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Vol. 88, No. 1

April 1991

Rs. 90

I

"$&?C ■ > c

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J. C. DANIEL

H. ABDULALI

M. R. ALMEIDA

P. V. BOLE

B. F. CHHAPGAR

B. V. DAVID

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

R. M. NAIK

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

A. VARADACHARY

V. J

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication

elsewhere should not be submitted.

2. All words to be printed in italics should be underlined.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification

has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually col-

lected. >

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints

should be at least 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed

paper. /

5. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on

Bristol board.

6 . References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabeti-

cally arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or

periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman

type), thus : x

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal, 7. Bombay not .

Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

7. Each paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis*

normally not exceeding 200 words.

8. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the

case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be

sent a free copy of the Journal.

9. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hombill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society

(!

Date of Publication: 31-8-1991

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE YELLOWBROWED LEAF WARBLER Phylloscopus inornatus IN KASHMIR

( With a plate and eight text-figures)

By Trevor Price and Nitin Jamdar

HAEMOGLOBIN POLYMORPHISM IN ASIAN ELEPHANT Elephas maximus WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

ELEPHANT POPULATION IN SOUTH INDIA (With a text-figure)

By Hemant S. Datye, A.M. Bhagawat and V. Krishnamurthy

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND MORPHOMETRIC RELATION OF Bufo stomaticus LUTKEN (ANURA:

AMPHIBIA) (With a text-figure )

By B.K. Mahapatro and M.C. Dash

KEYS TO THE SUB-FAMILIES AND THEIR GENERA OF THE N ON -TIBI AROLI ATE GROUP OF ASSASSIN

BUGS (HETEROPTERA: REDUVEDAE) OF SOUTHERN INDIA

By David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran

NEW RECORD OF THE PIED HARRIER Circus melanoleucos (PENNANT) BREEDING IN ASSAM DUARS,

WITH A BRIEF REVIEW OF ITS DISTRIBUTION (With two plates and two text-figures)

By Goutam Narayan and Lima Rosalind

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE BLACKBUCK Antilope cervicapra LINN. IN INDIA, WITH SPECIAL EM-

PHASIS ON THE LESSER KNOWN POPULATIONS (With a text-figure)

By Asad R. Rahmani

PRESENT STATUS OF THE ESTUARINE FLORA OF THE GODAVARI AND THE KRISHNA (With two text-

figures)

By P. Venkanna

FLIGHT SCHEDULES OF WINGED TERMITES (INSECTA: ISOPTERA) IN DOON VALLEY, UTTAR PRADESH

(With two text-figures)

By M.L. Thakur

PRESENT STATUS OF THE FOURHORNED ANTELOPE Tetracerus quadricornis IN INDIA

By Clifford Rice

TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF Brachionus (ROTATORIA: MONOGONONTA)

POPULATIONS IN PONDS (With twelve text-figures)

By R. Sarnpathkumar

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY- 34

By Humayun Abdulali and Saraswathy Unnithan

Page

1

17

20

26

30

35

47

55

63

67

73

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Demania shyamasundarii, A NEW SPECIES OF CRAB (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) FROM THE WALTAIR

COAST OF BAY OF BENGAL (With nine text-figures)

By K. Nirmala Devi 81

Patialus, A NEW GENUS OF SUBFAMILY CIONINAE FROM INDIA AND THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW

SPECIES (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA) (With a text-figure)

By H.R. Pajni, Dalip Kumar and H.S. Rose 86

Copidognathus eblingi, A NEW SPECIES OF HALACARIDAE (ACARI) FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS (INDIAN

OCEAN) (With eleven text-figures)

By Tapas Chatterjee 88

ANEW SPECIES OF Eryx (BOIDAE: SERPENTES: SQUAMATA) FROM SOUTH-WESTERN INDIA (With three

text-figures )

By Indraneil Das 92

Cinnamomum chemungianum (LAURACEAE)- A NEW SPECIES FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA (With a

text-figure )

By M. Mohanan and A.N. Henry 97

A NEW SPECIES OF Thraulus (EPHEMEROPTERA: LEPTOPHLEB13DAE: ATOLOPHLEBUNAE) FROM NIL-

GIRIS, SOUTH INDIA (With seven text- figures)

By A.K. Arumuga Soman . 99

REVIEWS

The Asian elephant: Ecology and management

Reviewed by Charles Santiapillai 103

Ethnobotany (Journal of the Society of Ethnobotanists)

Reviewed by Mrs S.M. Almeida 103

World plant conservation bibliography, 1990

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 104

A checklist of birds of Andhra Pradesh

Reviewed by Bharat B hush an 104

Wealth of India-Raw materials, vol. 2

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 105

MAMMALS

1. Stumptailed macaque Macaca arctoides (Geof-

froy) in Manipur

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 107

2. Interaction between a male tiger Panthera tigris

and his cubs in Bandhavgarh National Park, Mad-

hya Pradesh

By Hashim Tyabji 107

3. Sighting of rusty spotted cat Felis rubiginosa

(Geoffroy) in Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary,

Gujarat

By S.A. Chavan, C.D. Patel, S.V. Pawar,

N.S. Gogate and N.P. Pandya 107

4. Behaviour of a jackal Canis aureus at a leopard

Panthera pardus kill

By Raza Tchsin 108

5 . Food piracy by jackal Canis aureus from a jungle

cat Felis chaus in Chhari-Dhandh, Kutch

By S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari 108

6. Frog-eating habit of longeared hedgehog

Hemiechinus auritus and grey musk shrew S un-

cus murinus

By Satish Kumar Sharma 109

BIRDS

7. Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus nesting in

Saurashtra

By M.K. Ranjitsinh 109

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8.

Sighting of least frigate bird Fregata ariel in

Bombay

By Rishad Naoroji 109

9. Glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus (Linn.) and

painted stork Mycteria leucocephala (Pennant)-

Two more additions to the bird list of Kerala

By C. Sashikumar, C. Jayakumar and M. Jaffer . 110

10. A strange predatory habit of the pariah kite Mil-

vus migrans

By H. Daniel Wesley, A. Relton

and A. Alagappa Moses 110

11. Cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus (Linn.) in

Pathanamthitta, Kerala

By R.S. Shree Kumar Ill

12. Greyheaded lapwing Vanellus cinereus (Blyth) in

Goa

By Heinz Lainer Ill

13. Black woodpecker Dryocopus sp. in Jaldapara

Sanctuary, West Bengal

By Meena Haribal and U. Ganguli-Lachungpa... 112

14. Comments on sap-sucking by woodpeckers in

India

By S. Dillon Ripley 112

15. Long distance movement of a Malabar whistling

thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii (Vigors) in the

Western Ghats

By V.C. Ambcdkar 113

16. Purplerumped sunbird Nectar inia zeylonica

(Linn.): Anew record for Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury

17. Hybrid house sparrow-tree sparrow from

Anmchal Pradesh

By S. Dillon Ripley and Bruce M. Beehlcr

18. Further notes on presence of fruits of Xanthium

indicum Koenig in the nests of Ploceus philip-

pinus

By Satish Kumar Sharma

REPTILES

19. Saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus in

Andhra Pradesh

By R J. Rao

20. Occurrence of congenital blindness in gharial

Gavialis gangelicus (Reptilia: Crocodilia)

By L.N. Acharjyo, L.A.K. Singh

and S.K. Pattanaik

21. Cannibalism in the star tortoise Geockelone

elegans

By P.W. Soman

22. The freshwater turtle fauna of eastern Rajasthan

By S. Bhupathy and V.S. Vijayan

23. Interaction between common skink Mabuya

carinata and jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos

By S. Devasahayam and Anita Dcvasahayam

24. Sighting of the arboreal skink Dasia haliana at

Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

By S. Karthikeyan

25. Food habits of the common rat-snake Ptyas

mucosus Linn.

By S.P. Goyal

26. Range extension of Dumeril’s blackheaded snake

Sibynophis subpunctatus (Dum. & Bibr.)

By V. Natarajan and S. Alagar Rajan

27. Extension of range of the black cobra Naja naja

oxiana

By S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari

FISHES

28. An abnormal specimen of Channa oriental is

Schneider (Pisces: Channida) from Tripura

By R.P. Barman and R.S. Barman

29. First record of the bclontid fish Macropodus

cupanus Valenciennes from Pune, Maharashtra

By H.V. Ghate and G.K.Wagh

AMPHIBIA

30. Distribution of the amphibian fauna of India

By A.G. Sekar 125

31. Occurrence of the Malabar torrent toad Ansonia

ornata Gunther in South Kanara, Kamtaka.

By Ranjit Daniels 127

INSECTS

32. On the migration of the large cabbage white but-

terfly Pieris brassicae in Kashmir

By Nitin Jamdar 128

33. Influence of temperature on sex determination of

the waterbug Sphaerodema rusticum Fab.

By S.K. Raut and J.K. Roy 129

34. Occurrence of bivalved gastropods in the west

coast of India, Arabian Sea

By A. L.N. Sarma and Tapas Chatterjee 130

35. Extension of range of a freshwater leech

Barbronia weber i (Blanchard) (Arhynchobdel-

lae: Erpobdellidae) from Pune, Maharashtra

By H.V. Ghate 133

BOTANY

36. Three new records for the flora of Gujarat state

By A.S. Reddy and LA. Inamadar 134

37. Gregarious occurrence of Cleome chelidonii L.F.

(Capparaceae) in Bangalore district, Karnataka

By V. Bhaskar and C.G. Kushalappa 134

38. On the distribution of Paramignya armata (Thw.)

Oliv. (Rutaceae)

By K. Narayanan Nair 135

39. Taxonomy of Neonolonia wightii (Wight & Am.)

Lackey (Papilionaceae)

By M.B.Viswanathan 137

40. Vegetative and flowering phenologies of some

weedy labiates in relation to rainfall

By Raju J.S. Aluri 138

41 . First report on type locality and rediscovery in na-

ture of a rare Indian orchid species, Bulbophyl-

lurn rothschildianum (O’Brien) J.J. Smith

By P.B. Gurung, Y. Kumar and R.S. Tripathi 139

42. Occurrence of the bamboo Dendrocalamus patel-

lar is in the Kumon Hills, Uttar Pradesh

By H.B. Naithani 141

43. Forking of fronds in certain ferns

By N. Punetha and B.S. Kholia 142

114

114

115

116

117

118

118

122

122

123

123

123

124

124

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1991 Vol. 88 No . 1

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE YELLOWBROWED LEAF WARBLER

PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS IN KASHMIR1

Trevor Price2 and Nitin Jamdar3

(With a plate and eight text-figures )

The yellowbrowed leal warbler Phylloscopus

inornatus is a small (6 g) warbler which breeds from

the Urals to central China as far south as the

Himalayas, and winters in India and south-east Asia

(Dementiev and Gladkov 1968, Williamson 1974,

Ali and Ripley 1983). One subspecies (P. i. humei)

breeds abundantly in Kashmir (Hume and Oates

1889, Bates and Lowthcr 1952, Price and Jamdar

1990). The nest and eggs of the species have been

described by several authors (Hume and Oates 1889,

Bates and Lowther 1952, Dementiev and Gladkov

1968, Ali and Ripley 1983), but despite its abun-

dance other aspects of its breeding biology are poor-

ly known. In this paper we describe the breeding be-

haviour of the species based on a study over three

summers (1985-1987) at one locality in Kashmir.

We present information on general breeding be-

haviour, clutch and brood sizes, and factors affect-

ing nest success.

Phylloscopus inornatus breeds 1-3 weeks ear-

lier in the season than other species of Phylloscopus

at this locality (Price and Jamdar in press) and often

encounters harsh weather conditions during egg-

laying and early incubation. We will use information

on nesting and feeding behaviour to ask how this

species is able to breed so early, and also consider

Accepted February 1990.

Department of Biology C-016, University of California at San

Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A.

Bombay Natural History Society, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023, India.

the selective factors which may have favoured early

breeding.

Study Area and Methods

Our study was conducted at the Overa Wildlife

Sanctuary, a small (33 sq. km) reserve located near

Pahalgam, Kashmir. A description of the habitats,

location, and summer climate at the Sanctuary is

given by Price and Jamdar (1990). We spent from

May-July in each year 1985, 1986 and 1987, at the

Sanctuary. In 1985 we first established a study area

near the entrance to the Sanctuary in coniferous

forest at an altitude of c. 2,500 m. In June that year

we discovered P. inornatus breeding abundantly in

the birch woods which grow above the coniferous

forest and form the treeline (c. 3,300-3,500 m al-

titude). Subsequently we camped at about 3,300 m

except during periods of inclement weather in May

1986 and May 1987. In 1985 we established a single

study area (UPl). In 1986 and 1987 we also studied

a second area (UP2), about 2 km distant from the

first, with one of us based at each of the localities

(Price and Jamdar 1990).

Breeding biology: Methods used varied from year

to year, and differed between the two study areas. In

1985 we only discovered the breeding grounds when

most birds were incubating clutches of eggs. We

concentrated on finding nests and documenting

nesting success. This was the main focus of the study

at UP2 in 1986 and 1987, although many nests were

monitored from the beginning of nest building. In

2

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Fig. 1. Territories of P. inornatus over an area of birch woodland at UP1. Inwardly shaded areas mark areas that were apparently not

defended. The woodland is continuous at the edges. Territory 17 was taken over by Male 13 expanding his territory on 18 June. Dis-

tances are measured along the ground: note from the contours (- +- ) that the terrain is very steep. Each dot marks a mapped tree

(>5m height). Nests are marked with an asterisk (*).

1986 at UP1, in addition to finding nests wc made

observations on courtship and feeding behaviour.

In 1987 at UP1 we trapped most of the males

and females over a 1 0 ha. area prior to breeding. The

birds were given a single metal ring and a single

colour ring which enabled them to be subsequently

individually identified. Then, during the pre-laying

and incubation periods we mapped the territories of

24 males by intensively following them or watching

individual trees and waiting for a male to sing in

them (Fig. 1.) A male was considered to ‘own’ a tree

if it was observed singing in it, and we never

recorded two males singing in the same tree, except

when one male was in the process of usurping the

territory of another.

With the territories mapped we were able to

search for a nest for every territory. At UP2 and in

other years at UP1 we were unsure of nest density,

and made no special effort to locate all the nests in

a given area. All trees in the area covered by the

mapped territories at UP1 were themselves mapped

using a tape and compass, and individually marked

with numbered metal tags.

We discovered a total of 349 nests over the 3

years of the study, mostly by watching the females

carrying nest material during building and going on

to the nest during incubation, and both parents when

feeding the young. Nests were marked with a piece

of flagging tape (red in the first two years; sub-

sequently, when we realised crows were recognis-

ing the tapes and preying on nests, a very small green

piece some distance away from the nests). Nests

were checked infrequently to determine clutch and

brood sizes and hatching and fledging dates. Chicks

were ringed with a single numbered metal ring and

weighed and measured approximately 11 days after

hatching.

In connection with a separate study (Price in

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF PHYLLOSCOPUS INQRNATUS

3

prep.) hatchling chicks from many broods in 1986

and 1987 were exchanged between nests. Between

one and three chicks were removed from one nest

on the day of hatching, and placed in a second nest,

with a corresponding number from the second nest

placed in the first. In cases where this manipulation

could have affected the results we report in this

paper, we analysed the data separately for all broods,

and for the subsection of broods which went un~,

manipulated.

Feeding behaviour: P. inornatus is entirely insec-

tivorous. Feeding behaviour was recorded whenever

possible. Since it is difficult to keep birds in sight

for long, particularly in I one and July when the birch

trees are in leaf, quantitative observations were lar-

gely confined to recording a single feeding event for

one individual, and then searching for another in-

dividual. We distinguished between four different

feeding methods: 1. Fly catch: when a bird captures

a flying insect, often one it has disturbed. 2. Fly pick:

when a bird captures an insect from a leaf or branch

by flying for it. 3. Hoverpick: when the bird hovers

in front of a leaf before picking up the insect. 4.

Standpick : when a bird picks up an insect from the

substrate without flying. We also recorded the size

and type of prey whenever it was visible.

Arthropod abundance: Seasonal changes in

arthropod abundance were quantified in two ways.

First, we placed white bowls (c. 20 cm in diameter)

half filled with water and detergent for periods of 1-

6 days at selected locations in the study area. All

arthropods which fell into the bowls were counted

and sorted by size class and order. Second, we

regularly beat birch branches with a stick, and col-

lected all arthropods which fell into a tray held

below the branch. A single sample usually consisted

of the arthropods collected from 20 beats on a total

of 6-15 birch trees in a small area.

Results

Distribution of P. inornatus: The breeding of P. in-

ornatus appears to be intimately associated with the

presence of broad leaf trees, particularly the silver

birch Be tula utilis. In pure birch stands above 3,300

m it occurs abundantly, in densities as high as 4 pairs

per ha. in some areas (Fig. 1). It is by far the com-

monest breeding bird in the birch woods (Price and

Jamdar 1990). It does not breed in, or along the edge

of, the coniferous woods found between about 2,400

m and 3,300 m (contra statements of Bates and Low-

ther 1952, Williamson 1974).

A few pairs may breed in the stands of

deciduous trees (notably walnut Juglans regia, cher-

ry Prunus cornuta , and chestnut Aesculus indica)

found along the rivers and around the villages at

lower altitudes (Hume and Oates 1889). Our

evidence in support of this is not conclusive: it is

based on the presence of singing males throughout

the day early in the breeding season (although they

were not noted on our few visits to this altitude in

June), and observations of a parent feeding a recent-

ly fledged juvenile at that altitude in July 1985.

Songs and call notes: As a prelude to describing the

breeding behaviour we first classify the various

vocalisations of this species. There are two distinc-

tive songs (Martens 1980 gives sonagrams). The

first song is a double noted dioo dioo, and the second

a thin declining buzz, lasting about one second. The

songs are used in different contexts. The first song

is used commonly in territorial defence and adver-

tisement: it is, for example, essentially the only song

heard in the dawn chorus. The buzz is heard 1) at the

end of some sequences of the first song, particular-

ly when the female is nearby, 2) in rain and at dusk

early in the season, and 3) after nests have been

predated, or the female has disappeared. Both songs

are also used in winter quarters; their significance in

the non-breeding season merits a detailed investiga-

tion.

In addition to the songs there are a number of

call notes in the breeding season. The commonest is

a single alarm note, dioo, similar to one syllable of

the first song, uttered by both sexes. A run-together

version of rapid repeats of the alarm note is heard

whenever avian predators or cuckoos fly over, given

most often by the males during the early phases of

the nesting period. Birds in the neighbourhood take

cover, and nearby males take up the alarm call. The

female has a wheel wheel call that she often utters

when leaving a nest under construction, or when

faced by a male who is not her mate. Finally both

sexes ‘chupper’, a series of soft notes given between

the pair when they are in close proximity, and the

female is about to go to the nest. It appears to be a

form of appeasement and it is uttered continuously

during sex chases (chases of the female by the male

over the territory). Chuppering also rarely occurs

during male-male interactions.

NUMBER OF NESTS

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Territory establishment: Males were found sing-

ing on territory from the time we arrived at the study

area in early May 1986 and 1987. Initial territory es-

tablishment thus probably occurred before our ar- *

rival. In both years, several feet of snow were on the

ground and the birch trees did not come into leaf

until June. On most days males were present only in

the early morning and deserted the area, apparently

for lower altitudes, within a few hours after dawn.

Individuals were only rarely seen in the afternoon.

In May of both years there were days with rain, hail,

and snow storms and temperatures near freezing

(Price and Jamdar 1990). In these periods of inclem-

ent weather no P. inornatus individuals were present

throughout the day.

We have not knowingly observed either initial

territory establishment or initial pair formation.

Prior to earnest nest building, and in the first hour or

so after dawn, females are commonly seen visiting

bare patches of ground, investigating suitable hol-

lows, and occasionally picking up items of potential

nest material. Males join their females and common-

ly may engage in long sex chases. The males also

spend time off territory. Both females and males

were seen to chase off intruding conspecifics. Wing

flicking is common, and wing drooping in concert

with the song also occurs, but most of the displays

appear quite simple. The slow flutter flights

recorded commonly in Phylloscopus trochilus in

Europe (May 1949) were observed only once, and

there is no elaborate wing waving as occurs in P. oc-

cipitalis. When agitated, for example by playback of

0 1-10 11-50 50-1 50

NUMBER OF HAIRS IN NEST

Fig. 2. Distribution of the number of mammal hairs in nests of P.

inornatus (N = 25 carefully checked nests).

Table 1

LOCATIONS OF THE NESTS OFP. inornatus

Based on N = 47 nests at UP1 in 1987. *A ledge is defined as the

presence of a rockface below the nest within 0.5 m. TA tree is

defined as shading the nest if its canopy lies vertically above the

nest. 2Vegetation within 50-100 cm of the nest.

tape recorded song, the male droops and shivers his

wings and cocks his tail.

We witnessed few fights. The most serious oc-

curred at a time when most pairs were in the incuba-

tion phase. An individual expanded his territory, and

expelled a neighbour. He was first observed in

several close chases with the neighbour, before en-

gaging in a full fight. We never observed the male

feeding his mate.

Copulation is secretive: we only observed it on

two occasions on 9 June, 1986, in a birch tree.

Copulation was preceded by a long sex chase, with

both birds of the pair wing flicking and holding then-

tails slightly cocked when perched. Adjoining pairs

were excited at this time, and there was a great deal

of interaction among neighbouring individuals, al-

though the sexes could not be readily distinguished.

Territory characteristics: Fig. 1 shows a territory

map for an area at UP1 . Despite intensive watches a

few areas were never seen to be visited by singing

males. One or two other areas (notably a large part

of the area covered by male 21) were only seen to

be visited by the male once, and may not have been

actively defended. The average territory area, as

measured directly from this map is 2,030 ± 806 sq.

m which is smaller than the size recorded for

European Phylloscopus (Edington and Edington

1972, Lawn 1982,Tiainen 1983, Temrin era/. 1984),

and the average territory contains 21 ± 11.6 trees.

Approximately 20% of the trees in the area are con-

ifers (Price and Jamdar 1990). Although territories

may contain none or many conifers, they always

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS

5

to

H-

in

UJ

UJ

CD

£

=)

Fig. 3. Date of first eggs in nests in each of the three years of

study. When clutch initiations were not observed the initiation

date was back calculated from hatching or fledging date assum-

ming 1) eggs are laid consecutively 2) a 16 day incubation period

from the laying of the last egg and 3) 12 days to fledging. The in-

cubation period used is shorter than the median incubation period

for known nests (19 days), but distributions of accurately known

clutch initiation dates in 1986 and 1987 were similar to those

presented here. Few initiation dates were known in 1985.

contain at least one birch tree. Pure conifer stands

are not occupied. We have never found an exception

to this cither in other years or at the other site.

Breeding system: The breeding system is largely

monogamy. All 24 males in the mapped area of 1 987

were known to have a mate, and at least two were

known to be bigamous. Since it is difficult to be sure

that all nests were found it is possible that there were

more bigamous pairings. Laying dates of the two

females in each of the two bigamous pairings were

1 day and 9 days apart. Unfortunately, three of the

four nests in the bigamous pairings were predated

prior to hatching, so it was not possible to ascertain

the males’ roles in raising the young. In two

European species of Phylloscopus warbler P.

trochilus and P. sibilatrix , males are known to set up

secondary territories once their female is incubating,

and may attract a second mate (Lawn 1982, Temrin

1984, Temrin et al. 1984). We have no evidence for

such poly-territoriality in P. inornatus and on the

basis of extensive observations think it unlikely. In

our study both bigamous males attracted two

females to one territory, as is known to occur in P.

trochilus (Lawn 1982, Tiainen 1983) and in a third

Phylloscopus species, P. collybita (Schonfeld 1978).

Nest building and nest characteristics: The nest is

domed. As in other species of Phylloscopus only the

female builds, although we suspected the male of

picking up a stick on one occasion; nest building by

both sexes has been observed rarely in other Phyl-

loscopus (May 1949; Kovshar and Gavrilov 1974,

Merton 1986, Radford 1986). On the first moderate-

ly warm day nest building begins in earnest. This oc-

curred on 26 May 1986 and 30 May 1987 but must

have occurred at least two weeks earlier in 1985.

Nest building halts in bad weather. Of the 349 nests

located all have been built on the ground or on a cliff

face. In Table 1 we present an analysis of the nest

locations for the birds in and around the territories

of Fig. 1 . Nests are often found concealed among the

broad leaf perennial plant Bergenia si ray chi, par-

ticularly at UP2 where it is common. Three of the

nests we found in 1986 were reused in 1987.

Characteristics of some nests were measured

at the end of the 1987 breeding season. Average

weight was 17.1 ± 4.0 g, range 12-25.5 g (N=38),

weight may be overestimated for some nests be-

cause of water absorption. Average external width

was 1 15 ± 13 cm and average external height 101 ±

1 1 cm (N = 33). The major constituent of the nest is

grass. In addition 72% contained some birch bark,

and 79% contained some moss (N=33). Pine need-

les were recorded in some other nests. A remarkable

feature of these nests is their lining which, as Hume

and Oates (1889), noted consists of thin grass and

often mammal hairs (Fig. 2), but never feathers. The

hairs in our nests were long and grey. Hume and

Oates suggest the hair may come from horse or musk

deer Moschus moschiferus , but neither of these

species were observed in the vicinity of UP1 (al-

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

DATE CLUTCH COMPLETED

Fig. 4. Association between incubation period (number of days

between clutch completion and hatching) with day of laying in

the season. Linear regression lines are shown. The slopes are,

for 1986: b= — 0.11: F (1,16) = 5, P<0.05,

for 1987: b - - 0.33; F (1, 18) = 24, PcO.OOl.

though both these mammals and goats and cows

were at UP2, where the nests were not examined in

detail). One female at UP2 was seen flying a long

distance into cow pasture to collect hairs. The

Himalayan langur Presbytis entellus is common at

both study areas, and may provide some of the hairs.

Laying and incubation: We found some nests as

they were just beginning to be built, and from this

can ascertain the interval between construction and

laying. The longest recorded interval between com-

mencement of building and laying was 16 days (30

May 1987, when the nest was well under construc-

tion, to 14 June). The interval varies and another

female building a nest at the same stage on the same

day laid her first egg on 5 June. The shortest

recorded interval between depositing the first straw

and laying was 5 days (17-22 June). This female had

deserted her first nest after interference with her

mate from a neighbouring male (see Fig. 1 caption),

and built the new nest very rapidly.

The date of laying the first egg varied among

females by more than 30 days in each year, although

the bulk of the initiations occurred within 20 days of

each other (Fig. 3). Later initiations may reflect

relaying after early predation or desertion for other

reasons. The median initiation date was 27 May

1985, 13 June 1986 and 10 June 1987. Initiation was

therefore about two weeks earlier in 1985 than in the

other two years. This presumably was in response to

the better weather, and less standing snow in that

year (Price and Jamdar 1990).

We visited five nests twice during the laying

phase. In all of these nests eggs were laid on con-

secutive days. Incubation appeared to begin with the

last egg, and eggs hatched within a day of each other.

The earliest breeding females may continue to va-

cate the study area during the laying period, and only

visit the nest and vicinity in the early morning to lay

an egg. On 1 June, 1986 we watched a nest contain-

ing three eggs for 30 minutes at dusk and saw no

sign of the pair. The female was observed arriving

the next day after dawn to lay a fourth egg.

Incubation is entirely by the female. The

presence of a brood patch was a definitive way to

sex a bird in the hand as female, and observations

on colour ringed birds confirm that the male never

enters the nest. Once incubation begins both the

female and male appear to reside on territory.

However, in severe rain or hail, at least during early

incubation, all birds may vacate the area for periods

of at least 36 hours. We discovered this in 1986

when females left their nests for possibly as long as

two days following rainfall on 12 June. One clutch

was known to have been deserted for at least 12

hours, after it had been incubated for five days. The

female returned and the eggs eventually hatched. In

1987, following heavy rain on the 8th through the

9th June, all incubating females left their nests. Nest

temperatures were measured at two nests at 1300 hrs

on 9 June by placing a wire thermocouple among the

eggs, and allowing the temperature to equilibrate for

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS

7

Table 2

THE PERCENTAGE OF NESTS IN EACH YEAR WHICH HAD

1,2, 3, 4, OR 5 EGGS WHEN THE CLUTCH WAS APPARENTLY

COMPLETE

two minutes. Temperatures were 9° C in both nests.

Ground temperature around the nest was 11 °C, and

air temperature 12°C. The nests were clearly not

being incubated despite the fact that incubation had

gone on for 3 days previously in each case. All

females subsequently returned to the area, after at

least two nights and one day away, and there was

high hatching success in nests that were not

predated.

Incubation periods vary greatly, from a mini-

mum of 13 days to a maximum of 22 days (combin-

ing 1986 and 1987, X = 18.6 days ± 1.75 , N = 37).

The length of the incubation period was significant-

ly negatively correlated with clutch initiation date in

both 1986 and 1987 (Fig. 4). A nest that was started

ten days later on average took one day less to in-

cubate in 1986, and three days less in 1987 (Fig. 4).

The negative correlation of incubation period with

laying date presumably reflects the increasing

ability of females to continuously incubate eggs as

the season progresses, and the weather improves.

Clutch sizes: Clutch sizes ranged from 1-5 eggs,

b.ut 1 and 2 egg clutches were rare. No single egg

clutches hatched, but at least one was known to be

incubated for several days. The distribution of clutch

sizes varied among years (Table 2). The average

clutch size was 4.2 ± 0.6 in 1985, 3.6 ± 0.8 in 1986,

and 3.7±0.8 in 1987. Differences among years were

significant (considering only the 3, 4 and 5 egg

clutches, %2 = 28.3, degrees of freedom = 4, P<

0.001), with larger clutches being laid in 1985. In

1986 there was a negative association between

clutch size and date of laying in the season (Table

3), but in 1985 and 1987 there was no significant

trend. Some of the later-laid small clutches may be

repeat clutches after early predation events, al-

though we have no direct evidence for this.

Nestling period: At first the nestlings appear to be

largely fed by the male, and the female spends most

of her time incubating the young. As the young in-

crease in size the female increases her share, until

both sexes appear to be providing food equally, al-

though we made no quantitative observations.

Females continue to brood the young at night until

they are close to Hedging (this is based on an obser-

vation of a female entering the nest at dusk, and stay-

ing in, and the discovery of adult remains in a nest

with 10 day old chicks, probably predated by the

Himalayan weasel Mustela sibirica. We have

recorded fledging at 11-14 days of age but the range

may be greater.

Chicks hatch at approximately 0.9 g weight

(N=13 chicks weighed on day of hatching in 1986).

At time of ringing (i.e. at age c. 11 days) the average

weight was 7.0 ±0.7 g (N= 169) in 1985, 7.1 ±0.7

g (N= 17 1) in 1 986, and 7.3 ± 0.6 g (N = 1 35) in 1 987.

Unlike the European Phylloscopus which appear to

grow only to adult size (Tiainen 1978), chicks at

ringing are c. 15% larger than adult weight. There

was significant variation in weight among the three

years, ANOVA, F(2,472)=9.9, P< 0.001, with the

Table 3

AVERAGE LAYING DATE FOR CLUTCHES OF DIFFERENT SIZES IN EACH YEAR

Average date, standard deviation (in days) and sample size are given. When unknown, laying date was back calculated as in Fig. 3.

The F values are for one way analyses of variance among clutch sizes. *P < 0.05.

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IIIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 4

AVERAGE NUMBER OF EGGS IN A CLUTCH, NUMBER OF HATCHLINGS, AND NUMBER OF FLEDGLINGS FOR EACH YEAR

Mean, standard deviation and sample size are given. Localities are combined. Unmanipulated broods refer to those broods which did

not not receive chicks from another nest, or donate chicks to a nest at the time of hatching (see methods). In 1 985 all broods were un-

manipulated.

lightest chicks in 1985, and the heaviest in 1987.

Possibly this reflects the fact that brood sizes were

smallest in 1987, and largest in 1985 (Table 4), and

hence individual chicks could receive more food in

1987.

In 1985 and 1986, the weight of the chicks at

DATE

Fig. 5. Weights of chicks at fledging

as a function of fledging date.

ringing was lower later in the season than earlier, but

there was no such trend in 1987 (Fig. 5). We noted

several very late broods in which chicks had slow

growth rates, and may have fledged significantly

later. In the last nest to hatch in 1986 the chicks were

abandoned by their parents at approximately 7 days

of age, and subsequently starved.

Hatching and fledging success: Hatchling and

fledgling sizes for each year are shown in Table 4.

On average there are fewer hatchlings per nest than

eggs and fewer fledglings per nest than hatchlings.

In 78 nests found prior to laying from which at least

one chick hatched, 41% had fewer chicks hatching

than eggs laid (some of these nests may have in fact

lost a hatchling within a day or two of hatching).

This is higher than the 10%-20% typically recorded

for passerines (Lundberg 1985). In 155 nests check-

ed at hatching, 52% had fewer chicks fledging than

hatched. This figure may be inflated by the ex-

perimental manipulations we conducted (swapping

hatchlings among nests). In 1985, when we con-

ducted no manipulations, only 18% of the nests (N

= 22) had fewer chicks at fledging than hatching.

But in 1986 and 1987 brood reduction among un-

manipulated broods was 48% (N = 43), similar to

the value for all broods, so we conclude that ex-

perimental manipulation was not a major cause of

brood reduction.

In addition to the loss of individual eggs and

nestlings through hatching failure, starvation, etc.,

lower average fledge sizes than average clutch sizes

per nest could be due to heavier predation rates on

nests with larger broods, but we show below that

there is no association of clutch or brood size with

probability of predation (Table 6).

Fledging: Once chicks leave the nest some are fed

by the male and some by the female, as commonly

occurs in Passerines (McLaughlin and

BREEDING BIOLOGY OE PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS

9

Table 5

NESTING SUCCESS BY PERIOD AND LOCALITY

In entries refer to number of nests. The locality UP 2 was not studied in 1985. *In the deserted column the number of nests deserted

Montgomerie 1985). They spend much lime sitting,

mainly in birch trees, and have a weak sip contact

call with the parents. They may be led quite far from

the natal territory within a lew days (we have several

records of chicks in association with one or other

parent >100 m from territory). Most individuals

leave the area within one week of fledging, and only

a few independent juveniles and adults were present

at these altitudes by mid-July of any year.

10

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Vol. 88

Table 6

ASSOCIATION OF BROOD SIZE AT MATCHING WITH PROBABILITY OF PREDATION

Brood size (hatchlings)

1985 1986 UP2 1987 UP1

i 2

For each session there was no significant difference in the proportion of nests predated tests), when comparing the two brood size

categories.

Table 7

ASSOCIATION OF PROBABILITY OF PREDATION WITH LAYING DATE IN THE SEASON

When unknown, laying date was back calculated as in Fig. 3. Hi ere was no significant difference between the laying date of predated

and successful nests in any of the three comparisons (/. tests).

Factors Affecting Nesting Success

An analysis of whole-brood nesting success is

presented in Table 5, separately for each year and

area. Predation was often accompanied by the pull-

ing off of the roof or pulling the whole nest out of

its socket. Predation was also assumed when the nest

was found empty but intact, but in some of these

cases the nest may have failed due to starvation of

the chicks. Desertions at the egg or nestling stage

were assumed when the contents remained. They

may have included loss of adults due to mortality.

Two other deserted nests containing dead young

may have been destroyed by heavy rainfall. Many

nests were abandoned during building, and a re-

placement built nearby: these are listed as desertions

in Table 5.

Predation and food availability have been

identified as the major factors influencing nesting

success and the number of chicks that can be raised

to independence (Lack 1968, Lundberg 1985, Lima

1987, Martin 1987). We consider the possible in-

fluence of each in turn on the nesting success and

timing of breeding of P. inornatus.

Predation: Predation rates were sometimes ex-

tremely high, and there is little doubt that they were

increased by our activity. This was particularly evi-

dent at UP1 in 1986 when 64% (N = 28) of all nests

found during the building or egg stage were

predated, and at UP2 in 1987 when 75% (N = 68)

were predated. In both of these study sessions we

naively marked the nests we found with red flagging

tape, and it appears that the jungle crow Corvus mac-

ro hynchos, and possibly the Himalayan nutcracker

Nucifraga caryocatactes learnt to associate the tape

with the nest. Because of the unnaturally high preda-

tion rates in these two study sessions we do not in-

clude them in analyses of factors affecting preda-

tion. Corresponding predation rates for the other

study sessions were in 1985 at UP1: 16% (N = 31),

in 1986 at UP2: 20% (N = 45), and in 1987 at UP1:

40% (N = 40).

Since many nests were found well into incuba-

tion, particularly in 1985, predation rates are likely

to be generally higher than 20% over the whole

breeding cycle (nests were marked with red tape in

1985 and in 1986 at UP2, but apparently avian,

predators did not learn to associate the tapes with the

nests). We examined variation in the placement of

the nest to sec if it affected predation probability.

Variation in the proportion of nests predated at UP1

in 1987 was examined separately for each of the

three classifications of nest location, as recorded in

Table 1 . In all cases we found no significant associa-

tions (x2 tests, P > 0.3 in each case).

Although crows were probably the major cause

of predation, other natural predators are common.

We have direct evidence or suspect the following:

Himalayan weasel (based on the discovery of the

adult parents’ wings on or near two predated nests),

brown bear Ursus isabellinus (based on observing

the bear near a nest, and finding an uprooted sapling

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS

11

beside the predated, and removed, nest), and

Himalayan nutcracker (observed predating a nest

with eggs). In addition the viper Agkistrodon

himalayanus is common, and was observed preying

on a Phylloscopus occipitalis nest in the area. Ro-

dents such as mice and voles are possible egg

predators, and a redflanked bush robin, Erithacus

cyanurus was once seen actively chasing a mouse

from its nest. Troops of up to 50 Himalayan langurs

were seen near recently predated nests.

Predation risks and brood size: It has been sug-

gested that larger broods may be subject to greater

predation risk than smaller broods because the

parents need to carry food to the young more often,

thereby increasing the risk of attracting visual

predators (Lack 1968, Lundberg 1985, Lima 1987).

We examined this by comparing the proportion of

predated nests which had three or fewer hatchlings

with the proportion predated which had four or more

nestlings, and found no significant difference (Table

6).

Predation risk and laying date: We showed pre-

viously that clutches laid earlier in the season take

longer to hatch than those laid later. Early nests also

appear more exposed, because much of the annual

vegetation has still to grow. Early nests may there-

fore be subject to greater predation risk than those

laid later. On the other hand, predation may be less

intense earlier in the season, because of the reduced

activity of predators, particularly snakes. We found

no significant association between laying date and

predation risk (Table 7).

Predation was usually manifested as the loss of

whole clutches or broods. However, we noticed

during routine nest checks that in at least five nests

single eggs were being removed or lost through

breakage, particularly at UP2 in 1987. In the nest

which was most carefully monitored a three egg

clutch was reduced to two eggs. The female con-

tinued to incubate, and these eggs hatched. We do

not know the cause of these egg disappearances.

Replacement nests: Some nests which were

predated during early incubation were replaced by

second clutches, particularly at UP2 in 1987. On

many occasions predation of nestlings is accom-

panied by complete disappearance of the pair within

a few hours, presumably to lower altitudes to begin

the moult (Williamson 1974). After some predation

events just the female disappears from the area and

the male stays on territory continuously singing the

buzz song. One male was observed carrying food

more than 24 hours after its nest had been predated.

Most predation events do not appear to lead to the

laying of second clutches, and we believe that no

second broods are raised after a successful first

brood in this population.

Diets and food availability: Late hatching broods

often have underweight young (Fig. 5), and starva-

tion was observed in the very last broods to hatch.

This may be because late-breeding parents are them-

selves in poor condition and unable to provide suf-

ficient food, but it may be because food supply is

declining towards the end of the season. If this is the

case, it could explain why P. inornatus breeds early

in the season. In this section we assess the possibility

by investigating the diet of P. inornatus and

measures of arthropod availability.

An examination of faecal material and obser-

vations of foraging behaviour show that/5, inornatus

is entirely insectivorous. We were unable to quan-

tify arthropod remains in the faeces, but identified

Diptera, Coleoptera, Homoptera, Arachnida, and

Lepidoptera larvae. Faeces of both adults and nest-

lings were full with fragments of chitinous ap-

pendages, and wings of small arthropods were also

common, suggesting that much of the diet consists

of adult insects, and the nymphs of hemimetabolous

insects. Remains of caterpillars were rare in the

faeces. Caterpillars were also rarely observed being

eaten: we saw a caterpillar in the bill of the bird in

only 2% of all point observations (N = 414).

Feeding techniques did not vary significantly

among years or months (Fig. 6). Approximately two

thirds of all feeding techniques were standpicks, and

most of the remainder were flypicks. Flying insects

were rarely captured. Arthropods were picked off

branches and leaves, rarely from the trunk, ground,

or snow. Most foraging occurs in birch trees, but the

understorey willow Salix denticulata is commonly

utilised, particularly early in the season before the

birch is in leaf.

Seasonal changes in plant and arthropod abun-

dance: In 1986 and 1987 leaves began to appear on

the birch trees only at the end of May, and by mid-

June most trees were in full leaf. In 1985 leaves ap-

peared earlier, but we do not know when.

Changes in the abundance of arthropods cap-

tured in the water-detergent plates are shown in Fig.

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

MAY JUNE JULY

MONTH

Fig. 6. Proportion of feeding techniques in each of four different

categories. There was no significant variation among years (^2

tests), and the data were combined for all three years. Sample

sizes are May: N = 201 observations, June: N = 135, July: N =

78. There was no significant difference among months in the

proportion of foraging techniques used (y_2 - 2.6, degrees of

freedom = 6, P > 0.5)

7. Arthropod abundance appears lo be lower in 1 986

than the other two years but this is almost certainly

an artifact, because the plates were left out for an

average of 5.3 days in 1986, but only 1.0 and 1.3

days in 1985 and 1987 respectively. As the plates fill

up they are probably less attractive to insects. The

plates also occasionally overflowed due to rainfall,

or dried out in 1986, but the extent to which this led

to lss of insects is unclear (cases of drastic overflows

or total drying out are not included in these

analyses).

In 1986 there was an increase in arthropod

abundance through the season (Fig. 7). There was

also a trend towards more arthropods being present

in the middle of the season than at the end, although

the regression coefficient for the squared term in a

second order polynomial regression of arthropod

abundance on date was not significant (P = 0.1). In

1987 there was no significant linear increase

through the season (Fig. 7) but there was a sig-

nificant hump in arthropod abundance in the middle

of the season (test as before, P<0.05). Thus the

results from the plates suggest that flying arthropods

tend to be most abundant during the hotter, clear

days of June, and less abundant during the more

cloudy days of July. The arthropod catch in the

plates largely represents Diptcra (flics constituted

Fig. 7. Seasonal changes in Arthropods found in plates left out for

periods of one-six days. F'ach point marks a single plate, on the

day of collection. In 1986 there was a significantincreasein abun-

dance through the season, the slope of the linear regression line

(shown) is b = 0.55 arthropods/day/day, F (1,56) = 21, P <. 001.

In 1987 there was no significant linear increase in abundance, and

in 1 985 the plates were only put out towards the end of the season.

Sec text for a discussion of curvi linearities in abundance.

9 1 % and 96% of the catch in 1986 and 1987 respec-

tively). When Diptera were excluded we found no

linear trend in the 1986 season (P> 0.1) but a sig-

nificant linear increase in catch through the 1987

season [F(l,39) = 5.3, P = 0.03]. When Diptera are

excluded there is no hint of a maximum in arthropod

abundance in mid-season.

That the possible mid-season maximum in

arthropod abundance refers to flying arthropods

(i.c., those airborne and able to land in the plates),

and not to absolute arthropod abundance is sug-

gested by the collections from the beats of birch

Plate

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88

Price & Jamdar: Phylloscopus inornatus

Above: Habitat of Phylloscopus inornatus

Below: Phylloscopus inornatus

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS

13

MAY

JUNE

JULY

DATE

increase in arthropod abundance through the season

(Fig. 8).

We conclude that arthropod abundance in-

creases from May to July. This does not mean that

arthropod availability to birds increases in the same

way. As vegetation thickens insects may be more

difficult to catch, particularly by flycatching, and

there are suggestions that flying insects are in fact

less available in July than June.

Returns Between Breeding Seasons

Our data on return rates are fragmentary, and

cannot be used to infer survival rates. Of 8 females

and 1 0 males breeding in the main study area at UP1

in 1985, one female (13%), and four males (40%)

were recorded breeding there in subsequent years

(the female and three of these males were recorded

in both 1986 and 1987). Of 12 females and 12 males

breeding in 1986 four females (33%) and four males

(33%) were recorded in 1987. Survival is clearly

higher because some birds will be missed, par-

ticularly if they disperse between breeding seasons.

In many species individuals are more likely to dis-

perse following nest failure (Harvey et al. 1979,

Newton and Marquiss 1982), and nest failure was

common at UP1 in 1986 (Table 5).

Out of 349 banded nestlings in 1985 and 1986

we have found six chicks subsequently breeding in

or near the study area. In most bird species young of

the year typically disperse further than adults (e.g.

Harvey et al. 1979, Tiainen 1983).

Fig. 8. Numbers of Arthropods falling on to a tray held below a

birch branch hit sharply with a stick. Each point refers to the

average collection from 20 (occasionally 30) branches in a

restricted locality. Linear regression lines for 1986 and 1987 are

shown, for which the slopes are

for 1986 b = 0.014 insects/beat/day, F(l,48) = 7, P <0.05,

for 1987 b = 0.025 insects/beat/day, F (1,6) = 34, P < 0.01 .

branches, which show no evidence of a mid-season

maximum (Fig. 8). The proportion of Diptera in the

beat collections was 52% in 1986 and 27% in 1987,

with much of the remainder being Homoptera. In

1986 the number of arthropods caught by beating in-

creased through the season, but there was an almost

significant minimum in June (second order regres-

sion, test for the significance of the squared term, P

= 0.06). This may reflect the fact that the insects

would fly away on sunny days in June, rather than

fall on to the tray. In 1987 there was a strong linear

Discussion

In comparison with species of European Phyl-

loscopus warblers P. inornatus has a smaller clutch

size and breeds at higher density (May 1949, Schon-

feld 1978, Lawn 1982, Tiainen 1983). Food

availability and/or predation intensity may explain

differences in clutch size between Europe and Kash-

mir. In particular, European species have longer

daylight hours in which to forage (Lack 1968). It is

not clear that the high density of P. inornatus depres-

ses absolute food abundance and affects the clutch

size, because some apparent food sources are not ex-

ploited. First, several areas of birch trees do not ap-

pear to be actively defended or regularly visited

(Fig. 1). Second, many conifer trees are not ex-

ploited at all, although conifers in territories are

regularly visited for feeding.

2

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Clutch size and other measures of reproductive

success varied significantly among years. High

reproductive success was found in 1985, in which

the birds bred early. In a study of a population of P.

trochilus in Finland Tiainen (1983) showed that the

average clutch size decreased during the breeding

season in any one year, and that inter-annual dif-

ferences in clutch size could be largely attributed to

differences in clutch initiation date among years. A

similar explanation may hold for P. inornatus, al-

though we found a significant decline in clutch size

with laying date in only one year (1986).

The hypothesis is that females adjust their

clutch size according to their condition and their

ability to raise young, given the expected food supp-

ly at the nestling and fledgling stages (Perrins 1970).

A prediction of this hypothesis is that food supply

should be absolutely lower at similar stages of the

breeding cycle in diiferent years: this remains to be

tested.

P. inornatus breeds early and builds its nest as

soon as available ground is clear of snow. At times

during early incubation there may be severe rain and

hailstorms. Three possible adaptations to allow Pas-

serine birds to breed in cold weather have been iden-

tified (Carey 1980). First, males may share incuba-

tion, although specific examples of this in extreme

climates are not known. Second, males may feed the

female on the nest, as occurs in crossbills (Loxia

spp.) (Skutch 1976, Carey 1980). Third, females

may leave the nest, and the eggs be able to withstand

chilling. This occurs, for example, in North

American flycatchers, although the eggs arc chilled

for a maximum of half an hour once incubation has

begun (Morton and Smeraski 1985).

P. inornatus has taken this last adaptation to an

extreme not previously recorded in Passerines, with

females abandoning the nest, at least during early in-

cubation, for more than 36 hours, during which time

the eggs are close to ambient temperature (c.9°C).

This desertion has no apparent effect on subsequent

hatching success. Leaving eggs unattended prior to

commencement of incubation is common among

birds, but (apart from possible anecdotal examples)

periods of extensive abandonment after incubation

has begun have only been recorded in a few species

of seabirds (Skutch 1976). The Manx shearwater

Puffinus puffinus has been recorded leaving its eggs

unattended for periods of up to seven days with no

adverse effects on hatching success (Skutch 1976).

In the fork-tailed storm petrel Oceanodroma furcata

nests may be deserted for several days at a time, and

incubation periods vary from 37 to 68 days

(Boersma and Wheelwright 1979). These species

are larger, and their burrows not as cold.

Typical variation in incubation period appears

to be about 2 days for many passerines (Skutch

1976, Ricklefs and Smeraski 1983). Skutch (1976)

records a maximum variation of 4 days in the in-

cubation period among 88 Passerine species, with

the exception of the red-winged starling Onychog-

nathus morio, from the lowlands of South Africa, in

which the incubation period varies from 12 to pos-

sibly longer than 23 days for unknown reasons

(Rowan 1955).

The large variation in incubation period (from

12 to 22 days) in P. inornatus probably arises out of

variation in the extent to which females can con-

tinuously cover the eggs, for incubation period is

negatively correlated with laying date, and the ear-

lier the laying the colder the conditions (minimum

temperatures average approximately 10°C higher in

June than May (Price and Jamdar 1990). Cold

temperatures and inclement weather may also ac-

count for delays between nest construction and ini-

tial laying early in the season.

P. inornatus shows a number of other be-

haviours which appear to be related to its early

breeding. It is possible that the placing of its nest on

the ground enables greater insulation than would be

the case in trees (Miller 1984), although lack of

feathers in the nest reduces insulation properties

(Tiainen et al. 1983). The species undergoes a diur-

nal altitudinal migration. Display, nest building, and

even the laying of the clutch prior to incubation may

occur only in the early hours of the morning, with

the majority of the day (and night) spent at lower al-

titudes.

Our evidence for the diurnal migration is not

direct: it is based on the absence of the species in the

late morning and afternoons. In the early season

there are no leaves on the birch trees and we believe

it to be very unlikely that birds were foraging quiet-

ly and not noticed. P. inornatus individuals were

seen at lower altitudes (below 2,800 m) at these

times, and we once observed a male flying a long

distance down the valley from the UP2 study area,

at about 1000 hrs. Although these observations are

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF PHYLLOSCOPUS INORNATUS

15

only suggestive, and detailed observations on

marked birds are needed, similar migrations occur

in other species. Several Passerine species are

known to display on their subsequent nesting

grounds in the morning, and feed elsewhere for the

rest of the day (Rothstein et al. 1984).

We now turn to ask why P. inornatus breeds so

early in the season. Other species of Phylloscopus

in Kashmir breed on average 1 -3 weeks later (Price

and Jamdar in press). It is possible that the early

breeding affects adult survival by allowing them to

rapidly vacate the area. It seems more likely,

however, that time of breeding arises out of selec-

tion on nesting success. Many attributes of nesting

success, including clutch size and time of breeding,

have been attributed to either the role of food

availability for raising the nestlings, or predation

pressure (Cody 1966, Lack 1968, Lundberg 1985,

Lima 1987, Martin 1987).

We could find no association of predation in-

tensity with time of breeding but there are some sug-

gestions that food availability may affect nesting

success, and the last chicks in the nest do appear to

be short of food. There are problems with interpret-

ing this as a result of declining food supply; late

breeding adults may be in poor health and unable to

efficiently raise the chicks (Price et al. 1988), or

adults may desert their brood in order to vacate the

breeding grounds and begin their moult. Neverthe-

less, food supply rather than predation risk appears

to be the best explanation for the early breeding of

P. inornatus.

Many of the patterns we observed were not

consistent among years. For example, clutch size

declined with laying date in one year only, and the

weight of chicks at fledging declined through the

season in just two of the three years. In addition

average characteristics such as clutch and Hedge

size, and chick weights, varied significantly among

years. The various adaptations of P. inornatus such

as clutch size and timing of breeding will represent

the integrated response to selection over many

generations. The variation among years we have

identified means that our conclusions must be ten-

tative, and emphasizes the importance of long term

field studies.

Summary

The breeding and feeding behaviour of the yel-

lowbrowed leaf warbler Phylloscopus inornatus

was studied from May to July over a three year

period (1985-1987) in a birch wood at 3,300 m al-

titude in Kashmir, where the species occurs at high

density (up to 4 pairs per hectare).

At the beginning of the season birds undergo a

regular diurnal altitudinal migration, visiting the

breeding grounds only in the early morning, for dis-

play and nest construction. Clutch sizes varied from

1-5 eggs, with the highest average clutch sizes oc-

curring in the year 1985 when breeding was about

two weeks earlier than the other years. The incuba-

tion period varies from 12-22 days and is negative-

ly correlated with the date in the breeding season on

which the clutch is laid. Early breeding females can

leave the nest unattended for at least 36 hours when

the weather is bad, during which time chick develop-

ment is probably slowed or halted. The nestling

period varies between 1 1 and at least 14 days.

The natural rate of predation on nests may be

higher than 20%, but it is difficult to ascertain be-

cause of problems with human disturbance. Preda-

tion rates did not vary with time of breeding in the

season. P. inornatus is entirely insectivorous. Al-

though arthropod abundance increases through the

season, availability of food may decline, and in two

out of the three years chick weight at fledging was

lowest for those chicks fledging at the end of the

season. The early breeding of P. inornatus in com-

parison with other Phylloscopus species in the area

may be a response to its food supply rather than

predation, but more data is needed to distinguish

among hypotheses.

Acknowledgements

We thank the state of Kashmir, and the Govern-

ment of India for permission to do this work, J.C.

Daniel and Mir Innayat Ullah for help with the plan-

ning stages, and A. Richman for comments on the

manuscript. We also thank our local field assistants

for many hours of hard work. The research was sup-

ported by a Smithsonian Foreign Currency Program

grant in 1985 and 1986, with an equipment grant

from the National Geographic Society.

16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

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Beziehungen und Verbreitungsgeschichte asiatischer

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Price, T. & Jamdar, N. (1990): The breeding birds of Overa

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(1): 1-15.

Price, T. & Jamdar, N (in press): Breeding birds of eight sym-

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Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Price, T. & Kirkpatrick, M. & Arnold, J. (1988): Directional

selection and the evolution of breeding date in birds.

Science 24: 798-799.

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British Birds 79: 137.

Ricklefs, R.F. & Smeraski, C.A. (1983): Variation in incubation

period within a population of the European Starling. Auk

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ing confirms a unique diurnal pattern of spatial occurrence

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88.

Rowan, M.K. (1955): The breeding biology of the Redwinged

Starling Onychognathus morio. Ibis 7: 663-705.

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lag, Wittenberg Lulherstadt.

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Texas Press. Austin, Texas.

Temrin, H. (1984): Why are some Wood Warbler {Phylloscopus

sibilatrix) males polyterritorial? Ann Zool. Fennici 21:

243-247.

Temrin, II. , Mallner, Y. & Winden, M. (1984): Observations

on polyterritoriality and singing behaviour in the Wood

warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix. Ornis Scand 15: 67-72.

Tiainen, J. (1978): Nestling growth in three Phylloscopus

warblers in Finland. Ornis Fennica 55: 1-15.

Tiainen, J (1983): Dynamics of a local population of the willow

warbler Phylloscopus trochilus in Southern Finland. Ornis

Scand. 14: 1-15.

Tiainen, J., Hanski, I.K. & Mehtala, J. (1983): Insulation of

nests and the northern limits of three Phylloscopus species

in Finland. Ornis Scand. 14: 149-153.

Williamson, K. (1974): Identification for ringers. 2. The genus

Phylloscopus. British Tmsl for Ornithology, Tring, U.K.

HAEMOGLOBIN POLYMORPHISM IN ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ELEPHANT POPULATION IN SOUTH INDIA1

Hemant S. Datye 2 A.M. Bhagawat3 and V. Krishnamurthy2

(With a text -figure )

Polyacryl Amide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE) was used to study haemoglobin patterns in Indian elephants

Elephas maximus. Blood samples were collected from 12 captive elephants at Mudumalai Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Out

of 12 elephants, 10 (83.33%) showed two band Hb profile whereas 2 individuals (16.66%) showed a solitaiy

haemoglobin (Hb) band, suggesting homozygosity of gene expression.

Introduction

Biochemical differentiation of species specific

proteins can be established by using electrophoretic

techniques (Selander et al. 1969,Yoshida etal. 1971

and De Smet and William 1978). Ferguson (1980)

had recognized that although this technique was use-

ful in establishing differences between forms, it was

not successful in bringing out similarities between

them. The limitations of the technique are overcome

in the comparative blood sample study of various

forms collected in an identical set of conditions with

appropriate controls and the objective analysis of the

data. Hb, being a stable molecule, is very useful in

biochemical studies. There is no record of Hb pat-

terns in elephants in available literature. P.E.P.

Deraniyagala (1955) has proposed 7 living sub-

species of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus, of

which two are from India. This classification was

based on morphological differences, amount of

depigmentation and proportion of tuskers to tuskless

males ( Maknas ) and tushed males (Aliyas).

Further, he has suggested that the Asian

elephant is polymorphic and its wide range of in-

dividual variation has obscured the existence of a

number of subspecies which have been revealed by

studying the intensity with which, certain variations

are localized to different areas. In Sri Lanka and

India, 10 main varieties and numerous sub-varieties

have been recognized from the earliest limes, sub-

divisions being based on shape, size, colour, voice,

behaviour, strength, body odour, diet and suscep-

tibility to certain diseases. In the light of this infor-

1 Accepted July 1989.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed

Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

3Department of Biological Sciences, RJ. College, Ghatkopar,

Bombay 400 086.

mation it was felt that the use of PAGE may help in

establishing biochemical polymorphic pattern, if

any, in the Indian elephants. The frequency of oc-

currence of polymorphic locii and possible genetic

inter-relations may also be ascertained by the

analysis of the data on PAGE.

We are also working on 3 other proteins, viz.

LDH, Esterase and SDH to assess polymorphism at

specific gene locii. The results of these studies will

be published in due course. We also plan to collect

blood samples from the elephant populations of

central and northern India to find out genetic af-

finities or differences, which will help in suggesting

sub-specific status of the populations proposed ear-

lier by different authors.

Material and Methods

Blood samples of 12 elephants were collected

by Dr. V. Krishnamurthy, Project Officer, Indian

Elephant Project, BNHS. Blood was withdrawn

from the veins on the back of the ear using sterilized

syringes and 16 gauge needles. Samples (5-10 ml

each) were transferred to sterilized PVC bottles and

allowed to thaw at room temperature for a few

minutes to separate the serum. Then all the bottles

were transferred to a liquid nitrogen cylinder(LN2)

to freeze them at-192°C. The samples were then

transported with the cylinder to R.J. College, Bom-

bay for laboratory analysis. Hb was solubilised from

isolated RBC’s after a treatment with hypotonic

saline (0.02%).

Haemoglobins were separated by PAGE under

precisely controlled factors like gel concentration

(7.5%), buffer system (Tris-glycine, pH 8.4), volt-

age 250 mV, current 4 mA per tube, ambient

temperature (4°C ± 1° C), duration of run etc. Some

of the samples were run successively to check the

constancy of all factors which helped in the analysis

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 1

HAEMOGLOBIN VARIANTS IN TERMS OF RM VALUES, THEIR OCCURRENCE AND FREQUENCIES

IN A SMALL DOMESTICATED ELEPHANT POPULATION IN SOUTH INDIA

Total no. of specimens - 12 Total no. of bands— 22

Individual Animal

C : Consolidated Hb pattern and S.D.

F ; Frequency (•/.)

Fig. 1 . Diagrammatic representation of haemoglobin profile of a small domesticated elephant population in south India

of the results. The dye Bromophenol Blue was

loaded on the gel columns set in neutral glass tubes

along with samples and served as a marker. For

staining the gels after electrophoresis to identify Hb

fractions, we followed the procedure of Ornstein

(1967). Relative mobility (Rm) of Hb was calcu-

lated as a ratio of the distance travelled by Hb from

the base to the distance travelled by the marker in

the same run. The mean Rm with a standard devia-

tion from the mean for each identified Hb band was

recorded. Hb profiles for each individual were

prepared by plotting Rm values and a consolidated

HAEMOGLOBIN POLYMORPHISM IN ASIAN ELEPHANT

19

Hb profile for the population was constructed. Per-

centage occurrence of a fraction in the population

and percentage frequency of each band was calcu-

lated. The band of the highest mobility was num-

bered Hbl and band of lower mobility was num-

bered Hb2 as suggested by Ferguson (1980).

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows records of the relative mobilities

of haemoglobin fractions for 12 individual. The

number of occurrences of a band in the population

and its percentage frequency is given against each

band. The same data are represented in Fig. 1 as a

consolidated diagrammatic profile for the samples

studied.

It is clear from Fig. 1 that out of 12 individual,

10 showed 2 pattern and 2 individual showed a

solitary band suggesting homozygosity of gene ex-

pression for the Hbj locii. Thus it is evident that

16.66% of the population have homozygous expres-

sion, whereas 83.33% population show two banded

expression. The Hbi pattern with the highest

mobility is strongly expressed as compared to Hb2

pattern. A single band profile for any protein is con-

sidered as an expression of homozygous gene locii

specific for such protein (Ferguson 1980). However

in the present study a homozygous pattern was

found only for the locii of Hbi and not Hb2.

Refer

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1955): Some extinct elephants, their rela-

tives and the two living species. Govt. Press, Ceylon.

De Smet & William, H.C. (1978): A comparison of the

electrophoretic haemoglobin pattern of the vertebrates.

Acta. Zool.Patholo. Antwerp ., 70:119-131.

Ferguson, A. (1980): Biochemical systematics and Evolution.

First Ed. Blackie, Glassgow, London.

Pradhan, M.S., Bhagwat, A.M. & Ingle, S.T. (1984):

Haemoglobin polymorphism on PAGE in the five com-

mensal rodent species (Subfam.: Murinae). Bulletin Z.S.I.

Publ., Culcutta.

Pradhan, M.S., Bhagwat, A.M., Ingle, S.T. (1984):

Haemoglobin polymorphism and genetic identities in five

Indian commensal rodent species. 6th all India Congress

However, it is likely that the Hb2 is also an expres-

sion of an independent gene locii with a slightly less

frequency in the population.

Polymorphic expression of gene locii for Hb

has been reported for rodents (Pradhan et al. 1984,

Selander et al. 1969), birds (Sane et al. 1986). The

Hb profile with an individual variation of single

band to as many as a total of 15 bands on consolida-

tion are reported for rodents, whereas for birds the

number varies from one to six on consolidation.

Thus in comparison, a two band pattern on con-

solidation in elephants appear to be more conserva-

tive.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Tamil Nadu forest department

and Mr. Neelkantan, Wildlife Warden, Mudumalai

Sanctuary for permitting us to collect blood samples

from some of the captive elephants; Mr. Ajay Desai,

Scientist, BNHS, who offered active participation

and gave practical suggestions on collection of

blood samples; the BNHS for providing the LN2

cylinder for transportation of samples to Bombay;

the Principal, R.J. College, Ghatkopar, Bombay, for

providing the laboratory and other facilities and C.

G. Rajendran and Ruben Solomon, R .J. College, for

their great help in conducting the experiments.

ENCES

of zoology. Gwalior.

Sane, S.R., Kannan, R, Rajendran, C.G., Ingle, S.T. & Bhag-

wat, A.M. (1986): On the Taxonomic status of Psittacula

intermedia (Rothschild). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 127-

134.

Selander, R.K., Hunt, W.G. & Young, S.Y. (1969): Protein

polymorphism and genetic heterozygosity in two

European subspecies of the house mouse. Evolution 23:

379-390.

Yoshida, T.H., Kato, H., Tsuchiya, K. & Moriwaki, K. (1971):

Karyotypes and serum transferrin patterns of hybrids be-

tween Asian and Oceanian black rats, Rattus ratlus.

Chromosoma 34 (1): 40-50.

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND MORPHOMETRIC RELATION 0¥ BUFO STOMATICUS

LUTKEN (ANURA : AMPHIBIA)1

B.K. Mahapatro and M.C. Dash2

(With a text -figure)

Breeding behaviour and morphometric measurements of Bufo stomaticus Lutken toads kept in a froggery were

studied. Moderate temperature and high humidity during monsoon are favourable environmental conditions for egg

laying. Male-male competition for mounting a female was common but in no case could the competing male separate

the amplexed male. Amplex duration was 1-4 days. The clutch size varied from 9,000 to 11,000 eggs arranged in two

parallel rows of jelly strings. The female toads were always larger than the males. Male and female toads found in

amplexus were bigger than their non-amplexed population. Significant positive correlations between snout-vent length

with body weight and with femur length were observed in the toads irrespective of sex and age. Such a correlation was

also observed between body weight and gonad weight of immature and adult toads (toads more than five month old).

Introduction

The reproductive capacity of adults and the

successful metamorphosis of the tadpoles lead to the

abundance of adult anurans. Environmental factors

such as rainfall, humidity, light and temperature

have a profound effect on breeding activity (Savage

1961). Previous studies (Mohan ty-Hejmadi 1974,

Daniel 1975, Dutta and Mohanty-Hejmadi 1976,

Mohan ty-Hejmadi and Dutta 1979, Dash and Hota

1980, Mishra and Dash 1984) reported the breeding

habits of some Indian amphibians. Mohanty and Das

(1978) and Mohanty (1984) have reported on the in-

duced breeding in Indian frogs. Khan (1965)

prepared a life table for Bufo stomaticus. B.

stomaticus is a common toad of this region and con-

sidering the scant literature on its breeding be-

haviour and morphometry, we studied these aspects.

Experimental Design

During the 1983 monsoon adult Bufo

stomaticus toads were collected from beneath lamp

posts in residential areas of Sambalpur University

Campus, Sambalpur, Orissa and kept in the

University’s froggery. Some of them were selected

sex- wise and morphometric measurements like total

body length (snout to vent), femur length and body

weight were recorded (N = 41 male and N = 45

female). These animals 'were killed and dissected to

note the nature and weight of the gonads. The be-

1 Accepted May 1990.

^School of Life Sciences, Sambalpur University,

Jyoti Vihar 768 019, Sambalpur, Orissa

haviour of mature toads during amplexus and egg

laying were studied in the froggery. Morphometric

measurements of amplexing pairs were also taken to

determine the size at maturity.

Juvenile toads, metamorphosed in the

laboratory, were maintained in the froggery only for

five months as provisioning of food to the growing

immatures was a big problem. The body length,

femur length, body weight and gonad weight of

these juveniles and immatures were measured sex-

wise to determine growth rate (N = 20 male and N

= 24 female). Climatological data for the area were

collected from the Hirakud Research Station.

Results

Climate: The study area experiences mainly three

seasons (i) summer from March to mid June, (ii)

rains from mid June to mid October and (iii) autumn-

winter from mid October to February. The maxi-

mum and minimum air temperatures recorded were

39.7°C in summer and 13.2°C in winter during

1983. RH was 91 .6% at 08.30 hrs and 54.6% at 1730

hrs 1ST during the rainy season in 1983. The total

rainfall in 1983 was 1497.1 mm with 112 rainy days.

About 90% of total rain fell in the rainy season.

Habits and habitat: Bufo stomaticus Lutken, com-

monly known as the marbled toad, is found in India,

Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. They are nocturnal

and hide under stones and soil during the day. In

summer they aestivate under earth even at a depth

of over a metre (Rao 1923). The toads are equally at

home under varying climatic conditions and during

the breeding season, could be seen moving around

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND MORPHOMETRICS OF BUFO STOMATICUS

21

Table 1

STATISTICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS IN Bufo stomaticus

SD = Standard deviation

S-V = Snout- Vent

22

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

during the day. They are solitary in nature but in cap-

tivity rested together in a jumbled heap. In captivity

they fed on termites and earthworms. Adults are

medium sized, measuring up to 81 mm, with heavi-

ly tuberculated skin.

Sexual dimorphism: Mature toads exhibit distinct

sexual dimorphism. Males are smaller than females

(average snout- vent length 64.1 mm and 73.8 mm,

average body weight 34.3 g and 54.13 g in case of

amplexing males and females respectively) and

develop secondary sexual characters like a black

vocal sac and black comified patches on the inner

sides of the first and second fingers. During the

breeding season sexually mature males could be dis-

tinguished from others by the characteristic bright

yellow body colour.

Amplexus: The pairing pattern was observed

among the toads kept in the froggery. During the

breeding season males produced a characteristic

sound to attract female conspecifics. At first the

male jumped onto the back of the female and clung

to it by holding it below the arm pits with its fore-

arms, and formed an amplexing pair which lasted for

1 to 4 days. During this period the female carried the

male on its back while moving from place to place.

Neither male nor female toads exhibited any

mate choice. Male-male pairing was avoided by

producing a peculiar croaking if a male by chance

climbed over another male. Male-male competition

for a single female was prevalent.

In such cases a mature male first approached

an amplexed pair, then rode over the pairing male

and tried to separate the pair. During the course of

the present investigation it was observed that in no

case was the competing male successful in separat-

ing the amplexed male. It was also observed that

considerable amount of force was required to

separate the male from the am pi ex pairing so as to

take morphometric measurements of the amplexed

individuals.

Eggs and egg laying: Before egg laying the

amplexed pairs moved towards a water source. Just

before egg laying the female settled down near the

water source. The male brought its hind limbs

together to form a pouch into which the female

released a number of eggs at a time. The male then

ejaculated spermatic fluid over the eggs. After egg

laying the female regained its normal position and

the male withdrew its hind legs, allowing the egg

strings to become loose. In this way eggs were laid

in many instalments, hence the complete egg laying

process lasted for 1 to 2 hours. Due to their sticky

nature and the changing of position by the female

after each instalment of egg laying, the egg strings

were spread out.

The eggs were laid in two parallel rows of jelly

strings entangled with the submerged substratum.

Clutch size varied from 9,000 to 11,000 (by volume

count). The average diameter of an egg was 1 .3 mm.

In laboratory condition eggs took 24 hours to hatch

and the percentage of hatching depended on the

spreading pattern of the egg strings. This toad

generally breeds from mid June to September but the

maximum number of breeding pairs was observed

in July. In nature the toads even laid eggs in small

garden pits having water level of 2 cm depth and

drying of such pits might be one of the main causes

for natural mortality of the larvae.

Morphometric relationship: Morphometric

measurements such as snout-vent (S-V) length,

femur length, body weight and gonad weight of the

toads were taken sex-wise and the relationships be-

tween different parameters were analysed statisti-

cally. Results of the analysis (Table 1) indicated that

there was significant positive correlation between

body weight and S-V length, femur length and S-V

length of male and female toads. The positive cor-

relation between body weight and gonad weight was

significant in the case of field population but statis-

tically insignificant for juvenile toads retired in the

froggery. Toads forming amplexus were larger and

falter than the non-amplexing toads (Table 3).

Discussion

Factors which al ect oviposition have an im-

portant bearing on breeding biology. Packer (1960)

found that breeding migration of Terich rivularis

was provoked by rain lull. Alcala (1962) pointed out

the necessity of rain for breeding to occur in

Rhacophorus leucomystax. Dimmitt and Ruibal

(1980) have listed sound/vibration as the primary

and temperature, time of the day, amount of rainfall

on preceding day, change in soil moisture etc. as

secondary factors that may affect emergence of

Scophiopus couchi from their winter burrows.

During the present investigation oviposition was in-

itiated by onset of monsoon rains and increased RH.

Rain is necessary for breeding; this is supported by

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND MORPHOMETRICS OF BUFO STOMATICUS

23

the fact that more clutches were collected in July, the

month of heavy rains. With the initiation of rains air

temperature decreased from an average of 39.7° C

in May to 33.2° C in July. During the monsoon

moderate air temperature is coupled with high RH,

particularly in the morning hours. We have observed

that almost all the amplex pairs (N = 50) laid eggs

during the morning hours (0700 to 1000 hrs) when

low temperature and RH prevailed.

The mean size of the males in amplexus is

greater than the mean size of the total male popula-

tion (Gittins et al. 1980). Howard (1981) and

Hemelaar (1983) concluded that at any stage adult

female toads are bigger than adult male toads.

Howard’s (1981) view is that this difference in

weight between female and male bull frogs is not the

result of differential growth rate, but rather a sex-

specific difference in the life history. This is also true

in the case of B. stomaticus , where the females are

larger than the males (Table 2) even from the very

early juvenile stage (Fig. 1). We also observed that

individuals found in amplexus are larger than the

non-amplexing individuals (Table 3). These find-

ings strengthen the view that female anurans are

typically larger than their male counterparts (Crump

1974, Shine 1979).

Female reproductive success is determined

more by the number of eggs laid than the number of

AGE : MONTHS

Fig. 1. Body mass histograms showing differential growth of

male and female B . stomaticus with age.

young reared, and large female size permits a

capacity for greater volume of eggs in each clutch

(Howard 1981). In the present study the mean body

mass of female B. stomaticus in amplexus was

greater than that of the non-amplexing female

population and the clutch size was found to be 9000

to 11000, a value much more than in other anurans

like ranids, rhacophorids and hylids (Table 4). Such

an observation extends support to the view that

larger female body size may confer a reproductive

Table 3

A COMPARISON OF LENGTH AND WEIGHT OF MALE AND FEMALE B. stomaticus TOADS

FOUND IN AMPLEXUS vs. HELD POPULATION

SD = Standard Deviation S.V. = Snout- Vent

24

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 4

A COMPARISON OF THE CLUTCH SIZE IN DIFFERENT ANURAN SPECIES

advantage in many anurans due to a positive

relationship between clutch size/volume and body

size (Salthe and Duell man 1973, Crump 1974). Eggs

were laid in two parallel strings, which confirms the

description of Khan (1982) for identification of the

eggs of B. stoma tic us.

During hibernation the ovaries and oviducts

practically do not change in weight (Zuszczyk and

Zamachowski 1973). Young females below a par-

ticular size threshold do not mature sexually

(Howard 1981). We have observed that gonad

weight is significantly positively correlated with

body weight in the case of bigger sized toads col-

lected from the field, but insignificant in five month

old juveniles reared in the froggery. The relationship

is perhaps age specific.

References

Alcala, A.C. (1962): Breeding behaviour and early development

of frogs of Negros, Philippine Island. Copeia 1962: 679-

726.

Crump, M.L. (1974): Reproductive strategies in a tropical com-

munity. Miscellaneous Publications 61 . University of Kan-

sas Museum of Natural History, Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A.

Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of Western

India, part 3. J. Bombay nal. Ilist. Soc. 72(2): 506-522.

Dash, M.C. & Hota, A.K. (1980): Density effects on the survival,

growth rate and metamorphosis of Rana tigrina. tadpoles.

Ecology 61(5): 1025-1028.

Dimmitt, M. A. & Ruib al, R. (1980): Exploitation of food resour-

ces by spadefoot toad (Scophiopus). Copeia 1980(4): 854-

862.

Dutta, S.K. & Mohanty-Hfjmadi, P. (1976): Breeding and life

history of the Indian bull frog, Rana tigrina. Prakruti,

Utkal Univ. J. Sci. 13 (1 & 2): 53-59.

GrrriNS, S.P., Parker, A.G. & Slater, F.M. (1980): Mate assort-

ment in the common toad (Bufo bufo).J. Nat. Hist. 14: 663-

668.

Hemelaar, A.S.M. (1983): Age of Bufo bufo in amplexus over

the spawning period. Oikos40: 1-5.

Hota, A.K. (1984): Growth, production and energetics of tad-

poles of Rana tigrina (Daud.) and Bufo melanostictus

(Blouch and Schneider). Ph.D. Thesis. Sambalpur Univer-

sity, Orissa.

Howard, R.D. (1981): Sexual dimorphism in bull frogs. Ecology

62 (2): 303-310.

Khan, M.S. (1965): A normal tabic of Bufo stomaticus Lutken.

Biologia 11: 1-39

Khan, M.S. (1982): Collection, preservation and identification

of amphibian eggs from the plains of Pakistan. Pakistan J.

Zool. 14(2): 241-243.

Mishra, P. K. & Dash, M.C. (1984): Metamorphosis of

Polypedales maculatus (Gray 1830): An analysis of

crowding effect. Alytes 3(4): 163-172.

Mohanty, S.N. (1984): Autecology of Rana tigrina (Daud.).

Ph.D. Thesis. Sambalpur University, Orissa.

Mohanty, S.N. & Das, C.R. (1978): Effects of hypophysation

on a partially ovulated Indian bull frog, R. tigrina. In: Sym-

posium on Comparative Endocrinology held at Utkal

University, Orissa.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. (1974): Amphibian fauna of Orissa.

Prakruti , Utkal Univ. J. Sci. 11 (1 & 2): 89-97.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P & Dutta, S.K. (1979): Breeding and

development of Rana cyanophlyclis Schneider. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 291-296.

Packer, W.C. (1960): Bioclimatic influences on the breeding

migration of Taricha rivularis. Ecology 4: 509-517.

Pandian, T.J. & Marian, M.P. (1986): Production and export of

frogs: an ecological view. In: Proceedings of First World

Conference on Trade in Frog legs vis-a-vis Environmental

Considerations, Calcutta, India: 33-48.

Rao, C.R.N. (1923): Quoted from ‘Field guide to the amphibians

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND MORPHOMETRICS OF BUFO STOMATICUS

25

of Western India’ by J.C. Daniel. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60(2): 415-438.

Salthe, S.N. & Duellman, W.E. (1973): Quantitative con-

straints associated with reproductive mode in anurans. In:

J.L. Vial, ed. Evolutionary biology of the anurans. Univ. of

Missouri Press, Columbia: 229-249.

Savage, R.M. (1961): The ecology and life history of the com-

mon frog ( Rana temporaria temporaria). Sir Issac Pitman

and Sons Ltd., London: 221.

Shine, R. (1979): Sexual selection and sexual dimorphisms in the

amphibia. Copeia 1979: 297-306.

Zuszczyk, W. & Zamachowski, W. (1973): Morphological chan-

ges in the reproductive organs of the female edible frog,

Rana esculenta (L.) in the annual cycle. Acta Biol. Cracov.

Ser. Zool. 16: 167-178.

KEYS TO THE SUB-FAMILIES AND THEIR GENERA OF THE NON-TIBIAROLIATE

GROUP OF ASSASSIN BUGS (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)OF SOUTHERN INDIA1

David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran2

Keys for non-libiaroliate group of Reduviidac, namely Harpaclorijiae Stenopodamae, Tribelocephalinae,

Saicinae, Emesinae, Holoptilinae, and their 37 genera from Southern India have been given. Significant variations in

their antennae, rostrum, head, pronotum, scutcllum and appendicular chactotaxy have been considered for the prepara-

tion of the keys.

Introduction

In his account on the rcduviid fauna of the then

British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Distant

(1903, 1910) had relied upon collections deposited

in various repositories abroad and very few species

from southern India were represented. After Distant

(1910), the first significant contribution on the

taxonomy of Indian Reduviidae was made by

Wygodzinsky (1966) by describing 5 genera and 8

species, in his monograph of Emesinae.

Apart from this, the taxonomic contributions

of Indian Reduviidae are limited to the descriptions

of a few species of Harpactorinae by Samuel and

Joseph (1953). Subsequently, Muraleedharan

(1976) described two new species of Henricohahnia.

Years later, Wygodzinsky and Lent (1980), Ambrose

and Livingstone (1986a), Livingstone and Murugan

(1987) and Livingstone and Ravichandran (1988)

added about half a dozen more species to the list of

Reduviidae from southern India.

The first attempt in preparing a key for the

genera of Reduviidae of the oriental region was

made by Cook (1977) on Ectrichodiinac and since

then it was desired to have akey for the genera of all

the sub-families of the reduviid fauna of southern

India.

At present, 168 species belonging to 65 genera

and 11 sub-families of Reduviidae have been

recorded from southern India and they tire divisible

into two major categories on the basis of the

presence or absence of tibiarolium on the fore and

mid tibiae or fore tibiae alone. The term

‘tibiarolium’ was coined by Mac-Gillivray (1923) to

designate a pad like structure, similar to an

‘arolium’, at the distal end of tibiae, having been

densely packed with fine hairs. Subsequently, the

term ‘Fossula spongiosa’ (Miller 1938) and ‘tibial

pad’ (Livingstone and Ambrose 1978) were coined

to designate the same structure and Distant (1903)

used the term ‘spongy furrow’. The term tibiarolium

is found to be more appropriate and in the present

key, those sub-families without such a structure have

been considered.

In his classification of Reduviidae, Distant

(1903) enumerated 12 sub-families including

Nabidinae. Later, China and Miller (1959) and sub-

sequently Davis (1966), recognised 29 sub-families

of Reduviidae from all over the world. Since, in the

present collection of Reduviidae of southern India,

only a few sub-families have been represented, it is

preferred to adopt the classification of Distant. The

non-tibiaroliate group of Reduviidae includes 6 sub-

families, namely Harpactorinae, Stenopodainae,

Tribelocephalinae, Emesinae, Holoptilinae and

Saicinae.

There are 37 genera and 93 species recorded so

far under this group in this region, of which 1 genus

and 18 species are reported new to science and a

number of species new records from southern India.

The genus Neohaematorrhophus which was

originally described under Ectrichodiinae by

Ambrose and Livingstone (1986b) has characters

suggestive of Harpactorine affinity and therefore it

is also included under Harpactorinae. The keys for

the genera have been prepared only for those sub-

families that are represented by more than two

genera.

Accepted December 1988.

2Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu.

KEY TO ASSASSIN BUGS OF SOUTHERN INDIA

27

KEY TO THE SUB-FAMILIES OF THE NON-

TIBIAROLIATE GROUP OF

REDUVEDAE OF SOUTHERN INDIA

1 . Ocelli present 2

Ocelli absent 3

2. Antennae and legs feathery Holoptllinae Stal

Antennae either finely setaceous or longly pilose 5

3. First segment of the antennae incrassated, rostrum slender,

elongate and elbowed at the junction of the first and second

segments; clypeal process porrectly produced in front

Tribelocephalinae Stal

First segment of the antennae not incrassated; rostrum

curved, second joint swollen or not swollen 4

4. First segment of the antennae elongate, and setaceous;

second segment of the rostrum invariably swollen;

pronotum longly spinous, fore coxae not elongate, fore tibia

almost as long as the fore femora Saicinae Stal

First segment of the antennae elongate, either setaceous or

longly pilose; second segment of the rostrum either straight

or swollen, fore coxae very elongate; fore femora incras-

sated and spinous; fore tibia invariably shorter than fore

femora Emesinae Stal

5. Frontal forked tubercles porrectly produced; ocelli large,

projecting outward; ante-ocular area invariably longer than

post-ocular area; prostemal spine when present; porrectly

produced; ante-ocular area parallel Stenopodainae Stal

Frontal tubercles rarely present, ocelli moderately large,

wide apart; ante-ocular area conical, tapering anteriorly...

Harpactorinae Stal

KEY TO THE SOUTH INDIAN GENERA OF EMESINAE

1. Pronotal posterior lobe elongate, cylindrically produced,

body elongate, setaceous Stenolemus Signoret

Pronotum either almost uniformly elongate (or) sub-

globose; body invariably smooth 2

2. All the three segments of the thorax equally elongate,

cylindrical; apterous Ischnobaenella Wygodzinsky

Thoracic segments invariably globose, either alale or ap-

terous 3

Fore trochanteral spine present; fore femora with biseriale

spines Ploiana Scopoli

Fore trochanteral spine absent (or) setaceous; fore femora

with single seriate long and short spines (or) with uniform-

ly long spines 4

Fore trochanter setaceous; second rostral segment short,

bulbous; body longly pilose, hemelytra embossed

Emesopsis Uhler

Second rostral segment not bulbous; foreleg tarsomeres

either two segmented (or) three segmented 5

Foreleg tarsomeres two segmented and one fourth to one

fifth as long as tibiae; appendages banded; wings highly

spotted Empicoris Wolff.

Foreleg tarsomeres three segmented 6

6. First rostral segment as long as second; first tarsal segment

more than twice as long as second and third combined

Bagauda Bergroth

First rostral segment as long as second; first tarsal segment

longer than second (or) third Gardena Dohm

KEY TO THE SOUTH INDIAN GENERA OF

STENOPODAINAE STAL

1 . Fore femora incrassated and ventrally armed 2

Fore femora either slender (or) slightly incrassated but un-

armed 4

2. Ventrolateral margin of the ante-ocular area (loral lobes) ex-

panded and armed with three to four strong robust spines

Staccia Stal

Ventrolateral margin of the ante-ocular area (loral lobes) not

expanded and not spined 3

3. Posterolateral angles and anterolateral angles of the

pronotum tuberculate; scutellum promineritly tuberculate;

propleural anterior spines obscure Oncocephalus Klug

Anterior lobe of the pronotum non -tuberculate, longer than

posterior lobe; propleural spines elongate, porrectly

produced; scutellar tubercules obscure

Sasirapada Amyol & Serville

4. Fore and mid tibiae ventrally with elongate pad like struc-

ture; femora with mid ventral comb like setae; first segment

of the rostrum almost half as long as the ante-ocular area;

anterior lobe of the pronotum with sharply pointed spine,

anterolateral and posterolateral angles and scutellum heavi-

ly spined Canlhesancus Amyot &Serville

Fore and mid tibiae slender; scutellum either tuberculate

(or) non -tuberculate; first antennal segment short and in-

crassated or elongate and slender; anterior area of the

pronotum tuberculous (or) non-luberculous 5

5. Entire head, thorax, body, totally unanned; propleural

anterior spine absent Ilemisastrapada gen. nov.

Body invariably tuberculate or spined; propleural spine

either tuberculate or spinous 6

6. First segment of the rostrum reaching almost the middle of

the post-ocular area; propleural spines elongately porrectly

produced; post genal row of t ubercles, sometimes forked

Pygolampis Germ.

Propleural spine either tuberculate (or) obscurely spinous,

antenniferous tubercles, frontal tubercles, porrectly

produced; first rostral segment not reaching (or) almost

reaching the eyes; first joint of antennae either short and in-

crassated or elongate and pilose; anterior lobe of pronotum

either tuberculate (or) carinate 7

7. First antennal segment elongate and pilose; anterior lobe of

the pronotum tuberculate; anterolateral and posterolateral

angles spinously produced; scutellum elongately, porrectly

spinous Bardesanes Distant

Scutellum either elongately spinous or with nodule like

tubercle; first antennal segment short and incrassated;

anterior lobe sparingly tuberculate (or) carinate 8

3.

4.

5.

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

8. Anterior lobe of the pronotum tuberculate; anterolateral and

posterolateral angles moderately spinously produced; oc-

ciput with a pair of occipital, posteriorly developed warty

tubercles; scutellum spinously produced Cawius Stal

Anterior lobe of pronotum non -tuberculate but faintly

carinate; anterolateral and posterolateral angles non-

spinous; scutellum with nodulose tubercles; post gena with

a prominent ventrally directed tubercle Diaditus Stal

KEY TO THE SOUTH INDIAN GENERA OF HARPAC-

TORINAE STAL

1 . Ocelli present 2

Ocelli absent Rhaphidosoma Amyot & Scrvillc

2 Pronotal spines present 3

Pronotal spines absent 11

3. Posterior lobe of the pronotum with discal spines 4

Posterior lobe of pronotum without discal spines 9

4. Scutellar spines present 5

Scutellar spines absent 6

5. Scutellum apically with a single spine; body absolutely

bare; head bare but for a nodule like tubercle at the base of

each antenna Occamus Distant

Scutellum with a median dorsal spine in addition to apical

spine; pronotum, head and appendages highly spinous;

spines at the base of antennae elongately produced

Polididus Stal

6. Anterior lobe of the pronotum armed 7

Anterior lobe of the pronotum unarmed (or) obscurely

tuberculate 8

7. Anterior lobe of pronotum with only the discal spines; head

unarmed, but for short spine at the base of each antenna,

legs unarmed Brassivola Distant

Anterior lobe of pronotum with a pair of long discal spines

on each half, head highly spinous, with a very long spine at

the base of each antenna; fore femora nodulose and highly

spinous on each nodule Irantha Stal

8. Anterior lobe of pronotum with nodulose tubercles all

around; spine at the base of each antenna very much elon-

gate Platerus Distant

Anterior lobe of the pronotum without nodulose tubercles,

but rugulose; spine at the base of antennae pointed, but short

Lanca Distant

9. First rostral segment not passing the eyes; base of the an-

tennae without spines; ante-and post-ocular areas almost

sub-equal; spines of the lateral angles of the pronotum elon-

gate and slender Euagoras Burmeister

First segment of the rostrum passing the eyes; spine at the

base of each antenna moderately developed; ante-ocular

area much shorter than post -ocular area 10

1 0. Discal area of posterior lobe of pronotum slightly angulate;

spine at the base of antennae nodulose; first rostral segment

as long as second and third combined... Serendiba Distant

Posterior lobe of pronotum not angulated; spine at the base

of antennae short, but sharply pointed; first segment of the

rostrumalmost as long as second and third combined

Endochus Stal

1 1 . Spine at the antennal base present; scutellum without spine

12

Head bare, scutellum with or without spine 13

12. Femora nodulose; first segment of the rostrum much shorter

than second; spine at the base of antennae very much elon-

gated and curved outward Macracanthopsis Reuter

First segment of the rostrum longer than second segment;

spine at the antennal base short and straight; femora not

nodulose Cydnocoris Stal

13. Scutellum with robust spine pointing vertically upward;

collar cylindrical, much elongate; larger in size

Sycanus Amyot &Serville

Apex of the scutellum pointed but not spinous; collar very

short; ante- and post -ocular areas either sub-equal (or) the

former more elongate 14

14. Ante -ocular area almost twice as long as post-ocular area,

first rostral segment obscure; second rostral segment elon-

gate, straight Lophocephala Laporte

First rostral segment a little shorter than the second seg-

ment; ante-and post-ocular areas sub-equal; anterior angles

of the pronotum either tuberculate or smooth 15

15. Anterior lobe of the pronotum posteriorly truncated at the

middle; antero-lateral angles obscurely tuberculous; scutel-

lum posteriorly acutely pointed to tuberculate; lateral

angles of the posterior lobe of pronotum expanded as

paranotal lobe Coranus Curtis

Pronotal anterior lobe globose, either smooth or rugulose,

antero-lateral angles of the pronotumwithmoderately

developed tubercles; scutellum very minute bearing a

median and lateral angulations 16

1 6. Fore and mid femora highly incrassated with fine tubercles

on the ventral side; ante-ocular area slightly longer than

post-ocular area

Neohaematorrhophus Ambrose &

Livingstone

Fore and mid femora not incrassated and tubercles absent

on the ventral side; ante- and post-ocular areas sub-equal

(or) the latter slightly more elongate 17

1 7. Anterior lobe of pronotum smooth , small and more globose;

ante-and post -ocular areas sub-equal; scutellum non-tuber-

culate; posterior lobe of the pronotum almost smooth (or)

finely granulate; small in size Sphedanolestes Stal

Ante-ocular area a little longer than post-ocular area;

anterior lobe of pronotum with carinations and sulcations

on either side; posterior lobe rugulose, scutellar tubercles

slightly curved upward; large size t Rhinocoris Hahn

KEY TO ASSASSIN BUGS OF SOUTHERN INDIA

29

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Authorities of Bharathiar

University, Coimbatore, for providing facilities and

Refer

Ambrose, D.R (1985): Assassin bugs of Tamil Nadu and ihcir

Role in Biological Control (Insecta-Heteroptera-

Reduviidae). Proc. Natl. Sem. Entomoph. Ins. pp. 16-28.

Ambrose, D.R & Livingstone, D. (1986a): A new species of

Rhinocoris (Fabricius) from Southern India (Heteroptera :

Reduviidae: Harpactorinae). J. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc., 83

(1): 173-177.

Ambrose, D.R & Livingstone, D. (1986b): A new genus of

Ectrichodiinae from Southern India (Insecta: Heteroptera:

Reduviidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (2): 401-406.

China, W.E. 8c Miller, N.C.E. (1959): Checklist and keys to the

families and sub-families of the Hemiptera: Heteroptera.

Bull. British Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Entomol. 8: 1 -45.

Cook, M.L. (1977): A key to the genera of Asian Ectrichodiinae

(Hemiptera: Reduviidae) together with a Check List of

genera and species. Oriental Insects , 11 (1): 63-68.

Davis, N.T. (1966): Contributions to the morphology and

phylogeny of the Reduviidae (Hemiptera : Heteroptera)

PartlH. The male and female genitaba. Ann. Entomol. Soc.

Amer. 59(5): 911-923.

Distant, W.L. (1903): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota Vol. II. Heteroptera. Taylor

and Francis, London, pp. 196-402.

Distant, W.L. (1910): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Bunna, Rhynchota Vol. V, Heteroptera: Ap-

pendix. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 169-220.

Joseph, M.T. (1959): Biology and Bionomics and Economic im-

portance of some reduviids collected from Delhi. Indian J.

Ent.XXI(l): 46-58.

to the Department of Science and Technology, New

Delhi, for financial assistance during the course of

the investigation.

ENCES

Livingstone, D. & Ambrose, D.R (1978): Biology, Ecophysiol-

ogy and Ethology of the reduviids of the scrub jungles of

the Palghat-Gap, India. J. Madras Univ. 4 (3): 97-1 18.

Livingstone, D. & Murugan, C. (1987): A new genus of

Ectrichodiinae from Point Calimere, Southern India

(Heteroptera : Reduviidae) Uttar Pradesh J. Zool. 7(1):

92-95.

Livingstone, D. & Ravichandran, G. (1988): Anew species of

Tribelocephala, Stal (Heteroptera: Reduviidae:

Tribelocephalinae), from Western Ghats, ibid 8 (1): 100-

102.

Macgillivray, A.D. (1923): External Insect Anatomy: A guide

to the study of insect Anatomy and an Introduction to Sys-

tematic Entomology. Urbana IH.

Miller, N.C.E. (1938): Function of fossula spongiosa in

Reduviidae. Nature, London. April, 749-750.

Muraleedharan, N. (1976): Two new species of Henricohah-

nia from India (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Harpactorinae).

Oriental Insects 10( 1): 51 -54.

Samuel, C.K. & Joseph, M.T. (1953): On two new forms of

Reduviids collected from Delhi (India). Indian J. Ent. 15

(1): 29-32.

Wygodzinsky, P.W. (1966): A monograph of the Emesinae

(Reduviidae: Hemiptera), Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 133.

1-614.

Wygodzinsky, P.W. 8c Lent, H. (1980): Description of one new

Monotypic Genus of Reduviidae from Panama and two

from Southern India (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). Rev. Brasil.

Biol. 40(4): 733-742.

3

NEW RECORD OF THE PIED HARRIER CIRCUS MELANOLEUCOS (PENNANT)

BREEDING IN ASSAM DUARS, WITH A BRIEF REVIEW OF ITS DISTRIBUTION1

Goutam Narayan and Lima Rosalind2

(With two plates and two text-figures)

The pied harrier Circus melanoleucos is

described as a common winter visitor to the Indian

subcontinent, particularly to its eastern part. Quite

common in Manipur, Assam, Bangladesh, West

Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and decreasingly so down the

eastern side of the peninsula, it occurs in small num-

bers upto Sri Lanka (Ali and Ripley 1983).

It is seen very rarely in the Deccan peninsula

and was not recorded north of Bombay in western

India and west of Nepal terai and Gorakhpur district

of Uttar Pradesh till recently. Rahmani (1988) had

seen them in 1986 at Karera in Madhya Pradesh and

now Prakash (1988) reports that two to three birds

were seen in the winter months between 1985 and

1988 at Bharatpur in Rajasthan. It also winters in

Burma and other countries of Indochina south to

Borneo and Sule Islands (Brown and Amadon

1968). It is transient through eastern and central

China, wintering in areas south of river Yangtze and

in Hainan (de Schauenseel984) as well as the

Philippines, where it is even suspected to breed

(Dickinson 1986).

It is said to stay in India from October to April

and is known to arrive at the breeding grounds

(Transbaikal) in USSR about mid-April (Demen-

tiev and Gladkov 1966).

Breeding range: Neufeldt (1967), quoting various

sources, writes that the pied harrier breeds in the

south-eastern USSR (western side of Sichote-Alin

Range, Amur and Argun rivers, and probably upto

Lake Baikal), north-eastern Mongolian Republic,

northern part of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria in

north-eastern China, probably penetrating into

North Korea. There is no record of its breeding else-

where in China.

From Burma there is only one nesting record

by Stanford (1936), who found a nest in the grassy

plains north of the confluence of Mogaung and Ir-

rawaddy rivers in the Myitkyina district. Harrington

Accepted December 1989.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

(1903) had reported sighting these birds near Saga

in southern Shan state in the month of July 1902 and

thought they bred there.

Similarly, the only reliable nesting record of

this bird from the Indian subcontinent is by J.R.

Cripps, who found a couple of nests in Dibrugarh

district of upper Assam in 1885. The eggs were col-

lected from the ‘churs’ (alluvial grassy plains on is-

lands and banks) of the river Brahmaputra and a

place called Sepon south of the river (Hume 1888).

These sites are approximately between the coor-

dinates 27° 05’ to 27° 15’ N and 94° 40’ to 94° 50’ E.

Since the specimens were not collected by Cripps

and the eggs eventually broke, there was some un-

certainty regarding the species of harrier breeding in

Assam. This is illustrated by Baker’s (1935) com-

ment that it is ‘possible’ that a few birds breed in the

uplands of Assam while adding that "a reward of-

fered to the local tribesmen of North Cachar, Mikirs ,

for the birds with eggs eventuated in a female har-

rier with four eggs in 1894. They had been kept for

a long time and the bird was in remnant, but I then

identified it as C. aeruginosus , though I now think

it may have been C. melanoleucos ."

There has never been any record of this bird

staying in summer in the area north of river Brah-

maputra in Assam. Moreover, in the present century

there is no record of its breeding anywhere in the In-

dian subcontinent.

New breeding record: C. melanoleucos is one of

the commonest harriers in the alluvial grasslands of

the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (26° 40’ to 26° 50’ E

and 90° 45’ to 91° 25’ N) where we were engaged

in the study of the Bengal fionezn Houbaropsis ben-

gale nsis. The Sanctuary is located along the foothills

of Bhutan Himalayas in an area generally known as

Assam duars and its elevation varies from 50 to 200

m. In 1987 we noticed that the C. melanoleucos , un-

like the marsh (C. aeruginosus ), hen (C. cyaneus) or

the pale harrier (C. macrourus ), did not disappear

after winter and was seen regularly in summer

months, although in smaller numbers. We suspected

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88

Plate 1

:

Above: Male pied harrier perched on a silk-cotton sapling close to the nest — its usual resting place between foraging and hunting

rounds. It started providing food to the female even before laying of the eggs, and continued to feed the family single-handedly till

nestlings were almost ready to fledge.

Below: Female pied harrier in breeding plumage perched on the camouflaged, remote-controlled camera near its nest.

j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88

Plate 2

Above: The nestlings perching on the grass around the nest when disturbed. The larger one is one month old,

the other nine days younger.

Below: The female harrier with the younger nestling (18 days old) on the nest. It just appeared from shade of the mother’s

outstretched wings. The older nestling is resting in the shade behind the grass around the nest to avoid the heat.

PIED HARRIER BREEDING IN ASSAM

31

their nesting in these vast grassy plains after we saw

a male picking up dry grass or thin stalks and flying

into tall grass area. We also heard them calling and

saw a male displaying too, but could not locate any

nest.

The nest: Following similar behaviour in 1988

another search was carried out and a nest under con-

struction was located in open grasslands of Kasim-

daha near Basbari on 23 March. The area was

dominated by the grass Saccharum narenga grow-

ing densely up to 125 cm, dotted with a few isolated

silk cotton Bombax ceiba saplings. The nest was

loosely built on a clump of c. 100 cm tall grass

growing on flat ground so densely that it supported

the thin and haphazardly built nest well above the

ground. It was difficult to define the bottom of nest

as the nesting material kept slipping into the grass

clump. However the thickness of the main part of

the nest was hardly 10 cm in the beginning. Initial-

ly the external diameter was about 35 cm and the top

of the nest was about 70 cm above the ground. The

height decreased with time as the nest got bulkier

and its occupants became heavier. After about two

months, on 2 1 May, it had two growing nestlings and

the height stood at 45 cm while the external and in-

ternal diameters were 55 cm and 25 cm respective-

ly. At that time the grass in the immediate vicinity

of the nest was 180 cm high while that in the sur-

rounding area grew up to 220 cm. Shrubs like Leea

crispa reached over 150 cm while the vegetation of

the whole area became denser.

Chronology: The first egg was laid on 3 April and

after the laying of an egg every alternate morning a

clutch of 4 was completed on 9 April. Their sizes

varied between 45 to 46 mm in length and 34 to 35.5

mm in breadth. The first egg began hatching after 3 1

days and the nestling was found on the morning of

5 May. The second nestling hatched the next day but

the other two eggs remained unhatched till 14 May,

when probably the last-laid egg hatched, 35 days

after the last egg was laid. One of the eggs (probab-

ly the third) was later found to be addled. Meanwhile

one of the older nestlings had died on 8 May,

probably after falling from the nest. Thus there was

a difference of 8 or 9 days between the two surviv-

ing nestlings which took to their wings in the latter

half of June, about six weeks after hatching. By the

beginning of July they were fully fledged and were

seen infrequently.

At least three more pairs of C. melanoleucos

were seen engaged in similar activity around the

same period in different areas of the Sanctuary —

Kuribeel, Palsiguri and Kapurpora — each more than

a kilometre away from the others. A nest was found

only at Kapurpora but the pair shifted their nest site

after their first egg was probably preyed upon. When

last seen on 6 May 1988 a new nest was being built.

Soon afterwards the area became inaccessible and

we could not continue close observations.

In 1989, a nest was again found at a place very

close to the earlier site at Kasimdaha near Basbari.

This time the clutch was of only three eggs and the

nestlings hatched between 15 and 20 May. All three

were growing satisfactorily when we left Manas on

30 May.

Discussion

The diameter, thickness and height of the C.

melanoleucos nest in Manas differ considerably

from those measured by Neufeldt (1967). In Amur-

land, U.S.S.R. the nests are much smaller, and are

constructed on hummocks to escape flooding, while

at Manas they are bulkier and are built on grass

clumps or thickets in areas which are usually not

flooded till the nesting is over. The habitat though

similar in appearance, differs in constitution and is

much flatter than the hummocky country described

by Neufeldt. Another major difference is the season

of breeding, which is from end May to August in

U.S.S.R. compared to end March to June or begin-

ning of July in Assam. In spite of the early season

the weather in the breeding areas in Assam is

probably warmer and wetter than that of central Asia

(Table 1). Other features and activities of the nest-

ing were quite similar to the description of their nest-

ing in U.S.S.R. by Neufeldt.

The new breeding records from Manas

Wildlife Sanctuary and sightings of adult and young

C. melanoleucos in the breeding season, specially in

May, at Orang Wildlife Sanctuary (26° 35’ N, 92°

40’ E) located on the northern bank of the river Brah-

maputra proves that a few of these bird breed

regularly in the alluvial grasslands south of

Himalayas and north of Brahmaputra in lower

Assam. Moreover, it is possible that they also breed

in similar grasslands on the islands and southern

bank of the river, as they were seen in Laokhowa

Wildlife Sanctuary (26°30’N, 92°40’E),

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table

MEAN AIR TEMPERATURE IN SHADE AND RAINFALL AT BASBARI, MANAS WLS, IN THE BREEDING

SEASON OF THE PIED HARRIER

Mean Minimum Temp. Mean Maximum Temp. Temperature Range Rainfall

in°C in°C in°C in mm

* No data for June 1989.

Burachapori and Kochmara Reserve Foresls (26°

35’ N, and 92° 30’ to 92° 45’ E), Kaziranga Nation-

al Park (26° 30’ to 26° 45’ N and 93° 05’ to 93° 40’

E) and the Majuli islands (26° 50’ to 27° N and 93°

50’ to 94° 30’ E) in the last week of April (Fig. 1).

The breeding areas in Assam and Burma arc

widely separated from their main breeding areas in

the U.S.S.R., Mongolia and China (Fig. 2). The

major factors responsible for this gap in the breed-

ing areas appear to be the ecological barriers in the

shape of the mountains of central China and the

highly populated ‘rice-belt’ of eastern China.

Ncufeldt (1967) too feels that probably this disjunc-

tion arose in historical times as the vast plains of

central and southern China have been cultivated for

thousands of years, destroying the breeding habitats

Fig. 1. Map of Assam. The areas apart from Manas where the pied harrier might

= Protected wildlife areas

breed are marked with an asterisk (*).

PIED HARRIER BREEDING IN ASSAM

33

Fig. 2. Breeding range of the pied harrier Circus melanoleucos.

of C. melanoleucos in the process.

As they need vast, flat, treeless and often

swampy grasslands for breeding, it is possible that

there is hardly any such habitat left in the region be-

tween the two breeding zones. However, these har-

riers winter in a large part of southern China and it

is unlikely that all the suitable grasslands in such a

vast area have been totally eliminated. It is possible

that, like in Assam, there has been a lack of careful

search in the plains of southern and central China.

On the other hand, the bird perhaps does not breed

in the area in spite of the presence of apparently

suitable habitat. This phenomenon of patchy dis-

tribution, seen in many tropical birds, has also been

explained as the result of local extinction (Mac-

Arthur 1972).

It is also possible that like scores of other

migratory birds, C. melanoleucos has two seperate

breeding populations, one of which is resident in a

part of southern and south-eastern Asia while the

other is a winter visitor from central Asia.

Whatever the case may be, it is evident that a

thorough search in north-eastern India, Burma and

southern China in the breeding season as well as a

detailed comparative morphological study of the in-

dividuals from both the areas is required.

Acknowledgements

This study was carried out while working on

the Endangered Birds Project of the Bombay

Natural History Society. The project was funded by

the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and was

34

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Daniel for his support and encouragement. Dr.

Forests Government of India. We are indebted to Vibhu Prakash gave some useful suggestions,

the Principal Investigator of the project Mr. J.C.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): The Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.

Baker, S. (1935): The Nidification of the Birds of the Indian Em-

pire, Vol. 4, pp. 96-97. Taylor and Francis, Ia>ndon.

Brown, L. & Amadon, D. (1968): Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of

the World, vol. 1. Ilamlyrt, Feltham.

Dementiev, G.P. & Gladkov, N.A. (1966): Birds of the Soviet

Union, vol. 1. Israel Program for Scientific Translations,

Jerusalem.

De Schauensee, R.M. (1984): Birds of China. Oxford University

Press, Oxford, England.

Dickinson, E.C. (1986): Does the Pied Harrier Circus

melanoleucos breed in the Philippines? Forkiail 1: 85-

86.

Harrington, H.H. (1903): Birds Nesting in the Southern Shan

States, of Burma. J . Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 140-141.

Hume, A.O. (1888): Birds of Manipur, Assam, Sylhet and Cachar.

Stray Feathers 11(1): 13-14.

Mac Arthur, R.H. (1972): Geographical Ecology- Patterns in

the Distribution of Species. Harper & Row, New York.

Neufeldt, I. A. (1967): Notes on the Nidification of the Pied Har-

rier, Circus melanoleucos (Pennant), in Amurland,

U.S.S.R. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(2): 284-306.

Prakash, V. (1988): The General Ecology of the Raptors in

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. thesis. Bombay

University.

Rahmani, A.R. (1988): A Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos in

Northwest Madhya Pradesh. J . Bombay nat Hist. Soc.

85(2): 419-420.

Stanford, J.K. (1936): On the Breeding of the Pied Harrier Cir-

cus melanoleucos (Pennant) in Northern Burma. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 (1): 179-181.

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA LINN. IN

INDIA, WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE LESSER KNOWN POPULATIONS1

Asad R. Rahmani2

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

The blackbuck or Indian antelope Antilope cer-

vicapra Linn, is endemic to the Indian subcontinent,

being present in India, Pakistan and Nepal. During

the last few years its ecology and behaviour has been

studied by many workers (e.g. Mungall 1978a, b,

1979, Ranjitsinh 1982a, b, Prasad 1983, 1984,

Prasad and Ramana Rao 1984, Bhattacharya and

Chattopadhyay 1984). Censuses in Pt. Calimere

(Daniel 1967, Johnson 1975, Nair 1976, Natarajan

et al. 1978), Velavadar (Rashid 1977) and states like

Gujarat (Sinha and Chhabra 1985) and Andhra

Pradesh (Ramana Rao and Prasad 1982) have been

done. Ranjitsinh ’s (1982a) assessment based on the

official data supplied by the Forest Department

gives a picture of the all-India distribution of the

blackbuck, but in many instances exact locations

have not been given and/or the population estimates

have become outdated. For example, in the Karera

Bustard Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, Ranjitsinh

reported 8 blackbuck, but according to the 1988 cen-

sus the population is now more than 500. Similarly,

during the last seven or eight years I have noticed

many scattered populations which have not been

reported anywhere (except perhaps in official files).

The enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act

1972 has provided better protection to many wildlife

species, resulting in a localised increase in the

population of some animals like the blackbuck in

newly established protected areas. Under these cir-

cumstances, it was felt necessary to re-assess the

present distribution and status of the blackbuck in

India. The main emphasis of this paper is on the

description of the lesser known populations.

Wherever available, census data are given and in

some cases updated. Only a brief reference is made

to well-known blackbuck areas like Velavadar, Pt.

Calimere, Guindy and Rannibennur.

Accepted February 1989.

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Study Period

This paper is a result of notes kept between

1981 and 1988 during our study on the Indian bus-

tards. Blackbuck and the great Indian bustard Ar-

deotis nigriceps share common habitats, and as the

bustard study involved much travel and surveys, I

had the opportunity to visit a large number of black-

buck areas. All sightings of the blackbuck were

noted. Additional information was gathered from

the forest department, local people, naturalists and

the existing literature. In many cases, census es-

timates are based on the information supplied by the

Forest Department. Asa proper census has not been

done in all the areas, population counts are only ap-

proximate.

Results

Statewise Distribution of Blackbuck

Uttar Pradesh: The blackbuck is very widely but

thinly distributed in Uttar Pradesh, being present in

at least 19 districts. Most of these populations are

present in agricultural fields and grazing areas. It can

also be seen in 6 out of 22 sanctuaries of the state

(Table 1). According to R.P. Sharma, Chief Wildlife

Warden of Uttar Pradesh, blackbuck are found in the

following districts (population estimates in paren-

theses): Varanasi (90), Kanpur (35), Pilibhet (18),

Lakhimpur Kheri and Shahjehanpur (40), Banda

(21), Sitapur and Hardoi (51), Bijnor (75), Bahraich

(82), Muzaffarnagar (50), Meerut (65), Aligarh

(420), Bulandshahr (150) and Ghaziabad (10).

The total population comes to about 1100,

which is slightly higher than Ranjitsinh’s (1982) es-

timate of 941 to 1000 in 11 districts. However, Shar-

ma has not included Etah and Mathura districts,

where Ranjitsinh estimated 30 and 20 animals

respectively. In both lists, Agra, Baduan and Etawah

districts — where I know with certainty that black-

buck are still present — have been omitted. Accord-

ing to Prabhu Singh, Range Forest Officer, Mus-

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HITT. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 1

PROTECTED AREAS IN UTTAR PRADESH WITH BLACKBUCK HERDS

* captive herd

tufabad, Pilibhet, who belongs to Baduan district,

1000-2000 blackbuck are present in Asafpur block

of Bisoli tehsil in Baduan district. If this estimate is

true, this must be the largest population of the black-

buck in the state, and efforts should be made to

protect it. Baduan district adjoins Aligarh, where

Sharma has reported the largest population (420) in

his recent estimate. Another unknown population is

present in the Jamuna Khader of Orai Range of

Babain section in Etawah district. Among the cap-

tive herds outside zoos, a small population is present

in Sikandra near Agra. Schaller (1967) counted 128

in 1965, but the following year (1966) only 104 were

left (Spillctt 1966). In 1978-79, 1 counted only 32, a

clear drop of 72.65% in 12 years.

Comparing the blackbuck numbers in

protected areas (sanctuaries and national parks) and

unprotected areas (agricultural fields), we find that

more than 80% of the blackbuck in Uttar Pradesh

are found outside protected areas, where the Forest

Department has little control. In these areas the

blackbuck survives either due to sentimental protec-

tion by villagers or because the terrain makes

motorized hunting difficult. Uttar Pradesh being one

of the former strongholds of this species, a more sys-

tematic survey of the whole state is urgently re-

quired. A blackbuck sanctuary in Aligarh-Baduan

region should be established.

Bihar: The blackbuck is making a slow comeback

in some areas of Bihar. According to Shahi (1971),

in the olden days "herds of thousands were found in

the forests of Champaran and Shahabad but now a

small population in some areas of Shahabad is fight-

ing its last battle for survival". Fortunately, the pic-

ture is not so grim now: Ranjitsinh (1982a) es-

timated a population of 30 to 40 in the Shahabad

area. However, according to the latest information

given to me by Amar Prasad, Division Forest Of-

ficer, Purnea, blackbuck are present in large num-

bers in Buxar and Sasaram areas of south-east Bihar

and due to crop damage, the Forest Department

wants to translocate them to Khaimur plateau, where

some animals are already present in open country

between Jamgaon and Rajpur villages. The Bihar

Government is also planning to develop a wildlife

sanctuary in the Khaimur plateau like the one in the

adjoining areas in Uttar Pradesh. Rodgers and Pan-

war (1988) have suggested creating a small 10 sq.

km blackbuck refuge in a cropland/wasteland area

near the Ganga river in Rohatas district.

Madhya Pradesh: The blackbuck is widely dis-

tributed in Madhya Pradesh and in many sanctuaries

like Karera, numbers have increased during the last

ten years. Ranjitsinh (1982a) found it to be present

in eight sanctuaries and national parks and 12 dis-

tricts. He estimated a population of 1300 in the

whole state. Some of his data, based on the informa-

tion supplied by the Forest Department, is not cor-

rect. For instance, he reported a population of 8

blackbuck in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary, but my

estimate is that not less than 50 were present in 1982

and now the population is ten times as high.

Presently blackbuck are seen in 15 sanctuaries

and national parks (Table 2) in Madhya Pradesh.

They are seen in the following districts: Shivpuri,

Gwalior, Morena, Ujjain, Dhar, Chhatterpur, Raj-

nandgaon, Raisen, Hoshangabad, Mandsaur,

Vidisha, Guna, Damoh, Narsinghpur and Shahdol.

Some of the sanctuaries mentioned in Table 2 are in

these districts, but the blackbuck is also seen outside

protected areas. Like in other states, no systematic

survey has been done for the whole of Madhya

Pradesh but population estimates for some

sanctuaries like Kanha, Narodehi, Karera, Ghatig-

gaon and Kunu-Palpur are available (Table 2).

DISTRIBUTION OF ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

37

Table 2

BLACKBUCK POPULATION IN THE PROTECTED AREAS IN MADHYA PRADESH

Table 3

SOME SCATTERED BLACKBUCK HERDS OUTSIDE THE PROTECTED AREAS IN MADHYA PRADESH

^Introduced

Orissa: Once found in all the suitable plains, the

blackbuck in Orissa survives only in two districts:

Balukhand and Chilka ranges of Puri district and

Bhetonoi and Purushottampur areas of Ganjam dis-

trict. According to a census conducted in 1980 in

Bhetonoi and Purushottampur areas, 485 were

counted (Patnaik and Acharjyo 1985). The Orissa

government has declared a 150 sq. km coastal

sanctuary called Balukhand-Konark Wildlife

Sanctuary to protect the blackbuck and other

wildlife. In the Bhitarkanika wildlife sanctuary, in

order to build up a blackbuck stock, five (2 males

and 3 females) were released in November 1985

from a captive herd of the Nandankanan Biological

Park (L.N. Acharjyo, 1988 in lilt.). In March 1987,

another nine (7 males and 2 females) were released,

out of which one died.

West Bengal: At present there is only one known

area where blackbuck survive after being intro-

duced more than 20 years ago. According to Bhat-

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 5

BLACKJBUCK NUMBERS IN PROTECTED AREAS OF ANDHRA PRADESH

tacharya and Chattopadhyay (1979), in 1955 an ap-

proximately 203 acre tract of eroded and barren

laterite tract under the Ballavpur Forest Range, close

to Shantiniketan, was afforested. About 100 acres

were fenced to establish a ’’Deer Conservation

Unit”. In 1967, four male and seven female black-

buck were introduced, which increased to 54 by

1975. At present the population is estimated to be

140.

Andhra Pradesh: Ramana Rao and Prasad (1982)

and Prasad and Ramana Rao ( 1 990) have listed areas

where blackbuck are distributed in Andhra Pradesh.

However, a few lesser-known areas like Rollapadu

in Kurnool district and Punganoor Forest Range in

Chittor district have not been included by them.

There are still more areas (see Table 6) in Guntur,

Mehboobnagar, Khammam, Anantapur, Prakasan

and Ranga Reddy districts where scattered herds of

blackbuck are seen, Among the 16 wildlife

sanctuaries in Andhra Pradesh, blackbuck are found

in six (Table 5), excluding the captive animals in

Mahavir Hiran Vanasthali near Hyderabad.

DISTRIBUTION OF ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

39

Table 7

PROTECTED AREAS IN KARNATAKA HAVING BLACKBUCK HERDS

Karnataka: Blackbuck in Karnataka have suffered

a massive decline and disappeared from most areas.

The largest extant population is present in the Ran-

nibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary (Neginhal 1980, and

pers. obs.) where nearly 2000 can be seen. In addi-

tion to Rannibennur, there are three more

sanctuaries in Karnataka where blackbuck are

present (Table 7).

According to the information collected by

Ranjitsinh (1982a) isolated herds are seen in

Mandhya, Tumkur and Bidar districts, but M.K Ap-

payya (1988, in litt .) mentions only Mandhya, Dhar-

war, Gulbarga, Raichur, Bellary and Bijapur dis-

tricts and not Tumkur and Bidar. It could not be con-

firmed whether the isolated herds in Tumkur and

Bidar mentioned by Ranjitsinh (1982a) have disap-

peared or were overlooked by Appayya.

In Raichur district, on Raichur-Hyderabad

road on the banks of the Krishna river, some black-

buck are present. Here the Krishna forms the bound-

ary between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and

blackbuck can be seen on both sides. Ramana Rao

and Prasad (1982) have mentioned this area in then-

report, and S. Sreevatsa (1987, pers. comm.) has

seen 44 blackbuck in one day. The second area

which appears to be unknown is Makri in Shimoga

district, where P. Shroff (1988, pers. comm.) has

seen 50 to 60 bucks in April 1987. The area is flat

and under agriculture fields.

Tamil Nadu: In Tamil Nadu, Pt. Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary and Guindy National Park are two well-

known blackbuck areas. It is not so well-known that

there are more areas in this state which may have a

population of more than 500 blackbuck.

1. Sujjalkatte Sanctuary (Proposed): Suj-

jalkatte is on the eastern side of the Nilgiris, and the

blackbuck is found in a 10 sq.km flat and degraded

area between Mangalapathi and Bhavani Sagar in

the Sathymangalam range (N. Sivaganesan 1988,

pers. comm.). According to the Forest Department

estimate there are now 400 antelopes in that area.

Earlier, Ranjitsinh (1982a) had reported 150 to 200

blackbuck. According to Sivaganesan ’s estimate

there are nearly 300 animals. In a day’s trip he saw

57.

2. North Arcot district: Rajasingh (1984) has

described a dramatic increase of blackbuck popula-

tion from five individuals in 1968 to 92 in Al-

liyalamangalam Reserve Forest, about 145 km

south-west of Madras city.

3. Tirunelveli district: Ranjitsinh (1982a)

reported a population of 30 animals in Vallanadu

Reserve Forest in Tirunelveli district, but according

to the District Forest Officer (1988 in litt.) the

population has gone up to 100 in the reserve area of

2054 ha. There is a proposal to set up a blackbuck

sanctuary in Vallanadu.

Maharashtra: There are at least a dozen lesser

known areas in Maharashtra where blackbuck are

present. In some places like Nanaj, Karmala and

Kasegaon in Solapur (Rahmani and Manakadan

1989) and Rekhuri in Ahmednagar (E. Bharucha

1988, pers. comm.) the blackbuck population has

gone up considerably and is causing crop damage.

Ranjitsinh (1982a) reported its occurrence in Os-

manabad, Bhir, Parbhani, Nanded, Solapur, Ahmed-

nagar and Wardha districts and estimated a total of

1000 blackbuck in the whole state. Ramana Rao and

Prasad (1982) found it occurring in Yeotmal, Bhir,

Parbhani, Nagpur, Ahmednagar, Amravati and

Wardha. Strangely, Solapur district, where the

largest number of blackbuck in the whole state are

seen, was omitted by them.

Owing to habitat restoration and effective

protection under the Drought Prone Areas

Programme (DPAP) and various afforestation

schemes, the blackbuck is repopulating many areas

and can sometimes be seen from the national high-

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 8

BLACKBUCK POPULATIONS IN VARIOUS DISTRICTS OF MAHARASHTRA

ways. For example, on 24 October 1984, seven

animals were seen by me on Pune-Solapur highway,

about 17 km before Solapur. Similarly, P. Gole

(1988, pers. comm.) in January 1988 saw three

blackbuck from a bus between Jhamkhed (in Ah-

mednagar district) and Beed (=Bhir). The total

blackbuck population in Maharashtra may be be-

tween 4500 and 5000, with Solapur district having

more than half the total (Table 8).

Punjab: The plains of Punjab (and Haryana) were

some of the chief strongholds of the blackbuck in

north India. Even 30 years ago, it was found in

Ferozpur, Faridkot, Ludhiana, Ropar, Bhatinda and

Sangrur districts, but now the blackbuck survives

only in Abohar area in Faridkot, where up to 3500

can be seen (Parshad 1984). The blackbuck around

13 Vishnoi villages covering an area of 182 sq. km

were given full protection in 1982 in deference to

the demands by the Vishnois that their antelopes be

saved (Singh 1984). In all other places in Punjab the

blackbuck is extinct, except for some semi-captive

herds in Chhat Bir near Chandigarh, Bir Molibagh

Patiala and Bir Gurdial Pura.

Haryana: The largest recorded herd of 10,000

blackbuck was seen in a grassland in Hissar district

in Haryana (Jerdon 1874). In 1955 and 1956, Ran-

jitsinh (1982a) saw "sizeable herds in the same tract,

including one of over a hundred in sight of Hissar

town. By 1961, there were no signs of blackbuck on

the same ground". However, H. Dang (1964)

reported seeing over a hundred blackbuck in the His-

sar area, and added "reports would put the figure at

thrice that number". He also estimated about 300 in

Khader area of Ferozpur, 100 in Rewari, and 300 in

Kapurthala. According to R. Dang (1988, pers.

comm.) there are three blackbuck refuges, and a

population of about 400 animals is present at some

distance from Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary in Gurgaon

DISTRIBUTION OF AN71LOPE CERVICAPRA

41

Table 9

district. There is a proposal to establish a blackbuck

sanctuary near Sirsa among 12 to 13 villages

dominated by the Vishnoi community, who do not

kill these antelopes (G. Singh, 1989 pers. comm.).

Gujarat: The Velavadar National Park in Bhav-

nagar district is one of the most famous protected

areas for blackbuck in India. It was specially created

in 1969 for the protection of this antelope. Not many

people know that there are more than a dozen other

places in Gujarat where blackbuck can be seen. In

four such areas, the population of blackbuck is more

than a hundred each. Ranjitsinh (1982a) estimated

that the total blackbuck population in Gujarat may

be 3300 to 3500, while Sinha and Chhabra (1985)

estimated 3295 blackbuck in the whole state. In

some areas like Kadi in Mehsana the population has

gone up. For example, Sinha and Chhabra (1985)

reported only 75 blackbuck but in October 1987, A.

Daga (1987, pers. comm.) saw nearly 300. Similar-

ly, a few places like Latuda-Katuda and Umvadi

veedi in Gondal where blackbuck are seen were not

mentioned by Ranjitsinh (1982a) or by Sinha and

Chhabra (1985). Therefore a fresh assessment of the

blackbuck population in Gujarat should be done.

Rajasthan: Among the Indian states the highest

number of blackbuck are present in Rajasthan. Ran-

jitsinh (1982a) estimated between 7600 and 8000

blackbuck in the whole of Rajasthan, but according

to the recent census done by the Forest Department,

in Jodhpur district alone, nearly 10,000 are found in

Guru-Bishnonian and Dhawa-Doli areas (S. Sharma

1987, pers. comm.) However, S.P. Goyal (1988,

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 1 1

BLACKBUCK HERDS OUTSIDE THE PROTECTED AREAS IN RAJASTHAN

Table 12

NEW PROTECTED AREAS WHERE BLACKBUCK POPULATION HAS INCREASED

pers. comm.) feels that the population is not so high.

Apart from Jodhpur, the blackbuck is seen in Kola,

Ajmer, Pali, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Bharat-

pur, Dholpur and Bhilwara districts (Tables 10, 11).

Discussion

Ranjitsinh (1982a) estimated the total black-

buck population in India to be between 22,000 and

24,000. Since then the population has increased,

especially in newly created protected areas like

Karera, Ghatigaon, Nanaj and Rehkuri (Table 12).

According to my rough estimate, the blackbuck

population may now be between 29,000 and 38,000.

This large gap between the maximum and minimum

population estimates is mainly due to the rather

questionable official and non-official figures.

It is clear from Table 13 that the population in-

crease during the last decade is seen not in the im-

portant sanctuaries like Pt. Calimere, Velavadar and

Rannibennur (which were specially created for the

protection of this species), but in newly created

sanctuaries like Karera, Rollapadu, Rehkuri and

Nanaj. In some of the important blackbuck

sanctuaries the population has actually gone down

(e.g. Pt. Calimere).

In protected areas such as Karera and Nanaj,

and Vishnoi areas of Rajasthan, the blackbuck is

seen in private fields where the Forest Department

has not much control on the land use. As emphasized

by Rodgers and Pan war (1988) such areas have a

dubious long-term wildlife value and should not be

taken as a guarantee for the safety of a species. Oc-

currence of blackbuck in cultivated areas and the

resultant crop damage may even result in develop-

ment of a negative attitude towards conservation,

thus jeopardizing the future of such populations.

DISTRIBUTION OF ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

43

Fig. 1. Present sight records of blackbuck in India

Similarly, survival of blackbuck in isolated pockets

in the highly populated districts of Uttar Pradesh or

Bihar may not be guaranteed forever, especially

when the human populauon is still increasing and

habitat alteration is accelerating everywhere.

Though there may be more than a thousand

blackbuck in Uttar Pradesh, more than 80% of the

population survives in areas which may in future not

remain suitable for the species. Therefore the

opinion that populations have increased so much

that the blackbuck should be removed from

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act is not

tenable: it is not that the species is threatened, but

that the habitat which it occupies is in danger of fur-

ther alteration. Unless the habitat is protected, there

is no long-term guarantee of the species’ survival.

Therefore, in my opinion, the blackbuck should

remain in Schedule I and some more areas should be

identified to be developed as blackbuck sanctuaries.

Rodgers and Pan war (1988) have shown that

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 13

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF BLACKBUCK IN WELL-KNOWN SANCTUARIES

blackbuck exist in significant numbers in less than

five national parks and five sanctuaries, and that

there are only three protected areas with a popula-

tion of more than 1,000 animals. They have listed

only Velavadar, Pt. Calimere (see Table 13 for con-

tradictory data) and Tal Chhaper. Rannibennur in

Karnataka and Vishnoi areas of Rajasthan have been

omitted, though for the latter it can be argued that

they are not true protected areas as the land does not

belong to the Forest Department. However, keeping

in mind the fact that the largest populations of black-

buck exist in the Guru-Bishnonian and Dhawa-Doli

areas of Jodhpur, such populations cannot be over-

looked, no matter what the existing status of their

habitat.

Prakash (1990) has expressed the apprehen-

sion that with increasing crop damage by ungulates

in Jodhpur area, determination among the Vishnoi

DISTRIBUTION OF ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

45

community to protect the blackbuck may decline.

He has suggested translocating excessive blackbuck

to those areas where they were common a few

decades ago. The necessity of translocating black-

buck or chinkara Gazella bennetti from Vishnoi

areas may not arise in the foreseeable future as they

(Vishnoi) are still aggressively protective of these

species on religious grounds; but this is becoming a

major management challenge in areas such as

Karera, Rehkuri and Nanaj , where the blackbuck has

increased due to effective protection by the Forest

Department and not due to any sentimental reasons

or religious taboos on killing of antelopes. Crop

damage by blackbuck is a major issue in such

sanctuaries.

Once the tolerance level of the local agricul-

turists is crossed, the conservation movement may

receive a setback, and in a democratic set up the

blackbuck and its defenders may not find many sup-

porters. Instead of delaying any further, the govern-

ment should evolve a policy on management of lo-

cally abundant threatened species. Studies on cap-

ture and safe translocating of ungulates should be

started and new areas should be identified where the

animals could be released.

Although translocating a few hundred black-

buck is not easy, we must try this and other alterna-

tive methods before we think in terms of culling the

excessive population. Flamand (1989) reported that

in Natal, South Africa, the capture unit of the Natal

Parks Board caught and translocated close to 4,000

head of game per year. The majority of these animals

were ungulates. I suggest that in India also, from

Refer

Alagar Raj an, S., Balasubramanian, P. & Natarajan, V.A.

(in prep.). A study on the population structure of the black-

buck Antilope cervicapra Linn, at Pt. Calimere Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu.

Bharucha, E. (in prep.): Behavioural ecology of blackbuck at

Rehkuri Blackbuck Sanctuary.

Bhattacharya, T. & Chattopadhyay, B. (1984): A Study on the

structure of the social organization of Blackbuck, Antilope

cervicapra Linne., in Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary, West

Bengal, India. Lynx (Praha) n.s. 22/ 1984: 5-10.

Bhattacharya, T. & Chattopadhyay, B. & Chattopadhyay,

B.N. (1979): Population status of Indian Blackbuck ( An-

tilope cervicapra Linn.) and Spotted Deer (Axis axis

Erxleben) in Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal.

Cheetal.20(4): 39-47.

Chattopadhyay, B. & Bhattacharya, T. (1986): Basic diurnal

activity pattern of Blackbuck, Antelope cervicapra Linn.

total in situ protection, the wildlife department

should evolve active wildlife management program-

mes. Translocation of wildlife, from locally abun-

dant populations or to provide genetic vigour to

depleted populations, should become an important

management tool in future.

Acknowledgements

This paper was written while working in the

Endangered Species Project of the BNHS. The

Project was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service and sponsored by the Government of India.

I am thankful to them.

My gratitude goes to the late Dr Salim Ali

under whose guidance the Project was started, and

to Mr J. C. Daniel, Curator, Dr M.K. Ranjitsinh,

Joint Secretary, Ministry of Environment, and Dr.

A.J .T. Johnsingh of the Wildlife Institute of India for

commenting on the manuscript. I want to acknow-

ledge the cooperation of numerous fellow naturalists

and conservationists who provided data on black-

buck from their areas. Their names have been given

in the text under personal communication.

From time to time I had useful discussions with

the following colleagues: Messrs. Ranjit

Manakadan, Goutam Narayan, Ravi Sankaran,

Nageswara Rao, Ajay Desai, N. Sivaganesan,

Ramesh Kumar, S.‘ Alagar Rajan and V. Natarajan.

Lastly I wish to thank the various forest departments

for help during the study period. Without their

cooperation it would have been difficult to write this

paper.

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PRESENT STATUS OF THE ESTUARINE FLORA

OF THE GODAVARI AND THE KRISHNA1

P. Venkanna2

(With two text-figures )

While working for the district flora projects (1980-86), the author surveyed extensively the mangrove forests of

the Godavari and the Krishna estuaries and collected a good number of mangroves and their associates. The total col-

lections represent 45 species of 37 genera belonging to 26 families (45/37/26). Among them 15/10/8 are true mangroves,

18/18/13 mangrove associates, 10/8/6 halophytes and 2/1/1 sea grasses. The survey resulted in the identification of

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f. (Rubiaceae), a rare mangrove species for the Indian mainland. One very inter-

esting observation is Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz growing in association with Sonneratia, Acanthus etc.

Introduction

Mangrove forests are dominant intertidal com-

munities well adapted to colonise the regions where

other species are unable to grow. The mangrove

zones are highly productive ecosystems which help

in carbon, nitrogen and sulphur recycling in nature,

besides acting as nurseries for juvenile fish popula-

tion and providing fire- wood, construction materials

and minor timber for fishing boats etc.

Excellent mangrove forests in the Godavari es-

tuary with dense growth of Avicennia spp. mixed

with other associates of the mangrove zone were

recorded during the early part of this century. They

cannot be seen anywhere now due to over exploita-

tion by way of fuel auctions by the State Forest

Department and other agencies since 1920. Such

exploitation was done without understanding the

need for special mangrove forest management,

which is completely different from the routine forest

management of the deciduous forests of India (Rao

1959). Now the extensive mud-flats are over-ex-

posed and heavily mixed with sand, thus becoming

unsuitable for the natural regeneration of mangrove

species along the two river mouths, besides disturb-

ing the growth and development of fish and other

marine species. Poor quality rice cultivation and

coconut plantation have been penetrating year after

year, together with cutting down of whatever

mangrove tree species are available for fuel pur-

poses. Projecting sand creeks with good growth of

Pandanus , forming closely knitted, extremely

Accepted May 1990

2Botany Department, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003.

Present address: Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, 7,

Koregaon Road, Pune 411 001

strong fortwall-like protective barricades are also

being disturbed wherever man has entered with his

cultivation. This resulted in the high cyclonic waves

which in 1977 devastated the entire False Divi area

(Fig. 1) with heavy loss of life and property along

the Krishna estuary (Venkanna 1988).

Study Area

These estuarine zones lie between 15° 43’ to

16° 50’ N and 80° 45’ to 82° 20’ E and occupy an

area of about 480.84 sq. km (Table 1).

Soils: The soil is entirely river borne alluvial silt and

extremely fine mud, forming extensive muddy flats.

In certain parts it is mixed with overlying sand,

either blown by wind or deposited by waves.

Climate: The regional bioclimate belongs to tropi-

cal humid type with a dry season of 5 to 6 months

(December to May). The rainfall reaches a maxi-

mum in October, due to violent cyclones, which fre-

quently hit the east coast of India, bringing torren-

tial rains exceeding 200 mm in a few hours. The

average rainfall is about 1000 mm/year. The mean

annual temperatures during the hottest and coldest

months are 28°C and 19°C respectively. Salinity

levels of more than 40% seen in the mangrove

waters between May and July, fall to 5% between

October and December.

Earlier literature: The works of Roxburgh (1795-

1819), Hooker (1872-1897) and Gamble (1915-

1936) are the most important amongst the few which

dealt with the coastal plants of the area. Later

Venkateswarlu (1944, 1946), Rao (1959), Wagh

(1960), Sidhu (1963), Raju (1968), Rao and Sastry

(1972, 1974), Sastry and Rao (1973), Blasco (1975),

Chapman (1976), Rao et al. (1985, 1986) and

Venkanna (1988) have given a comprehensive ac-

48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Fig. 1. Distribution of mangroves in Krishna and Godavari estuaries

Inset: present locality of Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea , A. Kandikuppa; B. Balusuthippa; C. Kolhapalem;

D. Sacramento light house.

ESTUARINE FLORA OF GODAVARI AND KRISHNA

49

Table 1

DETAILS OF AREA COVERED BY MANGROVE FORESTS*

*Data from Andhra Pradesh Forest Department.

count on the mangroves of these estuaries.

The present work gives data on composition

besides enumeration of flora.

Vegetation

The general pattern of the vegetation indicates

a sort of zonal distribution among the species of the

mangrove forests. The spiny Acanthus ilicifolius L.,

and the tall grass Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex

Steud.) Hk. f. often mixed with Clerodendrum in-

erme Gaertn. form dense thickets, lining the network

of canals. These are followed by the pioneer species

of the muddy flats, namely Avicennia marina

(Forssk.) Vierh., A. officinalis L., which pave the

way for the species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera ,

Ceriops , Sonneratia and a few others. Avicennia

species form the main component of the vegetation,

towards the land side with comparatively shallower

Table 2

BRIEF ANALYSIS OF ESTUARINE FLORA UNDER DIFFERENT

GROUPS

water usually covered by the species of Lumnitzera,

Aegiceras , Excoecaria etc.

Near Coringa the network of canals is lined by

Acanthus , Myriostachya and Hibiscus tiliaceus L.,

a Malvaceous shrub, Impomoea violacea L.,

Caesalpinia nuga Ait., Derris trifoliata Lour., etc.

are found, except this locality nowhere in India

Hibiscus tiliaceus L. is an element with mangroves.

Similar to the Bengal coast the three species of

Avicennia have been recorded. Finally the much ex-

posed regions are occupied by the halophytic

species like Suaeda , Salicornia , Arthrocnemum ,

Cressa, Heliotropium , Aeluropus etc.

Very interesting phytogeographical observa-

tions were made on these mangrove forests, at

Nachugunta of Krishna estuaries. Prosopis chilensis

(Molina) Stuntz and Mimosa polyancislra Benth.

grow in association with Sonneratia apetala Buch.-

Ham. and Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex Steud.)

Hk. f. in the islands which are nearer to the sea.

Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex Gmel. grows unusually

tall, nearly 1-2 m. at Yela chettu dibba palem

towards inland. Pure stands of Rhizophora apiculata

Bl. were also observed along the Krishna river bank

at Yela chettu dibba palem. Banks of Krishna river

at Nagayalanka- Yela chettu dibba palem were fully

covered with Acacia nilolica (L.) Wild, ex Del. spp.

indica (Benth.) Brenan. Near Coringa of the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST'. SOCIKI'Y, Vol. 88

Fig. 2. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea

A. Twig; B. Inflorescence; C. Flower L.S.; D. Fruit.

ESTUARINE FLORA OF GODAVARI AND KRISHNA

51

Table 3

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES IN DIFFERENT GROUPS

+ presence - absence of the species

Godavari estuary Barringtonia acutangula (L.)

Gaertn. lines the creeks in association with Avicen-

nia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. and A. officinalis L.

In raised sandy areas near the sea coast where

tree species of mangrove do not flourish well, plan-

tations of Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. & Forst. f.

and Eucalyptus species have been very successful-

ly reared. Along the muddy flats, sea grasses like

Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hk. f. and H. beccarii

Asch. have been recorded from both the estuaries.

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f.

(Rubiaceae) (Fig. 2), which is rare on the Indian

mainland, has been recorded for the first time along

the creeks near Sacramento light house of Godavari

estuary. This monotypic species is associated most-

ly with Lumnitzera, Ceriops and Aegiceras.

In the following enumeration, the species are

arranged alphabetically, the botanical name fol-

lowed by family, vernacular name, locality with

field number (collected by author) and notes. The

specimens have been deposited at the Andhra

University Botany Department Herbarium (AUH)

(yet to be placed in Index Herbarium), Waltair.

Floristic analysis (Table 2) and species in each group

(Table 3) arc also recorded. Abbreviation used in the

text is) R.F.=Rcserve Forests.

Species Enumeration

Acanthus ilicifolius L. Acanthaceae. Alchi.

Sacramento light house, Kandikuppa R.F., 1599;

Bandar Fort R.F., 5070 and 5353; China gol-

lapalem, 1577 and 5109. Common along marshy

creeks.

Aegialitis rot undifolia Roxb. Plumbaginaceae.

Yeti putchcha. Observed at Nachugunta R.F. as-

sociated with Lumnitzera , Aegiceras etc.

Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco Myr-

sinaceae. Guggilam. Kothapalem, 3, Sacramento

light house, 1596; Nachugunta R.F., 5078; Bandar

Fort R.F., 5066 and 5354; China gollapalem, 1578

and 5107. Common, close to the backwater edges.

Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw.

Poaceae. Puvvu gaddi. Masanitippa, 29; Bandar

Fort R.F., 5059. Common along open saline beds.

Arthrocnemum indicum (Willd.) Moq.

Chenopodiaceae. Ela kura. Masanitippa, 27;

Nachugunta R.F., 5072; Bandar Fort R.F., 5061;

China gollapalem, 5768. Frequent along open saline

beds.

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Avicennia alba Bl. Avicenniaceae. Vilava

mada. Sacramento light house, 1591; China gol-

lapalem, 1579; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5614.

Found very few populations, associated with Son-

neratia and Rhizophora spp.

Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Avicen-

niaceae. Telia mada. Sacramento light house, 7; Tur-

putalla, 48; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5079 and

5765; Bandar Fort R.F., 5355 and 5356. Very com-

mon along the backwaters.

Avicennia officinalis L. Avicenniaceae. Nalla

mada. Sacramento light house, 1590; Yela chettu

dibba palem R.F., 5612; China gollapalcm, 5102.

Very common along the backwater creeks of

Godavari estuary and rare along the Krishna estuary.

Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Bar-

ringtoniaceae. Tarepu. Frequently observed along

the inner creeks of Coringa and Matlapalem areas of

Godavari estuary.

Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl. Rhizophoraceae.

Vurudu. Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5607. Found

only along the Krishna estuary.

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savi.

Rhizophoraceae. Thuddu ponna. Sacramento light

house, 11; Kothapalem, 1581; Yela chettu dibba

palem R.F., 5606. Common along the creeks with

well formed knee-roots.

Caesalpinia nuga Ait. Caesalpiniaceae. Mulla

theega. Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5608. Also ob-

served at Coringa.

Ceriops decandra (Griff.). Ding Hou

Rhizophoraceae. Gatheru. Kothapalem, 2;

Masanitippa, 25; China gollapalem, 1582;

Sacramento light house, 1592; Yela chettu dibba

palem R.F., 5610. Found close to the backwater

canals, just behind the Rhizophora belt.

Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Ver-

benaceae. Eti pisiniki. Kothapalem, 10; Perupalem,

1584; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5603;

Nachugunta R.F., 5075; Bandar Fort R.F., 5067.

Common along the creeks.

Cressa cretica L. Convolvulaceae. Uppu

mokka. Balusuthippa, 56; Nachugunta R.F., 5074.

Common in open saline beds.

Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. Fabaceae.

Chillangi. Masanitippa, 32; Yela chettu dibba palem

R.F., 5604; Bandar Fort R.F., 5132 and 5366; China

gollapalem, 5106. Common spiny shrub in the inte-

rior component of mangrove scrub.

Derris trifoliata Lour. Fabaceae. Nalla theega.

Masanitippa, 30; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F.,

5605; China gollapalem, 1576 and 5101. Common

twiner, found along the inner regions.

Excoecaria agallocha L. Euphorbiaceae. Thil-

la. Kothapalem, 1; Perupalem, 1587; Sacramento

light house, 1600; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F.,

5601; Nachugunta R.F., 5077; Bandar Fort R.F.,

5069. Most common in these estuaries.

Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br. Cyperaceae. Com-

monly observed in the marshy creeks along with

Proteracea.

Halophila beccarii Asch. Hydrocharitaceae.

Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 6118 and also ob-

served along the Pandi creek. Rare in the muddy

coast in mangrove zones. The present report extends

its distribution from south to the north along the east

coast.

Halophila ovalis (R.Br.) Hk.f.

Hydrocharitaceae. Yela chettu dibba palem R.F.,

6117 and also observed along the pandi creek. Abun-

dant in muddy flats in mangrove zones.

Ileliotropium curassavicum L. Boraginaceae.

Nela golividi. Etimoga 5081. Common in open

saline beds.

Hibiscus tiliaceusL. Malvaceae. Kondaprathi.

Very common along the creeks near Coringa.

Ipomoea violacea L. Convolvulaceae. Gaju

theega. Matlapalem, 6317. Very abundant along the

thickets near Coringa and its surrounding regions.

Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Combretaceae.

Thanduga. Masanitippa, 1597; China gollapalem,

1583; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5616; Bandar

Fort R.F., 5068 and 5133. Commonly associated

with Ceriops and Aegiceras.

Mimosa polyancistra Benth. Mimosaceae.

Pichu regu. Nachugunta R.F., 5557. Associated with

Aegialitis. The first report of this species in the es-

tuaries.

Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex Steud.)

Hk.f. Poaceae. Ela Kara, Kikkisa. Perupalem, 1586;

Yela chettu dibba palem, 5609; China gollapalem,

5110. Common along the edges of the creeks.

Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz

Mimosaceae. Mulla thumma. Nachugunta R.F.,

5445. Gregariously growing along the estuaries as-

sociated with Sonneratia spp. This report confirms

its occurrence at Krishna estuary along with

mangroves (Rao 1959).

ESTUARINE FLORA OF GODAVARI AND KRISHNA

53

Proterasia coarctata (Roxb.) Takeoka.

Poaceae. Kothapalem, 14. Very rare grass observed

along with Fimbristylis cymosa at Coringa.

Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Rhizophoraceae.

Kaki ponna. Sacramento light house, 12;

Kothapalem, 1595; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F.,

5112; Perupalem, 5770. Buttressed by long stilt

roots (knee roots) forming the outermost fringe of

the mangrove vegetation towards the sea. The plant

remains on the stilt roots after the main stem dies.

The author observed at Perupalem (l.c.) an old,

large single tree with huge stilt roots. The bark of

these roots was being eaten by goats, though it con-

tains a large amount of tanins.

Rhizophora mucronata Poir. Rhizophoraceae.

Uppu ponna. Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5602.

Rare. Associated with R. apiculata ; stilt roots rather

vertical; spread of crown less than that of R.

apiculata. Only observed along the Krishna estuary.

Salicornia brachiata Roxb. Chenopodiaceae.

Sitamma vari dubbu. Perupalem, 1585. Found ex-

tensively along the open saline beds.

Salvadora persica L. Salvadoraceae. Pedavara

gogu. Yela chettu dibba palem village, 5763. A typi-

cal plant of saline soils along the coast or in back-

waters above mangrove forests.

Sarcolobus carinatus Wall. Asclepiadaceae.

Pala boddu theega. Kothapalem, 5; China gol-

lapalem, 1575; Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5611.

Common twiner on Dalbergia and Clerodendrum.

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f.

Rubiaceae (Fig. 2). Nara thanduga. Sacramento

light house (the area presently preserved by A.P.

Forest Dept. Fig. 1 inset D), 51 and 1598. This is the

first report of this taxon from the Indian mainland.

Rare in mainland abundant in Andaman islands.

(Thothathri 1962).

Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. Aizoaceae.

Thikka kura, Adavi baddu. Masanitippa, 41;

Sacramento light house, 52 and 1593; Yela chettu

dibba palem R.F., 5613; Bandar Fort R.F., 5565.

Commonly found along the muddy flats and the

banks of the creeks.

Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. Son-

neratiaceae. Pedda kalinga. Yela chettu dibba palem

R.F., 5615; China gollapalem, 5108. The species

grows in association with Myriostachya and

Prosopis chilensis.

Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. Son-

neratiaceae. China kalinga. Masanitippa, 31. Rarely

found at Godavari estuary.

Stictocardia tiliifolia (Desr.) Hall. f. Convol-

vulaceae. Observed at Coringa. Straggler on

mangrove thickets.

Suae da maritima (L.) Dumont.

Chenopodiaceae. Ela Kura. Kothapalem, 6;

Sacramento light house, 1589, Yela chittu dibba

palem, 5766; Nachugunta R.F., 5076; Bandar Fort

R. F., 5062. Appears as pure stands along open saline

beds.

Suaeda monoica Forssk. ex Gmel.

Chenopodiaceae. Goliguru dubbu. Masanitippa, 26;

Nachugunta R.F., 5071. Pure stands reaching near-

ly 1-2 m are seen in Yela chettu dibba palem R.F.,

towards the land.

Suaeda nudiflora Moq. Chenopodiaceae.

Jilugu. Yela chettu dibba palem R.F., 5617. Rare in

comparison with the other 2 species.

Tamarix troupii Hole. Tamaricaceae. Palligi.

Yela chettu dibba palem, 5767. Found in the Krish-

na river bed nearer to the sea and also at Matlapalem

of the Godavari estuary.

Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland ex Correa.

Malvaceae. Ganga ravi. Kothapalem, 9. Found only

at the Godavari estuary, very abundant at Coringa.

Xylocarpus granatum Koen. Meliaceae.

Chenuga. Sacramento light house, 13; China gol-

lapalem, 5769. Rare, a few individuals associated

with Avicennia spp.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Prof. Rolla S. Rao and Dr.

S. Karthikeyan for their valuable suggestions.

References

Blasco, F. (1975): The mangroves of India. Pondicherry. don.

Chapman, VJ. (1976): Mangrove vegetation. Vaduz. Raju, D.C.S. (1968): The vegetation of West Godavari - A study

Gamble, J.S. (1915-36): Flora of the Presidency Madras (3 vols.), of Tropical della. Proc. Symp. Recent Adv. Trop. Ecol.

London. 348- 358.

Hooker, J.D. (1872-97): The Flora of British India (7 vols.), Lon- Rao, R.S. (1959): Observations on the mangrove vegetation of

54

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

the Godavari Estuary. Proc. Mangrove Symp. 36-44.

Rao, R.S., Lakshminarayana, K. & Venkanna, P. (1985):

Mangrove forests of the Godavari and the Krishna es-

tuaries of Andhra Pradesh. The urgent need for their

development and conservation. In: Bhosale, L.J. (cd.). The

mangroves: 338-340.

Rao, R.S. Venkanna, P. & Appi reddy, T. (1986): Flora of West

Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. Meerut.

Rao, T.A. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1972): An ecological approach

towards classification of coastal vegetation in India. Indian

Forester 98: 594-607.

Rao, T.A. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1974): Classification and distribu-

tion of Indian Mangroves, ibid. 100: 438-452.

Roxburgh, W. (1795-1819): Plants of the coast of Coramandel

(3 vols.). London.

Sastry, A.R.K. & Rao, T.A. (1973): Studies on the flora and

vegetation of coastal Andhra Pradesh, India. Bull, boi.surv.

Ind. 15 (1 & 2): 92-107.

SlDHU, S.S. (1963): Studies on the mangroves of India - I. East

Godavari region. Indian Forester 89 (5): 337-351.

Thothathri, K. (1962): Contribution to the Flora of the An-

damans and Nicobar Islands. Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 4 (1-4):

281-296.

Venkanna, P. (1988): Flora of Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh.

Ph.D. Thesis. Andhra University, Waltair (Unpublished).

Venkateswarlu, V. (1944): The esturial flora of Godavari. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 431-435.

Venkaleswarlu, V. (1946): A note on the estuarine flora of the

Krishna. Sci. & Cult. 12: 296.

Wagii, S.K. (1960): Studies on the Flora of Andhra Stale. Ph.D.

Thesis. Bombay University, Bombay (Unpublished).

FLIGHT SCHEDULES OF WINGED TERMITES (INSECTA: ISOPTERA)

IN DOON VALLEY, UTTAR PRADESH1

M.L. Thakur2

(With two text-figures)

The phenomenon of swamiing in termites is an annual feature but precise information on their flight schedules

and circumstances associated with the phenomenon is generally lacking for the great majority of Indian species. Sig-

nificant contributions on this aspect have been made by Mathur and Sen-Sarma (1959, 1960, 1962), Sen-Sarma et at.

(1975), Thakur (1978, 1985), Thakur and Sen-Sarma (1981) and Roonwal (1976, 1983).

Introduction

I have been actively engaged in termite re-

search for well over a quarter of a century and have

been collecting information on the swarming be-

haviour and the associated problems in the Doon

Valley, Uttar Pradesh. This paper summarises the in-

formation on this important aspect of behavioural

ecology of termites collected over the years, for 21

species. Information available in literature has also

been incorporated.

Swarming Characteristics

The Doon Valley which comprises the whole

of Dehradun district, is an open valley and lies be-

tween 29° 39’ and 30° 31’ N and 77° 34’ and 78°

20’E. The valley is somewhat like a parallelogram

in shape and is about 80 km in length, with an

average width of about 7 km, widening in the east-

ern dun region. The valley is bounded by the outer

ranges of the Himalaya on the north, by the Siwalik

hills on the south and by the rivers Ganga and

Yamuna on the eastern and western boundaries. The

terrain is uneven. The climate is sub-tropical and

humid during the greater part of the year, except

during the dry hot months of May and June. Average

annual rainfall is about 2000 mm. The soil in general

is ‘dun alluvium’, and is generally clayey, tending

to be loam, except in the hilly and sub-montane tract,

and supports rich and luxurious vegetation, with

large tracts of valuable sal forests and many other

timber species and bamboos.

Family Kalotermitidae

1. Neotermes bosei Snyder is a common

Accepted October 1987

Forest Entomology Branch, Forest Research Institute and

Colleges, Dehra Dun.

species in northern India and has been recorded from

dead branches of trees of several species. Emer-

gence of alates in Doon Valley occurs late in the eve-

ning after sunset from the last week of January

(26th) to the first week of July (4th), but major

swarm ings take place during early April to early

June. Emergence is intermittent and in small batches

(Roonwal and Sen-Sarma 1955, Mathur and Sen-

Sarma 1959, Sen-Sarma etal. 1975). In eastern India

(Kalimpong, North Bengal), alates of this species

have been collected during November-December.

2. Neotermes megaocculatus megaocculatus

Roonwal and Sen-Sarma has been recorded from

dead branches of Mangifera indica in Doon Valley.

No emergence record is available in Doon Valley;

however, in the Kumaon hills, it has been recorded

in the last week of May.

Family Rhinotermitidae

3. Heterotermes indicola (Wasmann) is a

major wood destroying termite in northern India

(above 20° N, going up to 2500 m in the Himalayan

region). It has also been recorded from many

localities in Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan. The

species swarms from the first week of July to the

third week of August. In Doon Valley, the swarming

has been recorded at night between 2100-2400 hrs

in mid July on rainy days, particularly when the rain

has continued for an hour or so (Sen-Sarma et al.

1975). However at Jodhpur, Roonwal (1976) has

reported its swarming between 2000-2030 hrs in

July- August. Observations recorded in Doon Valley

and in most of the other localities in India indicate

that this species swarms only during the night.

However in Bombay, Assmuth (1913) recorded the

swarming ‘in the morning’ at 0800 hrs or a little

later, during the first showers of the monsoon. In

Punjab, Arora and Gilotra (1960) recorded the

56

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

swarming during mid August, when it was actually

raining.

4. Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) is one of the

most widely distributed and major wood-destroying

termite species in India, occurring throughout India

and Pakistan. It has also been introduced into other

countries of southeast Asia. This species usually

swarms at dusk and in the early part of the night from

January to August after heavy rain showers (Thakur

1985). In the Doon Valley its swarming occurs in

June and July after heavy showers (Mathur and Sen-

Sarma 1959). In Rajasthan (Jodhpur), this species

has been reported to swarm even late at night after

2100 hrs and occasionally when it is drizzling

(Roonwal 1976, 1983). At Coimbatore, Thakur

(1985) has recorded the swarms of this species from

the third week (1830-1930 hrs) of January to the last

week of February, when the weather is quite dry. He

has also reported synchronized flight schedules ex-

actly on the same date (5 and 23 February 1980 and

1983) and at the same time (1845 hrs) from two dif-

ferent colonies situated c. 18 km apart.

Specific records of swarming in this species

are available in literature within its entire range of

distribution. Depending upon the local meteorologi-

cal conditions in a locality, this species seems to

swarm, in south India (Coimbatore, approx. 11 ° N.)

from 3rd week of January to the last week of

February ( vide supra), in the warmer and more

humid parts of Bombay, Orissa and West Bengal

(approx. 19-22° N.) from March to May and in the

drier parts of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar

Pradesh (26°5’N) on dry days during summer

months from May (2nd hall) to August. Swarming

occurs intermittently in small batches.

Family Stylotermitidae

5. Stylotermes dunensis Thakur is a rare wood-

inhabiting termite known only from Dehradun in the

Doon Valley. This species has been collected from

avenue trees such as Acer oblongum, Mangifera in-

dica , etc. Swarming in nature has not been observed.

However, winged alates have been collected from

infested logs during the second half of July in the

laboratory.

Family Macrotermtiidae

6. Odontotermes assmuthi Holmgren is very

widely distributed almost all over India and swarms

during the greater part of the year from the last week

of February to the middle of December. In Doon

Valley, this species has two flight periods, i.e. winter

flight season from second half of February to early

March and summer flight season in June, usually in

the second half of the month. During the summer

flight season, it usually swarms at 1630 hrs on bright

sunny days preceded by heavy shower of rain (Sen-

Sarma 1962). Occasionally, its swarms have also

been recorded in the morning (0700-0830 hrs) on

cloudy days or even during light drizzle (Thakur

1978, 1985). During winter flight season, winged

alates have been collected at light. Elsewhere, at

Coimbatore, the swarms of this species have been

recorded at dusk to early in the night (1830-1930

hrs) in the second half of October, invariably 6-12

hours after rain (Thakur 1985). These records of

flight schedules show that there is no rigid time

schedule for swarming in this species. It may swarm

in the early morning (0700-0830 hrs), late in the

afternoon at 1630 hrs or at dusk (1830-1930 hrs).

7. Odontotermes bhagwatii Chatterjee and

Thakur. This species occurs in Himachal Pradesh,

Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh (Doon

Valley) and Karnataka. In Doon Valley, this species

swarms at dusk (1830-1900 hrs) during June-

August, from small holes in the ground after heavy

rains. Specific dates of swarmings as available in

literature are: 4 August 1912, 19 July 1918, 29 July

1940, 6 July 1973 and 11 June 1984.

8. Odontotermes dehraduni Snyder has been

recorded from North India (Dehra Dun, Delhi,

Jodhpur) and Pakistan. This species is known from

imago caste only. Swarming is reported to occur in

the evening (1830-2030 hrs) from the last week of

June to the end of September, from small holes in

the grounds after a heavy shower. The alates are at-

tracted towards light in large numbers. In Doon Val-

ley, it swarms during the last week of June almost to

the end of July.

9. Odontotermes distans Holmgren and

Holmgren. This species is very widely distributed

throughout India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and

Burma. In India, this species is more common in

northern and eastern India, inhabiting submontane

areas in the Himalayan ranges, reaching up to 2100

m.

It swarms during the greater part of the year,

from the middle of February to first week of Decern-

FLIGHT SCHEDULES OF WINGED TERMITES

57

ber. In the Doon Valley, like O. assmuthi , this

species has two flight seasons. It swarms primarily

in the afternoon (1600-1630 hrs) to dusk in the last

week of February to early April (winter flight

season) and again in the last week (25th) of July at

about 1930-2030 hrs (summer flight season). The

swarming is usually preceded by rain (6-12 hours)

and is, at times, also followed by rain (3-6 hours).

Another interesting feature recorded by the author

is the synchronization of flight schedules on the

same dates (26 February 1970 and 1973) in the New

Forest Estate (Dehra Dun). Elsewhere, its swarms

have been recorded at dusk in February-March

(West Bengal, eastern India), August (Jodhpur,

‘Rajasthan) and from middle of October to the third

week of November (Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu).

10. Odontotermes indicus Thakur is also very

widely distributed throughout India, except eastern

India. Swarming has been recorded in June and Sep-

tember (Orissa). In Doon Valley, this species swarms

during monsoon months of July and August. Swarm-

ing is crepuscular or nocturnal, usually beginning at

dusk or a little later and continuing sometimes

throughout the night. At times, the swarming occurs

even when it is drizzling. The alates come out simul-

taneously from holes at different places in the

ground.

1 1 . Odontotermes microdentatus Roonwal and

Sen-Sarma. This species is a mound building ter-

mite, occurring in the greater part of India, building

low dome shaped conical or cylindrical mounds,

sometimes with large vertical buttresses (Sen-Sarma

et al. 1975). In Doon Valley, this species swarms at

night (2300 hrs) during the second half of June (Ag-

garwal 1975).

12. Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) is a very

widely distributed species in south-east Asia, occur-

ring throughout India, up to 2000 m in the Himalaya

(except very cold regions), Pakistan, Bangladesh

and Burma. This species swarms from May to end

of November. In Doon Valley, the swarming takes

place during June and July. The swarming begins

with the onset of monsoon in June. It begins at dusk

or at night ( 1830-2200 hrs) and continues sometimes

throughout the night usually after heavy showers.

Flights also occur when rain is actually falling.

Some actual records of swarming schedules as avail-

able in literature within India are as follows: May

(1st week) at Almora (Kumaon Hills, Uttar

Pradesh), June-July (Doon Valley), Bhopal (Mad-

hya Pradesh), July- August (Jodhpur, Rajasthan),

October (Cochin, Kerala) and last week of October

to end of November (Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu).

13. Microtermes obesi Holmgren. This

species occurs widely in south and southeast Asia

(Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Burma and

Thailand). Swarming occurs mostly from early July

to early August in northern India, but alates have

been collected from the nest in April-May-June

(Roonwal 1970, Roonwal and Verma 1977). In

Doon Valley (Dehra Dun), this species swarms late

in the afternoon (1300-1530 hrs) during July. El-

sewhere (Jodhpur, Rajasthan), it has been found to

swarm early in the day (1030-1330 hrs).

14. Microtermes unicolar Snyder is found in

Pakistan, northwestern India and Bangladesh. It oc-

curs commonly in pouches in the outer region of

mounds of Odontotermes and under wood debris in

forest areas. Swarming occurs in summer and rainy

months from April to August. In Doon Valley,

swarms have been recorded at night (1900-2100

hrs) in the months of June, usually after rainfall.

Family Termti idae

15. Speculitermes cyclops Wasmann is wide-

ly distributed in India, from eastern Rajasthan, Uttar

Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh (up to 1050 m altitude,

Pachmarhi), Maharashtra and some parts of Kar-

nataka (Coorg). The species occurs in well wooded

or semi-open humid forest vegetation, where the soil

retains higher percentage of moisture and compara-

tively moderate temperature. Precise swarming

records are lacking in literature; however, the alates

have been collected from the nest, from the last week

of May to third week of June at Dehradun. In Bom-

bay, Assmuth (1913) is reported to have collected

imago caste on 12 May.

16. Euhamitermes lighti Snyder is known

only from Doon Valley. It belongs to a group of sub-

terranean humus feeding termites, found only a few

centimetres below well drained amorphous land.

Actual swarming records are lacking in literature,

but fully matured alates have been encountered in

the field from 2nd week of May to end of June. It

may, therefore, be surmised that this species swarms

some time during the rainy months of June and July.

17. Eremotermes dehraduni Roonwal and Sen-

Sarma. This species is also known only from the

58

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL H/ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

N. d.-t

M- u.-

M.a*

Oo.

0 m.-

O. i.*

O.d-

O.d-

O.bf

0. a..

A.d-

M. b-

D. a.

E. d*

El.

S.c,

S.d-

C.h.

H.i.

Nmm.

N. b.*

L'J

i

cr:

cn

“T"

M

A

i

i

L.

M

—r

A

0

1

i

i

—r

N

T"

D

—r

F

SUMMER FLIGHT SCHEDULE

WINTER FUGHT SCHEDULE

Fig. 1. Swarming schedules of termites in Doon Valley. Hollow bars: show swarming periods of species at other localities within the

entire range of their distribution. Solid bars: show swarming periods in Doon Valley.

N.b. Neotermes bosei\ N.m.m. Neotermes megaoculalus megaoculalus\ H.i. Heterotermes indicola\ C.h. Coptotermes heimi\ S.d.

Slylotermes dy.nensis\ S.C. SpeculUerm.es cyclops\ H.I. Euhamilermes lighti; E.d. Eremotermes dehraduni; D.c. Doonitermes capil-

losus\ M.b. Microcerolermes beesoni; A.d. Angulitermes dehraensis\ O.a. Odontolermes assmuthi; O.b. Odontotermes bhagwatii\ 0.i.

Odontotermes indicus\ O.m. Odontotermes microdenlatus\ O.o. Odontolermes obesus ; M.o. Microtermes obesi\ M.u. Microtermes

unicolor, N.d. Nasutitermes dunensis.

FLIGHT SCHEDULES OF WINGED TERMITES

59

LEGEND

DAY NIGHT

Fig. 2. Swarming hours of termites in Doon Valley

Doon Valley. It has been collected from wet areas in

the valley. The swarming in this species occurs in

the first half of June during bright sunshine from

1000 to 1400 hrs from small holes in the ground,

usually after a shower of rain.

18. Doonitermes capillosus Chatterjee and

Thakur. This species lives in medium sized com-

munities in the sal forests in the Doon Valley and,

like its closely allied genus Speculitermes, is repre-

sented by a very small percentage of soldier caste.

Actual records of its swarming are not available in

the literature, but fully mature adults have been col-

lected from the field in the last week of June. It may

therefore be presumed that this species swarms

some time during the month of July.

19. Microcerotermes beesoni Snyder. This

species occurs in northern India in partly buried car-

ton nests. In Doon Valley, it swarms in the second

half of May. However, from other localities outside

the valley, the swarming records of this species

range from the last week of June to middle of July.

20. Angulitermes dehraensis (Gardner). This

species is very common in Doon Valley and is also

known from some localities in Pakistan (Layallpur

and Sekesar). It occurs under stones, cowdung, outer

region of mounds of genus Odontotermes as well as

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 1

FLIGHT SCHEDULES (WITH PERIOD) OF TERMITES IN DOON VALLEY

under compact soil of road sides and agricultural

fields near forested areas. It swarms sometimes

during the 2nd half of June, when the mature sexual

form is seen in small numbers (Mathur and Scn-

Sarma 1959). However, precise hours of actual

flights are not known.

21. Nasutilermes dunensis Chatterjee and

Thakur. It occurs in the forest areas of Doon Valley.

Actual records of swarming are not known.

However, as fully mature alates have been collected

in the field in the last week of May, it may be

presumed that this species swarms some time during

the following months of June and July, probably

after showers.

Discussion

The Doon Valley has a subtropical climate

where temperature plays a significant role in sharp-

ly dividing the seasons, and influencing to a great

Extent, the flight pattern in termites. Accordingly,

Doon Valley has two flight seasons, more or less

linked to meteorological rhythms of rainy months,

i.e. (i) Winter flight schedule, from October to March

(sometimes extended to early April) and (ii) Summer

FLIGHT SCHEDULES OF WINGED TERMITES

61

flight schedule , from April to September. This is in

contrast to flight rhythms of termites at Coimbatore,

south India, where there is only one flight schedule

(generally from second half of September to end of

March), coinciding generally with northeast mon-

soon. Most of the species (17) have only summer

flight schedules from April to September, mostly

during the monsoon months (June to August), none

have solely winter flight and Neotermes bosei

Snyder (February- April and July), Odontotermes

assmuthi Holmgren (February-March and June) and

Odontotermes distans Holmgren and Holmgren

(February- April and July) have both summer and

winter flight schedules (Table 1).

Similarly precise hours of flight schedules in

13 species, for which the data is available (Fig. 2),

shows that nine species swarm generally late in the

day to early in the night, two species, Eremotermes

dehraduni Roonwal and Sen-Sarma and Microter-

mes obesi Holmgren swarm early in the day to early

afternoon (1000 to 1530 hrs), two species,

Heterotermes indicola (Wasmann) and Odontoter-

mes microdentatus Roonwal and Sen-Sarma swarm

at night (2100-2400 hrs and 2300 hrs respectively).

In the case of Odontotermes indicus and Odontoter-

mes obesus , the swarming sometimes continues till

late in the night (upto 2300 hrs) or even throughout

the night.

The time schedules of swarming in termites at

any one locality are, by and large, precise, and are

repeated year after year (Nutting 1969, Thakur and

Sen-Sarma 1981 and Thakur 1985), but sometimes

there is a departure from the normal schedules and

a species may behave differently. For example,

Odontotermes assmuthi Holmgren usually swarms

at 1630 hrs during bright sunshine, but occasional-

ly, it may also swarm in the morning (0700-0830

hrs) and even when it is cloudy or drizzling.

However, such exceptions are few and rare. Similar-

ly, some species (e.g. Odontotermes distans) exhibit

striking time fixity. On two occasions, this species

was found to swarm from two different colonies

situated nearly 3 km apart on 26 February 1970 and

26 February 1973 in Dehradun. However, the hours

of flight schedule were not synchronized, whereas

the first swarm on 26 February 1970 occurred in the

evening at sunset, the second swarm occurred on 26

February 1973 in the afternoon at 1630 hrs.

From the information available in literature, it

appears that flight schedules in some species are

closely linked to latitudinal and regional elevadon

differences over their entire range of distribution

(Nutting 1969, Thakur 1985). For example, Cop-

totermes heimi has been reported to swarm from

March to May in the warmer and more humid areas

of Bombay, Orissa and West Bengal (approx. 1 9-22°

N.), during monsoon months, from June to August,

in the drier parts of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and

Uttar Pradesh (approx. 26° 5’-31° N) and further

down at Coimbatore, South India (approx. 11° N)

from January to February. Similarly Odontotermes

obesus swarms during the early part of hot summer

from late April (28th) to May in the western

temperate climate of Himalaya (Himachal Pradesh

and Western Himalaya of Garhwal, Kumaon Hills

and Doon Valley in Uttar Pradesh), from June to

August in the Gangetic plains in Uttar Pradesh and

from October to November at Coimbatore (South

India).

All these establish a positive correlation be-

tween the swarming and rainfall, but what exactly

triggers swarming, is a complex problem and is only

speculative at present. Many physical changes in the

weather conditions in a locality, such as air pressure

and humidity, moisture content in the soil and other

climatic conditions, are invariably associated with

the phenomenon of swarming. Any single factor or

combination of factors influences the microclimatic

condition in the nest, which, together with the vibra-

tion produced by the rain drops, perhaps act as

stimuli for swarming. Changing conditions rather

than any fixed set of absolute values provide the

major climatic stimulus for flight schedules (Nutting

1969, Thakur 1985). Since observations on the

swarming of termites in nature are chance records,

it is not surprising that information on the precise

hours of flight have so far been collected in case of

12 species only. More information is required on the

swarming behaviour of more termites, particularly

in the case of those species where it is lacking, from

different climatic conditions at various latitudinal

localities.

References

Aggarwal, V.B. (1975): Studies on the biology and ecology of mound building termites, Odontotermes microdentatus

5

62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Roonwal & Sen-Sarma and Odontotermes obesus (Ram-

bur) (Insecta: Isoptera: Termitidae). Ph.D. Thesis, Meerut

University, vii + 1 - 122 pp.

Arora, G.L. & Gilotra, S.K. (1960): The biology of Odontoter-

mes obesus. Punjab Univ. Res. Bull. 10 (3-4): 247-255.

Assmuth, J. (1913): Wood-destroying white ants of the Bombay

Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 (2): 372-384.

Mathur, R.N. & Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1959): Notes on the habits

and biology of Dehra Dun termites. Part I. J. Timber

Dryer's Preserv. Assoc. India, Dehra Dun, 5(3): 33-39.

Mathur, R.N. & Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1960): Notes on the habits

and biology of Dehra Dun termites. Part-II. J. Timber

Dryer's Preserv. Assoc. India , Dehra Dun, 6(2): 23-27.

Mathur, R.N. & Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1962): Notes on the habits

and biology of Dehra Dun termites. Part-Ill. -J. Timber

Dryer's Preserv. Assoc. India, Dehra Dun, 8(1): 1-18.

Nutting, W.F. (1969): Flight and colony foundation. In: Biology

of Termites, Vol. 2: 233-282 (Eds. K. Krishna and F.M.

Weesner). Academic Press, New York.

Roonwal, M.L. (1970): Termites of the Oriental Region - In:

Biology of Termites, Vol. 2: 315-391 (Eds. K. Krishna and

F.M. Weesner). Academic Press, New York.

Roonwal, M.L. (1976): Field ecology and ecobiogcography of

Rajasthan termites: A study in desert environment. Zoo/.

Johrb. Abt. (Syst.) 103: 455-504.

Roonwal, M.L. (1983): The ecology of termites swarming in the

Indian Desert. In: Insect Interrelations in Forest and Agro

Ecosystem; 9-13. Eds. P.K. Sen-Sarma, S.K. Kulshrestha

and S.K. Sangal. Jugal Kishore and Co., Dehra Dun.

Roonwal, M.L. & Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1955): Biology and ecol-

ogy of Oriental termites (Isoptera) 3. Some observations

on Neotermes gardneri (Snyder) (family Kalotermitidae).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(2): 234-239.

Roonwal, M.L., Sen-Sarma, P.K. & Verma, S.C. (1977):

Resurvey of termite fauna of Rajasthan and its Zoogeog-

raphy. Rec. Zool. Surv. 72: 125-480.

Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1962): Some observations on swarming in na-

ture and colony foundation under laboratory conditions in

Odontotermes assmuthi (Holmgren) at Dehra Dun. Beilr.

Zur. Entomon., 12: 192-297.

Sen-Sarma, P.K., Thakur, M.L., Mishra, S.C. 8c Gupta, B.K.

(1975): Studies on wood destroying termites in relation to

natural termites resistance of wood. Final Tech. P.L. 480

Project A-7-58 (1968-73) Dehradun. pp. viii + 1-187.

Thakur, M.L. (1978): New observations on the swarming be-

haviour in nature in Odontotermes assmuthi Holmgren

(Isoptera: Termitidae: Macrotermitinae). Indian Forester,

104(9): 638.

Thakur, M.L. (1985): Observations on swarming in nature of ter-

mites (Insecta: Isoptera) at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

Annls. Ent., Dehradun, 3(2): 25-32.

Thakur, M.L. & Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1981): Flight and colony

foundation in termites with special reference to Indian

region. Van Vigyan, 19 (1): 39-43.

THE STATUS OF FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE TETRACERUS QUADRICORNIS 1

Clifford G. Rice 2

Introduction

The four-horned antelope (FHA) Tetracerus

quadricornis is a diminutive antelope, standing 65

cm at the shoulder (Prater 1980). Despite the un-

usual trait of having two pairs of horns, it has at-

tracted little scientific attention. There have been no

investigations focusing specifically on this species,

and it is generally given only brief treatment in ac-

counts of multi-species studies (Schaller 1967,

Krishnan 1975, Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975).

Berwick’s (1974) study in the Gir Forest is a notable

exception. He provides information on FHA den-

sities, group size and composition, reproduction,

habitat preference, and food habits. In order to as-

sess the current status of this unique Indian antelope,

a mail survey was carried out in 1986-87 with the

following results.

Methods

Questionnaires on the status of four-homed an-

telope were sent to 106 wildlife administrators and

33 non-governmental organizations or private in-

dividuals in 10 states (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,

Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh).

The questionnaire requested the following informa-

tion:

1. Name and location of site.

2. Area of site in sq. km.

3. Major habitat or forest types of the site.

4. Presence of FHA (yes or no).

5. Estimate of abundance of FHA based on the

following definitions: Abundant: there are frequent

sightings of FHA during an average day in the site.

Common: 1 or 2 FHA seen during an average day in

the site. Rare: FHA seen infrequently in the site. Pos-

sible: FHA have been reported in the site, but presence

not yet confirmed by reliable sources. Extinct: reli-

able reports of FHA in the site in the past, but no recent

evidence has been found (locally extinct).

Accepted July 1989

2Wildlife Conservation International, New York Zoological

Society, Bronx, NY 10460, U.S.A.

6. Local population trend (increasing, stable,

or decreasing).

7. Total population size.

8. Method by which the population size was es-

timated.

Information from questionnaire responses was

supplemented with material from published sources

(Krishnan 1975, Maheshwari 1972, Rashid 1982,

Saharia 1982, Schaller 1967, Sharatchandra and

Gadgil 1975, Spillett 1968a, b, c, Variava and Singh

1985) and the protected areas database of the Indian

Institute of Public Administration (Kothari pers.

comm.)

Results

A total of 83 sites with FHA were recorded

(Appendix 1). It is likely that FHA occur in other

locations, particularly on forested lands outside Na-

tional Parks and Sanctuaries. However, it is likely

that the geographic and ecological distributions of

FHA are reasonably represented by the material ob-

tained.

FHA populations were reported from sites in

all 10 states: Andhra Pradesh- 13 sites, Bihar-3,

Gujarat-3, Karnataka-7, Madhya Pradesh-24,

Maharashtra- 13, Orissa-6, Rajasthan-5, Tamil

Nadu-6, and Uttar Pradesh-4. Only two sites

reported that FHA were locally extinct (the proposed

Karlapat Sanctuary, Orissa and Keoladeo National

Park, Rajasthan). So despite the potential for local

population reductions, the overall geographic range

of the FHA has apparently not been significantly

reduced in the recent past.

Of the 30 sites for which habitat type informa-

tion was available, 26 (87%) contained southern

tropical dry deciduous (teak, Tectona grandis ) forest

(type 5A, Champion 1936), 14 (47%) contained

northern tropical dry deciduous (sal, Shorea robus-

td) forest (type 5B), 14 (47%) contained south In-

dian moist deciduous (teak) forest (type 3B), 7

(23%) contained edaphic types of dry deciduous

forests (type 5/El, 2, 6, 9), 7 (23%) contained tropi-

cal scrub thorn forests (types 5/DS and 6), and 5

(17%) contained north Indian moist deciduous (sal)

64

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 1

TOPULATIONS OF FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE RETORTED

TO BE DECLINING

M.P. = Madhya Pradesh, U.P. = Ullar Pradesh

Table 2.

POPULATION OF FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE AT

OPTIMUM SITES

Area Population Density

Sites with reported densities greater than 0.70/ sq. km have

been considered as optimum sites.

forest (type 3C). The G test (Sokal and Rohlf 1969)

for interaction between habitat and reported abun-

dance showed no significant effect (G=32.8, d.f. =

24).

Subjective assessments of FHA abundance

based on the criteria provided were available for 21

sites: abundant-2 (10%), common- 10 (48%), un-

common-6 (29%), rare- 2 (t0%), and locally ex-

tinct-2 (10%). FHA were thought to be increasing in

6 sites (32%), stable in 5 (26%), and decreasing in 8

(42%, N =19). Reasons for an increasing population

are of interest, but particular attention should be paid

to the factors responsible for population declines,

something not addressed in the survey. Sites report-

ing declining population are listed in Table 1 . it is

perhaps significant that most of these sites are on the

periphery of the FHA’s range and are not in areas

specifically dedicated to wildlife preservation.

The Gir Forest is the only site for which there

have counts of FHA over a span of several years.

Berwick ( 1974) calculated a FHA population of 256

for 1970, but thought the actual population might be

as high as 800. Since then water hole counts have

produced the following population estimates for

Gir: 1974-977,1977-1,042; 1985-1,063 (Rashid

1982, Gujarat Wildlife Division undated).

The 4 sites with densities greater than 0.7/ sq

km which may be considered optimum sites for FHA

are listed in Table 2.

Discussion

Despite the difficulties inherent in summariz-

ing second-hand accounts, several conclusions may

be drawn concerning the status of FHA. For most

populations, little information was available beyond

the presence or absence of FHA. Solid figures are

needed on population sizes and trends. In addition,

many aspects of the biology of this species remain

unclear. Informed management of existing popula-

tions cannot proceed without further information.

With numerous widely-spread populations,

there is little need for concern for the immediate sur-

vival of this species. However, many of the popula-

tions are small, the majority for which we have in-

formation being under the recommended minimum

of 500 for sustaining genetic variability (Frankel and

Soule 1981). However, it is not known at present

how insular these populations are — that is to say

how large actual interbreeding populations are.

Nevertheless, it is likely that FHA populations are

becoming increasingly isolated as human impacts

intensify and spread. Given the low densities and

small population sizes that are common for FHA,

there is every bit as much justification for concern

over the genetic management of these populations

as there is for the populations of more spectacular

species such as tigers. The FHA would, in fact, be

an excellent candidate for trial efforts for techniques

in genetic monitoring and conservation manage-

ment.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to A. Kothari and S. Singh of the

Indian Institute of Public Administration for sharing

information on numerous FHA locations. I also

thank all those who responded to my questionnaire.

STATUS OF FOUR -HORNED ANTELOPE

65

References

Berwick, S. (1974): The community of wild ruminants in the Gir

Forest Ecosystem, India. Ph.D. Thesis. Xerox University

Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A.

Champion, H. G. (1936): A preliminary survey of the forest types

of India and Burma. Indian Forest Records 1: 1-286.

Frankel, O.H. & Soule, M. E. (1981): Conservation and Evolu-

tion. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.

Gujarat Wildlife Division (undated): Gir Lion Sanctuary. The

Deputy Conservator of Forests, Sasan-Gir.

Krishnan, M. (1975): India’s Wildlife in 1959-70. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Maheshwari, J.K. (1972.): Plant wildlife and conservation in

Shivpuri National Park, India. Biol. Conserv. 4: 214-219.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian Animals. 3rd ed., Bom-

bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rashid, M. A. (1982): The Gir Lion Sanctuary Project, pp. 138-

147 In: V.B. Saharia (ed). Wildlife in India. Natraj

Publishers, Dehra Dun.

Saharia, V. B. (1982): Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers, Dehra

Dun.

Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago.

Sharatchandra, H. C. & Gadgil, M. (1975): A year of Bandipur.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 623-647.

Sokal, R.R. & Rohlf, FJ. (1969): Biometry. W.H. Freeman, San

Francisco.

Spillett, J.J. (1968a): A report on wild life surveys in South and

West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. <55:1-46.

Spilleit, J.J. (1968b): A report on wild life surveys in South and

West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:296-325.

Spillett. J.J (1968c) A report on wild life surveys in South and

West India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 633 -663.

Variava, D. & Singh, S. (1985): Directory of National Parks and

Santuaries in India. Indian Institute of Public Administra-

tion, Delhi.

Appendix 1

LOCATIONS OF REPORTED FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE POPULATIONS IN INDIA.

66

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Appendix 1 (Contd.)

TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BRACHIONUS (ROTATORIA:

MONOGONONTA) POPULATIONS IN PONDS1

R. Sampathkumar2

(With twelve text-figures )

The different species and varieties constituting the Brachionus population of four freshwater fish-ponds at

Tuticorin, south India, were identified and their numerical abundance and frequency of occurrence studied over a

period of 19 weeks. Nine varieties belonging to seven species of Brachionus were identified. The identified taxa were

compared and contrasted with those reported from other parts of India. B. calyciflorus var. anuaeriformis, B. plicatilis

and B. angular is var. angularis dominated the populations during most of the investigation period. The other species

and varieties occurred occasionally or rarely.

Introduction

Rotifers in general, and Brachionus in par-

ticular, form an important constituent of

zooplankton biomass of freshwater fish ponds. Then-

importance as food or in the food chain of fish is

often emphasised (Jyoti and Sehgal 1979).

However, studies on this group in fish ponds

are limited, although several works have been car-

ried out in natural waters of the northern part of India

(George 1961, Jyoti and Sehgal 1979, Nasar 1973,

Pasha 1961, Sharma 1976, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1983)

and some in the southern part of India (Dhanapathi

1974, Naidu 1967, Nayar and Nair 1969, Pasha

1961). Such studies in south Tamil Nadu are almost

absent. In the present study the species and varietal

composition of the genus Brachionus of fish ponds

and their weekly distribution are dealt with.

Material and Methods

Four freshwater fish culture ponds located in

the premises of Fisheries College, Tuticorin (Tamil

Nadu) were selected for the present study. The man-

made earthern ponds were under semi-intensive

carp culture. Weekly plankton samples were col-

lected using a plankton net of 60 pm mesh size over

a period of 19 weeks from 8 November 1986 to 13

March 1987. The samples were preserved in 5%

formalin prior to microscopic identification,

measurement and enumeration.

Accepted April 1989.

fisheries College, Tuticorin 628 008, Tamil Nadu, India. Present

address: Dept, of Zoology, National University of Singapore,

Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 0511.

Results and Discussion

During the study, a total of ten taxa (nine

varieties belonging to seven species) were identified

from the four ponds. The species are discussed in

order of decreasing abundance. Table 1 gives the

measurements of the taxa. The weekly variations in

the numerical abundances of the taxa are presented

in Fig. 12.

1. Brachionus calyciflorus

This species was represented by three

varieties. Sharma (1979), however, preferred to

place the three as ‘formae’ and refrained from call-

ing them ‘varieties’.

(i) B. calyciflorus v. anuaeriformis Brehm,

1909: Antero-dorsal (occipital) margin of lorica

with four long and equal spines. Postero-lateral

spines long, slender and diverging. Two caudal

spines shorter (Fig. 1). The form is identical with

that reported from Punjab (Vasisht and Battish

1971).

This variety was one of the two taxa occurring

throughout the period of study except in the sample

of 8 November 1986. Swarming of the variety was

noticed whenever the dissolved oxygen in water was

high (above 5.0 ppm).

(ii) B. calyciflorus v. dorcas Gosse, 1851:

Lorica rounded and highly stippled. Occipital mar-

gin with four spines of which medians twice as long.

Base of medians wide (Fig. 2).

This variety occurred less frequently and less

abundantly than B. calyciflorus anuaeriformis.

(iii) B. calyciflorus v. hymani Dhanapathi,

1974: Occipital margin of the lorica with four wide-

68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Figs. 1-6. Brachionus spp.

1. Brachionus calyciflorus v. anuaeriformis , 2. B. calyciflorus v. dorcas\ 3. B. calyciflorus v. hymani, 4. B. plicatilis,

5. B. angular is v. angularis, 6. B. angular is v. bidens.

TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BRACHIONUS POPULATIONS

69

based spines of which the laterals slightly shorter.

Outer base of the medians bearing a tooth-like

projection. Antero-ventral spines flanking the

median sinus and less prominent in contrast to the

form reported from West Bengal (Sharma 1979)

(Fig. 3). Sharma. (1979) identified this taxon as B.

calyciflorus f. borgeti.

This variety occurred rarely.

2. Brachionus plicatilis Muller, 1786:

Posterior of lorica broad. Occipital spines six

which are short, stumpy and broad- based. Separa-

tions between medians and intermediates less dis-

tinct. Median sinus very deep and U-shaped. Antero-

ventral margin wavy. Foot opening deep and flanked

by tooth-like projections (Fig. 4).

This species also occurred throughout the

study period (except in the sample of 19 December

1986) as B. calyciflorus anuaeriformis. Also, this

species was the most abundant of all taxa. Swarm-

ing of the species was noticed at ponds at times of

low dissolved oxygen.

3. Brachionus angularis

(i) B. angularis v. angularis Gosse, 1851:

Anterior margin of the lorica characteristically

rounded and slightly narrower than the posterior.

Occipital spines two, short, slightly pointed and

flanking the deep U-shaped median sinus. Antero-

ventral margin more or less parallel to the dorsal

margin, showing a shallow depression at median

and curved anteriorly at corners. Fool opening

flanked by two short and rounded caudal spines bent

inwards (Fig. 5).

The frequency of occurrence and abundance of

this variety was high, being next to that of B.

calyciflorus anuaeriformis and if plicatilis. In most

instances it co-occurred with B. plicatilis except

during mid-December to mid-March when this

variety showed a rare occurrence.

(ii) Brachionus angularis v.bidens Plate,

1886: Occipital margins of the lorica flattened. This

variety differs from B. angularis angularis in

having smaller median spines, V-shaped sinus and

ventral margin being more parallel to the dorsal mar-

gin and not wavy. Caudal end of lorica somewhat

tapering (Fig. 6).

This variety occurred less frequently and less

abundantly than B. angularis angularis.

4. Brachionus urceolaris v. urwaensis

Sudzuki, 1964

Lorica broad and bulged at middle. Dorsal and

ventral plates separated. Occipital spines six.

Medians slender, pointed and Banking the deep

median sinus. Laterals also slender but slightly

shorter and less pointed than other spines. Inter-

mediates very broad with pointed ends. Caudal

opening wide and flanked by two spine-like projec-

tions (Fig. 7).

This species was rare during the study.

5. Brachionus caudatus v. aculeatus

Hauer 1937

Occipital margin somewhat flat with two

medians and two laterals, all short and pointed at

ends. Intermediates absent. Two long caudal spines

with blunt ends and curved inwards (Fig. 8). This

form was identical with that reported from Andhra

Pradesh (Dhanapathi 1974). Another form identical

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS OF TAXA OF Brachionus FROM FISH PONDS AT TUTICORIN

70

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Figs. 7-11. Brachionus spp.

7. B. urceolaris v. urwaensis, 8. & 9. B. caudatus v. aculeatus, 10. B.falcatus v. lyralus, 11. B. quadridentatus v. rhenanus.

TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BRACHIONUS POPULATIONS

71

o

¥

□

o

o

o

□

+

8 IS

22

29

6 13

□

□

19

27

23

30

13

20

27

21

27

NOV. | DEC

19 8 6

JAN. | FEB. | MAR.

19 8 7

d Brachionus calyciflorus v. anuaeriforrnis . 9ft. B. calyciflorus v. dorcas. 7 B . calyciflorus v. hymani:

© ft. plicalilis. O B. angularis v. angular is. A B. angularis v. bidens.

■f B.urceolaris v . urwaensis. t&i B. caudal us v. aculeatus. €'■ B.falcalus v. lyratus.

/X B. quadrideniatus v. rhenanus.

Fig. 12. Weekly variations in the numerical abundance of taxa of Brachionus (The values are averages of the four ponds)

with the one reported from Orissa (Sharma 1980)

was also found to occur. The latter had straight

posterior spines with a sharp hook-like projection at

the base, a bulge at the middle and pointed ends (Fig.

9).

Both the forms of this variety occurred only

twice in the study (15 and 21 November 1986).

6. Brachionus falcatus v. lyratus

Lemmerman, 1908

Lorica with six Occipital spines, all blunt.

Medians straight and marginally longer than the

laterals. Laterals slightly curved and pointed out-

wards. Intermediates seven times as long as the

medians and bent outwards. Two posteriors ex-

tremely long, curved inwards but ends bent out-

wards. Except the relatively greater curvature of the

intermediates, the form is identical with the one

reported from Bihar (Nasar 1973) (Fig. 10).

This species was found to occur only twice

during the study ( 22 and 29 November 1986).

7. Brachionus quadridentatus v. rhenanus

Lauterbom 1893

Posterior half of lorica laterally bulged. Oc-

cipital spines six. Medians Hanking deep V-shaped

median sinus and bent gently outwards. Inter-

mediates less distinct, short, broad and pointed.

Laterals longer than intermediates and shorter than

medians. A ntero- ventral margin with two spine-like

72

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

median projections flanking a shallow sinus.

Posterior margin slightly flattened bearing two short

nipple-like spines at ends (Fig. 11). This form was

identical with the one reported from Punjab (Shar-

ma 1981).

This taxon of Brachionus occurred only once

during the study (21 March 1987).

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr N. Sukumaran, Fisheries College, Tuticorin, for correcting the manuscript critically.

References

Dhanapathi.M.V.S. (1974): Rotifers from Andhra Pradesh, India

— I. Hydrobiologia 45 (4): 357-372.

George, M.G. (1961): Observations on the rotifers from shallow

ponds in Delhi. Curr. Sci. 30: 247-250.

JYOTI, M.K. & Sehgal, H. (1979): Ecology of Rotifers of Surin-

sar, a subtropical freshwater lake in Jammu (J & K), India.

Hydrobiologia 65: 23-32.

Michael, R.G. (1973): A Guide to the study of freshwater or-

ganisms: Rotatoria. ./. Madurai Univ. Suppl. 1: 23-36.

Naidu, K.V. (1967): A contribution to the Rotatonan fauna of

South India/. J. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc. 64: 384-388.

Nayar, C.K.G. & Nair, K.K.N. (1969): A collection of

Brachionid rotifers from Kerala. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

69: 223-233.

Nasar, S.A.K. (1973): The zooplankton fauna of Bhagalpur:

Rotifera. J . Bhagalpur Univ. 6 (1): 55-62.

Pasha, S. M.K. (1961): On a collection of freshwater rotifera from

Madras. J. Zool. Soc. India 13 (1): 50-55.

Sharma, B.K. (1976): Rotifers collected from North-West India.

Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 2 (6): 255-258.

Sharma, B.K. (1979): Rotifers from West Bengal. 3. Further

studies on the Eurotatoria. Hydrobiologia 64 (3): 239-250.

Siiarma, B.K. (1980): Contributions to the rotifer fauna of Oris-

sa, Lidia, ibid. 70: 225-233.

Sharma, B.K. (1981): Contributions to the ralifer fauna of Pun-

jab State, India. I. Family Brachionidae. ibid. 76: 249-253.

Sharma, B.K. (1983): The Indian species of the genus

Brachionus (Eurotatoria: Monogononta: Brachionidae).

ibid. 104: 31-39.

Vasisht, H.S. & Battish, S.K. (1971): The rotifer fauna of North

India: Brachionus. Res. Bull, (n.s.) Punjab Univ. 22 (1/2):

179-188.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY— 34: MUSCICAPIDAE (TURDINAE)

Humayun Abdulau and Saraswathy Unntthan

[Continued from Vol. 85(1): 134]

This part covers some 497 specimens of 40 species and subspecies up to No. 1768 in handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan and 4 extra limitals. Of the 40 from Indian limits we have no specimens of 6, species (3) and

subspecies (3). HA was not able to attend work for a considerable period (due to ill-health) and most of the work has

been completed by Dr (Mrs) Saraswathy Unnithan.

1731 Zoothera wardii (Blyth) (Mysore) Pied

Ground Thrush 2: 145

5: 3 males 2 females

1 Simla, 1 Garhwal; 3 Pt. Calimere, Tanjore dist., Tamil

Nadu.

One male obtained at Simla in May and a

female at Point Calimere in October have yellow

bills. The former appears to be breeding(?) being

paler above than the other, dating back to J une 1871.

Measurements on p. 77.

1732 Zoothera sibirica sibirica (Pallas) S.E.

Transbaicalia Whitebrowed Ground Thrush 2: 146

nil

1732a Zoothera sibirica davisoni (Hume)

(Muleyit) Davisons Ground Thrush

4: 2 males 1 female 1 (?)

1 Mahableshwar, W. Ghats; 1 Narcondam Is.; 2 Kobe,

Japan .

The female (?) from Mahableshwar (7 April

1969) is slighdy larger than nominate sibirica (Foot-

note to p. 85, Vol. 9, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF

INDIA AND PAKISTAN 1973) for it has a 122/3 wing

but being in female plumage is slightly smaller than

the males.

Measurements on p. 77.

1733 Zoothera citrina citrina (Latham) (India,

Cachar) Orange-headed Ground Thrush

2:148

19: 10 males 6 females 3 (?)

2 Gama-ki-hatti, Dharmi State, 1 Bhajji State, N.W.H.; 1

Ratnagiri, 1 Kumaon; 1 Sardar River, Pilibhit dt., 1 Salukapur

Forest, Kheri dt., U.P.; 1 Tribeni, 1 Chalnakhel, 1 Bankulwa,

Morang, Nepal; 1 Madhubani, Darjeeling, 2 Baghowni, Tirhut

dt., 1 Sarun, Bengal; 1 Margherita, Assam; 1 Keonjhargarh, 1

Kuldiha, Nilgiri, Orissa, 1 Kalavaghu, Sriharikotta, 1

Nyaunggyo , Prome dt., Burma.

Measurements on p. 77.

1734 Zoothera citrina cyanotus (Jardine & Selby)

(Bangalore, India) Whitethroated Ground Thrush

2:150

25: 14 males 9 females 2 (?)

1 Sonagadh, Navsari dt., Gujerat; 1 Goregaon, 1 Kallian,

1 Khandala, 2 Mahableshwar, 1 Koyna, Maharashtra; 1 Goa

frontier, 1 Molem, 1 Valpoi, Goa; 1 Kaithali, Karwar, 3 Karwar,

1 North Kanara; 1 Murgimatta, Sagar, 1 Ulavi, Shimoga, 1 Hon-

nametti, Attikan Estate, Mysore; 1 Cheranbadi, Gudalur, Nilgiri;

3 Perumalmalai Coffee Estate, 1 Manalur, Palni Hills; 1 Santan-

para. Cardamom Hills; 1 Tenmalai, C. Travancore.

In amadoni (Abdulali, 1965, JBNHS 62: 305-

6) the differences do not appear clinal as suggested

by Ripley (1973, IH 9, footnote p. 89). The small

differences for which they have been separated,

would prevent a revision and it may perhaps be best

to leave this as a synonym of cyanotus , and leave it

to somebody with more material (say at the British

Museum) to attempt the necessary changes.

They are however separately measured under

1734 (a).

1734a Zoothera citrina amadoni Biswas (Chanda,

C.P.)

20: 1 1 males 7 females 2 (?)

1 Parijat, 2 Jabalpore; 2 Bhanupratappur, Kanker, C.P.; 1

Bhopalpatnam; 1 Dantewara, 1 Golapalli, Bastar dt.; 1 Chahala,

Simlipal Hills, 1 Pithabrata, Mayurbhanj, 4 Badrama, Bamra, 1

Tikerpara, Angul dt., Orissa; 1 Jeypore Agency, 1 Bhadrachalam,

1 Dharakanda, Upper Sileru, 1 Sankrametta, 1 Anantgiri,

Vizagapatnam.

Measurements on p. 77.

1735 Zoothera citrina andamanensis (Walden)

(Andamans) Andaman Ground Thrush 2: 1 52

6: 5 males 1 female

1 Thugapur, Maya Bunder, 2 Landfall Is., 1 South Cinque

Is.; 1 Bakultala, M. Andaman; 1 China Tapoo, S. Andaman.

The underparts are darker than in Cyanotus

and also slightly smaller.

Measurements on p. 77.

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

1736 Zoothera citrina albogularis (Blyth)

(Nicobar Islands) Nicobar Ground Thrush 2: 153

5: 3 males 2 females

1 Car Nicobar; 3 Nancowry, 1 Camorta, Middle Nicobars.

The throat is a little whiter and the underparts

darker (more chestnut) than in andamanensis and

also smaller than in cyanotus.

Measurements on p. 77

1737 Zoothera spiloptera (Blyth) Spottedwinged

Ground Thrush 2: 165

nil

1738 Zoothera mollissima whitehead i (Baker)

(Khagan Valley, Afridi Country, N.W.F.P.) Western

Plainbacked Mountain Thrush

2:163

7: 2 males 5 females

5 Simla, 2 Pilibhit Terai, U.P.

simlaensis (Baker) from Simla appear to be

synonymous with whiteheadi.

Measurements on p. 77.

1739 Zoothera mollissima mollissima (Blyth)

(Darjeeling) Eastern Plainbacked Mountain Thrush

2:162

9: 6 males 3 females

1 Temi, West Sikkim, 1 Chungthang, N. Sikkim; 1 Batase,

Central Bhutan; 4 Gomchu, 1 Wamrong, 1 Rongtong, East

Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 77.

1740 Zoothera dixoni (Seebohm) (Himalayas, near

Nepal and Darjeeling) Longtailed Mountain Thrush

2:162

11:5 males 1 female 5 (?)

1 Nila Valley, 2 Garhwal; 1 Chengthang, N. Sikkim; 1

Temi, West Sikkim; 1 Batase, Central Bhutan; 1 Gomchu, 1 Nar-

phong; 1 Wamrong, E. Bhutan; 1 Loi Long, 1 Yangh, North Shan

State.

These are similar to Z. mollissima mollissima

in their darker upperparts, but the two bars on the

wing, the pale shaft streaks on the forehead, the

greater amount of white on the lower underparts and

the longer tail (95-111, av. 99.2) separate them and

there is no room for confusion.

Measurements on p. 77.

1741 Zoothera dauma dauma (Latham) (Kashmir)

Smallbilled Mountain Thrush 2: 153

26: 12 males 11 females (1 juvenile) 3 (?)

1 Chitral; 5 Simla, 1 Jagadri, Ambala; 2 Bankuwa, Morang,

Nepal; 1 Rinchingpong, 2 Temi, W. Sikkim; 2 Gedu, W. Bhutan,

1 Mangdechu, 1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan, 1 Rongtong, E. Bhutan,

1 Tougloo, Bhutan (juvenile); 1 Khasia Hills, 1 Margherita,

Assam; 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1 Sarun, Bengal; 1 Gurguria,

Simlipal Hills, 1 Ranipathar, Phulbani dt., Orissa; 1 Nyaunggyo ,

Burma , 1 Upper Burma.

These birds fall into two distinct groups, one

darker and the other paler, but it is not possible to

isolate them by locality or any other data.

Measurements on p. 77-78.

1742 Zoothera dauma neilgherriensis (Blyth)

(Neilgherries) Nilgiri Thrush 2: 159

3: 1 female 2 (?)

1 Ooty, 1 Chimugi, 1 Honnematty Estate, Mysore.

Measurements on p. 78.

1743 Zoothera dauma imbricata Layard (Ceylon)

Ceylon Scaly Thrush 2: 160

nil.

1744 Zoothera dauma aurea (Holandre) (Metz,

France) Golden Thrush 2:161

2: 1 female 1 (?)

1 Tirap div., Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Thandaug, Toungoo

dist., Burma (J.H.D. Mackenzie).

The bird obtained in Arunachal Pradesh on 14

Dec. 1981 shows much darker than white above.

The female from Thundaug, Toungoo dist., Burma,

(no date) agrees with the paler birds of dauma

dauma. Both have 14 rectrices in the tail which ap-

parently make it this subspecies.

Measurements on p. 78.

1745 Zoothera monticola monticola Vigors

(Simla-Almora area) Large Brown Thrush 2: 166

12: 5 males 2 females 5 (?).

1 Koti State, 1 Bhajji State, 5 Simla, N.W.H.; 1 Bhim Tal,

Kumaon, 1 Garhwal, 1 Almora, 1 Naini Tal; 1 Gedu, W. Bhutan.

There is some variation in the depth of brown

of the upperparts but this does not appear to coin-

cide with any dates or sexes.

Measurements on p. 78.

1746 Zoothera marginata Blyth (Arracan) Lesser

Brown Thrush 2: 168

5: 2 males 2 females 1 (?)

1 Bhutan Duars; 3 Margherita, Assam; 1 Mt. Victoria ,

Pakoku Hill Tracts, Burma.

Measurements on p. 78.

1747 Turdus dissimilis dissimilis Blyth (Lower

Bengal) Black-breasted Thrush 2: 140

4 males

1 Firm Base, 1 Namdiik, 2 Arunachal Pradesh

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

75

The measurements appear smaller than IH/9 p.

120.

Measurements on p. 78.

1748 Turdus unicolor Tickell (Borabhum, Purulia

dt. , W. Bengal) Tickell’s Thrush 2: 1 36

29: 14 males 12 females 3 (?)

1 Quetta, Pishim dt., Baluchistan; 2 Chitral, 2 Srinagar, 1

Mogul Maidan, 2 Kashmir, 1 Dunga Gali, Muree Hills; 2 Simla

Hills, 4 Simla; 2 Basantpur, Bhahh State; 1 Almora, 4 Pilibhit

Terai; 1 Karwapani, Sivaliks, U.P.; 1 Trikein, Hathiban, Nepal; 1

Karwapani, Sivaliks, U.P.; 1 Trikein, Hathiban, Nepal; 1

Pithabata, Myurbhanj, 1 Kuldiha, Nilgiri, 1 Orissa; 1 Berar, C.P.;

1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam.

16671 male Simla, and 16670 male Simla ap-

peared to be unicolor but all lacked rufous on under

wing coverts and were sent to B.M. and got con-

firmed).

Measurements on p. 78.

1749 Turdus albocinctus Royle (Himalayas,

restricted to Dehra Dun) Whitecollared Blackbird

21: 13 males 7 females 1 (chick)

1 Gacha, Tsangpo, S. Tibet ; 1 Kufri, Patiala, 6 Simla; 1

Shivpuri, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal; 1 Mountains, n.w. of Mus-

soorie, 2 Dakuri, 2 Garhwal, U.P, 2 Shamgong, Central Bhutan;

1 Tongloo, 1 Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Deoban Jaunsar 9000, 2 no

data.

Measurements on p. 78.

1750 Turdus boulboul (Latham) (India = Darjeel-

ing) Grey winged Blackbird 2: 130

43: 25 males 17 females 1 (?)

1 Dunga Gali, 1 Muree, N.W.F.P.; 1 Golhar, Kishtwar, 12

Simla, 1 Koti State, Simla Hills; 2 Mussoorie; 1 Pologround, 1

Dhanaulti, 3 Dakuri, 1 Almora, 1 Nainital, 1 Pilibhit, U.P.; 1 Bans

Bihari, 1 Hathiban, 2 Nepal Valley; 2 Temi, W. Sikkim; 1 Gedu,

West, 1 Wamrong, East Bhutan; 2 Kurseong, 7 Long View Tea

Estate, Darjeeling, Bengal.

Measurements on p. 78.

1751 Turdus merula intermedius (Richmond)

(Aksu, E. Turkestan) Turkestan Blackbird

2: 1 male 1 female

1 Baghdad , Iraq; 1 Tashkent, U.S.S.R.

Both birds are jet black all over and larger than

the others in their group.

Measurements on p. 78.

1752 Turdus merula maximus (Seebohm) (Cash-

mere, restricted to Gulmerg) Tibetan Blackbird

2:123

3: 1 Male 1 female 1 (?)

2 Nila Valley; 1 Truseum, Garhwal, U.P.

Measurements on p. 79.

1753 Turdus merula nigropileus (Lafresnaye)

Neilgherries, restricted to Kalhatti, northern Nilgiri

Plateau) B lackcapped B lackbird 2: 1 28

38: 22 males 9 females 7 (?)

1 Kumaon, Naini Tal dt., 2 Cambay City environs, 1

Pawagadh (Panchmahal dt.); 7 Panchgani, 1 Poona; 1 Pali Hill,

Bombay, 1 Uran, 1 Kamala Hill, 1 Matheran, 1 Khandala; 1

Koyna Valley; 2 Lanja, 3 Mahableshwar, 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Molem,

Goa; 2 Savantvadi; 2 Karwar, 2 Murgimatta, Sagar, 1 Kuriarkut-

ty, 1 Merchistan, Ponmudi, 1 Thekkady, Periyar Lake, 1 Thattak-

kadu, Travancore; 1 Horabail village, Ulavi, 1 Kunnapalli, Nil-

giris; 1 Kanha Tiger Reserve, M.P.

Measurements on p. 79.

1754 Turdus merula spencei Whistler & Kinnear

(Jeypore Agency) Eastern Ghats Blackbird

6: 3 males 2 females 1 (?)

2 Ratnagiri; 1 Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool, 1

Seshachalam Hills, S.Cuddappa, 1 Sankrametta, 1 Jeypore Agen-

cy.

Measurements on p. 79.

1755 Turdus merula simillimus Jerdon (Neilgher-

ries restricted to Avalanche, higher southern Nilgiri

Plateau) Nilgiri Blackbird 2: 125

4: 3 males 1 female

1 Ootacamand, 1 Ketti, 1 Avalanche, 1 Naduvattom, Nil-

giris.

These are darker than bourdilloni , which are in

various stages of plumage but distinctly paler most

of them being spotted all over.

Measurements on p. 79.

1756 Turdus merula bourdilloni (Seebohm)

(Travancore = Colathoorpolay Patnas, Travancore)

Bourdillon’s Blackbird 2: 127

21 : 13 males 6 females 2 (?)

1 Valpoi, Goa; 1 Anamalai High Range, 1 Munnar, 1

Devikulam, 1 Muthukuzi, Ashambu Hills, 1 Madurai; 1 1 Shem-

baganur, 3 Kodaikanal, 1 Palni Hills.

The bird from Goa (10 Dec. 1979) has a black

bill and may be one that has strayed from the breed-

ing range of the race.

Measurements on p. 79.

1757 Turdus merula kinnisii (Kelaart) (Newera

Elia) Ceylon Blackbird 2:126

76

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

2: 1 male 1 female

1 Hakgalla, 1 Awant, Ceylon.

Measurements on p.

EL Turdus merula merula Linnaeus (Sweden)

Blackbird

2: 1 male 1 (?)

2 Budapest, Hungary.

Measurements on p. 79.

EL Turdus merula syriacus Hemprich & Ehren-

berg

10: 2 males 7 females 1 (?)

1 Baghdad , Iraq^ 1 Mosul , 3 Shiraz, 3 Meshed, 2 Legation

Gulak, Tehran, Iran.

Measurements on p. 79.

1758 Turdus rubrocanus rubrocanus G.R. Gray

(Nepal) Western Greyheaded Thrush 2: 1 32

13: 7 males 3 females 3 (?) (1 juv.)

1 Dunga Galli, 1 Dosoo, Kashmir; 1 Tara Devi, Patiala St.,

1 Keonthal St. 8 Simla N.W.H; 1 Mountains N.W. of Mussoorie.

The females lack the white collar which turns

from grey to pure white in the males.

Measurements on p. 79.

1759 Turdus rubrocanus gouldii (Verreaux) (W.

Setchuan) Gould’s Greyheaded Thrush 2: 133

nil.

1760 Turdus kessleri Przevalski (Kansu) Kessler’s

Thrush 2; 134

nil.

1761 Turdus feai (Salvadori) (Mulayit Mts., Tenas-

serim). 2: 143

nil.

1762 Turdus obscurus Gmelin (Siberia = Lake

Baikal) Dark Trush 2: 141

7: 3 males 1 female 3 (?)

2 Pt. Calimere, Tanjore (list: 1 Maya Bunder, Andamans;

2Narcondam Is; 1 Legon, Henzada, Burma; 1 Malacca.

The birds from Pt. Calimere are not included

in the Eastern Ghats nor in other lists from Pt.

Calimere, the only record from Peninsular India

being one from Belgaum. Those from Narcondam

Island have been included in Abdulali’s list of birds

from this island.

Measurements on p. 79.

1763 Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Jarocki

(Poland) B lackthroated Thrush 2: 1 37

66: 37 males, 25 females 4 (?)

1 Amirabad Berijand, Persia, 5 Sultanabad, 8 m s. of

Shiraz, 1 Meshed, Persia, 3 Pir-e-Banu, 9 m. s. of Shiraz, 2

Bagh-i- Jaunat, 4 m .s.w. of Shiraz, 1 Bagh-Raz-i; 4 Chitral, 1

Wana, 1 Datta Khel, Waziristan; 1 Chaman, 2 Quetta, 1 Kashmir,

Upper Sind Frontier, 1 Pithoro Sind, 1 Bahawalpur Town env., 1

Campbellpur, W. Punjab; 12 Simla, 1 Koti state, 1 Keonthal state;

1 Mussoorie, 2 Momaula, Kumaon, 1 W. Kumaon, 1 Almora, 1

Dwarkanath, Almora, 1 Ambala, 1 Delhi, 1 Rajpur, Barwani St.,

C.I., 1 Swaliks, 1 Salukapur, Kheridist; 1 Baghownie, 1 Isanagar,

2 Tirhut, Darbhanga dt.; 1 Bhuian Duars, 1 Kurseong, 1 Roop-

chena, 1 N. Cachar, 1 Gyantse, 1 Temi, W. Sikkim; 2 Goalpara,

2 Margherita, Assam; 1 Kalaktang, Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 79-80.

1764 Turdus ruficollis ruficollis Pallas (Dauria)

Redthroated Thrush 2: 1 36

23 : 1 4 Males, 8 females 1 (?)

1 Lachen, N. Sikkim, 3 Khasia Hills, 2 Mishing Abor

Country; 16 Temple of Heaven, Peking, China , 1 no data.

Measurements on p. 80.

1765 Turdus naumanni eunomus Temminck

(Japan) Dusky Thrush 2: 133

4: 1 male, 2 females, 1 (?)

1 Margherita, Assam; 1 Sarun, Bengal; 2 Temple of

Heaven, China.

Measurements on p. 80.

1766 Turdus pilaris Linnaeus (Sweden) Fieldfare

2:155

3: 1 male, 2 females

1 Niton, Isle of Wight, 1 Whittlesford, Cambs, U.K.; 1

USSR.

Measurements on p. 80.

1767 Turdus iliacus Linnaeus (Sweden) Redwing

1 (?) (in very poor condition). Niton, Isle of Wight

1768 Turdus viscivorus bonapartei Cabanis

(Himalayas) Mistle Thrush

20: 9 males, 8 females , 3 (?)

3 Chitral, 1 Sonamarg, 1 Pyas, Kishtwar, 1 Liddar Valley,

Kashmir; 2 Keonthal State, 2 Simla, 3 Simla Hills, 1 Cho Moun-

tain, Simla Hills, 1 Dehradun, 2 Momaula, 1 Bhim Tal, Kumaon,

2 Garhwal.

EL. Turdus viscivorus viscivorus

5: 1 male, 2 females 2 (juv.)

2 Niton, Isle of Wight, 2 Cambs, 1 Kain, Persia

EL. Turdus ericetorum philomelus Brehm (Mid-

dle Germany)

11:3 males, 3 females, 5 (?)

1 Tigris, 3 Hawiplain Samara, 1 Fahama, 2 Shustar, 2

Sultanabad, 8 ms. of Shiraz, 1 Bander Mahshahr, Iran; 1 Mosul,

Persia.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN TIIE BNHS COLLECTION

77

PART 34

6

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

79

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DEMANIA SHYAMASUNDARII , A NEW SPECIES OF CRAB (DECAPODA :

BRACHYURA) FROM THE WALTAIR COAST OF BAY OF BENGAL1

K. Nirmala Dhvi2

(With nine text- figures )

Introduction

The diagnostic characters of the genus

Zozymus Leach were given by Alcock (1898). Al-

cock (1898) also gave the key to the Indian species

of Zozymus and described them. Although the

present species bears some resemblances to

Zozymus aeneus (Linn.), detailed study revealed that

it belongs to the genus Demania Laurie, 1906.

Laurie (1906) gave the diagnostic characters of the

genus Demania and cited its differences from those

of Zozymus. He then described a new species.

Demania splendida, collected by Herdman (1902)

at Ceylon (Sri Lanka). In 1969, Guinot revised the

genus Demania and described a new species. Later,

in 1979, Guinot gave the diagnostic characters for

all the eight species so far described.

Demania shyamasundarii sp. nov.

Holotype: Male - breadth 30 mm, length 19 mm,

front 9 mm.

Paratypes: (1) Female, breadth 24 mm, length 18

mm and front 7 mm. (2) Female, breadth 29 mm,

length 17 mm and front 7 mm. (3) Female, breadth

27 mm, length 17 mm and front 7 mm. (4) Female,

breadth 24 mm, length 17 mm and front 7 mm. (5)

Male, breadth 29 mm, length 1 8 mm and front 7 mm.

(6) Male, breadth 27 mm, length 17 mm and front 7

mm. (7) Male, breadth 29 mm, length 19 mm and

front 8 mm. (8) Male, breadth 35 mm, length 21 mm

and front 9 mm. (9) Male, breadth 29 mm, length 19

mm and front 8 mm. (10) Male, breadth 28 mm,

length 19 mm and front 7 mm.

Average measurements: Breadth 29 mm, length 17

mm and front 7 mm.

Collected at offshore fishing station, Visak-

hapatnam during 1979-1980. The holotype and

Accepted June 1990.

2Dept.. of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair, India. Present ad-

dress: Dept, of Zoology, J.M.J. College for Women, Morispet,

Tenali, Andhra Pradesh 522 202.

paratypes are now in the Zoology Museum of

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. They will be

deposited in the Museum of Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta.

Colour during life: Carapace and chelipeds brick-

coloured, legs white with brick-coloured spots,

lobules of carapace with white ocelli. In formalin it

is creamy white in colour and the white ocelli have

disappeared.

Anterior half of the carapace including front

forms a semi- circular outline. Antero-lateral bor-

ders convex, postero-lateral borders straight and

convergent, posterior border slightly concave.

Carapace convex at the centre from side to side

but flat at the posterior region. Regions are well

marked by the grooves and each region is sub-

divided into lobules by similar grooves. The grooves

deep, smooth, without any ornamentation but

covered by pubescence. The lobules smooth,

polished but dimpled, the lobules distinct and some-

what bulging; in the posteriormost region of the

carapace, the lobules are numerous, small, like large

tubercles (Fig. 1).

Front clearly demarcated and divided into two

distinct lobes by a central groove. Anterior border of

frontal lobes slightly oblique, almost at the same

level of the orbits, its breadth almost about one-

fourth of the greatest breadth of the carapace.

Frontal breadth -s- Carapace length (9 19) = 0.47

Length of frontal lobe (inner border) 4- frontal

breadth (2 + 8) = 0.25

Orbital border smooth, tumid. There arc three

fissures on the upper border, one at the middle, the

second between front and inner angle of orbit, the

third between first antero-lateral lobe and outer

angle of the orbit. Eyes pale brown, on short thick

stalks.

The antero-lateral border convex forms an

angle with postero-lateral border, divided into four

lobes by grooves. First two lobes smaller than the

last two lobes. The grooves distinct, border of lobes

82

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Figs. 1 -5. Demania shyamasundarii sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view, 2. Ventral view, 3. Third maxilliped (right side), 4. Chelate leg (under surface), 5. Chelate leg (upper surface).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

83

Table 1

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Demania splendida LAURIE ANDD. shyamasundarii SR NOV.

smooth convex, surface dimpled. There is an indica-

tion that anteriorly it continues below the inner bor-

der of the orbit, to the anterior external angle of the

buccal cavern. Undersurface of carapace rough,

with minute granules. Pubescence at the base of che-

late legs and pereopods.

Thoracic sternal region on either side of the ab-

domen is broken by pubescent grooves into regions

similar to the segments bearing the chelipeds and

pereopods. Surface polished but has some dimples

(Fig. 2).

Basal antennal joint short, present in the inner

orbital angle, its inner angle touches the downward

growth of the front and outer angle juts into the or-

bital hiatus. Flagellum short, lying in the orbital

hiatus and smaller than the diameter of the orbital

hiatus.

Antcnnules fold obliquely, forming an angle of

40° (approximately) with a horizontal line. Interan-

nular septum broad. Merus of third maxilliped is as

broad as the ischium. But the length of the merus is

half that of ischium. A longitudinal furrow traverses

the ischium; this is less distinct on the merus. The

inner borders of ischium and merus bear hairs. The

inner border is oblique, bent backward, surfaces of

ischium and merus polished but have some dimples.

Flagellum arises from the apex and extends up to the

anteriormost region of the ischium (Fig. 3).

Outer border of pterygostome serrated.

Chelipeds of equal size in female but the right

slightly larger in male.

The upper surface of the wrist and hand have

transverse grooves and bear large tubercle-like

structures arranged transversely. The transverse

grooves of hand are traversed by three not so deep

longitudinal grooves, one extending to the base of

the movable finger, the second to the base of the in-

terdigital cleft and the third to the base of the im-

movable fingers. The upper surface of arm shows

two transverse grooves — one deep groove below its

anterior end, and the second (which is not so deep)

below the first. Undersurface of the arm smooth,

concave in correlation with the convex undersurface

of the carapace (Fig. 4). The upper border of arm has

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Figs. 6-9 Demania shyamasundarii sp. nov.

6. Last walking leg (left side), 7. Abdomen (male), 8. First pleopod of male, 9. Tip of first pleopod of male.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

85

three blunt teeth and is lined by short hairs. The

greatest breadth and length of the upper surface of

wrist are almost equal. At the inner anterior angle is

a large tooth. The inner border of hand has six large

tubercles extending from the junction of wrist and

hand to base of the movable finger (Fig. 5). Fingers

have blunt tips. The immovable finger has four teeth

which fit into the concavities of the movable fingers

which has the same number of teeth. At their base

there is a gap but at their tip the first two teeth fit

tightly into the concavities when the fingers are shut.

Walking legs flattened laterally. The surface of

all the walking legs polished. The length of the walk-

ing legs decreases gradually from first to last leg. A

faint longitudinal groove is present in the middle of

both surfaces of the propodus of all legs. Small

dimples present on the polished surface of the walk-

ing legs. Dactylus is narrower than the remaining

segments and tapers gradually towards the tip. The

upper border of dactylus is bordered by hair

throughout but the hairs extend only from the mid-

dle to the tip on the lower border (Fig. 6).

In the male, abdomen has five segments only,

3rd to 5th segments being fused to form a composite

segment. Along the composite segment run two lon-

gitudinal grooves. The sixth segment is broader than

long, triangular, tip rounded and bordered by hairs.

Abdomen of female has seven segments; length of

the segments increases gradually from first to

seventh. Seventh triangular, with round tip. Two

faint longitudinal grooves extend from first to sixth

segments (Fig. 7). Abdomen is well fringed with

hair. The groove covered by the abdomen is finely

granular.

First pleopod of male stout, long and curved in

the middle (Fig. 8). Tip is blunt and bare. Below the

tip both borders have long hairs, and the inner bor-

der also bears spines (Fig. 9).

Discussion

The present species shows some similarities

with Zozymus aeneus (Linn.) and Demania splen-

dida Laurie, 1906, but has a closer resemblance to

the latter.

The similarities are: (1) Antero-lateral borders

of carapace convex, (2) posterior border of carapace

concave, (3) lobules of carapace smooth, (4) struc-

ture of upper border of orbit, (5) thoracic sternal

region, (6) folding of antennules, (7) general struc-

ture of external maxilliped, and (8) structure of the

chelipcds. The differences are shown in Table 1.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Masatasune Takeda, National

Science Museum, Tokyo, Japan for his suggestions

and Mr D.R.K. Sastry of Z.S.I., Calcutta for provid-

ing valuable literature. I am also grateful to Prof. K.

Hanumantha Rao, Department of Zoology for his

suggestions. Financial assistance provided by the

Department of Ocean Development, Government of

India is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Alcock, A. (1898):Materials for a carcinological fauna of India.

No. 3. The Brachyura Cyclometopa. Pari I. Family Xan-

ihidae. Jour. As. Soc. Bengal IXVIL 67-233.

Guinot, D. (1969): Sur divers Xanthidae.notamment sur Aclaea

de Haan et Paractaea gen. nov. (Crustacea, Decapoda,

Brachyura). Cah. Pacif. no. 13: 222-267, figs. 1- 36.

Guinot, D. (1979): Morphologie, phylogeneses et taxonomic des

Brachyoures. Bull. Mus. Hist. rial. Paris 112: 57-61.

Laurie, R.G. (1906): On the Brachyura. Report ceylon pearl

oyster fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar by W. A. Herdman.

Supplementary Report No. XL.

PAT1ALUS , A NEW GENUS OF SUBFAMILY CIONINAE FROM INDIA AND THE

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)1

H.R. Pajni2, Dalip Kumar and H:S. Rose3

(With a text-figure )

Patialus tecomella , a new species under a new genus of subfamily Cioninae has been described. The diagnos-

tic features of the new genus have been included.

Introduction

During the course of extensive collections

under the two 5-year PL-480 projects on Indian Cur-

culionidae, we collected six species of subfamily

Cioninae. One of the species marks the record of a

new genus from this country. The important charac-

ters of the new genus, Patialus , and complete

description of the new species, tecomella , are given

in this communication. The Indian material of this

subfamily is so far represented by eight species

under the genus Cionus Clairv. (Klima 1934).

Observations

The subfamily Cioninae includes medium

sized curculionids with five segmented funiclc and

concealed pygidium. The abdominal sternites 2-4

are curved backwards on lateral sides.

The subfamily includes four Oriental genera,

out of which only Cionus Clairv. has been recorded

from this country. The new genus has paired tarsal

claws but carries a canal on the sternum that runs up

to the middle of mesosternum. The prosternum of

the two known genera with paired claws is not

canaliculated. The prosternum is canaliculated in

the genus Stereonychidius Morimoto which,

however, falls in the category of the single clawed

genera. A revised key to the Oriental genera, as

modified from Morimoto (1962), is given

Patialus gen. nov.

Head large, coarsely punctate; frons broad;

eyes large, ovate. Rostrum as long as pronotum. An-

tennae inserted at apical one- third of rostrum;

funicle with segment 2 longer than 1. Prothorax

transverse, with basal margin bisinuate. Elytra

oblong; striae narrow; intervals much broader than

Accepted October 1990.

2Dept. of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh 160 014

3Dept. of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002.

A KEY TO THE ORIENTAL GENERA OF

SUBFAMILY CIONINAE

1 . Tarsus with a single claw 2

- Tarsus with paired claws v. 3

2. Fore-coxae separated. Prostemum

canaliculated Stereonychidius Morimoto

- Fore-coxae contiguous. Prostemum flat or

depressed Stereonychus Suffrian

3. Prostemum canaliculated Patialus Gen. nov.

- Prostemum non-canaliculated 4

4. Elytra with a sutural spot

Tibiae unarmed in both sexes; claws equal in

female, inner claw shorter than outer one in

male Cionus Clairville

Elytra without a sutural spot.

Tibiae mucronate in male; claws of same length

in both sexes Cleopus Stephens

striae. Hind femora not exceeding elytral apices,

each armed with short tooth. Prosternal canal reach-

ing up to middle of mesosternum. Abdominal ster-

nite 1 longer than 2 and 3 combined. Male genitalia

with aedeagal apodemes as long as aedeagus; en-

dophallus with rod-shaped flagellum; phallobase

with parameres. Female genitalia with coxites

tubular; spermatheca with collum and ramus indis-

tinct.

Type-species: Patialus tecomella sp. nov.

Distribution: India.

Patialus tecomella sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Head piceous, moderately shiny, closely

punctate, covered with dark brown broad scales

sparsely variegated with dull whitish narrow scales;

frons with median shallow depression; eyes black-

ish with golden tinge, ovate. Rostrum rufus, stout,

as long as prothorax, laterally compressed, gently

widened after antennal insertion towards wedge-

shaped apex; surface coarsely punctate, covered

with dark brownish scales up to antennal insertion

NEW' DESCRIPTIONS

87

3

CX

Fig. 1. Patialus tecomella sp. nov.

1-3. Male genitalia - 1. Aedeagus, 2. Phallobase; 3. Gastral spiculum, 4. Female genitalia, 5. Spermatheca.

thereafter sparsely covered with long setae. Anten-

nae testaceous, inserted at apical one-third of

rostrum; scape as long as funicular segments taken

together, gradually clavate; funicle with segment 1

and 2 elongated, segment 2 nearly 1.5 times as long

as 1, 3-5 as long as broad, all segments covered with

suberect setae; club fusiform, finely and uniformly

pubescent.

Prothorax piceous, subconical, broader than

long, its sides moderately rounded, with constricted

and arcuate anterior margin and bisinuate posterior

margin; pronotal surface closely and coarsely

punctate, transversely depressed in apical half; ves-

titure formed of broad median stripe of dark brown

scales sparsely variegated with blackish and white

linear scales, laterally clothed with closely ap-

presscd whitish scales. Scutellum piceous, semicir-

cular and clothed with dark brownish scales.

Elytra piceous, oblong, their dorsal outline

convex, running parallel from base to behind mid-

dle in male and widening in female, shoulders

prominent and roundly rectangular, with apices

emarginate; striae narrow, formed by small deep

punctures, each studded with a minute recumbent

seta; intervals broad, flat, closely and coarsely

punctate; vestiture formed of dark brown and light

pale recumbent scales, intervals 3 and 5 with small

patch of blackish scales.

88

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Legs testaceous, densely covered with dull

whitish linear scales; femora laterally compressed,

each with a sharp tooth; tibiae slender, each with a

fringe of brownish bristles; tarsi densely setose, hind

tarsus with joint 1 somewhat longer than 2, 3rd

bilobed and spongy beneath; claws long, curved and

connate at base and free towards apex.

Thoracic sterna piceous, punctate, each beset

with whitish linear recumbent scale; prostcmum

canaliculate, canal reaching upto middle of

mesostemum and closed behind. Abdominal ster-

nites piceous, closely and compactly punctate,

uniformly clothed with whitish scales; stcrnite 1

longer than 2 and 3 taken together.

Male genitalia with aedeagus tubular, lateral

walls thick; aedeagal apodemes as long as aedeagus;

endophallus beset with rows of spines, flagellum

shorter than each aedeagal apodeme. Phallobase

ring-shaped; phallobasic apodeme shorter than each

aedeagal apodeme, parameres as long as phallobasic

apodeme. Gastral spiculum stout with dilated tip;

lateral arms short and weakly sclerotized. Female

genitalia with coxites tubular; styli 2 times as long

as broad with tip beset with settle. Ventral spiculum

straight with tip dilated. Spermatheca with cornu

curved; ramus and collum indistinct.

Measurements: Length Male body : 4.0 - 4.2 mm :

rostrum : 1.1 -1.2 mm. Female body: 4.2 - 4.5 mm :

rostrum : 1. 1-1.3 mm

Breadth : Male body : 2.3 - 2.5 mm : rostrum :

0.5 mm. Female body: 2.4 - 2.6 mm : rostrum : 0.5

mm

Holotype: male; India; Punjab, Patiala (Punjabi

University, Patiala, near Zoology Department);

Tecomella undulata ; 5. V. 1989; H.S. Rose.

Paratypes: Males 3, females 4; same data as for

holotype; Males 5, females 6; 12-18. IV. 1990;

Tecomella undulata : Avtar Kaur. Material deposited

in Zoology Department, Punjab University, Chan-

digarh.

Acknowledgements

We thank USDA for financing two 5-year

projects under which this work was done. The

laboratory facilities provided by the Chairman of

Zoology Department, are also gratefully acknow-

ledged.

References

Klima, A. (1934): Coleopterorum Catalogus, Pars. 138: 61 pp. eluding Scolytidae, Platypodidae and Cossoninae. J. Fac.

Morimoto, K. (1962): Key to families, subfamilies, tribes and Agric. Kyushu Univ., 12 : 21-66.

genera of the super-family Curculionoidca of Japan ex-

COPIDOGNATH US EBLINGl, A NEW SPECIES OF HALACARIDAE (ACARI) FROM

ANDAMAN ISLANDS (INDIAN OCEAN)1

Tapas Chatterjee2

(With eleven text-figures )

Anew halacarid species, Copidognalhus eblingi, collected among the thalli of Acetabularia sp. in the intertidal

region of Ross Island (Andaman Islands), Bay of Bengal, is described. Its similarities and dissimilarities with the re-

lated species of the genus are discussed.

Lntrqduction

Taxonomic researches on the marine mites of

the Indian coast mention a few species names in the

classified faunal lists prepared for meiofaunal ecol-

ogy studies (Rao 1969, 1972, 1980, Rao and

Accepted July 1990.

r.G. Dept, of Life Sciences, Regional College of Education,

Bhubaneswar 751 007, Orissa.

Ganapati 1968, Rao and Misra 1983 a,b). The only

biosystematic study of Halacaridae from the Indian

coast is that of Rao (1970) from the interstitial sands

of Visakhapatnam coast. Recently Sarma and Chat-

terjee (in press) reported the occurrence of Copidog-

nalhus hartwigi and Atelopsalis pacifica for the first

time from Indian seas. The present paper describes

a new species of the genus Copidognathus , C. eblin-

gi collected among the thalli of Acetabularia sp. in

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

89

1. Idiosoma dorsal (male), 2. Idiosoma ventral (male), 3. Magnified view of posterior areola of AD, 4. OC showing comeae,

areolae and foveae, 5. Magnified portion of the middle costae of PD, 6. GA of female, 7. Gnathosoma. For abbreviations see text.

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Figs. 8-11 .Copidognathus eblingi sp. nov.

8. Leg I (Basifemur-tarsus), 9. Leg II (Basifcmur -tarsus), 10. Leg HI (Basifemur-tarsus), 1 1. Leg IV.

the intertidal region of Ross Is. (Andamans), Bay of

Bengal.

Material and Methods

The foreshore algal samples were collected

and fixed in 70% alcohol in the field and brought to

the laboratory. The halacarids were separated in the

laboratory from the algal thalli and preserved in 70%

alcohol for specific determination. Later the

3

Named after Prof. (Dr) F.J.G. Ebling, Emeritus Professor of

Zoology, University of Sheffield, England, for his pioneering re-

searches on phytal fauna.

specimens were treated with lactic acid and rinsed

in alcohol in cavity slides. The dissected specimens

were mounted in glycerine jelly and sealed.

3

Copidognathus eblingi sp. nov.

Classification adopted here is that of Krantz

(1978) and Bartsch (1983).

Locality: Several male and female specimens were

collected from the algal samples oiAcetabularia sp.

from Ross Is. (Andaman Islands), Bay of Bengal.

Type: Holotype (Male) and other type material are

in the author’s collection in the Dept, of Life Sc.,

R.C.E., Bhubaneswar.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

91

Descriptions

Male: The idiosomal length of males ranged

between 260 |i and 295 ji. All dorsal plates are

separate and coarsely sculptured with both areolae

and fovea (Fig. 1). AD (Anterodorsal plate) with

three areolae, one located anteriorly and two cres-

cent- shaped posteriorly (Fig. 3). Dorsal seta 1 (dsi)

present anterior to the posterior areolae. Dorsal seta

2 (ds2) present between AD and ocular plate (OC),

just above the anterior margin of OC. Membranous

cuticle (me) between AD and PD (posterodorsal

plate) bears parallel striae. OC with two distinct cor-

neae and a few pores between the comeae and fovea

on the rest of the OC (Fig. 4). The OC tapers

posteriorly, extending up to the insertion of legs III.

PD with 4 costae. The two middle costae are two

pores wide (Fig. 5) and the paracostae 1 -2 pore wide.

The ds3, ds4, ds5 (dorsal setae 3,4 and 5 respective-

ly) are on PD between middle and lateral costae

placed at anterior, middle and posterior reaches of

PD respectively (Fig. 1).

All ventral plates are separate, 1st and 2nd

coxal prominences of anterior cpimeral plate (AE)

bear small areolae on the lateral margins while rest

of AE is sculptured with porose panels. AE with 3

pairs of setae. Posterior epimeral plate (PE) bears 3

ventral and one dorsal setae besides two areolae

ventrally. Genitoanal plate (GA) with paragenital

areolae and panels. 26-38 perigenital setae (PGS)

are present around the Genitoanal opening (GO).

Four pairs of subgenital setae (SGS) two pairs

anteriorly and two pairs posteriorly arc present on

the GO (Fig. 2).

A pair of proto-, deuto-, trito-, and basirostral

setae are present on the gnathosoma. Dorsally the

gnathosoma is sculptured with foveae,

ventrolaterally with porose panels and

ventromedially with canaliculi. Palp 4-segmcnted.

Palpal trochanter and patella without any setae. Pal-

pal tibiotarsus bears 3 basal setae and one singlet dis-

tal eupathidia (Fig. 7). The chactotaxy of legs is as

follows:

Trochanter 1, 1, 1, 0 Basifcmur 2,2,2, 2.

Telofemur 5, 5, 2, 3. Patella 4,4, 3, 3. Tibia 7,7,5 ,5.

Chaetotaxy of tarsus is discussed in the text.

Trochanter III clavate and devoid of any

posterodorsal spine. Telofemorae III bear no ventral

setae while IV are with one ventral seta.

Telofemorae, patella and tibiae of legs III and

IV have conspicuously elongated distal lamellae

(Figs. 10, 1 1). Telofemorae, patella and tibiae of legs

I and II have relatively shorter lamellae than those

of III and IV legs.

Tibiae I and II basally bear a pair of denticulous

processes ventrally (Figs. 8, 9). Tibiae I and II bear

4 dorsal and 3 ventral setae (two are pectinate and

one is smooth, slender and hair-like) respectively.

Tarsus I bears three ventral setae (one filiform

seta and two distal eupathidia, three dorsal setae, one

solenidion, one profamulus distal to solenidion and

4 parambulacrel setae (PAS) (2 doublets

eupathidia). Tarsus II bears 3 dorsal fossary setae,

one solenidion, no ventral setae and 4 PAS (two

eupathidia doublets). Tarsi III and IV with three dor-

sal fossary setae and two PAS besides the presence

of a proximodorsal seta on tarsus III (Figs. 10, 11).

All legs have well developed claw fossae, two

lateral claws and a bidentate median claw. Lateral

claws are pectinate ventrally and possess an acces-

sory tooth dorsally.

Female: The length of idiosoma ranges be-

tween 270 \i and 304 ji.

The female is similar to the male except for the

genitoanal plate. Three perigenital setae are present

on each side of the GO. The GO is guarded by a pair

of sclerites equipped with a single pair of SGS near

the anterior end. Ovipositor short (Fig. 6).

Larvae and nymphs were not found in the

samples collected.

Discussion

C. eblingi resembles the members of the key

groups 6600 and 7300 which are the extensions of

the main key group 5000 (Newell 1984). It is ob-

served that basically the main key group of Newell

suffers due to the inadequacies in the scheme as

there is no provision to accommodate the widely

varying traits of the vastly different and

heterogenous species of the extension groups. There

are, in all, five species in the extension key group

mentioned above. Three of which (namely, C. cur-

tus Hall 1912, C. lunatus Newell 1984, and C. semi-

lunatus Newell 1984) belong to the extension key

group 6600 and two species (namely, C. pectinatus

Newell 1984 and C. prolixus Newell 1984) to the

extension key group 7300. The two extension key

groups mainly differ in that the key group 6600 has

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Ds3 on me and me quite rugose or slightly rugose

while in 7300 Ds3 is on PD and me bears parallel

striae. C. semilunatus belonging to the group 6600

bears Ds3 on PD and parallel striae on me. Thus the

distinction envisaged becomes too fragile. By and

large, the pliability, plasticity and variability of the

traits selected render the key grouping defunct.

The present species differs from the other five

species in the presence of a ventral dcnticulous

process at the base of tibiae I and II.

The presence of two crescent-shaped posterior

areolae, ds2 on me, ds3 on PD, 4 costae on PD and

tibiae I-II with denticulous process bring the present

species nearer to C. denlatus Viets 1940. C. eblingi

Refer

Bartsch, I. (1983): vorschlag zurNeugliedorung dcs systems der

Halacaridae (Acari). Zool. Jb. Syst. 110: 179-200.

Hall, H.V.M. (1912): Some marine and terrestrial Acarina of

Laguna Beach. 1st ann. Rep. Laguna Marine Labor.

Pamona coll., Claremont, Calif. 177-186.

Krantz, G.W. (1978): A manual of acarology. 2nd edn. Oregon

State Univ. Book store: 1-509.

Newell, I.M. (1984): Antarctic Halacaroidea. Antarct. Res. Ser.

40: 1-284.

RAO, G.C. (1969): The marine interstitial fauna inhabiting the

beach sands of Orissa coast./. Zool. Soc. India 21: 89- 104.

Rao, G.C. (1970): On some interstitial fauna in the marine sands

of Indian coast. The saltwater mite Halacarus anomalus

Trouessart in the interstitial sands on Indian coast, curr.

Sci., 39: 504-507.

Rao, G.C. (1972): On the geographical distribution of interstitial

fauna of marine beach sand. Proc. naln. Inst. Sci. Acad., B,

38: 164-178.

Rao, G.C. (1980): On the zoogeography of the interstitial

sp. nov. differs from C. dentatus by the presence of

long distal lamellae on telofemorae, patella and

tibiae of all legs which are absent in C. dentatus.

Further, telofemorae III and IV of C. eblingi sp. nov.

have 0 : 1 ventral setae, where as in C. dentatus

telofemorae III and IV have 1:1 ventral setae.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. A.L.N. Sarma, Incharge

of Zoology Divn., R.C.E., Bhubaneswar for critical-

ly going through the manuscript and constant

guidance, to Dr. Ilse Bartsch, Biologische Anstalt

Helgoland, Hamburg (FRG) for readily providing

necessary literature and helpful suggestion.

E N C F. S

mciofauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Indian

Ocean. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 77: 153-178.

Rao, G.C. & Ganapati, RN. (1968): The interstitial fauna in-

habiting the beach sands of Waltair coast. Proc. natn. Inst.

Sci. Acad., B, 34: 82-125.

Rao, G.C. & Misra, A. (1983a): Meiofauna from Lakshadweep,

Indian Ocean. Cah. Biol. Mar., 24: 51-68.

Rao, G.C. & Misra, A. (1983b): Studies on the meiofauna of

Sagar Islands. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. ( Animal Sc.) 92: 73-

85.

Sarma, A.L.N. & Chatterjee, T. (in press): Occurrence of

Copidognathus harlwigi Bartsch 1978 (Halacaridae:

Acari) from Indian Ocean. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Sarma, A.L.N. & Chatterjee, T. (in press): Record of Atelop-

salis pacifica Bartsch 1985 (Halacaridae: Acari) from

Eastern Indian Ocean, ibid.

Viets, K. (1940): Meeresmilben aus der Adria. (Halacaridae und

Hydrachnellae, Acari). Forlsetzung. Arch. Naturgesch., 9:

1-135.

A NEW SPECIES OF ERYX (BOIDAE: SERPENTES: SQUAMATA)

FROM SOUTH-WESTERN INDIA1

INDRANE1L DAS2

(With three text -figures )

The occurrence of two species of erycine

snakes (sand boas), Eryx conicus (Schneider, 1801)

and Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) in India is docu-

mented in the treatises of Gunther (1864),

Boulenger (1890, 1893) and Smith (1943), as well

Accepted October 1990.

2Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli, Perur Post,

Mahabalipuram Road, Madras 603 104, Tamil Nadu.

as in more recent works on the group. A third

taxonomically cryptic erycine from south-western

India, whose identity had apparently gone un-

noticed, had aroused our suspicion for a long time.

Misidentified by earlier workers as Eryx conicus or

a Eryx conicus X E. johnii hybrid, morphological

observations on a series demonstrates it as a hither-

to undescribed species, described here as:

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88

Das: Eryx whitakeri sp. nov.

Plate

*V .

* >.> # * «P

Top: Tail of Eryx whitakeri sp. nov. Bottom: Tail of Eryx conicus

fop: Head and forcbody of Eryx whitakeri sp. nov. Bottom: Head and forebody of Eryx conicus

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

93

Eryx whitakcri sp. nov. (Figs. 1 & 2)

Diagnosis: A medium-sized (at least 79.0 cm total

body length and 73.5 cm snout-vent length) erycine,

distinguished from other described species of the

genus Eryx by possessing the following mor-

phological characteristics : smooth scales on dorsal

aspect of body; rostral without angular edge; men-

tal groove absent; tail-tip blunt in adults; subcaudals

18-25, ventrals 201- 206, midbody scale rows 50-54

and in coloration (dorsally vandyke brown with

sepia blotches, edged with chamois, forehead dark

vinaceous, ventrally pale horn).

Description: Rostral triangular, just visible from

above, smooth, width approximately twice height,

without angular edge; eyes small (eye

diameter/snout-vent length averaging 0.0063),

latero- superior, separated from each other by 8-9

longitudinal rows of scales, 10-11 scales surround-

ing the eyes; pupil black, vertical, surrounding areas

golden yellow; nasals and internasals enlarged;

upper labials 13-14, lower labials 17-20; head bare-

ly distinct from body somewhat triangular; nostrils

slit-like, between two enlarged nasals; mental

groove absent; anterior teeth of maxillae and man-

dibles longer than the posterior ones.

Body cylindrical; scales on the dorsal aspect of

head and body small, smooth; tail very short (tail

length/snout-vent length averaging 0.072); tip

Fig. 1. Holotype of Eryx whiiakeri sp. nov.

bluntly rounded, especially in the adult; subcaudals

single; midbody scales rows 50-54, ventrals 201-

206, subcaudals 18-25; anals typically tripartite.

A claw-like spur on each side of the anus in

males. Colour (terminology follows Smithe, 1975)

dorsally typically vandyke brown, blotched with

sepia, darker posteriorly, blotches joined and extend

Fig. 2. Variations in head and nape pattern in the types of Eryx whitaker i sp. nov. (not to scale)

7

94

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Table 1

MORPHOLOGICAL DATA INCLUDING PIIOLIDOSIS OF THE

HOLOTYPE OF Eryx whitaker i SP. NOV. (ZSI 24810).

Measurements in cm; weight in g.

uninterrupted up to about the middle half of the

body, forming a band with irregular edges, another

thinner band of the same colour laterally, separated

from the streak from the posterior comer of the eyes

to the angle of the jaws; forehead closely approach-

ing dark vinaceous; upper and lower lips indistinct-

ly barred with dark sepia; ventrally pale horn.

Holotype: Adult female. ZSI 24810, Mangalore,

Karnataka State, India. April, 1990. Coll. Mangalore

Snake Park.

Paratypes: Two juvenile females, ZSI 24811 and

24812, Cannanore, Kerala State, India. January,

1990, Coll. M. P. Chandran, Cannanore Snake Park;

one juvenile male, ZSI 24813, Felneer Hostel, Man-

galore, Karnataka State, India. 21 May, 1990, Coll.

Krishna Gopal; One juvenile female, ZSI 22152,

Panjim sea beach, 29 km west of Ponda, Goa. 26

September, 1969. Coll. R.C. Sharma and party.

Etymology: The new species has been named after

Romulus Whitaker in recognition of his contribution

to the herpetology of the Indian subcontinent.

Intraspecific variations: The following variations

were found in the five types (see Tables 1 and 2):

Tail/snout- vent length proportions 0.062 - 0.079 (X

= 0.072 +/- SE 0.0037) the damaged type from Goa

excluded; midbody scale rows 50-52 (X = 51.0);

ventrals 201-206 (X = 202.6): subcaudals 18-25 (X

= 20.4); upper labials 13-14, (X = 13.5); lower

labials 1 7-20 (X = 1 8.5). The holotype is darker dor-

sally, with indistinct blotches compared to the

paratypes, all of which are juveniles (total body

length 22.0-29.1 cm). The variations in the pattern

on the forehead and nape of the types have been

depicted in Fig. 2.

Comparisons: Closely related to Eryx conic us, with

which it shares a number of characters, such as a

Table 2

MORPHOLOGICAL DATA, INCLUDING PIIOLIDOSIS OF THE PARATYPES OF Eryx whitakeri SP. NOV

(ZSI 24811, 24812, 24813 AND 22152).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

95

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS Eryx

1 . Eyes on upper surface of head, separated by four or five lon-

gitudinal series of scales E.jayakari Boulcnger

1 \ Eyes latero-superior, separated by five or more longitudinal

series of scales 2

2. Rostrals without angular edge 3

2’. Rostral with sharp angular edge 4

3. Tail-tip pointed; dorsal body scales keeled in 40-55 rows;

ventrals 161-196 E. conicus (Schneider)

3’. Tail-tip rounded; dorsal body scales smooth in 50-54 rows;

ventrals 201 -206 E. whitaker i sp. nov.

4. Tail-tip pointed 5

4’. Tail-tip blunt 7

5. Tail ends in a curved, claw-like structure; scales between

eyes 5 E. muelleri (Boulenger)

5’. Tail ends in a conical scute; scales between 5-12 6

6. Scales between eyes 9-12; scales round eye 12-15; midbody

scale rows 44-59 E. colubrinus (Linnaeus)

6\ Scales between eyes 5-6; scales round eye 9-11; midbody

scale rows 34-40 E. somalicus Scortecci

7. Midbody scale rows 36 E. elegans (Gray)

7’. Midbody scale rows more than 36 8

8. Width of interorbital space considerably greater than dis-

tance from posterior edge of eye to comer of mouth; front

and upper surface of snout slightly convex; 2nd upper labial

usually higher than 3rd; ventrals without spots, or with

widely separated dark spots E.jaculus ^Linnaeus)

8’. Width of interorbital space equals, less than, or slightly

greater than distance from posterior edge ol eye to comer

of mouth; front and upper surface of snout not convex; 2nd

upper labial may be lower or higher than 3rd; ventrals usual-

ly with dark confluent spots 9

9. Width of interorbital space considerably less than distance

from posterior edge of eye to comer of mouth; eyes directed

upward; scales on tail smooth or with scarcely delectable

keels; 2nd upper labial usually lower than 3rd

E. miliaris (Pallas)

9’. Width of interorbital space equal, slightly less than, or

slightly greater than distance from posterior edge of eyes to

comer of mouth; eyes directed laterally; scales on tail with

prominent keels at least in adults 10

10. Scales on body smooth, those on tail and on sides near anal

region keeled; end of tail much narrower than head; no dis-

tinct bands on body or tail, but dark blotches and irregular

markings present E. lataricus (Lichtenstein)

10’. Scales on body and tail more or less distinctly keeled; tail

extremely blunt, often as wide as head; unicoloured or with

series of distinctly dark bands on tail, sometimes on body,

especially evident posteriorly E.johnii (Russell)

rostral without angular edge, absence of mental

groove and eyes latero-superior.

The new species, however differs from conicus

in lacking keels on the scales of the dorsal surface

of the body, including the forehead; a rounded tail

tip; a difference in ventral counts (161-196 in con-

icus, 201-206 in whitakeri sp. nov.) and a different

colour pattern (raw umber blotches in conicus , sepia

blotches in whitakeri sp. nov.)

Eryx whitakeri sp. nov. differs from the only

other previously described erycine species from

India, E. johnii, in the nature of its rostral, which is

without an angular edge (versus with a sharp angular

edge in johnii) absence of a mental groove (present

in johnii) and a different colour pattern (see below).

A dichotomous identification key to the

species of the genus Eryx (Daudin, 1803), modified

from Boulenger (1893) is given.

Taxonomy and natural history; Khaire and Khaire

(1986, 1987) reported on a specimen of the new

species, identifiable from scale counts (midbody

scale rows 52, ventrals 201 , subcaudals 18), descrip-

tion and photographs of the tail from Alibag, Raigad

district, Maharashtra, which they mistook for a Eryx

conicus x Eryx johnii hybrid. Collection of the

present series from the same general area (the south-

western coast of India) indicates that the taxon is

valid. Adiyodi’s (1960) anecdotal notes on the biol-

ogy of an erycine, identified as Eryx conicus , are

suspected to refer to the new species, the animals

being referred to as the ‘red earth boa’, a red body

coloration hitherto not recorded in E. conicus , which

is raw umber, blotched with yellow ochre or cream

on the top of body and with a brownish-olive

forehead. The new species, however, has a dark

vinaceous (= shade of pink) forehead and base

colour of body. However, no mention is made of the

locality where the observations took place. The

author’s address being Cochin, also in the coastal

area of Kerala, the possibility that the species

referred to is whitakeri sp. nov. is likely. Sharma

(1976) reported on a collection of reptiles from Goa

that included a single example of the new species,

identified as Eryx conicus. The material (ZSI Reg.

22152) was made one of the paratypes of the new

species.

The new species is distributed along the south-

western coast of India, in the states of Kerala, Kar-

nataka, Goa and southern Maharashtra (Fig. 3). One

96

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL 11/ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Fig. 3. Distribution of Eryx whilakeri sp. nov. (open circles), Eryx conicus (closed circles) and Eryx johnii (squares) in India based

on museum specimen and literature record ? = Record cited in text that is suspected to be the new species.

of the paralypes was collected from scrub country

near the sea coast and is abundant in Dakshin Kan-

nada district, Karnataka, where the species is

referred to as irr thale (= two-headed) in Kannada,

on account of the blunL tail-tip that is sometimes mis-

taken for a second head (Krishna Gopal, pers.

comm.). Khaire and Khaire (1986) mentioned that

their specimen was collected from an area where

both Eryx conicus and E. johnii occur, suggesting

that all three species are sympatric.

In captivity, these snakes ate live mice and ger-

bils, which were seized and swallowed in the man-

ner typical of boids. One juvenile was observed suc-

cessfully swallowing a young mouse backwards.

When alarmed, they hid their heads under the coils

of the body or attempted to flatten their bodies onto

the substrate. Freshly caught animals showed less

aggression than Eryx conicus, though when

provoked appeared willing to bite. The tip of tail was

slightly prehensile.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

97

Acknowledgements

The Director, Zoological Survey of India per-

mitted me to examine material at the National

Zoological Collection, where the staff of the Rep-

tilia Section, D.R Sanyal, Scientist D, B. Datta

Gupta and N.C. Gayen, Sernior Zoological Assis-

tants, provided assistance and facilities.

The Mangalore Snake Park, through B.K.

Sharath provided the holotypc, one was collected by

Refer

Adiyodi, K.G. (1960): Observations on the red earth boa or

Russell’s earth-snake [Eryx conicus (Schneider)]. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3): 671-672.

Boulenger, G.A. (1890): The fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor and

Francis, London. 541 pp.

BoULENGER, G.A. (1893): Catalogue of the snakes in the British

Museum (Natural History). Vol. I. British Museum

(Natural History), London, xiii + 448 pp.

Gunther, A.C.L. (1864): The reptiles of British India.

Hardwicke, London, xxvii + 452 pp.

Khaire, A. & Khaire, N. (1986): A report on the occurrence of

hybrid between Eryx conicus (Schneider) and Eryx johnii

Krishna Gopal and the rest obtained by M.P.

Chandran of the Cannanore Snake Park. Manuscript

preparation was supported by the Madras Crocodile

Bank Trust, and I thank Rom Whitaker, Harry

Andrews and Shekar Dattatri for their help. Donald

G. Broadley and Garth Underwood read an earlier

draft of the manuscript and provided useful com-

ments and information. Don Broadley ’s help in

preparing the key to the genus Eryx is gratefully ac-

knowledged.

E N C E S

(Russell). The Snake 18: 1 14-117.

Khaire, A. & Khaire, N. (1987): A report on the occurrence of

hybrid between Eryx conicus ( Schneider ) and Eryx johnii

(Russell). Hamadryad 12 (2): 7.

Sharma, R.C. (1976): Records of the reptiles of Goa. Rec. Zool.

Surv. India 71: 149-167.

Smith, M.A. (1943): 'Hie fauna of British India, Ceylon and

Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-

region. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. 3. Serpentes. Taylor

and Francis, London, xii + 583 pp.

Smithe, F.B. (1975): Naturalist’s color guide. American Museum

of Natural History, New York.

CINNAMOMUM CHEMUNG1ANUM (LAURACEAE)— A NEW SPECIES

FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA1

M. Mohan and A.N. Henry2

(With a text -figure)

"Chemungi" (Chemungimottai) is an isolated

peak in the southern Western Ghats in Thiruvanan-

thapuram (Trivandrum) District of Kerala. This

peak is situated on the approach way from Bonec-

cord in Kerala to Kannikatti in Tamil Nadu. A

botanically rich area, Chemungi is the type locality

of many taxa collected by Bourdillon and others, and

described by subsequent authors like Gamble and

Fischer. During an intensive plant exploration work

in this area for the preparation of the ‘Flora of

Thiruvananthapuram Dt." one of us (MM) collected

an interesting specimen of the genus Cinnamomum

Schaeff. This specimen was first matched with C.

travancoricum Gamble (type locality - Chemungi);

Accepted March 1991.

Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, TNAV Campus,

Coimbatore 64 1 003, Tamil Nadu.

but on a critical examination it was found to be dis-

tinct and is hence described as a new species.

Cinnamomum chemungianum sp. nov.

Planta inter Cinnamomum filipedicellatum

Kosterm. et C. travancoricum Gamble quasi inter-

media. A C. filipedicellatum Kosterm. foliis par-

vioribus, ovatis, ad basim rotundis, paginis inferis

minute pilosis; paniculis pedunculis et pedicellis

brevioribus; floribus magnioribus et a C. travan-

coricum Gamble foliis brevioribus, microscopicue

pilosis (vice dense pilosis in C. travancoricum ),

ovatis, ad basim rotundis; paniculis glabris (vice

racemes dense pubesccntis in C. travancoricum)’,

perianthiis lobis brevioribus differt.

Shrubs or small trees, 3-4 m tall; branches

slender, terete; terminal buds small, minutely

sericeous. Leaves 3-7 by 2-4 cm, thinly coriaceous,

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL //AST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

J4cm

F'ig. 1. Cinnarnomum chemun%ianum sp. nov.

1. Twig, 2. Mower, 3. Perianth split open (part) 4. Fruit, 5. Stamen, 6. Slaminode, 7. Pistil, 8. . Ovary (c.s.)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

99

Table 1

DEFFE REINITIATION BETWEEN 3 SPECIES OF Cinnamomum

smooth and glossy above, sparsely apprcsscd pilose

beneath when young, ovate, caudate acuminate at

apex with 1-2 cm long acumen, rounded at base;

lateral nerves reaching 3/4 of the length; petioles

0.6-1 cm long, glabrous, concave above. Inflores-

cence a much reduced panicle, up to 4 cm long,

glabrous, axillary or pseudoterminal; peduncles 1.5-

2 cm long, glabrous; pedicels 4-6 mm long. Flowers

1-1.2 cm long. Perianth lobes 6 in two whorls of 3

each, c. 1.5 mm long, appressed pilose, red, ovate,

acute at apex; tube c. 3 mm long, pilose. Stamens

many in 3 rows, c. 1 .5 mm long; anthers truncate, 4-

loculed, glandular; filaments villous; staminodes c.

0.5 mm long, ovate, acute. Ovary c. 2 by 1.5 mm,

subglobular, 1-ovuled; styles 1 mm long; stigmas

faintly 3-lobed. Berries c. 1.4 by 1 cm, ellipsoid.

Holotype M. Mohanan 61830 (CAL) and

isotypes M. Mohanan 61830 (MH Acc. No. 136396-

97) were collected from Chemungi, Thiruvanan-

thapuram dl., Kerala (alt. c. 1450 m) on 19 May

1979.

This rare plant grows in the dense forests along

the slopes of Chemungi.

Flowering and fruiting: December-March.

This species is closer to C. filipedicellatum

Kosterm. but differs from it by the smaller ovate

leaves rounded at base and minutely pilose beneath,

shorter panicles, peduncles and pedicels, and larger

flowers. It is also nearer to C. travancoricum

Gamble but differs by the smaller, microscopically

pilose (densely pubescent in C. travancoricum ),

ovate leaves with rounded base; glabrous panicles

(densely pubescent racemes in C. travancoricum );

and shorter perianth lobes. The differentiation

among these three species is shown in Table 1.

We are thankful to Dr V.J. Nair, Scientist SD,

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for render-

ing the Latin translation.

A NEW SPECIES OF THRAULUS (EPHEMEROPTERA: LEPTOPHLEB IIDAE:

ATOLOPHLEBIINAE) FROM NILGIRIS, SOUTH INDIA1

A.K. arumuga Soman2

(With seven text-figures)

Thraulus mudumalaiensis, sp. nov. is described from

are provided for a female nymph.

Accepted February 1989.

Bhavan’s Gandhi Vidyashram and Madras Science Foundation,

P.O. Box No. 9, Golf Club Road, Kodai kanal 624 103,

Tamil Nadu.

the collections made in Nilgiris, south India. Descriptions

Eaton in 1881 established the genus Thraulus

for the species Thraulus bellus , followed by T. tur-

binatus (Ulmer 1909), T. semicastaneous (Gillies

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Figs. 1-7. Tkraulus mudutna la tens is sp. nov. (female)

1. Labrum, 2. Labium (dorsal and ventral), 3. Mandible, 4 a. Max. Palpi (magnified), 4 b. Maxilla, 5. Claw of foreleg,

6. Hyphopharynx, 7 a. 4th gill, 7 b. 1st gill.

1951), T. faciatus (Kimmins 1956), T. torrentis (Gil-

lies 1964), T. bishobi Peters and Tsui 1972, T.

demoulini Peters and Tsui 1972, T. mariae Peters

and Tsui 1972, T. hsui Peters and Tsui, 1972, T.

gopalani Grant and Sivaramakrishnan 1985 and

now T. mudumalaiensis sp. nov. which has been

from Nilgiris, South India.

Thraulus mudumalaiensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)

Female nymph (in alcohol). Body length 6.3

mm, head width 1.3 mm.

Head (Figs. 1-4 and 6): Prognathus, pale, washed

evenly between eyes, ocelli and antennal sockets.

Eyes dark purplish, nearly black, subtriangulate,

separated from one another by 4.3 times the width

of an eye. Antennae pale with scape, pedicle, flagel-

lum. Mouth parts (Figs. 1-4,6): Labrum (Fig. 1) with

smoothly curved emargination, without denticles,

width 2.0 times the length. Two rows of dorsal setae

not para 1 le! ; i nner ro w short and more or less straight

and outer row curved outwards and an irregular in-

termittent row of setae seen in between them

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

101

ventrally. Group of setae on either of anteriolatcral

side of labrum. Mandibles (Fig. 3) lateral margin ar-

culate, smoothly rounded, with a short row of hairs

about 7 in number in between the distance of 0.6 to

0.78 (Ca.)3 from basal. Prosthecal tuft with 14 stiff

hairs on left mandible, 9 in right. Incisors unserrated,

end in trident structure. Hyphopharynx (Fig. 6) Lin-

gua, snow-white in color with well developed lateral

processes, apex of submedian lobe notched, super

lingua brownish yellow with a row of hairs along the

anterior margin. Maxillae (Fig. 4a, 4b) galea and

lacinia narrow at apex. Segmental lengths of 1 st, 2nd

and 3rd are 17, 17 and 12.5 (Ca) respectively. Seg-

ment 2 of maxi, palpi is almost equal to the length

of segment 1 and segment 3 of the max. Palpi is 0.74

the length of segment 2. Widths of the apical and

subapical rows arp 0.88 and 0.65 respectively to the

width of galealacinia. Labium (Fig. 2): mesal region

of the paraglossa and inner lateral side of the glossa

snow-white in colour. Anterior side of the glassa and

paraglassa light yellowish brown. Segments of

labial palpi 1st, 2nd and 3rd are 28,20,23 (Ca.)

respectively. Segment 2 of the labial palpi 0.7 the

length of segment 1, and segment 3 of the palpi a lit-

tle longer than segment 2.

Thorax: Pronotum, anterior margin curved.

Pronotum, mesonotum, metanotum, intcrcoxel area,

sterna, pleura arc generally washed with testaceous.

Basal area of forewing yellow with a little tinge of

brown. Coastal area of forewings hyaline. Middle

leg coxae, with brown shading, trochanter with a

few spines. Inner side of the femora not angulate,

tibia with prominent bristles on outer side and im-

prominent spines throughout the length of inner

side, which are subequal in length. Claw of foreleg

(Fig. 5) tip dull reddish brown and mesal region

greenish yellow in colour with 10 basal denticles in-

creasing medially and decreasing apically and sub-

apical row with 5 minute denticles.

Abdomen: Brownish yellow in colour, 1-6 of the

terga with pale mesal line. 10th segment light

ochraceous, 9th tergite’s lateral side with dull brown

band. Lateral sides of terga and spiracular area pale

in colour, Posterolateral projections in 8th and 9th

segments light ochraceous and acuminate. Gills

(Fig. 7a, b) yellow with little tinge of brown, veins

clear, 1-7 dismiler, gill 1 dorsal lanceolate and

3 " " ~ " ~

Ca. = Calibration

ventral slender. 2-7 gill’s (Fig. 7a) dorsal elliptical

and ventral oval shaped with entire margin fringed,

length of the fimbriae increased apically. Caudal

filaments, terminal slightly longer than the cerci.

Thraulus mudumalaiensis can be distin-

guished from all other known described species by

the following combination of characters in the

nymph 1) claws (Fig. 5) with 5 minute denticles in

apical set and 10 larger denticles in basal row in

which the size increases medially, then decreases

apically. 2) labrum (Fig. 1) without denticles in the

emargination and has 2 rows of setae on dorsal side

and an irregular intermittent setae ventrally in be-

tween the 2 dorsal rows, a cluster of setae of either

of the anterolateral side of its venter. 3) coastal area

of forewing pads hyaline, without longitudinal

brown streak. 4) mandibles (Fig. 3) with lateral sides

smoothly rounded with some setae on mid region.

5) maxillary palp (Fig. 4a) has 2nd segment almost

equal to the length of segment 1, segment 3, 0.74

the length of segment 2. 6) labial segment (Fig. 2.)

segment 2 is 0.7 the length of segment 1 and seg-

ment 3 a little longer than segment 2.

Thraulus mudumalaiensis is closely allied to

Thraulus bishopi in the following characters. Gill 1-

7 dissimilar, gill 1 (Fig. 7b) dorsal lanceolate and

ventral slender. Gills 2-7 (Fig. 7a) dorsal ovate with

entire margin fringed and absence of macula on 2-9

sterna. Setae on middle tibia subequal in length. Ab-

dominal terga 8-9 with posterolateral spines, claws

with apical — most denticles of subapical row not

disproportionately large.

Distribution: Thraulus mudumalaiensis is known

only from Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

Biology: It was found on a small sized slightly algal

coated stone which was crawling with nymphs of

Chorotrepes sp., Baetis sp. Heptageneidae and

Caenidae of Ephemeroptera, and nymphs of

Trichoptera and Plecoptera at a depth of 15 cm in

the middle of a slow moving clear stream.

Etymology: This species is named after the place

where it was collected first.

Type data: Female nymph, with abdomen and part

of thorax in alcohol and mouth parts, legs, gills in

slides with following label. Holotype: INDIA: Nil-

giris, Mudumalai, 950 m, 2 IV 88, with slide num-

bers A.K.A 1-15, Reg. No. I.E.la-p., which have

been deposited in the Zoological Survey of India,

Madras, Tamil Nadu.

102

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

Referenchs

Grillies, M.T. (1951): Further notes on Fphcmcroptcra from

India and south east Asia. Proc. R. ent. Soc. London (B)

20: 121-130.

Kimmins, D.E. (1956): New species of Ephcmeroptcra from

Uganda. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London. Ent. 4: 69-

87.

Peters, W.L. & Tsui, P.T.P. (1972): New species of Thraulus

from Asia (Lcptophlcbidae: Ephemeroptera). Oriental in-

sects 6(1): 1-17.

Ulmer, G. (1909): Ephcmcridcn von. Madagaskar und den com-

oren. In: Rcisc in Oslafrica v. A. Voeltkow Bd. 2. Stuttgart

(E. Schweizcrban): 365-368.

REVIEWS

THE ASIAN ELEPHANT: ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT By R. Sukumar. Cambridge

University Press, 1989. Price £ 40.

At a time when international concern is focused

heavily on the plight of the African elephant Loxodonta

africana whose numbers have declined over the decades

to about 600,000, it is disturbing to know that there are

only about 34,000 to 56,000 Asian elephants Elephas

maximus left throughout Asia. Much of the decline in the

number of Asian elephant has been due to the loss of

habitat through competition with man.

Dr Sukumar ’s book has synthesised almost a

decade’s observations and research on the Asian elephant

carried out in southern India. It is the only serious book of

this nature currently available as far as the Asian elephant

is concerned. As such it becomes an invaluable source

book for wildlife managers and ecologists involved with

the conservation and management of the elephant in Asia.

Given its easy style, it can also be read by anyone wish-

ing to learn more about the dynamics of elephant popula-

tions.

The book reviews the status of the Asian elephant in

the Indian subcontinent, continental southeast Asia and in

such islands in Asia as Sri Lanka, Sumatra and Borneo.

The book is largely based on the author’s field studies car-

ried out in an area of 1,130 sq. km spread over the

Chamarajanagar, Kollegal and Satyamangalam Forest

Divisions in southern India. In view of the fact that this

study area also included a 70 sq. km enclave of cultivated

land, the book addresses such key conservation and

management issues as crop raiding and manslaughter by

elephants, and poaching and habitat manipulation by man.

The book discusses not only the causes of crop raiding but

more importantly, it provides a number of practical

methods to mitigate such attacks.

One of the most interesting chapters in the book is

about the dynamics of elephant populations in which Dr

Sukumar assesses the influence of habitat conditions on

the performance of the elephant populations. That the age

at sexual maturity is very plastic in elephants and can be

deferred in unfavourable situations has been documented

by Dr Richard Laws in the case of the African elephant.

In Asia, it appears that the mean age at first calving may

be as late as 18-20 years. Bull elephants may not be able

to mate until they are older than 20 or 25 years owing to

prevailing social hierarchy. Mean calving interval of 4.7

years recorded in the field compares favourably with the

most productive African elephant populations.

Dr Sukumar ’s book must be regarded as an invalu-

able asset to any wildlife manager involved with the

management of elephants. It is particularly useful in un-

derstanding the more common problems of why elephants

raid crops, and how elephant populations can be vul-

nerable to demographic, environmental and genetic

stochasticity once their size becomes too small. The book

also underlines the success in breeding elephants in semi-

natural conditions. In Tamil Nadu alone, between 1950

and 1983, about 74 calves were bom to 37 captive adult

cow elephants. Such a success was achieved mainly be-

cause the animals were kept in larger groups (more than

10 animals) and let out for feeding at night in the forest,

where wild bull elephants could mate with the cows. Here

perhaps is a pointer to those zoo authorities who wish to

breed endangered species in captivity. Large mammals are

more likely to breed in natural or semi-natural conditions

than in the confines of the zoos alone.

The book is illustrated with clear black and white

photographs of elephants and their habitats in India. If

there is one factor that is disagreeable about this book, then

it must surely be its prohibitively high cost at 40 pounds

sterling! At such a price, most of the wildlife managers

and scientists in the third world would find it beyond their

reach. This can be overcome by producing a cheaper

paperback edition which would be of enormous use to

everyone interested in this conspicuous and endangered

species of large mammals.

CHARLES SANTIAPILLAI

ETHNOBOTANY (Journal of Society of Ethnobotanists). Edited by Dr S.K. Jain (Chief Editor),

Dr R.R. R^o, Dr B.N. Mehrotra, Dr S.L. Kapoor, Dr Roma Mitra, Dr S.K. Manilal, Dr J.J.

Maheshwari, Dr N.C. Shah and Dr Ved Prakash. Vol. 1 (Nos. 1 & 2), pp. 1-116 (2 cm x 18 cm).

New Delhi, 1989. Deep Publications. Annual subscription: Rs. 200 or US $ 50.

This premier issue of the journal representing the

first volume (incorporating Nos. 1 & 2) for the year 1989

comprises 116 printed pages with a dozen of articles on

various topics on Ethnobotany.

In the opening article. Dr S.K. Jain, the chief editor

of the journal, has given guidelines of the topics which

will be acceptable for publication in the journal, and a note

on justification for the need of a separate Ethnobotanical

journal.

In addition to the editorial board, the journal has a

104

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol 88

comprehensive advisory panel comprising of 23 subject

experts from various countries like U.S.A., Canada, Japan,

U.K., Hungary, Tanzania, Spain and New Zealand.

Surprisingly, in spite of a fairly large number of office

bearers of the society and a good editorial board, it appears

that the publication of the journal will be managed by

private publishers - M/s Deep Publications.

Two articles in the issue are particularly noteworthy:

1 . A case history: Identification of Yoco, a stimulant of the

North westernmost Amazonia, by Richard Evans Schultes.

2. The traditional Geographical range and Ethnobotanical

diversity of Indian Valeriana, by Ved Prakash, B.S. Aswal

and B.N. Mehrotra.

During the last decade, a number of botanical

societies have come out with various types of journals,

among which the Journal of Ethnobotany is unique as it

tries to project to the public the authentic information

about various types of plants of different countries.

It is interesting to note that in spite of the modem

scientific developments, a number of traditional practices

are still followed in various countries; this can be

visualised while going through the various articles

presented in the journal.

Perhaps the journal may require much more inter-

disciplinary data in order to serve the growing needs of

the young, enthusiastic scientists in India today.

DR (MRS) S M ALMEIDA

WORLD PLANT CONSERVATION BIBLIOGRAPHY, 1990. Compiled by The World Con-

servation Monitoring Centre and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. pp. i-xv +1-645 (24.5 x 15.5

cm). Published by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Price: £ 15 (extra for postage -15% for UK

and 17.5% for overseas by surface mail).

The volume includes over 10,000 citations to litera-

ture about plant conservation published during the last

decade. The scope of this book ranges from highly specific

papers on individual threatened plant species to more

general papers on conservation strategy, policy and law. It

includes literature at all levels - local, national and inter-

national.

The publishers make no claims about the com-

prehensiveness of this volume but hope that it will prove

useful to those who need access to literature.

Avast amount of information on plant conservation

is scattered in numerous journals and periodicals, some of

which are very little known outside their own regions. Ac-

cess to this information in a single volume, therefore, is a

great service to the individuals or small organisations

which have no direct links to the larger scientific libraries.

Entries in the book begin with general references

followed by regional references and regions arranged al-

phabetically, and then finally according to alphabetical

order of countries. Within the countries there are sub-

divisions of states, union territories or geographically

separated islands.

India is covered by 387 entries, occupying 23 pages

of the book. The first 12 deal with India in general while

the remaining pages give references on specified parts of

the country such as Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh,

Arunachal Pradesh, Maharashtra etc.

Each entry also provides coded information regard-

ing the language of the paper, whether a summary in

English is given or not and type of information the article

contains.

The compilers of this volume intend to produce pe-

riodical supplements and revised editions of this work and

have expressed their desire to receive suggestions from

readers regarding new and missing titles which could be

incorporated in future publications. These suggestions,

additions and corrections may be communicated to any of

the following addresses:

Threatened Plant Unit, World Conservation

Monitoring Centre, 219C Huntingdon Road, Cambridge

CB3 ODL, or

Conservation Unit, Economic and Conservation

Section (ECOS), Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Rich-

mond, Surrey TW9 3AB

M.R. ALMEIDA

A CHECKLIST OF BIRDS OF ANDHRA PRADESH. By Siraj A. Taher and Aasheesh Pittie.

pp ix + 40 with 2 maps. Hyderabad, 1989. Published by the authors. Price Rs. 10.

Even during the process of its compilation, this

checklist has been used by some birdwatchers studying

the Andhra regions. However, it has taken the authors

nearly five years to publish and circulate the list on a

limited scale. As Humayun Abdulali comments in the

foreword (written in 1987), regional checklists usually in-

clude nearly 30% of Indian avifauna and arc thus useful

and necessary. Abdulali further adds that local natural his-

tory societies (like the Birdwatchers Society of Andhra

Pradesh) would in future encourage other local annotated

checklists and catalyse detailed work on regional or-

nithologies.

The area under Andhra Pradesh formerly included

parts of erstwhile Hyderabad, Mysore, Madras and other

REVIEWS

105

small princely states. Topographically it comprises the

Deccan Plateau, the Eastern Ghats with the Godavari,

Krishna, Tungabhadra and Pennar rivers with their exten-

sive deltas. This varied topography contains 58 avian

families comprising 446 species according to the check-

list - 75% of India’s 77 avian families and 37% of the

total number of species found in the country. Andhra

Pradesh is the only state where the Jerdon’s courser Cur-

sor ius bitorquatus is found. Also found are the endangered

great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps and the lesser

florican Sypheotides indica. The pinkheaded duck

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea has also been recorded here

earlier.

The authors have listed their major sources of infor-

mation in the Introduction and this list, along with the

references at the rear, is a veritable ornithologist’s delight.

Personalities such as Hugh Whistler and Norman Boyd

Kinnear in the Vemay Scientific Survey, Salim Ali in the

Hyderabad State Survey, Humayun Abdulali in Visak-

hapatnam, and Dillon Ripley in the Eastern Ghats near

Visakhapatnam, have at times looked at Andhra with more

than general interest.

The introduction to the checklist also gives informa-

tion about the region’s topography. This could have been

provided in more detail. Additionally, notes about locally

rare birds such as the sarus crane Grus antigone , yel-

lowthroated bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus and the lit-

tle spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostris which have

limited distribution should have been included.

A critical drawback in the checklist is that the status

records for each species listed are confined to the vicinity

of Hyderabad only instead of considering the entire state

of Andhra Pradesh. It is typical of the ‘elitist isolation’ that

some regional groups have fallen prey to by not being able

to develop and organise birdwatchers in parts of their state

outside their city. Future editions of the checklist could

take into account status records of other areas from the

various studies listed in the bibliography.

The two maps are not adequate in conveying infor-

mation at a comprehensive level in relation to the impor-

tance of the bird-lists. While the map of India in the ear-

lier copies had serious boundary errors (which have since

been corrected in the later copies), the map of Andhra

Pradesh is almost illegible.

The authors have taken care to adhere strictly to the

criteria that the listed species should (1) have been

reported in published literature for the state, (2) have been

reported by highly reliable persons including the authors,

and (3) be limited to binomials only for uncollected

records.

The last mentioned criteria seems to have been

tricky because of the paucity of definite information.

Going ahead with the ambiguous assumption that "the

races are more easily distinguishable at the extreme limits

but move inwards to integrate at a common centre", the

authors decided to accept and use (1) the race occurring

in Andhra Pradesh, and (2) wherever the race could be

easily identified in the field, e.g. Milvus migrans lineatus.

The listing for each species is followed by its Telugu

and Hindustani name. Some of the Telugu names seem to

be extraordinarily logical and hard to believe that such dif-

ferentiation could be sustained historically by ethno-lin-

gual justification. For example, (1) longbilled vulture-

‘podugumukku boruvua’ (= longnosed vulture) and

whitebacked vulture- ‘tella veepu boruva’ (= whiteback-

ed vulture), (2) orangebreasted green pigeon - ‘pasupu

pacha pavuramu’ (= yellow green pigeon) and, (3) baya-

‘pasupu pitta’ (= yellow bird) and blackthroated weaver

bird- ‘nallagontu pichuka’ (= blackthroated sparrow).

While spelling errors are plenty in the English -as

well as in the transliterated Telugu and Hindustani names,

there are some errors in the listing itself. For example, the

north and south indian crested goshawks have their races

indicus and peninsulae listed wrongly for each other, some

birds have been listed as an entirely different race, eg. east-

ern redlegged falcon Falco vespertinus should be F. v.

amurensis in Andhra Pradesh and not F. v. vespertinus as

mentioned.

BHARAT BHUSHAN

WEALTH OF INDIA - RAW MATERIALS, VOLUME 2: B (Revised Edition). A DICTION-

ARY OF INDIAN RAW MATERIALS AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. Editor-in-chief S.P.

Ambastha. pp. i-xlii + 1 - 350 + 1-90 (29 x 22 cm). With 14 colour plates and 69 text-figures.

Published by Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, Hillside Road, New Delhi-110

012. New Delhi, 1988. Price Rs. 220, £ 45 or $ 80.

This second volume of the revised edition of Wealth

of India covers alphabet ‘B’ of the new series and includes

251 plant species belonging to 86 genera, one article on

bees and information about seven minerals.

The nomenclature of the plant species has been as

far as possible brought up-to-date. However, it appears

that the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has

not been given much weightage because some of the

names adopted in the volume are in common use even if

they are illegitimate names according to the Code (see note

under Brassica campestris Linn.).

When names are formed by using the old epithet in

a new generic combination, it is common practice in

botanical nomenclature to mention the name of the

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL 111X1'. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

original author in parentheses to indicate the origin of the

name. There are a number of names in this volume which

do not have the name of the original author in parenthesis.

For example,

1 . Biophytum sensitivum DC. should read Biophylum sen-

sitivum DC. (Linn.), the name Linnaeus being abbreviated

as Linn.

2. Blumea lacera DC. should read Bluntea laccra DC.

(Burm.), the name Junior Burmann being abbreviated as

Bunn. f.

3. Blumea laciniata DC. should read Blumea laciniata

DC. (Roxb.), the name Roxburgh being abbreviated as

Roxb.

4. Barringtonia acutangula should read Barringtonia

aculangula (Linn.).

Data on regeneration and plant propagation from

seed germination, coppicing, stem-cutting and root-suck-

ers are given much more in detail than in the earlier edi-

tion. General information on plants is also brought up-to-

date. This volume is very useful for instant reference work

and hence recommended for colleges and research institu-

tions.

M.R. ALMEIDA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. STUMPTAILED MACAQUE MAC AC A ARCTOIDES (GEOFFROY) IN MANIPUR

During a visit to Manipur in April 1988 I came

across three adult male stump-tailed macaques Macaca

arctoides in the small zoo near Imphal city. All the three

had been reportedly collected from the forests of

Churachandpur district (23°57’N to 24°40’N, and 93°0’E

to 93°50’ E). They had not been identified, and about a

dozen Assamese macaques Macaca assamensis , also lo-

cally collected and kept in a separate enclosure, had been

wrongly identified as stumptailed macaques. This is the

first specific record of the stumptailed macaque in

Manipur. The main stronghold of the species is perhaps

the Western Hills along the Assam-Manipur border.

August 8, 1989 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

2. INTERACTION BETWEEN A MALE TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS AND HIS CUBS IN

B ANDHAVG ARH NATIONAL PARK, MADHYA PRADESH

The following observations were made on a male

tiger Panther a tigris Banka, a tigress, Sita, and their cubs

in Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh, over a

period of 30 months.

Banka was seen mating with Sita on 28 May 1986,

when she was nearly 3 years old. Three cubs were seen

with Sita in November 1986 and it is assumed that they

were sired by Banka.

It was also determined, by plotting on a 1:50,000

scale map locations where Banka and Sita were seen or

where their tracks were positively identified, that Banka’s

territory encompassed Sita’s.

On 1 December 1986 when the cubs were about 10

weeks old, Banka was seen at a kill along with Sita and

the cubs. Neither the cubs nor Sita showed any apprehen-

sion at the presence of the male.

On 25 February 1987 only two cubs were seen with

Banka and Sita at a kill. On being disturbed Sita dragged

the kill and hid it under a bush on top of a hill and went to

collect the cubs. When she had brought them up, she was

reluctant to go to the kill because of the presence of our

elephant which the cubs were not willing to pass.

In the meantime Banka got to the kill which was

about 70 m behind us and began making the high nasal

aeun sound which seems to be both a contact call and a

summons. Sita and the cubs reacted to this but again the

cubs were unwilling to go past the elephant. After a few

minutes Banka called louder and gruffer than before and

this time we moved the elephant away whereupon Sita and

the cubs went to the kill immediately.

By mid-February 1988 when the cubs were ap-

proximately 17 months old, Sita showed signs of disas-

sociating herself from the cubs and was not seen with them

for long periods. After 23 March she was next seen with

them until 13 April. On 15 March Banka was seen in com-

pany with the cubs and the female cub was seen playing

with him. They would also follow him around wherever

he moved. All 3 tigers were seen together the whole day

and on 18 March 1988 they were seen together again with

the male cub close to Banka and the female cub 100 m

away. There was no sign of Sita on any of these occasions.

On 13 April 1988 Mr. H.S. Pabla the then Director

of the Park, and Mr. Vivek R. Sinha, saw Sita behaving

aggressively towards her cubs. The cubs were then ap-

proximately 19 months old. Possibly this marked the

beginning of the period leading the cubs to independence.

I would like to express my thanks to Dr Charles Mc-

Dougal for his encouragement to write this note and to

Vinay Asar and family for all their help.

August 30, 1989 HASHIM TYABJ1

3. SIGHTING OF THE RUSTY SPOTTED CAT FEUS RUBIGINOSA (GEOFFROY)

IN SHOOLPANESHWAR SANCTUARY, GUJARAT

The habitat of Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary (21°23’N

-21°59’N and 73°05’E-74o10’E) in Bharuch district,

Gujarat, comprises of semi-moist deciduous to dry

deciduous forest. The major florislic elements are teak

Tectona grandis and bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus.

The terrain is hilly and comprises of Deccan Trap basalt.

The rusty spotted cat Felis rubiginosa (Geoffroy)

was first sighted on 26 November 1990 at 2230 hrs in a

stream bed surrounded by dense forest near Namgir vil-

lage. It was possible to observe it for 6.5 min. with the help

108

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

of a 4 cell torch from about 2 to 3 m.

The second sighting of the cat was made on 16

December 1990 at 2200 hrs in a small cultivated area near

the same stream. This observation was made for about 3

min. and confirmed by S.A. Chav an. Since we had the

photographs of the rusty spotted cat (taken in Gir by

Bharat Pathak) there was no possibility of misidentifica-

tion.

This cat had been recorded earlier in Dangs forests

by H.H. Maharaja of Bansda. As Rajpipla forests, Sagbara,

4. BEHAVIOUR OF A JACKAL CANIS AURE

On 2 March 19901 sat over a cow killed by a leopard

Panthera pardus in a ravine near Perohit-ji-ka-Talab, a

small lake near Udaipur. The blind was 15 m from the kill

and I took up my position in the hide at 1530 hrs. After a

lapse of an hour I heard the alarm call of langur Presbytis

entellus and 15 minutes later I saw a leopard descending

on my right into the ravine. Probably it noticed the un-

natural construction near the kill and sensed some danger

so it stopped about 100 m from me behind some bushes,

almost concealed from me. After some time it rose, took

a long detour around the hide and took up its position about

40 m from the hide. Only the tail of the leopard was visible

from my position. Here the terrain was undulating and

strewn with boulders and thick bushes. Towards my left it

was comparatively flat, with a few bushes.

Just before dusk I spotted a jackal Canis aureus ap-

proaching the kill from the left. It was in a highly nervous

Mandvi, Vyara and Dangs formed a continuous corridor

of moist deciduous forests in the past, there is every pos-

sibility that this species existed in this belt, but had not

been identified earlier in Rajpipla forests.

S.A. CHAVAN

C.D. PATEL

S.V. PAWAR

N.S. GOG ATE

March 12, 1991 N.P. PANDYA

> AT A LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS KELL

state, stepping carefully, sniffing constantly up and down

and occasionally whipping around to look behind. It came

to the kill and before feeding on it again looked carefully

around.

At this moment the leopard gave a loud cough. The

jackal turned round like lightning gave a low whining

sound and fell head over heels. Regaining its feet it tried

to run hard, but after taking two or three steps it again fell

and did a complete somersault. It turned four somersaults,

twice fell headlong on the ground and finally disappeared

from sight. The leopard did not even rise to its feet. As

darkness approached I left the blind and was greeted by

the leopard with growls. On many occasions I have seen

jackals on leopard kills but have never seen a jackal in

such a panic.

April 4, 1 990 R AZ A TEHSIN

5. FOOD PIRACY BY JACKAL CANIS AUREUS FROM A JUNGLE CAT FELIS CHAUS

IN CHHARI-DHANDH, KUTCH

On 27 May 1990 at 1930 hours, we were on a general

reconnaissance of the terrain around Fulay village in

Chhari-Dhandh, Kutch, Gujarat. About 4 km west of

Fulay, we saw a jungle cat Felis chaus preying on a snake,

and when observed it was walking, carrying its prey. Sud-

denly, from behind an Euphorbia thicket a jackal Canis

aureus emerged and sprang on the cat, in an obvious at-

tempt to snatch its prey. The cat resisted the jackal’s ef-

forts for some time during which a brief struggle ensued

between the two. The jackal chased the cat for some dis-

tance and almost grabbed the prey during the first few at-

tempts, but each time the cat managed to evade its assaults.

Finally the jackal snatched the dead snake from the

cat, and disappeared behind the rocks. The cat too left the

area after a brief attempt to regain its prey. This is the first

instance of food piracy by a jackal from a jungle cat.

Snakes have not been listed as a food item of either the

jungle cat or the jackal so far.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

November 16, 1990 J. K. TIWARI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

109

6. FROG-EATING HABIT OF LONGEARED HEDGEHOG HEMIECHINUS AURITUS AND

GREY MUSK SHREW SUNCUS MURINUS

On 4 October 1990, at dawn (around 0600 hrs), a

male longeared hedgehog (weight 275 g) was captured by

a night-watchman in the World Forestry Arboretum,

Jaipur. The animal was kept in a 0.40 m deep empty ce-

mented nursery bed of 10 x 1 m size.

At night, at about 1930 hrs, when I went to observe

the animal, it was eating a medium sized toad ( Bufo

stomaticus). The head of the toad was in the mouth of

hedgehog and the dying toad was making some jerking

motions with its hind legs. The hedgehog did not use its

fore-legs to manage its prey. It chewed its prey steadily

and finished it within three minutes. No residue was left.

On 2 November 1990, at about 2000 hrs, at the Ar-

boretum, one of the night-watchmen rushed in to inform

me that some unusual shrill sounds were coming from a

Parkinsonia aculeata bush. I rushed to the spot and ex-

amined the area by torch light. A grey musk shrew S uncus

murinus was repeatedly attacking a big Rana tiger ina. The

unfortunate frog was making the shrill cries. I watched this

tussle for three minutes, and the cries were so loud that

many people gathered around the bush. The talking and

shouting of men and their flashing torches disturbed the

shrew and leaving the frog it entered its hole near the roots

of the Parkinsonia bush.

The frog was quite disabled and unable to move

from the many wounds made by the shrew on both its hind

legs. However, it was rescued and transferred to a safer

place.

Both the events described here suggest that the in-

sect-eating longeared hedgehog and its kin the grey musk

shrew may predate on frogs and toads also.

January 7, 1991 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

7. GREAT CRESTED GREBE PODICEPS CRISTATUS IN SAURASHTRA

On 2 January 1989 1 went to Amarsar lake which is

about 6 km from Wankaner city in Rajkot district, Gujarat.

Amongst the usual quota of duck and coots that are found

on the lake in winter, I saw a pair of great crested grebes

Podiceps cristatus with 3 young ones, light coloured,

smaller and with prominent dark striations on the neck.

The 3 youngsters were keeping close together while the

mother fed usually in their proximity. The male bird was

normally swimming a little distance away from the group,

though the largest of the 3 youngsters frequently went up

to the male bird. It was evident that the great crested grebes

had bred this monsoon on the lake. This is the first time I

have seen youngsters of this grebe in Saurashtra. Though

there are occasional records of this bird breeding in

Gujarat, I am personally not aware of any published report

of its breeding on the Saurashtra peninsula. The occur-

rence of the bird itself is very rare in Saurashtra.

The next day I observed a very interesting occur-

rence at the lake. The male great crested grebe caught a

frog which had inflated itself to its maximum proportions

and had stretched out its limbs fully, probably to prevent

itself from being swallowed. Frogs are known to do this

when they are caught by snakes. The male grebe was about

30 m away from the mother and the young and had started

swimming towards its family. The largest of the 3 young

ones swam towards the oncoming male. For a while it

swam side by side with the male, stretching out its beak

and demanding the frog from the male. After a minute or

so the male allowed the young one to take the frog from

him. The youngster swam away for a little distance with

the male following it, shifted its grip, raised its beak and

neck and swallowed the frog. I was able to take a number

of photographs of this occurrence and though the birds

were quite a distance away the sequence can be seen.

When I tried to row myself in a small boat close to the 3

youngsters who were segregated from the parents, the

female, instead of swimming away, crossed in front of my

boat and went and joined her brood and then together the

group swam away to the further end of the lake.

April 4, 1989 M.K. RANJITSINH

8. SIGHTING OF LEAST FRIGATE BIRD FREGATA ARIEL IN BOMBAY

In mid July 1988 a frigate bird Fregata ariel was kites above the United Services Club promenade adjacent

seen at 1730 hrs soaring very low in company with pariah to the sea at the southern-most tip of Bombay. Its features

Milvus migrans govinda and brahminy Haliastur indus were clearly visible and it was easily identified as an adult

8

110

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

male of the least frigate bird by the while patches under

the wings and other characteristics as described by Ali and

Ripley (1978) and Tuck and Hcinzel (1980). Abdulali

(1960) has discounted Ferguson’s (1904) record as uncer-

tain, though Ali (1970) and Faizi (1985) have included it

as a record. To put the records straight, there are three pre-

vious records from India: an adult male (Abdulali 1960),

a juvenile (Ali 1970, Faizi 1985). The present is the fourth

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1960): Occurrence of the I^cast Frigate Bird

Fregata ariel (G.R.Gray) in Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

57(3): 668.

Ali, Rauf (1970): Occurrence of Least Frigate Bird

Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews in Bombay. J. Bomfxty nat. Hist.

Soc. 67 (3): 569-570.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1978): Handbook of Birds of India

& Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

for India. These records made in June and early July coin-

cide with the south-west monsoon, indicating that the high

speed monsoon winds probably sweep these vagrants to

our western coast.

Prof. R.M. Naik and Taej Mundkur commented on

an earlier draft.

March 5, 1989 RISHAD NAOROJI

ENC E S

Faizi, S. (1985) : An additional record of the Least Frigate

Bird Fregata ariel in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 (J): 191 .

Ferguson, H.S. (1904): The Birds of Travancore. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 16(1): 13.

Tuck, G. & Heinzel, H. (1980): A Field Guide to the

Seabirds of Britain and the World. William Collins Sons & Co.

Ltd., Glasgow.

9. GLOSSY IBIS PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS (LINN.) AND

PAINTED STORK MYCTER1A LEUCOCEPIIALA (PENNANT): TWO MORE ADDITIONS

TO THE BIRD LIST OF KERALA

On 8 November 1987 , we were observing a group

of about 60 cattle egrets Bubulcus ibis feeding in an un-

cultivated paddy field at Kattampally, a wetland near Can-

nanore. A dark coloured curlew-like bird among the

egrets attracted our attention. Its upperparts were chestnut

in colour and the tail black. The long, down-curved bill

and legs were also dark. From the feathered head and the

absence of white colour on the body, we identified the bird

as a glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus. After some time, a

marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus glided overhead and the

whole group took off. The cattle egrets settled near us

while the glossy ibis circled overhead for several minutes.

Its rounded wings and chestnut underparts could be ob-

served clearly. On 28 October 1987, one of us (C. S.) had

observed seven birds of this species in flight near the same

place, which could not be identified at that time. This

species has never been reported from Kerala before.

The Parassinikadavu Snake Park about 13 km from

Cannanore has, apart from snakes, a collection of several

wild animals and birds, most of them donated by people

all over Cannanore and Kasaragod districts of north

Kerala. On hearing of the arrival of a rare bird at the Park,

we visited it on 26 January 1988. The bird turned out to

be a painted stork Mycteria leucocephala. It had been

found in a paddy field in Eramam village, about 30 km

north of Cannanore, in the first week of January 1988. The

bird being uncommon, the villagers caught and handed it

over to the Snake Park. Though very weak and probably

injured when it was brought to the Park, the bird seemed

to be recuperating on a diet of fish, frogs etc. This species

also is being reported from Kerala for the first time.

C. SASHI KUMAR

C . JAYAKUMAR

April 4, 1989 MUHAMMED JAFFER

10. A STRANGE PREDATORY HABIT OF THE PARIAH KITE MILVUS MIGRANS

We were watching birds along the banks of the

Kudamuruti, a branch of the Uyyakondon Canal of the

Cauvery river, in the early morning on 29 April 1989.

More than ten male baya weaver birds Ploceus philipp inus

were making nests in a male palmyra tree. The nests were

in different stages of construction. A pariah kite Milvus

migrans glided to the vicinity of the nest tree and all the

bayas, alarmed, flew to nearby plantain and other trees.

The predator seemed unconcerned with the adult nest

builders. Thrice it circled the tree, turned each time upside

down and clung on with its talons to a partially built nest

with wings spread. It selected only those nests whose egg

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

111

chambers had been completed. After hanging upside down

for a minute or so it heaved itself into the air, the talons

still stuck into the wall of the nest. At the first attempt it

could not dislodge the nest from the base. But in the second

attempt a nest was carried away in the talons of both the

feet, deposited on the flat base of a leaf of the palm, in-

spected and abandoned. The unsuccessful third attempt

with regard to snapping off the nest was strange in that the

kite held two nests, one in each foot. How long the

predator went on in this fashion is not known.

That such open-nest birds such as crows do not

tolerate a pariah kite’s presence is a common sight. The

kite is known to be a "menace to young chickens and duck-

lings in poultry runs" (HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN, Ali S. and Ripley, S.D. 1978). Could the

observed habit be an acquired one? That the predator did

not know the breeding cycle of the prey species, expect-

ing eggs or nestlings in the nests at that stage of nest con-

struction, is perhaps evidence that it is a habit developed

recently in the bird, perhaps locally.

H. DANIEL WESLEY

A. RELTON

June 15, 1989 A. ALAGAPPA MOSES

11. CINEREOUS VULTURE AEGYPIUS MONACHUS (LINN.) IN PATHANAMTHITTA, KERALA

Four species of vultures have so far been recorded

in Kerala, namely the black or king vulture Sar cogyps cal-

vus , the longbilled vulture Gyps indie us, the whitebacked

or Bengal vulture Gyps bengalcnsis and the smaller white

scavenger vulture Neophron perenopterus. A new and rare

species has now been added to this list, namely the

cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus (Linn.), also known

as the Himalayan vulture. It is being reported for the first

time from south India, the previous southernmost limit of

the bird’s winter wanderings being Madhya Pradesh.

The bird was first seen at Kanjirappara, at an altitude

of just around 30 m, near Mallapuzhassery in Koz-

henchery taluk of Pathanamthitta (9°3’ to 9°30 N, 76°30

to 77° 15 E), a hilly district of Kerala in the first week of

December 1988. The local people were excited when they

spotted it, because such large-sized birds had not been

seen before in the area. They caught the somewhat ex-

hausted bird and handed it over to the Forest Department

and it was in turn gifted it to the Trivandrum Zoo.

The cinereous vulture is a large, uniformly black, or

blackish brown, vulture with naked, light pinkish neck

surrounded by a distinct blackish ruff. The head is partial-

ly naked and conspicuously broader than in other vultures.

It has no fleshy wattles on the sides of the neck. In over-

head flight its broader wings without whitish stripe and

the slightly wedge-shaped tail distinguish it from the king

vulture.

A rare and sparse winter visitor to Sind, north-west

and north India (including Nepal), Kutch, north Gujarat

and central India, it affects savannah and semi-desert

country and avoids forest. Within our limits it breeds only

in Baluchistan between c. 2400 and 3000 m elevation and

in the Barail Range of North Cachar at c. 1800 m. The

nesting season is apparently March and April, though eggs

have been taken in Assam in January and May.

January 18, 1989. R.S. SHREE KUMAR

12. GREYHEADED LAPWING VANELLUS CINEREUS (BLYTH) IN GOA

Gary Featherslonc of Doncaster (U.K.), an ex-

perienced ornithologist on a three-week visit to Goa, in-

formed me on 2 January 1989 about the presence of two

greyheaded lapwings Vanellus cinereus (Blyth) a few

hundred metres behind the Hotel Ronil where he was stay-

ing, at Calangute Beach, Bardcz, North Goa (15°32’N,

73°53’E). In the evening of the same day, we went to-

gether to the site and indeed found a single specimen of

this species in a small dry sandy marsh that is periodically

inundated by saline water when the adjacent Baga creek

rises during spring tides.

The bird was immediately distinguishable from the

not dissimilar yellow wattled lapwing Vanellus

malabaricus , a quite common species in Goa (though not

in this locality) by the following features: its more sub-

stantial size, absence of the black crown, the lack of fleshy

‘wattles’ on the less extensive bare yellow skin of the

forehead and the far greater expanse of white in the wing

when in flight. No pectoral band was observed, suggest-

ing that the bird was an immature. We were able to watch

the bird clearly with 10 x 40 binoculars.

The greyheaded lapwing is known as a winter visitor

to the north- eastern states of India, straggling as far south

as the Andaman islands and as far west as Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (27°13’N, 77° 32’E) (Grubh, R.B. JBNHS 65:

484), making this sighting the first record of the species

from the Indian peninsula and c. 1300 km distant from the

closest previous record.

March 31, 1989

HEINZ LAINER

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

13. BLACK WOODPECKER DRYOCOPUS SP. IN JALDAPARA SANCTUARY, WEST BENGAL

On 8 November 1988 we were birdwatching in the

Jaldapara sanctuary in West Bengal. At around 1600 hrs,

near the Jaldapara rest house about 500 m from the Forest

Rest House, we saw a bird fly across towards Jaldapara

village. It was distinctly a black-and-red bird with lighter

coloured eyes. We both immediately identified it as the

black woodpecker Dryocopus sp.

On referring to the literature, we realised that the

bird was far outside the range mentioned by Ali and Ripley

(1983 a, b)*. They mention only two subspecies, namely

[1] Dryocopus j averts is hodgsonii, with a white belly and

rump, found in the Western Ghats and in the east up to

Bastar (Ali mentions that it possibly may also occur in the

Eastern Ghats and Orissa) and [2] Dryocopus javensis

hodgei, found only in the Andaman islands and which has

no white in the plumage. Since we did not see any white

in the plumage, we decided to investigate further.

Ripley (1982) gives the possible occurrence of one

more subspecies Dryocopus martius khamensis in the

neighbouring areas of Arunachal Pradesh between 2800

m to 3800 m in the temperate forests, in Tsangpo Valley,

Nang Dzong to Gyala (c. 93°15’E) and Tongkyuk valley

(c. 95°E). Short (1982) gives the distribution and habitats

of D. martius as follows: Eurasian bird ranging from Scan-

dinavia, the Pyrennes and France across Europe to Asia

Minor through Russia to Siberia, south Caucasus, north

Iran, north Mongolia, north China, Sakhalin, Hokkaido,

north Honshu with isolated records in Tibet, Yunan and

west Szechwan. It is found in mixed coniferous forests and

also in parks with large trees. It occurs from sea level to

an elevation of 950 m in most of the regions, although

found as high as 4300 m in the Tibetan mountains. This

species also does not have any white in the plumage, and

several subspecies are known.

Smythies (1953) has three subspecies - D. javensis

javensis in Tenasserim of south Burma; D. javensis fed-

deni in Arakan and Chin hills of central Burma; and D.

javensis forrestsii above 1 500 m in north-western Burma.

All three subspecies have varying amounts of white in

their plumage.

Jaldapara lies at approximately 89 °E, 28°N, in terai

forest consisting of sal forests interspersed with huge areas

of elephant grass, at the base of the Bhutan hills on the

banks of the river Toorsa. The bird was seen in the sal

forest. Since we were there only for a day we could not

make any further investigations.

We are still uncertain about the species/subspecies

of the woodpecker we saw. Since it had no white in the

plumage it could be either D. javensis hodgei or D. mar-

tius. The former is limited to the Andamans, far away from

Jaldapara, and also island evolution is very different from

that of the mainland. D. martius is a widely distributed

species, and the longitude of its occurrence in the nearby

Tibetan region is much closer than that of any other

species. The bird we saw is hence probably D. martius. It

is not known to be a migrant, hence its occurrence as an

accidental migrant or vagrant is ruled out. The bird must

therefore be a resident of Jaldapara.

We request naturalists visiting this sanctuary and the

nearby regions to look out for this woodpecker.

MEENA HARIBAL

June 15, 1989 USHA GANGULI- LACHUNGPA

References

Ali, S. & Ripley. S.D. (1983 a): A Pictorial Guide to Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Ali S & Ripley, S.D. (1983 b): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakis-

tan 2nd edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Short, L.L. (1982): The Woodpeckers of the World. Delaware

Museum of Natural History, Greenville, Delaware,

Monograph series Number 4.

Smythies, B.E. (1953): The Birds of Burma. 2nd revised edition.

Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and London.

14. COMMENTS ON SAP-SUCKING BY WOODPECKERS IN INDIA

Abdulali (1968) discussed the phenomenon of sys-

tematic sap- sucking by an unidentified woodpecker in the

hills of Kashmir. His photograph of the bark workings of

♦There is no mention of D. martius in Ah and Ripley (1983b),

and D. javensis hodgsonii has been incorrectly labelled in the

plate as D.j. hodgei. For the correct illustration, see Short (1982)

p. 616, pi. 78

this woodpecker are remarkably. suggestive of work done

by species of sapsuckers (Sphyrapicus spp.) from North

America. To my knowledge, Picoides major of Eurasia is

the only other species known to drill bark specifically to

produce sap (Short 1982). It is remarkable that a single

genus in North America, and a single species each in

Eurasia and south Asia are the only examples of this un-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

113

usual foraging method, and for this reason I wish to com-

ment on Abdulali’s note, and offer additional thoughts on

the probable identity of the Indian sapsucker.

It seems certain that the Indian sapsucker is

Hypopicus hyperythrus Abdulali rightly noted that in the

SYNOPSIS ( Ripley 1982) I have used the name ‘Rufous-

bellied Sapsucker’ in reference to this species, one of the

pied woodpeckers, ranging from the Himalaya, north-

eastern India and south-east Asia, to southern China,

Korea and Manchuria. Two sources support the notion that

Hypopicus is the Indian sapsucker that produced the sys-

tematic drill holes so prominent in Abdulali’s photograph.

The first is Osmaston (1916), who noted this phenomenon

in Kumaon, and who actually observed Hypopicus visit

the holes, in order to drink the sap exudate.

Additionally, Zusi and Marshall (1970) implicate

Hypopicus both by the field observations of M arshall, and

by the anatomical examination of the tongue by Zusi. Mar-

shall, like Osmaston, observed Hypopicus , and no other

woodpecker, visiting the rows of bark holes that he found

on trees in Thailand. Zusi’s examination of a Hypopicus

tongue shows that its tip is adorned with fine, soft, brush-

like edges, very similar to those found on the tongue of

the North American sapsucker, and quite unlike the coar-

ser and stiffer tongue structure found in other related

species of woodpeckers never known to feed on sap ex-

udate.

One of the reasons that Abdulali doubted that

Hypopicus was the creator of the bark-holes that he

photographed in Srinagar was that he did not believe the

species occurred there. It is now known that Hypopicus

does, indeed, range westward through Kashmir to north-

ern Pakistan (Ripley 1982).

What is most remarkable is that, to date, there have

been no direct observations of Hypopicus hyperythrus

drilling the rows of bark holes, so that the knowledge of

this species’ remarkable drilling habit remains based only

on indirect evidence. It would be valuable for naturalists

living in the Himalayan hill stations to make an effort to

provide direct observations on the drilling and sap-suck-

ing activities of Hypopicus hyperythrus. In particular, it

would be interesting to know the relative importance of

sap in the diet of this species, and the nutritional con-

stituents of the sap of the particular tree species most com-

monly used. It has been stated that sap-sucking by this

form occurs only in the spring (Zusi and Marshall 1970).

One might ask whether the sap is used preferential-

ly for provisioning nestlings. A diet high in carbohydrates

might be the answer.

March 8, 1989 S. DILLON RIPLEY

References

Abdulali, H. (1968): Sap sucking by Indian woodpeckers. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 219-221.

Ali, S., & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact Ed. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Osmaston, B.B. (1916): Curious habits of wood-peckers in the

Kumaon hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 363-366.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): Synopsis of birds of India and Pakistan, 2nd

ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Short, L.L. (1982): Woodpeckers of the world. Monogr. 4.

Delaware Museum of Natural History, Greenville,

Delaware (USA).

Zusi, R.L. & Marshall, J.M. (1970): A comparison of Asiatic

and North American sapsuckers. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc.

23: 393-407.

15. LONG DISTANCE MOVEMENT OF A MALABAR WHISTLING THRUSH

MYIOP HONUS HORSFIELDH (VIGORS) IN THE WESTERN GHATS

During the BNHS bird ringing camp at Mahabales-

war, Satara district, Maharashtra (17°55’N, 73°40’E, 1371

m.a.s.l.) we had mist-netted 59 birds of the Malabar whis-

tling thrush Myiophonus horsfteldii between 12 April and

18 June 1972. One individual (Ring No. B-31672) ringed

on 13 June was recorded by U.K. Koragappa, the head-

man of Chembu village, Post Sampaje, North Coorg, Kar-

nataka (12°00’N, 75°50’E), having been killed by a

predatory bird near his house on 18 January 1976. He

managed to recover the ring from the dead bird.

The distance travelled by the thrush was ap-

proximately 650 km south of the ringing place. It was

recovered after 3 years, 7 months and 9 days.

There is considerable lack of information on migra-

tion and movement of birds along the Western Ghats com-

plex. The above ring recovery of the Thrush is of interest

and worthy of record. This recovery suggests that the

species is not exclusively resident as has been previously

recorded (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1987, HANDBOOK OFTHE

BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN 9:78) but probably has a

wider distribution during the monsoon when it breeds. It

is restricted to perennial water sources in evergreen areas

during the dry months.

March 2, 1989

V.C. AMBEDKAR

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88

16. PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA (LINN.):

A NEW RECORD FOR ASSAM

The purplerumpcd sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica

was hitherto unrecorded in Assam. At about 1415 hrs on

19 April 1988, 1 saw one male of this species in the gar-

den of the local sub-divisional veterinary office com-

pound, located in the heart of Hailakandi town in southern

Cachar district.

According to the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983) the nearest

area where the purplerumpcd sunbird is found is southern

Bangladesh (up to Dhaka in the north) and extending to

Arakan. The species seems to have been overlooked on

many occasions. It is apparently an uncommon resident

of the Barak valley districts of Cachar and Karimganj.

March 31 , 1989 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

17. HYBRID HOUSE SPARROW-TREE SPARROW FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH

On 3 January 1981, the senior author collected three

Passer specimens at Deban, 22 km east of Miao, Tirap dis-

trict, Arunachal Pradesh (altitude 330 m). These three

specimens were tentatively identified as tree sparrows

Passer montanus hepatic us, and deposited in the collec-

tion of the National Museum of Natural History, Smith-

sonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Later, while carrying

out a complete review of our collections of birds from

Arunachal Pradesh, we found that one of the Passer

specimens (USNM No. 585161) appears to be a hybrid

montanus x dorneslicus. This is of interest for two reasons.

It apparently is the first evidence of hybridization between

the house sparrow and the tree sparrow in India (Baker

1926, Ali and Ripley 1987), and it may represent the first

specimen record proving the occurrence of dorneslicus in

the hills of Arunachal Pradesh (see Ripley 1982: 537).

The putative hybrid is a male (testes not enlarged)

in adult, non-breeding plumage, with measurements (in

mm) as follows: wing chord 72; wing arc 74; bill from

skull 14; bill from feathering 11 ; tail 52; tarsus 18; weight

18 g. Most of these measurements would accord well with

the range of measurements of either species, but the weight

agrees more closely to montanus, as does the short tarsus.

This specimen shows five characters that agree with

montanus, one character that agrees with dorneslicus and

three characters that are intermediate between the two

presumed parental types.

The single, but very prominent, pure dorneslicus

character is the buff-grey cap and nape, indistinguishable

from typical Passer domestic us indie us the population

recorded from north-eastern India.

Plumage characters intermediate between montanus

and dorneslicus are: (1) brown lores contrasting with the

grey cap (entire cap grey in dorneslicus, entire cap brown

in montanus ); (2) cheek spot is an apparent, but obsolete,

dark grey smudge (entirely absent in dorneslicus', and a

well-delineated black spot in montanus)', and (3) chestnut

streaking on mantle is apparent (much more dominant in

dorneslicus, absent in montanus.)

Plumage characters that agree with pure montanus

are: (1) the twin buff- white wing-bars (lacking the

prominent anterior white wing-bar of domesticus)', (2)

chin stripe and bib are narrow, short, and not much ex-

panded posteriorly (much more prominent in dorneslicus)',

(3) abdomen dirty buff (not clear pale buff as in domes-

ticus)', (4) rump buff-brown (not pale buff-grey as in

domesticus).

Outside of the Indian region, the two species have

been reported to hybridize in a few localities (Albrecht

1983, Hume 1983, Goselj 1985); and yet P. domesticus is

much better known to interbreed with the Spanish spar-

row P. hispaniolensis, with which it also co-occurs over a

considerable range (Vaurie 1959).

Although the geographic ranges of house and tree

sparrows generally meet all along the Himalayan cordil-

lera, only in a few sites do the two exhibit true within-site

sympatry. The two sort out by habitat, the tree sparrow

generally occurring at higher altitudes, and in less urban

locales. Krishna Raju and Price (1973) found both house

and tree sparrows inhabiting villages in the Chintapalle

plateau of the Eastern Ghats. Price (1979) reported an un-

confirmed observation of a hybrid at the village of Bus-

salkort. We should note that our search for the populations

of montanus on this same plateau in 1985 failed (Ripley

el al. 1988). Has the house sparrow completely replaced

the relict population of the tree sparrow in the Eastern

Ghats?

Deban, Arunachal Pradesh, where our hybrid

specimen was taken, lies al the foot of the Dapha Bum

range, at an altitude that may be low for montanus and at

the upper edge of the altitudinal range of domesticus. We

presume that hybrids between these two species will be

found by future ornithologists who focus on the non-forest

avifauna of the hills of north-eastern India.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

March 5, 1989 BRUCE M. BEEHLER

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

References

Albrecht, J.S.M. (1983): Courtship behaviour between tree

sparrow and house sparrow in the wild - a possible case of

hybridization. Sandgrouse no. 5: 97-99.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan, 2nd Compact Edition. Oxford University

Press, Delhi.

Baker, E.C.S. (1926): The Fauna of British India. Birds, vol.3.

Taylor & Francis, London.

Groselj, P. (1985): [Hybrids of Passer monlanus and Passer

domesticus in Solvenia alsoj. Proteus 48: 71-73 [in

Slovenian; extracted from the Zoological Record].

IIUME, R.A. (1983): Hybrid Tree x House Sparrow paired with

House Sparrow. British Birds 76: 234-235.

Krishna Raju, K.S.R., & Price, T.R. (1973): Tree Sparrow,

Passer montanus (L.) in the Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay, nat.

Hist. Soc. 79: 557.

Price, T.D. (1979): The seasonality and occurrence of birds in the

Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

76: 379-422.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

Second Edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bom-

bay.

Ripley, S.D., Beehler, B.M. & Krishna Raju, K.S.R. (1988):

Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, Pt. 2.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 90-107.

Vaurje, C. (1959): The Birds of the Palcarctic Fauna. Passerifor-

mes. H.F. & G. Witherby, London.

18. FURTHER NOTES ON PRESENCE OF FRUITS OF XANTHIUM INDICUM KOENIG IN THE

NESTS OF PLOCEUS P/IJLIPPINUS

On 21 August 1984 at Tatarpur Mixed Plantation in

Alwar district, Rajasthan, I observed a single ‘fruit’ of

Xanthium indicum in a completed nest of Ploceus philip-

pinus. Its significance remained obscure (Sharma 1988).

Subsequently, the whole locality was surveyed but none

of the nests in any colony was seen having ‘fruits’ of X.

indicum in it. The question of how and why X. indicum

fruit reached the baya nest remained unresolved.

During 1985 and part of 1986 I was away from

Rajasthan and hence could not pursue the study. In July

1986, after returning to Udaipur I selected a baya colony

on a medium sized Phoenix sylveslris tree near Sitamata

Forest Nursery for further study. 1 tied a twig of Xathium

indicum with fruits intact, on a date palm to test the af-

finity of breeding bayas for Xanthium fruits. Observations

were made for two weeks but neither male nor female

birds showed any interest in the fruits. The same experi-

ment was repeated in August 1987 in the locality, with the

same results. It thus seems clear that it was not the baya

which carried the Xanthium ‘fruit’ to the nest.

When the fruit of Xanthium indicum was seen for

the first time in Alwar district, further attempts were made

to discover the mysterious fruit carrying agency. A sam-

pling survey was conducted from September 1988 to

January 1989 in degraded forests and agricultural fields.

In January, while I was collecting baya nests near the small

village of Shyopur, the four year old question was

answered - the culprit was the longtailed tree mouse Van-

deleuria oleracea.

During the sampling survey, 13 nests of Ploceus

philippinus were collected which had been ‘parasitized’

by the longtailed tree mouse. Three of the nests contained

gnawed pieces of half eaten fruits of Xanthium indicum.

The tree mice were physically present in seven nests in-

cluding the three which contained Xanthium fruits. The

remaining six nests contained mice nests inside, but their

occupants were not present at the time of observation.

It was observed that fruits of Xanthium indicum are

used as food during times of food scarcity. In Rajasthan

the kharif crop is generally harvested from the end of Oc-

tober to mid November. At that time, grain remaining in

fields and threshing floors serves as food. From Decem-

ber onwards, food scarcity grows and the longtailed tree

mouse collects Xanthium fruits as an alternative source of

food in those areas where Xanthium grows wild.

To confirm the food value of Xanthium fruits for the

tree mouse, five mice were collected from baya nests and

kept in a dark room in a cage in the second fortnight of

January at World Forestry Arboretum, Jaipur. Four dif-

ferent types of items were given as food to the mice to see

Table 1

FOOD OFFERED TO CAPTIVE LONGTAILED TREE MICE

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEl'Y, Vol. 88

their preference (Table 1). Water was not given. It was

noticed that fruits of Xanthium indicum was their prime

choice.

I am grateful to Dr Shiv Sharma, Department of

Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, for his valuable

guidance, and to A.K. Jain for typing the manuscript.

May 3, 1989 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

References

Sharma, S.K. (1988): Presence of fruit of Xanthium slrumarium Sharma, S.K. (1988): Tendency of Cannibalism in the Longtailed

in the nest of P. phillippinus. J. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc. Tree Mouse Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett). Rodent

85(3): 620. Newsletter 12 (1 &2): 2-3 (CAZRI, Jodhpur).

19. SALTWATER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

Fig. 1. Map of India showing capture points of saltwater

crocodile. A . Gahirmatha beach, B. Capture point-1989 (this

report), C. Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, D. Capture point-1979 ,

E. Andaman islands.

On 18 January 1989 a juvenile saltwater crocodile

Crocodylus porosus (1.5 m size) was caught in the sea by

some fishermen near Moolapeta village. East Godavari

District, Andhra Pradesh. The capture point was 25 km

north of the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 1). The

crocodile was brought to the village, photographed and

later taken possession of by the Andhra Pradesh Forest

Department.

In India the species is present in Orissa and West

Bengal in the mainland and in the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands (Bustard and Choudhury 1980b, Kar 1981, Singh

1986). By 1975, the species was extinct in most of its

former ranges in India including Kerala, Tamil Nadu and

Andhra Pradesh (Bustard and Choudhury 1980b).

In 1978, a total of 3 saltwater crocodiles (1.2 m size)

were released in the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary

(Godavari delta) (Bustard and Choudhury 1980b) as apart

of the programme on crocodile rehabilitation. Un-

published reports revealed that these crocodiles were

killed immediately by the local fishermen. There has been

no further release in the Sanctuary since then. Bustard and

Choudhury (1980a) reported that a 3.3 m saltwater

crocodile caught in Krishna Estuary, Andhra Pradesh, on

1 1 January 1 979 may have come from the Andamans (Fig.

1 ). Whitaker (1982) reported that a male C. porosus 2.8

m in length and 80 kg in weight was captured by fisher-

men in Karaikal, Tamil Nadu. He assumed that the

crocodile might have come from Trincomalee on the east

coast or Puttalam on the west coast of Sri Lanka, the

nearest porosus populations to Tamil Nadu. He pointed

out that saltwater crocodiles cross great gaps of sea be-

tween islands but coastal migrations are probably more

frequent.

Kar and Rao (1985), while reporting the unusual

sighting of a gharial Gavialis gangeticus on Gahirmatha

beach (Fig. 1), stated that the sea currents on this coast are

from south to north, which helped the gharial to move

northwards. If this is true, then the saltwater crocodile

caught off the Andhra coast at Moolapeta in January 1989

might have come from Andaman islands, travelling ap-

proximately 1100 km through open sea, an inference

which is similar to the conclusion by Bustard and Choud-

hury (1980a). Both instances occurred during the month

of January (1979 and 1989). The sea currents between An-

damans and Andhra Pradesh during January may have

helped the crocodiles to travel to the Andhra coast, and the

possibility of the crocodile coming from Orissa and West

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

117

Bengal may be ruled out due to the opposite direction of

water currents.

I am grateful to R. Mani for sending information on

the saltwater crocodile, and to Dr L.A.K. Singh for com-

Refer

Bustard, H.R. & Ciioudhury, B.C. (1980a): Long distance

movement by a saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus).

British J . Herpel. 6: 87.

Bustard, H.R. & Ciioudhury, B.C. (1980b): Conservation fu-

ture of the saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus

Schneider) in India. ./. Bombay nat. /list. Soc. 77 (2): 201 -

214.

Kar, S. (1981): Studies on the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus

ments on the manuscript.

May 4, 1990 R.J. RAO

E NCIiS

porosus Schneider. Ph.D. thesis, Utkal University, Orissa.

Kar, S. & Rao, R.J. (1985): A Gharial at Gahirmalha coast, Oris-

sa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 671-674.

SlNGi [, L.A.K. (1986): Crocodiles: Status and management. In:

Wildlife wealth of India. (Ed.) T.C. Majupuria, Tecprcss

service, Bangkok.

Whitaker, R. ( 1 982): Saltwater crocodile in S. India - first record

for forty years. Hamadryad 7 (2): 12.

20. OCCURRENCE OF CONGENITAL BLINDNESS IN GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

(REPTILIA: CROCODILIA)

Introduction

During 1975 out of 70 eggs of gharial Gavialis gan-