted Ternlet.

We are indebted to Admiral Awati for

arranging the trip and to Captain Singh for

the courtesy and co-operation extended to us

during the voyage. We hope it will be possi-

ble to visit the island again at a more oppor-

tune time and get more information about

the birds which nest there and also determine

if the increase in the number of feral pigeons

has in any way affected the breeding of the

maritime species.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

10. GOLDEN ORIOLE ( ORIOLUS ORIOLUS) NEST IN BOMBAY

I was surprised when I learnt that there was

no authentic record of the Golden Oriole

( Oriolus oriolus) nesting in the Bombay area,

the nearest record of nests, as Mr. Humayun

Abdulali informed me being from Pune in

the Deccan and from Baroda in Gujarat state.

I had observed the oriole breeding during

1979-80 around Kandivli, a suburb in North

Bombay. Also, I had found a pair making a

nest sometime in May-80 on a jambool tree

near the MLA hostel at Churchgate. Unfor-

tunately this pair did not breed there and the

nest was subsequently destroyed. However,

this year (1981), on 8th May, a nest of the

Golden Oriole was found on the grounds of

a cattle farm at Kandivli.

The nest was about thirty five feet high on

an outhanging branch of a huge Rain tree

( Pithecolobium samari). According to obser-

vations that could be made from below the

45/46, “Madhurima”,

M. G. Road,

Kandivli (W.),

Bombay-400 067,

August 18, 1981.

bird was probably incubating. It would

occasionally be away from its nest for as long

as 15-20 minutes after which one of the birds

would come and settle in the nest — incubate?

This was surprising, because hardly 25 feet

from the Oriole’s nest was a nest of the Com-

mon House Crow ( Corvus splendens ), where

the bird was incubating. Also not very far

from the Oriole’s nest, a Black Drongo ( Die -

rurus adsimilis) was seen making a nest which

it abandoned when the nest was more than

halfway through.

This nest of the Golden Oriole being a new

record for Bombay and its surroundings, I

contacted Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who came

down and saw it on the 14th May. On 29th

May, the female Oriole was seen bringing

food to its nest, to its nestlings. According

to a friend, Joslin, the nestlings flew away in

the second week of June.

S. G. MONGA

J. RODRIQUES

11. NOCTURNAL HABITS OF BLACK DRONGO

( D1CRURUS ADSIMILIS)

On many occasions I have observed drongos

hawking insects at street lamps at night. Seve-

ral birds would perch on the electric wire and

make aerial sallies on insects attracted by the

light, especially after first rains when swarms

of insects come out of the ground and fly around

street lamps. Once I saw a drongo making a

27A/1, Civil Lines,

Nagpur,

August 29, 1981.

dash at a Spotted Owlet ( Athene brama)

which was perching on a wire. What is in-

teresting is that the drongos appeared to be

quite active around the light even though it

was pitch dark everywhere.

No mention has been made about this be-

haviour in available literature.

NITIN JAMDAR

218

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

12. HABITS OF THE BANK MYNA, ACRWOTHERES GINGIN1ANUS

In the handbook (1972, Vol. 5:1981-2)

there is a lively description of the habits of

the Bank Myna, Acridotheres ginginianus,

which in addition to its presence in restless

small flocks near refuge dumps, railway sta-

tions, near food stalls and some bazaars (Old

Delhi), is traditionally found in fields follow-

ing the ploughing cattle or perched familiarly

on cattle and buffalo’s backs and heads look-

ing for ticks or insects disturbed by their feet.

My wife and I with an American Embassy

Officer, Peter Kaestner, had been commenting

on the species’ characteristic presence in cul-

tivated land near cattle on Janaury 12, 1982

near the Sultanpur Jheels in Haryana while

bird watching.

On January 13, the following day, the two

of us took the morning Delhi-Bombay flight

from Delhi airport. On our way out to the

aircraft, wandering over the vast artificial de-

Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D. G, U.S.A.

January 15, 1982.

sert of tarmac with parked and moving planes,

there were no birds visible except for an

occasional moving kite taking advantage of a

thermal updraft. However, we soon spotted

a new adaptation of the cattle-riding habit.

Here and there in the scattering of vehicular

traffic, there were food catering vans, coming

or going to the parked planes. Riding confi-

dently on the roof, the front bonnet, or the

rear ledge near the open sliding rear door of

the food carrier were groups and individual

busy Bank Mynas, the only bird species seen,

quite at home and seemingly well adapted to

their novel conveyance. They clustered only

on the catering vans, not on the buses or cars,

or fuel tankers. The Bank Myna appears to

have adapted thus to a new urbanized niche,

as I have not noticed them before in this other-

wise sterile environment.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

13. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE INTELLIGENCE OF CROWS

It is interesting to watch the behaviour of

birds and specially of crows. Wherever water

pots are hung on the branches of trees for

birds, it is fascinating to watch the types of

birds namely pigeons, sparrows, bulbuls, bab-

blers, parakeets, doves, mynas, sunbirds, crows

and other smaller birds perch on the pot to

drink. Once the birds get used to certain

water pots they visit them regularly and some

time baffled when the water level is not re-

plenished or the pot is empty. Invariably, it

has been seen that crows consume the maxi-

mum share from the pot. It is interesting and

surprising to observe a crow carrying in its

beak a dried piece of bread (Chapati) and

placing it inside the water pot for a couple

of minutes, then it picks up and settles down

on a higher branch to consume it. Thus it

is evident that the object of placing the dried

piece of bread is to soften it for easy con-

sumption.

Another instance observed was that when

a crow is about to build its nest, it picks up

lots of small thin sticks from all over like any

219

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

other bird. When it gets hold of a small lump

of coconut fibre, it carries the same and places

it inside the water pot for a few minutes.

The thoroughly soaked bit of fibre is picked

up and the crow settles down on the ground.

I/C Silviculture,

Cenral Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur, Rajasthan,

January 15, 1982.

By pressing the lump of fibre on the ground

with one claw, the crow peels off small strips

with its beak and thus manages to use the

entire lot for its nest. Such intelligence is

probably noticeable in the case of crows only.

K. D. MUTHANA

14. NEST BUILDING ERROR BY A FEMALE PURPLERUMPED

SUNBIRD

In July this year I was watching a Purple-

rumped Sunbird building her nest in a

Bougainvilia bush in my garden. The usual

excited twittering which accompanies this acti-

vity could be heard throughout the day for

about a week.

On closer inspection of the completed nest

I was surprised to find that she had made a

strange error during it’s construction. The

nest had no opening at all. It was closed all

round like a deflated balloon. There was no

attempt at a projecting porch either. The

pendant nature was basically like a normal

nest, but it was not fully expanded like a cor-

rectly designed one.

After several days of excited twittering and

repeatedly settling on the nest and hopping

all around it, the pair unhappily left it alone.

The female sunbird appeared agitated but was

unable to take any corrective steps to create

a hole, after the completion of the nest. This

was not surprising as the entrance hole is for-

med during the early stage of building the

nest.

I find that in a fairly large number of nests

the entrance hole is placed facing the bush.

I presume that the birds prefer to alight on

the nest after having checked out its safety

by hopping around in the bush if danger ap-

pears to be at hand. In this case there were

several other trees and bushes close to the

nest site. This may have confused her about

its placement? The rather thin appearance of

the nest is explainable, as I have noticed that

the female after nearly completing the nest

enters it, and by ruffling out her wings re-

peatedly expands it from within. This in-

creases the space inside and probably makes

the nest more comfortable for her. Since

there was no way of entering this nest she

could not get inside for finishing touches.

However, I was unable to find out what had

gone wrong during building of this nest.

Could this have been a young immature

female perhaps indulging in nest building for

the first time? Is it possible that she could not

decide in which direction to place the hole

and thus did not make one at all?

23/5 Bund Garden Road,

Pune-411 001,

October 14, 1981.

ERACH K. BHARUCHA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. COMMUNITY BATHING BY SUNBIRDS AND WHITE-EYES

IN SUMMER

At the peak of the summer when Pune is

incredibly hot and dry, I have observed a

rather unusual phenomenon. At sun-up on

these very hot mornings there is always some

moisture on the wide banana leaves. A large

number of Purple Sunbirds, Purple ramped

sunbirds and White-eyes collect on these

leaves for a community bath. I have seen

several birds, as many as twenty at a time,

aggregated on the four banana trees in my

garden. They have a bath on the wet drops,

and sometimes also drink the drop. I have

23/5 Bund Garden Road,

Pune-411001,

October 14, 1981.

seen them fluttering their wings and sliding

down the sloping central rib. They also turn

on their side to wet their wings more effecti-

vely.

The birds often squabble over the leaves

which have the most moisture. As the sun

rises further the leaves dry up and the birds

move off to come back the next morning.

This summer I watched this for about three

weeks, by which time the monsoons came and

put an end to this daily morning activity.

ERACH K. BHARUCHA

16. RECIPROCAL PREDATION BETWEEN A WEAVER BIRDS AND

A LIZARD SPECIES

While studying the ecology of weaver birds

in the Punjab, we have come across an inter-

esting interaction between a weaver bird and

a lizard species. We observed adult Baya

Weavers Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus) hunt-

ing small young of the Common Garden Li-

zard Calotes versicolor Daudin and feeding

them to their nestlings on 24 August 1979

at Village Bias Pind, District Jullundur. The

parts of young Calotes lizards were also re-

covered from the gut of 10.9% (6 out of 55)

Baya nestlings killed for studying their food

from the same area during 1979. This clearly

established that these lizards were common

constituents of the nestling diet of Baya in

the study area. On the contrary, the adult

lizards of the same species were recorded

feeding on eggs of the Baya Weaver birds.

Therefore, Ploceus philippinus and Calotes

versicolor were predating upon the young

stages of each other.

There are no earlier records of the Baya

Weaver feeding on lizards in any part of India.

However, Calotes versicolor is already a known

predator of eggs and young of birds (Smith

1934). Ali and Ambedkar (1957) also re-

corded a Calotes lizard feeding on eggs of the

Baya. In the study area, Calotes lizards were

observed predating also upon eggs of the

Blackthroated Weaver Ploceus benghalensis

(Linnaeus) and the Streaked Weaver P.

manyar (Horsfield) but these two weaver

species did not predate upon lizards.

According to Professor T.R.E. Southwood

(Pers. Comm.) there may be several other

similar instances, particularly where the young

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

stages of the predators are smaller. There

has been no particular term applied to such

observations as yet and, therefore, the term

‘reciprocal predation’ is proposed hereby. Re-

ciprocal predation in general can be defined

as predation by a prey species on the young

stages of its predator species.

Department of Zoology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab,

December 8, 1981.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. T. R. E. Southwood,

Linacre Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Oxford for replying to our en-

quiry and giving useful comments and sug-

gestions. The first author is thankful to the

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (U.P.)

for financing his research on weaver birds

with a Wildlife Research Fellowship.

MANJIT S. DHINDSA

H. S. TOOR

References

Ali, S. and Ambedkar, V. C. (1957): Further Smith, M. A. (1934): The Fauna of British

notes on the Baya Weaver bird, Ploceus philippinus India including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and

Linn. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 491-502. Amphibia, Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis, London.

17. SIGHT RECORD OF SERINUS PUSILLUS AT MANANG,

CENTRAL NEPAL

On 17 November 1981 we observed an adult

Red-fronted Serin ( Serinus pusillus) at about

3960 m near Manang, central Nepal (approx.

28°50'N, 83°55'E). The bird was first seen at

1540 hours at a distance of about 2.4 m, per-

ched in a small thorn bush ( Carangana sp.)

on an arid scrub-covered hill side. It was

noted as a small, heavily streaked finch, with

a dark face and red forehead but colours were

difficult to determine as we were looking into

the sun. It was flushed after about half a

minute and flew off down the slope accom-

panied by a second bird. It was relocated

after a minute about 10 m away and was

observed for a further minute perched in a

thorn bush and on the ground. The red

‘guardsman’s cap’ top to the head and dark

face were very conspicuous; the body was a

pale yellowish background colour, heavily

streaked dark brown; the pale orange-yellow

rump was obvious in flight. The second bird

was only observed briefly and appeared to be

similar to the first.

The Red-fronted Serin ranges across the

mountains of Asia Minor as far east as the

north-western Himalayas, Ladak and Kashmir

(Paynter 1968, Hue and Etchecopar 1970).

Flemming et al. (1979) record it as “fairly

common” in North Nepal occurring “as far

east as the Kali Gandaki”, which they regard

as a biogeographical division between Eastern

and Western species. Our record appears to

be the most easterly of the species in Nepal,

being to the east of the Kali Gandaki Valley

and separated from it by a spur of mountains

running north from Annapurna Himalaya.

222

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

DAVID S. MELVILLE

VICKY J. HAMILTON

C/ O 44 The Ridgeway,

Tonbridge,

Kent TN 10 4NJ,

England,

June 22, 1982.

References

Fleming, R. L. Sr. Fleming, R. L. Jr., and

Bangdel, L.S. (1979) : Birds of Nepal. Avalok,

Kathmandu.

Hue, F. and Etceiecopar, R. D. (1970): Les

Oiseaux du Proche et du Moyen Orient. Boubee,

Paris.

Paynter, R. A. (Ed.) (1968) : Check-list of the

birds of the World. Vol. XIV. Museum of Com-

parative Zoology, Cambridge.

18. OCCURRENCE OF EMBER1ZA CIA NEAR PUNE

The occurrence of Rock Bunting ( Emberiza

cia) has been recorded on four instances since

1977 near Pune. A single bird was observed

on all occasions. A photographic evidence to

confirm though not of good quality, was ob-

tained on one of the occasions. The details

of occurrence and habitat are as below.

Occurrence :

Field Characteristics’.

The typical black bands on the forehead,

crown and cheeks together with bluish-grey

chest confirmed with the field characteristics

of a Rock Bunting. The bird seen in the

month of July showed rich chestnut-brown

breeding plumage. The sex identification,

however, could not be done in the field.

Habitat :

All the above places happen to be near

Ghat roads. The northern slopes of these

Ghats (where all four birds were seen in the

various instances) are gradually sloping and

are at lower altitudes as compared to their

respective southerly slopes. The birds were

seen on stony barren slopes at the base of the

hills. The habitat in general was stony scrub

jungle.

Behaviour :

The solitary birds were seen eating grass

seeds and calling ‘chee-up chee-up’ during

their short dipping flights. They were often

seen on almost vertical walls of loose red soil

(Red bowl) on rocky clefts.

Typical birds seen in the Habitat :

Crested Bunting (common resident), Grey-

necked Bunting (winter visitor, found to stay

back till late June), finch larks, Whitebellied

Minivet, Painted Sandgrouse.

123 Kasba Peth, SHRIKANT INGALHALIKAR

Pune-411 Oil,

November 6, 1981.

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

19. UNUSUAL BIRD RECORDS FROM THE BOMBAY AREA

I spent from 10th to 14th December 1981

in northern Bombay and subsequently sub-

mitted a list of the birds seen, to Mr. H. Abdul-

ali. He kindly pointed out that the following

three records were somewhat unusual.

Anser indicus (Latham) Barheaded Goose

Three flew low over Powai Lake at 07.15

on 14th December, circled round the lake, but

did not settle.

Buteo rufinus (Cretzschmar) Longlegged

Buzzard

Single birds seen in flight over Borivli

National Park on 13 th December and over

Powai on 14th December were identified as

Merlwood, The Avenue,

Guisborough, Cleveland,

England, TS14 8EE,

February 16, 1982.

belonging to this species. The former had a

pale rufous tail and was probably an adult;

the latter was a juvenile with a pale tail with

dark terminal bars. Although Salim Ali and

Ripley (1978) are dubious about the specific

identification of Buzzards in the field, it seems

worth recording these sightings in view of the

increasing number of such records in the

Bombay area.

Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas) Whiskered Tern

Two birds were seen regularly during my

stay at Powai Lake. This species may well

be a regular winter visitor, though records for

December appear to be lacking.

D. SUMMERS-SMITH

Reference

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1978): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 1.

20. GROWTH RATES IN SUB-ADULT GHARIAL GAVIALIS

GANGETICUS (GMELIN) (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA)

(With a text-figure)

Bustard and Singh (1980) provided an out-

line of growth rates in young gharial from

hatching to an age of 4.5 years. The only

published data on growth of larger gharial

are limited data provided on a male gharial

reared at Nandankanan Biological Park,

Orissa (Biswas, Acharjyo & Mohapatra 1978).

As a part of the State Crocodile Project, a

gharial breeding pool was constructed at

Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, in 1975,

and three existing sub-adult gharial were in-

troduced to this pool on 13 Ferbruary 1976.

This group comprised of one male and two fe-

males. All three were from Mahanadi river,

Orissa. The male was brought to the Park

on 22 March 1963 at a length of 1.35 m. Its

age at capture was subsequently estimated as

33 months (Singh 1978). The females were

brought in November 1964 and November

1965 at lengths of 0.9 and 1.20 m and at esti-

mated ages of 17 and 29 months respectively.

From 1975 they were measured annually. Bis-

was et al. (1978) state that this male measured

2.5 m in January 1973 and 2.56 m in January

LENGTH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Growth of one male and two female sub-adult/

adult Gharial (Length in m)

(Bustard and Maharana, in press, b) and mea-

sured following its death on 8 February 1980.

** Measured on 20 April 1980.

1974. The data, therefore, cover six years

growth and are presented in Table 1 and

Figure 1.

These data are of great interest in that the

gharial were maintained in a large pool simu-

lating the natural environment (Bustard and

Maharana, in press, a) and Nandankanan is

located within the natural distributional range

of the gharial (Mahanadi river is only 5 km

from the park). Hence growth rates following

their introduction into the breeding pool are

considered to closely approximate those occur-

ring in nature.

It is interesting to compare the growth rates

between the sexes (Fig. 1). At the start the

male was slightly larger than either female.

However, both females grew rapidly between

3.3-

31-

30-

2.9-

2.8-

2.7-

2.6-

2.5-

2 4 L

Fig. 1. Growth rates of sub-adult gharial between 1975 and 1981. F — female, M — male,

length in metres, (see Table 1).

225

15

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1915 -16 whereas the male grew very slowly

at this time. In the next year the male caught

up with the second female and these two in-

dividuals grew at a similar rate thereafter. The

first female, however, continued to grow more

rapidly than the male throughout the study.

This result is surprising, as in view of the

much larger size of mature males compared

to females, it is to be expected that males

would show a faster growth rate. This was

not shown in the present study. It may be

thought that the rapid growing phase in males

takes place in the early years of life and that

this was already over in the case of this male

when the observations commenced and it

measured 2.70 m. Examination of the mean

early growth rates for all three individuals

using the size at time of capture together with

year of capture gives a mean and growth

between 1963 and 1975 of llcm/year for the

male. For the females, between their time

of capture in November 1964 and November

1965 it is 14.4 and 12.5 cm/year respectively.

Failure of the male and indeed all three in-

dividuals to show more rapid growth in the

early years may be explained on the basis

of stunting (Choudhury & Bustard, in press).

It is not suggested that the size of gharial

in the wild would have been similar to those

of captive individuals at the same age, since,

prior to the initiation of the Government of

India Crocodile Project, most gharial showed

markedly retarded growth (Choudhury &

Bustard, in press). But growth rates during

the period 1975-81 inclusive, when the gharial

were in the large breeding pool and receiving

adequate diet, are thought to reflect normal

growth rates for sub-adult gharial of this size,

that is, an average of 10 cm/ year.

We thank Dr. L.A.K. Singh and Mr. B.C.

Choudhury for their advice.

Central Crocodile Breeding and

Management Training Institute,

Raj ENDRAN AGAR, HYDERABAD 500 264.

Crocodile Project,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

Cuttack, Orissa,

June 24, 1981.

Refe

Biswas, S., Acharjyo, L. N. & Mohapatra, S.

(1978) : A note on the protuberance of knob on

the snout of the male gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(3): 536-

537.

Bustard, H. R. & Maharana, S. (in press ) :

First captive breeding of gharial (Gavialis gangeti-

cus Gmelin). Inti. Zoo Yb.

— — — (1981):

Fatal male-male conflict in the gharial (Gavialis

gangeticus, Gmelin) (Reptiiia Crocodilia). /. Bom-

H. R. BUSTARD

S. MAHARANA

EN CES

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 78( 1) : 171-173.

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L.A.K. (1980): Growth

in the gharial. Brit. J. Herpetol. 6(3) : 107.

Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. (in press ) :

Stunted growth in captive-reared gharial J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc.

Singh, L.A.K. (1978) : Ecological studies on the

Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Reptiiia, Cro-

codilia). Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Utkal Univer-

sity, Orissa.

226

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

21. NOTES ON LITTLE KNOWN LIZARDS FROM JAMMU &

KASHMIR STATE

The lizards under report were collected

from various parts of J & K state during the

years 1974 — 1978. Of the six reported species,

1 ( Ablepharus pannonicus) is new to India

whereas 3 ( Sitana ponticeriana, Ophisops jer-

doni and Acanthodactylus cantoris cantoris)

have been recorded for the first time in the

state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Ablepharus pannonicus Fitzinger

Mediterranean Dwarf Skink

Ablepharus pannonicus Fitzinger (1823) in

Lichtenstein, in Eversmann’s Reise nach Buc-

hara, p. 145.

Material examined : (1) Near Bahu Fort,

Jammu, Oct., 1978.

The genus Ablepharus is recorded in India

for the first time. A single specimen of A.

pannonicus , with snout vent length 30 mm,

was obtained from the dry alluvial bed of river

Tawi in Jammu.

Minton (1966) obtained the specimens of

this species from mountainous northern sec-

tions of province from Quetta to Chitral in

Pakistan. His specimens were collected at

an elevation of 2133 m (7000 ft) while dis-

cussing world distribution of the species, Levi-

ton and Anderson (1970) reported its occur-

rence in Iraq, northern and western Iran,

U.S.S.R., Afghanistan and Pakistan. In Af-

ghanistan, the specimens were obtained at an

elevation of 2316 m (7600 ft). The single speci-

men examined, however, was collected at an

altitude of 260 m in Jammu province of J&K

state.

Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier

Fan-throated Lizard

Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier (1829) Re’gne

Anim. 2nd, ed. ii, p. 43.

Material examined : (5), 3 males and 2

females, Bahu Fort, Jammu. April — August,

1978.

The Sitana lizards were collected in a dry

alluvial bed of river Tawi, near Bahu Fort

in Jammu. It appears to be uncommon in

this part of country. It is fast runner, and

takes refuge in bushes or under stones when

chased. A female, with snout vent length 45

mm, collected in June had 8 oviducal eggs

with an average size 8.5 mm x 4 mm.

Ophisops jerdoni Blyth

Punjab Snake-eyed Lizard

Ophisops jerdonii Blyth (1853). Asiat. Soc.

Beng. xxii, p. 653. Material examined: (10)

3 males, 5 females and 2 juveniles, Jhajjar

kotli, Nagrota and Bahu-Fort in Jammu;

April— Nov., 1977.

Punjab Snake-eyed Lizard is a species

of xeric conditions found in dry, rocky or

alluvial plains along river Tawi- It is ati active

diurnal lizard, and was found to be quite

active even during noon hours of the months

of May and June when the temperature rises

as high as 40°C. Though commonly seen,

its speed, crepuscular nature and small size

makes it a difficult species for collection.

Specimens were collected from April to Nov-

ember, although some were seen during winter

months also basking on stones. A Juvenile

with a 17 mm snout vent length, was collect-

ed in the month of July.

The present collection of O. jerdoni showed

presence of 8 to 12 femoral pores on each

side. Smith (1935) described 7 to 12 femorals,

rarely 6 pores on each side. Minton’s (1966)

collection of O. jerdoni from Pakistan showed

227

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

8 to 9 in males and 6 to 7 femoral pores in

females. The series of collection from J & K

state showed no such sexual dimorphism in

the number of femoral pores. However, in

males femoral pores of each side was separat-

ed by one inter femoral scale (scale without

femoral gland) and 4-5 such inter-femoral

scales in females.

AcantSiodactyhis cantoris cantoris Gunther

Indian Fringe-Toed Sand Lizard

Acanthodactylus cantoris cantoris Gunther

(1864). Rept. Brit India, p. 73.

Material examined : (1) sex undertermined;

Akhnoor, Tehsil, in Jammu, July, 1977.

This is first record of the species from state

of Jammu and Kashmir. The species has

been earlier recorded from Ambala, Ferozpur

and Hissar, all of which lie to the south of

J & K state. It seems to be a rare species in

this part of the country. A single specimen

was collected under stones in the plain area

of tehsil Akhnoor. From the site of its collec-

tion the lizard appears to be an inhabitant

of dry, rocky, alluvial bed.

The specimen collected agrees with A. can-

toris cantoris described from Pakistan (Minton

1966) and from India (Smith 1935) except

for the presence of a small occipital shield and

a large triangular shield of uncertain nature

lying wedged between frontonasal and pre-

frontal. The species exists as a single sub-

species A. cantoris cantoris throughout its

range in the Indian limit but west of longi-

tude 60°, it may exist in other subspecific

forms, like A. cantoris blanfordi, A. cantoris

schmidti and A, cantoris arabicus. Of these

subspecies, A. cantoris schmidti and A. can-

toris arabicus have their range limited from

Arabia to western border of Iran and there-

fore, cannot in any case be related to one

available in the state.

The only other subspecies, A. cantoris blan-

fordi (Minton 1966) is distributed over the

area that lies to the north and west of the

range of the typical form. However, in the

presence of well differentiated dorsal and late-

ral scale and higher count of femoral pores

(31), the present form can be well differenti-

ated from A. cantoris blanfordi.

Phrynocepfiafius theobaldi Blyth

Kashmir Toad Agama

Phrynocephalus theobaldi Blyth (1863). J.

Asiat. Soc. Bengal xxxii, p. 90.

Material examined : (14), 7 males, 5 females

and 2 juveniles. Leh and Kargil districts in

Kashmir Province, June, 1976 and May, 1977.

The specimens were collected on the slopes

of hills on the road side of Kashmir-Ladakh

National Highway. The tract is almost de-

void of any plant cover. A very active lizard,

which when cornered assumes a threatening

posture by raising its body off the ground and

opening its mouth widely. It lives in burrows

which are sometimes 15 cm to 25 cm deep.

A montane species; specimens were collected

from 3,000 m to 3,500 m in Leh and Kargil.

The lizard feeds on high altitude beetles, ants

and grasshoppers. The other species which

have been seen in association with this lizard

are P. reticulatus, Cyrtodactylus stoliczkai,

C. lawderanus, Agama himalayana and Scin-

cella ladacense.

A female collected on May, 1977 died in

captivity in August of the same year. On dis-

secting it, 3 nearly full term embryos were

recovered, suggestive of its ovo-viviparous

habit.

In Indian limit, it has been recorded only

from Kashmir and elsewhere from southern

Tibet and East Turkestan. Prakash (1971)

stated “The genus Phrynocephalus is being

reported for the first time from India.” He

228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

seems to have ignored the reports of P. theo-

baldi and P. reticulatus in Kashmir province

by Smith (1935).

Phrynocephalus reticulatus Eichwald

Ladakh Toad Agama

Phrynocephalus reticulatus Eichwald (1831).

Zool. spec., p. 183.

Material examined : (2) 1 male and 1 fe-

male; June, 1976, Leh.

Habits similar to that of P. theobaldi but

Department of Biosciences,

University of Jammu,

Jammu-180 001,

October 1, 1981.

Refer

Leviton, A. E. and Anderson, S. C. (1970):

The amphibians and reptiles of Afghanistan. A

checklist and Key to the Herpeto-fauna. Proc. Calif.

Acad. Sci., 38(10): 163-206.

Minton, S. A. (1966) : A contribution to the her-

petology of West Pakistan. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

Hist., 134:27-184.

an uncommon species. About P. reticulatus.

Smith (1935, p. 232) recorded, “The species

is included in the fauna of the Indian Empire

on the strength of a single specimen in the

British Museum collected by Schlagintweit

brothers and said to have come from Ladakh,

Kashmir. Unfortunately the localities given

by these collectors cannot be relied on.” The

collection of 2 specimens of P. reticulatus

from Ladakh confirms its occurrence within

Indian limits.

DEEP N. SAHI

P. L. DUDA

E N CES

Prakash, J. (1971) : Notes on little known lizards

from Rajasthan desert. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

69(2): 424-28.

Smith, M. A. (1935) : The fauna of British India,

including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and Amphi-

bia II. Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London.

22. ON FLYING LIZARD IN MUNDANTHURAI SANCTUARY

Flying lizards Draco dussumieri are fairly

common in Mundanthurai along the ribbon

of forests, fringing rivers Thambaraparani and

Servalar. In walks along the riverside foot-

paths, Ficus Prop-Kanikudi Nature Trail,

Rauf Ali’s Bonnet Macaque study area, Glyn

Davies, ‘Squirrel study area and around Koda-

madi Rest House region, they can be seen,

if one waits and watches for them. The

bright yellow dewlap projecting and disap-

pearing helps to locate this lizard though the

folded wings are difficult to see. It is easier

to watch them in the plantation of Teak, Neem

and Bombax just adjoining the river Servalar,

when they descend down to convenient eye-

level. They are found along the border plan-

tation lines 2-5 rows of planted area parrallel

to the river. On seeing one gliding in circles

and landing on a planted tree 1m above

ground, then running up to a height of 5-6

m then gliding down. I searched the area

and located another lizard moving on the

ground- One possible guess was that the

lizard on the ground was a female, who had

come to the ground for laying eggs.

The teak poles were about 6 m tall almost

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

uniform in height at an interval of 11 feet

while gliding the lizard turned away from the

tree lifted up let itself fall on outstretched

wings, resulting in a vertical fall of l^-2m a

short glide at an angle of about 45° to the

tree and followed a near horizontal flight path

till it landed on the next tree at a point l^m

from ground, keeping head upwards. All these

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Udhagamandalam-643 001,

Tamil Nadu,

November 12, 1982.

took about 3-5 seconds. Slowly spiralling up

as it climbed the tree. Insect population may

be highest in such river border areas. Sriran-

gan, a tracker from the local forest tribal

community “kanis”, said that they can be

easily killed by whipping with tender branches;

are roasted over a fire and eaten, younger

tribals are not aware of this practice.

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

23. LONGEVITY OF FISH MEGALOPS CYPR1NOIDES (BROUSS)

(With a text-figure)

How long does a fish live, has been a com-

mon inquiry in ordinary parlance and has

usually been replied to as ‘we really do not

know’, though several anecdotes exist raising

the longevity to 250 years as in the case of

some old carps and the mythical Great Pyke

of the Emperor Fredrick II of England, as

recorded by Norman (1931). The same author

quotes Dr Roger that “Statements concerning

most of the very old carps rest on unreliable

evidence and although there is good reason

for believing that in artificial conditions this

fish may attain a good old age, it is doubtful

whether it exceeds 50 years in a wild state.”

Lagler et al. (1977) also records the probable

long life of carps as about 50 years. This un-

certainty persists because of lack of any reli-

able data. However, available records in the

Fisheries Department of Maharashtra and my

own observations at Lonavla have provided

dependable information about longevity of

Megalops cyprinoides. This is being record-

ed here.

The fish is, as many would know, a marine

one, the larvae and young ones of which enter

brackish water and then into fresh water, to

feed on the rich animal life, till they grow

upto about 15 cms and then return to the

sea for further growth up to about a metre.

Its near cousin is the great tarpon which in-

habits estuaries of northern America. If the

seaward movement of M. cyprinoides is ob-

structed they remain for long years in fresh

water, but do not breed. In July 1939, the

Fisheries Section of the then Department of

Industries decided to stock fingerlings of Catla

Rohu, Calbasu, etc in different perennial

waters of the then Bombay Presidency in which

Walwhan and Shirota lakes of Tata Hydro-

Electric Company were included (vide annual

report of the Department of Industries, Fishe-

ries Section 1939-40). As the fingerlings of

M. cyprinoides were also found to be very

efficacious in controlling cyclops, an interme-

diate host (carrier) of the dreaded quineaworm

pest (Setna & Kulkarni 1940), one of the con-

230

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

signments which completed the tally of 10,000

fingerlings for these lakes consisted of M.

cyprinoides and was released into the lakes

by me. Another reason for this introduction

was reported pre-eminence of this fish for

angling. The fingerlings thrived in the protected

in the lake in that year indicated its survival

over the years and was described as an exam-

ple of extreme tenacity of the fish. The in-

cident was also noted for the fact that those

who ate the fish cursed us for giving them

tasteless fish with rubber like flesh. The rub-

Fig. 1. 44 year old fish Megalops cyprinoides (Brouss).

water of Walwhan lake, extending to as much

as 650 hectares at full supply level and conti-

nued to do so even in the years when the lake

reached zero sill level, surviving in the dead

storage which was enough for the hardy fish.

Time went on without any incident as fish-

ing with nets was never permitted in these

lakes and no fresh stocking was done.

When netting was undertaken in 1970 for

catching gravid mahseers for artificial breed-

ing (Kulkarni 1971), a few M. cyprinoides

were also caught. The occurrence of this fish

beroid condition of the flesh, when cooked,

was probably due to long years of age (32

years) without substantial increase in size

which was only 65 cms in total length and

2.8 kg in weight. A few fish of almost the

same size were caught every year but never

any young ones, because the fish being a ma-

rine type does not breed in fresh water. They

were peculiar in being found dead in the nets

though the mahseers and others were found

alive. This was because of the special feature

of the fish in having an accessory respiratory

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

organ in the shape of vascular bands on the

inner walls of its air bladder which enable it

to utilize direct surface air for its respiration.

When the fish is prevented from reaching the

surface, being caught in the nets, it drowns

and dies. Other fish which take oxygen dis-

solved in water can remain struggling. During

a trial netting on August 19, 1983 some more

fish were caught in similar circumstances. They

were 67 cm in total length and varied from

2.75 to 3.1 kg in weight. Gonads were in-

B/4, Shardashram,

Bhawani Shankar Road,

Dadar, Bombay 400 028,

August 29, 1983.

conspicuous. This record gives reliable

data that M. cyprinoides is capable of living

for at least 44 years in fresh water in wild

conditions and grow to the length and weight

mentioned above. They were so healthy that

they appeared capable of living for another

8 or 10 years. Further records would there-

fore be interesting to assess the longevity of

this fish but one can assert from this record

that the fish can live at least for 44 years.

C. V. KULKARNI

References

Annual report, Department of Industries, Bom-

bay, 1939-40.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1971): Spawning habits, eggs

and early development of the Deccan Mahseer,

Tor khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67:510-521.

Lagler, K. F., Bardach, John, Miller, Robert,

and Passino, Dora (1977) : Ichthyology, John

Wiley and Sons, N. Y.

Norman, J. R. (1931) : A History of Fishes.

Ernest Benn Ltd., London.

Setna, S. B. and Kulkarni, C. V. (1940): The

fish Megalops as an aid to combat guineaworm

carrier Cyclops. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41:672-

674.

24. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE DADIO, CHELA {NEOCHELA)

D ADIEU RJORI (MENON) (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)

{With a text -figure)

In 1951, A. G. K. Menon published an

account of a new species of fish from Cochin.

PTis description was based on a few specimens

sent to the Zoological Survey of India by the

veteran aquarist, the late Mr. Sam J. Dady-

burjor.

The fish, named by Menon as Laubuca

dadiburjori after this aquarist, is closely rela-

ted to the species maassi from Sumatra, even

to the extent of fin-ray count. The fin-ray

formula is : —

D. 2/7, A. 3/11, P. 1/7, V. 1/5, C. 19; L. 1.

30-34, L. tr. 7.

Laubuca dadiburjori , now called Chela {Neo-

chela) dadiburjori, can be distinguished in

having a lateral steel blue stripe running along

the middle of the body, extending from the

angle of the opercle to the caudal peduncle.

232

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and a band of the same colour along the dor-

sum from the base of the dorsal fin to the

occiput. On the lateral body stripe are three

Fig. 1. Chela ( Neochela ) dadiburjori', adult.

to four dark dots in the adult and as many

as six in the juveniles. In adult females these

dots diminish considerably in size until they

are almost inconspicuous along the dorsal stripe.

This is clearly seen in the colour photograph

in Axelrod et al. ’s (1967) book on page 365.

Above the dark stripe is a thin golden stripe.

The dark stripe and dots turn black on preser-

vation. The lateral line is incomplete. The

fins are transparent with a yellowish tinge.

The body in the female is colourless and

transparent except for the silvery sheen over

the viscera, but the adult male has a suffused

yellow coloration all over the body.

The fish is diminutive in size, growing only

to 30 millimetres in the adult female, and a

few millimetres less for the male. It is a

popular pet in the home aquarium, where it

is known as “dadio”, or sometimes as the

Indian glass barb (Frank 1979, page 177).

Incidentally, the photograph in Frank’s book

(page 176) is not of Chela ( Neochela ) dadi-

burjori, and his statement that the fish grows

to a length of four to five centimetres is also

incorrect. His measurements and photograph

are of the flying barb ( Esomus danricus), as

can be made out from the long pectoral fins

and the very long barbels below the chin seen

in his photograph.

In the course of our collection of fishes from

peninsular India over the last twenty years, we

have continually collected live specimens of

this species from Nagercoil in Tamilnadu

State, and from Sanguem in Goa. Nagercoil

(8° 3'N, 77° 40' E), which is situated just

north of Cape Comorin, is about 230 kilo-

metres (as the crow flies) south of Cochin

(9° 43' N, 76° 13' E), and this constitutes an

extension of range southward for Chela ( Neo-

chela) dadiburjori. Similarly, Sanguem, which

is over 615 kilometres north of Cochin, con-

stitutes a considerable extension of range for

this fish. From our findings of this fish from

such widely separated places, it can be as-

sumed that Chela ( Neochela ) dadiburjori may

be inhabiting suitable water stretches through-

out the area between the two aforestated

places. However, while collecting Puntius

melanampyx from Mundakayum, Kottayam

and Quilon, we did not come across any

specimens of this fish.

Axelrod et al. (loc. cit.) put Menon’s name

in parentheses after the name of the fish,

then known as Laubuca dadiburjori. This is

incorrect according to the international rules

of Zoological nomenclature, as Menon had

attributed this fish to the genus Laubuca.

They have also given the geographic distribu-

tion of the species as “vicinity of Bombay”.

This is erroneous and is probably based on

the fact that these fishes are exported from

Bombay airport in the international aquarium

fish trade. Such statements based on assump-

tion, and published in non-technical literature

and popular books, unfortunately lead to ich-

thyologists subsequently quoting these earlier

sources as authoritative, leading to confusion

about the true geographic distribution of the

species. This has happened in the present

instance, where Frank (1979) has wrongly

followed Axelrod et al. ’s (1967) distribution

of this fish.

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

“Sachetan”, s. R. SANE

L/4-5, Sitaram Building,

Palton Road,

Bombay-400 001.

E-31, Cusrow Baug, B. F. CHHAPGAR

Colaba Causeway,

Bombay-400 039,

December 30, 1981.

References

Axelrod, H. R., Emmens, C. W., Sculthorpe,

D., Vorderwinkler, W. & Pronek N. (1967) :Exo-

tic tropical fishes. T. F. H. Publications, Jersey

City, U.S.A.: 1-608.

Frank, S. (1979) : The pictorial encyclopedia of

fishes. (Translated by Helga Hanks). The Hamlyn

Publishing Group Ltd., London, New York: 1-552,

64 colour plates, 824 photographs.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of

India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.

Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta:

1-475, plates I-XIII, 208 text figs.

Menon, A. G. K. (1951) : Notes on fishes in the

Indian Museum. XLVI. — On a new fish of the

genus Laubuca from Cochin. Rec. lnd. Mus. xlix:

1-4, text-fig. 1.

25. AN INTERESTING METHOD OF FISHING IN DHANBAD

DISTRICT, BIHAR

(With a text-figure)

In connection with our studies on fishes of

Bihar, one of us (G.M.Y.), while making

faunistic survey of River Barakar during June,

1981, came across an interesting method of

fishing at Madrussa ghat (R. Barakar) c. 6

km. north of Tundi (Distt. Dhanbad). The

method essentially consists of a pot-trap — an

aluminium bowl, c 10 cm diameter, on top of

which a piece of cloth is tied around. A few

holes are made in this cloth and a small quan-

tity of baked and coarsely ground seeds of

white millet (“Jowar”, Sorghum vulgare ), Kund-

rung ( Bibiscus sabdariffa L.) (Malvaceae), and

Sarguja ( Guizotea abyssynica Cass. (Compo-

sitae) mixed in 4:1:1 proportion, respectively,

are placed in the bowl. The bowl is set in a

depression in the sand in such a way that the

cloth surface is almost level with sand around

it (Fig. 1).

This method is operated in shallow, running

waters where the bottom is generally sandy.

As the bowl is left under water, all fish avail-

able in the vicinity get attracted towards the

bowl owing to presence of ground seeds which

act as bait, and finally enter the bowl through

the holes. When a number of fish have gone

in they fail to come out, presumably due to

panic (Faruqui & Sahai 1943). The bowl is

now taken out of water and fish removed to a

fish basket. The operation is repeated as long

as fish are available in sufficient number, other-

wise the trap is shifted to a new spot.

234

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. The pot-trap in operation.

This method of fishing is quite efficient, for

about half a dozen small cyprinids belonging

to genera Puntius, Salmostoma and Barilius

were caught in one operation. The smell from

ground seeds — the bait, appears to play an

effective role in attracting fishes towards the

trap and for directing them into the bowl;

Sarguja seeds are known to yield an oil used

as an article of food (Haines 1922).

Of the various methods employed for catch-

ing fishes, netting and angling are the most

popular. While angling is practised by using

different types of bait, various modifications of

netting have also come in vogue. The method

Zoological Survey of India,

Gangetic Plains Regional Station,

Patna- 16,

October 21, 1981.

described above is a trap, resembling the pot-

trap described by Faruqui & Sahai (1943)

from Uttar Pradesh. However, the pot-trap

from U.P. consists of a flat earthen vessel with

raised walls, on top of which a piece of cloth

is tied around. A few holes are made in the

cloth and some flour pills are placed inside to

attract fishes. We have not so far seen the

earthen trap net described by Faruqui & Sahai

(1943) being used in Bihar.

We are thankful to Dr. V. S. Agrawal, Bota-

nical Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identi-

fication of seeds.

G. M. YAZDANI

P. D. GUPTA

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Referen ces

Faruqui, A. J. & Sahai, R. (1943) : On the

methods of catching fish in the United Provinces

and the scope of establishing inland fisheries in these

provinces Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 13(B) : 198-214.

Haines, H. H. (1922) : The Botany of Bihar and

Orissa, Vol. 2 (Reprinted 1961), Calcutta, Botanical

Survey of India, pp. 235-824.

26. FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF

MICRONECTA SCUTELLARIS STAL. (HEMIPTERA: CORIXIDAE)

(With a text-figure)

The water bug, Micronecta scutellaris Stal. is very common in stagnant water in ponds,

pools and ditches. Abundance of this bug was observed in the three ponds of Aligarh

district and was found to be influenced by the increase in percentage of organic matter

in the water. Alkalinity of water beyond pH 8.5 has an adverse effect on the popu-

lation density of M. scuttellaris. The temperature within the observed range (16.5-

32.3°C) did not affect the occurrence of this species.

Introduction

Micronecta scutellaris Stal. (Fam: Cori-

xidae) is usually found in stagnant water in

ponds, pools and ditches in many parts of the

world almost throughout the year (Butler

1923). M. scutellaris and several other species

of the family Corixidae are the preferred food

of poultry, cage birds and fishes in many coun-

tries. In Mexico, the eggs are collected by

placing reeds in the water (Aucona 1933) and

are used as human food (Hungerford 1948).

In view of this importance it was considered

desirable to study the distribution of M. scutel-

laris under Indian climatic conditions and also

the environmental factors that determine their

abundance.

Material and Methods

The abundance of M. scutellaris was studied

over a period of twelve months from October

1971 to September 1972 in three different ponds

in Aligarh. One of these Nilichhetri pond is

about 30.0 metres in length and 10.0 metres

in width. The second was Jamalpur pond which

is about 25 x 8 metres in area. The main source

of water in these ponds is rain. The polytechnic

pond, the third is small, spherical, cemented

and about 5 metres in diameter and largely

has tap water.

The bugs were collected from the ponds with

a hand net on every Sunday. On each

sampling day two collections were made, one

at 8.00 hr and other at 16.00 hr. Each sample

was subjected to differential numerical analysis

and mean of all the counts, made for all sam-

ples collected during a month in a Centre, was

taken as representing the monthly average and

plotted against the respective month. The per-

centage of organic matter in the soil was mea-

sured by the ignition of dried samples. Tem-

perature of the water was noted and pH was

determined by means of pH paper on the spot

during each collection.

Results and Discussion

The various hydrological features at sampl-

ing sites during the period of study are given

236

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Monthly fluctuation in various hydrological features at sampling sites

in table 1. The seasonal abundance of M.

scutellaris in these ponds is presented in Fig. 1

The results obtained showed that the amount

of organic matter and pH of water can affect

the population density of M. scutellaris, while

temperature, within the observed range, was

not found to be the determining factor of the

seasonal abundance of M. scutellaris.

Effect of organic matter :

The percentage of organic matter in an aqua-

tic soil has been shown to be an important

factor in the distribution of certain species of

Corixidae (Macan 1938). During the present

observations, the percentage of organic matter

of Nilichhatri pond ranged from 4.9 to 8.2

while it was 10.8-19.5 per cent in Jamalpur

pond. As polytechnic pond is small, cemented

and mainly filled with tap water, the % o.m.s.

was very less and ranged from 3.6 to 5.6. The

population density of M. scutellaris was observ-

ed the highest in Jamalpur pond throughout

the year. This may be due to high percentage

of decaying organic matter especially at a point

where human and animal excrements were

drained into the pond. This fact was further

confirmed by making collection from the drain

end and the opposite end of the pond. Due to

higher percentage of organic matter at the drain

end (15.8-19.5) than at the opposite end (10.8-

11.5) the population of M. scutellaris was

significantly higher at the drain end.

The population density of M. scutellaris was

directly proportional to the percentage of the

organic matter present in the water. The per-

centage of organic matter was 16.6, 6.95 and

4.68 in the water of Jamalpur, Nilichhatri and

Polytechnic pond respectively and consequently

the population density of M. scutellaris was the

highest in Jamalpur pond and then in Nili-

chhatri and Polytechnic ponds (Fig. 1). This

confirms my earlier findings (1977), that decay-

ing organic matter, is the most preferred food

for oviposition and development of the nymphs

of M. scutellaris.

Effect of temperature :

A number of workers including Allen (1920),

Prasad (1956) and Byars (1960) have report-

ed that temperature is the determining factor

in seasonal distribution of organisms. During

the present studies temperature of the water

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

of various sampling ponds ranged from 16.3°

to 32.3°C. (Table 1). This range of tempera-

ture did not appear to determine the popula-

tion density of M. scutellaris. The population

of this species was sufficiently high in Jamalpur

pond during the hot days of August (Temp.

32.0°C) and cold days of December (temp.

16.8°C). Therefore, during the present studies

temperature, within the observed range of 16.3°-

32.3°C did not affect the population density

of M. scutellaris.

Effect of pH: Devic (1954) believes

that pH is the most important chemical

factor affecting the abundance of living orga-

nisms in the water. During the present studies

pH of the water had a marked effect on the

occurrence of M. scutellaris. Alkalinity of the

water beyond pH 8.5 proved to be unsuitable

for the occurernce of this species. During the

period from February to June the water of

238

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Jamalpur pond was alkaline and the pH ranged

from 8.7 to 9.7 (Table 1), consequently the

number of M. scutellaris was greatly reduced

despite high percentage of organic matter.

During this period abundant green algae

appeared in the pond. The increase in pH

might be due to rise in carbonate alkalinity

resulting from photosynthetic activity of the

algae (Unni 1972). Higher level of pH causes

respiratory distress in the population of aquatic

animals (Erichsen 1964). The observations

confirm the earlier findings of Thornton and

Section of Entomology,

Dept, of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh -202 001 (U. P. ) ,

December 18, 1980.

Wilhm (1974) who observed significantly lower

survival of Chironomas attenuatus i.e. 0 . 92 per

cent at a pH of 8 .2 while the survival was 5.94

and 5.98 per cent at pH 6.2 and 7.2 respec-

tively.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Professor Nawab H. Khan

for his keen interest and valuable guidance

and to Miss S. Pankajam for her help in pre-

paring the manuscript of this paper.

MUKHTAR AHMAD1

SUHELA AHMAD

References

Ahmad, M. and Khan, N. H. (1977) : Bionomics

of Micronecta scutellaris Stal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 74(3) : 453-458.

Allen, W. E. (1920) : A quantitative and statisti-

cal study of the plankton on the San Joaquin River

and its tributaries in and near Stockton, California,

in 1913. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 22(1) : 1-292.

Ancona, L. (1933) : El Ahuotle de Texcoco. Ann.

Inst. Bio., 4: 51-69.

Butler, E. A. (1923) : Biology of the British

Hemiptera-Heteroptera H. F. and G. Witherby 326

High Holborn, W. C. London, pp. 557-602.

Byars, J. A. (1960) : A fresh water pond in New-

zealand. Aus. J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 2(2) : 227-240.

Devic, C. C. (1954) : A preliminary study of the

plankton of the Cleveland Hurbor area, Ohio, II.

The distribution and quantity of the phytoplankton.

Ecol. Monogr., 24: 321-347.

Erichsen, Jones (1964) : Fish and river pollu-

tion. Butterworth and Co. Ltd., London.

Hungerford, H. B. (1948) : The Corixidae of the

Western Hemisphere. Univ. Kansas. Sci. Bull., 32:

1-827.

Macan, T. T. (1938): Evolution of aquatic habi-

tats with special reference to Plankton in relation

to certain Hydrological conditions of River Ganga.

Proc. Nat. Sci., India, 36: 157-189.

Prasad, R. R. (1956) : Further studies on the

plankton of the inshore waters of Mandapam. Indian

Journ. Fish., 5(1) : 1-42.

Thornton, K. and Wilhm, Jerry (1974) : The

effects of pH, phenol, and sodium chloride on sur-

vival and calorie, lipid and nitrogen content of a

laboratory population of Chironomus attenuatus

(Walk.). Hydrobiologia 45(2): 261-280.

Unni, K. S, (1972) : An ecological study of the

macrophytic vegetation of Doodhadhari lake, Raipur,

M.P. Hydrobiologia 40 ( 1) : 25-36.

1 Present address: Research Officer (Entomology),

Forest Research Centre, (Govt, of India), Coimba-

tore-641 002 (T.N.), INDIA.

1 Present address: Research Officer (Entomology),

Forest Research Centre (Govt, of India), Coimba-

tore-641 002.

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

27. SYSTEMATICS OF UNDESCRIBED MALES OF SOME

THYSANOPTERA FROM INDIA

( With four text-figures )

The present paper includes detailed description of so far undescribed males of

Streothrips arorai (Bhatti), Ernothrips lobatus (Bhatti), Areothrips longisetis Anan.,

and Androthrips flavitibia Moulton.

1. Streothrips arorai (Bhatti)

(Figs. l-3c)

Aeolothrips arorai Bhatti, 1967, Thysanoptera

Nova Indica 4-5.

Streothrips arorai Bhatti, 1971, Oriental in-

sects 5(1 : 83-90.

Originally this species was described from

only one female. Males smaller than females.

The males agree with females in colour range

but prothorax, fore legs and middle femurs

yellow; distal two third of hind femurs, ex-

tremes of middle and hind tibiae, middle and

hind tarsi are greyish brown.

Head wider than long, 154-157 long1, 185-

198 across eyes, 205-210 across genae and 190-

195 at base. Antennal segments, length (width);

31-34 (33-34); 51 (28); 100-105 (25-26); 98-

100 (25-27); 72-75 (25-27); 11 (16); 9 (14);

8 (8); 8 (5). Segment II orange yellow. Sensory

areas on segment III 33-36 long and on IV

segment 47-49 long. Maxillary palpi; i, 42-45;

ii, 28-30; iii, 8-10 long.

Prothorax 154-155 long and 230-240 across

middle and 140-150 across base. Fore wing

700-750 long and 100-120 wide in the middle.

Hind wing 650-680 long and 80-100 wide in

middle. Middle tibiae 180-190 long and hind

tibiae 230-235 long.

Abdomen 120-130 at base, 220-230 across

middle and 80-90 across X tergite bears three

pairs of bristles, the inner pair of bristles

1 All measurements in microns unless otherwise

mentioned.

curved outwardly. Segments II to V bear two

pairs, VI to VII with three pairs and VIII with

four pairs of acessory setae. Phallus 112 long.

Total body length: 1 .40 mm -1.50 mm.

Material: 5 $ $ , 3 d d from flowers of

Cassia fistula and Pongamia glabra, Shasra-

dhara, Dehra Dun on 12.6.1978, 3 $ $,

2 d d from Aleurites sp. and a wild shrub,

Dehra Dun on 5.5.1979, Coll. Vijay Veer.

2. Ernothrips lobatus (Bhatti)

(Fig 4)

Thrips ( Ernothrips ) lobatus Bhatti, 1967,

Thysanoptera Nova Indica, 18 pp.

Ernothrips lobatus Bhatti. 1969. Oriental

Insects 3(4): 373-382.

The original description of this species is

only from one female.

The male differs from female, besides other

characters, in being smaller in size and colora-

tion. Body orangish-yellow. Antennal segments

IV to VII are brown. Forewings brownish be-

ing darker at middle.

Head 78-80 long, 112-117 across eyes, 120-

BO across genae, 126-133 across posterior

margin. Mouthcone 82 long. Eyes 50-56 long,

39-45 wide, 42 apart from each other. Antennal

segment: length (width): 18 (19); 28 (21);

33 (14-16); 28-30 (15); 26-28 (14); 35-39

(14); 14 (17).

Prothorax 106-108 long, 156-160 across

middle postangulars; outer 19-23, inner 31-34.

Pterothorax 106-208 long, 196-200 across meso-

thorax, 179-180 across metathorax. Fore wings

240

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. l-3c. Streothrips arorai, $ : 1, head and prothorax; 2, terminal abdominal

segments, dorsal view; 3a, Antenna, dorsal view (microtrichia omitted); 3b, antennal

segment II, dorsal view, showing chaetotaxy; 3c, antennal segment II, ventral view.

Fig. 4. Ernothrips lobatus : 4, terminal abdominal segments of $, dorsal view.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

420-450 long, 31-33 across middle. Costa with

19-24 setae, upper vein with 4+3+2 setae, lower

vein with 9-10.

Abdomen 103-110 across base, 126-130 across

middle, 64-70 across X segment. Phallus 84-

92 long. Terga and sterna of XI-VIII with post-

marginal flange but that on sterna produced

into a fine comb.

Total body length: 80-90 mm.

Material: 10 2 2,6 c? cf from flowers of

Lantana camara Shasradhara, Dehra Dun, on

15.9.1978, 20 2 9 , 12 S <5 from flowers of

M allot us philippinensis, Dehra Dun on

15.10.1978, Coll. Vijay Veer.

3. Araeothrips longisefis Ananthakrishnan

Araeothrips longisetis Ananthakrishnan, 1976,

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 83 B(5): 202-204

(Holotype 9 and paratypes 14 2 2 from

Kanha Reserve Forest, Madhya Pradesh, India,

20.1.1970).

This species has been described by Anantha-

krishnan (1976) on the basis of females.

Macropterous Male: General body colour

similar to females. Body brown except distal

one third of fore femora, all tibiae, all tarsi and

antennal segments 3-8 (except the tip of VIII

which is slightly darker), pale. Wings infumate,

base and scale more yellowish. All setae

greyish, blunt.

Head wider than long, 134 long, 140 across

eyes, 154 across genae, 148 at base. Eyes 56-58

long, 33-35 wide; median ocellus 9 wide. Paired

ocelli 11-12 wide and apart from each other

47. Mouth cone short, 61 long, broadly round-

ed, 126 wide at base and 50 wide at apex.

Maxillary stylets widely separate and refracted

into head about the level of the postoculars.

Postoculars 45-47, placed 103 apart from

each other. Antennal segments, length (width);

17 (31); 36-37 (22); 36 (17); 25-27 (19); 28

(20); 25 (19); 28 (14); 39-42 (9). Sense cones

on 3 and 4 10-14 long; Sense cone formula

31+0^ 41+0^ 51+1

Prothorax wider than long and shorter than

head, 92 long, 168 wide across anterior margin

and 184 across posterior margin. Anteroangu-

lars and anteromarginals weak 3-6 long; mid-

laterals 42-43, postangulars 76-80 and epi-

merals 48-50. Fore femora simple, 84-86 long,

44-46 wide, tarsi armed. Fore wings 450-460

long, 11-13 wide at middle with 3-4 double

fringes. Basal wing setae 5, 6-7, 14-16 long.

Pterothorax 196 long, 217-219 across meso-

thorax, 223-225 across metathorax.

Abdomen 145 across VIII, 100 across IX;

B^Bs of IX 87-89, 16-18, 84-86 long. Tube 75

long, 42, 45, 28 wide respectively at base, mid-

dle and apex; anal setae 110-115 long.

Total body length: 1.00 mm.

Material : 2 2 2 , 2 cf cf from leaves of wild

plant, Tapoban, Dehra Dun on 10.4.1979,

Coll. Vijay Veer.

4. Androthrips flavitibia Moulton

Androthrips flavitibia Moulton, 1933. Indian

Forest Records, XIX (1): 1-2 (Holotype 2

from New Forest, Dehra Dun, U.P.). Andro-

thrips flavitibia, Ananthakrishnan; 1964, Opusc

ent. Suppl. 25:31.

This species has been described from one

female by Moulton (1933).

Macropterous male. Smaller in size than

females. Colour range agree with that of female;

body dark brown except all tibiae, all tarsi

and III-VI antennal segments clear yellow;

fore femora yellowish brown in distal one

third; sometimes antennal segments VII also

brownish yellow in distal one third. Wings clear.

Head longer than wide, 115-204 long, 129-151

across paired ocelli, 143-145 across genae, and

120-145 across base. Eyes 45-48 wide, 67-75

long, 48-56 apart from each other. Median

ocellus 14 wide, 17 apart from paired ocelli;

30-31 wide and 28-29 apart from each other;

postoculars 53-70 long. Mouth cone 72-84 long

242

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and 48-53 wide across tip. Antennal segments,

length (width); 14-16 (28-31); 31-38 (26);

50-59 (31); 60-62 (28-31); 42-53 (22-25); 39-

45 (19-22); 36-42 (14-17); 28-35 (8). Sense

cones 28-30 long.

Prothorax 120-140 long, 168-184 wide across

anterior margin, 234-260 across posterior mar-

gin. Anteroangulars 37-58, anteromarginals

minute, midlaterals 36-58, epimerals 53-77,

postangulars 50-75, Fore femora broad, 84-123

wide inclusive of tooth; width of fore tibia at

apex, inclusive of scale 36-44.

Pterothorax longitudinally reticulate, with a

minute pair of setae at middle, 22-25 long. Fore

wings 600-750 long with 5-7 double fringes;

basal wing bristles 42-56, 44-58 and 67-100 long

respectively, the first two little expanded, the

remaining one knobbed.

Department of Zoology,

D. A. V. (PG) College,

Dehra Dun-248 001,

August 6, 1980.

R E F E 1

Ananthakrishnan, T. N. (1964) : A contribution

to our knowledge of the Tubulifera (Thysanoptera)

from India. Opusc. ent. Suppl. 25: 1-170.

(1976) : Two new genera

and species of Tubuliferan thrips (Thysanoptera:

Insecta) from India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 83 B (5) :

202-206.

Bhatti, J. S. (1967) : Thysanoptera nova indica.

Abdomen 92-98 wide across middle of IX

segment, bristles of IX segment 95-117,

20-31, and 126-154 long. Tube 117-140 long.

39-50 wide at middle; anal setae 110-182 long.

Total body length: 1.40-1.70 mm.

Material: 10 females and 5 males from galls

of M allot us philippinensis and Casearia tomen-

tosa on 18.5.1979 and 25.4.1979 respectively

from Raipur, Dehra Dun District, Coll. Vijay

Veer.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Prof. T. N. Anantha-

krishnan, Director, Zoological Survey of India

for help. Thanks are also due to Dr. S. K.

Sangal, Head of Zoology Department for pro-

viding laboratory facilities and encouragement.

S. K. KULSHRESTHA

VIJAY VEER

ENCES

24 pp. Privately Printed, New Delhi.

(1969) : Taxonomic studies in some

thripini (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Oriental Insects.

3(4): 372-382.

(1971): Studies on some Aeolothri-

pidae (Thysanoptera). Oriental Insects. 5(1): 83-90.

Moulton, D. (1933): New Thysanoptera from

India. Indian For. Rec. 79(1) : 1-6.

28. STUDIES ON KASHMIR HIMALAYAN UMBELLIFERAE III —

SOME NEW RECORDS

Umbelliferae (now Apiaceae) is cosmopoli-

tan in distribution with maximum diversity in

northern hemisphere particularly in Central

Asia and the Mediterranean region. The latter

for sufficient reasons is regarded as the primary

centre of umbellifer diversity (Mathias 1965).

Located as they are in mid-northern latitudes

in physical contiguity with the centre of origin,

Kashmir Himalayas too support a respectable

number of umbellifers (Hamal & Koul 1981)

243

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

which have been listed and/or described from

time to time by several explorers. Exploratory

trips undertaken to various parts of Jammu and

Kashmir state have brought to light four taxa

so far not known from this region. These are,

Hydrocotyle sibthorpoides Lam., Scaligeria

stewartianum (Nasir) Nasir, Torilis arvensis

(Hudson) Link, and T . stocksiana (Boiss)

Drude. While Hydrocotyle sibthorpoides re-

presents a new record for Jammu & Kashmir

state, the remaining three are new records for

India, and distribution notes of these species

form the text of the present communication.

Voucher specimens of all the four new records

have been deposited in the Herbarium of Bio-

sciences Department of the University of

Jammu Under No.’s. IAH, 103, 202, 203, 401,

182, 402, 90, 151, 78, & 74.

Hydrocotyle sibthorpoides Lam. Encyl. 3;

(1879): Nasir. FI. W. Pak. 20 (1972).

Plants herbaceous and glabrous; stem creep-

ing; abaxial leaf surface scarcely pubescent; in-

volucral bracts absent; flowers 3-9 per umbel,

subsessile, greenish-white in colour; fruit sub-

orbicular, compressed laterally, each mericarp

has five primary ridges of which dorsal and

intermediate are far more prominent than the

laterals; furrows wider in centre and narrowing

towards poles. Flowering time May-Septem-

ber.

Distribution : The species is widely distribut-

ed in tropical Asia, India, China, Japan and

Europe. In Kashmir Himalayas, it is abundant

on the grassy banks of water bodies, brooks

and channels. Place of present collection:

Nishat Garden, Srinagar (IAH, 103).

Scaligeria stewartianum (Nasir) Nasir FI. W.

Pak. 20 : 79 (1972).

Plants 15-60 cm tall, glabrous and branched;

root stock globose; radical leaves 2-3 pinnate,

segments filiform-linear, upper leaves sessile;

involucre absent; umbel rays 5-10; involucel of

3-5 minute, white margined bractlets; flowers

white; fruit ovoid, subdidymous, each meri-

carp has five obtuse and hispid primary ridges

that run from base to apex, commissural face

of mericarps grooved. Flowering time, April-

May.

Distribution : The species was first described

in 1963 by Nasir under the name Bunium

stewartianum from plants collected from

Kahuta Road near Rawalpindi in Pakistan. So

far the species is known only from northern

foot hills of that country. In Jammu and

Kashmir state, the species is distributed south

of Pir Panjal range, 600-1,200 metres above

sea level. Places of present collection : Poni

Parkh (IAH 202), Kangri (IAH 203) and Ram

Nagar (IAH 401).

Torilis arvensis (Hudson) Link; Enu. Hort.

Berol. Alt. 1 : 265 (1821) Tutin; FI. Europ.

(1968)

Plants 30-90 cm tall, erect; leaves 1-2 pin-

nate, segments lanceolate, coarsely toothed; in-

volucre mostly absent, rarely one; rays 4-6;

involucel of linear bractlets; flowers white; fruit

oval-oblong, compressed laterally, each meri-

carp bears five primary ridges and an equal

number of alternating, strongly developed

secondary ridges, the former bear two rows of

papillate hairs while the latter carries spines at

right angles to fruit surface; mature mericarps

4.0 x 2.0 mm, commissural face 0.25 mm

broad. Flowering time, February-April.

Distribution : The species is widely distribut-

ed in the Mediterranean region and Europe.

There is a solitary report of its occurrence in

Pakistan. In Kashmir Himalayas the species

abounds in the lower foot hills around Jammu

city. Restricted distribution in Kashmir Hima-

layas indicate that the species represents recent

introduction to this area. Places of present col-

lection; Bahu Fort, Jammu (IAH 82), Poni

Parkh (IAH 402).

244

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Torilis stocksiana (Boiss) Drude. In Engl. Das

Pflzn. (1898).

Plants 25-80 cm tall and hispid; leaves 1-2

pinnate, pinnae dissected,; ultimate segments

oblong-lanceolate; peduncles long, leaf opposed;

involucral bracts absent; umbels 2-6 rayed, rays

unequal, densely pubescent at base; involucel

of 5-7 linear bractlets; flowers white; fruit

oblong-elliptical, mericarps laterally compress-

ed with a narrow (0.5 mm broad) commissu-

ral face, each mericarp bears five primary

ridges that are clothed with a row of papillate

hairs, secondary ridges present in between the

primary ridges bear 2-3 rows of straight, hard

and glochidate spines; mericarp 5.0 x 1.5 mm

Dept, of Biosciences,

University of Jammu,

Jammu-180 001, India,

July 14, 1981.

in size. Flowering time, February-April.

Distribution : The species is so far known

only from Iran (Mediterranean region). In

Jammu and Kashmir state, it is distributed from

subtropical regions of Jammu (IAH, 90) and

Udhampur (IAH, 151) to outer hills of Rajouri

(IAH, 74) and Poonch (IAH, 78).

Ack nowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. S. L. Jury (Univer-

sity of Reading, Reading, U.K.) for help in

confirming identification of Torilis species.

Financial assistance received from CSIR, New

Delhi, is gratefully acknowledged.

I. A. HAMAL

A. K. KOUL

29. PHENOTYPES OF SANDAL {SANT ALUM ALBUM L.)

Introduction

Sant alum album L. exhibits plenty of varia-

tions and earlier workers attempted to cate-

gorise them into certain types. As early as

1874, Roxburgh found a variety of sandal

growing in Northern Circars which was quite

different from the normal sandal and described

it as a separate species Sant alum myrtifolium.

De Candolle (1856) believed it to be a variety

of Sant alum album L. Brandis however united

them into one species namely Santalum album

L. and this was followed by Hooker (1890)

in his Flora of British India. Lushington (1900)

believed them to be two distinct species.

Badami and Venkata Rao (1930) studied the

variations found in the Santalum album L. and

explored the possibilities of distinguishing dif-

ferent types. Griffith (1937) described a pecu-

liar variety of sandal occurring in the Noganur

R.F. of the present Hosur Division (Tamil

Nadu). It had all the outward characteristics

of spiked sandal but otherwise remaining

healthy and bearing flowers and fruits.

With this back ground, investigations were

carried out in this centre to find out the occur-

rence of distinct phenotypes in the natural

populations. Though, based on various morpho-

logical characters, a number of phenotypes

could be recognised. So far this centre has

been able to distinguish three definite pheno-

typic populations and they are described below.

245

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Description of phenotypes

1. Thindlu type of sandal :

This type is characterised by small diameter

class trees around 4 to 8 cm dbh with a dark

brown bark which comes out in irregular flakes.

The most distinguishable character is that the

sap wood thickness is very narrow 2 mm to 10

mm. The heartwood is dark brown in colour

with distinct annual rings. It appears to be

slow grown as the trees with 8 cm dia. show

around 25 to 30 annual rings. To conserve this

gene resource protection measures have been

undertaken.

Occurrence : This type was first found in the

Thindlu reserve in Hoskote range of Banga-

lore Division, Karnataka state and hence the

name. In this place, besides this type, other

types of sandal also occur in small percentage.

It also occurs in other nearby reserves of

Hoskote Range, in Vakkaleri reserve of Kolar

Division, Ammanakatte forest of Hassan Divi-

sion of Karnataka state and Valliyur R. F.

of Kallakad wild life Division of Tamil Nadu.

2. Chickballapur type of sandal :

This type is characterised by the presence

of small bluish green leaves with sparse crown.

This tree resembles more or less a spiked plant

and probably may correspond to the Noganur

type of sandal described by Griffith (1937).

Unlike Thindlu type the sapwood thickness is

Sandal Research Centre,

Bangalore-560 003,

April 21, 1981.

Refer

B adam i, V. K. and Venkata Rao, M. G. (1930) :

A preliminary note on varieties of Santalum album

L. in Mysore. Mysore Sandal spike investigation

committee, Bull. No. 1.

De Candolle, A. (1856) : Prodromus systematic

naturalis regni. vegetabilis. parisiis., S. V. Masson,

682-686.

Griffith, A. L. (1937) : Santalum album L. special

not narrow.

Occurrence : It occurs in Kamasettyhalli re-

serve, Chickballapur Range of Kolar Division

and in some reserves of Shimoga Division,

Karnataka State.

3 . Robust type of sandal :

These populations usually have a compact

crown with lush green foliage. The stem is

usually straight and cylindrical with rust brown

smooth bark having very thick sapwood

(around 5 cm). This appears to be fast grow-

ing as compared to all other types as seen in

even aged plantations.

Occurrence : This occurs as individual trees

or in groups in most of the sandal bearing

areas and can be readily recognised by the

above characters. In the Srinivasapura S. F. of

Kolar Division this is the most predominant

type.

Besides looking for other distinct types, in-

tensive studies on the above three types are

being done. The studies include morphological,

cytological and biological investigations which

are likely to establish the correct taxonomical

identity. In addition to establishing the taxo-

nomical identity of these phenotypes studies

on their performances in different eco-climatic

regions are also underway to evaluate their

usefulness in the genetic improvement of

sandal.

R. A. SRIMATHI

H. D. KULKARNI

K. R. VENKATESAN

EN CES

variety. Letter to the Forest Botanist, F.R.I. & Col-

leges, Dehra Dun. Letter No. 1356/37.

Hooker, J. D. (1890): Flora of British India. L.

Reeve & Co., Ashford Kent. 5: 231.

Lushington, P. M. (1900) : Notes on the sandal

tree in Southern India. Mysore Sandal spike investi-

gation committee, Bull. No. 1.

246

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30. OCCURRENCE OF ELEOCHARIS GENICULATA (LINN.) ROEM

& SCHULT. (CYPERACEAE) IN UTTAR PRADESH

(With four text-figures )

Figs. 1-4. Eleocharis geniculata (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. 1. Habit; 2. Spikelet; 3. Glume; 4. Nut.

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

In the course of identification of the Cypera-

ceae collections made from Azamgarh district

of Uttar Pradesh, the author identified a col-

lection as Eleocharis geniculata (Linn.) Roem.

& Schult. which on scrutiny of the literature

has turned out as new to the state of Uttar

Pradesh (cf. Duthie 1903-1929, Rau 1968,

Raizada 1976, Babu 1977). E. geniculata is

earlier recorded from Assam, Bihar, Bengal,

Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and South India.

In view of absence of any detailed illustration

of the species so far, it is considered desirable

to give illustration with diagnostic features of

the spikelets to facilitate easy identification.

Eleocharis geniculata (Linn.) Roem. &

Schult. Syst. Veg. 2: 150. 1817. Scirpus geni -

culatus Linn. Sp. PI. 48. 1753. E. capitata R.

Br. Prodr. 225. 1810; Clarke in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. 6:627. 1893.

Annuals, up to 40 cm high, stems tufted;

spikelets broadly ovate, brownish, 4-8 x 3-3.5

mm; glumes broadly elliptic, scarcely keeled;

bristles ferrugineous, as long as the nut. Nut

smooth.

FIs. & Frts. : Jan. -Mar.

Specimen examined : Uttar Pradesh — Azam-

garh: Ahiraula 27.11.76. Veena Chandra 5769

(Herb. Gorakhpur Univ.).

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. S. N. Dixit and Dr

S. K. Singh of the Gorakhpur University for

helpful suggestions.

Botanical Survey of India, VEENA CHANDRA1

Central Circle, Allahabad-211 002,

May 8, 1981.

References

Babu, C. R. (1977) : Herbaceous Flora of Dehra

Dun. Dehra Dun.

Duthie, J. F. (1903-1929): Flora of the upper

Gangetic plains and of the adjacent Siwalik and

sub-Himalayan tracts, (repr. ed. 1960, Calcutta).

Raizada, M. B. (1976): Supplement to Duthie’s

Flora of the upper Gangetic plains and of the

adjacent Siwalik and sub-Himalayan tracts. Dehra

Dun.

Rau, M. A. (1968) : Flora of the upper Gangetic

plains and of the adjacent siwalik and sub-Himalayan

tracts. Checklist. Suppl. no. 2. Bull. Bot. Surv. India.

vol. 10.

1 Present address : Research Associate, Eastern

Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Shillong-793 003,

Meghalaya.

31. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF OLE AN DR A NER11FORMIS

CAVANILLES IN INDIA

Controversy over the reported occurrence of Oleandra neriiformis Cavanilles is discussed

in this paper and it is established that this taxon does not exist in India at all.

Instead another taxon Oleandra pistil laris (Sw.) C. Chr. exists in India.

The taxon Oleandra neriiformis was describ-

ed by Cavanilles (1799) from Mauben, Luzon,

Philippines. Later on, most of Indian pterido-

gists particularly Beddome, Clarke, recently

Mehra et Bir, Panigrahi, Ito considered the

Indian taxon as conspecific with this taxon.

Christensen (1934, 1937) raised a doubt about

the occurrence of this taxon in Malaysia

and he clearly established that Oleandra pistil-

laris (Sw.) C. Chr. existed in Malaysia, and

248

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

caused doubts about the identity of Indian

material.

During the study on the genus Oleandra Cav.

in India this problem was taken up. Study of

the original circumscription of Oleandra nerii-

formis Cav. and Oleandra pistillaris (Sw.) C.

Chr. and the examination of authentic material

housed in CAL herbarium, reveal that the

Indian taxon is also Oleandra pistillaris (Sw.)

C. Chr. which was first described from a speci-

men collected by Thunberg from Java by

Swartz under Aspidium.

Detailed description of Oleandra pistillaris

(Sw.) C. Chr. and a key to differentiate it from

Oleandra neriiformis Cav. is. provided in this

paper.

Key to the taxa

Fronds large, dimorphous, margin of old rhizome

scale profusely hairy, apex of the scale acuminate,

Phyllopodia 1-2 mm long. Lamina membranaceous,

hairy on both surface Oleandra neriiformis Cav.

Fronds shorter, sub dimorphous, margin of old

rhizome scale sparsely hairy, apex of scale acute,

Phyllopodia 2-4 mm long, Lamina coriaceous, gla-

brous on both surface

Oleandra pistillaris (Sw.) C. Chr.

Oleandra pistillaris (Sw.) C. Chr., Ind. Fil.

Suppl. Ill: 132, 1934; Dansk. Bot. Ark. 9: 17,

1937; Holttum, Fern. Malay 2: 386, 1954; Ito

in Hara’s FI. East. Himal. 3: 179, 1975.

Basinym : Aspidium pistillare Sw. Schrad

Journ. 1800/2: 30: 1801.

Synonyms'. Oleandra neriiformis Bedd., Fern.

South India 32, 1863; Fern. Brit. India t. 264,

1868; Hand book with suppl. 285, 1892; Clarke

Fern. North India 541, 1880; Panigrahi, Bull,

bot. Surv. India 2 (3 & 4): 313, 1960; Mehra

et Bir, Res. Bull, (n.s.) Punjab Univ. 15: 21,

1964. Ito in Hara’s FI. East Himal. 2: 208,

1971.

Epiphyte or terrestrial, rhizome stiff, cylin-

drical, 4-7 mm thick, erect or suberect, scan-

dent, branched, rooting copiously, densely

covered with imbricate, adpressed scales,

scale peltifixed with the stem leaving

a groove on the rhizome surface, dark brown,

lanceolate, 4-6 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide at

basal portion, scale margin sparsely hairy, ante-

rior part of scale gradually narrowed into acute

apex. Fronds are in whorl, subdimorphous,

each whorl is separated by 3-8 cm; Phyllopodia

2-4 mm long; stipe articulated to phyllopodium,

2 mm to 2 cm long, brown, dorsally grooved,

rounded; Lamina simple, entire, linear-lanceo-

late, gradually narrowed at both ends, apex

cardato-acuminate. Midrib scaly when young,

raised on abaxial surface, grooved in adaxial

side. Texture-coriaceous, glabrous on both

surface veins free, twice or thrice forked,

straight, parallel; on the margin of upper sur-

face of lamina there are hydathodes which are

arranged in a row and situated at vein endings.

Sori solitary, indusiate, situated on the lateral

veins forming a single row on either side of

the midrib. Induisium reniform, persistent,

opening away from the midrib, margin of in-

dusium entire. Spores monolete with distinct

circumvoluted perine and with echinate exine.

Specimens examined :

Nepal: Overhanging in form of big creeper

on a rock, Sundarizal, ± 1400 m, July 23, 1950,

B. D. Bande 245 (DD-124584); Mechiriver,

June 23, 1934, 5. /. 5. n. (BSI-5478).

India: Assam: Mowphlong, June 17, 1956,

G. K. Deka 2791 (assam-5617); Pynkrsla, K.

Biswas 4097 (CAL). Meghalaya: Jorrain Road,

Jowai, July 24, 1957, G. K. Deka 10165 (assam-

5620); Jawain Road, ± 1450 m, Khasia &

Jayantea hills, N. P. Balakrishna 49879

(ASSAM); Peak forest, Aug. 8, 1937, N. L.

Bor 15481 (ASSAM-3655); Serrarin, Khasia

and Jayantea hills. May 2, 1941; D. K. Deka

20711 (Assam-36552); Cherapunji, June 6,

249

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1961, H. Deka 24537 (CAL-6035); Jayantea

hills, 1000 m, Aug. 1889, 5. /. s. n. (CAL-

19839); 49 miles from Jowai, May 31, 1965,

N. P. Balakrishnan 42298 (CAL-6406); Khasia,

Hooker et Thomson s. n. (CAL-19841);

Khasia, s. /. s. n. (CAL). Sikkim: Sonada, ±

1600 m, Jan. 24, 1909, R. E. Cooper 694

(CAL); Rinchingpong to Gassing, ± 1500 m,

T. Anderson 1449 (CAL-19843); Sikkim, ±

2100 m, /. D. Hooker s. n. (CAL-19849).

West Bengal: Karseong, dz 1200, July 1974,

k S. Gamble s. n. (DD); Rongting, March 14,

1938, K. Biswas 4813 (CAL); Karseong —

Way to Dow hill, Darjeeling, Oct. 3, 1974, R.

D. Dixit 53123 (CAL-4159); Karseong, ±

1200 m, July 1874, Gamble 5609A (CAL).

Karseong, 1200 m, July 30, 1879, H. C. Levinge

s. n. (CAL); Kalimpong, June 1958 , S. Nakao

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah -7 11 103,

July 2, 1981.

5. n. (CAL); Meghma R. D. Dixit 52993

(CAL-4848).

Bhutan: Kamgi, ± 1200 m. Sept. 16, 1965,

G. Sengupta 2120 (CAL).

Distribution : India — Eastern Himalayas,

Nepal, Bhutan, Malaysia- Java.

South Indian locality of this taxon referred

by Beddome is an error.

Oleandra meniformis Cavanilles An. Hist.

1(2): 115, 1799.

Specimen examined : Luzon, (Type locality)

Mouben, Phillippense, Cuming 94 (CAL)

(authentic material cited by J. D. Hooker).

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Dr. J. N. Vohra, Re-

gional Botanist (Cryptogams), Cryptogamic

Section, Hqrs, BSI for his encouragement.

S. R. GHOSH

32. PALIURUS MILL. (RHAMNACEAE) — A GENUS NEW TO

INDIA

( With three text-figures)

While working on the taxonomy of the

family Rhamnaceae in the Central National

herbarium. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah,

(CAL), I came across an interesting herbarium

sheet, collected from Kainshli, Chamba district

(Himachal Pradesh) in the N. W. Himalayan

region by J. H. Lace. The plant specimen appa-

rently looks like Zizyphus sp. but on careful

checking can be easily identified as Paliurus

sp. in having the following differences :

The taxon is studied and compared with

gatherings from the different regions like West-

ern Asia, Europe and U.S.S.R., in CAL and

properly identified with the help of literature

and microfisches of the available type speci-

mens.

Paliunis spina-chrisfi Mill., a straggling

shrub, is of great religious importance. It

Paliurus Zizyphus

1. Fruits dry, indehiscent surrounded by a circular 1. Fruits fleshy, wing absent (Fig. 3).

leathery wing. (Fig. 2).

2. Seeds flattened, erect, with a little albumen. 2. Seeds plano-convex, erect, albumen almost absent.

250

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

251

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

is commonly known as the Christ’s thorn as

it is believed to be the plant from which the

crown of thorn was made. It is generally dis-

tributed from South Europe to Japan, but was

not reported from India so far and hence is of

Phytogeographical interest.

The species is described below in detail with

a view to facilitate its easy identification.

Paliunis spina-christi Mill. Gard. Diet. ed.

viii. 1768; Post & Dinsmore, FI. Syria, Pale-

stine and Sinai 1:288. 1932; Hara & Williams,

Enum. FI. PI. Nepal 2:91. 1979. Rhamnus

paliurus L. Sp. PI. 194. 1753. P. aculeatus

Lamk. Tabl. Encycl. 1. t. 210. 1797; G. Don

Gen. Syst. 2: 23. 1832. (Fig. 1).

Shrubs; branches round with minute pubes-

cence on the younger parts. Spine of both types,

smaller hooked, larger straight. Leaves ovate to

elliptic-ovate, 2. 0-3. 5 x 1.3 -2. 5 cm, acute to

obtuse, entire to minutely serrulate, usually

oblique at base, prominently 3 -nerved, scarcely

pubescent along the nerves on both surfaces,

glabrous; petioles 0. 3-0.7 cm, grooved ciliate.

Flowers in cymes, umbellate, few; peduncle

0.4-0. 9 cm long, pedicels about 5 mm long

and about 1.0 cm in fruits. Calyx 5-cleft,

spreading, sepals glabrous, persistent; petals 5,

convolute. Stamens 5, protruding; anthers ovate,

2-celled. Disk flat, pentagonal. Ovary 3-celled,

half immersed in the disk; styles 2-3. Fruit dry,

indehiscent surrounded by a circular leathery

wing, 3-celled, 3 -seeded. Seeds flattened with a

little albumen.

Specimens Examined: India: Himachal Pra-

desh, Chamba, Kainshli, 7000 ft., 4.6.1896,

7. //. Lace 1404 (CAL).

Persia: Without any precise locality, Thanss

s.n. Acc. No. 87985 (CAL— Ex Herb. Kew);

Kurdistania, O. Stapf s. n. Acc. No. 87984

(CAL).

Syria: Tericho, 1863-64, B. T. Lowne s.n.

Acc. No. 87981 (CAL); Ad Jokat, Anatobiae,

H. F. Hance 4646 (CAL).

Switzerland: Pont Du Gard, Nimes, June

1891, 7. Roberts s. n. Acc. No. 87993 (CAL).

USSR: Tadjikistan, 24.6.1963, Seraliev s.n.

(CAL).

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Shri G. G. Maity for his

valuable suggestions.

Central National Herbarium, B. SAFUI

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah -7 11 103,

April 29, 1981.

33. OCCURRENCE OF ELAEOCARPUS GRAND1FOL1US KURZ

IN ASSAM

{With a text-figure)

During the course of identification of Elaeo-

carpus material collected from Arunachal Pra-

desh, I came across an obscurely determined

specimen of Elaeocarpus (fruiting) deposited

in Forest Research Institute Herbarium, Dehra

Dun. This was collected from Jeypore Range,

Lakhimpur, Assam in 1934. After critical study

of the literature, the specimen was identified

as Elaeocarpus grandifolius Kurz. The deter-

mination was later confirmed by the Central

252

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

National Herbarium, Howrah.

E. grandifolius was first described by Kurz

in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 41(2): 294. 1872

from Burma. Though the species has not been

mentioned by Hooker f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1874.

Brandis in Ind. Trees. 104. 1906 indicated the

possibility of Kurz’s specimen belonging to E.

rugosus Roxb., which is known from Assam.

However on the basis of critical diagnosis it

has been possible to establish that the two

species are distinct. This paper records the

occurrence of E. grandifolius from Lakhimpur

in Assam. As the description is not provided

in Hook. FI. Brit. Ind. 1874, a detailed des-

cription along with illustration is provided.

Elaeocarpus grandifolius Kurz in Journ.

Asiat. Soc. Beng. 41(2): 294. 1872 et For. FI.

Burma 1:165. 1877; Brandis Ind. Trees 104.

1906.

An evergreen tree, 9-15 m high, girth 1-1.5

m, young parts rusty tomentose; bark thin, grey.

Forest Research Institute,

New Forest,

Dehra Dun-248 006,

March 31, 1981.

minutely postulate. Leaves very large 30-46 cm

long c. 14 cm broad, obovate-oblong to obo-

vate, minutely and remotely serrate-toothed,

glabrous above, shortly puberulous beneath

along the nerves, base acute or acuminate,

cuneate; petiole thick, c. 5 cm long. Racemes

axillary shorter than leaf; pedicels 1.5-3 cm,

tomentose. Sepals c. 1.5 cm long, linear lan-

ceolate, rusty tomentosa. Petals somewhat

longer than sepals, appressed, rusty pubescent

outside, 2-cleft, the lobes jagged. Anthers c.

8 mm long, tipped by a long arista. Ovary

densely villous. Drupe oblong 3-5 cm in diam.

Pyrene one, boney, deeply lacunose- wrinkled,

somewhat compressed.

Specimen examined :

Jeypore Range, Lakhimpur (Assam), 26.6.

1934, R.O., Herb. Acc. No. 66530 (DD).

Distribution : Pegu Yomah and Martaban

down to Tennasserim in Burma.

H. B. NAITHANI

34. NEW AND INTERESTING PLANT RECORDS FROM

MAHARASHTRA

From the plant collections made during the

botanical explorations in Yavatmal District,

Maharashtra State, 12 plants were found to be

of interest, of which 10 were new records for

Maharashtra and 2 have been collected after a

lapse of a considerable period-about 4 to 14

(-) decades. They are enumerated below family-

wise. The families have been arranged aftr

Bentham & Hooker’s system of classification.

The herbarium specimens have been deposited

in the herbarium of Western Circle, Bota-

nical Survey of India, Pune (BSI). The collec-

tor’s name for all the specimens cited will be

S. Karthikeyan unless stated otherwise.

VlTACEAE

Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth) Planch. J.

Vigne Am. 374. 1883. Vitis tomentosa Heyne

ex Roth, Nov. PL Sp. 157. 1821; Lawson in

Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 1: 650. 1875; Cooke,

254

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

FI. Press. Bombay 1: 252. 1902.

Cooke (l.c.) reported this species from

Dharwar, Belgaum and N. Kanara only. It is

reported for the first time from Maharashtra.

Field notes : A shrubby climber on Tectona

grandis L. f. Corolla pale-brown; filaments pale

red, anthers yellow; ovary and style red. Fruits

brown.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist. : Khan-

dala R.F., R. S. Rao 90970, 1-9-1963; Durg R.

F., 149293, 21-9-1978.

FI & FI. : Aug. -Sept.

Fabaceae

Flemingia nana Roxb. ex W. T. Aiton, Hort.

Kew. ed. 2, 4: 350. 1812; Cooke, l.c. 1: 391.

1902. F. congesta Roxb. var. nana Baker in

Hook. f. l.c. 2: 229. 1876 (as to the foregoing

citations, but not as described). Maughania

nana (Roxb. ex W. T. Aiton) Mukerjee, Bull,

bot. Soc. Bengal 6: 20. 1953 (‘ Moghania ).

Cooke (l.c.) reported this species from N.

Kanara only. He also commented that it was

a very rare plant in the Bombay Presidency.

It is reported here for the first time from

Maharashtra.

lllus. : Talbot, For. FI. Bombay Pres. & Sind

1: 419, fig. 237. 1909 (as F. nana); Ic. Rox-

burgh. Fasc. 6: 6, PI. 3. 1973 (as Moghania

nana).

Field notes: Herb, c. 0.25 m. high, in humus

soil, under shade of Tectona grandis L.f., on

banks of dried up nalas. Inflorescence red-

glandular. Calyx covered with red glands; stan-

dard petal brownish, wing petals brown with

red veins, keel petals mauve. Rather rare.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist. : Mor-

chandi Felling series, Bittergaon Range, 148538,

23-12-1976.

FI. & Fr. : Dec.-Feb.

Asteraceae

ChrysantheMism indicum DC. Prodr. 5: 631.

1836; Hook f. l.c. 3: 310. 1881.

This species has not been reported by Cooke

(1904) in “Flora of the Presidency of Bombay”.

Bedi & Thaker (1974) reported it from Guja-

rat. It is reported here for the first time from

Maharashtra.

Field notes: Small herb, in open, humus soil,

alongwith Kyllinga tenui folia Steud., Cassia

pumila Lamk., & Alysicarpus sp. Leaves pale

beneath. Heads yellow. Rare.

Specimens examined: yavatmal Dist.: Pen-

ganga Felling series, Kharbi Range, 160011,

5-8-1979.

FI. & Fr. : Aug. -Sept.

Lamiaceae

Orthosiphon rubicundus (D. Don) Benth. in

Wall., PI. As. Rar. 2: 14. 1831; Hook. f. l.c.

4: 614. 1885; Mukerjee, Rec. bot. Surv. India

14(1): 14(1): 25. 1940. Plectranthus rubicun-

dus D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 116. 1825

( Tlectranthes rubicunda) .

Cooke (1906) did not report it from the erst-

while Bombay Presidency. Mukerjee (l.c.) too

does not report it from this area. This is the

first record for the species in Maharashtra.

Field notes: Herb, in humus soil, as under-

growth in deciduous forest, along with Tylo-

phora fasciculata Ham., S cilia hyacinthina

(Roth) MacBride and Curcuma pseudomon-

tana Grah. Roots with fusiform tubers. Leaves

crowded at the base. Main veins of leaves,

raceme axis and sepals pale pinkish; corolla

white; filaments white, anthers dark brown;

style & stigma pale pink.

Specimens examined: yavatmal Dist. : Majra

Feeling series, Patan Bori Range, 160072, 8-8-

255

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1979; East Gondwakadi R.F., 160187,

13-8-1979.

Euphorbiaceae

Bridelia montana Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 978.

1806; Hook f. l.c. 4: 269. 1887.

Cooke (1906) has not reported this species

from the erstwhile Bombay Presidency. Pre-

sent record of the species based on collections

from Yavatmal Disk, Maharashtra is therefore

an addition to Cooke’s flora.

Field notes : A stunted tree from crevices

of rocks on slopes. Fruits green, white speckled.

Specimen examined : Mahur R.F., on the

border of Yavatmal and Nanded districts,

148532, 22-12-1976.

Fr. : Dec.

Araceae

Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth,

Enum. 3 : 34. 1841. Arum sylvaticum Roxb.

FI. Ind. 3: 511. 1832. Synantherias sylvatica

Schott, Gen. Aroid t. 28. 1858; Hook. f. l.c. 6:

518 1893; Cooke, l.c. 2: 829. 1908.

Cooke (l.c.) could not find any satisfactory

evidence of this as a Bombay plant and hence

he excluded it. Later, McCann (1941) collect-

ed it from Bhandup, Salsette Island, Bombay.

Afterwards it has not been collected from

Maharashtra. After a lapse of about 38 years,

it has been located in the north-eastern part

of Maharashtra, where it appears to be quite

common.

Ulus. : Wight, Ic. to 802. 1844.

Field notes : Herb, c. 0.75 m. high, in humus

soil, under the shade. Stem green with white

spots. Fruits green, ripening red. Common.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist. : East

Gondwakadi R.F., 156523, 22-9-1978; Pen-

ganga felling series, Kharbi Range, 160019,

5-8-1979; Morchandi Felling series, Bittergaon

Range, 160035, 6-8-1979; Majra Felling series,

Patan Bori Range, 160075, 8-8-1979.

FI & Fr. : Aug. -Sept.

Tiieriophonum minulum (Willd.) Engl.

Pflanzenr. IV, 23F: 105. fig. 15A-F. 1920.

Arum minutum Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 484. 1805;

Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 228. 1839.

Cooke (1908) did not report this species

from erstwhile Bombay Presidency, though

Graham (l.c.) listed it from S. Concan based

on the authority of Nimmo. Since then, no col-

lections have been made for the past 14 de-

cades from Maharashtra including Concan.

Presently, it is being reported from Yavatmal

where it is quite abundant.

Field notes : Tuberous herb, under shade of

teak plantations in humus soil, alongwith

Neanotis lancifolia (Hook, f.) W. H. Lewis,

Justicia diffusa Willd., Sporobolus diander

(Retz.) P. Beauv. and Curcuma pseudomon-

tana Grah. Spathe green. Female flowers at the

base in a single row, green, stigma white;

neuter florets above the female, dark brown;

male flowers above the neuters, reddish-brown;

above male flowers neuter florets present;

appendage brown. Berries green.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist.: Durg

R.F., 149300, 9-9-1978; Morchandi Felling

Series, Bittergaon Range, 160039, 6-8-1979;

Hiwri R.F., 160170, 8-8-1979.

FI. & Fr. : Aug. -Sept.

Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis sieberiana Kunth, Enum. 2: 237.

1837; Kern in van Steenis, FI. Males, ser. 1,

7(3): 572. 1974; Shah & Suryanarayana, J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 414. 1969.

Cooke (1908) has not reported this species

from former Bombay Presidency. It has been

reported by Shah & Suryanarayana (l.c.) from

Gujarat. This is reported here for the first time

256

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from Maharashtra.

Field notes : Herb, c. 0.75 m high in marshy

soil, on banks of nalas. Glumes rusty-brown;

anthers cream or brown; styles green with

brownish tinge. Abundant.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist. : Wani-

Mukutban road, 148420, 14-12-1976; Durg

camp, 156506, 21-9-1978.

FI & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.

Schoenoplectus litoralis (Schrad.) Palla, Verh.

K. K. Zool. — Bot. Ges. Wien 38, Sitzb.: 49.

1888 (‘littoralis’). Scirpus litoralis Schrad. FI.

Germ. 1: 142, t. 5, fig. 7. 1806; Clarke in

Hook. f. l.c. 6: 659. 1893; Cooke, l.c. 2: 894.

1908; Kern, l.c. 510.

Cooke (l.c.) reported this species from Sind

and Gujarat only. Presently this has been col-

lected in Maharashtra and hence reported here.

Ulus. : Mahesh. Ulus. FI. Delhi fig. 227. 1966.

Field notes : Herb, c. 2 m high, in marshy

soil, on the banks of river. Culm cylindrical.

Glumes brownish-red with scarious margins;

filaments white, anthers yellow; styles white.

Abundant.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist.: Pen-

ganga river, Kharbi, 149044, 13-2-1977.

FI 8z Fr. : Jan.-March.

Sderia parnila Steud. Syn. 2: 174. 1885;

Napper in Hepper, FI. W. Trop. Afr. ed. 2, 3

(pt. 2): 343. 1972; Kern, l.c. 746.

S. tessellata (non Willd.) Boeck, Linnaea

38: 470. 1874, p.p.; Clarke in Hook. f. l.c. 6:

686. 1894, p.p.\ Cooke l.c. 2: 903. 1908, p.p.

S. tessellata sensu Clarke (l.c.) from India

is a mixture of three species viz. S. mikawana

Makino, S. parvula Steud. and S. tessellata

Willd. So far, S. parvula Steud. has not been

reported from Maharashtra and is reported

here for the first time.

A key to differentiate S. tessellata Willd. from S.

parvula Steud. is given below:

Lateral panicles erect; peduncles rigid,

usually short; achene cylindric to ellip-

soid-cylindric, 1.5-2 mm diam., glabrous,

obscurely or distinctly striate-lacunose,

the lacunae vertically elongated. S. tessellata

Lateral panicles pendulous; peduncles

long and flexuous; achene obovoid-

globose to oblong-ellipsoid, 1.5-2. 2 mm

diam., deeply and squarely lacunose,

usually hairy on the walls S. parvula

Field notes: Herb, c. 0.75 m high, in marshy

soil, on edges of streams. Blades sharp. Glumes

green. Nuts green, ripening white. Common.

Specimens examined: yavatmal Dist.:

Jodhmoha grass farm, 156532, 22-9-1978;

Pandharkawda-Bhiwkund road, 3 km. point,

156581, 24-9-1978.

FI. & Fr. : Aug. -Sept.

POACEAE

Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines, Bot. Bihar

& Orissa 1005. 1924; Bor, Grass. India, Burma

& Ceylon 285. 1960. Panicum remotum Retz.

Obs. Bot. 4: 17. 1786; Hook. f. l.c. 7: 38. 1896.

So far, this species has been found to occur

only in Orissa and Tamil Nadu (Bor l.c.).

Hence it is an addition to the Flora of Maha-

rashtra.

Field notes: Herb, in humus soil, as forest

undergrowth. Glumes green.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist. : Majra

felling series, Patan Bori Range, 160079

8-8-1979.

FI. & Fr. : Aug. -Nov.

Themeda laxa (Anderss.) A. Camus in Bull.

Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 26: 423. 1920; Bor,

Grass. India, Burma & Ceylon 251. 1960.

Anthistiria laxa Anderss. in Nov. Act. Sci.

Upsal. ser. 3, 2: 243. 1856; Hook. f. l.c. 7:

1896.

This species has been previously recorded

from Madhya Pradesh (Bor, l.c.) only. This

is an additional species for the flora of Maha-

rashtra.

257

17

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Field notes : Herb, c. 1.75 m high, in culti-

vated fields, in open situations. Spikelets green.

Specimens examined : yavatmal Dist. :

Y avatmal- Y elabara road, 156529, 22-9-1978.

FI & Fr. : Aug. -Oct.

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle,

Pune 411 001,

January 21, 1981.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India for facilities and to Dr. B. D.

Sharma, Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of

India, Western Circle, Poona for encourage-

ment.

S. KARTHIKEYAN

ANAND KUMAR

Referen ces

Bedi, S. J. & Thaker, D. N. (1974): The occur-

rence of Chrysanthellum indicum DC. in Gujarat

State. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 590.

Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The Flora of the Presi-

dency of Bombay. London.

McCann, C. (1941) : Occurrence of Synantherias

sylvatica Schott in the Bombay Presidency, and notes

on some other Araceae of interest. /. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 42: 496.

Shah, G. L. & Suryanarayana, B. (1969) : New

plant records for Bombay, collected from Dangs

forest, Gujarat, ibid. 66: 414.

35. NOTES ON VIOLA PILOSA BL. (VIOLACEAE)

The plant, commonly known as V. serpens

Wall, in the Indian Floras is V. pilosa Bl.

Although Hook. f. et Thoms, in FI. Brit. Ind.

(1872) quoted V. pilosa Bl. Bijr. (1825) in the

synonymy of V. serpens Wall. (1824), the

diagnostic characters of V. pilosa were first

published by Blume in his Cat. Grew. Buitenz.

(1823). So the valid name of V. serpens Wall,

ex Ging. is V. pilosa Bl.

V. pilosa is a very variable species and is

common throughout the hilly regions of India.

Larger forms grow in shady humid places and

smaller forms in rock-crevices. V. serpens ssp.

serpens var. deltoidea W. Beck. (TYPE:

Shillong, C. B. Clarke 43494 in CAL!) and

V. serpens ssp. garhwalensis W. Beck. (TYPE:

Tihri-Gurhwal, Duthie 1178, CAL-lecto !) are

considered here synonymous with V. pilosa

being smaller forms of the same species. The

synonyms and citations of this species are

given below:

V. pilosa Bl. Cat. Grew. Buitenz. 57. 1823 et

in Bijdr. 57. 1825; Jacobs et D.M. Moore

in FI. Males. 7: 207. 1971, [— excl. syn. V.

glaucescens Oud.]; Hara in Bull Univ. Mus.

Univ. Tokyo 8:83. 1975 — Type: Java,

Blume s.n. L-holo, Photo. V. serpens Wall,

ex Ging. in DC. Prodr. 1: 296. 1824; Royle,

111. Bot. Himal 74. t. 18. f 1. 1834; Hook,

f. et Thoms., FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 184. 1872. V.

serpens ssp. garhwalensis W. Beck, in Beih.

Bot. Centralbl. Abt. 2., 34: 255. 1916, syn.

nov. V. serpens ssp. serpens var. deltoidea

W. Beck. l.c. 40: 105. 1923, syn. nov. FIs. :

March to May; Frts. : May to July, often

extending throughout the year.

Distribution: Throughout India; Afghanis-

tan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Ban-

258

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

gladesh, Burma, China, Indo-China (Thailand), Malaysia to Malesian Islands (Java).

Central National Herbarium, S. P. BANERJEE

Botanical Survey of India, B. B. PRAMANIK

Howrah -7 11 103,

June 19, 1981.

36. SOME NOTEWORTHY PLANTS FROM KOLABA DISTRICT

(MAHARASHTRA STATE)

During floristic studies of Kolaba district

(Maharashtra State) 5 plants namely Ficus

callosa Willd. (Moraceae), Flemingia gracilis

(Mukherjee) Ali (Fabaceae), Gymnema khan-

dalense Sant. (Asclepiadaceae), Hygrorhiza aris-

tata (Retz.) Nees ex W. & A. (Poaceae) &

Oldenlandia biflora L. (Rubiaceae) are found

to be noteworthy and hence it was thought

desirable to put these plants in record as it

will help in their location. All the specimens

cited are deposited in the herbarium of the

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

Pune ( BSI ) under the senior author’s name.

Ficus callosa Willd. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci.

Hist. (Berlin) 102. 1798; Gamble, FI. Pres.

Madras 8: 1364. 1928. ‘Ghurud — Marathi’.

Cooke (1901-1908) has not reported this

species while Gamble (l.c.) states that it is not

uncommon in W. Ghats. A solitary tree was

observed in the district, which, however, was

marked for cutting by the Maharashtra State

Forest Department. Hence the present record

from Kolaba district becomes the northern-

most limit of its occurrence in Western Ghats.

A huge tree with giant buttressed roots.

FI & Fr. : February-March.

Locality : Masadi Forest (Roha) 156470.

Flemingia gracilis (Mukherjee) Ali in Biolo-

gia 12: 78. 1966. Moghania gracilis Mukherjee in

Bull. bot. Soe. Bengal 6(1) : 22-24. 1953; Reddi

in Bull. bot. Surv. India 11: 145. 1969.

Mukerjee (l.c.) described this species from

Khandala in Pune district based on Santapau’s

collections. Thereafter it was collected by Reddi

(l.c.) from the same district and therefore its

present record from the adjoining Kolaba dis-

trict is very interesting and worth putting on

record.

An extremely rare plant in Kolaba district

as it was observed only in one locality that too

on a steep cut slope of the rock.

FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : Porcupine point, Matheran 147387.

Gymnema khandalanse Sant, in Kew Bull.

1948. 486. January 1949 et Rec. bot. Surv.

India 16(1): 52. ed. 3. 1967.

It is described as a new species from Khan-

dala by Santapau (l.c.) and nobody has report-

ed it thereafter. Hence its present record from

Kolaba district is the second report of its occur-

rence and thus establishes itself as a good

species confined to a limited area. However,

because of biotic interference in that particular

locality its very existence is threatened and

thus it is very much endangered.

A climber with straight or slightly curved

follicles. This plant was collected only once

and that too in fruit. However, flowering speci-

mens collected by Santapau are represented in

Blatter Herbarium, Bombay.

Fr. : March 1979.

Locality: Masadi Forest, Roha 156472.

259

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Ilygrorhiza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex W. & A.

in Edinb. New Phil. J. 15: 380. 1833; Cooke

in FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 1041. 1908. Pharus

aristata Retz. Obs. 5: 23. 1789.

Cooke (l.c.) has recorded this plant from

Chikli (Gujarat) only and Gamble (1915-36)

records from both the coasts down south. The

present report from the Kolaba district in

Maharashtra State thus bridges the gap in its

distribution.

An attractive aquatic grass with purplish,

handsome swollen leaf-sheaths and greenish-

yellow spikelets; worth introducing in gardens

in shallow ponds.

FI. & Fr. : December-March.

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Pune,

May 7, 1981.

Locality : Gavalwadi pond, Karjat 154503.

Oldenlandia biflora L. Sp. PI. 119. 1753;

Hooker in FI. Brit. India 3: 70. 1897.

Cooke (1901-08) has not recorded this

species from Maharashtra State. Gamble (l.c.)

also notes its infrequent occurrence on the W.

coast and it was also represented from Laksha-

dweep (Laccadives) in BSI. Therefore, its

present record from Maharashtra State is the

first one from the State.

A branched succulent herb with white

flowers. A rare plant growing on moist-moss

covered rocks near sea-shores.

FI & Fr.: September-October.

Locality : Murud 147855.

M. J. KOTHARI

SIRASALA MOORTHY

Referen ces

Cooke, T. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Presi- Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Parts 1-11. Lon-

dency of Bombay, Vol. 1 & 2, London. don.

Gamble, J. S. & Fischer, G. E. C. (1915-36):

37. THE GENUS DESCHAMPSIA IN N. W. HIMALAYA

Deschampsia belongs to the tribe Aveneae

of Poaceae. It has about 60 species distributed

mostly in temperate regions. In India the genus

is represented by two species D. caespitosa and

D. koelerioides. Both occur in the North West-

ern Himalayan region at an altitude of about

4000 m. The plants have golden brown or pur-

plish green shining spikelets and may prove

worthy of introduction in alpine gardens. A

third species D. flexuosa occurs in Nepal and

may be expected in India. [Santapau & Henry

(Dictionary 53, 1973) while dealing with the

genus mention the occurrence of three species

in India].

Type species — Deschampsia caespitosa (L.)

P. Beauv. = Air a caespitosa L.

Deschampsia P. Beauv., Ess. Agrost. 91. t.

18. f. 3.1812; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 273.

1897; Bor Grasses Burm. Cey. Ind. & Pak.

435. 1960.

Perennials. Culms ascending, glabrous;

sheaths glabrous, striate. Leaves mostly basal,

glabrous, acute; ligule membranous. Inflores-

cence contracted or spreading panicle, shining.

Spikelets usually 2-flowered; rhachilla produc-

ed, pilose, breaking up above the glumes.

Glumes hyaline, equal or sub-equal, longer than

the lemmas. Lemmas broad, toothed or lobed,

awned on the back; callus hairy. Paleas shorter

than the lemma, 4 -toothed. Anthers 3. Styles

2. Lodicules 2.

260

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Key to species

1. Inflorescence much spreading D. caespitosa

la. Inflorescence contracted D. koelerioides

D. caespitosa (L.) P. Beauv., Ess. Agrost. 91.

160. 1812; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 273.

1897; Bor, Grass. Burma, Cey., Ind. & Pak.

435. 1960; Stewart, FI. West Pakistan 136.

1972; Kachroo et al. FI. Ladakh 157. 1977.

Perennial grasses. Culms glabrous, curved at

the base; sheaths scarious margined. Leaves

linear ± 25 cm x 2 . 5 mm wide; ligule — 4 mm

long, toothed, Inflorescence a spreading pani-

cle, shining purplish; rachis distantly scabrid.

Spikelets pedicelled, usually 2-flowered; rachilla

produced, pilose. Lower glume dz 4 mm long,

ovate-elliptic. Upper glume — 5 mm long,

boat-shaped, broader than the lower glume.

Lemma ± 3.5 mm long, broad, toothed or

4-lobed awned; awn basal to median, nearly

equalling the lemma, hardly visible beyond the

glumes. Palea shorter than the lemma- 4-tooth-

ed. Anthers 3, ± 2 mm. long. Ovary brownish.

Ecological note:

Fairly common, on moist, sandy stream beds

mainly in drier W. Himalayan region, 2800-

4400 m.

Specimens examined : Himachal Pradesh —

Kinnaur; Between Chitral & Ranikanda, 3400

m., 29.9.1964, N.C. Nair 34393. (BSD), Kulu:

Manali 2800 m, 2.8.1941, Kirat Ram 15586

(DD). Lahul & Spiti: Rohtang Pass, 3950 m.,

N. L. Bor 11939 (DD); Thumla, 4200 m.

1.8.1972, U. C. Bhattacharyya 49210 (BSD).

Jammu & Kashmir-Ladakh : Chushul, 4329 m.

26.7.1931, W. Koelz 2447b (DD.) Uttar

Pradesh-Kumaon : . Ralam Valley, 3800 m.

23.8.1884. J. F. Duthie 3549 (DD), 3550

(CAL); Tehri : Kharga Ka gadh, 3950 m.

Botanical Survey of India,

Northern Circle,

Dehra Dun,

May 26, 1981.

1 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of

8.8.1883, J. F. Duthie 268 (DD); Uttarkashi:

Nila Valley 3900 m. 16.8.1883, J. F. Duthie

290 (CAL).

D. koelerioides Regel in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc.

41: 299. 1868; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 273.

1897; Bor Grasses Burm., Cey., Ind. & Pak.

435. 1960; Stewart, FI. West Pakistan 136.

1972; Kachroo et al FI. Ladakh. 157. 1977

Rhizomatous. Culms glabrous. Leaves ± 6

mm x 3 mm., glabrous, acute; ligule ± 3 mm.

long. Inflorescence contracted, shining purplish

green; rachis distantly scabrous. Spikelets pedi-

celled, usually 2-flowered; rachilla produced,

long hairy. Lower glume do 3 mm. long, lan-

ceolate, acute. Upper glume do 4 mm. long,

ovate-elliptic, acute. Lemma — 3 mm long,

oblong, toothed or lobed, awned; awn basal to

median, not or slightly visible beyond the

glumes. Palea shorter than the lemma, 4-lobed,

Anthers 3, ± 1.2 mm long.

Except in the compact nature of the inflores-

cence, this species cannot be distinguished from

D. caespitosa. Population study of both the

species may prove these to be variant forms

of one species. Since locating this species is a

matter of chance, very intensive field observa-

tion and biosystematic study are necessary to

establish specific identity of D. koelerioides .

Ecological note :

On wet sand around boulders. Rare. Though

it has been stated to be common, the repre-

sentation of this species from the Indian region

is very poor in DD herbarium and at CAL.

Specimens examined : Jammu & Kashmir-

Ladakh: Gomburangzang, Kargiakh Cho, 4500

m, 24.7.1973, U. C. Bhattacharyya 52200

(BSD, CAL).

B. P. UNIYAL1

U. C. BHATTACHARYYA

India, Howrah.

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

38. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASSES OF BIFIAR, ORISSA &

WEST BENGAL

Jain et al. (1975) published a list of grasses

of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. They did

not include some of the known species be-

cause of the non availability of representative

specimens. We have identified few such speci-

mens that can now be added to the list. The

specimens studied are mentioned below.

1. Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Hall, f.)

Koeler var. pseudophragmites.

w. Bengal: Darjeeling, 1800-2100 m.,

Aug., 1957, K. C. Chowdhury 1 (CAL).

2. Dichant hium pallidum (Hook, f.) Stapf ex

Fisch.

orissa: Gunjam, Dec. 1949, W. Wight

3023 (CAL).

Botanical Survey of India,

Central National Herbarium,

Howrah-711 103,

August 12, 1981.

3. Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill.

w. Bengal: Darjeeling, Tiger hill, 2400

m.. 6.7.1956, D. Chatterjee’s collector 77

(CAL).

4. F. undata Stapf var. aristata Stapf

w. Bengal: Darjeeling, 3500 m., 27.6.1960,

A. B. Chowdhury 31 (CAL).

5. Paspalum longifolium Roxb.

w. Bengal: Malda, Sarul forest, 25.8.1966,

R. M. Dutta 489 (CAL).

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Deputy Director,

Central National Herbarium for encourage-

ment.

B. P. UNIYAL

(MRS.) R. DUTTA

Reference

Jain, S. K., Banerjee, D. K. & Pal, D. C. (1975) :

Grasses of Bihar, Orissa & West Bengal. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3): 758-773.

39. A LITTLE KNOWN FERN FROM THE HIMALAYA —

ASPLENIUM NESII CHRIST, AND THE NOMENCLATURE

OF A. EX1GUUM BEDD. (ASPLENIACEAE)

(With a text-figure)

A description of the little known, Aspienium nesii Christ, hitherto unrecorded in the

Himalayan fern literature is provided. Its further detection in the various herbaria

(under A. varians or A. exiguum ) or from other localities in the Himalaya would

help in determining the geographical range of this Chinese fern. The real A. exiguum

Bedd. occurs in south India only. The Himalayan fern conventionally so known is

much different and should be given another name.

An Aspienium collected from Deoban (2,700 layas) was found to be distinct from all known

m) above Chakrata, Mussoorie hills (W. Hima- Himalayan species of this genus. Prof. T.

262

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Reichstein (Basel, Switzerland) confirmed the

identity of this fern as Asplenium nesii Christ.

It is unrecorded in Himalayan fern literature

and a detailed description of this species is

very much required and desirable as it seems

to be not much known to Indian pteridologists.

Asplenium nesii Christ

Rhizome short, erect to ascending, apex

clothed in black clatherate ovate-lanceolate

2. 5-3.0 mm long scales; fronds numerous, 2-12

(14) cm long x 1-2 (3) cm broad (at the widest),

grey-green; stipe short 2-6 cm, 2-10 times

shorter than the lamina, invariably black, at

least in the lower half, green upwards, a tuft

of scales (similar to those on rhizome apex)

at base, less dense becoming scattered narrower

hair-like and light-brown upwards running on

to half of rachis, 0.5-1 mm thick; lamina

coriaceous to subcoriaceous, lanceolate widest

a little above the middle, tapering to base, tip

incised on both sides to produce 3-5 blunt teeth

on each side directed upwards, bipinnatifid or

partly bipinnate in the lower part; pinnae 8-12

pairs, 0.5- 1.5 cm long, more or less linear,

bases cuneform, lower ones shortly stipitate

stalk 0.5-1 mm, upper ones becoming decur-

rent and sessile, lower pair of pinnae small,

often irregular, about 1 cm apart from the next

pair, becoming slightly closer higher up and

sometimes touching the next but not crowded,

larger pinnae (0.5) 0.8-12 (15) cm long x

0.3 -0.5 cm broad, deeply incised to form 2-4

irregular lobes on both sides, the larger lobes

often forked or cleft again forming obtuse teeth

that are directed towards the midrib; rhachis

green, lower portion scaly; veins obscure; in-

dusia whitish, entire, open up at maturity; sori

close to the costae, 5-7 (10) to a pinna; spores

bilateral, brown, perinate, perine large, (30)

34-42 (45) /x m long.

(Based on Ching and Reichstein (1980);

emended on basis of present specimens per-

Fig. 1. Asplenium nesii Christ from Deoban 2700 m,

Chakrata hills.

sonally examined).

Characteristic features : A small fragile fern

growing in the clefts and fissures of dry but

shaded rocks. Stipes many, tufted, blackish at

least in the lower portion, higher up and

rhachis green; lamina bipinnatifid, grey-green,

coriaceous to subcoriaceous, widest a little

above the middle, lower pinnae small and dis-

tinct. Fig. 1.

Extremely rare in the Deoban forest (2,700

m), Uttar Pradesh. Specimens have been depo-

sited at PAN (Chandigarh) and PUN

(Patiala).

263

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

A. nesii has been detected from previous

collections from only the following three Hima-

layan localities: —

(i) Uttar Pradesh, Kumaon; rocks in

Dhauli Valley, 3,000 m, J. F. Duthie,

6.8.1886 (DD).

(ii) Uttar Pradesh, Deoban, 2,700 m; R.

L. Flemming, 1.10.1951 (MICH) No.

1096.

(iii) Himachal Pradesh, Lahul, Shipting

Nulla, 3,300 m; Walter ICoelz, 2.8.1938

(MICH) — doubtful.

The above three herbarium specimens were

identified provisionally as A. nesii, by Ching

and Reichstein ( pers . comm.) although no. (i)

had been labelled as A. exiguum and no. (ii)

as A. varians. (Herbaria: DD = herbarium of

the F.R.I. Dehradun; MICH - The University

of Michigan, U.S.A.).

The present gatherings of A. nesii are the

first authentic record for this fern from the

Himalaya. It is quite probable and possible

that a re-examination of the specimens in vari-

ous herbaria all over the country, under A.

varians Wall, ex Hook. & Grev. A. exiguum

Bedd. and A. pseudofontanum Koss., Naturl.

System. Herb. Hortii Petr. 3: 121-124 (1922)

(earlier known as A. fontarum (L.) Bemh. in

which the lamina is more divided and pinnae

more numerous), may be successful in detect-

ing and adding to the number of Himalayan

localities for this primarily Chinese fern. The

geographical range of A. nesii could also thus

be determined.

A. nesii shares with A. varians the absence

of proliferating buds on lamina. But in A.

varians the lamina is herbaceous, primarily bi-

pinnate (1 -pinnate or tripinnatifid), bright-

green (not grey-green); lowest pinnae generally

only a shade smaller (or even longer) than the

second pair which is often the largest and only

the extreme basal 1-2 cm of stipe may be black.

Another Himalayan fern quite close to A ,

nesii is A. exiguum. Both have a similar frond

form (tapering at ends and broadest a little

above middle) and blackish stipes. A. exiguum,

however, differs in having: complete and even

lower part of rhachis blackish, vegetative pro-

liferating buds always present, lamina herba-

ceous, bright-green; prefers more humid situa-

tions compared to A. nesii.

Nomenclature of A. exiguum

It would be pertinent to point out here that

true A. exiguum Bedd. occurs only in south

India. The form described from various loca-

lities in the Himalaya (Mehra, 1939, from Mus-

soorie; Bir, 1962 from Simla; Verma & Khullar,

1980 from Nainital; Dhir, 1980 from N. W.

Himalaya, etc.) under this name is different.

Earlier, Hope (1901) had pointed out the dis-

tinctness of the Himalayan and south Indian

forms, but later workers unfortunately treated

these under a common name.

In the south Indian taxon, vegetative buds

are present only on an extended rhachis and

not on pinnae; many fronds of a plant are with

such buds. The Himalayan form has vegetative

buds on both, an extended rhachis (only on a

few fronds of a plant) and pinnae. Another

fern of this group, A. yunnanense Franchet,

also has vegetative buds on the apex, but the

rhachis is not extended (Reichstein, pers.

comm.). The Himalayan form is thus distinct

from the true south Indian, A. exiguum.

Acknowledgements

We owe a great debt of gratitude to Prof.

T. Reichstein (Basel, Switzerland) for identi-

fications, and for providing some very impor-

tant literature and useful suggestions without

which it may not have been possible to redis-

264

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Pi ate

Biswas & Ghosh: Onychium sp.

Onychium plumosum Ching Onychium tenuifrons Ching

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

cover this fern. We would also like to record

our thanks to Profs. S. C. Verma (Punjab,

Botany Department,

Punjab University,

Chandigarh- 160 014,

April 30, 1981.

Chandigarh) and S. S. Bir (Punjabi, Patiala)

for their encouragement.

S. P. KHULLAR

SHANTI S. SPIARMA

PARAMJIT SINGH

References

Bir, S. S. (1962): Observations on the Pterido-

phytic flora of Simla Hills (N. W. Himalayas). Bull.

Bot. surv. India 5: 151-161.

Ching, R. C. & Reichstein, T. (1980) : Asplenium

nesii Christ (Aspleniaceae, Pteridophyta) . Studies in

Asplenium for flora Iranica, Candollea (pers. comm.).

Dhir, K. K. (1980): Ferns of North Western

Himalayas. Bibliotheca Pteridologica, J. Cramer,

Vaduz 1 : 1-158.

Hope, C. W. (1901): The ferns of N. W. India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 657-671.

Mehra, P. N. (1939) : Ferns of Mussoorie. Punjab

Univ. Publ., Lahore .

Verma, S. C. & Khullar, S. P. (1980): Ferns of

Nainital (Western Himalayas) : An updated list.

Fern. Gaz. 12: 83-92.

40. ONYCHIUM PLUMOSUM CHING, O. TENUIFRONS CHING —

TWO NEW RECORDS OF FERN FOR INDIA

( With a plate and four text-figures)

During the scrutiny and examination of

Onychium specimens housed in (CAL) the

herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, How-

rah, we came across a few specimens collected

by Gammie and Rao from Lachen valley,

Sikkim; and Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh

which after careful study turned out to be

Onychium plumosum Ching and O. tenuifrons

Ching. These two taxa were previously des-

cribed and reported from Yunnan, China by

Ching. Our study shows that these two taxa

occur also in India. O. plumosum is closely

allied to O. contiguum. A key to distinguish it

from O. contiguum and detailed description of

the two taxa based on Indian material is pro-

vided in this paper. The genus Onychium is

represented in India by five species and one

variety.

Key to the taxa

Frond compact, lamina 20-35 x 11-25 cm, sterile

pinnae finely dissected, ultimate segment small, colour

pale when dry, mature sori thick, 2-5 mm long ....

O. contiguum

Frond lax, lamina 50-60 x 20-30 cm, sterile pinnae

coarsely dissected, ultimate segments large, colour

green when dry, mature sori thin, 3-6 mm long ....

O. plumosum

Onychium plumosum Ching, Lingnan Sci. Jour.

13(3): 499. 1934. Onychium japonicum var.

parvisorum R. Bona parte. Notes Pterid. 14.

1923; Kummerle, Amer. Fern. Jour. 20: 137.

1930.

Lamina large 50-60 x 20-30 cm, 4 pinnate,

primary pinnae petiolate, alternate, 5-10 cm

apart, 8-12 pairs, basal pair largest 22-26 x

8-10 cm, secondary pinnae petiolate 8-12 x 4-6

265

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

Fig. 1. Sorus of O. plumosum Ching with indusium.

Fig. 2. A pinnule of O. plumosum Ching.

cm, 8-9 jugate, tertiary pinnae again pinnatifid,

ultimate segment about 8 mm long; texture

thin, colour green when dry; vein not very dis-

tinct, one in each lobe, Sori 3-6 mm long, thin;

Indusium whitish to grey, membranaceous,

entire.

Specimens examined :

sikkim — Lachen valley; 1880 m, 29.7.1892,

G . A. Gammie s. n. (7508, 7509 — CAL).

Falc. 1262 A; 1262B (CAL).

Earlier record : China.

Onychium tenuifrons Ching, Lingnan Sci. Jour.

13(3): 500. 1934; leones Filicum Sinicarum

Fasc. 4. PI. 163. 1937. Onychium japonicum

var. delavayi Christ, Bull. Soc. Bot. France

52. Mem I: 60. 1905; Kummerle, Amer.

Fern. Jour. 20: 137. 1930.

Tender plant 28-35 cm high; Rhizome short

creeping densely provided with pale brown

scales; rachis very thin furrowed; sterile pinnae

on short stipe; Lamina 12-25 cm; tripinnate

at base, bipinnate above; pinnae petiolate,

oblique, 6-12 cm, lanceolate 5-8 jugate, pin-

nules pinnate, 3-5 jugate, ultimate segment

linear, 5-8 mm x 1 .0-1 .5 mm, margin obscure-

ly denticulated, texture very thin membranace-

ous, pale brown in colour; vein prominent, one

to each segment; sori 3-7 mm long; indusium

grey, margin deeply erosed.

Specimens examined :

arunachal pradesh — Kameng : left bank of

Dirang river, 30.10.1970, Rao 49477 (CAL).

Earlier record : China.

Fig. 3. Sorus of O. tenuifrons Ching with indusium

showing erose margin. Fig. 4. A pinnule of O.

tenuifrons Ching.

266

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

According to R. C. Ching this species is and its area of distribution extends to Aruna-

endemic to China. But the present study shows chal Pradesh in India.

Botanical Survey of India, ANJALI (DAS) BISWAS

Sibpur, Howrah, S. R. GHOSH

February 11, 1981.

References

Ching, R. C. (1934) : On the genus Onychium Ching, R. C. (1937) : leones Filicum Sinicarum

from the Far orient. Lingnan Sci. Jour. 13(3) : 500. Fasc. 4. PI. 163, Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. Peiping.

41. ELAPHOGLOSSUM CEYLANICUM KRAJINA EX SLEDGE —

A NEW RECORD OF FERN FOR INDIA

(With five text-figures)

During the study of Herbarium specimens

housed in CAL Herbarium I came across a few

specimens pasted on one sheet from Sikkim

which have been identified as E. ceylanicum

Krajina ex Sledge. This was previously report-

ed from Ceylon only but the study shows that

this species also occurs in India. This is an

addition to the 7 species already reported from

India. Detailed description and illustration is

provided in this note.

Elaphoglossum ceylanicum Krajina ex Sledge

Rhizome creeping, covered by linear, dark

chestnut or almost black glossy scales margin

of which provided with concolorous setiformis

teeth; Fronds tufted several from a stock, sim-

ple pinnate, stipe short 1.5-6 cm long, thin,

dull brown to reddish brown in col., scaly, scale

narrowly lanceolate, light brown, membrana-

Botanical Survey of India,

Sibpur, Howrah,

April 20, 1981.

ceous, margin provided with dark almost black

setiformis teeth; Lamina 8-25 cm x 1-2 cm,

oblong elliptic, base attenuate, apex acute to

shortly acuminate, texture thin, lower surface

dark green, upper surface dull green, both the

surfaces scaly but neither surface covered by

dense coating of scales, scale of both surfaces

vary in shape — broadly to narrowly ovate or

sometimes orbicular margin of which fringed

by long setiformis teeth. Fertile frond like sterile

frond.

Specimens examined :

sikkim — 4000', 13.4.1857, Thomson Acc.

No. 25288 (CAL). Earlier Record : Ceylon,

According to Sledge this species is endemic

to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) but it is now recorded

from India.

ANJALI (DAS) BISWAS

267

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

Figs. 1-5. Elaphoglossum ceylanicum Krajina ex Sledge.

1. The whole plant; 2. Scale of Rhizome; 3. Scale of stipe; 4. Scale of upper surface

of lamina; 5. Scale of lower surface of lamina.

268

A SPECIAL GENERAL BODY MEETING

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

A Special General Body Meeting of the Bom-

bay Natural History Society convened by the

Executive Committee to consider two resolutions

amending the Memorandum of Association of

the Society was held on Friday, the 17th Febru-

ary 1983 at 6 p.m. at the BEST Conference

Hall. The following were present.

1 . Mr. Amin M. Tyabji

2. Mr. Naresh Dutt

3. Mr. K. Bhasker Rao

4. Mr. J. C. Daniel

5. Mr. H. Abdulali

6. Mr. S. G. Monga

7. Mr. Nitin Jamdar

8. Mr. K. T. Ravi Varma

9. Mr. U. A. Mehta

10. Mr. R. Sahgal

1 1 . Mr. Bittu Sahgal

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17. Mrs. D. S. Variava

18. Dr. Salim Ali

19. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

20. Mr. F. N. Husein

21 . Mr. D. P. Banerjee

22. Mr. M. K. Potdar

23. Mr. K. K. Vajifdar

24. Miss Usha Ganguli

25. Mr. O. S. Fernandes

26. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

27. Mr. Aroon Tikekar for Dr. Tarneja

28. Dr. S .R. Amladi

29. Mr. D. J. Panday

30. Mr. J. P. Irani

3 1 . Mr. Ashraf I. Macchiwalla

32. Mr. S. M. Ketkar

33. Miss Sober S. Driver

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35. Mr. M. C. Shah

36. Mr. S. V. Paranjape

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5 1 . Mr. Anil Dave

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58. Mr. C. B. D’Lima

59. Mr. S. D. Bhaumik

60. Ms. A. A. Kaikini

61 . Mr. S. H. Dhami

Dr. Salim Ali, the President of the Society

proposed Dr. C. V. Kulkarni to take the Chair

and conduct the meeting, which was seconded

by Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati.

269

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni read out the Resolutions

1 . RESOLVED that at the end of object 2(a)

of the Memorandum of Association of the

BNHS., the following be added: “and to

promote conservation of nature and natu-

ral resources”.

2. RESOLVED that the Memorandum of

Association of the Bombay Natural History

Society be amended by deleting object

2(d).

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni stated that no full length

explanations on the two Resolutions were neces-

sary as the explanations have been already cir-

culated explaining why such amendments were

necessary. As there appeared to be some dis-

agreement in the minds of members present

on the question of proxies, the Chairman re-

quested Mr. M. D. Agharkar, a practising law-

yer, to explain the position to members present.

Mr. Agharkar stated that the Society’s rules

were quite clear on the matter. Rule 13 read

with Rule 19 of the Society’s Memorandum of

Association and Rules and Regulations laid

down quite clearly that only members who

had paid their subscription for the current year

were entitled to attend and vote at this meeting.

If the members voting in person or by proxy

and supporting the resolutions constituted more

than 3 /5th of the present paid-up membership,

the Resolution could be passed.

The Honorary Secretary announced that the

number of members entitled to vote at this

meeting was 1240, and 3 /5th of this figure

would be 744. He then called for volunteers

from the audience to act as scrutinizers and

count the proxies received, while the film an-

nounced would be shown to the audience.

Mr. Nitin Jamdar, Mr. R. Naoroji, Mr.

Parande, and Mr. Ulhas Rane volunteered to

count the proxies, along with the Honorary

Secretary in another room.

Meanwhile the film ‘Monsoon Birds” made

by Stanley and Belinda Breeden was shown to

the audience.

The Honorary Secretary then announced that

935 valid proxies, all supporting the two reso-

lutions, had been received and 60 members

were present at the meeting.

Resolution No. 1 was then put to the vote

and was passed unanimously.

Resolution No. 2 was put to vote and was

also passed unanimously.

The total of 993 votes recorded being well

above the required minimum of 3 /5th, i.e. 744,

both the resolutions were declared to have been

carried.

The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks

to the four volunteer scrutinizers and to the

Chair.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

The Second Special General Body meeting

of the members of the Bombay Natural History

Society was held on Thursday, 17th March 1983

at 6 p.m. at the BEST Conference Hall, to

confirm the resolutions passed on 17-2-83, when

the following members were present:

270

A SPECIAL GENERAL BODY MEETING

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, the Honorary Secre-

tary, informed the audience of the inability of

Dr Salim Ali, the President, to attend the meet-

ing, and proposed Dr C. V. Kulkami, the

Vice-President of the Society, to the Chair. This

proposal was seconded by Mr. J. N. Barmeda.

The Chairman reiterated the purpose of the

meeting called for and stated that he was going

to read the Resolutions and to put them to vote

one by one.

Resolution No. 1. RESOLVED that at the

end of object to 2(a) of the Memorandum

of Association of the Society the following be

added: kand to promote conservation of nature

and natural resources.’

The Resolution was put to vote, twenty six

members voting for it with two abstaining. None

was against the Resolution. The Resolution was

therefore declared confirmed.

Resolution No. 2. RESOLVED that the

Memorandum of Association of the Bombay

Natural History Society be emended by delet-

ing object 2(d), namely: “To carry on the

business of Taxidermists and preservers.”

The Resolution was put to vote, once again

twenty six members voting for it with two

abstaining. None was against the Resolution.

The resolution was therefore declared con-

firmed.

The Chairman thanked the members for

attending the meeting.

The Honorary Secretary moved the vote of

thanks to the Chair.

The film GORILLA based on the Mountain

Gorillas of the Zaire region of Africa was

shown and highly appreciated by the audience.

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

Vice President,

and Chairman of the Special

General Body Meeting,

Bombay Natural History Society.

271

ERRATUM

Volume 79(2) : August 1982

On page 331, Title,

and Table of Contents,

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CONTENTS

Page

Large mammalian prey-predators in Bandipur. By A. J. T. Johnsingh . . 1

An east-west Aquila eagle migration in the Himalayas. By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. 58

A Catalogue of species added to Gamble’s “Flora of the Presidency of Madras”.

By S. Karthikeyan and B. D. Sharma • . . 63

Studies on spawning migration and spawning of hillstream fish Discognathus

mullya (Sykes). By Loviah Joseph and S. V. Job . . 80

Observations on the movement -of two captive-reared mugger crocodiles,

Crocodylus palustris Lesson when returned to the wild. By Lala A. K. Singh 86

Records of Mesostigmata, Ereynetidae and Pterygosom iDAfe (Acarina) in

western Himalayas, Sikkim and hill districts of West Bengal. By H. R.

Bhat, S. M. Rulkarni and A. C. Mishra ... 91

Biology of Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni) with reference

to Western Baluchistan. By Afsar Mian and Mohammad Ibrahim Surahio 111

The food and feeding of juvenile Bengal Monitor Lizards ( Varanus benga-

lensis). By Walter Auffenberg and Ipe M. Ipe .. 119

Courtship and copulation in Myllocerus . undecimpustulatus maculosus Desb..

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). By K. Thangavelu .. 125

The genus Linder nia All. (Scrophulariaceae) in India. By V. V. Sivarajan

and Philip Mathew .. 131

Survey of South Indian Pelicanries. By V. Nagulu and J. V. Ramana Rao 141

Field key of Rana alticola Annandale (Anura: Ranidae) tadpoles. By A. K.

Sahu and M. K. Khare . . 144

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society- 27. By Humayun Abdulali . . 149

New Descriptions . . 166

Reviews ' " 201

Miscellaneous Notes ' . . 206

Minutes of a Special General Body Meeting of the Bombay Natural History

Society . . 269

Minutes of the Second Special General Body Meeting of the Bombay Natural

History Society . . 270-

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and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay

Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Vol. 80, No. 2

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

AUGUST 1983 Rs. 45

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VOLUME 80 (2) : AUGUST 1983

Date of Publication : 27-2-1984

CONTENTS

Page

Observations on the Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilomis cheela ) in Rajpipla

forests — SOUTH Gujarat. By Rishad K. Naoroji and S. G. Monga. (With five

plates and a text- figure) . . 273

Notes on feeding behaviour of Varanus bengalensis (Sauria: Varanidae). By

Walter Auffenberg. ( With seven text- figures ) . . 286

Breeding habits and associated phenomenon in some Indian bats. Part VIII —

Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) Emballonuridae. By V. M. Sapkal and

K. G. Khamre . . 303

Potamogeton in north western Himalayas. By A. Majeed Kak. (With twelve text-

figures) . . 312

Bombay Natural History Society — the Builders and the Guardians. Part 4.

By Salim Ali. (With four plates) . . 320

Some observations on Dol (bag) net fishery at Sassoon Dock, Bombay. By S.

Krishna Pillai. (With four text-figures) . . 331

Studies on the intraspecific variations in Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius)

(Odonata: Libellulidae) , By M. Prasad and S. K. Ghosh. (With thirteen

text-figures) . . 341

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society — 28. By Humayun Abdulali. (With a colour plate) . . 349

Grasses of Udaipur District (Rajasthan State). By S. S. Katewa and Y. D. Tiagi 370

Peregrine Falcon. By S. M. Osman . . 380

New Descriptions:

A New Species of Lonicera L. (Caprifoliaceae) from north west Himalaya. By M. P.

Nayar and G. S. Giri. (With a text- figure) . . 385

Two New Species of the Genus Storthecoris Horvath (Heteroptera : Pentatomidae) .

By M. Nayyar Azim and E. Adam Shafee. (With ten text-figures) . . 387

A New Species of the Genus Synidotea Harger from Waltair coast, India (Crustacea :

Isopoda: Valvifera). By C. Jalaja Kumari and K. Shyamasundari. (With twelve

text-figures) . . 389

Descriptions of two New Species of Tetrastichus Haliday (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

from India. By S. Adam Shafee, Anis Fatma and Prem Kishore. (With five

text-figures) . . 393

Arundinella cannanorica: A New Species of Foaceae from Kerala, India. By V. J.

Nair, P. V. Sreekumar and N. C. Nair. (With eleven text-figures) . . 396

First Record of Paracoccus Ezzat & Mcconnell (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) from

India with description of a New Species. By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi and S.

Adam Shafee. (With two text-figures) . . 398

Hedyotis silent-valley ensis (Rubiaceae) — A New Species from South India. By E.

Vajravelu, N. C., Rathakrishnan and P. Bhargavan. (With five text-figures) 402

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Status and ecology of Wild Buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis Linn.) in Chandrapur

.District of Maharashtra. By H. K. Divekar, R. B. Grubh and P. B. Shekar (p. 450);

2. Courtship and mating in the Indian Sheath-Tailed Bat, Taphozous longimanus longimanus

(Hardwicke). By J. P. Lai and D. K. Biswas (p. 409); 3. A note on the Status of the

Flying Squirrels of Darjeeling and Sikkim. By R. K. Ghose and T. K. Chakraborty (p. 411);

4. Unusual feeding behaviour of Nilgai. By M. B. Chitampalli (p. 412); 5. The Quills

that make a Red Porcupine. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 412).

Birds: 6. Birds feeding on fire-driven insects. By Adrian Del-Nevo and Peter J. Ewins

(p. 413); 7. Occurrence of the Great Crested Crebe, Podiceps cristatus (Linne) at Ranchi,

Bihar. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 414); 8. Winter food of Spotted Owlet, Athene brama

indica. By A. P. Jain and Ranjan Advani (p. 415); 9. Occurrence of Northern Jungle

Myna Acridotheres fuscus Wagler in the Punjab and Haryana. By Manjit S. Dhindsa and

R. N. Singhal (p. 416); 10. Rustic Bunting ( Emberiza rustica ) — A New Species for

Nepal. ( With a text-figure). By Adrian Del-Nevo and Peter J. Ewins (p. 417).

Reptiles: 11. Observations on food requirement and food conversion in the Mugger ( Croco -

dylus paiustris ) reared in captivity. {With two text-figures). By L. A. K. Singh (p. 418);

12. Stunted growth in captive-reared Gharial. By B. C. Choudhury and H. R. Bustard

(p. 423).

Fishes: 13. A special method of fishing for juveniles of Mahseer {Tor putitora) in the

streams of Himachal Pradesh. By C. B. Joshi (p. 426); 14. Observations on the bathymetric

distribution of Hilsa larvae in Middle Stretch of River Ganga near Allahabad. {With a

text-figure). By Ravish Chandra, V. R. Desai and S. K. Das (p. 427); 15. Occurrence of

common Carp {Cyprinus carpio) in trout waters. By S. B. Raizada (p. 430).

Insects: 16. New records of Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Sikkim, north east

India. By Basant K. Agarwala and D. N. Raychaudhuri (p. 431); 17. First record of

Diplacodes lefebvrei (Rambur) (Odonata: Libellulidae: Sympetrinae) from NW. India. By

R. K. Thakur (p. 434); 18. A note on the Odonata (Insecta) from Sikkim, India. {With

nine text-figures). By M. Prasad and S. K. Ghosh (p. 435); 19. Niger Grain Fly, Diozina

sororcula (Wiedemann), a serious pest of Niger in Central India. By S. S. Jakhmola (p.

439); 20. Oviposition of two Chironomids (Diptera) in the laboratory. By P. K. Chaudhuri

and S. K. Nandi (p. 440).

Other Invertebrates: 21. Life history, Ephippia development, Cyclomorphosis and Tem-

perature effect on Life Cycle in Daphnia lumholtzi Sars (Cladocera: Daphnidae). {With two

plates & a text-figure) . By D. R. Kanaujia (p. 442) ; 22. A note on the Settlement of Fouling

Organisms on Fibre-Glass Boats. By L. N. Santhakumaran and S. R. Madhavan Pillai

(p. 448).

Botany: 23. Pulicaria petiolaris Jaub. et Spach (Asteraceae) — A New Record for India.

{With a plate). By C. L. Malhotra and D. Basu (p. 451); 24. The correct name of

‘Marotti’ plant in Van Rheede’s Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. By K. K. N. Nair (p. 452);

25. Identity and distribution of Ageratum houstonianum Miller (Compositae) in India.

{With three text-figures). By G. S. Giri and N. C. Majumdar (p. 453); 26. Rare or New

Exacum L. (Gentianaceae) from Southern India. {With two text-figures). By A. N. Henry

and M. S. Swaminathan (p. 456); 27. Avena ludoviciana Dur. (Poaceae) — New to West

Bengal. By Ratna Dutta and Anil Kumar Naskar (p. 459); 28. On occurrence of Juncus

maritimus Lam. in Saurashtra. By A. J. Joshi (p. 460); 29. Contribution to the Ferns of

Mizoram. By Prakash Chandra and Subhash Chandra (p. 461); 30. A New Taxon of the

Rubiaceae from north east India. {With two text-figures). By D. B. Deb and M. Gango-

padhyay (p. 466).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

(SPILORNIS CHEELA) IN RAJPIPLA FORESTS —

SOUTH GUJARAT1

Rishad K. Naoroji and S. G. Monga

{With five plates and a text-figure)

Introduction

The Rajpipla forests comprise the highland

area at the western extremity of the Satpura

range between the Tapti and Narmada rivers

(21°50'N 73°30'E). The forests get the name

from the nearby Rajpipla town, capital of the

former princely state of Rajpipla, in which

these forests were included. The forests are

basically of two types : Tropical semi-evergreen

and moist-deciduous. There are some excellent

patches of forests remaining around Juna Raj,

Namgir and Piplod areas of both bamboo and

moist-deciduous types. This area of the Sat-

puras is of great importance in Indian ornitho-

logy and it is almost the meeting point of the

northernmost end of the Western Ghats with

the westernmost tip of the Satpura range which

in itself has been regarded as an ornithological

highway in Indian Ornithogeography (Salim

Ali — Guj. Res. Soc. Vol. 10).

We first visited these forests in June 1981

for the sole purpose of assessing its potential

for photographing the bird life with a possible

emphasis on raptors. Within a few days we

observed a great concentration of the Crested

Serpent Eagle, Spilornis cheela, and other birds

of prey for which unfortunately we were too

late that year. As the Serpent Eagle was still

breeding here in June, the help of the

local adivasis was sought and within a few days

five nests of this eagle were located. We then

concentrated on observing in detail the

behaviour and nesting habits of the eagle.

Though this eagle is common throughout the

subcontinent, there is little available infor-

mation on it. Besides, it may also be added

that during our visits to these forests we observ-

ed several birds hitherto not recorded from this

area.

Methods

Most of the observations on the Crested

Serpent Eagle were made from hides. Over

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

200 hours of observations were made from

hides during photography sessions. The birds

were also observed to a lesser extent on foot,

while moving about in the forests from hill

tops and in the valleys.

The peninsular Indian race, Spilornis cheela

melanotis (Jerdon) is resident in peninsular

India south of the Gangetic plain, arbitrarily

south of lat. 25 °N, from Gujarat east to Ben-

gal and south to Kanyakumari (handbook

Vol. I, pp. Salim Ali & Ripley). Besides these

two, there are four more races confined to

Sri Lanka, Burma, Andamans and Nicobars. i

As mentioned at the outset, we first reached

these forests in January 1981, when these

eagles could be commonly heard from almost

every hill and valley. It was not easy initially

locating the birds as we were still inexperienc-

ed in finding nests, we thus recruited local help

for doing so and this proved rewarding. Even-

tually, five nests were located. Among these,

one found on the 18 . vi . 1981 afternoon had

been tampered with and part of the nest was

lying on the ground. Our adivasi cook, Naika,

spread word around and on the 19 . vi . 81

morning during a five hour walk beginning

at 3.30 a.m. two more nests were locat-

ed — one of these in a hopeless location

for photography, high up on a very big tree

on a massive hill. An adivasi boy hired to

climb the tree to check its contents had almost

reached the nest, when an eagle which had

been sitting very close erupted into action and

flew off, unsettling the boy considerably. The

nest was empty. The nest was very large and

as it was very early in the morning, the eagle

was probably using it as a roost. About this

nest it may be added that it was the largest

Serpent Eagle nest that we saw in the Rajpipla

forests. One other nest found in the Murud-

Janjira forests, south of Bombay, compared

with this nest in size. The second nest located

by Bhanga our main adivasi helper was rather

small in size. In fact on first sighting it appear-

ed to be a loose collection of twigs and sticks.

Bhanga climbed the tree and reported that it

contained a nestling. To prove it, he picked up

a small downy eaglet from the nest and showed

it to us before replacing it back in the nest.

A long wait then ensured the confirmation of

the identity of the eagle. The same morning

we were shown another nest of Spilornis

cheela near Sankhri village. The nest at Sankhri

was also not a large one and contained a

fully fledged eaglet (Plate 1), which was ini-

tially invisible as it was sitting very close and

stood up in the nest only when an adult arrived

calling and perched nearby. Near Namgir,

Bhanga showed us two more nests of this eagle

but both were empty. The construction of the

machan for photography commenced on

22.vi.81 working for about an hour each day.

Five adivasis under our supervision completed

the machan by 29.vi.81. The following year,

1982, another nest near Namgir was observed

and photographed. (Plate I).

Spilornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon) is com-

mon in the Rajpipla forests. As a matter of

fact, we would not hesitate to consider this

eagle as abundant in these forests.

On occasions when the chick was about 15

days old and not brooded continuously we

observed the eagle in the afternoons, perched

on a high branch of some large tree overlook-

ing the nest, keeping a watchful eye on the

eaglet.

On the only day that SM entered the hide

on 1 1 . vi . 82, a roller was observed to alight

on the nest tree a few feet above the nest

calling harshly. This immediately elicited a

response and both adult eagles appeared at the

nest — the only time they were seen together.

The roller flew off immediately. With both

274

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

MAP OF RAJPIPLA EAST DIVISION

N

BARODA

FOREST CIRCLE

Fig. 1.

275

MAHARASHTRA STATE

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

eagles at the nest comparison was relatively

simple. One of the birds was distinctive-

ly smaller in size and lighter in colour.

Both eagles must have been in the near

vicinity to arrive at the nest as normally only

one of the eagles was somewhere around near

the nest. Besides these, some 16 other birds

were observed to alight on the nest tree: for

example, the little sun-bird which flitted and

hovered at the very rim of the nest and per-

formed aerobatics right in front of the nestling

which stared at them in fascinated concentra-

tion. Other than a stray roller and a jungle

myna, no other large bird was seen on the

nest tree, though on one occasion when an

adult Serpent Eagle was perched near the nest

two others were circling and calling about 200

feet above the nest. On yet another occasion,

I (RKN) saw a large unidentified raptor flying

past the nest without unduly alarming one of

the adults which half-heartedly followed it for

a short distance. A pair of the same birds of

a different species were noticed around a large

nest nearby (70 metres from the cheela nest)

and did not seem to be alarming the serpent

eagles. Leslie Brown has observed that diffe-

rent species of African Raptors nesting in close

proximity to each other are generally tolerant

of each other, but not to the same species.

Visits to the nest would decrease and some-

times no adults would be seen for 6-7 hours

when the eaglet was in the secondary downy

stage. During the eaglet’s first two and a half

weeks the female — would spend most of the

time brooding particularly continuing after the

cool hours of the morning are over, till late

evening after it had cooled. The adult bird

would tuck in the eaglet and sit lightly over it,

panting due to the heat. Brooding would be in-

terrupted when the male arrived with the food

and during feeding. On some days when extra

snakes are caught the prey would be dropped

into the nest next to the eaglet and brooding

would recommence without feeding. The brood-

ing female, had an outpost on a nearby tree

overlooking the valley below on one side and

on the other the nest. It was on this perch that

she would spend the early hours of the morn-

ing and evening when it was cool.

Nest & Egg

In Rajpipla forests we noticed that the nest

of Spilornis cheela distinctly appears small for

a bird so big. This has also been observed and

written about by several earlier authors. In

fact it may be stated that the very first occupied

nest of Spilornis cheela that was located and

checked on 20.vi.81 was so small and ill-made

that it seemed rather hard to believe that this

particular nest actually contained a nestling

and that too of an eagle. Most of the other

nests that we observed in this area were of

a rather small size, with a diameter of about

i\ feet. Nests of Spilornis cheela cheela vary

in size from 1.5-2 feet in diameter and from

“4-8” inches in thickness (Hume: Nests &

Eggs of Indian birds, iii, p. 154).

We observed that the nests of this race are

never on the top of trees but always some-

where half-way to Jth way up, on some fork,

often one jutting from the main stem.

From among the nests we observed and

checked it was noted that the nest-cup is deep

and is lined with green leaves and twigs. We

never actually saw the eagles bringing any

leaves or twigs even though we saw fresh

leaves and small branches often in the nest.

Perhaps, Major Cock’s surmise about Spilornis

cheela using twigs and leaves of the very tree

on which it nests, for its nest, holds true for

Spilornis cheela melanotis too.

The depth of the nest in the half a dozen

nests we actually checked varied from a few

276

mm

Plate I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Naoroji & Monga: Spilornis cheela

Above : Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela ) at the nest. Below: Fully fledged

young eating a very large Rana ( Ran a tigerina ). Length of hind leg measured 260 mm.

Note undeveloped tail.

( Photos : R. K. Naoroji)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate II

Naoroji & Monga: Spilornis cheela

Adult Crested Serpent Eagle ( S . cheela) bringing half-eaten unidentified mammal in left foot to the nesi

{Photo: R. K. Naoroji)

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

inches to slightly over a foot. In one of the

nests observed on 19.vi.81, the nest cavity

was exceptionally deep. SM on one occasion

was a good way above the level of the nest

and could clearly look into it. It was only

when an adivasi boy had climbed to within a

few feet of the nest that the bird flew off.

Inspite of being above the nest at a favourable

angle, the eagle was not visible and this also

supports the view held by others that Spilornis

cheela is a very close sitter. Leslie Brown has

noticed this among African Snake Eagles and

also Baker (nidification Vol. 4). On another

occasion RKN climbed to a nearby hillock

but was still unable to see the contents of a

nest. Our aim being to photograph these

eagles, it was decided to sit nearby and observe

the nest to see if it was occupied. After an

hour, the characteristic three-bar call of an

adult serpent eagle was heard and minutes

later, the bird arrived, alighting on a tree 25

feet away from the nest-tree calling vociferous-

ly. The nest which had looked empty came

to life and a fully fledged juvenile stood up

and called as energetically as the adult. It had

been till then sitting tightly on the nest,

making no sound at all to give its presence

away. Baker (nidification Vol. IV) writes

that Spilornis cheela often adds fresh material

to its nest every year as a rule, though some-

times they lay in the most dilapidated and ill-

repaired nest. Judging from the nests we check-

ed we feel that only occasionally does this

eagle add fresh material and hence rarely uses

a particular nest for several successive seasons,

though on rare occasions a nest might be used

successively. The two large nests found, one in

Rajpipla used for a nightly roost and another

in the semi-evergreen forest of the Murud-

Janjira coast, could be exceptions but this is

only a surmise.

In Africa, Leslie Brown observed that the

Snake Eagles ( Circaetus ) usually build a new

nest every year, in close proximity to the

previous year’s nest site. We feel that the same

could probably hold true for the Serpent

Eagles in Rajpipla and this should be looked

into in greater detail.

From among the seven nests of Spilornis

cheela melanotis that were observed and check-

ed during two nesting seasons (1981-82), four

were on the Sadada ( Terminalia foment osa)

trees while the occupied nest at Mozda was

on a Sheeshum ( Dalbergia sissoo) tree. The

sixth was on a Timru ( Diospyros melanoxylon)

tree and the seventh nest tree remains un-

identified.

Judging from the above Terminalia tomen-

tosa appears to be a favourite tree of raptors

to make their nests. Atleast four nests of the

Shikra (Acci piter badius) were also on Ter-

minalia tomentosa.

In the four occupied nests that were observ-

ed, three had one nestling each when first

located and only one of the nests contained an

egg on 13th May, ’82.

We did not check any egg in the Rajpipla

forests but the nest which contained an egg

found on 13th May, ’82 was, according to

our adivasi friend, Banga, unmarked dirty-

white in colour.

So far in our experiences with these eagles,

only one egg /chick has been noticed in occupi-

ed nests.

Feeding & Food

As the name of this eagle suggests it largely

feeds on snakes and will attack even large

sized snakes. Even the rat-snake, some as long

as 5 feet are tackled and killed with ease and

they seem to destroy poisonous snakes with as

little fear as the harmless ones (Baker, FBI:

Vol. 5).

277

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

The following prey species were observed

being brought to the nest during his photo-

graphic visits. All species observed were non-

poisonous and the main varieties were the tree

snakes.

(a) Snakes : i) Bronze-back ( Dendrelaphis

tristis) ii) Vine Snake/Whip Snake ( Ahaetulla

nasutus) iii) Rat Snake/Dhaman ( Ptyas

mucosus) iv) Olive keel-back ( Atretium

schistosum) v) Striped Keel-back ( Amphiesma

stolata).

(b) Half-eaten and almost mangled carcasses

of a mammal with fur — brought twice —

once on 30th May 1982, and on 3. 6. ’82.

(Plate II).

(c) Lizards : Two species of lizards were

brought to the nest. One of these was easily

recognizable as a Calotes; the other beautifully

mottled in colour like the bark of a tree.

(d) Frog on one occasion, possibly a Rana.

(e) Perhaps even junglefowl, domestic fowls

and probably other ground birds as reported

by the adivasis.

A. Anderson (P.Z.S. 1872, p. 77) writes

that Spilornis c heel a subsists almost entirely

on green frogs. Baker (FBI, 5) considers that

even though snakes are the principal prey of

Spilornis cheela, when snakes are not to be

found this eagle will eat reptiles, birds of all

kinds upto the size of the largest pheasants,

partridges and ducks and also grubs and larger

insects.

The adult eagles always brought snakes to

the nest in their beaks. The mammals though

on one occasion were brought in the beak and

once in the talons. It seems that heavier and

compact prey is brought to the nest in the

talons. Probably a snake carried in the talons

for the last few metres to the nest might inter-

fere with the landing. On one occasion, a snake

was actually seen being killed. While RKN

was photographing from the hide SM was

observing the hide concealed nearby. Lying

thus on the ground, a rustle was heard and

a Dhaman seen 25 feet away. Suddenly, a

Serpent Eagle landed on the ground a few feet

away from the snake. Cautiously disregarding

SM it walked briskly towards the snake “like

a large chicken” with wings wide-spread. The

snake by now trying to make its escape reach-

ed the base of a large tree. The eagle had

to run around the tree thrice in its attempt

to pin down the escaping snake. The third

time it managed to sink in its talons just be-

hind the snake’s head. After looking at SM

fiercely it gave a squawk and flew to a nearby

tree with its prey where it commenced to bash

and twist it with beak and claw for about 10

minutes. It then flew to a perch behind the

hide for 30 minutes before alighting at the nest.

When the snake appeared at the nest it

was noticed that it had been beheaded.

In EAGLES, HAWKS AND FALCONS OF THE WORLD,

by Leslie Brown and D. Amadon, it is stated

that Spilornis cheela sometimes pick dead

snakes and that all prey is taken on the ground.

On 5.vi.’82, some jungle crows were observ-

ed mobbing something very excitedly in the

vicinity of Mozda village near Namgir where

an occupied nest of Spilornis cheela was locat-

ed. Seconds later, a Serpent Eagle,

one of the Mozda breeding pair rose from

the river bed with a large snake in its talons

and settled further along the right bank of the

river. On (RKN’s) approaching closer for a

better look, it left the snake on the ground

and flew to a tree across the river. The snake

was identified as a 5 ft. rat-snake which had

recently been killed as the carcass was far from

being stiff. About 8 inches of flesh had been

eaten from head downwards, exposing the ver-

tebrae. This pair were observed to hunt along

this stretch of river for two consecutive nesting

seasons.

278

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

The adults arrival with food is heralded by

alarm calls of jungle mynas, parakeets and

babblers and the parent birds would have a

fixed approach or route to the nest, though on

rare occasions a different approach would be

adopted. The normal route was to fly

directly to a large nest-supporting branch

to the left of the nest. The final

few feet down to the nest would be covered

by hopping down with wings partially wide-

spread for balance. On two to three occasions

an adult was seen approaching the nest

directly and alighting on it, and sometimes

from the right. The eaglet is fed very

carefully and care is taken not to

directly step on it. Feeding is done with

great delicacy with that fearsome beak and

food is generally held out near the beak of

the chick which takes it on its own. When the

chick is very tiny (about 4 to 10 days old)

very small morsels are fed and the chunks of

meat torn out and fed increase in size along

with the eaglet’s growth and capability of

handling and swallowing large morsels. Noth-

ing is wasted and slivers of meat that are flick-

ed to the edge of the nest are immediately

retrieved and fed. Interestingly enough this has

been observed by F. Truslow on the Bald

Eagle and I (RKN) have also seen the female

Shikra interrupt the feed to retrieve pieces of

meat from the nest-rim. The eaglet is coaxed

when it refuses to eat and on two occasions

an unusual feeding posture was observed and

photographed to coax the chick to feed.

On one of her visits to the nest the female

could not get the chick to accept even a beak

full of food. She tried to coax the chick in

a variety of ways. Firstly by calling softly and

then by tapping beaks very gently with the

chick. The chick, still not responsive to her

feeding overtures kept its beak closed where-

upon the adult adopted the upside down head

posture as shown in the photograph, and this

proved successful, (see plate III).

All large snakes e.g.. Rat Snakes, were

brought beheaded to the nest while small slen-

der tree snakes like the bronze-back and the

vine snake were brought with heads intact but

battered and swallowed head first by the chick.

When the chick was a few days old

it was observed that on a few occasions the adult

would tear the snake in half and feed the

tail end of the snake to the young. The 15

days old chick was capable of swallowing a

3J ft. Dhaman when very hungry. It

would take a rest every now and then looking

very comical with the unswallowed tailend

hanging out from its beak. On two other occa-

sions when the same species of mammal (un-

identified) was brought to the nest the animal

had been torn in half and partly mangled.

Head and feet were missing but the tail and

part of the body was intact. Most probably

the other half had been eaten by the hunting

partner and was torn up to facilitate carrying

it to the nest. Fur, skin and bones — every-

thing was eaten. The eaglet would very often

fall into a deep slumber after a heavy meal.

Some of the African snake eagles, according to

Leslie Brown, swallow snakes and regurgitate

them to their chicks which pull them out of

the adults’ crop. Lizards were brought intact

along with frogs to the nest and on one occasion

a lizard was observed being torn lengthwise. On

yet another occasion a lizard brought to the

nest was torn in half and fleshy morsels from

both halves were fed to the Chick. Then the

halves were separately swallowed by the eaglet.

Sometimes while feeding the chick the adult

also feeds itself but leaves the choicest fleshy

parts for the chick.

On many occasions food in the form of

snakes would be stored in the nest. Once

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

a snake was brought and dropped beside the

chick. The adult brooded the chick till late

afternoon after which she fed the morning’s

catch to the chick. The same was observed

with a carcass of a mammal present in the nest

and fed later. On another occasion, I (RKN)

entered the hide in the afternoon after a heavy

morning’s rain had subsided and present in the

nest along with the chick was a large Dhaman.

An adult could be seen from the peep-hole

perched nearby. Later a crescendo of eagle

calls were heard close to the nest and to the

accompaniment of myna’s alarm calls an adult

arrived with a longish Bronze-back (head in-

tact) (see Plates IV & V) and merely dropped

it into the nest, along with the rat-snake. The

female brooded for an hour and a half and

then flew to her favourite evening perch over-

looking the nest and the valley below. Later in

the evening after the chick had called hungrily

for some time she appeared at the nest and

fed small morsels of the rat-snake to the eaglet.

This storage of food was seen on a number of

occasions. After the chick is about 20

days old, brooding decreases and the adults

visit the nest for the sole purpose of bringing

food. As the fledgling get older and can tear up

prey on its own, these visits become extremely

short and only two or three minutes are spent

at the nest after dropping in the food. Food

bringing intervals also increase and later during

the young’s development only one or two food

bringing visits are made during the day. As

prey species are more easily found during the

rains, we found many nests occupied at the

outset of the monsoon and nesting carried on

sometimes even into August, though most nest-

ed during the months of end May to July

coinciding with availability of prey species.

Tree snakes too would be easier to hunt during

the rains.

Most of the feeds that were observed were

generally in the late afternoons and the late

morning hours. Some kills must have

been made very early in the morning as on

several occasions snakes were seen present in

the nest at 8 a.m. when the previous evening

at dusk no prey was observed in the nest.

Voice and Calls

On our very first day in these forests in

June 1981, we could commonly hear the calls

of this eagle. There was not a single day on

our trips, when we did not hear Spilornis

cheela. We observed that this eagle has a good

variety of calls and is very vocal during its

breeding season.

The ordinary call notes of Spilornis cheela

are loud and high pitched whistling screams,

something like Kek .... Kek .... Kek, or

Kee .... Kee Kee, while soaring but some-

times also from a perch (Salim Ali and

Ripley, S. D. in Handbook Vol. 1, p. 331).

The calls of Spilornis cheela are among the

commonest raptor calls we heard in the

Rajpipla forests. It was noted that Spilornis

cheela is much more vocal when soaring high

up rather than when perched.

Davison (SF: X, p. 337) on Spilornis cheela

melanotis (the peninsular & south Indian bird)

writes, “Silent as a rule when seated. Occa-

sionally as it flies and takes off it utters its

wild plaintive note, more often when circling

up”.

We feel that the calls of Spilornis cheela

melanotis (we strongly suspect it to be mela-

notis) have not been properly described. The

commonest call of this bird, that we heard in

the Rajpipla forests can be best described as:

(a) phtueeeee tue tueeu

or

Kueeeee Kue Kueeeh

(I) (II) (HD

in three syllable notes.

The first note of Spilornis cheela that we so

280

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate III

Naoroji & Monga : SpUornis cheela

Unusual feeding behaviour of the Crested Serpent Eagle ( S . cheela).

On one of her visits to the nest the female S. cheela could not get the chick to accept any morsel of food. She tried

to coax the chick in a variety of ways. Firstly by calling softly and then by tapping beaks very gently with the chick.

The chick still did not respond and kept its beak closed whereupon the adult adopted the posture as shown in the photo-

graph and this proved successful. ( Photo : R. K. Naoroji)

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Bringing a Bronze-backed snake to pre-feeding perch.

{Photo: R. K. Naoroji)

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

commonly heard in Rajpipla is considerably

longer being almost twice as long as both the

following notes together. Most authors have

described the first note of Spilornis cheela as

very short and ‘almost fading away’.

(b) Frequently this eagle, when perched in

the afternoons somewhere high up on a large

tree overlooking the nest utters a shrill, pro-

longed whistle Keeeee which would

be repeated as many as 5-6 times in quick

succession.

A rather harsh single note was heard on

11th June, 1982. One of the adult birds was

perched on a nearby tree not far from the

nest when it suddenly emitted a harsh

‘Khweerar ’. This particular note was

also long drawn and it was the only time this

call was heard.

As the Serpent Eagles were vocal at their

nest, a variety of calls of different intensity and

cadence were heard and it was noticed that

they are particularly vocal when prey is brought

to the nest. There are often many variations

in the tone but the most frequently heard call

was the triple syllabled “Keeeu Keu

Keu,” the first note being extremely prolonged.

Most of the time, for the first few days of

the eaglets life, the adult female Spilornis

cheela would be brooding at the nest and for

long periods there would be absolutely no sign

of her mate. On many occasions it was noticed

that during brooding the female would

look skywards and let out a shrill croak or a

‘squawk’ as if summoning the male. This

squawking call was totally unlike the yelping

whistling screams typical of the Serpent

Eagle. If the mate arrived with prey the female

would fly off voicing this unusual squawk. The

male would then reply — a true rendition of

a Serpent Eagle call and after a wait of gene-

rally about twenty minutes or even more or

less the pair would be seen perched on a near-

by tree with a snake or the female would

directly fly to the nest with food within a few

minutes.

On 2nd June 1982, the nestling was left

unattended for what seemed to be the longest

period observed. In the afternoon after 5

hours of being left alone the eaglet called in-

cessantly. Suddenly with a swoosh of wings,

the female alighted on the nest. She brooded

for the next fifteen minutes and then emitted

her squawking call and flew away calling

characteristically ‘Keeeu . . . keu . . . keu’. She

circled low above the nest and continued call-

ing thus. Soon she was answered by her mate

and after disappearing for just a few minutes,

arrived with a lizard.

From these similar observations it appears

that the squawking call is synonymous to the

female’s recognition call, and was also heard

when the eagle at the nest was suddenly sur-

prised by the presence of the mate in the

vicinity or when he arrived with food.

The squawk of Spilornis cheela appears to

be reminiscent of the alarm call of the Great

Indian Horned Owl ( Bubo bengalensis) and

I (RKN) also liken it somewhat to the call

of the Night Heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax) .

Almost 60 per cent of our approaches to the

hide were greeted by the calls of Spilornis

cheela. I (RKN) would particularly like to

mention 3rd June 1982. On this day the eagles

were more vocal than on any other day. Some

of their calls were extremely high-pitched and

penetrating, and variations in tone, pitch and

half-notes were clearly discernible and diffi-

cult to describe in writing. Even when the pair

were away from their nest and soaring high

up, their calls were clearly audible at intervals

throughout the day.

On another visit during the nonbreeding

season during December- January, we always

heard these eagles while they soared, though not

281

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

as frequently as they were heard during their

breeding season. Often a pair could be calling

and replying to each other. I (RKN) feel that

these calls, of Spilornis cheela, could be a

means of communication, efficient for and in-

strumental in maintaining a territory, possibly

throughout the year. In March/ April 1980,

when we were in the forests of Murud-Janjira,

some 200 kms. south of Bombay in Maha-

rashtra, we observed four adult Spilornis

cheela together skimming low over the hills,

sometimes only 30-40 ft. above us, calling per-

sistently to each other loudly and penetratingly

for over twenty minutes at a stretch, after

which they started soaring and were soon out

of sight. Breeding was probably beginning in

this area though we did not check the huge

nest.

There was no apparent visible aggression

at all between these four eagles but it was

obvious that they were two pairs. This happens

to be one of the many occasions when

I (RKN) saw more than two Spilornis cheela

together. The memory, of their calls echoing

loudly across the valley is not easily forgotten.

The young Spilornis cheela eaglet has a call

much more similar to the clucking of a hen

“cluk cluk ”. We feel that the calls

and noises emitted by the eaglet of Spilornis

cheela have never before been described.

The down covered eaglet when nearly ten

days old (28.V.82) would emit a faint but

nevertheless penetrating and enchanting “cheep

cheep....”. After about 15 days the

call changed to a very weak one syllabled

whistle incorporating all three syllable adult

calls in pitch. However, intermittently the

eaglet frequently uttered its cluk .... cluk ....

and this clucking was prominent even when

the eaglet was almost ready to leave the nest

and also on the day it was last observed to

be present at the nest. The change in the calls

of the eaglet was distinctly noticeable. Calls

were also used to probably entice the fully

fledged chick out of the nest or even to re-

assure it. At the Sankri nest an adult eagle was

observed to have called characteristi-

cally and then alight on a tree opposite the

nest 25 ft. away calling continuously. No prey

was brought and the juvenile reacted instantly,

standing on the edge of the nest and calling. Its

call was not as resonant as the adult’s and

consisted of a one bar note.

Calls frequently heralded prey being brought

to the nest and the female would utter a

squawk and fly off. The male would call charac-

teristically and the female would reply. Minutes

later, an adult would fly to the nest with

food. When the chick was half grown the adult

sometimes arrived with prey and perched near-

by, calling to the chick and being repeatedly

answered. This exchange of calls would go on

for a few minutes after which the adult would

alight on the nest with food. Normally after

a snake is caught the eagle waits for a while

till the more vigorous movements lessen. It

then flies to a perch near the nest and calls.

It is answered by both eaglet (if it is about

25-20 days old) and also sometimes the mate.

A long wait (sometimes even 45 minutes or

more) before alighting at the nest is often pun-

ctuated at intervals by vocalising. On no

occasion has the senior author observed a

snake convulsively thrashing in its death throes

being brought to the nest. When the eaglet

is hungry it keeps on calling. A weak “cheep

cheep ” not unlike that of a copper-

smith but less metallic and at varying intervals.

This galvanizes the brooding adult to look

impatiently skywards and utter an impatient

squawk. Usually when one of the adults sits

lightly on the chick all its calls immediately

stop.

282

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate V

Naoroji & Monga: Spilornis cheela

Bringing a Bronze-backed snake in the nest.

{Photo: R. K. Naojoji)

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

The Eaglet

The young Serpent Eagle when first seen

(about 3 days old) was completely covered

with white down (prepennae stage). It was a

fluffy white ball and when first observed from

the hide on 28th May (when 11 days old) the

eaglet would emit a faint but penetrating

“cheep, cheep” call. It would move about in

the limited expanse of its nest and appeared

quite restless.

For the first 15 days, the eaglet is brooded

for most of the day by the female. After this

the eaglet is left by itself for longer periods

though normally one of the adults is not far

away. The feathers on the eaglet’s nape, neck

and wings are now visible and grow conside-

rably. This, Leslie Brown writes in ‘Eagles’,

releases the parent snake eagles (African —

Circaetus) from close attendance at the nest.

It is after the eaglet is almost two weeks

of age and by itself for long periods in the

nest that it is most delightful to observe. When

it is not sleeping, the eaglet spends its time

stamping about in the nest or yawning, pulling

at the sticks of the nest or attempting to

swallow any unconsumed food prey. It nods

its head and looks over the rim of the nest

for a short while only to fall asleep and wake

up soon after, frequently uttering its cheep,

cheep calls with an intermittent clulc

cluk

The eaglet grows visibly restless after a long

wait all alone in the nest. Most of the feeds

observed were in the afternoons and

it is after mid-day that the eaglet turns much

more restless. Frequently the anticipatory and

attentive look of the eaglet gives an indication

of the parents impending visit. Once it is hun-

gry, the eaglet starts calling and its calls at this

age resemble in less volume the calls of the

adult melanotis. It was often noticed that the

eaglet’s calls were answered by the adults and

after an exchange of calls for a few minutes,

an adult sometimes arrived even with food.

The eaglet when still young was fed small

morsels but when over two weeks old it

attempted to swallow a small snake neck first.

Small snakes were the only prey that we observ-

ed the over two week old Spilornis eaglet

swallow by itself. The other prey viz., Lizards,

frogs, mammals etc., were first torn by the

adult birds and then tiny morsels of flesh and

meat were very gently and delicately fed to the

eaglet.

Cleanliness is strictly maintained at the nest.

Like all raptors, the eaglet of Spilornis cheela

too stands up, moves backwards and positions

its rump towards the edge of the nest. It then

aims high above the level of the nest rim with

its rump directed upwards and its head crouch-

ed and bent inwards towards the bottom of

the nest. Once in this rather awkward looking

position, the eaglet ejects its faeces well clear

over the side of the nest. Most of the droppings

fall onto the forest floor below but several

leafy branches get a fair sprinkling of white-

wash too. Similar behaviour of ejection of

droppings from the nest has also been observ-

ed in Acci piter badius.

Extended duration in the hide, observing the

eaglet alone in the nest for several hours con-

tinuously never gets boring, whether it is

sleeping, yawning or just clowning. More often

than not, the eaglet pays little attention to

the great number of other forest birds that so

commonly move about around the Spilornis

cheela nest, often almost settling on the nest

itself.

We once noticed sixteen species of birds in

the space of three hours at and around the

Spilornis cheela nest. Most of these were small

birds, jungle mynas, bulbuls, warblers, fly-

catchers, sunbirds. At the nest, a fully fledged

283

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

eaglet was observed to sit tightly so that the

nest appeared empty. This is usually done when

intruders are in close proximity to the nest.

When danger threatens the fully grown eaglet’s

main defence is to sit tightly so as to become

almost invisible. At this particular nest I (RKN)

thought the nest empty till the adults’ voca-

lising galvanised the eaglet into action. It was

on 20th July, 1982 that the fully fledged eaglet

left its nest. In the afternoon, the eaglet was

perched on a branch near the nest, and was

calling “Kee... Kee... Ke” with an occa-

sional “cluk.... cluk”. The fledgling would

frequently flap its wings and seemed excited.

None of the adult birds seemed to be around

though on careful searching by Bhanga, one

of the adults was spotted on a perch nearby

with its beak open and looking very alert. After

some time the adult eagle called characteri-

stically and the eaglet dropped onto one of the

disused machan poles. The adult circled over-

head calling frequently and suddenly swooped

down and alighted on the nest, calling fre-

quently and was then joined by the juvenile.

Surprisingly, the adult eagle pecked furiously

at the juvenile; probably to lessen the eaglet’s

dependence on the nest. Soon after, the parent

flew into the valley below, calling agitatedly.

The eaglet remained near the nest and a short

while later another adult arrived which was

probably the male. This adult perched some

thirty feet from the nest, calling infrequently.

The eaglet flew towards this adult and was

not repulsed. Both remained together on the

branch for about ten minutes till it started

raining. The eaglet then made the first move

and flew into the valley and perched on a

small tree. Though still under the adult’s watch-

ful surveillance the eaglet, now enjoying its

newly found freedom, flew again and perched

nearer the nest tree. A flock of blossomheaded

parakeets now settled noisily on the upper

branches of that very tree. The eaglet stared

at the parakeets in bewilderment, emitting

occasional “cluck. . . . cluck”, calls reminiscent

of a hen’s. The parakeets soon departed and

the eaglet flew over the trees to a forest clear-

ing opposite the valley. It was observed to

settle on a teak tree and this was its longest

flight yet observed. An adult eagle was

also seen flying nearby as though keeping a

watchful eye on the eaglet. The eaglet then

took another long flight and was soon out of

sight.

Plumage of fledgling

Upperparts : Brown throughout, somewhat

lighter and paler than the adult. Whitish and

paler edges of feathers showing through on the

dark upperparts, thereby giving a white spotted

appearance. Crest erect and appeared better

formed and much more prominent than that

of the adults, being dirty white overall with

the tips blackish and brown. Crest was easily

noticeable even when the eaglet was in flight.

Under parts: rather dark. The lower plumage

unusually dark brown with whitish, streaks

and spots throughout. Chin and throat much

paler, almost dirty white.

Tail: distinctly lighter than the adults and

multi-banded with 3-4 dark bands and an equal

number of paler bands.

Underside of wings with more white and

pale cream and somewhat more barring.

Whitish bars on wings and tail more nume-

rous in juveniles than in adults (Blanford &

Dates, Old Fauna, Vol. 3, p. 359).

For making the last observation the nest

site was visited during the late afternoon on

21st June 1982. An eagle call was heard but in-

spite of a proper search the eagles and juvenile

could not be located. The monsoon vegetation

was very thick and this made spotting all the

284

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

more difficult. The eaglet of Spilomis cheela

had thus remained in and around the nest for

approximately 2 months.

Acknowledgements

I (RKN) would particularly like to mention

and thank my father, Mr. Kekoo Naoroji, and

my uncle, Mr. Naval P. Godrej, for taking an

interest in the project and funding the whole

trip. I am indeed indebted to them and to the

whole family for their understanding and co-

operation.

The Senior author is extremely grateful to

Shri K. S. Dharmalcumarsinhji for guiding him

to the Rajpipla forests and for his advice from

time to time. We also thank Mr. Bhatia, DFOs,

R E F E 1

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1978): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I, 2nd Ed.

Oxford University Press. Bombay, pp. 329-332.

Baker, Stuart (1935) : Nidification of Birds of

the Indian Empire. Talyor and Francis, London,

pp. 70-73.

Brown, Leslie (1976): Birds of Prey, Biology

and Ecology. Hamlyn, London.

Rajpipla, Mr. Sanat Chavan and Mr. Rashid,

Ex-Chief Wildlife Warden, Gujarat, for the

help they rendered to us during our trips to

the forest.

We would like to mention Mr. Narendra-

sinhji Mahida, Mr. Dharmendrasinhji Mahida

of Rajpipla and Dosu Modi for the assistance

they offered us.

We thank Osman Khan and Kasim Khan

for imparting to us their great knowledge of

the area.

We thank A. G. Sekar for drawing the map.

Last but not least we thank Bhanga, the

adivasi whose assistance to us was invaluable

and whose help contributed greatly to the

success of our trips.

ENCES

Brown, Leslie & Amadon, J. (1955) : Eagles,

Hawks & Falcons of the world. Country Life vol. 1,

Michael-Joseph, London, p. 360.

Grossman, & Hamlet (1956) : Birds of Prey of the

World. Cassel & Co. Ltd.

Hume, Allan O. (1890): The nests & eggs of

Indian Birds, Porter, London, pp. 154.

285

NOTES ON FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF

VARANUS BENGALENS1S (SAURIA: VARANIDAE)1

Walter Auffenberg2

{With seven text-figures)

The present study documents certain behavioural aspects of the feeding of Varanus

bengalensis. Search patterns are emphasized, showing that this species exhibits both

area- and object-concentrated foraging behaviour. Most successful area-concentrated

foraging includes casting behaviour. The perceptual field is estimated, with mean

reactive distance shown to be 1.3 m, and mean active pursuit distance 2.6 m. Flush-

pursuit foraging behaviours are most common, with success ratios varying from 44 to

82 per cent, depending largely on prey type. Social facilitation is an important aspect

of high predator densities, with piracy common, but with success dependent on size

of the interacting individuals. The most common hunting modes are speculative,

flushing, and open pursuit; stalking is rare.

Introduction

A number of studies have demonstrated the

importance of sensory modalities in predatory

behaviour of reptiles (see Burghardt 1970, Her-

zog and Burghardt 1974, for pertinent reviews).

Most students now realize that prey move-

ment, colour, morphology, and predator expe-

rience are all relevant variables in prey selec-

tion (Ruggiero et al. 1979). However, few

studies have analyzed the movements associat-

ed with predation by reptiles, as has been done

with many species of fishes, birds, and mam-

mals (see Curio 1976, for review). For the

most part studies of reptile predation behaviour

have been experimental and have focussed on

aspects of chemoreception in prey capture

(chiefly reviewed by Burghardt 1975, Burg-

hardt and Pruitt 1975), focussing on the nature

and role of innate chemical recognition of

prey and the effects of experience.

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Florida State Museum, University of Florida,

Gainesville, 32611, U.S.A.

Description of predation in reptiles are large-

ly limited to isolated field reports and cursory

observation (see Drummond 1979, for a nota-

ble exception), and almost all of them deal

with snakes. Clearly, an understanding of the

sensory and behavioural adaptations of preda-

tory lizards demand more comprehensive and

detailed descriptions than are presently avail-

able. The research reported here was an in-

vestigation of the ethology of the predation of

the large varanid lizard Varanus bengalensis

under captive conditions.

Materials and Methods

Twelve adult Varanus bengalensis were used

as the basis of this study; two males and eight

females (Av. total lengths during the study for

males was 115 cm, for females 95 cm). All

were long time captives, raised from hatchlings,

thoroughly accustomed to conditions of cap-

tivity. All were kept in two greenhouses (156

m2) at the author’s home in Gainesville,

Florida. Each greenhouse contained five indi-

viduals (4 females, 1 male). While the females

286

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

had been kept in specific greenhouses for seve-

ral years, the males were often interchanged

during spring to encourage reproductive beha-

viour, which was being studied at the same

time (see Auffenberg 1981a, b). Each green-

house was a seminatural situation, being pro-

vided with facilities for climbing, basking, and

hiding. While most of the central floor area

was clear, small rock and brush piles were

located around the edges; a few plants and a

log or two were near the center.

The data on which the study is based were

gathered by videotape recording. One (some-

times two) video cameras (Panasonic WV-

1300A) and time lapse recorders (NV-8030)

taped the monitors’ activity every day from

0800 to 1730 hrs for a period of three years.

These tapes form the basis the present study as

well as of the analyses already finished (Auffen-

berg, 1981a, b, on combat and courtship). As

a result, aspects of the feeding behaviour of

this species were recorded during a total of

250 feeding bouts. The completed tapes were

scanned every evening by means of a fast play-

back feature and appropriate sections marked

for later analysis.

On later review of pertinent tape sections,

movements over the surface, as well as move-

ments of parts of each monitor during food

searches (head, tongue, front feet, etc.), could

be traced off of the video screen (Panasonic

TR-9001M) and direction, angles or rates of

movement analyzed.

Four types of food were offered during the

study — “carrion,” turtle eggs, live white mice,

and live frogs ( Rana utricularia) . The “carrion”

was represented by pieces of dead laboratory

rats; frozen and then cut into 16-20 pieces.

Table 1 provides pertinent data on the physi-

cal characteristics of the prey.

Food was offered every two weeks during

the warmer months, every four weeks in win-

ter. Carrion was usually randomly scattered

about the greenhouse floors, turtle eggs ran-

domly placed on the surface or buried with

the top of shell 2 cm deep; live frogs and

mice were thrown into the greenhouses in

places where the monitors could not see them

hit the surface. These methods of food pre-

sentation tended to generate strong, consistent

search behaviours on the part of the resident

monitors.

Results

FOOD CONSUMPTION

Satiation Level. — Satiation level was deter-

mined on the basis of the monitors nudging the

food with their snouts instead of eating it. For

the adult males the mean total food weight

at satiation level is 160.7 g ± 24.8 g; for

females 99.8 g — 15.7 g. These results are

respectively 6.9 per cent of the mean body

weight of the males (g) and 5.8 per cent of

the mean body weight of the females (g). How-

ever, variability in total intake is great, being

from 68.4 to 495.9 g for males (to 18.1%

of total body weight). There is no correlation

between amount eaten and food type.

Handling Time —This period includes both

manipulating the food (including killing it, if

necessary) and swallowing. Both are clearly

Table 1

Physical characteristics of the prey offered to

Varanus bengalensis

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

positively related to food particle size. How-

ever, in the present study, the “carrion,” live

frogs, and live mice were all approximately the

same size (Table 1).

Table 2 shows that mean handling time is

least for “carrion,” intermediate for live frogs,

and very significantly more for five mice. On

the basis of comparative review of the taped

sequences, it is obvious that the increased

handling time for live mice is largely due to

the fact that frogs are often swallowed alive,

with little or no attempt made to stun or kill

tatus , and Anolis carolinensis. All three species

were eaten, though not commonly, for some

individuals of particularly the last species re-

mained in the greenhouses for several weeks

and their remains were rare in the monitor

droppings. Two successful attacks on Anolis

carolinensis were observed; both after active

pursuit on the ground. No attacks on Eumeces

were witnessed, but their remains were some-

times found in monitor droppings.

Leilopisma were often taken, usually by a

short pursuit and grab after having been flush-

Table 2

Handling times (sec) of various food types

them. On the other hand, live mice are quick-

ly, but repeatedly dashed and/or scraped

against the ground after being grasped. Un-

published data on feeding of adolescents of

this monitor species (Ganci and Auffenberg

MS) suggest that killing techniques are suited

to prey size and the extent to which the prey

can possibly injure the attacking individual.

Other Foods. — Several other prey taken, but

not specifically offered as food, were noted and

are worthy of mention. Ants were often eaten,

but only a large species of carpenter ant (Cam-

ponotus sp.). These were obtained either when

the monitors “rooted” through dry leaf litter

with their snouts, or when the ants were mov-

ing in the open. In either case, these ants were

usually picked up individually with the

tongue, less often grasped by the jaws.

Three native lizards frequented the green-

houses: Leilopisma laterale, Eumeces inexpec-

ed from surface debris by the rooting monitors.

Eggs of Varanus bengalensis were regularly

eaten by the males (only), either when the

eggs were strewn on the surface or placed in

natural nests by the females. Young hatched

naturally in the greenhouses were also some-

times eaten by adult males (only?). The largest

V. bengalensis cannabalized was a female with

a total length of 46 cm, by a male 121 cm

total length.

Earthworms and beetle larvae were regular-

ly eaten usually when digging next to rocks,

logs, or in other damp places.

HUNTING MODES

Four major hunting modes were identified:

random foraging, speculative foraging, stalk-

ing, and open pursuit. The first is discussed in

detail below. Speculative foraging is not ran-

288

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

dom, but an area-concentrated search pattern

(see below). It included digging in the soil

or debris with the front feet, “ rooting ” through

surface litter with the snout, and flushing by

walking over or tonguing a small area. Specu-

lative foraging in areas expected to produce

prey was a common hunting mode. Most

commonly it took the form of digging under

and next to logs and rocks, or in the dampen-

ed soil under small leaks in the roof. Prey

secured this way were earthworms and beetle

larvae. For unexplained reasons, females dug

more commonly than males (93.8% of 66

digging bouts were by the females). Even when

a correction is made for the larger number of

females, digging was largely a female activity

(78.7% of all digging bouts). It may be re-

lated to nest selection, but there is no evidence

for this.

Rooting was an activity equally practiced

by both sexes. It consists of both lateral and

anterior movements of the snout, moving the

litter about in rather rapid, jerky movements.

The behaviour may be related to the slit-like,

posteriorly located nostrils in many Varanus

species. Rooting results in the capture of earth-

worms, ants, lizards, and particularly beetle

larvae. The latter is the predominant prey

category of this lizard species in the wild

(Auffenberg and Ipe 1983) and most are

probably captured this way.

Flushing includes behavioural patterns in

which a hidden prey is made to move. This

was accomplished by scratching with one front

foot, touching with the tongue, walking over

the area quickly, and rarely during digging and

rooting. It is a very effective hunting mode

and may be speculative, or follow a pursuit

sequence when the prey is momentarily lost to

view. When the importance of flushing and

distant visual recognition are compared in suc-

cessful foraging bouts, only 35.0% of the total

successful captures of frogs and mice were

accomplished by flushing the prey from a

hiding place; 65.0% were visually spotted. For

frogs, only 37.5% were flushed, 62.5% were

caught after the frogs themselves moved. For

live mice, the same ratio was 21 .2% to 77.8%.

Though the difference is significant at the 0.5%

level, the reasons are not apparent.

Stalking of prey was very rare. When prey

was seen, the attack was mounted from the

detection distance, with no apparent attempt to

shorten attack distance via a stealthy approach.

Stalking by following a scent trail, particularly

after flushing, probably occurs, though I found

no evidence for it in this analysis.

Open pursuit was the most common hunting

mode immediately preceding prey capture. Seve-

ral important factors relating to open pursuit of

both live frogs and mice were analyzed. These

are: reactive distance and direction, chase dis-

tance, predation pursuit speed, prey speed

(frogs and mice), and prey capture success

ratio (Table 3). There are no significant diffe-

rences in the successful pursuit of frogs com-

pared to mice, or the mean visual reactive

distance for each of these prey, or the mean

chase distance for each prey species. However,

prey escape speed is very different for the

two prey species. The similarity of chase dis-

tances is due to the fact that the monitors

grasp frogs anywhere on the body during their

pursuit, but mice are almost always grasped on

the side, resulting in the predator having to

spend more time during the chase to get its

head in an appropriate attack position. Frogs

were attacked in mid-air during a jump, or

immediately after stopping, when they frequent-

ly “froze.” Freezing behaviour is clearly

advantageous to frogs, for the attack success

ratio on continuously moving frogs was 59%,

while for those that freeze the ratio was 33%.

Gregory (1979) considered immobility an im-

289

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 3

Factors related to the open pursuit hunting mode for live frogs and mice*

* Prey density consistently 1/52 m2; frog n=112, mice n=88.

portant predator avoidance behaviour by Rana

aurora and showed that distances to which

potential predators can approach the frogs are

positively correlated with predator size, while

Heatwole (1968) proved that allowable pre-

dator approach distances are related to degree

of cryptic coloration in anoline lizards. In this

study, the majority of frogs remained com-

pletely immobile (81%) m until actually touch-

ed by the snout or tongue of the Varanus

bengalensis. The frogs flushed by Varanus ben -

galensis are chased again, apparently on the

basis of visual, rather than olfactory recognition.

When caught, the frogs were usually scrap-

ed against the substrate a few times to move

them into position for swallowing. Though no

testable data are available, male V. bengalensis

seem to have chased their prey at a higher

rate of speed and appeared somewhat more

motivated to capture them than females (see

Auffenberg 1979, for other intersexual diffe-

rences in the feeding of this species).

In contrast to frogs, more mice were cap-

tured when they froze (capture success for

all moving mice 44%, for all frozen mice 82%),

suggesting that scent probably plays a greater

role in location of frozen mice than frozen

frogs.

Mice were also grasped very specifically.

almost always on their side. They were then

violently shaken, bitten repeatedly, and scrap-

ed and hit on the substrate. These observations

were consistent with those of Loop (1974),

who studied the attack and ingestion behavi-

ours of V. bengalensis in considerable detail.

Similar attack and ingestive behaviours depend

on size of predatory snakes (Loop and Bailey

1972). Live mice often bit the predator on the

side of the head, particularly on the area of

the ascending maxillary process.

Mean reactive distances for mice in which

the tongue was used to locate prey was 0 . 06 m

± 0.26 (n = 3 1 ) . This distance is only slightly

more than the length of the tongue itself and

suggests that scent is important in locating prey

only at close range. Gettkandt (1931). Kah-

mann (1932), Burghardt (1964, 1966), Herzog,

and Burghardt (1974) all showed that prey

movement was most important in eliciting

attacks by snake predators and the same pattern

seems operative in Varanus bengalensis. Figure

1 shows the average visual- and scent-reactive

distances calculated in this species during the

study. In addition, it illustrates the positions

of prey resulting in pursuit. None of the pur-

sued prey were located in the area included

within 60 degrees on either side of the midline

and behind the head. Thus the visual angle

290

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

the positions of those prey noticed and chased (n = 88) by the monitor in relation

to the direction of travel (arrow).

important in foraging V. bengalensis is pro-

bably about 240°, or 120° on each side of

the midline anterolaterally. The majority of

reactances occurred with prey located within

an arc of about 90° on each side, with most

between about 30° and 80°.

SEARCH BEHAVIOUR AND FORAGING TACTICS

Social Facilitation. — The sight of one indivi-

dual feeding often induced other nearby in-

dividuals to start feeding on their own, or in a

common feeding area. The behaviour is well

documented in various fish, bird, and mammal

species ( see Curio 1976, for review), but has

been only occasionally reported in reptiles

(Greenberg 1977 Auffenberg 1981c). In moni-

tor lizards it is common in particularly those

species feeding in aggregations at large carrion,

such as V or anus komodoensis (Auffenberg

1981c). In the Varanus bengalensis used in this

study social facilitation often took the form

of piracy, a form of which has previously been

studied in birds (Hatch 1970).

Piracy among Varanus bengalensis normally

occurred when one individual had prey in its

mouth. Analyses of piracy observed in this

study (n=45) show that, in general, it was an

291

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

unsuccessful tactic (success percentage 26.7).

However, success level was largely determined

by the sizes of the interacting individuals. Thus

piracy acts against smaller individuals by

larger ones was frequently successful (62.5%

of all such interactions). However, most piracy

attempts were conducted by smaller (n=33)

than by larger individuals (n=12), though

usually unsuccessful (n=33, 84.8% failures),

regardless of the victim’s size; and even less

successful when the victims were larger than

the pirates (n-23, 87.0%). Attempted piracy

among more or less equal-sized individuals was

usually unsuccessful (n-14, 28.6%).

Food particle size was also clearly impor-

tant, for when the food particle diameter was

larger than 14 mm and length greater than

50 mm, pirating attempts were more successful

(n=13, 81.0%) than when food particles were

smaller (n=20, 19.0%) and handling time was

short.

Piracy attempts were not particularly reward-

ing when food was plentiful, for other indi-

viduals were often drawn to the area of piracy

attempt, and these individuals may feed on

the surplus food, while the potential (usually

unsuccessful) pirate is chasing another. Piracy

attempts were also characterized by a chase

and/or grab at the mouth — sometimes even

when the other mouth had nothing in it. It

was also more common by certain individuals

than by others of equal size.

Search Movements. — Locomotion during

which there is no search for food was notice-

ably different than that while looking for food.

The primary differences during food search

were (1) more rapid and regular tongue flick-

ing, and (2) greater lateral head and body

movements. Nonforaging locomotion was usual-

ly practiced when individuals moved between

the retreat and basking sites. These trackways

were usually direct, with few and generally

small deviations; mean forward speed was 9.0

cm /sec. On the other hand, trackways made

by foraging individuals were less direct, often

convoluted, circular or sinuous (Fig. 3). Mean

forward speed was the same (8.1 cm/sec). The

head is rhythmically swung from one side to

the other (^scanning), with tongue-flicking

usually occurring at the end of each lateral

TRAVEL AXIS

292

Fig. 2. Typical scanning movements during foraging. Numbered heads show positions

at one-second intervals; dots show points at which tongues have been flicked; travel

axis and actual path both indicated.

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

swing (Fig. 2). A special form of scanning

in small areas is called casting (see Curio

1976, for discussion of its use in invertebrates).

In casting the forward movement is stopped

entirely (or nearly so), with exaggerated late-

ral head sweeps and (in varanids) with more

tongue flicks (Table 4). Tongue flicks in non-

foraging movements usually occur at the

Fig. 3. Typical locomotor patterns. Scale indicated. Head positions shown as short

lines, with continuous line tracing movement of snout tip; arrow showing direction

of body movement. Dots indicate tongue flick locations; X shows food locations

(see text). A, non-foraging pattern, without scanning; B, foraging pattern with typical

increasing tonguing during wide lateral scanning movements, e, to right to trail

being position of buried turtle egg (not found) , non-area-concentrated pattern; C, same,

but foraging more intense as seen in slower movements and rate of forward pro-

gression; D, same, but with more intensive, slower search near buried turtle egg

(e, located and eaten); E, same, near wet spot on greenhouse floor (circle); F,

alternating low and high intensity area-concentration pattern; G, same, more intense

with slower greater lateral movement; H, pattern in which two buried turtle eggs (e)

are found and eaten, and place where egg found by same individual the day before

(y); (I) pattern preceding and following successful location of two pieces of meat (ee).

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 4. Components comprising the maximum food search path of Varanus bengalensis :

NB =: maximum lateral undulations of neck and body (c. 7 cm on either side of

travel axis), H = lateral movements of head, c. 5 cm, T = lateral movements of

head, c. 5 cm. Total width of scent discrimination path about 34 cm.

greatest extent of the head swings (sometimes

during the mid-swing distance) (Fig. 3A). Dur-

ing foraging the tongue flicks occur more rapid-

ly (Table 4), usually at several places between

the greatest lateral movements of the head

(Fig. 3B).

The lateral head scanning movements are

functionally increased by the tongue length,

for it is usually completely extended with each

flick (max. distance about 5 cm in adults). In

addition, the amplitude of the lateral move-

ment of the body is 5-10 cm (Av. = 7.3); the

“wave length” of the lateral head swings is one

per 10-80.3 cm, depending largely on lizard

length (Av. = 63.2 cm). Figure 4 illustrates

the extent of the major movements contribut-

ing to the total width of the search path in

Varanus bengalensis adults. The mean head

movement per second in casting is about 40%

slower than that when scanning, and 69%

Table 4

Comparison of movement patterns during the

SEARCH FOR FOOD AND OTHERWISE

slower than when not foraging (Table 4). Thus

both head movement and forward progression

is slowed down as foraging intensity is in-

294

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARAMUS BENGALENSIS

creased, and tonguing becomes more rapid.

Casting movements are slower and with a

greater lateral component than other patterns

(Table 4).

Area-concentrated Search Patterns. — Varanus

bengalensis shows typical area-concentrated

search behaviour, especially in reference to

casting search patterns. Area-concentrated

patterns using casting techniques typically alter-

nate with scanning patterns during the search

for food. Figure 3 provides typical examples

(Fig. 3D-I). A comparison of the non area-

concentrated search pattern of Figure 3B, with

area-concentrated types seen in parts of parti-

cularly patterns D through I clearly shows the

slower movements and more complete investi-

gation of the surface in the area-concentrated

types. The scent of buried turtle eggs leads to

area-concentration by casting, each at places

where a buried egg was found the day before

Fig. 5. Example of an extensive area-concentrated search brought in an area (dot)

where a live mouse had been captured 24 hours previously, then returning by way

of a rather circular path to the spot (X) where another live mouse had been captured

at the beginning of the sequence shown. Maximum diameter of search path shown

2.1 m, total elapsed time 321 sec.

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JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

(Fig. 3H). Such area-concentrated searching as

evidenced by casting clearly begins some dis-

tance (10-80 cm) before the food site (distance

undoubtedly related to olfacient strength). Note

that in Figure 3B a foraging monitor failed to

find and eat a buried turtle egg at E, though

it came within 30 cm of the location on two

scanning sweeps; the travel rate and direction,

as well as the tonguing frequency, all suggest

it did not detect the food.

Figure 5 also shows another feature of the

area-concentrated foraging pattern — that the

successful location of food is not only preced-

ed by, but also usually succeeded by casting.

Direction changes after food discovery are not

significantly different than changes before food

detection, unlike the hunting behaviour report-

ed in some birds (Smith and Dawkins 1971).

However, the arc produced in casting has a

mean radius of 1.2 m before discovery, a

radius of 0.7 m after discovery, with a pro-

portionately smaller variance. Scanning move-

ments are greater near a scent focal point (X

scanning width 28 cm) than they are when the

monitor is far from the focal scent area

(X = 15 cm).

Intense area-concentrated search patterns

occur when adult males respond to crossing the

track of a female. The major difference in this

pattern and that of a generalized, non-

concentrated pattern, such as Figure 3B, is the

former’s more convoluted path and the alter-

nation between more rapid and less rapid head

movements as the pattern shifts from high to

low intensity area-concentrated search patterns.

Figure 5 shows the resulting area-concentrat-

ed search pattern when food is repeatedly

located in fairly small area. Even without re-

peated food discovery in one area, there is a

tendency for Varanus bengalensis to spend

more time in places where it found food earlier

the same day, or even on previous days. As an

example, in a sample of nine food search bouts

randomly selected from the tape (total

6 hrs, or 21,776 sec, Av. bout length

40.3 min., or 2419 sec), individuals spent

an average of 3 1 . 6% of the total search time

at places where they had found food earlier

in the same bout. This entire time was spent

casting over the discovery area, with frequent

tonguing of the soil and leaf litter (5.4% of

the time was spent at food sites during earlier

bouts; 3.3% of the time was devoted to acti-

vities unrelated to food discovery; 59.7% of

the time was spent in areas where no food had

previously been found). Statistics important in

analyses of the situation are: each greenhouse

floor has an area of 7 m x 7 m (49 m2), mark-

ed in square metre squares, in which food was

offered and behaviours of the monitors taped.

Nine feeding bouts were photographed, pro-

viding a maximum possible surface for move-

ment of 441 m2. But of these only 181 m2

were visited (41.0% of total), probably due

to the fact that carrion food particles were

located on only 30 squares (6.8% of

total area available). The difference between

the visitation of 181 and 30 (difference = 151

squares) is due to both random food search

and movement from one food source to an-

other. The 30 squares provided with food at

one time or another were visited 105 times,

including 75 revisited a second (or more) time,

and only 8 never revisited again. Of the squares

traversed (310) that never had only food

(280), 82 were revisited a second (or more)

time, and 77 were never revisited after the

final crossing. This more or less equal distri-

bution regarding non-food square transverses

suggests these movements are random. How-

ever, the high order of revisits to squares in

which food was found earlier (that same bout,

or a subsequent one) suggests a very signifi-

cant non-random site-specific pattern related to

296

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

Fig. 6. Varanus bengalensis; above, attentive posture when engaged in an object-

concentrated (entirely? visual) search for jumping frogs; below, normal body position

during an area-concentration (largely olfactory) search for buried turtle eggs.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

previous successful food location (X2 34.46,

df = 1, P-0.001).

Object-concentrated Search Patterns — In

many circumstances it is difficult to distinguish

between area- and object-concentrated search

patterns, especially when the search for food

is obviously largely scent-dominated. One

example is when the intensive search for an

object (female, buried turtle eggs, etc.) takes

place in a small area. Digging next to and

under logs and rooting in leaf debris for insect

prey are other examples. However, in other

circumstances concentration on a particular

object is clearly divorced from concentration

on a place. This perhaps is best illustrated in

the quite different search for larger active prey,

such as living frogs and mice.

During the search for moving prey the

tongue is rarely used. The head is held high,

though parallel to the ground (Fig. 6). The

entire demeanour appears tense and alert, with

the head often turned quickly from side to

side. Likely movements within several metres

lead to a rapid dash in that direction, and the

prey is often chased for some distance. Loss of

visual contact through freezing or hiding be-

haviour of the prey usually leads to intense

area-concentration behaviour with tonguing

and rooting of the surface litter in a small area

until the prey is flushed or found. Neither time

budget nor space utilization analyses during

object-concentrated searches show any signifi-

cant positive relationship with previous success-

ful capture sites — at least within the confines

of the greenhouses used in this study. However,

field investigations would undoubtedly show

that object-concentrated hunting modes lead to

selection of specific habitat types and probably

at specific times of the day, as they do in

Varanus komodoensis (Auffenberg 1978, 1981c).

Though no comparable studies have been con-

ducted on reptiles, research on other verte-

brates (i.e., birds and mammals) has shown

that specific hunting behaviours are affected

as a consequence of remarkable few experi-

ences by the predator (Crose 1970, Randall

1970).

Discussion

One of the results of this study is that the

satiation level has been shown to be much higher

for adult males than for adult females, agreeing

with earlier data that during adolescent growth

the males of this species tend to consume more

food than females of the same age class (Auffen-

berg 1979). This suggests that males may

process food faster than females and thus help

to explain why males tend to bask longer than

females (Auffenberg 1979). The fact that male

V. bengalensis eat more food per unit time than

females suggests that males are exposed to

higher predation levels by larger carnivores,

and thus the faster growth of males probably

results in a differential mortality in the sexes.

This should be checked by appropriately de-

signed data obtained from field studies.

Handling time is significantly lower for

carrion type food than live prey; particularly

those prey species, such as mice, that are capa-

ble of injuring the predator. These and other

data clearly show that attack techniques are

suited to prey type, as has been shown to be

the case in the Komodo monitor (Auffenberg

1981c). Unpublished data on captive adoles-

cent V. bengalensis suggest that these techni-

ques are developed quickly and very early,

requiring a remarkably short time for develop-

ment (Ganci and Auffenberg, MS).

Foraging behaviour of this species includes

a great amount of rooting in the surface litter.

The way in which this is done plus the similar

behaviour of other slit-nostriled varanids

( Varanus rudicollis, V. grayi, V . dumerilii)

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FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

and apparent absence of such behaviour in the

round-nostriled forms with which I am familiar

( Varanus komodoensis, V. varius, V. sal vat or,

all in author’s field notes) suggests there is an

important functional relationship requiring

additional confirmation.

The ambush tactic is apparently not used

by Varanus bengalensis of any size to obtain

prey. However, in V. komodoensis, the adults

regularly practice this technique, while the

young or even half-grown individuals do not

(Auffenberg 1981c). I conclude that ambush

hunting is a behavioural pattern only regularly

practiced by very large monitors hunting pro-

portionately large prey. It may, in fact, be re-

stricted to only adult V. komodoensis as a

regular hunting tactic among at least varanids.

On the other hand, open pursuit of prey

much smaller than their own mass is a com-

mon behavioural mode in Varanus bengalensis,

as it seems to be in most (all?) other monitor

species, including all sizes of V. komodoensis.

Open pursuit often follows a deliberate

object-oriented search pattern — frequently ini-

tiated by visual prey recognition from a dis-

tance. Similar hunting modes have been report-

ed for varanids in the field (Auffenberg 1981c),

and we must conclude it is one of the most

important techniques for food procurement by

at least the more active species of the family

(there is no evidence that it occurs in Varanus

grayi, as an example, author’s field notes).

Area-concentrated search patterns are also

important, particularly for small, inactive live

prey (beetle grubs, etc.) and carrion. In this

mode, scent apparently plays a major role in

food location. It may be accompanied by root-

ing, digging, scratching, and similar surface

disturbance techniques designed to flush or

disclose the prey. Tonguing is frequent and

casting behaviours are characteristic during

high intensity search for particularly carrion.

The ability of varanids to locate carrion from

great distances (c 10 km) has been reported

in Varanus komodoensis (Auffenberg 1981c)

and from lesser distances in Varanus salvator

(Auffenberg 1980). Though V. bengalensis

apparently feeds on less carrion in the wild

than do these two species (Auffenberg, in

press), scent-oriented, area-concentrated pat-

terns are utilized in its location. Furthermore,

the present study makes it clear that indivi-

duals frequently return to area in which they

have found food previously. The same pattern

has been demonstrated for Varanus komodoensis

in respect to ambush locations for large prey

(Auffenberg 1978, 1981c). Long-lived lizards,

such as V. bengalensis , would clearly profit

from long-term area-concentrated search pat-

terns, for longevity provides the accumulation

of experience necessary to concentrate their

feeding forays in those areas where prey are

either actually more abundant, or attack is

facilitated by peculiarities of prey behaviour

or local topography. This is clearly demon-

strated in the behavioural relationship of adult

V. komodoensis and the deer and pigs on which

they regularly feed (Auffenberg 1978, 1981).

In V. komodoensis species ambushes are usually

performed in areas of high prey concentra-

tions, even when such concentrations occur only

during short parts of the day. On the other

hand, there is some evidence that younger

Komodo monitors are not as area-oriented as

are the adults, and this seems to be the case

in V. bengalensis as well, though proof is lack-

ing. If true, then it suggests that area-concen-

tration and, particularly, one prey-one place

associations take a long time to develop. How-

ever, the tendency to return to successful hunt-

ing sites is clear, even if the successful encounter

was several weeks previous. In the Komodo

monitor there is evidence that the location of

such successes may be remembered for at least

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol SO

several months. It is even possible that many

of the ambush sites visited over several days

foraging may represent a series of previously

successful prey encounter sites and that the

consistency of the foraging foray movements

may be based on such earlier successes. This

study has shown that in Varanus bengalensis

about one-third of the time spent in a foraging

bout is spent at previous successful food en-

counter sites.

It has been shown above that the perceptual

field of Varanus bengalensis is greatly widened

by the rhythmic lateral bending of the head

and body. But the actual field recognized is

probably similar to that demonstrated for

herring larvae (Rosenthal and Hempel 1970),

being in the form of an undulating tube (Fig.

7). Curio (1976) has suggested that similar

lateral movements in fishes tend to increase the

mean diameter of the predator, thus increasing

34 cm

Fig. 7. Diagrammatic representation of presumed undulating perceptual tunnel about

34 cm wide in adult Varanus bengalensis (adapted from illustrative concept of Rosenthal

and Dawkins, 1970).

300

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF VARANUS BENGALENSIS

their discrimination efficiency. This is clearly

the case in Varanus bengalensis.

While the present study has helped elucidate

certain factors regarding the behaviour of forag-

ing monitors in the field, many important ques-

tions remain. Most of these can be answered

only after more thorough study in both the

field and laboratory. To date most studies of

the ethology of predation have used insects,

birds, fishes, and mammals as subject groups.

Little work has been done in this field with

Refei

Auffenberg, W. (1978): Social and feeding be-

haviour in Varanus bengalensis. In Behavior and

Neurology of Lizards (N. Greenberg and P. D.

MacLean, eds.) . National Institutes of Mental Health,

pp. 301-331.

(1979) Intersexual differences in

behavior of captive Varanus bengalensis (Reptilia,

Lacertilia, Varanidae). J. Herp. 13(3): 313-315.

(1981a) : Combat behavior in

Varanus bengalensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(1) :

54-72.

(1981b) : Courtship behavior

in Varanus bengalensis (Sauria: Varanidae). Bull.

Mus. Comp. Zool. 34(6): 115-137.

(1981c): The behavioral eco-

logy of the Komodo monitor. University Presses of

Florida, Gainesville. 406 p.

, & Ipe, Ipe M. (1983) : The

food and feeding of juvenile Bengal Monitor Lizards

(Varanus bengalensis). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

(1): 119-124.

Burghardt, G. M. (1964) : Effects of prey size

and movement on the feeding behavior of the

lizards Anolis carolinensis and Eumeces fasciatus.

Copeia 1964: 576-578.

(1966) : Stimulus control of

the prey attack response in naive garter snakes.

Psychon. Sci. 4: 37-38.

(1970): Chemical perception

in reptiles, pp. 241-308. In Communications by Chemi-

cal Signals (J. W. Johnson, D. G. Moulton, and A.

Turk, eds.) Appleton-Century-Crofts : New York.

(1975) : Chemical prey prefe-

reptiles. Yet, there is much about reptile be-

haviour suggesting that the patterns in this

group are not the same as have been demon-

strated previously (see Curio 1976). Hopefully

this report will stimulate others to further

investigate the feeding strategies of particularly

the snakes, in which notoriously little has been

reported, but for which much good work could

easily be done in the laboratory in view of

their general adaptability to captive situations.

en ce s

rence polymorphism in newborn garter snakes Tham-

nophis sirlalis. Behaviour 52 (3-4) : 202-225.

& Pruitt, C. M. (1975) : The

role of the tongue and senses in feeding of newborn

garter snakes. Physiol, and Behav. 14 : 185-194.

Crose, H. (1970): Searching image in carrion

crows. Verlag f. Landwirtschaft, Veterin., Gartenbau-

Forst., Jagd u. Fischerei. Paul Parey: Berlin. Pp. 1-33,

Curio, E. (1976): The ethology of predation.

Springer-Verlag: New York. 250 p.

Drummond, H. M. (1979): Stimulus control of

amphibious predation in the northern water snake

(Nerodia s. sipedon). Z. Tierpsychol. 50: 18-44.

Gettkandt, A. (1931) : Die analyse des Function-

kieses der Nahrung bei der Kutsherpeitschenschlange

Zamenis flagelliformis L. Z. Vergl. Physiol. 14: 1-39.

Greenberg, N. (1977): An ethogram of the blue

spiny lizard, Sceloporus cyanogenys (Sauria: Igua-

nidae). J. Herpetology 11(2): 177-195.

Gregory, P. T. (1979) : Predator avoidance be-

havior of the red-legged from (Rana aurora),

Her petologica 35(2): 175-184.

Hatch, J. J. (1970) : Predation and piracy by gulls

at a ternery in Maine. Auk 87: 244-254.

Heatwole, H. (1968) : Relationship of escape be-

havior and camouflage in anoline lizards. Copeia

1968: 109-113.

Herzog, H. A. & Burghardt, G. M. (1974): Prey

movement and predatory behavior of juvenile western

yellow-bellied racers, Coluber constrictor mormon.

Her petologica 30(3) : 285-289.

Kahmann, H. (1932) : Sinnesphysiologische Studien

an Reptilien — I. Experimentalle Untersuchungen u.

301

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

dos Jacobson ische Organ der Eidechsen und Schlan-

gen. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Zool. Physiol. 51: 173-238.

Loop, M. S. (1974): The effect of relative prey

size on the ingestion behavior of the Bengal moni-

tor, Varanus bengalensis (Sauria: Varanidae). Her-

petologica 30: 123-127.

& Bailey, L. G. (1972): The effect

of relative prey size on the ingestion behavior of

rodent-eating snakes. Psychon. Sci. Sect. Animal

Physiol. Psychol. 28: 167-169.

Randall, E. J. (1970) : The predatory sequence,

with emphasis of killing behavior and its ontogeny

in the cheetah. Z. Tierpsychol. 27: 492-504.

Rosenthal, H. & Hempel, G. (1970): Experi-

mental studies in feeding and food requirements of

herring larvae ( Clupea harengus ). Pp. 344-364. In

Marine Food Chains (J. Steele, ed.). Oliver and

Boyd: Edinburgh.

Ruggiero, L. F., Cheney, C. D. & Knowlton, F.

F. (1979): Interacting prey characteristic effects on

kestral predatory behavior. American Naturalist 113

(5): 749-757.

Smith, J. N. M. & Dawkins, R. (1971): The

hunting behavior of individual great tits in relation

to spacial variations in their food density. Anim.

Behav. 19: 695-706.

302

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED

PHENOMENON IN SOME INDIAN BATS1

Part VIII — Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) —

Emballonuridae

V. M. Sapkal and K. G. Khamre2

Specimens of Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) were collected from dungeons

and passages of old discarded forts at Narnala, Chikaldhara, Mandu and Raysen.

The population varies at the colony during different seasons. It has a sharply defined

annual breeding cycle. Young are delivered between the last week of May and first

week of June. The gestation period is about 120 to 125 days. The newly born young

are 7 to 8 g in weight and are weaned when they attain a body weight of 20 g. There

is a complete dominance of the right side of the female genitalia over the left, and,

as a rule, ovulation occurs from the right ovary and conceptions in the right cornu.

The left side of the genitalia is functional in very exceptional cases. The young do

not attain sexual maturity within the first year of birth. The colony shows an even

sex-ratio only during the season of copulation, whereas the males are more numerous

in the colonies examined during the rest of the year. Evidently, the females migrate

from these colonies during the sexually quiescent period.

Introduction

Information concerning the details of breed-

ing habits and sex-cycle on Indian emballonurid

bats is confined to a brief description of the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in Taphoz-

ous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955)

and to a preliminary account of the breeding

behaviour of Taphozous melanopogon (Kha-

parde 1976) inhabiting temples of Bhuvanesh-

war, Orissa. Even these short accounts have

revealed that there are basic differences in the

breeding sexual activity of the two species

which are so closely related taxonomically.

Whereas, Taphozous longimanus (Gopala-

krishna 1954, 1955) is a continuous breeder

with a quick succession of pregnancies with

1 Accepted March 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur-440 001.

the two horns of the female genitalia function-

ing alternately, Taphozous melanopogon (Kha-

parde 1976) is a restricted breeder with the

right side of the genitalia being functional.

Further, there appears to be differences in the

breeding pattern of Taphozous melanopogon in

different climatic and ecological situations.

Hence, a detailed study has been undertaken

to study the breeding habits and sexual cycle

of Taphozous melanopogon collected from

three different localities in Central India, but

having nearly the same ecological conditions.

Material and Methods

The specimens of Taphozous melanopogon

(Temminck) were collected from dungeons and

passages of old forts at Narnala, Chikhaldara,

Mandu and Raysen. All these localities are

situated in the midst of dense jungle. Collection

from Narnala were made so as to have one

303

Summary of the collection diary

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

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Table I (Contd.)

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — Part VIII

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Table II

Month-wise collection of specimens

collection or more representing each month.

The specimens were collected only a few times

from the other two localities. Since there is no

difference in the breeding behaviour of the

specimens in the different localities, the des-

criptions are common except where a special

mention is made regarding specimens from a

special locality.

The specimens were caught at random dur-

ing the daytime with a butterfly net and

brought to the laboratory alive. After noting

down the significant characters of the external

genitalia in the male and mammary glands in

the female, the specimens were killed by chloro-

form and their body weights recorded by a

sensitive spring balance. After fixation of the

dissected genital tracts in suitable fixatives they

were preserved in 70% alcohol. In the case of

males, the right testis of each specimen was

taken out of the preservative 70% alcohol,

rolled on filter paper and quickly weighed in

a Mettler balance. Although this does not give

the actual weight of the testis, this gives a

correct picture of the relative weights of the

305

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

testes of the different specimens, since the testes

of all the specimens were subjected to the same

procedure.

Table I is a summary of the collection diary,

and Table II gives the monthwise collection of

specimens.

Observations

Taphozous melanopogon is a medium sized

bat which lives in colonies in which the popu-

lation varies during the different seasons of the

year. The largest colony studied for the present

report was found at the main fort of Mandu,

having a population of 12,000 to 15,000 speci-

mens. The specimens clung to the rough surfaces

of the wall or were inside cracks in the walls.

At Namala also a colony of Taphozous mela-

nopogon was located in an old fort, and the

specimens were found in narrow dark tunnels

within the walls of the fort. The colony con-

tained about 2000 to 3000 specimens. At

Chikhaldara there was a colony of 400 to 500

specimens in narrow passages of an old fort.

The roost was almost empty at Narnala and

Chikhaldara during April During March and

August the roost at Chikhaldara has mostly

males with a very small number of females. Evi-

dently, the specimens migrate to some other

place during these months, and it appears as

if the females leave the colony during certain

months of the year and roost elsewhere.

Taphozous melanopogon is a medium sized

bat with an adult body weight ranging from

25 to 35 g. The males have a dark brown fur

on the body and are easily recognisable by

their having a black beard. The gular pouch,

which is so characteristic of other species of

Taphozous is not present in Taphozous mela-

nopogon.

Female genitalia :

The ovary is ellipsoidal in shape measuring

1 . 00 mm in length, 0 . 7 mm in breadth and

0.8 mm in the middle. It is attached to the

mesovarium by a broad hilus and is enclosed in

a complete ovarian bursa. The Fallopian tube

arises from the postero-mesial aspect of the

bursa, traverses along the anterior margin of

the bursa curves caudally passing on the lateral

side of the bursa and opens into the cranial

end of the respective uterine cornu. In the

nonparous females the two uterine cornua are

nearly equal in length (8.0 mm) and meet

caudally to form a ‘V’- shaped structure. In

the parous females the right uterine cornu is

distinctly thicker than the left. The vagina is

14 mm long has a transverse slit-like opening.

Examination of serial sections reveal that

the lumen of the uterine cornu do not become

widely confluent to form an uterine body, but

the lumen of each cornu continues indepen-

dently as a distinct canal without the typical

uterine glands, and joins its counterpart of the

contralateral side only near its distal end to

open by a common opening at the tip of the

cervix.

Breeding Habits :

The breeding behaviour of Taphozous mela-

nopogon is same in all the three localities from

which the specimens were collected for the pre-

sent study. Hence, the present observation are

common to specimens of all three localities.

Special mention of any specific locality is men-

tioned only where pertinent.

An examination of the collection diary and

Table I reveals several interesting feature.

Pregnancy, as evidenced by the presence of

bulbous uterine cornu, was noticed during the

period between 5th February and 30th May.

With the exception of two atypical specimens,

all adult females collected on 15th June had

delivered their young and the uterine cornu,

which bore the conceptus, had become comple-

306

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

Part VIII

tely involuted and had reached the normal

condition. Many of the specimens were carry-

ing well grown young at their breasts. These

facts indicate that these females had delivered

their young atleast 10 to 15 days before. This

is further substantiated by the fact that two

females collected on 29th May had delivered

and were in full lactation. They carried a newly

born young each at the breast. Both the young

were nearly naked, had adherent eyelids and

had a stump of an umbilical cord, one young

weighed 7 g and the other 8 g. The average

weight of a full term foetus ranged between 7

to 8 g. Evidently, they had been delivered just

a few hours earlier — about 8 to 10 hours

before. The rest of the specimens collected on

29th and 30th May were heavily pregnant and

carried full term conceptuses which would have

been delivered in a day or two. It appears that

all the females in the colony, barring the two

exceptional specimens collected on 15th June,

delivered their young during the two weeks —

the last week of May and first week of June.

Microscopic examination of the female geni-

talia of specimens collected during January

revealed that copulation had not occurred in

any female collected upto 23rd January. Two

females collected on 27th January had sperms

in the uterus, an early corpus luteum in the

ovary and an egg in early cleavage in the ova-

rian part of the Fallopian tube. Most of the

adult specimens collected on 30th January had

either late morulae or early blastocysts. The

specimens collected on 5th February had late

implanted blastocysts. From this date onwards

the females carried progressively advanced con-

ceptuses until delivery during the last week of

May or first week of June.

The facts indicate that Taphozous melanopo-

gon has a sharply defined annual breeding

cycle. Secondly, copulation is immediately fol-

lowed by pregnancy, which advances progres-

sively during the following weeks. Pregnancy

was not noticed at any other period of the

year.

The first batch of newly delivered young

were obtained on 29th May and these, as has

already been shown, might have been delivered

a few hours before. The young ones collected

on 1st July weighed 15 to 17 g and were free.

The adult females, however, were still in lacta-

tion, and milk oozed out of the nipples when

the mammary glands were pressed. No speci-

men in lactation was collected after this date.

From the above description of the breeding

habits of Taphozous melanopogon, the annual

life of the adult female of this species can be

recognised into the following periods:

1) Period of sexual quiescence — from the

middle of July to the third week of January.

2) Oestrus — copulation and fertilization dur-

ing the last week of January.

3) Pregnancy — from the last week of Janu-

ary to first week of June.

This has been arrived at by taking into

consideration that the sucklings obtained on 1st

June were reasonably well grown, but not

grown enough to become completely indepen-

dent. The maximum weight of the young col-

lected on that date was 17 g. On 9th August

when the next collection was made, the young

were free and independent, and the lowest

body weight was 24 g. Looking at the rate of

growth of the young it is reasonable to assume

that the sucklings obtained on 1st July would

be weaned by about 10th to 15th of July when

they attain a body weight of about 20 g.

While the above pattern of sexual life of the

female is the normal situation, there were

noticed two unusual and exceptional specimens,

one on 29th April and the other on 15th June.

While all other pregnant specimens collected

on 29th April were nearly of one stage of

pregnancy, the exceptional specimen carried a

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

conceptus which was distinctly smaller than the

others. Likewise on 15th July while all other

specimens had delivered their young and the

uterus in these had undergone complete invo-

lution, there was one specimen which carried a

full term foetus, which, judging by its size,

would have delivered in a day or two. Strange-

ly, while in all other cases the pregnancy was

distinctly carried in the right uterine cornu,

these two exceptional specimens carried the

conceptus in the left cornu. Evidently, there is

a very small number of females in the colony

which conceive later than all others, and while

the number of specimens exhibiting such un-

usual behaviour is too small to warrant any

generalization, it is strikingly extraordinary that

only these should be carrying the pregnancy

in the left cornu. Perhaps they missed or under-

went unfruitful copulation or there was an

early degeneration of the ovum released from

the right side, and may have induced the left

ovary to release an ovum from the left ovary

at a later date within the breeding season.

It is interesting to note that amongst the em-

ballonurid bats, while Taphozous longimanus

(Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955), Rhychonyteris

naso (Burt and Stirtos 1961) breed through-

out the year, Taphozous georgianus (Kitchner

1973) and Taphozous magnis (A1 Rabaake

1968) breed once a year in a sharply defined

season. Taphozous melanopogon resembles the

latter two species in this respect. It is interest-

ing that two closely allied species such as

Taphozous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954,

1955) and Taphozous melanopogon living under

the same climatic conditions possesses diver-

gent breeding habits.

Number of young and symmetry of female

genitalia

Among the 89 pregnant females which ex-

hibited unquestionable pregnancy, 87 carried

the conceptus in the right cornu and two in

the left. The examination of the ovaries of 46

specimens carrying the conceptus in the right

cornu revealed that the corpus luteum was in-

variably present in the ipsilateral ovary. The

examination of the ovaries of the two ex-

ceptional specimens carrying pregnancy in the

left cornu showed that in both these cases

the ovary of the left side had released the ovum

as revealed by the presence of a corpus luteum.

The ovary of the nonfunctional side showed

a typical anoestrus condition in all the species.

The genitalia of all the females collected on

27th and 30th January were examined histo-

logically since copulation took place during this

period. Out of 36 such females 31 had released

the ovum from the right ovary, 3 had a pre-

ovulatory follicle each in the right ovary and

the other two were immature females. These

facts show that the right ovary is the normal

functional ovary in this species and the embryo

implants in the ipsilateral cornu. It is in very

exceptional cases that the left ovary releases

the ovum and the embryo implants in the left

cornu. The exceptional situations occur only

in the very few specimens in which there is

delayed copulation and ovulation. Hence, these

specimens conceive at least 2 to 3 weeks later

than the other specimens. Evidently, the right

side of the female genitalia is nearly completely

physiologically dominant in this species. The

left side becomes functional only under very

exceptional conditions.

Duration of pregnancy :

The collection diary and Table I indicates

that pregnancy in progressively advanced stages

occur between 5th February and 30th May. Two

specimens each carrying a young weighing 7 g

were obtained on 29th May 1977. Both were

nearly naked on the belly, reddish in colour

and had still a small umbilical stump which

308

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — Part VIII

had not withered. Their eyelids had not yet

opened. This, taken along with the fact that

the weight of the full term foetus (average of

7 foetuses obtained from specimens collected

on 30th May 1977), indicates that the two suck-

ing young ones collected on May 1977 must

have been delivered a few hours before.

Histological examination of the specimens

collected in January showed that the earliest

date when a fertilised egg was noticed was 27th

January, and during the following days the

specimens contained progressively advanced

embryos either in the Fallopian tube or in the

uterus. Implanted blastocysts were present in

specimens collected on 5th and 9th February.

From the above data it is evident that the

duration of pregnancy in Taphozous melano-

pogon is 120 to 125 days allowing a couple of

days on either side — the date when fertili-

sation was observed (27th January) and the

date when the first batch of young ones were

collected (May, 29).

Growth and maturity :

The collection diary and Table I reveals

some interesting data on the growth and age of

maturity in Taphozous melanopogon. Except

the specimens, which are attached to the breast

of the mother during the suckling period, it is

not possible to determine the maturity or other-

wise in this species in the free specimens on

the basis of the size and body weight. By the

time the young ones leaves the mother, it is

nearly of the same size as the mother and very

soon attains adult body weight. Thus, after

about three months after birth the immature

animals cannot be distinguished from the adults

on the basis of the size of the body. However,

the size of the testis in male and the size and

nature of the mammary nipples and the fact

whether the uterus contains an embryo or not

in the female are valid criteria to determine

sexual maturity or otherwise. On the basis of

these criteria it is evident that during the sexual

season there are many immature males in the

colony. Likewise there are many nonpregnant

females in the colony during the season of

pregnancy. Since this species breeds only once

a year in a sharply defined period, since there

are immature specimens in the colony during

the breeding period, it is evident that the ani-

mals of this species do not attain sexual matu-

rity within the year of their birth. Since, the

young ones are delivered late in May or early

in June, since the reproductive season com-

mences in the last week of January and since

the animals do not attain sexual maturity within

the year of their birth, the animals are atleast

21 months of age (from the end of May to the

end of January of the year after the year of

birth) when they come to sexual activity, and

the female is atleast 24 months before she

delivers her first young.

Consequently, during the beginning of the

breeding season the colony has atleast three

kinds of individuals: (i) the immature ones,

(ii) those which would be experiencing their

first sexual season and (iii) those which had

experienced sexual activity atleast once before.

The data at present do not warrant a definite

conclusion regarding the possible longevity of

the species. The animal has to produce atleast

3 young ones for the preservation of the species

allowing for possible early mortality. This

would mean that this specimen should live at-

least for 50 months to produce 3 young and

wean the last one. Brosset (1962 a), who made

observations on this species, noticed the dead

bodies of many young ones during suckling

periods. He reported that atleast 30 per cent

of the young ones born in the colony each

year are thus lost before they are weaned. If

this factor is added to the normal expected

minimum maturity, then each female may lose

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1 /3rd the number she delivers. Hence, she

should produce atleast four young in her life

time to perpetuate the species. Brosset’s (1962a),

and the present observations indicate that the

colony actually increases in size and after

reaching a certain maximum, the spillover of

the population migrate to form another colony.

This demands that atleast five young should

be produced by the female in her life time.

Hence, the female should have a minimum

longevity of atleast 74 months allowing for the

weaning of the 5th young born to the female.

Sex-ratio :

The collection record and Table II indi-

cates that out of the total 549 specimens

collected of all ages there were 323 males and

226 females. This gives a male dominant un-

even sex-ratio of 5 to 3% males in the popu-

lation. Earlier observations of Abdulali (1949)

also revealed an uneven male dominant sex-

ratio for this species and also for Hipposideros

lankadiva. In all other bats, in which the sex-

ratio has been studied so far, there is a prepon-

derance of the female (Gopalakrishna 1974).

The present study on Taphozous melanopogon

has revealed some extremely interesting data.

Although specimens have been collected

throughout the year and from different (three)

localities and although in all the localities the

total number of males collected was more than

the females, it appears it would be fallacious

to draw conclusion on the data thus obtained

in the case of Taphozous melanopogon. This

caution is indicated by the following facts. The

number of sucklings obtained is too small to

be of any statistical significance. The collection

record during the season of copulation (between

January 16 and January 30) shows that among

the mature animals there were 26 males against

31 females giving nearly even sex-ratio with

the females being slightly more than the males.

During the entire period of sexual activity from

copulation to delivery, there were 111 males

and 1 1 1 females. Evidently, the imbalanced sex-

ratio as revealed by the total collection is due

to the difference in number of the adult males

to adult females during the nonsexual season

(from June to the last week of the following

January) when collection contained 149 mature

males and only 13 mature females. This shows

that except during the sexual season the males

and females live segregated. It is also interesting

to note that, while the males remain in the

original colony, the majority of females migrate

to some other place.

It is difficult to determine the accurate sex-

ratio of colonial bats, which tend to live in

sexually segregated colonies during different

seasons of the year, unless it is possible to

establish their migratory routes and the place

where the emigrant bats roost. Hence, the sex-

ratio of this species as revealed by the collec-

tion record is not valid. Perhaps Abdulali (1949)

also drew conclusion on the sex-ratio of this

species on the basis of only a few collec-

tions and from one or two male dominant

colonies. A survey of many colonies of this

species within its migratory distance is neces-

sary for understanding the exact sex-ratio in

this species.

Acknowledgement

We express our deep gratitude to Dr. A.

Gopalakrishna, Director, Institute of Science,

Nagpur for his guidance throughout the pro-

gress of this work.

310

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — Part VIII

References

Abdulali, H. (1949): Sex ratio in Indian bats.

/. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 48: 423-428.

Al Rabaake, K. (1968) : Notes on the biology of

the tomb bat, Taphozous nudiventris magnus v. Wet-

tstein 1913, in Iraq. Saugetierk Milt., 16(1) : 21-26.

Brosset, A. (1962) : The bats of Central and

Western India. Part I. /. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc., 59

(1): 36-42.

Burt, W. H. and Striton, R. A. (1961): The

mammals of El Salvador. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool.

Uni. Michigon., 117: 1-69.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1954): Breeding habits of

the Indian sheath-tailed bat. Taphozous longimanus

(Hardwicke). Curr. Sci., 23: 60-61.

(1955): Observations on the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian

sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke).

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India., 21: 29-41.

Khaparde, M. S. (1976): Notes on the breeding

habits of the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous

melanopogon (Temminck). /, Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 73(2): 321-324.

Kitchner, D. J. (1973) : Reproduction in the com-

mon sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous georgianus

(Thomas) (Microchiroptera: Emballonuridae) in

Western Australia. /. Zool., 21: 375-89.

311

POTAMOGETON IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS1

A. Majeed Kak2

(With twelve text-figures)

Potamogeton L. (Potamogetonaceae) consti-

tutes’ a natural genus with about 100 species

(Airy Shaw 1966), wide spread throughout the

world, except in the polar regions. The species

commonly known as “Pond Weeds”, are one

of the most important food resources of water-

fowls — which include migrant marsh birds and

shore birds. Most of the species provide food,

shelter and shade for fish and minute animal

life. The most important species used as

manure in floating islands of Kashmir lakes

is curled pond weed (P. crispus L,).

Hook. f. (1893) reported 9 species from the

Indian subcontinent, which was reduced to 4

by Subramanyam (1962). Stewart (1972) from

his personal and early collections reported 11

species from the Himalayas. I accept

14 species of Potamogeton L. as occurring in

the north western Himalayas. Two species are

reported for the first time from the Indian sub-

continent. Brief descriptions of all the species

are given. Voucher specimens are deposited in

the Herbaria, the University of Kashmir, Uni-

versity of Alabama (U.N.A.) and National

Botanic Gardens (BSI) Calcutta.

Potamogeton L. Sp. PI. 126 (1753).

Hydrogeton Lour. FI. Cochinchinensis 244

(1790).

Patamogeton Honckeny. Syn. Plan. Germ.

2. 110 (1793).

Potamogiton Raf. Med. Respos. 5: 354

(1808).

Potamogetum Clairville. Man. Herb. Suisse

& Valais 34 (1811).

Peltopsis Raf. Jour. Phys. Chim. Hist. Nat.

Arts. 89. 102 (1819).

Spirillus J. Gay. Compt. Rend. Hebd. Sean-

ces. Acad. Sci. 38. 703 (1854).

Potamogeton : Rootstocks creeping. Stems

usually branched. Leaves stipulate, stalked or

sessile, entire or finely toothed. Flowers small,

perfect; perianth segments 4, green; anthers 4;

ovary of 4 distinct, sessile 1 celled, 1 ovuled

carpels Druplets or nutlets small, more or less

beaked.

Artificial key to the species

1 . Leaves linear lanceolate, ovate or suborbicular; stipules not adnate to the leaf base; spikes stiff and

compact

2. Upper leaves mostly floating, ovate-suborbicular

3. Floating leaves oblong lanceolate or elliptic lanceolate; petiole shorter than lamina

4. Beak of the nutlets very short, hooked P. octandrus

4. Beak of the nutlets short and stout

5. Rootstocks persistent; prostrate, internodes somewhat thickened P. fluitans

5. Rootstocks annual, springing form a resting bud, which is deciduous or attached to a

short persistent stolen; internodes not thickened P. alpinus

1 Accepted September 1979. of Science & Commerce, Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir

2 Department of Botany, Xslamia Degree College (India).

312

POTAMOGETOM IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS

1.

2.

3. Floating leaves oval or ovate, as long as broad or longer than broad; petioles equal or much

longer than lamina

6. Submerged leaves reduced to phyllodes; peduncles thick at the base of the spike

P. natans

6. Submerged leaves linear to linear obovate; peduncle not thickened at the base of

spike

7 . Stipules subpersistent, 2-4 cm long, obtuse; upper leaves recurved not keeled

P. polygonifolius

7. Stipules decaying early, linear, acute or obtuse 3-9 cm long; upper leaves

more or less 2 keeled

8. Nutlets obovoid, 2. 5-3. 5 mm long, acutely keeled; beak short but stout

P. nodosus

8. Nutlets obovoid, 3. 0-4. 9 mm, scarcely keeled beak long slightly curved

P. tepperi

Upper leaves submerged or partly floating, linear lanceolate

9. Leaves sessile

10. Leaves linear usually crisped or serrulate, 3 ribbed P. crispus

10. Leaves oVate or cordate, never crisped or serrulate, 5-9 ribbed

P. perfoliatus

9. Leaves petio/ate

11. Upper leaves submerged; peduncles mostly solitary

• • • • P. lucens

11. Upper leaves slightly emergent or floating peduncles usually

in clusters P. zizi

Leaves setaceous or linear, filiform; stipules wh0Hy or partly adnate to the leaf base; spikes loose or

monoliform jSSRfPPM**- -

12. Plants dwarf; stems compressed branched throughout

P. pusillus

12. Plants tall or medium sized; stems terete, simple or

branched apical ly

13. Copiously branched apically forming mats, less

branched at the base; leaves 1 nerved; stigma not

discoid; beak facial usually recurved ...P. pectinatus

13. Slightly branched apically, unbranched near the

base; leaves 3 nerved; stigma disc shaped; beak

short almost subcentral with truncate apex

P. filiformis

Potamogetois tepperi A. Benn. in Jour, of Bot.

xxv. 178 (1887); Ascherson & Graebner.

Potamogetonaceae 31. 62 (1907).

P. odontocarpus Gandog. Bull. Soc. Bot.

France 3 ser VI. 393 (1899).

This broad leaved pondweed is often con-

fused with P. natans. In the field it can be dis-

tinguished by the following characters: phyl-

lodes absent; upper leaves floating, ovate-

lanceolate, base cordate light pink beneath with

20-30 prominent nerves.

Anchar lake; AMK 3144, Dal lake; AMK

3193, Nagin lake; 3812, Leper Hospital AMK

3879.

Clarke’s (1895) plate 29142 based on collec-

tions from this area preserved in the Kew

Herbarium was studied by Ascherson and

Graebner (1907) who pointed out its presence

here. Since then the plant has been overlook-

ed by collectors.

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Potamogeton polygonifolius Pourret. Act. Tou-

louse, 3: 325 (1734): Fryer et al. Potamo-

getons of Brit. Is. 18 (1913).

The species is very close to P. natans and

P. nodosus from which it can be differentiated

on the basis of characters given in the key.

(Fig. 1).

Hokhar sar; AMK 3645, Hazrat bal; AMK

2025, Nagin lake; AMK 3367, Verinag; AMK

3139.

A highly plastic species, P. polygonifolius is

susceptible to the influence of altitudinal and

other conditions, e.g. depth of water. Some-

times it grows on wet banks and then is stunt-

ed and without reproductive organs.

Potamogeton natans L. Sp. PI. 126 (1753);

Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 565 (1893); Collett,

FI. Siml. 547 (1902); Yuzepehuk in Kom.,

FI. URSS 1: 200 (1934); Fryer l.c. 4; Cla-

pham, et al FI. Brit. Is. 946 (1962); Fassett,

Man. Aq. PL 55 (1972); Dandy in Rech. f.

FI. Iran. 83: 3 (1971); Stewart Ann. Cat.

Vas. PI. W. Pak. and Kash. 29 (1972).

Leaves heterophyllous, all stalked; lower

ones reduced to phyllodes; upper floating, ovate

lanceolate to elliptical. Nutlets compressed,

obovate usually reduced on the back, rarely

with an acute keel, dorsal margins reduced;

beak short.

Dal lake, AMK 3875; Anchar lake, AMK

3354.

Potamogeton nodosus Poiret in Lam. Encycl.

Meth. Bot. Supp. 4; 535 (1816); Yuzepehuk

l.c. 199; Fernald, Gray. Man. Bot. 8: 76

(1950); Clapham, et al l.c. 947; Dandy in

Rech. f. l.c. 3; Stewart, l.c. 29; Khatija et al.

l.c. 4.

P. indicus auct. non Roth. FI. Ind. 1: 471

(1820); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 565 (1893);

P. oblongus auct. non. Viv. Aitch, in J.

Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 99 (1830); P. natans

auct. non. L. Rech. f. FI. Lowland Iraq 27

(1964).

Common plant of this area. Often confused

with P. natans and P. polygonifolius , but can

be separated by the characters given in the key.

(Fig. 2).

Highgam Rakh, AMK 3190; Nagin lake,

AMK 1811; Dal lake, AMK 3874.

Potamogeton octandrus Poir. in Lam. Encycl.

Meth. Bot. Suppl. 4: 534; Stewart, l.c. 29;

Khatija, et al l.c. 7.

P. juvanicus Hussk. in Act. Soc. Sci. Ind.

Neerl. 1.8: 26 (1856); Hook. f. l.c. 566;

Collett, l.c. 547; Yuzepehuk in Kom. l.c. 195.

Bennett. FI. Trop. Afr. 8: 220 (1901).

Grows in quiet or slow flowing waters, also

in irrigation channels. The species superficially

resembles P. nodosus but can be distinguished

from it by the petioles being longer than the

blades and the spikes usually shorter than in

P. nodosus ; Nutlets with hooked beak; ribs

often toothed in P. octandrus. (Fig. 3).

Dal lake, AMK 3283; Shalimar, AMK 3067;

Malgam, AMK 3879, 3810.

Potamogeton lucens L. Sp. PI. 126 (1753);

Boiss, FI. Or. 5: 567 (1882); Hook f. l.c.

567; Collett, l.c. 448; Yuzepeckuk in Kom.

l.c. 202; Clapham, l.c. 948; Dandy, in Roch.

f. l.c. 4; Stewart, l.c. 29; Khadija et al. l.c. 5.

Grows abundantly in our lakes; highly plas-

tic; leaves elliptic lanceolate or oblong ovate,

sessile or subsessile acute or acuminate. Nutlets

faintly keeled, obtuse on the back, lateral ribs

obscure, beak short, subcentral. (Fig. 4).

Economically less useful; used as manure

along with other aquatic weeds.

Dal. lake, AMK 3407; Highgam Rakh, AMK

3689; Bemma, AMK 461.

Potamogeton lucens var. acuminatix-s (Schu-

mach) Fries. Novit. FI. Suec. ed. 1, 46

(1816); Ascher & Graeb. Potamogetonaceae

31; 76 (1959). P. acuminatum Schumach,

314

POTAMOGETON IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Enum. PL Saell. 1; 49 (1801); A. Bennett.

J. of Bot. XIX, 151 (1891).

The species is restricted to Dal, Manasbal

and Nilnag lakes. It can be distinguished from

P. lucens by the sessile or subsessile lanceolate

leaves with 3-5 nerves; apex acuminate much

drawn out; spikes mostly curved.

Charchinari, AMK 3635; Ruph lank (Dal

lake), AMK 3229.

Potamogeton zizi Mert. et. Koch. Deutschl FI.

1. 845 (1823); Cham et Schlechtd. in Lin-

naea II. 202 (1827); Ascher et Graeb. l.c.

81; Fryer, et al. 72; Stewart, l.c. 29.

P. lucens subsp. zizi Roth. Hook, stued. FI.

Fig. 1. Potamogeton polygonifolius Pourret; Fig. 2. P. nodosus Poiret; Fig. 3. P.

octandrus Poir.; Fig. 4. P. lecens L.; Fig. 5. P. zizi Mert. et Koch.; Fig. 6. P.

fluitans Roth.

315

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ed. 3; 433 (1884); P. lucens var. heterophyl-

lus Fries. Novit. FI. Suec. ed. 2; 34 (1828).

Superficially similar to P. lucens also grows

in association with it and P. fluitans. It can be

distinguished from both by the subsessile leaves

and spikes arising in clusters. (Fig. 5).

Manasbal, AMK 3404; Charchenari (Dal

lake), AMK 3606; Nagin lake, AMK 3303.

Potamogeton fluitans Roth, Tent. FI. Germ. 1.

72 (1788); Bennett in J. of Bot. XXIII 375

(1885); Ascherson and Graeb. l.c. 58; Fryer

& Benn. l.c. 11. P. oblongus var. fluitans G.

F. May. Chloris, bannov 519 (1836); P.

natans var. explanatus Mert. U. Koch. Deut-

schl. FI. I. 837 (1828).

Occurs in fast flowing streams and in irri-

gation channels, can be distinguished in the

field by the long petioled, thin leaves. Stigma

exerted; spikes mostly barren. Nutlets 3 keeled,

central one acute (Fig. 6).

Nagin lake, AMK 751; Ghasma shahi, AMK

3876; Anchar lake, AMK 3193.

Potamogeton alpinus Balbis in Mem. Acad.

Sc. Turin Ann. 10-11 Sci. Phys. Math. 1;

329 (1804); Aschers. FI. Brandeub 658

(1864); Fryer, et al l.c. 11 Calpham, et al.

l.c. 950; Stewart, l.c. 29; Khatija & Jaffri,

l.c. 4. P. rufescens Schrad in Cham., Adnot

5 (1815); Boiss, l.c. 16. P. stylis Hagstr. in

Bot. Not. 98 (1908).

This species can be distinguished from other

Potamogetons of this area by the following

characters; Stems being pale or dark olive

green tinged with red or purple; Leaves sessile,

oblanceolate-elliptic. Nutlets oblique or obo-

vate, lenticular, acutely keeled, beak subcentral,

acute. (Fig. 7).

Nilnag, AMK 1149, 2016, 3890, 3946.

Potamogeton perf ©flatus L. Sp. PI. (1753);

Hook. f. l.c. 566; Collett, l.c. 547; Fryer, l.c.

38; Yuzepchuk, l.c. 30; Khatija et al l.c. 5.

This species is easy to identify in the field.

Leaves all similar, oval to ovate, suborbicular

or oblong lanceolate, sessile, amplexicaul. Nut-

lets obliquely ovate; beak slightly recurved;

subcentral, slightly winged towards the margin.

(Fig. 8).

Pulwama, AMK 3279; Panikar (Zanskar,

Ladakh), AMK 2031; Thungboo (Zanskar),

AMK 877.

The species has considerable variation in the

vegetative body and attempts have been made

to treat them as distinct varieties (Ascherson

& Graeb. 1907). But they seem to be merely

different states of the same species produced

by local and temporary conditions. Plants

growing at high altitude as at Panikar and

Parkhacheck (Zanskar) and Drass (Ladakh)

have small, rotundifolius leaves resembling var.

rotundijolius Sonder.

In the valley lakes it is present only and

rarely in Anchar lake.

Potamogeton crispus L. Sp. PI. 120 (1753); A.

Bennett, l.c. 8; Boiss, l.c. 17; Hook. f. l.c.

566; Collett, l.c. 547; Fryer, l.c. 43; Clapham,

l.c. 256; Dandy in Reich, f. l.c. 6; Stewart,

l.c. 29; Khatija, et al l.c. 3.

The early spring pond weed of this area,

it is easily recognised. The leaves are flat and

acutely serrate when young, but strongly un-

dulate when mature. Nutlets 3 keeled with the

central keel slightly winged and crested with

a long fleshy tooth at the base, sometimes re-

duced to a tubercle, but always present in the

fresh fruit. Lateral ridges obscure. The var.

serrulatus (Schrad) Reichb reported from this

area is merely an immature stage of the plant.

(Fig. 9).

Locally known as Zai Hill, it is used as

manure; and in the preparation of floating

islands with other emergent aquatic plants.

Fruits eaten by ducks and other water fowl,

also fish feed on the young leaves.

Leper Hospital (Nagin lake), AMK 809;

316

POTAMOGETON IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Dal lake, AMK 3803; Shalimar, AMK 3230;

Mirgund, AMK 2083; Highgam Rakh, AMK

2028.

Potamogeton fiiliforaiis Pers. Syn. PL 1 : 152

(1805); Clapham, et al. l.c. 957. Dandy in

Rech. f. l.c. 7; Stewart, l.c. 29; Khatija &

Jaffri, l.c. 10.

P. setaceus auct. non. Linn. Schum. Enum.

PI. Saell. 1:51 (1801).

P. pamiricus Vid, Meddel. Nat. Foren.

Kjobenhavn. 182 (1903).

Often overlooked by collectors as it super-

ficially resembles P. pectinatus. It can be dis-

tinguished in the field by the character that it

Fig. 7. Potamogeton alpinus Balbis; Fig. 8. P. perfoliatus L.; Fig. 9. P. crispus

Fig. 10. P. filiformis Pers.; Fig. 11. P. pectinatus L.; Fig. 12. P pusillus L.

L.;

317

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

branches uniformly from base to the apex.

Leaves submucronate, mostly 3 nerved, stigma

disc shaped. Nutlet beak facial, usually re-

curved. (Fig. 10).

Common in slow or fast moving cold

streams.

Drass, AMK 3709; Menamarg, AMK 3686;

Tungboo (Zanskar), AMK 936; Panikar, AMK

3874.

Potamogeton pectinatus L. Sp. PL 129 (1753);

Hook. f. l.c. 567; Boiss, l.c. 18; Fryer et al.

l.c. 86; Stewart l.c. 29; Khatija & Jaffri, l.c.

Copiously branched near the apex, forming

thick mats on or just below the surface. Leaves

narrowly ovate, usually 1 nerved, stigma not

discoid, stipular sheath open. Leaves narrowly

acute. Style short. Nutlets large. (Fig. 11).

Mostly in the lakes, rarely in slow flowing

streams.

Mirgund, AMK 929; Nagin lake, AMK 746;

Manasbal lake, AMK 730; Dal lake, AMK

1146.

Potamogeton pusillus L. Sp. Pl. 127 (1753) :

Hook. f. l.c. 567: Khadija Aziz and Jaffri,

l.c. 9.

Much branched, submerged herb, often con-

fused with P. pectinatus and P. filiformis. It

can be separated from both as it grows

totally submerged, and is a dwarf form. Nutlets

obovoid, obliquely elliptic, 3 keeled with a

short central beak. (Fig. 12).

Mostly in fresh and brackish waters of ponds,

streams, and in irrigation channels.

Saida Kadal, AMK 3024; Leper Hospital,

(Nagin), AMK 3274; Dal lake, AMK 3802.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. R. R. Haynes (Ala-

bama, UNA) for going through the manuscript

and for identification of some of the speci-

mens. I am also grateful to the University

Grants Commission (New Delhi) for financial

assistance.

References

Airy Shaw, H. K. (1966): Willis Dictionary of

the Flowering Plants. Cambridge.

Arber, A. (1920): Water Plants. Cambridge.

Ascherson, A. & Graebner (1907) : Potamogeto-

naceae in Das Pflanzenreich Regni. Veg. Cons. 31

(IV. 11).

Aziz Khatija & Jafri. S. M. H. (1975): Pota-

mogetonaceae. FI. W. Pak No. 79. Karachi.

Biswas, K. & Calder, C. C. (1954) : Handbook

of common water and marsh plants of India and

Burma. Calcutta.

Correll, D. C. & Correl, H. B. (1972): Aquatic

and wetland plants of S. W. United States. Wash-

ington.

Duthie, J. F. (1893) : Report of Botanical Tour

in Kashmir. Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 1 : 1-18.

Fasset, N. C. (1940) : A Manual of Aquatic

plants. New York.

Fernald, M. L. (1950) : Grays Manual of Botany,

ed. 8 New York.

Fryer, A & Bennett, A. (1915) : The Potamo-

getonaceae of Brit. Isles. London.

Haynes, R. R. (1968) Potamogetonaceae of Lou-

siana. Proc. Lous. Acad. Sci. 31 : 82-90.

(1973) : A revision of N. Ame-

rican Poiamogeton Subsec. pusillus (Potamogetona-

ceae) Abs. International Vol. 34(5).

& Wentz, W. A. (1975) : Flora

of Panama (Potamogetonaceae). Ann. of Missouri.

Bot. Gard. 62(1): 1-10.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897) : Flora British India vol.

1-7 London.

Kak, A. Majeed & Taveid, G. N. (1982) : Addi-

tions to the Aquatic and wetland flora of the N. W.

Himalayas — Two New records of the Potamegetons.

Ind. Forester 765(11): 719-722.

Misra, M. P. (1971) : Cytological studies in some

Potamogetons species. Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 26(1).

— (1972) : Cytological studies in some

Potamogetons and Aponogetons. ibid. 26(1): 31-47.

318

POTAMOGETON IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Muenscher, W. C. (1944) : Aquatic plants of

the United States, New York.

Naqshi, A. R. & Javeid, G. N. (1976) : Two new

plant record for Kashmir — Potamogeton lucens

var. acuminatus & P. cripsus var. serrulatus. Curr.

Sci. 42(2).

Rao, T. A. (1960) : A further contribution to the

flora of J&K State. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2(3&4) 387-

425.

Stewart, R. R. (1972): Catalogue of Vas. PI.

of W. Pak. & Kash. Karachi.

Subram anyam, K. (1962) : Aquatic Angiosperms

of India, C.S.I.R., N. Delhi.

— — (1962) : Aquatic Angiosperms

of India. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 4(1-4) : 261-271.

319

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

The Builders and the Guardians

Part 4

Salim Ali

{With four plates )

[Continued from Vol 79(1): 46]

Hugh Whistler 1889-1943 (Vol. 44:289)

by N. B. K(innear).

Born in Lincolnshire on 28 September

1889; died July 1943. Came out to India

in the Imperial Police Service and was

assigned to the Punjab. During the 16

odd years prior to his premature retirement

he served for varying tenures in almost every

district of the Province, and being a dedicated

student of birds he made the best of his oppor-

tunities to amass a comprehensive collection

of bird skins and in the process to acquire un-

surpassed knowledge of the avifauna, not only

of Punjab but also of neighbouring Kashmir

and N.W.F.P. He kept meticulous notes on

the birdlife wherever his duties or pleasure

took him and his districtwise reports on Pun-

jab birds, published from time to time in The

Ibis or in JBNHS bear witness to his thorough-

ness and scientific acumen. A friendship struck

up with Dr. C. B. Ticehurst while the latter

was serving in the RAMC at Karachi in the

1st World War when Whistler was stationed

at Rawalpindi, and the introduction to sys-

tematic ornithology and guidance he received

from Ticehurst helped to develop him into an

expert ornithologist.

Shortly after the First World War Whistler

was approached by Mr. Millard and two other

old members of BNHS to undertake the

authorship of a popular illustrated work on

Indian birds. No happier selection could have

been made since Whistler, had the requisite

knowledge with a pleasing literary style. The

success of the book — popular handbook of

Indian birds — is shown by the fact that it

has now passed through 4 editions. When the

Society undertook the Survey of the Eastern

Ghats in 1923, Whistler who had meanwhile

settled down at Battle in U.K. was asked to

work out the collections jointly with Dr. Claud

Ticehurst and Mr. N. B. (later Sir Norman)

Kinnear. He threw himself wholeheartedly into

the work with the result that his paper in 16

parts published in JBNHS Vols. 34-39 became

practically a review of the birds of the Penin-

sula. He also worked out the bird collections

made by the various subsequent regional Sur-

veys.

Ticehurst and Whistler had jointly begun to

write a Handbook of Indian Birds to replace

the second edition of the Fauna by Stuart

Baker which had several obvious shortcomings.

After the death of Ticehurst, Whistler had

hoped to complete the book by himself but

unfortunately did not live to finish it. By

courtesy of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.),

the legatees, his meticulous MS notes have

320

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. SO

Ali: BNHS

Plate I

Hugh Whistler

(1889-1943)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

All: BNHS

Father Jean Ferdinand Caius, s.j. Reginald Innes Pocock

(1877-1944) (1863-1947)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

been largely utilized by Salim Ali and S.

Dillon Ripley in their Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan.

Hugh Whistler was a perfectionist; pains-

taking, punctilious, and phenomenally indus-

trious, and he had no use for the careless

observer or slipshod worker. He was always

ready to help brother ornithologists, whether

a beginner or a seasoned colleague. In his

civic life in Battle, where he was Vice Chair-

man of the Rural District Council, it was the

same: he was consulted by every one and

was greatly respected by his large number of

friends and fellow councillors.

Fr. Jean Ferdinand Caius, S. J. 1877-

1944 (Vols. 45:79 — photo) by S.H.P (rater).

Born in France 17 January: died at Bom-

bay 27 July. “One of that distinguished com-

pany of Jesuits, men of great learning and

science, who devoted their lives to service in

India and who, passing, have left this country

richer for their labours and poorer for their

loss”. On coming out to India in 1895 as a Scho-

lastic in the Society of Jesus, he joined the

Madura Mission and was subsequently attached

to St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, where,

among other things, he started a Natural History

Museum. Fr. Caius was Professor of Chemistry

at St. Joseph’s College, Trichy from 1911 to

1922 when he was transferred to Bombay as

director of the Chemistry Dept, of St. Xavier’s

College. By 1924 he had established his repu-

tation as a bio-chemist and was appointed by

the Government of Bombay to take charge of

the Pharmacological Laboratory of the Haffkine

Institute where he worked until his retirement

in 1932 at the age of 55. He was Chairman

of the Committee of Trustees of the Natural

History Section, Prince of Wales Museum of

Western India, and Honorary Secretary of

BNHS and one of the Editors of its journal

between 1938 and 1944. His obituarist, who

was the Curator of the Society at the time and

in close and constant touch with him, records

‘It was good to work with him. He brought

to his work the acumen, the clarity of thought,

and the critical mind of the true man of

science that he was. But he also brought to

it that human sympathy and understanding

which endeared him to all who worked with

him. In the field of science he was unable to

suffer fools gladly. But in the field of charity

his great heart got the better of him. For this

he will be loved and remembered by us.’

One important contribution by Fr. Caius

was his extensive studies of the poison ap-

paratus of snakes, and of the remedies em-

ployed against snake poisons. In India he

turned his attention to the investigation of the

value of various remedies in the Ayurvedic

and Unani systems of medicine supposed to

be effective against snake bite. After long and

laborious research he and his collaborators

rendered great public service by demonstrating

that these widely employed so-called remedies

were completely ineffective against cobra and

viper poisons. Fr. Caius was one of the lead-

ing authorities on the medicinal and poisonous

plants of India, and students of indigenous

drugs will be ever indebted to him for his

revision of Kirtikar and Basu’s out-of-print

work on Indian Medicinal Plants . Another

subject that interested Fr. Caius was “Earth-

eating and Salt-licks”. His chemical analyses

of the salt-lick earth sent to him from various

parts of India, published in the Society’s

Journal, should be of great relevance in the

scientific management of wildlife reserves.

Sir Ernest Hotson, K.C.S.I., O.B.E.

1877-1944 (Vol. 45:80) by W.S.M(illard).

John Ernest Buttery Hotson. Born 17

March: died 12 May. Entered the Indian

321

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Civil Service 1899, joined the Indian Army

Reserve of Officers when World War I broke

out and did military duty chiefly in Baluchis-

tan from 1915 to 1918. He was a keen natural-

ist and for many years one of the Society’s

strongest supporters. When in Baluchistan, and

also later in Persia, he collected specimens for

the Mammal Survey of India which was started

by BNHS, generously defraying half the ex-

penses of the Society’s field collector. Some

of his specimens were considered exception-

ally valuable by R.I. Pocock of the British

Museum (Natural History) (who was hand-

ling the Mammal Survey material) because

they had full particulars, localities, altitudes,

dates, and measurements. ‘I do not believe’

Pocock wrote ‘that Oorial, for example, have

ever been properly measured before, sports-

men caring for nothing but the horns and

shoulder height.’ Sir Ernest presented a large

collection of botanical specimens made by him

in Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Persia to the

late Fr. E. Blatter, S. J., which is now in the

Blatter Herbarium, of St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay.

Edward Charles Stuart Baker, C.I.E.,

O.B.E. 1864-1944 (Vol. 45:212— photo) by

N. B. K(innear).

Died 16 April. Following in the footsteps of

his father E. B. Baker he joined the Indian

(Imperial) Police in 1883 serving the first three

years in Bengal and the rest of his tenure in

Assam. Stuart Baker joined the Society in

1898 and his first bird paper ‘On the genus

Chloropsis ’ appeared in Vol. 6 of JBNHS in

1891 followed by many other contributions

from time to time. But it will be for his

beautifully illustrated popular serials on ducks

and other sporting birds that Baker will be

best remembered. These articles helped to

boost the Society and popularize the Journal

among sportsmen and naturalists throughout

the country and beyond more than anything

else. ‘The value of Mr. Baker’s papers in

popularizing the Journal’ his obituarist perti-

nently remarks ‘must never be forgotten’. They

were later published in book form, and the

success of the first volume on Indian Ducks

and their Allies emboldened the Society to

launch out cautiously on its natural history

book publication ventures which have proved

so profitable in the long run. During his long

service in Bengal and Assam Baker made a

large and scientifically invaluable collection of

bird skins in remote parts of the country then

almost unknown ornithologically, and of many

rare and interesting species. Besides, skins he

assembled a huge collection of birds’ eggs in

general and those of the parasitic cuckoos and

their hosts in particular. Studying the habits

of parasitic cuckoos was his special interest

and his book Cuckoo Problems is an epitome

of these researches. The eggs were collected

partly by himself and partly by hired local

tribals and his numerous correspondents all

over the Indian subcontinent. He relied per-

haps rather too trustingly on the information

supplied by his collectors, not always depend-

able, and this led to errors in his publications

detected long after his death on a critical re-

examination of his egg collection, a large part

of which has found its way to the British

Museum (Natural History). Based on his own

studies and those of other zoologists before

him. Baker wrote his comprehensive 4-volume

Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire

(1932-35) which, despite obvious shortcomings,

is still the most complete reference work avail-

able on the subject. Baker retired in 1911 as

Inspector-General of Police for Eastern Ben-

gal and Assam and returned to England to

assume charge of the Port of London Police,

which he reorganised and brought up to a

322

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

high standard of efficiency before his final

retirement in 1925. Mr. Baker had plenty of

time to devote to ornithology after he return-

ed to live in London; in 1913 he was elected

Secretary and Treasurer of the British Orni-

thologists’ Union, which office he held till 1923.

Mr. Baker was a great shikari and a good

rifle shot. He wrote interesting accounts of his

experiences with big game in the Journal and

other sporting magazines. He was twice tossed

by a gaur and trampled on by a rhinoceros,

and had lost his left arm in an encounter with

a man-eating leopard in Silchar. He was

following the animal which had taken refuge

in a native hut, when it charged and knocked

the rifle out of his hand. The leopard seized

him, and to save himself he thrust his left

arm down the beast’s throat. Luckily his

shikaris came to his assistance and despatched

the animal. Despite the loss of one arm he

continued to shoot both with shot-gun and

rifle. Mr. Baker was an excellent tennis player

and a keen rider, and had won numerous

championships in either sport. With his single

hand he was extraordinarily clever, and it was

wonderful to see him place a small egg in a

box of sand and inscribe it.

Some of his contemporary and succeeding

ornithologists have often been less than chari-

table to Stuart Baker, accusing him (not

always unjustly!) of dubious practices in his

ornithological work. Indian ornithology, never-

theless, is deeply indebted to him for the rich

legacy of bird lore he has left behind.

Reginald Innes Pocock, F.R.S., 1863-

1947 (Vol. 47: 360 — photo) by N.B. K(in-

near) .

Born March 4: died August 8. On com-

pletion of his zoological studies at Oxford and

Bristol he was appointed in 1885 to the staff

of the British Museum (Natural History) and

given charge of the Arachnida and Myriopoda.

One of his first contributions dealing with the

Indian Region was on the Myriopoda of the

Mergui Archipelago in 1887. In 1895 he con-

tributed to JBNHS an account of the Galeo-

didae inhabiting India and Ceylon. This mar-

ked the beginning of Pocock’s long connection

with the Society. He was specially interested

in scorpions at the time and as a result of

his appeal through H.M. Phipson for speci-

mens to members of the Society large num-

bers of scorpions, alive or dead, were received

in the Society’s rooms, among them several

new species which Pocock described in the

Journal in 1897. He wrote the volume on

Scorpions in the Fauna of British India series

in 1901. Pocock retired from the British

Museum soon after and was appointed Superin-

tendent of the Zoological Society’s Gardens

in 1904. At the Zoological Gardens he made

full use of his opportunities to study live

animals, especially his favourite groups — the

monkeys, carnivora and ungulates. Among the

live animals from India received by the Zoo

from time to time there was a goral from

Chamba which excited Pocock’s special interest

and induced him to study these animals and

their allies, the serows. The result appeared

in the Journal for 1910 under the title of “The

Serows, Gorals and Takins of British India

and the Straits Settlements”. This was the

forerunner of the long series of papers on mam-

mals which he contributed to JBNHS. They

resulted in arousing keen interest among mem-

bers of the Society and in Pocock receiving

many valuable notes on the habits and distri-

bution of the various animals, which enabled

him to undertake the authorship of the second

edition of the Fauna of British India volumes

on Mammals. The first volume dealing with

monkeys and part of the Carnivora was

published in 1939, and the second volume

323

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. SO

which completed the Carnivora, in 1941. The

rest of the large animals — the ungulates and

elephants — were planned to be covered in the

third and final volume. Unfortunately Mr.

Pocock died before he could complete the

MSS for it. The new volumes are a great

advance on the first edition. The systematic

treatment is thoroughly updated and great

pains have been taken to make the paragraphs

on habits etc. more pleasantly readable, thus

rendering the volumes indispensable to the

systematist as well as to the sportsman and

the field naturalist. Pocock’s last contribution

to JBNHS was one of a series he was pub-

lishing on the Wild Asses of Asia for which

fresh material from the Rann of Kutch had

been procured for him by the Society through

the good offices of Maharao Vijayarajji of

Kutch. The necessary specimens were collec-

ted by Mr. Salim Ali who “afterwards wrote

the first accurate account of the animal’s

habits”.

A bibliography of Pocock’s more important

papers in JBNHS and other scientific periodi-

cals between 1910 and 1936 follows the obi-

tuary in Vol. 47. As can be seen, his know-

ledge of natural history was not confined to

spiders and mammals, but he also had a wide

and general acquaintance with many other

groups.

Alexander Edward Jones, 1878-1947 (Vol.

47:363) by Salim Ali.

Died at Simla 17 October. Joined the Society

in 1910 and was an active and useful member

during his long association with it. He was

an ardent and discriminating collector of birds

and a very keen and knowledgeable field

ornithologist whose notes and records have

added substantially to our knowledge of

Indian birds. Jones was the first ornithologist

to record the occurrence of the Blackthroated

Diver ( Gavia arctica ) in India in 1922, an

observation not repeated since but a notable

addition to the Indian avifauna. In 1944 Jones

generously gifted to the Society his entire

collection of some 3000 bird skins made in

many parts of the subcontinent in over 30

years of residence in the country. Most of the

specimens were shot and prepared by him

personally and the excellence of their make-

up and labelling adds immensely to their scien-

tific value. Jones was a reliable observer with

a contagious enthusiasm for bird watching. He

had acquired an extensive knowledge of Indian

birds in general, and particularly of the birds

of his ‘native’ western Himalayas. For this

area he was recognized as an authority and

consulted even by such contemporaries as

Stuart Baker and Hugh Whistler. Though a

tailor and cutter by profession, and owner of

a flourishing tailoring establishment at Simla,

he missed no opportunity of indulging in his

favourite hobby. His interest, however, was

not confined to birds alone; he was deeply

interested also in plants and insects, especially

butterflies, and has made important contribu-

tions to our knowledge of Simla butterflies.

Jones is described as a genial and lovable

man whose sincerity and sympathetic help at

all times endeared him to every young natura-

list who came in contact with him.

A bibliography of Jones’ more important

papers published in JBNHS follows his obi-

tuary in Vol. 47.

H. H. Shri Vijayarajji, Maharao of

Kutch, 1886-1948 (Vol. 47 : 530— photo) by

Salim Ali.

Died 28 February. Succeeded his long-lived

father Khengarji as Maharao in 1942 at the

age of 57, and during his short rule introduced

a number of liberal reforms for the benefit

of his subjects. In his younger days, before

324

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate III

Ali: BNHS

His Highness Maharao Shri Vijayarajji of Kutch.

(1886-1948)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate IV

Ali: BNHS

Charles McFarlane Inglis Sunder Lai Hora

(1870-1954) (1895-1955)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

a knee injury partly crippled him, he was a

fine all-round sportsman — an excellent rider

and tennis player, and an outstanding perfor-

mer with shot gun and rifle. Indeed his pro-

wess with the shot gun had become a byword

among his confreres, and though prevented

from indulging in his passion for small game

shooting as vigorously as before, he neverthe-

less retained his expertness as a bird shot to

the end. Though a keen all-round naturalist,

his special interest was birds, and soon after

assuming power he sponsored a thorough field

survey of the regional avifauna and encourag-

ed the publication of a popular colour-illus-

trated book of the birds of Kutch based on

the results.

Maharao Vijayarajji’s knowledge of the

birdlife of his State, particularly of the game

birds, gathered over a lifetime of discrimi-

nating sport and field observation was exten-

sive. He wrote little, but fortunately some of

the vast store of information he possessed has

found permanent record in The Birds of Kutch

by Salim Ali which will stand as a fitting

memorial to the deep interest he took in his

native birds.

Vijayarajji joined BNHS as an ordinary

member in 1920. He was elected a Vice Pat-

ron in 1943 by virtue of his numerous bene-

factions to the Society and the keen interest

he always took in its affairs and welfare during

his long association with it.

Brigadier General Reginald George

Burton, 1864-1951 (Vol. 49:763) by R. W.

B(urton).

Died 2 February, in his 87th year. Fourth

son of the late General E. F. Burton of the

Madras Staff Corps all of whose nine sons

followed their father’s profession. He was

commissioned in August 1884 and after a

period of service in Jamaica came to India

and was appointed to the Bengal Staff Corps

and the Hyderabad Contingent. He retired

from the Army in 1918 and after some stints

in civil employment in U.K. settled down in

Gloucestershire. Brig. Burton joined BNHS in

1898 and contributed many interesting notes

and articles on shikar and natural history

topics to the Journal. He had inherited both

sporting and literary tastes; his History of the

Hyderabad Contingent is a masterpiece of its

kind, and among other things gives vivid

vignettes of the wildlife of the Deccan of those

days. Besides numerous publications on mili-

tary history and historical works on Indian

campaigns, he wrote some fascinating and

highly informative books on shikar and wild

life in India including Sport and Wild Life

in the Deccan (1928), and A Book of Man-

eaters (1931), The Book of the Tiger

(1933), and The Tiger Hunters (1936).

The class of sportsman-naturalist of whom

Brig. Burton was a typical example has vanish-

ed from the Indian scene alas, and with their

going wildlife has lost some of its most dedi-

cated champions.

A.A. Dunbar Brander (Vol. 51:926) by

James W. Best.

Born and brought up at Lossiemouth in

Scotland. One of the last of the great shikaris

of the Indian Forest Service under the British

administration. Entered the service after his

studies at Cooper’s Hill and in Germany. His

entire service which extended from 1900 to

1921 was in the (then) Central Provinces

where he took full advantage of his opportu-

nities for sport whether big game hunting or

wildfowl shooting or pigsticking, and soon

became famous as a shikari. His knowledge

and experience of wildlife was unmatched.

During the whole of his service he was collec-

ting material for his book on Wild Animals

325

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

of Central India which is now a classic.

Brander was a most amusing and enter-

taining companion with a great sense of hum-

our, and in spite of a pose of truculence he

was one of the kindest of men.

Sir Peter Clutterbuck, 1867-1951 (Vol.

52:563) by J. E. C(lutterbuck).

Died in England on 20 December at the age

of 84. After his forestry training at Cooper’s

Hill for the Indian Forest Service he came

out to India in 1887 and found himself posted

to the Central Provinces. His first station was

Chanda where he was lucky enough, as he

said himself, to have as Conservator a man

who told him that shikar was the only way

to get to know the immense forests of that

area which then were unmapped and without

working plans. Shikar, his Conservator said,

would take him miles off the beaten track

and enable him to get to learn his territory

as no other method could. He plunged whole-

heartedly into this new life with an enthusiasm

and zest that never left him. He was a man

of tremendous physical strength and on occa-

sions in his early years he would spend days

and nights continuously with his Gond track-

ers following a bison or buffalo to study its

habits: where it fed and what it fed on and

where it drank and slept, etc. He prepared his

first working plans of Chanda and it was here

that he made his legendary walk of 64 miles

in 16 hours solidly through the night when

he got news that a man-eating tiger was inter-

fering with his fire protection staff and keep-

ing them away from guarding the most valu-

able teak forests at Allapili from fire. In U.P.,

where he was transferred shortly afterwards,

the forests were heavier, more developed and

richer. But they were no less rich in game

than the C.P. There were elephants for forest

work and inspection tours which was not the

case in the C.P. His wife was his constant

companion and went with him into camp

in October, not returning to their station till

the following rains. In the hot weather they

used to march early and his invariable orders

to the mahouts for the next morning were

“Hathi char bajay ” (Elephants at 4 a.m.).

‘This later became a family saying for any early

start’.

His interest in big game hunting gradually

waned: he gave up his rifle and took to field

glasses and bird watching. In his last 34 years

bird watching and fishing became his greatest

interests outside his work and home. A walk

with him from place to place in the hills was

not along the contours or bridle path but

straight down the khud and up again in a bee

line. At the seniority of Inspector General of

Forests he could outwalk and outstay men

of half his age.

In 1932, seven years after returning to

England after 40 years’ service in India, the

English climate and an invitation from his

friend the Maharao of Kutch brought him

back to India and he later accepted the post

of Chief Conservator of Forests, Kashmir. And

in the next 13 years prior to final retirement

in 1945 he worked wonders in reorganising

and developing the Forest Department of that

State. All who knew him will agree that Sir

Peter was a most remarkable man. Not only

had he exceptional abilities in the wide variety

of activities of a forest officer’s calling, but

he was an administrator of great vision and

tremendous faith. He was a keen and obser-

vant shikari and naturalist, a dedicated animal

and bird lover and an unusually knowledge-

able botanist. In fact it was his love of animals

and birds and natural history that had initi-

ally brought him to India.

326

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Charles McFarlane Inglis, 1870-1954

(Vol. 52:565 — photo) by Page.

Born in Scotland 8 November; died at Coo-

noor (Nilgiris) 13 February. When about 19

he came away to India from an office job in

Inverness and luckily found congenial vocation

as an assistant on the Roopachera Tea Estate

in the Hailakandi district of Cachar in Janu-

ary 1889. The journey to Cachar in those days

was a rather long one, partly by boat and

partly by river steamer. Roopachera was an

ideal spot for any one interested in natural

history as there was heavy forest on its boun-

daries, and it was all new and exciting for the

young naturalist. He spent his Saturday after-

noons and Sundays in the forest, sleeping on

a low machan beside some forest stream. At

that time Stuart Baker was working in the

North Cachar hills: Charles soon got in touch

with him and then began a friendship that

lasted for the rest of SB’s life to the mutual

benefit of both as well as of Indian ornithology.

With the help of one of Hume’s Indian collec-

tors, jobless after Hume had given up bird

collecting, Inglis contributed a great deal of

the material, both specimens and notes, which

later helped SB in writing the second edition

of the FBI volumes on birds. In 1898, by

which time he had given up tea, he moved

to a job in indigo planting(?) at Baghowni in

Bihar where he lived for 25 years, having

bought up the place in 1900. He made very

complete collections of birds, butterflies,

moths, and dragonflies while in Bihar and

had many outdoor aviaries where he bred

Burmese peafowl and swamp partridges, and

where a pair of green woodquail laid the first

known eggs of that bird in one of his aviaries.

Besides natural history his other hobbies were

gardening and painting; he often took his

painting materials with him on his treks to

paint any interesting bird collected. In 1923

Inglis took over as Curator of the Darjeeling

Natural History Museum which was in a state

of decay. He had to reorganise it and start a

Society and journal which he did well enough

to elicit praise from museum experts who came

from England in 1935-36, to survey Indian

museums. To the end he contributed regu-

larly to the Journal of Darjeeling (later Ben-

gal) Natural History Society, of which he had

been editor for 25 years. Inglis also co-author-

ed the book Birds of an Indian Garden with

Bainbrigge Fletcher. After retirement he set-

tled in a cottage in Coonoor on the Nilgiri

hills, where he lived till his death at the age

of 84.

Sunder Lal Hora 1895-1955 (Vol. 53:

445 — photo) by S. C. Law.

Died 8 December. Began his research career

at the age of 22, joined the Zoological Survey

of India as a research scholar in 1919, and

was appointed an Assistant Superintendent in

1921. In 1922 he earned a D. Sc. from Punjab

University for his work on fish and fisheries

of India; and in 1928 he secured a D. Sc. from

Edinburgh University for his studies on the

ecology, bionomics and evolution of torrential

fauna with special reference to the organs of

attachment. From 1942-1947 he was Director

of Fisheries of undivided Bengal, after which

he rejoined Zoological Survey of India as its

Director, a post he held till his death. His

primary interest was Ichthyology, and he was

best known as an ichthyologist. In all he pub-

lished over 400 papers in various foreign and

Indian scientific journals including JBNHS— *

a prodigious number for any man. He enun-

ciated what came to be well known as Hora’s

Satpura Hypothesis which attempts to explain

the presence of Malayan elements in the fauna

of Peninsular India. His work on the pond

327

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

culture of fishes evoked worldwide interest,

and in 1949 the United Nations Organisation

invited him to open a discussion on “Pond

culture of warm water fishes” at Lake Success.

He also contributed significantly to our

knowledge of the biology of the Indian

Shad, Hilsa, and in 1952 was the Chairman of

the Hilsa Sub-Committee of the Indo-Pacific

Fisheries Council. SLH had a deep-rooted

interest in nature and conservation of wild-

life and was the first honorary Secretary-Gene-

ral of the Indian Board for Wildlife created in

1952. He was also extremely interested in the

scientific knowledge possessed by ancient Hindus

as revealed in Sanskrit literature, and in archae-

ological relics such as the edicts of Asoka and

potteries of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. On

this topic he managed to generate considerable

interest during the course of his talks in the

Indian Museum and the Asiatic Society, Ben-

gal. SLH was on the Advisory Committee of

Bombay Natural History Society since 1945,

and always took an active and lively interest

in all the doings and welfare of the Society,

readily giving valuable advice and suggestions,

which were frequently sought. He was a man

with a great mind and generous heart; it was

characteristic of him that, whether in scientific

circles or in private life, he laid his vast store

of knowledge and experience at the disposal

of all who cared to seek it. He also worked

tirelessly and it is believed by many of his

friends that it was this overwork which told

on his health; he suffered his second attack

of coronary thrombosis while presiding over

a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

Calcutta, and passed away peacefully three

days later.

Brigadier W.H. Evans, C.S.I., C.X.E., D.S.O.,

R.E., 1876-1956 (Vol. 54:440) by K.C. (Keith

Cantlie) .

Born in Assam; died November. By

profession he was an engineer and served with

the Royal Engineers in the Somaliland Field

Force in 1903-1904, and in France in the 1914-

1918 War. In 1927 he became the Chief En-

gineer, Western Command, and in 1931 re-

tired from service. He was an extremely keen

entomologist and though his only extensive

collecting trips were five months in Burma in

1920-21 and two months in Sikkim in 1906,

he contributed very significantly to this study.

His major work was the Keys he constructed

for identification of the different species, and

subspecies, of Hesperiidae, based on the differ-

ence in the genitalia. His Keys have formed

the basis of the Keys of Talbot in the volumes

of 1939 and 1947 of his revision of part of

Bingham’s Butterflies of India, Ceylon and

Burma in the Fauna of India series. His serial

article in the Journal of Bombay Natural

History Society on the Identification of Indian

Butterflies was published in book form in 1927,

and a second edition in 1932 with many cor-

rections and additions. After retirement he

worked as an Honorary Associate at the

British Museum (Natural History). Here he

devoted himself entirely to the Hesperiidae of

the World, bringing out volumes entitled

‘Catalogue of the Hesperiidae in the British

Museum (Natural History)’. This is a monu-

mental work with the volume on Europe,

Asia and Australia alone comprising of 502

pages, the information on the species given in

the most economical terms. Since his first

article in 1912, he kept contributing to the

Journal of Bombay Natural History Society

till his last few years. In spite of poor and

failing health he managed to work with im-

mense concentration and steadiness of hand

and vision. To the end he continued doing

original work, always ready to put it aside to

help anyone with the identification of the

328

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

butterflies they brought, or to talk of his happy

days in India.

Arthur St. John MacDonald 1898-1956

(Vol. 55: 142) by J. M. Bannerman.

Born in Multan, Punjab on 8th November

1898; died on 6th December 1956. He was

educated mainly in Naini Tal at St. Joseph’s

College. In 1917 he joined an indigo concern

in Bihar. Soon after, in 1918 he got his com-

mission in the Indian Army and served for a

while in Mesopotamia, and later in the 1919

Frontier War. This was a temporary com-

mission after which he joined the sugar estates

of Messrs Begg, Sutherland and Co. at Purtab-

pore. In 1925 he left for Burma where he

joined Messrs Finlay Fleming and Co. and

was employed in the Shan States in the work

of clearing jungles for sugarcane cultivation.

It was the years in Burma that helped to deve-

lop AM into a keen naturalist. Fie acquired

an extraordinary store of knowledge of the

jungle and natural history for which he has

sometimes been compared to Jim Corbett. He

also acquired and indulged in a passion for

fishing and shooting. After many interesting

years in Burma, AM returned to sugar in

Bihar for a while and left again to become

the manager of a zaminary in Basti district,

Uttar Pradesh, near the Nepal border. Here

he continued his hobbies as a naturalist, and

also bred gun dogs. During the Second World

War, he served in the Army with distinction,

and at the end of the War left it as a £t.

Colonel. In 1948 he returned to sugar once

more and joined Begg, Sutherland and Co.

for the third time. Most of his holidays were

spent in the Himalayan foothills, Kumaon

hills and Kashmir, where he would spend al-

most all his time fishing and shooting. He

wrote many extremely interesting articles on

fishing, shooting and jungle life in various

Indian and foreign periodicals. His long series

on mahseer fishing in the Journal of Bombay

Natural History Society was published by the

Society in book form as circumventing the

MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA

and Burma, and proved to be very popular

with Indian anglers.

Lt. Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, o.b.e.,

f.z.s., 1883-1959 (Vol. 56:293) by Brig. S. T.

Apcar.

Born August 1883; died 9 February 1959.

Came out to India in 1904 initially with the

South Wales Borderers, then was transferred

to the Madras Regiment. During World War

I he saw service with his regiment in Meso-

potamia. He retired in 1924, but volunteered his

services at the outbreak of the Second World

War, during which period he was awarded

the O.B.E. In 1945 he retired for the second

time, and settled down in Kalhatty, a few miles

from Ootacamund. Lt. Col. Phythian-Adams

was a ‘born naturalist-sportsman’. His trophy

room was impressive and often visited by

admirers. In a series of articles, “Jungle

Memories” published in the Journal of Bom-

bay Natural History Society [Vols. 48(1) to

50(3)1, he gives a fascinating account of his

numerous shikars. It was the dangerous excite-

ment of hunting big game on foot that thrilled

him, and he deplored the unsporting ways of

those who killed an animal startled by the

glare of a car’s headlights, or hunted regard-

less of sex or season. Besides being a distin-

guished soldier and fine sportsman, Lt. Col.

Phythian-Adams also collected stamps, coins,

medals, butterflies and birds’ eggs. On regi-

mental history he compiled the books, the

madras infantry, the madras soldier and

the madras regiment. He first joined the

Bombay Natural History Society in 1909, and

was a member of the Advisory Committee for

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

many years and up to his death. During his

later life, when he stopped active shikar, it

became his desire to share with others the

experiences, knowledge and happiness which

he had obtained from the jungle — an object

well-accomplished through the “Jungle Memo-

ries”. For the last twelve months he suffered

from a weak heart and finally succumbed in

a Mysore hospital on 9th February at the age

of 75J.

{To be continued)

330

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON DOL (BAG) NET FISHERY

AT SASSOON DOCK, BOMBAY1

S. Krishna Pillai2

{With four text-figures)

The paper describes the species composition of the Dol (Bag) net catches at Sassoon

Dock, a major landing centre in Bombay, from January to December, 1971, grouping

them into two main categories, those occurring throughout the year and the those

having seasonal occurrence and then reclassifying them into market categories. The

estimated dol net catches fluctuated between 275 and 1485 tonnes during the year.

The monthly average catch was 829.5 tonnes which formed 41.6% of the total

landings. A list of 33 species caught in Dol net and their percentage composition is given.

I N TROD U CTIO N

The Dol net is an important gear used in

Bombay-Gujarat coasts, mainly for catching

Bombay duck, Harpodon nehereus, third in

importance in respect of marine fish landing

in India and non-penaeid prawns like Acetes

indicus, Palaemon tunuipes and Hippolysmata

ensirostris. The Bombay duck forms 14.10%

and 20 . 85% of the total catch of Maharashtra

and Gujarat states respectively, while the non-

penaeid prawns form 58.35% and 4.50% of

the total prawn catches of the above states

respectively. (C.M.F.R.L Annual Report, 1976).

The operation of the ‘DoF net has been des-

cribed by Pillai (1948), Hornell (1950), Setna

(1954) and Gokhale (1957).

Gokhale (1957) mentioned that H. nehereus

was taken along with Coilia dussumieri, species

of Penaeus and Metapenaeus, immature Stro-

mateus cinereus, Trichiurus savala and a few

other less important species in Saurashtra waters.

Chowdhury (1970) estimated the landings of

1 Accepted May 1981.

2 Present address : Mandapam Regional Centre of

C.M.F.R. Institute, Mandapam Camp, Tamil Nadu.

Fig. 1. Map of Bombay harbour, Sassoon dock

showing the nearshore Dol net fishing grounds.

331

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

fish at Sassoon Dock for a period of two

months only. Apart from this there is no de-

tailed published account of the ‘DoF net

catches. The present paper deals with the catch

composition of the fish caught by ‘doP nets

operated between 15 to 20 km. from Bombay

harbour and landed at Sassoon Dock from

the species composition of the catch and their

weight. The total catch and catch composition

of species were estimated based on the average

catch of unit. Stratified Random sampling

method adopted by Fishery Resources Assess-

ment Division of C.M.F.R.I. was used for the

estimation of the total landing as given below.

Total landing for the observed units Total No. of units landed

X during the observation period

No. of units observed

The estimate of catch for a day was obtained by adding the estimates for the forenoon (0.6.00-12.00

hrs), afternoon (12.00- 18. 00 hrs) and night landings. The estimate for the month was obtained by the

formula given below.

Total of the estimated landing No. of landing days

for the number of observed days X in the month

No. of observed days

January to December, 1971. These observa-

tions formed part of the work of the survey

programme for resources assessment.

Sassoon Dock, situated in South Bombay, is

one of the biggest fish landing centres (Fig. 1).

Though the landing takes place round the

clock, the activities have two peak periods,

once in the morning between 0.6.00 to 0.8.00

hrs. and again in the afternoon from 13.00 to

15.00 hrs. Apart from Bombay based boats,

from Karan j a and Uran also land their catches

at Sassoon Dock.

Material and Methods

According to the survey programme, 10 to

12 observations of 6 hours duration each were

made at Sassoon Dock every month. Data were

collected from 12.00 to 18.00 hrs. on the

first day and 0.6.00 to 12.00 hrs. on the fol-

lowing day. The night landings were recorded

after enquiry. Catches of each type of selected

units were examined in detail to determine

Gear and Craft

The Bag net locally known as ‘DoP is lower-

ed and hauled depending upon the turn of

the tides. A strong tidal current is very essen-

tial for the proper operation of the net. The

mouth of the net is always in the direction

of the tide and the bag net functions as a

filter to retain the fish. The strong tidal current

prevents the fish from escaping from the bag

net (Bapat 1970).

Two types of boats are used at Sassoon

Dock, mechanised and non-mechanised. The

non-mechanised boats are further divided into

canoes and said boats. The mechanised boats

are of Machva type, Satpati type and Bassein

type. They are propelled by diesel engines of

25 to 30 H.P. They save considerable time in

going to the fishing grounds and back and can

take advantage of 2-3 tides. In Sassoon Dock,

98% of the mechanised boats are used for

‘DoP net operation.

332

OBSERVATIONS ON DOL NET FISHERY

Results

Catches from 997 boats were examined for

estimating the total catch, catch composition

and weight of different species. Table 1 gives

the number of observations per month, total

number of dol nets observed with their per-

centage, the estimated total landings of dol

net and the other types of units operated.

the catch shows a declining trend, the maxi-

mum being in July (Fig. 2). In July, the fishing

operations were maximum (80.2%) and the

highest catch of 1485 tonnes were landed, with

H. nehereus contributing to 69 . 4% of the total

catch.

The monthly landings of dol net in Sassoon

Dock fluctuated between 275.347 tonnes (June)

to 1485.006 tonnes (July) with an average

Table 1

Monthwise estimated dol (bag) net catch of Sassoon Dock for the year 1971

Year No. of Total num- Total Percentage Monthly estimated total catch of Dol and other units

1971 days of ber of number of Dol (in tonnes)

It is seen from the table No. 1 the estimated

total catch for the year 1971 amounted to

23928.618 tonnes of which 9954.054 tonnes

(41.6%) were contributed by dol nets,

11947.392 tonnes (49.9%) by trawl nets,

1483.578 tonnes (6.2%) by Daldi or gill nets

and 543.594 tonnes (2.3%) by hook and

lines. A marked monthly fluctuation is seen

during January- June and in August-December

of 829.5 tonnes (Fig. 2). During the monsoon

months, Dol net catches showed an increase

for the following reasons:

1. Number of ‘Dol’ units in operation dur-

ing the monsoon months were considerably

more as boats of nearby fishing villages also

operated near Bombay harbour which is a pro-

tected area.

2. The landing of H. nehereus was higher

333

CATCH SN TONNES

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

in July, August and September (1031.8, 944.2

and 911.7 tonnes).

3. Palaemon tunuipes was caught in large

quantities in the months of May, July and

August the catch being 646.3, 54.0 and 66.4

tonnes respectively. The share of Hippolysmata

sp. was quite high in the months of May,

August and September (11.9, 16.4 and 10.4

tonnes, table No. 3).

The quarterwise catch composition of fish

caught in Dol net is given in Table 2. H.

nehereus and non-penaeid prawns together

334

JFMAMJ J ASOND

Fig. 2. Monthly fluctuations of fish caught in Dol (bag) net 1971.

OBSERVATIONS ON DOL NET FISHERY

Table 2

contributed to 62.91%, 80.47%, 92.64% and

72.44% for the four quarters respectively.

In the first quarter, A. indicus dominated

(56.01%) in the catch and penaeid prawn

including Solenocera indica (0.23%) formed

6.11%. H. nehereus was caught in very small

quantities (0.79%) which was compensated by

significant increase of Coilia dussumieri

(10.19%), other clupeids (8.86%) and Breg-

maceros sp. (9.59%). The important species

335

PERCENTAGE OF BOMBAY DUCK AND ACETES INDICUS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

were Stromateus spp., Trichiurus spp. and

Sciaenids accounting for 2.91, 2.08 and 1.63%

respectively. The share of rest of the fishes is

1.83%.

In the second quarter, H. nehereus catch

increased from 0.79 to 9.26% and A. indicus

decreased from 56.01 to 32.05% and together

formed 41.31% of the total catch. P. tunuipes

showed an increase and ranked first 34.32%.

The non-penaeid prawns A. indicus, P. tunui-

336

Fig. 3. The monthly percentage composition of Bombay duck and Acetes indicus in

the Dol net catch at Sassoon dock, Bombay showing the inverse relationship.

OBSERVATIONS ON DOL NET FISHERY

CATCH COMPOSITION (Percentages)

Sfromateus 1.&5

Sciaemds is?

— Hippoiysmata , solenocera indical

Cyblurn , sharks & Rays J 1-34

Others i-4S

Acetes indicus 32.09

Harpodon nehereus 34.67

Palaemon tunuipes s.78

Cailid dussumieri 5-47

Other ciupesds 3.39

Penaeid prawns 4.22

Trfchiurus sp* 347

Bregmaceros 2.04

Fig. 4.

337

5

Table

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

r- ON oo t"- On CM t"- t)- «n os CM vo -h

vo O C" xf co cm — < O » n N vo i— i xf

i-HCMcOxfinvot'-OO on © *-h CM co xf in

338

719587 343686 632620 495145 1381987 275347 1485006 1281349 1126085 855498 787750 569994 9954054 100

OBSERVATIONS ON DOL NET FISHERY

pes and Hippolysmata ensirostris together con-

tributed 67.04%. Penaeid prawns including the

Solenocera indica (0.26%) formed 4.17%.

C. dussuniieri and other clupeids together form-

ed 8.56%. Stromateus spp. constituted 2.89%,

Trichiurus spp. 2.90% Sciaenids 2.05% and

remaining fishes 3.13%.

In the third quarter H. nehereus formed

bulk of the catch 74.19% while A. indicus

(10.79%), the other non-penaeid prawns P.

tunuipes (3.48%) and H. ensirostris (0.76%)

constituted 15.03%. The share of penaeid

prawn including S. indica was 3.42%. C. dus-

sumieri and other clupeids formed 4.13% and

Trichiurus spp. 1.21%. The decline of C.

dussumieri and Bregmaceros sp. in the third

quarter may mainly due to the abundant of

H. nehereus while the former formed the im-

portant food items of Bombay duck next to

A. indicus (Bapat 1970). The share of the rest

of the fishes is 2.02%.

In the fourth quarter A. indicus dominated

(51.26%) in the catch. II. nehereus declined

to 15.85%. The penaeid prawns including the

Solenocera indica (0.23%) formed 4.97%. The

landings of C. dussumieri increased from 3.32%

to 4.81% and other clupeids from 0.81% to

4.78%. The share of Trichiurus spp. was very

high (7.68%). Catches of Bregmaceros sp. in-

creased from 0.04% to 1.55%. The contribu-

tions of sciaenids and Stromateus spp. formed

2.66 and 2.41% respectively. The cephalopods

improved to 1 . 26% and rest of the fishes con-

tributed 2.77%.

In the monthly ‘Dol’ net catch H. nehereus

fluctuated between 0.4 to 81% and A. indicus

between 5.0 to 75%. H. nehereus and A. in-

dicus showed an inverse relation in the catch

composition (Fig. 3). The possible explanation

for this inverse relation may be the grazing by

Bombay duck as A. indicus is one of the prin-

cipal components of its food (Bapat 1970).

Among the different species, H. nehereus

takes the first place in the ‘DoF net catch. The

annual average composition was 34.67% (Fig.

4). July showed the highest monthly catch

followed by August, September (Table 3) and

caught throughout the year in the Dol net. A.

indicus was next in importance (32.09%). It

dominated during October to May with a maxi-

mum catch in March (444.5 tonnes). P.

tunuipes was third in importance (8.78%)

and was noticed in the catch from April to

September. Among clupeids C. dussumieri

occupied the first place and formed 5.47%’ of

the Dol net catch. Other Clupeids like Chiro-

centrus spp., Hilsa toli, Dussumieria acuta and

sardines together contributed 3.39%. Penaeid

prawns occupied the fifth place forming 4 . 22%

of the total catch and consists of Metapenaeus

brevicornis, P. sculptiles, and P. stylifera. The

ribbon fish took the sixth place and consists

largely of juveniles of T. haumela and T. savala

forming 3 . 17%. Bregmaceros sp. occupied the

seventh place and formed 2.04% of the total

catch, occurring throughout the year. Among

the three species of Stromateus , S. cinereus was

caught in large quantities. They generally con-

sisted of juveniles forming 1.85%. Small sciae-

nids like Johnius carutta, Johnius sina, Otolithus

argenteus, O. ruber and large one like Pseudos-

ciaena diacanthus and Otolithodies brunneus

together formed 1.57%. Sharks and rays

(0.39%) and Cybium (0.27%) were caught

in small quantities in all the months of the

year. Hippolysmata and Solenocera indica to-

gether formed 0.68%. The rest of the fishes

formed 1.41% of the total catch. Trypauchen

vagina, Palaemon stylifera and Squilla species

occurred in small quantities in monsoon

months only.

The Dol net catch is categorised into the

following grades based on the consumer pre-

ference, of class I fish 8.32% consisting of

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

penaeid prawn, Stromateus spp. and Cybium;

class II fish 51.23% consisting of P. lunuipes,

H. nehereus, Hippolysmata, Solenocera, Coilia

etc. Class III fish 2.73% consisting of Sciae-

nids, Thrissocles etc. and class IV fish 37.68%

consisting of A. indicus and Trichiurus etc.

The non-edible fish Trypauchen vagina com-

prised 0.04%. The list of 33 species caught in

Dol net catch and their annual percentages

are given in the Table 3.

Remarks

The increase or decrease in the monthly

catch during the year has been mainly due to

fluctuation of H. nehereus and A. indicus.

These together with other prawns contributed

Refei

Bapat, S. V. (1970) : The Bombay Duck, Harpo-

don nehereus (Ham.). Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish. Res.

Inst., 21: 1-66.

Chowdhury, D. K. (1970): Estimation of fish

landing at Sassoon Dock, Bombay during October

1968, November and December 1969. C.I.F.E. Annual

Day Souvenir.

C.M.F.R.I. (1976) : Annual Report of the Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

Gokhale, S. V. (1957) : Operation of the Dol net

to 80.44% of the total Dol net catch. The

inverse relationship observed in the landings

of H. nehereus and A. indicus is an interesting

feature and detailed studies are necessary to

determine the factors causing the same.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. S. V. Bapat, Joint

Director, and Dr. S. Ramamoorthy, Officer-in-

Charge, B.R.C. of CMFRI., Bombay for criti-

cally going through the manuscript and offer-

ing valuable suggestions and also to Dr. Alaga-

raja, G. Venkataraman, Scientist S-3, Fishery

Resources Assessment Division, Cochin for

further improvement of the paper.

EN CES

off the Saurashtra Coast. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

54(3): 714-725.

Hornell, James (1950): Fishing in many waters.

Cambridge University Press, PP. 94-98.

Pillai, T. V. R. (1948) : Marine Fisheries of

Kodinar in Kathiawar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 48:

(1): 1-15.

Setna, S. B. (1954) : “In Quest of Bombay Duck”.

Illustrated weekly of India. Vol. IXXV 35 Aug. 29th

1954, pp. 24-25.

340

STUDIES ON THE INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN

BRACHYTHEMIS CONTAMINATA (FABRICIUS)

(ODONATA: LIBELLULID AE ) 1

M. Prasad and S. K. Ghosh2

(With thirteen text-figures)

Introduction

Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) is

widely and most commonly available at tem-

porary and permanent waterbodies. Variations

within the species of Odonata have been

briefly studied and reported by Asahina (1952-

53); Singh and Baijal (1954); Baijal and

Agarwal (1955); Singh and Prasad (1976,

1977); Prasad and Singh (1976); Prasad

(1976a, 1976b); Raychaudhuri et al (1969);

Varshney and Guha (1972). A detailed study

on the intraspecific variations in Trithemis

f estiva (Rambur) has been made by Prasad

and Kumar (1981). Sahni (1970) while

studying the Odonata fauna of Kumaon Hills

has discussed in brief the intraspecific variations

in Brachythemis contaminata. The present

paper provides a detailed biometric analysis

on the intraspecific variations alongwith a brief

note on the field ecology, on the basis of mate-

rial collected from different localities from

India. All the measurements are in mm.

B. contaminata is distributed throughout the

plains of India, Sri Lanka, Buraia, China,

Formosa, Philippines, Java and Sumatra

(Fraser 1936); Lieftinck (1971); Kiauta (1975)

and Kumar and Prasad (in press).

1 Accepted August 1980.

2 Zoological Survey of India, 14, Madan Street,

Calcutta 700 072.

Observations

Male : Head small in size. Labium pale

yellow to brownish yellow; Labrum dark

yellow; face and vesicle pale greenish yellow;

frons yellow, sometimes reddish yellow; eyes

brown above; pale yellow laterally and be-

neath; occiput reddish brown. Prothorax

brownish yellow; anterior and posterior border

of middle lobe transverse by a dark brown

stripe. Thorax yellowish brown dorsally mark-

ed with reddish brown humeral stripes; mid

dorsal carina black. Legs pale yellow; femora

dark brown on extensor surface; tibio tarsus

yellowish brown; spines black. Wings short;

rounded at apices; hyaline; reticulation closed;

veins reddish in colour; a broad bright orange

fascia extending from base to within 2 to 3

cells of pterostigma present in fore and hind-

wings. Variations in the marking of orange

fascia in both fore and hindwings, only due

to age of specimens (Figs. 1-3 and 6). Ptero-

stigma rust red some times yellow in colour;

membrane blackish brown; sector of arc fused

at long origin. Arc situated in between 1st

and 2nd antenodal nervures but more nearer

to 1st antenodal nervures; discoidal cell in fore-

wing narrow; costal side about half of the

basal side or distal side; transversed only

once; discoidal cell of hind wing with base at

arc, entire; only one cubital nervure in both

fore and hindwings. Cuii arising from the pos-

terior angle of discoidal cell in hind wings;

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

Figs. 1-3. Fore and hindwings of Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) (Male) show-

ing variations in the marking of orange fascia.

Figs. 4&5. Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) (Female) showing variations in the

number of nodal index.

342

INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN BRACHYTHEMIS CONTAMINATA

343

Figs. 6&7. Yellow marking at the base of both fore and hindwings of B. contaminata :

6. basal sides of fore wing of male; 7. basal sides of hind wing of female.

Figs. 8-10. Showing rows of one to two alls in between IRiii & RSPL in both fore

and hindwings of B. contaminata. (Fig. 10 on p. 344)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. SO

Figs. 11&12. Anal appendages of B. contaminata (male): 11. dorsal side; 12. lateral side.

Fig. 13. Anal appendages of B. contaminata (female) dorsal side.

I NT RASPEC1FIC VARIATIONS IN RRACHYTHEMIS CONTAMINATA

discoidal field beginning with 3 rows of cells;

subtrigone in forewing three celled; one or two

rows of cells in between IRiii & RSPL (Figure

8, 9 and 10), anal loop dilated at distal end

and angulated. Nodal index as in Table 4.

Abdomen reddish yellow marked with brown

strips dorsally and sub-dorsally; segments 7th

to 9th black on mid dorsum; tenerals or sub-

adult specimens, similar to the female. Anal

appendages brownish yellow, apices black

(figs. 11 & 12); a black spot also present at

the base of inferior anal appendages.

Genitalia : Lamina anterior small, arched and

hood shaped; Liguia small and triangular in

out line. Hamuli posterior small with obtusely

rounded base. Hook also small directed back-

wards and inwards with rounded apex; Genital

lobe long, highly curved with obtuse apex;

prophallus divided into stem body and glans;

stem long and cylindrical; body broad and

divided into triangular proximal lobe and dis-

tal rounded lobe; glans of prophallus rounded

and membranous, Vesicula spermalis flask

shaped with a shallow notch at the base.

Female : Similar to male but differs in the

following : Head-Labium light pale yellow to

brownish yellow; Labrum yellowish in colour.

Face, frons and vescicle pale yellow; eyes pale

brown above. Thorax greenish yellow; a narrow

brown marking parallel to mid-dorsal carina; a

dark brown stripe present near humeral suture;

narrow blackish stripe present on centres of

mesepimeron and metapimeron; mid dorsal

carina and lateral sutures black.

Wings: (figs. 4&5) hyaline; Hindwings very

palely tinted with yellow at base as shown in

fig. 7. In few specimens base of hindwings not

tinted with yellow; bright orange fascia ab-

sent; pterostigma bright yellow; nodal index

as shown in table 4. Abdomen yellowish brown

with a narrow black strip on mid dorsal carina

extending from 2nd segment to 9th segment; a

Table 1

Showing the frequency of specimens of

Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) from

DIFFERENT LOCALITIES

broad brownish spot present on segments 8th,

9th and 10th; a subdorsal interrupted dark

brown stripe present on segment 2nd to 6th; all

sutures and ventral border black. Anal appen-

dages yellowish brown and apices black, long,

conical, acuminate at the apex (fig. 13) Vulvar

scales two, short, triangular plate like and

overlapping ninth segment.

Field ecology :

Adults of both sexes flew in large number

around the banks of temporary as well as

permanent ponds and marshy streams from

April to October. Oviposition occurs between

June to October. Larvae are sluggish in habit

and commonly found in shallow waters of the

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 2

Body measurements of Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) (male)

346

INT RASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN BRACHYTHEMIS CONTAM IN AT A

Table 4

Showing variations in nodal index within the male and female specimens of Brachythemis

contaminata (Fabricius)

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ponds, amidst standing reeds. For emergence

they climb on the reeds (Kumar 1973). A large

number of exuviae can easily be collected dur-

ing this period hanging on reeds about 4 inches

to a foot above the water.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India for various facilities and per-

mission to carry out this work. Thanks are

also due to Sri S. S. L. Verma, Photographer,

of Northern Regional Station for the prepara-

tion of photographs.

References

Asahina. S. (1952-1953): Fauna and flora of

Nepal Himalaya scientific results of the Japanese

expeditions to Nepal Himalaya 1952-1953, Edited by

H. Kihara. Fauna and flora Res. Soc. Kyoto, 291-

300 (in Japanese).

Baijal, H. N. & Agarwal, J. P. (1955) : Opuscula

Libellulogica. Agra Univ. J. Res. ( Sci .), 4(2): 453-

470.

Fraser, F. C. (1936): The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma. (Odonata), 5: XI —

461, Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.

Kiauta, B. (1975) : Cytotaxonomy of dragonflies

with special reference to the Nepalese fauna. Third

Khumbu Himal Expedition. Netherlands Centre

Alpine biological Research Utrecht, (July-Nov.,

1974) Nepal Research Centre, Kathmandu,: X-l-76.

Lieftinck, M. A. (1971): Odonata from Ceylon.

Ent. Sceond. Suppl., (1): 188-207.

Kumar, A. & Prasad, M. (in press) : Field eco-

logy, zoogeography and taxonomy of the Odonata

of Western Himalaya, India. Occ. paper Rec. zool.

Surv. India.

Prasad, M. (1976a) : On the occurrence of Uro-

themis signata signata (Rambur) (Odonata: Macro-

diplactidae) from Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India.

Newsl. zool. Surv. India. 2(4) : 142.

(1976b) : Odonata of district Kangra

(Himachal Pradesh). Rec. zool. Surv. India. 77(1-4) :

195-219.

Prasad, M. & Kumar, A. (1981): Studies on the

intraspecific variations in Trithemis f estiva (Rambur)

(Odonata: Libellulidae) . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

77: 238-246.

Prasad, M. & Singh, A. (1976) : Odonata of Doon

Valley. 2. Zygoptera. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 70(1-4):

121-131.

Raychaudhury, D. N., Lahiri, A. R. & Mitra,

T. R. (1969) : A note on the distal antenodal nervure

of Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) and Dipla-

codes trivialis (Rambur) (Insecta: Odonata: Libel-

lulidae) . Sci. Cult. 35 : 220.

Sahni, D. N. (1970): Studies on the Odonata of

Kumaon — Part I. Suborder Anisoptera, Family

Libellulidae. Bull. Ent. 77(1): 37-54.

Singh, A. & Prasad, M. (1976) : Odonata of Doon

Valley 1. Anisoptera. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 70 ( 1-4) :

21-38.

(1977): Odonata (Insecta)

of Corbett National Park (Uttar Pradesh, India). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(2): 419-421.

Singh, S. & Baijal, H. N. (1954): Entomological

Survey of the Himalaya II — on a collection of

Odonata. Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci.) 3(2) : 385-400.

Varshney, R. K. & Guha, M. (1972): A note

on the wing marking of dragonfly Rhyothemis varie-

gata variegata (L.) (Odonata: Libellulidae). Patna

Univ. J., 27: 1-4.

348

J. Bombay nat. hist. Hist. Soc. so Plate

Abdulali: Catalogue of Birds

Colour changes in 1333 Leiothrix a . argentauris

1946 to 1968 1979 to 1981

1900 to 1917

{Photos: Asad Rafi Rehmani)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION

OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 28

Muscicapidae (Timaliinae) ( contd .)

Humayun Abdulali

(With a colour plate)

[Continued from Vol 80(1): 165]

667 specimens of 78 species and subspecies

(including one undetermined and 9 extralimi-

tals) are dealt with in this part. The last bird

registered and handled is No. 26343. Mr. Eric

D’Cunha, Research Assistant at BNHS has

continued to help on a whole time basis, and

the work now appears to proceed faster than

ever before.

1333 Leiothrix argenfauris argentauris

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Himalayan Silver-eared

Mesia 1:354

27 : 10 $ $ 9 9 $ 8 o?

1 Kurseong, 2 Longview Tea Estate, 1 Darjeeling;

1 Samchi, West, 1 Mangdechu, Central, 1 nr. Aie

River, 1 Bhutan; 2 Margherita, 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley,

1 Doyang, Sibsagar, Assam; 1 Rotung, 1 Mishing,

Abor Country, Mishmi Hills, 2 Deban, 1 Miao, 1

Hornbill Camp, Arunachal Pradesh; 2 Kohima, Naga

Hills; 2 Humgrum, 1 Gunjong, N. Cachar; 4 N'

Krang, Upper Burma.

The birds from the Mishmi Hills and east

and southwards were accepted as vernayi

(Mayr & Greenway) No. 1334 in Indian

handbook but in the second edition of synopsis

(1982) these are synonymised with nominate

argentauris. The three recent skins (Dec. 1981)

and a fourth from Miao (1979) show an extra-

ordinary amount of bright yellow on the chin

and upper breast contra chestnut in four others

from Lohit Valley (1946), Doyang (1952),

Mangdechu (1967) and Samchi (1968). This

is further reduced in two from Kohima, Naga

Hills (1917) and exists only in pale traces in

older skins (1900-1917). The underparts are

also yellowish olive-green which lessens with

the intensity of the chestnut, becoming a pale

grey, darkest in 1912 (2 Abor Hills) and 1917

(2 Naga Hills) and almost disappearing in the

older skins. The red on the wing and rump

similarly changes colour and I would only have

been able to separate the two races according

to their distribution. The accompanying colour

photograph will give an idea of the extraordi-

nary changes which have taken place in a rela-

tively short time.

Measurements on p. 362.

1334 Leiothrix argentauris aureigularis

(Koelz) (Turza ML, Garo Hills, Assam) Assam

Silver-eared Mesia

Synonymised with 1333 in synopsis 1982.

1335 Leiothrix lutea kumaiensis Whistler

(Dehra Dun, U.P.) Red billed Leiothrix 1:328

(part)

7: 4 8 $ 3 $ $

2 Koti, 2 Jabli, Bhagat State, 2 Simla, 1 Simla

Hills.

None have a gold wash on the head, while

all four with red on the primaries (less than

in calipyga) are males, including one juvenile

with both wings and tail in moult. There is no

red on the primaries of the three females as

is found in calipyga and on the upperparts both

sexes are greyer than that form.

[490]

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Measurements on p. 362.

1336/7 Leiothrix lutea calipyga (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Eastern Red billed Leiothrix 1:328

10: 4 $ $ (1?) 5 $ $ 1 o?

1 Dentam, West, 3 Sikkim; 1 Chimakothi, West,

1 Bhumtang, 1 Shamgong, Central, 1 Gomchii, East

Bhutan; 1 Kalaktang, Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Shillong,

Khasia Hills.

All have a slight golden wash on the head,

while red on the wings occurs in 5 specimens

(1 c? 3 $ $ 1 o?). The first character is

clearer in fresh specimens, but all show the

drastic change in the yellow of the throat and

breast referred to under 1333.

Measurements on p. 362.

1338 Myzornis pyrrhoura Blyth (Nepal)

Fire tailed Myzornis 1:345

7:4 8 $ (1 o?) 3 $ $

3 Gedu, West, 2 Rongtong, 2 Wamrong, East

Bhutan.

In the original description, reference was

made to the black-centered scale-like green

feathers of the head. This is correctly repeated

in both editions of the Fauna, but Indian hand-

book (7 p. 70) refers to the crown being scal-

loped with black, in error for green. In the

specimens available the males differ from the

females in having a reddish wash on the breast

and the undertail coverts more chestnut than

the yellow in the females. The upperparts of

the females are also greener than in the males

where they are slightly washed with rufous.

Measurements on p. 362.

1339 Cutia nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson

(Nepal) Nepal Cutia 1:329

12: 8 $ $ 4 $ 5

1 Bagora, 2 Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Singhik, N.

Sikkim; 1 Shamgong, 2 Batase, Central, 1 Gomchu,

3 Wamrong, East Bhutan; 1 Abor Country, Mishmi

Hills, Assam.

Measurements on p. 362.

1340 Ptensthius nifiventer Blyth (Darjeeling)

Rufousbellied Shrike-Babbler 1 : 337

2 8 $

1 Shamgong, 1 Wamrong, East Bhutan.

The c? from Shamgong (No. 25014) marked

as with enlarged testes (5 April 1967) shows

traces of pale yellow patches on the sides of

the breast which are joined by a thin yellow

line across the breast.

Measurements on p. 362.

1341 Pterathius flaviscapis validirostris Koelz

(Kohima, Naga Hills, Assam) Red winged

Shrike-Babbler 1:331

38: 16 $ $ (1 juv.) 20 $ $ 2 o?

1 Baragali, Murree Hills; 1 Dalhousie, 1 Dharam-

sala, Kangra; 2 Mahasu, 2 Koti State, 1 Summer Hills,

9 Simla; 1 Dhanaulti, 1 Mogra, Mussoorie, 1 Almora,

Kumaon; 2 Kurseong, 1 Longview Tea Estate, Dar-

jeeling; 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, 1 Sikkim; 3 Tama,

2 Shamgong, Central, 3 Deothang, 1 Narphong, East

Bhutan; 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, U. Assam; 1 Naga

Hills, 1 Cachar Hills; 1 Chindwin, Burma.

The fresher skins show a deeper chestnut on

the wings. The juvenile male (No. 16148) has

a grey head in which the feathers are broken

and with pale central streaks.

Measurements on p. 362.

EL Pferuthius flaviscapis aeralatus Blyth

(Mountainous interior of Tenasserim province.

Lower Burma) Tickell’s Shrike-Babbler 1:333

3: 13 2 9 9 (1 juv.)

2 N' Krang, U. Burma, 1 Loisong, N. Shan States,

Burma.

The male can be distinguished from validi-

rostris (1341) by the outer half of the

inner secondaries being golden yellow and the

rest chestnut, while in the adult females there

is only a small patch of chestnut on the inner-

most secondary. In the juvenile the head is

concolorous with the back and feathers of the

head are broken, with pale shaft streaks more

350

[491]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 28

prominent than in the specimen referred to

under 1341.

Measurements on p. 362.

1342 Pteruthius xanihochlorus occidentalis

Harington (Dehra Dun) Western Green Shrike-

Babbler 1:336

5:233192o?

1 Kufri, 1 Koti State, 3 Simla, N. W. Himalayas.

Measurements on p. 363.

1343 Pteruthius xanthochlorus xanthochlo-

rus Gray (Nepal) Eastern Green Shrike-Bab-

bler 1:335

3: 23 3 1 9

1 Chapcha, 1 Chimakoti. West, 1 Wamrong, East

Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 363.

1344 Pteruthius xanthochlorus hybridus

Harington (Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills) Chin Hills

Green Shrike-Babbler

nil.

1345 Pteruthius melanotis melanotis Hodg-

son (Nepal) Chestnut-throated Shrike-Babbler

1:333

6: 4 3 3 2 9 9

2 Singhik 3500' North, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley

2000', Sikkim; 1 Wamrong, 8000'; 1 Narphong 5600',

1 Gomchu 7500' East Bhutan.

The two males from Singhik, North Sikkim

show the brightest yellow on the foreheads

which is preceded by a thin black line. These

differences may only be a phase in plumage.

Measurements on p. 363.

1346 Pteruthius aenobarbus aenobarbulus

Koelz (Nokrek, Garo Hills) Chestnutfronted

Shrike-Babbler 1:335

nil.

1347 Gampsorhynchus rufulus refill us Blyth

(Darjeeling) Whiteheaded Shrike-Babbler 1:231

20: 8 3 5 (3 imm) 7 9 9 (2 imm) 5 o? (2 imm)

2 Longview T. E., Darjeeling; 1 Dening, 1 Tezu,

Lohit Valley, U. Assam; 2 Margherita, Assam; 4 Miao,

Tirap div. Arunachal Pradesh; 2 Roopachena, 1

Bago Bahar, Cachar; 2 Taw maw, 1 Maymyo, 2

Mansun, 2 Loikaw, N. Shan States, Burma.

The immature birds have brown heads. The

four most recently collected at Miao, A.P.

(1979) are olivegreen on the upper parts contra

rufous in all the others (1946 and earlier).

Measurements on p. 363.

1348 Actinodura egertoni egertoni Gould

(Nepal) Himalayan Barwing 1:303

8:335 399 2 o?

1 Tongloo, Darjeeling, 1 Sikkim, 2 Gedu, 3 Honka,

west, 1 Shamgong, Central Bhutan.

In series the backs are a paler and more

rufous brown than in lewisi.

Measurements on p. 363.

1349 Actioodura egertoni lewisi Ripley

(Dreyi, Mishmi Hills) Mishmi Barwing

7: 2 3 3 4 9 9 1 o?

5 Dreyi, Lohit Valley, N. E. Assam, 1 Rotung,

Abor Country, Mishmi Hills, 1 Kohima, Nagaland.

The topotypes collected in 1947 are marked

egertoni by Salim Ali and later (1948) separat-

ed as lewisi. The backs are slightly darker

than in the nominate form, and the head shows

more rufous, but the species shows consider-

able individual variation in colour, and the

subspecific characters in current literature are

not very consistent. One old skin from Kohima

borrowed from the Zoological Survey of India

is marked khasiana, while the specimen listed

above agrees more closely with topotypes of

lewisi. An examination of more material from

that area, collected at about the same time,

may perhaps remove the present necessity of

grouping the subspecies to some extent on

geographical grounds.

Measurements on p. 363.

[492]

351

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1349a Actinodura egertoni subsp ?

3:1 $2$ $

3 from Miao, Tirap div., Arunachal Pradesh

collected in 1979 should, distributionally, as in

Indian handbook, be lewisi, but they have

almost pure grey heads and an olive wash on

the upperparts which renders then quite diffe-

rent.

Measurements on p. 363.

1350 Actinodura egertoni khasiana Godwin-

Austen (Khasia Hills) Assam Barwing 1:304

3:1^222

1 Shillong, 1 Cherrapunji, Khasia Hills, 1 Hun-

grum, N. Cachar.

These can be immediately separated by their

ashy brown heads, as in the original descrip-

tion. Two more from Kohima (ZSI No. 29581,

1936, Ptutse-Ru Tekhubama, c. 22 km SE of

Kohima) and N. Cachar borrowed from the Zoo-

logical Survey of India, do not agree, while a

fresher (Jan. 1952) specimen from Kohima has

been placed with lewisi ( q.v .).

Measurements on p. 363.

1351 Actinodura egertoni ripponi Ogilvie-

Grant (Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills, 6000-7000')

Mizo Barwing 1:305

5 o?: 3 Mt. Victoria, 2 N. Shan States, Burma.

These birds appear larger than the foregoing

specimens than is suggested by the measure-

ments, with the feathers on the head paler and

apparently broader.

Measurements on p. 364.

1352/3 Actinodura nlpaSensis nipaSensis

(Hodgson) (Nepal restricted to slopes of Khat-

mandu Valley, Central Nepal) Nepal Hoary

Barwing 1:307

9: 4 ^ 4 $2 lo?

2 Tongloo, Darjeeling, 1 Lachung, N. Sikkim; 1

Gedu, West, 5 Wamrong East Bhutan.

In 1950, Ripley described A. n. vinctura

from East Nepal, but later (1980 JB 76 pp.

21-23) said they were not separable on the

characters mentioned. Among the present speci-

mens the seven from Darjeeling (5 including

3 borrowed from Zoological Survey of India)

1 N. Sikkim & 1 Gedu, West Bhutan can be

separated from 5 from Wamrong, E. Bhutan,

by the streaks on the head being paler and

more prominent than in the latter in which the

head is duskier. In view of the drastic colour

changes incurred by birds from this area and

the fact that the western birds (except one

1968 from West Bhutan) are old specimens,

I am leaving them all under nominate

nipalensis.

Incidentally, the 2nd Edition of synopsis

(1982) erroneously accepts vinctura, overlook-

ing the correction made in 1980 (loc. cit.), by

the same author !

Measurements on p. 364.

1354 Actinodura nipalensis dafiaensis God-

win-Austen (Dafla Hills, NE. Bengal) NEFA

Barwing 1:309

2 $ $ Bomdila, Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 364.

1355 Actinodura nipalensis waldeni Godwin-

Austen (Japoo Peak, Naga Hills) Manipur

Barwing 1:308

1 $ topotype Mt. Japoo, Naga Hills.

Measurements on p. 364.

1356 Actinodura nipalensis poliotis (Rip-

pon) (Mt. Victoria, 7000-8000 ft.) Chin Hills

Barwing 1:309

nil.

1357 Minla ignotincta ignotincta Hodgson

(Central and Northern regions of the Hills,

Nepal) Redtailed Minla 1:355

24: 15 $ $ (2 by pi.) 9 2 $ (1 by pi.)

4 Kurseong, Darjeeling; 2 Rinchinpong, West, 1

Singhik, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, 1 Tung, Sikkim;

[493]

352

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 28

1 Gedu, 1 Phuntsholing, West, 1 Batase, 2 Shamgong,

Central, 1 Rongtong, 4 Wamrong, East, 2 Bhutan;

1 Saroq Hills, Upper Assam; 1 Kohima, Naga Hills,

1 Kongpokpi, Manipur.

7 cf cf collected in 1944 or earlier, have

yellow edges to the tail while in 8 from 1952

onwards, the tails are red. The edging to the

wing has also faded in the same manner and

time.

Measurements on p. 364.

1358 Minla strigula simlaensis Meinertzha-

gen (Simla) Western Barthroated Siva 1:313

(part)

16: 7 $ $ 7 $ $ 2o?

2 Koti State, 1 Kufri, Patiala State, 9 Simla, 1

Dhanaulti, east of Mussooree, 2 Dakuri. Almora.

Uttar Pradesh, 1 Nepal Valley.

The last from Nepal is very badly damaged

and may be of the next form.

Measurements on p. 364.

1359 Minla strigula strigula (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Eastern Barthroated Siva 1:313 (part)

15: 9 $ $ 4 $ $ 2 o?

2 Tongloo, Darjeeling; 3 Rinchingpong; West 1

Lachung-Chungthong, N. Sikkim, 1 Chimakothi,

West, 1 Shamgong, 1 Tongsa, Central 2 Narphong, 4

Wamrong, East Bhutan.

In series these are more yellow below than

simlaensis and a richer rufous on the forehead.

The rufous on the tail is not less than half

the length of the tail as required in the key in

ind. handbook, but noticeably less than in

the next two races. The two from Tongloo,

Darjeeling (tf No. 1501) and Lachung-Chung-

thong, N. Sikkim (o? No. 21660) have their

foreheads yellower than in the others, with the

former having a yellower bill.

Measurements on p. 364.

1360 Minla strigula yunnanensis (Roths-

child) (Lichiang Range, NW. Yunnan) NEFA

Barthroated Siva 1:313-14 (part)

[494]

2 o?

1 Loi Lum, N. Shan States, 1 Burma? (Both col-

lected by H. Wood).

Their forehead is duller than in nominate

strigula and they also measure slightly larger.

The extent of rufous on the tail is more pro-

nounced.

Measurements on p. 364.

1361 Minla strigula cinereigenae (Ripley)

(Mt. Japoo, Western Naga Hills, Assam)

Assam Barthroated Siva 1:313 (part)

1 $ Mt. Japvo, Naga Hills, Assam.

The single specimen from the type locality

lacks the rufous forehead of nominate strigula

and the rufous in the tail is as prominent as

in yunnanensis above. Peters’ checklist 1964

(10 p. 396) refers to it as doubtfully distinct

from yunnanensis.

Measurements on p. 364.

1362 Minla cyanouroptera cyanouroptera

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Bluewinged Siva 1:314

31: 9 $ $ 15 $ $ 7 o?

1 W. Kumaon, 1 Mornaula, 2 Kumaon, Nainital

dist., U.P.; 1 Godaveri, Nepal; 2 Kurseong, 1 Long-

view, Darjeeling; 1 Rinchinpong, West, 2 Singhik, 2

Rongpo, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1 Sikkim; 1

Shamgong, Central, 3 Deothang, 1 Rongtong, East

Bhutan; 1 Dibrugarh, 1 Dening, Lohit Valley, 4 Mar-

gherita, Assam; 1 Namorah, Arunachal Pradesh; 1

Baraha Pani, 1 Shillong; 2 Kohima, Naga Hills.

There is some variation in the colour of the

head and of the underparts and the intensity

of brown above, but the material available does

not permit any definite divisions. McClelland’s

lepida from Assam was described for its light

bluish-grey underparts and the specimens from

Sikkim, Bhutan, Dening, Lohit Valley and

Namora, Arunachal Pradesh do have greyish

underparts and perhaps slightly larger bills. The

description of Deignan’s aglae (Mt. Victoria,

Western Burma, South east Assam) is not avail-

able, but except for faint white marking to the

353

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SO

inner primaries the specimens from the Naga

Hills do not appear separable. Ludlow & Kin-

near, Ibis 1937 p. 41 refer to the female in

fresh plumage being flushed with yellow on the

underparts, but this colour is not visible in

any specimen nor mentioned in ind. handbook.

Measurements on p. 364/5.

EL. Minla cyanouroptera wingatei (Ogilvie-

Grant) (W. Kumaing, Yunnan) 1:315

4 o?

1 N' Krang, 2 Sima, Upper Burma; 1 Loisong,

N. Shan States.

These lack the white tips to the inner

secondaries.

Measurements on p. 365.

1363 Yuhina casianiceps rufigenis (Hume)

(Himalayas = Darjeeling) Sikkim Whitebrowed

Yuhina 1:311 (part)

6: 3 33 2 $$ 1 o?

1 Martam, Rongni Valley, Sikkim; 2 Tama,

1 Mangdecha, C. Bhutan, 2 Beni Changs, 3500', Saroq

Hills, Upper Assam.

Measurements on p. 365.

1364 Yuhina castaniceps plumbeiceps (God-

win-Austen) Nr. Sadya and Brahmakhend,

Eastern Assam) Mishmi Whitebrowed Yuhina

1:311

2: 1 $ 1 $

1 Embiong, 1 40th. m. from Miao, Deban Div.

Arunachal Pradesh.

By distribution these should be plumbeiceps ,

but the rufous ear-coverts extend to about the

same level in both in this and rufigenis, while

both have a rufous patch at the posterior end

of the supercilium. The head is perhaps greyer,

but these are fresher, 1979, skins, contra 1967

and earlier. The two were synonymised by

Oates in fauna 1:206 and this was confirmed

by Baker (1:311). The revival of plumbeiceps

in Indian handbook and in synopsis (1982)

is not explained. Though ignored by later

workers, it may however be worth keeping in

mind that when Hume named this bird he

was referring to the Himalayan form of striatus

in which the underparts were said to be brown-

ish by both Blyth and Tickell, and in which

the latter said the central tail feathers and

the quills were reddish clay brown.

With the evidence available I would include

1364 with 1363, the latter appearing in the

June number of Stray Feathers, 1877, and the

former in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 20: 219 pub-

lished in December the same year.

Measurements on p. 365.

1365 Yuhina castaniceps castaniceps

(Moore) (Afghanistan, errore = Cachar) Chest-

nut-headed Yuhina 1:310

5: I $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

1 Shillong, 3 Cherrapunji, Cachar, 1 no data.

Measurements on p. 365.

EL. Yuhina castaniceps striata Blyth

(Tenasserim) Striated Yuhina (Tickell’s Staphi-

dia in Fauna) 1:311

2: 1 $ 1 o?

1 Than dung, Karen Hills, 1 North Shan States.

The distribution of this form is said to ex-

tend as far north as the South Shan States

(Peters, x. p. 422). The first is heavily streaked

on the upperparts while the other may almost

be included with rufigenis.

Measurements on p. 365.

1366 Yuhina bakeri Rothschild (Darjeeling)

Whitenaped Yuhina 1:321

8: 2 $ $ 5 $ 9 1 o?

1 Chungthang, N. Sikkim; 1 Batase, Central

Bhutan, 1 Joyhing Gorge, N. Lakhimpur, Upper

Assam, 1 Rotung, Abor country, 1 Dibang Valley,

Mishmi Hills, 2 Miao, Tirap Div., A. P., 1 Hungrum

N. Cachar.

Four of these were listed under Yuhina occi-

354

[495]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 28

pitalis presumably because this name was once

used for bakeri but has been invalidated.

Measurements on p. 365.

1367 YiiMna flavicollis albicollis (Ticehurst

6 Whistler) (Dharmsala, 4000' Kangra) Western

Yellownaped Yuhina 1:322

18: 10 6' $ 7 $ $ 1 o?

2 Koti State, 1 Patiala State, 1 Kalka, 2 Pulbal,

7 Simla, 1 West, 1 Kumaon; 1 Rampur, Gharwal, 1

Dhanaulti, 1 Mussoorie U.P.

Measurements on p. 365.

1368/9 Yuhina flavicollis flavicollis Hodg-

son (Nepal, restricted to Central Nepal)

Eastern Yellownaped Yuhina 1:322

22: 8 $$ 12 $ $ 2 o?

1 Nepal, 4 Longview T.E., 2 Darjeeling, 1 Buxa

Duars, Bengal; 2 Singtam, 1 Chungthang, 1 Singhik.

1 Sikkim; 1 Gedu, West, 1 Shamgong, 1 Batase, 1

Tama, Central, 2 Deothang, 1 Gomchu. 1 Narphong,

1 Wamrong, East, Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 365.

1370 Yuhina flavicollis rouxi (Oustalet) (Ly-

Sien-Kiang or Black River, Yunnan) Assam

Yellownaped Yuhina 1:323

7: 1 $ 6 o?

1 Kalaktang, Amnachal Pradesh, 1 Hungrum, N.

Cachar; 1 N. Shan States, 3 Loi-Wong, S. Shan

States, 1 Mt. Victoria, Burma.

The two from Arunachal Pradesh and N.

Cachar appear intermediate between nominate

flavicollis and rouxi.

Measurements on p. 366.

1371 Yuhina gularis vivax Koelz (above

Luni, Tehri, United Provinces. 10000') West-

ern Stripethroated Yuhina

nil.

1372 Yuhina gularis gularis Hodgson

(Nepal) Eastern Stripethroated Yuhina 1:317

11 : 8 $ $ 3 o?

1 Kewzing, West, 1 Lachung, North, Sikkim, 1

Bhutan Duars, 1 Chapkha, West, 1 Shamgong, Cen-

tral, 1 Rongtong, 1 Gomchu, 2 Wamrong, East,

Bhutan; 1 Aka Hills, NE Assam; 1 N. Shan States,

Burma.

Measurements on p. 366.

EL. Yuhina diademata ampelina Rippon

(Waror Bum 30 miles, east of Bhamo, Kachin

State, U. Burma) 1:318

1 o? North Shan States, Burma.

The specimen is marked ampelina , Rippon,

but this race is accepted in Vaurie’s Palaearctic

Fauna (1959) and dropped in Peters’ checklist

(1964, x p. 424). Without any material for

comparison it is not possible to express any

opinion.

Measurements on p. 366.

1373 Yuhina occipitalis occipitalis Hodgson

(Nepal) Slatyheaded or Rufousvented Yuhina

1:319

10: 8 $ $ 2 9 $

(a) 1 Kurseong, Darjeeling, Bengal; 2 Bolandeny,

Sikkim; 1 nr. Dochu La, West Bhutan.

(b) 2 Gomchu. 2 Deothang, 1 Wamrong, East

Bhutan; 1 Kalaktang, Arunachal Pradesh.

The first four (a) from nearer the type loca-

lity show more rufous on the lower belly and

vent than the six more eastern birds (b). The

examination of a larger series may perhaps

warrant separation.

Measurements on p. 366.

1374 Yuhina nigrimenta nigrimenta Hodg-

son (Nepal) Blackchinned Yuhina 1:320

16: 6 $ $ 8 $2 2o?

4 Ranibagh, 1 Kumaon, U.P.; 2 Dikchu, North,

1 Singatam Teesta Valley, Sikkim, 1 Buxa Duars, 1

Lodrai, 1 Mangdechu 2 Tama, Central Bhutan; 2

Saraq Country, Upper Assam; 1 Dening, Lohit Valley.

NE. Assam.

Measurements on p. 366.

[496]

355

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1375 Yuhina xantholeuca xantholeuca

(Hodgson) (Central region of Nepal) White-

bellied Yuhina 1:325

24: 8 $ $ 12 $ $ 4 o?

1 Berrik, Sikkim; 1 Tama, 1 Lodrai, Central, 1

Bhutan; 6 Margherita, Lakhimpur; 2 Miao, 1 Tirap

Div., Arunachal Pradesh; 2 Laithensew, Khasia Hills;

1 Kangpokpi, Manipur; 1 N. Cachar, 3 Hai Bum,

Chindwin Exp.; 2 Nyannggyo, Prome Dist., 1 Thayet-

myo Dist., 1 Burma.

The older skins have lost the olivegreen on

the upper parts and show more yellow, while

the fresh material after April 1967 shows more

yellow on the vent and grey on the underparts.

Several specimens show dark feather shafts on

the head, presenting a streaked appearance

which cannot be linked with place or season.

This has not been referred to in the fauna or

INDIAN HANDBOOK.

Measurements on p. 366.

1376 Akippe dirysotis chrysotis (Blyth)

Himalaya = Nepal) Himalayan Goldenbreast-

ed Tit-Babbler 1:293

7: 4 $ $ 1 $ 2 o?

1 Tongloo, Darjeeling, 1 Gedu, West, 4 Sham-

gong, Central Bhutan; 1 Bomdila, Arunachal

Pradesh.

c? Sp. 19855 obtained by C. M. Inglis at

Darjeeling on 6th July 1904 is not included in

his Birds of Jalpaiguri Dist. ( JBNHS 26: 988-

999) and differs from the others in having no

yellow on the underparts, the white feathers

being tipped with pale brown, presumably the

effect of fading. The wing, bill and tarsus are

the smallest in the series but can no doubt be

included in the range.

Measurements on p. 366.

1377 Akippe chrysotis aibilineata (Koelz)

(Karong, Singtun, Manipur) Assam Golden-

breasted Tit-Babbler 1:293

nil.

1378 Akippe cinerea (Blyth) (Darjeeling)

Dusky Green or Yellowthroated Tit-Babbler

1:287

10: 5 $ $ 4 $ $ 1 o?

2 Gedu, West, 1 Shamgong, 1 Batase, Central

Bhutan; 2 Benichangs, 2 Dreyi, Lohit Valley, Upper

Assam; 1 Bomdila, 1 Kalaktang, Arunachal Prakesh.

The key in Indian handbook (7 p. 110) re-

quires a yellow supercilium for the species

and the name and description on p. 112 refer

to a yellow throat and underparts. Except for

a very slight trace of yellow on the lores and

underparts in two from Arunachal Pradesh

(1978), the others collected earlier show pure

white and no yellow — another example of the

rapid fading of colour in birds from the north-

east.

Measurements on p. 366.

1379 Alcippe castaneceps castaneceps

(Hodgson) (Chandragiri Pass, Central Nepal)

Chestnut-headed Tit-Babbler 1:288-9

16: 4 $ $ 10 $$ 2 o?

1 Sheopuri Ridge, Nepal Valley, 1 Kewzing Temi,

West Sikkim; 1 Chimakothi, West, 4 Shamgong, Cen-

tral, 3 Wamrong, 1 Gomchu, 1 Rongtong, East

Bhutan; 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, U. Assam; 2 Miao,

Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh. 1 LoLPanghen, nr.

Mekong River, Burma.

Several races brunneicauda Khasi Hills,

Sharpe, garoensis, Garo Hills, Koelz and naga-

ensis, Naga Hills, Koelz, have been described

from eastern India, but though some variations

are visible there is insufficient material to up-

hold any of them. ind. handbook (7 p. 113)

refers to a rufous patch on the wing feathers

but in the western birds this is closer to yellow

or orange as stated in earlier literature. The

two from Arunachal Pradesh have darker

brown heads as well as wing feathers. The bird

from the Mekong River, presumably in Burma,

collected by H. N. Thomson in 1902 is in

tatters and badly faded.

Measurements on p. 367.

356

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BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 28

1380 Alcippe vinipectus kangrae (Ticehurst

& Whistler) Palumpur, 6000', Kangra) Western

Whitebrowed Tit-Babbler 1:290 (part)

7: 4 3 £ 3 $ $

6 Narkanda, Kumarsain, Simla, Himachal Pradesh,

1 Dakuri (Kumaon Hills), Nainital, U.P.

The chestnut on the head forms a very

distinct cap.

Measurements on p. 367.

1381 Akippe vinipectus vinipectus (Hodg-

son) (Nepal, except area occupied by chum-

biensis) Nepal Whitebrowed Tit-Babbler 1 : 290

(part)

nil.

1382 Alcippe vinipectus chumbiensis (Kin-

near) (Yatung, Chumbi Valley) Eastern White-

browed Tit-Babbler 1:290 (part)

19: 8 $ $ 8 $ $ 3 o?

1 Mangalbare, Nepal; 2 Sandakphaw, 1 Phalut.

Darjeeling, 1 Kewzing-Temi, West, 5 Lachung, 1

Chungthan, North Sikkim; 4 Bhumthang, 2 Chima-

kothi, 1 Chapcha, 1 nr. Dochu La, West Bhutan.

The streaking on the throat is indistinct in

some but it is not possible to place any with

nominate vinipectus. The dark brown coronal

stripes referred to in the key in Indian hand-

book (7 p. 114) also presumably include the

dark streaks behind the eyes converging on

the nape.

Measurements on p. 367.

1383 Alcippe vinipectus austeni (Ogilvie-

Grant) (Manipur and the Naga Hills) Assam

Whitebrowed Tit-Babbler 1:291

nil.

1384 Alcippe cinereiceps ludlowi (Kinnear)

(Sakden, Eastern Bhutan) Himalayan Brown-

headed Tit-Babbler

nil.

1385 Alcippe cinereiceps manipurensis

(Ogilvie-Grant) (Owenkulno Peak, Manipur

Hills) Manipur Brownheaded Tit-Babbler 1:292

nil.

1385a Alcippe striaticoISis (Verreaux)

(Muping) Streakthroated Tit-Babbler

nil.

1386 Alcippe rufogularis rufogularis (Man-

delli) (Bhutan Duars) Himalayan Redthroated

Tit-Babbler 1:286

nil.

1387 Alcippe rufogularis collaris Walden

(Sadiya, Upper Assam) Assam Redthroated

Tit-Babbler

13:5 $ $ 8 $ $

1 Sadiya, 8 Margherita; 2 Firm Base, 1 Miao,

Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Lok-Kawhka,

Chindwin, Burma.

The two races are separated in ind. hand-

book (7 p. 119) by collaris being darker on

the crown and with the back rufescent brown

and distributionally divided by the Dihang

River in Arunachal Pradesh, north of the

Brahmaputra. The three most recent skins

(1979 & 1981) from Firm Base and Miao,

Tirap Div., A.P., differ from the others (all

1946 and earlier) in being less rufous on the

head and upperparts. However, without any

topotypes of nominate rufogularis (or any-

thing west of the Dihang) it is not possible

to say if the material is of one or more races.

Measurements on p. 367.

1388 Alcippe brunnea mandelli (Godwin-

Austen) (Naga Hills, Northeast Bengal) Rufous-

headed Tit-Babbler 1:284

3 o?

Measurements on p. 367.

[498]

357

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

1389 Alcippe poioicephala subsp ? Quaker

Babbler : Paler northern birds

38: 15 ^ $ 17 $ $ 6 o?

1 Waghai, 1 Malegaon, 1 Songadh, Navsari, 1

Surat Dangs, 1 Pimpri, Surat, Gujarat; 1 Paryat,

Jubbalpore, 2 Bori Forest, Hoshangabad, 1 Anta-

garh, 1 Darba. 1 Karnali, 2 Bailadila, 1 Chota

Dongar, 1 Amraoti, Bastar, C. P.; 1 Pili, 1 Chikalda,

Melghat, Berar, Maharashtra; 1 Kutri, Daspalla, 2

Badrama, Burma, Orissa; 3 Jeypur Agency, 1 near

K. V. Nagar, Vizagapatnam District, 6 Sankrametta,

3 Anantgiri; 3 Yercaud, Salem District, 2 Shevaroy

Hills, Tamil Nadu.

Alcippe poioicephala brucei currently accept-

ed as a good subspecies has a curious history.

Referring to some notes by Fairbank which

separated birds from Mahableshwar from those

from the Nilgiris [the type locality of poioice-

phala (Jerdon)] Hume, 1870, (. JASB 39: 129)

positively said that none of the characters

mentioned i.e. size, depth of colour of upper-

parts and ferruginosity of the underparts were

consistent and that the two were identical.

As Fairbank never published his report, the

authorship was attributed to Hume though he

had only denied its validity (Blanford’s Fauna,

1, footnote on p. 158, where it was synonymised

with the nominate race) but later accepted by

Stuart Baker (Fauna 1, p. 278) who was really

only quoting Harington as occurring at “Maha-

baleshwar. Western ghats from Rajkot in

Kathiawar to Belgaum, the Central Provinces;

Pachmari and the Parasnath Hill, Lower

Bengal”.*

Thereafter, Whistler & Kinnear in the Eastern

Ghats Survey Report (1932, JBNHS 35, p 745)

named all the birds from the Shevaroy and

Chitteri Hills north to the Vizagapatnam Hills

and the Jeypur Agency as brucei. They said

it could not be separated from those from the

Western Ghats “where this species occurs from

the Goa Frontier to West Khandesh and Raj-

* Dr. B. Biswas tells me the name is valid under

Article 19a of International Code of Zoological

Nomenclature.

kot in Kathiawar”.

Later (1935, JBNHS 38, p. 80) when re-

porting on Salim Ali’s collection from Travan-

core and Cochin, Whistler said “A. p. brucei

differs from this, the typical race, in being

altogether paler. The crown and nape are a

clearer colder grey, the rest of the upperparts

are greyer and colder with less brown in them;

the wings and tail are not so dark. The lower

parts are also much paler, washed with greyer

brown, as compared with rich fulvous. It is

also slightly larger.”

In Birds of Mysore (1942, JBNHS 43, p.

322) Whistler said the birds collected from this

area were brucei including 2 from the Biligiri-

rangan Hills, though he added that an earlier

series from the same place were “intermediates

between poioicephala and brucei being defi-

nitely more richly coloured than the Survey

series.”

In INDIAN handbook 1972 (7 p. 122) brucei

is said to be paler and greyer than poioicephala

and occurring in the hills of the Indian penin-

sula, except for the range of the nominate race

which is shown to be restricted to the Ghats

along the southwest but to intergrade with

brucei in southwestern Maharashtra, Goa and

the Biligirirangan Hills which statement is re-

peated in the second edition of synopsis (1982

p. 378). In the meantime however, Robert

Grubh and Sdlim Ali have identified 5 speci-

mens recently collected in Goa as of the nomi-

note form (1976, JBNHS 73, p. 48).

In the present study it was evident that birds

from the Bombay area, Khandala and Goa

showed much individual variation and some

were indeed impossible to separate from nomi-

nate birds from the Nilgiris. There can be little

doubt that the uncertainty and confusion was

revived by comparison of the southwestern

birds with the large series obtained in the

Eastern Ghats assuming that the latter were

brucei and failing to note that topotypes of

[499]

358

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 28

brucei were not different from the nominate

form.

Considering Hume’s remarks mentioned

above, together with further observations,

brucei becomes an intermediate form which is

really inseparable from nominate poioicephala

and therefore a synonym.*

The birds from further north however i.e.

Surat Dangs, and eastwards through Jabalpur,

Hoshangabad, Bastar and Orissa into Sankra-

metta and Anantgiri in the Eastern Ghats, and

southwards into the Shevaroy and Chitteri Hills

are definitely paler and merit separation from

the nominate form.

The material available in Bombay does not

include large enough series from any particular

place to permit determination if the differences

in colour are not individual variations and

remove the possibility that birds of a particular

plumage have not been picked out and retain-

ed at other museums when the collections were

studied by earlier workers.

Recently (March 1983) I put this problem

to Dr. B. Biswas when he was in Bombay and

on his recommendation was about to separate

the birds from the northwest end of the Eastern

Ghats as a paler form but a last look-over

showed one from near R. V. Nagar, Vizaga-

patnam District, almost as dark as the south-

west form ! I am leaving this matter alone

until there has been an opportunity of examin-

ing a really representative series from any one

place.

The name brucei is omitted but the paler

birds are listed separately above.

Measurements on p. 367.

1390 Alcippe poioicephala poioicephala

(Jerdon) (Coonoor Ghat, Nilgiris) Nilgiri

Quaker Babbler 1:277

29: 18 $ $ 10 9 $ 1 o?

* See footnote on p. 358.

5 Khandala, 1 near Koyna River, 1 Matheran, 1

Khaneri, Bombay, 1 Nagothna, Kolaba District, 1

Dhanapur, Ratnagiri; 3 Molem, 1 Valpoi, Goa; 1

Kadra, N. Kanara, 1 Honnametti, 1 Shenemenalla,

2 Bellaji, Biligirirangan Hills, Coorg, Karnataka; 1

Cooly Ghat, 1 Kattamalai, Gudalur, 1 Longwood

Estate, Kotagiri, 1 Avalanche, 1 Coonoor, Nilgiris;

2 Santhanpara, Cardamom Hills, 1 Shembagnur, Palni

Hills, 1 Palni Ghat, T.N.; 1 no data.

The male and female from Santhanpara,

Cardamom Hills, south of Nilgiris, have the

most rufous underparts and if this difference

is found to be consistent and not repeated in

the Nilgiri birds, they could also be separated.

Measurements on p. 367.

1391 Alcippe poioicephala fusca Godwin-

Austen (Naga Hills) 1:278 (part)

3: 1 '$ 1 9 1 o?

2 N. Cachar; 1 N' Krang, Upper Burma.

The adults were collected by Stuart Baker

in 1892 and 1893 and though the grey on the

head and nape has almost disappeared, the

upperparts are mainly rufous, with the under-

parts more strongly tinged with rufous than in

any of the others.

The unsexed bird, possibly immature, obtain-

ed by Harington at N’Krang, Upper Burma,

in July 1900 agrees very closely in colour, but

is perhaps less rufous below.

Measurements on p. 367.

EL Alcippe poioicephala karenni Robinson

& Kloss (Karenni, Upper Burma) Karenni

Quaker Babbler

1 o? Loi Kane, Karenni, Burma.

The original label is marked “S. Shan States

magnirostris ” i.e. (of Walden) which is now

synonymised with karenni.

Measurements on p. 368.

EL. Alcippe poioicephala phayrei Blyth

(Arakan) Arakan Quaker Babbler 1:278

5: 1 $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

2 Nyannggyo, 1 Prome Road, Prome District, 1

[500]

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

Kyilin, Henzada District, 1 Sandoway District, Burma.

Measurements on p. 368.

EL Alcippe poioicephala haringtoniae Har-

tert (Bhamo) Upper Burma Quaker Babbler

1:280

1 o? North Shan States, Burma.

Measurements on p. 368.

1392/3 Alcippe nipalensis nipalensis (Hodg-

son) (Nepal) Nepal Quaker Babbler 1:275

25: 14 H 8 $ $ 3 o?

1 Martam, Rongni Valley, 1 Singhik, Sikkim; 2

Tama, 1 Mongdechu, Central, 1 Deothang, 1 Wam-

rong, East Bhutan; 1 Dafla Hills, 1 Dibang Valley,

Mishmi Hills, 1 Dibrugarh, 2 Margherita, Assam; 2

Kolaktang, 1 Miao, 3 Hornbill Camp, Tirap Division,

Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Kongpokpi, Manipur; 1 Makok-

chung, Naga Hills; 2 North Cachar; 2 Hai Bum,

Chindwin ; 1 Mooktum, Upper Burma.

The last three from Hornbill Camp, Tirap,

A. P. collected in December 1981 show a dis-

tinct yellow wash on the underparts which is

missing in all the others including 3 taken at

Miao and Kolaktang(2) in 1978/9. The olive

green of the back also becomes tinged with

rufous and is in a few years of quite a diffe-

rent colour. The extent of rufous on the under-

parts also varies appreciably and the grey of

the head disappears almost completely.

Ripley’s commoda from Dening, Mishmi

Hills, N. E. Assam, is now synonymised with

the nominate race.

Measurements on p. 368.

1394 Alcippe nipalensis stanfordi Ticehurst

(Taungup-Prome Cart Road, Arakan Yoma,

2900') Chin Hills Quaker Babbler 1:275 (part)

4:1 ^ 3 o?

2 Mt. Victoria, Pakokku District; 2 Nyannggyo,

Prome District, Burma.

These birds have less grey on the head than

most specimens of nipalensis but are barely

separable. They are marked stanfordi by

Ticehurst.

Measurements on p. 368.

1395 Heterophasia annectens annectens

(Blyth) (Darjeeling) Chestnutbacked Sibia

1:300

3: 1 $ 2 o?

1 Mishing, Abor Country, Mishmi Hills; 1 Em*

biong, Tirap Division, A.P.; 1 Loison, N. Shan States.

The central tail feathers are missing in one

but not tipped with white as stated in ind.

handbook (7 p. 128) and also in Stuart Baker’s

FAUNA (1 p. 301).

The chestnut on the lower belly and flanks

varies appreciably being deepest in No. 2930

from Mishing, Abor Country.

Measurements on p. 368.

1396 Heterophasia capistrata cap! strata

(Vigors) (Himalayas, restricted to Simla by

Ripley) Western Blackcapped Sibia 1:296

30: 15 $ $ 9 $ $ 6 o?

These fall into two groups.

(a) 17:7 $ $ 7 $$ 3 o?

1 Dunga Gali, Pakistan; 1 Dalhousie, Gurdaspur;

8 Simla, 1 Koti State, H.P.; 2 Lambathach, 2 Dakuri,

1 Ghat Gharwal, 1 Gharwal.

These birds from Gharwal and westwards are

generally paler than (b), particularly at the

collar round the neck.

(b) 13: 8 $ $ 2 $ $ 3 o?

2 Dhanaulti, Mussoorie, 5 Dakuri, 1 Mornaula, 1

Chirra, Kumaon; 1 Yoshinath, 1 Ghat Gharwal, 2

Ranibag, U.P.

According to the accepted distribution of

races, these should be of the same race as (a)

but they are on an average appreciably darker,

though specimens from Ghat Gharwal fall into

both groups. There is no difference in the

measurements.

Considerable confusion has been caused by

the change of type localities.

Measurements on p. 368.

360

[501]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 28

1397 Heterophasia capistrata nigriceps

(Hodgson) (Nepal, restricted to Central Nepal

by Ripley) Nepal Blackcapped Sibia 1:296

(part)

2:1 $ 1 9

1 Thurnsi, 1 Muktesar, Nepal.

The latter has almost no grey or brown on

the middle of the back and was collected by

Major H. J. Walton on 11 July 1899, who

has collected others listed under 1396(b) in

April, May and June 1899, in Ghat, Yoshinath

and Garhwal. The original label does not exist

and the place name may be in error for Mukte-

shwar near Naini Tal, the bird only showing

the variation visible under the nominate form.

Measurements on p. 368.

1398 Heterophasia capistrata bayleyi (Kin-

near) (Taktoo, near Sakdan, E. Bhutan)

Eastern Blackcapped Sibia

16: S $ $ 7 92 1 o?

3 Kurseong, 2 Longview, Darjeeling, 2 Kewsing,

Temi, West, 1 La chung, North, 1 Ranjit Valley,

Sikkim; 1 nr. Punthsholing, West, 1 Tama, 1 Tongsa,

1 Shamgong, 1 Batase, Central, 1 Wamrong, 1 Nar-

phong. 1 Bhutan.

This is a very distinct race, separated by

its smaller size and dark ashy back.

Measurements on p. 368.

1 399 Heterophasia gracilis (McClelland)

(Assam, restricted to Naga Hills) Grey Sibia

1:298

8: 3 $ $ 2 $ $ 3 o?

3 Kohima, Naga Hills, 1 Bishenpur, Manipur; 3

Mt. Victoria, Burma; 1 o? Place No. 3. 14.3.1907.

Collected by Nipagoo ?

Measurements on p. 369.

1400 Heterophasia pulchella (Godwin-

Austin) (Kunho Peak, Eastern Barail Range,

Naga Hills) Beautiful Sibia 1:302

4:3$$ 1 o?

1 Bomdila, Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Etalin, 1 Endol-

ing, Mishmi Hills, 1 Naga Hills.

Measurements on p. 369.

1401 Heterophasia picaoides picaoides

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Longtailed Sibia 1:295

12: 7 $ $ 4 $ $ 1 o?

1 Balasum, 3 Kurseong, 1 Longview T. E., Darjee-

ling; 1 Bhutan Duars, 3 Deothang, E. Bhutan; 3

Mishing, Abor Country, Mishmi Hills.

Measurements on p. 369.

EL Heterophasia picaoides cana (Riley) Doi

Ang Ka Lat 18°35' N, Long 98°30' E Thai-

land)

3 o? : 1 Loi Len, 1 N. Shan States, 1 Upper Burma.

The tails are shorter than in the nominate

form but $ No. 1431 from Darjeeling has a

frayed tail measuring only 172 mm. The three

Burmese birds are brown above rather than

dark greyish brown, but the same colour is

displayed by a few under nominate picaoides.

Measurements on p. 369.

EL Heterophasia meianoleuca melanoleuca

(Blyth) (Mulayit Hill, Tenasserim) Tickell’s

Sibia 1:299

5: 1 $ 4 o?

1 Chatarshu, 1 N. Shan States; 2 Sintaung, Taung-

gyi, 1 S. Shan States.

The two from Sintaung, Taunggyi, collected

in 1921 and 1933 have noticeably darker upper-

parts and their tails tipped white contra grey

in the others. Ticehurst 1940 (JBNHS 41 p.

583) refers to the subspecies described from

Burma and decides that melanoleuca, and rad-

cliffei (Stuart Baker, N. E. Central Burma) are

not separable, melanoleuca being a faded form

of radcliffei — one obtained in 1923 and named

rad cliffei having become melanoleuca by 1940

(17 years). In the present series the pale birds

are about 80 years old, while two dark ones

though obtained 62 and 50 years ago are yet

appreciably darker than the others.

The wings are longer and the tails shorter

than indicated in Stuart Baker’s Fauna.

Measurements on p. 369.

[502]

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369

7

GRASSES OF UDAIPUR DISTRICT

(RAJASTHAN STATE)1

S. S. Katewa and Y. D. Tiagi2

During a survey of the district of Udaipur over the last five years, we collected a

total of 136 species of grasses. Out of these species 100 are new records for this district

and 13 for the State of Rajasthan. The total number of the grass genera occurring

in Udaipur district is 64. Of these 37 are panicoid and 27 pooid. The panicoid

genera belong mostly to the tribes Andropogoneae and the Paniceae but the pooid

genera are distributed among 13 tribes, 10 of which are monogeneric. Most of the

Paniceae are hygrophillous. On the contrary, most of the Andropogoneae and Pooideae

usually occur in dry places.

Introduction

The district of Udaipur, having an area of

about 17267 sq. km. which is about 5.04 per

cent of the total area of Rajasthan lies in the

south-west of this state and is situated between

23°49'and 25°28' N and 73°01# and 75°49' E.

The Aravalli system of mountains dominates

the tract which is characterized by unevenness.

The eastern and north-eastern portion of the

district is hilly containing long continuous

ridges, as well as many detached hills, the

whole physiography presenting a tangled

wilderness of shallow valleys with an immense

network of narrow ‘nallas’ (drains) and fairly

deep gorges. The dominant rocks of the area

belong to the Aravalli system, consisting of

gneiss and Pre-Cambrian sandstones of the

Vindhyan System. Here and there, especially

in the Bansi, Dhariyawad and Salumber ranges,

one can find isolated patches of Deccan trap.

The soils in the plains are medium clayey,

grey-brown, yellowish-red to red in colour

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Department of Botany, School of Basic Sciences

and Humanities, University of Udaipur, Udaipur-

313 001, INDIA.

In the hilly tracts, the soils are shallow and

mostly consist of grit and coarse sand. On the

Deccan trap black, clayey soils are prevalent.

These also occur on other formations up to

some distance around the traps. Alluvial sand

occurs in the beds and on the banks of the

rivers.

The district is drained by a network of seve-

ral rivers and their tributaries. The main rivers

are Banas, Baiarch, Khari, Jakharn, Som,

Sarsi, Jawai, Vakul and Sabarmati. There are

several fresh water lakes in the district, promi-

nent among which are Jaisamand, Udaisagar,

Rajasamand, Peechola and Fatehsagar. The

district has a tropical monsoon continental type

of climate. The normal rainfall (1970-1979)

is 594.79 mm. Most of the rainfall is received

during the months of July, August and some

in September and June. Sometimes winter

showers, locally known as ‘Mavata’ are receiv-

ed during January and February. January is

the coldest month when the average maximum

temperature is only 27.5 °C and the average

minimum 3.1°C. The average maximum tem-

perature during the month of May is 41.7°C

which is the hottest month of the year whereas

the average minimum temperature for May

is 20.8°C. During the rainy season the average

370

GRASSES OF UDAIPUR DISTRICT

maximum temperature comes down to 36.1°C

in July which further decreases to 34.0°C in

August.

The flora of the different parts of the state

of Rajasthan has been studied by a number

of workers. A perusal of this literature reveals

that the work on the systematics of grasses

is meagre and sketchy. Only Ramchandran

(1950), Gandhi et al. (1961), Prakash and

Nanda (1961) and Kanodia and Rao (1965,

1966) have dealt exclusively with the grasses.

Jain (1972) recorded the occurrence of Arth-

raxon meeboldii from Mount Abu. Recently,

Bhandari (1978) described 90 species of gras-

ses under 52 genera from the Thar desert.

Sharma and Tiagi (1979) described 91 species

under 53 genera in their Flora of North-East

Rajasthan.

So far no systematic attempt has been made

to study the grasses of Udaipur district which

on account of its salubrious climate, floristi-

cally is perhaps the richest district of the

state. The present work is an outcome of the

geobotanical survey of the vegetation of the

district of Udaipur. Collections were made

during the period 1975 to 1980 in all the sea-

sons of the year and data on phenology record-

ed. A set of these specimens have been depo-

sited in the herbarium of Forest Re-

search Institute, Dehradun and another in the

Geobotany herbarium of Department of Bot-

any, School of Basic Sciences and Humani-

ties, University of Udaipur, Udaipur. The list

is arranged according to Bor (1960). No-

menclatural changes proposed by Jain and

Deshpande (1978) and Shukla and Jain (1978)

have also been incorporated in the present

work. The tribes of the Panicoideae and

Pooideae are arranged in alphabetical order.

Within each tribe the genera, within each

genus the species, are arranged similarly in

alphabetical succession. The number indicates

sheet number for the family in the Geobotany

Herbarium of this Department. Species with

an asterisk are new records for the State of

Rajasthan.

Enumeration of Grasses of Udaipur

District

Tribe: andropogoneae

1. Andropogon Linn.

Andropogon pumilus Roxb.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-November.

Locality: Jhamarkotra, GBH 757.

2. Apluda Linn.

Apluda mutica Linn. var. aristata (Linn.) Pil-

ger.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality: University Campus. GBH 953.

3 . Art hr axon P. Beauv.

Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst.

Common grass on old walls of houses and

forts.

FI. & Fr. : August-October. Locality :

Kumbhalgarh fort. GBH 314.

Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf

Rare. FI. & Fr. : September-October. Loca-

lity : Baroi hill (Zawar Mines). GBH 743.

Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 124.

4. Bothriochloa O. Ktze.

Bothriochloa pertusa (Linn.) A. Camus

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 366.

371

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

5. Chrysopogon Trin.

Chrysopogon felvos (Spreng.) Chiov.

Common on stony soils with little water

retaining capacity. FI. & Fr. : September-

Movember. Locality : University Campus.

GBH 903.

6. Cymbopogon Spreng.

Cymbopogon jwaraneusa (Jones) Schult

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 1059.

Cymbopogon martini! (Roxb.) Wats.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 190.

Cymbopogon parked Stapf

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : Matoon Mines. GBH 252.

7. Dichanthium Willm.

Dichanthium annuiatum (Forssk.) Stapf

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity: M. B. College Campus. GBH 231.

Dichanthium aristatum (Poir.) C. E. Hubb.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 219.

^Dichanthium fillcelme (Hook.f.) Jain et Desh-

pande.

Rare. FI. & Fr. : August-September. Loca-

lity : Hiran Magri, GBH 942.

*Didianthium glabrum (Roxb.) Jain et Desh-

pande.

Rare. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Locality :

University Campus. GBH 634.

Dichanthium hisegelii (Hack.) Jain et Desh-

pande.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality: Balaria hill (Zawar Mines).

GBH 1040.

8 . Elyonurus Humb. et Bonpl. ex Wild.

ESyonuras royieanus Nees ex A. Rich.

Common on open rocks. FI. & Fr. : Septem-

ber-November.

Locality : Jhamarkotra. GBH 286.

9. Eremopogon (Hack.) Stapf

Eremopogon foveolafus (Del.) Stapf

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : University Campus. GBH 156.

10. Hackelochloa O. Ktze.

HackeiochSoa granulans (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 487.

1 1 . Hemarthria R. Br.

*Hemarthria altisshna (Poir.) Stapf et C. E.

Hubb.

Rare. FI. & Fr. : August-September. Loca-

lity : Fatehsagar, GBH 776.

Hemarthria compressa (Linn.) R.Br.

Common grass restricted to marshy places.

FI. & Fr. : August-September. Locality :

Fatehsagar. GBH 41.

12. Heteropogon Pers.

Heteropogon eontortus (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 26.

13. Impemta Cyr.

Imperata cylindnca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Common grass restricted to marshy places.

FI. & Fr.: August-October. Locality: Gulab

Baugh, GBH 481.

14. Ischaemum Linn.

Ischaemum laxum R.Br.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : University Campus. GBH 464.

GRASSES OF UDAIPUR DISTRICT

Ischacmmii rugosum Salisb.

Common in wet marshy places especially

in rice fields. FI. & Fr. : September-Octo-

ber. Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 966.

15. Iseilema Anderss

Iseilema laxran Hack.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 934.

Iseilema prostratuin (Linn.) Anderss

Common near stagnant water. FI. & Fr. :

September-October. Locality : Gorana

Dam. GBH 598.

16. Rottboellia Linn.f.

Rottboellia exaltata Linn.f.

Common grass with stiff hairs on the leaves

and sheaths. FI. & Fr.: September-Octo-

ber. Locality: Balaria Hill (Zawar Mines).

GBH 328.

17. Saccharum Linn.

Sacchanim officinarum Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. : February-March.

Locality : Agriculture College Campus.

GBH 1035.

Saccharum sponfaneum Linn.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : October-February.

Locality : Kewara^ke-nal. GBH 768.

18. Sorghum Moench

Sorghum conspicum Snowden

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 993.

*Sorghum deccaeense Stapf

Not common. FI. & Fr. : September-Octo-

ber. Locality : Railmagra. GBH 710.

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 706.

Sorghum millaceum (Roxb.) Snowden.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : University Compus. GBH 709.

Sorghum vulgar© Pers

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 989.

19. Themeda Forssk.

Themeda quadrivalvls (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 338.

20. Vetiveria Lem. Lisanc.

Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash

Common on moist areas in thick tufts. FI.

& Fr. : November- January. Locality :

Kailashpuri. GBH 849.

Tribe: maydeae

21. Coix Linn.

Coix lacryma-joM Linn.

Rare in wet places along streams. FI. &

Fr.: September-October. Locality: Go-

rana Dam. GBH 978.

22. Zea Linn.

Zea mays Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. September-October.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 439.

Tribe: paniceae

23. Allot eropsis J. S. Presl

Alloteropsis cimidna (Linn.) Stapf

Common, FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Balaria Hill (Zawar Mines).

GBPI 656.

24. Brachiaria Griseb.

Brachiaria eraciformis (J.E.Sm.) Griseb.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : Vallabh nagar. GBH 577.

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stapf

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

1045.

Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard. et C. E.

Hubb.

Common. FI. & Fr. : July-September. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 691.

Pseudobrachiaria deflexa (Schum.) Launert.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 1028.

25. Cenchrus Linn.

Cenchrus dliaris Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 606.

Cenchrus setigerus Vahl

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-N ovem ber .

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

607.

26. Digitaria Heist, ex Fabricius

Digitaria dliaris (Retz.) Koel.

Common. FI. & Fr.: August-October. Loca-

lity: M. B. College Campus. GBH 765.

*D!gitaria bkornis (Lamk.) Roem.

Common. FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Locality: Gulab Bagh. GBH 772.

Digitaria adscendens (Roem. et Schult.) Veldk.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality: University Campus. GBH 43.

Digitaria setigera Roth

Rare. FI. & Fr.: August-September. Loca-

lity: Gulab Bagh. GBH 246.

Digitaria stricta Roth

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality: University Campus. GBH 44.

27. Echinochloa P. Beauv.

Ediinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link.

Common. FI. & Fr.: August-October. Loca-

lity: M. B. College Campus. GBH 1003.

Echinochloa crusgalli (Linn.) J. Beauv. var.

crusgalli

Rare emergent grass. FI. & Fr.: August-

September. Locality: Fatehsagar. GBH

502.

Echinochloa crusgalli (Linn.) P. Beauv. var.

submutica Neilr.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality: Zawar Mines. GBH 494.

Echinodiloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Zawar Mines. GBH 432.

28. Eriochloa Kunth

Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.

Common along river banks. FI. & Fr. :

September-October. Locality : Tidi river.

GBH 676.

29. Oplismenus P. Beauv.

Oplismenus bunnannii (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Common in shady places. FI. & Fr. :

August-September. Locality : Kumbhal

garh. GBH 568.

30. Panicum Linn.

*Panicum cambogiense Balansa

Rare. FI. & Fr. : September-October. Loca-

lity : Hiran Magri. GBH 854.

Panicum maximum Jacq.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 998.

Panicum miliaceum Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Gulab Bagh. GBH 922.

Panicum paludosum Roxb.

Common grass with spongy culms, found

on margins of slow flowing streams and

puddles. FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 958.

374

GRASSES OF UDAIPUR DISTRICT

Paniaim trypheron Schult.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 739.

31. Paspalidium Stapf

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus

Common in moist places. FI. & Fr. :

August-October. Locality : M. B. College

Campus. GBH 530.

Paspalidium geminatem (Forssk.) Stapf

Common along the banks of rivers and

ponds. FI. & Fr. : July-October. Locality :

Fatehsagar. GBH 292.

32. Paspalum Linn.

Paspalum dilatatum Poir.

Common along the margins of sewage

channels. FI. & Fr. : July-October. Loca-

lity : Ayad nallah. GBH 683.

Paspalum paspaloides (Michx.) Scribn.

Common along the margins of sewage chan-

nels. FI. & Fr. : July-October. Locality :

Ayad nallah. GBH 1016.

Paspalum vaginatum Swartz.

Common. FI. & Fr. : July-October. Loca-

lity : Agriculture College Campus. GBH

1011.

33. Pennisetum Rich.

Peiuiisetem holienaekeri Hochst. ex Steud.

Commonly found in clumps on muddy

places. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : On way to Bari. GBH 785.

Pennisetum hordeoldes (Lamk.) Steud.

A very characteristic common grass grow-

ing along the road side with purplish in-

florescence. FI. & Fr.: September-October.

Locality : Kevera-ke-Nal. GBH 819.

♦Pennisetum orientate L.C. Rich.

Rare. FI. & Fr. July-October. Locality :

Jaisamand. GBH 590.

Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin.

A common grass of rocky ground conspicu-

ous from its pink inflorescence. FI. & Fr.:

September-October. Locality : Kavera-ke-

Nal. GBH 782.

Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.

Rare in this area, found growing in muddy

places. FI. & Fr. : September-October.

Locality : Behind T.S.V. Hostel. GBH 718.

Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.) Stapf et C. E.

Hubb.

Common, FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : Durga Nursery. GBH 981.

34. Pseudoraphis Griff.

Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vickery

Not common, found rooting in shallow

water and floating upon the surface of

inland slow-moving rivers and in lakes.

FI. & Fr.: August-September. Locality:

Gorana Dam. GBH 970.

35. Rhynchelytrum Nees

Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C. E. Hubb.

Common on stony soils with pink feathery

panicles FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 714.

36. Set aria P. Beauv.

Setaria glauca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 913.

Setaria itaMca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Rare. FI. & Fr : September-October. Loca-

lity : Gulab Bagh. GBH 672.

Setaria palllde-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf et C

E. Hubb.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality: University Campus. GBH 824.

Setaria intermedia Roem. et Schult.

Common. FI. <& Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 795.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Setaria verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Common with spikes readily sticking to ones

clothing. FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

474.

37. Urochloa P. Beauv.

Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. var velutina

(Henr.) Bor

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

888.

Group : POOIDEAE

Tribe: agrostideae

38. Polypogon Desf.

Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf.

Common. FI. & Fr. : January-March. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Garden. GBH 539.

Tribe: aristide ae

39. Aristida Linn.

Aristida adscensionis Linn. var. adscensionis

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : University Campus. GBH 382.

Aristida depressa Retz.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September- October.

Locality : Zawar Mines. GBH 973.

Aristida funicuiata Trin. et Rupr. var. funicu-

Sata

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 418.

Aristida funiculata Trin. et Rupr. var. mailica

(Edgew.) Henr.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Zawar Mines, GBH 823.

Aristida setacea Retz.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-February.

Locality : Zawar Mines. GBH 832.

Tribe: arundineae

40. Arundo Linn.

Arundo donax Linn.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Locality: M. B. College Garden. GBH 277.

Tribe: aveneae

41. Avena Linn.

Avena fatua Linn. var. glabrata Peterm.

Common. FI. & Fr. : January-February.

Locality : Agriculture College Campus.

GBH 754.

Avena fatua Linn. var. pilosa Syme

Common. FI. & Fr. : January-February.

Locality : Agriculture College Campus.

GBH 948.

Tribe: chlorideae

42. Chloris Sw.

Chloris barbata Sw.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

cality : M. B. College Campus. GBH 633.

Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Locality : Balaria hill (Zawar Mines).

GBH 308.

Chloris montana Roxb.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : Zawar Mines. GBH 616.

Chloris quinquesetica Bhide

Not common. FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

936.

Chloris virgata Sw.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 625.

43. Cynodon Rich

*Cynodon barberi Rang, et Tad.

Rare. FI. & Fr. : July-October. Locality :

Zawar Mines. GBH 812.

376

GRASSES OF UDAIPUR DISTRICT

Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Common. FI. & Fr. : Almost throughout

the year. Locality : M. B. College Cam-

pus. GBH 791.

44. Melanocenchris Nees

Melanocencfarls jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : University Campus. GBH 509.

♦Melanocenchris monoica (Rottl.) C.E.C.

Fisch.

Rare. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Locality :

Balaria hill (Zawar Mines). GBH 828.

45. Oropetium Trin.

Qropetium tfiomaeum (Linn, f.) Trin.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 123.

46. Schoenefeldia Kunth

Schoenefeldia gracilis Kunth.

Rare. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Locality :

Air Port. GBH 267.

47. Tetrapogon Desf.

Tetrapogoe tenelSes (Roxb.) Chiov.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : Balaria hill (Zawar Mines). GBH

468.

Tribe : eragrostae

48. Acrachne Wight et Arn.

Acrachne racemosa (Heyne) Ohwi

Common. FI. & Fr. : July-September. Loca-

lity: M. B. College Campus. GBH 301.

49. Dactyloctenium Willd.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Common. FI. & Fr.: August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 931.

Dactyloctenium sindicum Boiss

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

927.

50. Desmostachia Stapf

Desmostachia hipinnata (Linn.) Stapf

Common. FI. & Fr. : October- January. Loca-

lity: University Campus. GBH 639.

51. Dinebra Jacq.

Dinehra retroilexa (Vahl) Panz.

Common in cultivated fields. FI. & Fr.:

September-October. Locality: Agriculture

College Campus. GBH 447.

52. Eleusine Gaertn.

Eleusine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn.

Common. FI. & Fr.: September-November.

Locality: On way to Kumbhal garh.

GBH 985.

Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn.

Common. FI. & Fr.: July-October. Locality:

M. B. College Campus. GBH 175.

53. Eragrostiella Bor

Eragrostiella blfaria (Vahl) Bor

Common on stony soils. FI.: August-Sep-

tember. Locality: University Campus.

GBH 137.

Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf) Bor

Common. FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Locality: University Campus. GBS 899.

54. Eragrostis P. Beauv.

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo-Lutati.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : October-December.

Locality : Airport. GBH 734.

Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R. Br. var. ciliaris

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-February.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

1007.

377

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R. Br. var. brachy-

stacfaya Boiss.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-February.

Locality : On way to Kailashpuri. GBH

405.

Eragrastis diarrhena (Schult.) Steud.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-December.

Loality : Vallabh Nagar. GBH 411.

Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-November.

Locality : On way to Bari. GBH 896.

Eragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

1022.

Eragrostis minor Host.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-November.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

862.

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 843.

Eragrostis tremula Hochst. ex Steud.

Common. FI. & Fr.: August-October. Loca-

lity: University Campus. GBH 761.

Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

Not common. FI. & Fr. : November- Janu-

ary. Locality : Gorana Dam. GBH 962.

Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 860.

55. Leptochloa P. Beauv.

♦Leptochloa chinensis (Linn.) Nees

Not common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

345.

♦Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi

Not Common. FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : M. B. College Campus. GBH

516.

56. Tripogon Roem. et Schult.

♦Tripogon hookerianus Bor

Not common, FI. & Fr. : August-September.

Locality : University Campus. GBH 564.

Tripogon jacquemontii Stapf

Common on rocky soils. FI. & Fr. : August-

September. Locality : Bari. GBH 805.

Tripogon roxburghianus (Steud.) Bhide

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : University Campus. GBH 671.

Tribe: oryzeae

57. Oryza Linn.

Oryza saliva Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Locality : Zawar Mines. GBH 560.

Tribe: perotideae

58. Perotis Ait.

Perotis indica (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : On way to Jhameshwarji. GBH 548.

59. Phalaris Linn.

Phalaris minor Retz.

Common. FI. & Fr. : January-March. Loca-

lity : Agriculture College Campus. GBH

585.

Tribe: sporoboleae

60. Sporobolus R. Br.

Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.) Kunth.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity : M. B. College Campus. GBH 368.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Common. FI. & Fr. : August-October. Loca-

lity: M. B. College Campus. GBH 391.

378

GRASSES OF UDAIPUR DISTRICT

Sporobolus niargiiiatiis Hochst. ex A. Rich.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October- December.

Locality : Kailashpuri. GBH 375.

Tribe: triticeae

61. Hordeum Linn.

Hordeum vulgare Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. : Decern ber-March.

Locality : Agriculture College Campus,

GBH 1052.

62. Triticum Linn.

Triticum aestivum Linn.

Common. FI. & Fr. : January-March. Loca-

lity : Agriculture College Campus. GBH

446.

Refe ]

Bhandari, M. M. (1978): Flora of the Indian

Desert. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, pp. 471.

Bor, N. L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Cey-

lon, India and Pakistan. London.

Gandhi, et al. (1961): Grasses of Jaipur. Proc.

Nat. Acad. Sci. India Section B, Part I. 31: 183-

192.

Jain, S. K. (1972): The genus Arthraxon P.

Beauv. (Poaceae) in India. J. Indian bot. Soc. 51:

165-183.

Jain, S. K. & Deshpande, (1978): Transfer of

some Indian species of Bothriochloa and Capilli-

pedium to Dichanthium. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 20:

133-135.

Kanodia, K. C. & Rao, R. S. (1965) : Grasses

Tribe: zoysieae

63. Tragus Hall.

Tragus roxburghii Panigar.

Common. FI. & Fr. : October-December.

Locality : Ayad. GBH 454.

Tribe: bambuseae

64. Bambusa Schreb.

Baiubusa bambos (Linn.) Voss

Common. FI. & Fr. : Not seen. Locality :

Balaria hill (Zawar Mines). GBH 1054.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the University Grants

Commission for massive financial support for

a major research project under which this

work was carried out.

ences

of Mt. Abu, Rajasthan state. Ann. Arid. Zone. 4:

110-119.

(1966) : Grasses

of Mt. Abu, Rajasthan. Ann. Arid. Zone. 6: 49-62.

Praicash, M. & Nanda, P. C. (1961) : Ecological

distribution of natural fodder grasses in western

Rajasthan. Indian For. 87: 10-19.

Ramachandran, K. R. (1950): Common grasses

found round about Pilani. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr.

Poona. 65-66.

Sharma, S. & Tiagi, B. (1979): Flora of North-

East Rajasthan, pp. 540.

Shukla, U. & Jain, S. K. (1978) : On the nomen-

clature of some Indian grasses. Bull. Bot. Surv.

India. 20: 64-68.

379

PEREGRINE FALCON1

S. M. Osman2

It has mainly been left to falconers to write

about the life of the peregrine falcon, and

make it known to the general public. Such

knowledge of the peregrine as exists, has most-

ly if not exclusively come from the pen of

falconers, because the best available informa-

tion about these birds was evident to them

long before modern ornithology got interested

in falcons. From falconry we learn a great many

things which could perhaps never have been

known through other sources.

Falconers have written about other kinds of

falcons also, yet the peregrine falcon and some

of its subspecies have always remained a favou-

rite with them, and in consequence more lite-

rature has been devoted to this group of noble

birds. Since falconry enthusiasts have been

able to study peregrine falcons very closely

they have rightly been able to assess its intel-

ligence and behaviour better than the modern

scientific bird watcher whose contact with these

falcons is generally through the medium of

high powered binoculars. Ornithologists are

likely to draw conclusions, by studying over a

period of time, a single peregrine falcon. I feel

it is incorrect to generalize from the observa-

tion of only a single or even just a few birds.

I have had first hand experience of quite a

number of passage peregrines consisting of (a)

Falco peregrinus peregrinus, (b) the Siberian

falcon F. p. calidus, and (c) F. p. brevirostris 3

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 ll-D/10 Circular Road, Dehra Dun, U.P.

3 This is one of the “forms” of F. p. peregrinus

recognised by Menzbier 1892 — Eds.

group of birds. In addition to this I have train-

ed and hunted with many other subspecies of

the peregrine. In all cases, their highly specific

predatory behaviour, including choice of prey,

manner of attacking and despatching the

victim, their habits and reactions to certain

types of stimuli while held under training, pro-

vide ample clues to their varying evolutionary

adaptations and consequent intriguing problems

relevant to the special sort of training and

hunting regimen demanded in each case. My

experiments with all the species /types, of the

peregrine tribe, and other hawks also, have

revealed and clearly demonstrated a common

decisive influence: the trainer’s first social

approach bearing heavily on the predator’s

emotional behaviour.

Distributed all over the earth, there are

twenty three kinds of peregrine falcons. This

is really surprising, since it has all along been

taken for granted that crowding instinct alone

is mainly responsible for the promotion of

interbreeding of species. Crowding as we can

see is a factor controlled entirely by the mobi-

lity of a group. In view of the free and unfetter-

ed mobility at the peregrine’s disposal, the very

idea of interbreeding and subsequent evolution

of subspecies, may appear to the casual obser-

ver, a bit far fetched. However the phenome-

non can be explained and understood if we

examine the problem carefully.

In all my experience with these birds, I have

known three kinds of passage peregrines that

breed near, or as in one case, inside the Arctic

circle, and all these three fly down south to

hunting grounds in the tropics every year in

380

PEREGRINE FALCON

the winter. Thus they freely migrate, from their

breeding grounds to their winter quarters, and

back, completing a double journey of almost

ten thousand miles yearly. The three different

types of passage peregrines that I have kept

and trained vary little in size. Their respective

colour schemes also vary but slightly. Their

markings are similar and other characteristics

more or less the same. Variation in size and

colour is almost entirely caused by food habits

and environmental factors and influences. Of

the three peregrines mentioned above, Falco

peregrinus calidus flies the longest distance every

year. It breeds well within the Arctic circle,

and flies down to and beyond the Persian Gulf

as far south as Aden, every winter. Compared

to the other two migratory peregrines I know,

it is easily the biggest killer falcon.

Because of its signal killing capacity, this

bird is highly prized by Arab falconers. There

is an unending demand for it in the hawk

markets of Kuwait and other Arab sheikdoms

skirting the southern shores of the Persian Gulf.

Rarely, I have seen stray birds turn up in the

Punjab and the Indogangetic plain. During the

past thirty years I have come across only

four such falcons ( calidus ) that were trapped

in the Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh.

Detailed attention has been paid to this falcon

elsewhere [See JBNHS Vol. 75 (3): 845-853].

Let us consider some of the factors responsible

for the distribution and evolution of subspecies

of the three distinct passage birds that have

been mentioned earlier.

From time to time it has all along been

observed' by many falconers, and on many

occasions I myself have also noticed it, that

in certain years some individual passage pere-

grines will not fly back to breeding grounds

from their wintering quarters. Twice I have

seen adult passage peregrines in Mussoorie (W.

Himalayas) during July; under normal condi-

tions these very birds ought to have flown back

to their northern breeding grounds early in

March. One of the peregrines was sighted in

the vicinity of Gun Hill on Camel’s Back road.

I saw it for the first time when I was taking a

stroll along Camel’s Back road one fine morn-

ing. I got interested, and just to make sure

that it indeed was a peregrine falcon I had

seen, I revisited the spot the next day in the

hope of getting a better look at my friend,

should it still be in the area. I could easily

find her on my second visit, and I spent almost

a full hour studying her through binoculars.

She was a large female peregrine in her third

moult, and from that I could make out she

probably was of the form brevirostris. The

falcon had chosen a rock perch towering high

up above Camel’s Back road, just above the

Christian cemetery.

There was hardly any traffic on this particu-

lar road then, though the hill season was in

full swing, so the bird was not disturbed by

the presence of human beings and remained

comparatively unafraid. I was thus able to climb

close to her perch, and to observe her in an

atmosphere of comparative calm for nearly an

hour each time on two successive days.

Kites and crows did not disturb her at all,

but a Shaheen tiercel appeared the first day I

was keeping watch. With grating screeches, in

mock attacks he stooped at the peregrine

several times. I suppose he was just trying, with

amorous intent, to get to know the lady from

the north a little better, or perhaps wished to

drive the interloper away from his territory.

Whatever it may be, he failed miserably for I

could see that the peregrine was not in the

least bothered by the attention that was thus /

being paid her.

Incidentally I have on several occasions

witnessed the ritual aerial ‘dance’ of some male

and female falcons. First, at a height of almost

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

five hundred feet above ground, the tiercel

makes a few passes at the female falcon; then

as both birds close in the female turns over

on her back in midair and grabs the outstretch-

ed claws of the attacking tiercel, and thus with

the claws locked together vehemently beating

their wings and gyrating vigorously, both float

down to eighty feet or so when they once again

break apart.

In my opinion this aerial display, vocal and

physical, serves to attract and appease both

partners till eventually the pair gradually gets

accustomed to each other and the bond is

established. I have watched lagger falcons

( Falco jugger) that have been together and

breeding for three or four successive seasons.

They rarely indulged in such noisy aerobatics,

and this may be due to the fact that the birds

were known to each other. Of course the occa-

sional bouts of display may have caused the

falcons to attain some sexual stimulation, as

this kind of behaviour could definitely cause

acceleration of sexual excitation and connected

reproductive processes.

Broadly speaking there are two groups of

falcons: one comprises of the peregrine and its

subspecies, the other group consists of the Saker

falcon ( Falco cherrug) and Gyr falcon ( Falco

rusticolus) type of birds. In my opinion, as a

falconer, the Gyr, the Saker, and the Merlin

falcon ( Falco columbarius) and F. chicquera

are close relatives. In the Saker and the Gyr

falcon a close similarity can be seen not only

in size and shape, but also in the fact that in

both these birds, after each successive moult,

the configuration of the streaks or elongated

spots on the underparts from crop to belly

does not change appreciably. On the other

hand in the case of true passage peregrine and

some of its subspecies as well, breast, crop,

belly and back markings undergo significant

changes with each succeeding moult. The elon-

gated breast spots become broad arrow heads,

which later turn to bars as the falcon grows

older. Feather edgings on wing-coverts and

back disappear, and colour of the peregrine’s

head, as well as that of peregrinator falcons

undergo perceptible changes.

For years I have off and on been keeping

Saker falcons. Comparing these birds with Gyr

falcon (I only mean pictures of the Gyr, since

I have not had the pleasure of actually handling

one of these singularly striking and noble

birds) there is for all the world to see, yet

another marked resemblance present. Toes in

both these falcons, in proportion to their body

size, are comparatively short and thick. The

tarsus is also similarly short. It appears as if

both these birds were intended by nature to

be better adapted for perching on rocky out-

crops and sand dunes in general. As for the

tiny Merlin falcon ( Falco columbarius) though

there is a great difference in size between it

and the Gyr or the Saker falcon, yet a signifi-

cant character is common to all the three,

namely, the tail pens or rectrices exceed the

primary wing quills in length. This character

is absent and lacking in the peregrine and all

its subspecies. Also like its bigger cousin the

Saker falcon, the Merlin does not change signi-

ficantly after each moult. In addition if we

compare the Merlin closely with the peregrines

we will see that for a dainty little falcon of its

size, its beak, like that of the Saker and the

Gyr, is more broad based and powerfully built

in proportion.

In places where the true passage Peregrine’s

wintering grounds overlap those of the Saker

falcon, it is conceivable to me that on rare

occasions when a Peregrine has not flown back

to its nesting area, at the onset of the mating

season, hybridisation of the two species may

take place. This could have led to the produc-

tion of the Lanner falcon which combines most

382

PEREGRINE FALCON

of the Peregrine’s attributes with some of the

Saker’s. Actually like the Saker the Lanner

Falcon is also not a migratory bird though

some modern scientists prefer to call it a Pere-

grine subspecies. Only a local shifting of the

Lanner falcon from one hunting ground to an-

other is in evidence. Again like the Saker, the

Lanner is always in its element in arid country

bordering on desert land. With the Lanner

falcon there is no appreciable change in back

and frontal markings after each moult.

I once had a trained Lanner falcon which

remained with me for four years. After three

moults I found no difference in its original

front and back markings and in those it acquir-

ed after three successive moults. However,

unlike its ‘ancestor’ the Saker, the Lanner

falcon’s method of hunting, its habit of soaring

aloft and waiting for game to break cover,

and finally to my mind, the way it runs down

its quarry, mostly striking it in midair, defi-

nitely betrays a peregrine ancestory. Its beak

also is not broad based like that of the Saker’s

but built more like a peregrine’s. It has long

toes totally unlike the short stubby toes of a

Saker.

When the Lanner ( Falco biarmicus) in turn

met the passage peregrine, the red-naped

Shaheen ( Falco pelegrinoides) was born. This

bird is more Peregrine than the Lanner, and

ranges in an intermediate zone — not quite as

far south as the Peregrine’s farthest wintering

limit, but in a belt that borders on the Lanner’s

northernmost range. In some places, like in

Baluchistan (Pakistan), I have found them

comfortably sharing a common territory. The

red-naped Shaheen is smaller than the Pere-

grine falcon in size, an adult female weighing

one and a half pounds. However it is very

solidly formed, broad breasted, and with short

secondary feathers. Its toes are long like those

of a Peregrine. After every moult, there is a

definite change noticeable in the markings on

its breast and back, and in the colour of its

head. In five or six year old birds this turns

to a beautiful red tone, not unlike a Merlin

falcon’s head. I may add, however, that in the

case of the Merlin falcon, the red extends down

to the shoulder in juvenile birds, gradually

recedes up the neck so that in five year old

Merlins (and I refer to the redheaded Merlin)

the head alone remains red in colour while the

nape and shoulders turn grey. In the red-naped

Shaheen falcon, the opposite is the case: as the

bird gets older, first a red tint forms on top

of its head which spreads progressively down

its neck after each moult. The red-capped

Shaheen is essentially a bird of scrublands and

bare mountains. Local migration does take

place when it flies to the nearest range of moun-

tains for nesting. For example these falcons

will be seen in winter in the Sindh valley,

Pakistan, but they fly to the Sulaiman range of

mountains to breed. This falcon seemingly

having moved east of its most easterly limit,

across the Indus river got to the Punjab area.

It then started frequenting the Himalayas for

nesting and breeding. In this part of the sub-

continent the hills and plains directly below

them are all luxuriantly wooded with pine and

oak forests as a result of ample irrigation by

snow fed streams and rivers from the Hima-

layas. Over a period of geological time, because

of the local ecological conditions of such envi-

ronment a dark phase of this falcon, the black

Shaheen ( F . p. peregrinator) has emerged. Its

hunting technique has altered to suit the chang-

ed climatic and topographical conditions. The

black Shaheen is quite similar in size to the

red-naped Shaheen but differs immensely in

its colour scheme. Every year upto the sixth

moult there is a conspicuous change in the

markings, and colouring in this bird. Age re-

cognition after this, as in the case of the passage

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

peregrines and the red-naped Shaheen, is extre-

mely difficult.

Between the far western form babylonicus,

and its eastern counterpart peregrinator there

exists yet an intermediate phase of the Shaheen

falcon. I suppose this falcon is perhaps the

first step in the evolution of the black Shaheen

from the red-naped form. It is not as dark as

the black Shaheen nor does it appear to be as

light coloured as its red-naped ‘ancestor’. With

the passage peregrines and the babylonicus and

peregrinator groups of falcons, it shares the

common character of changing colour and fea-

ther markings with every successive moult.

I have attempted to describe only those true

peregrine falcons and some of their subspecies

that it has been my good fortune to study, keep

and train for the practice of falconry. All my

knowledge is therefore empirical and based on

first hand experience. However in such matters

as taxonomy and migration of the true passage

peregrines, and other obscure phenomena, my

hypotheses may be taken for what they are

worth. Till better proof to the contrary emerge,

I believe my assertions and suppositions will

stand a good a chance of acceptance by the

cognoscenti.

384

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF LONICERA L. (CAPRIFOLIACEAE) FROM

NORTH WEST HIMALAYA1

M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri2

(With a text -figure)

During revisionary studies on the genus

Lonicera L. (Caprifoliaceae) specimens col-

lected from Chamba, Himachal Pradesh ( Lace

1316 & Lace 1715) were found to be different

from the species so far described. After criti-

cal study it is seen that this taxon belongs to

the subsection Alpigeneae Rehder (Rep. Miss.

Bot. Gard. 14: 102. 1903) of the genus Loni-

cera L. This new species is described and illus-

trated.

Lonicera laceana sp. nov.

Affinis L. heterophyllae Decaisne, sed foliis

oblongis vel elliptico-oblongis, baud lobatis,

apice apiculatis vel mucronatis, basi subrotun-

datis vel subcordatis, glabris, margine integeris,

coriaceis; corollis extus glabribus, lobis mar-

gine haud ciliatibus differt.

Typus : Kalatop forest, Chamba, North-western

Himalaya, 7000 ft. (2128 m.) 15th April

1896, J. H. Lace 1316 (Holotype CAL).

Shrubs or small trees, branches more or less

round, solid, glabrous, bark greyish, promi-

nently black-dotted. Winter bud with only one

pair of outer scales, scales ovate-oblong, 10.0-

12.0 x 2. 5-3. 5 mm, boat shaped, apex acute,

glabrous. Leaves opposite-decussate, exstipu-

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, P. O. Botanic Gar-

den, Howrah-711 103.

late, oblong or elliptic-oblong (4.0-) 6. 0-8.0

(-12.0) x (2.5-) 3. 0-4.0 (-6.5) cm, base

subrounded to subcordate, apex apiculate or

mucronate, margin entire, 6-8 pairs of lateral

nerves nearly obscure near the margin, reti-

culations usually prominent on the upper

surface, glabrous on both surface, coriaceous,

shiny; petioles 4. 0-7.0 mm long, glabrous,

canaliculate. Inflorescence axillary, 2-flowered,

peduncle 2. 5-5. 5 cm long, somewhat com-

pressed, glabrous; bracts free, linear 5. 0-7.0

mm long, as long as or slightly exceeding the

ovary, margin distantly glandular, glabrous;

bracteoles 2 pairs, free, subulate 0.5- 1.0 mm

long, inconspicuously glandular at the margin,

glabrous. Calyx small, cup like with 5 small

truncate limbs, persistent, margin entire or in-

conspicuously glandular, glabrous. Corolla

10.0-14.0 mm long, prominently gibbous near

the base, glabrous without; bilabiate, lower lip

oblong, 8.0-10.0 mm long, apex rounded,

reflexed, upper lip 4-lobed, lobes unequal, ovate

to oblong, apex rounded, margin not ciliated;

tube shorter than the lower lip, densely pilose

within. Stamens 5, attached near the throat of

the corolla tube, filaments short, unequal in

length, 3. 5-5.0 mm long, stout, pilose at base,

glabrous above, anthers large, nearly as long

as the filaments, narrowly oblong, dorsifixed.

Ovary free, cylindric, 3 -locular, glabrous, 3.0-

4.0 mm long; style deflexed, 10.0-12.0 mm

long, densely pilose. Berries fleshy, usually one

385

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 1. Lonicera laceana sp. nov.

A. Habit (natural size); B. Flowers with bracts and bracteoles; C. Corolla splited

open, showing attachment of stamens and pilose nature within the tube.

386

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table

smaller in the pair, oblong or ovoid, glabrous,

± 10 mm long, crowned with the persistent

calyx.

The species is closely related to Lonicera

heterophylla Dene, but can be easily distin-

guished by the following characters (Table).

Distribution : Himachal Pradesh: Kalatop

forest, Chamba, 2821 m. 15th April 1896

/. H. Lace 1316 (type); Kalatop forest,

Chamba, 2432 m, June 1896, /. H . Lace

1715.

The species is named after its collector J. H.

Lace who made extensive collections in the

Chamba state of Himachal Pradesh.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS STORTHECORIS HORVATH

(HETEROPTERA : PENTATOMIDAE)1

M. Nayyar Azim

AND

S. Adam Shafee2

(With ten text-figures)

Storthecoris aligarhensis sp. nov. and Storthecoris obtusiceps sp. nov. are described

and illustrated. Types deposited in Zoological Collections, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, India.

Storthecoris aligarhensis sp. nov. (Figs. A-G)

FEMALE . (Fig. A)

Head : Dark brown with thick white hairs,

distinctly wider than long (1.5:0.99 mm);

juga dilated, as long as tylus; antenniferous

tubercles projecting outwardly into acute

spines; eyes dark brown, ocelli yellowish; ros-

trum extending upto mid coxae, segments I,

II, III and IV, 0.85, 0.72, 0.52 and 0.33 mm

1 Accepted October 1980.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

in length respectively; anteroventral angles of

bucculae rounded. Antennae (fig. B) dark

brown, segments I, II, III, IV and V, 0.25,

0.25, 0.55, 0.4 and 0.69 mm in length res-

pectively.

Thorax : Dark brown with white hairs,

minutely and sparsely punctate except venter

with irregular ridges; pronotum with anterior

margin deeply concave, near each anterior

angle with a long acute spine, extending be-

yond level of eyes, antero -lateral margins of

pronotum straight and smooth, humeral angles

subprominent and bidentate; maximum width

387

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

Figs.

(C)

Figs.

A-G. Storthecoris aligarhensis sp. nov., $ ; (A) Entire body; (B) Antenna;

Hemelytra; (D) External genitalia; (E) Spermatheca; (F) Spermathecal bulb;

(G) Last tergum.

H-J. Storthecoris obtusiceps sp. nov., $ ; (H) Pronotum in dorsal view; (I)

Antenna; (J) Spermathecal bulb.

388

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

of pronotum about twice its median length

(3. 5: 1.5 mm); scute! lum well developed,

twice as long as wide, reaching just before apex

of abdomen; evaporatoria tuberculated. Heme-

lytra (fig. C) with corium sparsely punctate,

more than one and a half times the length of

membrane. Legs dark brown.

Abdomen : Dark brown except venter

medially with a broad dark patch; distinctly

longer than wide (3. 9: 3. 3 mm); venter un-

sulcated and unarmed at base; last tergum

(fig. G) in female with anterior and posterior

margins slightly convex; external plates of

female genitalia (fig. D) with 1st gonocoxae

and 8th paratergites triangular, 9th paratergites

oblong, much longer than wide; spermathecal

bulb (fig. F) with a single protuberance.

Body length : 6.6 mm.

Holotype : $ , India, Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,

University Campus, on grass, 18.3.1979 (M.

Nayyar Azim).

Paratypes: 2 $ (Same data as for holotype).

StortSiecoris obtusiceps sp. nov. (Figs. H-J)

FEMALE

Resembles S. aligarhensis sp. nov. except in

the following characters:

Antennae (fig. I) with third segment slight-

ly shorter than fourth (0.48:0.51 mm); pro-

notum (fig. H) with anterior margin slightly

concave, near each anterior angle with small

spine truncated apically, not extending beyond

the level of eyes; spermathecal bulb (fig. J)

with two protuberances.

Body length : 6.5 mm.

Holotype : 9 , India, Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,

University Agricultural farm, 10.8.1979 (M.

Nayyar Azim).

Paratypes : 2 $ (Same data as for holotype).

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mash-

hood Alam, Head, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for pro-

viding research facilities. Thanks are also due

to Prof. Nawab H. Khan for encouragement.

One of us (M.N.A.) is thankful to U.G.C.

New Delhi for financial assistance during the

tenure of this work.

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS SYN1DOTEA HARGER FROM

WALTAIR COAST, INDIA (CRUSTACEA: ISOPOD A: VALVIFERA)1

C. Jalaja Kumari and K. Shyamasundari2

(With twelve text-figures)

A new species of the genus Synidotea Harger, belonging to family Idoteidae is des-

cribed. Synidotea hanumantharaoi sp. nov. is compared with S. harfordi Benedict,

1897, S. variegata Pillai, 1954, S. worliensis Joshi & Bal, 1959 and S. fluviatilis Pillai,

1963. Three male specimens were collected from the algal mass along the rocky in-

tertidal region of Gangavaram, Waltair.

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University,

Waltair-530 003.

The isopods of the genus Synidotea are little

known in India. Collinge (1917), Chilton

(1924), Pillai (1954) and Joshi & Bal (1959)

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 1. Synidotea hanumantharaoi sp. nov.; Fig. 2. Antennule; Fig. 3. Antenna; Fig. 4.

Maxillule; Fig. 5. Maxilla; Fig. 6. Mandible; Fig. 7. Maxilliped; Fig. 8. Epignatb.

Abbreviations :

AE — Aesthetases; BS — Basis; EN — Endopod; END — Endite; EX — Exopod; FL —

Flagellum; IEX — Inner lobe of exopod; INP — Incisor process; LM — Lacinia mobilis;

MP — Molar process; MXP — Maxillipedal palp; OEX — Outer lobe of exopod;

PD — Peduncle.

390

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

reported Synidotea variegata from Gulf of

Mannar, Chilka Lake, Kerala and Bombay

coasts respectively. Pillai (1954) described

Synidotea fluviatilis from Quilon and Cochin.

Joshi & Bal (1959) reported Synidotea worli-

ensis from Bombay. This is the fourth species

of this genus from India.

Synidotea hamimantliaraoi sp. nov. (Figs. 1-12)

Male : Length 10 mm; Breadth 2 mm.

Colour: Dark greenish brown coloured body

with little yellow tinge on the pleon region.

Body elongate-oval, nearly three times lon-

ger than wide, moderately flattened, dorsal sur-

face smooth, lacking tubercles or rugae. Cepha-

lon thrice as wide as long; frontal margin

transverse, with a small median emargination

or notch. Mid- dorsal portion of cephalon

semi-circular. Eyes very large, oval and situat-

ed at extreme lateral edges of cephalon.

Antennule small, with three peduncular

articles. Peduncular article 1 stout, with round

base. Articles 2, 3 short and sub-equal. Anten-

nular flagellum uniart iculate, stout, elongate-

oblong, apically bears seven aesthetascs. Anten-

nule extends to fourth peduncular article of

antenna.

Antenna with 5 peduncular articles; article

I short, articles 2, 3 subequal, article 4 stout,

article 5 long and slender. Antennal flagellum

6-articulate, all articles bear simple setae. Ter-

minal flagellar article possesses a bunch of

setae.

Maxillule with 8 denticulate, stout, curved

spines on exopod; 2 long, plumose setae and

a small setule on endopod. Maxilla tri-lobate.

endopod heavily setose, with 13 comb setae;

inner lobe of exopod with 3 plumose setae

and 8 comb setae; outer lobe of exopod with

II plumose setae. Mandible with 3 -cuspate in-

cisor process; robust and serrated molar pro-

cess; lacinia mobilis of 2 cusps and three spines.

Maxillipedal palp of 3 articles; distal 2 articles

with simple setae; endite with 1 coupling hook

and 6 plumose setae along terminal margin.

Epignath as wide as long projecting over the

mandibles, posterior margin with median con-

cavity, covered with setae.

Pereon roughly 2-2\ times longer than

pleon; pereonite 1 dumbell shaped, with round-

ed lateral margins; border of pereonites 2-7

truncate. Pereonite 7 narrowest and shortest;

pereonites 2-5 subequal; pereonites 1 and 6

subequal. Mid-dorsal line of pereonites 1-4

possess crescentic arcuate depressions. Coxae

of pereonites 1-7 not formed on dorsal side.

Pereopods 1-7 gradually increase in length

posteriorly, ambulatory. Pereopod 1 stout, with

comb setae on inner surface of flat carpus, a

strong hook like dactylus and heavy setation

on ventral margin. Pereopods 2-7 subsimilar

without comb setae, with weak setation on

ventral margin.

Pleon composed of a single segment, with a

pair of partial antero -lateral setules. Pleotelson

about one third length of pereon, postero-

lateral margins angular. Apex of pleotelson

medially concave. Uropod uniramus, distally

truncate, medial margins covered by setae, inner

distal angle of peduncle with three, large, plu-

mose setae. Pleopods 1-5 elongate oval and

distally rounded. Endopod of pleopods 1-5 with

naked margins and exopod with plumose setae

on outer margin. Appendix masculina of pleo-

pod 2 arises from basis, extends beyond tip

of rami and terminally obtuse.

Material studied:

Three male specimens were collected from

algal mass along the rocky intertidal region

of Gangavaram, Waltair. Holotype male 1 and

paratypes male 2 are lodged in the Department

of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair. They

will be deposited in the collections of the Zoo-

logical Survey of India, Calcutta.

391

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Discussion llule, maxilliped and uropods, but differs in

possessing short, stout antennule with 7 aesthe-

The present species resembles Synidotea tascs; short, stout antennae with 6 flagellar

variegata Pillai, 1954 in body form, arcuate articles and truncate distal margin of uropod.

depressions on pereonites, structure of maxi- It also resembles Synidotea harfordi Benedict,

Fig. 9. Pereopod 1; Fig. 10. Pleopod 1; Fig. 11. Pleopod 2; Fig. 12. Uropod.

Abbreviations :

AM — Aesthetascs; BS — Basis; QR — Carpus; DT — Ductylus; EN — Endopod;

EX — Exopod; PD — Peduncle.

392

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1897 in general shape. In S. hanumantharaoi

the flagellum of antenna is composed of 6

articles; whereas in S. harfordi antennular

flagellum consists of 31 articles. The present

form shows some resemblances to S. fluvia-

tilis Pillai, 1963 in the structure of maxillule,

maxilla and distally truncated uropod, but can

be easily separated by its differently shaped

antennule, antenna and telson.

The present species also resembles S. worli-

ensis Joshi & Bal, 1959 in the shape of maxilla,

maxilliped and presence of arcuate depressions

on pereon, but differs from it in the structure

of antennular flagellum, uropods and telson,

and thereby differs from all other species.

References

Benedict, J. E. (1897) : A revision of the genus

Synidotea. Proc. U.S. nat. Mus. 49: 389-404.

Chilton, C. (1924) : Fauna of the Chilka Lake.

Tanaidacea and Isopoda. Mem. Indian Mus. 5:

875-895.

Collinge, W. E. (1917): Description of a new

species of Isopoda of the genus Synidotea Harger,

from the Gulf of Mannar. Rec. Indian Mus. 13: 1-3.

Joshi, U. N. & Bal, D. V. (1959): Some of the

DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF TETRASTICHUS

HALID AY (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S. Adam Shafee, Anis Fatma2

AND PREM KlSHORE3

( With five text-figures )

T etrastichus agarwali sp. nov. and Tetrastichus delhiensis sp. nov., parasites of Atheri-

gona soccata (Rondani) are described and illustrated. The new species are compared

with their closely allied species. Types are deposited in Zoological Museum, Aligarh

Muslim University. Aligarh, India.

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni

versity, Aligarh, India.

3 Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Re

search Institute, New Delhi, India.

Tetrastichus agarwali sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

FEMALE

Head dark except region below antennal in-

littoral species of Bombay isopods with detailed

description of two new species. J. Univ. Bombay 25

(5B) : 57-67.

Pillai, N. K. (1954) : A preliminary note on the

Tanaidacea and Isopoda of Travancore. Bull. Cent.

Res. Inst. Univ. Travancore 3: 1-21.

(1963): South Indian marine iso-

pods. /. Univ. Bombay 31: 110-112.

especially in the structure of antennule, antenna,

maxillule, maxilla and shape and size of the

cephalon, pereon and pleon.

The species is named in honour of Prof. K.

Hanumantha Rao, Department of Zoology,

Andhra University, Waltair, India.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Prof. K. Hanumantha

Rao for critically going through the manus-

cript. One of us (CJK) is grateful to the Coun-

cil of Scientific and Industrial Research for

financial assistance. We are thankful to autho-

rities of the Andhra University for providing

facilities.

393

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SO

sertion, orbital margins, and malar space

yellow: frontovertex about twice as wide as

long; ocelli red, arranged in obtuse triangle,

basal ocellus separated by two times its dia-

meter from orbital margin and its own dia-

meter from anterior occellus; antennae inserted

above lower level of eyes; inter antennal space

about one-fourth the width of frons at median

ocellus; malar space as long as eye width,

malar sutures distinct; maxillary and labial

palpi each 1 -segmented; mandibles as shown

in figure 2. Antennae (fig. 1) dark brown

Figs. 4, 5. T etrastichus delhiensis sp. nov., 9 :

(4) Antenna; (5) Fore wing.

394

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

except ventral margin of scape yellow; scape

four times as long as wide; pedicel two times

as long as wide, less than half the length of

first funicle segment; three ring segments dis-

tinct; funicle segments 1-3 gradually decreasing

in length distad, first segment longest, six times

as long as wide, third, three and a half times

as long as wide; club, four times as long as

wide, shorter than first and subequal to second

funicle segment; funicle and club segments each

with numerous sensoria.

Thorax dark with metallic bluish reflections;

pronotum slightly shorter than scutum; scutum

with 7 setae arranged in two rows near each

parapsidal furrow; scutellum about as long as

scutum, with two submedian grooves and two

pairs of setae; propodeum with longitudinal

carina medially. Fore wings hyaline, about

three times as long as wide; costal cell slightly

shorter than marginal vein and with 10 small

setae; submarginal and marginal veins with 7

and 20 setae respectively, postmarginal vein

rudimentary; stigmal vein short; marginal

fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to one-

fourth their length. Hind wings hyaline; margi-

nal fringe longer than wing width. Legs yellow

except hind coxae and all pretarsi dark brown.

Abdomen dark with metallic reflections, as

long as thorax; ovipositor hidden, arising from

basal one-third of abdominal venter.

Body length : 3.06 mm.

Comments: The new species is closely re-

lated to T. tritrichia Saraswat, 1975 from

which it can be separated by its having funicle

segment first as long as scape, second as long

as club; fore wings long and narrow with short

stigmal vein.

Holotype $ , Paratype 1 $ , India : Delhi,

I A R I farm, ex Atherigona soccata (Ron-

dani), on Sorghum bicolor (Linn.), 20.7.1978

(Prem Kishore),

This species is named after Dr. R. A. Agar-

wal. Head, Division of Entomology, I A R I,

New Delhi, in recognition of his contributions

to Applied Entomology.

Tetrastichus delhiensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4,5)

FEMALE

Resembles T. agarwali sp. nov. except in

the following characters:

Head with ocelli white, basal ocellus sepa-

rated by three times its diameter from orbital

margin; malar space slightly shorter than eye

width. Antennae (fig. 4) with scape slightly

more than four times as long as wide; pedicel

two and a half times as long as wide, more

than half the length of first funicle segment;

funicle segment first three and a half times,

second three times, and third two times as long

as wide; club three times as long as wide, as

long as first and longer than second funicle

segment.

Thorax with mesoscutum bearing four small

setae near each parapsidal furrow. Fore wings

less than three times as long as wide; submar-

ginal and marginal veins with 7 and 16 setae

respectively.

Abdomen slightly longer than thorax; ovi-

positor slightly exserted, arising from base of

the abdominal venter.

Body length : 2.27 mm.

Comments : This species is closely related

to T. travancorensis Saraswat, 1975 but is dis-

tinguished by its having the first funicle seg-

ment three and a half times as long as wide,

as long as club; fore wings with short stigmal

vein.

Holotype 9, Paratype 1 $, India: Delhi,

I A R I farm, ex Atherigona soccata (Ron-

dani), on Sorghum bicolor (Linn.), 20.7.1978

(Prem Kishore).

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Acknowledgement Khan, Head, Department of Zoology, for pro-

We are deeply indebted to Prof. Nawab H. viding research facilities.

Referen ce

Saraswat, G. G. (1975) : On some Tetrastichus

(Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) from India. Mem.

School Ent. St. Johns Coll. Agra 4: 1-34.

ARUNDINELLA CANNANORICA : A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE

FROM KERALA, INDIA1

V. J. Nair, P. V. Sreekumar and N. C. Nair2

(With eleven text-figures)

Arundinella cannanorica sp. nov.

Ab Arundinella laxiflora Hook, f., nodis

ramorum villosis; ramis panicularum ascenden-

tibus; carinis paleae infernae glabris, lemmate

supero lemmatis infemi 2/3 longo, crasso,

coriaceo, muricato; apice rotundato, non den-

tato; callo flosculi superi dense barbato differt.

Differs from Arundinella laxiflora Hook. f.

in: branches villous at nodes; panicle branches

ascending; keels of lower palea glabrous; upper

lemma 2/3 the length of lower lemma, thick,

coriaceous, muricate, tip rounded, not tooth-

ed; callus of upper floret densely bearded.

Annuals. Culms 20-50 cm tall, erect, slender;

nodes glabrous. Leaves 2-5 cm long and 2-5

mm broad, mostly basal, lanceolate, base

rounded or shallowly cordate, glabrous or

covered with sparse tubercle-based hairs, espe-

cially along the margins. Sheaths 1-8 cm, lower

ones shorter and upper ones much longer than

the internodes, striate, glabrous or ciliate along

one margin. Ligule, a row of hairs. Panicles 10-

40 cm long, lax, willowy; branches 1-12 cm

long, ascending, alternate or rarely whorled,

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

slender, filiform, angular, bearded at the nodes

with long silky hairs, purple; rhachis flexuous,

angular and scaberulous; pedicels 2-15 mm

long, slender, angular, scaberulous. Spikelets

5-6 mm long, lanceolate, acuminate, turgid,

pale-green or purple, glabrous. Lower glumes

3.5-4.5x 1.0- 1.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, strong-

ly 3 -nerved, purple, glabrous. Upper glumes

5 . 0-5 . 5 x 1.25-1.50 mm, ovate-lanceolate,

caudate or long- acuminate, strongly 5 -nerved,

greenish with purple tinge, glabrous. Lower

floret male; lemma 2.75-3.00 x 1.0- 1.5 mm,

ovate-oblong, obtuse, faintly 5-nerved, lateral

nerves very close, pale-green, membraneous

and glabrous; palea 2.0-2. 5 x 0.50-0.75 mm,

elliptic-lanceolate, 2-keeled and auriculate at

base, 2-nerved, hyaline, glabrous; stamens 3,

anthers 1.0- 1.5 mm long, filaments short.

Upper floret bisexual; callus bearded, hairs

0.25-0.50 mm long; lemma 1.75-2.00 x 0.50-

0.75 mm, ovate or elliptic, tip with a genicu-

late awn, dorsally covered with numerous

wart-like outgrowths, chest-nut brown when

fully matured, awn 8-10 mm long, geniculate,

column c. 4 mm long, chest-nut brown; palea

1.25-1.50 x 0.4-0. 5 mm, oblong, acute, 2-

nerved, with a few wart like outgrowths on

396

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-11: Arundinella cannanorica sp. nov.

1. Plant; 2. Spikelet; 3. Lower glume; 4. Upper glume; 5. Lower lemma; 6. Palea;

7. Upper lemma; 8. Palea; 9. Lodicule; 10. Stamen; 11. Pistil.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

the dorsal surface; lodicules 2, each c. 0.30

x 0.25 mm, obovate, denticulate at apex;

stamens 3, anthers 1-2 mm long, violet, fila-

ments short; ovary c. 0.25 x 0.15 mm, ovate,

glabrous; styles c. 0.5 mm long, stigmas c. 1

mm long, pink, feathery.

Holotype: Cannanore District, Bela (in bet-

ween Kumbla and Bedudka), ± 100 m, 23rd

November 1981, P. V. Sreekumar 71822 (CAL).

Isotypes in K, MH. Paratype: Cannanore Dis-

trict, Paramba (on way to Bendudka), 16th

October 1981, P. V. Sreekumar 71718 (MH).

Frequent in dry rocky areas and open grass-

lands, and other very dry localities along with

other grasses such as Arundinella mesophylla

Nees, Bhidea burnsiana Bor and a few Dimeria

spp.

We thank Dr. Thomas A. Cope, The Herba-

rium — Grasses, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

for kindly examining our specimens and for

his opinion.

FIRST RECORD OF PARACOCCUS EZZAT & MCCONNELL

(HOMOPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) FROM INDIA

WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES1

Rajendra Kumar Avasthi and S. Adam Shafee2

( With two text-figures)

The genus Paracoccus Ezzat & McConnell [with P. bumerae (Brain) and P. nello-

rensis sp. nov.] is reported for the first time from India. The new species is described

and illustrated.

Genus Paracoccus Ezzat & McConnell

Paracoccus Ezzat & McConnell, 1956: 37.

Type-species: Pseudococcus bumerae Brain,

1915 (by original designation).

Ezzat & McConnell (1956) erected the genus

Paracoccus for seven species. They assigned to

their newly proposed tribe Planococcini on the

basis of the presence of sclerotized bar on the

ventral surface of the anal lobes. Later, De

Lotto (1964) recognized this character as of

specific significance. Further, he redefined the

genus Paracoccus as follows: “Occurrence of

a series of seventeen pairs of marginal cerarii,

all normally built up with two spines and de-

void of auxiliary setae, except on the anal lobe

cerarii in which one or more auxiliary setae

are always present”.

1 Accepted August 1981.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

The genus Paracoccus [with P. burnerae

(Brain) and P. nellorensis sp. nov.] is reported

for the first time from India. It is represented

by three species from Oriental region which

are separated by the following key.

Key to oriental species of Paracoccus Ezzat &

McConnell, based on adult females

1.

2.

Antennae 7-8-segmented; body with 17 pairs

of cerarii; oral-rim tubular ducts few on dor-

sum 2

Antennae 9-segmented; body with 5-6 pairs of

cerarii; oral-rim tubular ducts numerous on dor-

sum (Borchsenius, 1962: fig. 5)

P. pasaniae Borchsenius

Antennae 8-segmented; circulus and sclerotized

anal bar present; oral-rim tubular ducts 30-36

in number, single duct near most of the abdo-

minal cerarii and some ducts scattered on median

and submedian regions of the body (fig. 1;

Ezzat & McConnell, 1956: fig. 11; De Lotto,

1967: fig. 6) P. burnerae (Brain)

398

0.02 ram < , Q.Q5mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. (A-L) : Paracoccus burnerae (Brain).

399

0.05 mm

wui 90*0

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

400

Fig. 2. (A-K) : Paracoccus nellorensis sp. nov.

0.05 mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

— Antennae 7-segmented; circulus and sclerotized

anal bar absent; oral-rim tubular ducts 3-5 in

number, confined to mid thoracic region (fig. 2)

P. nellorensis sp. nov.

Paracoccus burnerae (Brain)

(Fig. 1 A-L)

Pseudococcus burnerae Brain, 1915: 111;

Hail, 1937: 126; De Lotto, 1958: 89. Pseudo-

coccus simulator James, 1933: 434; Ezzat &

McConnell, 1956: 106. Paracoccus burnerae

(Brain), Ezzat & McConnell, 1956: 39; De

Lotto, 1964: 359; 1967: 13.

Material examined : 6 9, India: Uttar Pra-

desh, Aligarh, University Campus, on Dalbergia

sissoo, i. xi. 1979 ( R . K. Avast hi). Material

deposited in Zoological Museum, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Paracoccus nellorensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 2 A-K)

ADULT FEMALE (fig. 2A) :

Mounted specimens broadly oval in shape,

less than one and a half times longer than

wide (1.72: 1.32 mm); anal lobes moderate-

ly developed. Dorsum with small and thin

setae (fig. 2D). Trilocular pores (fig. 2E)

numerous, evenly distributed on cephalic and

thoracic regions, segmentally arranged on ab-

dominal region. Oral-rim tubular ducts (fig.

2C) only 3-5 in number confined to mid thora-

cic region. Ostioles well developed with mem-

branous inner edges of anterior and posterior

lips, each with 4-8 trilocular pores and devoid

of setae. Body with 17 pairs of cerarii; anal

lobe cerarii (fig. 2F) with basal area slightly

sclerotized, each with a pair of stout conical

spines, 3 auxiliary setae and a group of about

15 trilocular pores; cerarii anterior to anal lobe

each with a pair of small spines; 4-7 trilocular

pores and devoid of auxiliary setae. Anal ring

with 6 setae which are about one and a half

times longer than the greatest diameter of ring.

Venter with numerous hair-like setae of

variable lengths; anal lobe without sclerotized

bar; anal lobe seta about twice the length of

anal ring setae. Trilocular pores (fig. 2H)

sparsely distributed. Multilocular pores (fig.

2K) arranged medially in transverse rows on

abdominal segments IV to IX. Oral-collar tubu-

lar ducts (fig. 21) small, arranged in groups

on margins of thoracic and abdominal regions

and sparsely distributed in submarginal and

median areas of the body. Oral-rim tubular

ducts absent. Eyes well developed. Antennae

(fig. 2G) 7-segmented, 0.29 mm in length.

Rostrum dimerous. Spiracles normal. Circulus

absent. Legs well developed; hind coxae and

tibia with translucent pores; claws (fig. 2J)

simple with digitules slightly longer than claw

and clubbed at apices; dimensions of fore, mid

and hind legs: trochanter + femur (0.17:0.19:

0.21 mm), tibia (0.11:0.12:0.15 mm) and

tarsus (0.05:0.06:0.07 mm) respectively.

Holotype 9 . India: Nellore, Andhra Pradesh,

on weed plant, 14. iv. 1979 (R. K. Avasthi).

Paratypes. 4 9, same data as holotype.

Types deposited in Zoological Museum,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

In the key to African species of Paracoccus

proposed by De Lotto (1964), P nellor-

ensis sp. nov. seems close to F. mural tiae

(Brain), but is distinguished by the presence

of 7-segmented antennae, translucent pores on

hind tibiae and oral-collar tubular ducts in

groups on ventral margin of thoracic region.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. Nawab H.

Khan, Head, Department of Zoology, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing re-

search facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof.

401

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 8G

S. Mashhood Alam, for encouragement. One sity Grants Commission, New Delhi, for finan-

of us (R. K. Avasthi) is grateful to Univer- cial assistance.

References

Borchsenius, N. S. (1962) : Notes on coccid

fauna of China. 10. Descriptions of some new species

of Pseudococcidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Ent.

Rev. 41: 358-367.

Brain, C. K. (1915) : The Coccidae of South

Africa — I. Trans. R. Soc. So. Africa, Cape Town

5: 1-130.

De Lotto, G. (1958) : The Pseudococcidae

(Homoptera: Coccoidea) described by C. K. Brain

from South Africa. Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Ent.)

7(3): 79-120.

- — (1964) : Observations on African

mealy bugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Bull. Brit. Mus.

nat. Hist. (Ent.) 14: 343-397.

(1967): The mealy bugs of

South Africa (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), I. Re-

pub. So. Africa, Dept. Agr. Tech. Serv. Ent. Mem.

12: 1-28.

Ezzat, Y. M. & McConnell, H. S. (1956) : The

mealy bug tribe Planococcini (Pseudococcidae:

Homoptera). Bull. Md. Agric. Exp. Sta. A-84: 108

pp.

Hall, W. J. (1937) : Observations on the Coccidae

of Southern Rhodesia — VIII. Trans. R. ent. Soc.

Lond. 86: 119-134.

James, H. C. (1933) : Taxonomic notes on the

coffee mealy bugs of Kenya colony. Bull. ent. Res.

24: 429-436.

HEDYOTIS SILENT -V ALLEY ENSIS (RUBIACEAE) — A NEW

SPECIES FROM SOUTH INDIA1

E. Vajravelu, N. C., Rathakrishnan and

P. Bhargavan2

(With five text-figures)

During the botanical exploration in the Silent Valley R.F., Pal ghat District, Kerala

in 1966 we collected a Hedyotis sp. on the grassy slopes of Kunthipuzha dam-site. On

scrutiny and in consultation with Central National Herbarium, Howrah and Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, it is described as a new taxon.

Hedyotis silent- valley easts sp. nov.

Affinis H. purpurascens Hook. f. tamen dif-

fer! foliis elliptico-Ianceolatis, veinsque distinc-

tis; ramulis, pedunculis, pedicellis et calycibus

pubescentibus.

Hedyotis silent-valleyensis sp. nov. is allied

to H. purpurascens Hook. f. [ = Oldenlandia

purpurascens (Hook, f.) Kuntze] but differs in

having elliptic-lanceolate leaves with distinct

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

veins; pubescence all over the branchlets,

peduncles, pedicels and calyx.

Woody shrubs 1-3 m high, branching pro-

fusely towards the end of branches. Leaves

opposite, decussate, shortly petioled, 2-9 x 0.6-

2.0 cm, elliptic-lanceolate, acute-acuminate;

nerves 3-4 pairs, distinct, puberulous beneath;

stipules 4-10 x 3-5 mm, ovate-triangular, pubes-

cent, 5-12 toothed; Inflorescence pubescent,

paniculate cymes, branching trichotomously,

7.5-18.0 cm long; middle flowers sessile, side

flowers pedicellate, rachis slender. Calyx pin-

402

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-5. Hedyotis silent-v alley ensis sp. nov.

la. Flowering branch, lb. Stipule. 2. Flower (Sessile). 3. Corolla split open showing

stamens. 4a & 4b. Capsules immature & mature) . 5. Seed.

403

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

kish, pubescent; tube 3.0 x 2.5 mm; lobes 4,

rarely 5, 0.75-1.5 x 0.5- 1.0 mm; corolla in-

fundibuliform, bluish purple, throat sparsely

hairy inside; tube 4-6 mm long, lobes 4, rarely

5, reflexed, 2. 5 -3. 5 x 1.0- 1.5 mm, oblong-

lanceolate, puberulous without. Stamens 4,

rarely 5, epipetalous, exserted; anthers blue,

dorsifixed, dehiscing with two slits; filaments

2 mm long. Ovary 2-locular; ovules numerous.

Style linear; stigmas 2, hairy. Capsules 5-9 x

2-3 mm, ellipsoid-obovoid, crowned by the

calyx-limbs, dehiscing septicidally into 2 cocci.

Seeds 1.0 x 0.5 mm, obscurely angled. (Fig. 1-5).

Holotype, Vajravelu 27674 (Kunthipuzha

dam-site. Silent Valley R.F., Kerala, 27-5-1966)

is deposited in CAL; isotypes, Vajravelu

27674 (three specimens) and paratypes Vajra-

velu 48857 (seven specimens) from the same

locality on 6-11-1976 are deposited in MH.

The species is named after the type locality

— Silent Valley, Palghat District, Kerala, in

whose conservation naturalists, ecologists and

environmentalists have focussed their attention.

The distribution of this species is confined to

the grassy slopes of the Kunthipuzha dam-site.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. D. B. Deb, Deputy

Director, Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah and

Dr. G. Panigrahi, Joint Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah for their valuable

suggestions and confirming the identity of the

specimen from Central National Herbarium,

Howrah and Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew

respectively. We are grateful to Dr. N. C. Nair,

Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore for facilities and encouragement.

We are also thankful to Rev. Fr. Dr. K. M.

Matthew, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchchirapalli

for Latin translation and to Sri P. V. Sree-

kumar. Senior Research Fellow, Botanical

Survey of India, Coimbatore, for the drawing.

404

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF WILD BUFFALO ( BUBALUS

BUBALIS LINN.) IN CHANDRAPUR DISTRICT

OF MAHARASHTRA

Introduction

Dunbar Brander reported two small

herds of Wild Buffalo in Allapalli division of

South Chanda. He also reported a few

herds in the Ahiri blocks of North Chanda.

Since then, there has been no authentic report

on the status of Wild Buffalo in Chandrapur

District. In the last 75 years, most of the forest

in North Chanda and Ahiri have disappeared,

so also the natural habitat suitable for Wild

Buffalo. Mr. Rego, Chief Wild Life Warden

of Maharashtra in 1976 informed us that the

only area where Wild Buffalo could still occur

is the forest ranges of Tadgaon and Bhamra-

garh, of Allapalli division. These forest ranges

adjoin Bastar district of M.P. Daniel and

Grubh (1966), in their report on Indian Wild

Buffalo, had estimated a strength of 200 to

250 Wild Buffaloes in West Bastar Division

adjoining Allapalli division. H. K. Divekar

(1976) estimated a strength of about 50

animals in the same area. In order to establish

the present status of Wild Buffalo in Maha-

rashtra resident or migratory between Maha-

rashtra and Bastar, M.P. a survey was under-

taken by us.

Area surveyed

Chandrapur District borders Bastar district

of M.P. the boundaries being Indravati river

in the South and Kuvakodi hills in the west.

In Allapalli division, several perennial rivers

flow amidst mountainous terrain, the major

ones being Indravati, Parlakota, Bandia, Pa-

malgotam. There are a tangle of hills in this

division chiefly Lahir Bhamragarh hills, and

Surajgarh hills, the hill ranges rise on an aver-

age to elevation of about 700 metres, the

highest being 935 metres. The Bhamragarh

hills overlook the confluence of the Indravati

and two of its right bank tributaries, the Par-

lakot and Pamalgotam.

There are many small and big lakes in Alla-

palli division, the major ones being Mirkal

lake near Madepalli, two more near Manne

Rajaram and Echeli near Tadgaon, a minor

irrigation bund near Mallampattu and a large

tank near Pirimili.

Forests'. Allapalli holds some of the best

quality teak trees in Asia with heights ranging

up to 125 feet. The quality of the timber of

this forest are rated next to Burma teak. Be-

sides teak, sisam ( Dalbergia sissoo), Bija ( Pte -

rocorpus marsupium) , Simul ( Gossypium ar-

bor eum & Gossypium herbaceum) are also

common. The Ballarpur Paper & Strawboard

Mills is based on this forest wealth.

Due to ever increasing demand of timber

and in particular bamboo for paper pulp, the

quality of forest and density has been consi-

derably eroded. Virgin forest tracts in the

Kuvakodi hills on the eastern boundary have

now been taken up for bamboo extraction ( 1 40

kms east from Allapalli) since the time of this

survey. Thus beginning the destruction of the

last virgin bamboo forest in Chandrapur dis-

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

trict. The Allapalli division has the highest

percentage of forest area approximately 92%

of the total area. The list of the main flora

of Bhamragarh range is given in table 2.

Method of Survey : In absence of any au-

thentic record of occurrence of Wild Buffalo

in any particular part of the survey area, it

was decided to examine the entire Indravati

river bank falling with in the perview of the

survey area and also a major part of the tri-

butaries, village tanks and water bunds. All

forest areas where Wild Buffalo occurrence

was reported by tribals and forest officials was

also investigated. The Wild Buffalo occurring

in a particular forest block, would come down

to graze on the grass growing along the river

banks, to drink and wallow and thereby leave

sufficient evidence of possible pockets of occur-

rence and herd strength. The survey area was

divided into 3 blocks. Each block was ex-

haustively surveyed. The survey party was

divided into groups and each group was given

an independent specified area. Each group

was led by a competent field investigator. Each

area was planned to be visited twice to avoid

any ommission and also to record fresh indi-

cations or tracks of wild Buffaloes. The leader

of each group was also required to report on

birds, mammals and general floristic situation.

The survey was completed on foot. Assist-

ance of tribal guides and local forest guards

was sought for individual groups. The field

notes included location, identification, sketch,

of tracks, sightings, droppings, general descrip-

tion of the habitat, human interference, inter-

views with local people etc.

General Account of Survey : The survey

was planned to be conducted sometime bet-

ween December to May when the area be-

comes accessible. Block 1 was surveyed bet-

ween 7th May to 12th May, 1978.

The Block 2 Itapalli Surajgarh was surveyed

between 28th December, 78 to 4th January, 79.

Block 3 was surveyed between 9th to 13th

May, 79. The area surveyed, investigator

groups, observations are shown in table 1.

Habitat: The Allapalli forest division of

Chandrapur district is one of the more heavily

worked forests in Maharashtra. Several thou-

sand hectares of forests have been clear felled

and new teak plantations are coming up every

year. Excepting pockets in Kuvakodi hills,

there is no virgin forest left. One often sees

clearings in the forest made by the gonds for

purposes of their “Gata” cultivation. These are

plots chosen near Adivasi villages. Many of

them are left as waste lands. Over 100 com-

mercial forest department heavy vehicles ply

on the interior forest roads, right up to south-

ern and eastern boundaries of the district for

transporting bamboo, teak, charcoal and other

forest produce like bedi leaves and lac. Adi-

vasi Gond villages are set up all along the

perennial river banks of Allapalli division and

in Gatta range.

Other than the teak plantations, the forest

has been affected by human influence so much

so that natural forests are minimal. The area

is heavily over grazed and trampled by domes-

tic cattle and sheep. The effect of villages can

be seen for atleast 1 km radius around each

village and right upto Indravati river. Under

these conditions, it is very difficult for the wild

buffalo to inhabit the area.

All along the Indravati river, downstream

from Bhamragarh upto the confluence of its

right hand tributaries Bandia and Pirimili

rivers approximating to 28 Kms., there are

many heavy grass patches and thickets and

water pools which are ideal wild buffalo habi-

tat. However, many villages like Palli, Boria,

Jarewada, Manne Rajaram etc. are situated.

Also along the banks of the Indravati river

huge charcoal ovens are permanently set up a

406

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

few hundred yards from the river banks. It is

unlikely therefore, that the wild buffaloes cross

over and stray into forest coming under Tad-

gaon range of Allapalli division. The Indra-

vati river on its Maharashtra side banks up-

stream from Bhamragarh to Kundanallah con-

fluence has almost lost its natural habitat of

grass patches and thickets and are heavily

trampled by domestic cattle and over grazed.

The river basins of Pamalgotam and Parlakota

upstream the confluence of Indravati passes

through some grass patches. Though the forest

is almost plain, the habitat is devoid of virgin

grass forage grounds. All the tributaries of

Indravati river run dry in hot season and the

habitat is unsuitable as there is hardly any

undergrowth or water pools. The habitat in

Gatta and Itapalli range have no perennial

water source and neither suitable forage

grounds ideal for wild buffalo. Elephant grass

grows in patches upto 1.80-2.10 m and can be

seen in Bhamragarh and Itapalli range. These

are normally the grazing ground for the village

cattle. The forest block around Mirkal lake,

forest patches at Thalwada and interior of

Lahiri and Kuvakodi hills and valleys are the

potential habitats left over in the Allapalli

division. Some indications of existance of wild

life and virgin flora can be seen in the above

forest patches.

Human Interference : Bhamragarh and Tad-

gaon forest ranges have several revenue vil-

lages. A large net work of fair weather roads

connect these villages with main activity cen-

tres like Bhamragarh, Tadgaon, Itapalli, Alla-

palli etc. These villages are populated by tri-

bals like Gond, Pradhan, Halba, Kawar, Maria

& Murias etc. Maria & Muria tribes are the

ones who account for the maximum interfer-

ence and hunting of wild life, whereas Halbas,

Pradhans and Gonds chiefly account for des-

truction of the habitat and domestic cattle

rearing.

For the bulk of the Adivasi population, cul-

tivation is merely a secondary means of win-

ning a livelihood and serves only to supple-

ment the food supply from forest produce.

For the Muria tribals, hunting is the main

livelihood in the hot months from February

to May. No animal, bird, or reptile is spared

in these communal hunts.

Each and every event from ploughing to

reaping, birth of a child or death in a village,

marriage, and other communal festivities only

begin with hunting and drinking liquor. One

can see the effect when he passes from one

range of forest to another range without seeing

a single indication of existance of wild life for

several kilometres.

Often, the tribals have to be on the hunt

for several days or intrude into Bastar district

to procure a single animal to begin the festive

event.

Though nothing was reported or seen by the

survey party during the survey, illegal poach-

ing by traders, contractors and others cannot

be ruled out. During interviews with villagers,

and others, it was reported that almost all the

villagers own one or two fire arms like muzzle

loading guns. These are systematically used in

the hunting grounds by these tribals. It was also

reported that illegal ammunition traders and

suppliers have regular contact with the tribals.

All living animals and birds including spar-

rows, rats are eaten by the tribals. Similarly,

many varieties of wild fruits, bamboo shoots,

roots, green vegetable matter also form the

staple food of the tribals. Cattle is the main

pest of the forest. With non-availability of

veterinary knowledge or facility, there is no

prevention or cure for the cattle which may

contract and spread disease to whatever re-

mains of the wild life.

407

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Interviews : Taperecorded and oral inter-

views with various forest officers. Shikaris,

forest guards, plantation managers, tribals. In-

terviews with J, K. Sangode, Deputy Engineer,

Irrigations, Madhav Naik, R.F.O., Gagga

Papaya, Shikari guide and Gurmukh

Singh, Asst. Forest Manager, Ballarpur paper

Mills gave information about local flora and

fauna. Mr. Gagga Papaya informed that the

last Wild Buffalo hunt party was arranged

for Mr. Nanavati, an I.C.S. Officer about 20

years ago. He was uncertain of the facts

and the year of the hunt. However, he stated

that one wild buffalo was killed during the

hunt and he also mentioned that the party

had to cross over to Bastar district to kill

the Buffalo.

Katugagru Pongati tribal of Golaguda (Age

30) stated that there are no wild buffaloes

between Bhamragarh and Nilkonda. He has

neither seen one nor their tracks. He reported

that cattle lifting by tigers was very common.

All the survey parties of Block 3 reported fresh

tiger pug marks. Spotted deer were commonly

seen near plantations. One of us (HKD) saw

on all his four visits to the area, spotted deer

in herds of 3 to 8 on the road from Alla-

palli to Itapalli and also from Allapalii to

Mirkal. Sloth bear are very common in the

hilly terrain. Many accidents are reported

in encounters with bears. Mr. Sharad Kulkarni

stated that every year, 2 to 3 cases of bear

attack victims are brought to him for treat-

ment. Tribals reported that they are attacked

by bears while hunting for deer, monkeys etc.

Leopards are sighted often on forest roads

around Bhamragarh. Gaur are reported to

have been sighted near Mirkal lake and Lahiri

hills. Other than these, monkey, flying squir-

rels, sambar, blue bull, four horned antilope,

porcupine, jackal, jungle cat are reported

seen by many tribals. Dr. Prakash Amte at

Hemelkasa, 2 Km from Bhamragarh maintains

a private zoo to house the wounded, orphan or

trapped wild animals. The collection is an

evidence of the occurrence of wild life in the

area.

Discussion

Dunbar Brander mentioned 2 small herds

of cows and a few solitary bulls in the Allapalii

and Gatta ranges of South Chanda District in

1904. He also mentioned that south eastern

portion of Allapalii and in Ahiri state, they

were somewhat more common and observed

it was unlikely that these herds could have

increased since 1904. He predicted their dis-

appearance from these areas unless they are

migrating from the neighbouring forest of

Bastar. Dunbar Brander writing on the same

topic mentioned their earlier range from

records in Yewatmal and Bhandara districts

and also in north Chanda, and wrote they

had disappeared from the above tracks. Other

sportsmen and naturalists have not ventured

to assess the status or occurrence in Allapalii

division in South Chanda. Wanting authentic

records, the status of wild buffalo in Chandra-

pur District of Maharashtra has been a subject

of guess work. Chandrapur Dist. Gazetteer is

given as wild buffalo, “Jungli Bhainse”

( Bubalus bubalis) used to be noticed occas-

sionally in small herds around Mirkal

tank near Allapalii, where they migrat-

ed in small numbers from the adjoining forest

of Madhya Pradesh during spells of hot wea-

ther. The above report in gazetteer coincides

with the writings of Dunbar Brander. It can

be well argued that the statement in the Dist.

Gazetteer is derived from Dunbar Bran-

der’s report. Allapalii forest division of South

Chanda District is known for its valuable tim-

ber and bamboo. The habitat has lost all its

natural features possibly after the starting of

408

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BaUarpur Paper Mills and Teak Plantations

by forest department. Our survey is the first

attempted status and ecology survey of wild

buffalo in Allapalli division of South Chanda

District. This area was the only possible habi-

tat left in Maharashtra suitable for wild buffalo.

The destruction of the habitat and disappear-

ance of grass patches and clearings due to

over grazing by domestic cattle, the ever in-

creasing net work of roads into inaccessible

areas, charcoal ovens along the river banks,

the continuous round the clock heavy commer-

cial vehicle traffic, the opening of new mining

complexes around Surajgarh etc., jeopardises

the occurrence of wild life and the wild buffalo

has become a legend.

Summary

It can be safely concluded that the wild

buffalo has disappeared from South Chanda

Division of Maharashtra for quite some time.

The forest has lost the suitable habitat

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

November 23, 1979.

Refer

Daniel, J. C. & Grubh, R. B. (1966) : The Indian

Wild Buffalo, Bubalus bubalis (Linn.) in Peninsular

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63(1) : 32-53.

which once supported a few localised herds.

One can see glimpses of their habitat in the

adjoining Bastar District where few herds

still survive near the perennial Indravati river.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to Mr. Moon, Chief

Wildlife Warden for permission to undertake

the survey and also to use the facilities of

Forest Rest Houses; to Dr. Salim Ali and

Bombay Natural History Society for giving all

assistance and financial help in undertaking

the survey: to Dr. V. D. Divekar, Mr. Madhav

Naik, R.F.O., Bhamragarh, Mr. Oturkar, Mr.

Chopra and other investigators who helped us

in conducting the survey; to Shri S. N. Bande,

D.F.O., Bhamragarh Div. for providing the

help of forest personnel and forest Rest

Houses; and to tribal guides who gave valu-

able information and lastly, to Dr. Prakash

Amte and his friends who gave valuable

suggestions for conducting the survey.

H. K. DIVEKAR

R. B. GRUBH

P. B. SHEKAR

E N CE S

Divekar, H. K. (1976) : A Re-survey of the status

of Wild Buffaloes in West Bastar, Madhya Pradesh,

ibid. 73(2): 382-385.

2. COURTSHIP AND MATING IN

BAT, TAPHOZOUS LONGI MANUS

Courtship and mating of bats in natural

condition are little known. Khajuria (1972)

observed these activities in Rhinopoma h. hard-

wickei Gray. Gopalakrishna (1954, 1955),

THE INDIAN SHEATH-TAILED

LONGIMANUS (HARDWICKE)

Ramaswamy (1961) and Madhavan (1971,

1978) have studied the breeding habits of

several species of bats but have not covered

courtship and mating. We had the opportu-

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

nity of observing courtship and mating in

Taphozous l. longimanus which is reported

here.

The observation was made at Krishnanagar,

Nadia district. West Bengal, on 6 December

1981 at about 16.30 hours. There were four

specimens of this species, a male and three

females hanging in a deserted room of a hut.

While searching for the presence of other spe-

cies of bat in association with this species in-

side the room, we saw that suddenly the male

bat started flying and it reached near one of

the females. We thought that the bat was

disturbed by our presence. But it remained

quiet for about two minutes and then started

crawling towards the female. The male fondled

the back of the female with its muzzle. At first

the female tried to push him away by moving

its wings but ultimately surrendered and

allowed the male to keep the muzzle on its

back. Now the male placed the distal end of

Zoological Survey of India,

8, Lindsay Street,

Calcutta 700 087,

January 27, 1982.

its forearms between the legs and wings of the

female but kept the legs behind those of the

female. Thus the ventral side of the male came

in close contact with the back of the female.

After a minute the female turned its tail aside

to give way to the male to copulate. The male

lifted its tail up and bent its hind portion of

the body inwards to copulate. The copulation

lasted for 30 seconds. It was accompanied by

quick shivering movements of the body. There-

after they separated. The male relaxed expand-

ing its wings. The female flew away to another

side of the room and rested. After a few

minutes the male again started flying and ap-

proached another female of the group for

copulation. It repeated the same performance.

Thus the bat copulated with the two females

within half an hour. No further copulation

was seen in the roost up to 18.00 hours after

which the observation was discontinued.

J. P. LAL

D. K. BISWAS

References

Gopalakrishna, A. (1954): Breeding habits of

the Indian sheth-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus

(Hardwicke). Curr. Sic., 23 : 60-61.

(1955): Observations on the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian

sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hard-

wicke). Proc. Natn. Inst. Sci. India, 21: 29-41.

Khajuria, H. (1972) : Courtship and mating in

Rhinopoma h. hardwickei Gray (Chiroptera: Rhino-

pomatidae). Mammalia, 36: 307-309.

Madhavan, A. (1971): Breeding habits in the

Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia, 35(2): 283-

306.

(1978) : Breeding habits and asso-

ciated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part V.

Pipistrellus dormeri Dabson. Vespertilionidae. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75(2) : 426-433.

Ramaswamy, K. R. (1961): Studies on the sex

cycle of Indian Vampire bat, Megaderma lyra, Part

I. Breeding habits. Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India, B(27)

5: 287-307.

410

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. A NOTE ON THE STATUS OF THE FLYING SQUIRRELS OF

DARJEELING AND SIKKIM

Six species of flying squirrels, namely, the

Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel, Belomys pear-

soni (Gray), Lesser Giant Flying Squirrel,

Petaurista elegans (Muller), Hodgson’s Fly-

ing Squirrel, Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson),

Gray’s Flying Squirrel, Petaurista nobilis

(Gray) and Particoloured Flying Squirrel,

Hylopetes alboniger (Hodgson), are known to

occur in the Darjeeling District, West Bengal,

and Sikkim. A single example of the Woolly

Flying Squirrel, Eupetaurus cinereus Thomas,

which has until recently been known only from

Kashmir, has also been found in Sikkim (Agra-

wal and Chakraborty, 1970, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 66(3): 615-616). These flying

squirrels occur from lower altitudes to approxi-

mately 2300 metres. Petaurista elegans has,

however, been reported at about 3600 metres

in Darjeeling district.

From records of the various species till

early this century, it would appear that these

flying squirrels were in abundance in one or

the other place of these hilly terrains. How-

ever, during the last few decades, these mont-

ane forests, the natural habitat of the flying

squirrels, have been denuded by man for ex-

tension of human settlements, plantations,

terrace cultivations, road construction,

ever-increasing pressure of forestry acti-

vities (such as large-scale felling of trees for

timber, charcoal manufacture, etc.) and collec-

Zoological Survey of India,

8, Lindsay Street,

Calcutta 700 087,

January 27, 1983.

tion of firewood by local people, have limit-

ed the forest zone there to its minimum.

Consequently, there has been a gradual dec-

line of tall, well-branched suitable trees for

their nesting purposes and safety from preda-

tions, as well as dearth of plants supplying

their natural food, such as fruits, nuts, cones,

etc.

In the course of studies on the flying squir-

rels in Sikkim and Darjeeling District of West

Bengal from June 1974 to April 1982, we have

noticed that the populations of the Lesser

Giant Flying Squirrel, Hodgson’s Flying

Squirrel, Particoloured Flying Squirrel, Hairy-

footed Flying Squirrel, etc. have been greatly

depleted. These flying squirrels are now rarely

seen, though the Gray’s Flying Squirrel is seen

in small numbers at altitudes between 1000

and 2300 metres. The main cause for their

disappearance from these areas is the wanton

destruction of their habitats, obviously affect-

ing their breeding. To some extent their popu-

lation is also partly affected by unauthorised

killing of these animals for their beautiful pelt

used in the preparation of jackets, caps,

gloves, etc.

It is suggested that immediate investigation

should be undertaken to study their exact

status and biology for formulating measures

for the conservation of these important ani-

mals.

R. K. GHOSE

T. K. CHAKRABORTY

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

4. UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF NILGAI

On May 1976 at Nawegaon Lake in Bhan-

dara District a large adult Nilgai ( Boselaphus

tragocamelus ) was seen near a moving ter-

rapin. The Nilgai placed its right fore foot

on the terrapin which froze. The Nilgai ap-

peared to have pressed the terrapin, whose

neck protruded out, the Nilgai grabbed the

Asstt. Manager,

Forest Development Corporation Ltd.,

Tilak Nagar, Nagpur 440 010,

November 5, 1982.

neck and pulled out the head, neck, part of

the body with the viscera and ate it.

I enquired with the local Gond tribals, and

Shri Madhav Patil of Paoni, a naturalist and

well known Shikari who confirmed that they

had observed Nilgai feeding on terrapin.

M. B. CHITAMPALLI

5. THE QUILLS THAT MAKE A RED PORCUPINE

While trekking in the Valliyur Reserve

Forest and looking for evidence of Wildlife

on 8-8-1979, a Porcupine quill, which had red

black bands, instead of the usual white and

black was found. Intensive search of the area

resulted in the collection of a few more red

and black banded quills at various places with-

in the Valliyur Forests upto the foot hills.

Freshly fallen quills were met with and collec-

ted throughout the year. Normal coloured, i.e.,

black and white banded quills were not noticed

in this area though they were found in ad-

joining areas.

From the distribution of these quills,

charactertistic cheroot shaped faecal droppings

and leading foot prints, a den of Red Porcu-

pine was located and watched. “Monolick”

and common salt were placed under a ledge

nearby, Red Porcupine occupying the den had

been using the salt licks. In August’80 (13-8-

1980) a partially decayed carcass of Red

porcupine was found. The quills were intact

and in position on to the dried skin. Their

measurements and weights are given below:

1. Quills on the crest, reddish orange or

blackish orange thin, hairlike in appearance

directed backward erectile,, not banded.

Maximum length

Minimum length

Average length

Total numbers

Total weight

= 30 cm.

= 15 cm.

= 25 cm.

= 672

= 12 grams.

2. Quills on the back, flexible to form C

and resilient when one end is released springs

back straight, about 6% of the quills of this

category are black and white banded,

a) Red and white banded b) Black and white

banded

Maximum length = 46 cm. 30 cm.

Minimum length = 12 cm. 17 cm.

Average length = 25 cm. 22 cm.

Total number =152 9

Weight = 67 grams. 2 grams.

3. Quills on the small the back (short,

stout, strong) sharp pointed some with long-

itudinal furrows.

a) Red and white banded

quills.

Maximum length = 22 cm.

Minimum length = 3 cm.

Average length =10 cm.

Weight

Total number

b) Black and white

banded.

19 cm.

5 cm.

10 cm.

21 grams.

69

412

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Short corrugated quills

= 168 Nos. 40 grams.

Long corrugated quills = 64 Nos. 71 grams.

4. Unbanded (one colour quills on the

back).

a) All Red b) All white

Maximum length = 14 cm. 26 cm.

Minimum length = 5 cm. 5 cm.

Average length = 9 cm. 15 cm.

Total number =110 50

Weight = 31 grams. 8 grams.

5. Quills under tail:

The petal like cupules are tubular some with

cups. These appears like “elongated stemless

wine glasses” produce a sort of clapping sound

like that of a rattel. Colour of all the nine

quills were orange or reddish orange. Short

spines of reddish or blackish red colour were

spread all over the body.

Maximum length = 9 cm.

Minimum length = 5 cm.

Average length = 6 cm.

Total number =11

Weight = 2 grams.

6. Quills all over the body above 3 cm.

Total 64 Nos. 71 gms.

Havilike spines — Weight 14 grams.

Total — 928.

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Sanctuary,

Templeton Cottage, Vannarpet,

Udhagamandalam 643 001,

Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu,

October 25, 1982.

6. BIRDS FEEDING ON

These quills are kept in the museum of the

wildlife Warden, Kalakad Sanctuary, Tirunel-

veli-11.

From the present evidences of distribution

temporal frequency of fallen quills and the

following observations are made.

1 . The Red Porcupine occurs also in areas

which do not have a red or orange ground

colour.

2. The red colouring of quill is not a sea-

sonal factor.

3. A very small percentage of black and

white banded quills, all white and all red

quills were found on the back of the

animals.

4 . The all white and all red quills are

arranged in such a way so as to form red

and white bands on the body of the ani-

mal.

5 . Evidences of red Porcupine have not been

found in other parts of Kalakad Sanc-

tuary, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Anamalai

Sanctuary and Mudumalai Sanctuary.

6 . The population of red Porcupine in

Kalakad Valliyur Forests is estimated to

be between 40 and 50.

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

FIRE-DRIVEN INSECTS

In the Sauraha area of Nepal’s Chitwan

National Park, permitted burning and harvest-

ing of Elephant grass by local inhabitants took

place daily from 25th January to 3rd Febru-

ary 1981, when we were birdwatching in this

area.

On many occasions we came across groups

of Black Drongos ( Dicrurus macrocercus),

feeding on insects driven upwards by the

advancing flames. Aerial prey capture appeared

to be extremely easy, even amidst thick rising

smoke — the birds usually returning to grass-

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

stem perches before another foray above the

fire.

Ali and Ripley (1968-1974), mention this

behaviour in their account of Black Drongo

feeding habits. However, on 31st January we

observed 4 Ashy Drongos ( Dicrurus leuco-

phaeus ), and 30+ Ashy Wood-Swallows

( Artamus fuscus ), feeding in a similar man-

ner with c. 50 Black Drongos. The Wood-

Swallows usually fed at a greater height than

Calf of Man Bird Observatory,

Isle of Man, U.K.

Edward Grey Institute of Field

Ornithology, Dept, of Zoology,

South Parks Rd., Oxford., U.K.,

April 14, 1982.

the Drongos, and were never seen to land. In

addition, 3 Black-shouldered Kites ( Elanus

caeruleus ), fed low over the same area, also

in close association with the fire-front, and

were thought to be looking for fleeing small

terrestrial prey.

In view of the large number of insects driven

out of such an area it is perhaps surprising

that no more species were seen capitalizing on

this rich food supply.

ADRIAN DEL-NEVO

PETER J. EWINS

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968-1974) : Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. 10 Vols. Oxford

University Press. Bombay.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE, PODICEPS

CRISTATUS (LINNE) AT RANCHI, BIHAR

In November last Mrs. Marie Palit who

lives at Ranchi, Bihar, wrote to me about some

water birds which had over the last few years

started visiting the water-supply lakes nearby.

They occurred in large numbers over 300 at a

time. Mrs. Palit said that they resembled a

large grebe a picture of which she sent me

from an American magazine and I suggested

that it may be the Great Crested Grebe, Podi-

ceps crist at us (Linne) of which the nearest

record appeared to be one(?) seen by Mr. Hor-

ace Alexander (Indian Handbook 1 p. 3)

at Puri, Orissa.

In the meantime, my wife visited Ranchi

and Mrs. Palit took her down to one of the

lakes and they saw 40-50 birds in the distance.

The lake was clear of weeds. Later Mrs. Palit

sent in pieces of two specimens which are no

doubt of this species. I wrote to Mr. Alexander

for more information but though he remem-

bered that he saw it in December 1946 in

Orissa he did not recollect whether this was

on salt or fresh water but the fact that he

wrote to Salim Ali must mean, he said, that it

was a relatively exciting record. He wrote

again saying he had found his notebook which

referred to 40-50 birds at Puri Lake on 25

December 1946 and again an uncounted num-

ber seen on 1st January 1947.

This species is accepted as a winter visitor

entering from the north-west, extending as far

south as Gujarat in the west and eastwards

414

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

along the north into Assam and Manipur.

On the eastern side the southernmost record is

the one from Puri referred to above while Xn-

glis quotes a few records from much further

north in the Madhubani Sub-Division of

Darbhanga District in Tirhut (JBNHS 16 p.

342). The present records are from over 200

miles southwards, but Mrs. Palit was informed

that they have been seen here over the last

few years only. They are locally known as

Siberian duck and often caught at night in

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay 400 003,

March 25, 1982.

nets laid for fish.

In her last letter Mrs. Palit said one was

obtained on 13th March, “when only about

100 birds were left, and all had gone by 20th

March”.

In the absence of earlier records it would

appear that they have started visiting this area

in fairly recent years and it would be interest-

ing to try and determine to what factor this

change in migratory limits further southwards

can be attributed.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

8. WINTER FOOD OF SPOTTED OWLET, ATHENE BRAMA INDICA

A group of six Spotted owlets, Athene brama

indica which roosted on a Eucalyptus earned-

dulensis very close to our laboratory, were

regularly observed to study their social be-

haviour. We also analysed their faecal pellets

during winter to study their food. The identi-

fiable contents were sorted from the faecal

pellets and analysed by gravimetric method

(Table 1) following Southern (1969).

It is observed that during the month of

December about 60 per cent of their food was

composed of various types of insects but dur-

ing January their food consisted pre-domin-

antly of rodents (60.2%). The mandibles

which were found intact in the faecal pellets

were identified to be mostly of the Field

mouse, Mus sp. Eucalyptus seeds, small peb-

bles and lime particles also occurred in the

faecal pellets. Apparently they are taken for

assisting in the grinding of food.

In the Central Research Farm of the Insti-

tute (about 400 hectares) the rodent popula-

tion is constituted mostly by Tat era indica

(43.8%), Meriones hurrianae (28.9%), Ger-

billus nanus indus (24.0%) but other rodents

also occur in low numbers: G. gleadowi

Table 1

Per cent occurrence of various undigested items

in the faecal pellets of Athene brama indica

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

(0.82%), Funambulus pennanti (0.82%),

Rattus meltada pallidior (0.82%), Mus sp.

(0.82%) and Golunda ellioti (present) (Pra-

kash and Rana 1970). It is, therefore, surpris-

ing to observe that though the occurrence of

Mus sp. is minimum in the natural environ-

ment, yet the presence of this species in the

faecal pellets of owlets is maximum. This

observation suggests three points worthy of

consideration. 1. It is quite possible that the

Spotted owlet is unable to handle and capture

the larger nocturnal gerbil, Tatera indica (100

g body weight) and, therefore, it is not preyed

upon, 2. The Spotted owlet is a selective feeder

and picks up only Mus spp. though they are

not very common, 3. It’s in-efficiency to cap-

ture the typical desert rodents like Gerbillus

gleadowi and Gerbillus nanus which are noc-

turnal as well as of the 10 to 20 g. body

weight, is because of the specialised adaptation

All India Coordinated Research

Programme on Rodent Control,

Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur,

December 3, 1981.

Refe

Prakash, I. (1959) : Hypertrophy of bullae tym-

panicae in the desert mammals. Sci. & Cult. 24:

580-582.

Prakash, I. & Rana, B. D. (1970): A study of

9. OCCURRENCE OF NORTHERN

FUSCUS WAGLER IN THE

The nominate race of the Jungle Myna

Acridotheres fuscus has been accepted as

occurring over most of northern India, ex-

cluding the desertified areas. There do not

appear to be any specific records from the

Hoshiarpur and Ludhiana districts, and it is

possessed by these rodents pertaining to hyper-

trophy of tympanic bullae due to which these

small mammals can perceive and discriminate

between the wing beats of predatory as well

as non-predatory birds (Prakash 1959). As

such the typical desert rodents are able to

escape from owlets’ attacks, but Mus spp. fall

an easy prey to them.

There could be still another reason of Spot-

ted owlets shifting their food from insects to

rodents. Their breeding season at Jodhpur

starts in February and to prepare for repro-

duction they switch over to more nutritive and

high protein rodent food.

Ack nowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director,

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodh-

pur for providing facilities and encouragement.

A. P. JAIN

RANJAN ADVANI

ENCES

field papulation of rodents in the Indian desert.

Zeit. angewandte Zoologie, 57: 129-136.

Southern, H. N. (1969): Prey taken by Tawny

owls during the breeding season. Ibis, 111: 293-299.

JUNGLE MYNA ACRIDOTHERES

PUNJAB AND HARYANA

also omitted from the Checklist of the Birds

of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur.

It may, therefore, be worth recording that

since August 1979, we have seen this bird at

the following seven places:

(i) Bias Pind (district Jullundur); (ii)

416

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tanda Urmur (district Hoshiarpur); (ii)

Ludhiana; (iv) Khanna (district Ludhiana);

(v) Kurukshetra; (vi) Bilaspur (district Am-

bala); (vii) Jagadhari (district Ambala).

the first four being in the Punjab and the last

three in Haryana.

They were usually in small parties of about

Dept, of Forestry & National Parks,

Punjab Agriculture University,

Ludhiana 141 004, Punjab,

April 13, 1982.

10 birds restricting themselves to the outskirts

of villages and often accompanied by the Com-

mon and Bank Mynas.

It is possible that there are some local move-

ments of this species which have prevented

its having been seen more often.

MANJIT S. DHINDSA

R. N. SINGHAL

Reference

Abdulali, Humayun & Panday, Jamshed D.

(1978) Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and

Bharatpur. Bombay.

10. RUSTIC BUNTING ( EMBERIZA RUSTIC A) — A NEW SPECIES

FOR NEPAL

{With a text-figure )

On 31st January 1981 we discovered a $

Rustic Bunting {Emberiza rustica) , feeding

with c. 15 Little Buntings {Emberiza pusiila),

near Sauraha in the north-eastern region of

Nepal’s Chitwan National Park.

Observations were made over 40 minutes as

the bird fed and called in very similar man-

ner to the Little Buntings. The birds were

watched at distances down to 20 metres in an

area of low, scattered bushes on the edge of

a dry heavily-grazed plain bordering Rapti

Dun. The most striking differences from the

marginally smaller Little Bunting are:

(i) A broad, rich chustnut pectoral band,

extending as chevrons down the flanks

and contrasting markedly with the other-

wise clean white underparts.

(ii) Head pattern essentially bold black /white

zones, lacking the chestnut ear-covert

patch.

(iii) Chestnut-tinged nape patch.

(iv) White median spot on the rear of the

crown.

(v) When alarmed, a conspicuous tufted crest

is visible.

Fig. 1. Rustic Bunting ( Emberiza rustica), male.

417

10

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

We are familiar with this species as a

migrant in Great Britain, and feel that this

bird was a $ in view of the distinct black

head-markings (more diffuse and browner in

a $), and general ‘smartness’ of the under-

parts.

Walters (1980) reports that this species

breeds in the north-taiga zone of Eurasia,

Calf of Man Bird Observatory,

Isle of Man, U. K.

Edward Grey Instite of Field

Ornithology, Dept, of Zoology,

South Parks Rd., Oxford., U.K..

April 14, 1982.

wintering south to Japan and East China;

King et al. (1978), give it migrant status in

Taiwan. To the best of our knowledge there

is no previous record of Rustic Bunting from

Nepal or India, (T. P. Inskipp informs us

that another individual was reported from

Nepal later in the spring of 1981).

ADRIAN DEL-NEVO

PETER J. EWINS

References

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock, Walters, M. (1980): The Complete Birds of

M. W. (1978): A field-guide to the Birds of South- the World. David & Charles.

East Asia. Collins.

11. OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD REQUIREMENT AND FOOD

CONVERSION IN THE MUGGER ( CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS )

REARED IN CAPTIVITY

(With two text-figures)

The present paper is based on observations

made on 15 mugger crocodiles ( Crocodylus

p\alustris ) which were reared between 1975 and

1980 at the Gharial Research and Conservation

Unit (GRACU), Tikerpada, Orissa, a place

within the distributional range of the species.

Hatchlings were reared in pens of 4 x 4 m

area with a central pool of 2 x 2 x 0.3 m in

size. Older mugger were kept in yearling pens

of 6 x 6 m size with a pool of 4 x 4 x 1 m.

All mugger were reared under ideal husbandry

conditions described by Bustard et al (in

press) .

The initial number of 15 mugger was reduc-

ed to 13 at 6 months, 10 at 45 months and

6 at 53 months due to transfers from GRACU

to other rearing/ breeding centres. Out of a

total of 4,855 Kg of food given to these mug-

ger only about 60 Kg (1.2%) consisted of

‘undressed’ mammalian (wild boar, sambar,

cheetal, rat and civet) and reptilian (fresh-

water terrapins, snake and crocodilian), meat

and birds (crow, country fowl, pigeon and

owl), the rest consisted of a mixed variety of

fish species and prawn collected from the ad-

jacent Mahanadi river. The low composition

of non-fish items in the diet was a result of

non-availability of these. The ‘sport meat’ fed

were purchased by the project during auction

of ‘seized meat’ by the department.

418

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Food quantities have been calculated from

actual amounts the mugger had eaten till sati-

ation. The frequencies of feeding were every

other day during summer and autumn, and

2-3 days per week during the winter and

rains. Hatchlings up to 9 months old were

provided with live fish in their rearing pools.

Hence, they fed every day as per their require-

ment. Non-living food were provided in the

enclosures mostly between 9 and 11 a.m. and

occasionally in the evening. Day-time feedings

followed removal of uneaten food ofter an

hour. Left-overs from evenings were removed

on the following morning.

The food requirement of hatchlings was

proportionately high, over 3-5% of the body

weight. The requirement gradually lowered

down to below 1% when the mugger were 5

years old and about 45 Kg in weight (Figs.

1 and 2). Table 1 shows that food intake was

the lowest during winter and maximum during

summer, through rain and autumn.

The food conversion (Table 2) was 12.4%

during the first year, 22.9% during the second

and 16.8% during the third. The mean con-

version at the end of the third year 18.2%

Fig. 1. Relationship between the percentage of body weight eaten by mugger at

different months of age. Fluctuations off the curve are a result of seasonal impact.

419

a?.ui

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

and at the end of the fifth year 12.4%. There

was evidently a decrease in conversion in the

later years.

B. C. Choudhury (pers. comm.) comments

that his mugger at Nehru Zoological Park,

Hyderabad, fed with almost entirely meat diet

show a lower food consumption rate but

almost similar growth rates, therefore, a higher

conversion rate.

Only fragmentary information are available

on the growth of mugger in the wild (Achar-

jyo and Mohapatra 1978; Choudhury and

Bustard 1982), but there are none on their

food conversion in the wild. However, there

are a few publications providing evidence of

a mixed-diet habit for the mugger. Stomach

examination of shot-down mugger have shown

the presence of, other than fish, aquatic beet-

les and bugs (D’Abreu 1915; McCann 1935,

1940), mollusc and Rana tigrina (D’Abreu

1915), pig (Pitman 1913 a), goat (Simcox

1905), and humans (Shortt 1921, Krishna -

murthy 1951). Pitman (1913 b) had seen a

dead panther on a river bank whose nature

of injury suggested that it was attacked

by a crocodile. Evidence or information about

x IQ kg

Fig. 2. Relationship between the percentage of body weight eaten by mugger at

different body weight. Fluctuations off the curve are a result of seasonal impact.

420

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Per day food requirement of the mugger

( Crocodylus palustris ) in captivity during the

FIRST FIVE YEARS

The length and weight at hatching have been

considered as 28 cm and 75 gm respectively.

421

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

vegetable matter in the stomach are given by

D’Abreu 1915 (14 paddy grains), Simcox

1905 (lilly stalks), and Abdulali 1938 (fallen

fruits of Ficus glomerata) . Faecal matters

were examined in the field by Whitaker

(1978) in the Gir and Vijaya (1981) at Satha-

nur. Whitaker saw remains of cattle egret

feathers, fish scale and water snake, and

Vijaya saw “feathers”. In the Satkoshia Gorge

I had seen the pug marks of a mugger, about

3 m long walking up and down the river bank

to a distance of about 50 m away from water

where remains of a giant squirrel were lying.

With B. C. Choudhury and trainees of Central

Crocodile Breeding and Management Train-

ing Institute, Hyderabad, I was in Manjira in

Andhra Pradesh during December 1981, when

in the evenings we had seen hatchling mugger

feeding on insects attracted to the beam of

light from our spot-lights.

As shown in Table 2, for every 100 Kg of

food (here predominantly fish and prawn) the

growth were 113.7 cm and 18.2 Kg during

the first 3 years, and 46.1 cm and 12.4 Kg

during the first 5 years. It will be extremely

Gharial Research and

Conservation Unit,

Tikerpada 759 122,

Orissa, India,

June 7, 1982.

interesting to watch for the results of current

studies done elsewhere on the species and

compare the above conversion rates obtained

for a predominantly fish-prawn diet with rates

for other diet. The experience in captive rear-

ing is that through a change from a monoton-

ous diet certain osteological problems can

be rectified at an early stage, the results of

current studies will also enable in selecting an

economic diet with high conversion rate and

no morphological or physiological complica-

tions. This is very important for a country like

India which through a rigorous conservation

phase is optimistically looking forward to a

commercial phase. Besides, the studies will be

of considerable academic significance when

information for different species are available.

Ack nowledge m en ts

I wish to record my gratitude to the Orissa

Forest Dept., Govt, of India, U.N.D.P. and

F.A.O. for provision of help and facilities of

different kinds. B. C. Choudhury provided

useful suggestions and information.

L. A. K. SINGH1

References

Abdulali, H. (1938): The food of the mugger

( Crocodylus palustris). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

40:336.

Acharjyo, L. N. & Mohapatra, S. (1978):

Return of the captive marsh crocodile ( Crocodylus

palustris ) into the wild. Indian Forester, 104(5):

385.

Indian mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris

Lesson) from Tamilnadu. South India. British J.

Herpetol.

Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. (1982) :

Restocking mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris

Lesson in Andhra Pradesh: evaluation of a pilot

release. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(2) : 275-289.

D’Abreu, E. A. (1915): Note on the mugger,

Crocodylus palustris : contents of their stomachs,

Bustard, H. R., Singh, L. A. K. & Choudhury,

B. C. (in press) : Growth in three populations of

xPresent address: National Chambal Sanctuary.

P. O. Box 11, Morena 476 001. (M.P.),

422

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

folklore, etc. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 23(4) : 780.

Krishnamurthy, D. R. (1951) : Angling for

crocodiles with hook and line in Krishnarajasagar

Reservoir. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 50(1) : 181-182.

McCann, C. (1935): The mugger ( Crocodylus

palustris Lesson) feeding on large water beetles

(Cy bister sp.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38(2) :

409.

— (1940) : A reptile and amphibian

miscellany. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 41(4): 742-

747.

Pitman, C. R. (1913a): The contents of a marsh

crocodile’s ( Crocodylus palustris) stomach. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc., 22(3) : 641 .

Pitman, C. R. (1913b): Marsh crocodile (Croco-

dylus palustris) killing a panther (Felis pardus). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 22(3) : 641.

Shortt, W. H. O. (1921): A few hints on cro-

codile shooting. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 28:76-

84.

Sim cox, A. H. A. (1905) : The crocodile; its food

and muscular vitality. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

16:375.

Vi jaya, J. (1981) : The crocodile rearing project

at Sathanur. Hamadryad 6(2): 3-4.

Whitaker, R. (1978): Notes on the status of

the Gir crocodiles. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

75(1) : 224-227.

12. STUNTED GROWTH IN CAPTIVE-REARED GHARIAL

Capitive-reared crocodilians are often very

stunted as a result of inadequate husbandry

conditions with consequent delay in attain-

ment of sexual maturity (Bustard 1980). This

situation also obtained with many/most gha-

rial reared in Indian zoos prior to the initia-

tion of the Government of India/FAO/UNDF

Crocodile Breeding and Management Project

in 1975.

Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad, pur-

chased two gharial from a dealer on 18

August 1966. Presumably they were freshly

Table 1

Growth of a pair of sub-adult gharial at

Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad (length in m)

1 The smaller (^younger) individual remained

smaller throughout (Gowhar Ali Khan, pers.

commn.)

caught. At this time they measured 1 m and

70 cm respectively and are known to have

originated from Patna, These invididuals were

measured by us on 12 August 1979 and there-

after at six monthly intervals. The growth data

are given in Table 1.

These individuals were shifted to the State

Crocodile Complex, located within the Nehru

Table 2

Feeding regime January 1980 — January 1981

INCLUSIVE (WEIGHTS IN KG)

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Zoological Park, on 8th January 1980 and

thereafter their food consumption is known.

The food fed, together with uneaten food

removed, is given in Table 2 from which

actual food consumption is calculated.

During the period August 1979 to April

1981, the female showed no recordable growth,

and the male increased by only 3 cm.

These data are important as they indicate

continuation of stunted growth even after re-

housing and provision of a good, regular, fish

diet.

The accommodation of these gharial prior

to the transfer to the complex was in an

enclosure with a 7 x 3 x 0.5 m deep pool with

a 2 m land surrounding where they were

housed together with three mugger crocodiles

of 2.7, 2.3 and 1.6 m. all males. When housed

in this enclosure the gharial used to enter the

pool only when the mugger were on land.

For the larger part of the day both gharial

were at one comer of the enclosure. During

the winter months, however, they started

moving in the pool as the mugger occupied a

burrow which they had dug under the wall.

The animals were fed once weekly with 2

kg of live fish and 5 kg of beef (which gharial

do not take). The gharial fed only on the live

fish not eaten by the mugger, as they were

victims of the more aggressive mugger parti-

cularly during feeding times.

Following transfer to the complex the gha-

rial were housed in a yearling pool measuring

5 x 4 x 1 m deep with a land area of 1.5 m

surrounding the pool. They seldom /never

basked.

Gharial hatch in June and at the time of

obtaining these (August) the 70 cm individual

was clearly a yearling being then 13-14 months

old, and the 1 m individual was most likely

to be 25-26 months old. Hence in 1979 these

animals were 14-15 years old. Bustard and

Singh (1980) provided growth data on young

gharial at the Gharial Research and Conser-

vation Unit, Tikerpada, Orissa, for their first

4\ years of life. At three years their length

averaged 218 cm with a range of 193-222 cm.

Hence the two Nehru Zoological Park gharial

at 14-15 years old were only the size of three

year-olds showing normal growth. In croco-

dilians attainment of sexual maturity is size-

related. The male, the sex of which was con-

firmed by cloacal probing and extrusion of the

penis, which measured 4 cm, showed no signs

of ghara development at a length of 1.98 m.

These data represent the most complete in-

stances of stunted growth in the gharial known

to us.

The male died on 8-4-1981 due to unknown

causes being in good health the previous day.

Dissection confirmed it to be completely sex-

ually immature.

We also have growth data for two gharial

reared at the Madras Snake Park between

1974-1976. Growth data for these two indi-

viduals, which also showed stunted growth are

shown in Table 3. An individual measured 82

cm in June 1974 and should have attained

about 110 cm in February 1976, (it was 96

Table 3

Growth of two gharial at Madras Snake Park,

Tamil Nadu (length in cm)

* Obtained same day from Ahmedabad Zoo.

Note: Both individuals are thought to be females.

424

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

cm) and the individual which measured 132

in March 1975 after a year should have mea-

sured 180-190 cm instead of a virtually un-

changed length of 135 cm.

It is interesting to compare the growth rates

in Orissa, at Nandankanan Biological Park,

the only place to successfully breed gharial in

captivity (Bustard & Maharana 1980). The

male measured 135 cm in March 1963 (when

it was considered to be 33 months old (Singh

1978) after 10 years it measured 2.5 m. Juve-

nile growth data recorded on a large number

of gharial, at the Gharial Research and Con-

servation Unit, Tikerpada, also in Orissa, Bus-

tard & Singh (1980) indicated that this growth

was obtained on an average in two years at

the time the gharial were 4 years old. Whereas

the above male at Nandankanan showed an

annual growth rate of 11.5 cm/year, the Tiker-

pada individuals were growing over the same

size range at an average of 53 cm/year, or

Crocodile Project,

Nehru Zoological Park,

Hyderabad 500 264.

Central Crocodile Breeding &

Management,

Training Institute,

Raj ENDRAN AGAR ROAD,

Hyderabad 500 264,

July 19, 1981.

R E F E 1

Biswas, S., Acharjyo, L. N. & Mohapatra, S.

(1978) : A note on the proturbance or knob on the

snout of the male gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin)). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(3): 536-

539.

Bustard, H. R. (1980) : Captive breeding of

crocodiles pps. 1-20 In The care and breeding of

captive reptiles. S. Townson, N. J. Milichamp,

D.G.D. Lucas & A.J. Mellwood (Eds.). A collec-

tion of papers published by the British Herpetolo-

gical Society.

Bustard, H. R. & Maharana, S. (1980): First

captive breeding of the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).

more than 4\ times the growth achieved at

Nandankanan, where the climate is also simi-

lar to that of Tikerpada. Clearly, therefore,

this Nandankanan male was also stunted, as

were the two females reared with the male

which attained lengths of 2.5-2.65 m at an

age of 12 3:/4 years. In one year between

January 1973 and January 1974 the 2.5 m

male grew by only 6 cm, in two further years

by 14 cm, and then showed no growth at all

in the following year (Biswas, Acharjyo &

Mohapatra 1978). Bustard and Maharana

(1981) provide recent growth data for this

group of gharial now rehoused in the breeding

pool.

Acknowledgement

We thank Mr. R. Whitaker for allowing us

to present growth data for the two juvenile

gharial at the Madras Snake Park.

B. C. CHOUDHURY

H. R. BUSTARD

E N CE S

Brit. J. Herpetol. 6(3) : 106.

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L. A. K. (1980) :

Growth in the Gharial. Brit. J. of Herpetol. 6(3) :

107.

Bustard, H. R. & Maharana, S. (1981): Fatal

male-male conflict in the gharial, Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 78(1): 171-173,

Singh, L. A. K. (1978) : Ecological studies on

the Indian gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)

(Reptilia, Crocodilia). Ph.D. Thesis submitted to

the Utkal University, Orissa.

425

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

13. A SPECIAL METHOD OF FISHING FOR JUVENILES

OF MAHSEER (TOR PUT IT ORA) IN THE STREAMS

OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

Besides the traditional methods of catching

the mahseers and other hill stream fishes, some

interesting fishing devices are also practised in

Himachal Pradesh, especially for ‘baiting’

mahseers. The method described in the pre-

sent communication is ingenious and specia-

lised for catching the juveniles of mahseer

(Tor putitora ) and is mainly operated in the

rapid and rocky streams of Western Hima-

layas. Though the method is based on luring

the fish to the bait as described by Motwani

& Srivastava (1961) for ‘garua5 fishing in the

Ganga river system, the operation is quite

different in the fast flowing mountain streams.

The method is quite prevalent in Kangra,

Hamirpur and Bilaspur districts of Himachal

Pradesh. It is effectively operated in the

shallow parts of the streams throughout the

year, except during the rains when the hill

streams are swollen with flood waters. It was

observed that one person, in a single opera-

tion on 3 l-viii-1980, collected 22 mahseer

juveniles from Sheerkhad near Jhanduta in

Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh. The

operation was repeated again on the same day

at three spots within 2 km stretch of Sheer-

khad and the number of mahseer collected

ranged from 17 to 32 in two hours. The size

of fish collected by this method ranged bet-

ween 98 and 212 mm.

The success of the operation mainly depends

on the preparation of bait, allurement of fish

to the bait and netting operation. For one

single operation, about 250 gms of maize/

what flour is added to a handful of raw cow-

dung and is soaked thoroughly, so that the

entire mass can be used as bait in the shape

of a ball. The bait in the form of a ball is

then put between stones in knee-deep water

in the stream. To lure the maximum number

of fish, the bait should preferably be kept at

such a place where the gradient of the stream

ends in a deep pool and the stream floor con-

sists of pebbles and small stones.

The penetrating smell of the raw cowdung

used in the bait attracts the fish to the bait.

When a considerable number of fish have been

lured, the person watching the operation from

a distance slowly comes near the spot and quick-

ly covers the bait and its surroundings with a

cast net. The fish thus congregated around the

bait get trapped in the cast net and are

collected. The operation is then repeated at

the various places in the same stream till the

fisherman gets a catch of commercial value.

Though the ‘garua’ fishing in Ganga river

system is also practised by luring the fish, the

operation is quite different. For ‘garua’ fish-

ing the bait prepared from goat entrails, goat

fat, dried cowdung and crude dolphin oil is

quite expensive and is cast in small bits in the

shallow parts of the river, whereas in the

present operation, the bait consisting of raw

cowdung and wheat/maize flour is kept as a

whole in the shape of a ball in the shallow

part of the stream. The netting operation in

the present device is carried out by one per-

son with the help of a cast net (1/2" or 1"

mesh size), while in ‘garua’ fishing drag nets

are used, employing 4 to 6 fishermen in the

operation.

The fact, that only juvenile and young

mahseer, to the complete exclusion of other

hill stream fishes, are caught by this device is

very significant. The method thus assumes

426

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

greater importance when used with a view to lakes in the Indian uplands for the develop-

procure stocking material for the rivers and ment of sport fisheries.

Central Inland Fisheries C. B. JOSHI

Research Centre,

Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh, 174 001,

December 19, 1982.

Reference

Motwani, M. P. & Srivastava, C. B. (1961): A (Hamilton) in the Ganga river system. J. Bombay

special method of fishing for Clupisoma garua nat. Hist. Soc. 58 ( 1) : 287-288.

14. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BATHYMETRIC DISTRIBUTION OF

HILSA LARVAE IN MIDDLE STRETCH OF RIVER. GANGA

NEAR ALLAHABAD

(With a text-figure )

Observations on the spawning of Hilsa ilisha

(Hamilton) made by earlier workers in diffe-

rent rivers more or less explain the availabi-

lity of eggs and larvae in surface and sub-

surface layers of water. Karamchandani (1961)

collected eggs and larvae of hilsa from Nar-

mada river with the help of spawn collection

net. Ravish Chandra (1962) used a surface

tow net for collecting hilsa larvae from

Hooghly Estuary. Pillay and Rosa (1963)

observed that hilsa eggs occur in sub-surface

zones, the juveniles inhabit the surface waters

and the later stages move in deeper zones.

But there is no information on bathymetric

distribution of hilsa larvae excepting that of

Ghosh & Nangpal (1968) who have deter-

mined the bathymetric preference of larvae

while making collections with organdie ring

net during winter breeding of hilsa in lower

stretch of River Ganga. According to Ghosh

& Nangpal (op. cit. ) , the larvae are available

in surface and sub-surface layers in a total

water column of 1.3 m but they have not

given further split-up of this range showing

depth limit. While collecting hilsa larvae from

middle stretch of Ganga river, we recorded

bathymetric distribution which has been given

in this communication.

The distribution of hilsa larvae with regard

to different depths was studied by operating

a special net made of mosquito netting (1/16"

mesh), comprising three portions viz., upper,

middle and lower. It was almost like a set of

three spawn collection nets stitched together

vertically. Each of the three cod-ends of the

net was tied to a cylindrical bucket of 12 cm

length and 10 cm diameter, open at both the

ends. The distal ends of buckets were blocked

by a piece of organdie cloth to check the

escape of larvae. Two bamboo poles were

put at the mouth end and the three

buckets, functioning at different depths,

were tied to one pole at the rear end (Fig. 1).

The net was 230 cm in length, 210 cm in width.

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 1.

with a height of 50 cm at the mouth end and

was operated in a depth of about 1.5 m.

The data collected on the availability of

hilsa larvae in relation to water depth, during

postmonsoon breeding of 1970 and 1971 at

three centres in the middle stretch of Ganga

river, are given in Table 1. The net was

operated at each centre for a period of 6

hours from 10.00 a.m. to 4.00 p.m.

It is evident from the Table 1 that the

larvae were more commonly encountered in

the collections of upper and middle buckets

thereby indicating their availability in surface

and sub-surface depth ranging from 10 to 50

cm approximately whereas the number of

larvae was insignificant in lower bucket i.e. in

sub-surface depth exceeding 50 cm approxi-

mately.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, for-

428

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Availability of hilsa larvae in relation to water depth. (Bathymetric distribution

OF HILSA LARVAE)

mer Director, C.I.F.R.I., for his keen interest

in the studies and to Dr. A. G. Jhingran, Head,

R & L Division and Dr. A. V. Natarajan,

Director, C.I.F.R.I., Barrackpore for going

Central Inland Fisheries Research

Sub-station, 24, Pannalal Road,

Allaeiabad 211 002 (U.P.).

All India Coordinated Project on

Reservoir Fisheries, Rihand Dam,

Distt. Mirzapur (U.P.).

Ministry of Food and Agriculture,

Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi- 1,

December 21, 1981.

through the note critically and suggesting im-

provements. Thanks are also due to Shri J. C.

Malhotra, former Head of R & L Division for

his encouragement.

RAVISH CHANDRA

V. R. DESAI

S. K. DAS

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

References

Ghosh, A. N. & Nangpal, T. D. (1968) : On the

winter breeding of Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in the Ganga

River System. Proc. lndo-Pacif. Fish. Court. 13(2) :

132-142.

Karamchandani, S. J. (1961): On the location

of spawning grounds of Indian shad, Hilsa ilisha

(Ham.) in freshwater regions of Narbada river. Curr.

Sci. 30(10): 373-375.

Pillay, S. R. & Rosa, H. jr. (1963) : Synopsis of

biological data on Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) 1822. FAO

Fisheries Biology Synopsis No. 25.

Ravish Chandra (1962) : Preliminary account of

the distribution and abundance of fish Larvae in the

Hooghly Estuary. Indian J. Fish. 9, A(l) : 48-70.

15. OCCURRENCE OF COMMON CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO) IN

TROUT WATERS

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was in-

troduced and retained in a tank at the Trout

farm, Mahili (Katrain), Kulu valley of Hima-

chal Pradesh, on the left bank of river Beas.

This was during the years 1958-1962. The fish

were disposed of and attempts to culture them

abandoned after finding poor prospects of

breeding and growth in the cold waters. Only

one breeding was managed in a spring-water

fed tank at a temperature of 17.5°C. There

was no trace of the fish or its progeny left

thereafter, as the farm tanks had been com-

pletely cleaned and dried several times and the

water supply cut off several times for long

periods during the gap of 17 years.

Another private farmer on the right bank

of the river Beas attempted the culture of

common carp in 1969 after converting a marsh

fed on spring water, in a temperature range

18°C-22°C which he has continued to pros-

pect.

A strange occurrence took place during

July- August this year. Three Common carps

were caught in the torrential Beas (temp.

District Fisheries Officer,

P. O. Katrain 175 129,

District Kulu,

Himachal Pradesh,

November 24, 1981.

range 6°C-14°C) which sometimes flows at

above 3 metres per second velocity

by a trout angler using dough and

turmeric bait. During the same month another

Common carp 24 cm long was collected from

a drying-down channel of the same trout farm

at Katrain from where the fish had been com-

pletely disposed of 17 years ago. The fish when

collected was in a melanic form. After collec-

tion, this was transferred to a spring water

source at 17.5°C temperature. Within a fort-

night the fish reverted to its natural colour.

It is certain that the fish had travelled at

least 3 kilometres in the torrential, cold Beas

and crossed to the other side to reach the site

where it was collected, besides the journey it

must have performed in the river course. The

Common carp is thought to be a fish of hill

impoundments, but its occurrence under such

torrential conditions has not been observed

earlier.

I shall be greatly obliged if readers kindly

write to me if any such occurrence of Common

carp has been observed or reported to them.

S. B. RAIZADA

430

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. NEW RECORDS OF APHIDS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)

FROM SIKKIM, NORTH EAST INDIA

Raychaudhuri (1980) reported 404 aphid

species under 155 genera from northeast India.

Out of these Sikkim, the smallest state in the

region, had 134 species under 71 genera. Fur-

ther exploration of the state has revealed the

occurrence of another 27 species under 26

genera reported here as new records from

Sikkim.

As a result of this study the aphid fauna

of Sikkim is now known to be 161 species under

84 genera. These include 24 endemic species.

Specimens of the reported species are presently

in the collection of Entomology Laboratory,

Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta.

Subfamily Aphidinae

Tribe Aphidini

Aphis paraverbasci Chakrabarti

Aphis paraverbasci Chakrabarti, 1976. Ento-

mon 1(2): 171-174.

Material examined : 4 apterae and 1 alata

from an indet. plant, Lachung (c. 300 m),

6.vi. 1975.

Distribution : India: Himachal Pradesh,

Sikkim.

Schizaphis gramimsm (Rondani)

Aphis graminum Rondani, 1852. Nuova

Ann. Sci. Nat. Bolonga (Ser 3), 6: 10.

Material examined: 1 alata and 2 nymphs

from an indet. grass, Singtam (c. 541 m),

24.xii.1970.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan.

Schizaphis rotnncllventris (Signoret)

Schizaphis rotundiventris (Signoret) : East'op,

1966. A ust. J. Zool. 14: 498.

Material examined : 2 apterae and 2 nymphs

from Cyperus exhalt ans, Singtam (c. 541

m), 27. v. 1970.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

South India, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal;

and virtually cosmopolitan.

Tribe Macrosiphini

Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris)

Aphis pisum Harris, 1776. Exposit. English

Insects, London, 66.

Material examined : Many apterae and

nymphs from Pisum sativum, Namchi (c.

1666 m), 21. iv. 1978.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan.

Brevicoryne brassicae (Linnaeus)

Aphis brassicae Linnaeus, 1758. Systema

Nature 1 (10th ed.): 452.

Material examined : 1 aptera, 2 alatae and 2

nymphs from Brassica sp., Tsungthang

(c. 1666 m), 9.vi.l975.

Distribution: India: Himachal Pradesh, Sik-

kim, South India, West Bengal; and vir-

tually cosmopolitan.

Cavariella nigra Basu

Cavariella nigra Basu, 1964. ./. Linn. Soc.

(Zool), 45: 240.

Material examined: 5 apterae, 21 alatae and

6 nymphs from an indet. plant, Lachung

(c. 3000 m), 6.vi. 1975.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, West Bengal.

Capitophoms polygon! Ghosh, Ghosh and

Raychaudhuri

Capitophorus polygoni Ghosh, Ghosh and

Raychaudhuri, 1971. Orient. Insects 5:

326.

Material examined: 1 aptera and 1 nymph

from Polygonum sp., Lachung ( c . 3000

m), lO.vii. 1977.

Distribution: india: Sikkim, West Bengal.

431

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Imdomegoura indica (van der Goot)

Rhopalosiphum indica van der Goot, 1916.

Rec. Indian Mus. 12(1): 1-4.

Material examined : 1 alata from an indet.

plant, Gangtok (c. 1675 m), 19. v. 1975.

Distribution : India: Sikkim, West Bengal.

Indumasonaphis inulae (Ghosh and Ray-

chaudhuri)

Masonaphis ( N eomasonaphis ) inulae Ghosh

and Raychaudhuri, 1972.

Orient. Insects 6: 377.

Material examined : 3 apterae and 22 nymphs

from an indet. plant of Ericaceae, Pho-

dang (c. 1900 m), 15. xi. 1974.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Sikkim.

Liosomaphis himalayensis Basu

Liosomaphis himalayensis Basu, 1964. J.

Linn. Soc. { Zool .) 45: 231.

Material examined : 4 apterae and 3 nymphs

from Berberis sp., Lachung ( c . 3000 m),

7.vi. 1976.

Distribution : India: Himachal Pradesh,

Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, West

Bengal.

Macromyzus (Anthracosiphoniella) maculatum

(Basu)

Anthracosiphoniella maculatum Basu, 1969.

Orient. Insects 3: 169.

Material examined : Many apterae and

nymphs from indet. ferns, Mangan (c.

1500 m), 23. v. 1975; Paksyak ( c . 1666

m), 1 .vi. 1975.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Sikkim and

West Bengal.

Myzus brevisiphon Basu

Myzus brevisiphon Basu, 1969. Orient. In-

sects 3: 180.

Material examined : 5 apterae and 10 nymphs

from Polygonum alatum, Tsungthang ( c .

1666 m), 14. xi. 1974.

Distribution: India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Oedisiphum soureni Basu

Oedisiphum soureni Basu, 1964. J. Linn. Soc.

{Zool.) 45: 238.

Material examined : 2 apterae and 3 nymphs

from Anaphalis sp., Esungthang (c. 1666

m), 14. xi. 1974.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh,

West Bengal; Nepal.

Semiaphis beraclei (Takahashi)

Semiaphis heraclei (Takahashi) : Takahashi,

1965. Insecta matsum. 28:53.

Material examined: 4 apterae, 2 alatae and

5 nymphs from Schizium sp., Paksyak (c.

1666 m), 4.vi. 1975.

Distribution: India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

West Bengal; China, Hawaii, Japan;

Korea; Sumatra; Taiwan.

Micromyzus kalimpongensis Basu

Micromyzus kalimpongensis Basu, 1967. Bull.

Ent. 8: 152.

Material examined: 21 apterae, 10 alatae

and 15 nymphs from Elettaria cardamo-

mum, Ringon (c. 1600 m), 9.xi.74.

Distribution: India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

West Bengal.

Trichisiphonaphis gerberae Ghosh and Ray-

chaudhuri

Trichisiphonaphis gerberae Ghosh and Ray-

chaudhuri, 1972. Orient. Insects 6: 381.

Material examined: 4 apterae and 12

nymphs from Polygonum sp., Gangtok ( c .

1675 m), 15. xi. 1974.

Distribution: India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

West Bengal.

Vesknlaphis pieridis Basu

V esiculaphis pieridis Basu, 1964. J. Linn. Soc.

{Zool.) 45: 237.

Material examined: 19 apterae and 8 nymphs

from Pieris ovalifolia, Lachung (c. 3000

m), 6.vi.l975.

Distribution: India: Meghalaya, Sikkim.

Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

432

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Subfamily Greenideinae

Tribe cervaphidini

Sumatraphis celti Takahashi

Sumatraphis celti Takahashi, 1935. Misc.

Zool. Summatrana 97: 3.

Material examined'. 35 apterae and 15

nymphs from Quercus sp., Lingdong (c.

1666 m), 24. v. 1975.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

South India, West Bengal; Indonesia.

Tribe Greenideini

Eutrichosiphum arunachali Basu, Ghosh and

Raychaudhari

Eutrichisiphum arunachali Basu, Ghosh and

Raychaudhuri, 1972. Sci. Cult. 38: 494.

Material examined'. 35 apterae, 6 alatae and

4 nymphs from Quercus sp. Gangtok (c.

1666 m), 22. iv. 1975.

Distribution'. India: Arunachal Pradesh,

Sikkim.

Eutrichosiphum takahashii Basu, Ghosh and

Raychaudhuri

Eutrichosiphum takahashii Basu, Ghosh and

Raychaudhuri, 1973. Proc. zool. Soc., Cal-

cutta 26: 95.

Material examined : 13 apterae and many

nymphs from Quercus sp., Dongu Lik (c.

1166 m), 6.xi. 1974.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Sikkim.

Greenideoida (Pentatrichosiphum) luteum

(Basu)

Pentatrichosiphum luteum Basu. 1969. Orient.

Insects 3: 183.

Material examined: 3 apterae, 4 alatae and

2 nymphs from Quercus sp., Deorali (c.

1670 m), 16. xi. 1974.

Distribution: India: Meghalaya, Sikkim and

West Bengal.

Mollitrichosiphum shinjii Raychaudhuri,

Ghosh, Banerjee and Ghosh

Mollitrichosiphum shinji Raychaudhuri et al.

1973. Kontyu 41 : 70.

Material examined: 8 apterae and 11

nymphs from Quercus rubra , Sanklang (c.

1000 m), 3 .xi. 1974.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, West Bengal.

Subfamily: Hormaphidinae

Aleurodaphis blumeae van der Goot

Aleurodaphis blumeae van der Goot, 1917.

Contrib. Faune Ind. neerl. 1: 240.

Material examined: 14 apterae and many

nymphs from an indet. plant of Combre-

taceae, Sanklang (c. 1000 m), 3.xi.l974.

Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh,

Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal; China;

Indonesia; Japan; Korea; Taiwan.

Ceratovacuna indica Ghosh, Pal and

Raychaudhuri

Ceratovacuna indica Ghosh, Pal and Ray-

chaudhuri. 1974. Proc. zool. Soc., Calcutta

27: 96.

Material examined: 17 apterae and many

nymphs from an indet. bamboo plant, Rin-

gon (c. 1600 m), 26. v. 1975.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, West Bengal.

Subfamily Lachninae

Tribe cinarini

Cinara afrotibialis David and Rajasingh

Cinara afrotibialis David and Rajasingh,

1968. Orient. Insects 2: 103.

Material examined : 6 apterae and many

nymphs from Pinus sp., Namchi (c. 1666

m), 22.x. 1975.

Distribution: India: Himachal Pradesh,

Meghalaya, Sikkim; Thailand; Phillipines.

Tribe lachnini

NippoSachuus pin Matsumura

Nippolachnus piri Matsumura, 1917. T. Coll.

Agric. Taihoku Imp. 1: 382.

433

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Material examined : 4 apterae and 16

nymphs from Pyrus communis, Pelling (c.

2080 m)5 15.x. 1974.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Sikkim,

West Bengal; Bhutan; Japan; Korea;

Taiwan.

Subfamily Pemphiginae

Asiphoniella cynodositi (Das)

Pemphigus cynodonti Das, 1918. Mem. Ind.

Mus. 6: 153.

Material examined : 4 apterae and 16 nymphs

from Abies sp., Lachung (c. 3000 m),

14. v. 1978.

Department of Life Science,

Calcutta University Post Graduate

Centre,

Agartala, Tripura 799 004.

Distribution : India: Sikkim, West Bengal;

Pakistan.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

Thanks are due to I.C.A.R. and U.G.C.,

New Delhi for partly financing the work. Offi-

cials of the Dept, of Agriculture, Govt, of

Sikkim deserves thanks for help rendered in

the collection of some of the aphid species re-

ported here. Prof. Y. D. Pande, Head, depart-

ment of Life Science deserve thanks for the

Laboratory facilities extended to the senior

author.

BASANT K. AGARWALA

Department of Zoology, D. N. RAYCHAUDHURI*

University of Calcutta, Calcutta 700 019.

December 4, 1981. * Deceased 1st May, 1981.

Reference

Raychaudhuri, D. N. (1980): ( ed . by) Aphids

of Northeast India and Bhutan. The Zoological So-

ciety, Calcutta. 621 pp.

17. FIRST RECORD OF DIPLACODES LEFEBVREI (RAMBUR)

(ODONATA: LIBELLULIDAE : SYMPETRINAE) FROM NW. INDIA

While working on the un-named Odonata

collections of this Regional Station, I came

across some specimens which on examination

proved to be Diplacodes lefebvrei (Rambur).

These agree practically in all characters with

Fraser’s description (1936) of the species. In

India, the species has hitherto been known

only from the west coast (Fraserpet, Coorg) and

is now being recorded for the first time from

Rajasthan and Gujarat, thus extending its

range further westwards.

Material examined :

Gujarat: 2 cf cf Khari river, Bhuj,

22.10.1964, coll. B. C. Agrawal. Rajasthan:

3 cf Kailana, Jodhpur, 24.4.1962, coll. Survey

party. Desert Regional Station; 2 cT cf Akhai-

raj ji ka talab, Jodhpur, 17.9.1963, coll. Moti

Lai; 1 cf Kuri village, Jodhpur, 25.5.1964,

coll. V. C. Agarwal; 1 <$ Agolai, Jodhpur,

18.9.1964, coll. R. N. Bhargava, 1 cf Agolai,

Jodhpur, 19.8.1965, coll. V. C. Agarwal;

3 cf c? 3 $ Bada talab, Pali, 3.11.1964,

434

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

coll. T. G. Vazirani, 1 cf Hemawas Dam, Pali,

17.10.1978, coll. J. C. Tripathi.

Measurements :

Male: Abdomen 19.00 mm.. Forewing

23.00 mm.. Hindwing 22.00 mm.

Female: Abdomen 17.00 mm.. Forewing

20.00 mm.. Hindwing 20.00 mm.

Zoological Survey of India,

Desert Regional Station,

Jodhpur,

March 5, 1982.

Ack nowledgements

1 am thankful to Director, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta for facilities and to Dr. T.

D. Soota, Deputy Director, Desert Regional

Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur

for encouragement and going through the

manuscript.

R. K. THAKUR

Reference

Fraser, F. C. (1936) : Fauna of British India.

Odonata, 3: Taylor and Francis, London, xi + 461.

18. A NOTE ON THE ODONATA (INSECTA) FROM SIKKIM, INDIA

{With nine text-figures)

Sikkim in the Himalayas has elevations vary-

ing between c. 350 metres and c. 9000 metres.

Hill slopes are often covered with forests but

patches of agricultural fields are also quite

common. As a result of deforestation and other

human activities a vast area is devoid of any

vegetation, where only exposed rocks are visi-

ble. A total of 42 species of Odonata are re-

ported from Sikkim by earlier workers i.e.,

Asahina (1952-53), Fraser (1933, 1934a, 1934b.

1935a, 1935b, 1935c, 1936a, 1936b, 1940a and

1940b), Kennedy (1936), Kiauta (1972 and

1975), Lahiri (1979), Laidlaw (1915, 1917a

and 1971b) and St. Quentin (1970). This study

is based on a small collection of Odonata, of

these seven species and subspecies are reported

for the first time from the area. Intraspecific

variations of some species and subspecies studi-

ed are incorporated in the text.

Family: Euphaeidae

1. Bayadera indica Selys

Material: 1 9, Fatak near Mangan, 12.4.81;

2 cf cf , Khanikhola, 6.7.79 and 2 $ $ Rang-

po, 7.4.1981.

Distribution : Western Himalayas, Meghalaya

and Nepal.

Remarks'. A small minute spine also present

on the superior anal appendages, cubital ner-

vures 1-2 in number, 25 antenodal and 23

postnodal nervures present in forewings and

21 antenodal and 22 postnodal nervures in

hindwings.

Family: Gomphidae

2 Mesogomphus lineatus Selys

Material : 1 c? , 1 $ , Khanikhola, 6.7.79.

Distribution'. Western Himalayas, W. Bengal,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Nepal

and Burma.

3. Nepogomphus modestus Selys

Material : 2 cf cf , Rangpo, 4.7. 1979.

Distribution'. Western Himalayas, W. Bengal,

Meghalaya. Nagaland, Burma, Malaysia and

Sumatra.

435

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SO

436

Figs. 1-3. Female of Lyriathemis bivittata (Rambur). 1. Brown stripe markings in

forewing, 2. Brown stripe markings in hind wing, 3. Dorsal view of anal appendages.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 4-9. Variations in the markings of black stripe in both fore and hindwings of

the male specimens of Palpopleura s. sexmaculata (Fabricius) (4-6 showing variations

in the black stripe markings in forewings, (7-9 showing variations in the black stripe

markings in hindwing).

437

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Family: Aeshnidae

4. Anax immaculifrons Rambur

Material : 1 9, Rangpo, 6.4.1981.

Distribution : Western Himalayas, Pakistan,

British Isles across to Europe, Central Asia

and North Morocco.

Remarks : Specimen attracted towards electric

light. 6 cubital nervures present in forewings

and 4 in hindwings, nodal index —

11-18 | 20-10

h ~

12-12 | 13-11

Family: Libellulidae

5. Lyriathemis biyittata (Rambur)

(Figs. 1-3)

Material: 1 9, Khanikhola, 6.7.79.

Distribution'. Darjeeling, Assam, Burma, Indo-

China and Thailand.

Remarks'. Brown stripe in the forewings ex-

tends upto 6 nervures in subcosta, whole of

cubital nervure (Fig. 1); in hindwing it ex-

tends upto 3rd antenodal nervures in costa,

7 antenodals in subcosta, hypertrigone, 2

cells in cubital nervures; brown marking also

present on the base of hindwings (Fig. 2);

1 cubital nervure present in forewings and

2 in hindwings; discoidal cell traversed only

once in right forewings and hindwings; while

twice in left forewing. Nodal index —

9- | 17-10

— f- —

11-14 | 13-10

Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta - 700 072,

July 1, 1982.

R E F E

Asahina, S. (1952-53): Dragonflies. In: H. Kihara

(Ed.), Fauna and flora of Nepal Himalayan 1:

291-300. Kyoto Univ.

Fraser, F. C. (1933): Fauna of British India-

Odonata. 1. Taylor & Francis, London, 423.

6. Palpopleura sexmaculata sexmaculata

(Fabr.)

(Figs. 4-9)

Material: 1 9, Martam, 16.7.79; 1 cf, Pagla-

khola, 19.7.79 and 2 cf cf, Rangay, 12.7.79.

Distribution : Western Himalayas, W. Bengal,

Assam, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,

Andhra Pradesh, Malaysia, Indo-China and

China.

Remarks'. Black stripe present in both fore and

hindwings quite variable, even in the speci-

mens collected on same day from Rangay

(Figs. 4-9). Discoidal cells traversed only

once in right forewing while twice in left

5-1 1J | 10J-5

forewing, nodal index — — I

6-8 | 8-6

7. Diplacodes nebulosa (Fabricius)

Material’. 1 cf, Duga, 5.7.79.

Distribution'. Western Himalayas, Madhya

Pradesh, W. Bengal, Penang, Malaya,

Sumatra, Java and Australia.

Remarks’. Only one cubital nervure present in

both the wings, subtrigone entire, discoidal

field begins with two rows of cells, nodal

6-7J | 7J-5

Index — — | —

5-6 | 6-5

Ack nowledgement

We thank the Director Zoological Survey of

Tndia, Calcutta for various facilities.

M. PRASAD

S. K. GHOSH

ENCES

Fraser, F. C. (1934a): The dragonfly fauna of

the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim.

Pt. I. J. Darjeeling nat. Hist. Soc., 8: 161-177.

(1934b) : Fauna of British India-

Odonata. 2. Taylor & Francis, London,: 398.

438

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fraser, F. C. (1935a): The dragonfly fauna of

the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim.

Pt. II. J. Darjeeling nat. Hist. Soc., 9: 18-31.

(1935b) : The dragonfly fauna of

the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim.

Pt. III. ibid. 9: 70-84.

(1935c): The dragonflies of the

Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim. Pt. IV.

ibid. 9: 111-115.

(1936a): The dragonflies of the

Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim. Pt. V.

ibid. 10: 92-100.

(1936b) : Fauna of British India

— Odonata. 9. Taylor & Francis, London,: 461.

(1940a) : The dragonflies of the

Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim. Pt. VI.

(a). J. Darjeeling nat. Hist. Soc., 14: 112-122.

(1940b) : The dragonflies of the

Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts and Sikkim. Pt.

VI (b): ibid. 14: 145-151.

Kennedy, H. C. (1936) : Protosticta fraseri, a new

species of dragonfly (Fltystictinae, Odonata) from

Assam, India. Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lord., 5: 67-71.

Kiauta, B. (1972) : Scientific results of the Yugos-

lav 1969 Himalaya expedition Odonata. Biol. Vest,

20: 109-119.

(1975): Cytotaxonomy of Dragonflies

with special reference to the Nepalese Fauna II.

Lectures delivered at the Tribhuvan University, Kath-

mandu, Nepal Research Centre, Kathmandu, x-77.

Lahiri, A. R. (1979): Odonata (Insecta) from

different states of North-Eastern India. Orient. In-

sects, 13(1-2): 119-132.

Laidlaw, F. F. (1915) : Notes on Orient dragon-

flies in the Indian Museum No. 3. Indian species of

the legion Protoneura. Rec. Indian Mus., 11: 387-391.

(1917a) : A list of the dragonflies

recorded from the Indian empire with special refer-

ence to the collection of the Indian Museum. Part. I.

Rec. Indian Mus., 13: 23-40.

(1917b): A list of the dragonflies

recorded from the Indian empire with special refer-

ence to the collection of the Indian Museum Part II.

ibid. 13: 321-348.

St. Quentin, D. (1970): Odonata aus Nepal

Khumbu Himal., 5(3): 389-411.

19. NIGER GRAIN FLY, DIOZINA SORORCULA (WIEDEMANN),

A SERIOUS PEST OF NIGER IN CENTRAL INDIA

Narayanan (1961) and Rai (1977) listed the

insect pests infesting niger [Guizotta ahyssinica

(Linn, f.) Cass] in India, important among

which are the safflower caterpillar, Prospalta

( Perigea ) capensis (Guen.); aphid, Uroleucon

compositae (Theobold), semilooper, Plusia

orichalcea (Fab.); surface grasshopper, Chro-

togonus sp. and curculionid beetle, Lixus

brachyrrhinus Boh.

During the survey of insect pests of niger

at Jabalpur, the grain fly, Diozina sororcula

(Wiedemann) (Diptera: Taphretidae) was ob-

served for the first time on niger, infesting

developing grains in the seed capsule. The

female fly lays eggs in the inflorescence in bet-

ween the disc florets. The eggs are creamy

white in colour tapering at one end and mea-

sure 0.81 mm in length and 0.16 mm in width.

The incubation period lasts for 24 to 72 hours.

The freshly hatched maggots bore into the

developing seeds and feed on its contents with-

out disturbing the testa and the seed coat of

the seed. The maggot completes its life-cycle

in a single seed and does not destroy the

neighbouring grains. The infested seed does

not show any external sign of infestation until

the fly emerges out from the seed. Hence,

though a high population of the fly exists

in the field, it becomes difficult to detect the

infestation.

The full grown larva measures 2.2 mm in

length and 1 . 0 mm in width. The larval

period lasts for 7 to 12 days. Pupation takes

place inside the seed coat. The pupal period

lasts for 8 to 15 days. The pupa measures 2.0

mm in length and 1 . 1 mm in width.

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SO

The insect remains active from July to Dec-

ember if the niger crop is available in the

field. It remains most active from September

to November, when the crop of normal sowing

season remains in flowering stage and 15 to

20 per cent seeds were found to be damaged

by the fly. Being a direct pest infesting grains

Department of Entomology,

J. N. Agricultural University,

Jabalpur 482 004,

December 4, 1981.

which are ultimately utilized, it seems to be

more destructive than P. capensis and U. com-

positae which are indirect pests of niger.

I am thankful to the Director, Common-

wealth Institute of Entomology, London for

the identification of the pest.

S. S. JAKHMOLA

References

Narayanan, E, S. (1961) : Monograph of Niger Rai, B. K. (1977) : Pests of Oilseeds crops in India

and safflower. The Indian Central Oilseeds Commit- and their control. Indian council of Agricultural

tee, Hyderabad, pp. 150. Research, New Delhi, pp. 121.

20. OVIPOSITION OF TWO CHIRONOMIDS (DIPTERA) IN THE

LABORATORY

The oviposition of chironomid midges is

little known in comparison to the other aspects

of biology studied in the laboratory (Oliver

1971). There is no record on the oviposition

of chironomids in India and less attention

has been paid to the biological aspects and

oviposition in particular. The present study is

aimed at clarifying oviposition in two Indian

chironomids, Chironomus barbatitarsis Kieffer

and C. f Hit arsis Kieffer in the laboratory. This

study provides some information on the mecha-

nism of oviposition and its behaviour during

oviposition.

A stock colony of the insects was maintained

in the laboratory for study. The gravid females

were allowed to lay eggs in encaged culture

trays — Petridishes containing tap water having

2-3 floating paper strips. As soon as the larvae

emerged, they were transferred to another cage

of similar nature containing water on a bed of

sterilised mud and thin layer of fine sand. The

larvae were fed with ground rabbit chow, fila-

mentous algae. A little amount of Bakers’ yeast

was also used for food. This was repeated for

obtaining the stock culture.

The chironomids laid eggs in masses and

the number of egg masses was one to many.

The egg masses were cylindrical and the num-

ber of which was one but often a second,

though small, was found to be deposited by

the females of Chironomus barbatitarsis. How-

ever, in both the species the egg masses were

provided with suspensory stalk and anchoring

chord. The number of eggs within an egg mass

varied from 400 to 500 in C. barbatitarsis and

150 to 250 in C. filitarsis. The eggs in the

masses were oriented in a spiral fashion in the

former and in 5-6 longitudinal rows in the

latter species. The ovipostional behaviour was

studied in the following three phases and both

the species showed more or less similar pattern

of behaviour.

Preovipositional behaviour — As soon

as the females were released in the cages

440

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in the laboratory, they were seen to perform

a very short flight after which some of them

took their position on the wall of the cage.

About 40% of the females rested on the floor

of the cage while others were seen to wander

inside the cages. The pet ridishes/ pots in the

culture were provided with water having some

floating paper strips. The insects remained as

such for 20-50 minutes after which most of

them approached the petridishes and the others

remained on the wall and floor of the cage

where some of them ultimately died. The chiro-

nomids near the culture pots were seen to

move a little for about 10-20 minutes and then

rested on the floating strips of paper or at the

edges of the dishes or over the water surface.

Some individuals were noticed to return to the

net or the floor of the cage without laying the

eggs. These females died after 2-3 days which

were recorded to be their life span.

Behaviour during oviposition : At the onset

of oviposition the genitalia was placed over

water and the hind legs were set apart. Imme-

diately before release of eggs the insects moved

a few steps forward so that the egg mass

remained attached to the floating papers. The

individuals remaining near or at the edges of

the pots also placed their genitalia just on the

upper water level and laid their egg masses

approximately 0.5 mm above the water sur-

face. A few females floating over the water

deposited the egg masses there in water and

little movements of legs and antennae were

observed.

Postovipositional behaviour : As soon as the

oviposition was completed most of the females

returned to the wall or floor of the cage within

2-3 minutes after oviposition. Some of them

Department of Zoology,

University of Burdwan,

Burdwan 713 104,

December 1, 1981.

remained quiet and a few were often seen to

perform little flight in captivity. As such the

chironomids lived for 2-3 days (C. barbatitar-

sis) and 1-2 days (C. filitarsis) after which the

insects died. Vigorous movements of the chiro-

nomids were noticed before death of the indi-

vidual. The remaining females which were still

on the paper strips even after egg deposition

also remained quiet or sometimes showed short

leaping movements over the sites. Finally, they

died on the water surface with the eggs carried

on the legs. These insects were found to last

for 2-10 hours only. The insects with the egg

masses stuck to the body were seen to sink in

the water.

As reported by Macan (1961) the selective

oviposition behaviour occurred in a number of

aquatic insects and the present Chironomus

spp. were not an exception. According to

Curry (1956), Dyson & Lloyd (1936) and

Fryer (1959) chironomids preferred floating

objects for egg deposition which did agree with

our observations made during this study. In

addition to those, it was noticed that the laying

of eggs also took place over the water without

any object and at the edge of the water. The

species of Chironomus oviposited in between

18-23 hours and they exhibited dial periodicity

in respect to egg laying. The time of oviposi-

tion was therefore marked from the evening

to midnight and sometimes also in the dawn

and at dusk.

Sincere thanks are due to Prof. Ole A.

Saether, University of Bergen (Norway) for

kindly going through the manuscript and to

the Head of the department of Zoology for

laboratory facilities.

P. K. CHAUDHURI

S. K. NANDI

441

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

References

Curry, L. L. (1956) : Notes on the ecology and

Taxonomy of the midge, Tendipes ( Tendipes ) stae-

geri (Lundback). Ent. News. 67: 225-236.

Dyson, J. E. B. & Lloyd, D. S. C. (1936): The

distribution of early stages of Metriocnemus longi-

tarsis Goet. (Chironomidae) in sewage bacteria beds.

Proc. Leeds phil. lit. Soc. 3: 174-176.

Fryer, G. (1959): Lunar rhythm of emergence,

differential behaviour of the sexes and other pheno-

mena in the african midge, Chironomus brevibucca

(Kief.). Bull. ent. Res. 50: 1-8.

Macan, T. T. (1961) : Factors that limit the range

of freshwater animals. Biol. Rev. 36: 151-198.

Oliver, D. R. (1971) : Life history of the Chiro-

nomidae. A. Rev. Ent. 16: 211-239.

21. LIFE HISTORY, EPHIPPIA DEVELOPMENT, CYCLOMORPHOSIS

AND TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON LIFE CYCLE IN DAPHNIA

LUMHOLTZI SARS (CLADOCERA: DAPHNIDAE)

(With two plates & a text-figure)

Introduction

Fish production in aquatic ecosystem de-

pends largely upon the secondary link in the

aquatic food chain, which constitutes impor-

tant fish food organisms. Cladocerans are the

main components of this phase of organic pro-

duction which have nutritional values for the

growth and production of fish. Although the

importance of Cladocera as fish food, both for

fry and adults, has been stressed by different

workers (Alikunhi 1952, Pennak 1953, Hutchin-

son 1967, Kanaujia 1979), only scanty infor-

mation is available on their seasonal abun-

dance, life-cycle, cyclomorphosis and sexual

reproduction in natural freshwater environment

in tropical regions. In India, Michael (1962),

Murugan (1973, 1975), Murugan & Sivarama-

krishnan (1975, 1976), Navaneethakrishnan &

Michael (1971), and Kanaujia (MS) have

studied the life cycle, biology and seasonal

abundance of various species of Cladocera.

Observations made on the life-cycle, including

effect of seasonal temperature, ephippial deve-

lopment and cyclomorphosis in Daphnia lum-

holtzi under laboratory and field conditions,

and results obtained are presented in this paper.

Material and method

Daphnia lumholtzi collected from a fish pond

at Cuttack, India (Long. 85°52'E, Lat. 20°

29 'N) was used for the study. An egg-bearing

female was reared separately in 1 -litre beaker

with the same pond water. Newly released

young ones were reared individually in 20

beakers of 100 ml capacity filled with pond

water filtered through No. 25 Nylobolt silk

cloth. The filtered pond water contained minute

nannoplankters. ( Chlorella sp., Scenedesmus

sp. and Tetraspora sp.) besides detritus, which

served as food for the reared specimens. Water

in the beakers was changed once every 24

hours. Observations were recorded on dura-

tion of each instar, length increment at each

instar, total number of instars, number of young

ones in each brood, total life span and water

temperature.

For the study of different stages of embryo-

nic development a hundred egg-bearing females

were reared in a 10-litre glass jar. The deve-

loping embryo was dissected out of the brood

sac and various stages were photomicrographed.

Another set of experiments was conducted

442

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to study the influence of temperature on the

life cycle.

Some possible studies were made on Cyclo-

morphosis and ephippial development through

culturing the specimens in 10-litre glass jars

filled with tap water and fed with cowdung

solution (500 and 1000 ppm) and others with

pond water.

Observations

D. lumholtzi thrive well on fine organic de-

tritus as well as phytogroup of nannoplankton

( Scenedesmus sp., Chlorella sp. and Tetra-

spora sp.) available in the pond. Their multi-

plication continued with the availability of re-

quired food. After a few days the density de-

clined gradually and the pond water became

//VS7V4 r number

Fig. 1. (A) Instar number and eggs per brood, (B) Progressive growth increment at

each instar, and (C) Fluctuation in instar duration in Daphnia lumholtzi at 18°-26°C.

443

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

clear from its original greenish colour. The

same was observed in glass jars with tap water,

cowdung solution and also water media con-

taining Tetraspora.

Cyclomorphosis :

The specimens collected from the pond water

at 16°-20°C water temperature had

long anterior rostrum (0.73 mm) and poste-

rior tail spine (0.76 mm) during December -

February. When the same specimens were rear-

ed in jars, the rostral spine in most of the

specimens atrophied and disappeared. In

the newly hatched young reared in 100 ml

beaker for the study of life-cycle the rostrum

also got reduced after a few instars.

Life history :

The female laid eggs inside the brood pouch.

Just after the last pre-adult instar, the newly

released eggs assumed round shape. Subse-

quent development passed through eight em-

bryonic stages as described by Green (1965)

in the case of Daphnia magna. Liberation of

young apparently preceded every moulting.

Various stages in the embryonic develop-

ment of D. lumholtzi are as follows :

1. Early stage :

a) Early: The egg spherical with translucent

peripheral zone of green granu-

lated cells (Plate I- A).

b) Late : Central region of the egg shows

yellow fat cells. Both the outer

egg membrane as well as inner

naupliar membrane (Plate I-B).

2. Middle stage :

a) Early. Embryo well elongated antero-

posteriorly surrounded by egg

membrane (Plate I-C, D).

3. Late stage :

a) Early : Distinct dark eyes formed; the

cervical depression conspicuous

(Plate I-E, F).

b) Late : Embryos reach maximum length;

paired eyes overlapping each

other and finally fused; develop-

ment of alimentary canal com-

Table 1

Mean length, number of eggs /brood, duration

OF EACH INSTAR IN HOURS, CUMULATIVE DURATION

OF EACH INSTAR IN HOURS AND CUMULATIVE FRE-

QUENCY OF EGGS IN EACH INSTAR IN D. lumholtzi

AT 18°-26°C.

444

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 80 Plate I

Kanaujia: Daphnia lumholtzi

A. Spherical egg with granulated cells (0.19 mm).

B. Spherical egg with the central circular area surrounded by granular cells (0.19 mm).

C. Elongated embryo with head rudiment, cleaved cells extending into the cephalic

region (0.24 mm).

D. Embryo with head lobe and antennae (0.26 mm).

E. Elongated embryo with distinct head and limbs (0.76 mm).

F. &G. Late stage embryo with dark eyes and cervical depression (0.28 mm).

H. Newly hatched young one (0.76 mm).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate II

Kanaujia: Daphnia lumholtzi

A. Parthenogenetic female with eggs inside brood chamber and long rostrum but

without tail spine — from pond water (2.61 mm).

B. Female with ephippia development, without rostrum from jar (0.94 mm).

C. Female with long rostrum and tail spine — from pond (2.28 mm).

D. Female with completely developed ephippia and long rostrum — from pond

(2.44 mm).

E. Ephippium after moulting (1.15 mm).

F. Ephippial eggs with secondary inner membrane (hand sketch) (0.71 mm).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2

Comparative data on life cycle of 6 species of Cladocera

pleted; appendages distinct;

elongated pointed rostrum clearly

seen (Plate I-F, G).

After complete development, the embryo

hatches out from brood chamber resembling

the adult in all respects (Plate I-H). The ante-

rior rostrum in the newly hatched young one

measured 0.19 mm and the characteristic tail

spine 0.57 mm. The young one measured 0.76

mm excluding the two spines and reached

adult stage after passing 3-4 pre-adult instar.

Ephippial development :

Ephippium in D. lumholtzi is observed in

crowded populations after parthenogenetic

breeding slows down. The postero-dorsal cara-

pace becomes modified into a specially thick

dark envelope in which the resting eggs lie and

these become distinct from the rest of the exu-

vium to form the ephippium (Plate II-B, D, E).

Its development starts with a small transparent

patch which — increases in size, forming a

honeycombed structure (Plate II-B). A pair

of dark green elongated eggs could be seen

clearly (Plate II-F).

After release of a pair of eggs by the female,

a male D. lumholtzi which is smaller in size,

was observed to get attached to the female,

with its posterior part of the body. The honey-

comb-shaped ephippium assumed white trans-

parency initially and then turned brown to

black (Plate II-E). It gets thickened and the

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

eggs were completely enclosed. The ephippium

had two coverings in which the resting ferti-

lized eggs lay — the outer one thick and black

and the inner a translucent and thin membrane

which could be taken out along with the paired

eggs by gently pressing the ephippium (Plate

II-F).

Effect of temperature :

Temperature was found to influence life cycle

of D. lumholtzi. The instar duration (51.79

hrs), total number of eggs produced (301),

average number of eggs per brood (15.05)

and total life span (54 days) were found to

be more at 18°-26°C as compared to the 24°-

28°C (Table 2).

Discussion

Present study of life cycle of D. lumholtzi

indicates that the animal passes through an

average of 3-4 pre-adult instars, 20 adult in-

stars and a total of 301 eggs are produced in

a life span of 54 days at a water temperature of

18°-26°C which has shown close similarity

with other daphnids (Table 2). Studies on pre-

adult instars have been made by Michael

(1962), Murugan (1975), and Murugan &

Sivaramakrishnan (1976) in species which have

two pre-adult instars and others with more

than two pre-adult instars (Murugan &

Sivaramakrishnan 1973, Navaneethakrishnan &

Michael 1971, Anderson 1932, Anderson et al.

1937 and Anderson & Jenkins 1942). D. lum-

holtzi falls under the second group. It may

appear that the smaller species which have

two pre-adult instars mature earlier than the

larger species, C. cornuta, M. micrura and S.

kingi (Table 2).

D. lumholtzi has close similarity with other

cladocerans — where the first adult instar has

longer instar duration (63 hours) during which

the females are premiparous, and duration of

this adult instar is distinctly longer than the

longest pre-adult instar (52 hours) (Table 1).

However, this phenomenon was found almost

to be different from the observations of Muru-

gan & Sivaramakrishnan (1976) and Murugan

(1975) where both the instars have similar

duration (Table 2).

The progressive increase in size of the indi-

viduals at each instar was found to be rapid

during pre-adult phase and gradual in the re-

productive phase, indicating similar growth be-

haviour as studied in other cladocerans. How-

ever, Green (1956) reported that in many

cladocerans the maximum growth was in early

pre-adult instars. The rate of growth per instar

is said to be correlated with the food supply

(Hutchinson 1967).

The ephippial eggs in D. lumholtzi appear

with crowding; specimens were observed with

ephippium along with the parthenogenetic

females with few eggs inside brood chamber.

Lack of food indicated by the clarity of water

appears to result in sexual reproduction. It is

interesting to note that when the ephippial

female was removed from a crowded population

and kept in a beaker with sufficient food the

ephippium was cast out along with the moult

and the same female started developing eggs

parthenogenetically. Pennak (1953), Banta &

Wood (1939), Berg (1931), Brandt & Fernan-

do (1971), Santharam et al (1977) and Michael

(1962) have reported that the ephippial deve-

lopment is influenced by the crowding of the

mothers in a small amount of culture medium

or by chilling the culture medium.

Cyclomorphosis is the seasonal polymorphism

exhibited by successive generations of plank-

tonic organisms throughout a year. D. lumholtzi

indicated its prominent seasonal variations

particularly in helmet. The long rostral spine

(Plate II- A, C.D) while present in pond water

446

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

conditions was absent in jars containing tap

water with cowdung solution, thereby indicating

the influence of environmental divergent con-

ditions on cyclomorphosis. Several investigators

have given different views on the particular

phenomena and the factors responsible for

cyclomorphosis in Daphnia sp. have been dis-

cussed in detail by Hutchinson (1967), accord-

ing to whom the change in environmental

conditions, such as temperature and food sup-

ply, are the main factors. However, no major

change is observed in the posterior tail spine

of D. lumholtzi.

Present study indicated that the seasonal

water temperature influence instar duration,

number of eggs per brood, egg production and

longevity of animal. Water temperature and

food availability are the main factors for in-

creasing the egg production, life span and in-

star duration as reported by MacArthur &

Baillie (1929), Hall (1962), and Kanaujia (MS)

Riverine Fisheries Research

Unit of C.I.F.R.I.,

1/644 SlDHNATHGHAT,

Buxar (Bihar) 802 101,

April 16, 1981.

Refer

Alikunhi, K. H. (1952) : On the food of young

carp fry. /. Zool. Soc. India, 4 : 77-84.

Anderson, B. G. (1932) : The number of pre-

adult instars, growth, relative growth and variation

in Daphnia magna. Biol. Bull. 63: 81-98.

Anderson, B. G. & Jenkins, J. C. (1942) : A time

study of events in the life span of Daphnia magna.

Biol. Bull. 83: 260-272.

Anderson, B. G., Lumera, H. & Zupaneic, L. J.

(1937): Growth and variability in Daphnia-pulex.

Biot. Bull. 73: 444-463.

Aung, Sann (1973) : Experimental studies on cul-

tural possibilities of Daphnia carinata King and

Moina macrocopa macrocopa (Straurs). Ph.D. Thesis,

University of Bombay.

Banta, A. M. & Wood, T. R. (1939) : Studies on

in D. magna, D. galeata mendotae and C.

cornuta.

It is well known that the food of cladoce-

rans consists mainly of algae, protozoa and

organic detritus suspended in water column

and even bacteria (Pennak 1953, Hutchinson

1967). The higher density of D. lumholtzi has

been recorded in ponds having the phyto-group

of nannoplankters such as Scenedesmus, Chlo-

rella, Tetraspora and organic detritus, indicat-

ing their suitability as food for the rapid

growth and multiplication.

Ack nowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. A. V. Natarajan,

Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute for his kind encouragement, to Shri

R. D. Chakravarty, Shri M. A. V. Lakshaman

and Shri N. G. S. Rao for their interest and

for critically going through the manuscript and

making valuable suggestions.

D. R. KANAUJIA

EN CES

the Physiology, genetics and evolution of some

Cladocera. Carnegie Institution of Washington,

Department of genetics, paper No. 39: 31-81.

Berg, K. (1931) : Studies on the genus Daphnia

O. F. Muller with — special reference to the mode

of reproduction. Vidensk. Medd. dansk. Naturh.

Foren. Kbh., 92: 1-222.

Branot, Z. & Fernando, C. H. (1971): Micro-

aggregation of the Cladoceran Ceriodaphnia affinis

Lilljeborg with a possible reason for microaggrega-

tion of zooplankton. Can. J. Zool. 49(5) : 775.

Green, J. (1956) : Growth size and reproduction

in Daphnia (Crustacea: Cladocera). Proc. zool. Soc.

Lond., 126: 173-204.

(1965): Chemical embryology of Cru-

stacea. Biol. Res. 40: 580-600.

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Hall, D. J. (1962) : An experimental approach

to the dynamics of a natural population of Daphnia

galeata mendotae. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Michigan

1962.

Hutchinson, G. E. (1967) : A treatise on limno-

logy. Vol. II, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York,

pp. 1115.

Kanaujia, D. R. (1979) : Preliminary observations

on culture and life history of Ceriodaphnia cornuta

Sars, (Cladocera: Daphnidae). Abstr. Symposium

on Inland Aquaculture : 109.

(MS) : Instar duration, Instar

number, egg production and longevity in Ceriodaph-

nia cornuta at two temperature ranges.

MacArthur, J. W. & Baillie, W. H. T. (1929):

Metabolic activity and duration of life I. Influence

of temperature on longevity in Daphnia magna. J.

Exp. zool., 53 : 221-242.

Michael, R. George (1962) : Seasonal events in

a natural population of the Cladocera Ceriodaphnia

cornuta Sars and observations on its life cycle. J.

zool. Soc. India, 14: 211-18.

Murugan, N. (1973): Egg production, develop-

ment and growth in Moina micrura Kurz (1874)

(Cladocera: Moinidae). Freshwat. Biol., 5: 245-250.

(1975): The biology of Ceriodaph-

nia cornuta Sars (Cladocera: Daphnidae). J. Inland.

Fish. Soc. India, 7 : 80-87.

Murugan, N. & Sivaramakrishnan, K. G. (1975) :

The biology of Simocephalus acutirostratus King

(Cladocera: Daphnidae), laboratory studies on life

span, instar duration, egg production, growth and

stages in embryonic development. Freshwat. Biol.,

7: 80-87.

0976):

Laboratory studies on the longevity, instar duration,

growth, reproduction and embryonic development in

Scapholeberis kingi (Sars) (1903) (Cladocera:

Daphnidae). Hydrobiologia, 50(1): 75-80.

Navaneethakrishnan, P. & Michael, George,

(1971): Egg production and growth in Daphnia

carinata King. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 73: 117-123.

Pennak, R. W. (1953): Freshwater Invertebrates

of the United States, Ronald Press, New York.

Santharam, K. R., Navaneethakrishnan, P. &

Krishnaswamy, S. (1977): Microaggregation of

Daphnia carinata King. Arch. Hydrobiol., 80: 398-

399.

22. A NOTE ON THE SETTLEMENT OF FOULING ORGANISMS ON

FIBRE-GLASS BOATS

Copper and aluminium alloy sheathing of

wooden boats below waterline are well known

conventional method for protecting it against

marine wood-borers and foulers, although it

has been reported (Santhakumaran and Pillai

1976) that fouling organisms are capable of

attachment to the toxic substratum provided

even by Copper. Of late, fibre-glass has been

used as a good constructional material for

boat-building, because of its special qualities

like toughness, rigidity, resistance to abrasion

and marine borers and imperviousness to

sea water. Although settling behaviour of foul-

ing organisms on wooden materials as well as

on various protective coatings has been studied

by several workers, experimental work on

the same on fibre-glass surface is very

scanty. It has been observed that ail

the wooden panels, sheathed with fibre-glass,

were free from the attack of marine borers,

even after one year of continuous immersion

at Cochin harbour, although they were covered

by fouling organisms in the same way as any

unsheathed controls (Balasubramanyan 1971).

The only other available literature in India on

the settlement of foulers on fibre-glass is that

of Dehadrai el al. (1975), who gave an ac-

count of the incidence of foulers on fibre-glass-

coated hull of a boat operated in an estuarine

environment. The present note deals with the

intense accumulation of barnacles on fibre-glass

boats, belonging to the Central Institute of

448

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fisheries Education, Bombay, which were in

operation in the Versova creek.

Of the two boats from which data were re-

corded, one, an 18 footer, was entirely con-

structed of fibre-glass. The other one, of 14 ft.

size is a wooden boat, coated with ‘Torpedo’

marine antifouling paint and the bottom of

which was sheathed at two places with fibre-

glass mat, covering an area of about 4 sq. ft.

each, using a polyster resin. The area to be

covered was first scraped well till the wood

is exposed and this surface was wetted with

the activated resin over which a layer of fiber-

glass mat was fixed and pressed with a hand

brush. Over this, a second layer of mat was

laid, spreading again with more quantity of

resin. Finally, the area was covered with a

finishing mat so as to give a smooth surface.

The boats were in operation in the Versova

creek for a period of only 9 months from

September, 1974 to May, 1975. They were only

sparingly used, for ferrying the fish catch, crew

and other personnel from ‘M. F. V. Harpodon’,

both in the morning and evening, and rest of

the time they were anchored near main vessel.

During the monsoon, they were removed to

the C.I.F.E. Work-shop, offering a chance to

study the fouling settlement on the hull of

these boats.

The fouling intensity was very high. Surpris-

ingly, among the foulers, only barnacles were

noticed. Only Balanus amphitrite was observed

and Chthamalus withersi, which is a very com-

mon species found settling in large numbers to

the stems of living mangrove plants in this

area was conspicuously absent on the hulls.

Probably, the cementing mechanism of Bala-

nus, with its well-formed calcareous basal plate

is more efficient than that of Chthamalus,

where the shell base is membraneous render-

ing it difficult to attach to the smooth fibre-

glass surface. The intensity of the settlement

on the fibre-glass boat and the fibre-glass mat

surface is given in Table 1.

Table 1

Number of barnacles, per square inch, settled

on fibre-glass boat and fibre-glass mat sheathed

HULL.

From Table 1, it can be seen that the inten-

sity of settlement is as high as 25 per sq. in.

(average 20 per sq. in.) and 33 per sq. in.

(average 27.5 per sq. in.) on the fiber-glass

boat and fibre-glass sheathed part of the wooden

boat. The sheathing has also been found damag-

ed and peeled off at many places. The bottom

of the wooden boat coated with antifouling

paint harboured very few barnacles and only

7 to 12 could be counted per sq. ft. (average

10 per sq. ft.).

According to Crisp and Barnes (1954), bar-

nacles show a special preference to grooves and

concavities on a substratum — a behaviour

termed as “rugophilic”, and the cyprids ex-

plore the surface very extensively before

settling, and attachment to plane and smooth

surface occurs only when such grooves and

concavities are crowded. But the heavy settle-

ment on the smooth hull of fibre-glass boat

indicates that this predominant group among

the fouling communities is capable of firmly

attaching even to such a substratum. It is also

interesting to note that, while the settlement on

the fibre-glass sheathing on the wooden boat

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

is very high, the same on other parts of the

same boat, coated with antifouling paint is

extremely scanty. The reason is that sheathing

has invariably provided a non-toxic surface,

which has also become comparatively rough

as a result of damage and peeling, facilitating

settlement.

The above observation and the earlier re-

ports indicate that, in spite of its effectiveness

as a protective sustratum against marine wood-

borers, boats, constructed of fibre-glass or

wooden boats sheathed with fire-glass mat, are

prone to heavy fouling. Therefore, such pro-

tective surfaces should be coated with a suit-

able marine antifouling paint to effectively

check the fouling settlement. This is all the

more important, as on boats and ships marine

growth is a serious problem for their efficient

and economic operation. It may be mentioned

in this connection that from experiments it has

been observed that even the smoothest hull

of a ship with aluminium paint provided an

Wood Preservation Centre (Marine),

(Forest Research Laboratory, Bangalore),

C/o. National Institute of

Oceanography, Dona Paula,

Goa-403 004.

Forest Research Centre,

P. O. R. S. Puram,

Coimbatore-641 002,

August 30. 1982.

extra resistance of 6%, and after 24, 30 and

58 days operation, the same was increased to

12%, 24% and 48% respectively, even when

the fouling was light (B.S.R.A. experiment on

the “Lucy Ashton”, Trans. Inst. Naval Arch.,

London, Part I, 40 (1951); Part II, 350 (1950);

Part IV, 525 (1955). Compared to this, the

extra resistance offered by the extent of foul-

ing noticed in the present case will be tremen-

dous and warrants effective antifouling mea-

sures.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Shri Rajan Abraham of

Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bom-

ay, for his help during the preparation of this

paper and to Shri J. C. Jain of Forest Re-

search Laboratory, Bangalore and to Dr. S. N.

Dwivedi, Director, C.I.F.E. Bombay, for their

keen interest and encouragement during the

course of this study.

L. N. SANTHAKUMARAN

S. R. MADHAVAN PILLAI

References

Balasubramanyan, R. (1971) : Experiments with

fibre-glass sheathing as a protection against marine

wood-boring organisms. Fish. Tech., 5(1) : 60-65.

Crisp, D. J. & Barnes, H. (1954) : The orienta-

tion and distribution of barnacles at settlement with

particular reference to surface contour. J. Anim.

Ecol. 23: 142-162.

Dehadrai, P. V., Parulekar, A. H. & Untawale,

A. G. (1975) : Fouling organisms on fibre-glass coat-

ed hull of a boat in an estuarine environment. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72(2 ) : 580-584.

SANTHAKUMARAN, L. N. & PlLLAI, S, R. N. (1976) I

A note on the settlement of marine fouling orga-

nisms on Copper plates. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

73(3): 550-553.

450

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Malhotra & Basu: Pulicaria petiolaris

Plate I

Pulicaria petiolaris Jaub. et Spach.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23. PULICAR1A PETIOLARIS JAUB. ET SPACH (ASTERACEAE) —

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

( With a plate )

While revising the genus Pulicaria Gaertn.

we came across a few interesting specimens

collected by Duthie and Gamble (1884-1908)

from Kumaon, Tehri Garhwal and Jaunsar,

and lying un-noticed in the Herbaria of the

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah (CAL)

and the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

(DD). After a critical study and examination

these specimens have been identified as P.

petiolaris Jaub. et Spach. As far as we are

aware, there is no report of its occurrence in

India, and hitherto this species is known to

occur from Arabia and Tropical Africa.

P. petiolaris Jaub. et Spach, 111. PI. Or. 69. t.

344. 1852; Oliver, FI. Trop. Afr. 3: 364.

1877.

Suffruticose, 12-30 cm tall, with herbaceous

branches; branches glandular with appressed

hairs, irregular, divaricate, leafless below, leafy

above. Leaves 1.25-5.0 cm long, 0.7-2 cm

broad, alternate, oval or lanceolate, acute or

subacute, cuneate, or truncate base, denticu-

late, petioles narrowly winged, more or less

dilated at base. Capitula sub-hemispherical,

many flowered, solitary on pedicels, loosely

Botanical Survey of India,

Northern Circle,

Dehra Dun-248 001,

December 1, 1981.

corymbose, radiate, involucral bracts unequal,

imbricate, thinly glandular — pubescent, linear,

acute or subulate, outer successively shorter.

Achenes subfusiform, contracted at apex below

the pappus, thinly pubescent; outer pappus

shorter, inner or deciduous setae, barbellate

above.

Rare on rocky slopes.

Flowers Sc Fruits : Mar.-Nov.

Specimens examined : Tons valley (Tehra

Garhwal), 30.5.1898, Duthie, 21049 (DD);

Khairna (Kumaon), 10.8.1884, Duthie, 3110

(DD); Jaunsar, Tuni, Nov. 1894, Gamble,

15067 (DD) & Jun. 1895. Gamble, 25561

(DD).

Distribution : Africa, Arabia & India.

Acknowledgements

We thank Shri B. P. Uniyal, Botanist, Cen-

tral National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of

India for providing details of specimens and to

the authorities of the Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun for permission to consult their her-

barium.

C. L. MALHOTRA

D. BASU

451

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

24. THE CORRECT NAME OF ‘MAROTTF PLANT IN VAN

RHEEDE’S HORTUS INDXCUS MALABARICUS

‘Marotti’ plant in van Rheede’s Hortus Indi-

cus Malabaricus (1: 65. pi. 36. 1678) is an

endemic species of Peninsular India, commonly

known in Indian Floras (Hook. f. et Thomas,

in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 196. 1872; Dunn

in Gamble, FI. Presid. Madras 1: 52. 1915)

as Hydnocarpus wightiana Bl. Dennstedt (1818)

in his bibliography to Rheede’s Hortus Indi-

cus Malabaricus (1678-1703) identified

‘Marotti’ as Munnicksia laurifolia Dennst. and

this is the oldest name for the species. Based

on the binomial Munnicksia laurifolia, Sleumer

(Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 69: 33. 1939) proposed the

combination Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst.)

Sleum. and considered it as the valid name for

the species in his revision of the genus Hydno-

carpus Gaertn. (Flacourtiaceae).

According to Rickett and Staffleu (Taxon

10: 80.1961), only those species names in

Dennstedt’s list are valid which are given under

already validly published generic names and

the new generic names coined there are all

‘nomen nuda’ because it is not allowed in the

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature

(1976) to validate a combined new generic

and specific binomial by referring it to a pre-

vious publication. In this case both the gene-

ric name Munnicksia Dennst. and the specific

epithet ‘ laurifolia ’ were first coined by Denn-

stedt (1818) by referring the binomial to the

plate ‘Marotti’ in Hortus Malabaricus. Hence

the binomial Munnicksia laurifolia is a ‘nomen

nudum’ at the time of its publication and ac-

cordingly Munitz (Taxon 17: 501.1968) in-

cluded it in the ‘nomen nuda’ list of the names

in Dennstedt’s (1818) Schlussel zum Hortus

Xndicus Malabaricus. Thus Sleumer’s (loc. cit.)

combination Hydnocarpus laurifolia based on

the ‘nomen nudum’ M. Laurifolia is also not

valid.

Francis Hamilton (Trans. Linn. Soc. Lon-

don 13: 501. 1822) described the species

Chilmoria pentandra Ham. based on the plate

‘Marotti’ in Hortus Malabaricus. This bino-

mial is the oldest validly published name for

the plant and based on it, Oken (Allg. Natur-

gesch. 3(2): 1381. 1841) proposed the com-

bination H. pentandrus (Ham.) Oken. Accord-

ing to the International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature (1976), H. pentandrus is a valid-

ly published name and it is the correct one for

the ‘Marotti’ plant in Hortus Malabaricus.

However Oken (loc. cit) included ‘Pangium’

of Rumphius (Herb. Amb. 2: 182. pi. 59.

1741) also as a synonym of Hydnocarpus pen-

tandrus, which is not correct as ‘Pangium’ is

a different plant botanically known as Pangium

edule.

Wight and Arnott (Prodr. 30. 1834) identi-

fied Rheede’s plate ‘Marotti’ as Hydnocarpus

inebrians Vahl, and Dunn {loc. cit.) treated

H. inebrians as a synonym of H. wightiana.

But H. inebrians is an endemic species of Sri

Lanka and it is a different plant from H. pen-

tandra (H. wightiana Bl.) which is confined

to Peninsular India. Thus Hooker and Thom-

son (loc. cit.) were correct in treating H. in-

ebrians Vahl and H. wightiana Bl. as two dis-

tinct taxa. The correct nomenclature of

Rheede’s ‘Marotti’ plant is as given below.

Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Ham.) Oken, Allg.

Naturgesch. 3(2): 1381. 1841. — Chilmoria

pentandra Ham. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13:

501. 1822. — Hydnocarpus wightiana Bl.

Rumph. 4: 22. 1848, Hook. f. et Thoms, in

Hook. f. FI. Birt. Ind. 1: 196. 1872; Brandis,

452

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Indian Trees 42. fig. 17. 1906; Dunn in Gam-

ble, FI. Presid. Madras 1(1): 52. 1915. — H.

laurifolia (Dennst.) Sleum. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb.

69: 33. 1939; Ramamurthy in FI. Hassan Distr.

164. 1976 — Munnicksia laurifolia Dennst.

Schluess. Hort. Ind. Malab. 13. 1818. c. f.

Hassk. Flora 45: 44. 1862. — H. inebrians

sensu non Vahl; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 30. 1834;

Wt. Ulus. Ind. Bot. t. 16. 1840.

Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta-700 016,

October 31, 1981.

Distribution : Western Peninsular India from

South of Maharashtra in evergreen, semi-ever-

green and wet deciduous forests.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to the Deputy Director, Cen-

tral National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah for all facilities.

K. K. N. NAIR1

1 Present address : Scientist-D, Kerala Forest

Research Institute, Peechi-680 653, Kerala, India.

25. IDENTITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF AGERATUM

HOUSTONIANUM MILLER (COMPOSITAE) IN INDIA

(With three text-figures)

Babu (1977) has recorded Ageratum hous-

tonianum Miller, so far known from tropical

America, from Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh,

and has stated that it is naturalised there. He

has remarked “This may be a cytotype of A.

conyzoides L.”

Bhandari (1978) recorded the species from

Jodhpur, Rajasthan, with citation of a few

specimens. He gave the distribution of the

species in Tamilnadu, Assam and Karnataka

without any reference to specimens. He has

also noted that he is doubtful about the iden-

tity of the species.

Johnson (1971), in his monograph, remarks

“an Ageratum species collected in India must

be A. conyzoides, as this is the only taxon

found beyond the limit of the Western hemi-

sphere.” It is probably due to this remark of

Johnson that the later Indian floristic workers

hesitated to accept A. houstonianum, with

confidence, as an Indian plant.

After a thorough study of the Indian speci-

mens labelled as A. conyzoides in the Calcutta

herbarium, we realised that it is in fact a mixed

lot containing A. conyzoides and A. houstoni-

anum.

The specimens of A. houstonianum have

been sorted out and after critical study with

reference to the American specimens in the

Central National Herbarium, it has been

observed that A. houstonianum is a widely

distributed and naturalised species in India.

It was collected in Assam as early as 1895

and in Punjab as early as 1896. From this it

may be presumed that the species was intro-

duced to India in the last part of the nine-

teenth century and then gradually naturalised

itself spreading all over the country. Being con-

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

A. Habit of Ageratum houstonianum Miller drawn from the specimen N. C. Majum-

dar 191.

B. Involucral Bract of A. houstonianum Miller.

C. Involucral Bract of A. conyzoides L.

454

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

fused with A. conyzoides, its occurrence in

India was not known. The species is found in

different states of India. None has so far

recorded the occurrence of the species from

Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Meghalaya, West

Bengal, Delhi and Punjab, which is done here

for the first time.

A. cordi folium Roxb. (1832) from Bengal

refers to the cordate nature of leaf-bases, but

it has involucral bracts exactly like those of

A. conyzoides. So it becomes a synonym of

A. conyzoides.

As mentioned by Johnson, A. houstonianum

is closely related to A. conyzoides as shown

by their similar habit, achenes, pappus, corol-

las and the malodorous nature when fresh,

due to which the two are often confused in

herbaria, botanical gardens and in the field.

However, the combination of ovate leaves with

cordate bases, and narrowly lanceolate, cons-

picuously pilose involucral bracts with stipi-

tate glandular pubescence on the gradually

acuminate apex distinguishes A. houstonianum

from similar species.

To avoid confusion, the contrasting charac-

ters of the two species are tabulated below:

Ageratum houstonianum miller, Gard. Diet.

A. conyzoides L.

Ed. 8, 1768. A. conyzoides Lam. III. Gen. PI.

Bot. 248, PI. 672. 1823. Holotype: Mexico,

Vera Cruz, William Houston s.n. (BM).

Distribution : Antigua, British Honduras,

Colombia, Cuba, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico,

Peru, Sumatra, Java, Madeira, Nepal, India.

India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Delhi,

Meghalaya, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil-

nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Chromosome No.: n = 10 (Turner et al. 1962).

Specimens Examined : west Bengal: Dar-

jeeling, 1500 m., 28-4-1965, Santapau 225.

assam: Cinnamond, 26-4-1895, G. Watt

11322; Assam, without precise locality, S. N.

Bal 641; Sonaikushi R. F., south of Nakhola

town, Nowgong, 18-4-64, N. P. Balakrishnan

39231; Dharikati, Assam, 16-2-57, G. Pani-

grahi 5646; Tangla, 24-4-1958, B. K. Nath

13396; Upper Dihing Reserve, 8-7-1959,

G. Panigrahi 18713. Meghalaya: Upper Shil-

long, Khasi hills, 26-11-1956, G. Panigrahi

4727. mizoram : Mizo hills, R. M. Datta

33400. arunachal pradesh: Kameng foot-

hills, 240 m., 22-3-1957, G. Panigrahi 5844.

utter pradesh: Pilibhit 15-9-1972, C. L. Mal-

hotra 50841. Delhi: I.A.R.I., New Delhi,

March 1950, Sewa Singh 12; Punjab: Gagret,

A. houstonianum Mill.

1 . Stem pilose when young, older parts glabrate

or glabrous.

2. Leaves ovate, base obtuse or oblique or rarely

rounded but never cordate or truncate, sparsely

pilose, margin crenate, petiole sparsely pilose.

3. Peduncle sparsely puberulent-pilose.

4. Involucral bracts oblong to oblong-lanceolate,

greenish with hyaline margin, very sparsely

pilose, glabrate or glabrous, apex abruptly acu-

minate or acute, erose or fimbriate, margin

entire.

5. Corolla shorter, 1.5-2. 5 mm, glabrous or 5.

apically puberulent.

1 . Stem pilose throughout, the younger parts

densely pilose.

2. Leaves broadly ovate, base cordate or truncate,

more pilose on both surfaces, margin dentate,

serrate, biserrate or crenate.

3. Peduncle densely pilose.

4. Involucral bracts linear-lanceolate, green, grayish

or brownish, 2-ribbed, densely pilose, apex

gradually long-acuminate, glandular-ciliate,

especially above, margin entire.

Corolla longer, 2.5 — 3.5 mm, glabrous to

glandular.

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

18-4-1972, O. P. Misra 47090; Amritsar, 9-3-

1896, D. Prain s.n.; rajasthan: Hindoli, 23-

12-1963, D. M. Verma 1873; Jhalar Patan,

Jhalwar, 23-4-1964, D. M. Verma 3352; Man-

dore Garden, Nagadhari, G. P. Roy 1525;

Mandore Garden, 21-1-1974, G. L. Tiwari

1118; Ahu River, Jhalawar, 27-5-1965, B. M.

Wadhwa 9499; tamilnadu : Combai river bed,

14-6-1961, K. M. Sebastine 12579; Gedasal,

Coimbatore, 1215 m., without collector’s

name, 4224; Shembaganur, 1820 m., 1913,

Rev. Aug. Saulieres 903; Nilgiri, 1366 m.,

June 1883, J. S. Gamble 12154; Kotagiri, Ara-

venu, 2000 m., 4-1-1957, K. Subramanyam

Botanical Survey India,

Howrah 711 103,

October 12, 1981.

R E F E

Babu, C. R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehra

Dun: 239. New Delhi.

Bhandari, M. M. (1978) : Flora of the Indian De-

sert: 192. Jodhpur.

Johnson, M. F. (1971) : A monograph of the

genus Ageratum L. (Compositae — Eupatorieae) .

1886; Kotagiri, 22-10-1956, K. Subramanyam

1049; Kottabettu, Illithorai, 2067 m., 8-10-1956,

K. M. Sebastine 9 66; sikkim: Gangtok, 1670

m., 5-9-1968, N. C. Majumdar 191; Nepal:

Gokarna, Ramola & Prova s.n.; Hawaii: Hilo

suburb, March 1966; O. Degener & /. Degener

30793; U.S.A.: New York Botanical Garden,

760 m., (1898-1901) Herbert H. Smitt 623

(A. mexicanum Sims.); Venezuela: Prope

coloniam Tovar, 1854-55, A. Fendler 652; Ex

Hort. Bot. Petropol. . . .CAL Acc. No. 225010

& 225011 ( Ageratum mexicanum Sweet); Ex

Hort. Bot. Petropol. . . .CAL Acc. No. 225012

(A. conyzoides L. var. mexicanum DC.)

G. S. GIRI

N. C. MAJUMDAR

E N C E S

Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 58: 6-88.

Roxburgh, W. (1832) : Flora Indica 3 : 415 (Repr.

ed. 597). Serampore.

Turner, B. L., Powell, M. & King, R. M. (1962) :

In Rhodora 64: 251-270.

26. RARE OR NEW EXACUM L. (GENTIANACEAE) FROM

SOUTHERN INDIA

( With two text-figures)

During systematic studies on the flora of

Kanniyakumari and Tirunelveli Districts of

Tamil Nadu, Southern India, several taxa of

Exacum L. (Gentianaceae) were collected

from the ghat forests. The rare and the new

among them are described in this paper; the

specimens cited are from MH.

Exacum atropurpureum Bedd. Ic. t. 119.

1868-1874; Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India

4: 97. 1883; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 2: 614.

1957 (repr. ed.).

Erect bushy herbs, glabrous. Leaves up to

7x5 cm, sessile and stem-clasping, ovate to

suborbicular, entire, thick, acute or shortly

acuminate at apex, rounded or subcordate at

base, 3-5-nerved. Flowers up to 4.5 cm long,

blue, solitary in upper leaf -axils, pedicelled.

Beddome l.c. t. 119 (and letter press t. 154)

described this species based on his collection

from Travancore Hills. Beddome’s collection

of “E. atropurpureum” from Palghat has since

been described as E. atropurpurem var. pal-

456

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-2. Exacum wightianum Arn var. uniflorum var. nov.

1. Portion of plant; 2. Flower.

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ghatense Gamble. The paucity of the material

of this species is revealed in Gamble’s remark

made on the herbarium sheQt-Bourdillon 23

(MH) : “Desideratum. No specimen at Kew”.

We have since re-located this plant in the

upper Kodayar area of the Kanniyakumari

Dt., Tamil Nadu, after a lapse of over six

decades.

Distribution : Endemic to India (S. W.

Ghats).

Specimens Examined : kerala. Trivandrum

Dt.: Trivandrum, October, 1884, Bourdillon

23; Travancore hills, 1869, Beddome s.n.

Tamil nadu. Kanniyakumari Dt.: Upper

Kodayar, 1400 m, 30-9-1980, Henry 68873;

Tirunelveli Dt.: Aghasteer hill, 4500 ft.. Bed-

dome s.n.; Agastiarmalai, 22-5-1901, Barber

2889; Kalivayalpil, 1-6-1901, Barber 3023;

Naterikal, 22-9-1916 & 23-9-1916, s.L, Travan-

core boundary near Naterikal, 4-3-1917, s.l.

E. courtaSlense Arn. var. laxiflorom Gam-

ble, FI. Press. Madras 873. 1923.

Stunted herbs, up to 40 cm tall. Leaves up

to 7 x 2 cm, lanceate, entire, glabrous, thick

margined, acuminate at apex, cuneate at base,

sessile, trinerved. Flowers up to 1 . 5 cm long,

blue, in lax leafy cymes; pedicels up to 2.5

cm long. Calyx lobes up to 1.5 cm long, nar-

rowly lanceate, many-nerved.

This distinct variety was described by Gam-

ble l.c. based on the collections of Beddome

from Travancore hills made around 1873. The

type specimens are deposited in MH and K.

We have recently collected this threatened

plant from the grassy slopes of Muthukuzhi-

vayal in Kanniyakumari Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Since Gamble l.c. failed to indicate the type

or holotype from among the specimens dis-

cussed in the protologue, the herbarium speci-

men — Travancore, 1873, R. H. Beddome

s.n. (MH, acc. no. 33198) is designated as the

lectotype of this variety.

Distribution : Endemic to India (S. W.

Ghats).

Specimens Examined : kerala. Travancore

Hills, Beddome s.n. (syntype); Travancore,

1873, Beddome s.n. (MH-acc. no. 33198-Lec-

totype); Trivandrum Dt.: Forest near Bonec-

cord Estate, 500 m, 1-10-1973, Joseph 44484.

Tamil nadu. Kanniyakumari Dt.: Muthuku-

zhivayal, 1000 m, 31-8-1976, Henry 48174;

Tirunelveli Dt. : Mahendragiri, 18-9-1916, s.l.

E. travancoricum Bedd. Ic. t. 118. 1868-1874;

Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 2 : 614. 1957 (repr.

ed.). E. courtallense Arn. var. travancorica

(Bedd.) Clarke in Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 4:

97. 1883.

Low, bushy herbs; stems up to 20 cm tall,

erect, woody below, much branched, somewhat

4-winged. Leaves up to 2.5 x 1 cm, very

closely arranged, spathulate, incurved and

plicate, somewhat fleshy, glabrous, obtuse and

reflexed at apex, tapering at base. Flowers

blue, solitary near ends of leafy branches;

pedicels up to 3.5 cm long. Capsules 1-1.4 x

0.6-0. 8 cm, ovoid, pointed at apex, 2-valved.

Beddome l.c. letter press t. 154 states: “The

very caespitose fleshy leaved E. travancoricum

is a most distinct species, and one of the most

beautiful plants in this Presidency”. He col-

lected this species from “Attraymallay in

Travancore”. We have since relocated this

plant from Agastyamalai in Tirunelveli Dt., as

well as from Muthukuzhivayal in Kanniya-

kumari Dt. of Tamil Nadu. When in full

bloom this plant gives a beautiful appearance

and hence worth introducing in Horticulture.

Distribution: Endemic to India (S. W.

Ghats) .

Specimens Examined: kerala. Travancore

Hills, 4500 ft., Beddome s.n.; Trivandrum Dt. :

Western slopes of Agastyamalai, 1800 m, 6-10-

1973, Joseph 44586. Tamil nadu. Kanniya-

kumari Dt.: Muthukuzhivayal, 1400 m, 9-9-

458

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1976, Henry 48294; Tirunelveli Dt: Agastiar-

malai, 22-5-1901, Barber 2888; Agastyamalai,

1400 m, 26-8-1963, Henry 17336; Agastya-

malai peak, 1400 m, 1-7-1964, Henry &

Chandrabose 19189.

E. wightianein Arn. var. unifloram var. nov.

A typo differt, floribus paucioribus praeci-

pue solitaribus.

Holotypus ( Henry 16335, CAL) et isotypi

C Henry 16335, MH — acc. no. 109135-

109137) lecti ad collibus Agastyamalai dist.

Tirunelveli in provincia Tamil Nadu die 27-5-

1963; paratypi ( Henry & Chandrabose 19181,

MH — acc. no. 109138-109144) lecti eodem

in loco die 1-7-1964; paratypus (MH — acc.

no. 33194) lecti eodem in loco; et paratypus

(. Barber 3023 B, MH — acc. no. 331995) lecti

ad collibus Kalivayalpil dist. Tirunelveli in

provincia Tamil Nadu die 1-6-1901.

This new variety differs from E. wightianum

Arn. var. wightianum in having few, mostly

solitary flowers.

Subshrubby herbs up to 2 m tall; stem glab-

rous, much branched. Leaves up to 10 x 4 cm,

elliptic-lanceate to ovate-lanceate, membranous,

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore 641 003,

September 18, 1981.

greenish above, somewhat glaucous beneath,

acuminate at apex, attenuate at base. Flowers

blue, few, mostly solitary. Capsules 8-12x7-8

mm, sub-globose or egg-shaped, glabrous, shin-

ing, septicidally 2-valved. (Figs. 1-2).

Holotype {Henry 16335, CAL) and isotypes

{Henry 16335, MH — acc. no. 109135-109137)

were collected in Agastyamalai hills in Tiru-

nelveli District, Tamil Nadu on 27-5-1963;

paratypes {Henry & Chandrabose 19181, MH

— acc. no. 109138-109144) were collected

from the same locality on 1-7-1964; paratype

(MH — acc. no. 33194) was collected from

the same locality, and paratype {Barber 3023 B,

MH — - acc. no. 33195) was collected in Kali-

vayalpil, near Agastyamalai hills in Tirunel-

veli district on 1-6-1901.

This variety was found fairly common along

exposed wet grassy slopes at the top of the

hill.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Joint

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coim-

batore for facilities and encouragement.

A. N. HENRY

M. S. SWAMINATHAN

27. AVENA LUDOVICIANA DUR. (POACEAE) — NEW TO

WEST BENGAL

During the course of identification of mate-

rial of the family Poaceae we came across a

specimen of the genus A vena which on criti-

cal study proved to be Avena ludoviciana Dur.

Bor (1960) recorded its distribution in India

from North West India (Jammu & Kashmir

and Kumaon).

It has not been so far reported from the

eastern part of India. A specimen collected by

A. K. Naskar from Howrah district. West

Bengal is the first record of its distribution in

West Bengal.

A short description is presented here: (for

illustration See Hubbard’s Grasses 240. 1954.)

Annual, 10-30 cm high, culms 15 cm long,

slender. Leaves 12-20 mm long, 4-10 mm wide,

linear lanceolate, glabrous. Panicles nodding,

very loose. Spikelets 15-20 mm long, pendul-

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ous, 2-3 flowered. Glumes persistent, nearly

equal, 15-16 mm long, lanceolate, rounded on

the back, 7-nerved, finely papyraceous with a

hyaline tip. Lemmas 15-16 mm long and 3.3

mm wide, narrowly lanceolate, cartilaginous,

hairy in the lower half, 6-nerved, scabrid, two

cleft, awn dorsal below the cleft, 30-45 mm

long with twisted base. Paleas 12 mm long,

lanceolate, 2-keeled. Anthers 3. Ovary hairy.

Avena ludoviciana Dur. resembles A. steri -

Botanical Survey of India,

Central National Herbarium,

Sibpur, Howrah 711 103,

September 5, 1981.

lis but differs mainly in having (1) smaller

spikelets, (2) smaller lowest lemma.

Specimen examined : West Bengal, Howrah

district, Thanamakua, 22-2-1970, A. K. Naskar

38 (CAL).

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We thank Dr. K. Thothathri for encourage-

ment and Dr. C. R. Das for suggestions.

RATNA DUTTA

ANIL KUMAR NASKAR

28. ON OCCURRENCE OF JUNCUS MAR1T1MUS LAM.

IN SAURASHTRA

Many species of Juncus are known to yield

high quality of cellulose for paper production

(Zahran et al. 1979). /. maritimus is a salt

tolerant halophyte which has been reported

from Sind, Afghanistan, North and South

America and Australia (Hooker 1894). In

India Jain (1960) reported its occurrence for

the first time in Kutch region. Since then the

coastal flora has been extensively reported

on (Rao and Safai 1963; Rao and Aggar-

wal 1964 a, b, 1966; Rao et al. 1966; Rao

and Mukherjee 1967) but this species has not

been recorded so far from any other part of

India.

Department of Biology,

Sir P. P. Institute of Science,

Bhavnagar University,

Bhavnagar 364 001,

August 18, 1981.

J. maritimus was recently found on the

coastal region near Avania village, 9 Km away

from Bhavnagar (21° 45' N 72° 14' E)

alongwith Aeluropus lagopoides. It was also

noticed at Gogha, 15 km away from Bhav-

nagar alongwith Eriocaulon sp. and Cyperus

sp. (Vora, personal communication). The salt

tolerance of this species is being studied in

detail by me on account of its being a promis-

ing halophyte for reclamation of saline soils.

I thank Dr. E.R.R. Iyengar, Assistant

Director, CSMCRI, Bhavnagar for encourage-

ment and Dr. B. D. Sharma, Dy. Director,

BSI, Poona for confirming identification.

A. J. JOSHI

460

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Hooker, J. D. (1894) : Flora of British India- VI.

London.

Jain, S. K. (1960) : A note on Juncus maritimus

Lam. from India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 307-308.

Rao, T. A. & Aggarwal, K. R. (1964a) : Ecological

studies of Saurashtra coast and neighbouring islands.

I. Diu Island, ibid. 6: 173-183.

(1964b): ibid. III.

Okhamandal to Diu coastal area. Arid Zone Symp.

31-42.

— (1966): ibid. II. Beyt

Island. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8: 16-24.

& Mukherjee, A. K. (1967) : V. Jafra-

bad to Bhavnagar coastal area. ibid. 9: 79-87.

& Safai, B. (1963): Distribution of

some rare plants along Saurashtra coast and neigh-

bouring islands. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58: 362-366.

. Aggarwal, K. A. & Mukherjee, A.

K. (1966) : Ecological studies of Saurashtra coast and

neighbouring islands. IV. Pirarn Island. Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 8: 60-68.

Zahran, M. A., Abdel Wahid, A. A. & El-Demer

Dash, M. A. (1979) : Economic potentials of Jun-

cus plants. In Arid Plant Resources (Goodin, J.R.

& Northington, A. K. edts.). Texas Tech. Univ.

Press.

29. CONTRIBUTION TO THE FERNS OF MIZORAM

Introduction

Mizoram (previously known as Lushai

Hills or Mizo -Hills district) situated in the

north-eastern corner of India, is flanked by

Bangladesh and Tripura on the west and

Burma (Chin Hills) on the east and south.

On the north, are Manipur and Cachar Dis-

tricts of Assam. It has remained practically

unexplored due to its difficult hilly terrain and

inaccessible disturbed forest areas. Gage

(1899) and Fischer (1938) listed the ferns of

Southern Lushai Hills. During 1963, we sur-

veyed Aizal area and made an extensive

collection of ferns along with the other groups

of plants between the altitudinal range of 600-

800 m. The present communication which

deals with the ferns only, is the first record of

the area.

The Mizo hill ranges extend from north to

south at an average height of c. 900 m, with

rather steep slopes separated by fast flowing

rivers which create deep gorges between the

hill ranges. The climate is generally cool in

summer (temperature ranges from 18°C to

29°C) and not very cold in the winter (tem-

perature varies from 11°C to 24°C); the aver-

age rainfall is 208 cm. The vegetation of the

area is dominated mainly by epiphytes, scita-

minous plants, aroids and ferns.

Enumeration of species

The arrangement of the families followed

here is after Ching (1978). Species under each

genus are arranged alphabetically, along with

a brief account of ecology. Voucher specimens

are deposited in the herbarium of the National

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (LWG).

Lygodiaceae Presl

Lygodium Swartz

L. flexuosum (L.) Sw. Schrad. Journ. Bot.,

106. 1801; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 457.

1883.

In scattered patches at lower altitude:

P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81165.

Lindsaeaceae Ching ex Pichi Sermolli

Lindsaea Dryander apud Smith

L. ensifolia Sw. Schrad. Journ. Bot., 77.

1801. Schizoloma ensifolia Sw., Bedd. Handb.

Ferns Brit. Ind. 80. 1883.

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Schizoloma ensifolia (Sw.) Alston in Bot.,

Soc. Broter. Ser. 2, 30:24. 1956.

Common on wet hill slopes in crevices of

rocks: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81184.

Pteridaceae Ching

Pteris L.

P. pellucida Presl, ReL Haenk., 1: 55. 1825;

Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 106. 1883.

In comparatively dry and exposed places at

lower altitude c. 800 m. Not common: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81169.

Sinopteridaceae Koidzumi

Aleuritopteris Fee

A. farinosa (Forsk.) Fee, Gen. Fil., 154, t

12 B. fl, 1852. Cheilanthes farinosa (Forsk.)

Kaulf., Enum. Fil., 212. 1824, Bedd. Handb.

Ferns Brit. Ind. 92. 1883.

In rock crevices at rather exposed places;

very common on road sides : P. & S. Chandra,

LWG 81162.

Onychium Kaulf.

O. siliculosum (Desv.) C. Chr., Index Fil.

20. 1905; 469. 1906; Onychium auratum

Kaulf., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 96. 1883.

Common on road sides and exposed clayey

hill slopes at lower altitudes between 100-300

m: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 811930.

Adiantaceae (Presl) Ching

Adiantum L.

*A. assamicum (Nayar) Nayar, in Bull,

natn. bot. Gdns. no. 94: 1. 1964. A. caudatum

L. var. assamicum Nayar in Bull. natn. bot.

Gdns. no. 52: 10. 1961.

Very common in plains and foot hills, on

more or less exposed hill slopes and in moder-

ately dry localities: P. & S. Chandra, LWG

81183.

Hemionitidaceae Pichi-Sermolli

Pityrogramma Link

P. caSomelanos (L.) Link., Handb. Gewachs:

3: 20. 1883; Holtt., Fl. Malaya 2: The Ferns:

593. 1968; Schelpe, Fl. Zam., 170 (1970).

Common especially on earth cuttings and

forest clearings, forming isolated dense clumps

near water drains: P. & 5. Chandra, LWG

81161.

Athyriaceae Alston

Athyrium Roth

A. falcatum Bedd., Ferns S. Ind. 151. 1863;

Nayar and Kaur, Comp. Bedd. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 40. 1974.

Sparsely distributed on hill slopes and by

the sides of water channels and water falls:

P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81160.

Diplazium Swartz

D. umbrosnm (J. Smith under Athyrium)

Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 188. 1883;

Nayar and Kaur, Comp. Bedd. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 45. 1974.

Growing gregariously in shady and humid

dense forests: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81185.

Thelypteridaceae Ching ex Pichi Sermolli

Cyclosorus Link

C. crinipes (Hook.) Ching in Bull. Fan

Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 8:179. 1938. Nephro -

dium crinipes Hook., Spec. Fil. 4:71. 1862;

Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. Ind. 279. 1863.

Christ ella crinipes (Hook.) Holtt., Kew Bull.

31:326. 1976.

462

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Common near waterfalls and water chan-

nels: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81199.

C. evolutus (Bedd.) Ching in Bull. Fan

Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 8:219. 1938. Nephro-

dium evolutum Bedd., Handb. Suppl. Ferns

Brit. Ind. 76. 1892. Christ ella evoluta (Bedd.)

Holtt., ICew Bull. 31:330. 1976.

Common in humus-rich forests: P. & S.

S. Chandra, LWG 81176, 81198.

Metathelypteris (H. Ito) Ching

M. gracilescens (Bl.) Ching in Acta Phyto-

tax. Sin. 8:305. 1963; Holttum, Philipp. J.

Biol. 5: 116. 1976. Lastrea gracilescns BL,

Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 234. 1883.

Common in humus-rich forests: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81195.

Pronephrium Presl

P. lakhimpurense (Rosenst.) Holtt., Blumea

20:110. 1972; in Nayar and Kaur, Comp.

Bedd. Ferns Brit. India, 95, 1974.

Common in moist shaded places: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81175.

P. nudatum (Roxb.) Holtt., Blumea, 20:111.

1972; in Nayar and Kaur, Comp. Bedd. Ferns

Brit. India, 66, 1974.

In somewhat exposed forest areas and by

the side of river beds: P. & S. Chandra, LWG

81187.

Pseudocyclosorus Ching

P. ciliatus (Wall, ex Benth.) Ching, Acta

phytotax. Sin 8:324. 1963. Trigonospora ciliata

(Benth.) Holtt., in Nayar and Kaur, Comp.

Bedd. Ferns Brit. India, 203, 1974.

Growing on rocks near and on beds of

streams where it is frequently sumberged in

the rainy season: P. & S. Chandra, LWG

81157.

Aspleniaceae Mett. ex Frank

Asplenium L.

A. crinicaule Hance, Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser,

5:254. 1866; Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind.

150. 1883.

Quite common on tree trunks and moss

covered rocks between 500-600 m: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81177.

A. excisum Pr., Epim, Bot. 74. 1851;

Nakaike, Enum. Jap. Pterid. Filicales:96.

1975. A. unilateral var. majus (C. Chr.)

Sledge, Bull. Brit. Mus. (N.H.) Bot. 3:246.

1965. A. unilaterale Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit.

Ind.: 152. 1883 (p.p.)

On wet rocks by streams and on wet banks;

common in primary forest: P. & S. Chandra,

LWG 81181.

A. finlaysoniantim Wall, ex Hook., leones

PL, t. 937. 1854. Hemidictyum finlaysonianum

Hook., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 195.

1883.

On wet soils in shade, occasionally occur-

ring on tree trunks: P. & S. Chandra, LWG

81169, 81191.

Blech naceae Ching ex Copel.

Blechnum Linn.

B. orientate Linn., Spec. Pl., 2 : 1077. 1753;

Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 132. 1883;

Ching, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 16:14. 1978.

In fully exposed areas, on roadsides and

river banks: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81192.

Dryopteridaceae Ching

Dryopteris Adanson

D. sparsa (Ham. ex D. Don) Kuntze, Rev.,

Gen. PL 2:813. 1891; Sledge, Bull. Brit. Mus.

(N. H.) 5:13. 1973. Lastrea sparsa Don. Bedd.

Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 252. 1883 excl. parte.

Common in low-altitude mountain forest:

P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81197.

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Polystichum Roth.

P. biaristatum (Bl.) Moore, Index Fil. : 86.

1858; Sledge, Bull. Brit. Mus. (N.H.) Bot.

5:35. 1973. Polystichum aculeatum Sw. var.

biaristatum Bl., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind.

209. 1883;

On rather dry slopes in dense evergreen

forests: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81179.

P. lentum (D. Don) Moore, Index Fil., 86.

1858. Polystichum auriculatum Linn., Type

var. lentum Don, Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 204. 1883.

Common in semi exposed places throughout

the valleys: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81180.

Aspidiaceae Mett. ex Frank

Tectaria Cavanilles

T. fuscipes (Wall, ex Bedd.) C. Chr., Contr.

U.S. Nat. Herb., 26:290. 1931. Pleocnemia

membranifolia Presl, Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 225. 1883 (p.p.)

Common at low altitudes, occurring scattered

in dry, shady places: P & S. Chandra, LWG

81188.

T. polymorpha (Wall, ex Hook.) Copel.,

Philipp. J. Sci., 2 C: 413. 1907. Aspidium

poly morp hum Wall., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 218. 1883 (p.p.)

Low-land species, usually growing near

water: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81172, 81182.

Bolbitidaceae (Pichi-Sermolli) Ching

Bolbitis Schott

B. appendiculata (Willd.) K. Iwats. ssp.

appendiculata Hennip., Leiden Univ. Bot. Ser.

2: 190. 1977. Egenolfia appendiculata (Willd.)

J. Sm., Nayar and Kaur in Bull. natn. bot.

Gdns., no. 100:17. 1964.

Creeping on rocks and soil at moist

places in deciduous and evergreen forest: P.

& S. Chandra, LWG 81154.

B. scalpturata (Fee) Ching in C. Chr., Ind.

Fil., Suppl. 3:50. 1934; Hennip., Leiden Univ.

Bot. Ser. no. 2:163. 1977.

On slopes in the forest and on boulders

in stream beds: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81152.

B. sinensis (Baker) K. Iwats., Acta Phyto*-

tax. Geobot. 18:49. 1959; Hennip., Leiden

Bot. Ser. no. 2:202. 1977. Egenolfia sinensis

Maxon; Nayar and Kaur in Bull. natn. bot.

Gdns. Lucknow. 100:32. 1964.

Usually terrestrial, creeping either on soil or

on rocks, sometimes epiphytic in evergreen

forest: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81171.

Polypodiaceae Berchtold et J. S. Presl

Lepisorus (J. Sm.) Ching

L. thunbergianus (Kaulf.) Ching, Bull. Fan

Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 4:88. 1933. Pleopeltis

linearis Thunb., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 346. 1883 (p.p.)

Common epiphyte, occasionally forming

dense patches on moist rocks : P. & S. Chandra,

LWG 81166.

Schellolepis J. Smith

S. subauriculata (Bl.) J. Sm., Ferns brit.

and For. 82. 1866. Goniophlebium subauri-

culatum (Bl.) Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind.

322. 1883.

Common epiphyte, in shaded humid places :

P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81190.

Pyrrosia Mirbel

P. flocculosa (D. Don) Ching, Bull. Chin.

Bot. Soc., 1:66. 1935; Nayar and Chandra in

Bull. natn. bot. Gdns., no. 117:51. 1965.

Epiphyte with drooping fronds in evergreen

forest: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81168.

P. mannii (Gies.) Ching, Bull. Chin. Bot.

Soc., 1:55. 1935; Nayar and Chandra in Bull,

natn. bot. Gdns., no. 117:63. 1965.

464

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

An epiphyte (sometimes also on shaded

rocks) in the primary forest: P. & S. Chandra,

LWG 81158, 81164.

P. mollis (Kze.) Ching, Bull. Chin. Bot.

Soc., 1:53. 1935; Nayar and Chandra in Bull,

natn. bot. Gdns., no. 117:67. 1965.

Commonly met with on shaded rocks and

seldom on trees as an epiphyte: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81175.

P. obovata (Bl.) Ching, Bull. Chin. Bot.

Soc., 1:47. 1935; Nayar and Chandra in Bull,

natn. bot. Gdns., no. 117:76. 1965.

Abundant at low altitudes up to 750 m :

P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81153.

P. suMurfuracea (Hook.) Ching, Bull. Chin.

Bot. Soc., 1:68. 1935; Nayar and Chandra in

Bull. natn. bot. Gdns., no. 117:83. 1965.

Epiphyte on tree trunks: P. & S. Chandra,

LWG 81158.

P. varia (Kaulf.) Farwell. Amer. Midland

Natur. 12:302. 1931; Nayar and Chandra in

Bull. natn. bot. Gdns., no. 117:87. 1965.

Occasional on rocks, walls etc. at 150 m:

P. & S . Chandra, LWG 81163.

Microsorium Link

M. memhranaceum (D. Don) Ching, Bull.

Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 4:309. 1933; Nayar

in Bull, natn bot. Gdns., no. 58:17. 1962.

A common epiphyte or lithophyte in moist

and damp places, forming dense patches

throughout the valley: P. & S. Chandra, LWG

81170.

M. pteropus (Bl.) Copel., Univ. Calif. Publ.

Bot. 16:112. 1929. Pleopeltis pteropus (Bl.)

var. minor Bedd., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.

Ind. 361. 1883.

National Botanical Research Institute,

Lucknow 226 001,

August 12, 1981.

Frequently seen on rocks on the bed and

sides of streams :P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81155.

M. punctatum (Linn.) Copel., Univ. Calif.

Publ. Bot., 16:111. 1929; Nayar in Bull. natn.

bot. Gdns., no. 58:19. 1961.

Exceedingly common, growing either as an

epiphyte or a lithophyte at 800 m: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81173.

Colysis Presl

C. elSiptica (Thunb.) Ching, Bull. Fan Mem.

Inst. Biol. Bot., 4:333. 1933. Selliguea elliptica

Thunb., Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 392.

1883.

Terrestrial, quite rare: P. & S. Chandra,

LWG 81156.

Dendroglossa Presl

D. minutula (Fee) Copel., Gen. Fil. 199.

1947. Gymnopteris minus Mett., Bedd. Handb.

Ferns Brit. Ind. 430. 1883.

On sandy riverbeds, quite rare: P. & S.

Chandra, LWG 81159.

Drynaria (Bory) J. Sm.

D. propinqisa (Wall, ex Mett.) J. Sm.,

Hook., Jour. Bot., 4:61. 1842; Nayar in Bull,

natn. bot. Gdns. 56:9. 1961.

Profusely on tree trunks or on moss cover-

ed rocks: P. & S. Chandra, LWG 81167.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. T. N. Khoshoo,

Director, National Botanical Research Insti-

tute, Lucknow for facilities and encouragment.

PRAKASH CHANDRA

SUBHASH CHANDRA

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

References

Ching, R. C. (1978): The Chinese Fern Families Rec. Bot. Surv. India 12: 152-161.

& Genera: Systematic arrangement and historical Gage, A. T. (1899): A botanical tour in the

origin. Acta Phytotax. Sin. 16(8): 1-19. South Lushai Hills. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 7(12):

Fischer, C.E.C. (1938): Ferns of Lushai hills. 331-369.

30. A NEW TAXON OF THE RUBIACEAE FROM NORTH EAST

INDIA

{With two text-figures)

In course of studies on taxonomic revision

of Indian Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae) we

examined several specimens which could not

be placed under the known taxa and appeared

to be distinct. The present paper is based on

such a collection

Psychotria silhetensis Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.

3:174. 1880 is based on a collection from

Sylhet by De Silva which is extant in Wall. Cat.

8336C (K — W, Photo in CAL!). A specimen

bearing the same number in CAL, however,

does not represent this taxon.

In course of Abor Expedition, I. H. Bur-

kill collected a specimen I. H. Bur kill 35726

(CAL) in fruiting condition from Makum,

Assam in Nov. 1911. He assigned it doubtfully

to P. silhetensis. G. Panigrahi collected a simi-

lar specimen (G. Panigrahi 11251) in Nov.

1957 from Dulong Reserve Forest, Assam.

This is also in similar fruiting condition and

collected from a locality near the former

one. These were provisionally considered to

form a new variety of P. silhetensis.

While these studies were going on, the late

K. M. Vaid of Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun, sent several specimens to the

senior author for determination, one of which

K. N. Vaid and H. B. Naithani 156 represented

this new taxon.

On further study of all the material of P.

silhetensis and those of the new taxon and in

consideration of their distribution we assign

these material to a new subspecies. Specimens

available bear leaves with stipules, fruits with

seeds and persistent calyx. This is described

below.

Psychotria silhetensis Hook. f. subsp. tomen-

tosa subsp. nov. (Fig. 1).

differt a P. silhetensis Hook. f. subsp. silhe-

tensis foliis infra ferrugineo tomentosis, stipulis

infra et secus marginem pubescentibus, fructi-

busque parvioribus ovoides.

This differs from P. silhetensis Hook. f.

subsp. silhetensis in having leaves ferruginous

tomentose beneath, stipules pubescent beneath

and along the margin and smaller broadly

ovoid fruit.

Shrubs 1.5 - 2 m high; branches stout, thick,

quadrangular when young, terete in age, fer-

ruginous tomentose. Leaves petiolate, 15 -

24 x 7 - 9 cm, elliptic or slightly elliptic-

obovate, shortly acuminate at the apex, entire,

cuneate or obtuse at the base, coriaceous,

glabrous above, densely ferruginous tomentose

beneath; midrib stout beneath, less so above,

lateral nerves 14 - 20 on each side, subparallel,

arcuate, close, conspicuous beneath, less so

above; axil of the midrib and lateral nerves

imperforate; nervules reticulate conspicuous

beneath, less so above; petioles 1 - 1.5 cm

long, thick, tomentose; stipules deciduous,

1.5 -2.5 x 0.6 -0.7 cm, ovate, caudate-acu-

466

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Psychotria silhetensis Hook. f. subsp. tomentosa subsp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Fruit; C. Seed (dorsal view); D. Seed (ventral view); E. Embryo.

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

initiate, coriaceous, glabrous above, pubescent

beneath and along the margin. Inflorescence

terminal or axillary, long peduncled cymes,

5 - 8 x 2 - 8 cm (when fruiting), branches

irregular or dichotomous, short or spreading,

stout, tomentose; bracteoles minute. Flowers

not available. Fruits 0.5 - 0.6 x 0.3 - 0.45

cm, subglobose, crowned with calyx (lobes

triangular, about 0.05 cm long, ciliate at the

margin), glabrescent, shortly stalked; stalks

0.3 - 0.5 cm; pyrenes solitary, ovoid, plano-

convex, acute at the apex, retuse at the base,

smooth, thin walled. Seeds 0.4 - 0.5 x 0.3 -

0.4 cm, ovoid, acute at the apex, retuse at the

base, dorsally convex, smooth, with a longi-

tudinal shallow groove on the ventral side;

albumen uniform, thick; micropyle pointing

upwards; cotyledons fleshy, oblong.

Type : Assam, North Lakhimpur, Makurn,

21-11-1911, /. H. Burkill 35726 (Holotype in

CAL). North Lakhimpur, Dulong Reserve

Forest, 21-11-1957, G. Panigrahi 11251 (Para-

type in CAL); Arunachal, Deomali, K. N.

Vaid and H. B. Naithani 156 (Paratype in

DD).

Distribution : Makum and Dulong Reserve

Forest of North Lakhimpur district, Assam

to Deomali Reserve Forest of Tirap district,

Arunachal.

It is worthwhile to note the distribution of

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah 711 103, (W.B.),

February 26, 1982.

the typical subspecies P. silhetensis Hook. f.

subsp. silhetensis which is as follows. Sylhet

(Bangladesh), Khasi Hills, North Cachar, Mizo-

ram, Manipur, Nagaland, Sibsagar district and

Dafla Hill of Arunachal Pradesh.

Distinct distribution of these two subspecies

is clearly evident from the accompanying map

(Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Distribution of Psychotria silhetensis Hook. f.

P. silhetensis Hook. f. subsp. silhetensis .

P. silhetensis Hook. f. subsp. tomentosa.

Acknowledgement

Grateful thanks are due to Dr S. K. Jain,

Director, Botanical Survey of India for grant-

ing a scholarship to the junior author.

D. B. DEB

M. GANGOPADHYAY

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Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society.

VOLUME 80 (3) : DECEMBER 1983

Date of Publication : 24-4-1984.

CONTENTS

Page

Ecological adaptation in Rhesus monkeys at the Kumaon Himalaya. By Kazuo

Wada. ( With a plate and nine text-figures) 469

The Indian mugger, Crocodylus palustris Lesson (Reptilia, Crocodilia) :

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF A FEMALE FROM NATURE. By Lala A. K.

Singh. (With six plates and a text- figure ) . . 499

Authors’ Catalogue of the Botanical articles published in the Journal of

the Bombay Natural History Society-II (Vol. 67-76; 1970-1979). Compiled

by A. R. Das . . 507

Ontogeny of teeth row structure in Rana tigerina tadpoles. By S. K. Dutta

and P. Mohanty-Hejmadi. (With twelve text-figures ) . . 517

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE WETLAND FLORA OF SlTAPUR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH.

By J. K. Maheshwari and R. P. S. Tomar . . 529

Studies on the system atics and distribution of crabs in Assam.

By N. K. Dutta. (With six text- figures) . . 539

Sfasonal changes in the herd structure of Blackbuck. By N. L. N. S. Prasad.

(With a plate and a text- figure) . , 549

The former distribution of the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in

India and Pakistan. By L. C. Roolonaaker . . 555

Some notes on the ecology and status of the Orangerumped Hcneyguide

Indicator xanthonotus in the Himalayas. By S. A, Hussain and Salim Ali.

(With a plate) . . 564

Birds of the Rajpipla Forests — South Gujarat. By S. G. Monga and Rishad

K. Naoroji . . 575

New Descriptions:

A new species of Lagenandra Dalzell (Araceae) from Kerala State, India. By

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan. (With eleven text-figures) . . 613

A new species of Dimeria R. Br. (Poaceae) from Kollimalai, South India.

By M. Mohanan and A. V. N. Rao. (With ten text-figures) . . 615

Two new species of Eulophidae (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) from Andaman

Islands. By S. Adam Shafee, Anis Fatma, M. Younus Khan and Shujauddin.

(With four texttfgures) . . 618

A new species of Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae) from Kerala State, India. By

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan. (With six text-figures) .. 621

Descriptions of three new species of Gonatocerus Nees (Hymenoptera:

Mymaridae) from Aligarh (India). By S. M. Shamim and S. Adam Shafee.

(With ten text-figures) . . 623

Dimeria keralae (Poaceae) — A novelty from Kerala, India. By N. C. Nair,

P. V. Sreekumar and V. J. Nair . . 626

On the identity of Aspidium finlaysonianum Wall. By S. R. Ghosh. (With a plate) 629

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Some observations on antler cycle of Hog-Deer (Axix porcinus ) in capti-

vity. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 631); 2. A note on the longevity and

fertility of the Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra (Linnaeus). By G. J. Rajasingh (p. 632);

3. Horn growth in Blackbuck. (With a text-figure). By N. L. N. S. Prasad (p. 634);

4. A note on the longevity of two species of Indian Otters in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo

and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 636); 5. Sloth Bear’s ( Melursus ursinus ) method of hunting for

termite nests. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 637).

Birds: 6. Additions “to the Birds of Goa by Robert B. Grubh & Salim Ali JBNHS —

Vol. 73, No. 1”. By Ulhas Rane (p. 638); 7. Occurrence of the Black Tern Chlidonias

niger (Linn.) in India. By Humayun Abdulali and V. C. Ambedkar (p. 640); 8. Occurrence

of Lesser Florican ( Sypheotides indica ) in Kanha National Park. By M. K. Ranjitsinh

(p. 641); 9. Unusual adoption by Tailor Birds (Orthotomus sutorius Pennant). By Ulhas

Rane (p. 641).

Reptiles: 10. Communal use of village ponds by the mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus

palustris), cattle and man. (With a plate). By L. A. K. Singh (p. 642); 11. On Sitana

lizard in Kalakad Sanctury. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 646).

Fishes: 12. On a new record of the genus Gnatholepis Bleeker (Gobidae, Teleostei)

from south-west coast of India. (With three text-figures). By C. Geevarghese and P. A.

John (p. 646); 13. A new record of Epinephelus guaza (Linnaeus, 1758) (Serranidae: Pisces)

from Indian waters. By N. A. V. Prasad Reddy (p. 650); 14. On the extension of range

of a freshwater catfish — Glyptothorax lineatus (Day) (Siluriformes; Sisoridae) — to

Poonch Valley (Jammu and Kashmir State). By Surendra Nath (p. 651).

Insects: 15. First record of Odontotermes bcllahunisensis Holmg. & Holmg. feeding on

Cocos nucifera Linn. By Vikram Reddy (p. 653); 16. Notes on host-plants, feeding behavi-

our, infestation and ant attendances of cotton aphids Aphis gossypii Glov. By D. K. Roy

and B. K. Behura (p. 654); 17. First record of Mesocomys Cam. (Hym. : Chalcidoidea,

Lupelmidae) in India. (With ten text-figures). By M. A. Khan (p. 656); 18. Nesidiocoris

caesar (Ballard) (Heteroptera — Miridae) : a new pest of bottle gourd and tobacco plants.

By V. C. Chatterjee (p. 658); 19. A noctuid defoliator pest, Dichromia orosia Cramer

(Noctuidae; Lepidoptera) of Antamul, a medicinal plant. By M. C. Devaiah, R. Rajashekhar

Gouda, Y. K. Kotikal and Suhas Yelshetty (p. 659).

Other Invertebrates: 20. Occurrence of Kurzia latissima (Kurz), 1874 (Crustacea:

Cladocera: Chydoridae) in India. (With three text-figures). By Pramod Rane (p. 660).

Botany: 21. Additions to the Flora of Bengal. By B. Krishna and S. N. Das (p. 662);

22. Cultivation of Vernonia shevaroyensis Gamble (Asteraceae) — an endemic and en-

dangered plant in the southern experimental garden, Botanical Survey of India. By A. K.

Banerjee and A. V. N. Rao (p. 663); 23. Notes on rare plants from Madhya Pradesh.

By N. C. Rathakrishnan and Ram Saran (p. 665); 24. Eriocaulon echinulatum Mart.

(Eriocaulaceae) — a new record for India. (With eight text-figures). By S. Myrthong,

Y. Kumar and R. R. Rao (p. 667); 25. On the identity of Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana Sikdar

ei Maiti (Rubiaceae). By D. B. Deb and D. C. Mondal (p. 669).

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1982-83 670

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . 678

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 693

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1983 DECEMBER Vol. 80 No. 3

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

AT THE KUMAON HIMALAYA1

Kazuo Wada2

(With a plate and nine text-figures )

In the western Kumaon Himalayas, the distributional range of Rhesus monkeys

comprises two major habitat types coniferous forest dominated by Cedrus deodara,

Pinus roxburghii and Pinus wallichiana, and terrace fields with potatoes, wheat, maize

and peas. In the hill areas the troops always include fields as feeding places in their

home ranges. During winter, as food variety decreases, the monkeys take to the seeds of

pine tree as staple food. The monkey troops tend to travel to the lower part of the

home range to avoid heavy snowfall, and then exploit the terrace fields more frequently

than at other seasons. This is due to the scarcity of foods in the forests. It seems likely

that in winter the Rhesus monkeys live milder environmental conditions than the

Japanese monkeys. When some troops join and separate again at the lower elevation

home ranges, there was little antagonistic behaviour. Eight categories of grouping were

distinguished in the troop. Females with babies to 3-yr-olds are sociologically the basic

group males which occupy the rear of troop procession function as defenders.

Introduction

Ecological and Sociological studies on the

Rhesus monkey ( Macaca mulatta) have been

actively carried out in the Indian Subcontinent.

Two types of ecological studies can be distin-

1 Accepted July 1981.

2 Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University,

Inuyama City, Aichi, Japan.

guished. Southwick, Beg & Siddiqi (1961a &

b), Mukherjee & Mukherjee (1972), and

Siddiqi & Southwick (1977) concentrated on the

population ecology of the troop composition

and troop density at the roadside or in streets,

while Neville (1968), Lindburg (1971, 1976),

Makwana (1978), Teas et al. (1980), and

Koyama & Shekar (1981) studied the general

ecology, focussing on the troop composition,

distribution, home range and habits. Neville

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

and Lindburg dealt with changes in troop

movements and food habits related to the

seasonal variations in habits of the monkeys,

but little attention was given to the relation

between the vertical distribution of the forest

zones and that of the monkeys.

Within the genus Macaca, the Rhesus mon-

key and the Japanese monkey represent species

which are adapted to areas of heavy snowfall

and cold winters. The Rhesus monkey shows

the next most northerly distribution to the

Japanese monkey and, vertically, it reaches the

snowfall areas of the Himalayas. Its distribu-

tion which spreads over a large spectrum of

habitats, is the widest among macaques.

I believe it is possible to show that, in the

evolutionary process of expansion of Macaca,

this monkey successfully occupied new habi-

tats. Important in this respect, is the Rhesus

monkeys’ reaction to the habitat destruction

brought about by human influences, and to

man himself.

The present study represents the first attempt

to clarify the mode of life of the Rhesus mon-

key from the above viewpoints.

Methods

The survey areas included Simla, Narkanda

and Sungri in Himachal Pradesh, and the road

from Simla to Rampur. In the former case,

data were collected periodically by direct ob-

servation of the monkeys and supplementary

information was obtained from villagers. In the

latter case, the data were based on mobile

censuses from buses, short ground-surveys and

information from the local inhabitants. Both

study areas are situated in the lower Himalayas

of western Kumaon (Fig. 1). The survey period

covered 6 months from August, 1972. Eleven

specimens of Rhesus monkeys were collected

at Sungri with the cooperation of Mr. K. L.

Mehta, wildlife warden of Himachal Pradesh,

for research on their geographical variation.

General habitat of the rhesus monkeys

The lower Plimalayas, at 2,000-3,000 m above

sea level (a.s.l.), lie in the transitional zone to

the Great Himalayas, and are affected by mon-

soons. Based on a personal communication

from Mr. K. L. Mehta, the annual rainfall in

Simla is 2,168 mm. However, at the upper limit

of the monkey distribution, it decreases to

1,757 mm, with 50% of the precipitation occurr-

ing during July and September. Snowfalls in

the same areas begin in late November, but are

concentrated during December and February.

It appears that snowfalls in Khadrala which is

very near and at the same height as Sungri,

are more frequent than in Simla since the

amount of precipitation in Khadrala somewhat

exceeds that in Simla (Table 1).

Terrace fields occur up to 2,600 m a.s.l. in

the survey areas, forming the upper boundary

of cultivation. Below this boundary, terrace

fields occupied the greatest area except on the

steep slopes of valleys, and in the forest re-

serve covering water sheds for the drinking

water of Simla at Kufri, probably amounting

to 40% of the total survey area.

The survey areas were occupied by coni-

ferous forest. This was generally dominated

by Pinus, which extended continuously in its

vertical distribution, although in some forests

Cedrus deodara and Abies were dominant.

Picea, Juniperus, and Taxus were found spora-

dically in the forests.

The genus Pinus was represented by P. rox-

burghii and P. wallichiana. Their distribution

ranges were 500-2,200 m a.s.l. and 2,000-3,000

m a.s.l., respectively (Fig. 2). In the survey

areas, Pfims-dominated forests were especially

well developed on southern slopes, as indi-

cated previously by Stainton (1972).

Evergreen broad-leaved forests in which

470

Himachal Pradesh

ECOLOGICAL ADAPT AT ION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

471

Fig. 1. Map of survey areas.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 1

Monthly mean rainfall in Simla and Khadrala, 1951-1960

Quercus were dominant, occurred as large

patches in the coniferous forest zone. The verti-

cal distribution of species was as follows:

Quercus glauca below 1,500 m a.s.l., Q. incana

at 1,500-2,000 m, and Q. semecarpifolia at

2,000-3,000 m.

Deciduous broad-leaved trees were found

sporadically as forest constituents in the above-

mentioned forests. The species included Betula

alnoides, Aesculus indica, Robinia pseudoa-

cacia, Pyrus pashia, Rosa sericea, etc.

All these forests were utilized as grazing

grounds for cattle, sheep and goats. The forest

undergrowth was severely reduced by grazing

and stamping, and the scrub layer was poorly

developed. Observation of the monkeys was

thus easy under the forest canopy, the visibility

and general working conditions being good.

(after K. L. Mehta)

Results

The Rhesus monkey distribution and

forest-cropland complex

In Simla, Kufri, Narkanda, Sungri and Ram-

pur, where direct observations and collecting

of encounter information were carried out, and

along the roadside between Simla and Rampur,

where rough observations were made from

buses, monkey troops are continuously dis-

tributed. Around Simla, Kufri, Narkanda and

Sungri, the home range of a troop includes

both types of habitats, i.e., cultivated terrace

and forest (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). Rhesus monkeys

were never found in large forest patches such

as the Gren Forest in Simla {Quercus- domi-

nated), the coniferous forest of the southern

472

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

(m)

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

<3

‘r*

O

a,

a

«

a

s

03

CO

3

a

03

3

Q?

500

Fig. 2. Vertical distribution of pine and oak in the

survey area.

slope at Kufri, and the huge coniferous forest

of the northern slope at Sungri.

The upper limit of the monkey distribution

coincides with the upper border of crop culti-

vation. In both Narkanda and Sungri, the upper

border of crop fields reaches 2,600 m a.s.l., and

monkey troops ranged up to 2,600 m, appearing

in terrace fields at intervals and feeding on the

crops. The forest zone goes up to 3,300 m on

the southern slopes of Murali Danda, 3 km

north-east of Sungri. In this area of increasing

elevation, Quercus semecarpifolia is continued

and Abies and Picea are gradually mixed into

Pmws-dominated forest, but this change in com-

position does not affect the monkey distribu-

tion.

The population size in each village is at

the level of several hundreds; The villagers

never supply monkeys with food, and the mon-

keys do not approach village houses to search

the kitchen middens. Simla (population

200,000) is situated on a narrow ridge running

north-east to south-west at 1,550-2,000 m a.s.l.,

and is surrounded by Pinus roxburghii- domi-

nated and Quercus semecarpifolia-dominatQd

forests, which are favourable habitats for Rhesus

monkeys. The township of Simla is 4 km long

and 1 km wide. Ten monkey troops travel

around temple gardens, markets and hospitals

without utilizing the surrounding forest patches,

so their home ranges were confined to the

streets of Simla (Fig. 6).

Activity pattern of troops

Generally, Rhesus monkeys take many kinds

of crops in terrace fields and other cultivated

fields in India (Neville 1968, Mukherjee 1969).

The times spent in the two areas were 78% in

forests and 22% in fields (Table 2). However,

remarkable differences were noted in the num-

ber of hours that the troop stayed in the fields

among the survey areas. These differences de-

pend upon the farmers’ attitude.

To simplify the description of ecologically

important individual activities, I classified their

activities into 7 categories: Moving, feeding,

sitting, grooming, playing, mounting and quar-

relling.

In terrace fields : Almost all individuals of

each troop except in Simla and Kufri were

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

474

Fig. 3. Troop distribution at Simla.

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

Fig. 4. Troop distribution at Narkanda.

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 5. Troop distribution at Sungri.

Gre

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

All

Fig. 6. Troop distribution in and around Simla.

A: Bioleaugang troop; B: Cecil troop; C: Assembly troop; D: Kali Bali Temple

troop; E: Ripon Hospital troop; F: Ridge troop; G: Lower Bazar troop; H: View

troop; I: Jakoo Temple 1 troop; J: Jakoo Temple II troop.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 2

Utilization of the monkey troops in forests and terrace fields

counted in terrace fields. Monkey troops spent

most of the time feeding in the terrace fields.

Because the troops were not chased away from

the fields by farmers or dogs in Sungri, they

spent the remainder of the time moving, sitting

and grooming in the fields (Table 3).

The individuals of a troop did not spread

out in terrace fields where there were watch-

men. Adult animals picked up food, e.g., corn,

in the fields and usually returned immediately

to the forest fringe to eat slowly. In the fields

where there were no watchmen, the members

of the monkey troop spread out in the fields

without disturbance, keeping the original spac-

ing among individuals, so in some cases adult

females, babies and juveniles appeared in the

fields from the top group of a troop. They

gradually spread throughout the fields without

indications of tension or fear. When farmers

approached to within 20 m they ran into the

forest, but remained near the edge of the forest

canopy. When the farmers left, they usually

returned to the fields again.

There are differences in farmers’ attitudes to

chasing the monkeys, depending on the kind of

crop. Corn is rigorously protected, followed by

peas and buckwheat, but autumn sown wheat

and potatoes are almost neglected. Correspond-

ing to the farmers’ interest, the Rhesus mon-

keys behave in different ways in the fields

according to the nature of the crop. They are

tense when they forage for corn, but are at

478

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

ease when foraging for autumn sown wheat or members were recorded every observation time,

potatoes, etc. In Nhera village and Mulong Out of 124 hr observation in forests, feeding

village near Simla the corn harvest was little accounted for 26.9% of the total activities

damaged by the monkeys, being kept effective- (Table 4).

Table 4

Activity percentage of Rhesus monkeys in forests

Judging from these tables, the amount of

feeding was presumed to be greater in the fields

than in the forests. However, it is not yet known

whether differences exist between feeding abi-

lity in forests and feeding in fields.

Food list of Rhesus monkeys

The main food in the forests consisted of

fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves and stems of various

trees and grasses. Seeds of trees such as Pinus

roxhurghii, P. wallichiana, leaves of Berberis

aristata, leaves and stems of Trifolium repens

comprised the staple food during the survey

period, but fruits of Vitis himalayana are eaten

during October and November. Fruits and

leaves of Quercus incana and Q. semecarpifolia,

and fruits, leaves, stems and grains of plants

were substaple or temporary food. Table 5

shows the main food items and their utilization.

The trees and the grasses that comprise the

staple foods were the most common species in

the home ranges of the troops. Lindburg (1976)

described the foods of 92 species in the tropical

forest, and that the staple foods are composed

of common species in the forest.

ly under watch. In Dhalar village and in Nheri

village near Narkanda, waste potatoes after the

harvest and wheat were the main targets of

the monkeys’ foraging. Along the main paths of

movement of the troops throughout Dhalar

village and Nheri village (Narkanda) and Tikkri

village, Baiun village and Sunmarkot village

(Sungri), the troops probably caused little

harvest damage because they spread out and

rested in the fields, and picked young leaves

of autumn sown wheat.

The frequency of appearance in the terrace

fields increased remarkably in winter in rela-

tion to the snowfall. This point will be dis-

cussed later.

Although children at times threw stones to

the monkeys, people in Simla do not chase

Rhesus monkeys, because of religious senti-

ments. In the streets of Simla, people some-

times gave food to monkeys, but continuous

provisioning is practised only for the troops at

Jakoo Temple and Kali Bali Temple. Other

troops forage mostly at dumping grounds, in

grasslands or in small thickets in gardens.

In forests : More than 60% of all troop

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 5

Food list of Rhesus monkeys

Feeding Kind of food _ „ Frequency Period as

area Famlly Part eaten of eating staple food

Forest Pinus roxburghii

Pinus wallichiana

Cedrus deodara

Quercus incana

Quercus semecarpifolia

Prunus cornuta

Osyris arborea

Rosa moschatta

Cotoneaster affinis

var. basillaris

Reinwardtia trigyna

Berberis aristata

Syringa sp.

Tilia europaea

Tiliaceae

Ficus sarmentosa

Vitis himalayana

Trifolium repens

Rumex crispus

Rumex acetosa

Fragalia nubicola

Duchesnea indica

Stellaria media

Poa anna

Sarcococca saligna

Trichosanthes sp.

Pimpinella diver sifolia

Umbelliferae

Plantago lanceolata

Compositae

Vicia sativa

Jasminum humile

Bothriochloa glabra

Arundinella setosa

Pteridium aquilinum

Fields Buckwheat

Peas

Corn

Potatoes

Wheat

Apples

Pumpkins

Beans

Streets Leavings of inhabitants

Fruit and vegetables

Rice and chapati

Meat and egg

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

Rhesus monkeys in the fields ate fruits,

grains and roots of crops, and the leaves of

autumn sown wheat. All kinds of crops culti-

vated in the home ranges were eaten. Corn,

potato, and wheat, which were the most com-

monly cultivated crops were most utilized by

the monkeys.

In the streets. Rhesus monkeys picked up

fruits, vegetables, rice, and the remains of

chapatis. Many people visiting the Jakoo

Temple and the Kali Bali Temple offer dried

beans, biscuits and fruits haphazardly. The

amount of food given to monkeys in the tem-

ples is possibly less than that given to the

Japanese monkeys which are so provisioned.

Furthermore, only a few individuals can ob-

tain food. The monkeys living in the streets

eat mainly leaves and seeds of Pinus walli-

chiana, fruits of Quercus incana, leaves of

Rumex sp., Stellaria media, grains of the Grami-

neae, and certain kinds of vines.

The Lower Bazar troop, the Ripon Hospital

troop, and the Boileauganj troop live mainly

on remnants of human food, and the Jakoo

Temple troops and the Ridge troop are mainly

dependent on trees and grasses in groves and

gardens.

Troop size, distribution of Rhesus monkeys

The Tara Devi troop and the Nhera troop

(Fig. 3), like troops in Narkanda and Sungri,

contain more than 30 individuals, whereas the

troops in the Simla streets, except for the Jakoo

Temple I and II troops, contained less than

30 individuals (Table 6). Therefore, the sizes

of troops in natural habitats were bigger than

those of troops in the Simla streets, except for

the Jakoo Temple I and II troops. The Jakoo

troops occupy Cedrus deodara-dominsitQd

forests around this temple, so that environ-

Table 6

Troop size of Rhesus monkeys

481

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 80

mental conditions are different compared to

those of troops in the streets. Furthermore,

these two troops obtained diverse foods from

people visiting the temple. The other troops

living in the streets could not get food from

people, but foraged in domestic refuse and

other items around Simla.

The home range of the ten troops in the

Simla streets (4 km x 1 km) overlapped wide-

ly and avoided the Quercus mowa-dominated

and Pinus roxburghii- dominated forests near

the streets (Fig. 6). On the other hand, troops

having fields and forests as home ranges were

continuously distributed so that the home

ranges were in contact, and sometimes over-

lapped (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).

The size of the 7 troops occupying forest

and field averaged 37.4 individuals, ranging

from 23 to 50.

Forests and terrace fields in the home range

The boundary of the home range was de-

fined as the line connecting the outermost

travelling routes. The sizes of the home ranges

in Narkanda and Sungri were observed over

comparatively long periods, it was difficult to

Table 7

Size of the home range of troops

482

Dec (Nheri t£„)

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

483

Fig. 7. Seasonal changes in utilization within the home range of the troops at Narkanda.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

trace both troops in Sungri separately in Janu-

ary, so their separate status could not help

declining. But it was possible to determine the

size in other areas. In the latter cases, the

maximum diameter of the home range was

measured instead of the area (Table 7). Home

ranges in Narkanda were smaller than at

Sungri, but more extended observations might

have reduced the difference.

Terrace fields accounted for 29%-50% of

the home range, and are important as feeding

areas.

In comparison, monkey troops in Simla

moved little, presumably because the troop

were dependent on kitchen midden, groves and

gardens.

Changes of home range of Rhesus monkeys,

and food and snowfall

In Narkanda : The troop movements chang-

ed depending on the presence of ripe fruits in

the forests in autumn. In coniferous forests

between Nheri village and Narkanda street

(2,200-2,500 m a.s.l.) there were three places

where clusters of Vitis himalayana grow toge-

ther with coniferous trees, i.e., opposite Rela

Nimla, near the cliff ridge, and in the upper

part of Kanar village (Fig. 7).

Fruits of Vitis himalayana ripen fully in

Narkanda from mid-September to the end of

October. I observed monkeys in mid-September

and in early October in that area. At this

season, the Nheri troop used the area above

the road lying beneath Nheri village and in-

tensively utilized the coniferous forest beyond

Nheri village. The above-mentioned clusters of

Vitis himalayana were included within their

daily travelling course. Although I was inform-

ed that the troops appeared in corn, potato,

and pea fields around Nheri village, the troops

chiefly utilized food in forests during this

period.

The leaves of trees gradually start to turn

yellow in early October, and broad-leaved trees

and most of the undergrowth are defoliated

at the end of October. At the same time,

fruits of Vitis himalayana fall. As a result,

food variability becomes low, and the kind of

food available decreases. Seeds of Pinus walli-

chiana, fruits of Quercus semecar pi folia, and

Rosa moschatta, and certain other trees, leaves

and stems of Trifolium repens, and leaves of

the Gramineae were eaten remarkably. All these

plants covered the whole home range of the

Nheri troop.

At the end of November and the end of

December, the Nheri troop travelled around

Nheri village and Dhalar village, situated down-

Table 8

Utilization rates of forests and terrace fields in the home range of the Nheri-Doza troops

484

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

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stream from Nheri village. At this season, the

variety of food decreased as already mentioned,

and the duration of stay in the terrace fields in-

creased greatly (Table 8). Although the mon-

key troop partly utilized the fields as a home

range in September and October, it moved

chiefly in the forests. However, by the end of

November the troop spent most of its time in

the fields, and sometimes remained in the same

field without being chased by farmers or dogs,

as seen on 29th November. In this season,

potatoes were harvested, but considerable

amounts of left-overs remained in the fields,

while the autumn sown wheat was about 20

cm long in sporadic distribution between Nheri

village and Dhalar village.

The main food sources of the Rhesus mon-

keys in this season in the terrace fields were

potato remnants and leaves of autumn sown

wheat. All individuals of the troop spread over

all parts of the fields in seeking these food

items.

Snowfall was recorded 10 times from Nov-

ember to January, 1972-1973 (Table 9). There

was about 20 cm snowfall above 2,200 m a.s.l.

on 24th November, but it rained below that

altitude. This snowfall remained for 6 days,

and subsequently, unwithered Trifolium repens,

and seeds of Pinus wallichiana were again ex-

posed.

The Doza troop was observed at the end of

December. This troop usually moved along

the western ridge of Doza village utilizing the

Pinus wallichiana-domin&tQd forests without

entering the terrace fields (Figs. 4 and 7). The

home range of this troop lies between 2,000 m

a.s.l. and 2,400 m a.s.l., where snow falls.

Going straight down from the ridge, it touches

the home range of the Nheri troop around

Dhalar village. At the end of December, the

Doza troop was travelling only in the forests.

485

Oct-early Jan (Baiun & Seri trs

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

486

Fig. 8. Seasonal changes in utilization within the home range of the troops at Sungri.

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

indicating that the forests offer an adequate

supply of food for the troop, contrary to the

case of the Nheri troop. These findings reflect

differences between the forest types of the two

ranges: Deodar-dominated forests wiith little

Pinus wallichiana in the Nheri troop range,

and Pinus wallichiana-dominaXcd forests in the

Doza troop range.

In Sungri : There are differences in the utili-

zation of home ranges between October-Dec-

ember and January, judging from 4 periods of

observation of the Baiun troop and the Seri

troop during the end of October, mid-Nov-

ember, mid-December and mid- January. During

the period between October and December,

they travelled in the area between Baiun village

and Seri village; the lowest point reached was

Sunmarkot, and the highest was near the

Simla-Bhali road (Figs. 5 and 8).

The Baiun troop travelled in the area of Baiun

village and along the Nagadhar ridge at the

beginning of January and the Seri troop travel-

led in the area of Seri village at the same time.

Since the middle of January in the survey area

troops were not found. So it is sure that the

Baiun and Seri troops travelled near Tikkri

village and Dugsa village during the middle

of January, and the third troop (Jakka troop)

was found at 16th January near Tikkri village,

so that 3 troops utilized the area from around

Tikkri village to Dugsa village, having over-

lapping home ranges (Fig. 8).

During my observation period, the 2 troops

used the upper part of their home ranges in

October-December, and the lower part in Janu-

ary.

The numbers of snowy days and the dura-

tion and amount of snowfall in Sungri were

almost the same as those in Narkanda, which

is situated at the same altitude. In Sungri, it

snowed about 10 times during the period bet-

ween November and the end of January, and

the time during which snow remained on the

ground increased gradually. The remaining

snow on the southern slopes melted within 3

or 4 days in November or December, but in

January snow fell very often, so that the ground

was fully covered. The snowfall on 8th, 12th,

18th and 20th January resulted in persistent

snow cover above Baiun village and Seri village

during January. In this respect, the snowfall in

January is different from that in November

and December.

The Baiun troop and the Seri troop chiefly

travelled around Baiun village and Seri village

in November and December, and changed their

home ranges to the region of Tikkri village and

Dugsa village in January. This change in home

range appeared to be related to the snowfall

in these areas. They concentrated around Tikkri

village and Dugsa village, where there was no

snowfall in January, while higher regions were

covered with snow.

Snow cover on the ground affects the move-

ment pattern of the monkeys by changing food

availability. Food items during October-

December were the seeds of Pinus wallichiana,

both on the ground and in pine cones, as well

as nuts and fruits of other kinds of trees, the

leaves and stems of Trifolium repens, many

kinds of grasses in the forests, remaining

potatoes and young leaves of autumn sown

wheat in the terrace fields. After heavy snow,

only the seeds of Pinus wallichiana in the forest

canopy remained available. One or two days

after snowfall in October-December, exposed

areas in the forests and the ridges of fields

became clear of snow and the monkeys obtain-

ed food in such places. Since the amount and

frequency of snowfall increased in January,

finding food on the ground became difficult.

The monkeys therefore utilized the lower part

of the home range, where there were potatoes

and young leaves of autumn sown wheat in

487

Daily travel distance of troops

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

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ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

the fields, and the seeds of P. wallichiana,

leaves of Berberis aristata and stems and leaves

of Trifolium repens in the forests, avoiding the

snow-covered regions in the upper part of the

range.

Differences in the movement pattern of the

troop appear to be related to changes in the

utilization rate of the fields and the forests.

The time spent by the troops in the fields and

in the forests from October to December were

quite different from those in January. In the

period between October and December, 83.3%

of the total observation time was spent in the

forests and 16.7% in the fields. However, in

January, only 48.4% was spent in the forests

and the remaining 51.6% in the fields. There

was a marked increase in the utilization of

the terrace fields.

The daily travel distance of a troop was not

affected by snowfall (Table 10). Footprints of

monkeys in the snow immediately after snow-

fall were less than 20 cm deep, so the abdomen

did not touch the snow surface.

In Narkanda and Sungri, the troops changed

their utilization areas to below the lowest limit

of snowfall after frequent snowfalls. This in-

dicates that such a change in home range is

due to difficulty in obtaining food in the pre-

sence of snow cover rather than to the low

temperature or the difficulty of moving in the

snow.

Before snowfalls, the troop utilized the

upper part of the home range, where the mem-

bers usually foraged the fruits of Vitis himala-

yana, which is abundant near Narkanda, and

the seeds of Pinus wallichiana in Sungri.

After snowfall, the troops descended below

the lower limit of snowfall and foraged the

seeds of Pinus wallichiana on the ground, Tri-

folium re pens, potato remnants and young

leaves of wheat. Because of forest area was

relatively small in the lower part of the home

range compared to the upper part around

Narkanda or Sungri, the degree of dependence

on the terrace fields became much higher.

As mentioned above. Rhesus monkeys tra-

velled out of snow-covered areas, and so their

travel distance and feeding behaviour were not

influenced directly by snowfall. They avoided

the worst conditions of snowfall in their habi-

tat by changing the areas of utilization within

the home range.

Inter troop relationships

In the survey areas, troops of Rhesus mon-

keys are distributed almost continuously, but

each troop has its own home range. Here I

describe the contact between troops, and the

joining and parting of troops which travelled

together for several days.

Intertroop relations were observed in Sungri

on 12th December, 1972, and 16th, 17th and

19th January, 1973 (Fig. 9).

Observation 1 (12th December, 1972, at

Nagadhar ridge) :

Nagadhar ridge is in the home range of the

Baiun troop. On the 11th December the Baiun

troop was observed in the upper part of the

ridge where it roosted in two groups separated

by about 1 km. On the 12th, the troop was

found in the place where it has spent the pre-

vious night, and then it moved slowly to the

east, and appeared in the terrace fields beyond

the Nagadhar ridge. This troop was composed

of 96 individuals. Divided into 2 parts by the

attack of a dog, 46 individuals escaped to the

east, and 50 individuals to the west. The troop

split very quickly, without confusion. The 46

individuals which went to the east travelled

slowly for two days around Seri and Dugsa

villages. On the other hand, the remaining 50

individuals stayed in the upper part of the

forest around Baiun village. It is almost certain

that the group of 50 individuals is the Baiun

489

Dec. 11, 1972 1972

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

490

Fig. 9. Joining and dividing of troops at Sungri.

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

troop, which contained 68 individuals at maxi-

mum and that the other group of 46 indivi-

duals was the Seri troop.

Observation 2 (16th January, 1973 at Tikkri

village) :

Forty-five individuals (B troop) were found

in the terrace fields near Tikkri village on 15th

January, and they travelled to the vicinity of

Dugsa village. On the following day, 45 in-

dividuals were found in the forest directly

below Dugsa village, and 3 6+a individuals (A

troop) in the fields of Tikkri village. The B

troop began to travel to the fields of Tikkri

village, following the same course that it had

taken the previous day. The top group of the

travelling troop was composed of two adult

females, one 1 -yr-old and one 2-yr-old, and they

approached the central part of the A troop,

which was spread out in the fields. Hereupon,

8 adults in the central part of the A troop

moved about 5 m toward high ground. Follow-

ing them, the A troop started to move slowly

to the upper part of the ridge, and the B troop

followed the A troop. Both troops travelled

about 1 km in 5 hr after joining: for 1.5 hr

out of the 5 hr, the distance between the 2

troops was only 10 m.

Before the A troop met the B troop, the A

troop may have been foraging in the terrace

fields near Tikkri village with the C troop

(Jakka troop), because footprints in the snow

on the night of the 15th were traced along that

line, and the C troop was observed 500 m away

travelling slowly in the direction of Jakka

village immediately after the joining of the A

and B troops.

Thus, the movement of the 3 troops appear-

ed to have been as follows: on the night of

15th the A and Jakka troops joined in the

fields near Tikkri village and travelled together

until the morning of the 16th. Immediately

after parting from the Jakka troop, the A

troop joined the B troop. They travelled toge-

ther all day long and roosted in the same place.

Observation 3 (19th January, 1973 at Tikkri

village) :

On 17th January, 45 individuals were found

around Tikkri village, and 47 individuals

around Dugsa village. On the following day, it

was reported that both troops were around

Dugsa village and Tikkri village at the same

time.

On 19th January, 33+a individuals (E troop)

from Dugsa village crossed a brook and

approached 52 +a individuals (D troop) in

the fields near Tikkri village. This situation

was exactly the same as the relation between

the A and B troops on 16th January, i.e.,

moving to the terrace fields near Tikkri village

along the same route that was taken on the

16th from the wheat fields below Dugsa village,

the E troop approached the D troop, which

was foraging in the fields. Three juveniles of

the D troop (3- to 5-yr-old) attacked individuals

of the E troop which were climbing the slope at

a distance of 15 m with “Ga, Ga, Ga” calls.

The top group of the E troop was composed

of an adult female, 1 -yr-old, 3 -yr-old and an

adult male, and 33 +a individuals of the E

troop joined the D troop. There was no trouble

during the contact between the 2 troops, and

86 individuals were eating together in the fields

for about 3 hr.

When I observed the A.B.D.E. troops, no

other troops were found in the survey area

except the Jakka troop. It suggests that the 4

troops correspond to the Seri and Baiun troops.

From the above-mentioned observations, the

following conclusions can be drawn: 1) Some

troops travelled together during certain periods,

2) When joined troops moved together, the in-

dividuals from each troop were not mixed but

retained their identity as separate troops, 3) In

the coming together of troops, there was little

491

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

antagonistic behaviour and 4) Converging of

several troops occurred in early winter when

snow cover was present for short periods, and

occurred again more frequently when monkey

troops moved to lower utilization areas after

snowfall. As autumn sown wheat fields and

potato fields were only seen around the Tikkri-

Dugsa-Sunmarkot villages at low altitude, the

monkey troops gathered in these limited areas

and the chance of troop meetings increased.

Grouping through troop procession

Rhesus monkey troops are composed of in-

dividuals of both sexes and of all ages; the

composition is very similar to that of the Japa-

nese monkey troop. One small group of 3 adult

males was found at Sungri, but continuity of

the group was not observed.

The observation of individual groupings with-

in the troop was limited to count of individuals

crossing streamlets or spreading out in the

terrace fields.

A) The grouping of troop processions:

the number of individuals of a troop, its com-

position by sex and age, and its grouping

structure were observed 14 times (Table 11).

When troops were moving across forest slopes

with feeding, they usually moved slowly with

individuals scattering. However, when crossing

streamlets, as in case 9, 12-14 of Table 11, all

individuals of the troop usually moved simul-

taneously and rapidly for a short period along

the same route. Since there were pauses among

moving monkeys, it was possible to distinguish

groups roughly. In all these cases the mon-

keys moved in several compact groups.

The grouping combination which occurred

most frequently consisted of adult males and

adult females with babies up to 3-yr-olds,

accounting for 39% of all groupings. Juveniles

were estimated at 4- to 6-yr-olds, and adults

at 7-yr-old and over for both male and female.

Babies in troop procession followed their

mother closely, or clung to her back or abdo-

men, while 1- to 3-yr-olds walked further

away from their mothers. The position of adult

males during troop movement varied.

Some 23% of the groupings consisted of

adult females and babies to 3-yr-olds, and

mothers were located at the center of group-

ings. The remaining 39% were as follows: 1)

males only, 2) male and adult females, 3)

juveniles of both sexes, 4) adult females and

juveniles of both sexes, 5) adult females only,

and 6) adult males and juveniles of both

sexes.

Some features were noted in the order of

individuals within each troop procession.

During rapid movement without feeding, the

leading part of the procession was composed

of adult males, adult females and babies to

3-yr-olds or adult females and babies to 3-yr-

olds. In case 9, the top group consisted of a

adult male with erect tail, 2 adult females with

a baby, and 3-yr-olds. In case 13, adult females

and babies to 2-yr-olds formed the top group.

They crossed a rivulet and were the first to con-

tact the A troop. Second and third groups

without adult males crossed the rivulet, and then

the tail-erecting adult male appeared 18 min

after the top group had forded. At that time

the top group had already joined the A troop.

In case 12, the top group consisted of adult

females and babies to 3-yr-olds.

It was not clear at which moment troops

moved. However, when the troop had started

to move, a male with erect tail in case 9, and

a adult female in case 13 led troop orientation

and the change of movement behavior.

The individuals consisting the top group

during troop procession included two combi-

nations: adult males, adult females and babies

to 3-yr-olds, of adult females and babies to

3-yr-olds only. In the former case, the posi-

tion of adult males in the group was not fixed.

492

Table 11, Procession composition at troop movement

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

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O Observation example exactly traced till last ind. of troop Juveniles estimated at 4- to 6-yr-olds

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

There were many adult males at the rear of

troop processions. Among 8 examples observ-

ed in detail, a male with erect tail occupied

the last position in one case. In 4 cases, a

male and female pair occupied the rear posi-

tion, and this may be related to the breeding

season. Even if troop started to move, such

pairs were $low to move, and as a result they

remained in the last half of the troop proces-

sion.

In one example, 5 adult males occupied the

rear of the troop procession with 21 individual

groupings composed of adult males, adult fe-

males and babies to 3-yr-olds.

Therefore, the rear of troop processions con-

sisted mainly of adult males in 6 out of 8

examples.

Once, the Doza troop was pursued and

attacked by a medium-sized dog in the forests

of Rela Nimla village near Narkanda. All the

monkeys of the troop climbed into the canopy

of Pinus wallichiana and ascended about 1 5 m

from the dog. When the dog approached, a

roughly 10-yr-old male stood on guard on the

ground. He adopted a threatening posture with

open mouth, but made no sound. The dog

barked and approached within 10 m of the

adult male. The animals faced each other in

this way for several minutes. In the meantime,

the other monkeys retreated. The adult male

backed away slowly from the dog, in the direc-

tion of troop movement.

B) Groupings in a troop spread out in ter-

race fields: In all 18 cases, partial spacing of

a troop was observed during feeding times.

The most frequent groupings were adult fe-

males with babies to 2-yr-olds or adult males

and adult females. In many cases adult males

were solitary, but they did not quarrel even

when converging into terrace fields with dis-

tances of 1-2 m between individuals.

The distribution changed according to the

size of the fields or forests in which feeding

occurred. In the narrow sections of Pinus

wallichiana along the brook of Narkanda,

troops picked up seeds of Pinus wallichiana

in a 100 m line along the brook slope.

In small wheat fields, e.g., 20 m x 20 m in

area, individuals ate with parts of their bodies

in contact. When they were spreading out to

eat potato remnants on terrace fields, they ate

sporadically over an area of 20 m x 50 m

(Plate).

In spite of the variation of habitat sizes, the

feeding area of a troop was usually within

100 m in diameter, with individual distances

depending on the sizes of the terrace fields

or forests. Thus, individual spacing corresponds

to the feeding environment.

Grouping of adult females with babies to

3-yr-olds most frequently appeared during

troop procession or feeding (Table 11).

Discussion

Determining factors of the upper limit of the

Monkey distribution

As mentioned above. Rhesus monkeys in-

clude terrace fields in their home ranges as an

essential part. The upper border of terrace

fields and upper limit of the monkeys coincide

with at 2,600 m a.s.l., so it could be suggested

that the upper limit of the monkeys are closely

related with the existence of terrace fields.

The type of forest and Monkey distribution

Rhesus monkeys in Simla, Kufri and Sungri

inhabit Pmws-dominated forests developed on

southern slopes and terrace fields. Cedrus

deodara-dom\ndAQ& forests usually spread on

northern slopes. The northern slope of Nar-

kanda, above Nheri village consists of Cedrus

deodara- dominated forest where troops fre-

quently utilized thick growth of Vitis himala-

494

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Wada: Rhesus monkeys

Rhesus monkey feeding in terrace fields.

(Photo: K. Wada)

Ecological characters of Rhesus monkeys and Japanese monkeys in snowy areas

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

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>’«A7a as staple food. Huge forests, especially

of Cedrus deodar a, remain on the northern

slopes along the ridge through Simla to Sungri

via Narkanda, while the southern slopes are

less forested. Rhesus monkeys were never

found in these forests, and Cedrus deodara

forests bordering terrace fields were little uti-

lized (i.e., the Cedrus deodara- dominated

forests between Sungri and Rampur, and on

the northern slopes in Kufri and Narkanda).

Cedrus deodara-dominated forests are not suit-

able as monkey habitats, because seeds of C.

deodara are little utilized as food, and there is

only limited food even in the undergrowth. In

autumn, these forests did not supply feeding

materials except for Vitis himalayana. There-

fore, the preferred habitats for monkeys were

locations with intermixed Pfiitts-dominated

forests and terrace fields on southern-facing

slopes under cultivation. Thus, monkey troops

were more continuously distributed on southern

slopes than on northern slopes (Figs. 3, 4

and 5).

Ecological adaptation to snowfall

The characteristics of Rhesus monkeys and

Japanese monkeys in snowy areas are compar-

ed in Table 12. The differences of ecological

characteristics are clearly related to the feed-

ing environments. Snow cover in coniferous

forest in winter restricts Rhesus monkeys’ food

to seeds within the cones on branches of

Pinus wallichiana. When snowfall during the

end of November and mid-December melts

within a few days, forest undergrowth is ex-

posed, and the troops do not change their

areas of utilization. After the end of Decem-

ber, snow falls very often, and the troops change

their areas of utilization as acquisition of foods

becomes difficult. So changes in the area of

utilization should not be affected by the lower-

495

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ing of ambient temperature, but rather, by the

snow cover.

On snow-covered coniferous forests there are

fruits of Aesculus indica (deciduous broad-

leaved) and of Quercus incana or semecarpi-

folia (evergreen broad-leaved), but monkeys

tend to eat mainly from Pinus.

Japanese monkeys inhabiting snowy forests

through winter do not lower their areas of

utilization to areas free from snow cover. They

winter on buds and bark of deciduous broad-

leaved trees in conjunction with their subcuta-

neous fat accumulated in autumn (Wada 1964).

Although conifers distributed sporadically in

deciduous broad-leaved forests supply roosting

sites for Japanese monkeys, they do not offer

food resources for the monkeys. There is a

severe food deficiency in coniferous forests, so

the distributional expansion of Japanese mon-

keys into coniferous forests is prevented (Wada

& Ichiki 1980).

As discussed above. Rhesus monkeys are

able to spread into secondary coniferous forests

formed from mixed broad-leaved forests for

the following reasons: (1) There are many

seeds of Pinus wallichiana in coniferous forests

as staple food in winter; and 2) Below 3,000

m a.s.l. in winter, the snow melts within a few

days, and the ground surface is exposed, mak-

ing food available again. It is possible that

the food supply of Rhesus monkeys in winter

is more abundant than in the case of Japanese

monkeys in snowy districts, so in autumn

Rhesus monkeys do not need to build up

reserves of fat.

Rhesus monkey movements and terrace fields

In general, monkeys included in the genus

Macaca appear in cultivated fields to feed on

crops. Japanese monkeys displaced by exten-

sive destruction of huge forest areas approach

hills around fields, and then cause damage to

many kinds of crops. As farmers in Japan

practice intensive cultivation, there is always

a conflict of interests. Therefore it is difficult

to be sure that Japanese monkeys include fields

in their home ranges.

In China too. Rhesus monkeys. Red-faced

monkeys and Pigtailed monkeys are violently

ejected from fields (Shaw 1962). In India,

especially in the lower Himalayas, Rhesus mon-

keys certainly include terrace fields in their

home ranges. The monkeys find potato rem-

nants. grasses belonging to the Gramineae,

corn, peas and young leaves of wheat as food

in the fields. Indian farmers do not rigorously

exclude monkeys from fields because cultiva-

tion is less intensive, and the monkeys are

regarded as servants of Hindu gods. When

monkeys pick up potato remnants, the farmers

are indulgent. More valuable crops are pro-

tected rigorously with fire crackers. The Rhesus

monkeys’ menu includes nuts, seeds, fruits,

young leaves and stems of plants, so cultivated

crops in fields become a part of natural habit

of fruit and seed feeding. On the other hand,

the staple foods of Himalayan langurs are

fruits and leaves of trees (Sugiyama 1976),

crops in fields are eaten as substaple foods.

So the langurs appear less in fields than Rhesus

monkeys. In view of the different utilization

of fields between the two monkeys, it would

be interesting to compare their adaptability to

environmental changes.

Sociological function of groupings in troop

procession

As seen above, the grouping of adult females

with babies to 3-yr-olds most frequently

appeared during troop processions. It suggests

that this is very important grouping in the

troop structure.

As I described about the Doza troop, a fully

adult male faced against a dog on the ground.

If there is a dog near a troop, the monkeys move

496

ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION IN RHESUS MONKEYS

from branch to branch. As they usually move

on the ground, troop movement from branch

to branch is abnormal. The role of the adult

males in such cases is to defend the monkey

troop from the interference of the dog by

facing it directly. Thus the adult males predo-

minate in the rear of a troop procession and

act as defenders.

Troop size , home range and forest type

In 5 troops, Neville (1968) counted an

average of 17.2 individuals per troop living

in chir pine forest, and Southwick, Beg and

Siddiqi (1961a) counted a troop of 68 in the

vicinity of Bhowali in the same habitat in India.

Puget (1971) described 7 troops of sized rang-

ing from c. 90 to c. 150 in dry forest in Afgha-

nistan. The size of troops clearly varied in

different areas. So it is difficult to indicate

the relation between the forest types and troop

sizes.

The sizes of home ranges in the tropical and

subtropical forests varied from 1.04 to 3.11

km2 (Neville 1968), and from 1.3 to 13.4 km2

(Makwana 1978). These sizes per individual

in the former are from 0.05 to 0.21 km2, and

in the latter from 0.15 to 0.22 km2, so they

are consistent with each other.

Comparing with my data (Table 10), the

sizes of home ranges per individual in the

temperate forest are smaller than in the tropi-

cal and subtropical forests. But, as the utiliza-

tion rate of forest and field included in a home

range is not mentioned by Neville and Mak-

wana, it is difficult to draw a conclusion to

these relations.

Acknowledgements

This study was financed by Japanese Minis-

try of Education Grants for scientific research.

Mr. J. C. Daniel, curator of Bombay Natural

History Society, Mr. K. L. Mehta, warden of

the Wildlife Department, Himachal Pradesh,

Mr. R. P. Jaiswal, officer of that Department,

and officers of Plimalayan Zoological Park of

the state provided generous help and advice,

especially Mr. Kansi Ram Sharma and Mr.

Prem Lai Sharma, staff of the Park gave me

their hearty support on all trips. Identification

of the trees and grasses was kindly made by

Mr. G. Murata, Department of Botany,

Faculty of Science, Kyoto University. Dr. Y.

Sugiyama and Dr. N. Koyama, staffs of Primate

Research Institute, Kyoto University perform-

ed co-operative studies with me in the field.

Dr. Sugiyama, Mr. S. Azuma and Dr. J.

Tanaka, staff of the same Institute gave valu-

able comments. To all these people, I wish to

express my sincere thanks.

Summary

This observations were done in the tempe-

rate forest of Kumaon Himalaya.

1) The upper limit of Rhesus monkeys coin-

cided with the upper border of terrace fields

at 2,600 m a.s.l.

2) Home ranges of Rhesus monkeys in the

survey areas include both types of habitats:

cultivated terrace and forests which consist

of evergreen broad-leaved-dominated and

Pmw5-dominated. The times spent in both

areas were 78% in forests and 22% in fields.

3) Terrace fields are essential for the feed-

ing place of Rhesus monkeys who take many

kinds of crops.

4) Rhesus monkeys take many kinds of fruits,

nuts and leaves of trees and grasses. In winter,

when variety of food decreases, the monkeys

take seeds of Pinus wallichiana as staple food.

5) The size of forest and field-occupying 7

troops averaged 37 . 4 individuals, and were big-

ger than those of troops in the Simla streets.

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

The size of the home range ranged from 0.6

to 2.6 km2 by 4 troops.

6) With the snowfall, the monkeys lower

their own utilizing areas in the home ranges.

7) Joining and dividing of monkey troops

occurred to the relation with lowering part of

home range free from snowfall. In the joining

Refer

Koyama, N. & Shekar, P. B. (1981): Geographic

distribution of the Rhesus monkeys and the Bonnet

monkeys in west-central India. /. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 78(2): 240-255.

Lindburg, D. G. (1971) : The Rhesus monkey in

North India: An ecological and behavioural study.

In : L. A. Rosenblum, ed., Primate Behavior 2, pp.

1-106. New York and London. Academic Press.

(1976) : Dietary habits of rhesus

monkeys (Macaca mulatta Zimmermann) in Indian

forests. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 : 261-269.

Makwana, S. C. (1978) : Field ecology and be-

haviour of the Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) :

I: Group composition, home range, roosting sites,

and foraging routes in the Asarori forest. Primates.

19(3): 483-492.

Mukherjee, R. P. (1969) : A field study on the

behavior of two road side groups of Rhesus macaque

[Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann)] in northern Uttar

Pradesh. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(1) : 47-56.

Mukherjee, R. P. & Mukherjee, G. D. (1972):

Group composition and population density of Rhesus

monkey [Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann)] in North-

ern India. Primates. 15(1) : 65-70.

Neville, M. K. (1968): Ecology and activity of

Himalayan foothill Rhesus monkeys (Macaca

mulatta). Ecology. 49(1): 110-123.

Puget, A. (1971) : Observations sur le macaque

rhesus, Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann, 1780), en

Afganistan. Mammalia. 35(2) : 199-203.

Shaw, T. H., ed. (1962): Chinese economical ani-

mal monograph, Mammals. Peking Science Publish-

ed troops, there was little antagonistic behavi-

our.

8) Although I distinguished 8 grouping cate-

gories in troop procession, the grouping of

adult females with babies to 3-yr-olds most

frequently appeared. This would be a socio-

logically basic grouping of Rhesus monkey

troops. Adult males act as defenders.

E n ce s

ing Press.

Siddiqi, M. F. & Southwick, C. H. (1977) : Popu-

lation trends and dynamics of Rhesus monkeys in

Aligarh district. In : M. R. N. Prasad & T. C. A.

Kumar, eds., Use of non-human primates in biomedi-

cal research, pp. 14-23 Delhi University Press, New

Delhi.

Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A. & Siddiqi, M. R.

(1961a): A population survey of Rhesus monkeys

in villages, towns and temples of Northern India.

Ecology. 42(3): 538-547.

(1961b) : A population survey of Rhesus monkeys

in Northern India. II. Transportation routes and

forest areas. Ecology. 42(4): 698-710.

Sugiyama, Y. (1976) : Characteristics of the eco-

logy of the Himalayan langurs. J. Hum. Evol. 5 :

249-277.

Stainton, J. D. A. (1972): Forest of Nepal. John

Murray. London.

Teas, J., Richie, T., Taylor, H. & Southwick, C.

(1980) : Population patterns and behavioural eco-

logy of Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in Nepal.

In: D. G. Lindburg, ed., The macaques: Studies in

ecology, behavioural evolution. Van Nostrand Rein-

hold Company. New York. 384 pp.

Wada, K. (1964): Some observations on the life

of monkeys in a snowy district of Japan. Physiol.

& Ecol. 12(1-2): 151-174.

Wada, K. & Ichiki, Y. (1980): Seasonal home

range use by Japanese monkeys in the Snowy Shiga

Heights. Primates. 21(4) : 468-483.

498

THE INDIAN MUGGER, CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS

LESSON (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA):

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF A FEMALE

FROM NATURE1

Lala A. K. Singh2

( With six plates and a text-figure)

A female Mugger of River Mahanadi entered captivity at Tikerpada on January

31, 1979 to mate with captive males. On August 4, 1980 she broke through the wire-

mesh wall of the enclosure facing the river and returned back to the river. During

captivity her behaviour developed to be like other captive muggers with respect to

accepting food and relationship with keepers. Feeding was below normal to that of other

muggers. Scaleless fishes were preferred. Since she did not lay any eggs during two

breeding seasons she spent in captivity it is suspected that she had developed tem-

porary sterility in the prolonged absence of a male in nature. A series of courtship

behaviour, twice ‘initiated’ by presence of a tresspassing recessive male, were

observed outside and in the water. Males were sexually active throughout the year

but the female appeared receptive only during the winter. Orientation towards river

was very strong during flood in the river flowing 50 m away; and this behavi-

our is believed to have caused the final return from captivity to nature.

Introduction

Earlier (Singh 1979) I reported that during

December, 1977 to mid-February, 1978, cor-

responding with the breeding season for the

species, a wild female mugger crocodile ( Cro -

codylus palustris) from the Satkoshia Gorge

Sanctuary (River Mahanadi, Orissa) showed

strong sexual attraction towards 2 years and

10 months old (1.3-1. 8 m length) male mug-

gers reared in captivity at the Gharial Research

and Conservation Unit, Tikerpada (GRACU).

She was believed to be directed by olfactory

clues to chemical secretions from the males,

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Central Crocodile Breeding and Management

Training Institute, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Hyderabad-

500264, India. Present address: Camp: National

Chambal Sanctuary, P. O. Box 11, Morena 476 001,

M.P.

and perhaps also by the night time activities

of the males, which included noisy fights.

The present paper records subsequent obser-

vations on the mugger, namely her capture,

behaviour related to social interactions, feed-

ing, sexual activities and water orientation,

and her voluntary return to the wild after

eighteen months in captivity at GRACU.

Pre-capture movement

During 1978-floods (13.72 m above summer

level in the Gorge) her appearance close to

the mugger enclosure was evident from her

faecal pellets. It is not known if she had come

close to the enclosure any other time between

April 1978 and December 1978 since there

were no visual indications to her presence.

Rut she was regularly sighted in the river

near GRACU during November and Decem-

ber, 1978 and January 1979.

499

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

On the night of January 18, 1979 she had

come near the mugger enclosure, as was evi-

dent from tracks in the following morning.

The night watcher remembered that the previ-

ous night (18 Jan.) he heard splashing sounds

but had not paid any particular attenton to

it since such instances do occur on many

nights.

On 29 Jan., 1979 she had again come near

the enclosure between 23.00 and 24.00 hours,

during which time there was a small shower

as was evident from temperature and humidity

fluctuation graphs from the 24-hour record-

ing therinohygrograph at GRACU. She had

left behind tracks of her return journey while

her incoming tracks were obliterated by the

rain. She had defecated on the ground near

the enclosure where the large male was housed.

This was probably out of excitement.

The capture

On the night of January 31, 1979 again

she came near the enclosure at about 22.30

hours. The sound of splashing was heard from

the pools, as before. This time the night

watcher came near the enclosure until he heard

hissing sounds from the wild mugger, only 2

metres away from him in a position where

her head was juxt-apposed to the head of the

large male behind the wire-mesh wall.

Then the entire area including the enclosure

was surrounded by straw-covered bamboo-mat

frames, for which arrangements were made

earlier. It took about one and a half hours

to assemble the staff, bring the frames and

cover the area. During this time the mugger

had not changed her position. A big carpet

(‘dari’) was put over her. As usual with cro-

codilians, she tried to free herself from the

carpet-cover by moving back, as the carpet

did not completely cover the tail. When she

had freed herself completely the carpet was

again thrown over her and she was made to

repeat her performance till she came close to

the door into the enclosure. For the final time

the carpet was so put that while freeing

herself from the cover she moved into the

enclosure. That was the eve of Basanta Pan-

chami, a festival to worship Goddess Saraswati,

the Goddess of knowledge and erudition. So

the mugger was named ‘Basanti’.

Behaviour in captivity

I. Behaviour towards captive muggers

The enclosure into which Basanti entered

had one large pool, LP (4 x 4 x 1 m) and two

small pools, SP1 and SP2 (2x2x0.3m) set

in a total area of 52 m2 (Fig. 1). SP2 had

the large male (Ml) with whom Basanti was

seen ‘sexually’ communicating from outside

before her capture. LP had the second male

M2 and three females. The body lengths of

Basanti, Ml, M2 and the three females were

2.35, 2.16, 2.10 and 1.5-1. 8 m respectively. All

pools were separated from each other by a

1.5 m high wiremesh partition standing over

a 45 cm high massonry wall. As expected, the

behaviour of Basanti and the resident muggers

of the enclosure were extremely interesting

during the first several days of Basanti’s cap-

ture.

Basanti had reached SP2 by climbing over

the wall. On the night of capture and the

following day (Feb. 1, 1979) Ml was seen

many a times in a mounted posture over Ba-

santi. During the day, when Ml basked for a

couple of hours outside water, Basanti re-

mained in water, only 30 cm deep. On the

second night she climbed over the partition

between SP2 and LP and reached the bigger

pool, 1 m deep, having M2 and the immature

females. On the mornings of the 3rd and 4th

500

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate I

Singh: Crocodylus palustris

Courting behaviour when water is low. M is male. Snout to snout touch.

(Photo : L. A. K. Singh)

Plate II

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Singh: Crocodylus palustris

Courting behaviour when water is low. M is male.

A bove : Touching the eye. Below : Press the back.

( Photos : L. A. K. Singh)

BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN MUGGER

r -- -• " “ -• -• •• -• “• •• “ “ •• •• “ “ *• ““ “• •• *• *• *• *•

< ROAD >

Fig. 1. The mugger enclosure at GRACU, Tikerpada. Area within solid lines : original

enclosure into which Basanti entered through the door (D). SP1 and SP2: small pools;

LP: large pool. Dotted line show the area extended (with open roof) over the original

enclosure. Areas with circles show vegetations.

3

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

days M2 and Basanti were seen in mounted

postures. Because of the depth of the pool

only the head and nape, occasionally bobbing

in water, were visible from outside.

On the 4th day morning (3 Feb.) the large

pool was emptied for cleaning. When the

water level came down the male appeared

extremely sexually active and exhibited vari-

ous courting behaviour (see below). During

prolonged courting activities of M2, Basanti

had produced low nasal hissings and vocal

grunts — perhaps indications of mild objection.

The expression in the eyes of the other females

suggested that they were scared of M2. On

a few occasions M2 had chased these females,

and once he mounted one’s back when the

latter, with protruded eyes (an expression of

anxiety) raised her head upward into air at

an angle of about 45-60° — the crocodilian

posture of submission. During this, other

females remained alongside Basanti who did

not show any objection.

During noon when water was filled, Basanti

remained in water, M2 was basking outside

and other females were also basking but along

a different side of the pool.

The wiremesh partitions were removed on

the 4th morning. By the afternoon of the 6th

day (5 Feb.) the immature females had come

out of LP and remained in SP1. Later, these

females never changed their pools but Ml

had on a few occasions gone to LP but was

chased away soon by M2 (see below).

II. Reaction to people

Up to about one and a half months after

capture, Basanti was extremely shy and often

going under water when the entrance door

was opened or even when someone approached

the enclosure within 10-12 m. When she was

watched she would surface briefly and then

submerge.

During later periods she remained on the

surface even when watched. After three and

a half months, when basking outside water,

like other captive muggers she permitted us

to approach within 45 cm from her.

Haul-out and basking : Day-time hauling

out was not observed until March 10, i.e., 38

days after capture. During the period prior

to this tracks suggesting night-time hauling

out were noticed. This was perhaps because

of the disturbance caused during the day by

labourers working on the extension of the

enclosure. Later, when such work stopped she

basked for two to three hours every after-

noon. Later when the enclosure was closed to

visitors she basked during the mornings also.

III. Feeding

Live fish of suitable size were released into

the pool for Basanti and the male in the pool

was ‘hand-fed’ as usual. Until about the third

month after capture no sign of her feeding

was noticed. She appeared slimmer but her

eyes indicated no sign of sickness. However,

during the early part of the 3rd month at

times she was seen on the surface holding dead

fish between the jaws. She never swallowed

these when watched. On two occasions por-

tions of fish, which had been released alive,

were seen floating on the surface. Since cap-

tive males are greedy and eat whole fishes

larger than these (from which the parts were

seen), it was suspected that Basanti had been

extremely ‘choosy’.

Later she responded to our approach with

her feed, and even accepted the feed when

thrown close to her mouth, but did not

swallow the food on such occasions until she

had been six months in captivity. Assuming

that the male (Ml) in the pool with Basanti

was eating its normal quantity of food, Ba-

santi’s feeding rate was determined from the

quantity of food provided in the pool and/or

502

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 Plate III

Singh: Crocodylus palustris

Courting behaviour when water is low. F is female (Basanti).

Above : Side to side touch of the head.

Below : Male keeping the everted neck glands over the nostril of the female.

( Photos : L. A. K. Singh)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 80

Singh: Crocodylus palustris

Plate IV

Mounting as an attempt to mate. (But prevented because of low water).

M — male; F — female.

Courting behaviour in water. F — female. Early postures during mounting.

( Photos : L. A. K. Singh)

BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN MUGGER

direct observation on her feeding. Table 1

shows the feeding rates for Ml, M2, Basanti

and other three females. As will be seen,

Basanti had eaten less than 50% of what the

males ate and round 67% of what the females

ate over a period of 11 months.

Basanti was more interested in food only

when she was fed once a week, even during

the summer. Whereas, other captive muggers

were fed every alternate day during the sum-

mer, every third day during rains and autumn,

and every fifth day during winter — a schedule

observed according to the variation in their

appetite.

IV. Interactions with male

A series of action were noticed to be exe-

cuted by the male in response to Basanti.

These patterns of behaviour may be considered

as the various aspects of courting and these

included social contacts like, (i) touching and

poking the eyes, the region of the ear slit,

sides of the jaws and the nape of the female

with the tip of the snout; (ii) keeping the

neck with everted scent (musk) glands over

the nasal apertures of the female, and (iii)

clasping the female behind her forelimbs.

These behaviour were observed when the pool

was emptied on more than one occasion.

When in water, courting behaviour were

observed on many occasions during early

mornings and late afternoons. A generalised

sequence of courting observed and photo-

graphed for Basanti and M2 is as follows.

(i) Male approaches female.

(ii) Female stays where she is or moves to face

the male.

(iii) Male floats alongside the female.

(iv) Male moves over to the back of the female.

Bodies under water only heads visible.

(v) Head of the male rests over the back or

nape of the female.

(vi) Male clasps the female from behind.

(vii) Bobbing heads visible intermittently. During

this the head of the female points upwards

at an angle of about 60° to water surface.

Both male and female make nasal hissing

sounds, and may exhale air through mouth

producing bubbling sound in water mixed

with low grunts by female. Small amounts

of air may be exhaled under water through

the nostril which appear on the surface in

the form of a series of bubbles.

(viii) Both surface in mounting posture. Heads

visible.

(ix) Male slightly opens and closes mouth four

to five times. Perhaps drinking water.

(x) Male separates; surfaces at a distance.

For the accomplishment of phases from (i) to (x)

it takes from 40 to 50 minutes.

(xi) After 5 to 8 minutes male moves along the

periphery of the pool; comes close to female;

moves away for peripheral movement again.

(xii) After 3 to 4 such peripheral movements,

during which he may or may not have been

joined by the female, male stops alongside

the female; shifts body from the side to the

back of the female. Female goes under

water, followed by male. Both reappear in

mounted posture.

(xiii) Repetition of (vii) to (ix) and may or may

not of (xi) and (xii). The latter two phases

have been seen to be repeated to a maximum

of two times, each lasting from 40 to 70

minutes. Later they maintain a distance of

over a metre.

Since the above behaviour were watched

from a distance of only two metres away from

the pool, outside the enclosure, the eyes of

both were clearly visible during the entire

period. The eyes appeared normal for the

female but at the end of each (x) -phase the

eyes of the male were definitely appearing

small with drooping eyelids — perhaps a sign

of exhaustion.

It was not observed on any occasion if

actual intromission had occurred since the

bodies were below water. The behaviour how-

ever, suggested that since the female, when

503

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 80

receptive, raises her tail above the water sur-

face, provision of shallow water areas in addi-

tion to deep water is beneficial for the mating

pair — the female gets her fore limbs supported

on the ground.

Clicking effect : On only two occasions

courting was ‘clicked’ because of tresspassing

by Ml, who had approached close to Basanti

basking outside water. Both the times M2

fiercely chased away Ml and immediately

thereafter exhibited social contacts as describ-

ed above. When Basanti entered water the

phases from (i) onwards were displayed.

Season : Courting activities initiated by the

male were observed throughout the year, but

the female appeared to be highly responsive

only during the morning and afternoon hours

in winter.

During the first year Basanti appeared to

be less tolerant to M2 after the mating season

in March. During the night M2 remained out

of water or in a different pool, returning back

the following morning when we go to the

enclosure for our usual work. While returning,

he was received with mildly ‘objecting’ grunts

from Basanti. Because of this M2 was trans-

ferred from the enclosure and Ml was allowed

into Basanti’s pool, but he was also rejected

and therefore, was taken out of the enclosure.

During October M2 was brought back to the

enclosure. After a few objections, M2 was

accepted by Basanti and the courting behaviour

continued during the winter.

V. Water orientation behaviour

During the initial phases of Basanti’s cap-

tive life, checks during the night had revealed

about Basanti’s movement along the walls of

the enclosure. This was then regarded as ‘ex-

ploratory’. But during the monsoon, when all

males were out of the enclosure and the river

was in high flood, only fifty metres away from

the enclosure, she showed strong orientation

towards the river. During post monsoon

(Autumn) such behaviour was either absent

or not very suggestive of the urge to go into

the river.

Back to the wild

Although Basanti had spent two breeding

seasons (1979 and 1980) at GRACU, she did

not lay any eggs. During 1980 a small pit,

20 cm deep and 10 cm diameter was dug during

March, but it was not confirmed to be an act

by Basanti because three other females were

in the same enclosure.

On the morning of August 5, 1980, an

opening was noticed between the joining line

of two wiremesh sheets on the wall facing the

river, and Basanti was missing from the en-

closure. On the same day she was observed

in the river about 2 km downstream. The total

duration of her stay in captivity was over

eighteen months.

Discussion

From the above although no generalisation

can be made on the behavioural biology of

the Mugger, the observations do add to the

scant existing knowledge.

Feeding : Crocodiles caught from the wild

do cease feeding for some time when kept in

captivity. This has also been observed recently

for saltwater crocodile hatchlings (Kar, S.,

pers. comm.) and a sub-adult (Choudhury, B.

C, pers. comm.). In the latter instance the

crocodile had not eaten anything for nearly a

year. Non-feeding by Basanti during the first

three months supports further the above obser-

vation.

Consumption of low quantities of food may

504

Plate V

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Singh: Crocodylus palustris

Courting behaviour in water. M — male.

Above : Late postures during mounting.

Below: Separation begins after phase (x) (see text).

( Photos : L. A. K. Singh)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Singh: Crocodylus palustris

Plate VI

Courting behaviour in water. M — male, F — female.

Above : Peripheral movement by male when female is stationary. (Phase xi: see text).

Below \ Approach by male after peripheral movement for recourting. (Phase xii: see text).

( Photos : L. A. K. Singh)

BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN MUGGER

be a normal behaviour in nature in contrast

to captive crocodilians who become greedy

and are over-fed.

Changed reaction towards male'. It is diffi-

cult to explain why Basanti objected to the

presence of the males after the mating season.

The only possible reason appears to be the

frequent courting attempts made by the cap-

tive males. In captivity crocodilians and

other animals appear to be sexually more active

(For e.g., see Dagg and Foster 1976).

Courtship and mating : The courtship and

mating(?) season observed in the present

paper agrees to that observed by Dharma-

kumarsinhji (1974) (March), Whitaker and

Whitaker (1976) (January-March) and Yadav

(1979) (February /March), but is a little diffe-

rent from David (1970) (December- January).

The behaviour observed during courting is

in many respects similar to that observed by

Dharmakumarsinhji (1947) on wild muggers.

The swimming behaviour is very similar.

‘Ducking’ behaviour, mounting in water and

separation after matings for renunion are also

similar. Yadav (1979) recorded mating to last

for 30-50 minutes but noted that no sound

was produced during mating. In the present

observation, however, sounds like hissing and

grunts were made by the female.

Failure to lay eggs : It is not known what

was the exact age of Basanti. However, fea-

tures like a high skull, pierced premaxilla (by

the mandibular teeth) and a lustre-less skin

indicated an age of over fifteen years. Since

this age was not early for breeding, nor was

late enough to have stopped breeding, Ba-

santi’s failure to lay even infertile eggs may

have been due to her having developed a tem-

porary sterility, perhaps in the absence of a

suitable male in the Satkoshia Gorge. Acharjyo

and Mishra (1981) have reported that in the

absence of a male, a captive Saltwater Croco-

Table 1

Feeding (fish) rates of basanti mugger and

OTHER CAPTIVE MUGGERS (M1-M2: MALES; 3F : THREE

IMMATURE FEMALES) AT GRACU, TlKERPADA.

Quantities are in Kg.

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

dile laid eggs from 1975 each year up to

1978. I ascertained later, that she stopped

laying thereafter, perhaps yet another case of

development of temporary sterility in the

absence of successful completion of the entire

sequence of behaviour in breeding.

Water orientation and return to the wild :

The behaviour of Basanti was for some time

exactly like that of other captive muggers,

particularly in allowing close approach during

feeding. She appeared normal to captivity

that she had volunteered in January 1979.

However, during the monsoon she show-

ed very strong attraction towards the river.

Such water orientation behaviour is similar to

that noticed for the Gharials at GRACU

(Singh 1978). During the post-breeding sea-

son this pull was strong enough for her to

break through the wiremesh wall and enter

the river, flowing only 50 m away.

(NOTE : While preparing the present ver-

sion of the paper from a draft prepared in

August 1980, I was informed that through a

Refer

Acharjyo, L. N. & Mishra, Ch. G. (1981) : Egg-

laying and nest-guarding behaviour of Estuarine

Crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) in

captivity. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2): 387-

389.

Dagg, A. I. & Foster, B. (1976): The Giraffe:

Its biology, behaviour and ecology. Van Nostrand

Reinhold Company, New York, Cincinnati, Atlanta,

Dalla, San Francisco.

David, R, (1970) : Breeding the Mugger Croco-

dile and Water monitor Crocodylus palustris and

Varanus salvator at Ahmedabad Zoo. bit. Zoo

Yearbook, 10: 116-117.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1947): Mating and

the parental instinct of the Marsh Crocodile (Cro-

codylus palustris Lesson). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

trap I had designed, Basanti entered captivity

again in February 1981, laid eggs in captivity

and now she has five hatchlings.)

ACK NO WLEDGEM E NTS

I wish to record my sincere gratitude to the

following for various kinds of assistance dur-

ing the study : Orissa Forest Department,

Government of India, Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations, United

Nations Development Programme, and staff

of the Gharial Research and Conservation

Unit (GRACU), in particular to Research

Assistants Sri D. K. Sahoo and Sri I. C. Sahoo,

and Gharial (Crocodile) Guards operating in

the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary. Sincere thanks

are due to Dr. H. R. Bustard who encouraged

and provided suggestions for the improve-

ment of the original manuscript, and to Sri

B. C. Choudhury (Andhra Pradesh Crocodile

Project) and Sri S. Kar (Saltwater Crocodile

Research and Conservation Unit, Dangmal,

Orissa) for information.

E n ce s

47(1) : 174-176.

Singh, L. A. K. (1978): Ecological Studies on

the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)

(Reptilia, Crocodilia). Ph. D. thesis, Utkal Univer-

sity, Bhubaneswar, India.

(1979): Sexual attraction of a

wild mugger (Crocodylus palustris Lesson) toward

captive muggers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 76(1) :

167-172.

Whitaker, R. & Whitaker, Z. (1976): Collection

and hatching of Marsh Crocodile (C. palustris)

eggs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(2) : 403-407.

Yadav, R. N. (1979) : A further report on breed-

ing the Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris at

laipur Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearbook, 19: 66-68.

506

AUTHORS’ CATALOGUE OF THE BOTANICAL

ARTICLES PUBLISHED IN THE JOURNAL OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY-II

(VOL. 67-76; 1970-1979)1

Compiled by

A. R. Das2

The first catalogue of this series was pub-

lished in this journal [Vol. 73(1): 98-120,

1976] representing Vols. 1-66, 1886-1969. The

second series is presented here covering sub-

sequent ten years. For easy retrieval of bota-

nical informations, scattered in this journal,

such catalogues are expected to go a long way

as an important aid to scholars, engaged in re-

search of botany in India. Entries have been

done here alphabetically under single author,

followed by joint authors alphabetically and

then chronologically. Similar catalogues are ex-

pected to be compiled in future, after sufficient

number of volumes of this journal are

published.

Almeida, M. R. (1975): A new species of Poaceae

(Gramineae), from Karnataka. 72(3): 813-814.

Ansari, M. A. (1972) : A new Ceropegia Linn.

(Asclepiadaceae) from Sahyadri Range in Maha-

rashtra State. 69(1): 250-253.

Arora, C. M. & Prasad, R. (1978) : Geranium pusil-

lum L. — a new record from Garhwal Himalaya.

75(2): 523.

Arora, R. K. (1977): Occurrence of Strophiolate

seeds in Cajanus . 74(3): 568-569.

& Hardas, M. W. (1976): Occur-

rence of Solanum integrifolium and S. gilo in

North-Eastern Hills. 75(2): 423-424.

— — & — (1977) : Hodgso-

nia heteroclita an oil-rich cucurbit. 74(3) : 559-561.

Arora, R. K. & Prasad, R. (1978): Malva verti-

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Librarian, Botanical Survey of India, P. O. Bota-

nic Garden, Howrah-711 103, West Bengal.

cillata — a little known plant of economic im-

portance. 75(1) : 251-252.

Ashtekar, P. V. & Kamat, N. D. (1979): Filamen-

tous myxophyceae of Aurangabad District, Maha-

rashtra. 76(1) : 215-217.

Azad, A. R. & Javeid, G. N. (1978) : Carduus tenui-

florus Curtis. (Asteraceae) : an addition to the

flora of India. 75(1): 249-251.

Babu, C. R. (1970) : The identity of Solanum khasia-

num Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta (Solana-

ceae). 67(3): 609-611.

(1972) : On the occurrence of Ludwigia

hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell (Onagraceae) in West-

ern India. 69(1): 227.

— & Chandra, S. (1971): A new variety

of Selinum vaginatum (Edgw.) Cl. (Apiaceae)

from N. W. Himalaya. 68(2) : 497-498.

— & Majumdar, N. C. (1974): Taxono-

mical notes on Cleome aspera Koen. ex DC., C.

burmanni Wt. & Arn. and C. rutidosperma DC.

(Cleomaceae) . 77(3): 629-632.

Bahadur, K. N. et al. (1973) : New plant records

for Upper Gangetic Plain. 70(2) : 493-498.

Balakrishnan, N. P. (1970a): Nomenclatural notes

on some flowering plants — II. 67(1) : 57-66.

(1970b): Studies in Indian

Euphorbiaceae IV. 67(2) : 299-306.

(1974) : Hedy otis tavoyensis Balakr.

(Rubiaceae) — a new species from Burma. 77(1) :

168-169.

(1976) : A new species of Euphor-

bia (Euphorbiaceae) from Burma. 75(1): 189-190.

(1978) Notes on some orchids

from Bhutan. 75(1): 157-163.

& Nair, N. G. (1979) : The genus

Amomum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) in Andaman and

Nicobar Islands. 76(1) : 196-199.

Balapure, K. M. (1971): Some additions to our

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

knowledge of the plants. Ramtek (Maharashtra).

68(2): 363-377.

(1976): Two new plant records

for Nagpur (Maharashtra). 73(1): 243-244.

, Banerjee, D. K. (1971) : Panicum elegcmtissimum

Hook. f. from India. 68(2) : 494-495.

Banerjee, M. L. & Thapa, B. B. (1970-1976) :

Orchids of Nepal —

Part 3 — 67(2) : 139-152, 1970; Part 4 — 68(1) :

29-36, 1971; Part 5 — 68(3): 660-665, 1971; Part

6 — 69(2) : 283-289, 1972; Part 7 — 70(1) : 25-35,

1973; Part 8 — 70(2) : 310-338, 1973; Part 9 —

72(1): 30-42, 1975; Part 10 — 73(1): 149-156,

1976.

Banerjee, R. N. (1975) : Pseudobrassaiopsis — a

new genus of Araliaceae with a note on the status

of Euaraliopsis Hutch. 72(1) : 71-73.

Bedi, S. J. & Thaker, D. N. (1973): The occurrence

of Chrysanthellum indicum DC. in Gujarat State.

70(3): 590-591.

Behera, B. N. et al. (1979): Grasses of Bhubanes-

war and neighbourhood. 74 (Suppl.) : 651-656.

Bennet, S. S. R. (1970a) : The taxonomic status of

the section Fissendocarpa (Haines) Raven of the

Onagraceous genus Ludwigia L. 67(1) : 125-126.

(1970b) : Nomenclature of two

Indian Plants. 67(2): 358-359.

(1971a): The taxonomic status of

the genus Pongamia Vent. (Papilionaceae) . 68(1) :

302-304.

(1971b) : On the occurrence of

Amaranthus lividus Linn. ssp. Polygonoides (Moq.)

Probst. and Fimbristylis alboviridis Clarke in W.

Bengal. 68(2) : 491-492.

Bhandari, M. M. (1971): Caralluma edulis Edgew.,

Benth. & Hook.: a new record for India. 68(1):

296-297.

(1975): Neoytpe of Farsetia

macrantha Blatt. & Hallb. (Cruciferae) . 72(2):

604-606.

& Mehta, M. R. (1979) : Datura

ferox Linn, a new record for India. 76(3) : 550.

Bharati, S. G. & Hegde, G. R. (1979): A systematic

account of Chlorococcales of Hassan District, Kar-

nataka State, India. 76(3) : 545-547.

Bhardwaja, T. N. & Sen, S. K. (1977): Occurrence

of water Fern Marsilea near Digha sea beach in

West Bengal (India). 74(2): 392-393.

et al. (1978) : New

localities for Leptosporangiate ferns in Rajasthan,

India. 75(2): 533-535.

Bhargava, A. K. (1978) : Pine forests in Nepal.

75(2): 535-536.

Bhaskar, V. & Gopinath, K. (1975) : Nocturnal

pollination in Antirrhinum majus Linnaeus by

Xylocopa rufescens Fabricius. 72(2) : 602-604.

Bhatt, D. D. (1971) : A coral tree from Nepal.

68(2): 490-491.

Bhatt, R. P. (1971) : Notes on Spergula fallax

(Lowe) E.H.L. Krause and S. vernalis Willd.

68(2): 492-494.

Bhattacharya, B. (1977): A note on the Lolium

duthiei (Hack, ex Hook, f.) Baruna Bhattacharya.

74(1): 207-208.

Bhattacharya, P. K. (1976) : A note on two species

of Ipomoea, namely 7. carnea Jacq. and I. fistulosa

Mart, ex Choisy in Eastern Asia. 75(2) : 317-320.

Bhide, A. V. (1978) : Kallstroemia pubescens (Don)

Dandy — a new record for Maharashtra State.

75(2): 529-531.

Bir, S. S. & Vasudeva, S. M. (1971): Pteridophytic

flora of Kodaikanal. 68(1): 169-195.

(1979) : Corrections

and additions to the pteridophytic flora of Kodai-

kanal (South India). 76(3) : 556-558.

Birari, S. P. (1973) : A new species of Themeda

Forsk. from India. 70(3): 346-347.

& D’Cruz, R. (1976): A new species

of Pseudanthistiria (Hack.) Hook. f. from India.

75(1): 192-194.

Biswas, S. N. & Prasad, R. (1970): On the occur-

rence of Buddleja davidii Franch. (Loganiaceae)

in India. 67(2) : 359-360.

Blasco, F. (1970) : Aspects of the flora and ecology

of Savannas of the South Indian Hills. 67(3):

522-534.

& Legris, P. (1973) : Dry evergreen

forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam. 70(2):

279-294.

Bole, P. V. & Almeida, M. R. (1977 & 1979) : List of

type specimens of some species, varieties and formas

deposited in Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. 74(2) :

220-232; 74 (Suppl.) : 610-626.

(1977) : Four new

species of Pteridophytes from Bombay Presidency.

74(2): 320-325.

& Fernandez, P. R. (1973): Notes on

Bombay plants. 70(2) : 409-412.

Ceiaghtai, S. A. & Garg, A. (1979): New records

of Euphorbiaceae from Madhya Pradesh. 76(2) :

508

CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL ARTICLES

371-372.

Chakraborty, P. (1979) : New record of plants from

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 76(1): 212-215.

Chandra, D. (1978): Choerospondias auriculata

(Anacardiaceae) — a new species from India. 75

(2) : 457-460.

(1979a): A critical note on Rhus

javanica L. (Anacardiaceae). 76(3) : 554.

Chandra, P. (1979) : Ferns of Kedarnath, Madhya-

maheshwar and Tungnath. 74 (Suppl.) : 640-650.

& Devi, S. (1976) : Thelypteris auges-

cens (Link.) Munz. Johnston: a new record from

India. 75(1): 244-247.

Chandrabose, M. (1978) : A new species of lmpa-

tiens Linn. (Balsaminaceae) from South India. 75

(3) : 901-902.

Chauhan, U. S. & Dey, A. C. (1971): Aquatic and

marshy angiosperms of Roorkee Sub-Division.

68(3): 750-755.

Dabhade, G. T. (1974a) : Orchidaceae from Western

India. 7/(1) : 164-168.

(1974b): Axillary archegonia in

Splachnobryum indicum Hamp. et C. Muell. from

Bombay. 77(2): 342-343.

Dakshini, K. M. M. (1970 & 1974) : Flora of Moth-

ronwala Swamp Forest (District: Dehra Dun, U.P.,

India). 67(2): 176-186, 1970, ibid 77(2): 235-243,

1974.

Das, A. R. (1976): Authors’ catalogue of the bota-

nical articles published in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society (Vol. 1-66, 1886-

1969). 75(1): 98-120.

Das, D. & Pramanik, B. (1970) : A note on Chrysan-

themum leucanthemum Linn. (Asteraceae). 67(3) :

613-614.

Datar, R. & Vartak, V. D. (1977) : Occurrence of

Ipomoea sindica Stapf in S. India. 74(2) : 390-392.

Davidar, P. (1978) : Dispersal in some Loranthaceae

of the Nilgiris. 75(3): 943-945.

(1980) : Notes on the host plants of the

Loranthaceae in the Nilgiris. 75 (Suppl.); 1246-1253.

Davis, T. A. (1970) : Prefoliation in Scindapsus offi-

cinalis Schott. 67(2) : 250-258.

— — & Bhattacharya, C. (1978): Bilateral

symmetry in the reproductive structures of some

palms. 75(3): 698-717.

et al. (1971): A symmetry in Palm

leaves. 68(1): 204-231.

Deb, D. B. & Das Gupta, S. (1975): New taxa of

the genus Dipcadi Medik (Liliaceae). 72(3): 822-

824.

& (1978): Revision of

the genus Dipcadi Medik (Liliaceae) in India and

adjoining regions. 75(1) : 50-70.

Deb, D. B. & Dutta, R .M. (1971-1974): Contri-

bution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division.

65(3) : 573-595. 1971; 69(3) : 547-573. 1972; 76(1) :

72-94. 1973; 17(2): 266-294. 1974.

Deori, N. C. & Malhotra, C. L. (1977) : Eria pudica

Ridl. (Orchidaceae) — a new find from Khasi and

Jaintia Hills. 74(1): 205-206.

Deshpande, U. R. (1979) : An interesting grass from

Maharashtra. 76(1) : 204-205.

Dhillon, K.B.S. & Bhandari, M. M. (1973): Some

plant records of Rajasthan. 70(3) : 577-582.

Dhir, K. K. & Dutta, K. S, (1977): Ferns of

Dharamsala Hills. Ophioglossaceous, Schizaeceous

and Hymenophyllaceous series. 74(3) : 459-480.

& Rani, K. (1979) : The genus Athy-

rium Roth, in Nainital Hills. 76(1): 49-58.

Diiyani, S. K. (1981): A new distributional record

for Distemon indicum Wedd. from Tehri Garh-

wal. 76(1): 200-202.

Ellis, J. L. and Karthikeyan, S. (1973): Notes on

some interesting plants from South India — II.

70(3): 594-599.

& Swam i nathan, M. S. (1975): Notes

on some interesting plants from South India — III.

72(1): 230-236.

Futehally, Z. (1970): 10th general assembly and

11th technical meeting of the International Union

for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resour-

ces. 67(1) : 30-39.

Gadgil, M. & Vartak, V. D. (1975) : Sacred groves

of India — a plea for continued conservation.

72(2): 314-320.

Gandhi, H. P. et al. (1975): Occurrence of Ophio-

glossum fibrosum Schum. at Junagadh in Sau-

rashtra. 72(3): 878.

Ganguly, P. & Pal, D. (1975): Some notes on the

distribution nature of hosts and symptoms of a

flowering parasite, Macrosolen cochinchinensis

(Lour.) Van Tiegh. in West Bengal. 72(3) : 883-

886.

Gena, C. B. et al. (1976): Isoetes in Rajasthan.

75(3): 559-562.

Ghosh, B. & Banerjee, R. N. (1979a) : Notes on the

distribution of a few Indian grasses. 76(2) : 376-377.

& (1979b): Notes on

Cleome rutidosperma DC. in India. 76(3) : 555.

509

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

& Maity, G. G. (1978) : Occurrence of

three taxa in West Bengal. 75(2) : 525-526.

Ghosh, R. B. (1970) : On a new recorded host species

of Dendrophthoe falcata (L.F.) Ettingsh. 67(2):

354.

& Banerjee, R. N. (1976): A note

on Enkianthus himalaicus Hook. f. et Thoms.

(Ericaceae). 75(2): 431.

& Biswas, M. C. (1977): A prelimi-

nary observation on the ferns of the Garo Hills

in Assam. 74(3): 571-575.

& Maity, G. G. (1979) : Primula glabra

Klatt — a new record for Assam. 76(3) : 559-560.

— & Prasad, R. (1970) : Celome rutido-

sperma DC. (Capparaceae) — A new record for

Assam. 67(1): 128-129.

Ghosh, R. B. et al. (1971): On the occurrence of

Atalantia missionis Oliv. in the District Burdwan

in West Bengal. 68(3): 851-852.

et al. (1976) : Eupatorium erythropap-

pum Robinson — a new record for India. 75(3):

554-556.

et. al. (1977): Two little known or

rare plants from Eastern India. 74(3): 564.

et al. (1978): A note on Kaempferia

angustifolia Roscoe. 75(1) : 248-249.

Goel, J. P. & Singh, H. (1976) : Acanthospermum

australe (Loefl.) Ktze. A new distributional record

for the plants of Punjab. 75(1): 240.

Govindarajalu, E. (1972a) : Studies in Cyperaceae

— V. Novelties in Fimbristylis (L.) Vahl. 69(1):

159-164.

(1972b): Studies in Cyperaceae

IV. Notes on Scleria rugosa R. Br. and its complex.

69(1): 246-249.

Gupta, B. K. (1978) : Studies on the genus Cymbo-

pogon Spreng. VIII. A contribution to the classi-

fication of Indian species of Cymbopogon. 75(2):

450-453.

Gupta, R. (1971) : Medicinal and aromatic plants

of Bhandal Range Church Forest Division, Chamba

District, Himachal Pradesh. 65(3) : 791-803.

Gupta, V. B. (1979): A contribution to the flora

of Bari-Bareli Range (Raisen Dist), M.P. 74

(Suppl.) : 657-682.

Hajra, P. K. (1978) : Notes on distribution of some

plants. 75(3) : 942-943.

Henry, A. N. (1978): Rare and threatened flowering

plants of South India. 75(3): 684-697.

& Subramanyam, K. (1976): A new

Marsdenia R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) from South

India. 75(1): 186-187.

& Swam inathan, M. S. (1978): A new

Hoya R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) from South India.

75(2): 462-464.

— (1979): Rare

or little known plants from South India. 76(2) :

373-376.

Husain, S. J. & Kapoor, S. L. (1970): Some inte-

resting plants from Lucknow and its neighbour-

hood. 67(3) : 618-620.

Hynniewta, T. M. (1979) : Record of Eria brac-

tescens Lindl. from Nagaland. 76(3) : 548.

Jain, S. K. (1970) : A rich, but little known collec-

tion of Indian plants in U.S.S.R. 67(3): 620-622.

(1971a) : Arthraxon deccanensis sp.

nov., a new grass from India. 65(1): 297-299.

& Hemadri, K. (1971b) : A new grass

from India: Arthraxon junnarensis sp. nov. 65(1):

300-301.

& Pal, D. C. (1975a): A new species

and notes on the genus Anthoxanthum L. (Poa-

ceae). 72(1) : 90-96.

et al. (1975b) : Grasses of Bihar,

Orissa and West Bengal. 72(3) : 758-773.

Janardhanan, K. P. (1973): On the occurrence of

Cuscuta santapaui Banerji & Das in Western Hima-

layas. 70(1): 230-231.

& Prasad, R. (1974): On the

occurrence of Zizyphus glaberrima Sant, in Nor-

thern India. 71(2) : 344.

Javeid, G. N. (1977) : Some new records of tropi-

cal plants from the temperate Kashmir Valley. 74

(3): 569-570.

Joseph, J. et al. (1979) : Burmannia championii Thw.

— an addition to the flora of South India. 76(3) :

553.

Kak, A. M. & Javeid, G. N. (1977): Galium

palustre L. and Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem.

et Schult. — two new plant records for India.

74(1): 208-209.

Kamat, N. D. (1973): Algae of Nainital. 76(3):

582-586.

(1975a): Algae of Vidarbh, Maha-

rashtra. 72(2): 450-476.

(1975b) : Desmids of Marathwada,

Maharashtra. 72(2): 616-618.

& Aggrawal, R. (1975c): Diatoms

of Nainital. 72(1): 240-241.

Kamat, N. D. & Tiwari, S. R. (1977): Desmids of

510

CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL ARTICLES

Nagpur, Maharashtra. 74(3 ) : 577-579.

Kapahi, B. K. & Sarin, Y. K. (1979): Contribution

to the botany of Lahaul. 74 (Suppl.) : 627-639.

Kapoor, S. L. et al. (1976): A botanical trip to

Moralkanda (Himachal Pradesh). 73(2): 329-347.

Kaul, A. K. & Karihaloo, J. L. (1974) : Shepherd’s

purse — an edible plant of Kashmir. 71(3) : 628.

Kaul, M. K. (1972) : Two new plant records for

India from Kashmir. 69(1): 229-230.

(1975a): New plant record for India

from Kashmir — II. 72 ( 2): 609-615.

(1975b): Contribution to the Umbelli-

fers of Kashmir. 72(3) : 692-715.

Kaul, T. N. & Kachroo, J. L. (1971): A note on

the occurrence of Phallus hadrianii Vent, ex Pers.

in India. 68(2) : 498-499.

(1974) : Common

edible mushrooms of Jammu and Kashmir. 77(1) :

27-31.

Kelkar, S. S. & Lattoo, C. S. (1972) : On the ger-

mination of Cocoa seeds. 69(1) : 239-241.

& (1979): Further

notes on the identification of the genus Tephrosia

Pers. 76(3) : 560-562.

Khan, M. A. R. (1980):: A comparative account

of the avifauna of the sholas and the neighbour-

ing plantations in the Nilgiris. 75(Suppl.): 1028-

1050.

Kostermans, A. J. G.H. (1977): A new species

of Diospyros (Ebneaceae) from Western India.

74(2): 326.

Kulkarni, A. R. (1971): Notes on the distribution

of Sesamum mulayanum Nair in Maharashtra. 68

(2) : 495-496.

(1974): Nicotiana glauca Graham

— a tree tobacco in Maharashtra. 71(2) : 340^342.

& Desai M. H. (1970): Tubers

in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl. 67(1): 134-135.

& (1972): Family

Eriocaulaceae in Kolhapur and its environs. 69(1):

231-235.

& (1974): A new

species of Eriocaulon from Maharashtra. 77(1) :

81-84.

& Mudgal, P. V. (1970) : Family

Commelinaceae in Kolhapur and its environs. 67

(3) : 616-618.

& Thite, A. N. (1979) : Additions

to the flora of Kolhapur District. 74 (Suppl.);

592-609.

Kulkarni, B. G. & Wadhwa, B. M. (1973): Some

interesting and rare plants from Maharashtra

State. 79(1) : 234-238.

Kumari, G. R. & Rao, G. V. S. (1976) : A new

species of Caralluma (Asclepiadaceae) from

India. 73(1): 194-196.

Madhavadian, P. et al. (1974) : Hermaphroditism in

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.). 77(3) : 635-

639.

Mahabale, T. S. & Kulkarni, K. M. (1975) : Studies

on Palms: fruits, seeds and their germination in

Livistona chinensis R. Br. 72(3) : 655-661.

Maheshwari, J. K. (1972) : Tagetes minuta Linn, in

Simla Hills. 69(2): 451.

& Paul, S. R. (1973): Occur-

rence of Lepidium virginicum Linn, in Netarhat

plateau (Bihar). 79(3): 575-576.

& Paul> S. R. (1975) : The exo-

tic flora of Ranchi. 72(1): 158-188.

& Singh, V. (1972): Parasitism

by three species of Loranthus on a single host

plant. 69(2): 452-453.

& (1973) : The aqua-

tic and marshland plants of Bundi District, Rajas-

than. 79(2): 438-446.

Majumdar, N. C. (1970) : Notes on Stellaria sexa-

tilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Stellaria vestita Kurz

and Stellaria sikkimensis Hook. f. 67(1) : 26-29.

(1977): On the nomenclature of

some Indian and Burmese species of Dy sophy ll a

Blume (Lamiaceae). 74(2): 384-386.

(1978): Morphological variations

in Silene indica Roxb. (Caryophyllaceae) due to

change in habit — a study with allied Wallichian

specimens. 75(2): 528-529.

Malhotra, S. K. (1974): Studies on the lime stone

vegetation of Sahasradhara near Dehra Dun (U.P.)

— 4 ‘Indicator value of Plants’. 77(2): 338-340.

& Moorthy, S. (1971): Plant re-

cords for Maharashtra. 65(3) : 856-857.

& (1973a): Plant

records for Maharashtra State from Chandrapur

District. 79(1) : 232-233.

& (1973b): A note

on the distribution of some plants in Chandrapur

District (Maharashtra State). 79(3): 599-601.

& (1976) : Plant re-

cords for Maharashtra State from Chandrapur

District. III. 73(2): 430-431.

& (1978) : New re-

511

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

cords of Fabaceae for Maharashtra State. 75(1):

247-248.

et al. (1979): On the occurrence

of Gymenema cuspidatum (Thunb.) K. Schum.

(Asclepiadaceae) in Maharashtra. 76(1) : 202.

Matthew, K. M. (1970) : The flowering of the

Strobilanth. (Acanthaceae) (Strobilanthinae sensu

Bremecamp.). 67(3) : 502-506.

(1975): A contribution to the

Flora of Pacchaimalais, Tiruchirapalli District,

Tamil Nadu. 72(2) : 327-356.

McCann, C. (1978) : A comparative field study of

the Indian and New Zealand representatives of the

genus Ruppia Linnaeus. 75(3) : 600-610.

Meher-Homji, V. M. (1970) : Notes on some pecu-

liar cases of phytogeographic distributions. 67(1):

81-86.

(1974): Buttress-like structures

on the upper part of the trunk of Ceiba pentandra

(L.) Gaertn. 77(2): 336-338.

Mitra, D. & Roy, B. (1977) : Ipomoea leari Paxt.

— a naturalised plant of India. 74(1): 211-212.

Mitra, R. L. (1971): Euphorbia serpens H. B. K.

(Euphorbiaceae): a hitherto unrecognised species

in India. 68(3) : 852-856.

Mitra, S. N. (1972): Observations on the vegeta-

tion of the Upper Damodar catchment area. 69(1) :

17-25.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1975): The Sundarban of India

and its biota. 72(1) : 1-20. (Pages 1-10, deal with

flora).

Mukherjee, I. & Khoshoo, T. N. (1970): Genetic-

evolutionary studies on cultivated Cannas VII:

Taxonomic treatment and horticultural classifica-

tion. 67(3) : 390-397.

Mukherjee, K. D. (1976): The climbing orchid —

‘ Vanilla ’. 73(2): 426-428.

Mukherjee, N. (1972): Six new taxa of Flacour-

tiaceae from India and Burma. 69(2): 390-394.

Mukherjee, P. K. & Gupta, R. (1970) : Field iden-

tification of Tephrosia Pers. 67(1): 135.

Munsi, A. M. (1977): An addition to Indian Poly-

gonums from Northern Himalayas. 74(2) : 388.

Murty, Y. S. & Nautiyal, K. N. (1976): Soliva

anthcmifolia (Juss.) R. Br. A new record from

Delhi and Western Uttar Pradesh. 75(1): 239.

Nair, N. C. (1972) : Amaranthus polygonoides

Linn.: a new record for South India. 69(3): 687.

(1976): Identity of Amaranthus poly-

gamus of Hooker's Flora of British India and

related taxa. 75(1) : 59-62.

— & Ghosh, S. R. (1976a): Pteris tre-

mula R. Br. — a new record for India. 75(1):

240-241.

& (1976b) : Pteris roseo-

lilacina Hieron: a new record for peninsular India.

75(2): 424-425.

& (1976c) : Lycopodium

complanatum Linn.: a new record for Kerala

State. 75(2): 428-429.

& (1976d): Pteris qua-

driaurita Retz. and a few related taxa in Kerala

State. 75(3): 438-443.

& (1977) : On the iden-

tity of Adiantum lyratum Blanco. 74(1): 210-211.

& (1978a) : Does Adian-

tum aethiopicum Linn, exist in India? 75(1):

244-247.

& (1978b) : Taxonomical

notes on a few species of Adiantum. 75(3) : 939-

941.

& Nag, K. (1978c) : A new species of

Polystichum from Shillong (Meghalaya). 75(1):

153-156.

Naqshi, A. R. & Javeid, G. N. (1977): Two new

plant records for India. 74(2) : 393-394.

Nath, V. R. & Indira, S. (1975) : Cuscuta reflexa

Roxb. — a rival to Dendrophthoe falcata (L.F.)

Ettingsh in home gardens. 72(2) : 607-608.

Nautiyal, K. N. (1974) : Chenopodium ambrosioides

Linn. (Chenopodaceae) — a new record for Cha-

moli District in Western Himalayas. 7/(1): 178.

(1975) : Datura suaveolens H. B. ex

Willd. (Solanaceae) from district Chamoli in West-

ern Himalayas. 72(1): 229-230.

(1976a): A new distributional re-

cord for Physalis peruviana Linn, from North

Garhwal. 75(2): 421-422.

(1976b) : A new distributional re-

cord for Alternanthera pungens H. B. and K. from

North Garhwal. 75(2): 429.

(1978): Nicotiana plumb aginifolia

Viv (Solanaceae) — a new record of distribution

for N. W. Himalayas. 75(1) : 248.

Nayar, K. K. N. (1979) : Hydrophytic vegetation of

Courtallum from South India. 76(3) : 463-474.

Nayar, M. P. (1970): A synopsis of the genus

Eisocreochiton Quisumb. & Merr. (Melastomata-

ceae). 67(1): 87-90.

(1974a): A noteworthy Sarcopyramis

512

CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL ARTICLES

from Eastern Himalayas. 77(1): 170-172.

(1974b) : A synopsis of the genus

Perilimnastes Ridley (Melastomataceae). 77(1):

172-175.

(1974c): A new species of Sonerila

(Melastomataceae) from Kerala, S. India. 77(3):

632-633.

(1975) : The status of genus Phau-

lanthus Ridley (Melastomataceae). 72(3) : 878-882.

& Giri, G. S. (1975a): A synopsis

of the genus Hymenandra A. DC. (Myrsinaceae)

and a new species from Burma. 72(3) : 818-821.

& (1975b) : A new species

of Ardisia (Myrsinaceae) from north-east India.

72(3): 825-826.

& (1978) : Lectotype of

Maesa castaneifolia Mez. (Myrsinaceae) and a new

addition to the Indian Flora. 75(1): 252-254.

Nayar, M. P. & Mallick, K. C. (1978): A new

variety of W endlandia scabra Kurz from Burma.

(Rubiaceae). 75(1) : 156-157.

Nayar, R. V. (1974) : Observations on the breeding

mechanism of Biophytum candolleanum Wt. 77(1) :

99-108.

(1975a): A new species of Rotate

from Palghat, Kerala. 72(1) : 56-60.

(1975b) : Heterostyly and breeding

mechanism of Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O.

Kuntze. 72(3) : 677-682.

Neginhal, S. G. (1980): Ecological impact of affo-

restation at the Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary.

75 (Suppl.) : 1254-1258.

Neogi, B. & Jain, S. K. (1978) : A note on distri-

bution of some grasses in Assam. 75(2): 531-533.

Oza, G. M. (1973a): 3-valid Endocarp of Jaglans

regia Linn. 70(2): 413-414.

(1973b) : Notes on the identity and

nomenclature of Ventitego bombaiensis Dalz. 70

(3): 591-592.

(1974a) : On the citation of Palaquium

ellipticum (Dalz.) Baillon. 77(1): 175-176.

(1974b) : Botanical identity of ‘Century

Plant’ in Western India. 77(1): 178-181.

(1974c) : Hemigraphis hirta (Vahl) T.

Anders. — a new record for Bombay. 77(3) : 634-

635.

Oza, G. M. (1975) : Nomenclatural notes on Mimu-

sops elengi Linn. 72(2) : 601-602.

(1976) : Canscora sessiliflora Roem. &

Sch. — extension of geographical range. 75(3) :

556-558.

Pallithanam, J. (1976) : Indigofera karuppiana

nom. nov. 75(1) : 239.

Pandey, A. (1978) : A scomycetes of Western India

— V. 75(2): 460-461.

Pandey, D. J. & Pandey, J. D. (1979): The broad-

casting of Karvi seeds. 76(1) : 195-196.

Pandey, Y. (1971) : Cassias commonly occurring or

cultivated in India. 68(2): 311-318.

Pandit, P. N. et al. (1977) : Datura innoxia — a

perennial herb. 74(3) : 561-563.

Pant, P. C. (1976): Plants of Corbett National

Park, Uttar Pradesh. 75(2) : 287-295.

Parabia, M. H. & Shah, G. L. (1975): Notes on

some interesting Cyperaceae of Gujarat. 72(3):

886-888.

Paradkar, S. A. & Munshi, S. K. (1979): Some

new plant records of Nagpur region. 76(1): 209-

210.

Pataskar, R. D. & Ahuja, K. K. (1970): Interest-

ing plants from Maharashtra State. 67(1) : 126-128.

Patel, R. J. (1970): On Chaetosphaeridium globo-

sum (Nordest) Klebahn from India. 67(1): 130-

132.

Patil, R. B. & D’Cruz, R. (1970) : A new species

of Ischaemum Linn, from India. 70(2) : 324-325.

& (1972) : On the abun-

dant occurrence of Ischaemum mangaluricum

(Hack.) Stapf ex C.E.C. Fischer in Maharashtra

State. 69(2): 449-450.

Pawar, I. S. & Kulkarni, U. K. (1972) : A new

species of Micropera from India. 69(2) : 457-459.

Percy-Lancaster, S. (1970): An abnormal Psidium

mutation. 67(1): 133-134.

Raghavan, R. S. et al. (1978): Additions to Poaceae

of Karnataka State, 75(3) : 935-937.

Rajbhandari, K. R. (1976) : History of botanical

explorations in Nepal. 75(3): 468-481.

Rajwar, G. S. (1979) : Acalypha indica Linn, a new

record for Garhwal. 76(2) : 372.

Ramanathan, K. R. & Ramachandran, K. (1973):

On the occurrence of Rut a chalepensis Linn, in

India. 76(1) : 238-240.

Rao, B. R. & Suryanarayana, K. (1979): Introduc-

ed weeds in the vegetation of Mysore District. 74

explorations in Nepal. 75(3) : 468-481.

Rao, G. V. S. & Kumari, G. R. (1972) : A new re-

cord of Chenopodium for India. 69(3) : 683.

& (1973): A new

513

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

variety of Arundinella setosa Trin. 75(3): 827-828.

Rao, P. S. (1972): Distribution of Gelidiella acerosa

(Forskal) Feldmann & Hamel. 69(1) : 235-237.

Rao, P. S. & Hemadri, K. (1970): Nomenclatural

notes on Indian plants. 67(2): 357-358.

Rao, R. R. & Kharkonggr, P. (1978): Floristic

composition and seasonal pattern of vegetation of

pine forests of Shillong in Meghalaya. 75(1) : 273-

285.

Rao, T. A. (1970) : A new locality record of Cordia

crenata Del. in Piram Island off South Saurashtra

coast. 67(1) : 128.

& Das, G. C. (1973) : Limnocharis flava

(L.) Buch. an aquatic plant on the move in

Kerala State. 76(3): 577.

& (1974) : On the occurrence

of vegetative shoots at the crown area in Cocos

nucifera L. 71(1): 181.

& Sastry, A. R. K. (1970) : New distri-

butional records of coastal plants from Andhra

Pradesh. 67(3): 614-615.

Ravi, N. (1970a) : A new record for Crotalaria in-

cana Linn, from South India. 67(1): 132-133.

(1970b) : Lindemia angustifolia (Benth.)

Wettst. (Scrophulariaceae) — A new record for

South India. 67(3): 611-613.

— (1976) : Indigofera benthamiana Hance

(Papilionaceae) — a new record from India. 73

(1): 242-243.

Reddy, N. P. & Bahadur, B. (1977): Occurrence of

alternative venation in spathe of Zantedeschia

aethiopica and other Araceae. 74(2) : 395-400.

Roy, G. P. & Singh, V. (1979) : Occurrence of

Myriophyllum spicatum Linn, in Rajasthan. 76(2) :

372-373.

Sabnis, S. D. & Bedi, S. J. (1971): The genus Fui-

rena (Cyperaceae) in Gujarat. 68(3) : 857-858.

& Josh i, J. V. (1979) : Notes on two

interesting sedges from Gujarat State, India. 76(1) :

210-211.

Saldanha, C. J. (1973) : Schoenorchis latifolia (Orchi-

daceae) newly transferred from Rhynchostylis.

76(2) : 414-416.

(1974) : Smithsonia (Orchidaceae) a

new genus from Western India. 77(1): 71-75.

Sam PATHAK UMAR, R. (1970a) : Further studies on the

host range in Loranthus longiflorus Desv. 67(2) :

360-361.

— ■ (1970b): On the production of

adventitious roots from the excised petioles of

some angiosperms. 67(2) : 361-363.

Sanjappa, M. & Bhatt, R. P. (1978) : Alysicarpus

ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leonard — a new re-

cord for India. 75(1): 254-255.

Sastry, T. C. S. & Gupta, P. S. (1977): Sesbania

sesban (Linn.) Merill var picta comb. nov. 74

(2) : 387.

& Kashyap, K. (1975): Syzygium

cuminii (Linn.) Skeels var. axillare comb. nov.

72(3): 882-883.

Saxena, H. O. (1971a): Record of Gnetum ula

Brogn. from Central India. 68(2) : 496.

(1971b): A parasite (Viscum orien-

tale) on another (Dendrophthoe falcata). 68(2):

502.

(1973a) : Utricularia stricticaulis Stapf

from Bhubaneswar — a new record for Orissa.

76(1): 233-234.

(1973b) : Mitracarpus verticillatus

Schum. & Thonn. Vatke — a new record for

Eastern India. 76(2) : 412-413.

(1973c) : Further contribution to the

flora of Bailadilla (Madhya Pradesh). 76(3) : 586-

590.

— (1976) : Additions to the Flora of

Bihar and Orissa. 73(3) : 553-554.

& Brahmam, M. (1978): Additions to

the Flora of Bihar and Orissa. II. 75(3): 941-942.

& Khotele, S. N. (1976): A con-

tribution to the Flora of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh).

75(1) : 21-34.

Saxena, S. K. & Gupta, R. K. (1973) : Vegetation

of Pachpadra Salt Basin in Western Rajasthan.

76(1): 104-127.

Sen, A. (1976) : A new species of Teramnus Sw.

(Fabaceae) from Manbhum (India). 75(1) : 187-

188.

— (1977) : A new variety Glycine wightii

subsp. wightii Verdcourt from S. India. 74(2) :

330-332.

Sen, D. N. & Bhandari, M. C. (1972) : Merremia

aegyptia (Linn.; Urban — a new host of Albugo

in the Indian arid zone and its ecological impli-

cations. 69(2): 453-455.

et al. (1971): Endogenous rhythm in

opening and closing of flowers in Portulaca species.

68(3): 859-861.

Shah, C. K. (1907): A note on the toad rush,

J uncus bufonius L. from India. 67(3): 608-609.

514

CATALOGUE OF BOTANICAL ARTICLES

Shah, G. L. & Yogi, D. V. (1972): Nomenclatural

changes in some Bombay plants. 69(2): 444-449.

& (1974) : Additions to

the Flora of North Gujarat (Ahmedabad — Meh-

sana — Sabarkantha Districts), 1 and 2. 77(1):

58-63.

et al. (1977): Nomenclatural notes on

some Bombay plants — V. 74(3) : 565-568.

Shah, J. D. (1970): Some observations on distri-

bution of Scoparia dulcis Linn, in India. 67(2):

222-226.

Shah, N. C. & Badola, D. P. (1978) : Records of

plants growing at high altitudes. 75(3) : 934-935.

Sharatchandra, H. C. & Gadgil, M. (1975) : A

year of Bandipur. 72(3) : 623-647.

Sharma, A. K. & Dhakre, J. S, (1978): Some note-

worthy plant species from Agra. 75(2) : 526-527.

Sharma, A. L. N. & Gopala Swamy, C. (1975):

On fresh water phytal fauna of Visakhapatnam.

72(1): 237-240.

Sharma, B. D. & Rathakrishnan, N. C. (1978):

New Orchid records from Kerala State. 75(2) :

524-525.

et al. (1978): Flora of Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. 75(1) : 13-42.

Sharma, G. K. (1979): A botanical survey of

Canabis in the Himalayas. 76(1) : 17-20.

Sharma, M. (1975) : On the occurrence of Urtica

urens Linn, in India. 72(2) : 618-620.

(1976): Hypecoum procumbens Linn.

a new record for India. 75(2): 422-423.

(1979) : Some plants new to the Flora

of Punjab Plains. 74(Suppl.) : 683-687.

Sharma, O. P. et at. (1978) : The genus Ophioglos-

sum in Rajasthan. 75(3): 938-939.

Shukla, U. & Baishya, A. K. (1979): A contribu-

tion to the Flora of Manipur. 76(2) : 224-230.

Siddiqi, M. P. & Dixit, S. N. (1975) : Some note-

worthy plant species from Gorakhpur. 72(2) :

620-621.

Singh, C. S. (1970) : Studies on bottom-living dia-

toms of a fresh water fish pond. 67(3): 443-452.

Singh, G. (1972) : Two new plant records for Kash-

mir Valley. 69(3): 680.

& Gohil, R. N. (1976): Some new re-

cords to the Flora of Ladakh. 75(3): 487-490.

Singh, N. P. (1972) : Cuscuta campestris Yuncker-

a new record for Western India. 69(2): 456.

Singh, N. P. & Deshpande, U. R. (1979): Type

material in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey

of India at Poona. 76(1) : 24-32.

Singh, V. (1970) : Occurrence of Ceratopteris thalic-

troides (Linn.) Brongn. in Rajasthan. 67(2): 354-

355.

— (1971): Additions to Duthie’s Flora of

the Upper Gangetic Plain. 68(2) 339-346.

(1972): Occurrence of Didymocarpus

pygmaea Cl. in Rajasthan. 69(3) : 687-688.

— (1973) : Solarium triquetrum Cav. — an

adventive species in Rajasthan. 70(2): 413.

(1977a): Additions to the Flora of Rajas-

than. 74(1): 45-49.

(1977b): Occurrence of Peplidium mari-

timum Wettest, in Rajasthan. 74(2) : 390.

(1977c) : Phytogeographical reassessment

on the Flora of Rajasthan. 74(3) : 444-452.

(1977d) : The host range of the genus

Cistanche Hoffm. & Link, in India. 74(3) : 563-564.

— (1978a) : A study of aquatic and marsh-

land plants of Jhalawar District, Rajasthan. 75(2) :

312-320.

(1978b) : Critical taxonomic notes on

some species of Cassia Linn, found in India.

75(2): 434-443.

(1979): Some interesting plant records for

Rajasthan. 76(1): 206-209.

& Singh, H. (1971 & 1972) : A contribu-

tion to the Flora of Gangolihat Block in Pithora-

garh District. 65(3): 773-790, 1971. 69(2): 352-

368, 1972.

Sivarajan, V. V. & Manilal, K. S. (1975): A new

record of Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) Webster

from India. 72(1): 237.

Srivastava, G. S. & Shukla, D. S. (1972): A new

host of Alectra parasitica A. Rich. var. chitra-

kutensis M. A. Rau. 69(2) : 442-443.

Subhedar, A. W. & Rao, V. G. (1977): Two new

records of fungi-imperfecti from India. 74(3) : 575-

576.

Subramaniam, A. (1971): Studies on Stigonemata-

ceae. 65(2) : 500-502.

Subramaniam, V. & Rao, V. G. (1976) : Rosenschel-

diella orbis (Berk.) Petr. Sclerotiopsis concava

(Dum) Shear & Dodge, new record for India.

75(3): 562-564.

Sur, P. R. (1975) : Eulaliopsis duthiei (Poaceae) —

a new species from India. 72(3) : 815-817.

(1976) : Pogonatherum santapaui sp. nov.

(Poaceae) — a new grass from India. 75(1) : 190-

192.

515

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Suryanarayana, B. (1972): The habit and distribu-

tion of Psilotum nudum in South India. 69(3):

681-682.

(1979) : A contribution to the

vascular flora of Venkatagiri Hills and environs.

76(2): 240-258.

& Murthy, D. R. (1974): On

the occurrence of Sympagis ptiolares (Nees) Brem.

and Canscora perfoliata Lamk. on the Eastern

Ghats. 71(1): 176-178.

Suryanarayana, M. C. (1970) : Plietesial species of

Strobilanthinae (Acanthaceae) in the Western Ghats

(India). 67(3): 604-608,

Swamy, B. G. L. & Krishnamurthy, K. K. (1970) :

Cyclonic damage to plant tissues. 67(3): 462-465.

Tewari, R. B. (1976): Some new records of plants

from Lucknow District, (U.P.). 75(1): 241-242.

Thaker, D. N. & Sabnis, S. D. (1972): Occurrence

of Cochlearia cochlearioides (Roth.) Sant. & Mah.

& Campanula benthamii Wall, ex Kitamura in

Gujarat State, India. 69(1) : 227-229.

Thite, A. N. & Kulkarni, A. R. (1976); Fungal

flora of Panhala. 75(3): 456-463.

Thothathri, K. et al. (1977) : New additions to

the pteridophytic flora of India from Great Nico-

bar Islands. 74(2) : 249-254.

Tyagi, B. K. & Veer, V. (1978): A note on some

entomogenous fungi attacking preserved Dragon fly

collections. 75(3) : 946-947.

Udar, R. & Srivastava, S. C. (1975): Notes on

South Indian Hepaticae — I. 72 : 401-406.

& — (1977: Notes on

South Indian Hepaticae — 2. The genus Herberta

Gray. 74(2) : 255-263.

Ugale, S. D. & Patil, R. C. (1976) : The occur-

rence of Phalaris minor Retz. in Maharashtra

State. 75(3) : 558-559.

Uniyal, B. P. & Srivastava, S. C. (1978) : Arthra-

xon echinatus (Nees) Hochest — a new record

from Hamirpur Dist., U.P. 75(2): 524.

Unni, K. S. (1972): Seasonal variation in chemical

constituents of some aquatic plants. 69(1) : 242-246.

Vaidya, B. S. & Patel, I. A. (1972): Record of

Draparnaldia acuta Kutz. from Gujarat. 69(1) :

237-238.

Varghese, T. G. (1979) : Record of Hyptis capitata

Jacq. (Labiatae) from Peninsular India. 76(1) :

200.

Vartak, V. D. (1975) : Contribution to the ferns

of Annapurna Dhaulagiri Range, Central Nepal.

72(3): 728-731.

Venkatareddi, B. (1970) : Two new records of Ara-

ceae from the Upper Gangetic Plain. 67(1) : 129-

130.

Venkatesh, C. S. & Sharma, V. K. (1977): An

Unusual red flowered variant of Eucalyptus tere-

ticornis Sm. 74(3): 570-571.

Vyas, K. J. & Shah, G. L. (1972) : Some interesting

plants of Gujarat State. 69(3) : 684-686.

Wagh, A. B. & Bal, D. V. (1970): Various asso-

ciates of sessile barnacles in Bombay waters. 67(2) :

351-354. [Some marine algae described.]

516

ONTOGENY OF TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN

RAN A TIGERINA TADPOLES1

S. K. Dutta2 and P. Mohanty-Hejmadi3

(With twelve text-figures)

A study on the ontogeny of labial teeth structure of Indian bull frog Rana tigerina

was done by examining laboratory reared tadpoles. The teeth row formula was

determined for every stage of development beginning with external gill stage and

ending with both limb + tail stage. It is noted that the number of teeth rows on

both upper and lower jaw reached a maximum of 5(2-5) /OJ (1-3) at well developed

hindlimb stage, but only one tadpole out of five in limb paddle with five toes was

found with six rows in the lower jaw. It is interesting to note that there were variations

in the rows of teeth even in the same stage of development. There was a decrease

in the number of teeth rows from the beginning of the emergence of forelimb upto

complete tail resorption. A comparison of the present study with that of Agarwal

and Niazi (1977) has been made, and the variations in the teeth rows in different

stages of development have been pointed out. The reason for this variation has also

been discussed.

Introduction

The labial teeth are some of the most dis-

tinguishing features for identification of

amphibian larvae. Workers like Campbell

(1931), Taylor (1942), Wright and Wright

(1949), Stebbins (1951 and 1954), Orton

(1952), Zweifel (1955 and 1964), Bragg and

Bragg (1959), Starret (1960), Altig (1970),

Altig and Pace (1974), and Lee (1976)

have reported on the teeth structure

of the tadpoles of different species of frogs

from temperate climate. Orton (1953 and

1957) has proposed a classification of frog

families based upon the keratinized mouth

parts. A detailed report on the internal oral

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Division of Herpetology, Museum of Natural

History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas

66045, U.S.A.

3 P. G. Department of Zoology, Utkal University,

Bhubaneswar-751 004, Orissa, India.

517

features of larvae from eight anuran families

of U.S.A. has been described by Wassersug

(1980). In a study on ontogeny he (Wasser-

sug 1976) has also described the internal oral

features of Hyla regilla. Webb and Korky

(1977) while studying the variation in the

tadpoles of frogs of Rana tarahumarae group

in Western Mexico have described the teeth

row formula of that species and have given a

formula for teeth structure.

Our knowledge on the teeth structure of

Tropical species of anuran is limited. So in

the present study an attempt has been made to

focus on the ontogeny of teeth structure in the

Indian bull frog Rana tigerina. Workers like

Annandale (1917), McCann (1932), Kirti-

singhe (1957) and Agarwal and Niazi (1977)

have reported about the teeth row structure of

this species, but they have not described the

teeth structure in detail. Their description is

based on some specific stages. In the present

observation the teeth row structure of Rana

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 1

Labial teeth row formula of Rana tigerina

* According to Webb and Korky (1977).

tigerina has been studied in different stages

of their development.

Materials and Methods

The tadpoles of different stages of develop-

ment were obtained in the laboratory by the

methods described earlier (Butta and

Mohanty-Hejmadi 1976 and Dutta 1979).

They were fixed in 10% formaldehyde for

observation of their teeth structure. The larval

stages described by Dutta (1979) were examin-

ed by binocular microscope, and the struc-

tures were sketched. Dental formula was

determined according to the methods recom-

mended by Webb and Korky (1977). A com-

parative statement of the present study with

the studies of Agarwal and Niazi (1977) has

been made.

Observations

A study on the ontogeny of labial teeth

structure of Indian bull frog R. tigerina indi-

cates that the number of teeth rows change with

the stage of the tadpole as expected. For each

stage even there is individual variation as re-

ported for other species. Therefore, the struc-

ture of labial teeth of several tadpoles for

each critical stage was examined (Table 1).

Agarwal and Niazi (1977) have also studied

the teeth structure of some developmental

stages of this species. Therefore, a comparison

of the present observations with those report-

ed by Agarwal and Niazi (1977) is also in-

cluded here (Table 2).

In general, the horny beaks are visible for

the first time when the external gills are well

developed. The first traces of labial teeth

appear at the stage when operculum is closed

on one side. By the time the tadpoles reach

metamorphic climax there is shedding of labial

teeth.

518

ONTOGENY OF TEETH ROW IN RANA TIGERINA TADPOLES

Table 2

Comparative account of teeth row structure of R. tigerina as observed by agarwal, niazi and the

PRESENT STUDY

External gill stage :

At external gill stage, the mouth of the

tadpoles consisted of a pair of black horny

beaks, consisting of an upper mandible with a

median cusp and a lower mandible with a

corresponding notch for the cusp. There were

no horny teeth (Table 1, Fig. 1). By the time

gills on one side were covered by the oper-

culum horny teeth appeared and the teeth row

formula varied from tadpole to tadpole (Fig.

2A-E). The teeth row formula ranged from

1/0/2 to 1/0/0 in the 15 tadpoles examined.

In some of the tadpoles the teeth rows were

weakly developed (Fig. 2B, 2D, and 2E).

Operculum complete stage :

A total of ten tadpoles were examined for

this stage. Among these two had a teeth for-

519

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 1. External gill stage. Fig. 2A-E. One external gill covered stage.

ONTOGENY OF TEETH ROW IN RANA TIGERINA TADPOLES

Fig. 3A-C. Operculum fold complete. Fig. 4A and 4B. Feeding stage.

Fig. 5-A. Pigmented pear shaped tail.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 5-B-E. Pigmented pear shaped tail. Fig. 6A-B. Limb bud stage.

ONTOGENY OF TEETH ROW IN RANA TIGERINA TADPOLES

mula of 1/0/1 (Fig. 3C), six had lj/0/2(l)

(Fig. 3 A) and two had 1/0/2 (Fig. 3B). From

this it is evident that the teeth row in the upper

jaw was constant but the rows on the lower

jaw varied. In some cases teeth in the two

jaws were weakly developed (Fig. 3C) like the

previous stage. This was perhaps due to the

smaller size of this particular tadpole.

Feeding stage :

At this stage a total of five tadpoles were

examined. From them three were with a teeth

row formula of 2(2) /0/2 and two with 2(2)/

0/3(1). The teeth row on the upper jaw were

constant, with the first one uninterrupted. In

three tadpoles the two rows in the lower jaw

were uninterrupted (Fig. 4A), but in other two

tadpoles the first row in the lower jaw was

interrupted and the second and the third rows

were uninterrupted (Fig. 4B).

Pigmented tail stage :

The teeth row formula varied from 2(2) /0/2

to 4(2-4) /0/3 ( 1 ) (Fig. 5A-E) in the twelve

tadpoles examined. The number of teeth rows

in the upper, jaw varied from 2 to 4 out of

which the first one was uninterrupted. Simi-

larly the number of teeth rows varied from

2 to 3 in the lower jaw out of which the last

row was uninterrupted.

Limb bud stage :

Out of ten tadpoles examined, four had a

teeth row formula of 3 (2-3)/0/4(l-2) two

with 4(2-4) /0/4( 1-2), two with 4(2-4) /0/4

(1-3) and two with 3 (2-3 ) /0/4 ( 1 -3 ) . This

showed that the rows on the lower jaw were

constant and the fourth row was uninterrupted

in all the tadpoles but the teeth row on the

upper jaw varied from 3 to 4 with the first one

uninterrupted (Fig. 6A-D).

Limb paddle stage :

In this stage, three out of five examined

had a teeth row formula of 4(2-4) /0/4( 1-2)

and other two with 4(2-4) /0/5( 1-3). This

showed that the teeth rows on the upper jaw

of all the tadpoles were constant with the first

one uninterrupted, while the rows in lower

jaw varied from 4 to 5 with the last two rows

uninterrupted (Fig. 7A and 7B).

Limb paddle with 5 toes:

At this stage of development four tadpoles

had a teeth row formula of 4(2-4) /0/4( 1-2),

2 with 4(2-4) /0/5(l-4) and one with 4(2-4/

0/6 (1-5). So the rows of teeth on the upper

jaw were constant with the first one uninter-

rupted but the number of rows on the lower

jaw varied from 4 to 6 (Fig. 8A-C).

Hind limb stage :

Though this stage continued from initiation

of limb paddle with five toes upto well deve-

loped hind limb stage yet the teeth structure

was constant, that is 4(2-4) /0/4( 1-2) in all

the five tadpoles examined (Fig. 9). The first

row on the upper jaw and the third and fourth

row on the lower jaw were uninterrupted ones.

Well developed hind limb stage :

The number of labial teeth rows reached

a maximum at this stage. Out of five tadpoles

examined two had a teeth row formula of

4(2-4) /0/5 (1-3) and other three with 5(2-5)/

0/5 (1-3), so the rows on the upper jaw varied

with the first one uninterrupted while the rows

in the lower jaw were constant (5) with the

fourth and the fifth one uninterrupted (Fig.

10A and 10B).

One fore limb stage :

In all the five tadpoles examined the upper

jaw had three interrupted rows of teeth, per-

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 6C-D. Limb bud stage. Fig. 7A and 7B. Limb paddle stage. Fig. 8A-B. Limb

paddle with five toes.

ONTOGENY OF TEETH ROW IN RANA TIGERINA TADPOLES

Fig. 8C. Limb paddle with five toes. Fig. 9. Hind limb stage. Fig. 10A and 10B. Well

developed hind limb stage. Fig. 11A-B. One fore limb emerged stage.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 11C. One fore limb emerged stage. Fig. 12A-D. Both limb + tail.

ONTOGENY OF TEETH ROW IN RANA T1GERINA TADPOLES

haps because shedding of labial teeth had

already started prior to metamorphosis. The

rows on the lower jaw varied from 2 to 4 with

the last one uninterrupted (Fig. 11A-C).

Both limb + tail :

At this stage more labial teeth were shed

which is reflected in the teeth row formula

3(1-3)/ 0/2/ (1), 3(1-3) /0/3(l-3), 3(1-3)|0|2

(1-2) or 2(1-2) /0/2(l-2) for this stage (Fig.

12A-D). In all the tadpoles the rows on the

upper jaw were interrupted. In six out of ten

tadpoles all the rows in the lower jaw were

also interrupted (Fig. 12 B-D).

Discussion

There is considerable difference between the

observation of this study and that of Agarwal

and Niazi(1977). They have mentioned that

during external gill stage there is a white beak.

In all the earlier literature and in our study

the beak was black. When the external gill be-

came covered by the opercular fold on one

side, one row of labial teeth in each jaw were

observed by Agarwal and Niazi, but we notic-

ed considerable individual variation as had

been described earlier. Similarly for the rest

of the stages there were individual variations.

They had not leported on the teeth structure

for feeding and pigmented tail stage. At limb

bud stage also there are differences between

their observations and the current study. Agar-

wal and Niazi (1977) reported that from their

staging 41-50, the teeth structure remains con-

stant. These stages range from the formation

of fourth interdigital indentation to the emer-

gence of fore limbs. However, in the current

study considerable variation was seen during

these stages. The number of rows reached a

maximum when the limbs were well develop-

ed. Only three out of five well developed hind

limb stages in this study had mouth parts iden-

tical to that reported by Agarwal and Niazi

(1977). By the time fore limbs appeared, none

of the tadpoles examined by us retained the

full compliment of teeth as reported by them.

The major differences between their study and

ours is presented in table 2.

The current study shows that as in the deve-

lopment of temperate anurans, there is onto-

genic variation in labial teeth structure. As

the number of teeth row structure change with

development and even for the same stage of

development, the stage of the larvae at which

the teeth row formula is determined has to be

clearly defined. We noticed that the last two

rows of teeth from feeding stage till the begin-

ning of metamorphosis remained uninterrupted.

This is in agreement with the diagrams given

by Annandale (1917) and McCann (1932).

In contrast Kirtisinghe (1957) observed that

only the lowermost row of teeth was uninter-

rupted. Since Kirtisinghe did not specify the

populations he examined or the number of

tadpoles, it is difficult to assess this difference.

Agarwal (1978) and Agarwal and Niazi (1978)

were the first to report the ontogeny of

labial teeth according to the stage of tadpoles

for R. tigerina. Since they did not mention the

number of tadpoles observed for each stage,

the differences could either be due to the lesser

number of tadpoles examined by them or due

to geographical variation. They examined

populations from north India, and this study

is based on the population of eastern India.

It is possible that environmental factors may

influence teeth structure of tadpoles.

Therefore, in this study systematic observa-

tion has been done on several individuals from

each stage and a range of teeth structure is

reported for each stage. This extends the work

of earlier workers and provides the first syste-

matic study on the ontogeny of teeth of

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

R. tigerina and for that matter on only one of

several Indian species.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We wish to thank to Prof. B. K. Behura,

Refer

Agarwal, S. K. (1978) : Ph.D. thesis, University

of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.

Agarwal, S. K. & Niazi, I. A. (1977): Normal

table of developmental stages of the Indian bull frog

R. tigerina. Proceedings of the National Aca. Sci.,

India Sec. B, (2): 79-92.

(1978) : Develop-

ment of mouth parts in the tadpoles of R. tigerina

(Baud.). 4th All India Cong, of Zool., Magadh

Univ., Bodh Gaya, India. 78 (Abstract).

Altig, R. (1970) : A key to the tadpoles of the

Continental United States and Canada. Herpetologica,

26: 180-207.

Altig, R. & Pace, W. L. (1974): Scanning elec-

tron photomicrographs of tadpole labial teeth. J. of

Herpetology. 8: 247-251.

Annandale, N. (1917) : Zoological results of a

tour of the Far East Batrachia. Mem. Asiatic Soc.

Bengal. VI: 122-155.

Bragg, A. N. & Bragg, W. N. (1959): Variations

in the mouth parts in tadpoles of Scaphiopus bombi-

frons Cope. South west Nat. 3 : 55-69.

Campbell, B. (1931): Rana tarahumarae, a frog

new to the United States. Copeia. 4: 164.

Dutta, S. K. (1979): Biology and the effect of

fertilizers and chemicals on the eggs, developmental

stages and adults of Indian bull frog R. tigerina.

Ph.D. thesis, Utkal Univ., Bhubaneswar, India.

Dutta, S. K. & Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. (1976):

Breeding and life history of the Indian bull frog R.

tigerina. Prakruti-Utkal Univ. J. of Sci. 13 ( 1&2) :

51-59.

Kirtisinghe, P. (1957) : Amphibia of Ceylon, 2

Charles Circus Colombo 3, Ceylon.

Lee, J. C. (1976) : Rana maculata Brocchi, an

addition to the herpetofauna of Belize. Herpetolo-

gica. 32: 211-214.

McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachian.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 152-180.

Head, P. G. Zoology Department, Utkal Uni-

versity for providing necessary laboratory faci-

lities. One of us (SKD) thanks CSIR for a

scholarship.

E n ce s

Orton, G. L. (1952) : Key to the genera of tad-

poles in the United States and Canada. Am. Midi.

Nat. 47: 382-395.

(1953): The systematics of verte-

brate larvae. Syst. Zool. 2(2) : 63-75.

(1957) : The bearing of larval evo-

lution on some problems in frog classification, ibid.

6: 79-86.

Starrett, P. (1960): Descriptions of tadpoles of

Middle American frogs. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool.

Univ. Michigan. 110: 1-37.

Stebbins, R. C. (1951) : Amphibians of Western

North America. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley.

— (1954): Amphibians and reptiles of

Western North America. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

New York.

Taylor, E. H. (1942) : Tadpoles of Mexican Anura.

Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 28: 37-55.

Wassersug, R. (1976): Internal oral features in

Hyla regilla (Anura: Hylidae) larvae: an ontogenic

study. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Pub. 49:

1-24.

(1980): Internal oral features of

larvae from eight anuran families: Functional, syste-

matic, evolutionary and ecological considerations,

ibid. 68: 1-146.

Webb, R. G. & Korky, J. K. (1977) : Variation

in tadpoles of frogs of the Rana tarahumarae group

in Western Mexico. Herpetologica. 33: 73-82.

Wright, A. H. & Wright, A. H. (1949) : Hand

book of frogs and toads of the United States and

Canada. Comstock Publ. Co. Ithaca, New York.

Zweifel, R. G. (1955) : Ecology, distribution and

systematics of the Rana boylei group. Univ. Calif.

Publ. Zool. 54 : 207-292.

(1964): Distribution and life

history of a Central American frog Rana vibicaria.

Copeia 2: 300-308.

528

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE WETLAND FLORA OF

SITAPUR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH1

J. K. Maheshwari2 and R. P. S, Tom ar3

The paper presents an account of the wetland flora of Sitapur district, Uttar Pradesh.

A thorough study of this habitat is of great scientific and economic importance as it

supports an appreciable number of endangered species of plants and animals. Further,

the wetlands of this district regularly support large number of migratory birds from

North European, Arctic and Siberian regions. The district maintains a rich wetland

flora and was thoroughly explored during the years 1979-1981. The present study

shows that 147 species of angiosperms belonging to 54 families inhabit the lakes,

ponds, pools and marshes in the district.

Introduction

In India the first comprehensive work on

the wetland flora was produced by Biswas and

Calder (1937). Since then, a number of work-

ers have presented useful and significant data

from different parts of the country. There is

no floristic record of the species found in the

district in Duthie’s Flora of Upper Gangetic

Plain (1903-1929). Therefore, a research pro-

ject entitled ‘Flora of Sitapur District, Uttar

Pradesh’ was taken up by us. A thorough

study of the present day wetlands is urgently

required as this habitat is of great scientific

and economic importance and supports an

appreciable number of endangered species of

plants and animals. The district was, there-

fore, thoroughly explored during the years

1979-1981 in different seasons. The present

study deals with a detailed floristic survey of

the wetland plants of the district. The her-

barium specimens of wetlands species collected

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Sr. Asstt. Director, National Botanical Research

Institute, Lucknow.

3 Teacher Fellow, National Botanical Research In-

stitute, Lucknow.

during this study are lodged in the herbarium

of National Botanical Research Institute,

Lucknow (LWG).

The district forms part of the Lucknow

division of Uttar Pradesh and is situated in

Gomti-Ghaghra Doab, lying between 27° 6'

and 27° 54' N and 80° 18' and 81° 24' E. It

extends approximately 88 km from north to

south and 112 km from east to west. It is

bounded on the west and south by the river

Gomti which meanders from north-west to

south-east separating the district from the

district of Hardoi and on the east by the river

Ghaghra separating the district from the dis-

trict of Baharaich. The district is bounded on

the north by Kheri district and to the south

are the districts of Lucknow and Barabanki

which lie between rivers Gomti and Ghaghra.

The district forms a part of the Gangetic

alluvium. It may be roughly divided into

western uplands or the uparhar and the eastern

lowlands or the ganjar. The western up-

lands which cover two-third of the district

is a level tract dissected by a number of small

streams. The eastern lowlands consist of the

Kewani-Chauka and the Chauka-Ghaghra

Doab. The water table is high and the exist-

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ence of several rivulets and numerous streams

makes it a damp and moist region, requiring

no artificial irrigation for cultivation. During

the rainy season, the whole of the tract is

submerged with water, 15-250 cm deep. The

district is traversed by two big rivers, Gomti

and Ghaghra which are mostly perennial ex-

cept in some low-lying areas.

There are large number of Jhils (lakes),

tanks and ponds with larger stretches of

marshy land. The soil is usually an admixture

of clay and sand, known as dumat which

occurs in the major portion of the uplands

( uparhar ). The monsoon normally advances

into the district during the later half of June

and withdraws early in October. The average

annual rainfall for the district is 974.0 mm.

A large per cent of the annual rainfall is recei-

ved during the monsoon period. January is the

coldest month of the year with an average

minimum temperature of 8°C. The tempera-

ture rises rapidly from the month of March.

The months of May and early June constitute

the hottest period of the year when day tem-

perature may rise up to 46.0°C. During the

monsoon and early post-monsoon period, the

relative humidity occurs between 70 and 80

per cent. During the summer period air is

very dry, particularly in the afternoon when

the relative humidity is sometimes less than

30 per cent.

Observations :

The wetland flora of the district shows

various types of plant communities and asso-

ciations. At a number of places, the surface

of water is completely covered by plants like

Azolla pinnata R. Br., Lemna paucicostata

Hegelm., Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms,

Trapa natans Linn. var. bispinosa (Roxb.)

Makino and Pistia stratiotes Linn., etc. which

form a complete blanket on the surface of

water in ponds, pools and ditches at some

time during the year.

There are also a number of plant associa-

tions, of which the following are frequently

noticeable in the district: —

1 . Aquatic Habitat : Associations —

A. Nelumbo — Nymphaea — Nymphoides

B. Nymphaea — Ludwigia — Eleoeharis

C. Sagittaria — Ottelia — Potamogeton

D. Utricularia — Hydrilla — Nymphaea

2. Marshy Habitats: Associations —

A. Eriocaulon — Cyperus — Fimbristylis

B. Ipomoea — Hydrolea — Ammannia

C. Scirpus — Caesulia — Aeschynomene

D. Typha — Phragmites — Scirpus

E. Hygrophila — Eclipta — Alternant her a

F. Bacopa — Marsilea — Monochoria

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES

1 . Ranunculaceae

1. Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. — Occurs

commonly in marshy places of the dis-

trict. FI. & Fr. : March- June; Local

name : Jaldhania; RPST 1030.

2. Nymphaeaceae

2. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. — Occurs

commonly in jhils and ponds during the

rainy season. FI. & Fr. : Aug. — Oct.;

Local name : Kumodini, Kokaveli;

RPST 551, 666.

3 . N. sfellata Willd. — Occurs frequently in

jhils and ponds mixed with N. nouchali

Burm. f. FI. & Fr.: Aug. — Oct.; Local

name: Kumodini; RPST 828.

3 . Nelumbonaceae

4 . Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. — Occurs in

jhils and ponds during the rainy season.

FI. & Fr. : Aug. — Oct.; Local name :

Kamal; RPST 871.

530

WETLAND FLORA OF SIT A PUR

4. Brassicaceae

5. Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Sm. — Found

commonly in fields and open places on

moist soil during winter. FI. & Fr. : Jan.-

April; RPST 1026.

5 . Caryophyllaceae

6. Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. — Found

commonly in cultivated fields and in

other moist waste lands. FI. & Fr.:

Dec.-March; RPST 1132.

6 . PORTULACACEAE

7. Portulaca oleracea Linn. — Found com-

monly as a weed in cultivated fields.

FI. & Fr. : Major part of the year; Local

name: Kulfa; RPST 1106.

8. P. quadrifida Linn. — Found commonly

on moist soil in cultivated fields. FI. &

Fr. : July-Sept.; RPST 1199.

7. Tamaricaceae

9. Tamarix dioica Roxb. — Found com-

monly in low-lying areas and along

sandy river banks. FI. & Fr. : July-Oct.;

Local name : Jhau; RPST 109.

8 . Elatinaceae

10. Bergia ammannioides Fleyne ex Roth —

Found commonly in moist waste places.

FI. & Fr. : Nov.-May; RPST 867.

9. Sterculiaceae

11. Melochia corchorifolia Linn. — Found

frequently in marshy places. FI. & Fr. :

July-Sept.; RPST 384, 530.

12. Pentapetes phoenicea Linn. — Found

commonly as a weed in rice fields and

marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.;

Local name : Guldupahri; RPST 337.

10 . Tiliaceae

13. Corchonis aestuans Linn. — Occurs com-

monly in moist shady places. FI. & Fr. :

Aug.-Nov.; RPST 903.

14. C. capsularis Linn. — Found commonly

on moist ground. FI. & Fr. : July-Sept.;

Local name : Jute; RPST 989.

15. C. olitorius Linn. — Found commonly

in moist shady places in cultivated fields

and fallow grounds. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-

Qct.; Local name : Jute; RPST 502.

1 1 . Fabaceae

16. Aeschynomene aspera Linn. — Found

frequently in paddy fields and swampy

places. FI. & Fr. : July-Nov.; RPST 919.

17. A. indica Linn. — Occurs commonly in

paddy fields and water-logged areas. FI.

& Fr. : July-Nov.; RPST 111.

18. Derris indica (Lamlc.) Bennet syn. Pon-

gamia pinnata (L.) Pierre — Found

frequently near rivers, canals and in

moist localities. FI. & Fr. : Dec.- June;

RPST 833.

1 9 . Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC. — Oc-

curs along the banks of canals. FI.: July-

Sept., Fr.: Nov.-Jan.; RPST 107.

20. Sebania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.F. Wight —

Common along canal banks and also in

cultivated fields and swampy places. FI.

& Fr.: Sept.-Oct.; Local name: Dhain-

cha; RPST 506, 1060.

12. Caesalpiniaceae

21 . Cassia tora Linn. — A dominant weed

of rainy season; found commonly along

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

roadsides, railway tracks and in waste

grounds. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.; Local

name : Panwar; RPST 314.

13. Rosaceae

22. Potentilla supina Linn. — Occurs com-

monly in marshy and muddy places. FI.

& Fr. : Jan-April; RPST 1952.

14 . Myrtaceae

23. Syzygium heyneanum (Duthie) Wall, ex

Gamble — A small tree, found frequent-

ly along nallahs, perennial ponds and

banks of rivers. FI. & Fr. : April-Sept.;

Local name : Kath-Jammuni; RPST

1140.

15. Lecythidaceae

24 . Barringf onia acutangula (Linn.) Gaertn.

— Found rarely in swampy areas and

near riverbanks and jhils. FI. & Fr. :

May-Nov.; Local name : Sindaroukh;

RPST 1248.

16. Lythraceae

25. Animannia baccifera Linn, — Found com-

monly in paddy fields and marshy de-

pressions. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Dee.; RPST

623.

26. A. multiflora Roxb. — Occurs frequent-

ly in marshy places and paddy fields.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.; RPST 348, 543.

17. Onagraceae

27. Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven ssp.

sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven — Found fre-

quently in marshy areas. FI. & Fr. :

Oct.-Dec.; RPST 687.

28. L. perennis Linn. — Occurs commonly

as a weed in damp and shady places.

FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Nov.; RPST 659.

18. Trapaceae

29. Trapa natans Linn. var. bispinosa

(Roxb.) Makino — Commonly cultivated

in jhils and ponds in the area. FI. & Fr. :

Aug-Nov.; Local Name : Singhara;

RPST 283, 553.

19. Molluginaceae

30. Glinus lotoides Linn. — Occurs com-

monly in dried up ponds, puddles and

in moist sandy places. FI. & Fr. : April

to Aug,; RPST 1083.

31. G. oppositifolius (Linn.) DC. — Found

commonly on moist soil of fallow and

cultivated fields. FI. & Fr. : July-Sept.;

RPST 432.

32. Mollugo pentaphylla Linn. — Found fre-

quently in the area, mostly in damp,

shady places; also found in agricultural

fields. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Oct.; RPST 514.

20 . Apiaceae

33. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban — Occurs

commonly in moist shady places and

along river banks. FI. & Fr. : April-

Aug.; Local name : Brahmi; RPST 1033.

21. Rubiaceae

34. Borreria articularis (Linn, f.) F.N. Wil-

liams — Occurs commonly in marshy

places. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Oct.; RPST 434.

35. B. hispida K. Schum. — Found com-

monly as a weed in cultivated and un-

used grounds on damp, sandy soil. FI.

& Fr.: Aug.-Oct.; RPST 412.

532

WETLAND FLORA OF S1TAPUR

36. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. — Occurs

frequently in fields and waste places on

moist ground. FI. & Fr. : Sept. -Oct,;

RPST 169, 658.

37. O. nudicaulis Roth — Found frequently

in moist waste grounds. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-

Oct.; RPST 735.

22. Asteraceae

38. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. — Common

along the banks of canals and irrigation

channels. FI. & Fr. : Nov.- June; RPST

103, 537.

39. Caesulia axillaris Roxb. — Found com-

monly in paddy fields and marshy places.

FI. & Fr. : Sept-April; RPST 119, 611.

40 . Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. — Occurs

commonly in marshes, swamps and river-

sides. FI. & Fr. : Major Part of the year;

Local name : Bhringraj; RPST 295, 738.

41. Gnaphafiium polycaulon Pers. — Found

frequently in moist, waste, shady places.

FI. & Fr. : Feb.-April; RPST 775.

42. G. pulvinatum Del. — Occurs commonly

in moist, shady, waste places. FI. & Fr. :

Jan. -March; RPST 581.

43. Grangea maderaspatana (Linn.) Poir. —

Found commonly in marshy places and

along irrigation channels, puddles etc.

FI. & Fr. : Oct.-March; RPST 210.

44. Xanthium strumarium Linn. — Found

commonly in the seasonal marshes of

temporary pools. FI. & Fr. : Sept.- June;

Local name : Gokharu; RPST 559.

23 . Sphenocleaceae

45. Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. — Found

commonly in paddy fields and swampy

areas. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.; RPST 912.

24 . Menyanthaceae

46. Nymphoides cristata (Roxb.) Kuntze —

Found commonly in jhils and ponds, etc.

FI. & Fr. : Rainy season and early win-

ter; RPST 663, 876.

47 . N. indica (Linn.) Kuntze — Occurs com-

monly in jhils, ponds, etc. FI. & Fr. :

Aprii-Oct.; RPST 872.

25 . Hydrophyllaceae

48 . Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl — Occurs

commonly as a weed in paddy fields and

marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.;

RPST 918.

26 . Boraginaceae

49. Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Hornem.)

Thunb. ex Lehm. — Found occasionally

on moist soil in wastelands. FI. & Fr. :

Oct.-Jan.; RPST 37.

50. Heliotropium strigosum Willd. — Found

commonly on moist ground. FI. & Fr. :

July-March; RPST 436.

27. CONVOLVULACEAE

51 . Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. — Occurs com-

monly in ponds, pools, canals, ditches,

muddy grounds and agricultural fields.

FI. & Fr. : Sept. -Feb.; Local name :

Karamua, Nari ka saag; RPST 328.

52. Volvulopis nunimularia (Linn.) Roberty

— Found frequently in muddy and moist

places. FI. & Fr. : August-February;

Local name : Shankh-pushpi; RPST 527.

28 . SOLANACEAE

53. Physalis minima Linn. — Found com-

monly in moist shady places and waste-

lands. FI. & Fr. : July- Jan.; Local name :

Jangli Makoiya; RPST 982.

533

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

54. Solatium nigrum Linn. — Occurs fre-

quently in moist shady places. FI. & Fr. :

Most part of the year; Local name :

Makoiya; RPST 1117.

29. SCROP H U LARI ACE AE

55. Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst. —

Occurs commonly in marshy or wet

places near canals, ponds and jhils. FI.

& Fr. : Aug.-Nov.; RPST 272.

56. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce —

Found frequently in shallow ponds, pools

and ditches. FI. & Fr. : Sept. -Dec.; RPST

683.

57. Lindernia anagallis (Burm. f.) Penn. —

Occurs commonly in marshy and

swampy areas. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.;

RPST 660.

58. L. ciliata (Colsm.) Penn. — Found com-

monly in paddy fields near canals and

irrigation channels. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-

Dec.; RPST 657, 979.

59. L. Crustacea (Linn.) F. Muell. — Occurs

commonly in paddy fields and moist

situations. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.; RPST

395, 513.

60. Mazus delavayi Bonati — Found occa-

sionally in moist shady places, FI. & Fr. :

Sept. -Dec.; RPST 118.

61 . M. pumilus (Burm. f.) Steen. — Occurs

frequently in wet or damp, shady places

and along the banks of canals. FI. & Fr. :

Sept.-Feb.; RPST 980.

62. Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Said. —

Found commonly near the banks of

ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. : Sept. -Nov.;

RPST 538.

63. Verbascum chinense (Linn.) Sant. —

Occurs commonly in moist, shady places

along the banks of irrigation channels.

FI. & Fr. : Feb.-April; RPST 1012.

64. Veronica anagallis-aquatica Linn. —

Occurs commonly in marshy places. FI.

& Fr. : Feb.-April; RPST 1013, 1048.

30 . Lentibulariaceae

65. Utricularia stellaris Linn. — An insecti-

vorous, free floating plant; found com-

monly in ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. :

Sept.-Nov.; RPST 669, 890.

66. U. flexuosa Vahl — Found frequently

in jhils, ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. :

Sept.- Jan.; RPST 858.

31. Acanthaceae

67. Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine —

Found commonly in marshy places and

near ponds and roadside ditches. FI. &

Fr. : Oct.-Dec.; RPST 624, 641.

68. H. polysperma (Roxb.) T. Anders. —

Found commonly in marshy and swampy

areas. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-March; RPST

385.

69. Rostellularia quinqueangularis (Koenig

ex Roxb.) var. peploides Nees — Found

commonly in the ground vegetation of

fruit orchards, on moist soil. FI. & Fr. :

Sept.-Feb.; RPST 379.

32 . Verbenaceae

70 . Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene — Occurs

commonly in marshy places and along

irrigation channels. FI. & Fr. : April-

Aug,; RPST 172, 375.

33 . Lamiaceae

71. Anisomeles indica (Linn.) Kuntze —

Found commonly on moist soil of

orchards or along canal banks. FI. &

Fr. : Sept.-Feb.; RPST 592, 674.

72. Salvia plebeia R. Br. — Occurs com-

monly in moist places. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-

April; RPST 774, 1069.

534

WETLAND FLORA OF SITAPUR

34 . Amaranthaceae

73. Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hill. —

Occurs commonly in marshy places. FI.

& Fr. : throughout the year; RPST 344.

74. A. sessilis (Linn.) R. Br. ex DC. —

Occurs commonly in moist situations.

FI. & Fr. : Throughout the year; RPST

110, 579.

35 . Chenopodiaceae

75. Chenopodium amhrosioides Linn. —

Found commonly in moist localities. FI.

& Fr. : March-Sept.; RPST 796.

36. Polygon ace ae

76. Polygonum barbatum Linn. ssp. gracile

Danser — Found commonly in marshes

and along canal banks. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-

March; RPST 133.

77. P. glabrum Willd. — Found commonly

in marshes and along canal banks. FI.

& Fr. : Sept.-March; RPST 116.

78. P. plebeium R. Br. — Occurs commonly

in moist shady places. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-

April; RPST 120, 737.

79. Rumex dentatus Linn. — Found con>

monly in marshy places and along river

banks. FI. & Fr. : Dec-June; RPST 112,

821.

37. Euphorriaceae

80. Euphorbia geniculata Orteg. — Found

commonly in moist shady places. FI. &

Fr. : Dec. -April; RPST 1141.

81. E. hypericifolia Linn. — Occurs com-

monly along river banks and in waste

lands in moist situations. FI. & Fr. :

May-Oct; RPST 365.

82. Kirganelia .reticulata (Poir.) Baill. —

Occurs commonly along irrigation chan-

nels and in marshy areas. FI. & Fr. :

April-July; RPST 515.

83 . Trewia polycarpa Benth. — Occurs com-

monly in marshy places along river beds.

FI. & Fr. : Feb.-April; RPST 191.

38 . Urticaceae

84. Fleurya interrupta (Linn.) Gaud. — Found

occasionally in damp, wet places near

orchards. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Nov.; RPST

997.

3 9 . Ceratop h yll ace ae

85. Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. — Occurs

commonly in rivers, jhils and ponds. FI.

& Fr. : Sept.-Nov.; RPST 664.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

40 . Hydrocharitaceae

86. Hydrilla verticillata (Linn, f.) Royle —

Found abundantly in ponds and ditches.

FI. & Fr. ; Sept.-Nov.; RPST 859.

87. Ottelia alismoides (Linn.) Pers. — Found

commonly in ponds, pools and roadside

ditches. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.; RPST 661.

88. Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Thw.

— Occurs commonly in ponds, pools and

ditches. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Oct.; RPST

864.

89. Vallisneria spiralis Linn. — Found fre-

quently in ponds, pools and shallow-

river ditches. FI. & Fr. : Oct-Feb.; RPST

143.

41. Orchidaceae

90. Zeuxine strateumatica (Linn.) Schl. —

Occurs rarely in moist turfy banks of

canals. FI. & Fr. : Feb.-March; RPST

750.

42. Amaryllidaceae

91. Crinum defixum Ker-Gawler — Occurs

commonly in swamps, along streams and

ponds. FI. & Fr. : June-Oct.; Local

name : Kalakandera; RPST 1279.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

43 . Liliaceae

92. Asparagus racemosus Willd. — Found

commonly in moist waste places. FI. &

Fr. : Nov.-Jan.; Local name : Satawar;

RPST 1039.

44 . PON TEDERIACEAE

93. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms —

Found commonly in jhils, ponds and

pools forming dense patches. FI. & Fr. :

Aug.-Nov.; Local name : Jal Kumbhi;

RPST 550.

94. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl —

Occurs commonly in marshes and road-

side ditches. FI. & Fr. : Sept. -Nov.;

PRST 851.

45. COMMELINACEAE

95. Amischophacelus axillaris (Linn.) R. &

K. — Found commonly in damp,

swampy soils of waste lands. FI. & Fr. ;

Aug.-Dee.; RPST 874.

96. Commelina benglialensis Linn. — Found

commonly in marshes and along canal

banks. FI. & Fr. ; Aug.-Nov.; RPST 552,

976.

97. Murdannia nudiflora (Linn.) Brenan —

Occurs frequently in moist soil of culti-

vated fields. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.; RPST

345.

46 . Typhaceae

98. Typha angustafa Bory & Chaub. —

Found commonly in marshes and

swamps. FI. & Fr. : May-Nov.; Local

name : Gondi; RPST 665.

47. Araceae

99. Pistia stratiotes Linn. — Occurs rarely

in still water of pools and ditches. FI.

& Fr. : Aug-Nov.; RPST 327.

48 . Lemnaceae

100. Lenina paucicostafa Hegelm. — Occurs

frequently in ponds and ditches. RPST

843.

101. Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.) Schleid. —

Found commonly in still water of ponds

and ditches. RPST 842.

102. Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.) Horkel ex Wimm.

— Found occasionally in ponds and

ditches. RPST 836.

49 . Alismataceae

103. Sagittaria guayanmsis H. B. & K. ssp.

lappula (D. Don). Bogin — Found com-

monly in ponds, pools and roadside

ditches; also seen in flooded paddy fields.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Dee.; RPST 840, 877.

104. S. trifolia Linn. — Found occasionally

in marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.;

RPST 988.

50 . Aponogetonaceae

105. Aponogeton natans (Linn.) Engl. &

Krause — Found rarely in still water

of roadside pools and ditches. FI. & Fr. :

Aug-Dec.; RPST 844.

5 1 . POTAMOGETONACEAE

106. Potaniogeton crispus Linn. — Found

frequently in shallow, temporary water

ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. : Dec.-April;

RPST 1034.

107. P. nodosus Poir. — Found commonly

in ponds and ditches. FI. & Fr. : Nov.-

Dee.; RPST 946.

108 . P. pectinatus Linn. — Occurs commonly

in ponds and pools etc. FI. & Fr. : Oct.-

April; RPST 1036.

536

WETLAND FLORA OF SITAPUR

52. Eriocaulaceae

109. Eriocaulon einereuin R. Br. — Found

commonly in marshy places and paddy

fields. FI. & Fr. : Sept-Dec.; RPST 999.

53 . Cyperaceae

110. Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. — Found

commonly along the banks of streams

and other irrigation channels. FI. & Fr. ;

Aug.-Nov.; RPST 253.

111 . C. alulatus Kern — Found commonly in

paddy fields and other marshy places.

FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Nov.; RPST 362.

112. C. brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. — Found

frequently in marshy and muddy places.

FI. & Fr. : July-Oct; RPST 339.

113. C. compactus Retz. — Found commonly

in marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.;

RPST 616.

114. C. compressus Linn. — Occurs com-

monly in marshy places. FI. & Fr. :

Aug.-Nov.; RPST 464.

115. C. diffomiis Linn. — Occurs commonly

in swampy and marshy places. FI. & Fr. :

Aug.-Dee.; RPST 335, 625.

116. C digitatus Roxb. — Occurs commonly

in paddy fields and swampy areas. FI.

& Fr. : Aug.-Dee.; RPST 952.

117. C. exaltatus Retz. — Found frequently

in marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Dee.;

RPST 274.

118. C. iria Linn. — Found commonly in

paddy fields and other marshy places.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov; RPST 547.

119. C. kyllingia Endl. — Found commonly

in paddy fields and other marshy places.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-March; RPST 354.

120. C. rotundas Linn. — Found commonly

in paddy fields and other swampy areas

in open grasslands. FI. & Fr. : July-

Dee.; RPST 361, 549.

C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl. — Occurs com-

monly in marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Aug.-

March; RPST 138.

Eleocharis atropurpurea (Retz.) Kunth —

Occurs commonly in paddy fields and

other marshy places. FI. & Fr. ; Sept.-

Dee.; RPST 122.

Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsk.) Bub.

— Found commonly as a weed in paddy

fields and swampy localities. FI. & Fr. :

Nov.-May; RPST 271, 626.

F. falcata (Vahl) Kunth — Occurs com-

monly in grasslands and river beds. FI.

& Fr. : Sept. -Dec.; RPST 423.

F. littoralis Gaud. — Found commonly

in paddy fields and marshy areas. FI. &

Fr. : Sept.-Dee.; RPST 545.

F. miliacea (Linn.) Vahl — Occurs com-

monly in paddy fields and marshy areas.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.; RPST 376.

F. ovata (Burm.) Kern — Found com-

monly in cultivated fields. FI. & Fr. :

Aug.-Dee.; RPST 291, 354.

Scirpus articulatus Linn. — Found com-

monly in paddy fields and marshy areas.

FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Nov.; RPST 130, 898,

1082.

S. mucronatus Linn. — Found occasion-

ally in marshy areas. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-

Dec.; RPST 222.

S. squarrosus Linn. — Found commonly

in paddy fields after harvest. FI. & Fr. :

Oct. -Dec.; RPST 378.

S. tuberosus Desf. — Found commonly

in paddy fields and marshy areas. FI. &

Fr. : Sept.-Dee.; RPST 333.

54 . POACEAE

Anindo donax Linn. — Found frequent-

ly along ditches and streams. FI. & Fr. :

Sept.-Feb.; RPST 972.

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

133. Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gardn. &

Hubb. — Found frequently in marshy

places. FI. & Fr. : Sept.- Jan.; RPST 533.

134. Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. — Found com-

monly in moist soil near irrigation ca-

nals. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Feb.; RPST 273.

135. Echinochloa colontim (Linn.) Link —

Found commonly in paddy fields and

other marshy places. FI. & Fr. : July-

Nov.; RPST 304, 360.

136. E. crusgalli (Linn.) Beauv. — Occurs

commonly in paddy fields and swampy

areas near ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. :

Aug.-Nov.; RPST 338.

137. Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex

Roem. & Schult. — Found commonly

on moist soil near ponds and pools.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Dee.; RPST 387, 531.

138. Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Beauv. —

Found commonly in open fields on moist

ground. FI. & Fr. : June-Oct.; RPST

156, 252, 451.

139. Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. — Found

commonly in paddy fields and near

ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. : Sept-Dec.;

RPST 539.

140. Oryza rufipogon Griff. — Occurs com-

monly in marshy places. FI. & Fr. : Oct-

Nov.; Local name : Tinna, Pasai; RPST

38.

141. Paspalum distich uni Linn. — Occurs

commonly in marshy places and paddy

fields. FI. & Fr. : July-Sept.; RPST 341.

142. Perotis indica (Linn.) Kuntze — Found

commonly in damp, shady places near

ponds and pools. FI. & Fr. : July-Nov.;

RPST 981.

143. Phragmites maxima (Forrsk.) Blatt. &

McC. — Occurs commonly in marshy

places along streams. FI. & Fr. : Oct.-

Jan.; RPST 957.

144. Sacchanim bengalense Retz. — Found

frequently in marshy places and on the

bunds of fields. FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Nov.;

Local name : Munj; RPST 39.

145. S. spontaneum Linn. — Found fre-

quently along river banks in swampy

areas and on the bunds of fields. FI. &

Fr. : Sept.- Jan.; RPST 332.

146. Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. —

Found commonly along the irrigation

channels. FI. & Fr. : Sept-Dec.; RPST

734.

147. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash —

Occurs commonly in marshy places.

FI. & Fr. : July-Nov.; Local name :

Seenk, khas; RPST 366, 684.

Acknowledgements

One of us (R.P.S. Tomar) is thankful to

Dr. K. K. Singh, Scientist, National Botanical

Research Institute, Lucknow, for his invalu-

able help. He is also grateful to the University

Grants Commission, New Delhi for the award

of Teacher Fellowship.

References

Biswas, K. & Calder, C. (1937) : Handbook of Duthie, J. F. (Rep. ed. 1973) : Flora of the

common water and marshy plants of India and Upper Gangetic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik

Burma. Government Press, Delhi. and Sub-Himalayan tracts. Vols. 1-3.

538

STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION

OF CRABS IN ASSAM1

N. K. Dutta2

(With six text-figures)

The family Potamonidae (Decapoda: Crustacea) of Assam has Potamon (Acantho-

telphusa ) woodmasoni Rathbun of the genus Potamon and five species of the genus

Paratelphusa namely Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) edentula Alcock, P. ( Barytelphusa )

guerini var. planata A.M. Edw., P. (Barytelphusa) harpx Alcock, P. ( Paratelphusa )

sinensis Milne-Edw., P. (Paratelphusa) spinigera Woodmason of family Potamonidae

= T.(h.) eiphusidae are recorded from different districts of Assam.

Introduction

One of the most important aspects of fishery

biology is the fishery of edible crustaceans.

Among the crustacean fishery, crab fishery has

gained considerable attention particularly the

biology and fishery of crabs that are of eco-

nomic importance. Crabs are caught round the

year. However, the peak catch season shows a

definite seasonal trend in commercially import-

ant crab landing areas. On the North Eastern

region of India in general and Assam in parti-

cular, the peak season is generally from Octo-

ber to February.

There is little information on the freshwater

crabs of Assam. In view of the regional im-

portance of the fishery of these crabs the pre-

sent study was undertaken.

Material and Methods

The species of crabs belonging to family

Potamonidae (Telphusidae) of Assam were

collected regularly from different regions of

the districts of the state, and were obtained as

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Zoology Department, Cotton College, Gauhati-

781 001 (Assam).

well from fishermen’s catch. These were

brought to the laboratory, cleaned and pre-

served in 8-10% formaldehyde solution.

Results

The collection comprises of six species:

Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) edentula Alcock.

(Fig. 1).

Collection localities’.

Goalpara district: Boko, 1 TL. 25 mm;

Kamrup district: Maligaon, 2 TL. 28 mm;

Sibsagar district: Panbesa near Sibsagar, 1 <$

2 $ , TL. 26-31 mm; Lakhimpur district:

Corella beel, 3 cf, TL. 15-25 mm; Dibrugarh

district: Dibrugarh, 4 cf, TL. 20-33 mm.

Diagnostic features :

The cervical groove is broad and deep run-

ning to the lateral epibranchial tooth. The epi-

gastric is broad and blunt. The outer half of

the post orbital portion of the epigastric crest

is sharp and inner portion is blunt. The legs

are strong and shorter than smaller cheliped.

In the chelate leg, one pair of blunt tooth like

projection in the antero-lateral portion of

ischium and merus and one large and two

blunt teeth on carpus.

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 1. Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) edentula Alcock.

A. Dorsal side; B. Ventral side.

Maximum size 29 mm.

In Assam, the species has been so far re-

corded from Sibsagar district. The present

collection extends its distribution to Goalpara,

Kamrup, Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh districts.

Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) guerini var.

planata A.M.-Edw.

(Fig. 2).

Collection localities : Kamrup district: Tihu,

3 d\ 1 9, TL. 68-79 mm; Darrang district:

Mora-Dhansiri, 1 cf, TL. 74 mm; Karbi Ang-

long district: R. Rabinala, 1 TL. 73 mm;

Garo Hills: Garo Hill, 2 TL. 25-65 mm.

Diagnostic features :

The cervical groove is broad and deep,

running towards, but not reaching the site of

the lateral-epibranchial tooth. The epigastric

and post orbital crests form a bold ridge on

either side of the mesogastric furrow. In the

chelate leg, the pits are linearly arranged on

the fingers and there are some squami-form

tubercles on the upper surface of the palm.

Maximum size 74 mm.

Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) harpax

Alcock (Fig. 3).

Collection localities : Sibsagar district: Puro-

nipukhuri beel near Gaurisagar, 2 <3, TL. 15-

35 mm; Lakhimpur district: North Lakhimpur,

2 cf, TL. 15-36 mm; Dibrugarh district: Pro-

per Dibrugarh near Assam Medical College,

2 9 , TL. 55 mm.

Diagnostic features:

The cervical groove is deep and so the region

appears more convex. In the orbital border

of the carapace, 3-4 distinct teeth are present

and the rest of the area in the form of a

serrated structure. The sixth segment of the

abdomen is longer and its sides are more

concave. The postero-lateral borders of the

carapace are also distinctly serrated.

Maximum size 55 mm.

Paratelphusa (Paratelphusa) sinensis

Edw. (Fig. 4).

Collection localities : Kamrup district: R.

Pagladia near Uttarkuchi, lcf, 1 9 , TL. 13-15

mm; Darrang district: Proper Tezpur, 2 <5\

540

CRABS FROM ASSAM

*

Fig.

2.

Paratelphusa

A.

( Barytelphusa ) guerini var. planata

Dorsal side; B. Ventral side.

A.M.-Edw.

541

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig.

3.

Paratelphusa ( Baryte! phusa) harpax Alcock.

A. Dorsal side; B. Ventral side.

542

CRABS FROM ASSAM

Fig. 4.

Paratelphusa ( Paratelphusa ) sinensis Edw.

A. Dorsal side; B. Ventral side.

543

N N \ \V

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Fig. 5. Paratelphusa ( Paratelphusa ) spinigera

Woodmason.

A. Dorsal side; B. Ventral side.

2 9 , TL. 1 6-20 mm; Karbi Anglong district :

Proper Diphu, 1 cf, TL. 14 mm.

Diagnostic features :

The cervical groove is just visible but is

very superficial and indistinctly represented by

a line of irregular pits. The post-frontal meso-

gastric groove is indistinct. The epigastric

crests are slightly overlapping. The post orbi-

tal crests distinct and sharp at their inner edge

and blunt behind the orbit.

Maximum size 15 mm.

Paratelphusa (Paratelphusa) spinigera,

Woodmason (Fig. 5).

Collection Localities: Goalpara district:

Dipo, 2 cf, 2 9 , TL. 51-52 mm; Kamrup dis-

trict: Kukurmara beel, Lankeswar dhum near

Jalukbari. Boko, Bebejapara near Bozali,

Bhulukmara beel near Nalbari, Sundubi beel,

Golah beel near Amingaon, Durmari beel near

Chetoli, Gogiakur near R. Saulkhua, Mongol-

doi, Kahi Kuchi, R. Kulsi, 25 cf , 6 9 , TL.

55-57 mm; Nowgong district: Hapakati beel,

Khetri near Jagiroad, R. Kolong, R. Kopili

near Morigaon, 5 cf, 2 9, TL. 45-50 mm;

Karbi-Anglong district: R. Jamuna, 2 cf, 1 9,

TL. 35-45 mm; Cachar district: R. Karimganj,

3 cf, 1 9, TL. 35-40 mm; Sibsagar district:

Nawpukhuri beel, R. Namdang near Joysagar,

Jorhat, Golaghat, Bokakhat, Gorisagar, Sunari,

5 cf , 8 9 , TL. 45-56 mm; Lakhimpur district:

Pohumara near Singar, North Lakhimpur, 4

cf, 4 9, TL. 35-42 mm; Dibrugarh district:

2 cf, 1 9, TL. 31-40 mm.

Diagnostic features :

The deep cervical groove runs towards the

outer end of the post-orbital crests, but be-

comes quite indistinct behind them. The epi-

gastric crest is prominent but becomes indis-

tinct beyond the point where the cervical groove

approaches them.

Maximum size 57 mm.

Potamon (Acanthotelphusa) woodmasoni

Rathbun (Fig. 6).

Collection Localities : Kamrup district: Bor-

peta and Bozali, 2 cf, TL. 32-33 mm. Sibsagar

district: R. Namdang near Bahbariting, 4 cf,

1 9, TL. 31-35 mm.

544

CRABS FROM ASSAM

Fig. 6. Potamon (Acanthotelphusa) woodmasoni

Rathbun.

A. Dorsal side; B. Ventral side.

Diagnostic features :

The cervical groove is deep, broad and super-

ficial. The epigastric crests are rugulose and

become indistinct beyond the points where

they are met by the cervical groove.

Maximum size 33 mm.

Conclusions

Previous records show that only Potamon

(Acanthotelphusa) woodmasoni Rathbun,

Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) harpax Alcock

and P. (Barytelphusa) edentula Alcock were

recorded from Assam (Sibsagar Dt.). The pre-

sent records represent one species of the

genus Potamon and five species of the genus

Paratelphusa as the crab fauna of Assam. Out

of the six species collected in the present study,

Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) guerini var. plan -

at a A.M. Edw., Paratelphusa (Paratelphusa)

sinensis Edw., and Paratelphusa (Paratelphu-

sa) spinigera Woodmason are new records for

Assam. Besides, the distribution range of Pota-

mon (Acanthotelphusa) woodmasoni Rath-

bun, Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) harpax Al-

cock and Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) edentula

Alcock, which were known only from Sibsagar

district have been reported from other districts

of Assam. (Table 1).

The chelate leg of Potamon (Acanthotel-

phusa) woodmasoni, Rathbun, has been re-

corded as bearing 1 sub-terminal spine on the

upper border of the merus and 1 strong spine

at the inner angle of the carpus. In the pre-

sent study 3 blunt and 1 pointed spines just

above the merus-carpus joint were recorded.

In Paratelphusa (Paratelphusa) sinensis

Edw., the presence of a sub-terminal spine on

the upper border of the merus and a spine at

the inner angle of the carpus of the chelate

leg were known, but in the present record, it

has been found that a pointed spine with tuber-

cles and a blunt spine at the morus-carpus

joint are only present.

In the chelate leg of Paratelphusa (Par at eh

phusa) spinigera Woodmason, only 1 distinct

and acute spine on the merus was reported,

but in the present collection specimens with the

4-edges of the merus serrated and provided

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 1

Distribution of the decapod crustaceans studied belonging to the genera Potamon and

Paratelphusa in Assam

with 3 small and 2 large spines were also pre-

sent.

In Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) guerini var.

planata A. M. Edw. the previous records had

one epibranchial tooth on the antero-lateral

borders of the carapace, but in the present col-

lection the presence of 2 teeth with 11-12 small

tooth-like projections in a serrated manner, was

noted.

In Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) harpax Al-

cock, the orbital border was known to contain

only 1 distal tooth, but in the present collection

the occurrence of 3-4 distinct teeth was noted

as well as additional serrated structures.

In Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) edentula

Alcock, the antero-lateral borders of the cara-

pace are reported to be well arched, distinct,

but hardly crest-like, bluntly and feebly crenu-

late, but in the present collection the serra-

tions are moderately crenulate, with crest and

arched structures.

546

CRABS FROM ASSAM

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. S. C. Dey, Zoology department,

Gauhati University for suggesting this interest-

ing problem and for his encouragement

throughout the work. I am grateful to Dr. M.

Koshy and Mrs. M. Deb of the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for assistance in the

confirmation of the identification of the species

of the genera Paratelphusa and Potamon. I am

also thankful to Dr. U. C. Goswami and Shri

A. Dutta of Zoology department, Gauhati Uni-

versity and Shri R. Majumdar, Government

Ayurvedic College, Gauhati for their encourage-

ment.

548

SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE HERD STRUCTURE

OF BLACKBUCK1

N. L. N. S. Prasad2

(With a plate and a text-figure )

Five herds of blackbuck, constituting a population of over 50 animals, were observed

during 1978-80 at Mudmal (16°24'N and 77°27'E) in Andhra Pradesh. The popu-

lation increased to over 100 animals at the end of the study. There were five

categories of social groupings most commonly met with namely: a) Mixed herds

consisting of loose aggregations of males and females of various age groups; b) Herds

consisting of only males — the bachelor herds; c) Herds formed solely of females;

d) A single male territorial in nature accompanying several females; e) Lone

territorial males.

The minimum and maximum herd size observed was 2 and 36 respectively. The mean

herd size was 11.05 (SD 6.22). There were seasonal fluctuations in the mean herd

size. During monsoon and winter seasons larger herds were more common compared

with summer season. The size of five social groupings also registered a considerable

change seasonally. The factors contributing to the changes in the herd structure are

discussed.

Introduction

The present paper is based on a long term

study carried out on blackbuck at Mudmal

and describes the trends in the herd structure

and the factors influencing it.

Study area and Methods

Mudmal village and its surroundings are

located between 16°22'-16°26'N and 77°25'-

77°27'E in Andhra Pradesh. The total study

area was approximately 80 km2. Over 80% of

the area was cultivated and the rest of the

area included patches of grasslands, rocky

elevations, tanks, and phoenix groves. Other

1 Accepted June 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Osmania University,

Hyderabad-500 007.

Present address : Zoological Survey of India, 36/

802, Karakkamuri Cross Road, Cochin 682 011.

549

details of the study area were described else-

where (see Prasad & Ramana Rao 1984).

Free populations of over 50 blackbuck, dis-

tributed in five separate herds, were located in

the area and were followed for a period of

nearly two years. At the end of the study the

total population increased to over 100 animals.

All observations were made on foot with the

help of 8 x 40 binoculars. Each time a herd

was sighted, the number of individuals in the

herd, composition of sex and age classes such

as adult male, sub -adult male, adolescent male,

adult female, sub -adult female and fawn were

recorded. When an adult male was sighted

the details such as the intensity of black colour

on the coat, the shape of horns, whether terri-

torial or otherwise were noted. Based on this

data 11 males were individually identified dur-

ing the course of the study. Females however,

could not be identified individually.

In the case of males, the age classes were

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

distinguished by the horn structure. Males

with horns having less than two twists were

classified as adolescents, horns with 2-3 twists

and more than 3 twists were considered as

sub-adults and adults respectively (see Mungall

1978). A twist is a curve to the outside (Cary

1976). In the case of females, the body size

and coat colour were taken as criteria to

differentiate between the age classes.

During periods of continuous observations

which lasted between 1-lOh, the number of

animals that joined and left the herd under

observation were noted. When part of the herd

split up and moved far so that observations

could not be made on those animals, the num-

ber of animals that remained in the area was

considered for the purpose of calculating the

change in the herd size. Besides, the changes

in the vegetation, activity patterns of black-

buck in relation to vegetation, the disturbance

by cultivators, shepherds, carts, and other

vehicles and the response of blackbuck ob-

served were noted.

Results

The composition of the five herds most fre-

quently met with during September-December

1979 is shown in table 1. Changes in the herd

structure however occurred in different sea-

sons. The social organization of these herds

was basically of five types:

a) Herds formed by males and females of

all age groups which are generally known

as mixed herds

b) A single territorial male with a group of

females, termed pseudoharem (Mungall

1978)

c) Herds formed by males — the bachelor

herds

d) Herds consisting solely of females

e) Lone territorial males

Apart from these categories, lone females were

also sighted particularly either when they were

pregnant or when they had recently given

birth to fawns.

Over 1400 sightings of herds revealed a

mean herd size of 11.05 (SD 6.22) with mini-

mum and maximum being 2 and 36 respect-

ively. The mean herd size varied with seasons

(Tables 2 & 3). It increased from summer to

winter through monsoon. There was an in-

crease in the mean herd size from summer of

1978-79 to summer of 1979-80 which could

probably due to increase in the population of

the herds by the birth of fawns.

The frequency distribution of herd size

classes for the three seasons is shown in the

Table 1

The composition of five herds most frequently observed during

September-December 1979

550

HERD STRUCTURE OF BLACKBUCK

Table 2

Mean herd size during 1978-1979

Table 4

Distribution of herd size classes during 1978-79

Table 5

Distribution of herd size classes during 1979-80

Herd size classes

tables 4 and 5 for the years 1978-79 and 1979-

80 respectively. An anova test was conducted

with the null hypothesis that the frequency of

herd size is independent of seasons and that

there is no appreciable difference in the fre-

quency of herd size classes in a given season.

This hypothesis was rejected at 5% level of

significance for the three seasons (Tables 6

and 7).

From tables 4 and 5 it is clear that the herd

size classes 8T3 followed by 2-7 were more

frequently seen than the rest in all seasons.

There were, however, seasonal differences in

the proportion of sightings of the various herd

size classes. During summer season the pro-

portion of herd size classes 2-7 and 8-13 were

higher. It is also explicit that compared with

monsoon and winter seasons, during summer

season herd size of 14-19 and the classes below

it were more frequent while during winter and

more so during monsoon herd sizes larger than

i/j

£

cn

c

0

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Sex and Age classes

Fig. 1. % Proportion of various sex and age classes.

551

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Table 6

Two WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF HERD SIZE CLASSES IN THREE SEASONS DURING 1978-79

14 were more frequently met with as compar-

ed with summer.

The distribution of proportion of the sex

and age classes of the herds is shown in fig. 1.

Adult females constituted the highest with

57.24% followed by the adult males with

11.29%. The sub-adult males (9.08%) and

the territorial males (8.73%) were represent-

ed next. The rest of the classes formed only

13.66%. These sightings showed an adult male

to adult female ratio of 1:2.47 and one fawn

to every 8.76 adult females.

The seasonal changes in the social group-

ings of blackbuck is shown in the table 8.

The mixed herds were more frequent in all

seasons and ranged between 69-75%. Pseudo-

harems with 10-17% were next common social

groupings. The mixed herds were compara-

552

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Prasad: Antilope cervicapra

Plate

Above : Congregation of the members of herd B after a drive by cultivators.

Below: A bachelor herd.

( Photos : N. L. N. S. Prasad)

HERD STRUCTURE OF BLACKBUCK

tively less in summer season than in other

seasons while the pseudo-harems were more

frequent in summer compared with the rest

of the seasons.

Out of 195 sightings of pseudo-harems, 5%

constituted a lone territorial male with a single

adult female. The maximum size of the

pseudo-harems was 26 (1 territorial male with

25 females). A total of 64 sightings on single

animals contained 70.3% territorial males,

18.7% females, and 11% adult and sub-adult

males.

The bachelor groupings were sighted 44

times. 75% of these had 3-7 males. 18.2%

of these sightings showed only two males to-

gether. The maximum size of the bachelor

herd was 9 which was sighted 6.8% times.

Discussion

A tendency exists among animals to band

together in flocks, herds, schools, or loose

colonies. In all social systems in general, two

opposing forces operate simutaneously:

mutual attraction versus social intolerance to

establish social dominance, the former con-

tributing to herding while the latter against

crowding (Smith 1980). The combination of

terrain and vegetation profile have a pro-

nounced effect upon herd size and composi-

tion among blackbuck (Mungall et al. 1981),

Now, the question what contributes to the

changes in the herd structure finds three pos-

sible answers here. The first one is forage bas-

ed, the second based on the social aspects, and

the last the disturbance by cultivators. A small

herd will do well with less competition for for-

age while a large herd will have a heavy com-

petition amongst the members of the herd and

at the same time would deplete the resources in

the area by overgrazing. This could be the re-

ason for the maximum sightings in the category

of 8-13 herd size class in all seasons. The larger

proportion of smaller size herds during sum-

mer (Tables 4 & 5) also confirms this. During

summer as food becomes very scarce, the

herds would further split up into small herds

and would move about in search of fresh

grass. The occasional presence of larger herds

during summer, however, is explained by the

fact that blackbuck concentrate on groundnut

fields and near wells where sprouting of grasses

occurs due to continuous watering of the fields.

The occurrence of larger herd size in

greater proportion during monsoon was be-

cause of availability of large quantity of fresh

forage on grasslands. During winter black-

buck would concentrate in jowar cultivated

fields where some palatable grasses were still

present. At the time of appearance of the ear-

head till the harvest of jowar crop, the con-

centration of blackbuck in these fields was a

common sight.

Splitting of herds resulted when the herds

were subjected to heavy stress, particularly by

cultivators who chase blackbuck when they

locate them near their fields. This driving also

would result in a small group joining another

in an adjacent area thus forming a larger herd.

This was a common sight at all seasons.

Turning to the changes in the herd compo-

sition seasonally, it is clear that mixed herds

were the most common. A large proportion of

the pseudo-harems were observed during sum-

mer season compared with other seasons. This

could not, however, be assigned to the peak of

breeding activity as summer was just the start-

ing time of establishment of territory by the

territorial males, and hence this point is diffi-

cult to explain. The increase in the bachelor

herds from summer to winter through mon-

soon, however, resulted mostly due to driving

of bachelor males by the territorial males from

their territories to have more access to the

females.

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. J. V. Ramana Rao

for the guidance for my Ph.D. dissertation and

his encouragement throughout the period of

study. Acknowledgements are due to the Head,

Department of Zoology, Osmania University,

Hyderabad for providing necessary field equip-

ment and for his keen interest in the present

work. I am thankful to the Andhra Pradesh

Refer

Cary, E. R. (1976): Territorial and reproductive

behaviour of blackbuck ( Antilope cervicaprd). Ph.D.

dissertation, Texas A & M University, College Sta-

tion, Tex. (Unpubl.) 220 p.

Mungall, E. C. (1978) : The Indian Blackbuck

Antelope: A Texas View. Kleberg Studies in Natu-

ral Resources. The Texas A & M Univ., System,

College Station, Texas. 184 p.

Mungall, E. Q, Patel, B. H., Prasad, N.L.N.S.,

AND Dogherty, S. E. (1981) : Conservation and

Forest Department for the cooperation ex-

tended during the course of field work. I have

greatly benefited from the discussions with

Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Dr. N. V. Joshi, Dr.

S. N. Prasad, and Mr. P.V.K. Nair of the

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. I grate-

fully acknowledge the financial assistance pro-

vided by the President, F.R.I. & Colleges,

Dehra Dun in the form of a Junior Research

Fellowship.

EN CES

Management of the Indian Blackbuck Antelope

( Antilope cervicapra ) — A Final Report. U. S. Fish

and Wildlife Service Sept. 1981 (Unpubl.) Ill p.

Prasad, N. L. N. S. & Ramana Rao, J. V. (1984):

Evaluation of habitat structure of blackbuck ( Anti-

lope cervicaprd) in Andhra Pradesh with special

reference to Mudmal and its relevance to beha-

viour. Geobios 11: 17-21.

Smith, R. L. (1980): Ecology and Field Biology.

Harper and Row Publ. New York. 835 p.

554

THE FORMER DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN

RHINOCEROS ( RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS) IN INDIA

AND PAKISTAN1

L. C. Rookmaaker2

The existence of the rhinoceros in prehistoric times is known from different sites in

the Indus valley of Pakistan, and in the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar and possibly Karnataka. There are written and pictorial records

testifying to the occurrence of the animal in those regions of India and Pakistan

at least until the 16th century. The species concerned is the Indian rhinoceros,

Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 1758.

Introduction

Three recent species of rhinoceros are known

to have occurred in parts of the Indian sub-

continent. The double-horned Sumatran rhino-

ceros {Dicer orhinus sumatrensis) was reported

from Assam and some regions bordering on

Burma before 1880. The Javan rhinoceros

( Rhinoceros sondaicus) was known definitive-

ly from the Sunderbans area of Bangladesh

and has been said to exist as far north-west

as Assam and Sikkim. The Indian rhinoceros

( Rhinoceros unicornis) has been recorded in

Assam, Nasirabad, Sylhet and Cachar (Rook-

maaker 1980). It is still present in various re-

serves in N. E. India and in Nepal. The

rhinoceros also once inhabited other parts of

India and Pakistan, as described by Shebbeare

(1953: 142): “[it] inhabited the sub-Himala-

yan tract during prehistoric times, the western

limits of its range retreating from Peshawar,

in the days of Babur (1505-1530), to Rohil-

khand (the Barelli district) in the mid-19th

century and the Nepal terai during the present

1 Accepted October 1982.

2 Dokter Guepinlaan 23, 4032 NH Ommeren

(Gld.), The Netherlands.

century.” The distribution of the rhinoceros

in Pakistan and India outside the N.E. pro-

vinces until the 16th century and its retreat —

the last record as far west as the Philibit dis-

trict near the Nepal border dated from 1876

— has been reviewed or mapped by Lydekker

(1907: 30), Guggisberg (1966: 135), Seshadri

(1969: 92) and Mukherjee (1963: 45-47,

1974:339-341). Usually, these records have

been assumed to pertain to R. unicornis, but

the animals rarely have been identified as R.

sondaicus. Recently, there have been proposals

to translocate Indian rhinoceroses from Assam

to other areas within their former range. The

first pair to be translocated arrived in the Lai

Sohanra National Park in Pakistan on 23

March 1982 (Nawaz 1982), while other ani-

mals are supposed to be sent to Dudwa

National Park in U.P. soon (Baidya 1982).

In view of these plans, it is evidently im-

portant to establish the former limits of the

range of the rhinoceros as accurately as pos-

sible. In this paper I shall review all available

data concerning the distribution of the rhino-

ceros in Pakistan and India (west of Assam).

These will be divided in the information on

the fossil specimens found in this region, and

the literary and iconographic sources dating

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

from the 14th to the 17th century. The specific

identity of this rhinoceros will also be discuss-

ed. Many sources have been quoted extensively,

because many are only available with great

difficulty to zoologists and because it is useful

to compare them all in one place.

Prehistoric Records

Rhinoceros remains have been discovered in

prehistoric sites in several Indian states. Picto-

rial representations possibly dating from the

same period add localities in Pakistan and in

Bihar. Few of the fragmentary remains have

been described in detail and their identification

as R. unicornis often has been taken for grant-

ed. Guerin (1980) presented extensive descrip-

tions with measurements of the post-cranial

skeletons of the five living species of rhino-

ceros. He observed that specific differences,

either qualitative or quantitative, could be

found in almost all bones. More specifically.

R. sondaicus resembled R. unicornis osteologi-

cally, but they could be distinguished by size,

proportions and other qualitative criteria

(Guerin 1980: 74). It may be insufficient to

compare specimens on paper only, and hazar-

dous to presuppose the same size in prehistoric

and recent specimens of the rhinoceros.

Nevertheless, I shall compare the published

descriptions of the fossil bones found in India

with the analyses by Guerin (1980). The loca-

tions and ages of the different sites were taken

from the publications describing the rhinoceros

fragments.

Pakistan

Harappa

(Sihawal district on Ravi river; 2500-1500 b.c.)

Prashad (1936: 31) described a fragment

of a right scapula. The stated measurements

(length c. 470 mm, maximum width c. 250

mm) are larger than those of R. sondaicus

(Guerin 1980: 77). This points at R. unicornis

(Prashad 1936, Roberts 1977: 159, Nath

1968: 18).

Mohenjo Daro

(Indus valley; c. 3000 b.c.)

Several seals and pottery objects represent-

ing a rhinoceros were found in Mohenjo Daro

(Marshall 1931, I: 72, 205, 348, 353, II: 387).

The animal is sometimes depicted “standing

over a manger-like object” possibly indicating

its keeping in captivity (Marshall 1931, I:

348), while to Conrad (1968: 253) this sug-

gested worship of the rhinoceros. Marshall

(1931, I: 348) thought that the species must

have been well-known to the people judging

“from the frequency with which it is repre-

sented, and it was, therefore, likely to have

been found in the close vicinity of Mohenjo

Daro.” Brentjes (1978: 159) identified the

animals on the seals as R. unicornis.

India

Rajasthan

Kalibangan

(Ganganagar district; 3500-400 b.c.)

Banerjee & Chakraborty (1973) reported

the discovery in 1965 of four bone fragments

referred to R. unicornis : a left tibia (distal

diameter 125 mm), a right humerus (distal

diameter 126 mm), a first phalanx of the 4th

metatarsal, and a 3rd metatarsal of the right

foot (length 190 mm). In all cases, the mea-

surements are larger than those of living R.

sondaicus and compare better with those of

R. unicornis (Guerin 1980: 126, 79, 147; see

Nath 1969: 107).

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INDIAN RHINOCEROS IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN

Gujarat

Langhnaj

(23° 47'N, 72° 25 'E; pre-pottery phase)

Zeuner (1952:130-131) gave details about

a left scapula (length 430 mm) which showed

traces possibly indicating its use as an anvil

by a microlith-maker. To Zeuner, “its charac-

ters agree with the species Rhinoceros uni-

cornis, though the teeth found at Langhnaj

suggest the possibility that a sub-species occur-

red in Gujarat which is not identical with the

surviving Nepal and Bengal races.” There is

no evidence substantiating this suggestion (see

Sankalia & Karve 1949).

Clutton-Brock (1965: 9-10) mentioned more

remains from Langhnaj: a left scapula (width

of the neck 128, 6 mm), a right humerus, a

talus, and a fragment of a molar tooth. The

scapula and talus were referred to R. unicor-

nis, while the other fragments were too damag-

ed to allow proper identification.

Kaneval

(20 km N.W. of Cambay or Khambat;

8000-1200 B.c.)

Momin et al. (1973) reported some rhino-

ceros fragments found in different sites around

Lake Kaneval: 3 (partial) cervical vertebrae

and the proximal end of a tibia. The vertebrae

are illustrated (Momin et al 1973: figs. 2, 3),

but these bones do not present specific charac-

teristics (Guerin 1980: 74). Momin et al

(1973: fig. 1) figured the tibia, without des-

cription although suggesting its use as an anvil.

Siwalik Hills

During the last century, fossilized rhinoceros

remains were found in several deposits in the

Siwalik hills and others of similar age (rang-

ing from miocene to lower pleistocene). They

were assigned to several (new) taxa:

Rhinoceros indicus [ -unicornis ] fossilis

Baker & Durand, 1836: 493;

Rhinoceros platyrhinus Falconer & Cautley,

1847, pis. 73-75;

Rhinoceros palaeindicus Falconer & Cautley,

1847, pis. 73-75;

Rhinoceros sivalensis Falconer & Cautley,

1847, pis. 73-75;

Rhinoceros perimensis Falconer & Cautley,

1847, pis. 73-75;

Rhinoceros namadicus Falconer, 1868, I:

157ff., 513;

Rhinoceros namadicus Lydekker, 1876 (not

of Falconer).

Many of these forms were described in detail

by Lydekker (1881, 1884: 82-83, 1885: 61-65,

1886), who synonymized his own R. namadi-

cus from the Nerbudda valley with R. uni-

cornis in 1886. The relation of these taxa to

the recent species of Rhinoceros and to each

other, whether (near-) identical or not, whether

ancestral or not, has to my knowledge not been

clarified sufficiently. ITeissig (1972) recently

described some ancient fragments from the

lower and middle Siwalik-deposits as Rhino-

ceros ( Rhinoceros ) aff. sivalensis, R. (Gain-

datherium) browni, R. (G.) vidali, Didermo-

cerus aff. sumatrensis (one P2) and Eurhino-

ceros sondaicus (one P1 and one P2). Guerin

(1980: 168, 170) questioned the last two iden-

tifications as the material was very old and

very limited.

As a neontologist and taxonomist, I was

surprised at Heissig’s use of Eurhinoceros as a

full genus with the species sondaicus. R. uni-

cornis is said to be the type-species of

Rhinoceros Linnaeus, 1758 and R. sondaicus

that of Eurhinoceros Gray, 1867 [=1868]. Gray

(1868) divided the genus Rhinoceros into two

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 80

subgenera: typical Rhinoceros with R. steno-

cephalus, and Eurhinoceros with R. javanicus

[-sondaicus], R. unicornis, R. nasalis and R.

floweri. This too is a rather curious classifica-

tion which, however, does not concern us at

present. It would seem that Heissig’s inter-

pretation of Eurhinoceros would need further

clarification.

Uttar pradesh

Mirzapur petroglyph

A rock drawing in the “Ghormangur rock-

shelter near the fortress of Bidyergurh in the

Mirzapur district” is described and illustrated

by Cockburn (1883). It shows a single-horned

rhinoceros surrounded by hunters, but its iden-

tity is not clear (Bhaduri et al. 1972: 404,

Rookmaaker 1980: 258).

Banda

Cockburn (1883) found some fragmentary

rhinoceros bones “in the ravines of the Ken

river, 2 miles due south of the town of Banda”

which he tentatively assigned to R. unicornis.

Bihar

Chirand

(Saran district; c. 1700 b.g, neolithic)

Nath (1976) reported 4 fragments: a left

humerus, upper molar tooth, left tibia and

ulna. The bones are not described, but referred

to R. unicornis.

Madhya pradesh

No material has been discovered in this

state. Sagreiya (1969: 718) concluded that if

the rhinoceros ever “did occur in parts of

Madhya Pradesh, [it] disappeared before the

Aryans arrived.”

South India

Lydekker (1880) described a single M3 from

the alluvium of Madras as R. unicornis (see

Hooijer 1946: 84). Another specimen found

3J miles N. E. of Gokak, Belgaum district

(Karnataka) was described as Rhinoceros

deccanensis by Foote (1874). It appears pre-

mature to state on the basis of this meagre

evidence, that R. unicornis used to occur in

this part of India, which would allow future

re-introduction (Krishne Gowda 1975-309).

Historical Records

Several medieval Muslim authors wrote

about encounters with the rhinoceros in Pakis-

tan or India (Ettinghausen 1950). The majority

seems to be based on second-hand information,

but those by al-Beruni and Ibn Battuta

deserve further consideration. Several Indian

authors of the 16th and 17th century claimed

to have observed these animals. This evidence

was partly reviewed by Yule & Burnell (1903:

363, 762), Ali (1927) and Rao (1957: 269).

al-Beruni, one of the Muslim authors who

wrote a book about India (c. 1030), gave the

following details:

“The ganda exists in large numbers in India,

more particularly about the Ganges. It is

of the build of a buffalo, has a black scaly

skin, and dewlaps hanging down under the

chin. It has three yellow hoofs on each foot,

the biggest one forward, the others on both

sides. The tail is not long, the eyes lie low,

further down the cheek than is the case

with all other animals. On the top of the

nose there is a single horn which is bent

upwards. The Brahmins have the privilege

of eating the flesh of the ganda. I have my-

self witnessed how an elephant coming

across a young ganda was attacked by it.

558

INDIAN RHINOCEROS IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN

The ganda wounded with its horn a fore-

foot of the elephant, and threw it down on

its face” (Sachau 1910: 203-204).

The author continued about his uncertainty

whether the ganda was in fact the rhinoceros.

Ibn Battuta, an Arab traveller, saw rhinoce-

roses near the Indus river in 1334 as follows:

“After crossing the river of Sind called Banj

Ab, we entered a forest of reeds, following

the tracks which led through the midst of

it, when we were confronted by a rhino-

ceros. In appearance it is a black animal

with a huge body and a disproportionately

large head. For this reason it has become

the subject of a proverb, as the saying goes

Al-karkaddan ras bila badan (rhinoceros,

head and no torso). It is smaller than an

elephant, but its head is many times larger

than an elephant’s. It has a single horn bet-

ween its eyes, about three cubits in length

and about a span in breadth. When it came

out against us one of the horsemen got in

its way; it struck the horse which he was

riding with its horn, pierced his thigh and

knocked him down, then went back into the

thicket and we could not get at it. I saw a

rhinoceros a second time on this road after

the hour of afternoon prayer. It was feeding

on plants but when we approached it, it ran

away. I saw a rhinoceros yet another time

when in the company of the king of India

we had entered a jungle of reeds. The sultan

was mounted on an elephant and we too

were mounted on elephants along with him.

The foot-soldiers and horsemen went in and

beat it up, killed it and conveyed its head to

the camp” (Gibb 1971: 596).

Babur, the Moghul emperor reigning from

1505 to 1530, hunted the rhinoceros several

times. His accounts are quite extensive and

unfortunately too long to reproduce in full.

In February 1519 he wrote:

“I went to hunt rhinoceros on the Sawati

side [Suabi, west of the Indus river] which

place people call also Karg-khana (Rhino-

home). A few were discovered but the jungle

was dense and they did not come out of it”

(Beveridge 1970: 378).

One calf came out and escaped, another died

when the jungle was set on lire. In December

1526, Babur had another encounter with the

animal :

“There was a rhino in a bit of jungle near

Bigram [Peshawar]. ... It took its way

across the plain. Humayun and those come

with him from that side (Tramontana), who

had never seen one before, were much enter-

tained. It was pursued for two miles; many

arrows were shot at it; it was brought down

without having made a good set at man or

horse. Two others were killed” (Beveridge

1970: 451).

When it came face to face with an elephant,

it did not attack but turned in another direc-

tion. A few years later, in March 1529, near

Benares no rhinoceros was discovered (Beve-

ridge 1970: 657). Babur gave a comprehensive

description of the rhinoceros in his list of the

animals of Hindustan:

“This also is a large animal, equal in bulk

to perhaps three buffaloes. ... It has a single

horn on its nose more than 9 inches (qarisch)

long; one of two qarisch is not seen

The rhinoceros’ hide is very thick; an arrow

shot from a stiff bow, drawn with full

strength right up to the arm-pit, if it pierces

at all, might penetrate 4 inches (ailik, hands).

From the sides (qash) of its fore and hind

legs, folds hang which from a distance look

like housings thrown upon it. ... There are

masses of it in the Parashawar and Hash-

nagar jungles, so too between the Sind river

559

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

and the jungles of the Bhira country. Masses

there are also on the banks of the Saru river

in Hindustan” (Beveridge 1970: 489-490).

Sidi Ali, a Turkish admiral of Suleiman the

Great, saw rhinoceroses in northern Pakistan

in 1556 (Yule & Burnell 1903: 762). The

passage is here translated from the French

published by Moris (1826: 201-202):

“We left the city of Pourschewer [Peshawar],

and having happily passed the Koutel

[Kotak], we came to the city of Djouschayeh.

At the Koutel, we saw rhinoceroses ap-

proaching in size the elephant. Those rhino-

ceroses had a horn of two hands length on

the forehead; but it is a fact that those living

in Abyssinia have longer horns.”

Akbar, the 3rd Moghul emperor (1542-1605),

had his memoirs written about 1590. The

rhinoceros was found in the “Sarkar of Sam-

bal”, near Sambhal in Utter Pradesh (Jarratt

1949, II: 285). It is described as follows:

“The rhinoceros is a stupendous creature.

He is twice the size of a buffalo and much

resembles a horse in armour. His feet and

hoofs are like those of an elephant, and his

tail similar to a buffalo’s, and he has a

pastern -joint like a horse. On the point of

his snout he carries a single horn and his

hide is so thick that an arrow will not pierce

it. Of this, breast-plates and shields and the

like are made, and he is bold enough to

charge a man on horse back” (Jarrett 1949,

III: 134).

Jehangir, another Moghul emperor who

wrote his memoirs. In the passage given here

translated by Beveridge, “wolf” is given in-

stead of “rhinoceros” because the latter was

unlikely to live in the region mentioned. This

is questioned by Ali (1927: 861) and Kuhnel

(1941).

“One day I was on an elephant, and was

hunting wolves in Aligarh in the Nuh forest.

A wolf appeared, and I struck it with a

bullet on its face (mana) near the lobe of

the ear. The bullet penetrated for about a

span. From that bullet it fell and gave up

its life. It has often happened in my pre-

sence that powerful (jawanan) men, good

shots with the bow, have shot twenty or

thirty arrows at them, and not killed” (Beve-

ridge 1968, II: 270).

A Portuguese embassy to Muzafar II, King of

Cambaia, was presented with a living rhino-

ceros in May 1514. Its place of capture is not

recorded. It had been kept in Champanel and

was transported to Lisbon via Goa by the

Portuguese. It lived in Lisbon from 20 May

1515 until December 1515, when it was sent

to Pope Leo X in Rome. It drowned on its

way at the Italian coast near Porto Venere in

February 1516 (Da Costa 1937, Rookmaaker

1973: 39-40).

Iconography

There are rather a large number of minia-

tures and other representations depicting

“naturalistic” rhinoceroses made in India bet-

ween 1500 and 1650. Some have recently been

figured, e.g. by Ettinghausen (1950: pis. 21,

30, 32, 33), Brentjes (1969), Lewis et al. (1966:

pi. 23) and Kuhnel (1941: fig. 2). These ani-

mals are undeniably rhinoceroses, but few

would appear to allow further identification.

One such miniature may be mentioned espe-

cially. It shows Jehangir hunting rhinoceroses

and it is dated c. 1600 (kept in O. Sohn-Rethel

collection, Diisseldorf — reproduced by Kuh-

nel 1941, Ettinghausen 1950: pi. 33 and

Brentjes 1969). The identity of this animal is

discussed below.

Discussion

The records of rhinoceroses in India and

Nepal were generally attributed to the Indian

560

INDIAN RHINOCEROS IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN

rhinoceros ( R . unicornis). Blyth (1872: 3107),

however, considered that the length of the horn

and the possibility to penetrate the hide with

arrows mentioned by Babur appeared “tolera-

bly sufficient” to indicate R. sondaicus rather

than R. unicornis. Brentjes (1969) identified

an animal in one of the miniatures showing

Jehangir’s hunt as R. sondaicus inermis. The

animals in this figure look enough like a single-

horned rhinoceros that the appearance of the

animal must have been known. These repre-

sentations, however, were not intended to show

characteristics which would allow us to sepa-

rate the two species of Rhinoceros. The minia-

ture discussed by Brentjes probably is one of

the few which shows the folds naturalistically,

at least at first sight. I believe that this is acci-

dental. There are important differences between

the two specimens in the picture and some

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Ali, S. A. (1927) : The Moghul emperors of India

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1 %.

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folds (anterior shoulder fold and scapular

fold) are missing entirely.

All evidence presented above suggests that

it was indeed R. unicornis which inhabited the

northern part of the Indian peninsula until

relatively recently. In prehistoric times, this

species occurred in parts of Pakistan (Indus

valley) and India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar

Pradesh and Bihar). In the 16th century the

animal was still rather common in appropriate

habitats in N.W. India. There is no reason to

suspect that the Moghul emperors hunted cap-

tive or imported specimens. There are no

records at all for the 17th and 18th centuries.

The rhinoceroses must have disappeared from

many areas during that period. In the 19th

century it was occasionally reported from east-

ern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, and it must have

been quite rare then.

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(2) 7: 3104-3108.

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563

SOME NOTES ON THE ECOLOGY AND STATUS OF

THE ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE INDICATOR

XANTHONOTUS IN THE HIMALAYAS1

S. A. Hussain and Salim Ali2

(With a plate)

Introduction

The family Indicatoridae comprising of four

genera3 ( Indicator , Mdichneutes, Melignomon

and Prodotiscus ) and 11 species occurs in

Africa, India, Burma and Malay archipelago.

Of these, four species of three genera are

exclusive to Africa and a single genus is re-

presented by five species in Africa and one

each in the Indian subcontinent and Malay

archipelago. Of the total 11 species, five are

known to be brood parasites of other species

of birds, while two are suspected to be so in

Africa. Another peculiarity of the family is

the symbiotic relationship of some species with

other animals, and their habit of ‘guiding’ man

to bee hives in Africa.

In a comprehensive monograph based on

earlier literature, personal observations, and

an analysis of the data collected through vari-

ous sources Friedmann (1955) has discussed

the biological considerations of the family

Indicatoridae. His study was mainly prompted

by two aspects of behaviour, namely Symbiosis

and Brood-parasitism. Since these aspects of

behaviour are related to much wider and com-

plicated biological and evolutionary factors it

was imperative that all other aspects relating

1 Accepted August 1983.

2 Bombay Natural History Society, Horbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

3 There has been some difference of opinion

about the number of genera and species. Friedmann

(1974), now recognises 17 species.

to the complete life history of the family be

covered in order to gain a proper insight into

this very interesting and unique family of birds.

Friedmann’s monograph covers almost all

aspects of the biology, zoogeography and eco-

logy of the family and provides an excellent

comprehensive base line of information on

the current status of the family. However, the

monograph, as conceded by the author, is by

no means complete. Information about several

species is either meagre or virtually non

existent. Very little is known of the Himalayan

Orangerumped Honeyguide. Our information

about this bird has been based mainly on some

stray notes published by early naturalists and

casual observations by later ornithologists dur-

ing their surveys.

Background

In 1973 Salim Ali while surveying the avi-

fauna of the eastern Himalayas, discovered

about 20-25 honeyguides feeding on a cluster

of honey combs in central Bhutan. Consider-

ing the observation potential and accessibility

of the area, a trip during the putative breeding

season (April-May) was proposed to obtain

some data on the breeding biology and other

behaviour of the bird. The field trip, initiated

by the Bombay Natural History Society and

financed from the Salim Ali Nature Conser-

vation Fund (SANCF), was planned for

summer 1977. One of us (SAH) spent about

a month-and-a-half from mid May to end

564

ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE IN THE HIMALAYAS

June and again during October the same year

we visited Central and Western Bhutan to

study the honeyguide and survey the area.

This paper is based on the information gather-

ed during the study period as well as on cor-

related data from earlier literature and our

own notes from other parts of the Himalayas.

An attempt is made to substantiate our know-

ledge of some aspects of behaviour and eco-

logy of this species. Considering the limited

scope and potential of the present study, this

paper is intended merely as a preliminary

assessment for a long term investigation which

may be undertaken in future.

Past Literature

The Orangerumped Honeyguide Indicator

xanthonotus was first described by Blyth in

1842 from a specimen obtained at Darjeeling.

Two sub-species have been described in the

subcontinent, apart from the nominate race.

Hume’s radcliffi, was described by him based

on a single specimen collected from Hazara

district in north-west Himalayas, and its vali-

dity has been questioned by later ornithologists

(Ali and Ripley 1970) due to the lack of

supporting material. Ripley (1951) separated

the easternmost population as fulvus based on

two specimens collected by him from Naga

Hills. Apart from these there are only occa-

sional notes published in various journals

(Hume 1873, Stoliczka 1873, Magrath 1909,

Smythies 1949).

No information about eggs, nestlings and

fledglings or authentic records of feeding,

mating, calls and other behaviour is available.

In 1973 we collected eight specimens Odd

and 5 $ $ ) from central Bhutan on 31st Octo-

ber, and recorded as follows: “A sandstone

cliff face c. 80 ft. high, c. 100 ft. square, sheer

above road, almost overhanging it, with c. 15-

20 large active combs of Apis dor sat a at diffe-

rent levels, some very close to one another

others more spaced. On approach to spot, on

turning a bend, 2 sparrow-like birds flew up

from a dry gutter along base of cliff and cros-

sed the path of our jeep showing orange

rump. Examination of cliff revealed 27 /. xan-

thonotus, some chasing one another across the

cliff face — reminiscent of Baya rivals at nest

colony”. Recently Cronin and Sherman (1977)

have reported on an excellent study carried

out by them “over several seasons” in eastern

Nepal.

Taxqnomical Notes

The Orangerumped Honeyguide is of the

size of a sparrow and has perhaps the most

striking colour pattern of all the species of

honeyguides. Another distinguishing feature is

the bill which is small, stout and finchlike.

Description :

Forehead and lores orange. Upper plumage

dark grey washed with a tinge of olive on

mantle and nape. The dark grey feathers of

the primaries and secondaries have pale olive

margins giving an overall streaked effect on

the dorsal side. Deep orange of the rump

extends up to upper back where it is almost

sulphur yellow. Primaries and tail feathers

dark grey. Chin and throat washed with yellow.

Lower plumage pale grey marked with dark

grey streaks.

Female : The yellow of the forehead, chin

and throat less extensive Rump more yellow

than orange, turning into sulphur yellow to

almost iridescent white on the upper back. Rest

like the male.

Subspecific notes :

Hume’s ‘species’ radcliffi was based on a

565

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

specimen collected from Hazara in the extreme

northwest Himalayas. The validity of this race

has not been fully confirmed due to lack of

more specimens. Ali & Ripley (1970) mention

Hugh Whistler seeing this bird on 24th April

1923 at Trinn, Dharmasala, c. 2900 m and

consider it as the last authentic record. How-

ever, Friedmann (1974) mentioned Walter

Koelz’s collection in 1940’s as containing

several specimens of Honeyguides from Garh-

wal (exact locality not specified). The nomi-

nate xanthonotus extends eastwards of the

range of radclifji along Himalayas upto eastern

Bhutan. Recently Ripley (1951) based on two

specimens collected by him from Naga Hills,

separated the population of north-east Hima-

layas and Burma as fulvus. The specimens

differed from nominate race by being smaller

and darker; streaking on the abdomen less

prominent and yellow wash on the forehead

restricted posteriorly. In the absence of com-

parative material the 3 males and five females

collected in 1973 in Central Bhutan may be

considered as nominate xanthonotus.

Ecological distribution :

The Himalayan distribution of the honey-

guide covers a variety of ecozones, from dry

deciduous, sparsely covered rugged mountain-

ous region of north-west through transient

belts of pine and oak to broadleaved tropical

wet evergreen forms of the north-east. The

birds have been observed at various altitudes

ranging from 1500 m to 3500 m. Ripley (1950)

considered them to be altitudinal and seasonal

migrants in Nepal. Elsewhere, discussing the

ecological aspect he suggested that the western-

most population occurs in the coniferous and

dry deciduous open forests while eastern popu-

lation inhabits the dense wet tropical forests

with the population in Nepal adapted to an

intermediate vegetational zone.

Indicator xanthonotus is perhaps distributed

exclusively over a mountainous region. All the

other species including the Malayan I. arc hi -

pelagicus occur from sea level up to about

2700 m. The distribution in Africa is charac-

terised by birds of a species occupying diverse

habitats with each of its subspecies isolated

in a different habitat.

Physiography and vegetation :

The Bhutan Himalayas, unlike Nepal and

Sikkim, have not been explored extensively.

The climatic and vegetational zones are more

or less similar to the Sikkim Himalayas des-

cribed by Salim Ali (1962). However, the

‘chequering’ effect of the overlapping vege-

tational zones is more pronounced here. The

foothills contain dense wet tropical forest and

form an evergreen zone to altitudes upto 2500

m. North of this, roughly between 2000 to

3000 m, lies the deciduous zone and above

3000 m begins the alpine zone. The abrupt

rise of the hills of central Bhutan reaches up

to the Black Mountain range, the main geo-

graphic feature of the area. The range provides

the major barrier to the onslaught of the S-

W monsoon. The ‘chequered’ character of the

vegetation is much in evidence on the rain

shadow area. As one crosses the Gulibrong

Saddle (c. 2300 m) a low pass over the range,

and descends to an altitude of about 840 m.

the dense evergreen forests give way to a dry-

deciduous coniferous zone. This coniferous

vegetation in its turn gives way to broadleaved

forest as one climbs northwards. This irregular

and overlapping vegetation is determined

mainly by the elevation, exposure and climatic

conditions like precipitation and temperature

(Fisher 1971).

Itinerary , Study area and Method :

First trip : May — June 1977

S. A. H. reached Bhutan on 11th May and

566

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Hussain & Ali: Indicator xanthonotus

Plate

Above : Rml sitting on “Perch A”.

Below : “Honey Rock” — a study area in Bhutan. Perches A, B and C (see text).

ORANGERUMPED HONEY GUIDE IN THE HIMALAYAS

immediately proceeded to Batase the Border

Roads camp at Samkhara about 8 km. from

“Honey Rock” — the study site. He stayed

there for about 27 days from 12th May to

8th June and threafter moved north to Mang-

dechu c. 840 m. (8th-9th June), Shamgong —

Khosela, c. 1400 m (10th- 14th) Tongsa-Gyetsa

c. 2500 m — 3400 m (14th- 16th), Bubja c. 2500

m (17th) and then on to Thimphu 2700 m

(20th-25th) over Pele La c. 3900 m and Wang-

diphodrang. From Thimphu short trips were

made to Wangdi over Dochu La c. 3400 m

and Chapcha along Thimphu Chu. A total

of about 600 km were covered in central and

western Bhutan by jeep and on foot.

Second trip : October 1977

We (SA, SAH and Shahid Ali) travelled

from Thimphu to Tongsa via Wandgiphodrang.

Some observations were made at Bubja, about

20 km on the Tongsa-Shamgong road, where

a smaller cluster of beehives above the road

hosted a single territorial male and several

visiting honeyguides. A single mist net was

put up about 50 ft. above the road on the

rock face and a female honeyguide (the first

to be trapped) was ringed. We then moved

on to Batase and carried on our studies from

21st October to 30th October at ‘Honey Rock’.

Study area:

“Honey Rock” c. 1900 m is situated on the

southern side of Gulibrong saddle between 54

and 55 km on the main and only motorable

road passing through central Bhutan, connect-

ing the border town of Gaylegphug with

Tongsa in the interior. There is a cluster of

honeycombs under the overhang of a 80-85

ft. high open cliff face. The rainfall in this area

is very heavy. The terrain is steep and rugged

and contains dense moist evergreen tropical

forest. Vegetation is predominantly Oak

( Quercus , Cyclobalanopsis and Lithocarpus)

and other evergreens characteristic of warm

temperate forests, as well as epiphytes, ferns

and orchids. Along the roadsides shrubs of

Rubus sp. occur patchily. The forest is un-

touched except for a few patches above the

road where there has been some clear felling.

The nearest human habitation is about 4 km

south where Nepali settlers cultivate wheat,

barley and cardamom.

Observations: (May-June 1977)

Due to obvious reasons most of the obser-

vations were carried out at Honey Rock. Wea-

ther conditions greatly hampered observation

consistency and statistical analysis and inter-

pretation of the bionomics and behavioural

patterns is not feasible here due to the lack of

sufficient material. Some novel and exceedingly

interesting aspects of behaviour of /. xanthono-

tus have been reported by Cronin and Sher-

man (loc. cit.) An attempt will be made here

to fill in the gaps and also to comment upon

and discuss their study in the light of the

observations made by ourselves in Bhutan.

During the 1973 visit to this site about 27

birds had been seen in the course of a 2-hour

session. The highest number seen in a day dur-

ing the present study was three birds. One

bird constantly stayed at the rock and was

observed chasing/displaying/mating with birds

visiting Honey Rock. It was obvious from sub-

sequent observations that this bird was a male

holding all the combs at this site as his terri-

tory. Three other sites inspected elsewhere in

Bhutan also contained one resident male each.

The resident male (hereafter Rml) remained

constantly at the site except for brief periods

and when chasing away intruders. Saplings

growing out of the cliff face were used as

perches. Perch A (Plate I) was used most of

567

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

the time. The significance of the various per-

ches used is elaborated under territorial be-

haviour. The earliest activity of the day was

observed at 5.15 a.m. and the last at 7.50 p.m.

when the bird finally settled on the perch A

apparently to roost.

The following notes are mainly based on

the observations made on Rml at Honey Rock.

Call'. Call note chip chip continuously

uttered in flight and also when agitated. The

latter invariably preceded the arrival of an

alien honeyguide.

Flight : Flight is straight and direct. Some

time wheeling and manoevering like a sparrow

when flashes of orange rump are visible. The

flights reminded SA of ‘bayas chasing one

another at a nest colony’. Baker’s (1927)

statement that it has a ‘heavy and dipping flight

like a larger and more clumsy Barbet’ is not

true in the case of the birds studied. Moreover,

unlike most of the barbets and woodpeckers

which have rounded wings, the wings of

Orangerumped Honeyguide are narrow and

pointed and we noticed no undulations in its

flight.

Preening : Preening was observed in detail

on three occasions. The bird commenced pree-

ning soon after a feed at a honey comb. Initi-

ally it wiped its bill on the branch and pro-

ceeded to preen.

First the primaries by fanning out a wing.

Each primary is then nibbled and drawn out

from base to tip. Wing-coverts, upper back

and scapulars are dealt with next by stretch-

ing the head over the shoulder. The process

is repeated on the other wing. The bird then

proceeds to preen the tail feathers, first nibbl-

ing at the base and drawing out each feather.

Head scratching is done by the direct method,

that is, bringing the foot up from under the

wing. Simmons (1961) has suggested that

prior to preening the birds, obtain oil from

preen gland by rubbing the bill over the base

of the tail. In this case the birds did not ap-

pear to obtain any oil from the preen gland.

Since the bird had fed on the wax just before

could it be that it was using the waxy sub-

stance adhering to the bill instead. This aspect

needs investigating.

Characteristic postures :

Most of the time Rml sat on perch A mo-

tionless yet alert. Sometimes it fluffed its body

feathers and ‘squatted’ with wings dropping

at side like a brooding bird. It sat on smooth

branches and avoided damp moss and other

epiphytes. While feeding on the dry flaky

wax of deserted empty combs the bird clung

to the comb with its abdomen and tail pres-

sed against the structure. It pecked at the

comb by stretching the neck forward. After

each peck the bird nibbled the wax in its

beak, as if chewing, before taking the next

mouthful. It moved along the comb in a

series of hops, very much like a sparrow.

Food and feeding habits :

On the first day of observation (12 May)

feeding on the honey comb was not observed

though the bird alighted twice on one of the

combs. However, it was seen sallying up in

the air like a drongo hawking insects. On the

following day it was observed at a rock cre-

vice well above and away from the combs.

It appeared to peck at something by inserting

its head inside the crevice (vegetable matter?)

Feeding at the wax was observed on nine occa-

sions, each feed lasting from a minimum 3

minutes (15 pecks) to a maximum 22 minutes

(82 pecks). Visiting birds were seen on five

occasions (only one bird at a time). The visi-

tors’ feeding was always interrupted by the arri-

val of Rml. The longest time a visiting bird fed

was for about 20 minutes. This bird had

568

ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE IN THE HIMALAYAS

arrived during the resident male’s absence,

(while it was chasing another intruder) and

was not seen feeding at a comb by Rml when

he returned.

The birds fed chiefly on the foundation wax

adhering to the rock. They were not observed

to disturb the bees or attempt to feed from

an active hive. The brown portion of one

particular comb measured about 75 cm long,

about 45 cm wide and about 5 cm thick. The

total estimated area of a fresh comb would

be 75 x 60 x 10 cm, of which 15 per cent

comprised of white foundation wax.

Territorial behaviour :

As mentioned earlier Rml seldom left the

rock site except when chasing off an alien

honeyguide. Every visiting honeyguide was

challenged by the resident male. At the ap-

proach of an intruder, Rml showed consider-

able agitation, by simultaneously flicking his

wings, jerking his body restlessly and calling

continuously. He then shuttled between per-

ches A & B (comb check) occasionally ‘dive

bombing’ the alien, and attempting to mount

(Female?) or chase it away (Male?). On one

occasion, after chasing an alien it flew in a

slow circle in front of the rock uttering a call

chaenp .... chaenp.

Apart from Rml at Honey Rock four other

territorial males were noted at Chablekhola

c. 2000 m (one), Bubja c. 2500 m (two) and

Tongsa c. 2500 m (one). At Chablekhola (6

km north of Honey Rock) the resident male

was observed for about 8 hours. During this

time two alien birds visited and were chased

away by the resident. At Bubja two males held

territories about 50 m apart on a curved rocky

hillside. The two territories were screened from

one another by the jutting curve of the rock.

One held six old combs and two active hives

and the other contained 15 old combs and

10 active hives. About 100 m down hill there

was another spot with 15 active hives but no

old combs. No bird was noticed there. The

birds were observed for about 6 hours and

though they did not leave their respective

territories, no visiting honeyguides were seen.

Display and mating :

It was not clear whether honeyguides have

a regular courtship but some display by Rml

was observed whenever a visiting honeyguide

arrived to feed at the comb. It alighted near

the visitor and started flicking its wings, head

held high with bill pointing upwards, feathers

fluffed and chest held low, the orange of the

rump exposed and conspicuous. The bird

swayed its body from side to side. The entire

procedure was reminiscent of the arrogant dis-

play of cock house sparrow. The resident Rml

then followed the alien all over the comb

continuing the display while the newcomer

either ignored it and continued to feed

(female) or flew away (male?) chased by Rml.

Mating was observed on two occasions. On

15th May Rml twice approached a visiting

bird and started displaying. On the first occa-

sion the visiting bird ignored him and disap-

peared behind comb and fed for about 8

minutes. In the meantime Rml went to perch

B. When the visitor came out to feed on the

upper portions of the comb Rml went up to

it and started the display once again. This

time the visitor (female) also started flicking

the tail, pressed its body and tail down, wings

dropping and neck stretched forward. Rml

attempted to mount but fell back. It mounted

a second time, and copulation lasted for about

\ second. Rml then flew back to perch B while

the female continued to feed and flew away

after 6 minutes.

A second mating was observed the same

day. Two birds arrived at the site. One was

569

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

chased away by Rml while the other sat on

perch B. Rml returned and spotting the alien

sitting on B went and sat alongside and at

once tried to mount by perching on its back

for about 15 seconds wings fluttering, repeated-

ly attempting to copulate. He made a second

attempt to mount but this time both the birds

fell from the perch and spiralled downwards

with their feet locked together. They broke

away about a meter from the ground and sat

on a nearby rock. The visitor then flew away

while Rml went back to perch A.

Other associations’.

Honey Bees : The association of the honey-

guides with the rock bees {Apis dor sat a)

appears to be indirect in so far as the bird

is only interested in the wax of the abandoned

honey combs. While bees tend to ignore the

presence of the honeyguides, the birds did not

appear to molest the active hives. There were

occasional large scale ‘dog fights’ among the

bees apparently belonging to different hives in

the vicinity, and the whole rock face would

be swarming with bees. When this happened

Rml remained motionless on its usual perch.

On several occasions it fed from comb hardly

six inches from an active bee hive without

causing any disturbance to the bees. An inter-

action of rockbees, wasps and the honeyguides

was recorded during the second trip (Hussain

and Ali 1979).

Other species of Birds : Some time was spent

observing the breeding activities of other birds

in the vicinity of Honey Rock. The following

species were noted: Verditer flycatcher

( Muscicapa thalassina ), Himalayan whistling

thrush {Myiophonus caeruleus) (below the

honey combs) : Bluebearded bee-eater {Nycty-

ornis athertoni), all feeding young at nest near

Honey Rock; Greyheaded flycatcher-warbler

{Seicercus xanthoschistos), Chestnutheaded

Flycatcher- warbler (M. castaniceps) , Barbets

Megalaima virens (family parties), M. frank -

lini (excavating nest hole), M. asiatica , Chest-

nutbellied Rock Thrush {Monticola rufivent-

ris), Sibia Heterophasia capistrata, Greywinged

Blackbird T urdus boulboul, the Woodpecker

( Picus flavinucha, Dendrocopos canicapillus

and Blythipicus pyrrhotis), Sipahi Finch

Haematospiza sipahi, Dipper Cinclus pallasi,

Forktail Enicurus maculatus and Grosbeak

Coccothraustes melanozanthos.

It was not possible to ascertain whether the

honeyguides were in any way directly associat-

ed with these birds. The resident male (Rml)

was occasionally chased by a pair of Drongos

{Dicrurus sp.) that visited the rock to hawk

small insects. When this happened Rml

abandoned its usual perches and sat on the

trees on the periphery of the rock. It generally

tolerated other small species of birds near its

perch. Once it chased a pair of Red winged

Shrike-babblers {Pteruthius flaviscapis) that

ventured too close to perch A.

Other Vertebrates :

A troop of Rhesus ( Macaca assamensis)

were observed among the trees above Honey

Rock in the evening at about 6.30 on 6th June.

They were preparing to roost on the trees

overhanging the rock and the resident male

honeyguide was very much alarmed by the

activities of the monkeys. It flew in front of

the rock calling repeatedly and avoiding its

usual perches, sat on trees on either side of

the rock, all the time flicking its wings agita-

tedly. It finally settled for the night on a

branch well away from the rock at about 7.15

p.m. The troop was still there when I (SAH)

reached the place next morning at 5.15. The

bird was not seen at the site till 7 a.m. three

years ago His Majesty’s government passed a

law banning extraction of honey. That most

570

ORANGERUMPED HONEY GUIDE IN THE HIMALAYAS

Table 1

* the beehives were glassed from a distance of 1000 mts, and the birds were seen.

571

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

of the old honey combs at the rock stand

untouched could be explained by this fact.

However, a considerable area above and be-

side Honey Rock has been disturbed owing

to clear felling of the forests.

Survey

Efforts were made to locate as many honey

comb sites as possible. Enquiries made with

the Forest Department, Border Roads Organi-

sation and local people revealed several such

spots in central and western Bhutan. Some

of the areas were not accessible owing to the

adverse weather conditions. Those investigated,

together with further information gathered

elsewhere in the Himalayas, are listed in Table

1, also see Hussain 1978.

Observation October-November 1977

Mist netting and Marking :

During the second trip efforts were made to

capture and mark the birds. Cronin and Sher-

man (1977) had successfully colour-ringed

honeyguides in Nepal by luring them to pieces

of honey combs placed near a mist net. We

put up a single net at Bubja on a steep rock

cliff among the clumps of bushes, about 30 ft.

above the base of the rock. Though no bait

was offered a single 9 was trapped in the net

after an hour’s operation. Subsequently we

operated two nets at Batase, sometimes baited

with wax, and captured and ringed 12 honey-

guides (see Table 2).

Behaviour :

There appeared to be a marked increase in

the number of honeyguides observed during

this period than in May- June. On the first day

of our observations at Honey Rock, 20 honey-

guides were seen within a period of 8 minutes.

The territorial male Rml, (Was he the same

as in May- June?) seemed to be under con-

siderable stress from visiting alien birds. About

Table 2

Indicator xanthonotus ringed in Bhutan 1977

* Colour of feet greenish, general body moult.

572

ORANGERUMPED HONEYGUIDE IN THE HIMALAYAS

14 active hives were present and the number

of old combs appeared to have decreased

greatly. Considering the fact that 25 birds were

counted in 2 hours in October ’73 and about

the same number in October ’77 and only a

few were seen in May-June (though old combs

were a plenty) it was apparent that there may

be some kind of seasonal movement of the

honeyguide population. One of the factors that

perhaps contributed to the concentration of

birds in October-November may be scarcity

of food elsewhere. It is possible that the old

combs were washed away during the rainy

season (June-Sept.) Competition for a few

available old combs is intense in winter. This

fact was borne out by our observation in Oct.-

Nov. The resident male at Honey Rock was not

only under constant pressure but also appeared

to be unable to ward off the intruding birds

from his territory. Far too many birds challen-

ged his ‘ownership’ of the combs for the terri-

torial male to defend such a large area. Thus

not only the defended territory decreased but

the male was actually forced to tolerate more

aliens near his territory.

The intensity of activity around the rock

was maximum during early morning and late

evenings when the rock was in the shade. As

the day advanced and larger areas of the rock

became exposed to sunlight the honeyguide

activities slowed down. Activity patterns of

the honeyguide were studied from 7.45 a.m.

to 4.15 p.m. each day five days consecutively,

from 21st to 25th October. During this period,

movements of the Rml and his interactions

with other honeyguides were noted. A total of

45 hours observation was made. On several

occasions the honeyguides were seen hawking

flying insects. Feeding on the comb by Rml

was observed minutes 35 pecks to 4\ mt./

1045 pecks).

Summary

The study was mainly an explorative investi-

gation and its limited scope does not allow

for a comprehensive interpretation of the data

gathered.

Food Resources :

Bees wax appeared to be the main food

source for the honeyguide in Bhutan. The

birds fed on the white foundation of abandon-

ed honey combs. They also took insects, but

not honey bees or their larvae, or the honey

itself. They were also observed to feed on

some vegetable matter. Cronin and Sherman

(loc. cit.) mention about the wax eating habit

of /. xanthonotus in Nepal. They also report

honeyguides taking insects and vegetable mat-

ter. The digestibility and nutritional value of

bees wax has been discussed by Friedmann

(loc. cit.) Cerophagy or wax eating among

the honeyguides cannot essentially be a con-

genital trait of the family Indicatoridae, since

many species of African honeyguides are

brood parasitic on frugivorous birds like

barbets which raise thier own young mainly

on insects and fruits. There would be little

chance of the fosterling surviving if its main

food in the nestling stage was wax. At what

stage of their life history the birds acquire the

wax-eating habit? and how? needs to be

studied. The importance of honey combs on

the reproductive behaviour of the Himalayan

Honeyguide as noticed by us during this study,

tends to support the novel interpretation of

Cronin and Sherman who have termed their

mating system as “Resource-based non-harem

polygyny” (loc. cit.). The male holds a bees’

comb, or group of combs, as his territory

throughout the year and mates with all recep-

tive females that visit it to feed during the

573

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

breeding season. These may total up to 20 or

more. Males without a territory apparently

seldom get a chance to mate.

As mentioned earlier, there is heavy con-

centration of honeyguides during winter

months leading to intense competition for

limited food resources. This in a way con-

firms Ripley’s comments (loc. cit.) that there

is some altitudinal ‘migration’.

The present study indicates that the Orange-

rumped honeyguide is not so rare in the Hima-

layas as heretofore believed. However, some

thought has to be given to its preservation

because of its highly specialised feeding habits.

Refer

Ali, Salim (1962): Birds of Sikkim. Oxford

University Press.

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1970) : Handbook

of the birds of India and Pakistan Vol. 4. Oxford

University Press.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1927): The Fauna of Bri-

tish India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds. —

Vol. IV. Taylor & Francis, London, p. 132.

Cronin, Jr., E. N., & Sherman (1977); A resour-

ces based mating system. The Orangerumped honey-

guide. Living Bird, pp. 5-32.

Fisher, F. (1971) : Bhutan — The importance of

forest for a continuous development of human

ecology in the high mountainous region. Institute

of Sylviculture, Zurich, Switzerland. Translation into

English by Huber, 1976.

Friedmann, H. (1955): The Honeyguides. U.S.

Nat. Mus. Bulletin, p. 208.

(1974) : The Asian Honey-

guides. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (3) : 426-432.

Hume, A. O. (1873) : Notes. Indicator xanlhono-

tus. Stray Feathers Vol. 1, pp. 313-315.

Hussain, S. A. (1978): Orangerumped Honey-

and steps taken to prevent overexploitation of

the wild honey potential with expanding “deve-

lopment” over most of its habitats.

Acknowledgements

The Royal Government of Bhutan very

kindly gave us permission for this study, and

extended all help during our stay in the coun-

try. The Forest Department of the Kingdom

extended transport facility for the survey

around Thimphu. The Border Roads Organi-

sation considerately provided transport, board-

ing and lodging throughout their network.

E n ce s

guide in the Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75:487.

Hussain, S. A. & Ali, S. (1979): Beehive pre-

dation by Wasps (Genus Vespa ) and its possible

benefit to honeyguides (Indicatoridae) in Bhutan,

ibid. 76:159.

Magrath, H. A. F. (1909) : Bird notes from

Murree and Galis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19:

142-145.

Ripley, S. D. (1950): Birds from Nepal 1947-49.

ibid. 49(3): 355-417.

(1951): Notes on Indian Birds

IV-Some recently collected birds from Assam.

Post ill a No. 6.

Simmons, K. E. L. (1961): Notes scratching in

Birds. Ibis, Vol. 103A, pp. 37-49.

Smythies, B. E. (1949) : A reconnaissance of

the N’Mai HKA drainage, Northern Burma, ibid.

Vol. 91, pp. 627-648.

Stoliczka, F. (1873) : Letter on anatomy of In-

dicator xanthonotus. Stray Feathers, Vol. 1, pp.

425-427.

574

BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS —

SOUTH GUJARAT1

With notes on nests found and Breeding Recorded

&

Some new observations

S. G. Monga and Rishad K. Naoroji

Introduction

The Rajpipla forests, once the hunting pre-

serve of the Maharaja of Rajpipla, lie in S.E.

Gujarat at the western extremity of the Satpura

range in Central India (21° 50'N, 73° 30'E),

and comprise the highland area of the Satpura

mountain range between the Tapti and the

Narmada rivers. These forests fall into the

tropical semi-evergreen and tropical moist

deciduous types. The town of Rajpipla, which

also was the capital of the former princely

state, lies just beyond the northern edge of

the Satpuras on the banks of the river Karjan

(a tributary of the Narmada), a few kilo-

metres before it meets the Narmada. This forest

range once abounded in game and was parti-

cularly famous for its tigers. Many a celebrat-

ed guest of the Maharaja has bagged his tiger

here. Today there are none or few tigers, which

sometimes stray in from the nearby MP border.

We saw a few barking deer, wild dogs, wild

boar and observed tracks of hyena, jackal,

leopard and sloth bear.

Though some areas of these forests have

been opened up due to logging operations,

they still support a large variety of birdlife.

It has been observed that the void created

by the clearing of forests and their subsequent

1 Accepted March 1983.

replacement by agricultural activities has creat-

ed habitat more suitable for openland and

grassland birds. There also are biotopes of

semi-evergreen moist deciduous forests and

ample forests of bamboo and it is in

such patches that we observed some species

of birds which have hitherto been unrecorded

in Gujarat. More about this later. However,

we noticed that in most areas, the forests are

being severely depleted due to logging and it

is only hoped that the planned sloth bear sanc-

tuary in the Piplod area will be implemented.

Our main idea of visiting these forests was to

investigate the possibility of photographing

various species of birds of prey and to record

their nesting habits and behaviour. But as our

observations and notes in the course of sub-

sequent visits have revealed in these forests,

the presence of several species of birds which

do not appear to have been previously record-

ed north of the Tapti river, and some of these

are additions to the Gujarat ornithology. Some

of these birds are: Hemicircus canente, Cop-

sychus malabaricus, Zoothera citrina, Nectari-

nia zeylonica, Cuculus micropterus, Acrido-

theres fuscus, Myiophonus horsfieldii, Motacilla

indica, Pycnonotus jocosus and possibly Nec-

tarinia minima.

The presence of some of these birds in the

Rajpipla forests at the western end of the

Satpura mountains, provides good evidence to

575

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

the Satpura hypothesis explained by Dr. S. L.

Hora. The Satpura hypothesis postulates that

the Satpura-Vindhya trend of mountains,

stretching across India, was once more elevat-

ed and moister than now, and with a more

temperate climate. It was continuous with the

Assam hills in the east and with the northern

end of W. Ghats in the west, and thus served as

a causeway for spread of specialized Hima-

layan flora and fauna to the S. Indian hills and

to Sri Lanka.

We actually found over 50 species of birds

breeding in the forests and in the surrounding

areas. Many of these are new breeding records

as several birds have not been previously

found breeding in Gujarat and in the con-

cerned area. SGM concentrated his efforts on

making the checklist while RKN concen-

trated on the nesting behaviour of Raptors

We visited the Rajpipla forests on seven

occasions during the last 21 months:

4th June to 14th June 1981 (RKN & SGM)

17th June to 5th July 1981 (RKN & SGM)

1st January to 6th January 1982 (RKN & SGM)

10th May to 12th June 1982 (RKN & Neil Soares)

19th July to 22nd July 1982 (Only SGM)

10th December to 13th December 1982

(SGM & Eric D’Cunha)

21st January to 24th January 1983 (RKN & SGM)

little cormorant ( Phalacrocorax niger)

Occasionally seen on the Mozda river. On

21st July 1982, a solitary bird was seen carry-

ing a twig and flying over the forest at Namgir

towards Mozda. There certainly should be a

breeding colony nearby. This cormorant is

quite common on the Narmada river and also

on the Karjan.

little green heron ( Ardeola striatus)

Only once seen behind the mission at Dedia-

pada on 21st July 1982. There was a solitary

bird and close-by were a few Pond Herons.

POND HERON (Ardeola grayii)

Sometimes seen along the Mozda river, at

times even inside the forest. On the evening

of 10th December 1982, one of us (SGM)

when walking along the Mozda river along

with Eric D’Cunha, observed a huge eagle fly

from the tamarisk vegetation on the river-

bed. The eagle was carrying a Pond Heron in

its talons and this it dropped in the water.

This heron was a fresh kill and there was

only a slit running from the throat downwards.

The Pond heron is common along the

Narmada, around Rajpipla town etc.

CATTLE EGRET (BubulcUS ibis)

A common bird. Seen sometimes even in deep

forest clearings and along forest streams. There

is probably a breeding colony near Rajpipla

town.

Large egret ( Egretta alba)

The only place we saw E. alba was in the

vicinity of Wadhwana tank near Dabhoi, about

25 kms. north of the Narmada river.

little egret ( Egretta garzetta)

Whenever we have gone to these forests we

have observed a solitary bird along the

Mozda river. Right from behind the Mozda

ashram to well past Piplod we have seen a

solitary Little egret on the riverbed (a distance

of about 6-7 kms.). This bird has a very pecu-

liar way of procuring its food as it jumps and

ballet-dances over the water and chases small

fish. At times, however, there would be 3-4

little egrets on the riverbed. Observed on Kar-

jan too.

night heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax)

On 21st July, 1982, three birds were seen a

few kilometres from Dediapada. This is the

576

BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS

SOUTH GUJARAT

only occasion we have come across this heron

here. However, we feel it should be more

common in the surrounding countryside. We

have seen it around Chandod near the Nar-

mada and also in the neighbourhood of Dabhoi.

white ibis ( Threskiornis aethiopicd)

Sometimes a few birds would be present at the

water’s edge on the bank of the Narmada

river, occasionally along with Black Ibises.

We did not come across this ibis elsewhere.

black ibis (Pseud ibis papillosa)

Seen in parties of 2-4 birds on the Narmada

river.

BRAHMINY DUCK/RUDDY SHELDUCK

(Tadorna ferruginea )

Two birds were seen on 7th January 1982 on

the Narmada river. Both were at the water’s

edge.

lesser whistling teal (Dendrocygna

javanica)

Over a hundred of these teals were seen on

the Rajpipla side of the Narmada river in

June 1981. Between 3rd-llth June 1981, we

saw these ducks almost everyday. They would

be on the riverbank throughout the after-

noons. Again on 5th July the same year, four

of these ducks were observed on the river.

blackwinged kite ( Elanus caeruleus)

During the years 1981-82, we observed this

kite breeding in the compound of the PWD

rest house (PWDRH) at Dediapada. The birds

were seen copulating on 30th June 1981 and

the following year we saw them mating

on 21st July. While in 1981 June the pair was

busy making its nest in two places on two

different trees (they were taking long thin

twigs and placing them in both the trees and

only in one of these trees was there any struc-

ture which appeared anything like a nest. It

was rather similar to the nest of a crow). In

1982 the first clutch (eggs) of this kite was

destroyed by human interference. During

March- August 1983, RKN frequently observed

this Kite in forests around Mozda and else-

where.

CRESTED HONEY BUZZARD ( Pemis

ptilorhynchus)

In June 1981, a pair of these buzzards were

observed making a nest (24th June) on a

‘timru’ ( Diospyros melanoxylon) tree. The fol-

lowing year, a nest of this bird, with two eggs

in it was found, again on a timru tree on 16th

May. Rather unfortunately, due to reasons yet

unknown to us, a few days later we found

the eggs smashed and the shells were collected

from the burnt ground below the nest-tree.

The eggs were pale creamish in ground colour

with blotches of dark brown.

common pariah kite (Milvus migrans)

Only on two occasions have we seen this bird

flying anywhere around or over forest. It is

hardly to be seen around Dediapada. Gets

commoner as one moves towards Rajpipla

town and is seen in good numbers around

Chandod.

BRAHMINY kite ( Hciliastur indus)

Seen on 22nd July 1982 on the Mozda

river. The bird flew towards the forest.

The only other occasion we ever saw this kite

was near Chandod, not very far from the

Narmada river.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Indian shikra ( Accipiter badius)

Common throughout the forests. In 1981, owing

to our reaching the forests late in the season

(17th June), most of the nests of this hawk

were empty, the nestlings having flown away.

Only one nest contained a full-fledged nestling

on 25th June.

In the following May (1982), several nests

of this hawk were seen and near one of these

nests a hide for photography was built. This

nest contained two downy nestlings and one

addled egg which did not hatch and infact

disappeared from the nest after a few days.

The birds are very common, though less noisy

during the cold season (December).

white-eyed buzzard ( Butastur teesa)

Twice seen around Dediapada in June 1982

and once around Chandod, north of the

Narmada river. Several seen during a drive

from Rajpipla town to Dediapada.

CRESTED HAWK EAGLE ( SpizaetUS

cirrhatus )

There are two huge nests of thick twigs

built on tall ‘haldu’ ( Adina cordifolia) trees

in forest. While at one of these nests we never

observed any bird, at the other and also often

in its vicinity we sometimes noticed S. cirrha-

tus. Our adivasi friend Banga informed us that

these eagles had bred earlier in the year (fini-

shed by about April). The nest at which we

had observed this eagle was found almost in

shambles and completely broken in mid-

December when one of us (SGM) had been

to these forests. This condition of the nest

was due to the cyclone in the first week of

November, according to the adivasis.

bonelli’s hawk eagle ( Hieraaetus

fasciatus)

We have seen this eagle flying over light

forest near Mozda, and settling on a dry

teak tree-top. The multibanded tail with

a dark subterminal broad band and the very

pale underparts streaked on the body and light-

ly banded on the wings coupled with the

absence of any crest were unmistakable.

eagle ( Aquila sp.)

Only once have we seen a large dark brown

eagle (unmistakably an Aquila ) flying over

forest.

INDIAN LONGBILLED VULTURE ( Gyps

indicus)

Seen in the Rajpipla town area once. However

in mid-December SGM and Eric D’Cunha

found this vulture fairly common around

Mozda. An adivasi informed that these big

birds (pointing towards the vultures) nest in

rocks in a big hill in the forest. We wonder

if some G. indicus also breed in the Rajpipla

town area where a large number of G. benga-

lensis were nesting in December- January.

WHITEBACKED VULTURE

(Gyps bengalensis)

Abundant in Rajpipla town and neighbourhood

where on almost every large roadside tree one,

two and even more occupied nests (with nest-

lings) were seen in December and January,

1981-82. Seen often around Dediapada, Mozda,

and also flying over forest. Common also north

of the Narmada river.

WHITE SCAVENGER VULTURE

(Neophron percnopterus)

Sometimes seen in Rajpipla town and in the

neighbourhood. Seen also at Dediapada and

once along the Samot road in forest behind

Mozda. One of us (RKN) saw it once at

578

BIRDS OF THE RAJP1PLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

Namgir in forest. SGM found it breeding in

the first week of May near Baroda.

marsh harrier ( Circus aeruginosus)

A solitary bird seen near the PWDRH at

Dediapada and once near Netrang in Decem-

ber 1982. A winter visitor.

crested serpent eagle ( Spilornis cheela)

Undoubtedly the commonest raptor in these

forests. Its keeee .. .he. . . kee calls are fre-

quently and very commonly heard. As many

as five nests of this eagle were found and

checked in June- July 1981. Only two of these

nests were occupied though a third nest

located deep in the forest had an adult eagle

sitting in it. This nest was however, found to

be empty on checking. Out of the two occupi-

ed nests, one at Sankhdi contained a full-fledged

eaglet while the other nest had a week-old

eaglet when first checked on 18th June. This

particular nest was photographed till 4th July

and we presume the eaglet to have left its nest

sometimes in the first or second week of

August.

In 1982, a nest of this eagle was found in

forest around Namgir (where RKN was

camping) on 13th May. This nest was on a

‘sadada’ ( Terminalia foment osa) tree and it

contained one egg when first checked on 13th

May which hatched (presumably) on /around

17th May (Actually RKN first found a tiny

eaglet on 20th May and we only presume it

hatched around 17th May). A machan was built

near this nest which was photographed till

about mid- June. The eaglet at this nest left the

nest on 20th July (SGM).

On 1st June another nest of this eagle, with

a small eaglet in it, was found on a ‘shishum’

(Dal her gi a sisoo ) tree, in forest near Mozda

by Bhanga & RKN. We observed that, espe-

cially around Namgir, the nests of Spilornis

cheela are not located very far from each other

and that most of these nests were on Termi-

nalia tomenfosa trees. Further it was noticed

that this eagle breeds somewhat later here as

compared to other areas. Though in Vol. 4,

of nidification Stuart Baker writes of this

race as breeding from Dec. -March in Travan-

core, Feb-March in Konkan, he also distinctly

mentions that it breeds later (Feb-June)

Northwards, i.e., Maharashtra, Gujarat etc.,

however, we found that in the Rajpipla forests

the breeding season of S. cheela melanotis, in

several cases examined, had extended well past

July. In MP, this eagle breeds in March-May

(Birdlife in Madhya Pradesh, C. E. Hewetson,

JBNHS 53: 630). Thus we feel safe to state

that the breeding season of S. cheela melanotis

in the Rajpipla forests on the Satpura Range

in South Gujarat is around mid-April-May to

July- August.

kestrel (Falco tinnunculus )

Seen at Dediapada once on 10th Dec. 1982.

painted partridge ( Francolinus pictus)

SGM recalls having heard this partridge in

scrub around Dumkhal.

jungle bush quail (Perdicula

asiatica)

On more than two occasions a small flock of

quails flew off with a whirr from almost under

our feet. The birds flew off from thick grass

and landed on a forest path nearby and im-

mediately moved into the surrounding grass

cover. We also came across such small flocks

of quails in forest around Juna-Rajpipla and

around Piplod and Dumkhal. Except on one

occasion we never quite managed to get a

good glimpse of the quails inorder to correctly

identify them. Only once were P. a. asiatica

observed very clearly for a brief period on a

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

forest path. The small party consisted of two

males and five females.

red spurfowl ( Galloperdix spadicea)

Though we never saw these birds we recogniz-

ed their calls on a couple of occasions. Some

adivasis when shown pictures of this bird

recalled having hunted this spurfowl occa-

sionally.

RED JUNGLEFOWL ( Gallus gallus)

On the morning of 22nd June, 1982, SGM

saw this Junglefowl in deep forest a few kilo-

metres behind Namgir. It was raining lightly.

There were two females alongwith one male

and they were observed from hardly about

60-75 feet away with binoculars. It was actual-

ly when some drab coloured ground birds

crossed SGM’s path that his attention was

first drawn towards them. The birds moved

into a somewhat open clearing and were im-

mediately followed by a male Red Junglefowl.

When SGM first saw the two females it was

clearly noticed that they were appreciably

different from the females of Grey junglefowl

which SGM has often come across in the

Borivli National Park in the neighbourhood of

Bombay. These two females lacked the black

and white markings of the G. sonneratii female.

Hardly had the females been observed for a

few seconds when a male Red junglefowl

appeared into the open. Both the females and

the solitary male disappeared into the forest

soon. For some time the birds were preening

and the drab females and the colourful male

were close to each other. It is quite unlikely

that these were domestic fowls, because the

nearest adivasi hamlet was only Namgir (our

camp -site) and the few domestic fowls that

the adivasis keep would certainly not venture

so many kilometres deep into the forest for

they normally keep to the adivasi huts. More-

ever, SGM on later having a look at all the

fowls of the advasis was convinced that it was

not any of the domestic fowls that had strayed

so far in the forest.

Incidentally, when SGM returned back to

Bombay and checked Vol. 2 of handbook of

THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTANS by Salim

Ali & S. D. Ripley, he was surprised to note

that almost a hundred years ago the Red Jun-

glefowl had been observed in the Rajpipla hills

(exact area not mentioned) by Jerdon.

Ripley in ‘synopsis’ mentions the occurrence

of G. g. murghi in the Gujarat Satpuras.

grey junglefowl ( Gallus sonneratii)

This bird is much persecuted by the local

adivasis and it is only rarely that one can pos-

sibly see this junglefowl in the forest. In the

course of six visits by us, we have managed to

see this bird only twice. Even its calls are

rather uncommonly heard. No evidence of

breeding.

common peafowl (Pavo cristatus )

North of the Narmada river in the dry ravine

countryside around the Narmada at Chandod

the Peafowl is extremely common, and very

tame too.

South of the Narmada it is for less common.

In the forests it is less common still. Here we

have more often heard it, particularly on rainy

nights when the calls of this bird and those

of Cuculus mlcropterus are frequently heard.

We have only three actual sightings of the

Peafowl in forest. An adivasi informed us of

having found eggs of P. cristatus in heavy

undergrowth in August.

Strangely, we noticed that the peahen is

hunted by the adivasis while the cock is spar-

ed owing to religious sentiment.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

WHITEBREASTED WATERHEN

( Amaurornis phoenicurus)

Common on the Mozda river, seen sometimes

even along deep forest streams. Occasionally

seen along the river on Samot road. Often

around Dediapada, particularly in the neigh-

bourhood of the PWDRH compound. Breeds

during the rains. A nest found in July (21st)

in a dense bush on the Mozda riverbed con-

tained two eggs. Calls of this bird heard ad

nauseum.

RED-WATTLED LAPWING ( V atiellus itldicUS )

An adivasi reported a nest of this bird con-

taining two eggs in May 1982. This was on

the stony bed of a forest stream and when

checked later both the eggs had been taken

by someone. A few pairs of this lapwing are

always to be seen on the stony bed of the

Mozda river and of the other forest streams

which are dry for most part of the year except

during the rains. Occasionally this plover is

seen on paths in thick forest too and it is

one of the few openland birds that has settled

in good numbers in forest clearings and in

croplands right in the middle of deep forest.

It is often seen around Dediapada and all

around in the open wastelands and cultivated

countryside.

It is however, around the Narmada river

and north of this river that V. indicus happens

to be a very common bird and here we found

several nests in June. Most of these nests had

clutches of four eggs each while one contained

only three eggs.

grey plover ( Pluvialis squat arola)

A bird of the seashore and marshes, naturally

SGM was surprised when he saw this bird

on the Mozda river (at Mozda) on 10th Dec-

ember 1982 when birding alongwith Eric

D’Cunha. The white upper tail and rump and

a whitish wing bar, in flight the black axillaries

on the wing underside, the greyish plumage

and the typical plover beak were unmistak-

able.

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER ( ChamdrillS

dubius)

The two races, C. d. jerdoni and C. d. curo-

nicus are difficult to be distinguished in the

field. A small flock of 11 birds was seen on

a rainy morning (21st July 1982) on the

Mozda riverbank. We found this plover com-

mon on the Narmada banks, on the sandy and

stony shore of this river where the birds were

breeding in May- June. A nest was found on

5th June. It contained one egg and two just

hatched young birds. It was very hot in the

afternoon when SGM found the nest and the

adult birds were frequently going towards the

water where they would wet their underside

and come and sit over the egg and the young

birds, certainly because of the intense heat

(it was around 43 °C.). The birds would wet

their undersides every few minutes, by wading

into shallow water and bobbing up and down

to wet their lower body. We put up the machan

about 2 feet from the nest and RKN photo-

graphed the birds for over two hours in the

afternoon. The remaining egg did not hatch.

The eggs and the young of this plover are

almost impossible to locate among the stones

from even as close as one foot distance even

when the nest has been previously spotted.

The young birds on leaving the nest sit tight

in some depression or among stones, lying

flat with their wings spread and are absolutely

impossible to locate.

GREEN SANDPIPER ( Tringa ochropus )

In December 1982, SGM found this sand-

piper common in the area. Almost every stream

581

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

in forest had one or more of this sandpiper

in its vicinity. This dark sandpiper with

its almost squarecut white upper tail is

a lovely sight on a forest stream as it flies

rapidly from somewhere nearby on approach,

with a sharp tin . .tiueet . .tiueet . . .call. The

bird is a winter visitor and we have come

across it on the Narmada too.

WOOD or SPOTTED SANDPIPER

( Tringa glareola)

This sandpiper can be readily distinguished

from the preceding species by its paler upper-

parts and much paler underwing, and the white

on upper tail, squarely cut from the brownish

body. This sandpiper appears to be a less

common winter visitor to the area. We have

seen it only twice around Mozda river. Also

seen on the Karjan, Narmada and also around

Rajpipla town and behind the PWDRIT at

Dediapada.

COMMON SANDPIPER

( Tringa hypoleucos)

Seen near Dediapada in January 1982 and

also on the Narmada river where we once

came across a solitary bird in mid- June.

Appears to be an uncommon winter visitor to

the area. Seen also on Karjan in January 82.

little stint ( Calidris minutus )

A pair of these stints were seen on the Nar-

mada in Jan. 1982. Not observed elsewhere.

blackwinged stilt ( Himantopus

himantopus )

In June and July we have often come across

small scattered parties of this bird on and

around the Narmada river where we have

observed the birds feeding on marshy ground

around the river and at the water’s edge. Dur-

ing these two months we noticed that there

were quite a few immature birds too, thus

suggesting that the birds had finished breeding.

They probably breed on the banks of the

Narmada nearby. Seen also in December-

January.

GREAT STONE PLOVER

( Esacus magnir ostris )

In June 1981, we always saw a pair of these

plovers on the banks of the Narmada river

on its south (Rajpipla) side. The adult birds

were always accompanied by two smaller and

paler birds which were immatures, thus indi-

cating that the plovers breed early in the year,

probably from mid- April to June. The adult

birds, and also the immature birds spend most

of the hot hours of the afternoons sitting tight

among the stones on the riverbank. The birds

hardly move and are very difficult to spot.

SMALL INDIAN PRATINCOLE

( Glareola lactea)

Surprisingly there is no mention of this bird

for Gujarat by Salim Ali in ‘Birds of Gujarat’,

( JBNHS 52; 2, 3 & 4).

On the banks of the Narmada river we found

this pratincole abundant in June 1981. The

birds were always very active, frequently drag-

ging themselves on the sand and many a time

they fooled SGM into believing that they were

breeding. But the breeding season was cer-

tainly well past as was clear by the presence

of so many immature birds which could be

readily recognized by their dark spotted throat

and breast and their upper body which had a

kind of scaly appearance. But what were the

adult birds doing by dragging themselves along

and pushing one another, frequently uttering

a very faint chuk . . . chuk calls or a chirrr . . rit

. . chrr . . rrtt as they would fly above for a

short while ? The birds always seemed to keep

to the broad sandbanks of the Narmada river

and it was clear that they quite disliked the

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BIRDS OF THE RAJP1PLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

stony areas. We failed to come across any of

these birds in winter when, however, we did

not look very carefully on the several miles

stretch of the river on either side as we had

done previously.

whiskered tern ( Chlidonias hybrida)

Occasionally seen on the Narmada river. Seen

also on the Karjan. Appears to be a winter

visitor only.

Indian river tern ( Sterna aurantia)

Comon on the Narmada river in June when

the birds had evidently finished breeding.

There were many immature birds too. The

adult birds were still in their breeding plumage

with their pitch black crown, forehead and

nape. This along with their bright yellow long

pointed beaks, the red legs and the deeply

forked tail makes these terns a sheer treat for

the eyes. The birds evidently breed on the

banks of the Narmada river, on the sandbanks.

green pigeon ( Treron phoenicoptera)

Though none of us actually saw this bird,

Neil Soares who had come to the forests for

a few weeks in May 1982, found a nest of

this pigeon in the compound of the PWDRH

at Dediapada. According to Neil the nest con-

tained two full fledged nestlings on 23 rd May.

He showed the unoccupied and empty nest to

SGM who did not find it to be the characte-

ristically flimsy platform of a few twigs as

has been described. This particular nest was

quite a well constructed affair of thin, dry

twigs and it was surprisingly well concealed

in a thickly foliaged tree, about 8 feet high.

It had a diameter of 10 cm.

blue rock pigeon ( Columba livia)

A few were seen at Piplod and also at Dumkhal

in forest (about 20 and 27 kms. respectively

from Dediapada). At both these places there

are grain storages. A few pairs of these pigeons

were also seen on the bridge along Samot

road where they were apparently nesting on

the underside of the bridge along with a pair

of Hirundo concolor in June and July 1982.

Columba livia gets progressively common to-

wards Dediapada and are present in appre-

ciable numbers in Rajpipla town.

rufous-turtle dove ( Streptopelia

orient alis)

In January 1983 a small party of these doves

seen in forest along Karjan river. A pair was

also seen near Namgir.

Indian ring dove ( Streptopelia

decaocto )

A few scattered flocks alongwith other doves

seen between Rajpipla town and Dediapada

in January 1983. Occasionally, seen around

Chandod north of the river. The nearest that

we found this bird breeding was at Dabhoi in

July 1981. SGM has found it breeding in

good numbers around Baroda in May, June

and January.

red turtle dove ( Streptopelia

tranquebarica)

Seen about 5km from Dediapada on a walk

in dry and open countryside in June (exact

date not recorded) 1982. This is the only

occasion we have come across this dove south

of Narmada. We also saw it north of the

Narmada river and it appears that this dove

distinctly prefers drier and thorny scrub cover-

ed country than other doves. Commoner north

of Narmada.

spotted dove ( Streptopelia chinensis)

This happens to be the common dove of the

area. Often seen along roads in open coun-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

tryside as well as in forest. It also happens to

be the only dove we found breeding in the

forest. Nests with eggs were found near the

ashram at Mozda and also in the neighbour-

hood of the PWDRH at Dediapada in June.

The birds were probably breeding in Decem-

ber too, though no nest could be found.

LITTLE BROWN DOVE

(Streptopelia senegalensis)

South of the Narmada we have come across

this dove in the dry and open country between

the river and Rajpipla town and also around

Karjan. North of the Narmada, SGM remem-

bers finding a nest with one egg at Chandod

which he feels belonged to this species one

of which was calling nearby. The next day

there was still one egg and it seems that the

nest was deserted. We failed to come across

this dove around Dediapada or around the

forest.

LARGE INDIAN /ALEXANDRINE PARAKEET

( Psittacula eupatrio )

Dumkhal, a small adivasi village in the forest

(about 27km from Dediapada) is known for

its large parakeets which breed in the sur-

rounding forests early in the year. The birds

may, however, be seen all along the forests in

small noisy parties, at times even at Dediapada

and even in Rajpipla town. Reportedly caught

and sold for bird markets.

ROSERINGED PARAKEET ( Psittacula

krameri)

Often seen at Dediapada, Rajpipla town and

elsewhere. Seen also in the forest at Mozda,

Namgir, Piplod, and in the surrounding forests.

At Chandod the birds were apparently breed-

ing in June.

BLOSSOM HEADED PARAKEET

{Psittacula cyanocephala )

Often seen and heard in the forests as well as

in the open outskirts of forest. A small flock

was seen in the garden of a hotel in Rajpipla

town. A fairly common bird.

PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

{Clamator jacobinus )

On 21st July 1982, SGM heard these cuckoos

calling incessantly in the forest when walking

along Samot road. The birds were then seen

chasing each other and they were very active,

apparently ready for breeding. The principal

recorded host of this cuckoo and of C. varius,

is the jungle Babbler {Turdoides striatus),

which SGM observed making a nest in the

forest on the very same day.

COMMON HAWK-CUCKOO

{Cuculus varius)

Heard during the rains in forest. Not common.

INDIAN CUCKOO

{Cuculus micropterus)

There is no mention of this cuckoo for Gujarat

in ‘Birds of Gujarat’ {JBNHS 52: 2, 3 & 4),

by Salim Ali. However on going through notes

in the BNHS we found that there is one record

of C. m. micropterus for Gujarat. This is a

specimen collected by Ernest Shull in the Dangs

forests, south of the Tapti river {JBNHS 59:

659). This bird was collected on 14th July

1954, and its ovaries were found enlarged,

thus suggesting that the bird was in breeding

condition and as such breeds in Gujarat for

which there appears to be no further evidence

of the breeding status of this cuckoo.

We found C. m. micropterus fairly common

in the Rajpipla forests north of the Tapti river

where we frequently heard them in June and

584

BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

July. The earliest that we heard the bo-ko-ta-ko

call of this bird is sometime in the first week

of June. This is also the period during which

SGM found nests (with eggs or nestlings) of

Terpsiphone paradisi, Dicrurus paradiseus,

Dicrurus adsimilis and D. caerulescens, and also

of Oriolus xanthornus. These are reported to

be the chief birds in whose nests putative eggs

of C. micropterus are claimed to have been

found (handbook, Vol. 3, Salim Ali & Ripley

S. D.) It thus appears that C. micropterus is

a rains (breeding?) visitor to the area, though

it may occur during the other times of the

year as well when it remains silent and is

thus difficult to see. Here it may be stated

that in the Borivli National Park in the neigh-

bourhood of Bombay SGM when birding along

with Kiran Srivastav saw a solitary C. microp-

terus on 24th October 1982. Little is known as

regards the breeding of this cuckoo. In nidi-

fication. vol. 3, Stuart Baker writes, “no in-

formation has been recorded as regards breed-

ing of C. micropterus, except a possible

connection with drongos and with T. paradisi.

Rev. F. S. Briggs found this bird fairly nume-

rous in the neighbourhood of Mhow, about

200 kms. NE of Rajpipla, in the Vindhya hills

where he recorded them only in June and

July ( JBNHS 35:395).

C. E. Hewetson (JBNHS 53: 627) in ‘Bird-

life in MP’ presumes C. micropterus to be a

migrant in MP, present from March in south

MP and from May in north MP, upto July

or August. But he also considers that since

this cuckoo is silent for the rest of the year,

one fails to spot it. Osmaston found C. micro-

pterus rare at Pachmarhi on the Satpuras in

MP where he occasionally heard it in April

and May ( JBNHS 28: 457).

INDIAN BANDED BAY CUCKOO

(Cue ulus sonneratii)

Suspected seeing this species around Piplod in

June.

koel (Eudynamys scolopacea)

Often seen and heard, though uncommonly,

in forest, and also at Dediapada and in Rajpipla

town.

SMALL GREENBILLED MALKOHA

(Rhopodytes viridirostris)

On 11th June 1982, SGM while bathing in

the rivulet behind Namgir was attracted by a

harsh call. On locating the call, a greyish

longtailed bird the size of a sirkeer cuckoo,

was seen on the branch of a nearby tree. On

focussing the binoculars it was observed that

the bird had a very prominent green beak

and was promptly identified as R. viridirostris.

The lower body was somewhat paler coloured

and the region of the breast was lightly streak-

ed with much paler. Morever the long loose-

looking tail was white-tipped and soon when

the bird Hew almost over SGM across into

the forest, the white in the tail tips was very

easy to see and very prominent too. S. D.

Ripley in synopsis gives the range of this bird

as peninsular India from Baroda (Gujarat),

Maharashtra, Orissa and southwards to

Kanyakumari.

In ‘Birds of Gujarat’ (Salim Ali JBNHS

52: 435), there is mention of a sight record

of R. viridirostris from Ajwa in Gujarat.

SIRKEER CUCKOO (Taccocua leschenaultii )

Seen along the road leading from Mozda to-

wards Namgir and also behind Namgir in

forest. The bird prefers to remain in dense

scrub and low bushes. It was also seen in

bamboo forest along the Samot road. Near

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Rajpipla town a solitary bird was seen once,

while we also came across a solitary bird near

river Karjan a few miles from Rajpipla town.

SGM found this cuckoo breeding near

Channi, Baroda in June, 1979. The nest was

a somewhat weak looking flat construction of

dry twigs and it was lined with a sufficient

amount of leaves, both dry as well as fresh.

The nest contained two very pale creamish-

white eggs on 10th June when it was first

found. The Sirkeer cuckoo can be easily re-

cognized by its long graduated white tipped

tail, its more brownish plumage and a very

prominent slightly yellowtipped bright red

beak.

CROW PHEASANT Or COUCAL

( Centropus sinensis)

A common bird in the forests. Banga had

found an occupied (with nestlings) nest in

June. A bird was once seen carrying a lizard

in its beak in late June. Seen also near Dedia-

pada (near PWDRH compound and in the

neighbourhood of the mission) and also in

Rajpipla town. Seen also in the Juna-Rajpipla

forests in January 1982. The birds are ex-

ceptionally noisy during the rains though they

may also be heard throughout the year.

barn owl (Tyto alba)

The only occasion when we saw T. alba was

on the afternoon of 10th June 1982. We were

sitting in the PWD office at Dediapada when

from almost overhead flew a very noisy pro-

cession of crows. They were mobbing and

chasing a solitary Barn owl which settled in

a large tree behind the ashram at Dediapada.

Dediapada is teeming with several thousand

Fruit Bats ( Pteropus giganteus) and this parti-

cular tree was one of the many daytime roosts

of these bats. Obviously the bats were greatly

disturbed when the crows followed the owl

into the tree. The next few minutes were fasci-

nating, the crows, fruit bats (also known as

flying foxes) and the culprit of the drama

the owl settled somewhere in the tree. After

sometime the crows began to disperse and even

the bats quietened down but we do not

think if we saw the owl fly away. We were

informed that T. alba is occasionally seen in

Rajpipla town. The only other time we saw

a barn owl was in June 1981 at Chandod,

just north of the Narmada river.

GREAT HORNED OWL

{Bubo bubo)

We often saw three large owls (with ear tufts)

in the forest along a stream where the birds

would remain hidden in a densely foliaged

tree. Often due to our observing them during

the day, these owls would fly away and then

for the next few minutes they would be heavily

mobbed by a great many avain denizens of

the forest. While two of these large owls were

identified as B. b. bengalensis (orange-yellow

eyes and also the deep huu..hooo calls), the

third owl appeared pale to us and we feel

it was B. c. coromandus which SGM feels sure

of having once heard during the night.

BROWN FISH OWL {Bubo zeylonensis)

Banga had informed us in the course of our

first visit in June 1981 of a large owl which

nested on the rock face along a forest rivulet.

We saw this rather shabby nesting place where

the owl had reportedly bred earlier in the

year. The nest site was littered with crab shells

and fish bones, evidently exposed from dried

and old pellets. It was not until the 12th June

1982, that B. zeylonensis was first seen not far

from this nest-site. According to Banga there

existed another pair of these same owls up-

stream and which had another nest on a rock

face.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

BARRED JUNGLE OWLET

( Glaucidium radiatum)

Certainly the commonest owl in the forests.

Its koukuk . . . kookok . . kukkuk . . calls can fre-

quently be heard during the daytime too and

they happen to be one of the most familiar

bird calls in these forests. The calls extend for

several seconds and at times end abruptly.

On 20th July 1982, an adult Barred Owlet

was noticed feeding (probably a large insect)

to a young owlet outside what appeared to

be the nesthole. The young owlet was uttering

a mewing call.

brown hawk -owl ( Ninox scutulata)

RKN says that he saw, on quite a few occa-

sions a pair of these owls in the huge trees

along the path leading to Namgir. We failed to

come across this owl elsewhere and we never

heard its uw . . . ook . . . calls anywhere either.

spotted owlet ( Athene brama )

Though not common in the forest, this owl

is abundant just north of the Narmada, at

Chandod. Here we saw almost 4-8 at times

even more of these owlets on almost every

tree in the area. Chandod is one of the most

fascinating places for observing this owlet in

great numbers.

We frequently heard this owlet in Rajpipla

town, often in crowded localities. In the forests

Banga informed us that a pair of these owlets

had bred earlier in the year in a hollow of

the same tree on which, though in another

hollow, a pair of Coracias benghalensis had

also finished breeding in May. There was yet

another pair of these owlets which, SGM feels

were breeding in a tree in the compound of

the PWDRH at Dediapada.

mottled wood owl (Strix ocellata )

First recorded when we heard these wierd

chuu . . huwha calls on successive nights at

Namgir at around dusk and again during the

night. It was only on 12th June that we first

encountered S. ocellata deep in the forest, a

few kilometers from Namgir. The dark eyes

and the large head without the tufts was un-

mistakable. The owls were vocal in the late

evening when we were observing them and

these calls were identical to the ones we had

heard the nights before. For atleast twenty

minutes we watched the owls till it got quite

dark and we had to return to Namgir.

NIGHTJAR

In a small scrub and dry grass covered

hillock just on the southern banks (i.e. Rajpipla

side) of the Narmada river, SGM often flushed

a solitary Nightjar in the first two weeks of

June 1981. The bird on flying from almost

under his feet would settle further in the grass

or on a flat rock from where it would crawl

and remain in the fallen leaves. We never

heard it call and could not identify it.

We failed to come across any nightjar in

or around the forests. This is surprising since

we never heard any either. But according to

adivasis these birds are often flushed by them.

alpine swift ( Apus melba )

SGM has seen this bird around Daman

Mahal, flying about around the cliffs. Not

seen anywhere else.

house swift ( Apus affinis)

Seen at Netrang, Rajpipla town (sometimes

large gatherings near the red clock-tower and

often around the old houses) and also near

Dediapada. Evidently breeding in May- June

in Rajpipla town. Observed also at Chandod.

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CRESTED TREE SWIFT

( Hemiprocne Jongipennis)

RKN first saw this bird when photographing

S. cheela from the hide in June 1982. On a

later day SGM too saw this swift in more or

less the same position as described by RKN.

The solitary swift was perched as though it

was incubating its single egg. But it was not

there on any later day and there was certainly

no nest.

lesser pied kingfisher ( Ceryle rudis)

In January 1982, we saw a pair of these king-

fishers on the Karjan river in the Juna-Rajpipla

area. On the Narmada river this bird is not

uncommon and on some days we saw as many

as five of these kingfishers together, uttering

their pleasant twittering calls as they fly. They

are spectacular birds to watch, especially when

they hover about twenty odd feet above water

and dive into the water at an astonishing speed.

In July 1982 a solitary bird was seen near

Dediapada near the mission.

SMALL or COMMON KINGFISHER

( Alcedo atthis )

A pair of these kingfishers were evidently

breeding in a mudwall along the Mozda river

as they were observed to leave a tunnel hole

on several occasions. This kingfisher is often

seen on forest streams but it is uncommon in

the area. Seen also on the Karjan in the Juna-

Rajpipla forests and in the vicinity of Rajpipla

town and on the Narmada.

STORKBILLED KINGFISHER

( Pelargopsis capensis)

Surprisingly we never saw this kingfisher

which is supposed to be not uncommon in the

forests here. But SGM feels that the loud

ke . . kekeke . . call that can be sometimes

heard in the forest could be of this bird.

WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER

( Halcyon smyrnensis)

Common. A nest with one egg was found in

mid-May 1982 in a mudwall in forest, quite

some distance from any forest stream. There

was yet another nest-tunnel in a mudwall deep

in the forest and this apparently contained

nestlings since the adult birds were observed

taking insects into the tunnel which on check-

ing was found to be atleast three feet deep.

This bird is seen almost along every stream in

forest. Also seen in Dediapada and Rajpipla

towns.

Found breeding at Chandod, just north of

the Narmada where we found one nest which

was a very open affair. It was almost a depres-

sion in a natural cavity on the ground, almost

like a lark’s nest and it contained four glossy

white eggs. The incubating bird could be seen

right in the open. Unfortunately this nest and

the eggs in it were found destroyed just a few

days later (mid- June 1981).

CHESTNUTHEADED BEE-EATER

{Merops leschenaulti)

This bee-eater is found only from Ratnagiri

southwards, and also from Dehra-Dun east to

Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and in the

Eastern Ghats. We came across a pair on the

southern side of the Narmada river on 5th June

1981. A note regarding this sighting, the nor-

thernmost in Western India is in JBNHS 79:

669-70.

This bird is not included in Salim Ali’s

notes on ‘Birds of Gujarat’.

green bee-eater ( Merops orientalis)

Sometimes seen in the outskirts of forest. Not

common. However, it is abundant north of

the Narmada, at Chandod and elsewhere

where large numbers of this bee-eater were

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

breeding in June 1981. Seen also near and in

Rajpipla town (where breeding in June) and

on the Karjan river.

Indian roller ( Coracicis benghalensis)

This bird is not mentioned for the area by

Salim Ali in ‘Birds of Gujarat’ JBNHS 52:

447), or, rather, no specimen has been collect-

ed in this area.

We found this bird not at all uncommon

in the forest. Infact the noisy nature of this

bird makes its calls one of the very familiar

bird calls of these forests. There is always a

bird or two nearby, if not calling harshly,

then quietly perched on some dry branch from

where it suddenly flies with a flash of its

bright colours.

At one nesthole, the adult bird was obser-

ved feeding a young just outside on the branch

in mid- June. A pair had finished breeding,

according to Banga, in a cavity in the very

same tree on the path leading to Namgir in

forest which had also housed a pair of Athene

brama. The nesting season of this bird appears

to range between mid-March to June, July. We

also saw C. benghalensis at Dediapada, and

also near Rajpipla town where a pair was

evidently breeding on a tree in the palace

grounds in June 1981.

hoopoe ( Upupa epops)

We saw the Hoopoe only in January around

the mission and the PWDRH at Dediapada. In

June however, we have once seen a pair a

few kilometres from Chandod. No informa-

tion as regards breeding.

GREY HORNBILL ( Tockus birostris)

The only time we have come across this bird

is a pair seen by SGM and Neil Soares on 12th

June 1982, several kilometres from Namgir

inside the forest. We doubt if we ever heard

the shrill squeals of this hornbill in these forests

where it appears to be a uncommon bird.

large green barbet ( Megalaima

zeylanica)

Though not so common, nevertheless the calls

of this bird can be heard throughout the day.

The pukruk , pukruk calls can never be mis-

taken if once heard and they are one of the

most familiar bird calls in our forests. A bird

was flushed from within a nesthole in June

1982. It returned into the hole soon after. S. D.

Ripley in synopsis gives the range of M. viri-

dis (785) as the Western Ghats, from the Nar-

mada river south through Kerala. This bird

can be distinguished from M. zeylanica only

by its white cheek stripe. But since these birds

are rather difficult to locate in the forest we

never quite managed to get a good look at the

head of one.

Salim Ali failed to come across M. viridis

anywhere else in Gujarat except in the Surat

Dangs forests south of the Tapti river. In

handbook vol. 4, by Salim Ali & S. D. Ripley

the range of M. viridis is given as Kerala north

to Narmada river.

CRIMSON BREASTED BARBET /COPPERSMITH

( Megalaima haemacephala )

This bird may be sometimes heard and seen

in forest. It seems to have penetrated into the

forest and we found it at Mozda, Namgir, Pip-

lod and elsewhere too. Seen only occasionally

around Dediapada where it is not common.

We also found it in Rajpipla town at Chandod,

north of the Narmada river we found young

birds just out of the nesthole in the first week

of June. The young birds lack the crimson.

They have more greenish upperparts and head

and pale yellowish belly region and throat, the

former lightly streaked. We saw them being

fed outside the nest.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER ( Dinopium

benghalense)

Often seen, at times along the road from Dedi-

apada to Mozda. Quite common and vocal in

the forest. At Namgir a bird was flushed from

its nesthole on 10th June. It was twice again

flushed from the same hole and it appears that

it was breeding. Neil Soares found a pair

breeding in mid-May at Dediapada.

YELLOWFRONTED PIED/MAHRATTA

woodpecker ( Picoides mahrattensis)

A pair of these woodpeckers was seen often

entering their nesthole in a ‘Haldu’ ( Adina

cordi folia) tree on 10th June 1982.

Seen also at Dediapada in the compound of

the PWDRH. Found breeding north of

the Narmada at Chandod, where we found

three nestlings just out of the nest in mid-

June 1981.

pygmy woodpecker ( Picoides nanus)

This tiny woodpecker, because of its small

size and its somewhat secretive habits is a

rather difficult bird to encounter in the forest.

It certainly is one of the most hard-to-see

birds. We have seen solitary birds only thrice.

The birds keep to thin branches where they

move about around the branch, not very high

up. We saw this woodpecker at Piplod, along

the Samot road and once on the eagle-nest

tree near Namgir.

HEARTSPOTTED WOODPECKER

( Hemicircus canente)

Our sighting of this bird north of the Tapti

river in the Rajpipla forests on the Gujarat

Satpuras extends the range of this woodpecker

northwards by about 60 km, the previous

northernmost point of this bird’s distribution

being Sonagadh in Navsari district, in the

Dangs forests. In forest behind Namgir, we

saw a pair of H. canente for three consecutive

days after which they disappeared and we

never came across them anywhere else.

Ripley, S. D. in synopsis mentions about

a probable extension of H. c. canente into the

Gujarat Satpuras.

BLACK BACKED WOODPECKER

( Chrysocolaptes fesdvus)

We first saw this bird when Banga showed us

a nesthole and not far was this woodpecker.

There was a pair in the neighbourhood. We

saw this woodpecker again near the ashram at

Mozda. No signs of breeding.

Indian pitta {Pitta bmchyura)

We have occasionally seen this bird in forest,

the last sighting being on 10th December 1982

when we saw a solitary bird. Neil Soares saw

this bird several times in May 1982. At Chan-

dod, just north of the Narmada, we found this

bird building a nest in July.

Ernest Shull considers P. b. brachyura as

breeding in the Dangs forests south of the Tapti

(. JBNHS 59:659).

We saw a solitary bird on 10th Dec., 1982

(SGM & Eric D’Cunha). However, Salim Ali

( JBNHS 52: 454) failed to come across P. b.

brachyura during his Gujarat survey between

August and mid-April. There distinctly ap-

pears to be some seasonal and local move-

ments of P. brachyura.

BLACKBELLIED FINCH LARK

( Eremopterix grisea)

Sometimes seen in small flocks around Dedia-

pada and also on the outskirts of Rajpipla

town where we also saw a small party in the

palace grounds.

In the first two weeks of June 1981, there

were hundreds and hundreds of this bird on

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

the stony banks of the Narmada river, a few

kilometres from Chandod. This was just be-

fore the commencement of the monsoon and

it appears that there are local movements of

E. grisea, resulting in the sudden appearance

of large numbers of this lark in certain areas

on some days and almost a complete absence

a few days later. Here, on the banks of the

Narmada we observed that the larks would

always prefer to remain in the shade of stones

and would fly only when almost trampled upon.

There was no signs of their breeding either in

June (when they were abundant) nor in De-

cember-January. SGM found this lark breeding

in mid- June in the neighbourhood of Baroda

and in October, December, March and April

in and around Bombay. Even around Bombay

SGM feels that there are great local move-

ments of this lark and that normally very few

of these larks are observed when they have

been found breeding.

RUFOUSTAILED FINCH LARK

(Ammo manes phoenicurus)

Occasionally seen around Dediapada and rare-

ly on the Mozda riverbed. Common on the

banks of the Narmada river though a small

flock was noticed on the Karjan banks in the

vicinity of Rajpipla town. The birds were

breeding on the Narmada, as was apparent by

their carrying food in their beaks. However,

no actual nest was found.

EASTERN SKYLARK (Alauda gulgula )

Around Chandod, a few pairs of this lark were

in song and it is possible that breeding was in

progress in the neighbourhood. Not seen or

heard elsewhere though it should occur in the

vast open areas around Rajpipla town.

MALABAR CRESTED LARK (Galcrida

malabarica)

Around Chandod SGM has sometimes seen

a solitary crested lark. It appears to be an un-

common bird in this area while around Raj-

pipla we altogether failed to come across any.

PLAIN SAND MARTIN ( Riparia

paludicola )

We feel (unfortunately we failed to confirm)

that the good numbers of Martins flying

about a huge mudwall immediately on the

banks of the Narmada were Sand martins.

The birds were evidently nesting on this mud-

wall on the Narmada, at Chandod.

dusky crag martin ( Hirundo concolor)

In June 1982, a pair of these martins were

observed collecting wet mud from a road-

side puddle near Mozda. On 22nd July a

pair was busy in the construction of their

nest on the underside of the bridge on

the river along Samot road (about 1 Ion from

Mozda). The pair were bringing in wet mud

once every 10-15 minutes and the nest ap-

peared to be almost fully built on that day.

The nest is a lovely half-cup of mud and it

was stuck to the perpendicular surface of the

bridge wall, in an inaccessible position. The

row of white spots at the tip of the tail of the

martins was clearly visible as SGM was ob-

serving the martins from above as they would

go to their nest under the bride. We also came

across this martin at Chandod.

eastern swallow (Hirundo rustica)

Seen in December and January around Dedia-

pada, Netrang, Rajpipla town environs and

also around the Narmada.

WIRETAILED SWALLOW

(Hirundo smithii )

In June 1982 we noticed a small flock of about

8-10 birds flying along a small stream at De-

diapada. Not seen elsewhere.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

STRIATED (REDRUMPED) SWALLOW

( Hirundo daurica nipalensis)

This, the migratory race of H. daurica is seen

in very large flocks in winter. It also has a

much paler rump than H. d. erythropygia

which is the resident race here.

An enormous flock of swallows seen on the

telegraph wires between Dediapada and Net-

rang in December 1982 was of this species.

This particular flock occupied atleast a

hundred metres of wire length and the birds

would frequently launch aerial sallies.

STRIATED (REDRUMPED) SWALLOW

( Hirundo daurica erythropygia)

Seen normally in small flocks or in twos and

threes. We came across it near rock-faces up-

on Daman-mahal mountain (supposed to be

the highest mountain in the area, being over

3000 ft. above m.s.l.) and once around a rocky

riverbed near Namgir in forest.

Seen also near Dediapada, Rajpipla town

and at Chandod where breeding was in pro-

gress in June.

baybacked shrike ( Lanius vittatus)

Seen a few kilometres north of Chandod

(North of Narmada river) in June when SGM

feels that the birds (there was a pair) were

breeding in the neighbourhood.

rufousbacked shrike ( Lanius schach)

Just norrth of the Narmada river we found

atleast six nests of L. schach. The nests

were found in July 1981. The nest of this bird

is a massive looking cup, built of a great many

materials and at times it even contains wool,

rags and feathers. It is normally very well

concealed in the fork of a thickly foliaged

branch of a mango or a tamarind tree. Two

of the nests we found were on thorny trees.

All these nests were between 8-15 feet from

the ground though one of them was much

higher on a Magnifera indica. Only one of the

nests had three eggs while the remaining con-

tained five eggs each. The eggs are whitish or

very pale pink, spotted with reddish brown

and purple.

We feel that the birds which we found

breeding north of the Narmada, at Chandod

and Dabhoi should be L. s. erythronotus (i.e..

The Rufousbacked Shrike). Atleast at three

of these nests, the adult birds had much more

rufous, distinctly somewhat brighter and also

extending to the back, though not very easily

observable. Salim Ali in ‘Birds of Gujarat’

( JBNHS 52:781-82) has considered the Grey-

backed shrike (L. s. caniceps) in which he

states, the rufous is more or less confined to

the rump, though he also mentions that there*

is a regular cline and in a great many cases

(especially in winter), it is exceedingly difficult

to assure oneself of the correct racial identity

of individual specimens. Salim Ali regards

L. s. erythronotus as a winter visitor to Guja-

rat, and the breeding birds, though clearly in-

termediate, are closer to and would readily

pass for caniceps. This intermediate popula-

tion was named by Koelz as L. s. kathiawaren-

sis (now considered as caniceps, by S. D. Rip-

ley in synopsis). We ourselves went through

all the specimens in the BNHS collection, and

we feel that there is not much to suffi-

ciently differentiate erythronotus and cani-

ceps in the field. Moreover, Capt. Butler

Stray Feathers, iii: 463 — 1875) has considered

erythronotus as the breeding (resident) race.

We occasionally came across this shrike

south of the Narmada but we did not look for

any nests here. In December and January we

saw these shrikes around Rajpipla town and

also in the vicinity of Dediapada, near the

PWDRH and elsewhere.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

golden oriole ( Oriolus oriolus kundoo)

Presumed to be a winter visitor to the area by

Salim Ali ( JBNHS 52: 797). We however

found this bird to be common and resident in

Gujarat. SGM has found this oriole breeding

in appreciable numbers around Baroda.

Just north of the Narmada river, at Chand-

dod, we found good numbers of nests of

O. o. kundoo. In June-July 1981, we found

several occupied nests of this bird. All of these

had eggs and incubation was in progress. One

of these nests was exceptionally low down,

it being only about 8 feet from the ground on

a tamarind tree, and SGM could touch the

eggs (there were two) even when standing on

the ground.

We saw this oriole occasionally south of the

Narmada, at Dediapada and in and around

Rajpipla town where this bird was certainly

breeding in May- June. Noted also in the Juna-

Rajpipla forests in January. We however, fail-

ed to come across the Golden oriole around

Mozda or elsewhere in the forests.

BLACK HEADED ORIOLE

( Oriolus xanthornus )

Common in the forests. We never saw this

bird anywhere around Dediapada though in

January we observed it in Rajpipla town. Good

numbers of this oriole were seen in the Juna-

Rajpipla forests in January 1982. Breeding was

in progress in June-July. We found two nests.

One of these, found on 13th June 1982 con-

tained two eggs while another containing three

tiny nestlings was found in July 1982. Both

these nests were well concealed in large leafy

trees and while the former was only about 14-

15 feet from the ground, the other was much

higher.

black drongo ( Dlcvurus adsimilis)

Very common around Rajpipla town, parti-

cularly in the open countryside and along the

highways, where large numbers are always

seen on overhead telegraph wires. Becomes

progressively less common as one moves to-

wards Dediapada and lesser still towards

Mozda and the forests. Seen however in forest

at Piplod (about 23 km from Dediapada)

where a pair had a nest (evidently with eggs)

in mid-June.

Nests were found in the vicinity of Rajpipla

town in June, at Chandod where nest con-

struction was in progress in July, and also near

the PWDRH at Dediapada (with 3 eggs in

last week of June), and one on way to Mozda

on a teak ( Tectona grandis) tree. All these

nests contained two or three eggs while the

nest in the PWDRPI compound at Dediapada

contained three tiny nestlings when next che-

cked on 30th June 1981.

ASHY or GREY DRONGO

( Dicrurus leucophaeus)

SGM and Eric D’Cunha saw this bird on 11th

December, 1982. We found this bird present

in good numbers in mid-Jan. 1983.

WHITEBELLIED DRONGO

(. Dicrurus caerulescens)

Not uncommon in the forests. We saw it at

Mozda, along Samot road, at Namgir, Piplod,

Dumkhal, Juna-Rajpipla and elsewhere. A

pair was calling incessantly in the compounds

of the PWDRH at Dediapada on 13th June,

1982. Nests with eggs were found at Piplod

and Namgir. In all we located four nests of

D. caerulescens, three of them at Namgir and

one at Piplod. Three eggs seems to be the nor-

mal clutch and the eggs are not much different

from those of D. adsimilis. The nests of D.

caerulescens do not appear to be so well con-

cealed and all the nests found by us were bet-

ween 12-25 feet from the ground, in the fork

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

of an outhanging branch, almost all of these

along a forest path.

GREATER RACKET-TAILED DRONGO

(Dicrurus paradiseus)

A common and familiar bird of these forests,

sometimes a few birds wander outside the

forests and may be seen on roadside trees at

Mozda, though we came across a small party

of four birds at Moti-Singloti, several kilo-

metres from Mozda towards Dediapada.

Very common in the forest around Namgir

where we were camping and seen almost every-

where in forest almost all the way upto Da-

man-mahal. One can never miss the much-

varied and often confusing calls of this bird.

Breeding was well under progress in June- July

when we located five occupied nests, contain-

ing either eggs or nestlings. All these nests

were very high on trees and two of them were

on teak ( Tectona grandis) trees. At two of the

nests we observed that one of the incubating

birds lacked both the tail streamers and ap-

peared almost like a Black Drongo. At ano-

ther nest both the adult birds had only one

streamer each while at a fourth nest only one

of the adult birds lacked a streamer. Only at

one of the nests did the adult birds have both

their streamers intact.

greyheaded myna ( Sturnus malabari-

cus )

Salim Ali altogether failed to come across this

bird in Gujarat and this bird is not included

in ‘Birds of Gujarat’ ( JBNHS 52, Nos. 2, 3 &

4). We ourselves never saw this bird any-

where around Rajpipla but in December 1981

we noticed a flock of about thirty of these

mynas near Timba, about 75 km north of

Baroda. SGM has also seen this bird in the

neighbourhood of Baroda where he feels a

pair was breeding in a hole in a Jambool

(i Syzygium cumini) tree in June.

Himmatsinhji saw this bird in Kutch

(Mandvi) in December 1969 and he also

noticed a pair of these mynas busy carrying

nesting materials in a hole in a casuarina tree

at Wankaner in July 1967 ( JBNHS 67:332-

33). Capt. Butler found this bird common at

Mt. Abu in the hot weather when he saw it in

considerable flocks. He failed to observe this

myna in the plains ( Stray Feathers iii: 494-

95).

BLACKHEADED Or BRAHMINY MYNA

(< Sturnus pagodarum)

Breeding in good enough numbers just north

of the Narmada at Chandod where we found

nests with eggs in June and July. Observed

also in Rajpipla town (probably breeding) and

also around Dediapada. We found this myna

to be less common south of the Narmada to-

wards Rajpipla.

rosy pastor ( Sturnus roseus)

Observed in January in Rajpipla town and

also near Juna-Rajpipla. Seen in considerable

flocks at Timba in December 1981. In De-

cember 1982, a few pastors were noticed near

Mozda. Appears to be a rather common win-

ter visitor.

pied myna ( Sturnus contra)

This bird does not deserve mention in this

list. But since SGM has noticed a pair of these

mynas at Valsad in November 1981, and since

this bird has never previously been recorded

in Gujarat we therefore include it. The Pied

Myna is basically a bird of northern and east-

ern India, not ordinarily found west of Hyder-

abad in Deccan or south of Masulipatam. It

is possible that this bird may have been an

escaped cage-bird.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

common myna (Acridotheres tristis)

Though a common in the towns, we often saw

this bird in the forests too. The birds were

evidently breeding during May- July when they

were very noisy and were seen entering holes

in walls and trees. We however, never checked

any nest either in the forests or around Raj-

pipla town but found nests with eggs in July

at Chandod and SGM obtained eggs in May

near Baroda. Four or five glossy pale blue eggs

form the normal clutch. On the underside of

a road bridge in Rajpipla town, large numbers

of A. ginginianus along with A. tristis were

certainly breeding in the many holes in the

bridge walls in June.

bank myna ( Acridotheres gingini-

anus)

Breeding in abundance in the mudwalls of the

many ravine-like formations in the immediate

vicinity of Narmada river, around Chandod.

Dozens and dozens of these mynas would fly

from these mudwalls which appeared almost

lifeless at first sight. But in these often inacces-

sible mudwalls there are countless holes (tun-

nels) of varying length, each of them having

a haphazardly constructed cuplike mass of

grasses and feathers inside and these contain-

ed eggs in mid- June. SGM on checking these

nesting colonies found that some of these

nests which had separate entrance holes were

actually continuous inside. We are still surpris-

ed as to how, on somebody’s approach, do all

the birds from a widespread colony leave their

nests together? How do these birds communi-

cate at some approaching disturbance which

pulls them all out of their nest holes at the

same time? SGM similarly checked a large

crowded colony of Little Green Bee-eaters

breeding just a few kilometres north of Baroda

and even here he observed that if he as much

as approached the nesting colony very close,

all the bee-eaters would immediately leave their

nest holes and while some of them would circle

overhead uttering their twittering notes, most

of them would perch silently on the wires over-

head and return back to their nest-tunnels as

soon as the disturbance had ceased. At the

nesting colonies of the Bank Mynas we how-

ever noticed that on our approach a few birds

which would be outside would utter a harsh

note and we feel that perhaps this harsh note

of these outside birds is some kind of a warn-

ing call for the other birds inside their tunnels

which at times are over four to five feet long.

Probably at such nesting colonies where a large

numbers of birds breed in close proximity,

there are a few watch-birds whose harsh calls

apparently serve as a warning signal for the

other birds inside their nests.

jungle myna ( Acridotheres fuscus)

When observing Spilornis cheela at its nest

from the hide, SGM noticed a Common-Myna

like bird settle on the very tree, about ten feet

from the hide. This bird lacked the yellow

around its eyes and moreover it had a darker

(somewhat greyish-black) and not yellow iris.

Also, the ill-formed tuft of feathers on the head

was very prominent. RKN too says that he

noticed this myna from the hide when photo-

graphing S. cheela. There is no mention of this

bird in ‘Birds of Gujarat’ ( JBNHS 52), Salim

Ali having failed to find this myna in Gujarat.

S. D. Ripley in synopsis gives the range of

this race as Peninsular India, chiefly on the

western side, from Gujarat, including the

Kathiawar peninsula, southwards through

western Maharashtra to Kerala and Tamil

Nadu.

Indian tree pie ( Dendrocitta vagab -

undo)

Common in the forests. Breeding evidently

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

over earlier in the year, probably by mid-May,

though near one nest the parents were obser-

ved feeding two fledglings on 10th June. One

of the common birds here, the tree-pie was

never seen outside the forests and only once

have we noticed a pair of these birds along

the road at Bal, about a kilometre from Mozda.

house crow ( Corvus splendent)

Common in Rajpipla town and at Dediapada

and in all the nearby towns. Almost absent

around Mozda and further into the forests

where C. macrorhynchos is more common.

Some C. splendens may be however, seen at

Mozda and even around Piplod and Dumkhal,

and also once around Juna-Rajpipla. Nest-

building observed in Rajpipla town in June-

July when at a few roadside nests incubation

was in progress.

jungle crow ( Corvus macrorhynchos)

From Dediapada onwards towards Mozda and

in the forests this is the crow that one is more

likely to encounter. The House Crow is almost

absent in the forests except for an occasional

bird. At only one nest did we observe C.

macrorhynchos in Dediapada town in June,

1981. It appears that this nest contained nest-

lings in June which is well past the recorded

breeding season of this crow which normally

nests early in the year.

common wood shrike ( Tephrodornis

pondicerianus )

Sometimes seen and heard in the light forest

and scrub around Mozda. We also saw this

bird in several other areas in the forests and

also in bamboo forest along Samot road. This

small shrike distinctly appears to prefer light

open forest than thick forest. We also obser-

ved this bird around the PWDRH and the

mission at Dediapada and on the outskirts of

Rajpipla town we once saw three birds. No

signs of any breeding activity in May or

June, the birds probably having nested ear-

lier in the year. However, SGM found this

shrike breeding in the first week of June on

the outskirts of Baroda when he found a nest

with two almost full-fledged young birds in it.

large cuckoo shrike ( Coracina

novae hollandiae)

Sometimes seen in the forests. In June and

July we noticed that over half dozen of these

birds would roost every night in a large ‘Haldu’

(Adina cordifolia) tree hardly 200 metres from

our camp-hut in Namgir. Every evening at

around 6-30 p.m. the birds would arrive and

for the next half an hour or so till it was quite

dark, the birds would be chasing one another,

frequently uttering their pleasant musical notes.

SGM is sure that he saw this bird several

times passing some food (an insect) to another

bird, probably its mate. He feels that what

he saw was some pair-formation activity and

that the breeding season of this bird was ap-

proaching.

LITTLE minivet ( Pericrocotus

cinnamomeus)

A well distributed bird in these forests. It is

also the only minivet we came across in the

Rajpipla area. Seen almost throughout the

forests and also around the PWDRH at Dedi-

apada and in the neighbourhood of Rajpipla

town. We also saw unusually large congre-

gations of this bird in January in the forest

around Juna-Rajpipla.

In mid- June 1982, when walking along the

road leading towards Namgir, SGM often ob-

served this bird fly from a particular tree

whenever he would pass under it. Careful sear-

ching for the next couple of days resulted in

his locating the tiny nest, remarkably conceal-

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BIRDS OF THE RAJP1PLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

ed on the upper surface of a tiny fork, just

jutting out of the main stem, about 25 feet

from the ground. In fact, had it not been for

the apparent uneasiness of the birds on being

observed from below, it would have been rat-

ther difficult to spot the nest. When the female

settled in the nest, her tail could be seen just

protruding enough to be quite clearly noticed.

There were certainly eggs in the nest and in-

cubation was in progress, but since it had been

raining for the past few days and the tree-

trunk being wet and slippery, we could not

risk anyone climbing up to have a look at the

nest.

common iora ( Aegithina tiphia )

A common bird throughout the forests, seen

also at Dediapada and in Rajpipla town and

also often around Chandod where it was ob-

served breeding in July.

In the forests we found two nests of this

bird. From one of these the young had appar-

ently flown away in mid- June while the other

contained two nestlings on 13th June. North

of the Narmada A. tiphia was noticed build-

ing a nest in July. Around Bombay SGM has

found nests with eggs in May, August and also

in the third week of September. Probably A.

tiphia breeds twice in a year.

GOLDMANTLED CHLOROPSIS

( Chloropsis cochinchinensis)

Quite common in the forests. This bird

is a fantastic mimic and we heard it re-

produce to perfection the calls of D. adsimilis,

D. caerulescens, O. sutorius, and to a lesser

extent the calls of P. jocosus, A. badius, Poma-

torhinus horsfieldii and also the harsh chew

call of T. paradisi. We first observed this bird’s

amazing proficiency at mimickry at Piplod on

our very first day in these forests on 18th June

1981. A pair of these chloropsis were mimi-

cking and frequently chasing drongos (D. ad-

simiiis and D. caerulescens ), tree-pies, com-

mon mynas and also parakeets from a large

tree where the pair was almost always present.

On observing this highly demonstrative be-

haviour of the pair, we strongly suspected the

presence of a nest there and surely enough

there was one in the fork of a very thin out-

hanging branch, almost 25-30 feet up in the

tree. On 19th June, a bird was sitting inside

the nest (probably incubating). The nest is a

cup of grasses, fibres etc., and is quite like

the nest of P. cafer, though we feel not quite

as deep as that of the latter.

On 1st July morning a chloropsis was seen

carrying food in its beak in forest near Nam-

gir.

REDWHISKERED BULBUL

( Pycnonotus jocosus ssp?)

In synopsis .... by S. D. Ripley, there is no

mention of the presence of any race of this

bulbul in the Rajpipla area between the Tapti

and Narmada rivers. Salim Ali during his Gu-

jarat Ornithological survey (Birds of Gujarat

— JBNHS 52:744) observed only a single pair

at Waghai south of the Tapti in the Surat

Dangs. He failed to meet this bulbul elsewhere

in Gujarat, Saurashtra or Kutch.

We found P. jocosus present in appreciably

good numbers north of the Tapti river in the

Rajpipla area. Infact we once saw this bird at

Dediapada too. In the forests SGM found a

nest of this bird in a small bush on 10th June

when it contained two nestlings. This was

quite close to the nest of S. cheela which was

photographed.

The occurrence of P. jocosus is discontinu-

ous in Central India (C. E. Hewetson, in ‘Bird

Life in MP JBNHS 53: 606). Also, there is

no mention of this bulbul for Mhow (Rev.

F. S. Briggs JBNHS 35). However, at Pach-

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

marhi in the MP Satpuras, B. B. Osmaston

found this bulbul common in the ravines

around Pachmarhi where he found them breed-

ing in April- July (JBNHS 28:454).

redvented bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer)

Common everywhere. Several nests with eggs

were found in May- July. Only one nest at

Mozda contained full fledged nestlings on 13th

June.

WHITEBROWED BULBUL

{Pycnonotus luteolus)

Though the rambling calls suddenly burst

from dense undergrowth almost anywhere in

forest, the birds themselves are only rarely

seen. We saw this bulbul only at Mozda and

twice along the Samot road, and once in Raj-

pipla town.

At Chandod, just north of the Narmada

this bulbul was found breeding in June

and July when we found two nests. One

of these had two eggs while the other

contained two nestlings which, after a few

days, had come out of the nest and we could

often see the parents feeding these young birds

on nearby trees. Though the nest of P. luteolus

is rather similar to that of the other bulbuls,

it certainly is somewhat untidier and weak-

looking and is normally placed in open dry

bushes or around a bush which is surrounded

by some dry vegetation. The nest is generally

situated under three feet from the ground and

the adult birds get very restless when their nest

is approached.

spotted babbler {Pellorneum ruficeps)

This is one of the many forest-birds which are

extremely difficult to spot but are not infre-

quently heard. The lovely whistling calls of

this babbler are a quite common bird-call in

these forests during the rains when they are

breeding.

On 21st 1982, SGM found a nest of

this babbler in heavy bamboo forest in the

neighbourhood of Namgir. The frequent call-

ing of the birds and their very peculiar

behaviour was an asset to locate the nest. The

nest itself was a roundish structure, atleast 6-7

inches in diameter and it was built of thin, and

also, thick grasses, bamboo leaves and dry

leaves. It was placed on the forest floor in

damp bamboo forest and it appeared like a

small heap of rubbish, superbly hidden on the

ground. It may be mentioned here, that just a

few days ago SGM had found a nest of this

bird in the Borivli park, near Bombay. This

nest was equally untidy and shabby, though

somewhat smaller.

SLATYHEADED SCIMITAR BABBLER

( Pomatorhinus horsfieldii)

On 23rd January 1983, when walking on the

Daman Mahal mountain we heard these love-

ly musical two note whistles which were being

replied to by another bird. These ‘reply’

whistles were followed by a harsh kharrrrr of

a somewhat extended duration. The calls con-

tinued for a rather long time and we decided

to check the producers of these calls. This was

in a luxuriant bamboo forest and we slowly

approached the flute-like notes. We decided

to wait on a fallen tree-trunk from where we

could obtain glimpses of two or three birds

which were chasing one another and frequen-

tly diving into the bamboo growth. After a few

minutes the calls increased to four notes and

these SGM readily recognized as the calls of

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii which he has so often

heard around Bombay. It was but only after

a considerable period of time that we managed

to get a good view of the birds. There were

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

three of them and it appears they were getting

ready to breed. SGM similarly noticed great

activity of this babbler around Bombay in the

second week of January and he feels that

P. horsfieldii breeds in the neighbourhood of

Bombay (where, by virtue of its calls it hap-

pens to be a relatively common bird) during

February-April. In the Dangs forests, south of

the Tapti river juvenile birds were collected

on 14th March (Salim Ali, JBNHS 52:751).

This happens to be the only occasion that we

ever saw the Scimitar Babbler in the Rajpipla

forests, though it may be heard more often.

WHITETHROATED BABBLER

(Dumetia hyperythra)

On 21st July 1982, SGM found a nest of this

babbler in close proximity to that of Pellor-

neum ruficeps also located on the same day.

There are some amazing similarities in the

nests of D. hyperythra and P. ruficeps. Both

the nests were more or less ball shaped

structures placed on the ground in damp bam-

boo forest. Both nests were on gently sloping

hills with their entrance holes facing down-

wards so that when the birds would fly from

their nest, they would fly straight downhill

and then perch on some small bush. Both

nests were less than ten feet distance from

much used forest paths. However, it may be

stated that the nest of D. hyperythra was much

more difficult to spot. This nest was a small

ball of thick, coarse bamboo leaves with an

inside cup of thin fibrous grasses and also a

few hair. There was an oval entrance hole on

one side, facing downhill. The entire ball-nest

was about four inches in diameter and it was

sort of anchored between two small stones at

the base of a bamboo clump, an inch or so

above the ground. But the most interesting

part of this nest was a fallen large leaf of

Tectona grandis which had been actually fix-

ed into the sides of the nest in a most artistic

manner. Many such large leaves of Teak

were scattered on the forest floor and the use

of one such leaf into the nest was undoubted-

ly a remarkable attempt at both camouflage

as well as shelter. This leaf formed an effi-

cient umbrella over the nest. While the leaf

covering the nest was wet due to rain, the nest

proper and the inside cup were completely

dry. Moreover, the leaf covering the nest made

it all the more difficult to locate the nest. There

were three eggs in the nest on 21st July. The

eggs had a very pale pinkish white ground

colour and were rather thickly spotted and

blotched with pale purple and reddish-brown.

They were smaller in size than eggs of the

House Sparrow.

YELLOWEYED BABBLER

( Chrysomma sinense)

Sometimes seen around the PWDRH at Dedi-

apada and also around Rajpipla town and near

the Karjan river. Occasionally seen in forest

along Samot road and once in July a party

of three birds was seen on the Mozda river-

bed, flitting in and out of the vegetation. Fre-

quently the birds would utter a pleasant warb-

ling song from some exposed position. A

search for nests did not yield any and it ap-

pears that the birds were evidently commen-

cing to breed.

However, north of the Narmada river, at

Chandod and also around Wadhwana tank at

Dabhoi we located several nests in July 1981.

Most of these nests were under construction

though one of them contained two eggs in the

second week of July. The egg is thickly spot-

ted and blotched with pale brownish-red and

also some purplish shade. The ground colour

of the eggs was pale pinkish-cream. Some of

these nests were in thorny bushes and trees.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

common babbler ( Turdoides cauda-

tus)

Found breeding at Chandod where we locat-

ed two nests in June- July 1981. Both the nests

were in dense thorny scrub and while one of

them was being built on 8th June (but later

destroyed by a village boy), the other con-

tained three eggs on 11th July. The nests can

be likened to nests of Pycnonotus cafer though

somewhat more deep and more loosely made

and lacking any cobweb. The eggs are a lovely

shade of glossy blue and are more or less the

same size as eggs of P. cafer. The birds dis-

tinctly prefer scrub covered areas where they

are normally seen in small parties of 4-6 birds.

At Channi, on the outskirts of Baroda, SGM

noticed in July 1979, a pair of Clamator jaco-

binus not far from the nest of T. caudatus. In

the first week of July when the nest contained

two eggs, a solitary cuckoo was seen to enter

the bush which contained the nest. It was

driven away by the babblers but it continued

to go there after about twenty minutes. SGM

feels that the cuckoo had probably laid its

egg in the babbler’s nest.

LARGE GREY BABBLER ( Turdoides

malcolmi)

This babbler is a common bird in the open

and scrub countryside here. The bird is always

seen in small parties which it appears do not

break up even during the breeding season.

We observed this babbler carrying nesting

material in July. Though no actually occupied

nest of this babbler was found, it appears that

they breed sometime between May- August.

This babbler is one of the few which is select-

ed as a foster parent by the Pied Crested Cuc-

koo ( Clamator jacobinus) of which we saw

a few examples only in mid- July in the forests.

About T. malcolmi we may add that it hap-

pens to be one of the most gregarious species

of birds. On 12th June 1982, three birds were

seen in open country a few kilometres from

Dediapada towards Mozda and found breeding

at Chandod.

jungle babbler ( Turdoides

striatus)

We did not come across any rufous-tailed race

(T. s. somervillei) in the Rajpipla area.

In its habits we would like to state that

it is not appreciably different in any respect

from T. malcolmi. However T. striatus is cer-

tainly a more common bird in the forest area.

A few of these birds can be seen on almost

every outing in the forests. A nest containing

two nestlings was found at Chandod, just north

of the Narmada river in mid- June 1981. The

nest is a rather loosely put together cup of

grass stems, small bent sticks including a few

thorny sticks. It is normally built in some

thorny bush or tree, generally under eight feet

from the ground in a fork, preferably one just

jutting out of the main stem. Little, if any

atempt is made at concealing the nest and

infact the noisy nature of the birds makes it

all the more easier to locate the nest. Even

around a nest containing nestlings, small par-

ties of this babbler move about and it would

not be surprising if other babblers, besides the

parents, feed the nestlings too. Infact on the

very tree which contained a nest of T. striatus,

SGM saw on two occasions T. malcolmi and

the former did not seem to mind this intrusion

at all.

On 21st July 1982, Jungle Babblers were ob-

served making nests in the forests along Samot

road where SGM saw them carrying grass and

thin sticks. On this very day he also noticed

great activity among Clamator jacobinus, of

which the Jungle Babbler is a much sought

after foster parent.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

BROWN FLYCATCHER ( MuSCWapa

latirostris)

SGM and Eric D’Cunha saw this bird in De-

cember 1982. There was a solitary bird. Pro-

bably this flycatcher should be more common

here but because of its silent nature and its

dull coloration coupled with its small size,

it is a difficult bird to be seen in the forest.

Salim Ali came across this bird only in the

Dangs area south of the Tapti where he pre-

sumes the birds to be resident ( JBNHS 52:

746).

REDBREASTED FLYCATCHER

{Muscicapa parva)

This flycatcher is a common cold weather

migrant to these forests. It can be seen every-

where in the forests and we saw one almost

at the top of Daman-mahal mountain. Seen

at Dediapada and in Rajpipla town and around

Juna-Rajpipla forests in December- January.

The birds prefer the shaded patches of forests

and their faint clikrrr . . . and tttrrrr .... notes

are commonly heard in the forests. Often one

may come across this bird in a small mixed

group of forest birds.

tickell’s blue flycatcher

( Muscicapa tickelliae)

Certainly the commonest resident flycatcher in

these forests. Seen in almost every kind of

forest, the bird having a marked preference for

dense bamboo growths. Seen throughout the

forests at Piplod, Dumkhal, Sankhdi, Namgir,

Samot road, Mozda, Juna-Rajpipla and else-

where. Observed also in the neighbourhood

of Rajpipla town and a pair was frequently

seen in the vicinity of dense undergrowth of

the garden of the hotel we were staying in at

Chadod, north of the Narmada. Here the pair

was busy constructing its nest in a hole in a

mud-wall around a bamboo bush in mid- June.

On 12th June 1982, a nest of this flycatcher

was found in a small hollow of a tree in forest

near Namgir. The nest was a well-made pad of

fine grasses and a few scattered feathers.

It contained a single brownish white egg,

spotted lightly with reddish-brown. This bird

frequently utters a pleasant short song, some-

what metallic in tone and this we heard even

in December. Besides this song, the bird also

has a harsher clicking and churring note which

SGM heard while he was inspecting the nest

of this flycatcher.

GREYHEADED FLYCATCHER

( Culicicapa ceylonensis)

Salim Ali during his Gujarat Ornithological

survey came across this bird only in Cambay

and at Hathidhara (Palanpur) and he pre-

sumed this bird to be a not common winter

visitor ( JBNHS 52:747-48).

In January 1982, we observed a few ex-

amples of Culicicapa ceylonensis in the forests

around Juna-Rajpipla. In June 1982, a solitary

bird was seen around the forest stream at

Namgir for several consecutive days. This

particular bird seen in June had a peculiar

habit of fly-catching over the stagnant water

that had collected on the otherwise almost dry

bed of the stream. The bird would remain

motionless on a fallen log just over the accu-

mulated stagnant puddle around and over

which there was always to be seen a fantastic

number and array of mosquitoes and various

small insects and beetles. Every few minutes

the bird would swoop down almost touching

the water on every such swoop and always

there could be heard a sharp snap of its man-

dibles as the countless insects would be dis-

turbed. For several days we observed this fly-

catcher at this puddle but we never saw it

again after 11th June. Often the bird allowed

our very close approach.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

It was however in December 1982 that we

found C. ceylonensis extremely common in

the forests around Namgir and elsewhere. In

three days SGM and Eric D’Cunha had 27

sightings of this flycatcher. Sometimes the bird

would utter shrill, musical calls of 4-7 notes.

Again in January 1983, we found this bird

fairly common here.

We never obtained any signs of this fly-

catcher breeding in the Rajpipla forests. This

bird is a common resident species in the cen-

tral Satpuras (S. D. Ripley in synopsis).

In ‘Bird Life in MP’ (JBNHS 53:609), C. E.

Hewetson considers this flycatcher as one of

the commonest and most widely spread small

resident birds. B. B. Osmaston found this bird

common in the ravines in and around Pach-

marhi in the central Satpuras where he states

they breed in June-July ( JBNHS 28:455).

Our observing this flycatcher in such good

numbers in December- January would proba-

bly support Salim Ali’s presumptions that

C. ceylonensis is a winter visitor to Gujarat

(Satpuras), but we feel that a few birds pre-

sumably breed in the Rajpipla area at the

western extremity of the Satpuras.

WHITEBROWED FANTAIL FLYCATCHER

( Rhipidura aureola)

First seen in January 1983 in open forest in

the neighbourhood of the Karjan Dam (under

construction). We then saw this flycatcher on

three occasions in forest around Namgir.

WHITETHROATED FANTAIL FLYCATCHER

( Rhipidura albicollis)

Seen in forest around Namgir and once also

along the Samot road. In December we saw it

in the Juna-Rajpipla area and in the neighbour-

hood of Rajpipla town. Nowhere, a common

bird. No indication of its breeding.

PARADISE FLYCATCHER

( T erpsi phone paradisi )

On 19th June 1981, SGM found a nest of this

flycatcher in a small creeper-bound tree along

the Mozda river near Sankhdi. About ten feet

from the ground, the nest was in such a posi-

tion that if the creeper was pulled then there

was every possibility of the nest being dam-

aged. This fear almost compelled SGM to

collect the nest and its contents. Only half an

hour later when SGM again went to check the

nest there was no sign of the nest on the tree.

It was not long before the cause of this mis-

hap was brought to light and the nest and its

contents (surprisingly an intact egg alongwith

smashed eggshells) were found and collected

from the ground nearby. It so appears that

some adivasi kids who had been playing a-

around when the nest had been first located

had pulled the branch with a jerk so that it

had almost broken off and the nest thrown

out. From the condition of the yolk of the

smashed eggs in the nest it seemed as though

the eggs were almost on the verge of hatch-

ing. The solitary egg was collected by SGM

and is presently in his collection in Bombay.

It is pale creamish-pink in ground colour,

lightly spotted and blotched with reddish-

brown. It is almost an exact, though miniature,

replica of the eggs of Dicrurus adsimilis. The

nest was not collected as its inside had been

spoilt by the spilled contents of the smashed

eggs.

Not far from this spot (almost opposite

Sankhdi) a male Paradise flycatcher in white

adult plumage was seen. Nearby were two

females. In January we came across this bird

around Juna-Rajpipla while in December 1982

and in January 1983, we found this bird rather

common in the forests. In May- June we com-

pletely failed to come across this bird any-

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

where in the forests, but in July SGM noticed

a female in the forest not far from Namgir.

Salim Ali (JBNHS 52:750) hazards a guess

that T. p. paradisi breeds in Rajpipla and in

the Dangs. Further, he states that T. p. leucog-

aster is purely a winter visitor and a passage

migrant in this area. As such, it cannot be

completely ruled out that the good numbers

of T. paradisi that we saw in Dec. -Jan. in

these forests probably consist of both T. p.

paradisi and also T. p. leucogaster , a few T.

p. paradisi remaining here to breed. This bird

has also been reported to breed in the Gir

Forest of Junagadh by K. S. Dharmakumar-

sinhji ( JBNHS 48:188).

The status of T. paradisi appears to vary

from one locality to another (Salim Ali:

‘Birds of Gujarat’ JBNHS 52:750).

B. B. Osmaston (JBNHS 28:455) stated that

some birds breed around Pachmarhi in the

central Satpuras while Rev. F. S. Briggs pre-

sumed this flycatcher to be resident around

Mhow (JBNHS 35:386). C. E. Hewetson

(JBNHS 53:609) in ‘Bird Life in MP’ regard-

ed T. paradisi as a summer migrant in MP,

arriving in the last week of March and com-

mon till the rains break when many birds

move on and a few nesting birds probably

staying throughout the rains. Fie also writes

that the number of birds vary from year to

year.

BLACK N APED FLYCATCHER

(Hypothymis azurea)

Writing of this flycatcher, Salim Ali found it

one of the commonest birds in the bamboo,

teak and mixed deciduous forests here. He

probably found it so in the Surat Dangs

(JBNHS 52:749-50). In the Rajpipla area,

north of the Tapti and the Dangs, we would

hesitate to regard this as one of the five com-

monest birds in these forests.

We saw this bird only on a few occasions in

the bamboo forest around Namgir and in

forest along the Mozda-Namgir and Mozda-

Samot roads. Along the Namgir road a pair

was apparently breeding in the second week

of June, though we did not find the nest. A

male in very bright plumage was also once

seen near Piplod. It remained around a bam-

boo clump for a few minutes and then with

a sharp call it vanished like a gem into the

dark and deep of the forest. The breeding

season here should range between June-

August.

STREAKED FAN TAIL WARBLER

(Cisticola juncidis)

In July, 1982, when good rains had encourag-

ed a growth of grass and vegetation around

the Mozda river and also around Dediapada,

the chik . .chik . . . calls of C. juncidis could

often be heard. We observed a few of these

warblers displaying in the air and calling in-

cessantly, their shap chik . . chik . . calls carry-

ing for a good distance. Undoubtedly, the birds

were either breeding or were getting ready to

do so. Also in the same month, a pair of these

warblers were noticed to be very active and

noisy in a grass covered forest clearing, near

Namgir. In January 1983, we noticed this war-

bler on the Karjan river, about 10 km from

Rajpipla town.

FRANKLIN’S WREN WARBLER

(Prinia hodgsonii)

A solitary bird in breeding plumage, with the

dark breast band, was observed in July 1982

in cultivation around Mozda. The bird was

noisy and was probably breeding. Near Baro-

da SGM noticed this bird commence nest-

building in the second week of June while he

has found several nests with eggs and/or

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

nestlings in July and August in and around

Bombay.

PLAIN OR TAWNYFLANKED WREN WARB-

LER ( Prinia subflava)

Seen around Dediapada (PWDRH) in July

and near Chandod, north of the Narmada. Not

a common bird. The birds were certainly

breeding around the PWDRH at Dediapada,

in the long grass and scrub in July. A couple

of pairs were engaged in a series of sharp tril-

ling notes and when the bird flies it some-

times produces a sharp snapping noise.

ASHY WREN WARBLER

{Prinia socialis)

This is basically a bird of open country but

it has also penetrated the forests in small

numbers. We found two nests in the forests,

one of them around Namgir and the other not

far from Mozda in June when it was under

construction. The nest found near Namgir

contained two eggs on 10th June 1982. Both

these nests were under four feet from the

ground and while one of them was conduct-

ed in one large leaf, three leaves were utilised

in the nest near Namgir. This nest was a

rather deep cup among the three leaves which

had been sewn together.

We also saw this warbler elsewhere between

Mozda and Dediapada, at Juna-Rajpipla,

along the Karjan river, around Rajpipla town

and also at Chandod, north of the Narmada

where a pair was building its nest about eight

feet high among the leaves of a tree.

JUNGLE WREN WARBLER

{Prinia sylvatica)

Occasionally seen in the outskirts of forest,

particularly around grass-covered stony locali-

ties in the vicinity of some stream. In July

a solitary bird was seen near Namgir in forest.

Seen also around the PWDRH at Dediapada.

tailor bird {Orthotomus sutorius)

Certainly the commonest warbler here. Good

numbers of this bird have reached into the

forest and it was not at all surprising to hear

a couple of these warblers almost at 3000 feet

on Daman mahal mountain, quite a distance

from any human habitation. This bird may

be seen and heard in many other places in

the forest, its loud towit, towit. . . . call being

a rather commonly heard birdcall here. Several

nests were found in the forest in June and

July. Banga found one with four eggs in a

small bush in July. Nests in various stages of

construction were also located along the

Mozda-Namgir road. Also seen around the

PWDRH at Dediapada and at Rajpipla town

where it is more of a common garden bird.

Construction was under way at Chandod in

the second week of July.

ORPHEAN WARBLER

{Sylvia hortensis )

A winter visitor. Not common. Infact we

have seen this largish warbler only twice

in January, in light scrub forest around Juna-

Rajpipla, and once in the vicinity of Rajpipla

town near the Karjan.

LESSER WHITETHROAT

{Sylvia curruca)

Seen very clearly only once near the PWDRH

at Dediapada in December. (The Leaf-warb-

blers are not at all common in the Rajpipla

area. Atleast we did not find them so. We ob-

served only three different kinds of them, two

of them around Rajpipla and Dediapada, and

only one in the forest. Due to uncertainty in

their field identification, we do not wish to

comment any more on the genus Phyllosco-

pus).

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BIRDS OF THE RAJF1PLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

bluethroat ( Erithacus svecicus)

We first saw the Bluethroat (a solitary red-

spotted male) along the river, hopping

amongst the stones and scant vegetation at

Juna-Rajpipla. A few days later, we again

saw the bird nearby.

In December 1982, Eric D’Cunha and SGM

saw a male E. svecicus twice along a forest

stream at Namgir. One of these males was in

very bright plumage, the red spot being bright

and prominent.

This bird happens to be an uncommon win-

ter visitor to this area.

MAGPIE ROBIN OR DHYAL

( Copsychus saularis)

Often seen in the forests at Mozda, Namgir,

Piplod, Dumkhal etc., and we also saw it in

January in the Juna-Rajpipla forests. This

graceful bird can also be sometimes seen in

gardens in Rajpipla town. We also saw it

around Dediapada, where a nest with three

eggs was found near the PWDRH. At Namgir

we located two nests of this robin. One of

these had three nestlings on 24th June, while

the other contained two full fledged nesTir gs

on 21st July. On 19th June a nest containing

two eggs was found in the hollow of a very

big tree at Piplod. We also found this bird

breeding north of the Narmada river, at Chan-

dod, where we had a nest containing five eggs

destroyed by a village kid. Birds are in song

at this time of the year, though the sweeee. . . .

sweeee .... call can often be heard during the

winter months too.

sham A ( Copsychus malabaricus)

On 11th June 1982, a solitary C. malabaricus

was noticed in a semi-evergreen patch of forest,

several kilometres from the Mozda road. This

happens to be our only sighting of this bird

in the Rajpipla area, north of the Tapti river.

The previous northernmost recorded distri-

bution of this bird is from the Surat Dangs

forests, about 100 kms south of the present

sighting (JBNHS 52:769). As such there

seems to have been a northward extension of

this bird.

S. D. Ripley in synopsis gives the range

of C. m. malabaricus as “The western Indian

peninsula from Surat Dangs south along the

Western Ghats.” The range of C. m. indicus

is given as “Himalayan foothills and plains

from Kumaon through Bhutan, eastern India

and Bangladesh south to Chittagong, and again

from Bihar (Rajmahal Hills) south through

eastern MP (Chanda, Balaghat, Raipur, Bas-

tar) and the Eastern Ghats to the Cauvery

river.”

black redstart ( Phoenicurus

ochruros)

A winter visitor. Not common. In December

and January this bird was seen at Juna-Raj-

pipla, Dediapada, Rajpipla town and in seve-

ral other places.

stone chat ( Saxicola torquata)

A common winter visitor to the area. The bird

prefers open country and in December- Janu-

ary we often came across this bird around the

PWDRH at Dediapada and also around Raj-

pipla town.

pied bush chat ( Saxicola caprata )

We found this bird breeding in the vicinty of

Narmada river at Chandod. In the second

week of June 1981, SGM found a nest of this

bird containing two eggs. The nest was in a

hole in a mudwall flanking a much used path

leading to the Narmada river. The nest was

a roughly built pad of fine grasses and a good

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

amount of hair. Unfortunately this nest was

destroyed by some village boys.

desert wheatear ( Oenanthe desert i)

An uncommon winter visitor. We saw this

bird only twice in December and in January

several miles from Dediapada and once near

the Karjan river. Not seen anywhere else.

Indian robin ( Saxicoloides fulicata)

A common bird in the dry open countryside

around Dediapada and around Rajpipla town.

We found a good number of nests of this bird.

On 12th June, a nest with two nestlings was

located along the road in a mudwall, a couple

of kilometres near Mozda at Bal.

It is however north of the Narmada river,

in the broken ravinous countryside around the

river, that S. fulicata is a very common bird.

We found atleast fourteen nests of this bird

here in the first two weeks of June.

MALABAR WHISTLING THRUSH

( Myiophonus horsfieldii)

In ‘Birds of Gujarat’ (JBNHS 52:775), Salim

Ali records M. horsfieldii only from the Surat

Dangs forests, south of the Tapti river.

S. D. Ripley in synopsis gives the range of

M. horsfieldii as, Abu, hills of western Guja-

rat, the Dangs and the Satpuras (Pachmarhi,

Melghat).

We first came across the Malabar Whistling

Thrush in the Rajpipla forests in June 1981

when it was seen along a flowing forest stream

and then again in a more or less similarly

forested country around a forest stream not

far from Piplod. This was quite on the base

of Daman-mahal mountain. We never saw this

bird elsewhere in these forests. The second

time when we saw this thrush, the bird was in

song.

WHITETHROATED GROUND THRUSH

( Zoothera citrina)

The only example of this species met by Salim

Ali during his Gujarat State Ornithological

survey was in Navsari district, south of the

Tapti river ( JBNHS 52:770). Besides this

specimen, the only other evidence of the pre-

sence of the bird in Gujarat is a specimen col-

lected by E. M. Shull on 17th August 1954,

with enlarged ovaries, thus indicating that the

breeding season of Z. citrina in the Dangs is

July-August ( JBNHS 69:659).

In Rajpipla we found this thrush quite com-

mon in the better wooded parts. Our sightings

of this bird in the Rajpipla area thus happen

to be the northernmost in Gujarat. The birds

were noticeably more often seen around Nam-

gir in forest, where we were staying. In the

first week of July 1981, this thrush was ob-

served building its nest. Breeding was evident-

ly in progress in July the next year too. SGM

was baffled by the good variety of rich notes

of this thrush in mid- July 1982, when a pair

certainly had a nest but which could not be

located. The breeding season of Z. citrina in

Rajpipla forests should range between July-

September. Around Betul in the MP Satpuras,

this bird has been heard in song in April, but

presumably breeding is later. B. B. Osmaston

found this bird not uncommon around Pach-

marhi in the central Satpuras in MP ( JBNHS

28:456).

blackbird (T urdus merula )

The only occasion that we saw T. merula in

the Rajpipla forests was on 4th January 1982

when trekking towards Upla-Juna-Rajpipla. A

solitary male flew away along a forest stream

into the bamboo forest nearby. We failed to

locate this bird elsewhere on any of our fur-

ther visits.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJPIPLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

grey tit ( Varus major)

A common bird in the forests where we ob-

served it almost all the way from Bal towards

Dumkhal and once also more than half way

up Daman-mahal hill. A pair was also once

seen in the vicinity of the PWDRH at Dedia-

pada and in light forest along the Karjan river,

a few kilometres from Rajpipla town. In the

forests the Grey tits were apparently breeding

in good numbers as could be understood by

their very noisy and demonstrative nature and

by their frequent entering of cavities and holes

in trees and at times driving away other in-

truding birds from the vicinity of these poten-

tial nest sites.

YELLOW-CHEEKED TIT

{Par us xanthogenys)

Often seen in the forests, though certainly not

as common as Pams major. Seen at Namgir,

Piplod, Daman-mahal hill, Mozda and once

along the Karjan river in light forest. Some-

times we noticed a few of these birds entering

into natural small cavities in trees and it ap-

pears that the birds were breeding in the first

two weeks of June. We failed to check any of

these cavities for eggs or nestlings.

SPOTTED GREY CREEPER

{Salpornis spilonotus)

This bird is considered to be quite common

in the dry deciduous forest here. However, we

saw this bird for the first and only time here

on 11th December when SGM and Eric

D’Cunha were birdwatching in the forest a

few kilometres from Namgir. There was only

one bird and it was moving up a thin stem.

We feel that this bird is one of the very dif-

ficult birds to be seen in forests here and we

possibly overlooked it.

(Pipits on the lawns of the palace at Rajpipla,

SGM observed some Tree-pipits ( Anthus ) in

the first week of January 1982. There were

atleast 15-20 birds in that small flock which

was initially on the ground but on being ap-

proached took off and settled into the nearby

trees. This is the only occasion that we saw

these pipits in the Rajpipla area).

PADDYFIELD PIPIT

{Anthus novaeseelandiae)

Nowhere common. Infact we saw this bird

only around the Narmada river, around the

Karjan river and once near the PWDRH at

Dediapada in a field. No indication of its

breeding.

forest wagtail {Motacilla indica)

SGM and D’Cunha saw this bird on 10th Dec.

1982 in forest near Namgir. The bird was on

a forest stream on the ground. In ‘Birds of

Gujarat’ {JBNHS 52:779), Salim Ali came

across this wagtail only in the Dangs forests

south of the Tapti river and nowhere else

though he also presumes that it may occur in

the Gir forests of Junagadh in Saurashtra. In

synopsis S. D. Ripley gives the winter range

of M. indica as the Western Ghats complex

from Mahableshwar southwards. M. indica has

also straggled to Kutch in Gujarat. Also, M.

indica is an irregular winter visitor to the

Bombay area.

greyheaded yellow wagtail

{Motacilla flava thunbergi)

Seen in small numbers in December- January

in the palace lawns in Rajpipla, around the

PWDRH at Dediapada and occasionally even

along the forest streams. SGM has once seen

this bird till as late as the first week of May

in the neighbourhood of Baroda city.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

BLUEHEADED YELLOW WAGTAIL

{Motacilla flava beema)

This race of M. flava can be distinguished

from M. f. thunbergi by the presence of a dis-

tinct white superciliary stripe over the eyes.

We saw this wagtail and confirmed its identity

on atleast five occasions. It happens to be a

somewhat less common winter migrant than

M. f. thunbergi. We saw it around Dediapada,

at Juna-Rajpipla (on river-bed) and along the

Mozda river.

BLACKHEADED YELLOW WAGTAIL

( Motacilla flava melanogrisea)

In January 1982, we came across a solitary bird

on the Karjan riverbed which was of this race.

We never saw this bird again in the area on

any of our subsequent visits.

GREY WAGTAIL

( Motacilla cinerea)

A common winter visitor to the area. Seen in

good numbers on the Karjan river. Seen in

association with other wagtails around Dedia-

pada. Also seen in the neighbourhood of Raj-

pipla town, and occasionally even in the forest

along streams. Near Raroda, SGM once saw

this wagtail in bright breeding plumage, with

black chin and throat and foreneck (with a

prominent white moustachial streak) on 11th

May.

WHITE WAGTAIL

( Motacilla alba)

A winter visitor. Quite common. Seen on seve-

ral streams and rivulets along the road between

Dediapada and Rajpipla, near the PWDRH at

Dediapada, on the Karjan and Narmada rivers

and also along forest streams occasionally.

This wagtail normally prefers to remain in

pairs and does not seem to like associating

with other wagtails.

LARGE PIED WAGTAIL

( Motacilla maderaspatemis)

A common bird on the Narmada river and

we also saw it on the Karjan, around Dedia-

pada and also along the Mozda river. On the

banks of the Narmada river, a few kilometres

on either side of Chandod, we found this bird

breeding in good numbers, both on the north-

ern as well as on the southern banks of the

river. In the first two weeks of June ’81, SGM

located five nests of this wagtail. While two of

these nests were actually built in holes on flat

and stony ground, the remaining three nests

were in cavities in rocks and one in the mud-

wall along the river. The two nests in rock

cavities were big and thickly built cups of

grasses, fibres, hair and a lot of moss. The

nests in the holes on flat ground were more

like lark-nests, though somewhat deeper and

thicker. Only two of these nests actually con-

tained nestlings in them while in two others,

the nestlings could be seen around the nest.

Just a day after SGM found the two nests

with nestlings in them, the young birds had

come just out of the nest and the parents

could be seen going to different places with

food in their beak because the nestlings had

all scattered around the nest. Infact from one

of these nests, the nestlings flew out only when

SGM put his hand inside the hole to check.

Hardly had he done so when four young

wagtails, lacking the long tails which are so

characteristic of them, barged out of the nest,

uttering sharp squeaky calls and one of them

actually settled on SGM’s shoulder. This sud-

den coming out of the nest of the nestlings

at intrusion, greatly agitated the adult wag-

tails who ventured extremely close to SGM

with some large worms in their beaks. The

parents made a number of visits to feed their

nestlings. It was observed that they were

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BIRDS OF THE RAJP1PLA FORESTS — SOUTH GUJARAT

collecting the food for the nestlings from a

small moss covered puddle, some fifty odd

feet from the river.

THICKBILLED FLOWERPECKER

( Dicaeum agile)

Occasionally seen in forest. A rather uncom-

mon bird.

TICKELL’S FLOWERPECKER

(Dicaeum erythrorhynchos)

Often seen. A noisy bird, also met with in

Rajpipla town environments, around the Kar-

jan river and even at Dediapada. No signs

of breeding.

PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD

(Nectarinia zeylonica )

Ripley in Synopsis gives the range of this

bird as “Peninsular India, south of a line from

Nasik (NW. Maharashtra), Jabalpur (central

MP), Lohardaga (Bihar), southern Bengal and

Bangladesh southwards into India.

Salim Ali in ‘Birds of Gujarat’ (7. Bombay

nat . His. Soc., 52:787) states as having only

a single unconfirmed sight record of N. zeylo-

nica from Pavagadh in Panchmahals district of

Gujarat.

We have two sightings of this sunbird. While

one of these was in an orchard several kilo-

metres from Netrang, the other was seen in

light forest along the Karjan river. As such,

we would state that N. zeylonica is present,

certainly in very small numbers, in the Raj-

pipla area north of the Tapti river, and pro-

bably also elsewhere in south-eastern Gujarat.

SMALL SUNBIRD

(Nectarinia minima)

We first saw some tiny sunbirds with deep

crimson on their throat and breasts just be-

hind the residence of the forest guard at Pip-

lod on our very first day in these forests in

the third week of June ’81. There were about

six to eight birds and though we had not pro-

perly identified them we were definitely sure

that they were not N. zeylonica or A. sipa

raja. The upper plumage of these sunbirds we

had seen in Rajpipla forests was also a lovely

shade of deep crimson (somewhat less bright

than the breast), in no way similar to the red-

scarlet of A. siparaja. The head and crown

were metallic greenish. There was a darkish

band below the deep crimson on the breast.

Also, the underparts below the breast were

very yellow and not half as bright yellow as

in N. zeylonica. The crimson on the breast of

these birds was also much deeper than on that

of N. zeylonica, also, in which, the crimson

does not extend so deep down the breast.

When back in Bombay in late July ’81, we

checked all the references and all the Necta-

rinia species in the BNHS collection. On exa-

mination of all these specimens we noticed that

the tiny sunbirds we had observed from so

close in the forest guard’s compound at Pip-

lod in the Rajpipla forests completely matched

the description and the specimens of Nectarinia

minima.

In May ’82, when we again went to these

forests we came across this sunbird in forest

around Namgir. RKN now saw this bird from

the hide while photographing Serpent Eagle

from very close, and he noted down all the

details of the birds he had seen. We once

again reviewed the specimens in the BNHS

collection and we feel that Nectarinia minima

has probably extended its range northwards

into South-eastern Gujarat, in the area between

the Tapti and Narmada rivers, and presumably

also in the Dangs forest, south of the Tapti

and at the northern extremity of the Western

Ghats.

Presently the northernmost sighting of

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

N. minima are from Suriamal, north of Bom-

bay.

PURPLE SUNBIRD

( Nectarinia asiatica )

A common bird in the area, both in the forests

as well as in the towns here. A nest with two

eggs was found in the compound of the

PWDRH at Dediapada. Males in bright

plumage were very noisy and demonstrative

in January and it appears that this bird cer-

tainly breeds twice in a year. In the vicinity

of Bombay, SGM has found nests with eggs

andj/or nestlings in January, March, June,

July, September and also in November. This

certainly indicates that N. asiatica breeds irre-

gularly, atleast around Bombay.

YELLOWBACKED SUNBIRD

( Aethopyga siparaja )

Present in appreciably good numbers in these

forests. We also saw this bird from the hide

when photographing the Serpent Eagle. No

signs of breeding during any of our visits to

the area. Presumably breeds after the onset

of the rains.

Salim Ali (/. Bombay nat. His. Soc. 52:788)

records the northward extension of A. siparaja

to the Rajpipla area and further towards the

Narmada river.

white-eye ( Zosterops palpebrosa)

Quite a common bird in the area, particularly

in light open and scrub forest where this bird

is always seen in small parties, often along

with some other small avian denizens of the

forests and scrubs. In December and January

this bird was noticeably more common around

Dediapada.

HOUSE SPARROW

{Passer domesticus)

Common till Dediapada, but after that it be-

comes noticeably less common towards Piplod

and Dumkhal. Breeding almost everytime we

went. At Mozda, one of the best sites of this

bird’s breeding is the ashram.

YELLOWTHROATED SPARROW

{Petronia xanthocollis)

There are definitely some local seasonal move-

ments of this species in this area, as is also

probably in the neighbourhood of Bombay.

This is a common bird in the forests here and

the birds were certainly nesting in May- June.

However, in July SGM came across very few

(almost negligible) of these sparrows here. In

December- January we saw small flocks of a

dozen to as many as seventy or so of P. xan-

thocollis in the forest here, particularly around

the Karjan river. SGM noticed similar, infact

once a flock of atleast 150-200, of this sparrow

in the Borivli park — Bombay in December-

January. In the third week of February there

were none or very small flocks of 6-10 birds

here, most of the flock having split into pairs

some of which had infact commenced breed-

ing by this time.

BAYA WEAVER

{Ploceus philippinus)

A noticeably uncommon bird at and around

Dediapada, though, in the open countryside

south and north of the Narmada, small scat-

tered breeding colonies of the baya may be

observed almost anywhere. In Dediapada

town, a small breeding colony of six completed

and one partly built nests was noticed on a

date palm in July ’82. There was however

only one male to be seen there.

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BIRDS OF THE RAJP1PLA FORESTS ~ SOUTH GUJARAT

GREEN MUNIA

(Estrilda formosa )

Thrice we saw this bird in small groups. The

birds keep to the low vegetation. Seen along

the Mozda river, Samot road and once near

Moti-Singloti, several kilometres from Mozda

towards Dediapada. No signs of breeding.

SPOTTED MUNIA

( Lonchura punctulata)

In July this bird was seen near Dediapada and

then in January in the vicinity of Rajpipla

town. No signs of breeding.

BLACKHEADED MUNIA

( Lonchura malacca)

Since we saw only a single example of this

bird in the reedbeds around the Wadhwana

tank at Dabhd, about 20 kms. north of the

Narmada river, this bird certainly does not

deserve mention in this list. But since this

bird has not been included in Salim Ali’s list

on ‘Birds of Gujarat’ ( JBNHS 52, Nos. 2, 3

& 4) and probably also because this sighting

may be the first for Gujarat state, this bird

is mentioned here. In synopsis, S. D. Ripley

gives the range of (L. m. malacca) as

“Indian peninsula from Raipur (MP), Pach-

marhi and Bombay (JBNHS 62:559-60)

south into South India.” The sighting of this

munia at Dabhoi, north of the Narmada, is

thus considerably north of the line of distri-

bution as given by Ripley. Since this munia

is also such a widely kept cage-bird every-

where, it is also probable that the bird we

saw at Dabhoi was an escaped one. There

was a solitary bird and no other was in sight

anywhere around.

Conclusion

It must be stated here that Rajpipla forests

contain an astonishing variety of birds,

migrants and the local breeders. This area also

has a good density of raptors, especially

the Crested Serpent Eagles and many species

of nocturnal owls. Logging as of two years

ago is being carried out on a vast scale.

The newly designated Piplod Bird Sanctuary

is in shambles and about 40 per cent of its

existing tree cover has been decimated. A net-

work of roads to facilitate carting away lorry

loads of timber has accelerated considerably

the extensive deforestation of the area.

Acknowledgements

We, especially (RKN). are grateful to Mr.

Kekoo Naoroji and Mr. Naval Godrej, for

sponsoring all trips to the forests and taking

a continuous interest in our efforts.

Mr. K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, whom we

would particularly like to mention, first infor-

med us of the forests and advised us from

time to time about the behaviour of raptors.

RKN is specially indebted to him for taking

personal interest in the study and photography

of raptors. Mr. Chawla and Mr. Bhatia, DFO’s

Rajpipla, helped us in every way possible. Mr.

Sanat Chavan and Mr. Rashid, Ex-chief Wild-

life Warden of Gujarat, helped by giving us

permission and facilities that we required.

Mr. Gavid RFO, Dediapada, helped by sup-

plying planks for machans and in various other

ways.

We thank Mr. Narendrasinhji Mahida, cur-

rently Chairman of SCI, Mr. Dharmendras-

inhji Mahida and Mr. Dosu Modi of Rajpipla

for the assistance and hospitality they freely

offered us.

We thank Mr. Usman and Kasim Khan for

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

giving us information about the area. They

were the Maharajas’ ace shikar organisers.

We are grateful to Mr. Humayun Abdulali

for his many valid and useful suggestions.

Refer

Ali, Salim (1939) : The Birds of Central India.

Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 82-106.

(1954-55) : The Birds of Gujarat,

Parts I and II J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 374-458

and 735-802.

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1968-74) : Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vols. 1-10.,

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1922-31) : Fauna of British

India: Birds. 8 Vols., Taylor & Francis, London.

Baker, E, C. Stuart (1932-35): The Nidification

Lastly, we acknowledge the helpfulness of

Banga, the local adivasi, whose assistance for

building machans and locating nests were in-

valuable.

e n c e s

of Birds of the Indian Empire. 4 Vols., Taylor &

Francis, London.

Bates, R. S. P. (1927): Impressions of Pachmarhi

Birds. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 918-931.

Briggs, F. S. (1931) : A note on the Birds in

the neighbourhood of Mhow. ibid. 35 : 382-404.

Hewetson, C. E. (1939): The Birds year in

Betul (Central Provinces), ibid. 41 : 286-310.

(1956): Observations on the

Bird life of Madhya Pradesh, ibid. 53 : 595-645.

Osm aston, B. B. (1922) : Birds of Pachmarhi.

ibid. 28: 453-459.

612

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF LAGENANDRA DALZELL (ARACEAE)

FROM KERALA STATE, INDIA1

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan2

(With eleven text-figures)

Lagenandra nairii sp. nov.

L. undulata Sastri affinis sed praecipue

differt: vagina stipulari longa elongato-triangu-

lata, petiolo lamina longiore dense tomentoso,

lamina ampliore elliptico-oblonga ad ovata

plerumque integro subeter dense tomentosa in-

super punctata coriacescens quum siccatis, apice

acuto, basi auriculata, lobis distinctis, nervis

multis, nervillis parallelis, pedunculo crasso

paginis uterque convexis piloso non striato,

spatha ampliore, limbo longe acuminato ob-

tuse serrato, serraturis basi pluribus, appendice

sterili supra inflorescentiam masculam ovata,

baccis ovoidis tetrangulis distincte verrucosis,

verucis spinulosis, seminibus oblique ovatis.

Lagenandra nairii sp. nov.

Allied to L. undulata Sastry, but differs

chiefly in: stipular sheath longer, elongate-

triangular; petiole longer than the lamina, dense

tomentose; lamina larger, elliptic-oblong to

ovate, mostly entire, acute at apex, auricled

at base, punctate above, dense tomentose be-

low, becoming leathery on drying, nerves

numerous, nervules parallel; peduncle thick,

convex on both sides, pilose, not striated;

spathe larger, limb blunt serrated, more near

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore 641 003.

the base, long-acuminate at apex; sterile ap-

pendage above male inflorescence ovate;

berries ovoid, 4-angled, distinctly warted, warts

spinulose; seeds obliquely ovate.

Submerged herbs; rhizomes 1.5-2 cm across,

creeping, annulate; roots thick, fibrous; stipu-

lar sheath 5-10 cm long, elongate-triangular,

leathery, thick, transparent, shiny, glabrous,

deciduous, acuminate at apex, 2.5-3 cm wide

at base. Leaves 25-40 cm long, alternate,

sheathed, arising from the rootstock; leaf blades

12-18 x 4.5-9 cm. elliptic-oblong to ovate,

entire or undulate, dark green and punctate

above, dense tomentose and pale green be-

neath, leathery when dry, acute at apex, auri-

cled at base; nerves numerous, distinctly arising

from the broad midrib, ascending widely arch-

ed upwards to the tip, nervules parallel, link-

ing the ascending nerves; petiole 20-30 cm

long, sheathed at base, adaxially grooved,

tomentose throughout; sheath thin, transparent,

membranous at base. Peduncles 4-5 cm long,

thick, convex on both sides up to 5 mm wide,

axillary, partly enclosed in the leaf-sheaths.

Spathe 4-5 cm long, about 1 cm across, tubu-

lar below, constricted in the middle, hairy

without; limb ovate, acuminate, slightly twist-

ed clockwise, blunt serrated, more near the

base, pinkish; obliquely septate near the con-

striction within. Male flowers numerous, sub-

terminal, about 5 mm long, oblong near the

top of the spadix, crowned with an ovate,

613

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Lagenandra nairii sp. nov.

1. Habit sketch; 2. Stipular sheath; 3. Typical flower; 4. Spathe split open exposing

the spadix; 5. Spadix showing arrangement of male and female flowers with neutral

appendage; 6. Arrangement of male flower (a portion); 7. Typical male flower; 8.

Syncarpium enclosed in the basal part of spathe; 9. Typical berry; 10. L. S. of berry;

11. Seed.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

fleshy, sterile appendage; anthers sessile, crowd-

ed, cupular with one or two small tubular

appendages inside. Female flowers 1-2 mm

long, separated from the male by a naked por-

tion 6-8 mm long; ovaries sessile, one loculed,

many in whorls, warted, punctate; stigma

small, globose; ovules 4, basal, elliptic-oblong,

striated. Syncarpium enclosed in the persistent,

cupular basal part of the spathe; berries 5-8

mm long, ovoid, 4-angled, distinctly warted,

warts spinulose; seeds about 5 mm long, obli-

quely ovate, elongate, striated, longitudinal

ridges distinct, punctate.

Holotype Rajan 73052 and paratype Rama-

murthy 66279 (CAL) and Isotypes Rajan

73052 (Acc. nos. 112271-112275, MH) and

paratype Ramamurthy 66279 (Acc. nos.

112276 & 112277, MH) were collected near

the base of the Adirappally waterfalls as fully

submerged patches in fresh, running water on

the bank of the Chalakudi river, Trichur Dis-

trict, Kerala State, India at an altitude of about

300 m on 17-3-1982 (Holotype and Isotypes)

and from the same locality on 22-3-1981 (Para-

types).

The specific name is given in honour of

Dr. N. Chandrasekharan Nair, D.Sc., Joint

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Southern

Circle, Coimbatore for his valuable contribu-

tions to Indian Botany.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to Dr. Dan

H. Nicolson, Department of Botany, Smith-

sonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A. for his

valuable comments on this taxon during his

recent visit to MH. Our thanks are also due

to Dr. V. J. Nair for latin diagnosis. Dr. A. N.

Henry, Regional Botanist for his valuable

suggestions and to the Director, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, Howrah and Joint Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore for their constant encouragement

during this investigation.

A NEW SPECIES OF DIMERIA R. BR. (POACEAE) FROM

KOLLIMALAI, SOUTH INDIA1

M. Mohanan and A. V. N. Rao2

(With ten text-figures)

The Genus Dimeria R. Br. consists of 40

species all over the world of which 20 species

are so far reported from India (Willis 1973,

Santapau & Henry 1973). Fischer (1957) re-

corded only 10 species from the former Presi-

dency of Madras. Bor (1969) described 25

species and 4 varieties of which only 18 species

are from India, others being from Burma and

Sri Lanka. Almeida (1970), Sreekumar et al.

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 National Orchidarium and Experimental Garden,

Botanical Survey of India, Yercaud.

(1981 & 1982) made three new additions mak-

ing the total 21. During a recent plant explo-

ration tour to Kollimalai, Salem District, South

India, a species of Dimeria R. Br. was collect-

ed. A critical study of the specimens and a

careful comparison with allied species of the

genus, recently identified from Kew, England,

proved that it is quite distinct from all other

species and is described here as a new species.

The species is closely allied to Dimeria decca -

nensis Bor but differs from the latter in the

following characters :

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

2>mn

2mvn

Zynrn

Figs. 1-10. Dimeria kollimalayana sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. Spikelet; 3. Lower glume (Lateral view); 4. Upper glume (Lateral

view); 5. Upper lemma; 6. Stamen; 7. Lower lemma; 8. Pistil; 9. Grain; 10. Part

of leaf showing ligule.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Dinieria kollimalayana sp. nov.

Dimeria deccanensis Bor affinis, sed ligulis

non cliliatis, marginibus rhachis glabris, pilis

calli longioribus, glumis infernis glabris, anthe-

ris parvioribus (usque ad 0.75 mm differt).

Holotypus M. Mohanan 56208 et isotypi in

Kollimalai in Salem District ditione Tamil Nadu

ad altit. ± 1200 m, die 19-2-1982. Holotypus

positus ad CAL; isotypi ad MH.

Annuals. Culms 10-20 cm tall; nodes sparse-

ly bearded. Leaves 2-6 x 0.3-0. 4 cm, lanceo-

late, rounded at base, villous with tubercle

based hairs, midrib prominent. Sheaths 1-5

cm, basal ones longer than the internodes,

upper ones shorter, keeled, covered with sparse

tubercle based hairs in the upper half. Race-

mes 2, each 2-3 cm long, divergent. Rhachis

c. 0.75 mm wide, flattened, keeled in a zig-zag

manner, margins glabrous, Callus hairs 0.5-

1 mm long. Spikelets 4-4.5 mm long oblong-

lanceolate, acuminate, villous. Lower glumes

3.5-4 x 0.3-0. 5 mm. linear-lanceolate, acumi-

nate, scabrid. Upper glumes 4-4.5 x 1-1.25

mm, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, winged at

apex, densely villous with a few long hairs

at tip, margin hyaline. Lower floret empty;

lemma 1 .5-2 x 0.3-0. 5 mm, oblanceolate, deli-

cate, hyaline, faintly 1 -nerved, margin ciliate

in the upper half. Upper floret bisexual; lemma

2.5-3 x 0.75-1 mm, 2 lobed at apex, awned in

between, lobes acuminate, delicate, faintly 1-

nerved; awns 8-10 mm long, geniculate, column

c. 3 mm long, brownish, twisted, bristle pale,

scabrid; stamens 2, anthers 0.5-0.75 mm, long;

filaments short; ovary c. 0.25 mm long, ellip-

tic, styles c. 0.25 mm long, slender, stigmas

c. 0.75 mm long feathery; grains c. 2 x 0.4

mm, oblong.

Holotype M. Mohanan 56208 and isotypes

were collected from Kollimalai in Salem Dis-

trict, Tamil Nadu, at an altitude of 1200 m

on 19-2-1982. The Holotype is deposited in

CAL. The Isotypes are deposited in MH.

Dimeria kollimalayana grows on the expos-

ed slopes of hills in Sothuparai, Kollimalai.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Shri P. V. Sreekumar,

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for help

and to Dr. V. J. Nair, B.S.I., Coimbatore for

help in identification and the latin diagnosis.

Thanks are also due to Dr. N. C. Nair, and

Dr. A. N. Henry, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore for encouragement.

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Referen ces

Almeida, M. R. (1970) : There new grasses for

the former Bombay Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 66(3): 510-517.

Bor, N. L. (1969) : Grasses of Burma, Ceylon,

India & Pakistan (excluding Bambosaceae) . pp. 136-

154, Oxford.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1934, 1936) : Graminae in

J. S. Gamble, Flora of the Presidency of Madras.

London, Part X & Part XI.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF EULOPHIDAE (HYMENOPTERA:

CH ALCIDOIDE A ) FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS1

S. Adam Shafee, Anis Fatma,

M. Younus Khan and Shujauddin2

(With four text-figures)

Euplectrus latifrons sp. nov. and Pediobius infuscatipennis sp. nov. are described

and illustrated. The new species are compared from their closely allied species. Types

deposited in Zoological Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Santapau, H. & Henry, A. N. (1973) : A Dic-

tionary of the Flowering Plants in India, New Delhi.

Sreekumar, P. V., Nair, V. J., & Nair, N. C.

(1981) : Dimeria copeana, a new grass from Kerala.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3) : 577.

(1982): Dimeria borii (Poaceae) a new species from

Kerala, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot 3: 657.

Euplectrus latifrons sp. nov.

(Figs. 1 & 2)

FEMALE

Head dark, with coarse setae, wider than

long in facial view; frontovertex slightly more

than twice as wide as long, width slightly more

than half the total head width; ocelli white,

arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli about

twice their own diameters from orbital margins

and near to occipital margin; eyes red; antennae

inserted at lower level of eyes, inter-antennal

space about one-third the width of frons at

median ocellus; malar space as long as eye

width. Antennae (fig. 1) yellowish brown;

scape four times as long as wide; pedicel one

1 Accepted August 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni-

versity, Aligarh, India.

and a half times as long as wide, distinctly

shorter than first funicle segment; one ring

segment present; funicle segment first longest,

slightly less than twice as long as wide; seg-

ments second, third and fourth subequal, each

one and a half times as long as wide; club

2- segmented, slightly more than two times

as long as wide, shorter than preceding two

funicle segments together.

Thorax dark with coarse setae; pronotum

much narrower than mesoscutum, strongly

arched; mesoscutum with well developed para-

psidal furrows; scutum and scutellum with

three and two pairs of setae respectively; pro-

podeum with raised median and two low sub-

lateral carinae. Fore wings (fig. 2) hyaline,

slightly less than two and a half times as long

as wide; costal cell broad with coarse setae;

submarginal vein slightly shorter than margi-

nal vein; postmarginal vein about twice the

618

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

(1) Antenna; (2) Fore wing.

Figs. 3 & 4. Pediobius infuscatipennis sp. nov., $ :

(3) Antenna; (4) Fore wing.

619

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

length of stigmal vein; marginal and postmar-

ginal veins with 10 and 6 long setae respective-

ly; a row of 9 setae beneath the marginal vein;

marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance

equal to one-fifth their length. Hind wings

hyaline, four times as long as wide; Legs

yellow; tarsi four segmented; hind legs with

two long tibial spurs, longest spur as long as

basal two tarsal segments together.

Abdomen yellow except petiole, lateral mar-

gins of basal two-thirds and apical one-third

of dorsum dark; petiole slightly longer than

wide; abdomen slightly longer than thorax;

ovipositor concealed, arising from basal one-

third of abdominal venter.

Body length: 1.9 mm.

Comments : The new species is closely allied

to Euplectrus gopimohani Mani (Khan and

Shafee 1979: 324-326) from which it can be

separated by its having antennae with pedicel

shorter than first funicle segment, funicle seg-

ments 2-4 each one and a half times as long

as wide; stigmal vein one-fourth the length of

marginal vein; longest tibial spur of hind legs

as long as basal two tarsal segments together;

abdomen yellow except lateral margin of two-

thirds and apical one-third of dorsum dark.

Holotype $, INDIA: Andaman Island,

Port Blair, 8,3.1982 ( Shujauddin ).

Pediobius infuscatipennis sp. nov.

(Figs. 3 & 4)

FEMALE

Head dark with metallic bluish reflections;

frontovertex slightly wider than long; ocelli

white, arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli

separated by twice their own diameters from

occipital margin; eyes silvery white, with small

sparse hairs; antennae inserted above lower

level of eyes, inter-antennal space about one-

third the width of frons at median ocellus;

malar space much shorter than eye width.

Antennae (fig. 3) dark with metallic reflec-

tions; radicle small; scape slightly more than

four times as long as wide; pedicel twice as

long as wide, slightly shorter than first funicle

segment; one ring segment distinct; funicle

segments first and second subequal in length,

each about twice as long as wide, third slightly

more than one and a half times as long as

wide; club 2-segmented, apical segment with

a long style; funicle and club segments with

short sensoria.

Thorax dark with metallic bluish-green re-

flections; pronotum narrower than mesoscu-

tum; mesoscutum coarsely reticulated; parap-

sidal furrows complete; axillae and parapside

smooth; propodeum with distinct median and

sublateral carinae. Fore wings (fig. 4) with

basal one-half infuscated, apical half hyaline;

slightly more than two times as long as wide,

apical margin broadly rounded; costal cell

narrow, about one-half the length of marginal

and 4 setae respectively; marginal fringe short,

less than one-half the length of postmarginal

vein; marginal and post-marginal veins with 17

and 4 setae respectively; marginal fringe short,

spaced by a distance equal to one-fourth their

length. Hind wings slightly infumate, four times

as long as wide; marginal fringe one-fifth of

wing width. Legs dark with metallic bluish

green reflection except basal three tarsal seg-

ments of all legs white.

Abdomen dark with metallic bluish green

reflection, as long as thorax; petiole slightly

wider than long; ovipositor hidden, arising

from base of abdominal venter.

Body length: 1.42 mm.

Comments : The new species differs from

all the known species of Pediobius in having

fore wings infuscated at basal half.

Holotype $, India: Andaman Island, Port

Blair, 8.3.1982 ( Shujauddin ).

620

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Acknowledgement Khan, Chairman, Department of Zoology, for

providing research facilities.

We are deeply indebted to Prof. Nawab H.

Reference

Khan, M. Y. & Shafee, S. A. (1979): Taxonomic noptera: Chalcidoidea) , J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

studies on some Indian Eulophid Parasites (Hyme- 76: 324-334.

A NEW SPECIES OF PSYCHOTRIA L. (RUBIACEAE)

FROM KERALA STATE, INDIA1

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan2

(With six text-figures)

Psychotria sekharana sp. nov.

Psychotria nudiflora Wight & Arn. affinis sed

praecipue differt: Foliis lanceolatis ad oblan-

ceolatis, apice acuto; inflorescentia dichotome

corymbosa; pedunculis curtis; bracteolis minu-

tis, deciduis; tubo corollae calyce 4-5 plo lon-

gioribus, parte oris annulo uno pilorum; corolla

5-lobata, apicibus lobis incrassatis; staminibus

5, prope orem corollae exorientibus.

Psychotria sekharana sp. nov.

Allied to P. nudiflora Wight & Arn. but

differs chiefly in: Leaves lanceolate to oblan-

ceolate, acute at apex; inflorescence dichoto-

mously corymbose; peduncles short; bracteoles

minute, deciduous; corolla tube 4 to 5 times

longer than the calyx; a ring of hairs at the

mouth inside; corolla 5-lobed, lobes thickened

at tips; stamens 5, arising near the mouth of

corolla.

Shrubs; branchlets terete, scars of fallen in-

ter-petiolar stipules and leaves distinct; tender

1 Accepted September 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore 641 003.

parts compressed. Leaves 12-18 x 2-4 cm, lan-

ceolate to oblanceolate, entire, glabrous, thick,

leathery, acute at apex, tapering at base; nerves

2 to 10 pairs arising from the main nerve;

nervules distinctly reticulated; main nerve dor-

sally grooved, shallow; stipules interpetiolar,

deltoid, acute or bifid at apex, thick, glabrous,

distinct, deciduous; petioles 1-2 cm long. In-

florescence dichotomously corymbose, terminal,

dense; peduncles short; bracteoles minute, deci-

duous. Calyx 1 mm long, campanulate, trun-

cate, sometimes minutely toothed, glabrous.

Petals 4 mm long, tubular, white, straight, glab-

rous without, with a ring of hairs at the mouth

within, 5-lobed, lobed halfway, lobes thickened

at tip, valvate in bud. Stamens 5, inserted on

the mouth of corolla; filaments upto 1 mm

long; anthers oblong, dehiscing longitudinally.

Ovary 2-loculed; style short; stigma bilobed,

thick, distinct. Fruits not seen.

Holotype Ramamurthy 66275 (CAL) and

isotypes Ramamurthy 66275 (Acc. nos. 116341

to 116343 MH) were collected on the banks

of Kannankuzhi riverside, Trichur District,

Kerala at an altitude of 250 m on 22-3-1980.

The specific name is given in honour of Dr.

N. Chandrasekharan Nair, D.Sc., Joint Direc-

621

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Figs. 1-6. Psychotria sekharana sp. nov.

1. Habit sketch; 2. Typical flower; 3. Corolla tube opened showing the arrangement

of stamens; Fig. 4. Stamens; 5. Calyx; 6. Gynaecium.

622

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

tor. Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore, India for his valuable contribu-

tion, to Indian Botany.

ACK NO WLEDGE M ENTS

We wish to express our thanks to the De-

puty Director, Botanical Survey of India,

Central National Herbarium, Howrah for his

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF GONATOCERUS

NEES (HYMENOPTERA: M YM ARID AE ) FROM ALIGARH

(INDIA)1

S. M. Shamim2 and S. Adam Shafee3

(With ten text-figures)

Three new species of Gonatocerus Nees (G. alami sp. nov., G. aligarhensis sp. nov.,

and G. terebrator sp. nov.,) are described and illustrated. Types deposited in Zoolo-

gical Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

valuable comments on this taxon. Our thanks

are also due to Dr. V. J. Nair for latin diag-

nosis, Dr. A. N. Henry, Regional Botanist for

his valuable suggestions, to the Director, Bota-

nical Survey of India, Howrah and Joint

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Southern

Circle, Coimbatore for their constant encour-

agement during this investigation.

Gonatocerus alami sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

FEMALE

Head brownish; antennae inserted much

above lower level of eyes; malar sutures dis-

tinct; malar space about one-half the eye width;

mandibles tridentate; eyes dark and sparsely

setose. Antennae (fig. 1) yellowish; radicle

cylindrical, slightly more than one-half the

length of scape; scape slightly dilated, slightly

less than three times as long as wide, distinctly

shorter than following three segments together;

pedicel less than twice as long as wide, dis-

tinctly longer than first funicle segment; funicle

segment first longest, twice as long as wide,

segments second and third subequal, each

1 Accepted June 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Ranchi University,

Ranchi, India.

3 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni-

versity, Aligarh, India.

slightly more than twice as long as wide, seg-

ments fourth, seventh and eighth subequal in

length, each one and a half times as long as

wide; club entire, slightly more than three times

as long as wide, as long as preceding four

funicle segments together.

Thorax dark brown. Fore wings (fig. 2)

hyaline, long and narrow, about four times as

long as wide; marginal vein shorter than sub-

marginal vein, postmarginal vein absent, stig-

mal vein developed; marginal fringe about one

half of wing width. Hind wings hyaline, very

long and narrow; marginal fringe seven times

the wing width. Legs orange yellow; fore tibial

spur curved; tarsi 5 -segmented.

Abdomen (fig. 3) brownish, slightly longer

than thorax; ovipositor unexserted, arising

from base of abdominal venter.

Body length: 0.88 mm.

Comments'. This new species is closely allied

to G. uttarodeccanus Mani & Saraswat, 1973

but differs from it in having body mostly

yellow, unexserted condition of ovipositor and

623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Figs. 1-3. Gonatocerus alami sp. nov., $ :

(1) antenna; (2) Fore wing; (3) Abdomen, in lateral view.

funicle segments 2-4 less than three times as

long as wide.

Holotype $, India: Uttar Pradesh. Aligarh,

on grass, 15.8.1980 ( S . M. Shamim).

This species is named after Prof. S. Mash-

hood Alam, in recognition of his contributions

to our knowledge of insect morphology and

taxonomy.

Gonatocerus aligarhensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4-7)

FEMALE

G. aligarhensis sp. nov., resembles G. alami

sp. nov., except in the following characters:

Antennae (fig. 4) Brownish; scape longer

than following three segments together; pedicel

as long as following two funicle segments to-

gether; funicle segments 1-4 subequal in length,

each one and a half times as long as wide,

fifth twice as long as wide; club slightly shorter

than preceding four segments together.

Fore wings (fig. 5) with marginal fringe

slightly more than one-half of wing width; legs

brownish, basitarsi of fore legs (fig. 6) curved.

Abdomen (fig. 7) with ovipositor arising

from basal one-third of abdominal venter.

Body length: 0.68 mm.

Comments : This new species is closely re-

lated to G. alami sp. nov., but differs by the

characters given above.

Holotype $, India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,

15.8.1980 (S. M. Shamim ).

Gonatocerus terebrator sp. nov.

(Figs. 8-10)

FEMALE

G. terebrator sp. nov. resembles G. alami

sp. nov. except in the following characters:

Antennae (fig. 8) brownish except radicle,

scape and pedicel yellowish; first, fourth, fifth

624

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 4-7. Gonatocerus aligarhensis sp. nov., $ :

(4) Antenna; (5) Fore wing; (6) Basitarsus of fore leg; (7) Abdomen, in lateral view.

Figs. 8-10. Gonatocerus terebrator sp. nov., $ :

(8) Antenna; (9) Fore wing; (10) Abdomen, in lateral view.

625

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

and sixth funicle segments subequal in length,

each about twice as long as wide, segments

second, third and seventh subequal in length;

club four and a half times as long as wide,

shorter than preceding four segments together.

Fore wings (fig. 9) with marginal fringe

distinctly shorter than one-half the wing width.

Abdomen (fig. 10) brownish; distinctly lon-

ger than thorax; ovipositor exserted, exserted

part of ovipositor one-fourth the length of

abdomen.

Body length: 0.94 mm.

Comments : The new species is closely allied

to G. munnarus Mani & Saraswat, 1973 but

differs from it in having the scape shorter than

pedicel and following two segments together,

funicle segment first shorter than second, and

sixth shorter than seventh.

Holotype $ , India : Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,

on grass, 15.8.1980 ( S . M. Shamim).

Paratype $ (same data as for holotype).

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mash-

hood Alam, the then Head, Department of

Zoology, for providing necessary facilities.

Thanks are also due to Prof. N. H. Khan,

Chairman, Department of Zoology, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh for encouragement.

Reference

Mani, M. S. & Saraswat, G. G. (1973) : On some

chalcidoidea from India, family Gonatoceridae. Mem.

School. Ent. St. John’s College, Agra, 2: 78-125.

DIMERIA KERALAE (POACEAE) — A NOVELTY FROM

KERALA, INDIA1

N. C. Nair, P. V. Sreekumar and V. J. Nair2

( With sixteen text-figures)

Dimeria keralae sp. nov.

Dimeria santapaui Almeida affinis, sed vagi-

nis carinatis; racemis 2, inequalibus, intervolu-

bilibus; spiculis parvioribus (c. 4.5 mm); callo

longo, acute cuneato, indumento aureo; glumis

parvioribus; gluma inferna apice alato; gluma

supera non nisi apice alato; flosculo supero

paleato, differt.

Annuals. Culms 10-30 cm tall, erect, slender,

purplish; nodes bearded. Leaves 2-5 cm long

1 Accepted September 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003,

India.

and 1-2 mm broad, linear-lanceolate, glabrous

or covered with a few tubercle-based hairs

along the margins; mid rib prominent. Sheaths

2-6 cm, shorter than the internodes, keeled,

loose, glabrous. Ligule a thin ovate membrane.

Racemes 2, each 2-5 cm long, usually un-

equal and inter-wined. Rhachis c. 0.25 mm

wide, flat on one side, angular on the other

side, glabrous. Spikelets 4-5 mm long, oblan-

ceolate, cuneate at base, distant and pedicelled.

Pedicels 1-1.5 mm, joints extremely oblique.

Callus 1-2 mm long, extremely acute at base,

covered with golden — yellow hairs 1-1.5 mm

long. Lower glumes 3.5-4 x 0.75-1 mm, oblong

— linear, slightly emarginate and hyaline

626

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-16. Dimeria keralae sp. nov.

1. Plant; 2. Spikelet; 3. Lower glume — inner view; 4. Same — side view; 5. Upper

glume — inner view; 6. Same — side view; 7. Rhachis — outer view; 8. Same —

inner view; 9. Pedicel; 10. Upper lemma; 11. Lower lemma; 12. Upper palea;

13. Lodicule; 14. Stamen; 15. Pistil; 16. Grain with basally attached palea.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

winged at apex, coriaceous, glabrous. Upper

glumes 4-5 x 0.75-1 mm, oblong-lanceolate,

minutely winged at apex, with hyaline wings

along the margins which are hairy, and also

with a few long hairs at the tip, coriaceous

and glabrous elsewhere. Lower floret empty;

lemma 3-4 x 0.3 -0.5 mm, oblanceolate, 1-

nerved, delicate, hyaline and ciliate along the

upper margins; upper floret bisexual; lemma

3-4 x 0.75-1 mm, notched at apex, with a very

long, stout awn in between, delicate and 1-

nerved in the lower half, sub -coriaceous in the

upper, glabrous; awn 20-30 mm long, stout,

geniculate, column 10-15 mm long, twisted,

chestnut brown, bristles pale and scabrid;

palea very minute, 0.5-0.75 x 0.15-0.25 mm,

ovate-lanceolate, nerveless, delicate, hyaline.

mm, linear-oblong, with basally attached palea.

Holotype : kerala. Cannanore District,

Paramba, on way to Bandudka, ± 150 m, 16th

October, 1981, P. V. Sreekumar 71717 (CAL).

Isotypes in K, MH. Paratypes : Cannanore Dis-

trict, Paramba, on way to Bandudka, db 150

m, 17th October, 1981, P. V. Sreekumar 71727;

Periye, near the cashew project, ± 50 m, 18th

October, 1981, P. V. Sreekumar 71755 (MH).

Fairly common in open, dry rocky grass-

lands along with other grasses like Bhidea

burnsiana Bor, Danthonidium gammiei (Bhide)

C. E. Hubb., and Dimeria bialata C. E. C.

Fischer.

This species is allied to Dimeria santapaui

Almeida but markedly differs from it in the

characters as shown in the table.

TABLE

Dimeria santapaui Almeida Dimeria keralae sp. nov.

1. Sheaths not keeled

2. Raceme solitary, straight up to 2 cm long

3. Spikelets 2-7 in each raceme

4. Spikelets c. 7 mm long

5. Lower glumes 4-4.5 mm long, elliptic-acute,

not winged at apex

6. Upper glumes c. 7 mm long, keels winged all

along

7. Lower lemmas linear-acute

8. Upper floret epaleate

Sheaths keeled

Racemes 2, unequal in length, inter-twined, 3-5 cm

long

Spikelets 8-10 in each raceme

Spikelets c. 4.5 mm long

Lower glumes 3-3.5 mm long, oblong-obtuse, with a

hyaline wing at apex

Upper glumes c. 4.5 mm long, keels minutely winged

at apex only and with a hyaline wing at the tip

Lower lemmas oblanceolate

Upper floret paleate

shortly ciliate along the margins; lodicules 2,

each c. 0.5 x 0.3 mm, obovate, 3 lobed at

apex; stamens 2, anthers 1-1.5 mm long, pale-

yellow with violet margins, filaments short;

ovary c. 0.5 x 0.25 mm, elliptic, styles c. 0.5

mm long, slender, stigmas c. 1 mm long, nar-

row, pink, plumose; grain 2-2.5 x 0.4-0. 5

Further, the species is quite distinct from all

other species of the genus previously described

from India, in the following characters:

1. Racemes are unequal in length and inter-

twined with each other.

2. Both the lower and upper glumes possess

hyaline wings at their tips.

628

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80

Ghosh: Identity of Aspidium finlaysonianum

Plate

Oleandra malasianum sp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

3. Callus is sharply acute, long and with

golden yellow hairs.

4. Awns are long and stout, with a very long

column.

5. Upper floret is paleate.

6. Grain is closely adpressed with the basal

part of the palea, and it is very difficult

to separate them.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Dr. Thomas A. Cope

of Herbarium — grasses. Royal Botanic Gar-

den, Kew for kindly examining our specimens

and for his opinion.

ON THE IDENTITY OF ASP1D1UM FIN LA YSONIANUM

WALL.1

S. R. Ghosh2

{With a plate)

Aspidium finlaysonianwn Wall. Cat. 2235,

1829 is a nomen nudum. This passed off un-

noticed till Christensen in his index (1906)

pointed out with a note of interrogation that

this taxon is identical with Lastrea falcifera

Moore. Moore (1858) in his index has shown

that this taxon is conspecific either with Las-

trea immersa or with Lastrea falcifera.

During the course of a revisionary study on

the genus Oleandra in Indian sub-continent, I

came across Wallichian specimen bearing

Accession No. 19857 housed in CAL herba-

rium with an annoted label on which Wallich

himself had written in ink.

48. Oleandra spec. ?

Prope Aspidio nereiforme, Swartz.

Asp. finlaysonianum. Wall. List. n. 2235

On the right hand corner there is another

notation.

O. nerriforme Cav. Penang. Dr. Cantor.

Christensen (1934, 1937) raised a doubt

1 Accepted September 1982.

2 Cryptogamic Section, Botanical Survey of India,

P. O. Botanic Garden, Howrah.

about the occurrence of Oleandra nerriformis

in Malaysia and established that instead of this

taxon, O. pistillaris (Sw.) C. Chr. occurred in

Malaysia. From my study it is evident that

O. pistillaris (Sw.) C. Chr. occurs in India

instead of O. nerriformis. It may be assumed

therefore that Wallichian taxon is synonymous

with O. pistillaris (Sw.) C. Chr. Holttum

(1954), while providing a description of O .

pistillaris (Sw.) C. Chr., mentions two forms:

Form I : “Fronds hairless, sori usually very

close to the midrib, stipes very

stout”.

Form II : “Fronds usually more or less hairy,

sori in an uneven rows not close to

midrib, stipe 1 cm long but often

much shorter”.

Close examination of the Wallichian speci-

men showed that the Wallichian material

exactly corresponds to form II mentioned

above. I am of the opinion that it is a distinct

species which has some other distinctive

characters mentioned under key given below:

In view of above observation and as the

Wallichian taxon is nomen nudum, a new name

is proposed with detailed description including

latin diagnosis. A key to differentiate it from

629

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Oleandra pistiilaris (Sw.) C. Chr. is also pro-

vided in this paper.

Key to taxa

Lamina oblong, profusely hairy on lower surface,

margin of rhizome scale profusely hairy, sori in

irregular row Oleandra malasianum

Lamina linear-lanceolate, glabrous on lower sur-

face, margin of rhizome scale nearly entire and

glabrous, sori in regular row Oleandra pistiilaris

Oleandra malasianum sp. nov.

Synonym: Aspidium finlaysonianum Wall,

list. n. 2235

Rhizoma rigidum, cylindricum, 3-5 mm,

crassum, erectum, scandens, ramosum, squamis

adpressis imbricatis dense tectum, squama caule

peltifixa, in superficie rhizomatis sulcum for-

mans, fuscata, lanceolata, 4-6 mm longa, 1-1.5

mm lata ad partem basalem, ad marginem

profuse pilosa. Frondes in verticillis, 5-7 cm

distantibus; Phyllopodia 2-3 mm longa, stipes

phyllopodia articulatus, 2-5 mm longus, brun-

neus, dorsaliter sulcatus rotundatus. Lamina

coriacea simplex, integra, oblonga, apices cor-

dato acuminata, costa prominense superficie

abaxiali sulcata superficie adaxiali, profuse

pilosa infra. Venae liberae, bis vel ter furcatae,

parallae, terminatae in hydathodis in serie

dispositis prope marginem. Sorus solitarius in-

dusiatus, positus in venas laterales, seriem

Refer

Christensen, C. (1906): Index Filicum.

(1934): Index Filicum, supple-

ment III.

(1937) : Taxonomic Fern studies

III : Revision of the genera and species of ferns

irregularem in castae utrumque latera formans.

Indusium ad margineum integrum. Sporae

monoletae.

Rhizome stiff, cylindrical, 3-5 mm thick,

erect, scandent, branched, densely covered with

imbricate adpressed scale, scale peltifixed with

the stem leaving a groove in rhizome surface,

dark, lanceolate 4-6 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide

at basal portion, scale margin profusely hairy.

Fronds are in whorl, each whorl is separated

by 5-7 cm. Phyllopodia 2-3 mm long, stipe

articulated to phyllopodium, 2-5 mm long,

brown, dorsally grooved, rounded; lamina

simple, entire, oblong, apex cordato-acuminate;

midrib raised on abaxial surface, grooved in

adaxial side; texture coriaceous, profusely

hairy on lower surface. Veins free, twice or

thrice forked, parallel, ends in hydathodes

which are arranged in a row near margin. Sori

solitary, indusiate, situated on the lateral veins

forming a irregular row on either side of the

midrib, margin of indusium entire; spores

monolete.

Type: Penang, Malayasia, Wall. Cat. n. 2235

(Acc. no. 19857 — CAL).

Acknowledgement

I am very grateful to Dr. N. C. Mazumdar,

Systematic Botanist, Central National Herba-

rium, Botanical Survey of India for the latin

translations of the description.

EN CES

described by A. J. Cavanilles. Danks. Bot. Ark.

9(3): 3-32. f. 1. t. 1-4.

Holtrum, R. E. (1954) : Flora of Malaya, Vol. 2.

Ferns of Malaya.

Moore, T. (1858): Index Filicum.

630

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . SOME OBSERVATIONS ON ANTLER CYCLE OF HOG-DEER

(AXIS PORCINUS ) IN CAPTIVITY

This communication presents data on antler

cycle of Hog-Deer observed at Nandankanan

Biological Park, Orissa during the period

October, 1970 to March, 1983. The number

of Hog-Deer stags under observation varied

from one to four.

Period of antler casting

During the observation period twenty antler

castings (single spike as well as branched)

were recorded during a six month period from

October to March as follows: October, 2;

November, 1; December, 1; January, 9; Febru-

ary, 6; and March, 1. Peak antler casting

(85%) was recorded during winter months

(November-February) .

Both antlers were cast either in one day or

within five days. Casting of antlers of both

sides was completed on one day in eight in-

stances (40%), on two consecutive days in

six instances (30%), within three days in three

instances (15%), within four days in two in-

stances (10%) and within five days in one

instance (5%).

According to Asdell (1964) the antlers of

this species are shed in April in India but in

the Philadelphia Zoo there is a record of a

February shedding and in the Washington Zoo

there is a record of July shedding. The majo-

rity of Hog-Deer of Dhikala, Corbett National

Park cast their antlers from February to May

(Tak and Lamba 1981). Acharjyo (1971)

reports three instances of a stag shedding its

antlers in December. He further states that

both the right and left antlers were always

shed the same day.

Period of velvet rubbing

As usual with the other species of Indian

deer, the Hog-Deer stags rub off the velvet

of antlers soon after their growth is completed.

The nineteen observations on velvet rubbing

were recorded as follows: February, 3; March,

1; April, 6; May, 4; June, 1; July, 1; Novem-

ber, 1; and December, 2. The majority of

stags (63.16%) cleared their velvet during

summer months (March- June).

The Hog-Deer stags remove velvet during

May-August and hard antlers were retained

from August- January at Dhikala, Corbett

National park (Tak and Lamba, loc. cit.).

Time taken for antler growth

Observations on the period required from

the time of casting of antlers to the time when

the stag starts rubbing off the velvet is taken

as the span of antler growth. This period

observed in twelve instances varies from 3 to

4 months (3 months in 4 occasions, 3\ months

in 5 occasions and 4 months in 3 occasions).

Age at first antler casting

Two male Hog-Deer born in the Park in

December, 1981 (7.12.1981 and 17.12.1981),

started showing knob like pedicels by the end

of July, 1982 and rubbed off the velvet in

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

the second fortnight of December, 1982. Cast-

ing of single spike antlers in these two speci-

mens were recorded in the last week of Febru-

ary, 1983. As expected the coronet or burr

was absent in single spike antlers.

These observations suggest that the knob

like pedicels appear at the age of approxi-

mately seven months, rubbing off the velvet

starts at the age of about one year and casting

of the first set of single spike antlers occurs

at the age of about 1 year and 2\ months.

Casting interval

The casting interval observed in seven in-

stances among four specimens varies from 338

Veterinary Asst. Surgeon,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O.: Barang, Dist: Cuttack,

Orissa 754 005.

Wild Life Conservation Officer,

Orissa, 145 — Saheed Nagar,

Bhubaneswar 751007,

April 11, 1983.

to 375 days. The stags cast their antlers an-

nually.

The casting interval reported twice in a

stag was 347 and 383 days (Acharjyo, loc. cit.).

Size and weight of cast antlers

Three of the cast single spike antlers mea-

sured (weighed) as follows: 6 cm (13.250 gm);

7.5 cm (16.500 gm) and 9 cm (23.200 gm).

Maximum length of cast antlers on the out-

side curve recorded twice was 43 cm each.

The maximum weight of two cast antlers of

a stag recorded once was 271 gm (right) and

260 gm (left).

The average horns of Indian Hog-Deer

measure 30 to 38 cm but the Burmese stags

carry antlers upto 61 cm (Prater 1971).

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. K. PATNAIK

References

Acharjyo, L. N. (1971) : Notes on Time of

Shedding of Antlers of Deer in Captivity. Indian

Forester, 97(3) : 150-151.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian

Reproduction, Second Edition, Cornell University

press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 561.

Prater, S. IT. (1971) : The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Third (Revised) Edition. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, pp. 291-292.

Tak, P. C. & Lamba, B. S. (1981): Some obser-

vations on Hog-Deer, Axis porcinus (Artiodactyla :

Cervidae) at Dhikala, Corbett National Park.

Indian Journal of Forestry, 4{ 4): 295-305.

2. A NOTE ON THE LONGEVITY AND FERTILITY OF THE

BLACKBUCK, ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA (LINNAEUS)

During my tenure as District Forest Officer tions about animals, birds, ancient temple

of Vellore Division in North Arcot District of ruins, forts etc; inside reserved forests, a Forest

Tamil Nadu, in response to my usual ques- Watcher replied that in his jurisdiction there

632

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

were three deer like animals without horns

and without spots in the Alliyalamangalam

Reserved Forest. He also added that they

were there for nearly 20 years and that there

were no signs of young ones. He had not seen

them himself but that was what he had heard

from a villager in that locality. This happened

in mid 1967.

The next day being curious to see the ani-

mals I took with me this watcher, the forest

guard and a man of that locality who had

seen these three animals and was familiar with

the isolated forest block. The Alliyalaman-

galam Reserved Forest lies 145 km south west

of Madras and 25 km south east of Polur in

North Arcot district. Its total area is 3043.27

ha, of which, 1970 ha remains even today

planted up with hybrid Eucalyptus and the

rest holds a natural scrub forest of thorny

bushes and short trees thriving under an an-

nual rainfall of about 500 mm. The reserve

is practically a level country of red soil, the

unplanted portion being hard stony soil with

a small rounded hillock at one end. Close to

the foot of the hillock runs the reserve boun-

dary, beyond which is a vast stretch of dry

cultivated lands, except for civets, mongoose,

jungle cat and jackal there were no other car-

nivores; deer were also absent in that reserve.

As we approached the hillock by jeep

through the reserve forest, we were cautioned

that the three animals normally rested at the

foot of the hillock and would run to the culti-

vated open lands at the sight of jeep or man.

That is what happened when our jeep was 200

metres from the foot of the hillock, when out

dashed three blackbuck adult females racing

across the vast expanse of cultivated lands

which had no crops at that time. The following

day also the same thing happened and the three

blackbuck adult females alone were to be

seen. The nearest village and habitation from

that spot was about two kilometres away

where I learnt that in the nineteen thirties and

forties, when the whole reserve was a natural

thorn forest, the population of blackbuck was

about 150 to 200 and that during world war

II both Indian and foreign army personnel

used to come in jeeps for shikar, shoot and

take away even upto three at a time and that

the present three blackbuck females were the

only animals left over from the original stock.

The three blackbuck still associated jeep and

man with war time killings, a memory that

enabled them to survive all these years. As-

suming that, even though war ended in 1946,

the same poaching would have continued till

1950, it would be reasonable to deduce that

these three blackbuck females went without a

male from 1950. I came into the scene in mid

1967.

With a view to rebuilding the blackbuck

population in that reserve I got an adult male

and female from Guindy Park Reserved Forest

in Madras during November-December 1967

and released them near the hillock; the female

died in a couple of days due most probably

to injury sustained during capture and trans-

port; the male being unafraid of man strayed

a few days later into another nearby village

where it was promptly killed and shared. Later,

in 1968 November-December I got another

adult male and female from Guindy Park

Reserved Forest and released them near the

hillock. I also took pains to visit the nearby

villages and do propaganda about the intro-

duction of the pair to the company of the

remnant three and mustered their support to

protect the blackbuck. The villagers got en-

thusiastic and assured me that they would see

that no poacher was allowed to shoot, which

promise they have kept up even today. 1

understand. Soon after that I left Vellore on

transfer.

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

In 1973 when I was touring in Vellore divi-

sion as Conservator of Forests I had the black-

buck population counted by the Rangers and

Foresters as news came that they had multi-

plied. The count came to 11 animals. After

that I lost track of the population there till

June 1982 when the present Chief Wildlife

Warden (Mr. K. Shanmuganathan) took the

trouble to have the blackbuck counted and

informed me in particular that there were 92

animals in Alliyalamangalam Reserved Forest.

When I mentioned this interesting experience

to Dr. Rauf Ali, formerly of the Bombay

Natural History Society and Indian Institute

of Science, Bangalore, he suggested that I re-

port this to you for record and publication as

it is a useful information on the longevity and

fertility of blackbuck under natural conditions.

It was nearly 14 years since an adult male was

added to the original three females. Of course

another female was also introduced with the

male as already mentioned. Now two points

come up for consideration. Firstly, from 1950

to 1968, over a period of atleast 15 years the

three females had gone without a male and

in 1968 when I introduced the male I had

doubted if they would be fertile. But contrary

to my misgivings they had remained fertile and

readily multiplied. Secondly, this seems to be

the only authentic record of three blackbuck

females living for at least 15 years under

natural conditions.

4, Lamech Avenue, G. J. RAJASINGH

Chetpet,

Madras 600 031,

March 29, 1983.

3. HORN GROWTH IN BLACKBUCK

(With a text-figure)

While techniques such as tooth-eruption,

replacement, and wear help estimation of age

of mammals to the accuracy of months, for

their age determination in the field, a biologist

too often will be content with age categories

such as fawn, adolescent, sub-adult, adult, and

old. The growth of antlers in deer such as

barasingha (Martin 1977) and horn growth in

sheep (Taber 1971) and blackbuck (Mungall

1978) were used as criteria for age estimation

in the field. The horn growth of a blackbuck

fawn, Kiran , which was observed for a period

of 2 years and 3 months since its birth is pre-

sented in this paper.

A fawn of 3-4 days old was captured by a

cultivator of Kolpur village in Mahabubnagar

District of Andhra Pradesh from jowar fields

on 19-2-1978. This fawn, Kiran , after being

tamed for over 3 months by him, was brought

to the well fenced Mahavir Harin Vanasthali

Blackbuck Sanctuary in Hyderabad by the

D.F.O. (Wildlife) of Achampet on 2-6-1978.

From then onwards its horn growth was

observed through 4-4-1980. The horn length

was measured straight from the base to its tip.

The number of rings added in the horn since

the previous observation was also recorded.

Further records could not be made as the

animal died.

Results

The addition of rings in the horns over a

period of time is shown in fig. 1. Till it was 5

months old there was no sign of horn growth.

Later bumps appeared on the head which were

634

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the first indications of horn development. When

it completed 8 months, it had the first ring

and the horns measured 3 cm. From then on-

wards, an average of 0.75 ring/month was

added till the age of 15 months. At this stage

the first spiral was complete with 6 rings and

Fig. 1 : Horn development in KIRAN

as an index of age.

the horns were 15 cm long, the left horn being

slightly longer than the right. The average

of horn length till that time was 1.5 cm/month.

For the next six rings it took only 5 months —

Dept, of Zoology,

Osman ia University,

Hyderabad 500007,

February 14, 1983.

Martin, C. (1977) : Status and Ecology of the

Barasingha ( Cervus duvauceli branded ) in Kanha

National Park (India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

74(1) : 61-1 32.

Mungall, E. C. (1978): The Indian Blackbuck

Antelope: A Texas View. The Caesar Kleberg Re-

an average of 1.2 rings/ month and the average

horn growth rate 2.0 cm/ month. During the

next 5 months on an average 1.60 rings were

added per month. The growth rate during this

period showed an increase of 1.8 cm /month.

By this time the age was 25 months and the

second spiral was complete which earned 14

rings. The total horn length was 34 cm, the

left horn 0.5 cm longer than the right.

The horn growth pattern is comparable to

that of the horn growth of blackbuck des-

cribed by Mungall (1978) for the Texas popu-

lation, which also showed two complete spirals

at the age of 2 years. The present study,

though there is lack of sufficient data, suggests

that the number of rings in the horns would

probably help better in the estimation of age

as against the number of spirals.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Andhra Pradesh State

Forest Department, particularly Shri D. S.

Ganga Khedkar, DFO (Wildlife), for the co-

operation and interest shown, and to Prof.

J. V. Ramana Rao, Osmania University, for

his encouragement in this study. Thanks are

due to President, FRI & Colleges, Dehra Dun,

for providing a Junior Research Fellowship.

N.L.N.S. PRASAD

E N CES

search Program in Wildlife Ecology. The Texas

Agr. Expt. Station, Texas A and M Univ. System,

College Station, Texas, p. 184.

Taber, R. (1971): Criteria of Sex and Age. In

Wildlife Management Techniques. The Wildlife

Society, Washington D. C. pp. 325-402.

635

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

4. A NOTE ON THE LONGEVITY OF TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN

OTTERS IN CAPTIVITY

An adult female Common Otter ( Lutra

lutrd) and one adult male Smooth Indian

Otter ( Lutra perspicillata) were received at

the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa on

6. iii. 1965 and were exhibited together in a

somewhat circular enclosure having a floor

space of approximately 71 square metres. Half

of this enclosure is occupied by a 60 cm deep

water pool. Each Otter was fed with one

kilogram of fresh water fish daily but once a

week on Mondays only 500 grams of fish was

fed.

The female Common Otter ( Lutra lutra )

died accidentally on 5-X-1979 after remaining

for 14 years and 7 months in captivity. The

estimated age at the time of death was about

17 years.

Veterinary Asst. Surgeon,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack,

Orissa 754 005.

Wild Life Conservation Officer,

Orissa, 145 — Sahid Nagar,

Bhubaneswar 751007,

February 2, 1983.

Refer

Crandall, Lee S. (1965): The Management of

Wild Mammals in captivity, The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 337-413.

Flower, S. S. (1931) : Cited by Crandall, Lee

S. (1965).

The male Smooth Indian Otter ( Lutra pers-

picillata) died on 18-ii-1982 after remaining

for 17 years 9 months and 13 days in captivity.

The estimated age at the time of death was

about 20 years.

River Otters (Lutra sp.) have lived for 19

years in captivity (Walker et al. 1964). The

greatest longevity of the Eurasian Otter ( Lutra

lutra) recorded in the Zoological Gardens of

Basel was 11 years, 2 months and 23 days

(Flower 1931). A specimen of Lutra vulgaris

(= lutra) was still living on January 12, 1943

in the Trivandrum Zoological Gardens, after

22 years in the collection (Simon 1943). The

longevity of Smooth Indian Otter has not been

given by Crandall (1965).

L. N. ACHARJYO

CH. G. MISHRA

, N C E S

Simon, E. S. (1943): Cited by Crandall, Lee

S. (1965).

Walker, Ernest P. et al. (1964): Mammals of

the World. Volume II. pp. 1215-1216.

636

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. SLOTH BEAR’S ( MELURSUS URS1NUS) METHOD OF

HUNTING FOR TERMITE NESTS

I have been acquainted with a female sloth

bear ( Melursus ursinus) and its cub — now

a sub-adult, off and on, for about a year now.

The area where these animals have been ope-

rating is the North Eastern Section of the

lower plateau of the Nilgiris; the Sigur Forest

Range. This is a dry belt where the rain fall

is scanty and the type of forest is scrub. Pre-

cipitation comes from the N.E. as well as the

S.W. monsoons, but the area is at the tail

end of both; and summer showers. The bears

are seen most often in winter when the Zizy-

phus is in fruit and during the rains.

The pre-monsoon showers were late in

coming this year (1983). When the first show-

ers fell in the middle of May the bears started

coming out regularly hunting for termites.

During the first diggings they seldom got to

the termite nests except along the banks of

the Sigur River where it was comparatively

moist. The mother bear did most of the seri-

ous digging. In spite of the poor ratio of suc-

cess the bear continued to open up the ground,

wherever it suspected termite nests lying be-

low — including about a dozen holes in our

property all within a radius of one km. At

first this seemed to be a random digging spree.

Most of the termite nests had no mounds over

them but were in the pre-mound stage flush

with the ground, only a small hole showing.

Only a bear would know that these were ter-

mite holes. These were mostly in the open

where the ground was hard and rain water

drained quickly. These diggings were not deep

but extended just as far as the moist earth

would allow without much effort. Many of

“Cheetal Walk”,

Masinigudi,

Nilgiri Hills 643 223,

June 15, 1983.

these holes were deepened and enlarged

as and when it rained. The bears did not spend

much time at these holes even when there was

a prospect of finding a termite nest, say, 20

cms away. They were in a hurry, literally on

the run, all the time they were abroad. They

were usually out by 1600 hours and some

times did not retire until 0700 or 0730 hours.

As rain continued to fall the bears were more

successful. They were able to dig out termite

nests whole, usually at depths ranging from

25 to 40 cms. Their droppings during this

period were composed almost entirely of ter-

mite remains and earth. Being the honey sea-

son, they probably robbed a few bee hives

as well.

It may be mentioned that sightings as well

as tracks showed that these were the, only

bears in the area, occasionally joined by a

large aggressive male bear. The observation

extended over a 4 week period from the mid-

dle of May. During this period fairly heavy

rain fell on 4 days, moderate showers on 6

days and light showers and drizzle on 6 days.

It began to dawn on me that what initially

seemed to be a mad act had a method to it.

The adult bear was deliberately employing the

strategy of making the rain aid its digging

efforts, just as a gardener when trying to dig

a pit in hard ground would make a small

trial pit, pour water to soak the ground; dig

a little deeper and pour more water and re-

peat the process until the desired depth is

reached. Or am I crediting the bear with hu-

man intelligence — of distinguishing cause and

effect? Quite possibly bears have the ability

to reason.

E.R.C. DAVIDAR

637

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

6. ADDITIONS “TO THE BIRDS OF GOA BY ROBERT B.

GRUBH & SALIM ALI

JBNHS — VOL. 73, NO. 1”

I had the opportunity to visit the forests of

Goa, thrice during the last year, with a few

members of the Bombay Natural History

Society and World Wildlife Fund — India. A

brief survey of the flora and fauna of the

region was made during these visits which

covered the periods from 1) 18th to 24th May

1981, 2) 6th to 10th April 1982, 3) 16th to

22nd June 1982. All these three visits were

confined to the localities of Castlerock —

Dudhsagar, Molem, Bondla and Mayem lake.

Though the Castlerock — Anmod region is

on the border of Goa, my notes here strictly

adhere to the geographical Goa region. A total

of 162 species of birds were recorded. The

following list consists of the species not re-

corded in the BNHS ornithological survey in

November-December 1972.

Wildlife

Contrary to the report of the BNHS survey

of 1972, we recorded the following:

1) Giant squirrel — Ratufa indica (Erxleben)

Noted : Dudhsagar, Molem, Bondla.

2) Five-triped palm squirrel — Funambulus

pennanti Wroughton.

Noted: Molem.

3) Common Indian langur — Presbytis entel-

lus (Dufresne)

Noted: Dudhsagar, Molem.

4) Bonnet monkey — Macaca radial a (Geof-

froy)

Noted: Molem, Bondla.

5) Striped hyena — Hyaena hyaena (Lin-

naeus)

Noted: Molem.

6) Barking deer — Muntiacus muntjak (Zim-

mermann)

Noted : Molem, Bondla.

7) Jackal — Canis aureus Linnaeus

Noted: Molem.

8) Wild boar — Sus scrofa Linnaeus

Noted: Molem.

In addition to these, flying lizards ( Draco

dussumieri) at Molem, a checkered keelback

( Xenochropliis piscator) and a common wolf

snake ( Ly codon aulicus ) were observed at

Bondla.

Whitebreasted laughing thrushes were re-

corded at Dudhsagar during the second visit.

These birds were also found in large parties

of 30 to 40 at Castlerock. This is being noted

here because in the BNHS survey report, the

absence of this bird is specifically mentioned.

Rosy minivets were seen at Molem during

the first and second visits. It would be interest-

ing to determine whether these birds regularly

overwinter in Goa or if there is any record

of breeding.

Systematic list

1 . Ardeola striatus (Linne). Little Green

Heron

Noted : Panaji.

2. Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert). Whiteneck-

ed Stork

Noted: Molem.

3. Accipiter virgatus (Temminck). Besra

Sparrow-hawk

Noted: Molem.

4. Perdicula asiatica (Latham). Jungle Bush

Quail

Noted: Mayem.

5. Pavo cristatus Linne. Common Peafowl

Noted: Molem, Bondla.

6. Treron phoenicoptera (Latham). Green

Pigeon

Noted: Bondla.

638

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. Ducula badia (Jerdon). Jerdon’s or

Southern Maroonbacked Imperial Pigeon

Noted: Bondla.

8. Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky) . In-

dian Ring Dove

Noted : Bondla.

9. Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli). Spotted

Dove

Noted: Molem, Bondla.

10. Cuculus varius Vahl. Common Hawk-

cuckoo

Noted: Molem, Bondla, Mayem.

11. Cacomantis sonneratii (Latham). Indian

Bay banded Cuckoo

Noted: Molem.

12. Cacomantis passerinus (Vahl). Indian

Plaintive Cuckoo

Noted: Molem.

13. Surniculus lugubris (Horsfield). Drongo-

cuckoo

Noted : Bondla, Molem.

14. Apus affinis (J. E. Gray). House Swift

Noted: Molem, Panaji.

15. Ceyx erithacus (Linne). Threetoed King-

fisher

Noted: Colem, Molem.

16. Picus chlorolophus Vieillot. Small Yellow-

naped Woodpecker

Noted : Dudhsagar.

17. Picoides mahrattensis (Latham). Yellow-

fronted Pied Woodpecker

Noted: Molem, Bondla.

18. Pitta brachyura (Linne). Indian Pitta

Noted: Bondla, Mayem.

19. Hirundo concolor Sykes. Dusky Crag

Martin

Noted : Panaji.

20 . Hirundo smithii Leach. Wiretailed Swallow

Noted: Panaji, Mayem.

21 . Artamus fuscus Vieillot. Ashy Swallo-

shrike

Noted : Molem.

22. Sturnus erythropygius (Blyth). White-

headed Myna

Noted: Molem.

23. Gracula religiosa Linne. Hill Myna

Noted: Dudhsagar, Colem.

24 . Garrulax jerdoni Blyth. Whitebreasted

Laughing Thrush

Noted : Dudhsagar.

25. Rhipidura albicollis (Vieillot). White-

throated Fantail Flycatcher

Noted : Bondla, Mayem.

26. Sylvia curruca (Linne). Lesser White-

throat

Noted: Bondla.

27. Saxicola caprata (Linne). Pied Bushchat

Noted: Panaji, Mayem.

28. Parus major Linne. Grey tit

Noted : Bondla.

29. Parus xanthogenys Vigors. Yellowcheeked

Tit

Noted : Molem, Bondla.

30. Sitta castanea Lesson. Chestnutbellied

Nuthatch

Noted : Molem.

31. Nectarinia lotenia (Linne). Loten’s Sun-

bird

Noted : Bondla.

32. Aethopyga si para j a (Raffles). Yellow-

backed Sunbird

Noted: Bondla, Mayem.

33. Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck). White-

eye

Noted : Bondla.

Ack nowledgements

I am thankful to Mr. Nosherwan Sethna

and Miss Renee Borges who accompanied me

on these treks and helped in identification of

birds.

639

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

Laxmi Narayan Bhuvan, ULHAS RANE

G. D. Ambekar Marg,

Bhoiwada, Parel,

Bombay 400 012.

August 14 1982.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS NIGER

(LINN.) IN INDIA

In 1950 Horace Alexander ( JBNHS 49, pp.

120/121) published the first record of a Black

Tern Chlidonias niger (Linn.) from India

being one seen at Delhi. In subsequent literature

(Ripley’s synopsis 1961 and 1982, Indian

Handbook 1969 and 1981), this sighting has

been considered the only record from our

limits and as such to be treated with caution.

Accordingly, Humayun Abdulali in Check-

list of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur

(1978) marked it for Delhi only and was sur-

prised to see it included in a list of birds of

Bharatpur published by the Chief Wildlife

Warden for Rajasthan at Jaipur, and now be-

ing sold at Bharatpur.

As the only possibility appeared to be its

inclusion in the BNHS Bird ringing records

for this area, these were examined but with

no positive result. VCA however drew atten-

tion to correspondence wherein on 7th Decem-

ber 1970, P. B. Shekar, the Society’s Field

Assistant, telegraphed from Point Calimere,

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay 400 003.

Dist. Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, 10°18'N; 79°51'

E, that a tern bearing Moscow ring marked

Moskwa F-140.956 had been obtained. The

U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences by their letter

No. 3450 dated 19th January 1972 said it had

been placed on a juvenile Chlidonias niger at

Artek, Krasnovodkii, Turkmen S.S.R., 37.21

N, 53.56 E, on 18th July 1970, definitely

establishing the occurrence of the species in

India.

As no information is available in Indian

literature regarding this species it may be men-

tioned that the bird had its wing measured as

221 mm. and weighed 72 gms. The weight is

slightly over that noted in Birds of the Soviet

Union (1969, Vol. 3:627), i.e. gms contra 52.8

to 67.8 gm.

This is an important record permitting

acceptance of the earlier sight record and we

are writing this note for it appears to have

escaped attention and has remained unpubli-

shed.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay Natural History Society, V. C. AMBEDKAR

Horn bill House,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400023.

April 20, 1982.

640

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. OCCURRENCE OF LESSER FLORICAN ( SYPHEOTIDES

IN DIC A) IN KANHA NATIONAL PARK

Lesser florican is found during the monsoon

months in the drier parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan

and western M.P. where suitable grasslands

exist. The Bengal florican ( Eupoditis bengalen-

sis) occurs in the riverine grasslands from

Assam westwards to the terai areas of U.P.

Salim Ali and Ripley mention their having

been reported as far east as the Teesta River

in Bengal, but all such occurrences have been

in the Gangetic valley. I have not come across

any report of the lesser florican in Madhya

Pradesh east of Bhopal.

In June 1969 I saw a female lesser florican

on the Kanheri Maidan in the Kanha National

Park. The grass was short and turning green

with the pre-monsoon showers.

On 21-5-71 I saw another female lesser flori-

can practically on the same spot. It was dis-

turbed by some blackbuck moving away from

Secretary to Government,

Madhya Pradesh,

Forest Department,

Bhopal, M. P.

August 6, 1982.

my jeep. I had very clear views of it and took

a movie of it, putting it up altogether six times.

As male lesser florican change to their nuptial

plumage about this time, I was very keen to

ascertain whether it was a male that was under-

going transformation, or was indeed a female.

It did not have the tell-tale head plumes and

was obviously a female. It was also clear that

it was not a female of the Bengal florican. The

bird was not sulking and was in fact fairly

confiding, as these birds often are when they

first appear at the onset of the monsoon.

The purpose of writing this note is to eluci-

date information from the editors and readers

whether there has been any record of the

lesser florican in Central India as far east as

the Kanha National Park in the Mandla dis-

trict of Madhya Pradesh.

M. IC. RANJITSINH

9. UNUSUAL ADOPTION BY TAILOR BIRDS ( ORTHOTOMUS

SUTORIUS PENNANT)

A pair of tailor birds resident in my friend

Dr. Salvi’s garden at Parel has been under our

observation for the last two years.

In August 1980, a peculiar nest was seen in

this garden on a Gardenia tree. The fibre cup

nest was not completely covered with leaves

but though apparently not complete, the

female laid three eggs and started incubating.

After a few days, the nest was abandoned

probably because the birds were disturbed by

some children.

The pair was always seen moving around

the same garden, hopping amongst Thunber-

gia creepers, feeding on the nectar of Lantana

flowers and insects. Dr. Salvi got quite in-

terested in this pair and everyday in the early

morning, while watering the garden, he kept

a watch on the pair still roosting. It was found

that the pair had become permanent residents

of the garden and every night the birds roosted

in the same Gardenia tree, almost on the same

branch.

641

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

On the 2nd of November 1981, some boys

pulled down a tailor bird’s nest with two

chicks from a Tagar ( Ervatamia coronaria,

Stapf) bush near a building about 500 metres

away from Dr. Salvi’s garden. There are three

lanes and eight buildings in between these two

places. The boys brought this nest with the

chicks which looked about a week old, to us.

Not knowing what to do, we tied this nest

with the chicks in it, at the same place in the

Gardenia tree, where the tailor birds had been

found nesting last year.

We kept watch on the nest and to our

Laxmi Narayan Bhuvan,

G. D. Ambekar Marg,

Rhoiwada, Parel,

Bombay 400 012,

April 15, 1982.

surprise and pleasure, found that the birds

took interest in these chicks. Initially they

watched the chicks from close quarters. Next

day we found that the pair had adopted these

orphaned chicks and both male and female

were feeding them with insects.

Unfortunately the next day, one of the

chicks was found dead due to an unknown

cause. The pair however continued to look

after the remaining chick successfully. On the

11th day both the foster parents were seen

teaching it to fly and after two days the bird

embarked on its first solo flight.

ULHAS RANE

10. COMMUNAL USE OF VILLAGE PONDS BY THE MUGGER

CROCODILE ( CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS ), CATTLE AND MAN

{With a plate)

Introduction

In contradiction to the common and un-

authenticated belief, there are several instances

in record indicating that the mugger (C. palu-

stris) is a docile crocodile, leading, when allow-

ed to do so, a friendly and peaceful coexist-

ence with both cattle and man.

Bustard (1974) and Whitaker (1974) men-

tioned about the mugger’s coexistence at the

Killikudu reservoir in Tamilnadu. Acharjyo

and Mohapatra (1978) have recorded that a

mugger which escaped from the Nandankanan

Biological Park, Orissa stayed in the zoo’s

lake which, at its periphery, is used by villagers

and their cattle.

Further evidence of the innocuous nature

of the species is provided by the various

accounts of crocodile worship (B. C. Chou-

dhury, pers comm., Guggisberg 1972, Singh,

L.A.K., in lit.) where mugger worship is often

symbolised as a sign of veneration to Goddess

Ganga or God Vishnu. The most remarkable

were the mugger of ‘Mugger Pir’ in Pakistan.

Andrew Leith Adams (1860), giving an ac-

count of the Mugger Pir wrote, The

largest crocodile lives in a long, narrow tank

separated from the others. The Fakirs and

natives who worship in the neighbouring tem-

ples had painted his forehead red — they

venerate the monster, making a salamn to

his majesty whenever he shows himself above

water. . It should be noted that the mug-

642

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. so Plate

Singh : Crocodylus palustris

Above : The village pond at Beherasahi during April (Case I)

Below: One of the two connections of the above pond with the River Mahanadi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ger had allowed the people to paint his fore-

head red with vermillion.

The following account records three instan-

ces where since 1975 mugger crocodiles have

lived in peaceful coexistence in village ponds

after entering these during floods from the

River Mahanadi, and another instance where

the mugger took refuge in cow-sheds during

the flood.

Case Histories

Case I.

On 13 October 1977 I confirmed the pre-

sence of a mugger, about 1.5 m long, in a

tank near village Beherasahi on the eastern

bank of the Satkoshia Gorge of River Maha-

nadi, about 19 Ion upstream from the foot of

the gorge.

During the dry season the tank is about

130 m in length and 22 m in width with maxi-

mum water depth of about 1.5 m. In the rainy

season the size of the tank is almost doubled

and the depth increases to 2.5 m. The tank

is separated from the river by a 16 m wide

river bank plus a low lying valley, about 100

m wide, and then the bank of the tank, a

further 10 m wide. During the flood, water

flows from the river through the valley and

the tank. Following the flood, however, the

valley becomes dry although a slow stream

may still be connecting the tank with the

river at the lower end even until May.

Following complaints from the villagers to

remove the mugger from the tank as the tank

was used by cattle and the mugger was “eat-

ing away” all the fish in the tank, several un-

successful attempts were made to catch the

mugger. The tank was also used by the vil-

lagers to take bath during the monsoon and

the immediate post-monsoon periods. They

noticed that the mugger remained away from

the bathing ghat, did’t do any harm to goats

and other small cattle, and was rather shy,

always entering the water when people came

to the bathing ghat. Thus the mugger was

allowed to remain in the tank. Later it be-

came fun for the cowherds to watch it from

a distance and report to us when we went

there. In the beginning people were afraid of

entering the tank to fish, but later they did

not mind the presence of the mugger and

freely netted. Everytime, of course, they ex-

pected to catch the mugger too and present

it to us to return to the river. In the first week

of May 1978 the mugger left the tank, pro-

bably during the night, to be later seen in the

river.

During its seven months stay in the tank

the mugger was never a threat to any of the

animals using the tank, or bathing children.

On one occasion the mugger permitted me to

approach slowly to within two metres to

take a photograph. Once it was reported that

the mugger had attempted to attack a small

monkey when the latter had lowered its head

to drink.

Case II.

During the same year another juvenile mug-

ger, also of about 1.5 m in length, had entered

a swamp in village Chhamundia, about 15 km

downstream from the foot of the Satkoshia

Gorge, along the western bank. This swamp

is by the side of a stream connecting the river

to the catchment area of a range of distant

hills. During dry season the swamp is about

50 m from the stream and 100 m from the

river. Then it is about 200 m in length and

150 m in width holding water of about 2 m

deep. The swamp is greatly disturbed by cattle

and man, there being much fishing activity.

During rains the swamp is connected to a

small village pond, 60 x 50 x 2 m, situated

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

about 200 m away on the far side of a motor-

able road.

The mugger often used to walk out of the

swamp and go to the pond, return back the

next morning or after a few days. People had

on some occasions seen the mugger on the

road. Either in the swamp or in the pond the

mugger remained in the area for a total of

about twentyone months, from 1977-rains to

May 1979. After that the mugger returned to

the river. Although there was the usual com-

plaint that the mugger was “eating away” all

the fish from the swamp and the pond, the

mugger was never a threat to the children and

cattle using the two places.

Case III.

Similar to the above two instances, a 2 m

mugger from the river used to come to a pond

in village Titigaon, along the western bank of

the river, about 37 km upstream from the foot

of the Gorge, during the flood in the years

1975 to 1978. People used to see it in the pond

after the floods for the next three to four

months, but never knew exactly when the mug-

ger returned back to the river. The tank

is used by the villagers and their cattle. In

none of the years had the mugger attacked

any man or animal.

Case IV.

During high floods mugger have been re-

ported to have taken refuge in cow-sheds in

Boudh area beside the River Mahanadi. People

believe that the crocodiles were trying to

escape the current in the river, and others felt

that the mugger had come to attack the cattle,

although no actual attacks were reported. In

every case, however, the mugger used to be

beaten to death. Such conduct of stealthily

entering into cow-sheds has earned for the

mugger a local name, ‘ Chora Kumbhira ’

(Oriya, = ‘thief crocodile’).

Discussion

In all the cases mentioned above, the croco-

diles left the main river during high floods. A

reason for this behaviour is to avoid the

strong currents in the river, and secondly,

where they enter village ponds, they follow

the movement of fish. Gharial are known to

enter into the side streams during the flood

(Bustard and Singh, in press) in accordance

with the movement of their prey fish. Mugger

entering into cow-sheds is something perplex-

ing and inexplicable. However, it could be

that, taking advantage of their capability to

perform long-distance terrestrial movements,

the mugger prefers warmth during the cool

rainy weather.

The reason for the return of the mugger,

which had entered the ponds during the flood,

into the river may be due to cumulative or

singular factors like low water, shortage of

food and disturbance by people and cattle.

However, everywhere they lived peacefully

with people and their cattle.

Cott (1961) wrote of the Nile Crocodile

( Crocodylus niloticus) that during the rains

crocodiles often follow fish or to find warm

water Eventually as the pool dries up,

they attempt to regain the valley and are some-

times found moving over land far from water.

Parallel observations have also been made of

the gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus) , where releas-

ed juveniles have entered village ponds along

with flood water (Unpubl. info.).

The above discussion brings us at a situation

in crocodile management which is particularly

significant for the current ‘grow and release’

practice adopted as a conservation-rehabilita-

tion measure for the Indian crocodilians.

Young crocodiles after release into a main

river should be expected to move into adjacent

ponds or streams during the flood (pers. obs.)

644

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

for the gharial, and S. Kar (pers. comm.) for

the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus) ,

and the ‘manager’ should be in a position to

trace these and bring confidence to the people

by demonstrating that he is there to tackle the

problem if a crocodile proves a nuisance.

Adult mugger and saltwater crocodiles over

2.5 m may attack or attempt to attack a goat

or dog on the bank. During 1978-flood a 10-

12 ft. (3. 0-3. 6 m) mugger had pulled into

water a small goat grazing on the banks of

River Chitrotpala near Bhagawanpur village,

Orissa.

However, it is at the same time important

to note that in the Satkoshia Gorge of the

River Mahanadi, where mugger formerly

occurred in hundreds and a few still survive

to this date, no attack on any human life or

cattle have been reported at least during the

last twentyfive to thirty years. Furthermore,

Gharial Research and

Conservation Unit,

Tikerpada 759 122,

Orissa, India,

June 11, 1982.

the people of village Kujanga and other near-

by villages besides the bank of lower Maha-

nadi were well accustomed to the habits and

behaviour of all three species of Indian cro-

codilians, namely, the gharial, the mugger and

the saltwater crocodile. While they are speci-

fically afraid of the saltwater crocodile’s un-

predictability, they do not fear the mugger and

say it is a shy crocodile, scared of man

and thus not a threat to people or cattle.

Acknowledgements

I wish to record my gratitude to the Orissa

Forest Department staff at the Gharial Re-

search and Conservation Unit, people beside

the river Mahanadi, Sri B. C. Choudhury, Sri

S. Kar and my friends from Kujanga Sri Pra-

mod Mahapatra and Sri Kshirod Mishra for

help and information. Dr. H. R. Bustard read

through the manuscript.

L.A.K. SINGH1

References

Acharjyo, L. N. & Mohapatra, S. (1978) : Re-

turn of the captive marsh crocodile ( Crocodylus

palustris) into the wild. Indian Forester, 104(5) :

385.

Adams, A. L. (1960) : Quoted in Guggisberg,

C.A.W., 1972.

Bustard, H. R. (1974): India: A preliminary

survey of the prospects for crocodile farming. FO :

1ND /71 /033: 1-66.

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L. A. K. (in press):

Movement of wild gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) in River Mahanadi, Orissa (India).

British Journal of Herpetology.

Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1972): Crocodiles: Their

natural history, folklore and conservation. Stack-

poles, Harrisburg.

Whitaker, R. (1974) : Notes on behaviour, eco-

logy and present status of the marsh crocodile ( Cro-

codylus paiustris ) in South India. A Madras Snake

Park Trust Publication.

1 Present address: National Chambal Sanctuary,

P.O. Box 11, Morena-476 001, (M.P.).

645

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

11. ON SIT ANA LIZARD IN KALAKAD SANCTUARY

In Kannupulisaragam of Valliyur section of

Kalakad Sanctuary on the road and boundary

between the Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli

Districts, the Sitana lizard or Fanthroated

lizard Sitana ponticeriana is very common.

The area is generally rocky all over with

thorny bushes of Acacia planifrons. Euphorbia

randia etc. Only about 30% of the ground

is covered with vegetation. Here there is a

large concentration of the lizards. In May

1980 I did a count of the lizards on 2 days

in an area of 1000 m x 100 m using pocket

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctury,

Templeton Cottage, Vannapet,

Udhagamandalam 643 001,

Tamil Nadu,

November 12, 1982.

compass and tape and dividing the area in

100 m2. There were in all 82 lizards 35 pairs

and 12 individuals. Each pair moved within

small area of about 30 m2. When chased out

of this area they returned back. The bluish

red dewlap was exhibited by the male from

small rocks. They were not seen on rocks

higher than about lm. Dr. Rajendran says

that they climb trees and bushes though I

have not seen any climbing trees. This lizard

is not common in other parts of the Sanctuary.

I have not seen it in Mundanthurai Sanctuary.

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

12. ON A NEW RECORD OF THE GENUS GNATHOLEPIS

BLEEKER (GOBIIDAE, TELEOSTEI) FROM SOUTH-WEST COAST

OF INDIA

(With three text -figures)

Introdction

Neither Day (1889) nor Koumans (1941)

recorded any member of the genus Gnathole-

pis from Indian waters. Herre (1927) in his

account of the gobies of the Philippines and

the China sea described 7 species of the genus

of which 5 were later synonymised with Acen-

trogobius spp. by Koumans (1953). Koumans

(op. cit.) described three species of the genus

from the Indo -Australian Archipelago namely

G. balliurus (C. & V.), G. calliurus (J. & S.)

and G. anjerensis (Blkr.). All the above spe-

cies were recorded east of Singapore. How-

ever Smith (1959) recorded G. balliurus (C. &

V.) from the Western Indian ocean. In an

extensive collection to study the taxonomy of

gobiid fishes from the South-west coast of

India an apparently strange specimen was

collected which on detailed studies, in its

characters with G. calliurus , a species not so

far recorded from Indian waters.

Methods

Measurements to the nearest millimetre,

were made following the criteria of Hubbs &

Lagler (1964). The body measurements were

then converted into percentages of standard

646

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

length while those of head region into per-

centages of head length. The meristic data

were collected following Koumans (1953).

The last ray of second dorsal and anal,

though double, was counted as one. The cep-

halic sensory canals and open pores were

studied blowing air or injecting water-soluble

ink into them. The terminology for the sen-

sory canals and pores are those of Akihito

& Meguro (1975) and Macdonald (1972) res-

pectively. The pit organs (sensory papillae)

were examined under low power binocular

microscope after light staining with alizarin

Fig. 1 . Gnatholepis calliurus (Jordan & Seale) (Male)

Fig. 2. Dorsal view of the head of G. calliurus showing the pattern of arrangement

of the sensory canals and open pores.

Abbreviations

AN, Anterior nostril; AOS, Anterior oculoscapular canal; PN, posterior nostril;

PO, Preopercular canal; POP, posterior oculoscapular canal.

Fig. 3. Lateral view of the head of G. calliurus showing the sensory pores

and pit organs.

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

red. The description of the pit organs is main-

ly restricted to illustrations.

Gnatholepis calliurus Jordan & Seale (Fig. 1)

Gnatholepis calliurus Jordan & Seale, 1905,

p. 796; Chabanaud, 1923, p. 559; Herre, 1927,

p. 130; Koumans, 1941, p. 123; 1953, p. 171.

Material : Single specimen (m) of 5.40 cm.

Standard length (sl) (6.80 cm Total length).

1) General description :

Body elongate and compressed. Dorsal and

ventral profiles convex. Depth of body 16.67%,

caudal peduncle length 25.93% and depth

12.96% of sl. Body length from snout tip

to first dorsal 37.04%, to second dorsal,

51.85%, to pelvic base, 31.48% and to anal

opening, 55.56% of sl.

Head compressed, dorsal profile convex,

length 31.48%, width 16.67% and depth,

18.52% of sl. Snout obtuse, length, 23.53%

and height at the anterior margin of the orbit,

32.35% of head length. Eyes dorso-lateral,

diameter, 23.53% and interorbital, 5.88% of

head length, the latter about 1/4 the former.

Head without tentacles or spines. Anterior

pair of nostrils mounted on very short tubes.

Mouth oblique, lower jaw prominent, lips

thin, cheeks not conspicuously inflated. Maxil-

lary extends to below the anterior margin of

eye. Gill opening continued anteriorly; isthmus

narrow.

2) Teeth :

Teeth in several rows on both jaws. Outer

row of teeth on both jaws enlarged and inner

rows smaller. Outer row of teeth on upper

jaw widely spaced, about 18 on each side,

many caninoid. Innermost row also slightly

enlarged. On lower jaw outer row of about

13 teeth on each side does not extend the

whole length of the jaw laterally, but stops

short by a small distance. The last pair of

teeth, not canines. The inner rows extend the

whole length of the jaw. Tongue truncate.

3) Fins :

First dorsal longer than body, made of 6

flexible spines. Middle rays longer, second the

longest, 19.44% of sl. Length of fin at base

13.89% sl. Interspace between dorsals very

small, 2.78% of sl., with two median scales.

Second dorsal and anal similar, both poster-

iorly pointed, posterior rays longer and as

high as body. Second dorsal composed of one

spine and 10 branched rays. Length of the

fin at base 22.22% and the longest ray,

18.52% of sl. Anal with one spine and 9

branched rays. Length of anal at base 19.44%

and the longest ray, 18.52% of sl. Pelvic

single, obtuse, 24.07% of sl, with one spine

and 5 branched rays on each side. Pectoral

obtusely pointed, 31.48% of sl composed of

17 rays. Caudal obtusely rounded, 25.93% of

sl, formed of 17 segmented rays.

4) Scales :

Head with large cycloid scales dorsally, be-

hind the eyes, on opercle (3 rows), cheek and

pectoral base. Scales on anterior part of body,

breast and belly cycloid, thin and shed easily

and the rest ctenoid. Scales on body large and

arranged in definite rows.

L.l. 25; Ltr. 8; Pr. S (Predorsal scales).

10; Po. S (Postdorsal median scales).

5 ) Branchiostegals : 5

6) Cephalic-lateralis system : (Figs. 2 and 3)

All the three usual canals are present. The

anterior oculo-scapular canals on either side

join together in the inter- orbital region and the

single median canal opens anteriorly and

posteriorly by the respective inter-orbital pores.

From the anterior inter-orbital pore the canals

648

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

separate and run anteriorly, one on either side

to open by the single nasal pore situated

slightly mesially in between the two nostrils.

There is no post-orbital pore and the canal

from the posterior inter-orbital pore opens

laterally to the post-infraorbital pore, which

in turn continues posteriorly and opens by the

two lateral pores on each side. The posterior

oculo-scapular canal, which is short, has the

anterior and posterior pores and the pre-oper-

cular canal has the dorsal, middle and ventral

pores as is typical in gobiid fishes.

The pit organs are not distinct as the cheek

and opercle are scaled. In between the rows

of scales a few longitudinal lines are however

evident over the cheek and there are no trans-

verse lines.

7) Colour Pattern : (Freshly preserved

specimens)

Body greyish yellow with uniformly distri-

buted spots and greyish markings on the dor-

sal part and yellowish white ventrally. Inter-

orbital and snout dark. A roughly triangular,

black blotch over opercle. A black mark on

the caudal base, anterior to which, and on the

midlateral line, there are one or two indistinct

black patches.

Dorsal and anal greyish yellow, with irre-

gular small black spots all over. Pelvic yellow-

ish, with dark spots in the central region. Pec-

toral slightly greyish yellow, with irregular

grey spots. Caudal darker without bands.

8) Habitat:

Specimens studied were collected from the

estuary at Neendakara near Quilon on the

Kerala coast.

Dept, of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries,

University of Kerala, Beach P.O.,

Trivandrum 695007, Kerala,

November 9, 1982.

9) Distribution :

According to Koumans (1953), the fish is

known from Singapore, Indonesia and East

Indian Archipelago.

Remarks

The genus Gnatholepis Bleeker is recorded

for the first time from Indian waters. The

characters of the present specimen of G. colli -

urus agree closely with those given by Herre

(1927) and Koumans (1953). The more im-

portant differences are the following.

The senior author (C.G.) is thankful to the

from that given by the above authors.

Acknowledgement

The senior author (C.G.) is thankful to the

U.G.C. for financial assistance during the

present work.

C. GEEVARGHESE

P. A. JOHN

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

References

Akihito, Prince & Meguro, K. (1975) : Des-

cription of a new Gobiid Fish, Glossogobius aureus,

with notes on Related species of the genus. Jap.

J. lchthyol. 22:127-142.

Day, F. (1889) : Fauna of British India includ-

ing Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. Vol. I. Taylor &

Francis, London.

Hubbs, C. L. & Lagler, K. F. (1964): Fishes

of the great Lakes Region. University of Michigan

Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 213.

Koumans, F. F. (1941): Gobioid fishes of India.

Mem. Indian Mus. 23: 205-329.

(1953): Gobioidea. In: The fishes

of Indo-Australian Archipelago X. Ed. by Weber,

M. & De Boufort, L.F. E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp. 423.

Macdonald, C. K. (1972): Aspects of the life

history of Arrow goby, Clevelandia ios (Jordan &

Gilbert) in Anaheim Bay, California, with com-

ments on the cephalic-lateralis system in the fish

family Gobiidae. M. A. Thesis, California State

Univ. Long Beach, pp. 71-145.

Smith, J. L. B. (1959) : Gobioid fishes of the

families Gobiidae, Periophthalmidae, Trypauchenidae,

Taenioididae and Kraemeriidae of the Western

Indian Ocean, lchthyol. Bull. 13. Dept. lchthyol.,

Rhodes University, South Africa.

13. A NEW RECORD OF EPINEPHELUS GUAZA (LINNAEUS,

1758) (SERRANIDAE: PISCES) FROM INDIAN WATERS

I N TROD U CTION

While carrying out a survey on the biota

represented in the rockpools off Visakhapat-

nam coast, an interesting species of serranid

fish belonging to the genus Epinephelus was

collected. E. quaza was described earlier by

Smith (1961) and Smith, C. L. (1971) from

South Africa and America. The species is

being recorded for the first time from Indian

waters and hence a short description is given.

Material and Methods

Collection of fishes was done using a hand

net of 0.6 m diameter. In taking the mor-

phometric data, a measuring board, a dial as

well as a Vernier Callipers were used and the

methodology of Hubbs & Lagler (1958) was

followed.

The data is based on a female specimen

measuring 200 mm in standard length, collec-

ted on 6-2-1980.

Description

Counts: D XI, 16; A III, 8; p. 18; V I, 5;

C 13; gillrakers 8+1+15; lateral line scales 60;

1. tr. 14/1/29.

As percentage of standard length: total

length 125.00; body depth 75.00; head length

42.00; snout 9.00; eye diameter 6.00; in-

ter-orbital 4.50; pectoral length 23.50; ventral

length 18.00; caudal peduncle length 12.00;

distance to dorsal 33.0, to anal 75.0, to pecto-

ral 35.0, to ventral 39.0.

As percentage of head length: snout 21.43;

eye diameter 14.29; inter-orbital 10.71.

Body oblong, slightly compressed, deepest

under the origin of dorsal. Cycloid scales on

anterior half of body and upper and lower

parts of flanks, rest of the body with ctenoid

scales; mouth oblique, gape large, lower jaw

slightly projecting; maxilla large reaching

below the hind margin of eye; nostrils round,

posterior one larger. Eyes large. Teeth point-

ed and small, in 3-4 rows on upper jaw, outer-

most row of teeth slightly bigger, one tooth

on either side of symphysis enlarged, two rows

of teeth on lower jaw, two on each side of

symphysis enlarged; arrow-head shaped patch

of teeth on vomer, 3-4 rows of teeth on pala-

650

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tines, patches of teeth on roof and floor of

pharynx. Vertical edge of pre-opercle serrated

with a broad shallow concavity just above

the rounded and serrated angle, horizontal

edge smooth. Three spines on opercle, middle

one being larger. Fourth dorsal spine longest,

longest ray longer than longest spine, rays

reach caudal base when folded back. Third

anal spine longest and stoutest, longest ray

longer than longest spine; rays reach latter

half of caudal peduncle. Pectorals rounded

and do not reach vent, ventrals do not reach

vent. Caudal rounded.

Colour : Chocolate brown body with large

and irregular pale blotches all over the body.

Ventral side up to anal pale yellow. Edges of

all fins black. Pectoral base brown, orange

in the middle with black edge.

Department of Marine Sciences,

Andhra University,

Waltair 530 003,

August 6, 1982.

Remarks

This grouper was collected from a crevice

adjoining a rockpool at low tide. The above

description conforms to that of Epinephelus

quaza by Smith (1961) and also by Smith,

C. L. (1971). The recorded maximum length

of this species is 900 mm (Barnard 1927).

The collection of a lone specimen over a

collection period of three years indicates the

rarity of this species.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. C. Subba Reddy,

Head of the Department of Environmental

Sciences for encouragement and to U.G.C.

and C.S.I.R. for financial assistance.

N.A.V. PRASAD REDDY

References

Hu bbs, C. & Lagler, K. F. (1958): Anatomical

features and terms and methods of counting and

measuring in Fishes of the Great lake region. Craw-

book Inst. Sci., Bull. (26) : i-xi + 1 - 213.

Smith, C. L. (1971): A revision of the American

groupers: Epinephelus and allied genera. Bull. Amer.

Mus. nat. Hist. 146(2) : 67-242.

Smith, J. L. B. (1961) : The Sea Fishes of South-

ern Africa. 4th Ed. Central News Agency Ltd.,

South Africa, pp. 573.

14. ON THE EXTENSION OF RANGE OF A FRESHWATER

CATFISH — GLYPTOTHORAX LINEATUS (DAY)

(SILURIFORMES; SISORIDAE) — TO POONCH VALLEY (JAMMU

AND KASHMIR STATE)

Sisorid catfishes of the genus Glyptothorax

Blyth are typical torrential- stream teleosts

which prefer fast-flowing mountain streams

and possess a thoracic adhesive apparatus

composed of longitudinal plaits of skin by

which they can hold on to stones, roots and

other firm objects. The rays of the paired fins

also bear adhesive skin on their under surface.

The range of distribution of Glyptothorax

Blyth is Syria, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Burma,

Malaya, Thailand, Laos, Sumatra, Java,

Borneo and China (Hora 1923).

Glyptothorax lineatus (Day) is a freshwater

sisorid of India which has been previously

651

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

recorded from the Yamuna, the rivers of the

Terai region and Duars of northern Bengal.

Outside India it also abounds in the Kosi

River in Nepal and the Sankha River in

Burma (Misra 1976). There is, thus, no previ-

ous record of the occurrence of this sisorid

in northern India upto date and the present

report of this species is a new record for

depression, the fish manages to stay stuck to

the submerged stones and boulders and thus

escapes being washed away by the turbulent

waters of the river.

Following species of sisorid cat-fishes be-

longing to the genus Glyptothorax Blyth have

been reported from Jammu and Kashmir State

upto date :

Jammu and Kashmir State.

Specimens of G. lineatus (Day) were collec-

ted from Poonch River and Betarh Nallah

of Poonch Valley by me during 1979-1980,

where it common in the rock-pools as well as

the rocky-streams flanking the course of the

main river. The thoracic adhesive apparatus

being well-developed with a central pit-like

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for confirming the

identification of the specimens under report.

Thanks are also due to Dr. K. C. Jayaram,

Dy. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta, for his valuable opinion.

Department of Zoology, SURENDRA NATH

Islamia College of Science & Commerce,

Srinagar 190 002,

Kashmir (India),

March 29, 1982.

References

Das, S. M. (1965): A revision of fish species

inhabiting Kashmir Province. Kashmir Sci., 2(1-2) :

13-19.

Das, S. M. & Nath, Surendra (1971) : A revision

of fishes from Jammu Province, India, ibid., 8(1-2) :

1-22.

Hora, S. L. (1923) : Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum, V : On the composite genus Glyptosternon

McClelland. Rec. Indian Mus., 25(1): 1-44.

Malhotra, Y. R., Jyoti, M. K. & Dutta, S. P.

Singh (1975) : An aid to the identification of fishes

found in Jammu Division of J. & K. State. Jammu

Univ. Rev., 5(8) : 50-66.

Misra, K. S. (1976) : The Fauna of India and

the adjacent countries, Pisces, Vol. III. Controller

of Publications, Govt, of India, New Delhi.

Nath, Surendra (1981): On the extension of

range of two freshwater catfishes, Glyptothorax

conirostre (Steind.) (Sisoridae) and Clupisoma garua

(Ham.) (Schilbeidae) to Poonch Valley (Jammu

and Kashmir), India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

78(1): 178-179.

Silas, E. G. (1960): Fishes from the Kashmir

Valley, ibid., 57(1) : 66-77.

652

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. FIRST RECORD OF ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS

HOLMG. & HOLMG. FEEDING

The coconut palm. Cocos nucifera is a tropi-

cal plantation crop seen particularly in coastal

areas. It is liable to be attacked by more than

thirty species of termites in various parts of

the world. In India, only two species of the

genus Odontotermes have been reported as

pests of coconut palm. The damage caused by

O. obesus on young plants and mature palms

is considerable, particularly on the west coast

(Nirula et al 1953). O. malabaricus has been

recorded as pest of coconut palm in Tamil

Nadu (cf. Roonwal 1979). In other countries

such as Sri Lanka, O. redemanni and O. horni,

and Somalia, O. classicus have been recorded

as culprit species of coconut palm (Harris

1971). However, no information is available

on any other species of Odontotermes as pest

of coconut palm. During a survey of termite

damages to coconut palms of some parts of

the east coast, particularly Gan jam district

(Orissa), O. obesus was recorded as a serious

pest attacking both saplings and mature palms.

Besides, O. bellahunisensis was also recorded

feeding on both young and mature coconut

palms in plantations between Gopalpur-on-sea

and Chatrapur, Ganjam (Orissa). Interest-

North Eastern Hill University,

College of Agriculture,

Medziphema-797 106,

Nagaland, India,

June 24, 1982.

Refei

Harris, W. B. (1971) : Termites, their recogni-

tion and control. Longman Group. Ltd., London.

Nirula, K. K., Anthony, J. & Menon, K. P. V.

(1953): Some investigations on the control of ter-

mites. Indian Coconut J. 7(1) : 26-34.

Roonwal, M. L. (1979) : Termite life and ter-

mite control in Tropical South Asia. Scientific Pub-

lishers. Jodhpur.

ON COCOS NUCIFERA LINN.

ingly, it is not only the first record of O.

bellahunisensis feeding on coconut palm, but

also its first recorded appearance in the eastern

zone including Bangladesh (Sen-Sarma 1974).

However, it has been reported as a polypha-

gous feeder damaging a number of plants (Sen-

Sarma et al. 1975).

O. bellahunisensis was recorded in coconut

plantations on laterite soils, infesting the roots

and lower portions of the trunk adjacent to

the soil surface. Its mud-sheet covering over

the trunk, was measured to an height of about

12 to 15 cm. It was recorded feeding on the

outer most dried tissue of the trunk. In addi-

tion, it was recorded infesting the fallen

petioles, rachises (mid-ribs) and leaflets of the

leaves, and spathes of the palm. It was esti-

mated that the attack on coconut palm by O.

bellahunisensis was only about ten per cent

which was comparatively less than that of O.

obesus.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. P. K. Sen-Sarma,

Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehra

Dun (U.P.) for kindly identifying the termites.

M. VIKRAM REDDY

E N CES

Sen-Sarma, P. K. (1974): Ecology and biogeo-

graphy of termites of India. In : Ecology and bio-

geography in India (Ed. M. S. Mani). Dr. W. Junk

Publ. The Hague, pp. 421-472.

Sen-Sarma, P. K., Thakur, M. L., Mishra, S.

C. & Gupta, B. K. (1975) :Wood destroying termites

of India. Forest Research Institute and Colleges,

Dehra Dun.

653

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

16. NOTES ON HOST-PLANTS, FEEDING BEHAVIOUR,

INFESTATION AND ANT ATTENDANCES OF COTTON APHIDS

APHIS GOSSYPII GLOV.

Behura (1963, 1965) reported the occur-

rence of A. gossypii in India on as many as

142-plants belonging to different families.

Since then 20 more have been added to the

list (Behura and Roy 1980).

The principal crops which are usually attack-

ed by these cosmopolitan polyphagous aphid

species are cotton, brinjal, chilli, melon and

bhendi. Eastop (1961) reported as many

as 60 host-plants of A. gossypii in Africa.

According to our survey the total number of

host-plants throughout the world comes to not

less than 220 belonging to 46 families. The

distribution of aphid on plant species in all

the families are enlisted in Table 1. Families

Table 1

Number of plant species of different families

infested by Aphis gossypii Glover

SI. Name of the

Nos. families

1 . Araliaceae

2. Apocynaceae

3. Violaceae

4 . Fabaceae

5. Vitaceae

6. Verbenaceae

7 . Asteraceae

8 . Solanaceae

9. Araceae

10. Cucurbitaceae

1 1 . Acanthaceae

12. Chenopodiaceae

13. D ipterocarpaceae

14. Rosaceae

15. Euphorbiaceae

16. Annonaceae

17. Apiaceae

1 8 . Myrtaceae

Number of species

of plants infested

by A. gosspyii

1

2

1

10

9

22

30

3

19

3

1

4

5

1

2

with the largest number of plants infested by

the aphids are in the following order: - Solana-

ceae (30 species), Asteraceae (22 species),

Cucurbitaceae (19 species), Malvaceae (17

species) and Fabaceae (10 species).

Feeding in the aphid species has been obser-

ved althrough day and night on brinjal plants

{Solarium melongena). They anchor themselves

by inserting the beak (rostrum) into the plant

tissue and occur on different parts of the plant

654

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

although the greatest concentration is noticed

on the foliage. At the time of feeding plant

sap a sort of rhythmic jerk is exhibited by

them. Mostly feeding is observed on the under-

surface of leaf indicating thereby their avoid-

ance of direct sunlight.

All aerial parts of the brinjal or egg plant

are prone to the attack of A. gossypii. The

upper side of the leaf is more hairy and re-

mains exposed to sunlight while the lower side

is less hairy and dark. Aphids invariably are

marked on lower surface. In case of acute in-

festation the aphids are found on the petioles,

flowers, buds or base of fruit. In severe in-

festation a single leaf (average surface area

of 187 sq. cm.) was observed to hold as

many as 400 aphids (including adult and

immature ones). Infestation on very young

brinjal plant is noticed when the plant

has 2-3 leaves on its axis. The aphids are

noticed in very negligible numbers on old or

senescing leaves. At Bhubaneswar (Orissa)

these aphid species are found almost through-

out the year, heaviest infestation occurring

during either September-November or March-

Department of Zoology,

College of Basic Science & Humanities,

Orissa University of Agriculture and

Technology,

Bhubaneswar-751 003 (Orissa).

Department of Zoology,

Utkal University: Vani Vihar,

Bhubaneswar-751 004 (Orissa),

April 3, 1982.

Refe:

Behura, B. K. (1963) : Aphids of India; Survey

cf published information, Proc. 1st Summer School

Zool. (Simla, 1961), Govt, of India Publn. : 25-78.

(1965) : Supplement to “Aphids

of India” — a survey of published information.

I. J. (Sci.), Utkal University, Bhubaneswar- 3 : 40-65

April depending on early or late sown crops.

Aphids usually prefer the plant at their flower-

ing and fruiting stages.

A. gossypii is a myrmecophilous type of

aphid species attended by ant species i.e. Cam-

ponotus ( Tanaemyrmex ) compressus Fabr. re-

ported by Behura, 1965. But later on 3 more

have been added to the list all belonging to

subfamily Myrmecinae (Roy and Behura

1980).

They are (1) Bothriomyrmex dalyi Fabr. (2)

Meranoplus bicolor Guer. (3) Solenopsis gemi-

nata Fabr.

ACK N O WLEDGE M E NTS

We express a deep sense of gratitude to the

Director, College of Basic Science and Huma-

nities and Dean, Research Wing, Orissa Uni-

versity of Agriculture and Technology,

Bhubaneswar for providing us all facilities for

conducting field studies. Our thanks are also

due to the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta for kindly identifying aphid and ant

species.

D. K. ROY

B. K. BEHURA

E N CES

(1963).

& Roy, D. K. (1980): Supple-

ment to host-plants of Cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii

Glover, News Letter, The Aphidological Society of

India, 1(2), Dec., 1980:3-4.

Eastop, V. F. (1961): A study of the Aphididae

655

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

(Homoptera) of West Africa, Trustees, British

museum, London 1-93 + vi.

Roy, D. K. (1981): Studies on the population

and biometry of Aphis gossypii Glower (Aphidae;

Homoptera; Insecta) on Brinjal ( Solarium melon-

gena Linn.). Ph. D. Thesis of Utkal University : 1-

216 + V, 1981.

& Behura, B. K. (1980) : Ants attend-

ing Aphis gossypii Glover, News Letter, the Aphi-

dological Society of India, 1(2), Dec., 1980:4-5.

17. FIRST RECORD OF MESOCOMYS CAM. (HYM.:

CHALCXDOIDEA, EUPELM1DAE) IN INDIA1

( With ten text-figures)

Genus Mesocomys Cam.

Mesocomys Cameron, 1905, Proc. S. Afr.

Philos. Soc., XV, P. 210

Type species, Mesocomys pulchriceps

Cameron.

The genus Mesocomys Cam. is a poorly

known member of the family Eupelmidae,

closely related to Anastatus Motsch. from

which it can be very easily separated by the

characteristic antennae (Fig. 4) (Antennae

with transverse or subquadrate funicle seg-

ments, pedicel very long, as long as preceding

four funicle segments combined, including

annelus); scutellum in the female with two

grooves at the base, forewings (Fig. 5) in the

female entirely infuscated except the base

hyaline and two hyaline spots, one close to

the marginal vein and second opposite near

the hind margin of wing. The wings of male

are completely hyaline.

Mesocomys orientalis Ferr. (Figs. 1-10)

Mesocomys orientalis Ferriere 1935. Stylops

4: 145-153.

Material examined : India: U.P., Pantnagar,

10.5.1981, 200 $ 9, 80 $ $, reared from eggs

of Trabala vishnov Lefebvre, Castor hairy

caterpillar (Lepidoptera : Lasiocampidae) on

castor plant (M. A. Khan). Material will be

deposited in Z.S.I., Calcutta, India.

1 Research paper No. 2625 through the Experiment

Station, G. B.P.U A. & T.. Pantnagar, Nainital, U.P.,

India.

A detailed description of the species was

given by Ferriere (1935). The following charac-

ters may be added to the species based on

above material.

Female 2. 3-2. 6 mm. Body dark brown with

cuperous reflections on frons, vertex and tho-

rax; malar space shining bluish green, face

yellowish; mandibles yellowish with apical

margin brownish; abdomen dark brown with

shining bluish green reflections on dorsum;

antennal scape yellow with a brown spot at

base below, rest of the antennae light brown

with yellowish reflections.

Mandible bidentate (Fig. 1) with two blunt

teeth, maxillary (Fig. 2) and labial palp (Fig.

3) 4 and 3 segmented respectively, apical seg-

ment of maxillary palp gradually expanding,

distinctly longer than preceding two segments

combined; pedicel (Fig. 4) two and a half

times as long as wide, club with blunt apex,

distinctly much shorter than preceding five

funicle segments combined; propodael spira-

cle almost touching the anterior margin of pro-

podaeum; forewings (Fig. 5) extended much

beyond the tip of abdomen, three times longer

than wide, marginal vein distinctly longer than

postmarginal vein, stigmal vein distinctly shor-

ter than postmarginal; hind wings almost three

and a half times longer than wide, apex of

marginal vein with three curved hooklets; mid

tibial spur (Fig. 6) distinctly shorter than basi-

tarsus, apex of tibiae and tarsal segments 1-4

656

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-8. Mesocomys orientalis Ferr., $

1. Mandible; 2. Maxillary palp; 3. Labial palp; 4. Antenna; 5. Forewing; 6. Part

of middle leg; 7. Subgenital plate; 8. Ovipositor; 9. Antenna, $; 10. Part of middle

leg, $.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY Vol. 80

with 10, 25, 8, 4 & 2 pegs respectively; sub-

genital plate (Fig. 7) extending a little beyond

the middle of abdomen, posterior margin of

subgenital plate rounded with an inverted U

shaped notch in the middle, anterior margin

deeply concave in the middle; first valvifer

(Fig. 8) semicircular with articular knobs pro-

minent, second valvifer long (Fig. 8), third

valvulae (Fig. 8) lanceolate, outer plates of

ovipositor (Fig. 8) narrow at base gradually

expanding at apex with a ridge along outer

margin.

Male : 1 . 9-2 . 2 mm. antennae yellow with

some infuscation on flagellum, pedicel (Fig. 9)

Department of Entomology,

G. B. Pant University of

Agriculture & Technology,

Pantnagar-263 145,

Distt. Nainital (U.P.), India,

May 31, 1982.

almost three times as long as wide, club un-

segmented, shorter than preceding three funicle

segments; apex of tibiae (Fig. 10) and tarsal

segments 1 -3 with 2, 2, 2 and 1 peg respectively.

Distribution : South and Central Africa, Asia,

Burma, Rangoon; India, U.P., Pantnagar (New

record).

ACK NOWLEDGE ME NTS

I am thankful to Prof. K. C. Sharma, Dean,

College of Agriculture, Prof. B. P. Khare,

Head, Department of Entomology, for all the

necessary facilities.

M. A. KHAN

Reference

Ferriere, Ch. (1935) : Notes on some bred exotic

Eupelmidae (Hym., Chalc.). Stylops 4: 145-153.

18. NESIDIOCORIS CAESAR (BALLARD) (HETEROPTERA —

MIRIDAE) : A NEW PEST OF BOTTLE GOURD AND TOBACCO

PLANTS

Nesidiocoris caesar (Ballard) is a sap suck-

ing bug first reported by E. Ballard (1927)

from Godavari District in South India on to-

bacco. It was described as a new species named

Cyrtopeltis {G allot elicus) caesar.

During the survey of the fields growing

bottle gourd in Western U.P., from 1977-1981,

it was found that the entire crop was infested

by this bug and consequently leaves had be-

came yellow, mottled and fruit setting was

minimum and the crop was abandoned. No

information was then available on the species

but later it was identified by the Commonwealth

Institute of Entomology, London.

The species infests Virginia variety of

tobacco plants during winter, though the

damaged mottled leaves remain commercially

viable as they are utilized for processing as

tobacco.

I thank Dr. G. D. Garg and Dr. S. C.

Dhiman for assistance.

658

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Department of Zoology, V. C. CHATTERJEE

M. S. College,

Saharanpur 247 001,

May 11, 1982.

Reference

Ballard, E. (1927): Some new Indian Miridae

(Capsidae). Mem. Dept. Agric. Ind. Ent., Pusa, 10:

61-68.

19. A NOCTUID DEFOLIATOR PEST, DICHROM1A OROS1A

CRAMER (NOCTUIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) OF ANTAMUL,

A MEDICINAL PLANT

Antamul, Tylophora asthmatica (Asclepiada-

ceae) a medicinal plant whose leaves and roots

are used as emetic, expectorant, diaphoretic,

alterative, blood purifier and stimulant and

is the best indigenous substitute for ipecacu-

anha (Dastur 1977). The leaves and roots

contain the alkalid tylophorine which is similar

in action to ipecacuanha.

During the second week of December, 1981

Antamul, grown at the Regional Research Sta-

tion, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dhar-

wad Campus, Karnataka was found heavily

infested by this pest. The caterpillars damaged

the leaves eating them from the margin.

The females laid eggs singly on the under-

surface of the leaves. The eggs were smooth.

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Dharwad-580 005,

May , 31, 1982.

green in colour and dorsoventrally flat. On

hatching, the grubs restricted themselves to the

undersurface of the leaf and defoliated. The

larvae orange, the head and somites provided

with series of small black tubercles. The full

grown grub pupated in silken cocoons in soil

below the plant or in leaf folds.

The head and thorax of newly emerged adult

moths were clothed with grey black mottled

scales, abdomen orange, forewing grey. A large

sub-triangular black patch with pale edges

occupying the medial area but not reaching the

inner margin hind wings orange, the apical

area black, undersurface of the forewing fus-

cous. This is the first record of the pest on

the medicinal plant.

M. C. DEVAIAH

R. RAJSHEKHAR GOUDA

Y. K. KOTIKAL

SUHAS YELSHETTY

Reference

Dastur, J. F. (1977) : Medicinal plants of India

and Pakistan. D. B. Taraporevala Sons and Co.

p. 212.

659

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

20. OCCURRENCE OF KURZIA LAT1SS1MA (KURZ), 1874

(CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA: CHYDORIDAE) IN INDIA

{With three text-figures)

During the course of Survey of Cladocera

from Madhya Pradesh, I collected one female

specimen of Kurzia latissima (Kurz) from

Bharma tank, Jabalpur district, Madhya Pra-

desh on 27 September 1982, which constitutes

a new record from Indian fresh waters. The

presence of this species in India is rather sur-

prising as it is a Holarctic and Neotropical

species, recorded only from European U.S.S.R.

to the mouth of Syrdar’ya River in the East

and from United States. Thus the present

finding extends its known distribution to

Madhya Pradesh, India.

Kurzia latissima (Kurz), 1875

Family: Chydoridae, Subfamily: Aloninae

Genus: Kurzia Dybowski & Grochowski,

1894.

Hellich, 1874: 219 ( Alona tenuirostris) ;

Kurz, 1875: 46-47, Plate II, Figures 13, 14, 15,

( Alonopsis ); Hudendroff, 1876: 5-56, Plate II,

Figures 7a, 7b {Alona angusticandata)\ Birge,

1879: 32, Plate I, Figures 14,15 {Alonopsis

media) ; Lilljeborg, 1900: 442-445, Plate LXVI,

Figures 1-7; Sars, 1901: 85-87, Plate XII,

Figures 2, 29, 2b {Pseudolona)\ Frey, 1959:

35, Figures 12, 13, 14; 1962a: Figures 12, 13,

14; Herbst, 1962: 84, Figure 59.

female: Head and valves forming semicir-

cular dorsal njargin, Posterodorsal corner of

Zoological Survey of India,

Central Regional Station,

Jabalpur (M.P.),

February 28, 1982.

valves rounded, situated slightly below the

maximum height of the valve; posteroventral

corner rounded without denticles. Dorsal keel

present; head keel absent, eyes situated on the

margin. Ventral margin of head S -shaped;

Rostrum large, directed ventrally. Valves with

lines. Antennules almost reaching apex of the

rostrum. Esthetascs situated on distal of anten-

nules. Setae on antennae 0-0-1/ 1-1-3. Post-

abdomen narrowing distally. Preanal corner not

projecting but evenly round. Ocellus situated

nearer to eye than to apex of rostrum. Inte-

stine forming loops. Keel of labrum with

pointed apex. Post-abdomen with 24-26 small

and large marginal denticles. Length of female

about 0.7 mm.

The species is very distinct in its characters

and can be easily separated from the closely

related Kurzia longirostris (Daday, 1898) by

its large antennules which are almost equal to

the length of rostrum, and as the preanal cor-

ner of the post abdomen does not project. The

central setae on the ventral margin of the valve

are rather tough and larger in size than others

and the keel of the labrum has pointed apex,

these characters are unique being found only

in the specimens of Madhya Pradesh, and were

not present in previously described specimens

(Smirnov 1974).

PRAMOD RANE

Reference

Smirnov, N. N. (1974) : Fauna of U.S.S.R. ,

Crustacea, Chydoridae: NTIS, U. S. Department of

commerce. Spring Field. 487-488, fig. 476.

660

Figs. 1-3. Kurzia latissima (Kurz)

1. Parthenogenetic female; 2. Anterior side of the head showing antennule and keel

of labrum; 3. Post-abdomen in lateral view.

13

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

21. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BENGAL

While making intensive plant exploration in

northern parts of West Bengal viz. Jalpaiguri

and Darjeeling Districts during March-April

1973 and October-November 1976 several in-

teresting species were collected which on criti-

cal study proved not to have been reported

earlier from West Bengal. Examination of the

specimens deposited in Central National Her-

barium (CAL) confirmed their earlier collec-

tions but these have not been reported so far.

Hence the 5 taxa are now being reported as

new records for West Bengal and additions

to the Flora of Bengal. These are supplemented

with relevant notes. The specimens are depo-

sited in CAL & BSIS.

Asteraceae

Erigeron bonariensis Linn. Sp. PI. 863. 1753;

Erigeron linifolius Willd. Sp. pi. 3. 1955,

1803; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 254. 1882.

An erect hirsute herb. Stem branched. Leaves

upper ones sessile, linear lower ones often

stalked, broad & toothed. Heads small in

corymbose panicle, white or pale purple.

Specimens examined : Rangpoo forest, Dar-

jeeling, B. Krishna 404, (BSIS); Sevoke forest,

Darjeeling, D. Das 43; 21st Mile road from

Rajabhatkhawa, Jalpaiguri, V. Narayanswami

2315 (CAL).

Gesneriaceae

Aeschyn&nthns grandiflora Spreng. Syst. 4. 238.

1827; Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4:338.

1885.

An epiphytic herb. Stem terete, branched,

rooting at nodes. Leaves coriaceous, alternate.

Flowers with red tube and orange lobes suffus-

ed with black purple dots.

Specimens examined : Chapramari forest,

Jalpaiguri, B. Krishna 268 (BSIS).

Orchidaceae

Dendrobium crepsdatum Lindl. Paxt. FI. Gard.

1: 63. t. 45. 1850-51 et nov. ed. 1:53. t. 40.

1852; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 740. 1890;

Prain, Bengal Plants 2: 758. 1963 (repr.).

Epiphyte. Stem terete greenish-yellow narrow

at base, thickening upwards. Leaves membra-

nous, sheathing, oblong-lanceolate. Flowers in

pairs from the nodes, white tipped with pink,

lip light yellow.

Specimens examined : Kundong block, Kali-

jhora, Darjeeling, B. Krishna 380 (BSIS).

Prain (1903) recorded it from Chotanagpur

in Bihar.

Phalaenopsis maimii Reichb. f. Gard. Chron.

902. 1871; 503. 1876; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.

6: 30. 1890.

Epiphyte. Pseudobulb O. Leaves oblong-

lanceolate, coriaceous. Scape equalling leaves,

many flowered. Flowers yellowish-brown, lip

yellow with pink blotches.

Specimens examined : Kalijhora, Darjeeling,

B. Krishna 351 (BSIS).

Liliaceae

Smiiax laneeaefolia Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 . 792.

1832; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 308. 1892.

Prickly climber, branches subterete, slender.

Leaves membranous, ovate-lanceolate, opposite.

Male and female flowers in umbels. Fruit a

berry, tip pink.

Specimens examined : Andherijhora, Darjee-

ling, B. Krishna 325 (BSIS); Buxa-Santrawari

road, Jalpaiguri, V. Narayanswami 2857 (CAL).

Cowan & Cowan (1929) stated in a foot note

662

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

that the species was found at an altitude of

5-7,000 feet but no specimen could be located

at CAL and BSIS except the above cited two

specimens which were collected from places

of much lower altitude.

Botanical Survey of India,

Gangtok, Sikkim.

Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta.

January 19, 1982.

Acknowledgement

We wish to express our gratitude to the

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

for all the facilities.

B. KRISHNA

S, N. DAS

Reference

Cowan, A. M. & Cowan, J. M. (1929) : The trees sion of the list by Gamble,

of Northern Bengal including shrubs, woody dim- Prain, D. (1903) : Bengal plants. Calcutta,

bers, bamboos, palms and tree ferns being a revi-

22. CULTIVATION OF VERNOMA SHEVARO YENSIS GAMBLE

(ASTERACEAE) — AN ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED PLANT

IN THE SOUTHERN EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN, BOTANICAL

SURVEY OF INDIA

This note relates to a tree namely Vernonia

shevaroyensis Gamble which is endemic to

Shevaroy hills of Tamilnadu and is en-

dangered. Collections of the species from its

type locality were made by different collectors

and deposited in the different herbaria of the

Botanical Survey of India viz . Madras Herba-

rium (MH) and BSA. The details of collections

are furnished in Table 1. Narayana (1979) has

also collected the plant material from its type

locality for his studies on trichomes of 15

species. V. shevaroyensis Gamble is a tall tree

of c. 15 m in height, and grows near a peren-

nial stream flowing through a private Coffee

estate of Marapalam area (i.e. Kakasholey

stream), on the way to Nagalur of Shevaroy

hills at an altitude of approx. 1350 m. The

species is considered a threatened species

(Henry et al 1978) as it has never been col-

lected away from its type locality, and even

there only a single well grown plant occurs.

The restricted distribution of the plant in its

type locality may be due to ecological prefer-

ence and self-sterility of its seeds, which is

common in Asteraceae (Walters 1979).

To save the plant from extinction it was

decided by the Southern Circle of Botanical

Survey of India to increase the plant popula-

tion either by seed or vegetative propagation

in the Experimental Garden at Yercaud, Sheva-

roy hills, and to conserve the tree in its natural

habitat.

Fresh seeds were collected and sown for

germination trials on different occasions but

failed to germinate.

Thirty-five cuttings of soft and hard wood

were brought in the month of August, 1979

and treated with ‘Seradix’ a commercial for-

mulation of May & Baker for trial. Similarly,

a second attempt was made by bringing fifty

cuttings in the month of November, 1979. All

the cuttings were watered regularly on the

663

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. SO

Table 1

Detail of herbarium sheets of Vernonia shevaroyensis Gamble

non-rainy days as the Experimental Garden

gets two monsoon in a year. There is no rain

in the month of October.

It was observed that only four cuttings from

the first trial showed new growth after a lapse

of forty-five days, and none of the cuttings

showed any rooting response in the second trial

group. Out of the four cuttings one did not

establish due to damage caused by some patho-

gens while the others are growing luxuriantly

under better care and have established this

rare species in the Experimental Garden.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Jt. Direc-

tor (S. Circle) and Dr. R. K. Chakraverty, Dy.

Director (C. Circle) of the Botanical Survey

of India respectively for their interest and

encouragement.

Botanical Survey of India, A. K. BANERJEE1

Exp. Garden, Yercaud, A. V. N. RAO

Salem Dt., Tamilnadu-636 601,

January 7, 1982.

Referen ces

Henry, A. N., Vivekananthan, K. & Nair, N. C.

(1978): Rare and threatened flowering plants of

South-India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3) : 684-

697.

Narayana, B. M. (1979) : Taxonomic value of

Trichomes in Vernonia Schreb. ( Asteraceae) . Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci., &#B(5) : 347-357.

Walters, S. M. (1979) : The Eastern England

rare plant project in the University Botanic Garden,

Cambridge, Proc. of the Practical role of Botanic

Gardens in the conservation of rare and threatened

plants, Bentham Moxon Trust, Royal Botanic Gar-

den, Kew.

1 Present address: Botanical Survey of India In-

dian Botanic Garden, Howrah-711 103, (W.B.).

664

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23. NOTES ON RARE PLANTS FROM MADHYA PRADESH

During the floristic studies made recently in

Raigarh District, Eastern Madhya Pradesh,

many rare plants hitherto not reported in lite-

rature on this area were recorded. The present

paper deals with nine taxa of flowering plants,

and each is provided with a short description

and other relevant data. All the specimens cited

are deposited in the Herbarium of the Central

Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad

(BSA).

Acanthaceae

Aechmanthera gossypina (Nees) Nees in Wall.

PL As. Rar. 3: 87. 1832. Ruellia gossypina

Nees in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 1: 38. t. 42. 1829.

Aechmanthera foment osa Nees in Wall. PI.

As. Rar. 3: 87. 1832; C. B. Clarke in Hook,

f. FI. Brit. India 4: 428. 1884 (incl. var.

wallichii) .

Erect undershrubs; stems villous or tomen-

tose. Leaves 8-10 x 3-4 cm, elliptic-lanceolate,

acute, rounded at base, crenate, tomentose.

Panicles to 30 cm long. Bracts and bracteoles

linear. Calyx 8-12 mm long, glandular-hairy.

Corolla 2. 0-2. 5 cm long. Capsules 8 mm long,

8-seeded.

Distribution-. Western and Eastern Hima-

layas.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh: Rai-

garh Dist., Champa, 950 m.. Sen Gupta 16516.

Lamiaceae

Ajega macrosperma Wall, ex Benth. var. bre-

viflora Hook. f. Brit. India 4: 704. 1885;

Mukherjee in Rec. bot. Surv. India 14: 226.

1940.

Erect or procumbent herbs; stems grooved,

glabrous at base, hairy towards the apex.

Leaves 4-10 x 2-5 cm, elliptic-oblong or ovate.

base decurrent to the petiole, serrate; petioles

1.5 -3.0 cm long. Spikes to 8 cm long. Corolla

blue, often hairy; tube as long as or longer

than the calyx, inflated at the base; upper lip

2-lobed. Stamens exserted. Nutlets pitted.

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas, Bihar.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh:

Raigarh Dist., Jashpur, 625 m, Arora 3827.

Rubiaceae

Argostemma courtallense Arn. in Ann. Nat.

Hist. 3: 22. 1839; Wight, Ic. t. 1160. 1846;

Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3: 42. 1880.

Slender, erect, sparsely pubescent herbs;

roots tuberous. Leaves opposite or in whorls

of four, subsessile, 4-7 x 2-5 cm, orbicular or

ovate-elliptic, subacute, membranous. Flowers

in terminal umbels, 4-merous. Bracts foliace-

ous. Calyx campanulate; corolla white, rotate.

Stamens inserted at the base of corolla-tube,

exserted; anthers dehiscing by terminal pores.

Capsules crowned by the limb of calyx.

Distribution : South India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh:

Raigarh Dist.. Kharra, 200 m, Rathakrishnan

21058.

Rhxzophoraceae

Camilla hmchiata (Lour.) Merr. in Philip. J.

Sci. Bot. 15: 249. 1919. Diatoma brachiata

Lour. FI. Cochinch. 296. 1790. Carallia in-

tegerrima DC. Prodr. 3: 33. 1828; Bedd. FI.

Sylv. t. 193. 1872; Henslow in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 2: 439. p.p. 1878.

Trees 3-5 m high. Leaves 5-10 x 2. 5-5.0 cm,

obovate or ovate-elliptic, shortly acute, mar-

gins revolute, coriaceous, shining. Flowers

sessile in axillary, trichotomous cymes. Calyx

665

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

— tube campanulate; lobes 7. Petals white,

orbicular, lacerate. Stamens 14. Stigma 4-5 —

lobed. Berries globose, unilocular, one-seeded.

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas, West Ben-

gal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, South India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh:

Raigarh Dist, Bhubdeopur, 250 m, Ratha-

krishnan 19713.

Urticaceae

Elatostema cuneatum Wight, Ic. t. 2091, f. 3.

1853; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 5: 568. 1888;

Mitra in Bull. bot. Surv. India 9: 279-280

1967 (1968).

Slender, erect annuals, monoecious. Leaves

subsessile, 2-4 x 0.8- 1.5 cm, falcately cuneate,

crenate-serrate in the upper part, sparsely

setose above with linear cystoliths on both

sides; lower leaves smaller than the upper ones,

nearly entire. Stipules ovate. Flowers minute,

regular on axillary capitate receptacles. Invo-

lucral bracts 2-4, ovate-oblong, cucullate. Male

flowers: perianth-lobes 4, broadly ovate; sta-

mens 4. Female flowers: perianth lobes 3,

shorter than the ovary. Achenes ellipsoid, red.

Distribution : Sikkim, West Bengal, South

India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh:

Raigarh Dist., Bhubdeopur, 250 m, Ratha-

krishnan 21228.

Moraceae

Flees feenjamlna L. var. comosa (Roxz.) Kurz,

For. FI. Burma 2: 446. 1877; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 5: 508. 1888. F. comosa Roxb.

PI. Cor. 2: 14. t. 125. 1798: Wight, Ic. t.

658. 1843.

Large trees with drooping branches. Leaves

5-10 x 2-4 cm, ovate-elliptic, abruptly acumi-

nate, subcordate at base, obscurely 3 -ribbed.

Figs sessile in axillary pairs, 1 .2-1 .6 cm across,

subglobose or ovoid, red. Basal bracts 2-3,

minute or one enlarged.

Distribution : Assam, Bihar, South India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh:

Raigarh Dist., Kailasnatheswar gufa, 1200 m,

Rathakrishnan 24504.

Loganiaceae

Mitrasacme pygmaea R. Br. var. malaccensis

(Wight) Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 30: 204. 1955;

Back. & Bakh. f. FI. Java 2: 208. 1965. M.

malaccensis Wight, Ic. t. 1601. 1850. M. poly -

morpha sensu C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 4: 80. 1883, p.p., non R. Br.

1810.

Slender hispid annuals. Leaves 7-10 mm long,

ovate-lanceolate, serrulate. Flowers in terminal

pseudo-umbels, 4-merous. Corolla campanu-

late, white; lobes rounded, hairy within. Sta-

mens 4, exserted. Styles 2, free at the base,

connate above the middle. Capsules globose,

crowned by the styles. Seeds ellipsoid, punctate.

Distribution : South India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh :

Raigarh Dist., Sarainadi, 275 m, Rathakrishnan

21049.

Lytfiraceae

Rotala oceultiflora Koehne in Engl. Bot. Jahrb.

1: 152. 1881.

Small herbs 4-10 cm high. Leaves verticillate,

5-12 mm long, linear-lanceolate, rounded at

base. Flowers in axillary cymes. Bracteoles 2-4

mm long, lanceolate, longer than the calyx.

Calyx-lobes 5, ovate. Petals 0. Stamens 2-4.

Capsules 2-3 valved.

Distribution : South India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh:

Raigarh Dist., Senna, 750 m. Sen Gupta 16481.

666

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Campanulaceae

Wahlenbergia erecta (Roth ex Roem. &

Schult.) Tuyn in Steenis, FI. Males, (ser. 1)

6: 113. 1960. Dentella erecta Roth ex Roem.

& Schult. Syst. Veg. 5: 25. 1819. Cephalo-

stigma schimperi Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent.

FI. Abyss. 2: 2. 1851; C. B. Clarke in Hook,

f. FI. Brit. India 3: 428. 1881.

Erect annuals. Leaves subsessile, spirally

arranged, 5-20 x 1. 5-6.0 mm, oblong-elliptic.

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore-641 003.

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad-21 1 002,

December 31, 1981.

dentate-crenate. Flowers usually solitary or in

lax cymes. Calyx-lobes linear-triangular, sparse-

ly hairy. Corolla campanulate, bluish. Capsules

2-3 mm long, obconic, hispid. Seeds ellipsoid,

compressed.

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas, Bihar,

South India.

Specimens examined : madhya pradesh :

Raigarh Dist., Bagicha, 600 m. Sen Gupta

16451.

N. C. RATHAKRISHNAN

RAM SARAN

24. ERIOCAULON ECHINULATUM MART. ( ERIOC AUL ACE AE )

— A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With eight text-figures)

This note records the occurrence of Erio-

caulon echinulatum Mart, in Balphakram Wild

Life Sanctuary in Garo Hills, Meghalaya.

Hooker (FI. Brit. India 6: 579. 1893) reported

this species based on a collection of Wallich

(Wall. Cat. No. 6082) from Kalaben in Burma.

There are no collections of this either in the

Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India at

Shillong (assam) or at the Central National

Herbarium (CAL) from the Indian region.

Therefore, the present collection from Megha-

laya forms the first report of its occurrence

from India, and is described here.

EriocauSon echinulatum Mart, in Wall. PI.

As. Rar. 3: 29. 1832; Flook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.

6: 579. 1893; Fyson in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc.

2: 317. t. 47. 1921.

Roots fibrous, tufted. Scapes 5-10 cm high,

stout, striate, twisted, glabrous, hairy only be-

low the head. Leaves radical, 2-3 x 0.2-0. 4

cm, subulate, acute, with distinct cross ner-

vules. Sheaths as long as leaves. Heads 4-6 mm

across, straw-coloured, with distinct, stel-

lately radiating bracts. Receptacle villous. In-

volucral bracts lanceolate, ending in long ari-

state, glistening apex; floral bract longer than

flowers, narrowed at base, abruptly narrowed

to an elongate apex. Male flower: sepal 1,

rounded or crenate; petals reduced to hairs or

deformed; staminal column as long as sepals,

slightly narrower towards villous base; stamens

6, at the top of the staminal column; anthers

2- celled, elliptic, black. Female flowers: sepals

2, falcately lanceolate, clawed, winged at the

back, with serrate margin; petals 0 or reduced

to hairs, partly concealing the ovary; ovary

3- celled, straw-coloured; style stout, 3-fid.

Capsule triangular, truncate, membranous; seed

667

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

0 mm 6

Figs. 1-8. Eriocaulon echinulatum Mart. 1. Habit

sketch; 2. Head (enlarged) ; 3. Male flower;

4. Female flower; 5. Involucral bract; 6.

Floral bract; 7. Capsule; 8. Seed.

elongate, with 5, pectinate, longitudinal ribs,

and a black apical gland (Figs. 1-8).

FIs. & Frts. : August to October.

Notes'. This is quite distinct from other

species of the genus in having long, stellately

aristate, glistening bracts, giving the head, a

spiny appearance. Rare, in marshy, open grass-

land associated with Eriocaulon alpestre, E.

Department of Botany,

School of Life Sciences,

North-Eastern Hill University,

Shillong-793 014,

December 9, 1981.

nepalense, Utricularia spp., and grasses.

Distribution : Burma, Southern China and

Thailand: presently recorded from Garo Hills,

Meghalaya at 150-200 m elevations.

Specimens examined: Y. Kumar, 5737 Bal-

phakram (Garo Hills). Specimens deposited in

Herbarium of North-Eastern Hill University.

Shillong (NEHU).

S. MYRTHONG

Y. KUMAR

R. R. RAO

668

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. ON THE IDENTITY OF OPHIORRHIZA SESHAGIRIANA

SIKDAR ET MAITI (RUBIACEAE)

The taxonomy of the genus Ophiorrhiza L.

(Rubiaceae) in the Indian subcontinent has

been under investigation by us for the last four

years. Our attention was drawn to the recent

publication of O. seshagiriana Sikdar et Maiti

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(1): 143,

1981. The new species was collected from Jal-

paiguri District in May 1976 and described on

the basis of a single gathering /. K. Sikdar

4681A-E. We distinguished this species from

O. heterophylla Dunn in Kew Bull. 1920

(4): 133. 1920, collected in December-March

1911-1912, from Kameng District (Abor Hill),

Arunachal Pradesh /. H. Bur kill 36116, 36616,

37334, 38158, 38171 in consideration of erect

habit, cymes with short raceme like branches,

shorter pedicel, triangular-ovate glabrous calyx

lobes, cylindrical non bulbous corolla tube and

shorter anther lobes. They further observed that

the species is clearly recognizable by the pre-

sence of reflexed corolla lobes at blooming as

seen in O. heterophylla where heterostyly is of

common occurrence, while in this taxon this

is not visible.

We rightly compared the material with

O. heterostyla having reflexed corolla lobes.

But the differences observed are not tenable

as they resulted from superficial study and mis-

interpretation of morphological characters. It

is evident from the specimens that the plant is

not erect. Inflorescence is in dichotomous or

trichotomous panicle of cymes, sometimes heli-

coid above. Pedicel varies from 1.25 to 3.5

mm in O. heterostyla. In O. seshagiriana the

pedicels are generally shorter, but in Sikdar

468 ID it is 2.25 mm long. Shorter pedicels

Botanical Survey of India,

Indian Botanic Garden,

Howrah-71 1-103,

December 2, 1981.

and triangular-ovate glabrous calyx lobes are

present in type material of O. heterostyla.

Anther lobes are of the same size in both the

species. Corolla tube is not generally distinctly

bulbed at base in O. seshagiriana, but it shows

a bulbous tendency or is slightly bulbous

sometimes as in Sikdar 4681 A. We failed

to observe heterostyly in O. seshagiriana even

though it is evident in the presence of short

styled flower in Sikdar 468 IB along with long

styled ones. In view of all these variations ob-

served on detailed scrutiny of the type speci-

mens it is evident that O. seshagiriana does

not differ specifically from O. heterostyla and

it is reduced to synonymy as follows.

O. hererostyla Dunn in Kew Bull. 1920 (4) :

133. 1920 (Syntype: Arunachal, Kament Dis-

trict (Abor Hill), Burkill 36116! CAL, 37334!

CAL, 38158! CAL, K).

Syn. O. seshagiriana Sikdar et Maiti in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(1) : 142. 1981 (Type:

West Bengal, Jalpaiguri District, Buxaduar,

1800 m (?), J. K. Sikdar 4681A Holotype:

B-E lsotype! all in (CAL) synon. nov.

This, however, extends the range of distri-

bution of O. heterostyla from Kameng District

(Arunachal) to Jalpaiguri District (West Ben-

gal), 540 m-1020 m. This is also collected from

Kachin State, Burma at a higher altitude 1500-

2100 m as extent in herb. K.

Flowering time : December-May.

Distribution : North Bengal (Jalpaiguri) to

Burma (Kachin State).

Probably this occurs all over the sub -Hima-

layan Ranges from Nepal to Burma at 540-

2100 m.

D. B. DEB

D. C. MONDAL

669

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1982-83

Executive Committee

President

Dr. Salim Ali, d.sc., f.n.a.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.e.s. (Retd.) r Ex-Officio

Mr. D. J. Panday

Member

Director, Dept, of Science &

Technology, Government of India, j

{Honorary Secretary)

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

670

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1982

99TH ANNUAL REPORT

Membership

in last year’s report we drew attention to

the fact that the number of ordinary mem-

bers had crossed the 1000 mark after many

years. The progress has been maintained but

the increase during the year has not been

satisfactory. The annual increase being only

employed or involved in management or own-

ing progressive companies will enroll them as

members and provide the Society with a sound

financial base.

Details of membership for the past quin-

quennium, showing members fully paid up on

31st December of each year are given in the

statement below:

Members elected in 1982, but not paid 14

Members paid for 1981, but not paid

for 1982 129

93 as against 280 the previous year. Our re-

cruitment of Compound Corporate members

which is planned to be the mainstay of our

corpus funding was rather disappointing.

We repeat our appeal to members to re-

cruit more members, particularly Compound

Corporate members, a field of recruitment in

which we have done poorly indeed. The Com-

pound Corporate Membership fee of Rs. 2500

offers the Society’s facilities to company mem-

bers for a period of 25 years. I hope members

Publications

Journal :

The publication of the Journal failed to keep

the momentum it had achieved the previous

year and only one issue for the year namely

the April issue for 1982 volume 79(1) was

published.

Hornbill :

The Hornbill now in its 6th volume con-

tinued to retain its popular appeal and to at-

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

tract new members. We again request mem-

bers to remember that the Hornbill is largely

a reflection of member talent. If you have

good material in the form of articles and pho-

tographs, remember to send it over.

the book of Indian birds remains the So-

ciety’s most popular publication. Publications

are the one endeavour of the Society which

has consistently realised funds for its activities.

In the year under review three more books

were added to our prestigious publications list

namely grasses of western India by Toby

Hodd, a synopsis of the birds of INDIA and

Pakistan 2nd edition by S. D. Ripley, and

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS & SHRUBS

by Bor & Raizada.

The Book of Indian Birds

The Book of Indian Animals

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet

Snake Chart

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

(2nd edition)

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra,

and Bharatpur

A Synopsis of the Birds of India & Pakistan

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers & Shrubs

Grasses of Western India

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF BORIVLI

national park by Humayun Abdulali pub-

lished by the Society is on sale at the Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, Borivli, Bombay. It

is also available at the Society’s Office.

Books under Publication :

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL

HISTORY

Centenary Publications, 1883 - 1983

Work continues on the Encyclopedia which

when ready will provide a ready reference

volume for students in schools and colleges

and to the general reader on the natural hist-

ory of the Indian region.

A CENTURY OF NATURAL HISTORY

Centenary Publication 1883 - 1983

An anthology of the best natural history

articles from the Society’s Journal volumes

covering general natural history, expeditions

and explorations, hunting, fishing, conserva-

tion. wildlife photography, mammals, birds, re-

ptiles, fishes, insects, other invertebrates and

botany published during the hundred years of

the Society’s existence.

THE BOOK OF INDIAN REPTILES

By J. C. Daniel

One in the continuing series of the Society’s

publications on Indian Natural History, the

Reptile Book describes the common reptiles

of the Indian Sub-continent. The snake section

672

A.G.M. 1982-83— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

will be illustrated with the paintings which ori-

ginally illustrated Wall’s A popular treatise on

the common Indian Snakes.

Conservation

The Society is recognised by the Central and

State Governments in India and by Interna-

tional Organisations abroad as an authoritative

source for information on conservation of wild-

life and natural resources. This recognition is

expressed in the form of association of its offi-

cials with State and Central Wildlife Advisory

Boards and representation on the Specialist

Groups of the Species Survival Commission of

the International Union for the Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources.

As the Western Regional Representative of

the Indian Board for Wildlife the Curator is a

member of the State Wildlife Boards of Rajas-

than, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh

and Goa.

Moroccan Houbara Survey:

Dr Asad Rah Rahmani, Senior Field Biolo-

gist in the Endangered Species programme

participated, as a member of the ICBP team,

in the survey of Moroccan Bustard habitats.

Bustard Conservation Consultation:

Dr Salim Ali and Dr A R Rahmani visited

UAE at the invitation of the UAE Govt, to

advise on captive breeding of bustards.

Seminars & Conferences

Primate Symposium, Baltimore, USA:

Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, Hydro-

biology Project presented a paper on the Lion-

tailed Macaque.

Eastern Ghats Seminar 23-27 March:

Dr. Salim Ali, Mr. Humayun Abdulali, Prof.

P. V. Bole, Mr. IT. K. Divekar & Dr. R. B.

Grubh participated in the seminar on the

Eastern Ghats Environmental Situation.

Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, Hydro-

biology Project, visited U.S. establishment con-

cerned with wetland conservation at the invi-

tation of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.

Bird Hazard Conference:

Dr. R. B. Grubh attended the 16th Bird

Strike Committee Europe, held between 18 and

21 of August at Moscow.

International Ornithological Congress:

Dr. R. B. Grubh, Mr. S. A. Hussain, Pro-

ject Scientists, participated in the Congress at

Moscow.

International Council for Bird Preservation:

Dr. R. B. Grubh and Mr. S. A. Hussain

attended the Council Meeting at Cambridge,

U.K.

Members’ Activities

Bird Count:

The monthly roadside count of birds at the

Borivli National Park on the third Sunday of

each month was continued. The data collected

during the last three years was analysed. Re-

port is available at the office for reference.

Nature Walks:

Nature walks were held in various areas of

natural history interest around Bombay for

bird watching, vegetation, butterflies study. The

programme helped in recruiting new members

and fostering interest in natural history among

members.

673

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

Nature Camps :

A nature camp was arranged at Bandhavgarh

National Park, Madhya Pradesh from 17th to

29th and 75 members participated. List of birds

and butterflies, vegetation seen were prepared.

Another nature camp was arranged at Keol-

adeo National Park during October-November.

50 members participated. The committee re-

corded appreciation of the work done by Mr.

P. B. Shekar and Mr. N. Chaturvedi for ar-

ranging these camps.

Research and other activities funded

FROM FIELD WORK FUNDS

The Field Work Funds available at the So-

ciety supported the following activities:

Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund :

(1) Ecological Studies on the Gir Lion : Mr.

S. P. Sinha, Saurashtra University, moni-

tored the possible progressive changes in

the food and feeding habits of the Lion

in relation to environmental changes. A

preliminary report has been received.

(2) Catchment Area Conservation : Prof. Mad-

hav Gadgil organised a study for the con-

servation of catchment areas of River

Valley Projects in the Western Ghats. The

report is awaited.

(3) Cane Turtle Survey : Mr. P. Kannan made

a brief survey of Thattakkad and Param-

bilkulam sanctuaries in Kerala to study

the status of the turtles. A report is avail-

able at the office.

(4) Survey of Frogmouth : Mr. Antony

Powell a member from U.K. surveyed

habitats likely to hold the rare frogmouth

in the Kerala Forests. A report is avail-

able at the office.

(5) Wildlife & Tourism : Mr. Ullas Karanth,

a member in Karnataka studied the im-

pact of tourist traffic on Nagarhole San-

tuary. A report is awaited.

Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological

Research Fund:

(1) Mrs. K. R. Lalitha continued the study

of the Comparative Ecology of Drongos

with special reference to Ecological Isol-

ation among them.

(2) Mr. Shahid Ali began observations on the

ecology of Grey Partridge at Point Cali-

mere.

(3) Mr. Anwarul Islam from Bangladesh be-

gan observations on the ecology of the

Laughing Thrushes in the Himalayas and

the Western Ghats.

(4) Miss Madeline Holloway studied the

Breeding Biology of the Little Tern at

Point Calimere.

5) Dr. J. V. Ramana Rao was assisted for

a study of Grey Pelican at Nelapattu.

(6) Mr. S. A. Hussain was assisted for attend-

ing the International Ornithological Con-

gress at Moscow.

(7) Financial assistance was extended to Mr.

Koneri Rao, a member of the Society, to

study Yellow-headed Bulbul in the Car-

natic area of Tamil Nadu.

Pirojsha Godrej Fund :

Financial assistance was provided to:

(a) to Mr. Aloysius G. Sekar for the study

of breeding Amphibians.

(b) Mr. S. M. Ketkar for the study of Pre-

monsoon activities of crabs.

(c) Mr. M. Selvaraj for learning field identi-

fication of birds and bird banding.

Research funded by government and

GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES

Studies on the movement and population stru-

cture of Indian avifauna:

674

A.G.M. 1982-83— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

The main research stations at Point Cali-

mere and Bharatpur operated throughout the

year, for both bird ringing as well as ecologi-

cal monitoring.

Subsidiary bird ringing stations were also

operated at Harike Lake and Shivaliks range

in Punjab with financial assistance from the

Punjab State Government. Apart from these

a Western Ghats monitoring programme for

bird population studies was also launched after

extensive survey carried out by project staff.

Ringing camps at Kodaikanal, Mundanthurai,

Kannikkatti, Ponmudi, Peermedu, and Periyar

were operated briefly. The cooperation and as-

sistance rendered by the Forest Departments

of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, as well

as the volunteers from Madras Naturalists So-

ciety, Kerala Naturalists Society and Wildlife

Association of Ramnad is greatly appreciated.

Mr. S. A. Hussain, Project Scientist, visited

TJ.K. to attend the ICBP International Con-

ference and to attend the XVIII Internatioanl

Ornithological Congress U.S.S.R. He also

visited Wildlife Research Stations in U.S.A.

and Canada at the invitation of the U.S. Fish

& Wildlife Service. A meeting of the Wader

Study group at Durham, U.K. was also atten-

ded. The Project Scientist appraised the re-

searchers in these areas of the work done by

the BNHS with slides, talks, etc.

An ecological study of bird hazards at Indian

aerodromes :

Work on 3 major airfields including Bom-

bay and Delhi was taken up and completed.

Field studies covered identification of hazard-

ous birds at these airfields, study of their eco-

logical requirements, habits and movements

at different seasons of the year and causes of

their proliferation, and evolving procedures to

reduce bird strike problems at these airports.

Revised bird strike data forms were pre-

pared. A booklet on ‘Potential Problem Birds’

approved by the ARDB is nearing completion.

Dr. Robert B. Grubh attended a conference

on Bird Hazards in Moscow, and the 16th

bird strike committee in Europe, both in Au-

gust 1982. He also attended a meeting of the

operational problems panel of the R & D or-

ganisation, Bangalore to report on progress of

work on Bird Hazard Project and undertook

a study tour to the U.S.

Annual report for 1982 is under prepara-

tion.

Hydrobiological ( Ecological ) Research Station

at Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary :

Data collection and detailed studies of Lim-

nology, Comparative abundance of aquatic

birds and fish fauna, were undertaken.

5 research assistants and 1 research biolo-

gist were recruited during the year.

Dr. Krishnamurthy, Director of Indian Toxi-

cological Research Centre visited Bharatpur

for consultation. An agreement also was made

with the I.T.R.C. for analysis of water sam-

ples and to study air pollution.

Work programme as planned by the Project

Scientist was reviewed by a Committee con-

sisting of Dr. Salim Ali, Dr. A. N. D. Nana-

vati. Dr. Madhav Gadgil, Dr. Anil Gore, Dr.

Prasad, Dr. Gopalan, Dr. Robert B. Grubh

and Messrs J. C. Daniel and S. A. Hussain.

Project Scientist visited U.S.A. on a study

tour.

Mr. David Ferguson of U.S. Fish & Wildlife

Service visited Bharatpur to study the progress

of work.

Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of

Wildlife and their Habitats :

Field surveys were carried out in Maharash-

tra, Gujarat, Saurashtra, Karnataka and M.P.

for Great Indian Bustard. Study of breed-

675

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80

ing of Great Indian Bustard was done both

at Karera (M.P.) and Solapur (Maharashtra),

Entomological, Phenological work was also

carried out. Study of succession dominance

and population dynamics and distribution of

different plant species was completed.

During field surveys eight bustards were

sighted in Karmala, — Kameri areas in Maha-

rashtra, fifteen in Karera (M.P.) with four

chicks and six bustards were seen in Ranee-

bennur (Karnataka).

Surveys were conducted for Lesser Florican

in Saurashtra and Sailana (M.P.). All the

nests of Floricans were either destroyed or the

chicks and the hens killed by the tribals. This

indicated very poor breeding success.

During the year Principal Investigator, Dr.

Salim Ali with Senior Field Biologist, Dr. A. R.

Rahmani, visited U.A.E. at the invitation of

the U.A.E. Government.

Dr. Rahmani also joined a survey party for

Houbara bustard in Morocco.

Donations

For Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund:

Dr. Salim Ali Rs. 25000.00

For Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund for

Silent Valley Expenses :

Secretary, Science Centre, KSSP Rs. 3400.00

World Wildlife Fund — India Rs. 3000.00

Rs. 6400.00

For Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology

Field Work Fund:

Mr. S. Chaudhuri Rs. 600.00

Life Membership Fund:

Mr. D. J. Panday Rs. 500.00

For General Fund:

Rs.

1 . M/s Tata Engineering &

Reference collection

During the year under reference 159 speci-

mens were registered into the collection.

159

Nature Education Scheme

More than 6000 students from 88 schools

participated in our various activities. Besides

school students 100 trainee teachers and about

330 college students took advantage of our

programmes, in the form of field trips, visits to

the Natural History Section of the Museum,

the Zoo and the Aquarium, exhibitions and

workshops.

A Nature Orientation course was arranged

676

A.G.M. 1982-83— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

on 20th, 21st and 22nd September 1982 for

primary and secondary biology teachers. 20

primary teachers from 13 schools and 33 se-

condary teachers from 26 schools attended the

camp.

As part of the Maharashtra State Wildlife

Week Celebrations for 1982 an exhibition on

CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE was ar-

ranged in the Society’s premises for school

children. 3108 students from 31 schools in-

cluding 18 students from the Spastic Society’s

School visited.

Meetings

January: Nature walk: Kalina campus 10th

January

Slide show : (a) Butterflies of Sikkim by

Mr. N. D. Mulla

(b) Pachmarhi 20th January

Nature walk : Kanheri Caves to Mulund

24th January.

February : Nature walk : Tungareshwar 14th

February

Nandumadhmeshwar on 20-22 February.

Talk! slide show : Ecological crisis in the

Himalayas by Sunderlal Bahuguna.

March: Nature walk : Lion safari Park to

Kokabi Hills 14th March.

Talk & slide show: High altitude flora of

Western Himalayas by Dr. M. A. Rau 18th

March.

April '.Nature Camp: Bandhavgadh Nation-

al Park, Madhya Pradesh from 17th to 29th

April.

Nature walk: Evening nature walk from

Kanheri Caves to Aarey Market ll.th April.

June: Slide show: Bandhavgadh National

Park ll.th June.

Nature walk: Karnala Bird Sanctuary 13th

June.

Film Show: Victor of the dryland. Lord of

the air 13th June. The rise of the mammals

19th June.

The hunter and hunted Life in the trees

20th June.

Nature camp: Matheran 26 & 27 June.

lxx\y '.Nature walk: IIT Campus, Powai, 4th

July. Rajmachi Fort 24 & 25 July.

August: Nature walk: Borivli National

Park 8th August, Chinchoti falls 22nd August.

September: Talk: Problems of introduced

species in Island ecosystem by Dick Veitch

8th Sept.

Film Show: Earth A Dying Planet. In

search of a Green Planet? Are Lions Harm-

ful? 16th Sept.

Nature walk: Monsoon flora from Kanheri

to Tulsi Lake 19th September.

Talk /Slide show: Common Plants of Sahya-

dri by Mr. Almeida 23rd September.

Nature camp: Amboli 25th to 27th Septem-

ber.

October: Film show: Wild wings. Japanese

Monkey 13th October.

Nature walk: Borivli National Park 17th

October.

Talk: Naturalist experience in western

Himalayas by Dr. Gaston.

Nature walk: At Dusk from Kanheri to

Aarey Market 31st October.

Nature Camp: Keoladeo National Park 27th

October to 5th November.

November: Talk: Sempach Bird Institute

and its activities by Dr Edward Fuch 5th

November.

Nature walk: Nagla Trail 28th November.

Revenue & Accounts

The financial situation of the Society has

improved, and the year’s working showed a

small surplus after provisions for staff Gratuity

Fund & Centenary Celebrations Expenses.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record its appre-

ciation of the willing cooperation of the staff

in the activities of the Society.

677

14

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HISTORY SOCIETY

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692

Bombay, 23 rd September, 1983.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

SOCIETY WAS HELD ON MONDAY, THE 28TH NOVEMBER 1983

AT HORNBILL HOUSE AT 6.30 P.M. WHEN THE FOLLOWING

WERE PRESENT:

1 . Dr. Salim Ali

2. Mr. D. J. Panday (in the Chair)

3. Mr. V. K. Paralkar

4. Mr. Oswald Thayil

5. Mr. S. D. N. Gandhi

6. Mr. M. R. Almeida

7. Mr. S. S. Mayekar

8. Mr. Shaman Udani

9. Mr. D. P. Bannerjee

10. Mr. J. P. Irani

1 1 . Mr. M. D. Agharkar

12. Mr. Dilip G. Patil

13. Ms. Arati Kaikini

14. Commander GVK Unnithan, I.N.

15. Mr. Debi Goenka

16. Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri

17. Mr. S. D. Kowshik

18. Dr. P. J. Deoras

19. Mr. G. W. Taylor

20. Mr. K. N. Naoroji

21 . Mr. R. E. Hawkins

22. Prof. P. V. Bole

23. Mr. J. C. Daniel

24. Mr. Bansi Mehta

25. Mr. Bibhas Amonkar

26. Mrs. D. S. Variava

27. Mr. Bittu Sahgal

28 . Sanctuary Magazine

29. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

30. Mr. H. K. Divekar

31. Ms Heta Pandit

32. Mr. Shiraz Balsara

33. Mr. Kailash Gupta

34. Mr. S. D. Bhaumik

35. Mr. N. D. Mulla

At the request of the President, the Vice-

President Mr. D. J. Panday took the Chair

and conducted the proceedings.

The Honorary Secretary’s Report for 1982-

83 having been previously circulated, was

taken as read. He drew attention to the

salient features in his supplementary remarks,

the Honorary Secretary stated that:

1 . The total membership of the Society to

date was 2162, of which 155 were Com-

pound Corporate Members.

2. Two of the Centenary publications,

namely

(a) A PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-

CONTINENT, by Drs. S. Dillon

Ripley and Salim Ali.

(b) A CENTURY OF NATURAL

HISTORY, edited by J. C. Daniel

had been released.

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

Dr. P. J. Deoras inquired whether the

the Project field work was carried on for the

Society, or some other organizations. He was

informed that studies made were for the

Society. He was assured that either typed or

cyclostyled copies of reports on field activities

will be available to members for perusal as

and when they are ready.

The Honorary Secretary’s report was put to

vote and accepted.

The Audited Balance Sheet of profit and

loss account were next taken up for consider-

ation. The Honorary Treasurer, Mr. H. K.

Divekar asked whether members had any

questions on the various heads mentioned in

the accounts.

Dr. P. J. Deoras asked the Balance Sheet be

explained, and the Honorary Treasurer after

giving a resume of the various income and

expenditure items, informed that there was a

small profit of Rs. 2,418.72 during the year

1981-82.

As regards Dr. Deoras’ query regarding

provisions indicated at p. 688 of the Accounts

the Honorary Treasurer explained that the

Society had been able to set aside Rs. 15,000/-

for Staff Gratuity Fund, Rs. 100,000/- for

Centenary Celebration Expenses, and Rs.

5,000/- for staff Welfare amenities. The Hono-

rary Treasurer further explained that we have

been able to do the repair works to the build-

ing as indicated at p. 683 of the Accounts

under the “14. Grant, Government of Maha-

rashtra”, acquire furniture and add most

needed books to the Library.

Dr. Deoras asked for an explanation of the

item “Silent Valley Campaign expenses” of

Rs. 6,400/- detailed on p. 682. He was inform-

ed by the Honorary Treasurer that funds were

raised by Mrs. D. S. Variava for propaganda

to save the Silent Valley. Mrs. Variava thought

it is useful to route these funds through the

Society for utilizing them in making films and

preparing other material.

Mr. Debi Goenka desired information on

how the funds received from the Government

were spent. He was told by the Honorary Trea-

surer that income received from government

was matched by corresponding expenses.

Mr. Debi Goenka suggested that monies

received for actual field camp expenses from

members should be passed through the Soci-

ety’s books. The suggestion was accepted.

His suggestion that items of sundry credit

balances (i.e. Rs. 234,892.38 on p. 680 of the

account for example) be kept in short depo-

sit accounts so as to give whatever interest

that accrues thereon rather than in the current

account was accepted.

After a few other questions had been ans-

wered, the accounts as presented were passed.

3 . The Honorary Treasurer proposed

Messrs Habib & Company as the Society’s

auditors for the ensuing year. The proposal

was seconded. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati and

Messrs Flabib & Company were unanimously

appointed for 1983.

4. The Honorary Secretary explained that

six candidates in addition to the panel pro-

posed by the out-going Executive Committee

have been nominated. Two of them, Mr. S.

V. Pikale and D. S. Gaitonde, were Compound

Corporate Members and as such are not eligi-

ble to be elected on the Executive Committee.

Various opinions for and against such eligibility

were expressed by members.

Finally Mr. M. D. Agharkar suggested that

the issue of Compound Corporate Member’s

nominees contesting elections be settled by the

General Body gathered for the Annual Gene-

ral Meeting. The proposal was seconded by

Mr. Debi Goenka. The matter was put to vote

the eligibility of Compound Corporate Mem-

bers’ nominees to contest Executive Commi-

694

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

ttee elections was rejected by 10 voting for

and 13 against it.

Mr. Debi Goenka suggested that biodata

of the candidates contesting the Executive

Committee elections be given with the voting

paper. Dr. S. R. Amladi supported this sug-

gestion. The Honorary Secretary suggested

that not more than 50 word biodata be asked

from the candidates to be published with the

voting paper, and that the same should reach

the Society within two weeks from the day

of the Annual General Meeting — in this

particular instance not later than 15.xii.1983.

Put to vote 33 present voted for and 11

against the proposition.

In this connection Mr. H. K. Divekar, the

Honorary Treasurer, suggested that candidates

supplying false information be disqualified

from contesting elections.

Mr. Debi Goenka suggested that there

should not be perpetuating of the once elected

Executive Committee and the outgoing Com-

mittee should not nominate themselves.

The Honorary Secretary mentioned two

resolutions proposed by Mr. A. G. Nawalkar

and read out the first resolution which was

as follows:

Amendments to Rule 29 and 30

RESOLVED THAT rules 29 and 30 of the

Memorandum and Rules of Registration be

amended by substituting the word 10% of the

members as it stood on the date of the meet-

ing held on 22nd November 1982, in place of

10 members for calling Extraordinary Gene-

ral Meeting.

The Resolution was supported by Mr. A.

G. Puranik.

In the discussion following, it was pointed

out by Mr. Dutta Manchekar that a percent-

age would be difficult to assess as the total

membership depended on how many had paid

up on that date. Mr. G. W. Taylor suggested

that a fixed number should be mentioned and

suggested that 50 signatures would be a good

number. Mr. Dutta Manchekar supported the

proposal. After some discussion the figure of

50 signatories for requisitioning an Extraor-

dinary General Meeting was accepted, by 25

voting for it and 18 against.

The proposal raised by Mr. G. W. Taylor

to decide upon a quorum for conducting such

a meeting was not discussed by the Meeting.

The amended Rule 29 now reads thus:

“The Committee may, whenever they think

fit, convene an Extraordinary General Meet-

ing and they shall on the requisition of at least

50 (fifty) of the members forthwith proceed

to convene an Extraordinary General Meet-

ing of the Society”.

Mr. A. G. Nawalkar’s second Resolution

was then read out as follows:

“RESOLVED THAT the following words

be and are hereby inserted at the end of Rule

32 A of the Society’s Rules.

“A member of the Executive Committee

who has served for a period of 6 years (i.e.

has been nominated or elected for three suc-

cessive terms) shall not be eligible to serve on

the Executive Committee against without a

break of at least one term of two years”.

Mr. Debi Goenka expressed himself in fav-

our of the Resolution. Mr. Ulhas Rane sug-

gested that Committee members needed some

time to understand the working of the Society

and were not in a position to make a positive

contribution until they had served on the Com-

mittee for some time. He felt that a resolution

debarring experienced members from continu-

ing to serve on the Committee was not in the

Society’s best interests. After some further

discussion on the matter, the resolution was

put to vote and was defeated with three pre-

sent voting for it and 10 against.

The meeting terminated with a vote of

thanks to the Chair.

695

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 80

In the ballot held in February 1984, the following were elected to the Executive

Committee :

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. M. D. Agharkar

Mr. M. R. Almeida

Dr. S. R. Amladi

Mr. H. K. Divekar

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. Ashok Kothari

Mrs. Phillippa Mukherji

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

Mr. Ulhas Rane

Mr. Bittu Sahgal

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

ERRATUM

VOLUME 80, NO. 1: APRIL 1983

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History Society-27.

On page 157,

For 1330 Garrulax erythrocephalus erythrocephalus (Hume)

Read 1330 Grarrulax erythrocephalus erythrolaema (Hume)

696

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in

colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 60.00

( Price to members Rs. 55)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10

The Book of Indian Birds, by S&lim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and

many monochrome plates. Rs. 60.00

( Price to members Rs. 55)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Salim Ali & S.

Dillon Ripley (available to members @ Rs. 90.00)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-

date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,

Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

{Price to members Rs. 80)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &

J. D. Panday. Rs. 3.00

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J. C. Daniel Rs. 75.00

{Price to members Rs. 60)

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and

monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00

{Price to members Rs. 35)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many

coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

{Price to members Rs. 75)

Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.

Rs. 50.00

{Price to members Rs. 37.50)

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R. E. Hawkins {in press )

A Century of Natural History, Edited by J. C. Daniel . Rs. 125.00

{Price to members Rs. 95.00)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1 . Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada

2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi

and Marathi.

3 . Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,

and Hindi.

Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English

{Price to members Rs. 5)

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Entrance Fees :

Ordinary and Life Members

Student Members

Subscription :

(a) Ordinary individual Members

( b ) Ordinary Corporate Members

(c) Ordinary Members resident outside India

Life Members

Compound Corporate Members

Student Members (without Journal)

Annual subscription to Journal

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on

their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st

January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £6.50 should be paid annually

to the Society’s London Bankers— The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London

SW1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the

period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

i Page

Ecological adaptation in Rhesus monkeys at the Kumaon Himalaya. By Kazuo

Wada 469

The Indian mugger, Crocodylus palustris Lesson (Reptilia, Crocodilia) : observa-

tions on the behaviour of a female from nature. By Lala A. K. Singh 499

Authors’ Catalogue of the Botanical articles published in the Journal of

the Bombay Natural History Society— H (Vol. 67-76; 1970-1979). Compiled

by A. R. Das . . 507

Ontogeny of teeth row structure in Rana tigerina tadpoles. By S. K. Dutta

and P. Mohanty-Hejmadi 517

A contribution to the wetland flora of Sitapur District, Uttar Pradesh.

By J. K. Maheshwari and R. ?. S. Tomar . . 529

Studies on the systematics and distribution of crabs in Assam. By N. K. Dutta 539

Seasonal changes in the herd structure of Blackbuck. By N. L. N. S. Prasad 549

The former distribution of the Indian Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) in

India and Pakistan. By L. C. Rookmaaker . . 555

Some notes on the ecology and status of the Orangerumped Honeyguide

Indicator xanthonotus in the Himalayas. By S. A. Hussain and Salim Ali 564

Birds of the Rajpipla Forests — south .Gujarat. By S. G. Monga and Rishad

K. Naoroji .. 575

New Descriptions * ..613

Miscellaneous Notes 631

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1982-83 670

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . 678

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 693

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103

and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay

Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

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