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BOARD OF EDITORS

V J

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

elsewhere should not be submitted.

Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication

Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an

additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5" or 5.25" ),

using WordStar 5.5 or earlier, MS Word or Word Perfect, and MS DOS 4.0

or earlier versions.

Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification

has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually col-

lected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints

should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line

drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabeti-

cally arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or

periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding

200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names

of important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the

case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be

sent a free copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society

1.

VOLUME 90 (1): APRIL 1993

Date of publication: 15-04-93

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XIV

(CONCLUDED)

By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik ♦.« 1

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT Centropus sinensis parroti

STRESEMANN (AVES : CUCULIDAE) AT PT. CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU ( With three text-figures )

By V. Natarajan 11

COMMUNAL NESTING BY GHARIAL Gavialis gangeticus (GMELIN) (REPT1LIA: CROCODIUA) IN

NAHONALCHAMBAL SANCTUARY (With four text-figures)

By R J. Rao and LA.K. Singh 17

REVISION OF GENUS Ferna MALAISE (HYMENOPTERA : TENTHREDINIDAE : ALLANTINAE) FROM

INDIA (With twenty text- figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and Jagdeep S. Deep 23

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHEDDING OF GILL-RAKER PROCESSES IN THE GOLDSPOTTED MULLET

Liza parsia (HAMILTON-BUCHANAN, 1822) (PISCES : MUGILIDAE) ( With twenty text-figures)

By S.K. Barve and DJR. Jalihal 29

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

By P. Balasubramanian and P.V. Bole 33

ETORPHINE AND ACEPROMAZINE COMBINATION FOR IMMOBILISING WILD INDIAN ELEPHANTS

Elephas maximus

By A.J.T. Johnsingh, J. Joshua, Ravi Chellam, V. Krishnamurthy and D.V.S. Khati 45

SIDIDAE OF TAMIL NADU (CRUSTACEAE : CLADOCERA) (With five text-figures)

By K. Venkataraman 50

NEST SITE SELECTION BY CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS ON Melia azedarach L. AND MANAGEMENT OF

MULTIPLE USE FORESTS

By Deep Narayan Pandey and Dhananjai Mohan 58

CELLULOSE-DEGRADING FUNGI AROUND BOMBAY

By R.G. Bagool 62

A STUDY ON SOME ASPECTS OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF CatJiarsius molossus (L.) AND C. pitliecius (F.)

(COLEOPTERA : SCARABAEIDAE) (With a plate and a text-figure)

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 65

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW Fhyllanthus L. (EUPIIORBIACEAE) FROM NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND (With a text-figure)

By T. Chakrabarty and M. Gangopadhyay 69

A NEW SPECIES OF Bulbophyllum THOUARS (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM SIKKIM (With eleven text-

figures)

By S.Z. Lucksom 71

THREE NEW GENERA OF COCCIDAE (IIOMOPTERA : COCCOIDEA) (With two text-figures)

By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi 73

% A NEW SPECIES OF Bulbophyllum THOUARS (ORCHID ACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

(With six text-figures)

By R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry 78

A NEW Premna L. (VERBENACEAE) FROM THE WESTERN GHATS OF TAMIL NADU

(With a text-figure)

By A. Rajendran and P. Daniel 80

ON THREE NEW SPECIES OF WHITEFLIES OF THE TRIBE DIALEURODINI SAMPSON, 1943

(ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA ( With nine text-figures)

By K. Regu and B. Vasantharaj David 82

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. On mutant leopards Panther a pardus from

India

By Divyabhanusinh 88

2. First record of tiger Panthera tigris in

Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar, and its

predation on sloth bear Melursus ursinus

By Hemant S. Datye 89

3. First record of the fishing cat Felis viverrina

Bennett in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary and

Chhotanagpur Plateau of Bihar

By Hemant S. Datye 90

BIRDS

4. Dietary of the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis

coromandus (Boddaert)

By Naresh Chaturvedi 90

5. Food piracy by a white stork Ciconia

ciconia (Linn.)

By S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari 90

6. Contents of a nest of the tawny eagle Aquila

rapax vindi liana Franklin

By S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari 91

7. An unusual nesting site of a grey partridge

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin)

By Raza Tehsin and Abdul Amir Moezi ... 91

8. Breeding of large Indian or Oriental pratin-

cole Glareola pratincola maklivarum J.R.

Forster in Kerala

By C. Sasikumar 92

9. Time budgeting by the southern crow-

pheasant Centropus sinensis parroti

Stresemann (Aves : Cuculidae) at Pt.

Calimere, Tamil Nadu

By V. Natarajan 92

10. Extension of range of the Kashmir roller

(blue jay) Coracias garrulus to Gorakhpur,

Uttar Pradesh

By S.M. Satheesan 95

11. An instance of mating in little scalybellied

green woodpecker Picus myrmecophoneus

Stresemann from Bangalore

By J.N. Prasad and A. Madhusudan 95

12. Activity-time budget of Indian myna

Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) during the

breeding season

By Anil Mahabal 96

13. Breeding record of ferruginous flycatcher

Muscicapa ferruginea (Hodgson)

By Pratap Singh 97

14. Dark grey bush chat Saxicola ferrea Gray

in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

By R. Kannan 98

15. Unusual nesting site of house sparrow

Passer domesticus (Linn.) in Hyderabad

By Pranay Waghray and Humayun Taher . 98

16. Records of predation on birds trapped in

mistnets

By S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari 99

17. Mixed-species flock compositions in two

forest types in Bangladesh

By Craig B. Stanford 99

18. Awakening time of birds in relation to sun-

rise

By R.G. Soni 103

REPTILES

19. Captive breeding of the Indian roofed ter-

rapin Kachuga tecta (Gray)

By Raju Vyas and B.H. Patel

109

20. Starred tortoise Geochelone elegans

(Schoepff) in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kerala

By E.A. Jayson 112

21. Occurrence of twin-spotted wolf snake

Lycodon jara (Shaw) (Dipsadidae :

Lycodontinae) in Rajaji National Park and

Doon Valley, Uttar Pradesh

By Akhlaq Hussain and Pranjalendu Roy . 112

22. Amphiesma monticola (Jerdon) at Bhadra

Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka

By S. Karthikeyan 114

23. Occurrence of Cantor’s blackheaded snake

Sibynophis Sagittarius in Sriharikota,

Andhra Pradesh

By Prakash Rao and A.G. Sekar 114

FISHES

24. Aplocheilus panchax (Ham.) — An addi-

tion to the fish fauna of Rajasthan

By C.R. Ajith Kumar 115

INSECTS

25. Northward migration of the common Indian

crow butterfly Eitploea core (Cramer) in

and around Bombay

By Naresh Chaturvedi 115

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

26. A freak twin trilobite larva of the Indian

horseshoe crab Tachypleus gigas (Muller)

By J.K. Mishra, Anil Chatterji

and A.H. Parulekar 116

27. Record of Atelopsalis pacifica Bartsch

1985 (Halacaridae : Acari) from eastern

Indian ocean

By A.L.N. Sarma and Tapas Chatterjee 1 17

BOTANY

28. On an interesting collection of BauJiinia

(Leguminosae : Caesalpinioideae) from

Arunachal Pradesh

By S. Bandyopadhyay, K. Thothathri

and B.D. Sharma 120

29. Merremia cissoides (Convolvulaceae) — A

new record for India

By S.D. Biju and Philip Mathew 121

30. On branching in Carica papaya L.

(Caricaceae)

By P.S.N. Rao 123

31. Chisocheton longistipitatus (FM. Bailey)

L.S. Smith (Meliaceae) - A new record for

Indian flora.

By H.S. Dcbnath and P.V. Sreekumar 123

32. Argostemma courtallense and A. anupama

(Rubiaceae) revisited

By V.V. Sivarajan and A.K. Pradeep 124

33. Range extension of endemic Ceropegia

Jiuberi Ansari in Maharashtra

By Hemalata D. Sane and Vinaya S. Ghate 126

34. An early collection record of Parthenium

hysterophorus L. from Botanic Garden,

Calcutta

By D.P. Dam, R.M. Dutta and Namita Dam 128

35. On designation of illustrations as types

By M.R. Almeida 128

36. Additions to the terrestrial flora of Lakshad-

weep

By M.R. Almeida 130

37. Additions to the grasses of Bihar

By R.R. Jha and S.K. Varma 132

38. Some little known aquatic plants from

Garhwal Himalaya

By R.D. Gaur, D.S. Rawat and L.R.

Dangwal 135

39. New plant records from Karnataka

By K. Gopalakrishna Bhat 137

40. Newly recorded taxa from Andaman and

Nicobar islands

By S.K. Srivastava and Ramesh Kumar 139

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1993 Vol. 90 No. 1

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME

INDIAN BATS — PART XIV (CONCLUDED)1

A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik2

Key words: bats, breeding, fecundity, gestation, mortality, sex ratio, sexual synchrony.

Different aspects of the breeding behaviour and associated phenomena in Indian bats are

discussed, on the basis of earlier papers in the series. Basic reproductive patterns are genetically

determined, but ecological factors may cause minor changes in breeding habits. The possible

relationship between low fecundity and aerial habit is examined.

Questions relating to growth rate, longevity, sex ratio and preferential male mortality are

discussed. Several species show adaptations, including various forms of sexual synchrony, to

ensure population maintenance and species survival in spite of low fecundity and slow

reproductive rates. Polytocous species have shorter gestation periods than monotocous species

of comparable body size. The structure and functions of the penis are described.

Introduction

Each of the previous parts of this series of

papers embodied descriptions of the reproduc-

tive habits of one of the Indian chiropteran

species. From these reports it is evident that,

while the breeding pattern is constant for a given

species in a given geographical area, it differs

markedly among different species inhabiting the

same geographical area and under the same

ecological conditions (Gopalakrishna and Sap-

kal 1986). Further, while some species, such as

Rhinolophus rouxi (Gopalakrishna and Rao

1977) and Hipposideros speoris (Gopalakrishna

and Bhatia 1983, Gopalakrishna et ai 1991,

Gopalakrishna and Badwaik, in press) exhibit

different reproductive patterns in different

1 Accepted June 1992.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur 440 001.

geographical regions with different ecological

conditions. Megaderma lyra lyra (Gopalakrish-

na 1950, Ramakrishna 1951, Gopalakrishna and

Badwaik 1990) breeds at the same time of the

year in different parts of India with markedly

different ecological conditions. Evidently, while

genetic factors are mainly responsible for estab-

lishing the basic reproductive pattern of Indian

bats, ecological factors, especially rainfall and

availability of plentiful supply of food for the

lactating females and weaned young, may bring

about minor changes in their breeding habits.

Female Genitalia

In all the Indian bats so far studied the

female genitalia are morphologically bilaterally

symmetrical and consist of paired ovaries, bicor-

nuate uterus and median vagina. In megachirop-

teran species the two cornua open independently

into the vagina. Among Microchiroptera, in

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Taphozous longimanus (Gopalakrishna et al.

1979) the two uterine cornua open into the

vagina in nonparous females by independent

cervical canals. However, the tip of the cervical

bulb breaks off during the first parturition and is

never restored. Hence, in all parous females of

this species the distal segments of the two cervi-

cal canals unite to form a common cervical

canal.

In Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Karim 1973)

the vaginal epithelium extends to about half of

the distal part of each ‘cornu’ — a condition

which may be referred to as ‘bicomuate vagina’.

In most species the lumina of the two uterine

cornua become confluent to form a corpus uteri

which opens into the vagina by a common cervi-

cal canal. Although morphologically bilaterally

symmetrical, the female genitalia of most Indian

bats (except some vespertilionids) exhibit some

degree of physiological asymmetry.

In Rousettus leschenaulti , Cynopterus

sphinx and Taphozous longimanus the two sides

of the genitalia function alternately in successive

cycles. In hipposiderids the left side is partially

dominant over the right and the majority of

specimens ovulate and carry pregnancy in the

left side. In Megaderma lyra lyra the left side is

completely dominant over the right, hi

Taphozous melanopogon, Rhinolophus rouxi and

all molossid bats the right side is completely

dominant over the left. In those in which one

side is completely dominant over the other, the

contralateral side exhibits some degree of

atrophy. The structural and physiological im-

plications of the different kinds of female genital

asymmetry were described and discussed by

Wimsatt (1979) and Badwaik and Gopalakrishna

(1990). The female genitalia are structurally and

functionally bilaterally symmetrical only in

some vespertilionids.

Fecundity

As a result of physiological asymmetry of

the female genitalia most bats bring forth a

single young one in each breeding cycle. Since

most species breed only once a year their fecun-

dity and reproductive rate are low. It is interest-

ing to note that the two groups of vertebrates

which have successfully adapted to aerial life,

namely birds and bats, exhibit pronounced

female genital asymmetry. In birds the right

ovary is completely atrophied and the right Mul-

lerian duct has degenerated. The reproductive

rate and fecundity in most birds (except in the

highly domesticated and anthropophilic species)

are also low.

This interesting coincidence poses the

question — is aerial habit responsible for the

low fecundity in these two groups of animals? In

bats, in any case, monotoky appears to be an

important adaptation to their mode of life —

nocturnal flying habits and diurnal inverted

roosting posture — since these animals are con-

fronted with an additional problem (not found in

birds) of carrying relatively heavy foetus in the

uterus and of carrying a relatively large and

heavy young one attached to her breast during

some part of the suckling period in most species.

The weight of the full term foetus (and hence

that of the newly bom young) in relation to the

body weight of the adult female is far higher in

bats than in most other mammals (Table 1).

From the table it is evident that the weight of the

new bom young is 20% to 30% of the weight of

the mother, and in some vespertilionids, which

deliver two or more young ones in each cycle,

the total weight of the young ones at birth ran-

ges from about 30% to about 57% of the body

weight of the mother. The full term gravid

uterus (with the weight of the placenta and other

foetal membranes added) would be even more

than the weight of the newborn young.

Carrying all this additional weight would

be of considerable disadvantage to the pregnant

female during her night foraging flights. Even

during the resting position the weight of the

gravid uterus during the advanced stages of

pregnancy would have to be ultimately borne by

the diaphragm. Hence, the pregnant mother

would be under some degree of respiratory dis-

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XIV

3

tress. Further, in most species the mother carries

the young one incessantly attached to her breast

during most of the suckling period (Table 1).

The young one grows very rapidly in size and its

weight increases two to three times during this

period (Table 1). Carrying even a single young

one of such a size and weight at breast would

considerably hamper the aerodynamic efficiency

of the mother. If more than one young is bom

the stress on the mother would increase sig-

nificantly during both pregnancy and lactation.

From an evolutionary point of view, therefore, it

appears that female genital asymmetry with the

consequent monotoky in bats might be an adap-

tation to meet their flying habit and unique rest-

ing posture.

The gestation period for bats is very long

(Table 1) compared to the gestation period of

other mammals of a comparable size. Among

bats themselves, there is no direct relationship

between body weight and duration of pregnancy

as is evident from Table 1. Perhaps, because of

the long gestation period, the newly bom young

is remarkably advanced in development, and it

is quite active and able to crawl about actively

on the body of the mother and anchor itself

firmly to the mammary nipple by its jaws. The

newly born young of monotocous bats are far

more advanced in development and far more ac-

tive than newly bom young of polytocous

species (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1972,

Gopalakrishna etal. 1976, Ramakrishna 1976).

Longevity and Sex Ratio

The production of a single young a year by

monotocous bats raises the question as to how

these animals meet the problems of maintenance

of population and survival of the species. Al-

though no systematic work of banding for deter-

mining the longevity of Indian bats has been

carried out so far, data on bats in Europe and

North America reveal that some species live up

to 20, and some even up to 30 years (Hill and

Smith 1985, Robertson 1990). Bats appear to

have a greater longevity than other mammals of

corresponding size. On the basis of what is

known about European and North American

bats, and on the basis of an accidental recovery

of ringed specimens of Rousettus leschenaulti

and Megaderma lyra lyra after 14 years (Bad-

waik 1992), it is reasonable to assume that In-

dian bats may also have a longevity of 15 to 20

years. The monotocous species probably live

longer than the polytocous ones.

In all Indian bats so far studied (with the

probable, but still doubtful exception of

Taphozous melanopogon) the sex ratio is even at

birth and during the sucking period. But there is

a preferential male mortality during the growth

period, resulting in an unbalanced female-

dominant sex ratio among adults. Table 2 gives

the sex ratio at different phases of the life of

some Indian bats. In Taphozous melanopogon ,

although reports have consistently indicated that

males are more numerous than females (Ab-

dulali 1949, Sapkal and Khamre 1984, Badwaik

1991), it must be mentioned that all these

reports are based on the examination of

specimens from one roost. Since this species is a

seasonal migrator (Gopalakrishna 1986) and

colonises in a given roost only in some seasons

(Badwaik 1991), and since there is sexual

segregation among the adults (Sapkal and

Khamre 1984), the correct sex ratio in this

species can be found out only after the examina-

tion of several colonies in different localities

during all the months of the year.

Growth, Mortality and Population Dynamics

The young ones of bats grow very rapidly

during the suckling period and reach a body

weight of approximately two-thirds of the adult

body weight in monotocous bats and half the

weight of the adult in species which deliver two

young ones (Table 1). The weaned bats also

grow rapidly and attain adult body weight

within a few months, but the age of maturity

varies among different species. Most species

reach sexual maturity and begin breeding within

the year of birth, delivering their young when

BODY WEIGHT, LACTATION, GESTATION, AGE OF MATURITY IN SOME iNDIAN BATS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

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BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XIV

5

they are a year old. In a few species, however,

sexual activity does not commence until at least

the second breeding season after birth. Hence,

they deliver their first young at an age of at least

two years. In a few species the age of sexual

maturity varies between the sexes, females

usually reaching sexual maturity at an earlier

age than males. Table 1 gives the age of sexual

maturity in some Indian bats.

There seems to be some loss of young

during the latter half of the suckling period

when the young start crawling about on the body

of the mothers. During this period the young

may lose its hold and drop from the mother, and

not be retrieved. Even among species in which

there is community suckling the young ones are

sometimes lost since they crawl out of the

niches (in which they are left by the mothers)

and drop to the floor of the roost. Numerical

data on mortality at this stage are not available.

However, in species which carry the young al-

most for the entire period of lactation, the ratio

of number of mothers in lactation to the number

of attached young would give an approximate

percentage of accidental loss of young. For ex-

ample, in Rousettus leschenaulti and Cynopterus

sphinx , for which data are available, the ratio of

lactating females carrying the young at breast to

those without young at breast in random collec-

tion of the specimens was 100:15 and 82:16

respectively. This would mean that there is ap-

proximately 13% loss of young in Rousettus and

16% loss in Cynopterus.

It must, however, be mentioned that some

of the specimens, which were recorded as lactat-

ing mothers without babies, were in very ad-

vanced stages of lactation when the babies, were

in very advanced stages of lactation, when the

babies could have grown sufficiently to live in-

dependently. In fact, many free babies of both

species had curdled milk in their stomachs, in-

dicating that suckling continues for some time

after the baby ceases to be attached to its

mother’s breast. Hence, the number of lactating

females without babies attached does not repre-

sent the actual percentage of loss of young ones

during the suckling period.

Specimens of Rousettus were found in a

dark underground tunnel opening into a well and

were caught in flight while they emerged from

TABLE 2

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS OF THE TWO SEXES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROWTH IN SOME INDIAN BATS COLLECTED

RANDOMLY (REPRESENTING ALL CALENDAR MONTHS)

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

their roost. Specimens of Cynopterus , which

roost within groups of dried hanging fronds of

palm leaves, were shot with an air gun during

the day time. The difference in the roosting site

and the manner of collection of specimens may

also be responsible for the calculated figures of

loss of young being slightly higher than the ac-

tual loss of young. Taking into consideration

these facts the percentage of loss of young men-

tioned above, therefore, may at best be taken as

the maximum possible loss of young during this

phase of these life of the animals.

As mentioned earlier, there is preferential

mortality of weaned males during the prepuber-

tal phase, with the result that the adult sex ratio

is biased towards females. In some species

males form less than 20% of the adult popula-

tion. Table 2 shows the number of specimens of

the two sexes obtained by random collections

during the different phases of the life of several

Indian species. In Rousettus and Cynopterus the

sex ratio during the prepubertal phase appears to

be highly male-dominant. This anomaly is be-

cause females attain sexual maturity within the

year of birth, the males do not attain sexual

maturity until the beginning of the breeding

season of the year following their birth, when

they are at least 14 months old. Thus, while

there are two ‘crops' of prepubertal males there

is a single ‘crop' of prepubertal females. Hence,

prepubertal males are far more numerous than

prepubertal females in the colony.

It is thus evident that in all bats (except

Taphozous melanopogon) there is a preferential

male mortality leading to an imbalanced female-

dominant sex ratio. In some species the im-

balance is brought about during the prepubertal

stage, and in others after attaining sexual

maturity. The reason for this is not known.

Bats are relatively free from natural

enemies. Their unique roosting posture and the

very nature of their roosts (dark caves, tunnels

and old buildings or almost inaccessible crevices

in wells, rocks and tree trunks or concealed

within palm leaves, etc.), keep them safe from

predators. Their nocturnal flying habit also en-

sures safety when they come to open areas.

Most incidents of predation on bats are due to

chance encounters. Collisions with non-living

objects resulting in the death of bats are also

accidental and rare. Hence, unless man inter-

feres with their life directly (as in some cases of

fumigation of archaeological monuments) or in-

directly (as due to heavy use of toxic insec-

ticides) bats die of old age, barring accidents.

The factor of reproductive failure, which

may affect population growth in some other

mammals, needs to be addressed here.

Reproductive failure may be due to many

causes, such as copulation being unsuccessful or

absent, failure of ovulation or ovulation being

non-synchronised to insemination, failure of fer-

tilisation, resorption of early embryos, abortion

and so on. It is remarkable that bats have

developed unique adaptations to overcome most

of these problems. Taking only Indian species,

storage of inseminated spermatozoa in the

female genital tract as in Pipistrellus ceylonicus

clirysothrix (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan

1971) and Scotophilus heathi (Gopalakrishna

and Madhavan 1978) and storage of sper-

matozoa in the epididymis for two to three

months after cessation of spermatogenetic ac-

tivity in the testis as in Hipposideros speoris

(Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983, Gopalakrishna

et al. 1992) are adaptations to ensure fertilisa-

tion of the egg.

In all species except Rousettus leschenaulti ,

every adult female examined during the entire

breeding season for several years was pregnant,

thereby indicating that not only does every adult

female undeigo successful copulation, but it car-

ries the foetus to its full period of gestation and

delivers the young.

Only in Rousettus is there a loss of the

foetus after mid-gestation only in her second

pregnancy. This is probably because these

females had experienced their first pregnancy

when they were only five to seven months old,

and could not carry a second pregnancy to full

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XIV

7

duration because of their young age. After this

cycle the female brings forth two litters with one

young each in every pregnancy cycle during the

following years. Perhaps a similar situation ob-

tains in Cynopterus too, as evidenced by the fact

that a few of the adult females had lost the

foetus during the March-July pregnancy cycle.

The above observations are relevant to the

maintenance of population and survival of the

species in spite of low fecundity and slow

reproductive rate. As mentioned earlier, most

bats have a surprisingly long life. Taking the

example of Rousettus leschenaulti, it has been

shown that this species lives at least for 15

years. Females of Rousettus become sexually

mature in the year of their birth, and produce

two litters each year for 15 years. Allowing for

the second pregnancy to end in abortion, plus

infant mortality of 13% (vide supra) and an ad-

ditional loss of two or three individuals due to

accidents, each female should produce during

her life span at least 20-22 young that survive to

adulthood. Because of preferential male mor-

tality adult males form only 38% of the total

adult population (Table 2). Thus, there would be

approximately eight males and 12-14 females

living up to their full life out of the 29 young

delivered by the original female.

From the above it is evident that normally

there should be an annual increase in the popula-

tion of the species by 1.3 to 1.5 per cent.

Preferential male mortality indirectly increases

the potential reproductive population, namely

the females. This appears to be an additional

mechanism to ensure survival and to increase

the numbers in spite of low fecundity and

reproductive rate.

The only way the species can meet the in-

creasing population pressure is to form new

colonies. There is some evidence to indicate that

does in fact happen. The normal roost sites of

Rousettus are natural caves and dark under-

ground tunnels. A perennial presence of water in

the cave or tunnel or in the close vicinity of the

roost appears to be an essential prerequisite for

colony formation. However, several colonies of

Rousettus occur in man-made structures, espe-

cially underground tunnels, deep wells and dark,

humid dungeons in ruined monuments. Evident-

ly, this species has successfully colonised new

kinds of roosting places. Many other species of

bats have also adapted to new roosting sites

which are not essentially characteristic of these

species (Brosset 1962, 1963). Evidently, in most

Indian bats there is an expansion of population

both in time and space, and new roosts and

colonies are formed if the population pressure

increases beyond the optimum limit in any

colony.

Gestation Period

Data concerning the gestation periods in

several Indian species of bats are given in Table

1. Generally, the gestation period in bats is much

longer than in other mammals of comparable

size. There does not seem to be a direct relation-

ship between the gestation period and the size of

the bat. Badwaik (1989) showed that there are

marked differences in the gestation period even

among different species of Hipposideros.

Polytocous species appear to have a shorter ges-

tation period than monotocous species of com-

parable body size. Perhaps the longer gestation

period in bats in general, and in monotocous

species in particular, may be one of the factors

responsible for the young to attain a higher de-

gree of development than in most other mam-

mals. From the point of view of general

biological principles the special habits of these

animals, namely nocturnal foraging flight carry-

ing the young one(s) at the breast during at least

part of the suckling period and roosting in dark

places during the daytime, demand that the

young should be delivered as a well developed

baby capable of considerable muscular move-

ments soon after birth, and capable of living by

itself independently within a relatively shorter

time than other mammals.

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Lactationand Suckling

Soon after delivery (within a few seconds

after the young one emerges from the vagina in

most cases) the young one crawls about on the

belly of the mother and anchors itself firmly to

the mother’s nipple with its teeth. In vesper-

tilionids, in which two young are delivered

within a short time of each other (Gopalakrishna

and Madhavan 1972), the mother assists the

young towards her mammary nipple. In Rouset-

tus, Cynopterus, Rhinopoma, Taphozous and

Megaderma the teeth of the young are sunk deep

into the thick comified epithelium of the mam-

mary nipple. In species having pubic dugs, the

young one often holds one of the pubic dugs

with the teeth and embraces the neck of the

mother with its hind limbs during the non-suck-

ing periods. In Miniopterus schreibersii

fuliginosus and Rhinolophus rouxi, which live in

relatively large colonies inside deserted caves

and man-made tunnels or wells, the young one

is carried by the mother only for a couple of

days. Subsequently the young are kept in groups

of five to 20 in Rhinolophus rouxi and 50 to 500

in Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus in niches

in the walls of the roost. Lactating mothers visit

these groups of young ones periodically and

suckle them on a community feeding basis

without there being any mother-young choice.

In Hipposideros speoris , although the young one

is left behind in the roost when the mother goes

out for foraging, the mother and young recog-

nise each other, and the mother suckles only her

baby.

Sexual Synchrony and Adaptation

In most Indian species, which breed in a

sharply defined season, males and females come

to sexual activity nearly synchronously on the

approach of the breeding season — the sper-

matogenetic activity in the testis and the activity

of the male accessory glands commencing a few

days earlier than the time of onset of changes in

the female. Thus, the males are already in rut

when the females come to heat and copulation is

nearly always successful. However, in a few

species there are special adaptations in the two

sexes to ensure successful copulation leading to

conception.

In Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix and

Scotophilus heathiy although males and females

are in rut and heat respectively synchronously

(Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1971, 1972) and

copulate, ovulation is postponed by a few

weeks, and during this period the inseminated

spermatozoa are stored and remain viable inside

the genital tract of the female and successfully

fertilise the oocytes released five or six weeks

after insemination. In Hipposideros speoris at

Chandrapur, in which deliveries occur from May

to July and the young reach sexual maturity

when they are about eight months of age, the

parous females copulate and conceive in

December. However, the primiparous females,

which attain sexual maturity in January,

February and March, are also served by males in

which spermatozoa are stored in the epididymis,

and the accessory glands are maintained in a

high state of activity until April, although sper-

matogenesis ceases by the end of December.

It is interesting to note that in this species

the adult sex ratio is extremely unbalanced (25%

males, 75% females). Evidently, the storage of

spermatozoa in the epididymis and the main-

tenance of high state of activity by the accessory

glands are adaptations to meet the differences in

the time when the females attain sexual maturity

and to overcome the disadvantages of an ex-

tremely abnormal female-dominant sex ratio. At

a physiological level it appears as if the sper-

matogenetic activity in the testis and the

secretory activity in the accessory glands in

male Hipposideros speoris at Chandrapur are

under different endocrinological mechanisms

from those in males of this species inhabiting

western Maharashtra and Marathwada regions,

where the two parts of the male reproductive

apparatus come into activity synchronously,

resulting in the rutting period being restricted to

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XIV

9

a shaiply defined time in the year (Brosset 1962,

Gopalakrishna et al. 1991).

The structure of the penis deserves mention

here since it presents special features in these

mammals. Copulation occurs a posteriori. Ex-

cept in a few species, which roost with their

ventral body surface apposed to the supporting

surface, most bats hang freely, and nearly in all

Microchiroptera, there is an interfemoral

membrane of variable expanse. The bats have to

overcome the interfemoral membrane in a freely

hanging unstable situation. In all Megachirop-

tera and most Microchiroptera, apart from a

baculum or os penis (penis bone), which helps

in maintaining rigidity of the tip of the penis for

effective intromission, there are numerous back-

wardly directed spines on the glans penis and/or

accessory corpora cavernosa, which swell con-

siderably after intromission. The accessory cor-

pora cavernosa act in a manner similar to the

bulbus glandis in canid carnivores, and the

spines on the glans penis become anchored to

the vaginal epithelium during copulation. These

structures are evidently adaptations to prevent

premature separation of the pair in copula.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the C.S.I.R. and U.G.C.

for financial assistance for carrying out this

work.

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Sapkal, V.M. & Deshmukh, A.H. (1985): Breeding habits

and associated phenomena in some Indian ^>ats - Part

X - Taphozous kacchensis (Dobson) - Embal-

lonuridae. ibid 82: 61-67.

Sapkal, V.M. & Khamre, A.H. (1984): Breeding habits and

associated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part

Vlll-Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) - Embal-

lonuridae. ibid 80: 303-311.

Wimsatt, W.A. (1979): Reproductive asymmetry and

unilateral pregnancy in Chiroptera. J. Repr. Fert. 56:

345-357.

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

CENTROPUS SINENSIS PARROTI STRESEMANN (AVES : CUCULIDAE)

AT PT. CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU1

V. Natarajan2

( With three text-figures)

Key words: Centropus sinensis , crow-pheasant, Cryptozona bistrialis, feeding habits.

The food and feeding habits of the southern crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis parroti

were studied from a village ecosystem. The crow-pheasant forages on trees, on the ground and

also under bushes, feeding mainly on animal matter. Seven feeding methods and 30 food items

were recorded. The foraging height on trees varied from 0.3 to 7.6 m. Seasonal changes in the

diet were observed. The snail Cryptozona bistrialis was the most favoured food item. The fre-

quency of predation on birds’ eggs and nestlings was very low. The food items fed to its nest-

lings were recorded. The feeding association with other bird species is discussed.

Introduction

The food and feeding habits of the southern

crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis parroti have

not been studied in detail. Jerdon (1877), Mason

and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912), Gill (1924), Baker

(1927), Ali (1934), Ali and Whistler (1936), Ali

and Ripley (1983) and Sanjeeva Raj (1963) have

recorded some food items. A detailed study was

undertaken on the food and feeding habits of

this bird as well as the food items fed to nest-

lings.

Material and Methods

The feeding habits of the crow-pheasant

were observed in Kodikkarai and Kodikkadu

villages (337 ha) situated adjacent to Pt.

Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 18' N, 79°5T

E) in Thanjavur district (now Nagapattinam

Quaid-e-Milleth district), Tamil Nadu. Observa-

tions were made through 8x30 binoculars. The

food items were recorded by observing the feed-

ing birds and each food item fed on by the crow-

pheasant was treated as one observation. From

the total number of observations the dietary

preference was estimated.

Accepted January 1992.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed

Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

This study was carried out from September

1986 to March 1989. Apart from this, from Sep-

tember 1987 to August 1988 twelve hours were

spent in each month to study the behaviour of

the species. During that period the feeding site

preference, foraging method, foraging height,

and feeding association with other bird species

were recorded. Two nests of crow-pheasant, one

with three and the other with four nestlings were

watched during 1987 and 1988 breeding seasons

to record the food items fed to the nestlings by

the parents. As the crow-pheasant was seen fre-

quently foraging on the ground, the monthly

abundance of some of the possible food items

such as ground dwelling arthropods and mol-

luscs were sampled using a quadrat of 0.5x0.5 m

size. 20 quadrats per site were laid in each

month. The availability of these items per sq. m

area in village were calculated.

Results and Discussion

Abundance of arthropods and molluscs:

The abundance of arthropods and molluscs per

sq. m area in the village site showed significant

variation between different months (Fig. 1). The

crow-pheasant fed the nestlings largely on

snails, which were abundant from December to

April.

Feeding habits: The crow-pheasant

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Numbers

Month

Fig. 1. Monthly abundance of arthropods and molluscs at

the village study site.

predominantly feeds on animal matter. Mason

and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912) occasionally found

some vegetable matter (grass, leaves) in their

stomach. Sanjeeva Raj (1963) recorded the

crow-pheasant feeding on the fruits of yellow

oleander Thevetia neriifolia. At Pt. Calimere the

crow-pheasant spent considerable time foraging

on the ground and under bushes. In trees, they

hop from branch to branch in search of food.

Roaches, beetles, ants and termites were picked

up easily from the ground. Snails were eaten

after breaking up the shell. Snakes were cap-

tured after a chase. Small frogs and lizards were

swallowed whole, but larger prey were torn into

pieces before eating.

Feeding sites and spots: The crow-

pheasant forages on trees, on the ground, under

vegetation, on leaf litter, on fence edges, on

open grazing lands and also around houses on

garbage heaps. On trees, they probe the holes of

tree trunks and also in between tree branches.

They also lift tree bark in search for food. The

foraging height varies from 0.3 to 7.6 m (mean

2.8 ± 1.6 m, n=68). They very often glide from

trees to the ground while foraging. To fly long

distances they move to the top of the tree from

where they glide and then fly. They normally fly

short distances and sometimes when forced to

fly, the progress is slow and laboured, with much

flapping of wings and jerking of the tail. Even

when walking, it has the habit of constantly

Tim© In minutes

On ground

On tree

Fig. 2. Time spent on trees and on the ground by the crow-pheasant

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

13

spreading its tail like a huge fan and jerking it

up and down as mentioned in the case of com-

mon crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis sinensis

by Baker (1927).

Time spent on trees and ground: The

time spent on trees and on the ground, varies

during each month (Fig. 2). On the ground it

spent most of the time foraging and very little

for various body comfort activities. More time

was spent on trees than on the ground. However,

while on trees they spent more time in comfort

activities, calling and flying, than on feeding.

While feeding on the ground it runs rapidly and

also hops and jumps to capture prey. The lowest

time spent on the ground was in January when

the particular pair observed was engaged in in-

cubation. As the crow-pheasant prefers snails for

feeding the chicks, the time spent on ground in-

creases after the eggs hatch. The time spent on

trees was lowest (47.6%) in July and highest

(97.8%) in January, when the bird was attending

the nest. During April and May (hot months), it

spent most of the time in bushes.

Methods of feeding: Picking — The birds

picked up insects from the ground and trees and

aestivating snails ( Helix vittata) from the

vegetation. The snails were eaten after breaking

the shell. Beetles were eaten after removing the

elytra. Insects like mantis were killed and eaten

by holding them under the feet and pecking at

them.

Probing — The bird probed in the holes on

tree trunks, in between tree branches and bark to

catch emerging insects.

Gliding — While feeding on trees, escaping

insects falling to the ground were followed and

captured by gliding to the ground.

Jumping and catching — During rainy

season low-flying winged termites were cap-

tured by frequent jumps with a little flapping of

the wings.

Chasing — Some grasshoppers and young

garden lizards were captured after chasing for

short distances on the ground.

Lifting of dead leaves — The birds lift the

dry leaves and twigs and catch insects from the

litter.

Flying and chasing - Tree-dwelling snakes

were captured after chasing. Escaping snakes

falling to the lower branches or to the ground

were constantly searched for by hopping and

flying among the vegetation or on the ground.

Food items: The crow-pheasant feeds on

insects, snails, frogs and bird eggs and nestlings.

About 30 food items were recorded (Table 1).

The observations carried out from September

1986 to March 1989 have been grouped into

three periods. (1) January to April, (2) May to

August and (3) September to December. The

frequency of food items recorded during each

period is given in Table 2. Snails were the

dominant food in all months. Ants were taken

between May and August and termites during

November. The garden lizard Calotes versicolor

TABLE 1

FOOD ITEMS OF THE CROW-PHEASANT

2

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 2

FOOD ITEMS OF CROW-PHEASANT, HELD

OBSERVATIONS FROM SEPTEMBER 1986 TO MARCH 1989

Fig. 3. Composition of diet of crow-pheasant

1. Snails 69.1%, 2. Insects 20.6%, 3. Calotes 1.9%,

4. Snakes 1.2%, 5. Eggs and nestlings 0.9%,

6. Frogs 0.9%, 7. Others 5.4%.

and snakes were eaten all through the year. The

frequency of predation on bird eggs and nest-

lings was very low. Two eggs, one each of ring

dove Streptopelia decaocto and spotted dove

Streptopelia chinensis were recorded being

preyed upon. During February one nestling of

redventcd bulbul Pycnonotus cafer was taken

from its nest by a crow-pheasant, then tom to

pieces and fed to its fledglings.

The percentage composition of various

food items is given in Fig. 3. Snails were the

most dominant component of the diet (69.1%)

followed by insects (20.6%). Items such as cen-

tipede, millipede, spider and unidentified food

items were grouped under ‘other items’ (5.4%).

Food of nestlings: The food items fed to

the nestlings of different ages were identified in

the field from one nest each during 1986-1987

Table 3

NUMBER OF FOOD ITEMS FED TO THE NESTLINGS DURING DIFFERENT DAYS OF AGE (1986-1988)

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

15

and 1987-1988 breeding seasons (Table 3). The

major food items for the nestling were two

species of snails, namely Cryptozona bistrialis

and Helix vittata. When the flooded areas

around the nesting site dried up, the crow-

pheasant brought skipper frogs Rana cyanoph-

lyctis and earthworms from puddles to feed the

nestlings. Initially they brought small frogs,

large numbers of snails, and young garden

lizards to the nest. Once a nestling was seen

feeding on a garden lizard. The body of the

lizard had been swallowed, and the tail (150

mm) was visible outside the bill, gradually being

swallowed. The snakes were tom to bits and fed

to the nestlings which swallowed them immedi-

ately. The snakes included the tree snake

Dendrelaphis tristis , buffstriped keelback Am-

phiesma stolata, common greenwhip snake

Ahaetulla nasutus and saw-scaled viper Echis

carinatus.

The other items brought to the nestlings in

small numbers were spider, centipede, grasshop-

per, mole-cricket, beetle, roach, caterpillar,

moth, butterfly and dragonfly. The rate of feed-

ing increases with growth of young. The nest-

lings need a protein-rich diet for growth and

calcium for the development of bones, which the

animal diet provides. Nestlings of other birds

were not brought to feed the nestlings.

Feeding association: Normally the crow-

pheasant feeds alone. On some occasions while

feeding in marshy areas they were seen feeding

along with jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos ,

house crow Corvus splendens and common

myna Acridotheres tristis. While feeding, the

jungle crow gave considerable trouble to the

crow-pheasant by pecking at its tail from be-

hind. The crow-pheasant chased the jungle crow

on several occasions, but such encounters ended

with the two birds feeding in adjacent areas. In

another instance the crow-pheasant was seen

feeding on winged termites along with pied

crested cuckoo Clamator jacobinus, Indian

plaintive cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus, palm

swift Cypsiurus parvus, Indian roller Coracias

benghalensis, brown shrike Lanius cristatus,

black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis, ashy swallow

shrike Artamus fuscus, common myna, house

crow and jungle crow.

The crow-pheasant is regarded as being

highly destructive to the eggs and nestlings of

other birds. However, this study with data col-

lected mainly from a village ecosystem, found

the assumption to be not totally correct. Its diet

was found to comprise mainly of two snail

species and other animals such as insects,

lizards, frogs and snakes. Predation on birds’

eggs and young was recorded to be very low and

hence they do not play a dominant role in the

nesting success of other species of birds. How-

ever, I have to add that this statement again may

not be appropriate, as the birds studied belong

mainly to a village ecosystem - in a forest

ecosystem, there may be some differences.

Acknowledgements

This paper is based on my Ph.D thesis

(University of Bombay, 1990). I am grateful to

Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Curator, Bombay

Natural History Society for his guidance and en-

couragement throughout the study period. I wish

to thank Mr. S.A. Hussain and Dr. Asad R. Rah-

mani, for going through the draft and for their

valuable comments. I acknowledge the sugges-

tions given by Dr. Priya Davidar, Salim Ali

School of Ecology, Pondicherry. I thank S. Kar-

thikeyan and C. Balasubramanian for their assis-

tance in the field. My thanks are due to U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service for providing funds

for the project through the Ministry of Environ-

ment and Forests, Govt, of India. Finally I thank

the officials of the Pt. Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary for their co-operation and help.

16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

References

A li, S. (1934): The Hyderabad state Ornithological Survey.

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 37: 124-142.

Au, S. & Whistler, H. (1936): The Ornithology of Travan-

core and Cochin. J. Bombay nat Hist Soc. 39: 3-35.

Au, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, New Delhi.

Baker, E.C.S. (1927): The fauna of British India, Vol. 4

(2nd ed.). Taylor and Francis, London.

Gill, E.H.N. (1924): A description of the nests and eggs of

the common birds occurring in the plains of the

United Provinces, Part VI. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

30: 273-284.

Jerdon, T.C (1877): The birds of India. Vol 1. Rozario &

Co., Calcutta.

Mason, C.W. & Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1912): The food of

birds in India. Mem. Agr. Dept. India, Entomological

Series, Vol. 3.

Sanjeeva Raj, P.J. (1963): Additions to the list of birds

eating the fruit of Yellow Oleander (Thevetia

neriifolia). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 457-458.

COMMUNAL NESTING BY GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)

(REPTILIA: CROCODILIA) IN NATIONAL CHAMBAL SANCTUARY1

R.J. Rao2 and L.A.K. Singh3

(With four text-figures)

Key words: Communal nesting, Gavialis gangeticus, gharial.

Observations are presented on communal nesting in the gharial Gavialis gangeticus at

two locations in National Chambal Sanctuary. Pre-nesting activities, spacing and location of

nests and nest attendance are discussed. 23 nests were laid in late March and early April at the

two locations. These were located on average at 7.7 ± 1.8 m from water. Clutch size for eight

nests was 37 ± 11 eggs, and incubation period 64 ± 3 days. Hatching success was nil for one

nest, and between 65.7% and 100% for seven other nests.

Introduction

The gharial Gavialis gangeticus is a com-

munal nester, i.e. a number of females use the

same sand bank to lay eggs. More than two nests

occurring side by side have been reported earlier

by Singh, L.A.K. (1978), Singh, V.B. (1978),

Bustard (1980), and Whitaker and Basu (1982).

These accounts do not reveal the spatio-tem-

poral distribution pattern of nests and their

hatching on a communal nesting ground, as

described in this note based on our observations

at the National Chambal Sanctuary.

Study Locations

The Chambal river constitutes a part of the

Gangetic river system. The National Chambal

Sanctuary, declared over the Chambal river,

holds the best surviving population of G.

gangeticus. Out of 10 nesting sites identified in

the sanctuary during 1985, communal nesting

occurred at only three locations, namely Baroli,

Bharrah and Pureini (Fig. 1). Data for the

present paper were collected from Baroli and

Pureini.

Baroli is 57 km downstream from the

Chambal-Parbati confluence. The nesting island

1Accepted April 1991.

2School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior,

Madhya Pradesh 474 Oil.

3Similipal Tiger Reserve, Khairi-Jashipur, Orissa 757 091.

is approx. 1 km in length and is about 7 m above

the water line during the dry season. At least

85% of the island is covered by sand and

xerophytic bushes. During summer when the

river is low, the eastern bank of the island con-

nects with the mainland. Female gharials use the

western face of the island for nesting. Here the

river is fast-flowing and over 10 m deep (Fig. 2).

Pureini is located 173 km downstream

from Baroli. Human activities in the form of

agriculture and fishing are relatively more than

at Baroli. Nesting occurs on the northern bank

which is open without any vegetation. The river

is over 15 m deep during summer (Fig. 3).

Methods

During February -July 1985 regular inspec-

tions were made at Pureini and Baroli, par-

ticularly the latter, and information on the dates

of nesting, sequences of nesting by different

females, spatial distribution of nests at the nest-

ing banks, nest-wise sequences of hatching, and

post-hatching social organisation of hatchlings

and adults were recorded.

During early morning inspections in

February-April we looked for long, inverted U-

shaped characteristic tracks of nesting females

which led away from water. Where nesting had

occurred, at the apex of the U-track, the sand

was loose, moist and disturbed. After probing

and locating a nest the following data were

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Fig. 1. Part of the National Chambal Sanctuary, showing locations of colonial nesting sites. Inset: Location on map of India.

recorded: precise location on a sketch of the

nesting bank, distance from water, height above

water, distance from and height above the nest

laid prior to it, distance from the nest nearest to

it, date of egg-laying, clutch size, and the

chronological number in which the nest was laid

during the season.

From the last week of May up to about the

middle of July inspections were intensified to

coincide with the season of hatching. Hatched-

Fig. 2. Nest distribution pattern at colonial nesting site at Baroli. The scales touching the river and sand bank indicate

distances (not height) of the nests with respect to shoreline and other nests. Arrow shows direction of river flow. Serial

numbers of nests as in Table 1. Veg. = vegetation.

COMMUNAL NESTING IN THE GHARIAL

19

out nests were usually noticed in the morning.

These ‘appeared as wide-mouthed craters with

scattered empty egg shells leading to the river

along the return track of the female. Data were

recorded on the date of hatching, number of

empty egg shells, number of unhatched eggs,

and numbers of hatchlings (if) seen on the river

bank and distinguishable as a separate creche

probably belonging to the just-hatched nest.

During observations made after all the

nests had hatched, we recorded the numbers of

hatchling-creches, the number of females attend-

ing close by, and the locations of other females

and males. Any other behaviour which we could

relate to parental attendance to hatchlings, were

also taken note of. The study was terminated by

15 July when the river was in flood (Fig. 4).

Results

Pre-nesting activities: By 19 February

gharial tracks were seen leading 8 m from water.

Probably these were left by potential nesters be-

cause at other times of the year a gharial seldom

goes beyond 2-3 m from the water’s edge.

Small pits (‘probe pits’) about 15-20 cm

deep and the same width were detected at the

Fig. 3. Nest distribution pattern at colonial nesting site at

Pureini. Numbering of nests indicates the sequence in

which nests were found, not sequence of laying.

future nesting site after 9 March. ‘Trial nests’

were detected after 23 March. These were fully-

dug, uncovered chambers without eggs and

resembling an actual nest-pit in shape and size

(Singh, L.A.K. 1978).

Nesting at Baroli: A total of 12 nests were

laid between 26 March and 9 April, on a total of

nine nesting-nights. On the first nesting night

there were three nests, on the second there were

two, and on seven other nights there was one

Fig. 4. Time of pre-nesting to post-hatching activities at Baroli during 1985. The heights of shaded areas differ only to

demonstrate overlapping periods.

20

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

I

nest each. The spatial distribution of these nests

is shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2. The mean dis-

tance between two adjacent nests was 6.1

± 8.3 m. Regardless of when laid or how far

apart the nests were made, any two adjacent

nests occupied different heights above the water

level, thereby reducing the chance of exhuma-

tion of an earlier-laid nest. The distance of a nest

from the one laid immediately prior to it ranged

from 1.2 m to 241.7 m. The nests were located

7.7 ± 1.8 m away and at 1.3 ± 0.2 m height

above water level. The clutch size was 37 ± 11

eggs (range 17-50).

Four of the 12 nests were collected for the

captive-rearing programme. The rest were left

for incubation in situ.

Nesting at Pureini: There were a total of

nine nests made between 29 March and 7 April.

The minimum distance between two adjacent

nests ranged from 1.2 m to 3.0 m. All nests were

collected and shifted for captive management.

Hatching: All eight nests at Baroli hatched

between 31 May and 11 June, i.e. 61-69 days

(mean 64 ± 3 days) after nesting. Hatching suc-

cess within a clutch was 65.7% to 100% (mean

91.2 ± 10.9%) excluding a clutch of 17 eggs in

which none hatched. During the last week of

May and first week of June, when hatching time

was approaching, tracks from water to the nests

were numerous. The number of such tracks

gradually decreased as the hatching season

progressed.

Hatchling attendance: After hatching, the

juveniles usually remained in the water just

below the nest from which they hatched. Within

a day they joined the creche of hatchlings which

hatched earlier at the communal nesting site.

Thus larger creches were formed with the ad-

vancement of the hatching season.

Each creche of hatchlings was attended

only by a single female. Therefore, when

smaller creches joined to form larger creches the

numbers of attending females decreased. By 11

June there was only one large creche attended

by a single female. Earlier, when there were

three smaller creches of hatchlings, it was ob-

served that all three attending females were dis-

tinctly larger than those which kept to mid-

stream islands.

The male gharial at the Baroli nesting site

table l

GHARIAL NEST DISTRIBUTION AT BAROLI COMMUNAL NESTING SITE DURING 1985

* Did not hatch. ** Collected for captive hatching programme.

COMMUNAL NESTING IN THE GHARIAL

21

normally basked within about 500 m

downstream of the communal nesting site.

Whenever an ‘intruder’ (human or bovine) ap-

proached the nesting site along the bank from

downstream the male followed the ‘intruder’

from the water until it reached the hatchlings,

where an attending female was invariably

present. After emitting loud nasal hissing

sounds, the male normally returned to its pre-

vious basking position.

Discussion

Communal nesting has been recorded in

Crocodylus johnstoni (Webb 1981) and C.

niloticus (Cott 1961); both species are ‘hole

nesters’. In C. johnstoni up to 18 nests have

been found at a communal nesting ground

within 50 m, while in C. niloticus Cott illus-

trated numerous craters each denoting a

hatched-out nest, and mentioned the presence of

24 craters in an area of approx. 550 sq. m.

Among the Indian crocodilians gharial and mug-

ger (palustris ) are ‘hole nesters’. C. palustris is

recorded to have three nests within a shore

length of 20 m at Sathanur, Tamil Nadu, and

eight nests in an area of 15 sq. m at the Hiran

lake in Gir National Park (B.C. Choudhury,

pers. comm. 1986). Singh (1991) observed four

nesting females of C. palustris in an expansive

breeding pen at Ramatirtha, Orissa for three

consecutive seasons and concluded that the

dominant female may share the same nesting

site within 10 sq. m only with the females third

and fourth in the hierarchial order.

Gharials are only mildly territorial. This is

evident when the larger females non-aggressive-

ly (1) select a future nesting site first in the

season, and (2) guard the large conglomerate

creche of hatchlings. Such territoriality does not

appear to impede in sharing the same nesting

habitat. As observed at Baroli, 10 nests were in

an area of approx. 60 sq. m, and at Pureini in

one batch five nests were in an area of 44 sq. m,

and another four nests were in an area of 300 sq.

m. At Baroli, where observations were con-

tinued, the nests were so laid that upon hatching

their ‘craters’ did not overlap beyond the rims.

Nests made close together on the same night

were spaced so that body contact between two

nesting females could not have taken place. It is

suspected that females which nested later were

able to detect the location of a nest laid earlier

and avoided digging into or close to it.

Therefore, communal nesting may be a

species-based characteristic of gharial, and

probably other less territorial ‘hole-nesting’

crocodilians. In gharial the average adult sex-

ratio is 1 male: 3 females. The male may play a

greater role in hatchling attendance than we

know. Communal nesting may improve hatc-

hling survival because there are larger numbers

of females in attendance, and that a larger creche

of hatchlings may ensure better social com-

munication aimed at better survival rate. In

recent years, with increased pressure on habitats

due to man-made causes, communal nesting

may be a useful adaptation to overcome the

shortage of secure nesting grounds.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the assistance received

from the Wildlife Wings of Madhya Pradesh,

Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Department of

Forest and Wildlife, Government of India and

FAO/UNDP. We thank Sri B.C. Choudhury for

information. The work was carried out as a part

of the research programme of the Crocodile Re-

search Centre of the Wildlife Institute of India.

References

Bustard, H.R. (1980): Clutch size, incubation and hatching ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile in

success of gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin), Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc.

eggs from Narayani River, Nepal 1976-1978. J. Bom- London 29: 211- 356.

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 100-105. Singh, L.A.K. (1978): Ecological studies on the Indian

Cott, H.B. (1961): Scientific results of an inquiry into the Gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia,

22

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Crocodilia). Ph.D. thesis, Utkal University, Orissa.

Singh, L.A.K. (1991): Indian Mugger, Crocodylus palustris

Lesson (Reptilia, Crocodilia): Territorial resource-

partitioning and its implications in sanctuary manage-

ment A Zoo Project under Animal Management

Course, National Extension College, Cambridge, U.K.

Singh, V.B. (1978): Status of the gharial in Uttar Pradesh

and its rehabilitation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

(3): 668-683.

Webb, G.J.W. (1981): Nesting biology of Crocodylus

johnstoni in the Northern Territory. In: Banks, C.B. &

Martin, A. A.' (Eds.). Proceedings of the Melbourne

Herpetological Symposium. Zoological Board of Vic-

toria, Royal Melbourne Zoological Gardens, pp. 107.

Whitaker, R. & Basu, D. (1982): The gharial ( Gavialis

gangeticus ). A review. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

79(3): 531-548.

REVISION OF GENUS FERN A MALAISE (HYMENOPTERA :

TENTHREDINIDAE : ALLANTINAE) FROM INDIA1

Malkiat S. Saemi and Jagdeep S. Deep2

(With twenty text-figures)

Key words: Feriia bengalensis, F. punctifossa, F. longiserra, F. brevigenata.

The genus Ferna Malaise in India has been revised. To the previously recorded single

species, another is added while two others, F. punctifossa and F. longiserra , represent first

records. A new species, F. bengalensis , is described and illustrated. A workable dichotomous

key for the known species is given.

Introduction

The genus Ferna described by Malaise in

1961 is so far represented by six species. Prior

to 1983, when Muche reported F. brevigenata

from Darjeeling (India), it was confined to

Burma. In this report F. punctifossa and F.

longiserra represent first records from India and

F. bengalensis is new to science. For confirma-

tion and comparison the concerned types of

Ferna were procured on loan from N.R. Stock-

holm. This genus is characterised by the body

being pale yellow below and black above and

black with rich pale markings and yellow with

black ones. Mandibles sub-symmetric, each with

more or less blunt subapical tooth. Anal cell

cross vein meets brachium at 60°-40° and hind

wings have one closed middle cell.

Abbreviations used: EL - eye length,

LID - lower interocular distance, IDMO - inter-

ocular distance at level of median ocellus, OOL

- oculo-ocellar line, OCL - ocello-occipital line,

POL - postocellar line, IATS - inner apical

tibial spur, OATS - outer apical tibial spur, MB

- metabasitarsus, ICD - inter cenchri distance,

ITD - inter tarsal distance.

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF Ferna MALAISE

1. Mesoscutellum with a faint longitudinal carina in

posterior half; median fovea in form of a long depres-

sion touching median ocellus, deeper in anterior half

Accepted October 1990.

2Dept. of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002.

Ferna brevigenata Malaise, 1961

— Mesoscutellum not carina ted; median fovea not

reaching median ocellus 2

2. Circum-, inter-, postocellar and lateral furrows indis-

tinct; median fovea in form of a shallow depression

Ferna bengalensis sp. nov.

— Circum-, interocellar and lateral furrows distinct;

median fovea in form of a deep ditch 3

3. Postocellar furrow indistinct; lateral furrows trian-

gularly widened into a punctiform pit just behind each

lateral ocellus; metabasitarsus and following joints

combined in ratio 5:6

Ferna punctifossa Malaise, 1961

— Postocellar furrow distinct; lateral furrows deep,

sunken, excurved, not reaching hind margin of head;

metabasitarsus and following joints combined in ratio

5:7 Ferna longiserra Malaise, 1961

Ferna brevigenata Malaise, 1961

(Figs. 2, 4, 11, 17)

Ferna brevigenata Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82, Hafte 3-4, p. 258.

FEMALE: Average length 6.5 mm. Body

black. Clypeus, labrum, mandible barring apex,

supraclypeal area, broad stripe along inner orbit,

malar space, broad stripe along hind orbit reach-

ing temple, anterolateral, posterior and

posterodorsal margin of pronotum; tegula; spot

on anterior slope of mesoscutellum, spot on

mesepisternum, metepistemum, meso- and

metastema; all legs; narrow posterior margin of

terga 2-7 and deflexed part of terga; all sterna;

are pale yellow. Wings hyaline, costa and stigma

fulvous, venation brown.

Antenna 9-segmented, 2.9 x head width,

24

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

scape and pedicel longer than broad, segments 3

and 4 in ratio 6:7, segments 6-9 subequal in

length. Clypeus (Fig. 4) roundly to subsquarely

incised up to half of its medial length with broad

rounded lateral teeth; labrum broader than long

in ratio 3:2 with deflexed rounded anterior mar-

gin; malar space 1.1 x diameter of median ocel-

lus; lower margin of eye slightly below level of

antennal socket; LID:IDMO:EL = 2.0:2.2:1.2;

head without postgenal carina; supraclypeal and

supra-antennal pits well marked; frontal area

elevated much above level of eyes; antennal fur-

rows shallow, distinct in anterior half only;

median fovea in form of a long depression,

deeper in anterior half; circum-, inter- and pos-

tocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows deep,

falling short of hind margin of head; postocellar

area broader than long in ratio 7 : 4; head slight-

ly narrowing behind eyes, OOL:POL:OCL =

2.0:1. 0:1. 8; mesoscutellum hardly elevated with

a faint indication of a longitudinal carina in

posterior half; appendage not carinate; ICD:ITD

= 1. 0:4.0; mesepistemum roundly raised without

carina or acute apex; tarsal claw (Fig. 2) with a

long apical and slightly shorter subapical teeth,

basal lobe absent; metabasitarsus shorter than

following tarsal joints combined in ratio 4:5;

IATS :MB : OATS = 2.0:5.0:1.7.

Head and mesonotum minutely and densely

punctured; mesoscutellum punctured like head

on anterior slope, with large pictures on

posterior slope; appendage impunctate;

mesopleuron, sternum and abdomen shining

with minute scattered punctures.

Lancet (Fig. 17) having about 15 serrulae.

Each serrula is shallow with 9-10 anterior and 4-5

posterior sub-basal teeth. Hypopygium as in Fig. 11.

MALE: Not found.

Population variation: Not observed.

Holotype depository: Female, NR, Stock-

holm.

Paratypes: four females, seven males, NR,

Stockholm.

Specimens examined: 9 females, Himachal

Pradesh: Dalhousie, Kalatop - 2880 m, 29 June

to 1 July 1986.

Distribution: Burma. India: West Bengal,

Himachal Pradesh.

The specimens examined agree with

Malaise’s (1961) key for species of Ferna and

resemble well the original description. This

species is characterised by mesoscutellum with a

faint longitudinal carina in the posterior half and

median fovea touching median ocellus in the

form of a long depression. The species was

originally described by Malaise from Burma but

later on Muche (1983) reported it from Darjeel-

ing.

Ferna bengalensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1, 3, 10, 18)

FEMALE: Average length 6.5 mm. Body

black. Clypeus; labrum; mandible barring apex;

supraclypeal area up to supra-antennal tubercle;

malar space; broad stripe along inner orbit; hind

orbit continuing as a stripe on temple; narrow

margin of pronotum; tegula; spot on anterior

slope of mesoscutellum; lower half of

mesepistemum except broad anterodorsal angle;

mesosternum; all legs (tarsi infumated towards

tip); all sterna, deflexed parts of terga; tergum 9;

are yellowish white. Wings hyaline, costa and

stigma fulvous, venation dark brown.

Antenna 9-segmented, 2.8 x head width,

scape and pedicel longer than broad, segment 3

indistinctly shorter than 4, segments 6-9 sube-

qual in length; clypeus (Fig. 3) roundly narrowly

incised up to one-third of its medial length with

broad and rounded lateral teeth; labrum broader

than long in ratio 5:3 with deflexed rounded

anterior margin; malar space 1 x diameter of

median ocellus; lower margin of eye below level

of antennal socket; LID:IDMO:EL = 2.0:2.0:1.0;

head without postgenal carina; supraclypeal and

supra-antennal pits well marked; frontal area

roundly elevated above level of eyes; antennal

furrows well marked; median fovea in form of a

shallow depression. Circum-, inter- and pos-

tocellar furrows indistinct; lateral furrows not

well marked; postocellar area almost flat,

REVISION OF GENUS FERNA MALAISE

25

broader than long in ratio 3:2; head slightly nar-

rowing behind eyes; OOL:POL:OCL = 2.0: 1.0:

1.7; mesoscutellum slightly elevated; appendage

not carinate; ICD:ITD = 1. 0:4.0; mesepisternum

roundly raised without carina or acute apex; tar-

sal claw (Fig. 1) with a long apical and short

subapical teeth, basal lobe absent; metabasitar-

sus shorter than following tarsal joints combined

in ratio 5:6; IATS:MB:OATS = 1.8:5.0:1.5.

Head, mesonotum and mesoscutellum

minutely punctured (interocellar area with dis-

tinct punctures); appendage polished; mesepis-

ternum and sternum shining with indistinct

scattered punctures; abdomen impunctate.

Lancet (Fig. 18) having 14-15 serrulae.

Each serrula is triangular with 7 anterior and 3-4

posterior sub-basal teeth.

Hypopygium as in Fig. 10.

MALE: Not found.

Population variation: Single specimen ex-

amined.

Holotype: Female, West Bengal, Daijeel-

ing, 2800 m, 2 May 1986.

Paratype: Nil.

Distribution: INDIA: West Bengal.

The species can be distinguished from F.

punctifossa keyed out at couplet 2 (Malaise

1961) in having lateral furrows indistinct (dis-

tinct in F. punctifossa ), postocellar area broader

than long in ratio 3:2 (little broader than long in

F. punctifossa) and median fovea in the fonn of

a continuous shallow depression (almost flat

before median ocellus in F. punctifossa). The

species is characterised by having circum-, inter-

and postocellar furrows indistinct.

Etymology: The species has been named

after the state in which its type locality is

situated.

Ferna punctifossa Malaise, 1961

(Figs. 6, 8, 9, 13, 16, 19)

Ferna punctifossa Malaise, 1961, Ent.

Tidshr. Arg. 82, Hafte 3-4, p. 259.

FEMALE: Average length 5.5 mm. Body

black. Clypeus; labrum; mandible barring apex;

supraclypeal area; broad stripe along inner orbit;

malar space; hind orbit continuing as transverse

spot up to temple; tegula; broad medial spot on

anterior slope of mesoscutellum; spot on

mesepisternum continuing with entirely yellow

mesosternum; all legs, deflexed sides of all

terga; tergum 9; sterna entirely; are yellowish.

Wings hyaline, costa and stigma fulvous, vena-

tion brown.

Antenna 9-segmented, 3.0 x head width,

scape and pedicel longer than broad, segments 3

and 4 in ratio 6:7, segments 7-9 subequal in

length; clypeus (Fig. 8) roundly incised up to

two-fifths of its medial length with broad,

rounded lateral teeth; labrum broader than long

in ratio 5 : 3 with deflexed rounded anterior

margin; malar space 1 x diameter of median

ocellus; lower margin of eye below level of an-

tennal socket; LID:IDMO:EL = 2.0:2. 1:1.0;

head without postgenal carina; supraclypeal and

supra-antennal pits well marked; frontal area

roundly elevated above level of eyes; antennal

furrows well marked; median fovea in fonn of a

deep ditch in anterior half only; circumocellar

furrow distinct; interocellar furrow broad and

deep; postocellar furrow indistinct; lateral fur-

rows triangularly widened into a punctiform pit

just behind each lateral ocellus, not reaching

hind margin of head; postocellar area slightly

elevated, broader than long in ratio 6:5; head

slightly narrowing behind eyes; OOL:POL:OCL

= 2.2:1. 0:2.0; mesoscutellum somewhat roundly

elevated; appendage not carinate; ICD:1TD =

1. 0:4.0; mesepisternum roundly raised without

carina or acute apex; tarsal claw (Fig. 6) with

long apical and short subapical teeth, basal lobe

absent; metabasitarsus shorter than following

tarsal joints combined in ratio 5:6;

IATS :MB : OATS = 2.0:5.0:1.7.

Head minutely and densely punctured;

mesonotum subshining with minute scattered

punctures; mesoscutellum punctured like head;

appendage impunctate; mesopleuron and

mesosternum shining with minute punctures; ab-

domen impunctate.

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

007mm

Figs. 1-16. Species of the genus Fema Malaise

1. Tarsal claw of bengalensis ; 2. Tarsal claw of brevigenata; 3. Clypeus and la brum of bengalensis; 4. Clypeus and labrum

of brevigenata ; 5. Tarsal claw of longiserra ; 6. Tarsal claw of puncdfossa ; 7. Clypeus and labrum of longiserra ;

8. Clypeus and labrum of puncdfossa ; 9. Hypopygium of puncdfossa ; 10. Hypopygium of bengalensis ;

11. Hypopygium of brevigenata ; 12. Penis valve of longiserra ; 13. Penis valve of puncdfossa ;

14. Hypopygium of longiserra; 15. Gonoforceps of longiserra; 16. Gonoforceps of puncdfossa.

REVISION OF GENUS FERNA MALAISE

27

Figs. 17-20. Species of the genus Ferna Malaise

17. Lancet of brevigenata; 18. Lancet of bengalensis;

19. Lancet of punctifossa; 20. Lancet of longiserra.

Lancet (Fig. 19) having about 16 serrulae.

Each serrula is shallow with seven anterior and

2-3 posterior sub-basal teeth.

Hypopygium as in Fig. 9.

MALE: Average length 5.0 mm. Similar to

female.

Male genitalia: Penis valve as in Fig. 13,

gono forceps as in Fig. 16.

Population variation: Fulvous colour is

pale yellow in the population.

Holotype depository: Female, NR, Stock-

holm.

Paratypes: four females, two males, NR,

Stockholm

Specimens examined: 6 females, 20

males, West Bengal: Darjeeling, 2880 m, 2 May

to 4 May 1986. 4 males, Arunachal Pradesh :

Bomdila, 2800 m, 1 June to 2 June 1989. 13

females, 9 males, Himachal Pradesh : Dal-

housie, Kalatop, 2800 m, 28 June to 2 July

1986.

Paratype (female) bearing slips, “Kambatti

2135 m, N.E. Burma, 9/6, R. Malaise, 24/90”.

Distribution: Burma. INDIA: West Bengal,

Arunachal Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.

The specimens agree with Malaise’s (1961)

key for Ferna and comply well with the original

description and the paratypes received on loan

from NR, Stockholm. The species is charac-

terised by the lateral furrows widened trian-

gularly into punctiform pits just behind lateral

ocellus. This is a first report of the species from

India.

Ferna longiserra Malaise, 1961

(Figs. 5, 7, 12, 14, 15, 20)

Ferna longiserra Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82, Hafte 3-4, p. 260.

FEMALE: Average length 6.0 mm. Body

black. Clypeus; labrum; mandible barring apex;

supraclypeal area; spot on supra -antennal

tubercles; malar space, continuing as a stripe

along inner orbits; narrow transverse spot on

temple; narrow margin of pronotum; tegula;

broad transverse spot on mesepisternum along

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

its border with sternum; all legs (tarsi somewhat

fulvous); very narrow hind margin of terga,

deflexed sides of terga and all sterna; are cad-

mium yellow. Wings smoky hyaline; costa, stig-

ma and venation black.

Antenna 9-segmented, 2.7 x head width,

scape and pedicel longer than broad, scape dis-

tinctly so, segments 3-4 subequal, segments 6-8

subequal in length, 9th slightly shorter, clypeus

(Fig. 7) roundly incised up to half of its medial

length with broad, lateral teeth; labrum broader

than long in ratio 5:3 with deflexed, rounded

anterior margin; malar space 1 x diameter of

median ocellus; lower margin of eye just below

level of antennal socket; LID:IDMO:EL =

2.0:2. 1:1. 4; head without postgenal carina;

supraclypeal and supra-antennal pits well

marked; frontal area roundly elevated above

level of eyes; antennal furrows deep, well

marked; median fovea in form of a deep ditch

not reaching median ocellus; circum-, inter- and

postocellar furrows sharp, lateral furrows deep,

sunken, excurved, not reaching hind margin of

head; postocellar area slightly elevated, broader

than long in ratio 2:1.1; head narrowing behind

eyes; OOL:POL:OCL = 1.8:1.0:1.2; mesos-

cutellum flat; appendage not carinate; ICD:ITD

= 1. 0:4.0; mesepistemum roundly raised without

carina or acute apex; tarsal claw (Fig. 5) with a

long apical and short subapical teeth, basal lobe

absent; metabasitarsus shorter than following

tarsal joints combined in ratio 5 : 7; IAITS : MB

: OATS = 2.0 : 5.0 : 1.5.

Head and thorax shining with few scattered

punctures; abdomen impunctate.

Lancet (Fig. 20) having about 12 serrulae,

each serrula with innumerable anterior and no

posterior sub-basal teeth.

Hypopygium as in Fig. 14.

MALE: Average length 5.5 mm. Similar to

female.

Male genitalia: Penis valve as in Fig. 12,

gono forceps as in Fig. 15.

Population variation: Not observed.

Holotype depository: Female, NR, Stock-

holm

Paratypes: 29 females, 6 males, NR, Stock-

holm.

Specimens examined: 4 females, 1 male,

Arunachal Pradesh: Bomdila 2800 m 30 May to

1 June 1989.

Paratypes (female, male) bearing slips,

“N.E. Burma, Kambatti 2135 m, 16/6 & 2/6 R.

Malaise 22/90 & 23/190”.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Arunachal

Pradesh.

The specimens fit in Malaise's 1961 key

for Ferna and comply well with the original

description (in key) and paratypes (gift from

NR, Stockholm). This species is characterised

by the sawsheath being very long, and the lateral

furrows, deep, sunken, excurved and not reach-

ing hypothetical hind margin of head.

References

Malaise, R. (1961): New Oriental Saw flies (Hym. Tenthr.).

Ent Tidskr. Arg. 82, H. 3-4: 231-260.

Muche, W.H. (1983): Die von Hersn Dr. W. Wittmer in In-

dien und Bhutan gesammelten Blattwespen mit Be-

schreibung von Sechs neuen Arten der Tenthredinidae

(Hymenoptera : Symphyta) Reichenbachra. Mus.

Tierk. Dresden. 21, Nr. 29: 167-180.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHEDDING OF GILL-RAKER PROCESSES IN

THE GOLDSPOTTED MULLET LIZA PARSIA (HAMILTON-BUCHANAN,

1822) (PISCES : MUGILIDAE)1

SJC. Barve2 and D.R. Jauhal3

(With twenty text-figures)

Key words: gill-raker processes, Liza parsia , mullet.

The phenomenon of shedding of gill-raker processes into water and later picking them up

has been described in Liza parsia. The processes of an entire arch are shed as a single unit and

it is possible to assign them to their respective rakers based on size ratio. Maximum shedding

and subsequent engulfing was encountered during monsoon when there is marked increase in

the turbidity of estuarine waters. However, it is not yet known whether these processes really

form the food of mullets.

Introduction

An interesting observation about the occur-

rence of a large amount of peculiar structures

closely resembling polychaete worms in the gut

contents has been reported by several workers

while studying the food and feeding habits of

grey mullets (Chidambaram and Kuriyan 1952,

Pillay 1953, Sarojini 1954). TUng (1970) called

them “branchial filaments of unknown origin”.

However, Luther (1962), based on his studies on

Mugil cephalus and Liza macrolepis , was the

first to conclusively state that these structures

are nothing but gill-raker processes of the mul-

lets. His subsequent studies (Luther 1965)

revealed that : (1) The mullets shed their gill-

raker processes into the water and later pick

them up at the time of feeding. (2) They do not

swallow their own processes. (3) Only the third,

fourth and fifth (ceratobranchial) arches shed

their processes.

According to Natarajan and Reddy (1976),

processes on all arches except the first are shed

in the above two species. The present work was

undertaken to ascertain the position in another

species, the goldspotted mullet Liza parsia

(Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822), which is the most

1Accepted February 1992.

2College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri 415 612.

Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri 415 612.

commonly available mugilid in the Ratnagiri

region (west coast of Maharashtra state).

Material and Methods

A number of specimens freshly obtained

from Ratnagiri fish market were examined for

the presence of gill-raker processes both on

branchial apparatus as well as in gut contents.

When present, the processes form a dense

greyish mass on the rakers which can be readily

recognised. Each gill arch has an outer and an

inner row of bristle-like rakers which are

generally sheathed by processes. The processes

encountered in stomach contents were also ex-

amined to find out their possible relationship

with those found on branchial apparatus.

Results and Discussion

It was observed that several specimens

with intact processes on branchial apparatus also

had them in their stomach contents, thereby

proving that mullets do not swallow their own

processes. As also mentioned by Luther (1965),

the processes in the gut were mostly associated

with benthic copepods, foraminiferans and

diatoms, thus indicating that they are first shed

into water and later on picked up along with the

food. This has been experimentally substantiated

by Natarajan and Reddy (1976) who successful-

ly induced Mugil cephalus and Liza macrolepis

3

30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 1

LENGTH RATIOS OF RAKERS AND PROCESSES

IN Liza parsia

to shed their processes by mixing charcoal in

tanks containing filtered water. During the

present investigation, the processes were not en-

countered on rakers of the first gill arch. On the

other hand, rakers of all the remaining three ar-

ches, in addition to those of ceratobranchial,

were generally found ensheathed with processes.

Thus, it is evident that all rakers, except on the

first gill arch, shed their processes.

The ratios of lengths of rakers on inner as

well as outer rows with their corresponding

processes are shown in Table 1. It is seen that

the ratios of raker lengths are very similar to the

ratios of process lengths and, therefore, by

measuring the processes found in the gut, it is

possible to predict their corresponding arches.

In the first arch (Fig. 1), gill-rakers of the

inner row are distinctly shorter, being only about

half of the outer row (Fig. 2). The rakers on

inner row of second and third arches (Figs. 3, 5)

are about half to two-thirds (Fig. 4) and two-

thirds to three-fourths (Fig. 6) the lengths of

rakers on outer row respectively. In the fourth

arch (Fig. 7), rakers of both rows are almost

equal in size (Fig. 8). The rakers of

ceratobranchial (Fig. 9), on the other hand, are

modified to form inferior pharyngeal in the form

of a concave floor.

In the first arch, the rakers on the outer row

are spinulose only in the proximal half, while

the terminal ends of both rows of gill rakers are

normal and not joined together (Fig. 2). How-

ever, all rakers on the remaining arches are com-

pletely spinulose and provided with hood-like

tips which adhere to one another, providing a

measure of rigidity to the gills (Figs. 4, 6, 8, 10).

The strips of processes covering the rakers

of the inner and outer rows (Fig. 11) are joined

together along the median groove of the gill arch

(Figs. 12-19). Laterally each strip has a sec-

ondary row of spines which in turn are provided

with tertiary spinules (Fig. 20), leading to the

formation of a complex sieving apparatus. The

chances of this sieving apparatus o getting

clogged are higher during the monsoon owing to

the high ingress of rain water and the resultant

increase in the turbidity of estuarine waters.

Therefore, the largest number of mullets with

stomach contents dominated by gill-raker

processes are encountered during the monsoon.

It was also observed that usually the

processes of an entire arch are shed as a single

unit. This may perhaps be due to the fact that the

adhesive fleshy terminal hoods do not help in

getting rid of the clogging effect.

In all probability, what Chidambaram and

Kuriyan (1952), Pillay (1953) and Sarojini

(1954) identified as ‘Polychaete moults * or

‘Polychaete remains’ are apparently only gill-

raker processes. The description of these struc-

tures as given by Sarojini (1954), viz. “These

have the appearance of moults and consist of the

entire outer skin with setae”, is in complete

agreement with the features of gill-raker proces-

ses.

The shedding of gill-raker processes is a

rather unique characteristic of mullets; such a

feature has hitherto not been reported in any

other group of fishes. It would, therefore, be in-

teresting to study the regeneration of these

processes, the food consumed before and after

the shedding in addition to finding out whether

the processes really form the food of mullets.

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to Dr K.N.

SHEDDING OF GILL-RAKER PROCESSES IN LIZA PARSIA

31

Figs. 1-20. Gill-raker processes in Liza parsia (Hamilton-Buchanan)

1. First gill; 2. Inner and outer gill-rakers of first gill; 3. Second gill; 4. Inner and outer gill-rakers of second gill; 5. Third

gill; 6. Inner and outer gill-rakers of third gill; 7. Fourth gill; 8. Inner and outer gill-rakers of fourth gill; 9. Ceratobranchial

(fifth gill); 10. Gill-rakers of ceratobranchial; 11. A plain gill-raker and another partly covered with a strip of process,

12. Strips of processes of second gill-raker; 13. Strips of inner and outer rakers of second gill; 14. Strips of processes of

third gill-raker; 15. Strip of inner and outer rakers of third gill; 16. Strips of processes of fourth gill-raker; 17. Strip of inner

and outer rakers of fourth gill; 18. Strips of processes of ceratobranchial; 19. Strip of process of a ceratobranchial;

20. Magnified view of a strip of processes showing secondary and tertiary spinules.

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Sankolli, Associate Dean (Fisheries Faculty), for authorities of the Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth for

his constant encouragement and to the providing necessary facilities.

References

Chidambaram, K. & Kuriyan, G. (1952): Notes on the grey

mullets ( Mugil spp.) of Krusadai Island, Gulf of Man-

nar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 515-519.

Luther, G. (1962): The food habits of Liza macrolepis

(Smith) and Mugil cephalus Linn. (Mugilidae). In-

dian J. Fish. 9: 604-626.

Luther, G. (1965): On the shedding of gill raker processes

in grey mullets. J. mar. biol. Ass. India 6: 251-256.

Naiarajan, R. & Reddy, R Sitarami (1976): On the shed-

ding of gill raker processes in grey mullets (Fam.:

Mugilidae). Curr. Sci. 45: 763-764.

Pillay, T.V.R. (1953): Studies on the food, feeding habits

and alimentary tract of the grey mullet Mugil

cephalus Forsskal. Froc. natl. Inst. Sci. India 19: 111 -

827.

Sarojini, K.K. (1954): The food and feeding habits of the

grey mullets Mugil parsia (Ham.) and Mugil speigleri

(Bleeker). Indian J. Fish. 1: 67-93.

Tung, I.H. (1970): Studies on the fishery biology of the

grey mullet Mugil cephalus Linnaeus in Taiwan. In:

Kuroshio (A symposium on the Japan Current). Ed.

Marr, J.C. pp. 497-504.

(

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU1

P. Balasubramanian2 and P.V. Bole3

Key words: bonnet macaque, chital, civet, frugivory, jackal, mammal-fruits, Prosopis chilensis ,

seed dispersal, shortnosed fruit bat.

Plant-animal interactions are described with special reference to frugivory and seed dis-

persal by mammals at PL Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Faeces of bonnet maca-

que, small Indian civet, jackal, spotted deer, seeds and chewed-off remains of fruits dropped by

shortnosed fruit bat were collected and the seeds and fruits found were recorded. 39 plant

species were dispersed by bonnet macaque; 23 by civet; 22 by jackal; 36 by fruit bat and 12 by

spotted deer. 10 plant species were identified as being dispersed by mammals only. A new bat-

plant is reported. Obligate inter-relations between some plants and mammals are recorded. Suc-

cessful germination of seeds from mammalian faeces was observed. The importance of the

exotic Prosopis chilensis m the community is

syndromes of mammal-fruits are described.

Introduction

The mechanics of seed dispersal have been

observed and recorded for many centuries.

However, seed dispersal as a central feature in

the evolution of reproductive strategy and com-

munity interactions has only recently received

attention. Much of the early information on seed

dispersal was anecdotal (see Ridley 1936), but

systematic observations have recently been

reported on birds (Snow 1971, Morton 1973)

and other animals (Smythe 1970, Howe 1980).

Plant dispersal syndromes are described by Jan-

zen (1969), Van der Pijl (1982) and Howe and

Westley (1986).

Many tropical plants produce fleshy fruits

and rely upon animals to disperse their seeds

(Frankie et al. 1974, Croat 1975, Opler et al

1980). Numerous tropical bird and mammal

species consume these fruits and provide disper-

sal services (Snow 1981). Though much work

on the dispersal ecology has been done in

various tropical regions, systematic information

is not available from the Indian subcontinent.

Accepted August 1992.

2Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore 641 010.

3 A 15/58, Siddharth Nagar, Goregaon West, Bombay 400 062.

ecognised. Characteristics and morphological

However, some information is available on the

utilization of fruits of various plant species by

birds (Ali 1931, Ali and Ripley 1983, Johnson

1982) and mammals (Schaller 1967, Kuruvilla

1980, Johnsingh 1981, Sampath 1986,

Dinerstein and Wemmer 1988) from this region.

Hence, a study was conducted to record the ver-

tebrate frugivores and their role in the dispersal

of plants in the tropical dry evergreen forest

biotope in Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary (see

Balasubramanian 1990a). The data presented

here provides information on the fruits and

seeds of woody plants and climbers eaten and

dispersed by mammals, and their interactions

with these mammals.

Study area

Pt. Calimere (10°18' N, 79°51' E) is lo-

cated on the Coromandel coast in Nagapattinam

district, Tamil Nadu. It is bounded by the Bay of

Bengal on the east and Palk Strait on the south.

The sanctuary is constituted by an area of c. 25

sq. km with patches of forest separated from

each other by broad, shallow tidal inlets of vary-

ing lengths. The soil is largely sandy with al-

luvial deposits. The average yearly maximum

temperature recorded for four years (1980-1984)

was 33.3°C, and minimum was 26.1°C (Hussain

34

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

et al. 1984). The annual rainfall ranges from

1000-1500 mm with dissymmetric regime of

rainfall (Meher-Homji 1984).

The vegetation of the sanctuary is classified

as Tropical dry evergreen forest (Champion and

Seth 1968). Hussain et al (1984) reported 300

plant species from this sanctuary. The vegetation

in general is stunted with 60% evergreen plants,

and the rest annuals and dry deciduous species.

Arborescent vegetation contributes about 17%

of the species and is represented by species such

as Manilkara hexandra, Salvador a persica and

Cassia fistula. Shrubs and climbers form about

30% of vegetation. Flacourtia indica , Toddalia

asiatica and Securinega leucopyrus are some of

the commonly occurring shrubs; Coccinia gran -

dis and Tinospora cor di folia are some of the

common climbers. The introduced plant,

Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz (= P.

juliflora) is commonly found in the open graz-

ing lands.

The shortnosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx

and bonnet macaque Macaca radiata are the

major fruit-eating mammals. The bonnet maca-

que and spotted deer Axis axis are introduced

animals. Jackal Cams aureus , small Indian civet

Viverricula indica , wild boar Sus sc r of a, com-

mon mongoose Herpestes edwardsii ,

threestriped palm squirrel Funambulus pal-

marum and blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis

are the other mammals found in the sanctuary.

The blackbuck Antilope cervicapra and Indian

gerbille Tatera indica are common in the open

grazing lands.

Sugathan (1982) reported 137 passerine

bird species from this forest. The major

frugivorous birds are bulbuls, mynas and koel.

Methods

Definitions: Frugivore: Animals which eat

fruit. Dispersal: Departure of seed from the

parent plant. Dispersal agent: An animal that

moves viable seeds from one location to another.

Legitimate seed dispersers: Animals which in-

gest the whole fruit and either regurgitate or

defecate the seeds intact. Seed predators:

Animals which eat a seed fully or partly, usually

killing the embryo.

Syndrome: Constellations of fruit attributes

associated with particular categories of dispersal

agents are called 'dispersal syndromes’ (Ridley

1936, Van derPijl 1982).

Collection and analysis of faecal

material: The faeces of bonnet macaque, civet

and jackal, pellets of spotted deer and droppings

(seeds spat out after the pulp is chewed) of

shortnosed fruit bat were collected twice a week.

The samples were analysed, and the fruits and

seeds found in them were recorded. Collections

were regularly done for a period of 24 months.

A minimum of 20 samples were collected for

each animal per month. However, in the case of

civet, due to the non-availability of sufficient

faeces, only an average of five samples could be

collected. One sample of faecal material for the

bonnet macaque is one dung; for jackal and

civet it is one scat; and for spotted deer one

pellet group. Some roosts of fruit bat were iden-

tified. Seeds and fruit remains found under a

specified roost during every collection trip were

considered as one sample.

In addition to this, a total of 710 hours of

observations were made on 61 plant species

with fleshy fruits to record the birds and other

animals visiting them to feed on the fruits

(Balasubramanian 1990). These direct field ob-

servations helped to ascertain the feeding habits,

especially fruit handling by various mammals,

and are described here.

Blackbuck and blacknaped hare were most-

ly observed feeding on grasses and sedges. A

preliminary analysis of their pellets revealed the

absence of seeds of any woody plants. Data on

the threestriped palm squirrel and Indian gerbille

were also solely based on direct field observa-

tions. Due to the practical difficulties in the col-

lection of mongoose faeces, only direct feeding

observations are discussed. As the observations

on wild boar, cattle and ponies were based on a

smaller number of faecal samples, the list of

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

35

plants dispersed by them is not included in Ap-

pendix 1.

Tests for germination of seeds: Some

samples of the faeces and droppings were left in

situ and observed for germination. To determine

germinability of mammal-dispersed seeds, seeds

of some of their preferred plants were sown in a

nursery. The number of seeds put for germina-

tion as well as the number of faecal samples left

in situ were small and hence quantitative infor-

mation is not given in this paper. The study was

conducted from January 1987 to December

1988.

Results and Discussion

Altogether seeds of 59 species of plants

were dispersed by animals studied (Appendix

1). The number of plants dispersed by bonnet

macaque was 39, civet 23, fruit bat 36, jackal 22

and 12 were dispersed by spotted deer. Though

seeds of many plants were observed as dispersed

by these animals, only seeds of certain species

were frequently encountered in the faeces of

each animal. The details of these are given in

Tables 1-5.

Bonnet macaque: The seeds of Prosopis

chilensis, Scutia myrtina, Lannea coroman-

delica and Manilfcara hexandra were largely

dispersed by bonnet macaques (Table 1). The

frequency of occurrence of P. chilensis seeds

was high (37.6%). Also, it was observed that the

monkeys eat a lot of unripe fruits. Their dung

contained the unripe fruits of Drypetes sepiariay

TABLE 1

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SEEDS IN BONNET

MACAQUE DUNG AT PT. CALIMERE (569 SAMPLES)

Scutia myrtina and Manilkara hexandra, which

are among their preferred fruits.

The studies conducted at various tropical

regions show that large arillate or compound;

aromatic; brown, green, orange, yellow and

white fruits are typical arboreal mammal fruits

(Howe 1986). As such fruits are not available in

this sanctuary, it seems that the monkeys con-

sume large quantities of fruits of two introduced

species, Prosopis chilensis and Pithecellobium

dulce ; the latter is confined to a small area in the

sanctuary. That the bonnet macaque, though

widespread in south India, is not an original

denizen of Pt. Calimere, also indicates the non-

availability of native ideal arboreal mammal-fruits.

The bonnet macaque’s role in the dispersal

of plants is negligible. They eat considerable

quantities of unripe fruits and by visiting plants

laden with large fruit crop, disturb the birds

which are the legitimate dispersal agents of that

particular plant species. Moreover the monkeys

move in a troop in their territory, eat the fruit

crop of several species and defecate the seeds en

masse under their roosting trees. This type of

dispersal is unsuccessful for two reasons: con-

sumption of unripe fruits by the macaques and a

higher degree of competition between the seeds

of various plant species for establishment.

Ridley (1936) recorded that when monkeys

find a tree or liane in fruit, they attack it

vigorously, tearing off branches and discarding

more than they eat. They often bite off pieces of

a fruit, then drop it and seize another. Howe

(1980) mentioned that arboreal mammals, espe-

cially monkeys, often spit out or knock down

more fruits than they actually ingest, reducing

their reliability as agents of fruit removal. Van

der Pijl (1982) mentioned that primates are late-

comers, taking advantage of ecological oppor-

tunities that open up incidentally, and forming

incidental connections. They are mostly destruc-

tive, eating everything edible, ripe or unripe,

also seeds and leaves, soft- or hard-skinned

fruits; they may or may not be instrumental in

dispersal.

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 2

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SEEDS IN CIVET

SCATS AT PT. CAUMERE (107 SAMPLES)

Small Indian civet: The seeds of

Manilkara hexandra and Zizyphus oenoplia

were commonly noticed in the scats of civet

(Table 2). Faecal samples were collected from

one of the regular defecation sites, namely the

platform of one of the wells in the sanctuary.

Van der Fiji (1982) also mentioned that civets

have the pleasant habit of defecating on fixed

open spots, and he could review the complete

yearly menu in Indonesia. During January 1988

four seedlings of Manilkara hexandra were

noticed in the crevices of the platform. This ob-

servation shows that the civet definitely helps in

the regeneration of this plant. Ridley (1936)

stated that this species prefers to eat sweet juicy

fruits and does not eat figs. In Pt. Calimere,

most of the fruits eaten by the civet are sweet

and include fig fruits, e.g. Ficus benghalensis.

Jackal: The jackal picks up fallen fruits

and defecates the seeds after digesting the pulp.

Seeds of Cassia fistula , Zizyphus oenoplia ,

Manilkara hexandra and Syzygium cumini were

commonly noticed in their scats (Table 3). The

seeds of C. fistula are largely dispersed by this

animal. The jackal carries away to some dis-

tance the pods that fall under the tree, bites them

open and eats the sweet pulp, swallowing the

seeds along with it. The seeds are dropped in

their faecal scats. The pods of C. fistula ripen by

May and are available until November. During

this period most jackal scats contained only C.

fistula seeds. The frequency of occurrence of C.

fistula seeds was 48.4%. During December

1987, 34 seedlings sprouting from 11 jackal

scats were noticed in one site in the study plot,

TABLE 3

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SEEDS IN JACKAL

SCATS AT PT. CALIMERE (514 SAMPLES)

with one to five seedlings in each scat. It clearly

shows that the jackal helps in the regeneration of

this plant. Troup (1921) observed that the seeds

of C. fistula treated by the jackal (fruits eaten

and seeds defecated) germinated successfully,

while none of the untreated seeds germinated.

Cassia fistula seeds were occasionally

noticed in cattle dung. The monkeys eat mostly

unripe fruits. Hence, the widespread distribution

of this plant in the sanctuary might be due to the

efficien. dispersal of seeds by jackal. In addi-

tion, seedlings of Syzygium cumini and Salacia

chinensis were commonly noticed sprouting

from jackal scats.

Short nosed fruit bat: This species visits

fruiting plants at night to pluck the fruits and

carry them to nearby trees and eat at leisure.

They chew the fruit pulp and spit out the seeds

under their roosts. They do not swallow the

seeds. Seeds of Atalantia monophylla and

Manilkara hexandra were commonly noticed

under their roosts. The frequency of occurrence

of A. monophylla seeds in bats spit-outs was

TABLE 4

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SEEDS SPAT OUT BY

S1IORTNOSED FRUIT BAT AT PT. CALIMERE

(631 SAMPLES)

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

37

32.6% (Table 4). Seeds were noticed in very few

faecal samples (2 out of 514) of jackal, and no

other animal eats this fruit. Seedlings of this

plant, ranging from five to 35, were noticed

under 13 roosting sites of this bat during January

1988. Our studies show that this animal is the

only dispersal agent of A. monophylla.

Moreover, this observation forms the first record

of a citrus type of fruit dispersed by a suitable

disperser in the natural environment

(Balasubramanian 1990b). In addition, this bat is

the only dispersal agent for Madhuca longifolia.

Seedlings of Plecospermum spinosum,

Salacia chinensis, Madhuca longifolia,

Diospyros ferrea and Memecylon umbellatum

sprouting from the seeds dropped by this bat

were commonly noticed under their roosts.

The shortnosed fruit bat also eats the fruits

of cultivated species such as Manilkara zapota

(Sapotaceae), Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) and

Calophyllum inophyllum (Guttiferae). The seeds

and the fruit remains were noticed under their

feeding roosts in the villages adjacent to the

forest. However, the fruits of C. inophyllum are

adapted for dispersal by water. Another interest-

ing feature about bat dispersal in Pt. Calimere is

the dispersal of seeds of cultivated plants from

the village to the forest. Seeds of Madhuca lon-

gifolia and Polyalthia longifolia were noticed

under the roosts of this bat in the forest area

adjoining the village.

Spotted deer: The deer is confined to the

dense thickets of the forest. It devours the fallen

fruits of woody plants and seeds are defecated

in the pellets. Seeds of Catunaregam spinosa

TABLE 5

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SEEDS IN CHITAL

PELLETS AT PT. CALIMERE (452 SAMPLES)

(= Randia dumetorum), Dichrostachys cinerea ,

Cassia auriculata and Prosopis chilensis were

commonly noticed in their pellets (Table 5). All

these fruits are available during the dry season,

i.e. April to August.

The occurrence of seeds of these fruits,

especially C. spinosa during dry season shows

that fruits are eaten by spotted deer when there

is non-availability of grasses and forbs. In

Bandipur Tiger Reserve, Johnsingh (1981)

observed the large scale consumption of fruits

of Emblica officinalis and Xeromphis spinosa

(= Catunaregam spinosa ) by spotted deer during

the dry season. To study the germinability of

seeds dropped by deer, 25 seeds each of P.

chilensis and C. spinosa were planted in a nurs-

ery. Successful germination of seeds (70 to

90%) was recorded for both species. Moreover,

in the study sites, a large number of seedlings of

C. spinosa sprouting from chital pellets were

noticed during the following rainy season, i.e.

September to December. The fruits of C.

spinosa and P. chilensis are eaten for their pulp.

Indian wild boar: The wild boar is very

common in the forest and has been noticed feed-

ing on the roots of sedges, grasses and other

plants. They also pick up fallen fruits. During

the first year of this study, 18 faecal samples

were collected and searched for seeds, of which

12 samples had Prosopis chilensis seeds. A few

samples contained a few seeds of Manilkara

hexandra and Zizyphus oenoplia. One sample

had a number of Ficus benghalensis seeds;

another had many seeds of Ficus tsjakela and

one was full of paddy grains which showed the

animal’s crop raiding habit. The observations

show that the wild boar disperses P. chilensis

seeds on a large scale.

Cattle: While browsing, several fruits are

eaten accidentally. Fallen fruits are also eaten. A

total of 12 dung samples were collected and

analysed during the first year. Seeds of Catu-

naregam spinosa, Prosopis chilensis and

Dichrostachys cinerea were commonly noticed

in the dung. Natarajan et al. (1984) recorded 410

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

seeds (range 53-567) of P. chilensis in 15 dung

samples and noticed about 100 seedlings sprout-

ing from a dung mass. Seeds of Cassia

auriculata, C. fistula, C. roxburghii, Abrus

precatorius, Mucuna pruriens, Azima tetra-

cantha and Solanum trilobatum were also

noticed. The fruits of A. precatorius , M.

pruriens , A. tetracantha and S. trilobatum might

have been eaten accidentally, while browsing.

Most of the fruits preferred by cattle are dry

indehiscent fruits. It is interesting to note that

the cattle, which are identified as an important

component of the fauna of this type of forest, i.e.

dry evergreen thickets (Champion and Seth

1968), have a significant role in the estab-

lishment of some plant species. In the absence

of spotted deer (which was introduced to this

forest), plants such as Catunaregam spinosa, D.

cinerea and Cassia auriculata could only be dis-

persed by cattle. Successful germination of

seeds of Catunaregam spinosa, D. cinerea and

Cassia auriculata were noticed from cattle dung

in the study sites.

Feral ponies: Seeds of Prosopis chilensis,

Dichrostachys cinerea and Cassia auriculata

were found in their dung. Out of 10 samples

analysed, all contained the seeds of P. chilensis.

Blackbuck and blacknaped hare: A

preliminary analysis of some samples (10 for

each species) showed the absence of seeds of

any woody species. However, a few seeds of P.

chilensis were noticed in a few pellets of black-

buck (Natarajan, pers. comm.).

Common mongoose: Prater (1980) men-

tioned that the common mongoose preys upon

animals and also feeds on carrion, but as a varia-

tion to the regular diet, consumes fruits and

roots. Field observations indicated that the mon-

goose does not play a significant role in plant

dispersal as it eats the pulp and drops the seeds

under the parent plant. Fruits of Manilkara

hexandra, Glycosmis pentaphylla and Hugonia

my stax were observed to be eaten.

Threestriped palm squirrel: Direct obser-

vations on their feeding habits reveal that they

mostly visit fruit-bearing trees, for eating the

seeds. Fruits of 38 plant species had been ob-

served to be eaten by this squirrel. Fruits of

Prosopis chilensis and Cassia fistula were eaten

for the pulp. Among the remaining plant species,

except in the case of Ficus spp. all the others

were visited for eating the seeds. Owing to their

minute size and smoothness, seeds of Ficus spp.

might escape from being injured. Hence, it is

inferred that the squirrel is not an efficient dis-

persal agent in this forest.

Indian gerbille: The Indian gerbille was

recorded to eat the seeds of Cassia auriculata

and Prosopis chilensis . Pods of these two plant

species were noticed at the gerbille burrows.

While carrying a number of fruits of these plants

to their burrows, some seeds might be dropped

and left uneaten and may have a chance to ger-

minate. Though this animal is a seed predator, it

might also help in low key dispersal of the

species.

Unidentified rodents: The fruits of

Prosopis chilensis were stored in large quantities

in the nests of a longtailed tree mouse Van -

deleuria sp. (?). Several pods had been opened

and seeds eaten, and the remnants of seeds were

found in the nests.

Seeds of the legume Crotalaria verrucosa

were also found eaten by a rodent. In this case,

the remnants of fruits and seeds were left in

small heaps near the plant itself. Seeds that es-

caped being eaten are carried away by ants to

their burrows.

Van der Pijl (1982) also mentioned that ro-

dents such as squirrels, rats and hamsters

destroy the seeds of oaks, pines and cereals and

are considered to be especially harmful in

American arid regions although some seeds ger-

minate after rains.

Mammal-dispersed plants and their fruit

characteristics: Even though seeds of 59 plant

species were found in the droppings of the

animals studied, the frequency of occurrence of

seeds of many plant species was very low.

Based on their frequency of occurrence in the

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALI MERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

39

faeces and the availability of other dispersal

agencies (water, wind and animals other than

mammals), ten plants are identified as mammal-

dispersed species. They are: Atalantia

monophylla, Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Mimusops

elengi, Catunaregam spinosa, Gmelina asiatica,

Madhuca Ion gif olio, Cassia fistula, C.

auriculata, Dichrostachys cinerea and Prosopis

chilensis, However, fruits of P. chilensis and G.

asiatica are dispersed by water also. Though M.

longi folia trees are not encountered in the forest,

their saplings were recorded in the forest close

to the village.

The seeds of P. chilensis and Pithecel-

lobium dulce were found to be dispersed by

monkeys. Atalantia monophylla, Lepisanthes

tetraphylla, Madhuca longifolia, Mimusops

elengi and G. asiatica are identified as bat fruits.

L. tetraphylla and C. fistula are dispersed by

jackal. Dichrostachys cinerea, Catunaregam

spinosa, Cassia auriculata and P. chilensis are

largely dispersed by ruminants. None of the

above mentioned fruits are dispersed by other

animals. The characteristics of fruits of these

mammal-dispersed plants are summarised in

Table 6.

Co-evolutionary relationship between

plants and animals: The inferences derived

from this study show the existence of some

obligatory relationship between some plants and

animals of this forest. For example, seeds that

could not be dispersed by birds (owing to large-

seeded fruits and unattractive colour of fruits

etc.), or any other agencies (due to structural

adaptations) were successfully dispersed by

some mammals. In this community it appears

that plants and animals do not simply co-occur

but they have co-evolved, one depending on the

other for its survival and existence.

The dispersal of Atalantia monophylla in

this forest is only by the shortnosed fruit bat.

This fruit is not eaten by birds, which might be

due to the unattractive colour of the fruit or the

large seeds. These fruits are apparently adapted

for consumption by mammals. As the fruits are

largely eaten and dispersed by the shortnosed

fruit bat, it seems there is a co-evolutionary

relationship between this plant and the bat.

TABLE 6

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS OF MAMMAL-DISPERSED PLANTS IN PT. CALIMERE SANCTUARY

Fruit type: B = berry; D = drupe; P = pod; - = measurements not taken.

Fruit colour: B = black; G = green; R - red; Y = yellow; Br = brown.

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Similarly, the dispersal of Lepisanthes

tetraphylla and Plecospermum spinosum were

done by jackal and shortnosed fruit bat. These

two native plant species have big-seeded fruits

which cannot be dispersed by birds. Whenever

birds visit big-seeded fruits, they eat only the

pulp and drop the seeds under the parent plant.

In the case of these two plants, jackals ingest the

whole fruit and defecate the seeds. Fruit bats

carry the fruits to nearby places and drop the

seeds after chewing the pulp.

The fruits of Cassia fistula which possess

dry indehiscent pods form one of the major

foods for jackal during the dry season and this

animal is the main dispersal agent for this plant.

The inter-relationship between this plant and

animal needs special mention here. Other than

jackal, the dispersal of this plant is only by cat-

tle, but on a low key.

The fleshy fruits of Catunaregam spinosa

and the dry indehiscent fruits of Cassia

auriculata and Dichrostachys cinerea are eaten

and dispersed by cattle and spotted deer.

Importance of the exotic, Prosopis chilen-

sis: The fruits of the introduced plant, Prosopis

chilensis , form an important food source for the

bonnet macaque, which is an introduced species

in this forest. This fruit also forms a major food

source for wild boar, cattle, feral ponies and

spotted deer. In addition, rodents and blackbuck

also eat the fruits. Prosopis chilensis is an exotic

and was introduced in the forest about 37 years

ago. It is spreading fast and is considered a

threat to the native vegetation. This study shows

that this plant forms an important food source

for most of the mammals; its fruits are eaten for

the sweet pulp. The plant has an extended fruit-

ing season with a peak in summer.

Van der Pijl (1982) mentioned that

ruminants in African savannah regions rely to a

considerable extent on fruits. He recorded that

many leguminosae, especially Acacia species,

offer leathery nutritive pods adapted for disper-

sal by ruminants. They are rich in protein and

digestible carbohydrates, providing these at a

time when little grass is available. He further

recorded that the ruminant-dispersed pods have

a distinct smell which is attractive to cattle.

Another adaptation is the extreme hardness of

the smooth seeds, making them resistant to

strong molars as is evident in Tamarindus,

Dichrostachys, Acacia and those Cassia species

with hard, indehiscent pods of the type of C.

fistula. Acacia arabica and A. horrida are men-

tioned as pioneers in grassland, spread by

ruminants.

The large scale consumption of Prosopis

pods by various species of mammals in Pt.

Calimere might be due to the nutritive value of

the pods. Ridley (1936) recorded that there is no

doubt that it is due to the sweet pulp of the pods

of Prosopis chilensis that this genus is so widely

spread and abundant in suitable areas.

Syndromes of mammal-fruits: Howe and

Westley (1986) described the dispersal

syndromes of mammal-fruits (Table 7). The

fruit characters of mammal-dispersed plants in

Pt. Calimere correspond with the results of

Howe and Westley (1986) and are given in

Table 8.

TABLE 7

SYNDROMES OF MAMMAL-FRUITS (AFTER HOWE & WESTLEY 1986)

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALI MERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

41

TABLE 8

SYNDROMES OF MAMMAL-FRUITS OF PT. CALIMERE

As far as terrestrial frugivores are con-

cerned, two classes of mammal-fruits identified

at Pt. Calimere are (1) Fruits dispersed by her-

bivores (ruminants), most of which have tough

indehiscent pods. An exception is Catunaregam

spinosa. (2) Fruits dispersed by omnivores

(jackal), most of which are fleshy. An exception

is Cassia fistula.

Conclusions

From this study it is inferred that (1)

Among the mammals of this dry evergreen

forest biotope, the jackal and shortnosed fruit

bat play a vital role in the dispersal of various

plant species. (2) The exotic plant Prosopis

chilensis has now a definite role to play in this

ecosystem, where introduced animals such as

bonnet macaque and spotted deer are present.

Also, with the increasing population of cattle,

wild boar and to some extent feral ponies, the

existence of Prosopis chilensis in this habitat

seems impossible to eradicate. However, it is

necessary to make a detailed study on the impact

(threat) of Prosopis to the native vegetation in

this Sanctuary. Hence, while formulating a

management programme for conserving this

ecosystem, the significance of the inter-relation-

ships that exist between the plants and mammals

discussed in this paper should be taken into con-

sideration.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks are due to the Forest

Department officials at Pt. Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary for their cooperation and help, and to

the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt,

of India and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for

financial assistance. One of the authors (PB) is

grateful to Mr J.C. Daniel, Ex-Director, BNHS

for encouragement.

References

Au, S. (1931): The role of the sunbirds and flowerpeckers

in the propagation and distribution of the tree-parasite

Loranthus longiflorus Desr. in the Konkan (W. India).

J. Bombay nat. HisL Soc. 35: 144-149.

Au, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, New Delhi.

Balasubramanian, P. (1990a): Plant-animal interrelations at

Pt. Calimere Sanctuary. Ph.D. Thesis, University of

Bombay.

Balasubramanian, P. (1990b): Dispersal of Wild Lime

Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. Serr. (Rutaceae)

seeds by Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx

Vahl in Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, South India.

J. Bombay nat. llisL Soc. 86: 482-483.

Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. (1968): A revised survey of

the Forest types of India. Govt, of India Publications,

New Delhi.

Croat, T.B. (1975): Phenological behaviour of habit and

habitat classes on Barro Colorado island. Biotropica

7: 270-277.

Dinerstein, E. & Wemmer, C.M. (1988): Fruits rhinoceros

eat: Dispersal of Trewia nudiflora (Euphorbiaceae) in

lowland Nepal. Ecology 69: 1768-1774.

Frankie, G.W., Baker, II.G. & Opler, P.A. (1974): Com-

parative phenological studies of trees in tropical wet

and dry forests of Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 62: 881-919.

IIowe, H.F. (1980): Monkey dispersal and waste of a neo-

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

tropical fruit Ecology 61: 944-959.

Howe, H.F. (1986): Seed dispersal by fruit-eating birds and

mammals, pp. 123-190. In: Seed Dispersal. Murray,

D.R. (Ed.). Academic Press, New York.

Howe, H.F. & Westley, L.C. (1986): Ecology of pollination

and seed dispersal. In: Plant Ecology. M.J. Crawley

(Ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications, London.

Hussain, S.A, Sugathan, R. & Balasubramanian, P.

(1984): Some aspects of the climate, vegetation and

phenology of the Tropical dry evergreen forest in Pt

Calimere Sanctuary. Technical Report 1. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Janzen, D.H. (1969): Seed-eaters versus seed size, number,

toxicity and dispersal. Evolution 23: 1-27.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1981): Importance of fruits in the diet of

chital in dry season. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78:

594-595.

Johnson, M.J. (1982): Dispersal of sandalwood ( Santalum

album ) by birds in Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat Hist

Soc. 79: 672-675.

Kuruvilla, P. (1980): Ecology of the bonnet macaque

( Macaca radiata ) with special reference to feeding

habits. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Suppl.): 976-

988.

Meher-IIomji, V.M. (1984): A new classification of the

phytogeographic zones of India. Indian J. Bot. 7:

224-233.

Morton, E.S. (1973): On the evolutionary advantages and

disadvantages of fruit-eating in tropical birds. Am.

Nat. 107: 8-22.

Naiarajan, V., Sugathan, R. & Hussain, S.A. (1984):

Prosopis juliflora - Profile of an exotic in the tropical

dry evergreen forest of Pt Calimere. Technical Report

No. 5. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Opler, P.A., Frankie, G.W. & Baker, H.G. (1980): Com-

parative phenological studies of treelet and shrub

species in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands

of Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 68: 167-188.

Prater, S.H. (1980):. The book of Indian animals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Pul, L. Van Der (1982): Principles of dispersal in higher

plants. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Ridley, H.N. (1936): The dispersal of plants throughout the

world. Reeve & Co. Ltd., Ashford.

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger: A study of

Wildlife in India. Chicago University Press, Chicago.

Sampath, S. (1986): Feeding and ranging of bonnet macaque

Macaca radiata (Geoffroy) at Pt. Calimere Sanctuary.

M.Sc. dissertation, Bharathidasan University,

Tiruchirapalli.

Smythe, N. (1970): Relationships between fruiting seasons

and seed dispersal methods in a neotropical forest

Am. Nat. 104: 25-35.

Snow, D.W. (1971): Evolutionary aspects of fruit-eating by

birds. Am. Nat. 113: 194-202.

Snow, D.W. (1981): Tropical frugivorous birds and their

food plants: a world survey. Biotropica 13: 1-14.

Sugathan, R. (1982): Some interesting aspects of the

avifauna of the Pt. Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur

District, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79:

567-575.

Troup, R.S. (1921): The Silviculture of Indian Trees, vols.

I-III. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

SEED DISPERSAL BY MAMMALS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

43

Appendix 1

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF PLANT SPECIES DISPERSED BY VARIOUS MAMMALS AT PT. CALIMERE SANCTUARY

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

APPENDIX 1 — CONTD.

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF PLANT SPECIES DISPERSED BY VARIOUS MAMMALS AT PT. CALIMERE SANCTUARY

BM = Bonnet macaque; SC = Small Indian civet; JL = Jackal; FB = Shortnosed fruit bat; SD = Spotted deer.

ETORPHINE AND ACEPROMAZINE COMBINATION FOR IMMOBILISING

WILD INDIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS 1

A J.T. Joiinsingh2’ J. Joshua2, Ravi Chellam2, N.V.K. Ashraf2,

V. Krisiinamurthy3 and D.V.S. Kiiaii4

Key words: acepromazine, elephants, Elephas maximus , etorphine, immobilization, Immobilon,

Revivon.

Four adult wild Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) were administered a combination of

etorphine (ETP) hydrochloride and acepromazine (ACP) maleate (Immobilon) using projectile

darts as syringes and a powder rifle as projector. Diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon) was

the antagonist used for revival. The total dose of ETP and ACP varied between 6.12-8.6 mg and

25-35 mg respectively. Immobilization was complete in two females and partial in the tusker.

The fourth animal, a female, died of traumatic cardiac arrest, probably incurred during fall.

Induction time was 12 minutes in the only case when visual contact could be maintained. The

significance of some of the operational constraints and unexpected outcomes are discussed.

As a part of the ongoing study on the ecol-

ogy of the Asian elephant in Rajaji National

Park of Dehra Dun forest division (Uttar

Pradesh), elephants have been immobilised by

the Wildlife Institute of India since 1983 for the

purpose of radio-collaring. The results of the

first six cases of drug immobilisation was

reported by Sale et al. (1986). Subsequently 11

elephants have been darted for the purpose of

either fitting new radio-collars or replacing the

old ones. The results of the last four cases, car-

ried out by this team in 1990, are reported here.

Material and Methods

The equipment used in this operation con-

sisted of a standard Distinject N60 powder rifle

(Peter Ott & Co., Basle, Switzerland) as projec-

tor, 5 ml aluminium syringe barrels (fitted with a

collared needle at one end and a feathered stabi-

lizer at the other) as projectile-darts and colour-

coded powder charges for short, medium and

long distances, as explosives.

The drug used for immobilisation was Im-

mobilon (Reckitt & Colman) which contains

2.45 mg of etorphine hydrochloride and 10 mg

of acepromazine maleate per ml of the solution.

A specific morphine antagonist Revivon (Reck-

itt & Colman), which contains 3 mg of diprenor-

phine hydrochloride per ml of the solution, was

INTRODUCTION

Free living Asian elephants Elephas maxi -

mus have been chemically immobilised for the

purposes of domestication, translocation and

radio-collaring. On most occasions, etorphine

hydrochloride, a highly potent derivative of

thebaine (Harthoorn 1966) has been used, either

alone (Gray and Nettashinghe 1970, Jainudeen

and Khan 1977) or in combination with

acepromazine maleate (Jones 1975, Sale et al.

1986, Mohd-Shariff et al. 1991). Though the use

of etorphine in elephants is not supported by

thorough pharmacological studies, valuable

clinical experience gained over the years has

shown that this drug can be used successfully

for immobilising both African (Pienaar et al.

1966, Wallach and Anderson 1968, Ebedes

1975) and Asian species of elephants. One of the

major advantages of etorphine is the very low

quantity of drug required, a rapid induction and

the availability of specific antagonists, cyprenor-

phine and diprenorphine hydrochlorides.

Accepted January 1992.

2Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Chandra bani,

Dehra Dun 248 001.

Coordinator, Elephant Project, BNHS, Bombay 400 023.

4Director, Rajaji National Park, Uttar Pradesh Forest

Department, Dehradun.

4

46

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

used for remobilization. Another morphine an-

tagonist Narcan (Wintrop Lab., Surbiton,

England), which contains 0.4 mg/ml of naloxone

hydrochloride, was always kept ready to reverse

the effects of any accidental administration of

Immobilon into humans.

The capture team consisted of one senior

scientist in charge of the operation, two field

biologists, two officials from the Forest Depart-

ment, one veterinarian, two field assistants, two

armed guards and two domestic elephants. The

usual procedure was to locate elephants in the

forest during the early hours of the day.

Elephants found in dense vegetation and dif-

ficult terrain were avoided. As far as possible, a

relatively flat and open area was chosen for the

operation. A specific total dose (TD) of Im-

mobilon was predetermined and the target

animal was later chosen for the amount of drug

taken.

All elephants were darted, either on foot

(n=3) or from elephant back, only when they

were approachable within a distance of 20-30 m.

The site of drug administration differed accord-

ing to the position of the operator at the time of

darting. Upon darting, the induction time (IT)

(time lag between drug administration and col-

lapse of the animal) was noted. Whenever visual

contact (VC) with the darted animal was lost,

the team divided into three or more search par-

ties, with radio- communication sets, to track the

animal. All animals were examined for vital pul-

monary and cardiac functions. Body measure-

ments were taken while radio-collars were being

fixed. Based on measurements of SH (shoulder

height) and FFC (front foot circumference) an

approximate value of body weight (BW) of dif-

ferent individuals was calculated (Sukumar et

al. 1988). The dosage of etorphine per unit body

weight (pg/kg BW) was obtained to get an idea

about dosage rate. After completion of the

operation, an appropriate dose of the antagonist

(kevivon) was administered intravenously into

the ear vein. Recovery time (RT) (time lag be-

tween administration of the antagonist and the

animal getting up) was noted following revival.

Results

For darting four elephants, six attempts had

to be made. Attempts failed twice, once because

of equipment failure and on the second occasion

because the dart hit the flapping ear of the

animal. Three females and one tusker were

darted with a TD of 2.5 to 3.5 ml of Immobilon

(Table 1). Due to dense vegetation and in-

dividual difference in reaction to the impact of

the dart, VC with the darted animal was lost on

three occasions. IT was 12 minutes in the only

case when VC could be maintained. In cases

where VC was lost, recumbent animals were lo-

cated following a search time (ST) of 22 to 86

minutes (Table 2).

The required complete immobilisation,

characterised by deep narcosis, closed eye-lids

and areflexia, could be achieved only with the

first two females. Though recumbency was

achieved, immobilisation was only partial in the

case of the tusker. The animal had travelled a

distance of about 5 km before succumbing to the

effects of the drug. As it still maintained a

reasonable control over its trunk, a subsequent

dose of 1 ml of Immobilon (2.45 mg of etor-

phine and 10 mg of acepromazine) had to be

administered in two doses. The first dose of 0.5

ml was given 100 minutes after darting and the

second, 30 minutes later.

All animals, except one, fell in lateral

recumbency. The fourth animal was located on a

45° slope, after ST of 62 minutes, head down-

hill in sternal recumbency (SR). Taking into

consideration the posture and the one hour lapse

in locating the animal, the antagonist was ad-

ministered intravenously even before vital func-

tions could be checked. When the animal failed

to recover, she was declared dead after sub-

sequent examination. Necropsy revealed near

empty ventricles and extensive areas of haemor-

rhage in the apical lobes of the lungs. Death was

attributed to traumatic cardiac arrest.

The total down time (time lag between the

TABLE 1

DETAILS OF FOUR CASES OF ELEPHANT IMMOBILISATION BY DARTING

Animal Date Age/Sex Immobilon (mg) Revivon Etorphine Comments

no- (mg) per kg BW IT RT DnT

Etorphine Acepromazine (pg) (min.) (min.) (min.)

ETORPHINE -ACEPROMAZINE COMBINATION FOR ELEPHANT IMMOBILISATION

47

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48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 2

MEASUREMENTS OF SOME MORPHOMETRIC, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

OF FOUR DARTED ELEPHANTS

* Not measured due to sternal recumbency.

BW = Body Weight, SII = Shoulder Height, FFC = Front-foot circumference.

1 Field estimate of body weight, 2 Calculated from SH (or FFC).

fall of the animal and its getting up) varied be-

tween 52 minutes and not less than 180 minutes.

The details of morphometry and vital signs of

cardiac and pulmonary functions are given in

Table 2. The process of revival was slightly

prolonged in the tusker, which took 26 minutes

to regain its feet. Following administration of

the antagonist, the animal moved into SR in 9

minutes, but got up only 17 minutes later.

Recovery was uneventful in the other two cases.

Discussion

The constraints while immobilising wild

elephants differ a great deal from those for cap-

tive elephants, even when the same drugs and

combinations are used. Reports of drug-immobi-

lisation in captive Asian elephants (Jainudeen

1970, Jainudeen et al. 1971, Bongso and Perera

1978) have been incident-free when compared

to reports in the wild (Jainudeen and Khan 1977,

Sale et al 1986) which is fraught with opera-

tional difficulties and unpredictable outcomes.

In this context, four aspects in the present short

series need to be discussed.

In the form of equipment failure, one of the

unexpected incidents was the obstructive pas-

sage of the dart through the barrel despite a per-

fect explosion of the charge. It becomes

mandatory, therefore, to not only clean the barrel

every time, but also to check the passage of the

dart prior to loading with the drug for darting.

The partial immobilisation in the case of

the tusker can be attributed to a disproportional

increase in the TD in relation to BW. For in-

dividuals within a species, it is safer to ad-

minister dosage of etorphine that would be

proportional to their BW (Wallach 1969). As a

result of this under-dosing, the animal received

only 1.39 pig/ kg BW of etorphine. This might be

the reason, besides individual differences in

post-darting reaction, for it to travel a distance

of 5 km. For animals which are likely to bolt on

being struck by a dart, administration of ade-

quate dose of etorphine becomes essential to

prevent incomplete induction. To avoid in-

cidence of under-dosing, a practice of predicting

the amount of etorphine that will be injected per

unit BW, following the use of the intended TD,

can be adopted. The approximate BW values

can be obtained from a visual estimate of SH or

impression estimate of the FFC of the target

animal.

The slightly longer RT (26 minutes) ob-

served in the case of the tusker is difficult to

explain. Though a considerably prolonged RT

has been reported in a few cases (Wallach and

Anderson 1968, Gray and Nettashinghe 1970,

Sale et al. 1986), it is still to be established

whether adding acepromazine to etorphine,

which is done with the intention of achieving a

smoother induction and residual sedation, would

cause any appreciable delay in RT following a

perfect intravenous administration of an ap-

propriate dose of the antagonist.

ETORPHINE -ACEPROMAZINE COMBINATION FOR ELEPHANT IMMOBILISATION

49

Whenever VC is lost, a timely location of

the immobilised animal becomes vital, par-

ticularly in cases where the fallen beast is in SR.

Elephants in prolonged SR show signs of

dyspnoea due to the enormous pressure exerted

by the intestines and other viscera against the

diaphragm (Pienaar et al 1966). However, in

the case of the fourth elephant, a traumatic car-

diac arrest preceded a possible anoxia which

could have occurred at a later stage, the visceral

pressure on the diaphragm being further aug-

mented by the head down-hill position (Table 1).

Clausen et al (1984) reported a similar incident,

but in ruminants, where a musk ox bull col-

lapsed into SR while coming down-hill. On

post-mortem, they found endocardial haemor-

rhage and blood-stained froth in the lungs.

While one can choose an appropriate site for

darting animals, predicting either the direction

or location of fall following induction is impos-

sible.

Acknowuedgements

We gratefully acknowledge with thanks the

permission given by the Ministry of Environ-

ment and Forests, Government of India, and the

Uttar Pradesh Forest Department for tranquiliz-

ing elephants. Mr H.S. Panwar, Director,

Wildlife Institute of India is thanked for his sup-

port to the elephant project.

References

Bongso, T.A & Perera, B.M.A.O. (1978): Observation on

the use of etorphine alone and in combination with

acepromazine for immobilization of aggressive Asian

elephants (Elephas maximus) . Vet Rec. 102: 339-340.

Ebedes, H. (1975): The immobilization of adult male and

female elephants Loxodonta africana , Blumenbach

with etorphine and observation on the action of

diprenorphine (Madoqua 9 (2): 19-24). In: Abstracts

of Vet. Bull. (1977) 47(3): 230.

Clausen, B., Hjort, P., Strandgaard, H. & Soersen, P.L.

(1984): Immobilization and tagging of musk oxen

(i Ovibos moschatus ) in Jameson Land, Northwestern

Greenland./. Wild! Dis. 20: 141-145.

Gray, C.W. & Netiashinghe, A.P.W. (1970): A preliminary

study on the immobilization of Asiatic elephant

(Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99).

Zoologica (New York Zoological Society) 55(3): 51-

54.

Harthoorn, A.M. (1966): Restraint of undomesticated

animals. /. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 149: 875-880.

Jainudeen, M.R. (1970): The use of etorphine hydrochloride

for restraint of a domesticated elephant (Elephas max-

imus). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 157: 624.

Jainudeen, M.R., Bongso, T.A. & Perera, B.M.O.A

(1971): Immobilization of aggressive working

elephants (Elephas maximus). Vet Rec. 89: 686-688.

Jainudeen, M.R. & Kilan, M. (1977): The immobilization

and translocation of wild Asian elephants, Elephas

maximus in Peninsular Malaysia. Kaijan Vet. 9: 1-7.

Jones, D.M. (1975): Elephant rescue in Sri Lanka. Oryx, 13:

185-190.

Mohd-Shariff, Daim, Zainuddin, Z.Z. & Rudran, R.

(1991): Immobilization of free-ranging Asian

elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sri Lanka using etor-

phine hydrochloride and acepromazine maleate.j4.mm

Elephant Specialist Group Newsletter 7: 35-41.

Pienaar, V. Dev., Van Niekerk, J.W., Young, E., Van wyk,

P. & Fairall, N. (1966): The use of oripavine

hydrochloride (M-99) in the drug immobilization and

marking of wild African elephant (Loxodonta

africana) in the Kruger National Park. Koedoe 9:

108-124.

Sale, J.B., Rishi, V., Singh, K.N. & Verma, V.K. (1986):

Drug immobilization of Indian elephant. J. Bombay

nat Hist. Soc. 83: 49-56.

Sukumar, R., Joshi, N.V. & Krishnamurthy, V. (1988):

Growth in Asian elephant. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.

(Anim. Sci.) 97: 561- 571.

Walg\ch, J.D. (1969): Etorphine. A new analgesic- immo-

bilizing agent, and its antagonists. Vet. Med./Small

Anim. Clinician 64: 53-58.

Wallach, J.D. & Anderson, J.L. (1968): Oripavine (M-99)

combinations and solvents for immobilization of the

African elephant J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 153: 793-

797.

SIDIDAE OF TAMIL NADU (CRUSTACEAE : CLADOCERA)1

K. Venkataraman2

( With five text-figures)

Key words: Cladocera, Diaphanosoma excisum, D. sarsi, D. senegalensis, Latonopsis australis ,

Sididae.

The taxonomy of all the available species of the family Sididae from ponds, marshes,

man-made reservoirs and rice fields of Tamil Nadu, ia discussed. Females of Latonopsis

australis Sars, Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, D. sarsi Richard

and D. senegalensis (Gauthier) and males of L. australis Sars andZ>. excisum Sars are recorded

for the first time in India. A brief description and illustrations have been made for some impor-

tant distinguishing characters to reduce the confusion in identification of different species of the

family Sididae.

Introduction

Although Cladocera are among the com-

monest freshwater microcrustaceans, a perusal

of literature of this group shows that they are

poorly known taxonomically throughout India

(Biswas 1964, 1971; Nayar 1971, Michael 1973,

Michael and Sharma 1988, Venkataraman

1983). There is no comprehensive systematic

study in south India except that of Michael

(1973), which is a preliminary attempt to iden-

tify eight of the common genera occurring in

Madurai. The present work was undertaken to

study the taxonomy of Cladocera of Tamil Nadu

based on intensive and extensive sampling and

detailed study of all available species. Over 531

samples were collected from all types of

habitats. This paper deals with the description of

females and some of the males of Latonopsis

australis Sars, Pseudosida bidentata Herrick,

Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, D. sarsi Richard

and D. senegalensis (Gauthier).

Material and Methods

Die species of the family Sididae live in a

variety of habitats like ponds, man-made reser-

voirs, marshes and rice fields. With suitable

plankton nets the samples were collected among

1Accepted November 1991.

2Zoologica! Survey of India, M Block, New Alipore,

Calcutta 700 053.

vegetation and close to the bottom of shallow

water bodies and marshes. Oblique hauls were

taken to obtain zooplankton samples from the

shores of man-made reservoirs and ponds. The

samples collected from the field were preserved

in 5% and 10% formalin with sugar and stored

in plastic containers for further study. Measure-

ments of body size, head and carapace were

made with a calibrated ocular micrometer using

a compound microscope.

Results and Discussion

Latonopsis australis Sars, 1888 (Fig. 1)

Measurements: Body size: female 1.70

mm; male 0.71 mm.

Occurrence: Several females and males in

marshy ponds, man-made reservoirs and rice

fields of Madurai, Madras, Ramnad, Tirunelveli,

Tanjore and Kanyakumari.

FEMALE: Head large with antennule on the

ventral side. Eye large, situated very near to

anterior margin of the head; ocellus con-

spicuous; setae on antenna: 4-7/0-1-4. Ventral

margin ornamented with rows of long hairs at

the anterior side, medium hairs at the middle

and three long setae at the posteroventral comer.

Postabdomen broad with two spines at the base

of the claws, anal denticles 10-12.

MALE: Antennule long; eye shifted to the

dorsal side; postabdomen with two long sperm

ducts.

SIDIDAE OF TAMIL NADU

51

Fig. 1. Latonopsis australis, female and male.

P = post-abdomen, AI = antennule.

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

L. australis was originally described from

Australia. It was redescribed by Sieh-chih and

Nan-shan (1979). After examining a number of

important characters like total margin of the

shell spines and the spines on the lateral sides of

the postabdomen, Harding and Petkovski (1963)

concluded that L. australis was the only valid

name and all the other described species like L.

occidentalis Bridge, L. breviremis Daday, L. fer-

ganica Mukhamediev and L. Icokubai were

synonyms. This is the first record of the occur-

rence of this species in south India.

Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884 (Fig. 2)

Measurements: Mean length, female

2.00 mm.

Occurrence: Several females in marshy

ponds and rice fields at Madras, Madurai, Ram-

nad, Tirunelveli, Tanjore and Kanyakumari.

FEMALE: Cervical sinus present. Antennules

attached at the sides of the rostrum. Setae on

antenna: 5-10/0-1-3. Anteroventral comer of the

carapace fringed with long hairs followed by

small spines. Postabdomen with medium projec-

tion on dorsal side near the apex; 10-14 anal

denticles present on the lateral side; claw with

two basal spines.

Ephippium round without leathery coat.

Thomas (1961) reviewed the validity of the

name P. bidentata and provided evidence that

the species name bidentata should be retained.

The character that differentiates P. bidentata and

P. szalayi is a spine-like projection on the distal

margin of the postabdomen. The visibility of

this projection on the dorsal side lies only in the

method of preservation. Thomas (1961) sug-

gested that the projection could be seen clearly

in specimens well preserved in formalin. In the

present investigation also this was so. This is the

first record of the occurrence of this species in

south India.

Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, 1885

(Fig. 3)

Measurements: Body size: female 1.20

mm; male 0.98 mm.

Occurrence: Several females and males in

reddish-brown ponds at Madurai, Coimbatore,

Tiruchi, Tanjore, Tirunelveli and Ramnad.

FEMALE: Head one-third of total length,

rostrum absent, cervical sinus well marked. An-

tennules small, situated at the ventral side. Eye

small, without ocellus. Carapace oblong-oval in

shape, truncate at the posterior end.

Posteroventral comer with six to nine denticles.

Ephippium round without leathery coat.

MALE: Smaller in size than female, with

long antennule. Postabdomen with two long

sperm ducts. First leg modified into a hook.

D. excisum is a distinctly dominant species

in the limnetic regions of Tamil Nadu as ob-

served in other tropical regions like Sri Lanka,

South-East Asia (Fernando 1980). This is the

first record of the occurrence of this species in

south India.

Diaphanosoma sarsi Richard, 1894 (Fig. 4)

Measurements: Body size, female 1.25

mm.

Occurrence: Several females in irrigation

reservoirs and marshy ponds throughout Tamil

Nadu.

FEMALE: Eye large, fills the head almost

completely. Long setae on margin of ventral

fold. Posteroventral comer with 17-23 spines.

Postabdomen with characteristic setae on the

lateral side.

Harding (1957) considered D. singhalense

Daday to be a synonym of D. sarsi. Dumont and

Van de Velde (1977) found a slightly different

type of armature on the posteroventral comer in

D. sarsi at Nepal. However, the present study

reveals that the material collected from Madurai

resembles the description of Harding (1957).

This is the first record of the occurrence of this

species in south India.

Diaphanosoma senegalensis (Gauthier, 1951)

(Fig. 5)

Measurements: Body size, female 2.00 mm.

M-Ui'-’wvU.i.

SIDIDAE OF TAMIL NADU

53

Fig. 2. Pseudosida bidentata, female.

P = post-abdomen, PVR = posteroventral comer, AI = antennule.

54

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Fig. 3. Diaphanosoma excisum, female and male.

P = post-abdomen, PVR = posteroventral comer, AI = antennule.

t

SIDIDAE OF TAMIL NADU

55

Fig. 4. Dmphanosoma sard, female.

P = post-abdomen, PVR = posteroventral corner, AI = antennule, H = head.

56

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Fig. 5. Diaphanosoma senegalensis, female.

P = post-abdomen, PVR = posteroventral corner, DV = dorsal view.

SIDIDAE OF TAMIL NADU

57

Occurrence: Several females in reddish-

brown ponds of Madurai, Madras, Tiruchi,

Tirunelveli and Ramnad.

FEMALE: Length greater than height;

supraocular depression less prominent, dorsal

margin hump-backed, brood pouch superior to

cephalic margin. Setae on antenna: 4-8/0-1-4;

spines: 1-1/0- 1-1. Postabdomen tapering at the

distal region, dorsal margin straight with groups

of prominent denticles and groups of lateral

setae; claw with three long basal spines which

increase in length towards distal end with seta

on the ventral distal and concave margin.

Venkataraman and Krishnaswamy (1984)

have recorded this species from Madurai with a

brief description. The same authors have

amended the original name D. Senegal to D.

senegalensis

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the Director, Zoological

Survey of India for his encouragement.

References

Biswas, S. (1964): A new species of the Cladocera genus

Latona Straus 1820 from Rajasthan, India. Proc.

Zool. Soc.f Calcutta 17: 149-152.

Biswas, S. (1971): Fauna of Rajasthan, India Part II (Crus-

tacea : Cladocera). Rec. Zool. Survey India 63: 95-

141.

Dumont, H.J. & Van de Velde, I. (1977): Report on a col-

lection of Cladocera and Copepoda from Nepal.

Hydrobiol. 53: 55-65.

Fernando, C.H. (1980): The freshwater zooplankton of Sri

Lanka, with a discussion of tropical freshwater

zooplankton composition. Int. rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 65:

85-125.

Harding, J.P. (1957): Some South African Cladocera col-

lected by Dr A.D. Harrison. Annals of South African

Museum XLVI (3): 35-46.

Harding, J.P. & Petkovskl T. (1963): Latonopsis australis

(Sars), Cladocera in Yugoslavia with notes on

synonymy and distribution. Crustaceana 6: 1-4.

Michael, R.G. (1973): Cladocera. In: A guide to the

study of freshwater organisms. J. Madurai Univ.

Suppl. 2: 71-85.

Michael, R.G. & Sharma, B.K. (1988): Fauna of India, In-

dian Cladocera, Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera.

Ed. The Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcut-

ta.

Nayar, C.K.G. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan. Hydrobiol.

37: 509-519.

Sieh-chih & Nan-shan, Du (1979): Fauna of Sinica Crus-

tacea, Freshwater Cladocera. Science Press,

Academia Sinica, Peking.

Thomas, I.F. (1961): Review of the genera Pseudosida Her-

rick (1884) and Latonopsis Sars, 1888 (Cladocera).

Crustaceana 2: 110-125.

Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and Ecology of

Cladocera of southern Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. thesis,

M.K. University, Madurai.

Venkataraman, K. & Krishnaswamy, S. (1984): A new

record of Diaphanosoma senegalensis Gauthier, 1951

from Madurai, South India. Curr. Sci. 53 (19): 1041-

1042.

NEST SITE SELECTION BY CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS ON MELIA

AZEDARACH L. AND MANAGEMENT OF MULTIPLE USE FORESTS1

Deep Narayan Pandey2 and Dhananjai Mohan3

Key words: cavity nesters, Forties, heart-rot fungi, Melia azedaracli.

Nest site selection by cavity nesting birds on Melia azedarach L. was studied at New

Forest, Dehra Dun. Four species of birds are primary cavity nesters and six species secondary

cavity nesters. Live trees of higher girth, infected with heart-rot fungi (Forties spp.), are the

most preferred for cavity excavations. We suggest retention of such potential nest trees in mul-

tiple use forests and planting of Melia azedarach in recreation and multiple use plantations

where part of the crop is retained till its natural lease of life.

Introduction

Numerous bird species, especially cavity

nesters, depend upon trees for suitable roosting

and nesting sites. Maintenance of cavity-nesting

bird populations depends upon the silvicultural

systems and forest management practices in

vogue. If avian use of the trees of particular

species in a forest site can be associated with

easily measured variables, suitable conservation

and management strategies for cavity-nesting

birds can be evolved and incorporated into

management principles for multiple use forests.

A comparative study of different species of

birds using one tree species for cavity-nesting is

not easily available. The study on the use of

Melia azedarach L. by cavity-nesting birds is

first of its kind in India. We evaluated the utility

of Melia azedarach L. trees to cavity-nesting

birds at New Forest, Dehra Dun, with the objec-

tives of describing and quantifying important

characteristics of nest trees and the stand sur-

rounding the nest trees used by cavity-nesters.

Study area

New Forest, Dehra Dun is situated at 30°

20' 40" N, 77° 52' 12" E. Altitude is 640.08 m.

1 Accepted January 1992.

2Indian Forest Service, Deputy Conservator of Forests,

Udaipur (South) Forest Division, Udaipur 313001.

3Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehra

Dun 248 001.

Average values of meteorological data for 10

years (1979 to 1988) are as follows: annual rain-

fall 1818.9 mm, minimum temperature 13.5°C,

maximum temperature 28.1°C, mean tempera-

ture 20.3°C and relative humidity 79%. New

Forest is situated in the middle of the Dun valley

and is bounded by the Tons river valley to the

north and west. Adjoining Tons river valley are

degraded sal Shorea robusta forests and heavily

lopped trees. New Forest encompasses lawns

and gardens, buildings, log-pond, canal, variety

of flowering and fruiting trees, experimental

forests and plantations, providing suitable

habitat for 214 species of birds (George 1957).

Methods

The entire study site was searched for the

Melia azedarach L. active nest trees from

February 1989 to July 1990, and then for a brief

period in June 1991. Nests were located by

auditory and visual cues. The following infor-

mation was recorded for each active nest tree:

date found, height of nest opening, tree height,

girth at breast-height, basal area of live trees

surrounding the nest tree, status of trees {snag -

intact or broken top: live - broken top; intact -

dead or intact live top) and information on

presence of heart-rot fungi.

Nesting cavities were identified with 8x30

and 12x50 binoculars. A Haga altimeter was

used to determine height, and wedge prisms

(with basal area factor 3,5,6 and 7) were used to

CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS ON MELIA AZEDARACH

59

0.7681, for secondary cavity-nesters (r2) 0.5904;

and for cavity-nesters as a whole (r) was 0.6346.

Thus, correlation between nest height and tree

height is stronger in case of primary-cavity

nesters than for secondary cavity-nesters. Since

the mean nest heights for primary and secondary

cavity-nesters do not differ significantly (P ^

0.8) a single regression line of nest height (x) on

tree height (y) will suffice : x = 0.827 y -

4.2512. Mean girth at breast height (gbh was

measured at 1.37 m height on the tree trunk) of

nest trees was 1.984 m. Mean gbh of primary

nest trees (X = 1.935 m) was not markedly dif-

ferent from mean gbh of secondary nest trees (X

= 2.01667 m), for normally the same trees may

be used for nesting by primary and secondary

cavity-nesters.

Basal area of the forest stand surrounding the

nest trees varied from 0.02 sq. m/ha to 39 sq. m/ha.

Discussion

Nesting on live trees and snags: We found

that primary cavity-nesters excavated their nest

on live trees (97%) infected with heart-rot.

These nest cavities along with other natural hol-

lows were re-used by the secondary cavity-

nesters. As seen from Table 2, snags form only

3% of nest trees and are not preferred for cavity-

TABLEl

CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS ON Melia azedarach L. AT NEW FOREST, DEHRADUN

determine the wood basal area of the plantations

and forests around nest trees.

Pearson product moment correlation coeffi-

cient was used to examine the extent of relation-

ship between nest height and tree height.

Regression equation of nest height (x) on tree

height (y) was also calculated. The t-test was

used to ascertain whether or not mean nest

height differed significantly between primary

and secondary cavity nesters.

Results

In Melia azedarach trees, four species of

birds are primary cavity-nesters and six species

secondary cavity-nesters (Table 1). Primary

cavity-nesters are species capable of excavating

their own nest, while secondary cavity-nesters

either re-use the cavities excavated by primary

cavity-nesters or are dependent on natural holes

and cavities (Ali and Ripley 1987, Panicker

1980, Baida 1975).

The nests in the sample for primary cavity-

nesters were 5.1 m above the ground (Xx =

8.675 m, S.D. = 3.3319) and for secondary

cavity-nesters 4.3 m above the ground (X2 =

6.6833 m, S.D. = 1.7053). The correlation coef-

ficient (r) between nest height (x) and tree

height (y) for primary cavity-nesters (rx) was

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 2

NUMBER OF CAVITY-NEST TREES ( Melia azedarach L.) IN EACH STATUS CATEGORY AT NEW FOREST, DEHRADUN

nesting. However, most of the studies in U.S.A.

report the use of snags as most preferred site for

nest excavation (Brush et al. 1983, Bull and

Meslow 1977, McClelland and Frissell 1975,

Raphael and White 1984, Scott 1979, Dickson et

al 1983).

Fungal infection on nest trees: Nesting in

the trees infected with heart-rot fungi appears to

be the general rule for primary cavity-nesting

birds (Table 2). In an earlier paper we reported

the presence of Fomes senex , F. fastuosus and F.

caryophylli fungi causing heart-rot, in Melia

azedarach nest trees (Pandey and Mohan 1989).

Though such studies are rarely available in

India, many workers from abroad like Conner et

al (1976), Shigo and Kilham (1968), Milne and

Hejl (1989), Swallow et al (1986) and Heald

(1933) have reported the presence of heart-rot

and decay fungi on nesting trees.

Suggested forest management strategy:

Based upon the study it can be concluded that

live Melia azedarach trees of higher girth clas-

ses, with broken or intact top, and infected with

heart-rot fungi, are the most suitable for many

species of cavity-nesting birds. Our results pro-

vide qualitative and quantitative criteria for

management of multiple use forests favouring

the cavity-nesting birds. In India most of the

production forests aim at achieving sustained

yield in perpetuity. Working plans for the

management of forests prescribe the removal of

all dead, dying, diseased and silviculturally

available trees during the silvicultural thinnings,

with a view to improve the sanitation of the

forests. Working plans also prescribe harvesting

of trees above the exploitable diameter or above

the rotation age to get a sustained yield.

(Misra 1969, Jayaraman 1974, Prakash and

Khanna 1979).

Though we agree with the necessity to

improve the sanitation of production forests in

order to obtain quality timber and to save natural

forests from pests, we feel that foresters should

recognise and evaluate the impact of removal of

dead, dying and diseased trees on the cavity-

nesting birds, which are voracious insect-eaters

and can thus be an effective biological control

against insect-pest epidemics in the forests. We

suggest that studies should be conducted to ex-

amine our proposal of retention of dead, dying

and diseased tree-bearing multiple use wood-

lands, as is being practised in some biosphere

reseives, national parks, sanctuaries and

protected areas. This will be a viable manage-

ment strategy for cavity-nesters outside the

protected areas. Depending upon the vul-

nerability of a forest-type to insect-pest

epidemic and the degree to which a management

plan favours cavity-nesting birds, a better

guideline for retention of potential nest trees

can be developed specifying the number/ha,

species and minimum diameter at breast-height.

Such studies in the Indian context are totally

lacking.

We also recommend that Melia azedarach

be planted in polyculture plantations under

CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS ON MELIA AZEDARACH

61

recreation and multiple use forestry, such as

roadside avenues, wind breaks and shelter belts;

and should be retained as potential nest trees

based on the principles of physical rotations, i.e.

till the natural lease of life.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr S. Dillon Ripley and

J.C. Daniel for guidance and encourage-ment

and to H.S. Panwar, Dr A J.T. Johnsingh, Sudhir

Sharma and Samir K. Dubey for their help.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Compact Handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan, 2nd ed. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, New Delhi.

Balda, R.P. (1975): The relationship of secondary cavity

nesters to snag densities in Western coniferous

forests. U.S. Dep. Agric. for Serv. Wildl. Habitat

Tech. Bull. 1.

Brush, T., Anderson, B.W. & Ohmart, R.D. (1983): Habitat

selection related to resource availability among

cavity -nesting birds. In: Snag habitat management

Proceedings of the symposium U.S. For. Serv. Tech.

Rep. RM-99.

Bull, E.L. & Meslow, E.C. (1977): Habitat requirements of

the Pileated Woodpecker in North Eastern Oregon. J.

For. 75: 335-337.

Conner, R.N., Miller, O.K., JR. & Adikisson (1976):

Woodpecker dependence on trees infected by fungal

heart- rots. Wilson Bull. 88: 575-581.

Dickson, J.G., Conner, R.N. & Williamson, J.H. (1983):

Snag retention increases bird use of a clear cut. J.

Wild l. Manage. 47: 799-804.

George, J. (1957): Birds of New Forest Ind. For. 83 (11):

674-687, 83 (12): 724-737.

Heald, F. (1933): Manual of Plant Diseases. McGraw Hill

Book Co., New York and London.

Jayaraman, V. (1974): Working plan for Nilgiris, South

Forest Division (TN), 1974-75 to 1983-84. Govt, of

Tamil Nadu.

McClelland, B.R. & Frissell, S.S. (1975): Identifying

forest snags useful for hole nesting birds. J. For. 73:

414- 417.

Milne, K.A. & Hejl, S.J. (1989): Nest site characteristics of

whiteheaded woodpeckers. J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 50-

55.

Misra, D.N. (1969): Working plan for East & West Dehra

Dun Forest Division (U.P.) for 1960-70 to 1978-79.

Pandey, Deep N. & MOHAN, D. (1989): Possibility of dis-

semination of heart-rot fungi in Melia azedarach L.

by cavity nesting birds at New Forest, Dehradun.

Seminar on Forest Protection, FRI, Dehra Dun,

Abstract 50-51.

Panicker, K.N. (1980): Ecology of hole-nesting birds. J.

Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 75 (Supp.): 1227-1237.

Prakash, R. & Khanna, L.S. (1979): Theory and Practice of

Silvicultural Systems. IBD, Dehra Dun and PEBA,

Delhi.

Raphael, M.G. & White, M. (1984): Use of snag by cavity-

nesting birds in the Sierra Nevada. Wild. Manage.

Monogr. 86: 66.

Scott, V.E. (1979): Bird response to snag removal in

Pondrosa Pine. J. For. 77: 26-28.

Shigo, A. & Kilham, L. (1968): Sapsuckers and Fomes ig-

niarius var. populinus. U.S. For. Serv. Res. note NE-

84.

Swallow, S.K., Guiterrez, R.J. & Howard, R.A. (1986):

Primary cavity site selection by birds. J. Wildl.

Manage. 50: 576-583.

5

CELLULOSE-DEGRADING FUNGI AROUND BOMBAY1

R.G. Bagool2

Key words: cellulose degradation, Chaetomium , fungi, Microascus.

In a study of cellulose-degrading fungi around Bombay, six ascomycetous forms, namely

Chaetomium atrobrunneum, C. cymbiforme, C. funicolum, C. globosum, Microascus cinereus

and M. cirrosus were isolated from cellulosic materials like cloth and different kinds of papers.

C. atrobrunneum is a new record for India while C. funicolum and M. cinereus are being

reported for the first time from Maharashtra. These isolates were also tested for their cel-

lulolytic activity in terms of loss in weight of filter paper. C. funicolum produced maximum

loss in weight (54.30 mg) in seven days, while M. cirrosus produced minimum loss in weight

(17.46 mg). M. cinereus failed to produce any loss in weight and hence it seems to be non-cel-

lulolytic.

Introduction

Cellulose degradation helps in maintaining

the carbon cycle in nature. It is one of the ob-

vious activities of micro- organisms, chiefly

fungi. Although many fungi live on different

cellulosic articles like fabric and paper, a few of

them have the ability to degrade cellulose. As a

result, there are adverse effects on the quality of

the articles, such as discolouration, loss of

lustre, loss in weight and loss in tensile strength.

The loss in weight is a very popular

method for quantitative determination of cel-

lulolytic activity. Basu and Ghose (1962), Fer-

gus (1969) and Park (1976) have employed the

loss in weight method to study cellulolytic ac-

tivities in different fungi and actinomycetes.

However, as they have used different organisms,

culture media and incubation periods the results

are not comparable.

Material and Methods

Isolation of the fungal forms: These fungal

forms were clearly visible in the form of their

perithecia on the cellulosic articles and could

hence be easily isolated on PDA. Subcultures were

maintained on PDA only with adequate amount of

streptopenicillin as antibacterial agent. These

Accepted October 1991.

2 K.V. Pendharkar College, Dombivli 421 201, Maharashtra.

forms were identified using standard methods

and were sent to CAB Mycological Institute

(CMI-U.K.) for confirmation of identification.

Loss in weight and activity of isolates:

Three-week-old cultures grown on PDA slants

(pH 5.5) were used as inoculum. A spore

suspension was made by mixing the three-week-

old colony with 10 ml sterile distilled water. A

loopful of the suspension was then added to

each of the sterile petri dishes each containing

two pre- weighed circles of Whatman filter paper

No. 1 (9 cm diameter) and 20 ml of T. viride

medium (pH 5.5) (Sternberg 1976).

The plates were incubated at room

temperature (average mean temperature 27° C ±

1°C) for seven days. At the end of the incuba-

tion period the filter papers along with the

mycelium were dried in an oven at 60° C for 48

hours and weighed on a single pan balance.

The difference in weight of each doublet of

the filter papers was calculated by comparing

the final weight with initial weight. If the final

weight of the filter paper was more than the ini-

tial weight the fungus was considered to be non-

cellulolytic. In such cases, the increase in weight

was attributed to the production of mycelium

utilizing peptone and also adsorption of

materials from liquid medium by the paper. This

was recorded as zero loss in weight. Those cases

where the filter paper plus mycelium weighed

less than the initial weight of the filter paper, the

CELLULOSE-DEGRADING FUNGI AROUND BOMBAY

63

fungus was considered to be cellulolytic in na-

ture and the net loss in weight was attributed to

the non-recoverable products of cellulose

degradation, and was recorded as loss in weight

of the filter paper.

Results and Discussion

Taxonomic Studies

The following are some of the as-

comycetous forms isolated from the mildewed

cellulosic articles.

Chaetomium atrobrunneum Ames

(Mycologia 41:641. 1949) IMI No. 308990.

Isolated from sized cloth collected at Bom-

bay. C. atrobrunneum is being reported for the

first time from India.

C. cymbiforme Lodha

(J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 43: 121-120. 1963) IMI

No. 318414.

Isolated from non-glazed printing paper

collected at Dombivli, Bombay. The isolate has

more or less sub-globose perithecia admeasuring

110-150 x 100-110 p,m.

Lodha (1963) isolated this species from

cowdung at Mount Abu, Rajasthan. Earlier

Bagool and Wani (1986) have reported this

species on raw cotton from Kopargaon

(Maharashtra).

C. funicolum Cooke

(Grevillea, 176. 1873) IMI No. 318396.

Isolated from non-glazed printing paper

collected at Bombay. C. funicolum has been iso-

lated quite frequently from various organic sub-

strates such as dung of different animals, soil,

paper, fibre, stored grains etc. (Bilgrami et al.

1979, Sarbhoy et al. 1986). Bilgrami (1963) has

reported this species as a pathogen on ornamen-

tal plants. This species is being reported for the

first time from Maharashtra.

Chaetomium globosum Kunze ex Fries

(Syst. Mycol 3: 225. 1829) IMI No.

334358.

Isolated from non-glazed printing paper

collected at Bombay. The species is very fre-

quently isolated from various organic substrates

from different parts of the world (Seth 1970,

Bilgrami et al. 1979, Sarbhoy et al. 1986). Siu

(1951) has listed this species as strongly cel-

lulolytic. This species is being used as a test

organism for testing fabrics for resistance to

mildew (Marsh et al. 1945).

Microascus cinereus

(Emile-Weil & Gaudin) Curzi

(Boll staz patol. vegetale, Roma

11:60.1931). (Syn. Scopulariopsis cinerea

Emile-Weil and Gaudin Archiv. med. exptl. anal,

pathd. Paris 28: 452-467. 1919) IMI No.

308985.

Isolated from sized cloth collected at Bom-

bay. There are very few Indian records of this

species. All of them report this species as a

pathogen of various plant parts (Bilgrami et al.

1979, Sarbhoy et al. 1986). This species has not

been earlier reported from Maharashtra.

M. cirrosus Curzi

(Bull, staz, patol. vegetale, Roma 10: 302-

10. 1930) IMI No. 334364.

Isolated from damaged cotton of a mattress

collected at Dombivli (Bombay).

Sattar and Hussain (1979) have observed

this species as a pathogen on cauliflower leaves.

Earlier, it has been reported on raw cotton col-

lected at Kopargaon (Maharashtra) by Bagool

and Wani (1986).

Cellulose degradation: Table 1 depicts the

cellulolytic activities of the six ascomycetous

forms in terms of loss in weight of the filter

paper in seven days of incubation (increase in

weight is considered as a zero loss in weight).

From Table 1 it is evident that out of the six

isolates, C. funicolum has the maximum cel-

lulolytic activity in terms of loss in weight, fol-

lowed by C. atrobrunneum, C. globosum , C.

cymbiforme and M. cirrosus. On the other hand,

M. cinereus failed to degrade filter paper.

64

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 1

CELLULOLYTIC ACTIVITY IN SIX FUNGAL ISOLATES MEASURED AS LOSS IN WEIGHT OF

FILTER PAPER AFTER SEVEN DAYS

* Mean of the results in triplicate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the authorities of the

University of Bombay for financial assistance,

CMI, Kew (U.K.) for confirmation of the iden-

tification of the isolates, and Principal N.G. Kale

for providing laboratory facilities.

References

Bagool, R.G. & Wani, D.D. (1986): Studies on cellulolytic

fungi from Maharashtra state (India). Ind. Jour, of

Microbiology 26 (1&2): 130-137.

Basu S.N. & Ghose, R. (1962): A microscopical study on

the degradation of Jute fibre by Micro-organisms.

Textile Research Journal 32(8): 677-694.

Bilgrami, K.S., Jamaluddin & Rizvi, M.A. (1979): Fungi of

India Part I: List and References. Today and Tomor-

row Publishers, New Delhi.

Fergus, C.L. (1969): The cellulolytic activity of ther-

mophitic fungi and actinomycetes. Mycologia LXI (I):

120-129.

Marsh, P.B., Greathouse, G.A., butler, M.L. & Bollen-

bacher, K. (1945): Testing fabrics for resistance to

mildew and rot U.S.D.A. Technical Bulletin 892.

Park, D. (1976): Cellulose decomposition by a pythiaceous

fungus. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 66(1): 65-70.

Sarbhoy, AK., Agarwal, D.K. & Varshney, J.L. (1986):

Fungi of India (1977-84). Associated Publishing

Corp., New Delhi.

Sattar, A. & Hussain, A. (1979): T\vo new Indian records

of Ascomycetes on cauliflower from India. Indian

phytopathology 32: 122-23.

Seth, H.K. (1970): A monograph of genus Chaetomium.

Nova Hedwigia TIeft, 37.

Siu, R.G.H. (1951): Microbial decomposition of Cellulose

with reference to cotton textiles, pp. 135-53.

Sternberg, D. (1976): Production of cellulose by

Trichoderma, Enzymatic conversion of cellulosic

materials: Technology and Applications: Symposium

proceedings, Biotechnology and Bioengineering

Symposium No. 6. Eds. E.L. Gaden Jr., Mary H.

Mandels & Leo A. Spano. Interscience publication,

pp. 316.

A STUDY ON SOME ASPECTS OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF

CA THARSIUS MOLOSSUS (L.) AND C. PITHECIUS (F.)

(COLEOPTERA : SCARABAEIDAE)1 2

K. VEENAKUMARr AND G.K. VEERESH3

(With a plate and a text-figure )

Key words: Catharsius molossus, C. pithecius , brood-balls, feeding, mating, nesting.

The feeding and nesting behaviour of C. molossus and C. pithecius were studied, the lat-

ter for the first time. Mating behaviour of C. molossus was observed. The brood balls prepared

by the female were found singly in a brood chamber. There was no parental care. Earthworms

belonging to D ichogas ter sp. fed on the dung that made up the brood balls.

Introduction

India, lying in the subtropics, has a rich

fauna of dung beetles, especially scarabaeines.

Arrow (1931) in his comprehensive work on the

Indian Scarabaeinae reported 354 species under

four tribes. Catharsius is a major genus among

the dung buriers and carries a considerable

amount of dung into the soil.

Earlier Paulian (1945, in Halffter and Mat-

thews 1966), Walter (1978, 1980), Rougon and

Rougon (1980), Aschbom and Bomemizza (in

Halffter and Edmonds 1982) had worked on the

behaviour of this genus. Mating in Catharsius

dux Harold has been described by Walter

(1978). Halffter and Edmonds (1982) had in-

cluded Catharsius under pattern II of nidifica-

tion.

In this paper an attempt has been made to

study the behaviour of two species of Indian

Catharsius , viz. C. molossus and C. pithecius.

Material and Meti iods

The beetles used for laboratory experi-

ments were collected from pasture land in north

Bangalore, south India. In the field the presence

1Accepted October 1990.

2Dept. of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore 560 065. Present address : Scientist, CARI, Port

Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands 744 101.

3 #

Director of Instruction (Agriculture), University of

Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 560 065.

of these beetles was evident from the large piles

of subsoil in the vicinity of relatively fresh dung

pats. The size of the opening of the burrow and

the length of the burrow, were measured. The

amount of dung that was taken underground was

weighed.

To study nesting pattern, glass sheets 5 cm

apart were fixed into a three-sided wooden

frame with grooves so that the glass sheets could

easily be slid into and out of the frame when

required for observations. Three-fourths of the

cage was filled with moist soil, on top of which

a 4-5 cm layer of fresh cowdung was deposited.

The required number of beetles were released

into the cage and the top was covered with a

wire mesh. The entire cage was covered with a

black cloth and placed in a dark corner of the

laboratory. Periodic observations on various

aspects of feeding and nest building were made.

Some beetles were also released into large

deal-wood boxes (0.9x0. 9x0.9 m), filled with

moist soil topped with a layer of fresh dung. The

tops were covered with wooden lids. After 10-

15 days, one wall of the deal-wood box was

opened out and the soil was sliced vertically, to

study nest architecture.

Results

Catharsius molossus (L.)

Feeding: The beetles were attracted by

cow, elephant, pig and human faeces. The food

66

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

burrows were formed during the initial phase

after emergence, and were usually occupied by a

single beetle, either a male or a female. The bur-

rows were found right beneath the dung pat and

towards its edge. The beetles constructed food

burrows by excavating soil using their shovel-

like clypeus and broad, spade-like tibiae, loosen-

ing the soil by digging with the clypeus and

forelegs. Later some soil was scooped out using

forelegs and clypeus, and pushed under and be-

hind the beetle. It then took a 180° turn,

bulldozed the soil with its clypeus and threw it

onto the surface of the soil. This was done

several times during the process of tunnel con-

struction. Usually the food burrows were

straight to begin with, followed by a segment

that slanted downwards.

After thus constructing the tunnel, the

beetle returned to the surface where the dung

was and separated a fragment of it using its

forelegs and clypeus as cutters. It then moved

down the tunnel with its rear end first till its

abdomen touched the end of the burrow. It then

dropped the fragment and climbed over it, took

a 180° turn and compacted it against the wall of

the burrow using its clypeus and forelegs. In this

manner the burrow was partially filled with

dung. The average time taken by a beetle to col-

lect a mass of dung of dimensions 2.5x1. 1 cm

was 20 min. 10 sec. The food masses collected

in the field were sausage-shaped (Plate 1A). At

times bifurcated food burrows were constructed,

with the beetle feeding in both burrows. Bur-

rows that were abandoned after feeding con-

tained dried fibres of dung along with the faecal

matter of the beetle.

The average diameter of the entrance hole

of the food burrow was 3.63 cm. The mean

length and depth of the tunnel were 29.93 and

18.72 cm respectively. The amount of soil ex-

cavated was 200 g and the average weight of

dung carried by the beetle for food was 94.46 g.

In one instance, two entrance holes 3.5 cm

apart led into tunnels of 9.6 cm and 8.1 cm,

respectively. These two tunnels later converged

Fig. 1. Regions of burrow occupied by male and female

C. molossus during mating.

and formed a single tunnel up to a distance of

16.8 cm. At the terminal end a female of C.

molossus was found with 56.2 g of dung,

probably collected for brood purposes.

Mating: The male and female that were

released in the glass cages constructed their

respective food burrows immediately. Four days

later they mated, after having gone through the

following sequence of acts.

The male was found in region C and

female in region B (Fig. 1). Since the male was

bigger than the female the male scooped out

some soil from region C and placed it in burrow

D, making place for itself. It reached the female,

and pushed her down to position A, where she

rested on the floor of the burrow. The female

remained passive during this period. Perhaps

finding the place too narrow, the male then

scooped some more soil and moved it into bur-

row D. It was only then that the female became

active and went back to the position B, from

where she was pushed back. Then both beetles

stood facing each other, waving their antennae

and maxillae for a few seconds. The male then

climbed over the female, held her abdomen with

his meso- and metathoracic legs and copulated

for 17 min. 35 sec. While mating, both beetles

slowly moved their forelegs and antennae.

After mating, the female entered the soil

beneath A, excavated some soil and stayed in a

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 Plate i

Veenakumari & Veeresh: Catharsius molossus & C. pithecius

E F

A. Sausage-shaped dung mass of C. molossus; B. Brood ball of C. molossus with a thick clay coating; C. Brood ball of

C. molossus in the brood chamber; D. Egg chamber of C. molossus coated with soil; E. Brood ball of C. pithecius in

brood chamber; F. Earthworms ( Dichogaster sp.) in brood ball of C. molossus.

■

Vfl

BEHAVIOUR OF CATIIARSIUS MOLOSSUS AND C. PITHECIUS

67

cell, having formed a barrier between the male

and herself. The beetles were found in the same

position the next day also.

Nesting: Nesting involved cooperation be-

tween the male and the female. The female dug

a tunnel which was initially vertical but later

slanted. The tunnel ended in a brood chamber

with a broad end, sufficient for a single brood

ball. The male helped the female in provisioning

with dung. Once a sufficient quantity of dung

was placed, it was converted into a brood ball.

Two days after provisioning, the brood ball was

found with a thick coating of clay (Plate IB). By

then both parents had abandoned the ball.

Brood balls: These were found at a depth

of 44-45 cm except in one case, where it ex-

tended to a depth of 90 cm. These balls were

present singly in a cell which was slightly bigger

than the brood ball (Plate 1C). The brood ball

did not touch the walls of the cell.

The brood balls were spheroids with a thick

coating of soil. The average thickness of the clay

coating was 6.45 mm, and was not uniform but

varied from 5.87 to 6.75 mm in thickness. The

upper pole of the bail was devoid of clay and

had a network of fibres of dimension 0.8x1.11

cm just above the egg chamber. The egg was

elongate (1. 3x0.9 cm) and stood vertically on its

pointed end. The interior of the egg chamber

was completely coated with soil (Plate ID). The

brood ball was placed in the brood chamber with

the egg chamber occupying the top.

The average length of the brood ball was

6.13 cm and breadth 5.7 cm. The weight varied

from 85 to 196 g (av. 122.9 g).

In none of the cases were the parents ob-

served with the brood ball, indicating absence of

parental care.

Catharsius pithecius (F.)

This species is smaller than Catharsius

molossus and was attracted to cow-dung. These

beetles also constructed shallow food burrows in

which they fed during the ‘Reifungsfrass’

period.

Nesting: In the glass cages, each female

assisted by a male constructed a vertical tunnel

which later slanted and ended in a broad brood

chamber. Nests were constructed at depths of

about 16 cm. In one instance the brood balls

were constructed at a distance of 24 cm, but

each had a different tunnel leading from the top.

At times the beetles were seen (under field

conditions) constructing a long horizontal tunnel

0.9-1. 2 m about 1 or 2 cm beneath the soil,

which dropped vertically to a depth of 30-40

cm. The female was found at the broad end of

the tunnel which was filled with dung. The male

stayed in the upper part of the tunnel. Apart

from this type of tunnel the female was also

seen constructing tunnels similar to those in

glass cages.

Brood balls: The brood balls were pear-

shaped and had a coating of clay except at the

top, which was composed of a fibrous network.

The brood balls were constructed at an average

depth of 33.6 (18-45) cm. The average length,

diameter and weight of the brood balls were

3.42 (3. 0-4.2) cm, 2.99 (2.4-3.5) cm and 14.95

(8.0-24.6) g respectively.

The brood chamber was pear-shaped and

had the terminal end closed. The ball rested at

the bottom of the chamber without touching the

sides. The average length and breadth of the

brood chamber was 8.0 and 4.8 cm, respectively.

Some of the brood balls were observed to

have been attacked by earthworms of the genus

Dichogaster (Oligochaeta : Megascolecidae :

Octo-chaetineae) (Plate IF). In such brood balls

neither eggs nor larvae were present.

Discussion

The fact that Catharsius spp. make in-

dividual brood balls in separate chambers in-

cludes it in pattern II of nidification behaviour,

even though its behaviour is very different from

other genera belonging to this group (Halffter

and Edmonds 1982). The egg chamber is supe-

rior as in other species of Catharsius (Halffter

and Edmonds 1982), with the difference that the

68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

egg chamber was coated with clay.

Unlike other species of Catharsius (such as

C. ulysses Boheman, C. harpagus Harold and

Catharsius sp. nov. near pandion Harold), C.

pithecius and C. molossus do not make a double

tunnel for providing dung prior to brood ball

preparation. The provisioning is very similar to

Copris repertus (Veenakumari and Veeresh, un-

published) where the brood chamber is filled

directly without provisioning in any other cham-

ber prior to ball making. Brood balls of C.

molossus were coated with a layer of soil (6.45

mm). This is in contrast to Ashbom and

Bomemizza’s (in Halffter and Edmonds 1982)

observation that C. molossus brood balls do not

have a soil coating.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. R. Madge, British

Museum (Natural History) for identifying the

beetles and to Dr. (Mrs.) Radhakale, University

of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, for iden-

tifying the earthworms. Our sincere thanks are

due to Prashanth Mohanraj for having gone

through the manuscript.

References

Arrow, G.J. (1931): The fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma, Coleoptera Lamellicornia III

(Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London.

Halffter, G. & Edmonds, W.D. (1982): The nesting be-

haviour of dung beetles (Scarabaeidae). Institute) de

Ecologia, Mexico D.F.

Halffter, G. & Matthews, E.G. (1966): The natural history

of dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae

(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Folia Ent. Mex. 12-14: 1-

312.

Rougon, D. & Rougon, C. (1980): Le Cleptoparasitisme en

zone sehelienne phemomene adaptatif d’insects

Coleopteres Coprophages Scarabaeidae aux climats

arides et semi-arides. C.R. Acad. Sc., Paris 291: 417-

419 (Cited in Halffter G. & Edmonds, W.D. 1982).

Walter, P. (1978): Recherches ecologiques et biologiues

sur les scarabeides coprophages d’une savane du

Zaire. Montpellier, France: These Doctorat Etat,

Academie de Montpellier (Cited in Halffter & Ed-

monds 1982).

Walter, P. (1980): Comportement de recherche et

d’exploitation d’une masse stercorale chez quelques

coprophages afrot ropicaux (coleop. Scarabaeidae).

Annales de la Societe Entomologique de France

(N.S.). 16: 307-323 (cited in Halffter & Edmonds

1982).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW PHYLLANTHUS L. (EUPHORBIACEAE) FROM NORTH

ANDAMAN ISLAND1

T. Chakrabarty and M. Gangopadhyay2

(With a text-figure)

Phyllanthus sanjappae sp. nov.

Phyllanthus clarkei Hook. f. proxime af-

finis, sed differt ramulis glabris, foliis sessilibus,

ad apicem mucronulatis, stylis ad basin connatis

in una columna, Holotypus: M. Sanjappa 1

(CAL); Isotypi in CAL.

Closely related to Phyllanthus clarkei

Hook. f. but distinct in the glabrous branchlets,

the sessile leaves, mucronulate at apex and the

styles connate at base into a column.

Densely branched shrub, 1-1.5 m high; en-

tirely glabrous; bark fissured; branches brown to

greyish, 2-5 mm thick, somewhat angled; leaf-

bearing branchlets dark brown, slender, 0.5-1

mm thick. Leaves closely distichous, sessile,

cuneate-obovate to rhombate-obovate, 8-20 x 4-

11 mm, more or less cuneate at base, entire and

narrowly revolute along margins, mucronulate at

apex, coriaceous, dark brown above when dry,

pale green beneath; midrib slender, faint above,

prominent beneath; lateral nerves slender, faint,

3-4 pairs, ascending, more or less straight,

vanishing near margins; nervules obscure.

Male flowers: not seen. Female flowers:

axillary, solitary; pedicels 2-3 mm long, 0.8-1

1 Accepted February 1992.

2Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah 711103.

mm thick towards apex, c. 0.2 mm thick towards

base; sepals six, oblong or broadly ovate-elliptic

to oblong-elliptic, 1.5-2 x 0.8-1. 2 mm, membra-

nous along margins, rounded to obtuse at apex,

disk cupular-annular, crenate, 1.2-1. 5 mm

diameter; ovary subglobose, c. 1 mm diameter,

glabrous; styles three, 1-1.2 mm long, connate

below into a column (c. 0.5 mm long), bifid to

quadrifid and recurved above. Capsules not

seen; persistent central column c. 2.5 mm long;

fruiting pedicels 5-6 mm long (Fig. 1).

Distribution: INDIA: North Andaman is-

land. Saddle Peak Range, Lamia Bay slope, 7

April 1987, M. Sanjappa 1 (CAL - holotype;

Isotypes in CAL).

Ecology: Scarce. On dry hill slopes at

about 700 m altitude.

As specific distinctions in Phyllanthus are

usually narrow, the above differences are per-

haps sufficient to warrant treating the Andamans

plant as a new species. According to Airy Shaw

( Kew Bull 26: 317, 1972), P. clarkei is a

moderately variable species, the variations most-

ly being the result of ecological conditions, par-

ticularly extreme altitude or exposure. However,

the branchlets of P. clarkei are always minutely

papillose-scaberulous on the angles, the leaves

are petiolate and rounded to retuse at apex and

the styles are free, not as in P. sanjappae.

70

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 1. Phyllanthus sanjappae sp. nov.

A. TWig with flowers; B. Female flowers; C. Gynoecium with disk.

O

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

71

A NEW SPECIES OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOUARS (ORCHIDACEAE)

FROM SIKKIM1

S.Z. Lucksom2

(With eleven text-figures)

During a floristic survey of North Sikkim in July 1990, 1 came across at Lachung an in-

teresting orchid of temperate region, growing on the rocky slopes. The same species was recol-

lected from the sub-tropical region of Phyangla Reserve Forest in August 1991. On critical

examination, this was found to be a new species of Bulbophyllum Thouars. It is described and

illustrated.

Bulbophyllum flavida sp. nov.

Bulbophyllum triste Rehb. f. a f finis sed dif-

fer! Rhizome breve, 0.5- 1.0 x 0.3-0.4 cm. Pseu-

dobulbous 2.5-3.5 x 1.6-2.7 cm. Ovalis. Folia

15-21.6 x 4.8-5.5 cm. Oblong-oblanceolata,

acuta. Inflorescentia 14.5-21.5 cm longa, pedun-

culus 10.5-15 cm longus, teres laevis, bracten-

tus: racemus 4-6.5 longus, parum decurvatus,

floribus densis, brevi-pedicellatis. Flores 0.56-

0.6 cm longi, aurantiaco-flavi. Sepala inae-

quales, leviter lutea, 3-nerves, sepalum dorsale

0.47-0.49 x 0.28-0.29 cm, obtusum, oaribus

lateralis 0.56-0.57 x 0.3-0.32 cm camosis cras-

sisoue. Petala c. 0.3x0.12 cm, translucence, alba,

obtusa. Labellum c. 0.3 x 0.13 cm, oblongo-

ovatum. Parum deflexum ad medium. Columna

c. 0.29 cm longa, pes c. 0.15 cm longus.

Bulbophyllum flavida sp. nov.

Epilithic. Pseudobulb 2.5-3.5 x 1. 6-2.7 cm,

oval, broadly ridged, young ones are covered

with fibrous sheaths, borne on c. 0.3-0.4 cm

diameter, stout rhizome at intervals of 0.5- 1.0

cm. Roots hairy. Leaves two, 15-21.6 x 4.8-5.5

cm, flaccid, oblong-oblanceolate, tapering to the

acute apex and to the sessile base. Inflorescence

one, 14.5-21.5 cm long arising from the base of

pseudobulb; the peduncle 10.5-15.0 cm long,

erect, smooth, terete, the base is covered with

crowded imbricate sheaths at base, with 4-5

Accepted September 1992.

divisional Forest Officer, M/E, Forest Department, Govt of

Sikkim, Gangtok, Sikkim.

nodes and intemodes. Each node is with 1.5-2

cm long tubular, acute, sheathing bracts; the

raceme is 4-6.5 cm long, slightly decurved, an-

gular, smooth, with dense short pedicellate

flowers; the pedicellate ovary c. 0.3 cm long; the

floral bract c. 0.25 x 0.15 cm, ovate acute with

wavy margin. Flowers 0.56-0.6 cm long, orange

yellow, sepals sub-equal, 3-nerved, yellow; the

dorsal sepal 0.47-0.49 x 0.28-0.29 cm, oblong-

ovate, concave, obtuse; the lateral pair 0.56-0.57

x 0.3-0.32 cm, triangular, ventrally united at

base and dorsally keeled, yellow. Petals c. 0.3 x

0.12 cm, triangular, sub-acute, translucent white

with a single median nerve. Lip c. 0.3 x 0.13

cm, oblong-ovate, slightly deflexed at the mid-

dle, the upper convex surface grooved to give

two ridges on either side, the anterior half nar-

rowed to the obtuse apex. Column c. 0.29 x 0.15

cm with two triangular, acute, subulate apical

processes, slightly winged; the foot c. 0.15 cm

long, curved; stigma orbicular. Anther c. 0.1 cm

long, dome-shaped, papillose, two chambered.

Pollinia four, oval, unequal, the two inner ones

much reduced, yellow.

Type: INDIA: Sikkim, Lachung valley

R.F., 25 July 1990. Phyangla R.F., 24 August

1991. Lucksom 207 a (Holotype : CAL :

Isotypes : 207 b, c, d Gangtok, Forest Depart-

ment, Herb.).

Flowers: July-August.

Fruits: November-December.

Ecology: Grows on steep rocky crevices

and also on moss covered rocks. Altitude 1000-

2135 m.

72

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IIIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

TABLE 1

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Bulbophyllum triste AND B. flavida SP. NOV.

Figs. 1-11 .Bulbophyllum flavida sp. nov.

1. Whole plant; 2. Side view of flower; 3. Front view of flower; 4. Flowering bract; 5. Dorsal sepal; 6. Lateral sepal;

7. Petals; 8. Side view of column and lip; 9. Front view of lip; 10. Papillose anther; 11. Pollinia.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

73

Some of the characteristics of genus Bui -

bophyllum are: Inflorescence racemose, usually

strongly bent at the base of rachis; the lateral

sepals less than twice the length of the dorsal

sepal; flowers 0.56-6.00 mm long. The fresh

specimens were found to be different in several

characters from other Bulbophyllum species.

The new taxon is closely allied to Bulbophyllum

triste Rehb. f. from which it differs as shown in

Table 1.

Etymology: Because of its prominent yel-

low colour the new species is named flavida.

Acknowledgements

My sincere thanks are due to Dr P.M.

Singh, Scientist SB, Botanical Survey of India,

Gangtok, for his valuable suggestions and Dr S.

Kumar, Scientist SD, Botanical Survey of India,

Gangtok, for going through the manuscript.

Thanks are due to Mrs Kalyani Thapa, Curator

of Gangtok Forest Department Herbarium, for

making herbarium sheets, and to Dr N.C.

Majumdar, Scientist SE (Retd.), Botanical

Survey of India, for Latin translations.

THREE NEW GENERA OF COCCIDAE (HOMOPTERA : COCCOIDEA)1

Rajendra Kumar Avasthi2

(With two text-figures)

Three new genera: V arshneococcus, Sharanococcus and Prococcus based on Coccus

species are proposed.

The revision of Indian species of Coccus

Linnaeus reveals that the species C. adersi

(Newstead), C. bicruciatus (Green), C. watti

(Green) and C. acutissimus (Green) are not con-

generic, though they have affinities with Coccus

in the absence or presence of few tubular ducts

on venter. The presence of oval anal plates in C.

adersi , C. bicruciatus and C. watti ; numerous

stigmatic spines in C. adersi; reduced legs and

antennae in C. acutissimus distinctly separate

these species from Coccus. We therefore

propose three new genera — Varsluieococcus

for C. adersi , Sharanococcus for C. bicruciatus

and C. watti , and Prococcus for C. acutissimus.

KEY TO SOME RELATED GENERA OF COCCIDAE,

BASED ON ADULT FEMALES

1. Legs and antennae well developed 2

— Legs and antennae absent or much reduced 6

2. Stigmatic spines 2-3 3

— Stigmatic spines numerous

Varshneococcus gen. nov.

3. Anal plates together roughly quadrate with cepha-

1 Accepted October 1992.

department of Zoology, Vaish College, Rohtak 124 001.

lolateral and caudolateral margins forming distinct

lateral angles 4

— Anal plates together oval with cephalolateral and

caudolateral margins fused together to form a con-

tinuous curve Sharanococcus gen. nov.

4. Stigmatic spines 3, median longer than laterals; para-

opercular pores if present never extend up to head ... 5

— Stigmatic spines 2 of equal size on either end of the

sclerotized band; para-opercular pores numerous, ar-

ranged in a band along median line of the body and

extended as far as the head

Marsipococcus Cockerell & Bueker

5. Dorsum with large tessellation

Eucalymnatus Cockerell

— Dorsum without tessellation Coccus Linnaeus

6. Cribiform plates present on dorsum 7

— Cribiform plates absent on dorsum

Prococcus gen. nov.

7. Legs and antennae rudimentary; derm around anal

plates unsclerotized Cribrolecanium Green

— Legs and antennae absent; derm around anal plates

strongly sclerotized Akermes Cockerell

Genus Varshneococcus gen. nov.

Type -species: Lecanium adersi Newstead,

1917. ’

Diagnostic features: Shape: Mounted

specimens irregularly oval. Dorsum: Setae

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

minute and spiniform. Para -opercular pores and

submarginal tubercles absent. Tubular ducts few

on submargins of body. Anal plates together

oval, with cephalolateral and caudolateral mar-

gins fused together to form a continuous curve;

each plate with three apical and four subapical

setae. Margin: Setae small, curved, dilated api-

cally. Stigmatic clefts each with 18-24 cylindri-

cal setae of variable length and diameter. Venter:

Quinquelocular pores few near cleft and

spiracular opening. Multilocular pores absent.

Tubular ducts few, confined to genital opening.

Antennae 7-segmented, sometimes 6-seg-

mented. Legs well developed, without tibio-tar-

sal articulatory sclerosis; claws simple.

The new genus has affinities with

Sharanococcus gen. nov. in having oval anal

plates but distinctly differs from it in having

numerous stigmatic spines. It is named after

Dr R.K. Varshney, Scientist, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta, for his contribution to the

study of Coccoidea.

Varshneococcus adersi (Newstead), comb. nov.

(Fig- 1)

Lecanium adersi Newstead, 1917: 357.

Coccus adersi (Newstead); De Lotto, 1959:

155; Arasthi & Shafee, 1991: 330.

Material examined: One slide with two

adult females, labelled: Lecanium adersi

Newstead, from Mango, Zanzibar, 1913, R.

Newstead (BMNH).

The species was redescribed and illustrated

in detail by De Lotto (1959) and Avasthi &

Shafee (1991).

Genus Sharanococcus gen. nov.

Type-species: Lecanium bicruciatum

Green, 1904.

Diagnostic features: Shape: Mounted

specimens more or less oval. Dorsum: Setae

minute and spiniform. Para-opercular pores and

submarginal tubercles absent. Anal plates

together oval with cephalolateral and

caudolateral margins fused together to form a

continuous curve; each plate with three apical

and one subapical setae. Margin: Setae small,

curved, simple, bifid and fimbriate. Stigmatic

clefts each with large chitinized rim and three

spines. Venter: Quinquelocular pores in a row

between spiracles and stigmatic clefts. Multi-

locular pores absent. Tubular ducts few, around

genital opening only. Antennae 6 to 7-seg-

mented. Legs well developed, without tibio-tar-

sal articulatory sclerosis; claws simple.

The genus is represented by two species.

The new genus has affinities with Varshneococ-

cus gen. nov. in having oval anal plates but dis-

tinctly differs from it in having three stigmatic

spines. It is named after Dr. Sharan Behari Gos-

wami, Ex-Principal, I.O.P., Vrindaban, for his

constant inspiration for work.

KEY TO SPECIES OF Sharanococcus GEN. NOV.,

BASED ON ADULT FEMALES

1. Marginal setae bifid and fimbriate

S. bicruciatus (Green)

— Marginal setae simple S. watti (Green)

Sharanococcus bicruciatus (Green), comb. nov.

(Fig- 2)

Lecanium bicruciatum Green, 1904 : 214.

Coccus bicruciatus (Green); Green, 1904:

248; De Lotto, 1957 : 299; Avasthi & Shafee,

1991 : 331.

Material examined: One slide with three

adult females, labelled: Coccus bicruciata

(Green), on Capparis mitohrili , August 12,

1931; Chinrhilla (NMNH).

The species was redescribed and illustrated

in detail by De Lotto (1957) and Avasthi &

Shafee (1991).

Sharanococcus watti (Green), comb. nov.

Lecanium watti Green, 1900 : 6.

Coccus watti (Green); Rao & Kumar, 1952

: 3; Avasthi & Shafee, 1991 : 345.

Saissetia watti (Green); Ali, 1971 : 45.

The species was redescribcd and illustrated

in detail by Rao and Kumar (1952).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Varshneococcus adersi (Newstead) comb. nov. female. See text for explanations.

0.02 mm

76

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 2. Sharanococcus bicruciatus (Green) comb. nov. female. See text for explanations.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

77

Genus Prococcus gen. nov.

*

Type-species: Lecanium acutissimum

Green, 1896.

Diagnostic features: Shape : Body of adult

female elongate, slender and pointed at apices.

Dorsum: Membranous but strongly sclerotized

in older specimens. Setae spinose with pointed

or blunt apices, clavate or cylindrical with al-

most truncate apices. Submarginal tubercles

present. Para-opercular pores variable in num-

ber. Anal plates more or less quadrate with dis-

tinct lateral angles; each plate with two

subapical, three apical and one subdiscal setae.

Margin: Setae slender, pointed and sparse. Stig-

matic clefts with three setae, median much

longer than laterals. Venter: Quinquelocular

pores in a single row between spiracles and stig-

matic clefts. Multilocular pores few, confined in

anal region and on preceding 2-3 abdominal

segments. Tabular ducts absent. Antennae much

reduced; 3-segmented, sometimes with

membranous division indicating five segments.

Legs greatly reduced, tibia and tarsus fused

together, claws simple.

The new genus has affinities with

Cribrolecanium Green in having reduced legs

and antennae but distinctly differs from it in the

absence of cribiform plates on dorsum. The

generic diagnosis is based on the illustrations

and description given by Gill et al. (1977) for

Coccus acutissimus (Green).

Prococcus acutissimus (Green), comb. nov.

Lecanium acutissimum Green, 1896 : 10.

Coccus acutissimus (Green); Gill et al .,

1977 : 12; Avasthi & Shafee, 1991: 330.

Gill et al. (1977) redescribed and illustrated

the species in detail.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr J.M. Cox, BMNH,

London, Dr. D.R. Miller, U.S.D.A., Bcltsville,

Maryland, and Dr D.R. Davis, Chairman,

Department of Entomology, NMNH,

Washington D.C. for arranging the loan of the

type material for study.

References

An, S.M. (1971): A catalogue of the Oriental Coccoidea,

part V. Indian Mus. Bull. VI (2): 7-82.

AVASTHI, R.K. & SHAFEE, S.A. (1991): Revision of the

genus Coccus Linn, in India (Insecta: Homoptera:

Coccidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3): 329-348.

De Lotto, G. (1957): On some Ethiopian species of the

genus Coccus (Homoptera : Coccoidea : Coccidae).

EnL Soc. South Africa Jour. 20: 295-314.

De Lotto, G. (1959): Further notes on the Ethiopian species

of the genus Coccus (Homoptera : Coccoidea : Cocci-

dae). Ent. Soc. South Africa Jour. 22: 150-173.

Gill, R.J., Nakahara, S. & Williams, M.L. (1977): A

review of the genus Coccus Linnaeus in America

North of Panama (Homoptera : Coccoidea: Coc-

cidae). State of California. Dept. Food &Agri., Div.

Plant Industry-Laboratory Service , No. 24: 1-44.

Green, E.E. (1896): Catalogue of Coccidae collected in

Ceylon. Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1896-1900): 2-10.

Green, E.E. (1900): Remarks on Indian scale insects (Coc-

cidae), with descriptions of new species. Pt I. Indian

Mus. Notes 5: 1-13.

Green, E.E. (1904): The Coccidae of Ceylon, pt. III. pp.

171-249. London, Dulau.

Newstead, R. (1917): Observations on scale insects (Cocci-

dae) - III. Bull. Ent. Res. 7: 343-380.

Rao, V.P. & Kumar, H.K. (1952): Little known or hitherto

unrecorded species of coccids from the Indian region.

Indian Jour. Ent. 14: 1-10.

6

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 89

A NEW SPECIES OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOUARS (ORCHIDACEAE)

FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry2 3

(With six text-figures)

a

Btilbopliyllum agastyamalayanum sp. nov.

Bulbophyllum hymenanthum Hook. f. af-

finis, sed foliis petiolatis; scapo foliis longiore;

floribus 6-12, umbellatis; sepalis dorsalibus

oblongo-ellipticus, apicibus obtusis; petalis obli-

que ellipticus; labio ovato et in dimidio inferiore

profunde sulcatis differt.

Allied to Bulbophyllum hymenanthum

Hook. f. but differs in: leaves petioled; scape

shorter than leaves; flowers 6-12 in umbels; dor-

sal sepal oblong-elliptic, obtuse at apex; lateral

sepals obliquely falcate, obtuse at apex; petals

obliquely elliptic; lip ovate, posterior half deeply

grooved.

Herbs, epiphytic; rhizome woody, creeping

with fibrous scales at nodes; intemodes c. 5 mm

long; roots slender, fibrous; pseudobulbs minute,

very difficult to distinguish, up to 2 x 2 x 0 mm,

green, naked, oblique, flat. Leaves 2.3-9.5 x 1.0-

2.2 cm, solitary, c. 1.5 cm apart, thick, fleshy,

elliptic, cuneate at base, obtuse at apex, faintly

1 -nerved; petioles up to 2 mm long, fleshy,

grooved adaxially. Flowers pink, 6-12 in um-

bels; peduncle up to 6 cm long, filiform, arising

on rhizome in between leaves; bracts 1-2x1

Accepted July 1992.

2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore-600 003.

3This species is named after the type locality.

mm, equal to or slightly longer than ovary, trun-

cate-lanceolate, acuminate, acumen margin

setaceous or papillate. Dorsal sepal 2.5-3 x 1.5

mm, oblong-elliptic, concave, base thick, margin

entire and incurved, obtuse at apex, hooded, 3-

nerved; lateral sepals 2.5-3 x 1-2 mm„ obliquely

falcate, base oblique, attached to foot of column

forming a mentum, margin entire, apex obtuse,

3-nerved. Petals maroon-coloured, 2-2.5 x 1

mm, obliquely elliptic, base thick, margin entire,

acute at apex, 1-nerved, nerve raised dorsally.

Lip 2x2 mm, yellow, ovate, convex, thick,

deflexed, posterior half deeply grooved, at-

tached to mentum, 3-lobed; lateral lobes two,

very small or minute, erect; midlobe ovate,

rounded, thick, fleshy, deflexed, apex obtuse,

grooved from the base to the middle. Column

short, up to 1 mm long with two horns (stelidia);

horns up to 1 mm long, falcate. Pollinia two,

yellow, small, obovate. Ovary 1-2 mm long,

glabrous. Fruit globose, 8-10 x 5-7 mm, 6-

ribbed (Figs. 1-6).

Holotype: Gopalan 96220, CAL. Isotypes

Gopalan 96220, MH-acc. no. 155723-40.

Poonkulam (1120 m) in Agastyamalai, Tirunel-

veli Kattabomman district, Tamil Nadu, 3 April

1991.

We are thankful to Dr N.P. Balakrishnan,

Joint Director, for encouragement and to Dr V.J.

Nair, Scientist ‘SD’ for rendering the Latin

translation.

1 mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

79

£

’ £

Figs. 1-6. Bulbophyllum agastyamalayanum sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. Bract; 3. Sepals, petals and lip spread out from front; 4. Up - side view; 5. Flower — side view

(dorsal sepal, one lateral sepal and one petal removed); 6. Fruit

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

A NEW PREMNA L. (VERBENACEAE) FROM THE WESTERN GHATS

OF TAMIL NADU1

A. Rajendran and P. Daniel2

(With a text-figure )

Premna mundanthuraiensis , a new species from the Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary on

the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, is described and illustrated.

Premna mundanthuraiensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

P. corymbosa Rottler affinis males habitus

effuso; partibus juvenibus glabris; foliis ovato-

lanceolatis, ad margineum serratis; petiolis

glabris; calycibus campanulatis differt.

Typus: Tamil Nadu, Tirunelveli dist., Mun-

danthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Mundanthurai to

Karaiyar, c. 670 m, 4 October 1987, A.

Rajendran 86717 (CAL, holotypus; MH,

isotypus).

surfaces densely pubescent; lateral nerves 4-6

pairs, distinct beneath; petioles slender,

canaliculate, 1-1.5 cm long, minutely pubescent.

Corymbs terminal, compact, composed of 3-5

decussate-opposite simple cymes, c. 2 x 1.5 cm;

peduncles slender, 1-1.5 cm long; bracts lanceo-

late, c. 6 x 3 mm, pubescent. Flowers few,

cream-coloured; pedicels c. 1 mm long. Calyx

campanulate, 2-lipped, 5-toothed, c. 2x2 mm;

teeth acute, sparsely pubescent outside. Corolla

infundibular, 2-lipped, 4-lobed; upper lip 1-

TABLE 1

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Premna corymbosa ANDP mundanthuraiensis SP. NOV.

Shrub, straggling, 2-3 m high; branches

slender, obtusely 4-angular, glabrous; bark

whitish yellow; leaf scars circular, prominent;

nodes not annulate; inte modes much

abbreviated, 1-2 cm long. Leaves decussate -op-

posite, crowded at ends of branches, ovate-lan-

ceolate, obtuse at base, serrate at margins with

acute serrations, acuminate or rarely acute or ob-

tuse at apex, 3.5-6.5 x 2.5-3.5 cm, chartaceous,

pale green, sparsely pubescent; nerves on both

* Accepted July 1992.

2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore-641003.

This species is named offer the type locality.

lobed, suborbicular, concave, obtuse, c. 2 x 1.5

mm; lower lip 3-lobed; lobes obovate, obtuse,

subequal, c. 2 x 1 mm; tube narrow, ampliate

towards apex, c. 2 x 1.1 mm, glabrous outside,

densely villous at throat. Stamens four,

didynamous; filaments slender, glabrous, 1.5-2

mm long, included; anthers globose, c. 0.2 mm,

brown, 2-celled. Ovary subglobose, truncate at

apex, c. lxl mm; style slender, c. 4 mm long,

glabrous; stigma 2-lobed; lobes equal, subulate.

Fruits not seen.

Flowers: October.

Fruits: Not common.

Habitat: Grows in scrub jungles, as-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

81

Fig. 1. Premna mundanthuraiensis sp. nov.: A. TWig; B. Calyx; C. Corolla.

82

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

sociated with Lantana camara L. Not common.

This species is allied to P. corymbosa

Rottler, but markedly differs from it as shown

in Table 1.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr N.P. Balakrishnan,

Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coim-

batore, for the facilities and to Dr V.J. Nair,

Scientist SD, Botanical Survey of India, Shil-

long, for the Latin diagnosis. AR is thankful to

the Director, Botanical Survey of India, for a

research fellowship.

ON THREE NEW SPECIES OF WHITEFLIES OF THE TRIBE

DIALEURODINI SAMPSON, 1943 (ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA)

FROM INDIA1

K. Regu and B. Vasantharaj David2

(With nine text-figures)

During the survey of whiteflies from different parts of India from 1987-1990 three new

species of whiteflies belonging to the tribe Dialeurodini, viz. Cockerelliella rotunda sp. nov.,

Dialeurodes ( Gigaleurodes ) splendens sp. nov. and Dialeuronomada saklespurensis sp. nov.

were collected respectively from Capparis sp. (Capparaceae), Homonoia riparia (Euphor-

biaceae) and Dimocarpus longon (Sapindaceae). These species are described and illustrated.

Cockerelliella rotunda sp. nov. (Figs. 1-4)

Pupal case: White, without wax secretion,

submargin folded downwards, broadly elliptical,

widest across second abdominal segment, 1.03-

1.06 mm long and 0.96-0.99 mm wide; found

singly and in groups on the lower surface of

leaves.

Margin: Crenulate, 24-27 crenulations in

0.1 mm; thoracic and caudal tracheal pores dis-

tinct with chitinised rim; anterior and posterior

marginal setae 20 pm and 17.5 pm long respec-

tively.

Dorsal surface: Three pairs of fimbriate

setae — cephalic setae 35 pm long, first ab-

dominal setae 35-40 pm long and eighth ab-

dominal setae 17.5-22.5 pm long; submargin

205 pm wide, separated from dorsal disc only

on cephalothorax by cephalothoracic suture;

longitudinal moulting suture reaches margin,

transverse moulting suture reaches submargin.

Cephalothorax with five pairs of submarginal

1 Accepted October 1992.

2Frednick Instt of Plant Protection and Toxicology,

Padappai 601 301.

fimbriate setae each 22.5 pm long. Subdorsum

with a row of four pairs of fimbriate setae and a

pair of pointed setae on abdomen, each 22.5-

27.5 pm long. Numerous tubercles on

cephalothorax evident. Median darker area

present on each abdominal segment suture and

characteristic markings evident from abdominal

segment sutures laterad. Dorsum completely

covered with elongated or polygonal markings;

pores and porettes evident.

Vasiform orifice subcordate, slightly

notched at the caudal end, wider than long, 47.5-

52.5 pm wide and 45-47.5 pm long; operculum

similarly shaped, 35-37.5 pm wide and 27.5-30

pm long, filling the orifice and concealing the

lingula. Caudal tracheal furrow 137.5-145 pm

long and 10 pm wide with polygonal markings

evident, whereas thoracic tracheal furrows not

indicated.

Ventral surface: Ventral abdominal setae

30 mm long and 45-50 pm apart. Thoracic and

caudal tracheal folds distinct without stipples or

sculpturing.

Host: Capparis sp. (Capparidaceae).

Material examined: Holotype: Capparis

sp.,Munchirai (Tamil Nadu), 3 August 1987,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

83

Coll. K. Regu.

Para types: 18 pupal cases on slides bear-

ing the same details as of holotype. Of these one

paratype deposited in the collections of Division

of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research

Institute, New Delhi.

This species resembles Cockerelliella zin-

giberae Sundararaj and David (1991a) in the

presence of cephalothoracic fold and differs

from it in the presence of fimbriate dorsal setae.

Dialeurodes (Gigaleurodes) splendens sp. nov.

(Figs. 5-7)

Pupal case: Oval, white, without w'ax;

0.76-0.79 mm long and 0.55 mm wide, found on

the lower surface of leaves.

Margin: Irregularly crenulate, thoracic and

caudal tracheal pores with internal teeth evident,

anterior marginal setae 20 pm long, posterior

marginal setae 25-30 pm long.

Dorsal surface: Four pairs of dorsal setae

— cephalic setae 35-50 pm long, first ab-

dominal setae 17.5 pm long, eighth abdominal

setae cephalo-laterad of vasiform orifice, 2.5 pm

long and submarginal caudal setae 10-15 pm

long. Longitudinal moulting suture reaches mar-

gin and transverse moulting suture reaches sub-

dorsum. Six pairs of submarginal setae — one

pair on cephalic region and five pairs on ab-

domen, each 20-32.5 pm long; a pair of minute

setae below the vasiform orifice within the

caudal furrow 5 pm long. Subdorsal

mesothoracic and metathoracic setae each 27.5

pm long. Tubercles running along cephalo-

thoracic and abdominal segment sutures

prominent. Dorsum completely covered with

tubercles. Seventh and eighth abdominal seg-

ments are of equal size (30 pm).

Vasiform orifice subcordate, wider than

long, 47.5-52.5 pm wide and 45-47.5 pm long;

operculum similarly shaped, wider than long,

32.5-35 pm wide and 30-32.5 pm long, filling

the orifice and concealing the lingula. Caudal

tracheal furrow distinct, 87.5 pm long and 20

pm wide with numerous round markings.

Thoracic tracheal furrow indistinct.

Ventral surface: Ventral abdominal setae

20 pm long and 35 pm apart; a pair of minute

setae at the base of rostrum evident.

Host: Homonoia riparia Lour. (Euphor-

biaceae).

Material examined: Holotype: Homonoia

riparia , Rajapalayam (Tamil Nadu), 11 June

1989, Coll. K. Regu.

Paratypes: Four pupal cases on slides

bearing the same details as of holotype. One

paratype deposited in the collections of Division

of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research In-

stitute, New Delhi.

This species resembles Dialeurodes

(Gigaleurodes) multipori Takahashi (1932) in

the presence of tubercles on dorsum and differs

from that in the presence of meso- and

metathoracic setae and tubercles along segment

sutures.

Dialeuronomada saklespurensis sp. nov. (Figs. 8-9)

Pupal case: White and very thin pupal case

with a little powdery wax around margin and on

dorsum; oval, broadest across third abdominal

segment; 1.00-1.14 mm long and 0.87-0.91 mm

wide; found singly on the lower surface of

leaves.

Margin: Smoothly crenulate, thoracic and

caudal tracheal pore areas differentiated from

margin; anterior marginal setae (broken) and

posterior marginal setae 25-32.5 pm long.

Dorsal surface: Four pairs of dorsal setae

— cephalic setae 12.5 pm long, first abdominal

setae 5 pm long, eighth abdominal setae 45 pm

long and submarginal caudal setae 20- 22.5 pm

long. Submargin separated from dorsal disc by a

thin furrow and submargin with suture-like

lines running mesad from margin; a row of 11

pairs of submarginal setae — five pairs on

cephalothorax and six pairs on abdomen each

22.5-27.5 pm long; a prominent peripheral row

of papillae laterad of abdominal segments and

pro-mesothoracic segments on subdorsum, the

papillae near the vasiform orifice enlarged; pro-

84

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

2

Figs. 1-4. Cockerelliella rotunda sp. nov.

1. Pupal case; 2. Vasiform orifice; 3. Dorsal markings; 4. Median area of abdomen enlarged.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

85

|

CM

o

o’

Figs. 5-7. Dialeurodes (Gigaleurodes) splendens sp. nov.

5. Pupal case; 6. Thoracic tracheal pore with margin; 7. Vasiform orifice with caudal tracheal furrow.

is/a0' &

86

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89

Fig. 8-9. Dialeuronomada saldespurensis sp. nov.

8. Pupal case; 9. Vasiform orifice with lateral papillae.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

87

mesothoracic and meso-metathoracic sutures

with papillae evident; abdominal segment su-

tures tuberculated. Pores and porettes sparsely

distributed throughout dorsum. Longitudinal and

transverse moulting sutures reach submargin.

Subdorsum completely covered with round

markings.

Vasiform orifice subcordate, with comb of

teeth on its inner caudal and lateral margins,

slightly longer than wide, 50 pm long and 47.5

pm wide; operculum 27.5-35 pm long and 27.5-

32.5 pm wide, filling the orifice and concealing

the lingula.

Ventral surface: Venter with round and

polygonal markings; mouth parts, legs and

spiracles evident; thoracic tracheal folds with

stipples evident.

Host: Dimocarpus longon Lour. (Sapin-

daceae).

Material examined: Holotype: Dimocar-

pus longon , Saklespur (Karnataka), 4 February

1990, Coll. K. Regu.

Paratypes: Four pupal cases on slides bear-

ing the same details as of holotype.

This species resembles D. martini Sun-

dararaj and David (1991b) by the presence of

enlarged papillae laterad of vasiform orifice and

differs from that in the presence of round mark-

ings on dorsum and tubercles on abdominal seg-

ment sutures.

This species is named after the collection

locality, Saklespur (Karnataka).

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to S. James Fredrick,

Chairman, F1PPAT for facilities provided.

Refbrences

Sundararaj, R. & David, B.V. (1991a): On the genera of Dialeuronomada Quaintance & Baker (Homoptera:

Asialeyrodes Corbett and CockereUiella gen. nov. Aleyrodidae) from India. Hexapod a 3 (1 &2): 27-47.

from India J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 88(3): 415-424. Takahashi, R. (1932): Aleyrodidae of Formosa, Part I. Rep.

Sundararaj, R. & David, B.V. (1991b): Ten new species of Dep. Agric. Govt res. Inst Formosa 59: 11-12.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. ON MUTANT LEOPARDS PANTHERA PARDUS FROM INDIA

Among the large felids, partial albinism is not

an uncommon phenomenon. Though there are no

records of such aberrations among Asiatic lions Pan -

thera leo persica in India, instances of albinism have

been reported from South Africa (McBride 1977).

There were as many as 17 instances of ‘white" tigers

in India between 1907 and 1933 (Gee 1954) and

there was the famous Mohun from Rewa and his

progeny of a later day which are too well known to

require elucidation. There is also one instance of a

‘white’ cheetah Acinonyx jubatus from central India,

the only one recorded anywhere (Divyabhanusinh

1987). ‘

As far as leopards are concerned, the

phenomenon appears to be extremely rare and very

few records exist. I have consolidated here all the

instances I have come across which should be of in-

terest to the readers of the Journal.

1. In 1905 there was a report of a light

coloured animal from Central India: “One leopard

(taindua) of sandalwood (sandli) colour was killed at

Jhinna [near Ajaigarh, Panna District, M.P.]. It was a

very large leopard. Such a sandalwood coloured

leopard has not been seen or heard of and its skin still

exists today" (Ajaigarh 1914, p. 47).

2. In c. 1910 a white leopard was reportedly

shot in Dumraon in Bihar, of which there are no

details (Musselwhite 1933, p. 104).

3. In 1937, there was a ‘likely’ report of a

police officer having shot a white leopard in Dum-

raon; there is no skin in existence of this specimen

(Musselwhite 1933, p. 104).

4. In 1940 a white female was shot by a Boris

Lissenovitch 15 miles from Sarasaran (sic.) near

Dumraon. “When shot the eyes were sky blue —

there was no trace of pink in the eye — and the tail

shows just a suggestion of the original leopard. The

animal is white at the sides and cream towards the

centre with pale brown spots.” There is a picture of a

white leopard in the same report (presumably the

same animal) which was six years old and was 6'6"

between pegs (Musselwhite 1933, pp. 97, 104).

The book from which three of the above records

are cited was published in 1933 and nowhere in it are

a subsequent edition and date mentioned. Yet, its text

gives the date as February 1940 of the white leopards

at number 4 above. This clearly is an error and the

correct date could well be 1930. If so, the dates of the

animals referred at 2 and 3 above would be different

as well.

5. There is yet another instance of a male

white leopard, about 6' 9" in length, with sandalwood

coloured light spots on its body which was shot by a

villager c. 1965 in village Aramgang of Ajaigarh teh-

sil of Panna district, Madhya Pradesh. This village is

not very far from Jhinna mentioned in 1 above. The

skin was acquired by the late Raja Bahadur

Kaushalendra Sinhji and the mounted trophy is in the

Ajaigarh Palace (Vansda, pers. comm. 1984).

6. M/s Van Ingen & Van Ingen of Mysore

have recorded receiving a white leopard skin from

Tikamgarh near Orcha in Madhya Pradesh (Van

Ingen, pers. comm, to Vansda, 1967). The Maharaja

of Orcha informed he has been unable to find any

information regarding this specimen (pers. comm.

1991).

7. One skin of a leopard from Hazaribag in

which “the ground colour is much paler than usual,

almost cream and the pattern is tan” is preserved

in the British Museum, London (Pocock 1939, p.

224).

8. A “white (albino) leopard” was recorded by

Buchanan-Hamilton according to one source (Lydek-

ker 1907, p. 318), while another states that “Blanford

cites a figure of a white one [leopard] in Buchanan-

Hamilton’s drawings” (Finn 1929, pp. 84-85).

9. One “skin which was normal except for

having the spots light brown instead of black” has

been recorded but no further details are available

(Finn 1929, p. 85).

From this examination it may be observed that

three instances are from Dumraon and one from

Hazaribag, both in Bihar and three are from Ajaigarh

and Orcha in Madhya Pradesh.

Incidentally the only recorded white cheetah

nearly 400 years ago, belonged to the Raja of Orcha,

and it is likely that it came from the same locality. It

is noteworthy that all the instances from the Indian

subcontinent which can be ascribed a locality, are

from these two pockets only. However, no con-

clusions can be drawn from this as other instances of

mutant leopards could have gone unrecorded on the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

89

one hand and on the other, mention of such instances

in vernacular literature or for that matter in English

literature could have gone unnoticed by me in spite

of my having examined all available sources of the

latter.

In addition to the instances from India, a white

leopard has been reported from Rhodesia

(Zimbabwe) and R.I. Pocock “saw one purely white

skin, apparently from East Africa, in which spots

were only visible in reflected light” (Guggisberg

1975, p. 220).

I would be glad to receive additional informa-

tion on the subject.

I am grateful to Maharawalji Shri Dig-

veerendrasinhji of Vansda for drawing my attention

to the Ajaigarh and Orcha instances.

January 31, 1992 DIVYABHANUSINH

1, Mansingh Road, New Delhi 110011

References

Ajaigarh, Sawai Maharaja Sir Ranjorsinghji of (1914):

Yudhabodh Mrgayabinod. Standard Press, Allahabad.

Divyabhanusinh(1987): Record of two unique observations

of the Indian Cheetah in Tuzuk-i-J ahangiri. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 269-272.

Finn, F. (1929): Sterndale’s Mammalia of India. Thacker,

Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Gee, E.P. (1954): Albinism and partial albinism in tigers. J.

Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 56: 581-587.

Guggisberg, C.AW. (1975): Wild Cats of the World.

Taplinger Publishing Co., New York.

Lydekker, R. (1907): The Game Animals of India, Burma,

Malaya and Tibet. Rowland Ward Limited, London,

McBride, C. (1977): The White Lions of Timbavati.

Paddington Press, New York.

Musselwhite, A. (1933): Behind the Lens in Tigerland.

Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Pocock, R.I. (1939): The Fauna of British India including

Burma and Ceylon. Today & Tomorrow’s Printers &

Publishers, New Delhi, 1985.

2. FIRST RECORD OF TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS IN DALMA WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, BIHAR, AND ITS PREDATION ON SLOTH BEAR

MELURSUS URSINUS

There is no record of the tiger Panthera tigris in

the recent past in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar. A

tiger took refuge in the Sanctuary for almost two

years from January 1989 to November 1990. The

Sanctuary and the surrounding areas are partially or

almost completely degraded due to urbanization,

mining activity and agricultural encroachment. No

suitable prey species is available in the forest. The

nearest known tiger habitats are Hazaribagh Wildlife

sanctuary to the north-west and Simlipal Tiger

Reserve to the south-west; both are more than 100

km away. The origin and disappearance of the tiger is

still a mystery but there is no doubt that it was lead-

ing a nomadic existence and may have been killed

due to its cattle lifting prowess, and the hunting

habits of the local people.

The tiger during its two year stay at the

Sanctuary had taken to cattle lifting and had some-

what solved the cattle problem in the core area.

During 1989 and 1990 1 found six cases of bear being

eaten by this tiger within the core area of 55 sq. km.

In three cases the head was intact and front and hind

paws were found nearby. The remaining three cases

were inferred from claws and hair in the faeces.

Bears are in good number in Dalma due to the ab-

sence of large predators but are annually hunted

down during the infamous ritual tribal hunt.

There are several instances of tiger predating on

sloth bear recorded in the past (Campbell 1893, Clut-

terbuck 1894, Butler 1899, Fenton 1909, Pitman

1911, Duke 1919). There is a case of a full grown

Malayan sun bear Helarctos malayanus being killed

and devoured by a tiger in the Perak state of Malaysia

(Spooner in Butler 1899). Some of these authors

were told by their guides or locals that these inciden-

ces were not uncommon. To me it appears to be a

secondary preference of the tiger, considering the risk

of the prey fighting back and the small number of

bears available compared to other prey species in the

tiger’s home range.

December 30, 1992 HEMANT S. DATYE

Bombay Natural Histoiy Society, Hornbill House,

Shalieed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 40 023

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

References

Butler, A.L. (1899): Bear killed by a tiger. J. Bombay nat

Hist Soc. 12: 787.

Campbell, J.J. (1893): A tiger eating a bear. ibid. 9: 101.

Clutterbuck, P.H. (1894): Tiger killing a bear. ibid. 9: 229.

Duke, J.A. (1919): Tiger attacking sloth bear. ibid. 26: 659.

Fenton, L.E (1909): Tiger attacking bear. ibid. 20: 213.

Pitman, C.R. (1911): Tiger taking off carcass of sloth bear,

ibid. 22: 619.

3. FIRST RECORD OF THE FISHING CAT FELIS VIVERRINA BENNETT IN

DALMA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND CHHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU OF BIHAR

I worked on the BNHS Elephant Ecology

Project at Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar, from

January 1989 to May 1992. On 17 March 1990 there

was a cyclonic storm in the Bay of Bengal and its

effects were felt in the southern parts of Bihar where

the Sanctuary is situated. I was walking down a forest

road the next day to see the effects of the previous

day’s storm and heard a mewing sound, the source of

which was a fishing cat (kitten) Fells viverrina. The

kitten, which was about the size of a three month old

domestic cat, was apparently following its mother

and must have become separated in the heavy gale

and rain.

The kitten was located at about 800 m above

msl in a rocky area surrounded by good forest cover,

on the northern (cooler) aspect of Kotasini hill. It was

under the care of Forest Department, and died in

captivity after two days from unknown causes, al-

though its behaviour was just like that of a healthy

domestic kitten.

The fact that this species has not been recorded

previously by the Sanctuary officials and tribals of

the area who criss-crc %s the Sanctuary regularly,

reflects the secretive habits of the species.

THE FAUNA OF British India (Mammalia, Vol. 1,

Pocock, R.I. 1939) gives the closest distribution of

the species as reed beds near Calcutta and the area

east of Bay of Bengal. Other areas of distribution are

parts of terai, Bharatpur, Western Ghats, Sind

province, Kumaon, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Ellerman,

J.R.E. and Morrison-Scott, T.C.S., checklist of

PALEARCTIC AND INDIAN MAMMALS, 1951).

December 30, 1992 HEMANT S. DATYE

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

4. DIETARY OF THE CATTLE EGRET

BUBULCUS IBIS COROMANDUS (BODDAERT)

While several species of insects together with

tadpoles, frogs and lizards are listed in the dietary of

our commonest egret, the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis

coromandus , fruits have not been recorded so far.

It was therefore surprising to see quite a few of

these birds on 11 June 1988 during a morning’s walk,

helping themselves to banyan Ficus bengalensis figs.

Their scrambling among the branches and peering

amidst the foliage gave me the impression that they

5. FOOD PIRACY BY A WHITE

On 16 February 1990, at about 1100 hrs, we

were on a general reconnaissance of the reedy areas

of Chhari-Dhand, Kutch, Gujarat. During this recon-

were breeding individuals. However, a careful look

through binoculars revealed that they were selective-

ly pecking at the figs and plucking what they thought

to be the choicest among them, and gulping them

whole.

August 10, 1991 NARESH CHATURVEDI

Bombay Natural Histoiy Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

STORK CICONIA CICONIA (LINN.)

naissance we observed a marsh harrier Circus

aeruginosus, preying on an Indian mole rat Bandico-

ta bengalensis. The harrier was devouring its prey on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

91

the ground, while at a short distance six white storks

Ciconia ciconia , were stalking some prey in the mar-

shy area. Suddenly one of these storks ran towards

the marsh harrier, clattering its bill, and grabbed the

rodent from the harrier. It soon gulped the prey down.

The dispossessed harrier flew away, without making

any effort to repossess its prey.

This incident of food piracy by white stork is

interesting and has not been reported earlier.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

November 16, 1990 J.K. TTWARI

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

6. CONTENTS OF A NEST OF THE TAWNY EAGLE

AQUILA RAPAX VINDHIANA FRANKLIN

On 26 January 1991, during a general recon-

naissance, we came across the nest of a tawny eagle

Aquila rapax vindhiana in the Chach area of Chhari

Dhandh (taluka Nakhtrana, district Kutch). The nest

details are as follows.

Nest height c. 3 m, tree height c. 4 m, nesting

tree Prosopis chilensis. The nest contained three

fledgelings, one of them dead and maggot-ridden.

We collected the food remains from the nest.

These consisted of two snake skeletons, each about

50 cm long, and one fore- and one hindlimb of a

jungle cat Felis chaus. According to the handbook of

BIRDS of INDIA and Pakistan (Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D.

1987) the food of Aquila rapax vindhiana comprises

of small mammals, birds and reptiles, mostly pirated

from other hawks and kites, and scavenged from car-

rion and garbage.

The remains of a jungle cat’s limbs inside the

nest is interesting and hitherto not reported.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

October 31, 1991 J.K. TIWARI

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

7. AN UNUSUAL NESTING OF A GREY PARTRIDGE

FRANCOL1NUS PONDICERIANUS (GMELIN)

A housing colony called ‘Gokul Nagar’ has

been recently established on the outskirts of Udaipur.

A school in the colony owns a large piece of land

which is covered by some trees and bushes. The area

once had partridges in good numbers. As cement and

bricks started piling up, all the partridges moved

away except one pair, which took up its quarters in

the school compound. Food is no problem for the

birds as one of the inhabitants of the colony habitual-

ly scatters grain for the birds.

Adjacent to the school is an undeveloped piece

of land and next to this plot lies a house with a

masonry boundary wall crowned with thorns of

babool tree Acacia nilotica. On 3 March 1991 we

observed a female partridge examining numerous

gaps and holes in the wall. Finally she chose a hole in

the wall, 1.05 m from the ground, and started build-

ing her nest. She first screened the hole with babul

thorns and then impaled on them leaves of the jamun

tree (Euginea jambolan). She lined her nest with

leaves of jamun and kaner trees (Nerium indicum).

On 13 March we found eggs in the nest; the hen

remained on the eggs all through that day and night

except for one hour (1700-1800 hrs). At about 1645

hrs the male of the pair started calling. After about 15

minutes of calling (1700 hrs) the female left the nest

for foraging. Food being aplenty and water too being

close by, she was back at the nest by about 1800 hrs.

She kept up this routine till the eggs hatched.

On 2 April 1991 at about 1000 hrs, we noticed

the hen with three chicks hiding in a bush on the

vacant piece of land. She was constantly trying to

take the chicks into the safety of the school com-

pound but the wall seemed to be too high for the

chicks. A pariah dog spotted the hen and chicks and

rushed towards them. We shooed the dog away and

putting the chicks into a basket, lowered them into

the school compound. Soon the chicks were escorted

away by both male and female. Examining the nest

we found that all the eggs had hatched, but two

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

chicks were found dead just below the nest. We failed

to ascertain the cause of death.

Probably circumstances, especially predators

like cats and dogs, forced this hen to build her nest

above the ground and develop new means (thorns

and leaves) to camouflage it as she did.

RAZATEHSIN

July 18, 1991 ABDUL AMIR MOEZI

41, Panchivati, Udaipur 313 001

8. BREEDING OF LARGE INDIAN OR ORIENTAL PRATINCOLE GLAREOLA

PRATINCOLA MALDIVARUM J.R. FORSTER IN KERALA

The first sight record of the Oriental pratincole

Glareola prat incola ssp. in Kerala was at Kattampal-

ly (c. 11°55' N, 75°20' E) in 1984 (JBNHS 87: 296).

Since then, these birds ranging in numbers from eight

to 25 were found at Kattampally in April and May

(1985 to 1991). These birds belong to the Oriental

race G.p. maldivarum — the white trailing edge of

wings being absent, tail fork rather shallow and

closed wings extending well beyond the tail. All the

birds seen were adults in breeding plumage —

creamy throat outlined in distinct black ‘gorget’. Pair

formation was also observed especially when the

birds alighted on the ground.

On 15 May 1991, 1 and Jafer Palot found a nest

containing two eggs being incubated; on 24 May a

second nest, also with two eggs, was seen about 5 m

away from the first. Both nests were on a small islet

covered with reeds and grass c. 4 ha. in area. The nest

was a shallow depression, about 8 cm in diameter.

The second nest was located inside a circle of stub-

ble. Eggs were broad, oval in shape, pale greyish

yellow, blotched black, brown and grey; size c. 30 x

24 mm.

Several times another bird, probably the mate of

the incubating bird, was trying to distract our atten-

tion by displaying a few paces away, quivering its

drooped wings, pressing its belly to the ground and

uttering sharp chek click calls. A redwattled lapwing

Vanellus indicus was amicably incubating its eggs

about 7 m away from the second nest. The pratin-

coles chased away cattle egrets Bubulcus ibis , brah-

miny kites Haliastur indus , etc. from the nest site,

whereas they seemed to tolerate the presence of

smaller birds like pipits, larks, warblers, etc.

This is the first record of G.p. maldivarum

breeding in Kerala.

November 5, 1991 C. SASDCUMAR

9, Subhash Nagar, Kannur, Kerala 670 002

9. TIME BUDGETING BY THE SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT

CENTROPUS SINENSIS PARROTI STRESEMANN (AVES : CUCULIDAE)

AT PT. CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU

(With a text-figure)

This report covers behavioural activities such as

foraging, body maintenance, flying, heavy cover

retreat, calling and resting and the time spent on these

activities during different hours of the day over a

period of one year.

Methods

At the Kodikkarai village situated on the out-

skirts of the Pt. Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, two

pairs of crow-pheasants were followed to record their

various behavioural activities. A pair of 8x30

binoculars was used. Data were collected from 0600-

1800 hrs and continuous observations were recorded

in a data sheet following the focal-animal sampling

technique (Altmann 1974). For each month, be-

havioural activities were recorded for 12 hours

during day time. Data were collected from September

1987 to August 1988, covering a total of 144 hours of

observations. Since following and watching the bird

throughout the daygs very difficult, the data were

collected in separate sessions of three to four hours

each. These periods of data collection were added to

give one full 0600-1800 hrs observation period. The

monthwise time spent in different activities was cal-

culated and from these values, the percentage time

spent for each activity during different times of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

93

day was estimated. From all observations, the total

percentage time spent for each activity was calcu-

lated. The behavioural activities recorded were as fol-

lows:

Food searching, feeding, walking, running,

watching, chasing, preening, bill cleaning, head

scratching, yawning, ruffling, oiling, wing stretching,

leg stretching, body shaking, tail shaking, heavy

cover retreat, resting, gliding, flying, walking and

hopping, calling and incubating. For data analysis the

above behaviour were grouped into seven categories,

namely foraging, body maintenance, flying, heavy

cover retreat, calling, resting and incubating.

Results and Discussion

The time spent in various activities by the crow-

pheasant during different months during 1987-1988

and percentage of time spent during different hours

are given in Fig. 1 and Table 1.

Foraging: Foraging activity includes food

search and feeding. Of the total observations the

Activity (%)

crow-pheasant spent 29.9% of its time in foraging.

An increase in foraging activity was noticed in the

morning (0600-0900 hrs) and late evening (1600-

1800 hrs). The peak foraging activity period was

during 0800-0900 hrs (46.2%) and 1700-1800 hrs

(41.4%). Early morning and late afternoon peaks in

feeding activity (bimodal pattern) are common in

many species of birds (Owen 1972, Dwivedi 1976,

Frederick and Klaas 1982, Gauthier et al. 1988,

Paulus 1988, Rajan 1990). The maximum time spent

in foraging was recorded in July (401 min.) and the

lowest was in December and January, when the birds

were incubating.

All figures indicate time spent in minutes per

12 hour observation period.

Body maintenance activities: Maintenance ac-

tivities “are concerned with locomotion and general

health and efficiency of the body” (Marler 1956). The

following behaviour were included for analysis in

body maintenance activity: preening (wing, shoulder

and breast feathers), bill cleaning, bill scratching,

100 -

• //'/////

WWW'S

///////,

m

mm

8 9 10 11 12

1-12 hr (0600-1800hr>

Hour

Fig. 1. Percent time spent in activities by the crow-pheasant during different hours.

| Foraging (j^CallingtSSSlBody maintenance! jResting[%^ Flying ggft Incubation g^Heavy cover retreat

7

94

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 1

TIME SPENT IN VARIOUS ACTIVITIES BY THE CROW-PHEASANT DURING DIFFERENT MONTHS IN 1987-1988

head scratching, yawning, ruffling, oiling, wing stretch-

ing, leg stretching, body shaking and tail shaking.

The bird spent 5.5% of its time in body main-

tenance, with a peak during 1300-1400 hrs (11.3%).

This activity was highest in July and August (106

min.) and lowest in April and May (5, 8 min.).

Flying: The activities included in this category

are flying, gliding from a perch and hopping on

vegetation. It spent 9.1% of its time in these ac-

tivities. Flying was common during morning from

0700-0800 hrs (15.4%), afternoon from 1200-1300

hrs (15.2%) and in the evening from 1600-1700 hrs

(18.6%). The maximum time spent in flight was

during June (144 min.) and the minimum was in

April and May (2, 3 min.).

Heavy cover retreat: The bird spent consider-

able time in retreating into heavy cover, from where

it was not visible. It spent totally 34.4% of its time

under heavy cover. This is slightly higher than forag-

ing time recorded, but the reverse may well be true if

foraging under thick cover could be observed. The

peak in this activity was recorded between 1100-

1200 hrs (42.7%). The time spent in this activity was

high during the hot months of April and May (646

and 595 min.). The mean maximum temperature

recorded during these two months was 33 .8° C, and

34.5°C respectively.

Calling: The bird spent about 4.9% of its time

in calling. Calling was common during early morning

and evening. The peak was noticed between 1000

and 1100 hrs (10.6%) during the study. The time

spent in this activity was maximum during October

(116 min.) before the initiation of the breeding

season.

Resting: About 7.5% of its time was spent in

resting. This activity was the lowest in the morning

(0600-0900 hrs), increased after 0900 hrs and was

highest at midday (1300-1400 hrs) (17.5%). The

maximum time spent in resting was noticed in

December (189 min.).

Incubation: The study pairs spent about 8.7%

of their time for incubation. Details of incubation

rhythm are given elsewhere. During late December

and early January, the pairs spent about 274 min. and

474 min. respectively for incubation.

Acknowledgements

This paper is based on my Ph.D. thesis (Univer-

sity of Bombay, 1990). I express my sincere gratitude

to my research guide, Mr J.C. Daniel, former Curator,

BNHS, for his constant guidance and encouragement.

I wish to thank Dr Robert B. Grubh, Mr S.A. Hus-

sain, Dr Asad R. Rahmani, Dr V.S. Vijayan and Mr

N. Chaturvedi of BNHS for their help during the

study. I gratefully acknowledge the suggestions given

by Dr A. J. T. Johnsingh, Deputy Director, Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehra Dun. My thanks are due to

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for providing

funds for the project through the Ministry of Environ-

ment and Forests, Govt, of India, and the officials of

the Tamil Nadu Forest Department of Pt. Calimere

Wildlife Sanctuary for their co-operation and help. I

thank S. Karthikeyan and C. Balasubramanian for

their assistance in the field.

November 21, 1991 V. NATARAJAN

Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

References

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:

Sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

Dwivedi, S.C. (1976): Studies on the biological, ecological,

behavioural and toxicological aspects of Streptopelia

decaocto decaocto (Frivaldszky), the bird of agricul-

tural importance in Jaisinghpurakhor Village, Rajas-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

95

than. Ph.D. thesis, Rajasthan University, Jaipur.

Frederick, R.B. & Klaas, E.E. (1982): Resource use and

behaviour of migrating Snow Geese. J. Wildl.

Manage . 46: 601-614.

Gauthier, G., Bedard, Y. & Bedard, J. (1988): Habitat use

and activity budgets of Greater Snow Geese in

Spring. J. Wildl. Manage. 52: 191-201.

Marler, R (1956): Behaviour of the Chaffinch Fringilla

coelebs. Behaviour (Suppl.) 5: 1-184. (Not referred to

the original)

Owen, M. (1972): Some factors affecting food intake and

selection in White-fronted Geese. J. Anim. Ecol. 41:

79- 92.

Paulus, S.L. (1988): Time activity budgets of mottled ducks

in Louisiana in winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 52 (4): 711-

718.

Rajan, S.A. (1990): The Ecology of the Indian Ring Dove

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivaldszky) and the

Indian Spotted Dove, Streptopelia chinensis suralen-

sis (Gmelin) at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu. M.Sc. thesis, University of Bombay,

Bombay.

10. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE KASHMIR ROLLER (BLUE JAY)

CORACJAS GARRULUS TO GORAKHPUR, UTTAR PRADESH

A bird-aircraft-strike-incident report from

Gorakhpur aerodrome (26° 45' N, 83°24' E) in Uttar

Pradesh said that a bird had hit an aircraft at take-off

run or climb in or around the aerodrome area on 23

August 1991 between 0845 and 0925 hrs. After

detailed examination of the bird strike remnants

(feathers) sent to the BNHS, the bird was identified

as a Kashmir roller (blue jay) Coracias garrulus

semenowi Loudon & Tschudi.

The eastern range of this migrant species is

recorded up to Lucknow (26°55' N, 80°59' E) in

Uttar Pradesh (Ripley 1982) and Lakhnad (79°30' E)

in Seoni district of Madhya Pradesh (Ali and Ripley

1983). The bird was probably on its autumn migra-

tion which occurs during mid August to early Oc-

tober. The possibilities are either that Gorakhpur lies

on the regular migration route of this species or the

bird in question is a straggler to the area. A Kashmir

roller was also reported to have hit an aircraft in Oc-

tober 1987 over the sea west of Goa during its migra-

tion flight at an altitude of c. 2424 m during night

time (Satheesan 1990).

This data was collected as a part of the work in

Bird Hazard Research Cell of the Bombay Natural

History Society, sponsored and funded by

Aeronautics Research and Development Board of

Defence ministry, Government of India.

October 29, 1991 S.M. SATHEESAN

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

References

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the birds of India and

Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Au, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, Delhi.

Satheesan, S.M. (1990): Bird-Aircraft Collision at an al-

titude of 2424 m over the sea. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 87(1): 145-146.

11. AN INSTANCE OF MATING IN LITTLE SCALYBELLIED GREEN

WOODPECKER PICUS MYRMECOPHONEUS STRESEMANN FROM BANGALORE

The Kardikal State Forest (c. 792 m above msl;

12°42'N, 77°36'E), is a dry-deciduous forest mixed

with bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus about 35 km

south of Bangalore. On the morning of 24 March

1991, while watching birds at Kardikal, our attention

was drawn to a long-drawn single syllable call quite

similar to that of the rufous woodpecker Micropter -

nus brachyurus (Vieillot). As we walked in the direc-

tion of the call, we sighted a male scalybellied green

woodpecker Picus mynnecophoneus Stresemann per-

ched on the branch of a 3 m metre tall Albizia a mar a

about 10 m from us.

96

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

The bird continued to call for the next five

minutes and was joined by a female which perched

next to the male. In the next three minutes the female

once uttered a call similar to that of the male.

Later the female flew over and alighted on a

neighbouring horizontal branch (10 cm in diameter)

closely followed by the male. On alighting the female

squatted across and crouched low over the branch.

The male which had alighted next to the female,

sidled up and mounted the female. The male copu-

lated vigorously, gripping the wing bases of the

female with its feet and thrashing its wings to main-

tain balance. The wings of the female drooped low,

while the tail of the male was under its belly. The

process lasted for about 10 seconds and we presume

it resulted in effective coitus. Both birds remained

silent during the act.

After the copulation the male flew back to the

branch where it was seen earlier and started preening.

The pair remained within the canopy of A. amara for

the next 20 minutes, before flying into the dense

canopy of a 10 m tall Terminalia bellerica about

40 m away. The mating took place between 1030 and

1110 hrs and within the canopy.

The species has not been seen before in Ban-

galore.

J. N. PRASAD1

August 4, 1991 A. MADHUSUDAN2

113/ 8th Cross, 30th Main, J.P. Nagar 1 Phase, Bangalore 78

2253, I Floor, 36th Cross, 7th Block Jayanagar, Bangalore 82

12. ACTIVITY-TIME BUDGET OF INDIAN MYNA ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

(LINNAEUS) DURING THE BREEDING SEASON

(With two text-figures)

The Indian myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)

is a familiar urban species and a hole-nester. Prin-

cipally, its breeding season is between April and July.

At night, in all seasons they roost communally in

large groups.

The activity-time budgets in mynas was studied

from 0600 to 1900 hrs from 3 April to 30 June 1978.

This study was carried out in Pune, Maharashtra

(18°30'N, 73°53' E) particularly in two residential

colonies and the campus of the University of Poona.

Solitary and paired mynas were selected randomly

and followed till they went out of sight. Their ac-

tivities were recorded on a tape recorder. Each ac-

tivity was then measured in seconds and allotted to

the following relevant major categories for each hour

on a particular day of observation.

The activities were divided into eight major and

several sub-categories as: (1) Nesting (billing,

mating, bringing nesting material, and sitting at the

nest) — presumably for guarding or incubation of

eggs and maintenance of nest. (2) Scanning (scanning

the environs in general, mouth opening and resting).

(3) Locomotion (jumping, hopping, walking and

flying). (4) Feeding (food searching, picking of food,

drinking and droppings). (5) Calls (flight intention

calls, bowing calls, communication calls, alarm calls,

aggressive vocalizations and diurnal communal

calls). (6) Preening (cleaning or removing of foreign

particles from head, neck, body, wings, tail; retaining

feathers in condition while sitting). (7) Shaking

(shaking of head, body, wings, tail, rubbing of beak

after feeding, drinking or preening activity; stretching

of legs, and wing flapping while in sitting position).

(8) Interactions (jostling during food search or in play,

TYPE OF ACTIVITY

Fig. 1. Comparison of time spent in various activities by

mynas during the breeding season.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

97

Fig. 2. Activity-time budgets of mynas during different

hours of the day.

chasing and interactions with other species of birds).

Data collected for about 74 hours was analysed.

The percentage of total time utilised for each major

activity was then calculated (Fig. 1). The activity-

time budgets for the different hours of the day are

shown in Fig. 2. The figures indicate that:

Nesting activity was the predominant activity

(42%) during daytime. It decreased slightly in the

afternoon between 1300 and 1400 hrs and further

declined after 1700 hrs.

Throughout the day mynas were busy in scan-

ning the environs. This was the second most impor-

tant activity (28%), probably because it relates to

anti -predatory behaviour. This activity increased in

the morning and in the afternoon between 1300 and

1400 hrs and again after 1800 hrs.

The time spent in locomotion (12%) and in

feeding (4%) activities were more or less directly

proportional to each other, as locomotion is mainly

related with food finding activity. The feeding ac-

tivity was more in the morning between 0600 and

0800 hrs and in the evening (1700 hrs) well before

roosting.

Mynas made various calls throughout the day

and spent about 7% of the total time calling. This

activity was relatively higher in the morning around

0900 hrs, then in the afternoon between 1300 and

1400 hrs and late in the evening after 1800 hrs. This

activity thus seems to be closely related to scanning.

The remaining activities such as preening (3%),

shaking (2.5%), and mutual interactions (1.5%) took

considerably less time as compared to the other major

activities. Preening activity slightly increased (along

with scanning) in the afternoon and late in the eve-

ning.

The exact time spent in resting activity during

daytime was rather difficult to assess, but at night

mynas sleep at the communal roost. Time spent in

such communal roosts varies monthly and depends

upon the time of sunset and sunrise. The total time

spent in sleep during the study period was estimated

as about 695 min. in April, 655 min. in May and 640

min. in June 1978.

The nesting activity was the highest as an-

ticipated since the study period coincided with the

peak breeding season. Further, it would be interesting

to study the time-budgets of laying, incubation, brood

development separately by males and females; and

also the various activities performed during the non-

breeding season.

December 7, 1991 ANIL MAHABAL

Zoological Survey of India, High Altitude Zoology Field

Station, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173 212

13. BREEDING RECORD OF FERRUGINOUS FLYCATCHER

MUSCICAPA FERRUGINEA (HODGSON)

The ferruginous flycatcher Muscicapa fer- to 24 June 1991. The sightings were made at altitudes

ruginea was often seen during my visit to Talley val- varying from c. 1525 m to c. 2135 m in darker areas

ley in Lower Subansiri district, Assam, from 19 June in temperate broad leaved forests. At one place two

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

young ones were seen perched on a twig adjacent to breeds in Talley Valley area,

each other. These birds were being fed by two other

birds (parents) who made frequent sallies for insects. November 12, 1991. PRATAP SINGH

The above fact proves that the ferruginous flycatcher do Chief Wildlife Warden, ltanagar, Arunachal Pradesh

14. DARK GREY BUSH CHAT SAXICOLA FERREA GRAY IN RAJASTHAN

AND MADHYA PRADESH

On 24 December 1985, 1 recorded a lone female

dark grey bush chat Saxicola ferrea at the Great In-

dian Bustard Sanctuary at Karera (Shivpuri district,

25° 30' N, 78°5' E), Madhya Pradesh. The bird was

readily identified owing to my familiarity with the

species at Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur

(27° 13' N, 77°32' E), Rajasthan, where I had ob-

served a parochial female almost every day in the

latter half of January 1984. On both the occasions,

the habitat was the edge of a grove of trees and the

bird was seen perched exposed on tips of shrubs of

the undergrowth. Both sightings were corroborated

by a number of BNHS researchers who were sta-

tioned in the respective areas at the time.

The bird could be easily mistaken for a small

shrike in appearance and demeanour. They frequently

swooped down to the ground from their bush-top

perch to capture prey and returned to the thickets.

They were tame and allowed close approach. The

white throat and the dark brown mask were the most

conspicuous features.

Both the records are possibly new ones for the

respective sanctuaries. Ali and Ripley (1987) say that

the bird winters “down to the foothills into the Gan-

getic plain south to the Yamuna river ....” Abdulali

and Panday (1978) question the occurrence of the

bird in the Delhi area, and omit it from the Bharatpur

list. The species, however, is not new to Madhya

Pradesh state. Newton et al. (1986) report seven sight

records of the species for the winters of 1981 and

1982 at Kanha National Park (22 °17' N, 80 °38' E).

I thank the late Dr Salim Ali for his comments

on the observations and prompting me to write this

note.

December 17, 1991 R. KANNAN

33, Saravana Street, Madras 600 017

References

Abdulali, II. & Panday, J.D. (1978): Checklist of the birds

of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Published by the senior

author.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1987): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, Bombay.

Newton, P.N., Breeden, S. & Norman, G.J. (1986): The

birds of the Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh,

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 477-498.

15. UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS

(LINN.) IN HYDERABAD

On 8 March 1991, while birdwatching in

Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad, we located a nest of the

common pariah kite Milvus migrans govinda . The

nest was constructed on an electricity pylon c. 10 m

above ground and one of the kites was seen sitting on

the nest. Owing to the inaccessibility of the nest, we

could not see if it was occupied by young, but the

pair of adult kites were making frequent trips to the

nest and were sitting on nearby pylons keeping a

watchful eye on us and the nest.

Under the structure of the kites’ eyrie, we saw

the nest of a house sparrow Passer domesticus . The

sparrow’s nest was cleverly woven into the underside

of the kite’s nest. The sparrows evidently had young

in their nest because we observed the adults bringing

insects to the nest and also heard the cheeping of the

chicks from inside the nest*

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(Ali, S. and Ripley, SD. 1987) makes no reference to a

nesting site of this nature for any species of sparrow.

PRANAY WAGHRAY1

October 22, 1991 HUMAYUN TAHER2

2 130 Road 10, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad 500034

2 6-3-249/3 , Road No. 1, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

99

16. RECORDS OF PREDATION ON BIRDS TRAPPED IN MISTNETS

On 22 January 1990 at about 1715 hrs, during

mist netting we came across a whitebreasted

kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis , feeding on a female

Indian robin Saxicoloides fulicata , which was trapped

in one of our mistnets. The mistnets were spread out

in Salvadora pcrsica and Prosopis chilensis scrub

around Fulay village, district Kutch, Gujarat. This

particular net was located close to the village pond,

where the kingfisher had a regular perch. The

kingfisher was on the ground, repeatedly jumping

and pecking at the robin, which was trapped in the

lowest shelf of the mistnet.

By the time we reached the net, the kingfisher

had mauled the robin badly by repeated pecks on its

skull and neck, and the robin had succumbed to the

injuries. We left the dead bird in the net to see

whether the kingfisher would return to its prey. As

soon as we took cover behind a bush, the kingfisher

returned and started pecking at the dead robin. It

helped itself to small pieces of the flesh and finally

managed to detach the head and neck, and flew off

with a small portion. Perhaps our presence disturbed

it, and it did not return to the net again.

This is the first instance of a whitebreasted

kingfisher eating an Indian robin. Similar instances

during mistnetting are frequently recorded by

mistnetters. We have seen coucal Centropus sinensis

killing trapped birds on two separate occasions.

During the present mistnetting session, a house crow

Corvus splendens and a shikra Accipiter badius , were

trapped as they followed a whitecheeked bulbul Pyc-

nonotus leucogenys and a rosy pastor Sturnus roseus

respectively, which were entangled in our mistnet.

On another occasion, we observed a small In-

dian mongoose Herpestes edwardsi killing a female

Indian robin which was trapped in the lowest shelf of

the mistnet. The mongoose was probably following

our activities and as soon as a bird was trapped it

rushed to the net and killed it. On our approach it

scampered into the nearby Prosopis chilensis bushes,

leaving the badly mangled robin in the net.

In all instances, only those birds which get

trapped in the lowest shelf of the mistnets, fall victim

to predators such as mongooses and coucals. How-

ever, shikras, crows and other predatory birds like

shrikes, follow trapped and fluttering birds in the

mistnets. In one instance in Pt. Calimere (Thanjavur

district, Tamil Nadu) one of us (SAA) saw a cobra

Naja naja , which had positioned itself near a bird

trapped in the lowest shelf of a mistnet; it crawled

into the nearby bushes on our approach. Crow-

pheasants have been reported feeding on small birds

caught in low mistnets (handbook of the birds of

INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. 1983).

Rails have also been reported preying similarly on

birds caught in mistnets.

The possibility of trapped birds being preyed

upon by other birds, mammals and probably reptiles

should be considered before a site is selected for

mistnetting. This will help in avoiding casualties

during mistnetting operations. Moreover, there have

been instances when birds which have been removed

from mistnets and kept in net bags in isolated spots,

have been killed by predatory birds/mammals in the

area.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

October 31, 1991 J.K. TIWARI

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

17. MIXED-SPECIES FLOCK COMPOSITIONS IN TWO FOREST TYPES

IN BANGLADESH

Mixed-species flocking in the non-breeding

season has been reported for a wide range of avian

taxa. Commonly hypothesized functions of such ag-

gregations have typically fallen into two categories:

foraging benefits (Morse 1970, 1978; Krebs 1973,

MacDonald and Henderson 1977), and enhanced

anti-predator detection (Buskirk 1976, Powell 1985).

Foraging benefits include disturbances caused by

flock members that serve to flush insects from foliage

(MacDonald and Henderson 1977) and reduction of

niche overlap that leads to weaker competition be-

tween species participating in mixed-species flocks

(Austin and Smith 1972). These functions are not

mutually exclusive, and probably vary not only be-

tween species but also between age and sex classes

within each species.

Mixed-species flocking is especially charac-

teristic of tropical and subtropical forest birds, and

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

considerable field research on the phenomenon has

been done in the neotropics (Powell 1979) and in

south-east Asia (McClure 1967). However, little sys-

tematic observation has been made of mixed-species

flocks in the Indian subcontinent. Partridge and

Ashcroft (1976) studied mixed-species associations

in montane forest in Sri Lanka, Stanford (1947) noted

mixed-species flocking in Burmese forests, and Mac-

Donald and Henderson (1977) studied the

phenomenon in Kashmir. No previous systematic

studies have been made on mixed-species flocking in

the eastern subcontinent.

In this paper I report on the compositions of

mixed-species bird flocks in both moist deciduous

and wet semi -evergreen forest in Bangladesh. The

observations reported here also represent one of the

few field studies made of the occurrence and be-

haviour of forest birds in Bangladesh. Haque (1982)

has compiled a bird list for Madhupur National Park,

and the birds of the area have been surveyed peri-

odically, but several new records for the moist

deciduous belt in northern Bangladesh emerged from

the present study.

Study Site and Methods

Data were collected during field work in two

forest types in Bangladesh. The field work was con-

ducted from September to December 1986 and from

December 1987 to December 1988. A flock was con-

stituted by a distinct foraging group of birds, which

remained intact as the birds travelled through the

forest. Observations of mixed-species flocking in

moist deciduous forest were made in Madhupur Na-

tional Park in north-central Bangladesh, and in wet

semi -evergreen forest in Kalenga and Banugach

Reserve Forests in north-eastern Bangladesh, near the

town of Srimangal. These forest type assignments are

based on Puri (1960). Madhupur National Park is

comprised mainly of deciduous forest, such that

during the period of observation (November through

March), there were few leaves on most tree species,

visibility was excellent, and stationary food resources

(fruit, leaves, seeds, flowers) were scarce. Most of

the species whose behaviour is described below are

predominantly insectivorous.

Observations at Madhupur were made on an ad

libitum basis throughout the course of 15 months of

field research there. Observations of flocking as-

sociations in north-eastern forests were made during

surveys there in October 1986 and October-Novem-

ber 1988. I walked forest transects during surveys,

noting all mammals and birds visible or audible from

the trail, and followed mixed-species flocks detected

from the transect through the forests to determine

their composition and spatial distribution. Flocks

were followed for some distance through the forest,

sometimes but not always until they dispersed.

During these follows, scan data on flock composition

and feeding behaviour were recorded at 10-minute

intervals. All bird species observed in mixed-species

aggregations are listed in Table 1. Additional obser-

vations of mixed-species flocks were made on bird-

ing trips with Dr David Millen of the Bangladesh Tea

Research Institute in Srimangal.

Composition of Mixed-species Flocks

A total of 25 species were recorded in multi-

species assemblages in the moist deciduous forest of

Madhupur National Park (Table 1). In wet semi-

evergreen forest, 27 species were recorded, though

the total number of sightings of mixed-species forag-

ing flocks was lower in wet semi-evergreen forest

(17) than in moist deciduous forest (65). At Mad-

hupur, where field work was being carried out on a

year-round basis, multi-species associations were

noted only between mid-October and early March.

The composition of mixed-species flocks dif-

fered between the two forest types in general relation

to the difference in overall species composition of the

two forest types. The composition of species in such

flocks also varied between flocks and from day to

day in each site (Table 2). Some of the most abundant

fruit-eating species at Madhupur, such as lineated

barbet Megalaima lineata and blackheaded oriole

Oriolus xanthornus , did not associate in mixed

species flocks during the non-breeding season. The

species that occurred in mixed-species assemblages

were, as in other geographic regions, mainly insect-

eating species. Some insect-eating species, however,

did not appear to associate with multi-species flocks;

scarlet minivets ( Pericrocotus ), for instance, did not

join such flocks, although other wintering minivet

species (P. roseus and P. brevirostris) did so.

The assemblages in both forest types included

many species that are known only as winter residents

in Bangladesh, such as the leaf-warblers Phyllos-

copus spp. Of the 25 species recorded in multi-

species flocks at Madhupur, three are woodpeckers

(Picidae); in wet semi -evergreen forest at least six

species of picid (four woodpeckers plus two piculets)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

101

TABLE 1

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF BIRD SPECIES

102

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABLE 2

COMPOSITION OF SPECIES RECORDED IN MIXED SPECIES-FLOCKS IN MOIST DECIDUOUS AND WET

SEMI-EVERGREEN FOREST IN BANGLADESH

Figures show percentage of flocks in which each species was recorded.

NR = Species not recorded in that forest type, * = first record of species in Madhupur National Park.

niche of a large woodpecker such as D inopium shorii a multi-species flock.

is, however, sufficiently different from that of a leaf- That up to six woodpecker species of varying

warbler or small flycatcher that such a food- finding sizes forage together in the wet forest zone of Kalen-

benefit would probably not extend to all members of ga and Banugach may be explainable in terms of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

103

similar food requirements and a mutual benefit to

flock members in searching for food. Why these

woodpeckers associate so regularly with small pas-

serines is not clear. Most woodpecker species are

non -migratory, occupy small home ranges and are

highly territorial (Short 1982). If home ranges of

individuals or pairs of woodpeckers are smaller than

the average home range size of the mixed-species

flock in which they participate, then it would be ex-

pected that there would be a high flock member turn-

over rate as the flock sweeps across the territories of

resident birds. Other South Asian forests contain

diverse assemblages of both piciform and passerine

birds; the form and function of multi-species as-

semblages is a subject requiring much field research.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the Office of the Chief Conser-

vator of Forests and Forest Department of

Bangladesh for permission to conduct research in the

forests of Bangladesh. My observations and iden-

tifications of birds in the north-eastern wet forests

were greatly facilitated by Dr David Millen of the

Bangladesh Tea Research Institute. I am grateful to

Mr A.W. Akonda and Mr M.R. Talukder for their kind

assistance in establishing the field site at Madhupur.

June 17, 1991 CRAIG B. STANFORD

Dept, of Anthropology, University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, M/ 48109, USA.

References

Austin, G.T. & Smith, E.L. (1972): Winter foraging ecology

of mixed insectivorous bird flocks in oak woodland in

southern Arizona. Condor 74: 17-24.

Buskirk, W.H. (1976): Social systems in a tropical avifauna.

Amer. Nat. 110: 293-310.

Haque, M.N. (1982): The Birds of Madhupur National

Park. M.Sc. thesis, Dhaka University, Bangladesh.

Krebs, J.R. (1973): Experiments on the significance of

mixed-species flocks of chickadees (Pams spp.).

Can. J. Zool. 51: 1275-1288.

McClure, H.E. (1967): The composition of mixed species

flocks in lowland and sub-montane forests of Malaya.

Wilson Bull. 79: 131-154.

McDonald, D.W. & Henderson, D.G. (1977): Aspects of

the behaviour and ecology of mixed-species bird

flocks in Kashmir. Ibis 119: 481-493.

Morse, D.H. (1970): Ecological aspects of some mixed-

species foraging flocks of birds. Ecol. Monogr. 40:

119- 168.

Morse, D.H. (1978): Structure and foraging patterns of

flocks of tits and associated species in an English

woodland during the winter. Ibis 120: 298-312.

Partridge, L. & Ashcroft, R. (1976): Mixed-species flocks

of birds in hill forest in Ceylon. Condor 78: 449- 453.

Powell, G.V.N. (1979): Structure and dynamics of interspe-

cific flocks in a mid-elevational neotropical forest

Auk 96:375-390.

Powell, G.V.N. (1985): Sociobiology and adaptive sig-

nificance of interspecific foraging flocks in the

neotropics. In: Neotropical Ornithology, P.A. Buck-

ley, M. Foster, E.S. Morton, R.S. Ridgely and F.G.

Buckleys (eds.). American Ornithological Union,

Washington, D.C.

Puri, G.S. (1960): Indian Forest Ecology, Vols. I and II. Ox-

ford Books, New Delhi.

Short, L. (1982): Woodpeckers of the World. Tycooly Pub.

Co., Delaware, U.S.A.

Stanford, J.K. (1974): Bird parties in forest in Burma. Ibis

89:507-509.

18. AWAKENING TIME OF BIRDS IN RELATION TO SUNRISE

( With four text-figures)

In the winter of 1986 I decided to observe the

awakening time of various species of birds found in

the Civil Lines, Kota (25° 10' N, 75°48' E), where I

lived. Though Kota is a very polluted city, the part of

Kota where I lived was comparatively better

vegetated, being a part of the palace of the former

rulers of Kota. My study area was roughly 800 m

long, which I used to walk at an easy pace thrice

every morning.

The study area had a large variety of trees and

shrubs such as Ficus religiose, Ficus glomerate,

Capparis sp., Syzygium cum ini, Cordia myxa , Acacia

nilotica, Prosopis chilensis Lantana sp. and Law-

sonia inermis. Fruits of many of these species were

eaten by birds and some trees were used for nesting.

There was ample food for insect-eaters. The area also

had a small irrigation canal which frequently inun-

dated some low-lying patches, thus attracting species

104

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

such as kingfishers, wagtails and pipits. There were a

large number of beehives in the area attracting honey

buzzards. Annual average rainfall of Kota is ap-

proximately 650 mm.

Methods

I kept notes on all the birds of my study area,

their movement, first and last sightings of migratory

species, breeding cycle of resident birds and their

roost sites and roosting behaviour. Every day the time

of the first call or first sighting of a particular species

(whichever was earlier) was recorded as the awaken-

ing time for the species on that day. In the majority of

cases, observations were based on calls and not on

actual sightings. The awakening time of most birds is

at least 10 minutes before sunrise. It was often dif-

ficult to identify birds positively by sight in the dim

light, but easier to do so from the call.

It is also assumed that immediately after rising

most birds do call and that almost all individuals of a

species in a particular locality wake up almost simul-

taneously. As the area was rich in vegetation, the

number of birds were high enough and well spread

out, so that I generally heard the first call or saw the

bird whenever I was at that time in the study area.

The awakening time of 23 species of birds was

observed for two years, September 1986 to August

1988, almost every day. Sunrise time was noted from

the local newspaper (Figs. 1 and 2). Data for the

period September 1987 to August 1988 were plotted

at approximately 10 day intervals. However, if at this

interval the day was very cloudy or foggy available

data of the nearest normal day were used.

Results and Discussion

It was observed that all birds wake before sun-

rise. During the breeding season (summer) some

birds rise much earlier in relation to sunrise than at

other times of the year.

There appears to be a more or less definite se-

quence in which different species of birds awake,

particularly during the general breeding period

(April-July). During this period generally the black

drongo is the first to rise, followed by house crow,

koel, magpie-robin, crow-pheasant, bulbul, Indian

robin, ring dove, myna, babbler, Franklin's warbler,

partridge, parakeets, tailor bird, iora, barbet and

purple sunbird. During winter the sequence seems a

little changed, which may partly be ascribed to some

birds calling very rarely and late though they may be

up and active much earlier, e.g. black drongo, iora,

paradise flycatcher etc.

On very cloudy or foggy days birds generally

called late. In case of colonial roosters like house

crows, parakeets etc. I had observed only passage to

foraging grounds and this was delayed on such days.

The largest variation in the awakening time was

seen in the case of black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis

(Fig. 1). Though from mid-September to mid-March

it used to wake 10-15 minutes before sunrise, from

mid-May to mid-July it started awakening 90 to 120

minutes earlier than sunrise. It was noticed to sing

more during courtship and up to egg laying stage,

and sometimes during the incubation period also.

After the eggs hatched, its singing was reduced.

In the case of the koel Eudynamys scolopacea

also, a large variation was seen in the awakening time

(Fig. 2). During November and December, it was

heard approximately 15 minutes before sunrise, from

January to May about 25 minutes and from June to

mid-July as early as 60 minutes before sunrise. This

early awakening also coincided with the breeding

period.

The magpie-robin Copsychus saularis awakes

15 to 20 minutes before sunrise in February-March

and September-October (Fig. 2). From November to

January, it awakes approximately 30 minutes before

sunrise, and during April to June, which is its breed-

ing season, it wakes 50 minutes before sunrise.

The house crow Corvus splendens is a consis-

tent early riser (Figs. 1, 3) and wakes 35 to 45

minutes before sunrise. Although they start calling

and shifting positions in their roosting colonies much

earlier, even when it is dark, I recorded them as

awake only when I saw or heard them leaving their

roosting sites for foraging. Similarly, colonial

roosters such as house sparrows Passer domesticus

and common myna start calling early, in their respec-

tive roosts, but leave the roosting sites only 15 to 20

minutes before sunrise. The roseringed parakeet Psit-

tacula krameri also roosts in colonies where it starts

calling much before it flies. It was found to be very

punctual in relation to sunrise time (Figs. 2, 4)

throughout the year in leaving the roosting sites. The

redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer is also a very con-

sistent riser, awakening 25 to 30 minutes before sun-

rise (Figs. 1, 3). However, during June and July, I

saw it awaken slightly earlier than in other months.

The coppersmith Megalaima haemacephala is a

steady late riser (Figs. 2, 4), getting up only 5-10

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

105

I 1

I I

Fig. 1. Awakening time of birds in relation to sunrise.

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

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Fig. 2. Awakening time of birds in relation to sunrise.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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Fig. 3. Time of first call of different species of birds, in relation to sunrise.

108

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

I

Fig. 4. Time of first call of different species of birds, in relation to sunrise.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

109

minutes before sunrise. Franklin’s warbler Prinia

hodgsonii rises roughly 20-25 minutes earlier than

sunrise. The ring dove Streptopelia decaocto is an

early riser, generally rising 25-30 minutes before sun-

rise, and during summer 40 minutes before sunrise. I

also heard occasional calls of the ring dove at very

odd hours in the night, particularly on moonlit nights.

Between October and February, the crow-

pheasant Centropus sinensis was heard 8-15 minutes

before sunrise but in April and May it called much

earlier — nearly 40 minutes before sunrise. After this

period, it came to the level of 10 minutes by October.

When it rained, or on cold and foggy mornings

in winter, the rising time was somewhat late. The

same thing was noticed during winter on severely

cold and foggy mornings. However, in general the

sequence and rising time of various species could be

predicted to almost ± 2 minutes. Even in the evening,

a definite sequence was observed in the ‘retiring’

times or the tim^ at which the last call of a species

was heard. Among the early roosters are the purple

sunbird Nectarinia asiatica , tailor bird Orthotomus

sutorius and coppersmith. These birds also happen to

be late risers. Among the late roosters are the black

drongo, redvented bulbul and magpie-robin. Interest-

ingly these birds are early risers.

The awakening time in relation to sunrise

(which was taken as zero) is shown in Figs. 3 and 4.

These figures show the general sequence in which

different species of birds started calling, and also

generally indicate the breeding period of a species in

that region. Evidently, birds become more active and

start calling or singing more and earlier during their

courtship and breeding period. For example, at Kota,

the breeding period for black drongo, as seen from

the sharp dip in Fig. 3, is from March to August.

Similarly for the Indian robin it is May to July. Fig. 4

indicates that breeding periods for magpie-robin,

koel, roseringed parakeet, purple sunbird and barbet

are April to July, April to September, January to June,

February to June and January to May respectively.

The dip seen in October-November may be ascribed

to rise in temperature and climatic conditions similar

to those in spring, which may be inducing birds to

call earlier. It will be interesting to examine whether

Figs. 3 and 4 indicate the general pattern for all areas

in the central Indian plains on normal clear days. In

hilly tracts it may vary because different aspects of

hills reach the same level of brightness at different

times.

June 8, 1990 . R.G. SONI

Conservator of Forests, Stage - II, SagarRoad,

Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan

19. CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN ROOFED TERRAPIN

KACHUGA TECTA (GRAY)

(With a plate)

Introduction

The Indian roofed terrapin Kachuga tecta

(Gray, 1831) is one of the poorly known Indian tes-

tudines. This species is widely distributed in India

except in peninsular India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and

Nepal (Moll 1987). This omnivorous terrapin in-

habits ponds, puddles, tanks, nallahs and other water

bodies such as roadside ditches, slow running rivers

and streams.

Exact population figures for Kachuga tecta are

not available but the number has been reduced drasti-

cally due to reasons such as (1) Use of eggs and

adults as food by tribals, (2) Destruction of nesting

grounds by removing sand for commercial use and

use of sand beds for seasonal cultivation, (3) Destruc-

tion of habitat by industrial projects and (4) Water

pollution. Egg predation and climatic changes are

also responsible for population decline.

There is not much literature available on this

species, especially on its breeding biology. Vijaya

(1982) summarised the breeding data as six nests at

river bed during the month of December, clutch size

4-8, egg size 40-45 x 26-29 mm, weight 12-18 g,

incubation period 125-144 days and nest 15-26 cm

deep. Mishra (1984) observed nesting in the month of

October at Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh.

Moll (1987) observed eight eggs in January of 37x21

mm size, 7.5-10.0 g weight from one nest.

This species is protected by legislation under

Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972, amendment

1986 as belonging to Schedule I. The species is listed

in CITES - Appendix I and also mentioned as an

Interminate category in the IUCN Red-Data Book.

8

110

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Our study on its captive breeding was undertaken

from March 1989 to July 1991 to get further informa-

tion about its breeding to support the species estab-

lishment for restocking in zoos.

Material and Methods

Eight terrapins, three males and five females,

were introduced into a breeding enclosure. Males

were identified by smaller size, being more active

and brighter in colour than the females. Males have a

thicker and longer tail than females. The male-female

ratio is 1:2 by body size and 1:9 by weight. The

captive terrapins were fed on aquatic vegetation and

coriander leaves. Air and nest temperatures were

recorded thrice a day at 0900, 1500 and 1800 hrs.

The clutch and egg size, date of laying, incubation

period and measurements of hatchlings were

recorded.

The breeding enclosure was a rectangular tank

of 4 x 4.5 m with a 50 cm high peripheral wall. In the

centre of the enclosure, a sloping pool of 1.5 x 1.5 m

area and 0.5 m depth was prepared. The soil in the

enclosure was mixed with 50% sand to prevent it

from becoming too hard. The entire enclosure was

furnished with stones and plants to resemble natural

habitat and the top was covered with wire mesh for

protection against predators.

Observations

Male terrapins developed a small tubercle at the

end of the thick tail during October, just before the

breeding season, and shed it during March. One male

was observed to have the tubercle throughout the

year. It is believed to help in mating, especially in

probing the cloacal opening of the female. No colour

change in male or female was observed during the

breeding season. The male courted the female by side

to side swimming and also circling the females. Ac-

tual mating was not observed during the study period,

but it is believed that mating takes place at bottom of

the pool.

Nesting behaviour: Nesting behaviour was ob-

served in February and March 1991, when four

females prepared their nests. Their behaviour was

similar, except that one female laid eggs and thereaf-

ter returned to the water without covering the nest.

The female came out of water between 1500 and

1800 hrs and selected a suitable place, 6 to 45 cm

away from the pool. Excavation of the pit was done

with the help of both the hind limbs, used alternately.

Three to four hours were required for excavation of

the complete nest. After excavation of the nest cham-

ber, the First egg was laid in 4 to 30 minutes and the

subsequent eggs were laid at intervals of 30 to 90

seconds. The egg laying process took nearly 8 to 10

minutes of which 3 to 8 minutes were spent in ar-

ranging the eggs with the hind limbs. After arranging

the eggs, the nest was covered by the excavated soil,

again using the hind limbs.

Camouflaging the nest took 4 to 6 hours. Nests

ranged from 14 to 20 cm in depth and 10 to 12 cm in

width with a narrow entrance.

Clutch and egg size: During 1990 only one out

of the five females laid three eggs on the bottom of

the pool. During 1991 four females laid 7, 9, 10 and 5

eggs each (Table 1). The eggs were white in colour,

elongated, capsule-like with both the poles equally

rounded. The average egg measured 4.29 cm in

length and 2.32 cm in width.

Hatching: The eggs started to hatch in nest 1

after 70 days and in nest 2 after 78 days of incuba-

tion. Eggs in nests 3 and 4 did not hatch. The

TABLE 1

CLUTCH, EGG SIZE AND INCUBATION PERIOD OF Kachuga tecta

All measurements in centimetres.

* Average of the 6 + 4 broken eggs.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 Plate j

Vyas & Patel: Kachuga tecta

Above: Newly hatched Kachuga tecta with egg tooth.

Below: Nest chamber and eggs of Kachuga tecta.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

111

temperature recorded for nests 1 and 2 ranged from

25.6° to 28.9° C (Table 2).

Hatching behaviour: The first of seven hatc-

hlings in nest 1 emerged on 1 May 1991 at 0600 hrs

and another six within 28 minutes. Hatching success

was 100%.

From nest 2, four hatchlings came out (success

44.4%). The first hatchlings came out on 21 May

1991 at 0800 hrs and thereafter another three

emerged within six minutes. On examination the

remaining eggs were found to be unfertilised.

Nests 3 and 4 were examined after 100 days.

All the ten eggs from nest 3 were infertile. In nest 4,

three out of five were found to be fertile but the

embryos were dead after initial development.

All the hatchlings were healthy, very active and

bright in colour. In shape they were quite similar to

their parents. The average sizes of the hatchlings

are given in Table 3. All hatchlings were then trans-

ferred from the breeding pool to rearing pan for fur-

ther care.

Results and Discussion

Egg laying in Kachuga tecta was earlier ob-

served in October (Mishra 1984), December (Vijaya

1982) and January (Moll 1987). Our observations on

nesting and egg laying were made between afternoon

and evening during the months of February and

March. Our observations thus extend the breeding

season up to March from January recorded by Moll

(1987).

The smallest clutch size observed was of three

eggs, and the largest of 10 eggs. Vijaya (1982) ob-

served clutch sizes of 4-8, while Rashid (Sept. 1991,

pers. comm.) reported the largest clutch of 14 from

Bangladesh.

The incubation period recorded in the present

study ranged between 70 and 78 days. Vijaya (1982)

reported 125-144 days. The shorter incubation period

in the present study may be due to the change in

micro-climatic condition and habitat structure. The

record of temperature shows only 3° to 4°C variation

throughout the incubation period in the nest, though

there was considerable variation in air temperature. It

is believed that this temperature condition in the nest

may have enhanced the rate of development. The

failure in nests 3 and 4 may be due to sterile eggs;

alternatively the handling of eggs might have killed

the embryos. The most plausible reason suggested for

the 100% failure in nest 3 is that the male must not

TABLE 2

TEMPERATURE RECORDS OF AIR (TEMP. NEAR NEST) AND NEST (MIDDLE OF NEST CHAMBER NEAR EGGS)

OF Kachuga tecta (IN °C)

* Average of 7, ** Average of 4 hatchlings.

112

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

have fertilised the female after courtship. Further ob-

servations are required for confirmation.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Shri V.A. Jadeja, Curator of

Mishra, S.B. (1984): Mishra writes from the Chambal

Sanctuary. Hamadryad 10 (3): 18.

Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of

India, the genus Kachuga Part-II. J. Bombay. naL

the Sayaji Baug Zoo, Baroda, for encouragement and

facilities provided.

RAJU VYAS

August 26, 1992 B.H. PATEL

Sayaji Bang Zoo, Vadodara, Gujarat 390 018

NCES

Hist Soc. 84 (1): 7-25.

V uaya, J. (1982): Kachuga tecta hatching at the Snake Park.

Hamadryad 7(3): 14-15.

20. STARRED TORTOISE GEOCHELONE ELEGANS (SCHOEPFF) IN CHINNAR

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA

Among the land tortoises, the starred tortoise

Geochclone elegans (Schoepff) is reported to be

common in semi-arid and desert tracts of south India

(book of Indian reptiles, Daniel, J.C. 1983). It is

further stated that precise information about the

status of this tortoise in this range is lacking. Similar-

ly, Das (colour guide to the turtles and tortoises

of the Indian subcontinent, 1991) mentioned its dis-

tribution in Kerala as “south east Kerala”. Apart from

this, there is no information available on the

geographical distribution of this species in the state.

In a survey conducted in July 1988, this tortoise

was recorded from Churilippatty area of Chinnar

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala (10° 15' to 10°22' N,

77°05' to 77° 17' E). This is the first record of this

species from this locality and one of the few specific

records for Kerala. A single animal was sighted

during the survey at an altitude of 500 m.

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary is different from

other wildlife sanctuaries of Kerala in its vegetation.

This is the only protected area in Kerala with semi-

arid and dry deciduous scrub forests, the preferred

habitat of the starred tortoise.

June 8, 1992 E.A. JAYSON

Div. of Wildlife Biology Keiala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 6 SO 653, Kerala

21. OCCURRENCE OF TWIN-SPOTTED WOLF SNAKE LYCODON JARA (SHAW)

(DIPSADIDAE : LYCODONTINAE) IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK AND DOON

VALLEY, UTTAR PRADESH

The twin-spotted wolf snake Ly codon jar a was

described by Shaw (1802) as Coluber jar a from Gan-

jam (Orissa). Subsequent to this discovery, the snake

was recorded from the neighbourhood of Darjeeling

(Wall 1909a), Upper Assam (Wall 1909b), Bengal,

Eastern Himalaya, Assam, Burma - Manipur, Pegu

(Wall 1923). Gunther (1864) reported it from

‘Annamallay’ mountains. Wall (1923) in a footnote

states “Specimens in the British Museum of Colonel

Beddome’s collections are labelled ‘Malabar’ and

‘Anamallays’. These localities are to be discredited

for reasons cited in the note below Natrix parallelus.

Pegu on the authority of Stoliczka calls confirma-

tion”.

Smith (1943) gave the distributional range as

Ganjam in the northern part of the Madras Presiden-

cy; the Eastern Himalayas as far west as longitude

85° E; Bengal; Assam. Waltner (1975) mentioned its

distribution in E. Himalayas (Sikkim and Darjeeling)

as far west as longitude 85°; Bengal, Khasi Hills,

Assam and Ganjam in the northern part of Madras

state and the altitudinal record from plains to 6,000

feet (1829 m). After a gap of 34 years Talukdar and

Dasgupta (1977) recorded a lone specimen of

Lycodon jara from Katernia Ghat, district Bahraich

(Uttar Pradesh) collected by Romulus Whitaker,

being the first record from Uttar Pradesh and its terai

region. Murthy (1984) broadly mentioned the

distribution as Uttar Pradesh; Ganjam, Orissa; East-

ern Himalayas, Assam.

While studying the snake collections present in

MIS CEIJ.ANEO US NOTES

113

the Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Dehra Dun, we came across two brilliantly

coloured specimens of Lycodon jara collected from

two different localities, Rajaji National Park and

Doon Valley. The present communication records of

occurrence of the dipsadid snake, Lycodon jara

(Shaw), commonly known as the twin-spotted wolf

snake, in the Siwalik Hills of the Rajaji National Park

and Doon Valley, District Dehradun, Uttar Pradesh.

Some salient observations on its colouration in life

and ecology are also discussed. Interestingly the

present finding adds a new distributional record, the

foot hills of the western Himalaya.

Material examined: One example, female, 370

mm total length (tail length 80 mm). Loc. Asarori

Forest nr. Police checkpost, Rajaji National Park,

District Dehra Dun (U.P.); 20 August 1985; Collector

P. Roy.

Lepidosis: Dorsals 17:17:15, ventrals 178, anals

1 (divided), subcaudals 71 (paired), supralabials 8,

temporals 2 + 3.

One example, male, 190 mm total length (tail

length 38 mm). Loc. Northern Regional Station, ZSI

compound, 218 Kaulagarh road, Dehra Dun (U.P); 11

November 1990; Collector P. Roy.

Lepidosis: Dorsals 17:17:15, ventrals 176, anals

1 (partially divided), subcaudals 66 (paired),

supralabials 8, temporals 2 + 3.

Colouration: Well-marked and distinguished

readily from other species. Olive-green above with

golden yellow twin spots on each scale with an

iridescent shine. On preservation, the general colour

becomes brownish or purplish-black and the spots

whitish. The edge of upper jaw and lower surface of

body are uniformly white. The specimens are devoid

of the yellow/white collar. The eyes are black. The

twin spots are club-shaped, pointing inward and

backward, making an angle with each other. The

overall arrangement of these spots on the dorsal sur-

face of the body gives the impression of rosette pat-

tern.

Habitat: The specimen from Rajaji National

Park was collected from under a stone on the bed of a

seasonal river. The river bed was covered with

stones, gravel and leaf litter. The humus-rich leaf lit-

ter was rich in earthworms, insects and their larvae,

micro-arthropods and the juveniles of a burrowing

frog Tomopterna breviceps. The specimen from

Doon Valley was collected from under a pile of

stones adjoining a manure heap used for gardening.

Behaviour: It is nocturnal in habit but very ac-

tive in its movements. When disturbed, it tries to es-

cape by pushing its depressed head into the gravel or

debris around boulders or stones. When disturbed

repeatedly it tries to strike and sometimes makes its

body stiff as if dead.

We are grateful to the Director, ZSI, Calcutta,

and the Officer-in-Charge, Northern Regional Sta-

tion, ZSI, Dehra Dun for encouragement and

facilities.

AKHLAQ HUSSAIN

June 6, 1992 PRANJALENDU ROY

Zoological Survey of India, Northern Regional Station,

218, Kaulagaih road, Dehra Dun 248 195

References

Gunther, A.C.L.G. (1864): The Reptiles of British India.

London (reprint by Oxford IBII Publishing Co., New

Delhi).

Murthy, T.S.N. (1985): Classification and distribution of

the reptiles of India. Snakes 17: 48-71.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India, Ceylon and

Burma including the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-

region. Reptiles and Amphibia, Vol. III. Serpentes.

Taylor and Francis, London.

Talukdar, S.K. & Dasgupta, G. (1977): Natural distribu-

tion of the Wolf snake Lycodon jara (Shaw) (Ser-

pentes : Colubridae) in Northern India. Newsl. Zool.

Surv. India 3 (5): 276-277.

Wall, F. (1909a): Notes on snakes from the neighbourhood

of Darjeeling. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19(2): 344-

357.

Wall, F. (1909b): Notes on snakes collected in Upper

Assam./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19(3): 608-623.

Wall, F. (1923): A hand-list of the snakes of the Indian Em-

pire, Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29(3): 598-

632.

Waltner, R.C. (1975): Geographical and altitudinal distri-

bution of amphibians and reptiles in the Himalayas.

Part - III. Cheetal 16(3): 14-19.

114

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

22. AMPHIESMA MONTICOLA (JERDON) AT BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

KARNATAKA

Muthodi (13°2T N, 75°38' E; 760 m above

msl), is about 32 km from Chickmagalur and part of

the Muthodi range of the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary

in the Western Ghats of Karnataka.

On 7 October 1991 a snake was caught from

amongst short grass on the lawn in front of the Forest

Range Office as it was moving towards an adjoining

patch of overgrown lawn. The habitat is tropical

moist deciduous forest and the nearest shola is less

than two kilometres away.

The snake had 19 rows of scales at midbody,

the outermost row not being keeled. Ventrals num-

bered 138 and caudals 91. Supralabials 8, white in

colour, with 3,4 and 5 touching the eye. A spot above

each eye on the black head and a white line on the

top of the head extending behind the eye (to the pos-

toculars). The yellow neck contrasted with the black

head. The body was green with black transverse

bands broken into three spots by two longitudinal

lines. The specimen measured 309 mm total length

while the tail measured 89 mm. Comparing the above

characters with Smith’s description (fauna of BRITISH

INDIA, 1943) the snake was as identified Amphiesma

(Natrix) monticola (Jerdon). The snake was released

after being photographed.

As the species is considered to be comparative-

ly rare (Smith 1943) the present sighting is of impor-

tance, though it has been recorded well within its

known distribution limits. Wall (JBNHS 26: 552-584,

1919), writing on snakes of Nilgiri hills and Wynaad,

considers this species uncommon though he obtained

13 specimens in four months.

March 12, 1992 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple,

8th Block, Jayanagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082

23. OCCURRENCE OF CANTOR’S BLACKHEADED SNAKE SIBYNOPHIS

SAGITTARIUS IN SRIHARIKOTA, ANDHRA PRADESH

On 13 August 1991, while carrying out ecologi-

cal studies at Sriharikota island (13.45° N, 80.20° E)

in south coastal Andhra Pradesh, one of us (PR)

received a dead snake from one of our local assist-

ants. The snake had apparently been killed by some

of the villagers in the Keepakam area of Sriharikota

island.

The specimen measured 230 mm from head to

tip of tail (body 150 mm, tail 80 mm) and seemed to

be a juvenile. It was immediately preserved in 4%

formalin and subsequently taken to BNHS and iden-

tified as Cantor’s blackheaded snake Sibynopliis

Sagittarius. The morphological characters are as fol-

lows: body cylindrical; tail pointed; scales smooth, in

17 rows; ventrals 167, rounded; subcaudal 77, paired;

loreal small; eight supralabials, 3rd, 4th, and 5th

touching the eye; single temporal; parietal touches

both postoculars. The colour of the snake matched

well with the description by Smith (1943).

The present distributional range of S. Sagit-

tarius extends from north-east India Jlo parts of

central and western India. Recently, the related

species, Dumeril’s blackheaded snake Sibynopliis

subpunctatus , was reported for the first time from Pt.

Calimere Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu by Natarajan and

Alagar Rajan (1991) and also from Srivilliputtur

Reserve Forest, Tamil Nadu by Malhotra and Davis

(1991). From the collection records of BNHS it is

known that S. Sagittarius has been collected from

Orissa and Tamil Nadu. However, there is no infor-

mation available on its occurrence in Andhra

Pradesh; this is the first record.

PRAKASH RAO

October 7, 1992 A.G. SEKAR

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

References

Malhotra, A. & Davis, K. (1991): A report on a her-

petological survey of the Srivilliputtur reserve forest,

Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 88: 157-166.

Natarajan, V. & Alagar Rajan, S. (1991): Range extension

of Dumeril’s blackheaded snake Sibynopliis sub-

punctatus (Dum. & Bibr.) J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc.

88: 123.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India. Vol. III.

Reptilia and Amphibia. Taylor and Francis, London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

24. APLOCHEILUS PANCHAX (HAM.) — AN ADDITION TO THE FISH

FAUNA OF RAJASTHAN

Kumar and Asthana (in press) recently com-

piled and reviewed the fish fauna of Rajasthan. The

total number of species recorded from the state was

115. A fish survey was carried out during the summer

months of 1989, to study the species composition,

abundance and distribution of fish fauna along the

course of the Banganga and Gambhir river systems.

They have a large catchment area starting from

Manoharpur (near Jaipur) in the west, Karauli in the

south and up to Yamuna (near Agra) in the east.

Keoladeo National Park, the renowned wetland at

Bharatpur, also receives water from these rivers.

During the survey a total of 46 species of fish

were recorded, of which Aplocheilus panchax was

recorded for the first time from Rajasthan. According

to Jayaram (1981) it has a wide distribution in penin-

sular India. This species was frequently observed in

and around Ramgarh (near Jaipur). Other species of

the same genus recorded from Rajasthan are A.

lineatus (Valenciennes) from Udaipur (Datta Gupta et

al. 1961) and Jodhpur (Datta and Majumdar 1970)

and A. blochii (Arnold) from Jodhpur (Mathur and

Yazdani 1969). With the addition of A. panchax , the

total number of fish species recorded from Rajasthan

has now increased to 116.

September 9, 1992 C.R. AJITH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

References

Datia, A.K & Majumdar, N. (1970): Fauna of Rajasthan,

India. Part 7. Fishes. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 62 (1-2):

63-100.

Datta Gupta, A.K, Menon, P.K.B., Nair, C.K.G. & Das,

C.R. (1961): An annotated list of fishes of Rajasthan.

Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. Pilani 8 (1 & 2): 129-134.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta.

Kumar, C.R. A & Asthana, A. (in press): A review of the

fish fauna of Rajasthan. Geobios.

Mathur, D.S. & Yazdani, G.M. (1969): Occurrence of

Aplocheilus blochii (Arnold) in Rajasthan. Lab. dev.

(J. Sci. and Tech.) B 7(1): 77.

25. NORTHWARD MIGRATION OF THE COMMON INDIAN CROW

BUTTERFLY EUPLOEA CORE (CRAMER) IN AND AROUND BOMBAY

Migration of Euploea core around Bombay city

was first observed by Prall (1898) and Aitken (1898,

1900). Other observations on migration of this

species are those by Evershed (1910), Williams

(1938, northward migration) and Chaturvedi (1979,

southward migration in the Western Ghats). For

the last 55 years there are no specific records on

migration of Euploea core in and around Bombay

city.

On 11 July 1992 I saw an Euploea core migra-

tion flight in a north-western direction at Prince of

Wales Museum. In half an hour’s time I counted 85

butterflies. I continued random observations in

various parts of Bombay (Table 1).

I did not come across any specific migration

between 16 and 30 July though Euploea core was

common in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivli,

during that period. Northward migration was also ob-

served along the eastern express highway by Dr

Meena Haribal.

As per my observation Euploea core prefers to

fly along an open alley or track such as a road or

railway tracks in a slow but steady flight in a north-

western direction.

Usually they fly at about 2 m above the ground,

but occasionally as low as 50 cm. When obstacles

(buildings etc.) lie in their migratory path they fly

around the obstacle rather than over it, and after find-

ing a gap or open space they revert to their original

course. The average speed of flight, measured over a

5 m long stretch of the migration path, was 9

km/hour.

This would support Aitken ’s (1900) hypothesis

that butterflies migrate to avoid heavy rains rather

than in search of new breeding grounds. Some of the

food plants of the common Indian crow butterfly

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

TABIT 1

MIGRATION OF Euploea core AT BOMBAY

( Streblus asper, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus racemosa,

F. religiosa, Holarrhena, Nerium odorum, N.

oleander, Hemidesmus indicus and Cryptolepis

elegans) are plentiful in and around Bombay city.

I am thankful to my friend Mr B.R. Pai, who

helped me to measure and record observations.

September 21, 1992 NARESH CHATURVEDI

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

References

ArncEN, E.H. (1898): Migration of Euploea core. J. Bombay

nat Hist. Soc. 12: 229-230.

Aitken, E.H. (1900): Butterflies as weather prophets. J.

Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 13: 540.

Chaturvedi, N. (1979): Southward migration of Euploea

core at Khandala, Western Ghats. J. Bombay nat

Hist Soc. 76: 554.

Evershed, J. (1910): A note on migration. J. Bombay nat

Hist. Soc. 20: 390-391.

Prall, S.E. (1898): Migration of butterflies./. Bombay nat

Hist Soc. 11: 533.

Williams, C.B. (1938): The Migration of Butterflies in

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 439-457.

26. A FREAK TWIN TRILOBITE LARVA OF THE INDIAN HORSESHOE

CRAB TACHYPLEUS GIGAS (MULLER)

(With a plate)

The horseshoe crab Tachypleus gigas (Muller)

is found abundantly along the north-east coast of

India (21°17' N, 87°00' E). In India, so far, no at-

tempt has been made to study the developmental

stages of this species. Earlier, 21 embryonic stages in

the Japanese species Tachypleus triodentatus

(Seikiguchi 1973), nine stages in Limulus (Scholl

1977) and 20 stages in Lirmilus polyphemus (Brown

and Clapper 1981) have been reported.

Gametes from a mature pair of T. gigas were

collected by applying electric current of 6 V (400 mA

DC) on gonopore of the male and female, and fer-

tilisation was performed in vitro. Fertilised eggs were

kept at a constant temperature of 27°C ± 1°C in recir-

culating seawater incubators. Early embryonic stages

were studied by using micrographs of live embryo. A

total of 130 eggs were fertilised in the present study.

A freak egg showing two trilobite larvae bridged with

each other was noticed on the 38th day after fertilisa-

tion (Plate 1). The posterior margins of the opis-

thosoma of the trilobite larva were found attached to

each other and margins of the prosoma showed hair-

like sensory filaments. The body of the larvae was

flattened with large cephalothorax and abdomen. Size

(4.5 mm in length; 3.6 mm in width) and shape of the

trilobite larvae showed all the characters of an adult

horseshoe crab. Movement of the larvae inside the

extra embryonic shell was rather slow. 39 days after

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Mishra et ah: Indian horseshoe crab

Plate 1

Above: Twin trilobite larvae inside the extra embryonic shell, ready to hatch.

Below : Free swimming twin trilobite larvae (size 4.5 mm length, 3.6 mm width).

:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

117

fertilisation, the larvae hatched out and started swim-

ming freely (Plate 1). However, on the 56th day after

fertilisation the twin trilobite larva was found dead.

We are thankful to Dr B.N. Desai, Director,

NIO, for facilities. One of the authors (JKM) is grate-

ful to the Department of Ocean Development for

Refe

Brown, G.G. & Clapper, D.L. (1981): Procedure for col-

lecting gametes and culturing embryos of the Horse-

shoe crab, Limulus polyphemus. In: Laboratory

Animal Management of Marine Invertebrates. Ed. R.

Hinegardner. National Academy Press, Washington,

D.C. pp. 268-280.

award of a Research Fellowship.

J.K. MISHRA

ANIL CHATTERJI

February 15, 1992 A.H. PARULEKAR

National Institute of Oceanogr aphy,

Dona Paula, Goa 403 004

ENCES

Scholl, G. (1977): Beitragr zue embryonalentwicklung on

Limulus polyphemus L. (Chelicerata : Xiphosura).

Zoomorphologie 86: 99-154.

Sekiguchi, K. (1973): A normal plate of the development of

the Japanese horseshoe crab, Tachypleus tridentatus.

Sci. Rep. Tokyo Kyoiku Dalgaku 15 (3): 153-162.

27. RECORD OF ATELOPSALIS PACIFICA BARTSCH 1985

(HALACARIDAE : ACARI) FROM EASTERN INDIAN OCEAN

(With five text-figures)

In the course of taxonomic studies on halacarids

of the Indian coast, 10 specimens of Atelopsalis

pacifica Bartsch 1985 (Halacarinae : Halacaridae)

were obtained from the thalli of coralline alga Jania

rubens collected from Chatham island, Port Blair

(Bay of Bengal). A. pacifica is known so far only

from its type locality, Mactam islands, Philippines in

the Pacific Ocean (Bartsch 1985). The genus Atelop-

salis, comprising of five named and one undeter-

mined species, is known from the north-east Atlantic

ocean (Trouessart 1896, Bartsch 1973), Galapagos

(Bartsch 1977), Mozambique channel (Bartsch

1982), and Mactam island, Philippines (Bartsch

1985) so far. Habitat depth and geographic distribu-

tion of all the species of the genus are shown in Table

1. Both the genus and species are recorded for the

first time from Indian seas and eastern Indian Ocean.

The specimens agree with the original descrip-

tion (Bartsch 1985) of A. pacifica. However, a brief

description is given below for ready reference.

The idiosomal measurements of males ranged from

171 pm to 187 pm and females from 187 pm to 204

pm. Anterodorsal plate (AD) bears three areolae (one

anterior and two posterior). Posterior two areolae

long, one/two pore wide, parallel posteriorly and

tending to converge anteriorly; dorsal seta 1 (dsj) on

AD located anterior to the posterior areolae and dor-

sal seta 2 (ds2) on the anterior region of ocular plate

(OC) (Fig. 1). OC with two corneae and panelled

posteriorly but devoid of areolae. OC caudiform

posteriorly, extending beyond the insertion of leg 3.

Dorsal setae 3 (is3) on the cuticular membranous

area between AD and PD (postero dorsal plate). PD

with two costae and one pore wide. All ventral plates

separate (Fig. 2). Anterior epimeral plate (AE) bears

three pairs of areolae, one pair posterolaterally, one

pair on 1st coxal prominences and a pair of small

areolae comprising a few pores below the 2nd coxal

prominences. In males the genitoanal plate (GA)

bears five pairs of peri genital setae (PGS) — one pair

distinctly anterior to genital opening (GO), one pair

just posterior to GO and three pairs distributed on

either side of the GO — and in addition, four pairs of

subgenital setae (SGS) on sclerites (Fig. 2).

Gnathosoma and palp are very small. Palp 3-seg-

mented. Palpal segment 1 (P^) is very short, 2nd seg-

ment (P2) the longest and the 3rd segment (P3)

intermediate. P2 is without any setae and P3 with one

basal and one distal seta (Fig. 4). Telofemur 1 with

denticulous projection anteromedial ly. Tibia 1 with

eight setae (of which two are thick, stout and small)

and patella 1 with four setae (Fig. 5).

In females, GA bears three pairs of perigenital

setae and a pair of subgenital setae. Ovipositor is

small (Fig. 3). All other characters are similar in

males and females.

Table 1 shows that the genus Atelopsalis is

probably conservative in speciation and the species

118

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Figs. 1-5. Atelopsalis pacifica Bartsch

1. Idiosoma dorsal (male); 2. Idiosoma ventral (male); 3. Genito-anal plate (female); 4. Gnathosoma, 5. Leg I.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

119

TABLE 1

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF Atelopsalis

are apparently endemic in distribution, since all the

species except the one under report are known only

from their type localities. However, the type species

of the genus A. tricuspis Trouessart is known from

Josephine Bank (Bartsch 1973) and Guscogne

(Trouessart 1896) (the type locality) but both

localities are in the region of north-east Atlantic

Ocean. The present studies extend the distribution of

A. pacifica into the Indo-Pacific region for the first

time.

Regarding the bathymetric distribution, A.

aliger and A. pacifica are known from the intertidal

and shallow subtidal waters respectively, while the rest

are from depths ranging between 193 m and 1410 m.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. Use Bartsch, Biologische

Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburg, for her ready help in

providing literature and expert comments. Thanks are

due to the authorities of Regional College of Educa-

tion, Bhubaneswar, for extending laboratory

facilities.

A.L.N. SARMA

June 21, 1990 TAPAS CHATTERJEE

P.G. Dept, of Life Science, Regional College of Education,

Bhubaneswar, Orissa 751 007

References

Bartsch, I. (1973): Halacaridae (Acari) Von der Josephine

bank und der Groben Meteorbank aus dem ostlichen

Nordatlantik II. Die Halacaridae aus den

Bodengreiferproben. Meteor Forsch. Ergebnisse. D.

No. 15: 51-78.

Bartsch, I. (1977): Interstitielle Fauna von Galapagos. XX.

Halacaridae (Acari). Mikro fauna Meeresboden. 65:

1- 108.

Bartsch, I. (1982): Weitere Halacaridae (Acari) aus dem

kanal von Mocambique. Cah. Biol. Mar. 23: 435-457.

Bartsch, I. (1985): Zur Halacaridenfauna (Halacaridae,

Acari) der Philippinen Beschreibung von drei neuen

Arten. Mitt. hamb. Zool. Mus. Inst 82: 269-277.

Trouessart, E. (1896): Halacariens. Resultats Scientifiques

de la Campagne du “Caudan” dans le Golfe de Gas-

cogne. Annls. Univ. Lyon 26: 325-353.

120

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

28. ON AN INTERESTING COLLECTION OF BAUHINIA (LEGUMIN OS AE :

CAESALPINIOIDEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH

(With two text-figures)

Fig. 1. Bauhinia terviflora Watt ex Clarke,

a. Fruiting twig; b„ 'eed. Scale = 1 cm.

In the course of a taxonomic study on the In-

dian Bauhinias we came across an interesting her-

barium specimen ( J . Joseph 48504 - CAL) collected

from forest around Tihun in Lohit district of

Arunachal Pradesh. The fruiting material though

identified as * Bauhinia tenuiflora Watt ex Clarke

sharply differs from the said taxon and resembles

very closely Bauhinia ovatifolia T. Chen (in Guihaia

8(1): 50.1988), a species known only on the basis of

flowering specimens from the type locality

(Tianyang, Guangxi) in South China.

The morphological description of the specimen

(collected on 8 December 1969) together with its il-

lustrations (Fig. 1) and scanning photomicrograph of

the ultramicroscopic pattern on the seed surface are

given here (Fig. 2) to facilitate identification in the

field. The identity of specimens can be determined by

studying the fruits of B. ovatifolia T. Chen from the

type locality and the flowers from the plants bearing

this kind of fruit in north-east India.

Robust tendrilled climber. Leaves 8.5-11 x 5.7-

9.5 cm, ovate, entire, 9-nerved, subacuminate to ob-

Fig. 2. Scanning photo-micrograph of Bauhinia tenuiflora

(x 800).

tuse at apex, subtruncate to obtuse at base, glabrous

above, ferruginous pubescent below; petioles 1.7-3

cm long, glabrous. Fruits (broken at apex) up to 19 x

4 cm, pinkish brown, oblong, flattened, thin valved,

veined, glabrous, up to 20-seeded, indehiscent. Seeds

c. 0.9 x 0.7 cm, blackish brown, ovate-orbicular,

smooth but ultramicroscopically rugulate (only the

central portion of the seed surface has been observed

under a ‘PSEM 500’ after gold coating the sample in

an ‘Edward sputter-coater’), compressed, with scar

mark of funicular aril-lobes running around two-

thirds of its circumference; hilum yellow.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. Kai Larsen of Aarhus

University, Denmark, for his comments on the iden-

tity of the specimen. We are also grateful to Prof.

Te-chao Chen of South China Institute of Botany,

Academia Sinica for presenting the protologue of B.

ovatifolia T. Chen and to the Scientist-in-Charge,

R.S J.C., for the use of Scanning Electron Microscope.

June 12, 1992 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanical Garden,

Howrah 711 103

K. THOTHATHRI

Botany Field Research Laboratory, Madras University,

Madras 602102

B.D. SHARMA

Botanical Survey of India, P-8 Brabourne Road,

Calcutta 700 001

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

121

29. MERREMIA CISSOIDES (CONVOLVULACEAE) — A NEW RECORD

FOR INDIA

( With a text-figure)

The genus Merremia Dennst. ex Hall. f. with

about 80 species is widely distributed in the tropics

of both hemispheres (Austin, DF. in revised hand-

book of the flora of ceylon, 1980, Dassanayake and

Fosberg, eds.). During explorations in south India,

we came across an interesting material of Merremia

growing along the roadside at Pattom, Thiruvanan-

thapuram. It was identified (subsequently confirmed

by Dr Bernard Verdcourt, Kew) as M. cissoides

(Lam.) Hall. f. As this species is not described in any

of the Indian floras its nomenclature, description, il-

lustration and other relevant notes are provided here.

Merremia cissoides (Lam.) Hall, f., Bot. Jahrb.

Syst. 16: 552. 1898; Van Oostsroom, FI. Surinan 84.

1932; O’Donnel, Lilloa 6: 520. 1941.

Type: French Guiana, Cayenna (P).

Convolvulus cissoides Lam., Tabl. Enel. 1: 462.

1791.

Ipomoea cissoides (Lam.) Griseb, FI. Br. W.

Ind. Isl. 473. 1861; Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 3:

212. 1895; Alston, in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6:

202. 1931.

Large herbaceous twiner; stem green, latex

milky white, glandular hairs intermingled with white

trichomes, bulbous based ± 4 mm long. Leaves pal-

mately compound, leaflets five, sessile to subsessile,

ovate to ovate-elliptic, basally acute to acuminate,

apically long, acuminate to mucronate, terminal one

larger, 3-5.5 x 1-1.5 cm, inner pair 2.5-3 x 1-1.5 mm,

outermost pair 1.8-2.5 x 1-1.2 cm, margin dentate,

puberulous; petiole up to 4.5 cm long, hirsute like

stem. Flowers axillary, solitary or in 2-4 flowered

cymes, peduncle as long as the petiole, glandular,

hairy; bracteate, linear, 12-15 x 2-3 mm long, glan-

dular pubescent with white trichomes, marginal hairs

± 4 mm long, pedicels short, ± 5 mm long, glandular

pubescent; sepals broadly rhomboid to ovate, long

acuminate apex, different in size, outermost two

large, 20x5 mm, margin wavy, third single, medium

sized, 17 x 4 mm, innermost pair small, 15x3 mm,

with white trichomes and with glandular indumen-

tum; corolla white, campanulate, tube 7-8 mm long,

limb slightly 5-lobed, mouth 2-2.5 cm wide; stamens

sub-exserted; anthers not contorted, tip curved after

dehiscence, three mm long, filament often broadened

at the base, subequal, three large, ± 7 mm long, two

small, ± 5 mm long, white, hairy at base; pollen

smooth. Ovary 4-celled; style subexserted, up to 8

mm long, stigma two, globular, white; disk small, 2

mm long, annular. Fruit capsular, compressed, 4-5 x

8 mm, light brown, the fruiting sepal slightly larger,

white trichomes turns to yellowish white, seed sub-

rotund, black, stellately appressed hairy, 4x3 mm.

Seedling usually bicotyledonary, tricotyledonary see-

dlings are frequent, petiolate, ± 1 cm long, sinus

deep, 2.5-4 mm, basally cordate, glandular hairy,

margins wavy.

Distribution: Originally from the tropics of the

New World, this species has been reported from

Africa and Sri Lanka.

Flowering: December - March.

Material studied: S.D. Biju 40212 (Pattom,

Thiruvananthapuram dt., Kerala) K, and CALI.

We thank Dr Bernard Verdcourt, Kew, for

authentication of the identification.

S.D. BIJU

June 12, 1992 PHILIP MATHEW

Dept, of Botany, University of Calicut,

Calicut University P.O., Kerala 673 635

122

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Fig. 1. Merremia cissoides (Lam.) Hall. f.

A. Habit; B. Flower L.S.; C. Bract; D, E, F. Calyx; G. Seed; H. Stellate hairs on seed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

30. ON BRANCHING IN CARICA PAPAYA L. (CARICACEAE)

Carica papaya L., considered to be a native of branches of almost equal size at the apex, followed

tropical Central America, is presently grown all over

the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world

for its fruits and commercial papain. Being a sub-her-

baceous, almost branchless tree, it is very rarely seen

branching under natural conditions.

During my visit to Sattenapalle town in Guntur

district, Andhra Pradesh, I happened to sight a

branched papaya tree in a residential complex. On

enquiry, the residents said that during a cyclonic

storm the crown of the tree was decapitated. Sub-

sequently, the severed stump first gave out two main

31. CHISOCHETON LONGISTIPITATUS (F

— A NEW RECORD

The Indo-Malayan genus Chisocheton Blume

comprises 51 species. Hiem (in flora of British

INDIA, Hooker, J.D. 1875, pp. 550-553) reported nine

species of this genus from India, in a wider sense the

then British India. Mabberley (Bull. Br. Mus. nat.

Hist. Bot. 6 (4): 301-386. 1979) recognised six

species and two subspecies as occurring in India.

While studying the family Meliaceae in the An-

daman and Nicobar islands, one of us (HSD) came

across an unidentified specimen of Chisocheton

Blume, collected from Great Nicobar Island, which

on critical study was identified C. longistipitatus

(F.M. Bailey) L.S. Smith, a species so far known to

occur in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Is-

lands and Australia.

This taxon can easily be distinguished from the

other known Indian species of this genus by its long-

stipitate fruits with spongy pericarp, channelled

rachis ending in claw-like pseudogemmula and stel-

late pubescent nature.

Thus Chisocheton longistipitatus (F.M. Bailey)

L.S. Smith forms a new record for the Indian flora. A

brief description is provided.

Chisocheton longistipitatus (F.M. Bailey) L.S.

Smith In Proc. R. Soc. Queensl. 70: 29.1959; Mab-

berley in Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Bot.) 6 (4):

371.1979. Castanospora longistipitata FM. Bailey,

by four more branches of slightly smaller size just

below the first two. Interestingly, all the branches

bore leaves and fruits giving good yield. It is worth

considering whether branching under natural condi-

tions or owing to injury can be turned to our ad-

vantage since the tree is of considerable medicinal

and economic value.

November 25, 1991 P.S.N. RAO

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Haddo, Port Blair 744 102

M. BAILEY) L.S. SMITH (MELIACEAE)

FOR INDIAN FLORA

Queensl. FI. 1: 288. 1899.

Tree, 15-20 m tall. Bark dark brown, lenticel-

late. Leaves 40-80 cm long; rachis 2.0-4.5 mm in

diameter, channelled with short, claw-like pseudo-

gemmula; leaflets 2-6 pairs, 5-25 x 4-10 cm, elliptic-

oblong, sparsely stellate pubescent, midrib sunken,

lateral nerves 14-18. Inflorescence 30-40 cm long,

3-6 branched; branches 2-8 cm long; calyx subses-

sile, 1-3 mm long; petals 4-5, 5.5-6.5 x 0.5-0.8 mm;

staminal tube 5-lobed, pubescent in the middle; an-

thers five, c. 1 mm long, disk cupular; ovary 2-3

locular; style stellate pubescent below. Fruit spheri-

cal, 3-3.5 cm long, stipe 1-3 cm long, pericarp spon-

gy. Seeds 2-3, discoid.

Specimens examined: India: South Nicobars :

Great Nicobar Island, near 40 km on East- West road,

26 September 1980, D.K. Hore 8220 (PBL).

Acknowledgements

We thank Shri M.K. Vasudeva Rao, Scientist-

SD, Botanical Survey of India, Andaman-Nicobar

Circle, for his kind help and encouragement.

H.S. DEBNAIH

February 9, 1992 P.V. SREEKUMAR

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman-Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair 744 102

124

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

32. ARGOSTEMMA COURTALLENSE AND A. ANUPAMA (RUBIACEAE) REVISITED

(With two text-figures)

Argostemma courtallense is a fairly common

species in the mountains of peninsular India. It was

originally described by Walker-Amott based on

Wight’s collection (Wight, Cat. n. 2474, K,

photograph seen) from Courtallum. Wight himself

made an illustration of this taxon in 1835, at Courtal-

lum “Where only I have met with this plant” (Icon. p.

15, t. 1160. 1846). Subsequently, Sivarajan (1984)

described a new species, A. anupama , based on a

collection ( Sivarajan, D. 28706, CAL & CALI) from

wet rocks near Calicut University Campus in north

Kerala.

Recently Deb and Basu (1990), after “examin-

ing not only the earlier collections, but also those

collected since then and extant in different herbaria in

India and abroad” have concluded that the Burmese

species A. tovoyanum Wall, and the peninsular Indian

A. anupama are conspecific with A. courtallense , and

have reduced the names into synonyms of A. courtal-

lense.

We have not been able to study A. tavoyanum

and hence would not like to comment on its

taxonomic status. But, with respect to A. anupama

we cannot agree with the conclusion that “the sub-

sequent gatherings... lead to modification or en-

largement of the description (of A. courtallense) and

the distinction does not hold good”. This might, of

course, reflect the difference in the concept of

species, Deb and Basu taking the lumper’s stance,

and us the splitter’s. But the question is how much of

variability can be tied down to a single binomial. To

resolve this issue satisfactorily, one has to go beyond

earlier descriptions, as we have earlier pointed out

(Sivarajan et al. in press). Such taxonomic revision

and nomenclatural changes have to be preceded by

adequate study of living specimens in living com-

munities also, whenever possible, in addition to a

careful study of dried herbarium specimens.

We have also examined the types, other authen-

tic specimens and original descriptions of the two

taxa and have found that the two differ in many more

characters than have been delineated in the earlier

description. Even as we might concede that “more

than four petiolate leaves and smaller flowers are evi-

dent in some specimens” of A. courtallense , our find-

ings do not corroborate the observation that in A.

anupama “the anthers are free and curved, not con-

nivent in a cone around style and stigma, as charac-

terised by the author in the illustration - a

characteristic evident in many species in young

flowers, before anthesis". In A. anupama, the anthers

are clearly connivent in a cone around the stigma,

even in mature flowers, after anthesis. Besides, A.

courtallense is characterised by ovate or ovate-ellip-

tic leaves, symmetric at base, whereas A. anupama

has ovate or lanceolate leaves which are highly obli-

que at base.

We are convinced that A. courtallense and A.

anupama are distinct species. An artificial synoptic

key and comparative illustrations of the species pair

are provided below.

KEY TO TWO SPECIES OF Argostemma

1. Plants up to 13 cm tall; leaves mostly 4 in two decus-

sate pairs, at times the internode is very short and

they appear to be in a whorl of two unequal pairs, the

lower pair petioled, upper pairs subsessile, laminar

base regular; calyx much smaller than corolla, lobes

ovate, with acute sinuses, corolla lobes broadly ovate,

much larger than calyx lobes; staminal filaments free,

bent at middle, anthers bright yellow, free, erect, and

in a circle around stigma A. courtallense

— Plants up to 6 cm tall; leaves 3(-2) pairs, upper two

pairs sometimes in a whorl, distinctly petioled, lamina

prominently oblique at base; calyx larger than corolla,

lobes broadly ovate with rounded sinuses; corolla

lobes elliptic to lanceolate, as long as and narrower

than the calyx lobes; staminal filaments free, twisted;

anthers white, connivent in a cone around the style,

erect at first, declinate later A. anupama

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr Diane M. Bridson, Kew, for litera-

ture and type photograph of A. courtallense . One of

us (AKP) is grateful to CSIR, New Delhi, for award-

ing a fellowship.

V.V. SIVARAJAN

October 12, 1991 A.K. PRADEEP

Dept, of Botany, University of Calicut,

Kerala 673 635

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

125

Fig. 1. Argos temma courtallense Arn. a. Habit; b. Flower bud; c. Open flower with stamens before anthesis; d. Corolla split

open showing anthers separating after anthesis; e. Calyx showing acute sinuses.

Fig. 2. A. anupama Sivar. a. Habit; b. Rower bud; c. Open flower showing stamens before anthesis; d. Corolla split open;

e. Stamens showing twisted filaments and connivent anthers; f. Calyx showing rounded sinuses.

9

2 mm

126

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

References

Deb, D.B. & Basu, S.K. (1990): Changes in the status of 463.

two species in the genus Argostemma (Rubiaceae). /. Sivarajan, V.V., Buu, S.D. & Mathew, P. (in press):

Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 87: 332. Taxonomy and nomenclature of some Indian species

Sivarajan, V.V. (1984): A new species of Argostemma of Hedyotis L. (Rubiaceae). KewBull.

(Rubiaceae) from India. J. Indian BoL Soc. 63: 462-

33. RANGE EXTENSION OF ENDEMIC CEROPEGIA HUBERI ANSARI

IN MAHARASHTRA

( With a text-figure)

During the course of a botanical excursion in

Varandha Ghat area of Pune district, Maharashtra, an

unusual clump of plants belonging to the genus

Ceropegia L. was noticed growing in vertical rock

crevices in association with grass clumps. On critical

examination, the species was identified and con-

firmed as Ceropegia huberi Ansari. It was also

recorded at Susale island during subsequent botanical

excursions in Mulshi area of Pune district. This report

suggests an extension of the range of the species

Fig. 1. Distribution of Ceropegia huberi in Maharashtra.

from Konkan northwards in Pune district in Varandha

Ghat and Susale island (Fig. 1).

Detailed morphological observations on

specimens collected from Varandha Ghat as well as

Susale island showed distinct variations from original

description of the type species (Ansari 1968), as

listed in Table 1.

A scrutiny of the Herbarium index at the

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune and

scanning of literature (Ansari 1968, 1984, Nayar and

Sastry 1987) revealed that the species is so far known

only from the type locality of Amba Ghat, Ratnagiri

district, Maharashtra. The type material, however,

could not be examined.

The habitat of the species, associated flora

and the altitude range (Table 2) are more or less

identical at the three locations reported so far. This

indicates the possibility that this species occurs in

similar habitat range all along the crest line. The

linkage, however, has not been traced between the

locations reported till now, probably because of

inaccessible habitats and ephemeral nature of the

species.

Nearly 60 years elapsed between the first two

collections and about 23 years between the second

and recent collections. Occurrence of the species at

type location for more than 60 years indicates its sur-

vival, although it is limited in range. The species has

been described as vulnerable in the Red Data Book of

Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry, loc. cit.) due to

destruction of its habitat from natural causes like

landslides during monsoon or man-made causes. Its

restricted and sparse distribution indicates its rarity

and due care must be taken to protect the plant and its

habitat.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, M.A.C.S. Research In-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

127

TABLE 1

VARIATIONS IN CHARACTERS OF Ceropegia huberi

Original description

(Ansari 1968)

1. Tuber large, up to 4.5x4 cm, globose.

2. Stem up to 2 m, branching terete, glabrous.

3. Leaves opposite, petiolate; petiole up to 3.5 cm

long, glabrous with minute glands on either

side at base; lower leaves acuminate, 12.0x4.8 cm, upper

linear-lanceolate, 5.0xl.5 cm; lamina subcoriaceous,

margins ciliolate, gland dotted.

4. Flowers white in lateral subumbellate cymes;

peduncle up to 16 cm long, hirsute; pedicels pubescent,

1.5 cm long, corolla forming a circular flattened

head.

5. Fruits in paired follicles, ± 6 cm long, tapering at both

ends, glabrous.

6. Seeds many, ±5x3 mm, ovate, oblong,

prominently margined, coma ± 10 mm long.

Variations recorded in

recent collections

Tuber small up to 2.3x2.5 cm.

Stem up to 1 m, sparsely hairy.

Petiole up to 1 cm long, without glands on either side;

all leaves linear-lanceolate with slightly broad base;

lamina pale green, glaucous beneath, sparsely

hairy on upper surface, without gland dots along

margins.

Peduncle size variable from 4 cm to 16-18 cm,

glandularly hirsute; pedicels smaller in size,

less than 1 cm long, few pedicels in umbel develop

secondary umbels in inflorescences.

Follicles 8-10 cm long.

Seeds 20-25 per pod, 6x3 mm, compressed, with

distinct recurved margins.

TABLE 2

DETAILS OF COLLECTIONS OF Ceropegia huberi

stitute and Principal, Abasaheb Garware College,

Pune for facilities. Thanks are due to authorities

of Four Eyes Foundation and Botanical Survey of

India, Western Circle, Pune for providing material

from Susale island and herbarium facilities

respectively. We are grateful to Dr V.D. Vartak and

Dr M.S. Kumbhojkar for encouragement and

valuable suggestions.

HEMALATA D. SANE1

November 25, 1991 VINAYA S. GHATE2

1 Abasaheb Garware College, Pune 411 004

2 Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science,

Pune 411 004

References

Ansari, M.Y. (1968): A new species of Ceropegia L.

. (Asclepiadaceae) from Western Ghats, Maharashtra.

Bull. BoL Surv. India 10 (2): 219-221.

Ansari, M.Y. (1984): Fascicles of Flora of India. Fascicle

16. Asclepiadaceae Genus Ceropegia. p. 17, t 3 (12).

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Nayar & Sastry (1987): Red Data Book of Indian Plants.

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, p. 58.

128

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

34. AN EARLY COLLECTION RECORD OF PARTHENIUM HYSTEROPHORUS L.

FROM BOTANIC GARDEN, CALCUTTA

The present note is made to confirm the earlier

known centre of migration of Parthenium

hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae) in India. It is a

dangerously noxious weed creating a menace

throughout India, particularly in agricultural lands.

While identifying Asteraceae members in the Central

National Herbarium (CAL) we came across an ir-

reparable historical herbarium sheet labelled as ‘Herb

Sulphiz Kurz’. Among other incorporations in the

sheet are botanical name of the plant written in

English in ink and ‘H.B.C., Rao (1956), while

describing this plant as a new record for India, has

probably through oversight missed the material (he

specified all other materials except this). The annota-

tion of the sheet reveals that the plant was growing in

the Royal Botanic Garden (now Indian Botanic Gar-

den) at Calcutta. Wilhelm Sulphiz Kurz collected the

specimen in 1863 as one of the representatives for the

work on Flora of Bengal. However, its introduction

in the Royal Botanic Garden in 1810 ( Hortus Ben-

galensis , p. 62) could not be confirmed from the

available specimen. The widespread belief that it was

a recent introduction through American food grain

import can thus be ruled out, although the route for

its original migration to India is not definite.

This plant has now almost acclimatized to the

different altitude, climate and soil conditions in India

as reported by various authors: Roxburgh (1814),

Voight (1845), Chatterjee (1939), Rao (1956),

Chandra (1971), Bennet et al. (1978), Rao et al.

(1979), Maiti and Guha Bakshi (1981), as an escapee

from gardens. Apart from its various other hazardous

effects as a cosmopolitan weed, the only important

use attributed to this plant is that a decoction of its

boiled roots was used against dysentery by Koasati

(Uphof 1959).

D.P. DAM

RM. DUTTA

February 12, 1992 NAMITA DAM

Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,

Shillong, Meghalaya 793003

References

Bennet, S.S.R., Naitiiani, H.B. & Raizada, M.B. (1978):

Parthenium L. in India - a review and history. Indian

J. For. 1 (1): 128-131.

Chandra, Jaya (1971): Parthenium weed in Mysore state

and its control. Curr. Sci. 40: 568.

Chatterjee, D. (1939): Studies on the Endemic Flora of

India and Burma. J. Royal Asiat. Soc. Bengal (Sc.) 5:

19- 67.

Maiti, G.G. & Guha Bakshi, D.N. (1981): Invasion of Ex-

otic weeds in West Bengal since 1903: Dicotyledones

and Monocotyledones. J. Econ. Tax. BoL 2: 1-21.

Rao, R.R. & Dam, D.R (1979): Non-indigenous Plants in

the Flora of Shillong and its neighbourhood. Bull.

Meghalaya Sci. Soc. 3: 43-65.

Rao, R.S. (1956): Parthenium hysterophorus L. - a new record

for India. J. Bombay nat Hist Soc. 54: 218- 220.

Roxburgh, W. (1814): Hortus Bengalensis or a catalogue of

the Plants growing in the Honourable East India

Company’s Botanic Garden at Calcutta. Mission

Press, Calcutta.

Uphof, J.C.Th. (1959): Dictionary of Economic Plants. Haf-

ner Publishing Co., New York.

Voight, J.O. (1845): Hortus Suberbanus Calcuttensis. Cal-

cutta.

35. ON DESIGNATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS AS TYPES

The purpose of this note is to illustrate the con-

fusion created by designating a figure as the type of a

species and complicating the simple nomenclature of

some important plants.

Article 7 of the International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature (ICBN) necessitates selection of

nomenclatural types. In cases of species and in-

traspecific taxa, a nomenclatural type of a taxon is a

single specimen. The most effective of these is the

holotype or a single specimen designated by the

author at the time of description of the species. The

code emphasises the importance of the holotype, lec-

totype and neotype in descending order. Only if no

material is available or existent for designating the

neotype, the use of the description or figure as a sub-

stitute for the type is allowed. It is significant that no

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

129

special terminology has been used in the code for

typification based on description and figure, because

these can be used as types only if no material at all is

available for designating a holo, lecto- or neotype.

However, in recent years, it is observed that

taxonomists use unpublished drawings and

iconographed illustrations as types of various species

and intraspecific taxa. As these drawings and illustra-

tions are usually made after careful study of the

material described, they no doubt form the most im-

portant part of the protologue of the species, but they

cannot be called the types of the species. Article 93

of the ICBN states, “If it is impossible to preserve a

specimen as the type of a name of a species or in-

ffaspecific taxon or if such a name is without a type

specimen, the type may be a description or figure”. It

is therefore clearly understood that as long as there

are specimens available to designate a lectotype or

neotype, the figure cannot be considered as type. I

would like to give the following example to clarify

the matter.

While placing Dracontium paeoniifolium Den-

nst. in the genus Amorphophallus, Nicolson ( Taxon

26: 338. 1977) united Arum campanulatum Roxb.

with that taxon for the simple reason that both these

taxa included Rheede’s ‘Mulenschena’ among the

original protologues. However, protologue of Arum

campanulatum Roxb. contains much more material

than Rheede’s figure alone. Because Roxburgh’s

original description included citation of Rheede’s fig-

ure, it is incorrect to conclude that it is synonymous

with Dracontium paeoniifolium Dennst. It is true that

Rheede’s figure is the common element in the

protologues of the taxa. But in case of D.

paeoniifolium Dennst. it is the only reliable part of

the protologues in the process of selection of the

type; whereas in the case of Arum campanulatum

Roxb. there are various parts of the protologue avail-

able such as Roxburgh’s own figure, his description

of the species, localities of distribution, etc., in addi-

tion to Rheede’s figure/description.

Therefore, Rheede’s figure can be only con-

sidered as one part of the original protologue of Arum

campanulatum Roxb. Further, Decaisne has excluded

it from Roxburgh’s protologue while transferring the

taxon to the genus Amorphophallus. Thus, it is inap-

propriate to use the figure in selection of the lecto-

type of that species, when other more important parts

of the protologue are available. Since Roxburgh had

not indicated any type specimen for his species,

Decaisne was perfectly justified in selecting a type

specimen for the species, which he did. Therefore,

the choice of the selection of type was exercised by

Decaisne and his choice should be followed. Thus,

redesignation of Rheede’s figure as the type is not

only unethical but also superfluous.

As a result of retypification of Arum cam-

panulatum Roxb., considering Rheede’s figure as

type, all the relevant parts of Roxburgh’s original

protologue have been neglected and placed under A.

campanulatum sensu auct., non Roxb., 1820, nom.

illegit. While affecting this retypification, earlier

opinions of not only Decaisne but also of Hooker

(Bot. Mag. 55: t. 2812. 1828) and Wight (Icon. PI.

Ind. Orient. 3:5, t. 782. 1844) have been overlooked.

The correct citation for Roxburgh’s species

should be Arum campanulatum Roxb. (pro parte,

excl. cit. Rheede). It should not be Arum cam-

panulatum auct., non Roxb., 1820. Including Rox-

burgh, all the subsequent authors have described the

species which can be construed in the true sense of

Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) Decaisne

(excluding the citation of Rheede’s figure).

In my opinion, the example cited in the ICBN

(ed. 1983) under Article 48.1 is somewhat biased and

therefore contrary to the rules of the code. (This ex-

ample given in the code states, “The name Amor-

phophallus campanulatus published by Decaisne was

apparently based on Arum campanulatum Roxb.

However, the type of the latter was explicitly ex-

cluded by Decaisne and the name is to be cited as A.

campanulatus Decaisne, not as A. campanulatus

(Roxb.) Decaisne”). I consider the example biased

for two reasons. (1) It is based on the wrong assump-

tion that the figure of Rheede referred to under Arum

campanulatum Roxb. is the type of the species. As

Rheede’s figure has been excluded from remaining

protologue of the taxon by Decaisne, it cannot be

redesignated as the type of the species. The correct

type or the lectotype of the name is therefore

Gaudichand - s.n. (P) (see Taxon 26: 2>31. 1977). (2)

The name proposed by Decaisne was a new combina-

tion based on Arum campanulatum Roxb. and there-

fore under Article 55.2 of the code should be cited as

Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) Decaisne.

Recently, Sivadasan ( Taxon 32: 128 & 130.

1983) has shown that both the taxa considered by

Nicolson are not really the same but differ in certain

characters and should be retained distinct at varietal

level. Actually these plants are quite distinct and

130

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

were figured and described by Van Rheede in Hortus

Malabaricus separately. Roxburgh's species was

known to him as ‘Schena’ which is an edible corm

yielding species very often cultivated; whereas his

“Mulenschena” which was named Dracontium

paeoniifolium by Dennst. is a wild plant found only

in southern India. Both of these taxa are still known

under their originally mentioned vernacular names.

Unfortunately, both the species are leafless

when in bloom and sterile when in leaves. I have

seen both species in flowering condition and in the

leafy state and I am inclined to consider them as

distinct species.

October 29, 1991 M.R. ALMEIDA

B-l/25 Mahesh Nagar, S.V. Road, Goregaon (West),

Bombay 400 063

36. ADDITIONS TO THE TERRESTRIAL FLORA OF LAKSHADWEEP

The last contribution to the flora of Lakshad-

weep group of islands was made by Wadhwa (1960),

who added 11 species of flowering plants, mainly

sedges and grasses, to the existing list. However, one

of the grasses, Digitaria adscendens (HBK) Henrard,

reported by him as a new record was already listed by

Prain (1894), who had made major contributions to

the botany of these islands.

During a brief visit to Lakshadweep in January

1991 1 spent four to six hours at each of three islands,

Kalpeni, Kavarati and Minicoy. Easily identifiable

known plants were recorded and wherever identity of

a species was not confirmed in the field, herbarium

specimens were collected, and subsequently iden-

tified at Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. All the voucher

specimens are deposited in the Blatter Herbarium.

After identification of the specimens collected,

and a review of the literature, it appears that a check-

list for Lakshadweep stands at 236 species of flower-

ing plants (182 dicotyledons and 54

monocotyledons), three species of Pteridophytes (two

ferns and one Psilotum ), one species of moss, two

species of lichens, seven species of fungi and two

algae. All the islands abound in sea-weeds during

winter. However, there is a lack of published work

and there is therefore much scope for study on the

marine algal flora. So far only 27 species of sea-

weeds have been identified and reported.

The species listed in Table 1 were observed

during my visit and have not been reported earlier.

J. Stanley Gardiner (1906) in his list of plants of

Chagos, Maldives, Minicoy & Laccadives mentioned

359 species of flowering plants. The following

species which appear in his list from Maldives and

Chagos but not from Laccadives and Minicoy were

also observed during the present study.

Among the 37 species recorded as new to Lak-

shadweep there is the likelihood that the following 18

species (about 50%) have been introduced by man.

Annona squamosa L., Averrhoa carambola L.,

Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz, Brugmansia suaveo-

lens (HBK) Pers., Casuarina equisetifolia Forst, &

Forst, Delonix regia (Boj.) Raffin, Dodonea viscosa

(L.) Jacq., Euphorbia heterophylla Linn., Euphorbia

tirucalli L., Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) De Wit.,

Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karst., Nerium in-

dicum Mill., Plumeria rubra L., Solarium melongena

L., Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum., Tinospora

sinensis (Lour.) Merrill, Catliaranthus roseus (L.) G.

Don and Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

The 11 species mentioned below might have

been distributed through the agency of birds:

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC., Argemone mexicana

L., Borreria repens DC., Ficus racemosa L., Hyptis

suaveolens Poit., Lantana camara L. var. aculeata L.,

Muntingia calabura L., Peperomia pellucida (L.)

H.B.K., Sida acuta Burm. f., and Synedrela

nodi flora (L.) Gaertn.

The following three might have been carried by

wind: Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC., Tridax procum-

bensL. and Laggera aurita (Willd.) Schult-Bip.

It is possible that five species might have come

through sea currents: Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb.,

Cordia tectonifolia, Crotalaria pallida Ait., Pemphis

acidula Forst & Forst and Cerbera manghas L.

Some geologists believe that the landmasses

presently known as South America, Africa, Deccan

plateau of India, Australia, Antarctica, Malagasy, Tas-

mania and Philippines belonged originally to a large

continent named Gondwanaland.

It is said that the oceanic currents in the Indian

Ocean complete a cycle of water currents during the

course of a year. Warm water-currents run from India,

via Lakshadweep and Maldives towards Africa

(Mozambique) passing through Malagasy island.

Later cold currents flow in the reverse direction from

Africa to Australia, cross Tasmania and New

Zealand, and are then directed towards India after

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

131

TABLE 1

ADDITIONS TO THE TERRESTRIAL FLORA OF LAKSHADWEEP

132

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

passing through Indonesia, Andaman islands and Sri

Lanka. The distribution of some of the following

species which are rather rare or totally absent on

mainland India, is attributed to the oceanic water-cur-

rents. However, definite proof is not available.

1. Hernandia nymphaefolia (Presl.) Kubitzki

(Syn . Baisolettia nymphaefolia Presl.)

2. Messer schmidia argentia (L.f.) Johnstone

(Syn. Tournfortia argentia L.f.), MRA : Minicoy-69.

3. Cyperus pachyrhizus Nees ex Boek.

4. Thuarea sarmentosa Pers. (Syn. T. in -

volucrata R. Br. ex Roem. & Schult.) MRA: Minicoy

-32.

5. Pandanus leram Jones (MRA : Photograph).

6. Ophiuros ruvicatulus Steud. MRA : Kalpeni-

7; Minicoy 67.

7. Aegiatilis rotundifolia Roxb. MRA: Kalpeni-

19; Minicoy-77.

Some of the noteworthy species observed

during the visit are: (1) Cerbera manghas Linn. —

This species, which is planted near residential areas

some distance away from coastal waters and tidal

swamps, has remarkably large oblong-ovate leaves

and is altogether a different form from the mainland

plants.

(2) Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don — This

species has not been reported by earlier authors. It is

Refe

Prain, D. (1892-4): Botany of the Laccadives. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 7: 268-295, 460-486. 1892; 8: 57-86,

1893; 8: 488, 1894.

Gardiner, J.S. (Ed.) (1906): The Fauna and Geography of

Maldives and Laccadives Archipelagoes. Vol. 2, pp.

found growing in abundance at Kalpeni and Minicoy

in private compounds and in waste-lands and might

have been brought in for cultivation for its medicinal

alkaloids, which are allegedly useful in the treatment

of cancer.

(3) Sida acuta Burm.f. var. chhapgarii var.

nov. — A Sida variety closely allied to Sida acuta

Burm. f. but differing from the typical variety in

having broadly ovate-lanceolate leaves with stellate,

on both the surfaces and one of the corolla lobe much

extended. Found at Minicoy island. As this is not

found in the literature it is proposed here as a new

variety of Sida acuta Burm. f. and named after Dr

B.F. Chhapgar, an eminent marine biologist and the

leader of the study group.

Sida acuta Burm. f. var. chhapgarii var. nov.

similis varietati typica differt tamen foliis ovato-lan-

ceolatis stellato-tomentosus et und-corollo-lobo plus

extend. Typus : M.R. Almeida - 57 lectibus ad Mini-

coi.

A complete list of flowering plants is available

for reference at BLAT and BNHS in folder of type

materials of Sida acuta Burm. f. var. chhapgarii.

October 8, 1991 M.R. ALMEIDA

B-l/25, Mahesh Nagar, S.V. Road,

Goregaon (West), Bombay 400 063

1048-52. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Wadhwa, B. M. (1960): Additions to the flora of Lacca-

dives, Minicoy and Amindives groups of Islands.

Bull. BoL Surv. India 3: 407-408.

37. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASSES OF BIHAR

While scrutinising the grasses collected from

various parts of Bihar, we came across six taxa, viz.

Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) Hubb., Eragrostis

atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud., E. pappiana

Chiov., Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv., Phalaris arun-

dinacea L. var. picta and Stenotaphrum secundatum

(Walter) Kuntze var. variegatum which have not been

reported earlier from Bihar (Haines 1925, Bor 1960,

Banerjee and Pal 1970, Jain et al. 1975, Banerjee and

Naskar 1984). Stenotaphrum secundatum var.

variegatum has not been recorded from India (Naithani

1990). The identity of all the specimens have been

confirmed at Central National Herbarium (CAL) ex-

cept Phalaris arundinacea war. picta, which was con-

firmed at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England.

The present note gives up-to-date nomenclature,

a brief description, distribution, ecology and critical

notes wherever necessary. All the cited specimens are

deposited in the Bhagalpur University Herbarium.

Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) Hubb. ex

Robyns in Bull. Jard. Brux. 9 : 177. 1932; Bor in Gr.

Burma, Ceyl., Ind. & Pak. 281. 1960.

Annual, up to 50 cm high. Culms geniculately

ascending, pubescent at nodes. Leaf-blades 8-15 x

0.6-0 .8 cm, linear, pubescent, acuminate; ligules

ciliate. Panicles up to 12 cm long; spikes 5-10,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

133

4-5.5 cm long, pubescent. Spikelets 3.5-4 mm long,

turgid, pubescent; pedicels up to 8 mm long. Lower

glume 1.8-2 mm long, broadly ovate, 5-7 nerved,

pubescent, subacute. Upper glume 3.5-3 .8 mm long,

membranous, 5-7 nerved, pubescent. Lower lemma

3-3.3 mm long, empty, 3-5 nerved, pubescent, acute,

paleate. Upper lemma 1. 8-2.2 mm long, her-

maphrodite, ovate, crustaceous, 3 -nerved, transverse-

ly rugose; palea similar. Stamens three; anthers 1.2

mm long. Caryopsis up to 2 mm long.

Flowers: August-December.

Distribution: Throughout India; tropical

Africa.

Ecology: Open grasslands; frequent.

Specimens examined: Mirzachowki (Sahib-

ganj district), NJN. Das 3386; Dumka (Dumka dis-

trict), N.N. Das 2780.

The plant resembles Brachiaria ramosa (L.)

Stapf from which it can be easily separated by the

hairless pedicels and rhachis and loosely scattered

spikelets.

Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud.

Nom. Bot. ed 2. 1 : 562. 1840; Bor in Gr. Burma,

Ceyl., Ind. & Pak. 503. 1960.

A tufted perennial, up to 1.2 m high. Leaf-

blades 2.5-7 x 0.3-0.5 cm, linear, bearded at mouth;

ligules membranous. Panicles up to 30 cm long,

ovate to oblong. Spikelets 2-5 mm long, linear, grey

or purple, 9-16-flowered, breaking up from below

upwards. Glumes 1.2-1. 8 mm long, ovate-oblong, 1-

keeled, keel scabrid. Lemmas 1 .2-1.5 mm long, 3-

nerved, acute; palea deciduous, scabrid. Stamens

three, anthers 0.5-0.8 mm long. Caryopsis up to 1

mm long, red-brown, cylindrical.

Flowers: August-November.

Distribution: Throughout India; tropical

Africa to South Africa and Malaysia.

Ecology: In wet places, along river and stream

banks; common.

Specimens examined: Kathikund (Dumka dis-

trict), R.R. Jha 6281; Gandhigram (Godda district),

R.R. Jha 7002; Rajmahal, Mokim 1510 (CAL).

The plant shows similarity to E. gangetica

(Roxb.) Steud. Bor (loc. cit.) states that in most In-

dian herbaria E. atrovirens is identified as E. gan-

getica. Some workers distinguished them on the basis

of habit, i.e. annual and perennial; however, these

characters are insufficient. The two may be easily

differentiated on the basis of number of stamens, the

former having three stamens and the latter only two.

Eragrostis pappiana Chiov. in Ann. 1st Bot.

Roma 8: 371. 1908; Bor in Gr. Burma, Cey., Ind. &

Pak. 511. 1960.

Annual, up to 30 cm high. Leaf-blades 3.5-7 x

0.25-0.6 cm, linear, rolled, acuminate; sheaths sparse-

ly bearded at mouth. Panicles up to 10 cm long,

oblong, effuse, glabrous. Spikelets 0.5-2.5 cm long,

linear, up to 60-flowered; pedicels up to 2 mm long.

Glumes subequal; lower 1-1.2 mm long; upper 1.2-

1.5 mm long, 1-nerved. Lemmas 1. 5-2.2 mm long,

scabrid on keels; palea deciduous, keel scabrid.

Lodicules 2, stamens 2-3; anthers 0.5-1 mm long,

light yellow. Caryopsis up to 1 mm long, dark brown.

Flowers: September-December.

Distribution: India: Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajas-

than, Uttar Pradesh; eastern Asia.

Ecology: In dry sandy soils; grows in associa-

tion with Eragrostis temula Hochst. ex Steud.; rare.

Specimens examined: Barchopmor, near

Pathargama (Godda district), RJR. Jha 7020.

Eragrostis pappiana and E. tremula grow

together and resemble each other in general ap-

pearance of the inflorescence and spikelets. However,

E. pappiana differs from E. tremula in having shorter

pedicels (not more than 2 mm long) and narrower,

acute lemma.

Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost.

51.177.178. 1812; Bor in Gr. Burma, Ceyl., Ind. &

Pak. 365. 1960.

Annual. Culms up to 30 cm long, erect,

glabrous, turning rosy-red when mature. Leaf-blades

8-15 x 0.5-0.7 cm, linear to linear-lanceolate, minute-

ly scabrid on both surfaces, base narrow, margins

scabrid, apex acuminate; ligules ciliate. Panicles up

to 2.5 cm long, cylindrical, not lobed or interrupted;

bristles 3-9, up to 7 mm long. Spikelets 2.5-3 mm

long, elliptic-oblong, light pink, deciduous. Lower

glume 1-1.5 mm long, 1-3 nerved, acute. Upper

glume 2-2.5 mm long, elliptic-oblong, 5-7 nerved,

obtuse. Lower lemma similar to upper glume,

epaleate. Upper lemma 2.5-3 mm long, her-

maphrodite, crustaceous, smooth, apiculate; palea

similar. Stamens 3, anthers 3-5 mm long. Caryopsis

up to 2.2 mm long.

Flowers: August - October.

Distribution: India: Bihar, Maharashtra;

cooler parts of the Old World.

Ecology: Weed of cultivated fields, on hills

and in mixed forests; rare.

Specimens examined: Asanbani (Dumka dis-

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

trict), N.N. Das 4224.

Superficially the plant is similar to Setaria

glauca (L.) P. Beauv. and S. italica (L.) P. Beauv. but

it can be differentiated by the presence of deciduous

spikelets, spikes not lobed or interrupted and upper

lemma smooth.

Pkalaris arandinacea L. var. picta Sp. PI. 1:

55.1753; Bor in Gr. Burma, Ceyl., Ind. & Pak. 616.

1960.

Perennial with creeping stolons, up to 20 cm

high. Culms simple, slender, glabrous, nodes covered

with membranous, compressed, glabrous leaf-

sheaths. Leaf-blades 5-15 x 0.5-0.8 cm, linear,

glabrous, acuminate, longitudinally banded green and

cream.

Distribution: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar;

widely distributed in the temperate parts of the north-

ern hemisphere.

Ecology: Grows in rock crevices in mixed

forests and in gardens; rare.

Specimens examined: Madhupur (Deoghar

district), T.K. Pan s.n.; Bhagalpur (Bhagalpur dis-

trict), R.R. Jha 7376.

Although the variegated leaves are very attrac-

tive the plant is not grown widely in Indian gardens.

Bor (l.c.) has reported it to be growing in the garden

of Govt. House, Shillong and possibly elsewhere, as

an ornamental plant. The plant propagates vegeta-

tively as it fails to bear flowers.

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze

var. variegatum; Graf in Exotica ser. 4. vol. 2. 1316.

1985.

Perennial with creeping stolon. Culms flat,

glabrous. Leaf-blades 5-20 x 03-0.9 cm, linear, nar-

rowed at base, apex rounded, prettily banded creamy-

white; sheaths loose, compressed, hairy at mouth,

margins hyaline; ligules short, ciliate.

Distribution: U.S.A., tropical America.

Ecology: In sandy soils under shade, often cul-

tivated; rare.

Specimens examined: Bhagalpur (Bhagalpur

district), R.R. Jha 7369.

This variegated American grass is newly intro-

duced in India for ornamental purposes. This plant

also does not bear flowers. It has not earlier been

reported from India (Naithani 1990) and thus forms

an addition to Indian grasses.

Acknowuedgements

We are thankful to Prof. K.S. Bilgrami, Head,

Department of Botany, Bhagalpur University, for

providing necessary facilities, the Joint-Director,

Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden,

Howrah, for allowing us to consult the herbarium,

and to Dr D.M. Verma (Scientist ‘SE’, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, Howrah) and Prof. G.L. Lucas (Keeper

of the Herbarium and Library, Royal Botanic Gar-

dens, Kew, England) for identification of the speci-

mens. Financial support provided by CSIR, New

Delhi for the revision of the grasses of Bihar is also

thankfully acknowledged.

R.R. JHA1

October 18, 1991 S.K. VARMA2

1Gram Vikas, MohudaPost, via Bethampur, Dist. Ganjam,

Orissa 760 002

^ Dept, of Botany, Bhagalpur University,

Bhagalpur 812 007, Bihar

References

Banerjee, B.C. & Naskar, A.K. (1984): Some plants new to

West Bengal. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5(4): 982.

Banerjee, D.K. & Pal, D.C. (1970): Some new distri-

butional records in Indian grasses. Bull. Bot. Surv.

Ind. 12: 70-72.

Bor, N.L (1960): Grasses of Burma, Ceyion, India and

Pakistan. London.

Graf, A.B. (1985): Exotica - Pictorial cyclopedia of exotic

plants. Rutherford.

Haines, H.H. (1925): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Vol.

2. London.

Jain, S.K., Banerjee, D.K. & Pal, D.C. (1975): Grasses of

Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist

Soc. 72 (3): 758-773.

Naithani, H.B. (1990): Flowering plants of India, Nepal

and Bhutan (not recorded in Sir J.D. Hooker’s Flora

of British India). Dehra Dun.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

135

38. SOME LITTLE KNOWN AQUATIC PLANTS FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(With six text-figures)

The Garhwal Himalaya has been an attractive

resource reservoir of vegetational wealth. Several

botanists made floristic explorations in the region

from time to time (Hooker 1872-97, Duthie 1906,

Rau 1975, Kala and Gaur 1982, Naithani 1984,

Polunin and Stainton 1985). During a recent plant

exploration we collected some interesting and little

known plant species from remote localities. Nym-

phaea tetragona Georgi is a new report to this part of

Himalaya and the other plants reported here were

rarely collected by previous explorers. Brief descrip-

tions of the little known taxa are given with their

localities, occurrence, approximate elevation, and

collector’s herbarium number.

Plant specimens after proper documentation and

identification have been deposited in the Herbarium,

Botany Department, H.N.B. Garhwal University

(GUH), Srinagar.

Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix in Vill. Hist.

PI. Dauph. 1: 335. 1786. R. aquatillis L. var.

trichophyllus , Hook.f. FBI. 1: 16. 1872. (Ranun-

culaceae)

An annual, aquatic, floating herb. Stem slender,

branched, glabrous, green, up to 50 cm long. Leaves

all submerged, 2-4 cm long, capillanceo-multifid, ul-

timate segments up to 2 cm long in mature plants,

leaf-sheath broad, membranous, enclosing stem at the

base, continuous up to first division in leaf. Flowers

yellow, single from the nodes, pedicellate, pedicel 2-

3.75 cm long (in fruit); perianth segments 10 (12), 1

mm long, ovate; stamens 10; carpels 6-15 (20).

Achene 1.2-2 mm long, slightly warty.

Flowering and fruiting: August-October.

Distribution: Dalisera lake 3,600 m a.s.l.,

GUH - 15,357.

Previously, this plant has been recorded from

Western Himalaya by Hooker (1872) without any

definite locality and by Duthie (1906) from Guge

(Tibet). Since then it has not been recorded from this

part of the Himalayas.

Nymphaea tetragona Georgi, Reipe. Russ.

Reich. 1: 220. 1775. N. pygmoea Aiton, Hook. f. FBI.

1: 115. 1872. (Nymphaeaceae)

A herbaceous, rooted, submerged, perennial.

Rhizome small, covered with leaf sheaths and fibrous

roots. Leaves long, petioled, floating, shining above,

orbicular oblong with wavy margins, deeply cordate,

sagitate with diverging acute or rounded lobes, 4-7 x

4-10 cm. Flowers on long peduncles, 3-4 cm across,

flower bud rectangular at the base; sepals four, con-

nate at base, ovate, long pointed; petals 6-8 (10), yel-

low, elliptic, ovate, acute, cyclic; stamens numerous,

strap-shaped, yellow; carpel embedded in fleshy disc,

many in whorl. Fruit a berry, enclosed by persisting

sepals; seeds many, 1.0-1. 5 mm long, black.

Flowering and fruiting: June-September.

Distribution: Benital - Aadibadri 2130 m a.s.l.,

GUH - 14,062.

Hooker (1872) and Pollunin and Stainton

(1985) recorded the plant from Kashmir Himalaya.

However, there is no report from Garhwal or the

Kumaon Himalaya.

Hippuris vuglaris L. Sp. PI. 4. 1753; Hook.f.

FBI. 2: 432. 1878. (Hipp urid ace ae)

A rooted, submerged, aquatic herb, perennating

by stolons. Stem glabrous, ribbed, flaccid, noded, in-

temodes longer in submerged stem and shorter in

emergent stem, up to 1 m long. Leaves in whorl of

6-12, translucent, leaves 0.4-2.6 x 0.05-0.2 cm, linear

oblong, acute, sessile, midrib prominent. Flowers

tiny, solitary, sessile in axils of leaves on emergent

stem, mostly bisexual, sometimes unisexual; perianth

none; androecium reduced to single stamen;

epigynous; ovary inferior, style one, filiform, situated

in groove formed by the lobes of the single anther.

Fruit a drupe.

Flowering and fruiting: August-September.

Distribution: Dalisera lake 3,600 m a.s.l.,

GUH - 13,829.

Previously, this plant has been collected from

West Tibet by Falconer, T. Thomson, Strachey and

Winterbottom, and by Rau (1975) from Lahul

(Himachal Pradesh) and Kashmir.

Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl., Rel.

Heank. 1: 128. 1827; Hook. f. FBI. 6: 363. 1892.

(Pontedariaceae)

A herbaceous, rooted aquatic perennial.

Rootstock sub-erect, branched, rooting at nodes,

roots fibrous. Leaves on long petioles, above water

surface, ovate-cordate, acute. Flowers on 1-1.5 cm

long racemes, peduncles emerging from the sheaths

of uppermost leaves. Flowers pedicellate, pedicel

136

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

Figs. 1-6. Little known aquatic plants from Garhwal Himalaya.

1. Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix.; 1A. Achene; 2. Nymphaea tetragona Georgi; 2A. Fruit; 3.IIippuris vulgaris L.;

4. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl.; 4A. Fruit; 5. Alisma reniforme D. Don; 5A. Achene;

6. Zannichellia palustris L.; 6A. Achene.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

137

0.2-0.8 cm long (in fruiting), flowers blue, spotted

with violet; perianth campanulate, outer three green,

narrowly obovate, 0.6-1 cm long, inner three lilac

blue, 0.5-0.7 cm long; stamens six, one larger, blue,

five smaller, yellow; carpel one, stigma 3-lobed. Fruit

0.8 cm long. Seeds many, 0.05 cm long, brown.

Flowering and fruiting: July -September.

Distribution: Benital - Aadibadri 2130 m a.s.l.,

GUH- 15,143.

An aquatic species of the plains, previously it

was recorded from Augustmuni by Naithani (1984).

Alisma reniforme Don, Prodr. 22. 1825. Hook,

f. FBI. 6: 560. 1893 (Alismaiaceae).

An aquatic, rooted, perennial herb. Rootstock

small with fibrous roots. Leaves long, petioled,

reniform, lobes rounded, nerves 9-11, prominent

beneath, leaves shining above, tip rounded or emar-

ginate; scape long, up to 1.0 m long, emerging out of

water. Flowers white, 1.0-1.5 cm across, in very

large, whorled panicles; sepals three, green, obovate;

petals three, white, obovate, membranous, larger than

sepals; stamens six; carpels eight or more, not

whorled, style sub-terminal. Fruit an achene, black,

obovoid, dorsally ribbed.

Flowering and fruiting: August - September.

Distribution: Benital — Aadibadri, 2131 m

a .5.1., GUH- 15,261

This plant is common in the plains of India.

Refer

Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of Plants of Kumaon and of

the adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet based on

the collections of Strachey and Winterbottom during

the years 1846-1849. London.

Hooker J.D. (1872-1897): Flora of British India. Vols. 1- 7.

Reprinted by Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehra Dun.

Kala, S.P. & Gaur, R.D. (1982): A contribution to the Flora

of Gopeshwar (Chamoli Garhwal). In: The Vegeta-

However, only Duthie (1906) reported it from Baiz-

nath in Almora district (Kumaon).

Zannichellia palustris L., Sp. PI. 969. 1753;

Hook. f. FBI. 6: 568. 1893 (2L^nnichelliaceae).

A rooted, submerged, aquatic, delicate, silvery

shining, up to 31 cm long herb. Leaves opposite,

linear, long, 1-5 x 0.05-0.1 cm, tapering to a point,

stipules papery, sheathing stem but soon falling.

Flowers in axil of leaves, unisexual in a cup-shaped

spathe, one male and 2-6 female flowers together,

male flowers with one stamen, female flower with

one carpel, style long, slender, stigma oblique, pel-

tate. Achene as many as female flowers (2-6),

reniform, crested.

Flowering and fruiting : August-September.

Distribution: Dalisera lake 3,600 m a.s.l., in an

alpine zone, GUH - 14,616.

This plant has been recorded from salt marshes

and lagoons of India by Hooker (1892). Rau (1975)

mentioned the availability of this plant in north-west

Himalaya without any definite locality.

R.D. GAUR

D.S. RAWAT

February 9, 1992 L.R. DANGWAL

Dept, of Botany, University of Garhioal, Srinagar

(Garhwal), Uttar Pradesh 2 46 174

ENCES

tional Wealth of the Himalaya. Ed., G.S. Paliwal. pp.

347-413.

Naithani, B.D. (1984): Flora of Chamoli. Vols. 1 & 2.

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Polunin, O. & Stainton, A. (1985): Rowers of the

Himalaya. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Rau, M.A. (1975): High Altitude Flowering Plants of West

Himalaya. Calcutta.

39. NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR KARNATAKA

While investigating the flowering plants of

Dakshina Kannada (South Kanara) and Shimoga dis-

tricts of Karnataka, I collected 12 species of plants

not previously recorded from Karnataka. The follow-

ing list gives their correct nomenclature, distribution

and flowering and fruiting seasons. The species have

been arranged alphabetically. All specimens are

deposited at BSI and in the Herbarium of Poornapraj-

na College, Udupi.

1. Brachystelma edulis Coll. & Helmsl. in

Journ. Linn. Soc. 28: 89, t. 14. 1890; Yadav et al. in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 480. 1989.

(Asclepiadaceae)

Only recently, this species has been recorded in

India from Maharashtra (Yadav et al. loc. cit.). The

present record extends the range of distribution

138

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90

southwards along the west coast of peninsular India.

The tubers of this plant are edible. It is locally known

as ‘Devaragadde’, meaning God’s tuber.

Flowers and fruits: May.

Exsic.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Manipal,

growing in rocky soil, 15 May 1987, K.G. Bhat 3601.

2. Capparis floribunda Wight 111. 1: 33, t. 14.

1831. (Capparidaceae)

Although there are historical collections of this

plant from Malpe area, Udupi taluk (R.S. Raghavan,

pers. comm.), there is no record from Karnataka. Not

common, seen only in a few places around Udupi,

along hedges and in sacred groves.

Flowers: February -March. Fruits: April-May.

Exsic.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Udupi, grow-

ing in sacred groves, 5 February 1986, K.G. Bhat

1967; Same locality, 20 April 1986, K.G. Bhat 1968.

3. Cleome rutidosperma DC., Prodr. 1: 241.

1824; Babu & Majumdar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

71: 631. 1974. (Capparidaceae)

A frequent weed on roadsides and in waste land

in Mangalore and Udupi. This plant appears to be a

recent introduction to coastal Karnataka.

Flowers and fruits: More or less throughout

the year.

Exsic.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Udupi, grow-

ing in waste land, 12 September 1987, K.G. Bhat

7018.

4. Colocasia affinis Schott in Bonpland. 7: 28.

1859. (Araceae)

In India, this plant is originally known from

north-east India. It is common on walls during mon-

soon season in Mangalore and Udupi. This species

seems to be a recent introduction to coastal Kar-

nataka, mostly an escapee from gardens.

Flowers: September.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Udupi, grow-

ing on walls in shady places; 9 September 1987, K.G.

Bhat 1014.

5. Dioscorea pubera Bl., Enum. PI. Jav. 1: 21.

1827. D. anguinaRoxb., FI. Ind. 3: 803. 1832. (Dios-

coreaceae)

In India, this yam is so far recorded only from

Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and north-east India.

A rare plant, collected only once in vegetative condi-

tion.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Indrali,

Udupi, growing in moist shady place in a valley, 1

September 1987, K.G. Bhat 7010.

6. Gymnopetaluni cochincliinense (Lour.)

Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 40: 57. 1871. Bryonia

cochinchinensis Lour., FI. Cochinch. 595. 1790.

(Cucurbitaceae)

A rare plant, collected only once from Jamlabad

fortress, Belthangady taluk.

Flowers: September-October.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Jamalabad

Fortress, 1500 m Belthangady, 26 September 1990,

K.G. Bhat 9097.

7. Lindernia manilaliana Sivarajan in Kew

Bull. 31: 151. 1976. (Scrophulariaceae)

Earlier reported only from Calicut (Kerala). The

present record extends the range of distribution along

the west coast of peninsular India.

Flowers and fruits: September.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Barkur, grow-

ing in damp places, 2 September 1990, K.G. Bhat

9096.

8. Rotala nialampuzhensis R.V. Nair ex

Cooke in Boissiera 29: 98. 1979. (Lythraceae)

Earlier reported only from Kerala. Common

during monsoon in temporary pools and ponds on

rocky slopes.

Flowers and fruits: August-September.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Udupi, 12

September 1987, K.G. Bhat 7018.

9. Sagittaria guayanensis H.B.K. ssp. lappula

(D. Don) Bogin in Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gardn. 9: 192, f.

5. 1955. S. lappula D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 22.

1825. (Alismataceae)

A rare plant, collected only once, growing in

pools during monsoon.

Flowers and fruits: September-October.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Alevoor,

Udupi, 12 September 1987, K.G. Bhat 7020.

10. Sauropus saksenianus Manilal et al. in J.

Indian bot. Soc. 64: 294. 1985. (Euphorblaceae)

This species is so far known only from the type

locality, Silent Valley, Kerala state. It is quite likely

that this species may occur at many more localities in

the evergreen forests of Kerala and Karnataka.

Flowers and fruits: July-August.

Exsicc.: Shimoga dist.: Agumbe, growing in

evergreen forest, 14 August 1989, K.G. Bhat 8010.

11. Typlioniuni flagelliforme (Roxb. ex

Lodd.) Bl., Rumphia 1: 134. 1837. Arum flagel-

liforme Roxb. ex Lodd., Bot. Cab. 4: t. 396. 1819.

(Araceae)

Grows on roadsides in moist localities in Man-

galore and Udupi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

139

Flowers: September.

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: Udupi, 20

September 1990, K.G. Bhat 9080.

12. Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli in

DC., Monogr. Phan. 3: 82. 1881. Sagittaria triandra

Dalz. in Hook., Jour. Bot. 2: 144. 1850. (Aus-

mataceae)

. A rare plant, earlier reported only from

Maharashtra. Grows in temporary pools.

Flowers and fruits: September-October.

40. NEWLY RECORDED TAXA FROM

During the exploration of Great Nicobar forest

area one of us collected Ficus L., Rhaphidophora

Hassk. and Thallasia Banks ex Konig, later identified

as Ficus exasperata Vahl, Rhaphidophora eximia

Schott and Thallasia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers, a

sea grass. The occurrence of F. exasperata Vahl and

Rhaphidophora eximia Schott in Nicobar islands

shows an extended distribution to the Bay island as

they are known to occur in central to peninsular India

and north to eastern Himalaya including north-east

India. The genus Rhaphidophora contains only one

species in these islands so far, namely R. laciniata

(Burm.f.) Merr.

Den Hartog (1957) in his treatment of family

Hydrochartiaceae for Flora Malesiana, stated that

Thallasia hemprichii is distributed in E. Africa,

Seychelles, Red Sea, Sri Lanka, Malesia to West

Pacific (Riu-Kiu islands, Indo-China, New Ireland,

New Hanover, New Britain, New Caledonia and

Queensland). In India it is known from the coastal

region of Tamil Nadu. Jagtap (1985) in his list of sea

grasses occurring in Andaman and Nicobar islands

included T. hemprichii from the Andaman group.

Vasudeva Rao (1986) also confirmed the presence of

this species in the Andaman islands only on the basis

of the literature. This species is not represented in the

herbarium at Botanical Survey of India, Port Blair

(PBL).

T. hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers has been col-

lected from shallow water on the western coast of

Great Nicobar island. The availability of this sea

grass towards the extreme southern islands indicates

its extended range of distribution.

Rhaphidophora eximia Schott in Bonplandia

5: 45, 1857; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 547. 1893.

p.p. R. grandis Schott in Destr. Bot. Zeitschr 8: 349,

1858. (Araceae)

Exsicc.: Dakshina Kannada dist.: AJcvoor,

Udupi, 12 September 1987, K.G. Bhat 7021.

We are grateful to the authorities of BSI, MH

and BLAT for the facilities offered for referring to the

Herbaria.

June 12, 1992 K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHAT

Dept, of Botany, Poornaprajna College,

Udupi, Karnataka 576 101

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

Evergreen, semi -epiphytic, unarmed, climber

with fleshy stem. Leaves 40-60 x 10-13 cm, longer

than broad, oblong, pinnatisect, obliquely truncate at

base, acute at apex, unicostate; lateral nerves 4-7

pairs; petiole very stout, c. 20 cm long. Inflorescence

axillary, spathe deciduous, 25-30 cm long, oblong,

cuspidate, sub-corymbiform, not differentiated into a

‘tube’ and limb; spadix sessile or subsessile; flowers

naked, bisexual, completely and densely covering the

spadix. Stamens four, filament strap-shaped. Ovary

unilocular, stigma raised on the conical top of the

ovary, ovules many, anatropous on two parietal intru-

sive placentae at base. Berry many-seeded. Seeds

oblong to reniform, endospermous.

Flowers: July-September.

Distribution: INDIA - Tropical Himalayas,

Kumaon, Khasi hills and Nicobar Islands.

Exsicc.: Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Great

Nicobar 40 km N.S. Road, near Galathea river, 28

Sepember 1989, S.K. Srivastava 14923 (PBL).

Ecology: Climber on the tree with fleshy stem,

growing towards the inland forest in secondary for-

mation.

Thallasia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers in

Petermann’s Mitt. 17, 242. 1871; Aschers & Gurke in

E. & P. Nat. Pflanzenfam. 2, 1: 254. 1889; Back.,

Handb. FI. Java 1: 62. 1925; Sinclair in Gard. Bull.

Sing. 14, 35. 1953; Den Hartog in FI. Malesiana 1: 5,

406. 1957. Schizotheca hemprichii Ehrenb. Abh.

Berl. Ak. Wiss. 1832, 1 (1834) 429.

(Hydrociiaritaceae)

Roots with longitudinal air-channels, some

roots erect with thickened top. Leaves 10-40 x 0.4-

1.1 cm. Male plants with 1-2 inflorescence;

peduncles in the male plants c. 3 cm, those in female

plants 1-1.5 cm, after anthesis up to 2-4 cm. Spathal

segments lanceolate, acute, apices unequal, entire,

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90

persistent, 2-2.5 x 0.5 cm, with many short; brown;

male flower pedicellate, pedicels up to 3 cm; female

flowers subsessile or shortly pedicelled. Perianth seg-

ments revolute, light brown, 0.7-0.8 x 0.3 cm.

Stamens 3-12; anthers oblong, occasionally forked,

0.7-1. 1 x 0.1-0.13 cm. Ovary 1 cm long, conical,

rostrum 2-3 cm long; styles six at one-third from the

base, 1.5-2 cm long, split into two filiform arms, each

with two longitudinal grooves, curling and caducous

after anthesis, light brown. Fruit 2-2.5 x 1.75-3.25

cm, globose, rugose, light green, bursting open with

c. 20 valves. Seeds 3-9, 0.8 x 0.8 cm, basal portion

thickened, dark brown, cotyledons green.

Flowers: December-February. Fruits: March-

April.

Distribution: Throughout the entire tropical

region of the Indian Ocean. East Africa, Seychelles,

Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China, Indo-China, New

Ireland, New Britain, New Caledonia.

Exsicc.: Andaman and Nicobar islands: Great

Nicobar, Near Alexandra river towards east-west, 23

June 1991, S.K. Srivastava 21030 (PBL).

Ecology: Growing on muddy coral-sand in

sheltered, shallow water on tidal flat in open bay

where water and wave action are not so strong. These

forms together with other species, e.g. Gracillaria ,

Amphrioa and Helimida sp. form submarine

meadows.

Ficus exasperata Vahl, Enum. PI. 2: 197, 402.

1806; Corner in Garden Bull. Singapore 21: 74,

1965; Corner in Dassan. & Fosb. Rev. Handb. FI.

Ceylon 3: 274, 1981. F. serrata Forsk. FI. Aeg. Arab.

179, 1775. non L. F. asperiana Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 554,

1832. (Moraceae)

Small to medium sized deciduous tree, twigs

0.15-0.8 cm thick, brown. Leaves 11-16 x 5-6 cm,

narrowly to widely elliptic, ovate to obovate or

oblong-lanceolate, cuneate at base, acute to acumi-

nate at apex, denticulate or sinuate-crenate to serrate

at margins, scabrid on both sides, hard coriaceous;

lateral nerves 3-5 pairs; petioles 2-4 cm long; stipules

short in pair, caducous. Figs axillary, mostly solitary,

scabrid, ripening yellow; pedicels 0.4-0.8 cm long

with 2-3 small scattered bracts. Male flowers ostiolar,

sessile, in 1-2 rings; petals 3-4, oblong-spathulate.

Stamens one. Gall flowers sessile to pedicellate;

sepals 4-6, lanceolate. Ovary sessile, white, style

pink. Female flowers as the gall. Seeds 0.12-0.14 x

0.08-0.1 cm, shortly oblong, slightly keeled, distinct-

ly reticulate.

Flowers and Fruits: July-November

Distribution: India: Central, south India,

Nicobar islands; Arabia; East Africa; Sri Lanka.

Ecology: Small tree growing along Calamus in

inland forests.

Exsicc.: Andaman and Nicobar islands: Great

Nicobar, 19 km E-W Road, 24 September 1989, S.K.

Srivastava 14866 (PBL).

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of

India, Calcutta for facilities. Thanks are also due to

Scientist ‘SD’ - In-charge, Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman and Nicobar Circle, Port Blair for en-

couragement.

S.K. SRIVASTAVA

February 9, 1992 RAMESH KUMAR

Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair 744 102

References

Den IIartog (1957): Hydrocharitaceae 381-413. Flora Utilization Assocation, Madras.

Malesiana 1 : 5, 406. Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the

Jagtap, T.G. (1985): Studies on Littoral flora of Andaman angiosperms of Andaman-Nicobar Islands. J. Econ.

Islands. Marine Plants. 43-50. Seaweed Research and Tax. Bot. 8(1): 148.

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(AS

IH

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY

URAL

HISTORY

SOCIETY

Vol. 90, No. 2

August 1993

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J. C. DANIEL

V

M. R. ALMEIDA

P. V. BOLE

M. K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B. F. CHHAPGAR

B. V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A. R. RAHMANI

J. S. SAMANT

J. S. SERRAO

E. G. SILAS

J. S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

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Hombill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society

VOLUME 90 (2): AUGUST 1993

Date of Publication : 24-1-1994

CONTENTS

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS: A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CHALLENGE TO GEOLOGY (With five text-figures)

By Lawrence W. Swan 141

ON THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF TWO SYMPATRIC FLYING SQUIRRELS OF WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

By N. V. K. Ashraf, A. Kumar and AJ. T. Johnsingh 158

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST IN

PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (With nine text-figures)

By P. Balasubramanian and P. V. Bole 163

STUDIES ON THE ULTRA STRUCTURES OF ANTENNA OF Cylas formicarius FAB.

(With three plates)

By S. Daniel Wesley, M. Gladstone and A. Mohan Daniel 178

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS IN RELATION TO AQUATIC VEGETATION AND WATER

CHEMISTRY (With seven text-figures)

By C. R. Aji th Kumar and D. D. Mittal 181

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HIS TOIRE NATURELLE DES OISEAUX D’ AFRIQUE BY

FRANQOIS LEVAILLANT

By L. C. Rookmaaker 193

ECOFLORISTIC STUDIES ON THE CHASMOPHYTIC ANGIOSPERMS ON THE FORTWALLS OF PADMANAB-

HAPURAM PALACE (With two text-figures)

ByP.Prema 206

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF THE TYPE-SPECIES OF SOME OPHIDERINES (LEPIDOPTERA : NOCTUI-

DAE) (With thirty two text-figures)

By Ajay Srivastava and H. S. Rose , 213

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF J apalura tricarinata AND/. Polygonata (SAURIA : AGAMIDAE) (With

two colour plates , five black-and-white plates and twenty five text-figures)

By W. Kastle, H. H. Schleich and K. B. Shah 223

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST RECORD OF GENUS Diprion SCHRANK (HYMENOPTERA : SYMPHYTA : DIPRIONIDAE) FROM INDIA,

WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES (With five text-figures)

By MalkiatS. Saini and Amarinder S. Thind 263

A NEW GENUS OF ANTHURIDAE (CRUSTACEA : ISOPODA : ANTIIURIDEA) FROM VISAKHAPATNAM

COAST (With seventeen text-figures)

By C. Jalaja Kumari, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari 265

Aenhenrya: A NEW GENUS OF ORCHIDACEAE FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

(With nine text-figures)

ByR. Gopalan 270

Gnathia bengalensis, A NEW SPECIES OF GNATHIDAE (CUSTACEA: ISOPODA: GNATHIIDEA) FROM VISAK-

HAPATNAM COAST (With two text-figures)

By C. Jalaja Kumari, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari 273

REVIEWS

THE CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

Reviewed by M. R. Almeida 279

ENVIRONMENT, FOREST ECOLOGY AND MAN IN THE WESTERN GHATS

Reviewed by P. V. Bole 279

A GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THAILAND

Reviewed by Pamela C. Rasmussen and

Bharat Bhushan 280

PLANTS AND HARAPPAN SUBSISTENCE: AN EXAMPLE OF STABILITY AND CHANGE

FROM ROJDI

Reviewed by M. R. Almeida 282

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Elephant calf predation by tiger Panthera

tigris in dalma wildlife sanctuary, Bihar

By Hemant S . Datye 284

BIRDS

2. Occurrence of the lesser frigate bird Fregata

minor (( Gmelin) in Andhra Pradesh

By Prakash Rao and K. K. Mohapatra 284

3. Incident involving a snake and a purple heron

Ardea puipurea (Linn.)

By J. N. Prasad, S. Karthikeyan and

S.Subramanya 285

4. The white stork Ciconia ciconia (Linn.) at

Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu

By Ranjit Manakadan 285

5. Voice of Bly th ’s baza Aviceda jerdoni

jerdoni (Bly th)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 285

6 . The crested honey huzza rd Pernis ptilorhyn-

cus (Temminck) breeding in Kerala

By K. K. Neelakantan 286

7. Eastern Goshawk in Bangalore

ByS.Subramanya, J. N. Prasad and

S. Karthikeyan 288

8. Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca savigny win-

tering in south east Rajasthan

By Rakesh Vyas 289

9. Painted spurfowl Galloperdix lunulata

(Valenciennes) in Sariska Tiger Reserve,

Rajasthan ,

By K. Sankar 289

10. The coot Fulica atra Linnaeus breeding fur-

ther south in the Indian Peninsula

By N. R Nadarajan, P.A. Azeez and

C. R. Ajithkumar 289

11. On a possible sight record of the little gull

Lams minutus Pallas in Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 290

12. Recent sighting of bluebearded bee-eater

Nyctyornis athertoni (Jardine & Selby)

By S. Karthikeyan and J.N. Prasad 290

13. Sighting of black bulbul Hypsipetes mada-

gascariensis (P. L. S. Muller) in Gaya, Bihar

By Rashid H. Raza 291

14. Fruit eating by sunbirds of the genus

Nectarinia in Sri Lanka

By Thilo W. Hoffmann 291

15. Patterns of nest beautification by Black-

throated weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis

(L.) in Eastern Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 292

16. Nest beautification by

Ploceus benghalensis (L.)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 295

REPTILES

17. On the breeding of the Green Calotes Calotes

calotes (Linn.)

By S. Karthikeyan 295

18. Feeding ecology of Psammophilus

blanfordanus (Stoliczka)

By Ch. Aruna, T. Byragi Reddy and

M. V. Subba Rao

295

19. Feeding ecology of Amphiesma stolata

(Linn.)

By Ch. Aruna, T. Byragi Reddy and

M. V. Subba Rao 297

20. Additional markings above hood marking in

Indian (Binocellate) Cobra, Naja naja naja

by S. N. Rao Addoor 298

21. Length record of the common wolf snake

Lycodon aulicus from the Shevaroys

ByS.Karthikeyan 298

AMPHIBIANS

22. Record of the frog Kaloula pulchra Gray

1831 at Mal-samot, Bharuch dist., Gujarat

State

By Y. M. Naik, K. R. Vinod and

Chintan Patel 299

FISHES

23. Ichthyo-fauna of Sariska Wildlife ‘Sanctuary

By C. R. Ajith Kumar and K. Sankar 299

INSECTS

24. Maternal behaviour in a web spinner

Pseudembia flava Ross

(Embioptera : Insecta)

By C. Rita 300

25. Unusual feeding by termites

By Dhirendra Bhargava 301

26. Some observations on life cycle of the

common Jezebel Delias eucharis Drury

By N. Chaturvedi and M. R. Almeida 302

27. How do the butterflies raise their

temperature on cold and misty days

By T. Ganesh and M. Soubadra Devy 303

28. Catopsilia pomona Fabricius

(Lepidoptera : Pieridae) at high elevation in

the U.P. Himalaya

By Peter Smetacek 303

Annual Report

Auditors Report

Accounts

Minutes of the AGM

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

29. Occurrence of Copidognathus sideus

Bartsch, 1982 (Halacaridae : Acari) from In-

dian coast

By Tapas Chatterjee and A. L. N. Sarma 304

BOTANY

30. Bauhinia omata Kurz and B. touranensis

Gagnep. (Leguminosae) new to India

By S. Bandyopadhyay and

B.D.Sharma 308

31. Additions to the Myrsinaceous flora of Burma

By G. S. Giri, S. K. Das

andM.P.Nayar 310

32. Seismonastic movement of stamens of

Opuntia dillenii

By Satish Kumar Sharma 311

33. Flower-visitors and Pollination of

Adhatoda zeylanica Nees (Acanthaceae)

By T. Byragi Reddy, C. Subba Reddy and

S.N. Reddy 312

34. Remirea maritima Aubl . (Cyperaceae) — A

new record to the sedge flora of Andhra

Pradesh

By K. Hanumanthappa and T. Pullaiah 314

35. On the occurrence of Panicum elegantis-

simurn Hook. f. (Poaceae) in India.

By R. R. Jha and S. K. Varma 316

36. Some notes on grasses of Bihar

By R. R. Jha and S. K. Varma 317

37. Some new records of Pteridophytes from

Garhwal Himalaya

By R. D. Gaur and Preeti Paninuli 318

38. Contribution to the flora of Manipur

By Hijam Bikramjit Singh 320

39. Addition to the flora of Orissa — I

By II. N. Subudhi and B. P. Choudhury 322

40. Five new additions to the flora of

Karnataka

By B. R. Ramesh and J. P. Pascal 323

327

341

348

363

'"Y

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

August 1993 Vol. 90 No. 2

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS: A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL

CHALLENGE TO GEOLOGY1

Lawrence W. Swan2

(With five text-figures)

Key words: Biogeography, Herpetofauna, Himalaya, Sikkim, Garo Hills, Khasi Hills, Mikir

Hills, Assam, Satpura Range, Rajmahal Hills, Tibet, Seismology, Earthquakes

The "Satpura Hypothesis" involved a speculation that there had been a mountainous link between

the Himalaya and Peninsular India, a concept that was denied by geologists. The present report derives

from biogeographical similarities between the eastern Himalaya and the Garo-Khasi-Mikir Hills

complex suggesting that these Hills were once situated between the Rajmahal Hills and the Himalaya

to provide a mountainous passage for biota between the Himalaya and the Satpura Range. This proposal

is supported by geological, seismological and geographical data including the observation that a large

rifting has occurred to create the Rajmahal-Garo Gap. The "Assam Thumb" and the "Kashmir Finger"

are described to suggest that the Himalaya are being thrust and stretched eastward and northwestward.

The challenge in the title refers to an enig-

ma. The mountain regions of peninsular India

are separated from the Himalaya by the Indus-

Ganges and Brahmaputra plains because of the

historical depression of the Indian Plate along

the Himalayan front as it converged upon the

Tibetan portion of the Asian Plate. How then

have many animals and plants from the moun-

tainous regions of southern Asia managed to

cross the plains and populate the mountains of

peninsular India? Several explanations have

been offered.

Accepted November 1992.

2Professor of Biology Emeritus, 1032 Wilmington Way,

Redwood City, California 94062, U.S.A.

The most universally accepted answer as-

sumed that during the various phases of Pleis-

tocene glaciation, the lowered temperatures of

the region allowed more temperate forests to

range across the plains and create a pathway for

montane species to cross the barrier. There are

several problems with this explanation, the chief

of which concerns the distribution of torrential

fishes and frogs that can live only in swift water

and could not, in any knowable way, cross the

flat lands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra plains.

The eggs of such species in this category may

have been carried on the feet of birds, a some-

times-used biogeographical excuse that is called

upon when all else fails, seems untenable. This

is the enigma.

142

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

The biogeographical basis: In 1937, the

eminent ichthyologist and zoogeographer

Sunder Lai Hora presented what came to be

known as the "Satpura Hypothesis" which

proposed an extension of the Satpura Range that

now crosses peninsular India in WSW to ENE

direction. He envisaged a lost mountainous con-

nection between the present terminus of Sat-

puras, the Rajmahal hills of Bihar, and the Garo-

Khasi-Mikir hills (GKM complex) of Assam

which lie approximately in line with the Satpuras

(Fig. 1). But this Rajamahal-Garo Gap is now

250 km of alluvium through which the Ganges

and Brahmaputra make their way to the Bay of

Bengal. Geologists denied the existence of any

such mountainous feature either recently or in

the long past. There just was no residual evidence

of these lost mountains. It was now that

biologists constructed the alternative route

through the Pleistocene forests of the plains.

Hora, however, knew that several genera of

torrential cyprinoid fishes, such as Homaloptera,

B alitor a , Bhavania and Thynnichthys with

south-east Asian and Himalayan distributions,

were also found in the mountains of peninsular

India, including the species Balitora brucei

which was known only from the eastern

Himalaya and southern India.

He could not give up on some mountainous

connection across the plains. Not being satisfied

with the Pleistocene forest solution, he

proceeded to grasp at some rather imaginative

ideas of how torrential fishes could have crossed

these plains. He invoked with seeming despera-

tion, the fact that the sea surface depression

during the Pleistocene could have left the land in

the Rajmahal-Garo Gap 200 m above sea level

so that some fast water could be found in the area

(Hora 1951). Eventually, the Pleistocene

climatic version of the "Satpura Hypothesis"

took root and Hora ceased to publish on his

favourite idea after 1953 and in later years even

some of his proposals about older Tertiary cross-

ings of fish into peninsular India have been

negated by more recent fossil evidence (Sahni

1982).

In 1947 when I was completing my

Master’s thesis on the distribution of amphibians

and reptiles in southern Asia at Stanford Univer-

sity, I received a letter from Hora inquiring if any

of my studies had revealed evidence concerning

the "Satpura Hypothesis". I answered in the neg-

tive except for the then known presence of 3

montane tortoises and 2 lizards that were com-

mon to Parasnath Hill (1463 m) in the Rajmahal

Hills and the Darjeeling-Sikkim area of the east-

ern Himalaya. One of these lizards, Leiolopisma

sikkimense , is found only in the Rajmahal Hills

and the eastern Himalaya (Hora reported on this

link in 1949). I assumed at that time (but not

now) that such an island population could have

been isolated after crossing forested plains. But

my studies had indeed revealed that there was an

astonishing relationship between the eastern

Himalaya and the hills of Assam across the wide

Brahmaputra valley (Swan 1947, Swan and

Leviton 1962). At that time this knowledge did

not seem to relate to the "Satpura Hypothesis,"

but over the years the Himalayan frogs, lizards

and snakes that now live in the hills of

Meghalaya kept insisting that their presence

there was not accidental.

How could 70% of the montane her-

petofauna of the Sikkim-Darjeeling region be

found in the Khasi Hills near Shillong? There are

154 species of amphibians and reptiles (41 frogs,

caecilians and salamanders, 8 tortoises and

turtles, 23 lizards and 82 snakes) in the Sikkim-

Darjeeling region (Table 1). Ofthese species, 52

are found on both the plains and in the mountains

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

143

Table 1

HERPETOFAUNA OF THE DARJEELING-SIKKIM REGION

SPECIES OF BOTH PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS

AMPHIBIA

1. Bufostomaticus

2. Bufo melanostictus

3. Mfcrohylaornata

4. Microhyto rubra

5. Polypedates maculatus

6. Ranacyanophlictis

7. Rana limnochans

8. Rana tlgerfna

9 Jomopterna brevtceps

TESTUDINES

10. Chitra indica

1 1. Kachuga dhonkoka

12. Kachuga kachuga

13. Lissemys punctata

14. Trionyx gangeticus

SAURIA

15. Calotesversloojor

1 6. Hem idactyl us bowrlngl

1 7. Hem idactyl us frenatus

18. Mabuyacarlnata

19. Rtopaalbopunctata

20. Si tana ponticeriana

21. Varanus monitor

22. Varanus salvator

SERPENTES

23. AhaetullaahaetuIJa

24. Bolga ceylonensis

25. Boigacynodon

26. Bolga forsteni

27. Bolga gokool

28. Bolga trigonata

29. Bungarus lividus

30. Bungarus niger

31. Chrosopeleaornata

32. Dendrelaphis trlstis

33. Dryophis frontlcinctus

34. Elachistodon westermanni

35. Elaphe helena

36. Elaphe radiata

37. Enhydris enhydris

38. Lycodon aullcus

39. Lycodon Jat'a

40. Naja naja

41. Matrix piscator

42. Natrix stolata

43. Oligodon albooinctus

44. Oligodon cinereus

45. Ophiophagus hannah

46. Pareas macularius

47. Ptyas mucosus

48. Python molurus

49. Trimeresuruserythrurus

50. Typhlops bramtnus

51. Typhlops porrectus

52. Vipers russelli

MOUNTAIN SPECIES CONFINED TO THE SIKKIM-DARJEELIN6 REGION

AMPHIBIA

f , Amolops monticole

2, IchthyoDhtssIkklmensIs

3, Megophrys robusta

4, Philautusargus ( 1)

5, Philautusdubius*

6, Philautus simus*

7, Ranaannandalli

8, Ranagammiei*

9, Rana smchalensis*

1 0, Rhacophorus himalayensis*

1 1, Rhacophorus microdiscus*

SAURIA

1 2. Cyrtodactylus gubernatons

1 3. Japalura andersonlana

1 4. Japalura tricannata ( 2)

15. Japalura variegata

16. Mtctopholisaustemana

SERPENTES

17. Ahaetulla prasina

18. Dendrelaphis p ictus

19. Dinodongammtei

20. Oligodon juglandifer

2 1 . Oltdodon melaneus

22. Oligodon melazonotu

23. Trachischium guentheri (2)

24. Trachischium tenuiceps (2)

25. Typhlops ollgolepis

144

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Table 1 (Contd.)

MONTANE SPECIES THAT EXTEND BEYOND THE DARJEELING-SIKKIM REGION

AMPHIBIA

1 . Amolops afghanus ( 5)

2. Amolops formosus (5)

3. Bufo himalayanus (4)

4. Megophrys major *(5)

5. Megophrys parva ( 5)

6. Phllautusandersonl (5)

7. Phllautusannandalli (4)

8. Polypedates leucomystax (5)

9. Ranaalticola(5)

1 0. Rana assamensis (4)

1 1. Rons blonfordi (5)

12. Ranagerbillus (4)

13. Rana leiblgei (6)

14. Rana Itvida (5)

15. Ranaslklmensls (4)

1 6. Rhacophorus bipunctatus ( 5)

1 7. Rhacophorus jerdonli ( 4)

1 8. Rhacophorus maximus ( 5)

19. Rhacophorus tuberculatus (4)

20. Scuttger slkklmensls (6)

2 1 . Tylototriton verrucosa ( 6)

TESTUDINES

22. Geoemyda tricar Inata (3)

23. Geoemyda trljuga ( 3)

24. Testudo elongate ( 3) & ( 5)

SAURIA

25. DracomacuJatu$(6)

26. Cosymbotus platyurus (6)

27. Ltymnodactylus khaslensls ( 5)

28. Hemidactylusgarnoti (5)

29. Lelolopismasikkimense(3)

30. Mabuya multlfasclata (5)

31. Ophlsaur us gracilis (5)

32. Spenomorphus courcyanum (4)

33. Sphenomorphus indlcum ( 5)

34. -Sphenomorphus maculatum (3) &(5)

SERPENTES

35. Agklstrodon hlmalayanus (6)

36. Blythla reticulata (5)

37. Bolgacyanea (5)

38. Bolga multlfasclata (6)

39. Bolga ochracea ( 5)

40. Bolga multlfasclata ( 6)

4 1 Bungarus bungaroldes ( 5)

42, Callophls macclellandl (5)

43, Dendrelaphlscyanochlorls (6)

44, Dendrelaphlsgorel (5)

45, Dlnodon septentrional Is (5)

46, Elaphe cantoris (5)

47, Elaphe hodgson i (5)

48, Elaphemandarina (6)

49, Elaphe porphyracea (5)

50, Elaphe prasina (5)

51 Elaphe taenlura (6)

52, Liopeltls frenatus (5)

53. Liopeltls rappi (6)

54. Liopeltls stoliczkae (6)

55. Lycodonfasclatu$(5)

56. Natrlx hlmalayana (5)

57. Natrlx khaslensls (5)

58. Natrlx parallela (5)

59. Natrlx platyceps (5)

60. Natrlx subminiata (5)

6 1 . Ollgodon erythrogaster ( 6)

62. P areas montlcola ( 5)

63. Psammodynastes pulverulentus (5)

64. Pseudoxenodon macrops (6)

65. Ptyaskorros (5)

66. Rhabdops blcolor (5)

67. Slbynophiscollaris (6)

68. Trachlschium fuscum (6)

69. Trachlschium montlcola (4)

70. Trlmeresurusolbolobrls (5)

7 1 . Trimeresurus montlcola ( 5)

72. Trimeresurus popeorum (5)

73 Trimeresurus stejnegerl (5)

74, Typhlopsbothrlorhynchus(6)

75, Typhlops jerdoni (5)

76, Typhlopstenulcollls(6)

77, Zaocys nlgi'omarginatus (5)

* Not listed in D.R.Frost ( 1985). ( I ) Species extending into neighboring Arunachal Pradesh.

(2) Species extending into neighboring eastern Nepal, (3) Species also found in the Raj Mahal

Hills. (4) Species confined to the Darjeeling-Sikkim Region and the Khasi Hills. (5) Species in

both the Darjeeling-Sikkim Region and the Khasi Hills and elsewhere. ( 6) Darjeeling-Sikkim

species not found in the Khasi Hi I Is.

This listing derives primarily from a review of the scattered literature up to 1947 (L.W.Swan)

and checked for Himalayan species in 1962 (-Swan and Leviton). The recent synopsis of

amphibian species of the world compiled by D.R.Frost in 1 985 and a listing of amphibian species

of India by R.F.Inger and S.K.Dutta in 1987 allows some corrections in terminology and

distribution among the amphibia but there remains no equivalent synopsis of reptiles and,

presumably, many additions and deletions could ensue in the future. It should also be noted that

the original concentration of species in the Darjeeling-Sikkim region has been diluted with

further collections from eastern Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh.

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

145

Fig. 1. Geographical features assoicated with the Satpura Hypothesis.

146

i'

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

and are therefore deleted for they could now

cross the plains between the two areas.

Of the remaining montane species, 25 are

confined to the Sikkim-Darjeeling region and

nowhere else so that they are deleted as a factor

in this relationship. It is the last category of 77

species of amphibians and reptiles that are found

only in mountains but which extend their ranges

outside of the Sikkim-Darjeeling region that are

considered (Fig. 2 and Table 1). These species,

today, can cross only from the Sikkim- Darjeel-

ing area to the Khasi Hills of Shillong by way of

mountains. Whereas Shilling and Darjeeling are

only some 350 km apart in a direct line, the

mountainous connection around the rim of

Assam and northern Burma is fully 2000 km.

That two ends of extended mountainous system

should have such a similarity (54 out of 77

species) seem too much for mere coincidence

and even with the possibility of Pleistocene

crossings, this sort of wholesale transfer across

the plains appears to be too much. Nevertheless,

the species similarity suggests a separation that

was not too distant in the past and points to a late

Pliocene or Pleistocene event.

In looking further into this relationship it

can be found that 9 species are confined to only

the Sikkim-Darjeeling region and the Shillong

area. And to help tighten the correlation between

the eastern Himalaya and the Khasi Hills of

Shillong, there is the curious association among

torrential frogs. At least two species of swift

water frogs of the genus Amolops ( Staurois ), A.

afghanus and A. formosus , whose tadpoles have

ventral suckers to prevent them from being

washed away and which can only survive in the

rapid water of mountains, are common to the

eastern Himalaya and the khasi Hills. These

more obvious torrential species are accompanied

by several other species that can only survive in

mountainous streams and could not cross plains,

forested or otherwise.

Since the mountainous link of 2000 km

between the Sikkim-Daijeeling region and the

Khasi Hills remains too distant a relationship,

how then could there be such similarity between

the ends of this long chain of highlands? Perhaps

these ends were closer in the past. Perhaps the

Khasi Hills were once adjacent to the Himalaya.

Perhaps these hills once lay between the Raj-

mahal Hills at the eastern extreme of the Satpura

Range and connected the Himalaya with penin-

sular India. Such thoughts could only be a fan-

tasy in Hora’s time. Hora’s frustration occurred

before the advent of Plate Tectonics and a world

where not only continents moved but where the

land shifts and pushes and remolds its geog-

raphy.

The Assam Thumb: The GKM complex is

composed of the same Archaen basement

granitics that form most of India (Fig. 3). It could

be interpreted as a segment removed from India

or a separate island. Being some 250 km east of

the Rajmahal Hills, the terminus of the Satpura

Range, the positioning of the GKM complex

suggests that it could not have been where it is

when India, in its northward movement, ap-

proached the remainder of Asia because, to the

south, the Arakan Yoma of Burma would deny a

northward movement for the GKM complex

(Fig- 1)-

There is no evidence to indicate that the

Arakan Yoma have moved westward or emerged

from the Bay of Bengal in the last few million

years. It would appear that the folded and parallel

ranges of the Arakan Yoma have actually been

pressed eastward to correlate with the general

eastward thrust of the region. From the geog-

raphy of the present it would seem that there is

no way the GKM complex could have been an

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

147

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148

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Bengal-Tibetan Graben

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6 Chedrang-Garo Fault

Indus -Tsangpo Ophiolite Belt

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mw

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Sedlmentaries etc.

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o o o o

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Archaen Granitics

A Garo-khasi Segment

B Mikir Hills Segment

C Assam Inselbergs

Fig. 3. Geology of India simplified to indicate the digression of the Archaen Granitics of Assam.

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

149

island and we are left with the supposition that it

has broken off the Indian mainland and moved

eastward.

In terms of the present geography, if the

most eastward portion of the Mikir Hills (93°50')

could pass the most westward extension of the

Arakan Yomas (91° 10') in a northward move-

ment, the eastward shifting of the GKM complex

would amount to a movement of 290 km (approx.

6 cm per year over 4.8 million years) and the

Garo and Khasi Hills would originally have been

situated north and adjacent to the Rajmahal Hills

of the Satpura Range (to approximately 87°) and

fill the gap between the Satpura and the

Himalaya.

The Arakan Yoma are aligned in a SSE to

NNW direction and this alignment is abruptly

altered northeastward into the continuing folded

and parallel ranges of the Naga and Patkoi Hills

which appear to have been thrust into this con-

figuration by the GKM complex movement. The

recency of the GKM complex in its present posi-

tion is suggested by the lack of sediments at its

base. Various strata that in places cover the

southern aspect of the Archaen rocks of the

GKM complex (Dharwarian, Vindyan and

Upper Gondwana etc.) could be related to similar

formations overlying the basement formation of

the Rajmahal Hills and Bihar (Kumar 1985) al-

though I still await an analysis of the similarity

between Bihar and Khasi fossils. I would hope

that such a study would be supportive.

If the Garo-Khasi-Mikir Hills (GKM) com-

plex was once contiguous with the Himalaya and

connected with the Satpura there would be no

outlet for Himalayan rivers into the Bay of Ben-

gal. Therefore a large lake could be hypothesized

with a likely outlet via the Son River and the

Narmada River to the Arabian Sea (Fig. 1).

Wadia (1944) has noted that both these rivers

whose headwaters now show a close and broad

proximity have extensive sanded and broad al-

luvial valleys that indicate they were much larger

in the past and were most probably joined

together to form an outlet for an ancient Ganges

to the Arabian Sea. He had no good answer as to

why the Ganges would go so far out of its way

to find the sea and so the GKM as an extension

of the Satpuras to join the Himalaya would also

explain this geographical curiosity.

The eastward movement of Assam, the

Assam Thumb, involving the GKM complex

appears to apply to an eastward shifting of the

whole Brahmaputra Valley and the easternmost

Himalaya. The Siwalik Hills of Miocene age that

fringe the southern rim of most of the Himalaya

are, in the eastern Himalaya, scattered and dis-

joined (Gansser 1964) as if they had been at-

tenuated by a stretching movement. Further-

more, they do not fringe the Himalaya as outly-

ing hills as they do in the more central Himalaya

and lie appressed to the main Himalaya so that

the Himalaya east of Nepal rise abruptly from the

plains. Extensive eastward bending syntaxes

characterize the mountains along the eastern rim

of Assam and the antecedent rivers of the

easternmost Himalaya, such as the Subansiri and

the Tsangpo-Dihang-Brahmaputra, are strongly

bent into eastward-bending arcs. Both of these

large rivers could relate directly with the

Chindwin or Irrawaddy Rivers of Burma except

for the assumed eastward thrust of the GKM

complex.

The eastern portion of the Tibetan Plateau

has also shifted eastward (Molnar 1986a, 1986b

Armijo et al. 1986) perhaps in accompaniment

with the Himalayan movement and appears to

have so elongated the Tsangpo (Yarlung) River

that it has formed large lakes in the past and, with

an empty gorge or wind gap linking the Tsangpo

150

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

and the Arun River (near Lhatze, 87° 40') may

have once flowed westward into the Arun

drainage. This is supported by several, large,

upstream tributaries of the Tsangpo east of the

Arun drainage and a very low down-slope of the

river. I have seen this evidence that is amply

supported by satellite images.

Relating to the eastward movement of the

Himalaya is the phenomenon of a greatly

lowered crest-line (Fig. 4) that could be a result

of attenuation owing to stretching movements.

The depressed altitude is, however, terminated

abruptly with the enormous elevation of Namcha

Barwa (7753 m) that suggests an accumulative

effect as the Himalaya impinge upon the ranges

of eastern Tibet.

The eastward thrust of the Assam Thumb

has seemingly altered the configuration of the

land to the east of it. A most notable feature of

the earth, and unique to the earth, is the parallel

arrangement of the Salween, Mekong and

Yangtse as they emerge from Tibet and are,

together, scarcely 60 km apart (Fig. 1) with

knife-like ridges separating them that sometimes

rise over 6000 m.

It would appear that these giant river gorges

have been thrust into close proximity by the

eastward movement and that, rather than by the

coincidence of the arced and parallel faulting

arrangement of this land, the whole region has

been squeezed and been pushed eastward. It

would seem that this trio of large rivers was once

a quartet because the alignment of the Nmai (or

Taron) portion of the Irrawaddy with the upper

Chayul River and Taron) portion of the Irrawad-

dy with the upper Chayul River and the Nagong

and Yigrong Rivers is remarkable. The latter two

rivers of Tibet flow in a common valley directly

at each other to join and abruptly flow at a 90°

angle into the Tsangpo. This rare arrangement

clearly suggests that they were once part of a

single river. This ancient Irrawaddy seems to

have been broken into 4 portions by the Assam

Thumb movement.

The Kashmir Finger: If the Assam move-

ment resembles an eastward thrusting Assam

Thumb, then, by analogy, a Kashmir Finger of

the "hand" of India thrusts northwestward. The

many geographical features that support the ex-

istence of an Assam Thumb are duplicated in part

by this kashmir Finger as it finally abuts against

the Hindu Kush.

The far western Himalaya have a similar

depression along the crest line suggesting a

spreading, attenuating western movement (Fig.

4). This proposed western movement is similarly

capped by an enormous terminus mountain,

Nanga Parbat (8108 m), implying an accumulat-

ing phenomenon as the Himalaya impinge upon

the Hindu Kush just as Namcha Barwa in the east

has contacted the ranges of eastern Tibet. The

geographical duplication of enormous summits

at the two extremes of the Himalaya suggests a

common geological process that seems to be

related to the east-northwest expansion of the

range.

To my mind there are no other mountain

ranges of the world with such characteristic pin-

nacles at each end. Immense syntaxes that bend

toward the northwest characterize the geology of

the far western Himalaya, and the major rivers

of the western Himalaya, the Indus, Jhelum and

Chenab are bent strongly westward to mimic the

eastward bends of the Subansiri and Dihang.

Some of these rivers, presumably, date back to

the Miocene with the first broad elevation of

Central Asia to antedate the final upthrust of the

Himalaya and thus they traverse the present

Crestline. One would not easily assume that their

original courses were bent in this fashion.

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

151

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152

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Seismic Data: These various observations

of spreading thrusts are capped by seismic data

that strongly suggest eastward and

northwestward movements (Fig. 5). Con-

centrated knots of both shallow and deep

earthquakes coincide at the tips of the Kashmir

Finger and the Assam Thumb (U.S. Geological

Survey 1974, Teng and Lin 1984). The Hindu

Kush zone of deep earthquakes (up to 300 km

deep), as well as the northern Burma knot (of

similar depth) near Assam, represent a pair of

concentrated deep earthquake zones that are uni-

que in that they involve continental lithospheric

movements as common rather than sporadic

events. In this they strangely resemble localized

oceanic crustal subduction.

These twin anomalies of ultradeep con-

tinental earthquakes appear to be indicative of

some as yet overlooked Plate behavior that

seems to be related to the spreading activity

within the Himalaya. No such deep earthquake

zones appear on the northern rim of the Himalaya

or along the ophiolite contact region of the Indian

and Tibetan Plates that may suggest continued

northward abutment pressure of the Indian Plate.

It seems odd that there are no frequent deep

lithospheric movements along the line of con-

tinental contact.

Seismic data reveal that the eastward and

northwestward movements may involve a rifting

within India that may continue northward far into

Tibet (see below). Shallower earthquakes of

great strength have characterized the Assam

Thumb area, notably the 1951, 8.7 event at the

tip of the Assam Thumb in the Chayul Valley and

the 1897, 8.7 earthquake at the foot of the

westernmost Garo Hills involving the north-

south Garo or Chedrang Fault Zone in Assam

(Oldham 1899) where fault scarps in the hills of

over 10 m in height were recorded and large

rocks were thrown into the air (see Oldham’s

photographs). Oldham, however, points out that

much of the earthquake’s intensity derived from

beneath the alluvium which does not shear to

reveal a distinct fault line, and he also indicated

that there was evidence of a continuing fault in

the Himalayan foothills north of Assam that sug-

gested a north-south series of faults across the

whole of the Brahmaputra plains.

The 8.3 intensity, Great Bihar Earthquake

of 1934 (an event that was a frightening ex-

perience of my childhood) had an epicenter on

the plains near the southeast border of Nepal and

across the Rajmahal-Garo Gap from the 1897

earthquake. These two giant earthquakes fairly

coincide with the eastern and western walls of a

presumed graben that now, filled with alluvium,

separates the Satpura Range from the GKM com-

plex. Whereas the Great Bihar Earthquake has

been interpreted as the result of the northward

impingement of India upon the Himalaya, the

evidence suggests that this was not the case.

The Bihar earthquake along with a similar

Bihar earthquake of 1833 (and a smaller 6.9

Bihar event of 1988) represent the only large

earthquakes to occur along the base of the

Himalaya, on the plains, in the Archaen Base-

ment beneath the alluvium, in the last 200 years

(Delhi, which overlies the submerged Aravalli

Hills recorded a large earthquake in 1720). Dunn

et al. (1939) further indicate that the region of

eastern Bihar to western Assam, the zone of the

Bengal graben, represents the area of greatest

historical damage from earthquakes in India. If

such earthquakes represented a continued

northward thrust of India one may ask why the

rest of the Himalayan front along the plains does

not experience large earthquakes?

There exists a great fault zone, the Kishan-

gang Basement Fault, discovered during oil ex-

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

153

2

Fig. 5. Patterns of earthquake activity. (After U.S.Geologlcel Survey, 1 974, and Teng and Lin, 1984)

154

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

plorations (Mathur and Evans 1964), that ex-

tends between the Himalaya and the Rajmahal

Hills, a fault that severs the Archaean basement

shield of India and which lies close to the

epicenter of the Bihar earthquake (Ni and

Barazangi 1984) and the presumed western side

of the Bengal Graben. Joining the Kishangang

Fault with the Tibetan Fault zone is the

earthquake of November 19, 1980, near Darjeel-

ing, that shows a "left lateral strike-slip

mechanism to indicate a possible genetic

relationship between transverse structural fea-

tures in the underthrusting Indian Plate and the

upper blocks of the Lesser and Tethyan

Himalaya and Tibet" (Ni and Barazangi 1984).

There are many smaller earthquakes within the

Himalaya suggesting smaller movements within

the Himalaya, but the only great earthquake oc-

curred in the western Himalaya (Kangra 1905,

8.2) which could well have been the result of the

westward rather than a northward movement. It

seems that published interpretations of this

earthquake are generally contradictory.

The major concentration of earthquakes in

Tibet occurs along a line that extends northward

from the Bengal Graben. Here there is a smaller

graben (the Gulu-Yadong Rift) a few kilometres

wide representing the effect of the eastern move-

ment of the Plateau (Tapponier et al 1981a,

1981b). That these two grabens are part of the

same process of rifting is open to speculation for,

although the Tibetan portion extends into the

Himalaya and suggests the distinct hiatus of the

Chumbi (Yadong) Valley (note the Himalayan

hiatus of the Torsa River, 89o00'-89°10', Fig. 4)

between Sikkim and Bhutan, the intra-

Himalayan section between this valley and the

Bengal Graben on the plains of India has not been

examined. The Darjeeling earthquake is, how-

ever, very suggestive of a commonality. It is my

contention that the two grabens are indeed re-

lated and I can suggest that the Indian Plate with

its broader separation perhaps underlies the

Tibetan portion that has been more recently af-

fected. A few deeper earthquakes occur along the

Tibetan portion suggesting an involvement with

a deeper rifting of an underlying Indian Plate.

Zoogeographical Analysis: The great

concentration of the herpetofauna in the Dar-

jeeling-Sikkim area that is duplicated with

other vertebrate and invertebrate groups

reflects its availability to collectors. But this is

not the entire reason for its faunal diversity.

The Darjeeling-Sikkim region approximates

the terminus of the westward expansion of

Indo-Chinese species out of northern Burma

and Yunnan meeting and overlapping an

eastward expansion of a cohort of western

Himalayan species. There are, furthermore,

some relictual Himalayan species such as

Scutiger sikkimensis that have remained in iso-

lated localities since the final uplift of the

Himalaya and the loss of more pluvial times in

Tibet.

The Khasi Hills and the vicinity of Shil-

long also represent a faunal concentration that

reflects the frequency of collections; however,

the strong exclusive relationship between the

fauna of the Darjeeling-Sikkim area and the

Khasi Hills (9 species) has not seemed to

diminish in the last 50 years during which time

collections have commenced in both the once

unavailable Arunachal Himalaya and the more

eastern hills of Assam (Inger and Dutta 1987).

It is conceivable that, as time and collecting

progress, the whole of the eastern Himalaya

and the Assam Hills will be united in a com-

mon arc of species density.

The cause of the high density of species

linking the eastern Himalaya and the Assam

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

155

Hills can be interpreted variously. I have sup-

posed, in the past, that a knot of montane fauna

emanating out of northern Burma and Yunnan

have expanded westward into both a Himalayan

arm and an Assam arm where climate and

vegetation have been equivalent. With this inter-

pretation, the higher relationship between the

tips of these arms, namely the Daijeeling-Sikkim

region and the Khasi Hills becomes a problem

that seems to rely on its justification upon the

lack of information concerning the intervening

areas and the hope that, eventually, an equal

gradient of species leading out to the two arms

would be found.

However, with the geological evidence as

presented here, a new and somewhat amazing

inference is available. I wish to suggest that the

arced distribution of the montane herpetofauna

is the culmination of a massive eastward move-

ment of the land that has thrust an earlier

northward extension of the Arakan Yoma that

once approximated a contact with the Himalaya

(in the vicinity of 91°E) far eastward where its

remnants remain in the curved and distorted syn-

taxes of the Mishmi Hills (the site of the great

1951 earthquake). The eastward movement of

the GKM complex has, presumably, accom-

panied this spectacular movement of the earth’s

surface. The distribution of the herpetofauna

around the rim of a new Brahmaputra valley

appears like a thumb-like extension eastward

(Fig. 2), the recognition of which as a feature of

zoogeography long preceded my use of the

"Assam Thumb" to denote the geological fea-

tures of the area.

Concluding statements: There is in this

proposed explanation of biogeographical and

geological events in Asia an abundance of foci

for argument and controversy that may blur its

broader truths. Hora’s torrential fishes along

with much of the mountainous biota of Penin-

sular India, in my opinion, must have used the

now displaced GKM complex as their pathway

across the plains. Perhaps the Himalayan loss of

contact with peninsular India preceded the loss

of contact with the GKM complex because the

peninsular relationship with the eastern

Himalaya is largely on a generic level while the

relationship with the GKM complex remains

closely on the species level. The prime theme

that warrants my contentions is the necessity to

understand this biogeographical enigma of the

Satpura connection with the Himalaya where, up

to now, geological speculation has been silent

except on its impossibility. I am further im-

pressed that the seismologists have not adequate-

ly interpreted the twin deep earthquake centers

at the eastern and northwestern termini of the

Himalaya. These continental (as opposed to

oceanic) subduction regions, that are not ex-

pressed elsewhere along the Indian-Tibetan con-

tact zone, are unique to the world but yet remain

unquestioned in the light of Himalayan Range

expansion. Add to this the aligned rifting of the

Bengal and Tibetan grabens.

The western Kishangang Fault zone,

together with the eastern fault zone associated

with the Chedrang Fault of the Garo Hills (with

their associated major earthquakes whose >8

intensity areas overlap the rift region of Bengal)

that delimit the Rajmahal-Garo Gap, seems to

negate a thesis that this Ganges - Brahmaputra

region is anything but an immense graben or rift.

This graben denotes an eastward shift of the land

and accounts for the eastward movement of the

GKM complex away from its prior connection

with the Satpura Range.

How all this relates to the tectonic oddities

that allowed for the GKM complex to move from

a Satpura-Himalayan contact to its present loca-

156

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

tion some 290 km east remains to be seen. Some-

how the GKM complex was moved eastward

after contacting the Himalaya instead of being

depressed beneath the Himalaya as were the

Aravalli Hills that disappear into the alluvium

near Delhi. Perhaos it was too massive to be

M.

swallowed into the Himalayan front submer-

gence.

Perhaps the curious inselbergs composed of

the Archaen granitics of the Indian Plate that

stand above the alluvium of Assam north of the

Brahmaputra River between the GKM complex

and the Himalaya are the submerging summits

of a previous Himalayan contact that was once

associated with the GKM complex. Perhaps the

northward movement of the Indian Plate itself

has reached some impasse that has forced it to

move into lateral portions. It is clear that much

field work is needed in this region that is marked

Refer

Armijo, R., Tapponnier, P., Mercier, J. & Tong-un Han

(1986): Quaternary extension in Southern Tibet; field

observations and tectonic implications. J. Geophys.

Res. 91: 13803-13872.

Dunn, J., Auden, J., Ghosh, A., Roy, S. & Wadia, D. (1939):

The Bihar-Nepal earthquake of 1934. Mem. Geol.

Survey India 73: 391.

Frost, D.R. (1985): Amphibian Species of the World.

Lawrence, Kansas.

Gansser, A. (1964): Geology of the Himalayas. Wiley-In-

terscience 1-289.

Hora, S. L. (1937a): The geographical distribution of Indian

freshwater fishes and its bearing on the probable land

connections between India and adjacent countries.

Curr. Sci. 5: 351-356.

Hora, S. L. (1937b): Distribution of Himalayan fishes and

its bearing on certain paleographic problems. Rec.

Indian Mus. 39: 251-259.

Hora, S. L. (1949): Observations on the fauna of

Parasnath Hill. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 15:

421-422.

by huge interest and modest investigation. How-

ever, it is my experience that new theories or new

outlooks seem to nurture new supporting

evidence that may once have been overlooked or

misinterpreted in the light of other convictions.

The challenge to geologists is to account for

what appears to me to be a legitimate analysis

that could solve Horn’s old enigma rather than

be "geometrically and dynamically impossible"

as one geologist critic contended. The strange

distributions of animals and plants, as the

meteorologist Alfred Wegener once proposed,

often reveal equally strange processes of earth

movements and I again offer a challenge to

geologists to look again at the shapes of rivers,

the heights of mountains, the depths of

earthquakes and the fascinating geography of

Asia.

NCES

Hora, S.L. (1951): Some observations on the paleogeog-

raphy of the Garo-Rajmahal Gap as evidenced by the

distribution of Malayan fauna and flora to Peninsular

India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 17: 437-444.

Hora, S.L. (1953): TheSatpura Hypothesis. Sc. Progress 41

(162): 245-255.

Inger, R. & Dutta, S. (1987): An overview of the amphibian

fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (Supple-

ment): 135-146.

Kumar, R. (1985): Fundamentals of geology and stratig-

raphy of India. Wiley Eastern Lmt., New Delhi, 1-140.

Mathur, L. & Evans, P. (1964): Oil in India. Int Geol.

Congr. 22nd Session Brochure. New Delhi, 64-79.

Molnar, P. (1986a): The geological history and structure of

the Himalaya. Amer. Sci. 74: 144-154.

Molnar, P. (1986b): The structure of mountain ranges. Sci.

American 255: 70-79.

Ni, J. & Barazangi, M. (1984): Seismotectonics of the

Himalayan collision zone: geometry of the under-

thrusting Indian Plate beneath the Himalaya. J.

Geophys. Res. 89: 1147-1163.

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS

157

Oldham, R. (1899): The Assam earthquakeof 12 June, 1897.

Mem. Geol. Survey of India 1897. 29: 1-379.

Sahni, A. (1982): The current status of Hora’s Satpura

Hypothesis. In: Geology of Vindhyanchal (R.C.

Misra Volume) Hindustan Pub. Corp., Delhi 143-147.

Swan, L.W. (1947): The distribution of amphibians and

reptiles in the mountains of southeastern Asia. M.A.

Thesis, Stanford Univ. 1-242^

Swan, L.W. & Leviton, A.E. (1962): The herpetology of

Nepal: A history, checklist and zoogeographical

analysis of the herpetofauna. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci.

312 (6): 103-147.

Tapponnier, P. et al. (30 authors) (1981a): The Tibetan side

of the India-Eurasian collision. Nature 294: 405-410.

Tapponnier, P. et al. (5 authors) (1981b): Field evidence for

active normal faulting in Tibet. Nature 294: 410-414.

Teng, J i Wen & Lin Ban Zuo (1984): Earthquake activity

and tectonics in the Himalaya and its surrounding

regions./w: The International Karakoram Project, K.J.

Miller (Ed.), Cambridge Univ. Press 1: 221-235.

U.S. Geological Survey (1974): World Seismicity Map.

Wadia, D.N. (1944): Geology of India. Macmillan,

1-460.

ON THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF TWO SYMPATRIC FLYING

SQUIRRELS OF WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1

N. V. K. Ashraf2, A.-Kumar3 and A. J. T. Joiinsingh4

Key words: Flying squirrel, nocturnal arboreal mammals, rodent, Petaurista petaurista

phUippensis , Petinomys fuscocapillus fuscocapillus, relative abundance, census method,

spot-light transect, distribution, habitat use, encounter rate, Western Ghats

Observations were made on the abundance of two sympatric gliding squirrels, Petaurista

petaurista phUippensis and Petinomys fuscocapillus fuscocapillus in two protected areas of Western

Ghats, to assess their relative abundance in different vegetation types and the efficacy of methods used

for studying nocturnal arboreal mammals. Methods used were night transects and watch tower

observations using a spotlight. Deciduous forest and cardamom plantation had higher abundance of

Petaurista ( 1.2 and 1.5 squirrels/spot-hour respectively) than evergreen forests (0.7 squirrel/spot-hour).

It was low or absent in teak and tea-coffee plantations (0-0.3 squirrel/spot-hour). It was evident from

the study ihatPetinomysis not an extremely rare species as presumed to be. While the transect method

could assess distribution, abundance and activity pattern, behavioural studies could be possible only

by vantage point observations.

Introduction

Prater (1948) described four species of

large flying squirrels (Genera : Petaurista ,

Eupet aunts ) and four species of small flying

squirrels (Genera: Petinomys , Belomys ,

Hylopetes) in India. Several new species and

subspecies have been described later, particular-

ly from the Himalayas (see Saha 1977, Ghose

and Saha 1981, Ghose and Chakraborty 1983).

For none of these species, there is information on

their relative abundance, which would give a

picture of their commonness or rarity.

The large brown flying squirrel Petaurista

petaurista phUippensis Elliot and the small

Travancore flying squirrel Petinomys fus-

cocapillus fuscocapillus Jerdon are the only glid-

1 Accepted October 1991.

2Coimbatore Zoological Park, Coimbatore 641 004.

3Salim AJi Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Coimbatore.

4Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. No. 18, Chandra bani,

Dehradun 24S 001.

ing mammals of the Western Ghats. While the

former occurs throughout the Peninsular India,

the latter is restricted to the Western Ghats

(Prater 1948). Described by Jerdon in 1874, P.

fuscocapillus have been collected only thrice;

twice 70 years ago (Jerdon 1874, Wroughton

1915) and once recently by Kurup (1989).

Some aspects of flying squirrel ecology

have been studied in the south-east Asia (Baba

et al. 1982, Ando et al. 1984, Muul and Lim

1978). Little is known on their biology and ecol-

ogy in India. Hutton (1947, 1949) briefly

described the hole- nesting behaviour, breeding

season and seasonal change in the coat colour of

large brown flying squirrels. Minette (1947)

gave some information on a captive flying squir-

rel (identified as Petaurista caniceps) from Muk-

teshwar.

This paper is on the relative abundance of

flying squirrels (P. p. phUippensis and P. f

fuscocapillus) in different vegetation types of

Western Ghats, and the efficacy of the two

RELA TIVE AB UNDANCE OF TWO SYMPA TRIC FLYING SQ UIRRELS

159

methods used for studying nocturnal arboreal

mammals.

The data was collected in Indira Gandhi

(formerly Anaimalai) Wildlife Sanctuary

(10°13'-10°33' N, 76°49'— 77°21' E) and

Kudremukh National Park (13°5' -13°30' N,

75o0'-75**20' E) during a three month survey

(April, May and June 1990) on the status of

Malabar civet ( Viverra civettina) and brown

palm civet ( Paradoxurus jerdoni) (Ashraf et al. ,

in press).

Methods

Estimating the densities of nocturnal mam-

mals is a difficult task, particularly in the case of

arboreal mammals. Their relative abundance

could easily be assessed by a simple measure of

encounter rate (Kemper 1988), especially if the

species in question is common.

The two methods employed in this study

were night transects and watch-tower observa-

tions using a spotlight. All the observations were

made between 1700 and 0600 hrs. Vehicle and

foot transects were made depending on the

availability of motorable roads. Transect lengths

varied from 2 km to 19 km. Most transects passed

through several vegetation types. Attempts were

made to sample each vegetation type over similar

time of night and also the same vegetation at

different times of night. Date, time, vegetation

type and the number of individuals sighted were

recorded for each sighting.

All the sightings were later analysed for en-

counter frequency (EF) using a simple measure of

number of individuals sighted/spot-hour (Kemper

1988). Comparisons were made among moist

evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest, teak plan-

tation, cardamom plantation and coffee and tea

plantation. For watch tower observations, small

temporary wooden platforms were erected near

fruiting trees for overnight observations.

Results

Spotlight transects covered a distance of

1 90 km (including repeated transects in one path)

in about 38 spot-hours. Of this, 52.6% was spent

in evergreen forest, 18.2% in deciduous forest

and 29.2% in plantations (Table 1). Watch-tower

observations lasted for 58 hours, spread over

eight nights. Almost all observation points were

near fruiting trees of Mangifera indie a, Knema

attenuata, Myristica sp., Ficus sp., and Artocar-

pus integrifolia.

Of the 43 flying squirrels sighted during

transects and watch-tower observations, 37 were

of P. p. philippensis , 3 were of the rare P. f.

Juscocapillus and 3 could not be identified. All

observations oiPetinomys were in the evergreen

forests of Anaimalais, during watch-tower ob-

servations (Table 2).

The average EF of Petaurista was 0.73

squirrel/spot-hour during transects, which dif-

fered between vegetation types (Table 1). It was

highest in cardamom plantation (1.5 squir-

rels/spot-hour), followed by moist deciduous

forest (1.29 squirrels/spot-hour), evergreen

forest (0.7) and other plantations of teak, coffee

and tea (0 to 0.3). Almost all the sightings were

from a vehicle, except for cardamom where all

the three sightings were while walking. Sight-

ings were on 12 different species of trees, besides

a number of trees that could not be identified as

they were far away from the transect-line for on

the spot identification.

Discussion

1. Relative abundance: The sightings of

P.f. juscocapillus in Anaimalais indicated that it

is not as rare as it is considered to be. It is likely

to be in a greater proportion than what is revealed

Table 1

160

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

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RELA TIVE AB UNDANCE OF TWO SYMPA TRIG FLYING SQ UIRRELS

161

in the present study (3 sightings as opposed to 37

of P. p. philippensis). Since none were sighted

during transects, the probability of sighting them

would have been more if individual trees were

thoroughly scanned, as was done during watch-

tower observations. Besides its possible natural

rarity and smaller size, another reason for the

lack of information about this species is the

inadequate knowledge to differentiate it from the

more common P. p. philippensis.

Kurup (1989) obtained a specimen of P. f.

fuscocapillus from the coconut groves of coastal

Kerala. This suggests that there could still be

isolated populations of this species surviving in

densely populated coastal Kerala. As long as the

distance between trees is short enough for glid-

ing, populations of flying squirrels can survive

even in villages, unlike the non-gliding squirrels

Ratufa (Muul and Lim 1978). Moreover, flying

squirrels being nocturnal and hole- nesters, the

impact of human disturbance would be less than

on large diurnal squirrels like Ratufa , which

build conspicuous globular nests.

P. f. fuscocapillus were observed in the

company of several individuals of P. p. philip-

pensis. Hutton (1949) reported a similar obser-

vation of this species among groups of foraging

P. p. philippensis, P. f. fuscocapillus could be

observed for 90 minutes. They were slow in their

movements and were not seen feeding, unlike the

other species. While at rest and moving on trees

(non-gliding), the tail of Petinomys was always

carried over the back. Hutton (1949) considered

this behaviour as a sort of protection.

Encounter frequency (E ¥) olPetaurista

in different vegetation types: It is difficult to

attribute any reason for the greater abundance of

Petaurista in deciduous forests than in evergreen

forests (1.2 sightings/spot-hour as opposed to

0.7/spot-hour). A study on their feeding habits

may provide the answer to this. Spotlighting in

evergreen forest was frequently disrupted due to

rains, unlike in deciduous forest. Studies on

Australian marsupial gliders have shown that

their detectability during spotlighting decreased

significantly as a function of precipitation

(Davey 1990). Among plantations, cardamom

had the greatest abundance of squirrels (1.5/

spot-hour of walk). This is in spite of the fact that

far less area was covered while walking than by

vehicle in one spot-hour. The evergreen canopy

in cardamom plantation is less disturbed than in

coffee and tea plantations. With only 3 sightings

of squirrels in 2 hours of spotlighting, it is dif-

ficult to project any possible reason for their

greater abundance in cardamom. Studies else-

where have shown that areas which had the

highest density of flying squirrels were those

which were nearly clear-cut primary forest

(Muul and Lim 1978). Kudremukh and

Anaimalais would be ideal reserves for further

studies on this aspect.

Comparison of methods: It is concluded

that spotlighting could be used to assess the

abundance, distribution and period of activity

of nocturnal arboreal mammals. As distur-

bance to squirrels when observed from a

vantage point was less than during transects,

watch-tower observations could be used for

behavioural studies.

Estimating absolute densities by spotlight

transect using one light as done during this study

could lead to an under-estimate for two reasons.

Firstly, by using a single beam of light, the

observer’s attention will be on only one side of

the transect at any given period of time. As a

result, one is likely to miss many individuals on

the other side. Secondly, since the recording is

based on the ‘eye-shine’, there is some prob-

ability of some squirrels facing away from the

162

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

source of light, even though some are likely to

turn back towards the direction of ‘disturbance’.

We suggest that two observers with spot-lights

Refer

Ando, M., Shiraishi, S. & Uchida, T. A. (1984): Field obser-

vation of the feeding behaviour in the Japanese Giant

Flying Squirrel, Petaurista leucogenes. J. Fac. Agri.,

Kyushu Univ. 28: 161-175.

Ashraf, N.V.K., Kumar, A. & Johnsingh, A. J T (in press):

Two endemic viverrids of Western Ghats, India. Oryx.

Baba, M., Doi, T. & Ono, Y. (1982): Home range utilization

and nocturnal activity of the giant flying squirrel,

Petaurista leucogenes. Jap. J. Ecol. 32: 189-198.

Davey, S.M. (1990): Methods for surveying the abundance

and distribution of arboreal marsupials in a South

Coast Forest of New South Wales. Aust. Wild. Res.,

17: 427-445.

Ghose, R. K. & Chakraborty, T.K. (1983): A note on the

flying squirrels of Darjeeling and Sikkim. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 80 (1): 411.

Ghose, R.K. & Saha, S.S. (1981): Taxonomic review of

Hodgson’s giant flying squirrel, Petaurista magnificus

(Hodgson) (Sciuridae: Rodentia) with description of a

new subspecies from Darjeeling district, West Bengal,

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 78: 93-102.

Hutton, A.F. (1947): Nesting habits of flying squirrel

( Petaurista philippe nsis). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

46: 539.

on either side of an open jeep moving at an

average speed of 5-10 km/hr would be ideal for

an approximate density estimation.

ENCES

Hutton, A.F. (1949): Notes on mammals of the High Wavy

Mountains, Madurai, South India. Part II-Mammals.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 681-694.

Jerdon, T.C. (1874): A Handbook of Mammals of India. Lon-

don. (reprinted by Mittal Publications in 1984, Delhi).

Kemper, C. (1988): The Mammals of Pasoh Forest

Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Malay. Nat. J. 42:

1-19.

Kurup, G.U. (1989): Rediscovery of the Small Travancore

Flying Squirrel. Oryx. 23: 2-3

Minette, F. C. (1947): Notes on flying squirrel (Petaurista

sp). J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 47: 52-56.

Muul, I & Lim, B. L. (1978): Comparative Morphology,

Food Habits and Ecology of some Malayan Arboreal

Rodents. In: The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores (Ed.)

Montgomery, G. G., Smithsonian Press, Washington

D.C. pp. 361-368.

Prater, S. II. (1948): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Saha, S.S. (1977): A new subspecies of the flying squirrel

Petaurista nobilis (Gray) from Bhutan. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Calcutta, 28 (1975): 27-29.

Wroughton, R.C. (1915): Bombay Natural History Society’s

Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report

No. 18 & 19. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 24: 79-110.

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY

EVERGREEN FOREST IN PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY1

P. BALASUBRAMANIAN AND P.V. BOLE2

(With nine text-figures)

Key words: Fruiting phenology, Fleshy-fruited plants, Bird-dispersed, Salvadora persica

The fruiting phenology of 64 fleshy-fruited plants (27 tree, 23 shrub and 14 climber) were studied

for two years. Most of the fleshy-fruited plant species occurred in low abundance, whereas a few were

very common. Definite seasonality in fruiting was noticed. Peak fruiting occurred during wet season

and fewer species fruited during the dry season. No significant difference was found in the number of

species in fruit between the two years. Three seasonal fruiting patterns were identified. 13 species

produced ripe fruits during summer and pre-monsoon (dry season). 37 species produced ripe fruits

during monsoon and post-monsoon (wet season). 14 species produced ripe fruits in both seasons. Many

of the summer fruiting species are either rare or occasional. Seedless fruiting by Salvadora persica was

recorded. The distribution of fleshy-fruited plants and their fruiting seasonality in various tropical

forests was compared with Pt. Calimere.

Introduction

One of the prerequisites for evolving a

management programme for any tropical forest

biotope is an understanding of the biology of

plant and animal life that manifests the quality of

the particular ecosystem. Hence it is essential to

know how the plants phase their phenological

events in time and space. It is well known that

seasonal changes in climate bring about various

types of growth patterns in the life of plants. A

seasonal climate also brings about fluctuations in

animal populations such as pollinators and seed

dispersal agents. The importance of biotic fac-

tors in the evolution of some tropical phenologi-

cal patterns has been studied by various re-

searchers in the tropical America (Janzen 1967,

Smythe 1970, Snow 1971, Daubenmire 1972,

Bawa 1974, Frankie et al. 1974, Howe 1977,

Heithaus 1979, Howe and Smallwood 1982) and

Accepted December 1991.

^Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbi 11 House, Dr Sali m

Salim Ali Chowk, S. B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023,

in tropical Africa (Hladik and Hladik 1967,

Liebennan et al. 1979, Liebennan 1982).

In India, although some research has been

done on the general aspects of phenology of plants

as well as phenology in relation to climate (Blasco

and Legris 1973, Boojh and Ramakrishnan 1982,

Shukla and Ramakrishnan 1982, Ralhan et al

1985, Prasad and Hegde 1986, Ansari and Bhadola

1989) no studies have been conducted on the

phenology of plants in relation to biotic factors.

Therefore, as a part of the study on the plant-animal

interrelations at the tropical dry evergreen forest in

Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary (Balasubramanian

1990) , data was collected on the fruiting phenology

of fleshy-fruited plants.

Study Area

The Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary

(10° 18' N, 79°51' E) is situated on a low promon-

tory on the Coromandel coast in Nagapattinam

(Thanjavur) district, Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). The

Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka is about 50 km

away across the Palk Strait.

164

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 1. Map of Point Calimere Sanctuary. -plQ .1 Mop Of Point ColimorP SOHCtuciry

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

165

The elevation of the area is 4 m above msl

at the highest point of the sanctuary. The

sanctuary extends over an area of 2401.38 ha

(Varatharaj 1988). The forest is discontinuous,

being intersected by numerous open grazing

lands. Generally, the upper stratum of the soil is

sandy. The coastal plains are formed of alluvial

soils which are clayey-silty (Blasco and Legris

1973). There are two distinct seasons in a year

— the long dry season and the short rainy season.

April, May and June are the wannest months.

Heavy rainfall occurs from October to December

due to the north-east monsoon (Fig. 2). The

yearly total rainfall for six years (1983-1988)

ranged from 544 to 948 mm. The average yearly

maximum temperature recorded for six years

(1983-1988) was 35.7°C and the minimum was

21.8° C (Fig. 3). Pt. Calimere enjoys a dry sub-

humid climate (Rao and Sastry 1974). Strong

winds are prevalent and the maximum wind

velocity of about 68 km/h usually occurs during

June and July.

The vegetation of the sanctuary is clas-

sified as tropical dry evergreen forest type

(Champion and Seth 1968). The flora and

vegetation have been studied by Sebastine and

Ellis (1967), Blasco and Legris (1973),

Balasubramanian (1982) and Balasubramanian

(in press). Sebastine and Ellis (1967) who had

classified the vegetation of this sanctuary into

three categories namely sea-shore vegetation,

dry evergreen vegetation and mangrove vegeta-

tion. The littoral vegetation is prominent along

the sea-shore. Mangrove vegetation is prevalent

in low-lying areas, where partial inundation

takes place during high tide. Dry evergreen

vegetation forms the major vegetation. The

forest consists mainly of trees which are small

and stunted. The upper canopy can be seen

from a height of a few metres.

A total of 18 mammal species are reported

from Pt. Calimere. The common mongoose Her-

pestes edwardsii and threestriped palm squirrel

Funambulus palmarum are the commonest

animals of the forest. The jackal Canis aureus ,

blacknaped hareLepws nigricollis and blackbuck

Antilope cervicapra are also common. Bonnet

macaque Macaca radiata and chital Axis axis

have been introduced. Sugathan (1983) reported

137 passerine bird species from the sanctuary.

Major frugivorous birds are bulbuls, mynas and

koel. Starred tortoise Geochelone elegans , gar-

den lizard Calotes versicolor and common In-

dian monitor Varanus benghalensis are some of

the common reptiles. Insect life is also rich at Pt.

Calimere.

*

Methods

Climatological information: The calendar

year of this tropical region of India is divisible

into the following four seasons and the various

phenological phenomena of plants at Point

Calimere are described based on these seasons.

1. Post-monsoon (January, February and

March), 2. Summer (April, May and June), 3.

Pre-monsoon (July, August and September) and

4. Monsoon (October, November and Decem-

ber).

Climatic variables for the period January

1983 to December 1988 were collected from the

BNHS weather station at Pt. Calimere, which

consisted of a Stevenson screen containing max-

imum-minimum thermometer, and a hygrometer

were used. A standard rain gauge was used to

measure the rainfall.

Plants: Definitions — The following

definitions have been adopted after Opler et al.

(1980) and are used here with slight modifica-

tions.

166

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

40

o

- L-

3

G*

Q-

e

30-

20

5 H

0

Mean max. temperature

• — • Mean min. temperature

J » F > M • A 1 M 1 J 'J'A'S'O'N’D"1

Fig. 3. Mean monthly maximum and mean monthly minimum air temperature (1983-*88) at Point Calimere.

FR UJTJNG PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

167

A tree is defined as "any woody perennial

which rises from the ground with a trunk"; a

minimum height qualification of 3 m is- also

added. A shrub is defined as a woody non-climb-

ing multiple stemmed or single stemmed peren-

nial plant less than 3 m high. The term climber

is arbitrarily used and includes all the plants with

non-erect stem and growing on supports.

Brief and extended activity — refer to the

duration of fruiting activity by individuals of a

plant species or population. ‘Brief’ fruiting ex-

tends for three weeks or less, while ‘extended’

refers to fruiting for more than three weeks. Fruit

maturation periods of three months or less, fol-

lowing fertilization, are termed as ‘rapid’, while

those more than three months as ‘lengthy’.

Plants having ipore than one fruiting se-

quence annually are referred as ‘multiple’ fruit-

ing species.

Phenological records: Phenological ob-

servations were noted for tagged individuals

along a 4 km transect in the sanctuary. Ten

individuals of each species were selected. For

those species where ten individuals could not be

found, fewer numbers were marked — see Ap-

pendix 1. Phenological data were collected for

64 plant species — 27 tree species, 23 shrub

species and 14 species of climbers. A total of 555

individuals were marked for the study.

The Phenological data on the fruiting were

collected once a fortnight from January 1987 to

December 1988. The plants were regularly ob-

served and their fruiting status was noted. Three

categories, namely ‘none’, ‘few’, and ‘many’

were employed to indicate abundance of fruiting

(Frankie et al. 1974, Guy etal. 1979, Opler etal.

1980).

The categories ‘none’, ‘few’ and ‘many’

were assigned values of 0, 1, and 2 respectively.

The fortnightly values of fruiting characteristics

of all individuals for each species were summed

up separately and were divided by the number of

individuals of that species. Thereby a ‘mean

value’ was obtained for the fruiting status of each

species for each fortnight. Using this technique,

the maximum possible value for fruiting for any

fortnight is 2.0. This maximum value of 2.0 is

considered as 100% and the data for the fruiting

activity levels are given in percentages.

Distribution of plants in the study area:

The distribution of fleshy-fruited plants in the

study area was measured by a belt- transect tech-

nique (Skeate 1987). The number of individuals

of each species within 20 quadrats measuring

100 x 10 m along a 2 km line transect through

the study area was noted. The abundance, density

and frequency of each species was calculated

after Michael (1986). The frequency was con-

verted into percentage and values thus obtained

were placed in five classes, namely class A: rare

(1-20%); B: occasional (21-40%); C: frequent

(41-60%); D: abundant (61-80%); and E: very

abundant (81-100%).

Results

Species composition of fleshy-fruited

species: Out of 317 species of flowering plants

in Pt. Calimere, 91 species have fleshy fruits.

Among these 91 species, 64 species that were

eaten or dispersed by birds were selected for the

study (Appendix 1). The remaining 27 species

were not included in the study because (1) 10

plants were dispersed by mammals; (2) seven

species were dispersed by water and (3) the

remaining 10 species, though dispersed by birds,

either occur rarely in the study area or happened

to be annual climbers.

The 64 fleshy-fruited species are dis-

tributed in 53 genera belonging to 34 families.

Families represented by most native genera with

168

JOURNAI., BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

fleshy fruits eaten by birds are Rubiaceae (6),

Euphorbiaceae (4) and Cordiaceae (3).

Distribution of fleshy-fruited plants:

Since the productivity of fruits of various species

could not be* compared with the other observa-

tions of this study, the frequency distribution of

fleshy- fruited plants in the study plot was

studied. Out of the 64 fleshy-fruited plants

recorded, 20 species were rare; 19 species were

occasional; 10 species were frequently seen and

the remaining 15 species occurred abundantly.

Fruiting phenology: Fruiting took place

throughout the year. However, the number of

fleshy-fruited plants in fruits differed during

different seasons. The number of species with

ripe fruits was lowest during June (summer) in

both the years — 1987 and 1988 (Fig. 4). The

number of species with fruits started to in-

crease from October (monsoon) in the first

year (1987) and in September (late pre-mon-

soon) in the second year (1988). The peak in

fruiting was attained during February (post-

monsoon) in the first year, and during March

(post-monsoon) in the second year. There was

no significant difference in the number of

species in fruit between 1987 and 1988

(Wilcoxon’s signed rank test, p>0.10).

The number of tree species with ripe fruits

showed very little month-wise variation in the

two years of study (Fig. 4). The lowest number

of shrub species with ripe fruits occurred during

July (pre-monsoon) in the first year (n=4) and

during August (pre-monsoon) (n=3) in the

second year (Fig. 4). Fruiting in shrubs attained

its peak in February (post-monsoon) during the

first year (n=14) and during March (post-mon-

soon) in the second year (n=13) (Fig. 4). Fruiting

was absent in climbers during July 1987. Out of

the 14 species of climbers only one species was

fruiting during June 1988. The number of climb-

er species in fruit attained a peak during March

(post-monsoon) in both years. There were no

significant differences in the number of species

with ripe fruits between 1987 and 1988

(Wilcoxon’s signed rank test, P> 0.10) in all the

three life forms, namely trees, shrubs and clim-

bers.

Multiple fruiting activity: A total of 15

plant species (six trees, eight shrubs and one

climber) showed multiple fruiting activity. They

are: Pleurostylia opposita, Salvador a per sic a,

Ehretia ovalifolia , three species of Ficus, Caris-

sa spinarum , Premna serratifolia , Breynia vitis-

idaea , Olax scandens , Dendrophthoe falcata ,

Viscum capitellatum , Viscum orientate and

Salacia chinensis.

Extended fruiting activity: 11 trees, six

shrubs and six climbers had their fruiting ex-

tended over a period of a month. Important plants

that had extended fruiting were: Manilkara

hexandra, Salvadora persica, Walsura trifolia ,

Lannea coromandelica, Memecylon umbel-

latum, Toddalia asiatica, Carmona retusa,Phyl-

lanthus reticulatus, Tinospora cordifolia, Coc-

cinia grandis and Solanum trilobatum.

Lengthy fruit maturation: Eight species

had a long fruit maturation period. Memecylon

umbellatum , Diospyros ferrea and Drypetes

sepiaria among trees, Capparis rotundifolia,

Scutia myrtina and Benkara malabarica

among shrubs and Pachygone ovata and Cap-

paris zeylanica among climbers took long

duration (three months) for their fruit matura-

tion.

Fruiting patterns: Based on the observed

seasonal fruiting phenologies, the 64 species of

fleshy-fruited plants are classified under three

seasonal fruiting patterns (Table 1).

Summer and pre-monsoon fruiting: The

plants that produced ripe fruits from April to

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

169

No. of species in fruit

August are included in this category. Many of the

species fruited mainly between in April and June,

but a few started fruiting in March, and some

continued fruiting till September. A total of 13

species produced ripe fruits during this period.

Three sub-groups are found in this category.

Species such as Ixora pavetta , Drypetes sepiaria,

Cansjera rheedii and Cassytha filiformis had

ripe fruits in March and continued to have them

till June. Species such as Walsura trifolia , Lan-

nea coromandelica and Azadirachta indica

started fruiting in May and continued till Sep-

tember. Species such as Crateva adansonii,

Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Phoenix pusilla, Cordia

obliqua and Ochna obtusata had ripe fruits only

in summer. P achy gone ovata had ripe fruits

during pre-monsoon only. The fruiting activity

levels of five representative summer and pre-

monsoon fruiting species are given in Fig. 5. The

summer and pre-monsoon fruiting species in-

.

Table 1

SEASONAL FRUITING PATTERNS OF FLESH Y-FRUITED PLANTS AT POINT

CALIMERE SANCTUARY

(Numerals denote the number of species)

For details refer to Appendix 1.

3

170

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

elude nine trees, two shrubs and two climbers

(Table 1).

Monsoon and post-monsoon: A total of 37

species produced ripe fruits during these

seasons. Most of the plants that fruited in these

seasons started fruiting in September (late pre-

monsoon) and continued to produce ripe fruits

till March and April (late post-monsoon or early

summer). There is a small group of plants which

includes Glycosmis pentaphylla , Syzygium

cumini, Canthium dicoccum, Capparis

zeylanica, Capparis rotundifolia and Scutiamyr-

tina whose fruiting was strictly confined to mon-

soon. The fruiting activity levels of 15 repre-

sentative species that fruited during monsoon,

post-monsoon and in both these seasons are

given in Figs. 6, 7 and 8 respectively. The mon-

soon and post -monsoon fruiting species include

11 trees, 15 shrubs and 11 climbers (Table 1).

Year-round fruiting: A total of 14 species

had ripe fruits throughout the year with little

gaps, i.e. in all the months of a year or at least

one month in each season. Ficus microcarpa,

Pleurostylia opposita, Viscum orientale and Vis-

cum capitellatum had ripe fruits in all the

months. Olax scandens, Opuntia dillenii, Sal -

vadora persica , Carissa spinarum , Ehrelia

ovalifolia, Salacia chinensis and Ficus ben -

ghalensis had ripe fruits in all seasons but not in

all months. Though species such as Ficus

tsjakelq, Plecospermum spinosum and Breynia

vitisddaea fruited in all seasons, their fruiting

was at the maximum during monsoon and post-

monsoon. The fruiting activity levels of the five

representative year-round fruiting species are

given in Fig. 9. The year-round fruiting plants

include seven trees, six shrubs and one climber

(Table 1).

Seedless fruiting by Salvadora persica :

The tree Salvadora persica produced sterile

fruits without seeds during the months of

February, March and April. During the other

months, namely May, September and October, it

produced fertile fruits with seeds. The sterile

fruit is a thin-skinned berry 5 mm in diameter.

The fertile fruit measures 6.2 mm in diameter

with a seed of 3.5 mm diameter. It was interest-

ing to note that the seedless fruiting of S. persica

coincided with the peak in the migrant bird

population at the sanctuary. During the other

seasons, when migratory birds were absent, it

had seeded fruits. However, it is suggested here

that further investigations should be made to find

out why this plant fails to produce seeded fruits

during a particular season.

Discussion

Fleshy-fruitedness among animal-dis-

persed plants: Hilty (1980) in his review on the

fleshy-fruitedness among the plants in various

tropical forests mentions that in the tropical

seasonal lowland dry forest of Costa Rica, the

occurrence of fleshy-fruited species among trees

was 51% and among shrubs 58%; at La Selva, a

tropical non-seasonal lowland rain forest of

Costa Rica 90% were among the trees; in the

seasonal Panama forest fleshy-fruited plants

were 82% among the combined canopy and un-

derstorey trees; at Alto Yunda, a neotropical

aseasonal forest, a very high proportion of 89%

were fleshy-fruited plants among trees.

The present study revealed that in Pt.

Calimere, about 56% among the trees and 56%

of shrubs bear fleshy-fruits. Being a tropical dry

evergreen coastal forest many of the species at

Pt. Calimere bore seeds adapted for dispersal by

various means such as by water, wind and self-

explosive devices. Hence, the proportion of

fleshy-fruitedness among Pt. Calimere plants is

lower than in several of the above-mentioned

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

171

100-

75-

50-

25

0

ioo-

75-

50-

25-

o-

<100-1

0

£7 5-

1 5<H

f 25-

I o

Drypetes sepiaria

l-41-r

1 1 1 1 1 1

Cordia obliqua

-i 1 — r— i 1-— “1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Walsura trifolia

“i 1 1 r

-P

~i 1 1

Month

Fig. 5. Fruiting activity levels of five summer and pre-

monsoon fruiting plant species during 1988.

areas. However, the Pt. Calimere figures cor-

respond with those of a similar habitat, namely

tropical dry lowland forest of Costa Rica.

Fruiting seasonality: Croat (1969), in his

phenological studies at Central Panama observed

that the number of fleshy-fruited animal-dis-

persed species that fruited during the dry season

was 83, and in the wet season 166.

In the tropical forest in Ghana, Lieberman

(1982) observed that though fleshy-fruited

species fruited throughout the year, their fruiting

peak occurred in the wet season. He further men-

tioned that a few species that produced fruits

continuously, also fruited abundantly under wet

conditions.

Howe (1984) stated that all studies of the

tropical fruiting phenologies reported

seasonality, and that extreme seasonality was

certainly found in forests with distinct wet and

dry seasons.

Wheelwright (1985), after studying the

flowering and fruiting phenology of 23

Lauraceous tree species in the lower montane

forests of Monte Verde, Costa Rica, reported that

the fruiting seasons were more aggregated and

significantly non-uniform.

On the contrary, Frankie et al. (1974) in

their studies in the dry deciduous forest of Costa

Rica observed the fruiting peak of fleshy-fruited

plants during the dry season.

At Pt. Calimere, the fruiting phenology

showed the presence of a definite seasonality.

During summer (dry season) the number of

species in ripe fruits was 12 and during post-

monsoon (wet season) it was 23. The wet season

fruiting peak by fleshy-fruited plants at Point

Calimere corresponded with that of many tropi-

cal studies (e.g. Croat 1969, Hilty 1980, Lieber-

man 1982, Wheelwright 1985) and differed from

the study of Frankie et al. (1974).

Conclusions

In the Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, fruit-

ing takes place throughout the year with a distinct

peak during monsoon and post-monsoon and a

trough in the late summer and early pre-monsoon.

Fruits in most plant species in Pt. Calimere ripen at

the peak of avian frugivore migration, namely

January to April. This timing helps to allow com-

petition among frugivores for seed dispersal.

During summer, only a few resident bird species

are available to concentrate on the fruits.

172

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

100-

75-

50

25

0

100-1

75-

50-

25-

0-

^ 100-

i 75.

>

1 50-|

? 25-1

Ficus religiosa

— i 1 1 1 1 — -r 1 r

Jasminum angustifolium

fil

2 0

u.

— i 1 1 1 1 1 1 r

Diospyros ferrea

u

-i 1 1 1 1 1 r

4

1

T 1

Month

Fig. 6.. Fruiting activity levels of five monsoon fruiting

plant species during 1988.

100

75-

50-

25-

Flacourtia indica

0

100-

75-

50- _

25-

0

gioo

75-|

8 50-

f 25

1 0

U-

100

75-|

50

25-|

0

tfcL

1 1 1 1 I I T-1 I I I

Allophyllus serratus

a

i 1 1 1 r- — i

Zizyphus oenoplia

-i 1 1

i r 1 1 1 1 r

Toddalia a sialic a

CL

100-

75-

50-

25 —

-i 1 1 r

Tinospora cordifolia

0 ' j 1 F1 M1 a'm'J'J' A' S'O'N'D^

Month

Fig. 7. Fruiting activity levels of five post-monsoon

fruiting plant species during 1988..

During late summer and early pre-mon-

soon, when the ambient temperature is high,

several plant species in the sanctuary wither

which subsequently leads to a failure in the fruit

crop.

During this period, local movements of

resident frugivorous birds for food from the

sanctuary to the neighbouring villages was

noticed. Major frugivorous birds of this

sanctuary such as whitebrowed bulbul Pyc-

nonotus luteolus and redvented bulbul Pyc-

nonotus cafer made local movements. This ob-

servation shows that the influence of abiotic

factors, especially temperature has more in-

fluence on the timing of flowering and fruiting

than the biotic interactions.

The study shows that trees such as Walsura

trifolia , Azadirachta indica, Lannea coroman-

delica, Crateva adansonii and Cordia obliqua ,

whose fruiting occurs during the extreme dry

season, are ‘pivotal' species of the community

and the elimination of most of these species even

for a short period may lead to local disap-

pearance of frugivorous birds.

Acknowledgements

One of us (PB) thanks to Mr J. C. Daniel,

former Director, BNHS, for encouragement.

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

173

100-

75-

50-

25-

0

100-

75-

50

25

0

°ioo

phyllanthus reticulatus

4-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r

Manilkara hexandra

Coccinia grandis

.« 75-

>

0-

100-

75-

50-

25-

0+

100-

75-

50- .

25-

0-

a

1 1 T

Memecylon umbellatum

Cissus vitiginea

j'f'm'a'm'j'j'a1 s ' 0

Month

d-ipti

T mi n 1

N 1 D

Fig. 8. Fruiting activity levels of five monsoon and post-

monsoon fruiting plant species during 1988.

100-p

75-

50-

25

0

100-1

7 5-

50-

25-

0

Olax scandens

a

A

Pleurostylia opposita

T

1

-r

Tj~R~r

=q

£: loo-

•* 75-1

■§ 5

Salvadora persica

£ 0-

100-1

75-

^-P

a

-i — i

Ficus microcarpa

r-i d

Month

N D

Fig. 9. Fruiting activity levels of five plant species fruiting

in all seasons during 1988.

We thank Dr Henry F. Howe, Associate Profes-

sor, University of Iowa and Dr Thomas B. Croat,

Curator of Botany, Missouri Botanical Garden,

for providing us with necessary literature. Our

sincere thanks are due to the Ministry of En-

vironment and Forests, Government of India and

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for financial

assistance, and to officials of the Forest Depart-

ment, Govt, of Tamil Nadu, for their coopera-

tion.

This paper is based on a Ph. D. thesis

submitted to the University of Bombay by the

senior author.

References

Ansari, A.A. & Bhadola, G.N. (1989): Phenological ob-

servations of some woody angiosperms of Pauri

Garhwal. Indian J. Forestry 12: 21-24.

Balasubramanian, P. (1982): A study on the flora of the

Vedaranyam Reserve Forest M.Sc. Dissertation,

University of Madras, Madras.

Balasubramanian, P. (1990): Plant-animal interrelations at

Pt Calimere Sanctuary. Ph.D. diesis. University of

Bombay.

Balasubramanian, P. (in press): Flora of Pt Calimere. In:

Rajan, S.A., Balasubramanian, P. & Natarajan, V.

(Eds.). Hie Ecology of Pt Calimere - Baseline study.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

174

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Bawa, K.S. (1974); Breeding systems of tree species of a

lowland tropical community. Evolution 28: 85-92.

Blasco, F. & Legris, P. (1973): Dry evergreen forest of Pt.

Calimere and Marakanam. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

70: 279- 294.

*Booih, R. & Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1982): Growth strategy

of trees related to successional status II. Leaf

dynamics. J. For. Ecol. Manage. 4: 375-386.

Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India. Govt, of India Publications,

New Delhi.

Croat, T.B. (1969): Seasonal flowering behaviour in central

Panama. An. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 295-307.

Daubenmire, R. (1972): Phenology and other characteristics

of Tropical semi-deciduous forest in North-Western

Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 60: 147-170.

Frankie, G.W., Baker, H.G. & Opler, P.A. (1974): Com-

parative phenological studies of trees in Tropical wet

and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica. Ecology

62: 881-919.

Guy, M.O.R., Mahlangu, Z. & Charidza, H. (1979):

Phenology of some trees and shrubs in the Sengwa

Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. S. Afr.

J. Wildl. Res. 9: 47-54.

Heithaus, E. R. (1979): Community structure of neotropical

flower- visiting bees and wasps: Diversity and phenol-

ogy. Ecology 60: 190-202.

Hilty, S. L. (1980): Flowering and fruiting periodicity in a

Premontane rain forest in Pacific Colombia.

Biotropica 12: 292-306.

*Hladik, C. M. & Hladik, A. (1967): Observations sur le

role des primates dans la dissemination des vegetaux

de la forest gabonaise. Biol. Gabon. 3: 43-58.

Howe, H. F. (1977): Bird activity and seed dispersal of a

tropical wet forest tree. Ecology 58: 539-550.

Howe, H.F. (1984): Implications of seed dispersal by

animals for tropical reserve management. Biol. Con-

serv. 30: 261-281.

Howe, H. F. & Smallwood, J. (1982): Ecology of seed

dispersal. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 13: 201-228.

Janzen, D. H. (1967): Synchronization of sexual reproduc-

tion of trees within the dry season in Central America.

Evolution 21 : 620-637.

Lieberman, D. (1982): Seasonality and phenology in

a dry tropical forest in Ghana. J. Ecol. 70:

791-806.

Lieberman, D., Hall, J. B., Swaine, M. D. & Lieberman, M.

(1979): Seed dispersal by baboons in the Shai Hills,

Ghana. Ecology 60: 65-75.

Michael, P. (1986): Ecological methods for field and

laboratory investigations. Tata McGraw-Hill Publ.

Ltd., New Delhi.

Opler, P.A., Frankie, G.W. & Baker, H.G. (1980): Com-

parative phenological studies of treelet and shrub

species in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands

of Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 68: 176-188.

Prasad, S.N. & Hegde, M. (1986): Phenology and

seasonality in the deciduous forest of Bandipur, south

India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 96: 121-

133.

Ralhan, P.K., Khanna, R.K., Singh, S.P. & Singh, J.S.

(1985): Certain phenological characters of the shrub

layer of Kumaun Himalayan forests. Vegetatio 63:

113-120.

Rao, A.T. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1974): An outline of the

coastal vegetation of India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 16:

101-115.

Sebastine, K. M. & Ellis, J. L. (1967): A contribution to the

vascular flora of Vedharanyam and Talaignayar

Reserve Forests, Tanjore District, Madras State. Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 9: 190-200.

*Shukia, R. P. & Ramakrishnan, P. S. (1982): Phenology

of trees in a subtropical humid forest in north Eastern

India. Vegetatio 49: 103-109.

Skeate, S. T. (1987): Interactions between birds and fruits

in a Northern Florida Hummock community. Ecology

68: 297-309.

Smythe, N. (1970): Relationships between fruiting seasons

and seed dispersal methods in a neotropical forest. Am.

Nat. 104: 25-35.

Snow, D. W. (1971): Evolutionary aspects of fruit-eating by

birds. Ibis 113: 194-202.

Varatharaj, P. (1988): Management plan for Pt. Calimere

Wildlife and Birds Sanctuary for the period 1988-

1989 to 1993-1994. Tamil Nadu Forest Department,

Madras.

Wheelwright, N. T. (1985): Competition for dispersers and

the timing of flowering and fruiting in a guild of

tropical trees. Oikos 44: 465-477.

* Original not referred.

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALI1Y IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

175

A PPENDIX 1

FRUITING SCHEDULE OF FLESHY -FRUITED PLANTS IN PT. CALIMERE SANCTUARY

176

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Appendix 1 (Contd.)

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST 111

Appendix 1 (Contd.)

Habit : t = tree; s = shrub; c = climber.

Fruiting pattern : S-P = summer and pre-monsoon;-M-P = monsoon and post-monsoon.

Number of individuals marked for the study: * = 3; ** = 4; rest = 10.

STUDIES ON THE ULTRA STRUCTURES OF ANTENNA OF

CYLAS FORMIC ARIUS FAB.1

S. Daniel Wesley, M. Gladstone and A. Mohan Daniel2

(With three plates)

Key words: Cylas formicarius, Ipomoea batatas , Ultra-morphology, Sensilla trichoidea,

Sensilla chetica, Sensilla basiconica, Sensilla styloconica, Sensilla ampullacea, Sensilla auricillia

The Scanning Electron Microscopic studies on the ultra morphology of the antennal segments

of male and female Cylas formicarius F., which is a well recognised serious pest of Ipomoea batatas

Lam., revealed that the distal antennal segments exhibit variation between the sexes. The distribution

of sensory structures including sensilla trichoidea, sensilla chetica, sensilla basiconica, sensilla

styloconica, sensilla ampullacea, and sensilla auricillia over the antennal segments is also discussed.

Introduction

Cylas formicarius Fab. is a polyphagous pest,

the biology and its host preference has been studied

in detail by several workers on a variety of host

plants (Henry 1918, Reinhard 1923, Gonzalves

1925, Van Dev Merwe 1926, Cockerham 1943,

Trehan and Bagal 1957, Subramaniam 1959). It is

a well recognised serious pest of Ipomoea batatas

Lam. (Convolvulaceae) a versatile crop. The

present paper deals with some micromorphologi-

cal aspects of the antennae, pertaining to the ultra-

morphology, the structure and distribution of some

important sensory structures.

Materials and Methods

For the present study live individuals of C.

formicarius were collected from infested tubers

of 7. batatas , which were kept in a trough covered

with a fine muslin cloth. Fresh adults emerging

from tubers were collected using a camlin ‘0’

brush and reared enmass in separate plastic con-

tainers provided with fresh tubers. For electron

lAccepted October 1990.

2Department of Zoology, Madras Christian College, Tam-

baram, Madras 600 059.

microscopic studies, the antennae of male and

female C. formicarius were dissected and the

samples were made dust free of particles by

cleaning them in absolute alcohol by fine camlin

‘0’ brush under compound dissection micro-

scope. The antennae were fixed using glutaral-

dehyde and osmium tetroxide both suitably buf-

fered (slightly alkaline 7. 1-7.4 pH) before fixa-

tion. The samples were fixed on to the stub using

a double adhesive tape, then coated with gold for

3 mins., and scanned through GEOL electron

microscope, under 5 KV emission current. The

vacuum stability was maintained under a pres-

sure of 10‘4 mm Hg.

Result

Studies on the female antennae of C. for-

micarius under scanning Electron Microscope

revealed that all segments barring that of the

distal segment are similar in shape with a narrow

base and armed with pentagonal reticulations

(Plate I B,C). Each of these segments bear three

pairs of setae situated towards the proximal end

directing anteriorly. The length of the setae

gradually decreases from proximal towards dis-

tal end. The distal segment is comparatively

larger and bears four types of sensory structures

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Wesley et al. : Antenna of Cylas formicarius

Scanning Electron Micrographs of female antenna.

A. Distal end of distal segment; B. Proximal end of distal segment; C. Magnified view of the segment of the antennae;

D. Female antenna entire; E, F and G. sensory structures at the distal end of the antenna.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 Plate II

Wesley et al.: Antenna of Cylas formicarius

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J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Wesley et al. : Antenna of Cylas formicarius

Plate III

A. Sensilla auricillia; B. and D. Sensilla chaetica and sensilla basiconica; C. Sensilla chaetica; E. An enlarged view of the

base of the distal segment of male showing sensory structures; F. The apex of the distal segment of female showing the

distribution of sensory structures like sensilla styloconica and sensilla ampullacea.

/

STUDIES ON T1IE ANTENNA OFC YLAS FORMICARIUS FAB.

179

varying in shape and structure. Unlike the other

segments, only the base of the distal segment is

provided with pentagonal armature and are ab-

sent at the distal end, where the sensory struc-

tures are present.

The various types of sensory structures are

(i) sensilla chaetica (Plate III D) (Plate I G) which

is characterised by an external spine-like process

with a distinct cuticular membrane, (ii) sensilla

basiconica (Plate III B) where the sensory

processes are modified into freely exposed pegs

or cones, (iii) sensilla styloconica (Plate I A)

(Plate III F) which appears similar to that of

sensilla basiconica are situated at the distal ends,

while sensilla ampullacea (Plate III F) which

appear as pits are distributed randomly on the

distal segment.

The antenna of the male also consists of ten

segments, in which nine segments are

homologous annulated segments, whereas the

tenth distal segment is club-shaped and vary in

size among the two sexes. The other homologous

segments are similar in configuration as that of

female antennal segments but are comparatively

smaller in size. As in the female the distal seg-

ment is also provided with sensory structures but

their number is comparatively more than that of

the females. The densely distributed setae

present on the tenth antennal segment are much

slender and longer than those of females. There

is not much variation among the sensory struc-

tures on distal segment as in the females. The

sensory structures present on the distal segments

of males include sensilla trichoidea, (Plate II C)

which is characterised by the presence of typical

hairs without a basal cuticular ring, and the only

structure which differs from this is sensillia

auricillia (Plate II D) (Plate III A) located at the

ventral base of the distal segment.

Discussion

Scanning Electron Microscopic studies on

the distal antennal segment of female of C. for-

micarius revealed the presence of four types of

sensory structures. They are sensilla chaetica,

sensilla basiconica, sensilla styloconica and sen-

silla ampullacea. Sensilla chaetica is an example

of classical contact chaemoreceptive sensilla and

it occurs in large number of the distal antennal

segment of the female. This was also found in

Rhaphidopalpa foevicollis (Lucas) in which, the

bristiles with blunt tips as well as with pointed

ends serves as mechano receptors (Raman and

Annadurai 1985). Structures similar to sensilla

basiconica of C. formic ciriiis were also reported

from R. foevicollis in which it functions as an

olfactory sensilla (Raman and Annadurai 1985).

Boechkh et ol. (1965) explained that sensilla

basiconica contains odour specialist and odour

generalist neurons, where the fonner neurons of

similar sensillum in one individual, but have

partly overlapping pattern in reacting cells.

Electron Microscopic studies on sensory struc-

tures related to feeding in specialised Lygaeids,

namely Oxy car inns hyalipennis Costa, Spilos-

tellms hospas (Fab.), Nysius ceylonicus Motsch,

and Elasmolomus sordidus (Fab.) revealed the

presence of sensilla basiconica and sensilla

trichoidea at the tip of the proboscis and such

structures were not uncommon on the antennae

of insects (Ananthakrishnan 1986).

Sensilla styloconica which appears in the

form of pegs and cones at the distal edges of tenth

antennal segment are present in C. formicarius.

This is also supported by the observations made

by Blom ( 1 978) on the oligophagous Pieris bras-

sicae Linn. (Lepidoptera) and he correlated with

behavioural responses in terms of feeding to the

sensory response to sinigrin, strychine and

180

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

proline positively. Ablation of styloconicum

sensilla in P. brassicae profoundly affected its

behavioural responses, but however in the

polyphagous species Mamestra brassicae

(Linn.) the complete removal of styloconicum

sensilla docs not affect its behavioural response

in terms of feeding. This substantiates the fact

that the different species possess different types

of gustatory cells and the response of spectra

being adopted to perception of chemical com-

pounds, present in host plant, by insect species

(Visser 1983).

There are two types of sensilla, sensilla

trichoidea and sensilla auricillia are present on

the distal antennal segment of male. The sensilla

trichoidea of trichoid sensilla present on the tarsi

and mouth parts of many insects are mainly

chaemoreceptory in function and it can also be

function as mechano receptor (Ananthakrishnan

1986). These sensilla are stimulated by chemical

substances present in the host plants. Sensilla

trichoidea and sensilla auricillia are distributed

on the various parts of the insect body and are

Refer

Ananthakrshnan, T. N. (1986): Dynamics of Insect-Plant

Interactions. (Ed.) T.N. Ananthakrishnan, Entomology

Research Institute, Loyola College, Madras. 170 pp.

Blom, F. (1978): Sensory input behavioural output relation-

ships in the feeding activity of some lepidopterous

larvae. Ent. exp. appl. 24: 58-65.

Boechkii, J., Kaissung, K. E. & Schneider, D. (1965): Insect

ol-factory receptors. In Cold spring Harbour symposia

on quantitative Biology. Sensory Receptors 30: 263-

280.

Cockerham, K.L. (1943): The host preference of the sweet

potato weevil. J. econ. Ent. 29 ( 5): 992-1000.

Gonzalves, S.S. (1925): The sweet potato weevil (i Cylcis

formicarius (Fbr.). Phillipine Agriculturist 14(5):

257-281.

Henry, G.M. (1918): Sweet potato weevil (Cylas for-

micarius). Trop. Agriculturist. Peradeniya., 51: 176.

abundant on the antennae, mouth parts and legs.

The present study revealed the presence of such

structures in abundance on the distal antennal

segment of C. formicarius. Extripation studies

can highlight the positive role played by both

these sensilla in initiation of feeding in insects

(Ananthakrishnan 1986). This may be the reason

for probing the host surface by C. formicarius

before feeding. Numerous multifunctional

trichoid sensillae arc found on the male antenna

of C. formicarius. Since it can function as

chaemoreceptor as well as mechanoreceptor the

other types of sensory structures observed on the

antennae of female C. formicarius appears to be

absent.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our gratitude to the

former Principal Dr Mithra G. Augustine for the

facilities provided and Mr Raja Lazarus and Mr

Lakshmanan for the assistance in Electron

Microscopy.

ENCES

Raman, A. & Annadurai, P. S. (1985): Host selection and

food utilisation of red pumpkin beetle, Rhaphidopalpa

foevicollisLucas. (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera).i>roc.

Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 94: 547-556.

Reinhard, H. J. (1923): The sweet potato weevil. Texas Agri.

Exp. Stan. Bull. 308: 1-99.

Subramanian, T. R. (1959): Observation on the biology of

Cylas fabricius Fab. at Coimbatore. Madras agri. J.,

46: 293-297.

Trehan, K. N. & Bagal, S.R. (1957): Life history bionomics

and control of sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius

F.) with short notes on some other pests of sweet potato

in Bombay state. Indian J. Ent. 19: 245-252.

Van Dev Merwe, C. P. (1926): The sweet potato weevil.

Farming in S. Africa, 1: 116-117.

Visser, J. H. (1983): Differential sensory perception of plant

compound by insects. In: Plant resistance to insects.

Proc. Sym. Am. Chem. Soc. pp. 215-230.

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS IN RELATION TO

AQUATIC VEGETATION AND WATER CHEMISTRY1

C. R. Ajith Kumar and D.D. Mittal2

( With seven text-figures)

Key words: Aquatic vegetation, Channa sp., Cirrhinus sp., Heteropneustes sp., habitat,

Notopterus sp., water chemistry, Wetland fishes.

The study was conducted over a period of three years in the monsoonal wetland of Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, a famous waterfowl reserve in the subcontinent. Fish were

sampled from various habitats using passive methods. The air-breathing fishes such as Channa

punctatus , C. striatus, Heteropneustes fossilis and Clarias batrachus were recorded from various types

of habitats. However, Channa punctatus was more widely distributed, evidenced by the frequent

occurrence even in thick Paspalum distichum dominated habitat. Non-air-breathers frequented open

water or sparsely vegetated habitat. The highest species richness of fishes was in sparsely vegetated

habitat and the lowest in thick Paspalum distichum

For a better understanding of the role of water

chemistry on species distribu ion, sampling sta-

tions were pooled into two major macrohabitats,

namely (i) with sparse vegetation and (ii) with thick

vegetation. The water temperature and pH hardly

differed between these two macrohabitats while

DO, total CO2 and methyl orange alkalinity dif-

fered considerably. While DO was higher in open

water, total CQ2 was more in thick vegetation. It

seems that these factors may be the limiting

physico-chemical factors of the distribution of fish

in the wetland. The dominance of air-breathers is

because of their ability to breath the air directly in

oxygen depleted environment. The size of the

species is equally important because the small

species can move easily in the thick vegetation. The

frequency of C. punctatus in the thick vegetation

may be due to their small size. Non-air-breathers

avoided thick vegetation because of the low DO

and other air-breathers avoided this habitat due to

Accepted July 1992.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr Salim

Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

dominated habitat.

their comparatively large body size which

hinders their easy movement.

Introduction

The present study was conducted in the

monsoonal wetland of Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan, a renowned waterfowl

reserve also famous for many colonial breeding

fish-eating birds.

In earlier habitat related studies of fish,

Larson (1980) discussed the habitat selection of

rock fishes in California and Schlosser (1982)

described habitat selection and depth distribution

resulting from predation risk in stream fishes.

Tailor (1988) reported macro habitat shifts in

salmon. Such studies, however, have not been

attempted in fresh water wetlands, the transition-

al area between aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

The ecological aspects of fishes in Northern

Prairie wetland were discussed by Peterk (1989)

and those of Everglade wetland by Kushlan

(1974, 1976a, b). Other related studies were by

Frayer (1959), Gladfelter and Gladfelter (1975),

Ebersole (1977), Larson (1980), Waldner and

182

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Robertson (1980), Winter and Ross (1981),

Fraser and Cerri (1982), Werner et al. (1983),

Livingston (1984) and Van Den Avyle and Peter-

ing ( 1 988). These studies largely emphasised the

fish community rather than habitat preference.

Methodology

Aquatic habitats were classified into

various microhabitats following Lawrence

(1955) with slight modifications to be in tune

with the purpose of this study. Five major

habitats thus distinguished were:

1. Without vegetation: Water stretches

devoid of any vegetation present in the middle of

certain blocks and the deeper area near the dykes.

Under this group only one microhabitat was dif-

ferentiated, i.e. the open water (Ow).

2. Sparse vegetation: This type is further

distinguished into three microhabitats, namely (1)

floating vegetation (FI) consisting of areas with

floating plants such as Azolla pinnata, Spirodela

polyriza, Lemna posicostata and Wolffia sp., (2)

submerged vegetation (Sub) formed of Hydrillci

verticil lata, Valisnaria spiralis, Najas minor,

Potamogeton , Scirpus and their combinations and

(3) floating + submerged vegetation (FI + Sub).

The habitat formed of floating and submerged

plants are grouped in this type.

3. Ipomoea and its combinations:

Ipomoea aquatica an amphibious plant as the

area gets inundated continues to grow and float

on the surface. Along with other species, it fonns

various microhabitats such as (1) I. aquatica

alone (Ipo), (2)1. aquatica + floating vegetation

(Ipo + FI) and (3) I. aquatica + submerged

vegetation (Ipo + Sub).

4. Paspalum distichum and its combina-

tions: P. distichum is the most problematic grass

inside the Park. This amphibious grass spread

into the aquatic area forming a mat, ever since

the ban on grazing in the Park. Most of the

shallow area of the wetland was heavily infested

with this plant inhibiting the growth of other

species. This major habitat is divided into: 1)P.

distichum strands (Pas), 2) P. distichum + I.

aquatica (Pas + Ipo), 3) P. distichum + I.

aquatica + submerged vegetation (Pas + Ipo +

Sub) and 4)P. distichum + /. aquatica + floating

vegetation (Pas + Ipo + FI).

5. Muddy pool: The deeper areas in the

wetland which fonns slushy pools in peak of

summer. The fishes congregate during the dry

season in these pools.

The biological year in the Park is divided

into two seasons (Tonn and Mangnuson 1982).

1) The flooding and flooded period (Autumn

and Winter — hereafter referred as winter) and

2) The drying period (hereafter referred to in the

text as summer). The former (i. e. winter), fol-

lows the water release into the Park which may

occur in July, August or September, depending

on rainfall in the region. Winter extends up to

March. During winter most areas of the wetland

are inundated. The summer starts with season,

the drying up period from April and extends up

to the onset of monsoon and the release of water

to the wetland.

Fish sampling methods: Fishes were

sampled from each habitat using passive

methods. Gill net of the size 11 x 1.2 m with mesh

size ranging from 3.5 to 6.6 cm were used to

sample in open water and sparse vegetation

habitats. Traps of the size 35 x 30 x 40 cm made

of split bamboo were employed to sample in

habitats with thick vegetation. Eight traps along

with 4 fences were used at a time (Kumar 1991

and the sampling effort was uniformly main-

tained. Sampling was continued for three years

(1984-85, 1985-86 and 1986-87). However,

detailed analysis was attempted only for 1985-86.

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS

183

Chemical properties of water: Samples

were collected from 20 sampling stations in the

Park in six aquatic blocks, canal and Mansarovar

which is the deepest point in the Park (Ali and

Vijayan 1983). The samples were pooled so that

half of the stations were in thick vegetation and

the other half in sparsely vegetated areas and

open water (hereafter referred in text as macro-

habitat: 1. vegetation and 2. open water). Every

fortnight, samples were collected from each sta-

tion and the monthly averages were computed.

The following physico-chemical parameters

were estimated using standard methods

(APHA/AWWAAVPCF 1985, Welch 1948): a)

Water depth at the sampling sites, b) Water

temperature during the sampling time (6 to 9

a.m.), c) pH, d) DO (dissolved oxygen), e) total

dissolved CCb, f) Alkalinity.

Results and Discussion

Physico-chemical properties of water:

Water depth varied from year to year due to the

variation in the quantum of water released into

the Park. However, average depth in the two

macrohabitats the pooled habitats hardly showed

any difference (Fig. 1). The gradual decrease of

water was mainly due to the evapo-transpiration

and infiltration (Azeez 1991). Water temperature

gradually decreased and the minimum was

recorded during January, thereafter it increased.

Little variation was recorded between macro-

habitats (Fig. 2).

pH did not differ notably between the two

macrohabitats. It was lower in thick vegetation

than in open water (Fig. 3). Dissolved oxygen

differed strikingly between the macrohabitats

(Fig. 4). DO value was more in areas with less

vegetation than in thick vegetation. The deple-

tion of oxygen may be because of the decomposi-

tion of macrophytes which was dominant in that

area. The peak in DO was during January (in

open water areas). During this time the decom-

position rate will be less due to the lower tmpera-

ture and the solubility of oxygen in the water will

be high. The lowest value was recorded during

May (in thick vegetation). In summer the decom-

position rate will be high which resulted in the

lowest DO value. Total dissolved CO2 in water

is often inversely proportional to DO. Striking

difference in CO2 between the two macro-

habitats were noticed. It is invariably higher in

thick vegetation and low in areas having less

vegetation (Fig. 5). The lowest CO2 content was

recorded in January (in open water) and highest

in July (in thick vegetation).

Phenolphthalein alkalinity varied between

the habitats (Fig. 6) but the variation was not in

a specific pattern. However, methyl orange

alkalinity (MO A) was notably low in open water

than in thick vegetation. A gradual increase of

MOA was noticed in both habitats till June. It

declined thereafter (Fig. 7). MOA was mainly

due to bicarbonates in the water. The increase in

MOA may be due to gradual reduction in the

primary productivity and increase in number of

consumer organisms.

Habitat preference of fish: The fish catch

composition was differed in different habitats.

The preferred habitats in the decreasing order of

fish species richness were as follows: floating +

submerged vegetation, submerged vegetation,

open water, floating vegetation, Paspalum +

Ipomoea + submerged vegetation, Ipomoea +

submerged vegetation, Ipomoea + floating

vegetation etc. (Table 1). The macro habitat,

open water with sparse vegetation (4.89) was the

highest preferred habitat (4.89) and the least

preferred was Paspalum dominated area (0.768).

The non-air-breathing fishes preferred less

vegetated habitats, whereas the air-breathers

184

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

om

month

open water vegetation

Fig. 1. Average water depth in two macrohabitats during 1985*86.

month

open water — vegetation

Fig. 2. Average water temperature in two macrohabitats during 1985-86.

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS

185

pH

month

OPEN WATER VEGETATION

Fig. 3. Average pH in two macrohabitats during 1985-86.

ppm

MONTH

— OPEN WATER — i— VEGETATION

Fig. 4. Average DO in two macrohabitats during 1985-86.

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

ppm

MONTH

— OPEN WATER -+- VEGETATION

Fig. 5. Average CO2 in macrohabitats during 1985-86.

1.6

1.4

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

ppm

MONTH

OPEN WATER — VEGITATION

Fig. 6. Average phenolpthalein alkalinity in two macrohabitats 1985-86.

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS

187

ppm

Fig. 7. Average methyl orange alkalinity in two macrohabitats (85-86).

(e.g. C. punctatus) were seen in widely differing

types of habitats including even the Paspalum

dominated areas. Thick vegetation inhibit the

free movement of fish. It also leads to depletion

of DO due to the decomposition of plant

material. The non-air-breathers avoid thick

vegetation basically because of the low oxygen

tension.

Channel punctatus was one of the numerically

dominant species among the air-breathers, having a

wide habitat preference ranging from open water to

thick P. distichum mat. The air- breathing nature of

the fish helps them to tide over a situation where

oxygen is depleted or is at a low level, hi addition, the

small size of species helps in its movement through

the thick grass. C. stria tus a medium sized fish among

the different species in genus Channa , shows more

or less, the same preference and pattern of habitat

utilization as C. punctatus (Table 2).

Another important air-breather Heterop-

neustes fossilis was recorded from different

habitats of the wetland. In winter, it was recorded

mostly in floating vegetation, open water and

floating + submerged vegetation. Clarias

batrachus , an air-breather morphologically

similar to H. fossilis was collected mostly from

the habitats having floating vegetation (Table 2).

However, the population of this species is very

small in the Park, hence they were not seen

frequently in all collections.

Compared to the air-breathers, the non-air-

breathers preferred a limited number of habitats,

open water and sparse vegetation (Table 2).

Thick Paspalum infested habitat was least

Table 1

188

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

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3

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s

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V©

o

V©

*

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8

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00

NO

8

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8

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Summer 1.4306 0.7966 1.224

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS

189

Table 2

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MAJOR FISHES RECORDED IN DIFFERENT HABITATS

DURING 1985-86 WINTER

C. pun — Channa punctatus, C. str — Channa stria tus,

H. fos — Heteropneustesfossilis, C. bat — Clarias batrachus,

N. not- — No top terns notop terus, L. roh — Labeo rohita,

C. mri — Cirrhinus mrigala , C. reb — Cirrhinus reba .

preferred by these fishes and that also during

summer (Table 3).

Among the non air-breathers, the major

carps such as Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus

mrigala showed very narrow preference of

habitats, i.e. they were recorded mostly in open

water and floating + submerged vegetation.

Minor carps such as Cirrhinus reba , Puntius

sophore and P. sarana were also recorded most-

ly in open water. On the other hand, Notopterus

notopterus was recorded from a wider variety of

habitats during the summer period. This species

was recorded even from P. distichum infested

habitats (Table 3).

It is clear from the study that most of the

fishes preferred sparse vegetation (i.e. open

water, floating, submerged and floating + sub-

merged) and avoided Paspalum dominated

habitats. Among the preferred ones, submerged

vegetation was the most utilised habitat. Thick

growth of Ipomoea and Paspalum , or any other

macrophyte, would lead to: (1) inhibition of the

free movement of fish, (2) reduction of

planktonic food material, and (3) depletion of

dissolved oxygen.

Jhingran (1980) discussed the effect of

macrophyte on pisciculture and stated that thick

growth of macrophyte in waterbody will severe-

ly restrict plankton production, limit the living

space of fish and upset the equilibrium of

physico-chemical qualities of water. It also leads

to imbalance in dissolved oxygen budget, ac-

cumulation of deposits leading to siltation. Thick

macrophytes provide shelter to the predatory and

weed fishes, molluscs and aquatic insects and,

obstruct net operations.

190

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Table 3

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MAJOR FISHES RECORDED IN DIFFFERENT HABITATS

DURING 1985-86 SUMMER

C. pun -Channa punctatus,

H. fos-// eteropneustes fossilis,

N. not-Notopterus no top ter us,

C. mrl-Cirrhinus mrigala ,

C. str - Channa striatus,

C. bat - Clarias batrachus,

L. roh -Labeo rohita ,

C. reb - Cirrinus reba.

Parameters such as DO and CO2 differed

considerably between the two macrohabitats.

DO and CO2 are limiting factors for the survival

of the fish. According to Alabaster and Llyod

(1980) the effect of DO on fish is influenced by

several other factors including temperature,

which affect the solubility of oxygen in water

and also the metabolic rate of poikilotherms.

Studies showed that sudden exposure to a

moderately high concentration of CO2 causes a

normally tolerable low DO to be fatal. Air-

breathers may not be much sensitive to this factor

because of the presence of accessory respiratory

organs which help the fish to breath air. But for

non-air breathers, depletion of DO may cause

death. This explains the reason for low species

richness in thick vegetation. Individual species

tolerance to DO and CO2 are not studied in detail

in natural condition. Between the areas having

less vegetation and thick vegetation a prominent

difference was noticed. Water with less vegeta-

tion had low MOA. In thick vegetation, as the

decomposition is more, bicarbonate is added to

the water through respiration, and hence, MOA

value goes up. The carps being exclusively de-

pendent on dissolved oxygen avoid thick vegeta-

tion. However, air-breathers that are not fully

dependent on DO in water can survive in the

oxygen depleted habitats so they were recorded

in thick vegetation.

In brief the two macrohabitats (open water

or water with sparse vegetation, and water with

thick vegetation) for a certain extent differed in

their physico-chemical properties of water also.

It can be inferred that habitat segregation of fish

is influenced by the type of vegetation and the

physico-chemical properties of water, especially

DO. Availability of food organisms such as

zooplankton and macroinvertebrates may also

affect the habitat preference.

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS

191

On the whole, the widespread infestation of

aquatic plants in the Park affects the fish causing

them to be in the limited deeper open water area.

The result will be reduction in the living space

and food, ultimately leading to low ponderal

index (Kumar 1991). Increase of thick Paspalum

mat will allow increase in the population of

hardy fishes such as Channa sp. and reduction

of other minor carps which are also very essen-

tial in the diet of piscivorous birds.

Acknowledgements

This study was an offshoot of the Keoladeo

National Park Ecology Project taken up by Bom-

Refer

Apha/awwa/wpcf (American Public Health Associa-

te n)/Ameri can Water Works Association and Water

Pollution Control Federation (1985): Standard

methods for the examination of water and waste water.

APHA, New York.

Alabaster, J.S. & Llyod, R. (1980): Water quality criteria

for freshwater fish. Butterworth Scientific, London.

Ali, S. & Vijayan, V. S. (1983): Hydrobiological (ecologi-

cal) research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur

(First interim report). Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Azeez, P. A (1991): Hydrology of Keoladeo National Park.

Seminar on Wetland Ecology and Management.

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India. 1990.

Fraser, D.F. & Cerri, R. D. (1982): Experimental evalua-

tion of predator prey relationship in a patchy environ-

ment: consequences for habitat use patterns in minous.

Ecology 63(2): 307-313.

Frayer, G. (1959): The tropical inter-relationships and ecol-

ogy of some littoral communities of L. Nayasa with

special reference to the fishes, and a discussion of the

evolution of a group of rock — frequenting

Cichloidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 132: 153-281.

Gladfelter, W. B. & Gladfelter, E. H. (1975): Fish com-

munity structure as a function of habitat structure on

west Indian patch reefs. Rev. Bio. Tro. 26(1): 65-84.

Jhingran, V.G. (1980): Fish and fisheries of India. Hindus-

tan Publisher, New Delhi.

bay Natural History Society, sponsored by US

Fish & Wildlife Service through the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Government of India.

We are grateful to Dr V.S. Vijayan, Project

Scientist, for his guidance, suggestions and help

during the study period. Discussions with Dr

Neil Armantrout, US Fish & Wildlife Service,

DrU. K. Gopalan, National Institute of Oceanog-

raphy, Cochin are acknowledged. We are thank-

ful to Drs (Mrs.) Lalitha Vijayan, P. A. Azeez,

John George, M/s N. R. Nadarajan, N. R.

Ramachandran, S. Muralidharan, K. N.

Mohanan and Rajpal for their help in various

ways.

NCES

Kumar, C. R .A. (1991): Habitat segregation of fishes in

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph.D.

thesis submitted to Kanpur University.

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water quality, plankton and fish population of a pond

in the big cypress swamp, Florida. Trans. Am. Fish

Soc. 103: 235-243.

Kushlan, J. A. (1976a): Population fluctuation of

Everglades fishes. Copeia 1980: 870-874.

Kushlan, J. A. (1976b): Environmental stability and fish

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821-825.

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Fish. Cult. 17(3): 141-143.

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habitat variability in coastal seagrass systems. Ecol-

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a head water stream. Ecol. Mongr. 52: 395-

414.

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Tailor, E.B. (1988): Water temperature and velocity as

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Tonn, W.M. & Mangnuson, J.J. (1982): Patterns in the

species composition and richness of fish assemblages

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1166.

Van Den Avyle, M.J. & Petering, R.W. (1988): Inundated

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Fish. Soc. 117:8 4-89.

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30: 171-186.

Welch, P.S. (1948): Limnological methods. McGraw-Hill

Book Co., Inc. New York.

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G.G. (1983): An experimental test of the effects of

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1540-1548.

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ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIRE NATURELLE

DES OISEA UX D ’AFRIQUE (1796-1813) BY FRANCOIS LEVAILLANT1

ByL. C. Rookmaaker2

Key words: Taxonomy, Nomenclature, Asia, Australia, Ornithology, Levaillant

18th Century, Zoology

The Frenchman Francois Levaillant included in his monumental Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux

d’Afrique (6 volumes, 1796-1813) the descriptions and plates of 45 birds known only from Australia and

Asian countries, mainly India and the South- East Asian region. Although Levaillant indicated the species

by French names only, many scientific names were proposed in the first quarter of the 19th century which

were solely based on his work. Out of these, 14 are still in current use for species or subspecies of Asian birds,

of which Levaillant’s specimens are the types. The history of these specimens and the existence of drawings

based on them is briefly discussed.

Introduction

A taxonomist working on Asian birds

would not soon think to consult a volume on the

birds of Africa. Yet, such a book appears with

some regularity in the synonymies or taxonomic

sections of serious text-books like (to give just

two examples) Ali & Ripley's handbook of the

BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (cf. 1987) and

Ripley's synopsis (1982). For instance, Ripley

(1982 : 270) gave the reference to the original

description of Dicrurus macrocercus by Vieillot,

with the statement that the name was "based on

‘Le Drongolon’ of Levaillant, 1805, Ois. d’Afr.

4, pi. 174: 72..." In this paper I would like to give

some background to this work by Levaillant,

while adding a complete list of all Asian birds

found there. I have discussed Levaillant’s or-

nithological studies in more detail in my recent

book on The Zoological Exploration of Southern

Africa 1650- 1790, but this title too would not

immediately appeal to students of Asian or-

nithology.

1Accepted November 1990.

2Huize Riant, West 1, Doormanstraat 31, 7731 BN

OMMEN, The Netherlands.

Life of Levaillant

The Frenchman Frangois Levaillant (1753-

1828) should be considered one of the pioneer

ornithologists of the late 18th century. Bom in

Suriname (South America) of French parents,

educated in France, he decided to travel to the

Cape of Good Hope to collect and study birds.

He stayed in South Africa from 14 April 1781 to

14 July 1784.

During these years, he undertook two ex-

peditions into the interior. After his return to

Europe he wrote two general accounts of his

travels first published in French in 1790 and

1795. There were many later editions and trans-

lations in all major European languages.

Levaillant’s main purpose during his travels was

to collect bird specimens. Although we are not

sure what number of birds he brought home to

France, it surely must have been significant. He

studied and traded these African birds. He com-

pared them to specimens in European museums

and private collections. In the course of his in-

vestigations, he came across many birds from all

over the world which had not yet been described.

Levaillant remained active as a student of or-

194

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

nithology, as author, and probably also as trader

of bird skins until the end of his life in 1828.

The Birds of Africa

Levaillant published the results of his or-

nithological studies in five works, which mainly

consisted of descriptions of birds illustrated by

plates of each species (often found in coloured

plates).

These works appeared in instalments,

usually containing descriptions and plates of six

birds. His major work is considered to be the

Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux d’Afrique

[Natural History of African Birds], which ap-

peared in 52 instalments to be bound in 6

volumes between 1796 and 1812 or 1813. In this

work he treated 288 birds illustrated on 300

plates.

One would expect that Levaillant would

have written about the species which he found in

South Africa. While many of those are found

there, the book also contains descriptions of

other birds. In his text, Levaillant often recorded

that he received or saw birds similar to the

African species, which he discussed in com-

parison. His book with the abbreviated title

Oiseaux d’Afrique or Ois. Afr. contains descrip-

tions of 80 species of which Levaillant stated

occurred in countries outside South Africa.

The Oiseaux d’Afrique , therefore, is quite a

mixture. There are two other problems connected

with it. First, there has been (and is) some serious

doubt about the validity of Levaillant’s statements.

Some birds in the book are described in great detail,

including its habits in the field and Levaillant’s

assurance that he shot one or more during his

African expeditions, while in fact the species was

never found there. Notwithstanding these

shortcomings, there are many valuable parts which

even today should not be overlooked.

The second problem in connection with the

work of Levaillant is that he provided the birds

only with French names. However, soon after

almost all the species were provided with one or

more binominal names. My analysis showed that

there were at least 315 names based only on the

Oiseaux d’Afrique, of which quite a number is in

current use. The animals described or illustrated

should be considered the type specimens of all

these species, which means that the Oiseaux

d’Afrique will continue to be important to

taxonomists. The list which follows shows that

the book included descriptions of 45 birds occur-

ring or said to occur in the present Asia and

Australia. This has resulted in at least 50 new

names given on the basis of Levaillant’s descrip-

tions only.

There are two questions which I tried to

answer in my book of 1989: what happened to

the specimens studied by Levaillant, and what

other sources exist about their morphology. I

have given some clues about the South African

species in my book. I shall give some details

about the Asian birds here.

Collections of Bird Specimens

Levaillant brought many birds with him

from his South African journey. Their present

whereabouts are unknown in almost all cases.

These species do not concern us here. In case of

species which did not occur in South Africa and

which Levaillant treated in the Oiseaux d’-

Afrique, he almost invariably indicated where he

saw them. A few notes about four of the main

private collections, with which he was familiar,

may be given here.

1. Jacob Temminck The treasurer of the

Dutch East India Company, Jacob Temminck

(1748-1822) had a great interest in natural his-

tory and maintained a collection of skins and

ASIAN AND A USTRALI AN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIRE NATURELLE DES OISEAUX D’AFRIQUE 195

other specimens. He probably was helpful in

arranging Levaillant’s journey. It is certain that

Temminck received some birds from Levaillant

after his return from the Cape of Good Hope. At

the same time, Levaillant spent time with Tem-

minck and in several instances he recorded that

a certain bird was found in that collection. A

catalogue of the animals preserved there was

published in 1807 by the son, Coenraad Jacob

Temminck (1778-1858). Later the collection be-

came the nucleus of the national museum of

natural history in Leiden, Holland (founded in

1825), the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke His-

toric (RMNH). Many of Temminck’s specimens

are still found there.

2 . JoanRaye: The Dutch businessman Joan

Raye (1737-1823) was Levaillant’s best friend

and main contact in Holland. He also maintained

a cabinet of natural history, which included birds

collected by Levaillant. This collection was auc-

tioned in 1827; the sales catalogue included 1103

bird species. Part of it was bought by the museum

in Leiden.

3. W.S. Boers: Not much is known about the

collection of Boers inThe Hague, Holland. How-

ever, Levaillant had some contact with Boers and

he mentions him a few times in the Oiseaux

d’Afrique. There is a sales catalogue of this col-

lection of 1797 including 337 birds, but what

happened to them is not known.

4. Levaillant’s own collection: Levaillant

himself also had a large collection of birds, con-

sisting of specimens which he brought from the

Cape of Good Hope and other specimens which

he traded or received otherwise. It is likely that

most birds in the Oiseaux d’Afrique with un-

stated depository in fact were in this private

collection. Levaillant sold a large part during his

life, but unfortunately it has been impossible to

determine their present existence (Rookmaaker

1989).

Collections of Watercolours

While the actual specimens studied by

Levaillant are very difficult to retrieve (due to

uncertain labelling of the old specimens in many

museums), there is one other way to get some

idea about their appearance. All the birds were

illustrated on the plates in Oiseaux d’Afrique> but

there are also some drawings or watercolours

depicting (probably) the same specimens. Al-

though one needs to be careful to generalise, it is

possible that some of these watercolours depict-

ing types can shed some light in taxonomic puz-

zles where the colour of the published plates is

important. There are five places known, where

such drawings connected with Levaillant’s

travels and publications are kept (Rookmaaker

1989). Only two need concern us here.

1. Watercolours in RMNH [Rijksmuseum

van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden, Holland], The

library of the museum has a set of Levaillant’s

Oiseaux d’Afrique which came from Joan Raye.

These volumes contain 53 original watercolours

showing birds stated to be in Raye’s private

cabinet. These drawings are identified below by

the prefix RMNH followed by a number (see

Rookmaaker 1989: 235-240).

2. Watercolours in the University of Leiden.

The main library of the Leiden University owns

a 4-volume set of the two travel accounts by

Francois Levaillant. These books include 242

original watercolours, showing 163 birds, 33

mammals and some topographical and eth-

nographical subjects. They too came from the

library of Joan Raye. These drawings are men-

tioned below by the prefix UBL followed by a

number (see Rookmaaker 1989: 214-235).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

List of Asian and Australian Birds

The species in the Histoire Naturelle des

Oiseaux d’Afrique stated to be from an Asian

country or from Australia are listed below. The

references in the second line of each entry refer

to the book by Levaillant stating plate number,

volume and page reference, and its probable date

of publication. The page references are to the

folio edition, which differ from the quarto edi-

tions.

1. Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin, 1788)

Plate 5 (Volume 1, pp. 15-17), 1796: Le

Blagre

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Falco blagrus Daudin, 1800, II: 70.

Levaillant claimed that he saw this bird on

rare occasions in the dry interior of southern

Africa. The plate does not represent an African

species, but depicts Haliaeetus leucogaster from

India and South-East Asia, which was known

from earlier sources.

2. Gyps bengalensis Gmelin, 1788

Plate 11 (Volume 1, pp. 32-33), 1796/97:

Le Chaugoun

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Vultur indus J.R. Forster, 1798: xvi, 40.

Vultur chaugoun Daudin, 1800, II: 14.

Levaillant had received a specimen from

‘Bengal’ where the bird was known as

‘chaugoun’. The bird was earlier described by

Gmelin as Gyps bengalensis. Levaillant’s

specimen, the type of V. indus and V. chaugoun

apparently was preserved in the Rijksmuseum

van Natuurlijke Historic, Leiden (Rookmaaker

1989: 266). '

3. Vultur monachus (Linnaeus, 1766)

Plate 12 (Volume 1, pp. 34-37), 1796/97:

Le Chincou

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Vultur sinensis J. R. Forster, 1798: xvi, 42.

Vultur chincou Daudin, 1800, II: 12.

Linnaeus was the first to name this bird.

Levaillant saw a specimen alive in the aviary of

Amoldus Ameshoff (1749-1819). Ameshoff had

a small collection of living birds (and mam-

mals?) in his residence near Amsterdam, Hol-

land, where Levaillant visited him either in 1780

or in 1785. The bird was supposed to be from

China, but Levaillant does not inform us how it

came to Holland or what happened with it after

it died. We may assume that the specimen is no

longer existing.

4. Falco chicquera Daudin, 1800

Plate 30 (Volume 1, p. 84), 1798: Le Chic-

quera

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Falco chicquera Daudin, 1800, II: 12.

Levaillant described a specimen of this bird

which he saw ‘dans une collection que j’ai

achetee .... faite au Bengal’ [in a collection which

I bought .... from Bengal]. The current name of

the species was proposed by Daudin after

Levaillant’s description. The type-locality is

Bengal. There is a drawing of this species bound

in Joan Raye’s copy of Levaillant’s Oiseaux

d’Afrique (RMNH 14 in Rookmaaker 1989:

238). It is likely that Levaillant gave the bird to

Raye in Amsterdam, because it is mentioned in

the catalogue of the sale of Raye’s collection in

1827: ”7. Falco chiquera (sic), le Chiquera"

(Raye 1827: 4). It is unknown what happened to

it later. There are, therefore, two known depic-

tions of this type specimen, plate 30 in the

Oiseaux d’A frique and the watercolour in Raye ’s

copy of Levaillant’s Oiseaux d’Afrique (RMNH

14 in Rookmaaker 1989: 238). It is likely that

Levaillant gave the bird to Raye in Amsterdam,

because it is mentioned in the catalogue of the

sale of Raye’s collection in 1827: "7. Falco

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIRE NATURELLE DES OISEAUX D’AFRIQUE

197

chiquera (sic), le Chiquera" (Raye 1827: 4). It is

unknown what happened to it later. There are,

therefore, two known depictions of this type

specimen, plate 30 in the Oiseaux d’Afrique and

the watercolour in Raye’s copy of the book (now

in Leiden).

5. Circus melanoleucos (Pennant, 1769)

Plate 32 (Volume 1, pp. 87-88), 1798: Le

Tchoug

Levaillant knew this bird from Bengal. No

new names were based on his description. One

specimen in the collection of Joan Raye in

Amsterdam was drawn on two drawings (depict-

ing the whole bird and its head and feet) bound

in Raye’s copy of Levaillant’s Oiseaux dAfrique

(RMNH 15, 16). The same bird is mentioned in

the catalogue of Raye’s sale in 1827: ‘no. 22

Falco melanoleucos, le Tchoug’ (Raye 1827: 5).

The present whereabouts of the specimen are not

recorded.

6. Crypsirina temia (Daudin, 1800)

Plate 56 (Volume 2, pp. 17-18), 1800: Le

Temia

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Corvus temia Daudin, 1800: 244.

Corvus varians Latham, 1801: xxvi.

There was only one specimen in Europe

when Levaillant compiled his works. He saw it

in the collection of Jacob Temminck in Holland

and he stated that it had been received from

Batavia in Java. Temminck’s specimen was

listed in the catalogue of the collection compiled

by C.J. Temminck (1807: 41) as Corvus varians

from ‘Ceylon’. Later the same specimen was

mentioned by Temminck (1838, II: text on

Glaucopis), who stated that the bird was in a poor

condition, but it was the same as the one figured

by Levaillant, because no others had yet become

known. It is likely that the skin is still preserved

in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Hitorie in

Leiden. Peters Check-list (1962, XV: 250) gives

the type locality as "Africa, error for Java".

Levaillant or Daudin, however, did not refer to

its supposed occurrence in Africa.

7. Urocissa flavirostris (Blyth, 1846)

Plate 57 (Volume 2, pp. 19-21), 1800: La

Pie Bleue

Levaillant knew this bird correctly from

China. He had one specimen in his own collec-

tion and also saw others owned by Temminck,

Boers, C. Gygot-d’Orcy and the Paris museum.

There is a drawing similar to the published plate

(in reverse) in the RMNH copy of his book

(RMNH 29). That drawing has no caption and it

is not recorded that Raye owned a specimen. It

may be that Temminck’s bird was borrowed for

the illustration. No new names were based on

Levaillant’s plate, probably due to confusion

with Urocissa erythrorhyncha (Boddaert, 1783),

but the bird on the plate has a yellow (not a red)

bill.

8. Artefact

Plate 58 (Volume 2, pp. 22-23), 1800: La

Pie Bleue a Tete Noire

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Corvus melanocephalus Daudin, 1800, II:

241.

Levaillant figured a bird which had come

from China. Although he usually mentioned

where he saw his specimens, this information is

absent in the description of this species. It was

probably in his own collection. The bird has

never been seen again and must have been com-

posed by a dealer in Europe.

9. Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham, 1790)

Plate 59 (Volume 2, pp. 24-25), 1800: La

Pie Rousse

Levaillant received one of these birds from

Bengal. It is likely that this means no more than

that it was collected somewhere in the Indian

198

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

region. It is probable that the specimen belonged

to the nominate subspecies, even though this

cannot be seen on the plate.

10. Lanius cristatus superciliosus Latham,

1801

Plate 66 Fig. 2 (Volume 2, pp. 45-47), 1800:

Le Rousseau

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Lanius superciliosus Latham, 1801: 20.

According to Levaillant, the bird lived on

Java around Batavia (Jakarta). One specimen

had been received by Jacob Temminck in Hol-

land, which he gave to Levaillant. The current

name of the species is based on this description

and plate by Levaillant. It is not possible to

retrieve what happened to the type specimen.

11. Artefact

Plate 82 (Volume 2, pp. 92-96), 1801: Le

Sicrin

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Corvus crinitus Daudin, 1800, II: 253.

Corvus indicus Wilkes, 1802, V: 242.

Corvus sexsetaceus Shaw, 1809, VII (2):

380.

Levaillant bought his own specimen from a

‘dealer of natural history specimens’ supposed

to be ‘des Indes’ (from India?). A similar bird

was owned by W.S. Boers in Holland. Even

though three names were based on the plate, the

bird is unknown and must have been made by the

dealer.

12. Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae

(Gmelin, 1784)

Plate 92 (Volume 2, pp. 126-128), 1801-04:

La Cravate Frisee

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Sturnus crispicollis Daudin, 1800, II: 314.

One of these birds from the South Seas (‘un

des lies de la Mer du Sud’) was in the collection

of C. Gigot-d’Orcy. It had been sent there by

‘ Woodfort’ in London to be painted. It is not very

clear why this happened. ‘Woodfort’ may have

been John Alexander Woodford (d. 1817),

paymaster in England of French emigres al-

lowances. The species was already known since

1773 when George Forster saw one in Queen

Charlotte Sound and several specimens were

recorded in England.

13. Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin, 1789)

Plate 95 fig. 1 (Volume 2, pp. 135-136),

1801-04: Le Martin-Brame

On the plate the bird is called ‘Martin-

Brame’, in the text ‘Martin-Blanc’. Levaillant

stated that it was very common in many parts of

India, but he also saw it in South Africa where

he killed two of them. The species is unknown

in Africa and we must assume that Levaillant did

not preserve his African specimens and later

confused them with the Indian bird.

14. Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham,

1790)

Plate 95 fig. 2 (Volume 2, pp. 137-138),

1801-04: Le Martin Gris-de Fer.

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Gracula grisea Daudin, 1800, II: 286.

Like in the former species of figure 1,

Levaillant was confused. He knew that the bird

on the plate came from Indi a, but at the same time

he stated that he killed five of them in South

Africa; he even gave an exact place and date.

15. Pycnonotus aurigaster (Vieillot, 1818)

Plate 107 fig. 2 (Volume 3, p. 31), 1801-04:

Le Cudor

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Turdus aurigaster Vieillot, 1818, XX: 258.

In this case, one wonders at what mistake

Levaillant made. He states that his companion

Klaas killed this male bird ‘sur les bords du

Groot-Vis-Riviere du Pays des Caffres’ [on the

banks of the Great Fish River in Caffraria]. The

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIRE NATURELLE DES OISEAUX D’AFRIQUE

199

bird on the plate is originally only known from

Java.

16. Copsychus saular is (Linnaeus, 1758)

Plate 109 (Volume 3, pp. 33-34), 1801-04:

Le Cadran

Although Levaillant claimed that he saw

this bird in South Africa, he recognised it as the

‘dial bird* from Bengal described by Albin. It is

a purely Indian bird.

17. Copsychus malabaricus tricolor (Vieil-

lot, 1818)

Plate 114 (Volume 3, p. 45), 1801-04: Le

Merle Tricolor a Longue Queue

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Turdus tricolor Vieillot, 1818, XX: 291.

Levaillant saw one of these birds in Paris in

the collection of C. Gigot-d’ Orcy . Its provenance

was not known but assumed to be the islands of

the South Sea. The type locality of Turdus

tricolor Vieillot was correctly changed to Ban-

tam, West Java. There is no clue what happened

to the type specimen.

f8. Pachycephala pectoralis (Latham,

1801)

Plate 115 (Volume 3, pp. 46-47), 1801-04:

La Cravatte Blanche

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Lamar ius albicollis Vieillot, 1817, XIII:

299.

Turdus lumlaris Stephens, 1826, XIII: 200.

Levaillant saw one specimen in the collection

of Jacob Temminck. The same one was listed in

Temminck (1807 : 89, no. 462): ‘Le merle k

cravatte blanche’ (without binominal name).

Temminck’s specimen was reported to have been

brought from Batavia, Java. The subspecies cannot

be clearly identified on the plate, and it may be

added that the locality ‘Batavia’ could mean no

more than that the specimen was sent from there

after having been collected elsewhere.

19. Xanthomyza phrygia (Shaw, 1794)

Plate 116 (Volume 3, p. 48), 1801-04: Le

Merle Ecailld

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Turdus squameus Vieillot, 1818, XX: 259.

Levaillant had seen one specimen in the

collection of Jacob Temminck. It was said to

have come from Java. However, this must have

been a mistake, because Xanthomyza phrygia is

only known to occur in Australia.

20. Stipiturus malachurus (Shaw, 1798)

Plate 130 fig. 2 (Volume 3, pp. 86-87),

1801-04: La Queue Gazee

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Motacilla fimbriata Wilkes, 1817, XVI:

102.

Jacob Temminck showed one of these birds

from Java to Levaillant. Later he may have ob-

tained a second one, as Temminck (1807 : 128)

recorded a pair as ‘no. 451 Sylvia malachura\

The locality must have been mistaken. Stipiturus

malachurus is known only from Australia.

21. Dicaeum trochileum (Sparrman, 1789)

Plate 136 (Volume 3, p. 104), 1801-04: Le

Figuier Rouge

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Motacilla amboynensis Wilkes, 1817, XVI:

91.

Levaillant was given two of these birds by

W.S. Boers in Holland. They came from Am-

boina. The species is not known to exist on that

island, so there might again be a mistake in the

locality.

22. Parus major cinereus Vieillot, 1818

Plate 139 fig. 2 (Volume 3, p. 117), 1804:

La Mesange Grise au Joue Blanche

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Parus cinereus Vieillot, 1818, XX: 316.

Jacob Temminck received a specimen from

Batavia and he donated it to Levaillant. The

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

current name of the subspecies was based on the

description by Levaillant. The type locality was

correctly recorded as Batavia, Java. There is no

trace of the type specimen.

23. Pycnonotus melanicter'us (Gmelin,

1789)

Plate 140 (Volume 3, pp. 118-120), 1804:

Le Cap Negre

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Aegithina atricapillaWieiWoX, 1816,1: 176;

nec Sylvia atricapilla Linnaeus, 1758.

Parus dubius Wilkes, 1821, XVHI: 727.

Levaillant received six specimens of this

bird from Ceylon. The names based on his plate

are preceded by the current one given by Gmelin

in 1789, with type locality Ceylon.

24. Aegithina tiphia multicolor (Gmelin,

1789)

Plate 141 (Volume 3, pp. 121-125), 1804:

Le Quadricolor

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Aegithina quadricolor Vieillot, 1816, I:

176.

Levaillant received a specimen from

Ceylon. It is unknown what happened to that

bird.

25. Terps iphone paradisi (Linnaeus, 1758)

Plates 144-146 (Volume 3, pp. 130-134),

1804,1805: Le Tchitrec be

There were three varieties known of this

bird from Ceylon, probably found in a number

of collections in Europe (although these are not

identified). It had already been described earlier.

26. Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus,

1766)

Plate 155 (Volume 4, pp. 13-15), 1805:

L’Oranor

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Muscicapa subflava Vieillot, 1818, XXI:

483.

Muscicapa parus Wilkes, 1818, XVI: 262.

There was one of these birds in the collec-

tion of Jacob Temminck, received from Ceylon.

It was listed by C. J. Temminck (1807 : 117) as

Muscicapa malabarica (Ceylan)’.

27. Dicrurus leucophaeus Vieillot, 1817

Plate 170 (Volume 4, p. 48), 1805: Le

Drongri

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Dicrurus leucophaeus Vieillot, 1817, IX:

587.

Dicrurus cinereus Swainson, 1837, II: 223.

Levaillant knew (or owned) 13 specimens,

all stated to be from Ceylon. This is the type

locality of the species, whose description by

Vieillot was based on Levaillant’s note and plate.

The locality was probably a mistake; Tweeddale

(1878 : 75) and Vaurie (1949 : 262) corrected the

type locality to Java.

28. Artefact

Plate 171 (Volume 4, p. 49), 1805: Le

Drongri a Ventre Blanc

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Dicrurus leucogaster Vieillot, 1817, IX:

287.

Muscicapa albiventris Wilkes, 1818, XVI:

272.

Edolius albiventer Voigt, 1831, 1: 465.

Jacob Temminck gave two of his specimens

originating from Java to Levaillant. One of these

was again donated to Mr Gevers in Rotterdam,

Holland. The bird has never been seen again and

it must have been composed by some dealer or

sailor, as found by Tweeddale (1878 : 75), who

saw the type specimen in the Rijksmuseum van

Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden.

29. Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus,

1758)

Plate 172 (Volume 4, pp. 50-51), 1805: Le

Drongo Fingah

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201

This species was known from Bengal.

Levaillant saw one of them in the collection of

W.S. Boers in Holland (who gave it to him).

30. Dicrurus paradiseus lophorinus Vieil-

lot, 1817

Plate 173 (Volume 4, p. 52), 1805: Le Dron-

gup

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Dicrurus lophorinus Vieillot, 1817, IX:

587.

Levaillant saw one of these birds in the

collection of Jacob Temminck in Holland, which

came from ‘des Indes\ It was later listed by

Temminck (1807: 114) as ‘Le grand drongo ou

le drong-up des Indes.’ The locality ‘des Indes’

was a general term which may have included

Ceylon, the only place where the bird is known

to live.

31. Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot, 1817

Plate 174 (Volume 4, p. 53), 1805: Le Dron-

golon

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot, 1817, IX:

588.

Muscicapa longicauda Wilkes, 1818, XVI:

272.

Muscicapa biloba Lichtenstein, 1823: 52.

Dicrurus indicus Stephens, 1826, XIII (2):

139.

Dicrurus longus Bonaparte, Consp. Av. I:

352.

Levaillant stated that the bird was received

in the same shipment as the ‘drongup’ of plate

173. He didn't say explicitly that it was in

Temminck’s collection, but maybe that is the

inference (not found in Temminck, 1807). It

must have been a mixed shipment with animals

collected both in India and in Ceylon. The

species of this plate 174 is known in peninsular

India and the type locality was restricted with

some justification to Madras City (Vaurie 1949

: 238).

32. Dicrurus paradiseus platurus Vieillot,

1817

Plate 175 (Volume 4, pp. 54-55), 1805: Le

Drongo & Raquettes

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Dicrurus platurus Vieillot, 1817, IX: 588.

Levaillant knew a number of specimens in

the collections of Jacob Temminck, C. Gigot-

d’ Orcy and the Paris Museum. They were said

to have come from Batavia, Java. The current

name of the subspecies was based on

Levaillant’s description. The type locality was

later restricted to Malacca (Tweeddale 1877).

33. Dicrurus aeneus Vieillot, 1817

Plate 176 (Volume 4, p. 56), 1805: Le Dron-

go Bronze

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Dicrurus aeneus Vieillot, 1817, IX: 586.

Dicrurus aerea Wilkes, 1818, XVI: 272.

Dicrurus aeratus Stephens, 1826, XM (2):

138.

Edolius metallicus Voigt, 1831, 1: 465.

Levaillant had a specimen from Bengal,

which is taken as the type locality of this species

based on Levaillant’s note. He did not state

where he saw the specimen, and we may assume

that he had it in his own collection. It is not

known what happened to it later.

34. Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus, 1766)

Plate 188 Fig. 1 (Volume 4, p. 82), 1806:

Le Traquet a Queue Stride

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Motacilla rubra Wilkes, 1817, XVI: 86.

Oenanthe ptygmatura Vieillot, 1818, XXI:

436. [Peters Check-List has it incorrectly as

ptgymatura ]

Thamnobia rufiventer Swainson, 1832, in

Swainson & Richardson, p. 489.

5

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Levaillant knew one specimen from Bengal

in the collection of Joan Raye in Amsterdam, but

he claimed that he also shot it in South Africa

(where it does not occur). Raye’s specimen is

shown on a drawing bound into Raye’s copy of

Levaillant’s travel account (UBL 1 14) where the

locality is stated to be the ‘Pais des Caffres’

(Caffraria in South Africa). It is not clear what

happened to Raye’s specimen; it is not listed in

Raye (1827).

35. Phoenicurus ochuros rufiventris (Vieil-

lot, 1818)

Plate 188 fig. 2 (Volume 4, p. 83), 1806: Le

Traquet a Cul Roux

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Motacilla rubra Wilkes, 1817, XVI: 186.

Oenanthe rufiventris Vieillot, 1818, XXI:

431.

Levaillant knew the bird from the same

places as the bird on plate 188 f.l, i.e. Bengal and

South Africa. Vieillot’s name was based on

Levaillant. Vieillot’s name is predated by O.

rubra Wilkes, 1818 by which it should be

replaced.

36. Clamator coromandus (Linnaeus,

1766)

Plate 213 (Volume 5, pp. 40-41), 1806: Le

Coucou h Collier Blanc

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Cuculus collaris Vieillot, 1817, VIII: 229.

In this case, Levaillant was wide off the

mark. He said that the species was known in

Senegal, while he had also seen it in South

Africa. Actually it is an Indian species, unknown

in the African continent.

37. Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus,

1758)

Plate 214 (Volume 5, p. 42), 1806: Le

Coucou a Gros Bee

Levaillant thought that he had seen this bird

in Africa (where it does not occur), but he il-

lustrated the text with a specimen from India in

the collection of Joan Raye. The same bird was

listed in Raye’s sales catalogue as 'no. 738

Cuculus crassirostris, le coucou a bee gris’.

38. Centropus nigrorufus (Cuvier, 1816)

Plate 220 (Volume 5, pp. 58-60), 1807: Le

Coucal Noirou

Name based on Levaillant’s description:

Cuculus nigrorufus Cuvier, 1816, 1: 426.

Cuvier (1816 : 426) only gave the name

with reference to Levaillant’s plate 220. Levail-

lant said that he had killed the bird in South

Africa, where it does not occur. It is not known

which specimen was figured by Levaillant.

39. Cuculus phasianinus (Latham, 1801)

Plate 223 (Volume 5, pp. 64-65), 1807: Le

Coucal Gdant

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Polophilus gigas Stephens, 1815, IX (1):

45.

Corydonix giganteus Vieillot, 1817,

XXXIV: 295.

This species was first described by Latham

from New Holland (Australia). Levaillant saw

one from the same place in the collection of

Jacob Temminck in Holland. It is again listed by

C.J. Temminck (1807: 59, 188) as 'le coucal-

geant ou coucou raye de blanc de la Nouvelle

Hollande, male’. It is not known what happened

to the specimen.

40. Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus (Pen-

nant, 1769)

Plate 224 (Volume 5, pp. 68-69), 1807: Le

Malkoha

Levaillant saw several of these birds from

Ceylon in a number of collections. One of these

owned by Joan Raye in Amsterdam was depicted

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIKE NATURELLE DES OISEAUX D’AFRIQUE

203

on a drawing inserted in Raye’s copy of the

Oiseaux d’Afrique (RMNH 38).

41. Rhamphococcyx curvirostris (Shaw,

1810)

Plate 225 (Volume 5, p. 70), 1807: Le

Malkoha Rouverdin

Names based on Levaillant’s description:

Cuculus curvirostris Shaw, 1810, XXI:

905.

Phoenicophaeus tricolor Stephens, 1815,

IX (1): 61.

Phoenicophaeus viridis Vieillot, 1817,

XVHI: 426.

Levaillant saw one specimen in the collec-

tion of Jacob Temminck, supposed to have come

from Ceylon. The same bird was listed by C.J.

Temminck (1807: 55, 209) as ‘Malkoha rou-ver-

din de Ceylan, male’. This was the type

specimen, as Shaw based his name on

Levaillant’s description. Ceylon is an incorrect

provenance, as the species only occurs in Java.

42. Rhytoceros undulatus (Shaw, 1811)

Plate 239 (Volume 5, pp. 96-97), 1807: Le

Calao Javan

This bird was known from Java. Levaillant

saw several specimens, among others in the col-

lection of Joan Raye in Amsterdam, also

depicted on two drawings in his copies of

Levaillant’s books (UBL 111, RMNH 50).

43. Buceros hydrocorax Linnaeus, 1758

Plate 240 (Volume 5, pp. 98-99), 1807: Le

Calao a Casque Plat

The species had earlier been described by

Linnaeus.

44. Caloenas nicobarica (Linnaeus, 1758)

Plate 279 (Volume 6, pp. 73-76), 1810: Le

Colombigalline a Camail

Levaillant said that there were no less than

17 specimens from the Nicobar islands in the

collection of Ameshoff in Holland.

45. Goura cristata (Pallas, 1764)

Plate 280 (Volume 6, pp. 77-79), 1810: Le

Colombi-Hocco

This species is only known from New

Guinea. Levaillant saw one in the collection of

Boers in Cape Town, which was supposed to

have come from Banda. Pallas had made the

same mistake in the locality and one wonders

how this came into being. Another specimen of

the same species owned by Joan Raye was

depicted on a drawing inserted in Raye’s copy of

the Oiseaux d’Afrique (RMNH 52).

Discussion

Among the 288 birds treated in Levaillant’s

Oiseaux d’Afrique, we have identified 45 species

from Australia and Asia. The localities as men-

tioned by Levaillant can be further defined:

Africa 4, India and Sri Lanka 22, South-East

Asia 13, China 3 and Australia 3. These indica-

tions were not always correct. This is a general

problem in books from that period. The people

in Europe depended on specimens brought home

by a variety of travellers. Many of these did not

consider the scientific value. It is quite likely that

birds picked up during the voyage between, for

instance, China and the Cape of Good Hope were

mixed and later the travellers and traders in-

vented the places of provenance.

Perusal of the above list of 45 species shows

another problem with Levaillant’s work. Some

of his statements were unquestionably false and

i n some cases one could even suspect him to have

known that they were incorrect. He claimed to

have shot some birds in Africa (see numbers 1,

15, 36, and 38 above), while no such bird was

ever seen there before or after his visit. I very

much doubt that Levaillant purposely told lies,

although even this has been said (Layard 1867).

It is more likely that there was a lack of care in

204

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

the selection of the illustrations. Levaillant col-

lected a large number of bird skins during his

South African travels, which he brought to

Europe. Some he kept, others he gave or sold to

others (like Temminck and Raye). By the time

that he examined his specimens, he must have

found that they had deteriorated, lost their

colour, or disappeared. His plates were all drawn

after skins in Europe and obviously skins in poor

condition could not well be used for such pur-

pose. Probably Levaillant then selected (to him)

similar birds to be drawn. Hence the confusion.

Among these species, 14 bear names

proposed exclusively on the basis of

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley S. Dillon (1987): Handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. Compact second edition. Ox-

ford University Press, New Delhi pp. i-xliii, 1-737.

Cuvier, Georges (1816): Le regne animal, distribue d’apres

son organisation. Paris, Deterville, vol. 1, pp. i-xxxvii,

1-540.

Daudin, F.M. (1800): Traite elementaire et complet

d’ornithologie, ou histoire naturelle des oiseaux.

Paris, 1’ Auteur & Duprat, 2 vols.

Forster, J.R. (1798): [Notes and annotations in:] F. le

Vaillants Naturgeschichte der Africanischen Vogel.

Halle, F.C. Dreyssig, vol. 1, pp. [1], i-xvi, 1-64.

Latham, J. (1801): Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici

sive Systematis Ornithologiae. Londini, G. Leigh, J.

etS. Sotherby, pp. [1], i-lxxiv.

Layard, E.L. (1867): The birds of South Africa. Cape Town,

Juta/London, Longman, Green & Co., pp. i-xvi, 1-

382, i-si, i-xxi.

Levaillant, Francois (1796-1813): Histoire Naturelle des

Oiseaux d’Afrique. Paris. 6 volumes.

Lichtenstein, M.H.K. (1823): Verzeichniss der Doubletten

des Zoologischen Museums der Konigl. Universitat

zu Berlin. Berlin.

Mayr, E. & Greenway, J.C. (1962): Check-list of birds of

the world, a continuation of the work of James L.

Peters. Cambridge, Museum of Comparative Zool-

ogy, vol. 15, pp. i-x, 1-315.

Levaillant’s descriptions and plates. These

specimens examined by Levaillant are the type

specimens of these taxa. Most of these birds

must be considered irretrievable, although in

some cases it may still exist, and one has the

best chance to find them in the Rijksmuseum

van Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden, Holland. It

has been shown above (no. 35), that the current

name Phoenicurus ochuros rufiventris Vieil-

lot, 1818 is predated by Motacilla rubra

proposed by John Wilkes in 1817. This latter

name was published in an obscure en-

cyclopedia (Rookmaaker 1989: 192-193),

which however does not affect its availability.

ENCES

Raye, Joan (1827): Catalogue du cabinet celebre et tres

renomme d’objets d’histoire naturelle. Leiden, [Van

Cleef & Scheurleer], pp. [1-8], 1-107.

Ripley, S. Dillon (1982): A synopsis of the birds of India

and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay pp. i-xxvi, 1- 653.

Rookmaaker, L.C. (1989): The Zoological exploration of

Southern Africa 1650-1790. Rotterdam, Balkema, pp.

i-xvi, 1-368.

Shaw, George (1809): General zoology, or systematic

natural history: Birds. London, G. Kearsley, vol. VII

(2)-

Shaw, G. (andf.p. Nodder) (1810): The naturalist’s miscel-

lany, vol. 21. London.

Stephens, J.F. (1815): General zoology, or systematic

natural history: Birds, vol. 9, parts 1, 2 (1815). Lon-

don.

Stephens, J.F. (1826): [In Shaw’s] General Zoology, or

systematic natural history: Birds. London, G

Kearsley, vol. XIII.

Swainson, W. (1837): Birds of western Africa, I. Jardine’s

Naturalist’s Library, vol. 22. Edinburgh.

Swainson, W. & Richardson, J. (1832): Fauna Boreali-

Americana; or the zoology of the northern parts of

British America, part II: The Birds. London, John

Murray.

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIRE NATURELLE DES OISEAUX D’AFRIQUE

205

Temminck, C. J. (1807): Catalogue systematique du Cabinet

d’ Ornithologie et de la collection des quadrumanes.

Amsterdam, C. Sepp. Jansz., pp. i-x, 1-270, 1-34.

Temminck, C.J. (1838): [Article Gypaete, in:] Nouveau

receuil de planches coloriees d’oiseaux. Paris, F.G.

Levraultetc., vol. 2.

Tweeddale, Arthur Marquis of (1877): On a collection of birds

made by Mr. E.C. Buxton in the District of Lampong, S.E.

Sumatra. Ibis, ( 4th series) 1: 283-323, pis. 5-6.

Tweeddale, Arthur Marquis (1878): Notes on the

Dicruridae, and on their arrangement in the catalogue

of the collection of the British Museum. Ibis, (4th

series) 2: 69-84.

Vaurie, C. (1949): A revision of the bird family Dicruridae.

Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,

New York, 93 (4): 199-342, figs. 1-14.

V ieillot, L. P. (1816-1819): [Articles on Ornithology], in:

Nouveau Dictionnaire d’histoire naturelle. Nouvelle

edition. Paris, Deterville.

Voigt, F. S. (1831): Das Thierreich geordnet nach seiner

Organisation vom Baron von Cuvier. Leipzig,

F.A. Brockhaus, vol. 1, pp. i-xlviii, 1-975.

Wilkes, John (1801-1829): Encyclopaedia Londinensis.

London.

ECOFLORISTIC STUDIES ON THE CHASMOPHYTIC ANGIOSPERMS ON

THE FORTWALLS OF PADMANABHAPURAM PALACE1

P. Prema2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Ficus religiosa , Morinda pubescens , Randia malabarica ,

Chasmophytic angiosperms

The ecology and distribution of the chasmophytic flowering plants found on the stone crevices

of Padmanabhapuram palace fort are described. A total of 40 species of angiosperms were reported.

Three species not reported by Gamble in the Flora of the Presidency of Madras have also been collected

from the study area. Successional trends have been studied with respect to the migration and ecesis of

new germules from the surroundings. The studies suggest that the vegetation constitutes a haphazard

covering of plants, representing a process called ‘Dominance’ out of competition, governed by

interaction of plants and their environment.

Padmanabhapuram (8° 35' N, 77° 05' E)

c. 53 km from Trivandrum and is situated to the

east of Velimalai hills in Kanyakumari Dt., Tamil

Nadu (Fig.l). It was the capital of the erstwhile

Travancore state in the 18th Century. The palace

at Padmanabhapuram and the town of (75.3 ha.)

was surrounded by a square fortification of stone

about 4 km in circumference intended to defend

the palace and its environs. The wall comprising

the fort is c. 1 m thick and built with granite up

to within c. 3 m of the parapets, the remaining

portion being laterite.

At the four comers of the fort, there are four

main bastions for mounting pieces of artillery

(Crossbow-like ballistas or projectiles). The

height of the wall varies according to the inclina-

tion of the ground, the highest elevation being 8

m and the lowest c. 5 m. The well-dressed blocks

of granite in their present form are more than 2

centuries old (Fig. 2).

The vertical clefts found at convenient in-

tervals had been used once for effective firing of

1 Accepted December 1990.

2Ananda Bhavan, Kannacode, Marthandam 629 165,

K. K. Dist., Tamil Nadu.

musketry at close range. But they have in these

days, lost what utility they had as defensive

works. The present status of the fort wall shows

a very weak profile, owing to the overgrowth of

vegetation in between the huge blocks of stones.

Literature Review and Present Approach

A few chasmophytes have been listed by

Lawrence (1960) in his paper "The vegetation of

Kanyakumari District" . Henry and S waminathan

(1981) have also made some interesting observa-

tions. I have also observed some chasmophytes

previously, during the systematic studies of the

campus flora of Scott Christian College, Nager-

coil, Kanyakumari District. Ficus religiosa L.,

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall, ex

Nees, Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br., were

found to dominate in the walls of the college

buildings. When similar dominance was noticed

in the palace fort at Padmanabhapuram, a floris-

tic analysis of the chasmophytic angiosperms on

the fort wall was thought useful and hence the

present study.

Care was taken to collect minute herbs and

other ephemeral plants. Complete field notes

CHASMOPHYTICANGIOSPERMS

207

ix

<£■

#

IND1AN-DCHAN

Fig. 1. Map of Kanyakumari District.

were made at the time of collection with special

reference to their habitats and associates.

General Aspect of the Vegetation

Chasmophytes are plants growing on plant

or soil debris found at places which are generally

retentive of moisture. In places like the stone

foundation crevices and the interstitial spaces

between broken cement plasters, extensive

patches of Tridax procumbens L., Vernonia

cinerea L., Lactuca runcinata DC., and Boer-

haavia diffusa L. were seen, forming a pure

community. All along the vertical clefts which

were partly filled with soil and leaf debris were

found, low bushes oiLantana camara L.,Randia

malabarica Lamk. and Barleria cuspidata

Heyne. The angular corners of the cleft below

were occupied by grasses like Era grostis tenell a

L.,Aristida depressa Retz., Bulbostylis barbata

Kunth .,Aerva lanata L., Leucas aspera (Willd.)

Spreng., Synedrella nodiflora L. were found in-

termittently associated with the other grasses.

In some restricted places, Antigonon lep-

topus Book., and Melothria perpusilla Cogn.

208

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 2. Padmanabhapuram Fort.

were noticed, growing with twisted tendrils upon

low scrubs. In certain conditions, Lantana

camara L., grew around Morinda pubescens

Smith, flowering profusely with its scarlet

flowers standing high above the fort. Morinda

pubescens Smith, trees have grown freely to

form bulky stems which could, easily be detected

even from a distance. Peltophomm pterocarpum

(DC.) Baker ex Heyne, is a new addition to the

crowded vegetation on the fort. Several plants

grow profusely along the base of the fort wall on

the ground soil. Notable among them are

Amaranthus spinosus L.,Amaranthus viridis L.,

Ruellia tuberose L., Evolvulus nummularius L.,

Side cor difolia L., Byptis suaveolens L.,

Abutilon indicum G. Don, Acalypha indica L.,

Lantana camara L., Boerhaavia diffusa L., and

Morinda pubescens Smith. Ficus religiosa L.,

CHASMOPHYTICANGI O SPERMS

209

has colonised every conceivable groove namely,

cracks and asphalting work of stone foot paths,

inner walls of wells at considerable depths.

Special Features of the Vegetation

The occurrence of the various plant species

is of distributional interest. This paper lists total-

ly 40 species belonging to 38 genera. The shade

offered by the tree canopy of the principal tree

elements Ficus religiosa L., Morinda pubescens

Smith, keeps the area moist in most places

providing a suitable habitat for a number of

herbaceous species.

The root biomass of selected plants like

Ficus religiosa L. is considerably higher than the

shoot biomass. Their migration was also very

efficient. Ficus roots had the capacity to

penetrate wall crevices even up to one mile dis-

tance. The Asteraceae members, though lesser in

number have a very high area-wise distribution

owing to a high rate of seed production.

Certain herbaceous forms like Tridax

procumbensL.yLactucaruncinata DC., Veronia

cinerea L., Synedrella nodiflora L.,Aerva lanata

L., Hyptis suaveolens L., Sida acuta Burm. f.,

Abutilon indicum G. Don yAcalypha indica L. ex-

perience either dieback of shoots or. are

eliminated in the hot summer every year, in the

absence of water. The roots of Ficus religiosa L.,

Ficus bengalensis L., Aristida depressa Retz.,

are very resistance to high temperatures.

Trends in Succession

The real causes of the development of

vegetation are the responses or adjustments that

the existing or successive communities make to

the habitat. Development is due to biotic reac-

tions. According to Weaver and Clements

(1938), the causes that produce the successive

waves of population are migration, ecesis, ag-

gregation, competition and reactions.

Mobility indicates the power of the plant for

movement. It depends not only upon the number

of germules produced but also is greatly in-

fluenced by the morphology of the fruit or seed

with reference to the action of the distributive

agents. Certain fruits are scattered in conse-

quence of being swallowed especially by birds.

The various agents facilitating dispersal for dif-

ferent plant species are presented in Table 1.

Germules of various kinds find their way

into communities but only a very few find

suitable habitats not already overcrowded in

which they can ecize. Competition is greater

between individuals or species which make

similar demands upon the same supply at the

same time. The crowding of the roots upon

drainage holes is however an incident for

water competition.

Barren stone areas, present only extremes

of water content and this excludes all invaders

except a few pioneers. Thus the sequence of

competition is followed by dominance. Ficus

religiosah ., behaves like an ecological dominant

finding favourable situation on any adverse

habitat of the wall.

Enumeration of Species

In the enumeration of the species, the

families are arranged according to the

Bentham and Hooker's system of clas-

sification and presented in Table 2.

Species not mentioned by Gamble (1967)

are indicated by an asterisk.

210

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Table 1

HABITAT AND DISPERSAL PROCESS OF GERMULES OF THE DIFFERENT CHASMOPHYTES STUDIED

(The Symbols namely *, +, 0 represent the vertical cleft, interstitial stone block spaces and Wall foot base respectively)

CHASMOPHYTIC ANGI O SPERMS

211

Table 1 (Contd.)

212

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

References

Gamble, J. S. (1967): Flora of the Presidency of Madras.

BSI, Calcutta, Vols. 1-3.

Henry, A. N. & Swaminathan, M.S. (1981): Observations

on the vegetation of Kanyakumari District Bull. BSI.

23: 135-139.

Lawrence, C. A. (1960): The Vegetation of Kanyakumari

District(Cape Comorin)./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57:

184-195.

Weaver, J. E & Clements, F. E. (1938): Plant Ecology.

McGraw-Hill, New York.

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF THE TYPE-SPECIES OF SOME

OPHIDERINES (LEPIDOPTERA : NOCTUIDAE)1

Ajai Srivastava2 and H.S. Rose3

(With thirty two text-figures)

Key words: Noctuid moth, Plecoptera, Chrysopera , Ischyia, Sympis, Calesia,

genitalia, uncus, juxta

Seventy species of noctuid moths referable to forty-six genera of subfamily Ophiderinae, were

collected from climatically diverse regions of north and north eastern India. Out of these, the following

species, i.e. Lacera alope (Cramer), Ramadasa pavo Walker, Plecoptera reflexa Guen6e, Lyncestis

amphix (Cramer), Chrysopera combinans (Walker), Ischyia manlia (Cramer), Hypospila bolinoides

(Guenee), Sympis rufibasis Guenee, Oxyodes scrobiculata (Fabricius), and Calesia dasyptera Kollar

are the type-species pertaining to different genera. These have been assigned status on the basis of the

description of the various constituent parts of their male and female genitalia. Thus it has been

established that genitalia components form an excellent basis of diagnosis of noctuid species.

Introduction

Hampson (1894) while characterising dif-

ferent genera, rightly relied upon various mor-

phological, taxonomic characters, namely labial

palpi, the antennae and the maculation of the fore

and the hindwings. He, however, could not

realise taxonomic significance of external

genitalia and thus did not include its structure

under the diagnostic features of the genera and

species. The significance of genital armature in

the lepidopterous taxonomy has been realised for

quite some time now.

Beuthene-Baker (1914) identified its great

value in taxonomy, phylogeny and considered

the structure of genitalia of utmost value in the

discrimination of the species and genera. Busck

and Heinrich (1921) discussed the systematic

importance of the male genitalia in

Microlepidoptera. Eyer (1926a) laid stress on the

Accepted March 1991.

2HPKV, Oilseeds Research Station, Kangra 176 001.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.

use of male genitalia in the characterisation of

Homoneura and Heteroneura in the separation of

their constituent families and in the determina-

tion of relationship among them. Eyer (1926b)

discussed the morphological significance of

juxta in the male genitalia of lepidoptera and

considered the loss of juxta to mark a high degree

of genital specialisation.

Other authors who used the female genitalia

in lepidoptera as a taxonomic measure were Phil-

pott (1927), Busck (1931), Diakonoff (1937),

Pierce and Metcalfe (1936), Bomer (1939). En-

gelhardt and McElvare (1941) stressed the im-

portance of genitalia at the specific level and

expressed the view that during revisional studies,

greater dependence should be placed on the in-

ternal genitalia.

The other workers who considered genitalia

as a reliable taxonomic tool included Pierce

(1942, 1952), Stempffer (1947), Pavolny (1957)

and Niculescu (1967a, 1967b, 1967c, 1968,

1969) and Zangheri (1969). They suggested that

the use of the structure of genitalia should be

made in association with the study of other mor-

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

phological and biological characters of the taxon

under investigation. These considerations neces-

sitated more detailed observations on the struc-

ture of male and female genitalia of the type-

species of subfamily Ophiderinae from north and

north-eastern India. Among these, ten species are

the type-species of different genera. In the ter-

minology for naming the various parts of the

genitalia Klots (1970) has been followed.

Material and Methods

The specimens have been collected either

from the fluorescent tubes or by using a portable

light trap (fitted with mercury vapour lamp, 125

watts), especially designated by Common (1959)

for the collection of lepidopterous fauna. The

collected specimens were killed with vapours of

ethyl-acetate in a killing bottle. For preparing the

permanent mounts of male genitalia, the entire

abdomen was kept in 10% KoH overnight to

soften the chitin and to dissolve the muscles and

other soft parts.

The boiling of KoH solution damaged the

genitalia and was, therefore avoided. The KoH

treated material was washed in distilled water,

before dissecting it in 10% alcohol solution. After

giving two/three washing, the aedeagus was pulled

out and the vesica everted out with the help of five

curved needles. The material was then transferred

to 30% alcohol before staining in chlorazol Black

E (Robinson 1976). After dehydration, the prepara-

tion was passed from absolute alcohol to Euparal

Essence (the Euparal solvent) which cleans it. The

genitalia and abdomen were added to a small drop

of Euparal on a Slide.

The coverslips was gently lowered on to the

preparation, care being taken not to allow the

genitalia to roll, bubbles to lodge or the aedeagus

to float out from under the coverslip. As usual,

after mounting, the slides were dried in an oven

set at 45°C for 48 hours. The sketches of the

genitalia were made on graph paper with the help

of a square ocular grid under Zoom binocular

microscope.

Observations and Discussion

Lacera alope (Cramer)

Cramer, 1780, Vitlandsche Kapellen 3:

168, pi. 286, figs, E, F. ( Phalaena ).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 1, 2): Uncus well

sclerotised, curved ventrad, furnished with tuft

of hairs towards distal portion, a highly

sclerotised spine present at extreme distal end;

tuba-analis with scaphium; tegumen broad,

lightly sclerotised throughout the length; vin-

culum broad v-shaped; saccus conical; valva

sclerotised throughout the length; costa marked,

distinct process hood like arises from costa, the

latter joins with cucullus, sacculus rolled on op-

posite face of valva, cucullus and valvula

membranous, with fine hairs; transtilla

membranous, juxta sclerotised broad, tube like;

aedeagus slightly curved, highly sclerotised

throughout the length, vesica with spine like

comutus.

FEMALE (Fig. 3): Ovipositor lobes well

developed, finely setosed; posterior apophyses

similar to anterior apophyses; ostium bursae

cup-shaped, sclerotised; ductus bursae short

tube, sclerotised; corpus bursae elongated, bal-

loon like, thin walled, signum wanting.

REMARKS: The species has been directly

compared with reference collections at the

forest Research Institute, Dehradun. The

male and female external genitalia of this

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF OPHIDERINES

215

type-species are being illustrated for the first

time.

Ramadasa pavo (Walker)

Walker, 1856, List specimens Lepid Insects

Colin. Br. Mus. 9: 147 ( Chasmina ).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 4,5): Uncus long

simple, curved at tip and highly sclerotised, al-

most covered by long hairs, arising from basal

portion; socci conspicuous; tegumen narrow,

well sclerotised; vinculum well developed, sac-

cus reduced; valva uniformly sclerotised

throughout the length, costa well marked, sac-

culus well developed, harpe present, curved out-

wards; transtilla well sclerotised, band like, juxta

well developed, lightly sclerotised; aedeagus at

moderate length, ductus ejaculatorius enters ap-

proximately from middle; vesica with three

group of teeth like comuti.

FEMALE (Fig. 6): Ovipositor lobes well

sclerotised, brood finely setosed, anterior

apophyses shorter than posterior ones, rod like,

slightly swollen at tip; ostium bursae highly

sclerotised, inverted bell shaped; ductus bursae

short, ductus seminalis departs from posterior

end of corpus bursae; corpus bursae elongated,

with striations all over the body.

Plecoptera reflexa Guenee

Guenee, 1852, in Boisduval and Guenee,

Hist. nat. Insects (Lepid.) 6: 430 ( Plecoptera ).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 7, 8): Uncus bifurcated

at middle into two process, the left side’s process

long bent downwards, beset with fine seta towards

distal end, the other process some what straight,

common stalk beset with long hairs; tuba-analis

lightly sclerotised; tegumen broad, produced into

two flape like structure, sclerotised; vinculum nar-

row, saccus somewhat rounded; valva with well

developed costa with prominent costal process,

sacculus well sclerotised; harpe prominent bifid

at distal end, sclerotised; transtilla membranous,

juxta not so modified, simple; aedeagus moderate-

ly long, stout, uniformly sclerotised; visica with

two large comuti, one straight, the other one slight-

ly curved.

female (Fig. 9): Ovipositor lobes broad,

well sclerotised, setosed; posterior apophyses

thinner, lightly sclerotised; anterior apophyses

rod like, well sclerotised, with tip swollen; duc-

tus bursae long, anterior half uniformly

sclerotised, with longitudinal ridges on its wall,

the posterior part comparatively less sclerotised;

ductus seminalis departs from posterior part of

ductus bursae; corpus bursae simple,

membranous more or less cup like.

Lyncestis amphix (Cramer)

Cramer, 1777, Uitlandsche Kapellen, 2: 59,

pi. 134, fig. e ( Phalaena ).

Genitalia male (Figs. 10,11): Uncus quad-

rifid, with two upper lips and two lower lips,

sclerotised, tuba analis well developed; tegumen

well developed, lightly sclerotised; vinculum

broad, saccus conical; valva simple, costa

prominent, sacculus well developed, sclerotised,

distal portion of valva with well developed

corona arranged in regular fashion, harpe, am-

pulla lacking; transtilla highly sclerotised, strip

like, juxta well sclerotised, triangular in shape;

aedeagus characteristic type with more or less

rounded in shape at proximal end, distal end

elongated, tube like, vesica with large number of

spine like comuti.

FEMALE (Fig. 12): Ovipositor lobes well

developed, furnished with fine setae; posterior

apophyses much longer than anterior ones; os-

tium bursae simple; ductus bursae extremely

long tube like, sclerotised; corpus bursae "C"

shaped, thick walled with rounded apical end,

216

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

Figs. 1, 2. Male genitalia of Lacera alope (Cramer); 3. Female genitalia ofZ,. alope (Cramer), 4, 5. Male genitalia of

Ramadasa pavo (Walker); 6. Female genitalia oiRamadasa pavo (Walker); 7, 8. Male genitalia oiPlecoptera reflexa

Guenee; 9. Female genitalia ofP. reflexa Guenee; 10, 11. Male genitalia of Lyncestis amphix (Cramer);

12. Female genitalia ofL. amphix (Cramer). (See abbreviations on p. 222)

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF OPHIDERINES

217

ductus seminalis departs from extreme terminal

end of corpus bursae.

Chrysopera combinans (Walker)

Walker, 1858, List specimens Lepid Insects

Colin. Br. Mus. 14: 1399 (Achaea ).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 13, 14): Uncus

strongly curved ventred, sclerotised, simple,

pointed at tip, beset with fine setae; tegumen well

developed, sclerotised; vinculum well

developed; saccus reduced; valva simple,

uniformly sclerotised throughout, costa demar-

cated, sacculus well developed, harpe present

lightly sclerotised, beset with fine setae; transtil-

la simple, juxta highly sclerotised, well

developed, aedeagus of moderate length, vesica

with large number of spine like structures.

FEMALE (Fig. 15): Ovipositor lobes well

developed, sclerotised, finely setosed; anterior

apophyses similar to posterior ones; ostium bur-

sae simple not sclerotised; ductus bursae long,

thin tube like; ostium bursae simple, globular

membranous.

Ommatophora luminosa (Cramer)

Cramer, 1780, Uitlandsche Kapellen 3:

147, pi. 274, fig. D ( Phalaena ).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 16, 17): Uncus

curved, ventral sclerotised, beset with fine setae,

narrow at proximal end, while broader in middle,

giving the appearance of hood, tip pointed;

tegumen broad, well developed, highly

sclerotised, vinculum broad, well marked, sac-

cus wanting; valva sclerotised, costa reduced,

sacculus well marked, ampulla somewhat bifid,

distal end of valva differentiated into cucullus

and valvula; transtilla well marked, highly

developed, juxta well sclerotised; aedeagus

moderately long, curved in middle, vesica with

large number of teeth like structures.

Remarks: The species has been compared

with the reference collection at the Forest Re-

search Institute, Dehradun. The study of the male

and female genitalia of this species, being the

type- species and the inclusion of these structures

has definitely improved the diagnosis of the

genus Ommatophora

Ischyia manlia (Cramer)

Cramer, 1776, Uitlandsche Kapellen

1: 144, pi. 92, Fig. A {Phalaena).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 18,19): Uncus

simple, sclerotised, curved ventrad, more or less

sickle shaped, furnished with fine hairs, spine

present at terminal end; scaphium distinct,

tegumen broader anteriorly, sclerotised, beset

with five setae; vinculum well developed, saccus

conical; valva with costa and sacculus well

demarcated; transtilla well sclerotised; juxta well

developed, sclerotised, with forked posterior

end; aedeagus of moderate length, with differen-

tiation into base and apex; vesica with three

groups of spine like structures.

FEMALE (Fig. 20): Ovipositor lobes well

sclerotised, finely setosed; posterior apophyses

longer than anterior apophyses; ostium bursae

simple; genital plate distinct; ductus bursae short

and sclerotised at middle thus forming col-

liculum; corpus bursae elongated, bilobed,

anterior lobe smaller, posterior lobe longer,

decorated with striations all over the surface,

only posterior parts of anterior lobes shows stria-

tions.

Hypospila bolinoides Guen6e

Guende, 1852, in Boisduval and Guenee,

Hist. nat. Insects (Lepid.) 7: 358 {Hypospila).

Genitalia MALE, (Figs. 21, 22): Uncus

strongly curved ventrad, sclerotised, produced

into two process at middle, bifid; tegumen long,

6

218

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Figs. 13, 14. Male genitalia of Chrysopera combinans (Walker); 15. Female genitalia of C. combinans (Walker);

16, 17. Male genitalia of Ommatophora luminosa (Cramer); 18, 19. Male genitalia oilschyia manlia (Cramer);

20. Female genitalia oilschyia manlia (Cramer); 21, 22. Male genitalia of Hypospila bolinoides Guenee;

23. Female genitalia of//, bolinoides Guenee. (Abbreviations on p. 222)

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF OPHIDERINES

219

narrow, well developed, highly sclerotised; tuba-

analis prominent; vinculum broad, V-shaped;

valva symmetrical, uniformly sclerotised

throughout, costa reduced, cucullus well

marked, ampulla quadrifid, lightly sclerotised;

transtilla membranous, juxta well sclerotised,

triangular in shape; aedeagus moderately long,

uniformly sclerotised throughout the length;

vesica simple.

FEMALE (Fig. 38): Ovipositor lobe well

sclerotised, beset with fine setae, anterior

apophyses broader, rod like longer, posterior

apophyses shorter in length, thinner ostium bur-

sae simple; ductus bursae short, narrow tube-

like, sclerotised uniformly; corpus bursae

bilobed, posterior lobe elongated, anterior lobe

shorter, signum absent.

Sympis rufibasis Guenee

Guenle, 1852, in Boisduval and Guen£e,

Hist. nat. Insects (Lepid.) 7: 343 (Sympis).

Genitalia male (Figs. 24, 25): Uncus

sclerotised, bent at right angle distally, beset

with fine setae, spine like structure present at

tip; tuba-analis well marked; tegumen broad,

well developed, lightly sclerotised; vinculum

narrow, saccus reduced; valva uniformly

sclerotised; costa well differentiated by costal

process; sacculus well marked, ampulla con-

spicuous, harpe reduced, valvula produced

into conical process at terminal end; transtilla

membranous; juxta well developed, highly

sclerotised blunt anteriorly, somewhat conical

posteriorly; aedeagus long, slender, lightly

sclerotised throughout the length, vesica with

group of spine like comuti.

FEMALE (Fig. 26): Ovipositor lobes well

developed, broad well sclerotised, finely

setosed; posterior apophyses slightly longer than

anterior apophyses; ostium bursae simple, geni-

tal plate well developed more or less horse shoe

shaped; ductus bursae short with striation on its

wall; corpus bursae thin walled, small, globular.

Oxyodes scrobiculata (Fabricius)

Fabricius 1775, Syst. Ent.: 592 (Noctua).

Genitalia MALE (Figs. 27, 28): Uncus long,

sclerotised, setosed, bifurcated approximately at

middle into two parts, left longer, slightly curved

distally, right shorter, pointed terminally; tuba

analis with well prominent scaphium; tegumer

long, narrow, lightly sclerotised; vinculum obli-

quely rounded, saccus reduced; valva with well

differentiated sacculus, costa marked, ampulla

present, cucullus in the form of long tapering

process, valvula pointed, transtilla membranous,

band like, curved at middle; juxta somewhat

semi-oval, lightly sclerotised; aedeagus long,

uniformly sclerotised throughout the length

vesica with large number of dents, slight

sclerotisation.

FEMALE (Fig. 29): Ovipositor lobes well

developed, furnished with fine setae; anterior

and posterior apophysis more or less of equal

length, rod like, sclerotised, the anterior some-

what thinner; ostium bursae simple, ductus bur-

sae dorso-ventrally flatten, sclerotised, wider

posteriorly; corpus bursae somewhat elongated,

broader anteriorly.

Calesia dasyptera (Kollar)

Kolia r, 1844, in Huguel Kaschmir und das

Reich der siek 4: 476 (Erebus).

Genitalia MALE (Figs 30, 31): Uncus long,

strongly curved, slender, spindle shaped,

produced to a fine tip: beset with long hairs;

tuba-analis well developed; tegumen broad, well

sclerotised; vinculum broad, saccus obliquely

rounded; valva with costa differentiated, sac-

culus well prominent with a additional lobe like

220

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Figs. 24, 25. Male genitalia of Sympis rufibasis Guenee; 26. Female genitalia of S. rufibasis Guenle;

27, 28. Male genitalia of Oxyodes scrobiculata (Fabricius); 29. Female genitalia of O. scrobiculata (Fabridus);

30, 31. Male genitalia of Calesia dasyptera (Kollar); 32. Female genitalia of C. dasyptera (Kollar).

(See abbreviations on p. 222).

I.Onnnn

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF OPHIDERINES

221

structure, ampulla well developed with swollen

terminal end; rest portion of valva lightly

sclerotised, furnished with long hairs; transtilla

partially sclerotised, juxta well sclerotised;

aedeagus moderately long, slightly curved at

middle, vesica lightly sclerotised.

FEMALE (Fig. 32): Ovipositor lobes well

developed, lightly sclerotised, finely setosed,

posterior apophyses much longer than anterior

apophyses; anterior apophyses short rod like;

ostium bursae with margin sclerotised; ductus

bursae short, much sclerotised with broader

posterior region and tube like anterior region;

corpus bursae somewhat elongated, bag like with

large number of spine present at one side

R EFE

Beuthine-baker, G.T. (1914): Notes on the taxonomic value

of genital armature in Lepidoptera. Trans, ent. Soc.

Lond., 1914: 314-337.

Borner, C. (1939): Die grundlagen meines Lepidopteren-

systems. Verk VII Inst. Kongr. Ent., 1938, 2: 1372-

1424.

Busck, A. (1931): On the female genitalia of the Micro-

lepidoptera and their importance in the classification

and determination of these moths. Bull. Brooklyn ent.

Soc. 26: 199-216.

Busck, A. & Heinrich, E. (1921): On the male genitalia of

the Micro-lepidoptera and their systematic impor-

tance. Proc. ent Soc. Wash., 23: 145-152.

Common, I.F.B. (1959): Portable light trap for collection of

lepidoptera. Joum. Lep. Soc. 13: 57-61.

Diakonoff, A. (1937): Notes on Microlepidoptera on the

characters of female genital apparatus in someTineids

Timm .Leiden., 2: 189-196.

Engelhardt, G.P. & Me Elvare, R.R. (1941): The impor-

tance of genitalia in naming of Lepidoptera. Bull.

Brooklyn, ent Soc. 36: 216-218.

Eyer, J.R. (1926a): Characters of family and superfamily

significance in the male genitalia of Microlepidoptera.

Ann. ent Soc. Am., 19: 237-244.

Eyer, J.R. (1926b): The morphological significance of the

juxta in the male genitalia of lepidoptera. Bull. Brook-

lyn. ent Soc., 21: 32-37.

proximally, a thin boll like structure, having

spines arranged all around it, present signum;

ductus seminalis depart from an hook like struc-

ture near proximal region of corpus bursae.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Mr J. D. Holloway of the

British Museum (Natural History), London, Mr.

Pratap Singh, Forest Rese&tch Institute, Deh-

radun and Mr I. J. Gupta of the Zoological survey

of India for their help to compare the species with

those available in reference collections lying in

respective museums. We wish to express our

appreciation to Mr Hans Raj Sharma, who typed

this manuscript.

NCES

Hampson, G.F. (1894): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Moth 2: XXII + 609 pp. London.

Klots, A.B. (1970): Lepidoptera, pp.115-130. In: S.L.

Tuxen (ed.), Taxonomist's glossary of genitalia in

Insects 2nd ed. Munksgaard, Copenhagen.

Niculescu, E.V. (1967a): Aspects Posifijet negatifs de

I’etude des genitalia Chez, les Lepidoptera Revue

verviet. Hist. nat. 24: 15-20.

Niculescu, E.V. (1967b): Aspects Positifet negatifs de

I’etude des genitalia Chez, les lepidoptera Renue Var-

vieL Hist. nat. 24: 34-37.

Niculescu, E.V. (1967c): Importance de I'armure genitale

et de I’exosquelette dans la systematique des Lepidop-

teres. Bull. Soc. ent. Malhouse, 1967: 25-27.

Niculescu, E.V. (1968): Les principaux elements de’-

Iarmure genitale Chez les lepidopteres a vec quelques

nouvelles considerations su Le. Some sternite. Revue,

verviet. Hist nat., 25: 34-40.

Niculescu, E.V. (1969): Some aspects of the study of the

genital armature in Lepidoptera Studii cetc.Biol. (ser.

Zool.), 2 1 (2): 137-140.

Philpott, A. (1927): Notes on the female genitalia in the

Micropterygoidea. Trans, ent. soc. London 75: 319-

323.

Pierce, F.N. (1942): An account of the morphology of the

female reproductive organs, p. 64. In the genitalia of

the group Noctuidae of the Lepidoptera of the British

Islands. Oundle. Northants.

222

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Pierce, F.N. (1952): The female genitalia of the Noctuidae,

2nd ed. Feltham Middx, F. W. classey.

Pierce, F.N. & Metcalfe, J.W. (1938): An account of the

morphology of the male clasping organs and the cor-

responding organs of the Pyrales with Deltoid and

Plumes Warmingion.

Povolny, D. (1957): Die ausseren genitalien det Lepidop-

teren unihre taxonomische Bedeutung. Acta. Acad.

Sci. CechPorno, 28: (1956): 315-345.

Abbreviations

AED, Aedeagus; AM, Ampulla; ANT. APO, Anterior apophysis; CO, Costa; CRN, Cornutus; CRP. BU, Corpus bursae;

CU, Cucullus; DU. BU, Ductus bursae; DU. EJ, Ductus ejaculatorius; GP, Genital plate; HRP, Harpe; JX, Juxta;

OB, Ostium bursae; OVP, Ovipositor lobes; PO. APO, Posterior apophysis; SA„ Saccus; SL, Sacculus; SOC, Socii;

TRA, Transtilla; TG, Tegumen; TU.A, Tuba analis; UN, Uncus; VES, Vesica; VIN, Vinculum; VLA, Valvula;

VLV, Valva.

Stempffer, H. (1947): De I’importance en systematiques

des characteres de I’armure genitale male des

Lepidopteres. Rev. Franc.Lep. Toulouse, 1(1(1946):

217-224.

Zangheri, S. (1969): Problemi attuali della sistematica dee

Lepidotteri sulla base della morfologia degli apparati

copulatory mascili. Mem. Soc. ent. Itai., 48 (2): 233-

240.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND

J. POLYGONATA (SAURIA : AGAMIDAE)1

W. Kastle2, H. H. Schleich3 and K. B. Shah4

Key words: Agamid lizards -Japalura tricarinata, J. polygonata , habitat, distribution,

ethology, ultra structures

PART I. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA (BLYTH, 1853)

(With three text-figures)

The habitat of. Japalura tricarinata in the Phulchoki region near Kathmandu, Nepal, is described

with emphasis on vegetation and climate. Field observations and new data on the distribution of this

species in Nepal are presented.

1. General distribution of

Japalura tricarinata

Geological and paleontological data docu-

ment that during Pleistocene/Holocene times the

Kathmandu valley was filled by a lake which

finally drained via Chobar valley (Sah et al.

1 991). With rising temperatures in the Holocene,

Japalura tricarinata withdrew into moun-

taineous areas and there are probably other

regions, e.g. Mt. Damadar, Mahabharat Moun-

tains, from which new records can be expected.

The whole range of this species forms a narrow

strip along the Himalayans for a length of about

600 km.

2. Habitat OF Japalura tricarinata

IN THE PHULCHOKI AREA

The village of Phulchoki lies 18 km

southeast of Kathmandu. Attaining 2715 m

1 Accepted June 1992.

2 Huben 5, W-8213 Sachrang/Chiemgau, FRG.

3 Institute for Paleontology and Historical Geology,

University of Munich, Richard-Wagner-Str.10,

W-8000 Munchen 2, FRG.

4 Natural History Museum (TU), Manjushree Bazar,

Swoyambhunath, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Mount Phulchoki is the highest peak near Kath-

mandu valley. Its area spreads over 40 sq. km and

is frequently visited by hikers.

2.1. Climate: There is no meteorological

station on Phulchoki itself and climatic condi-

Fig. 1. a: Distribution limits of Japalura tricarinata.

b. Situation of the Phulchoki area.

224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 2. Habitat oiJapalura tricarinata.

tions can only be extrapolated from records in

Kathmandu and the station at Godavari at the

base of Phulchoki. It is characterized by summer,

monsoon and dry winter. Usually temperatures

vary between 20-30°C in summer and 0-18°C in

winter. Monsoon occurs in summer between

June and September when over 80% of the total

precipitation falls. The annual amount recorded

in Godawari at the base of Phulchoki (fig. lb) is

1863.5 mm, this is 42% higher than Kathmandu

(1301.9 mm). Phulchoki is more humid and

cooler than Kathmandu during all seasons. Frost

occurs in winter from the lower parts on where

it lasts for several weeks. Snowfall is common

above 2300 m. The pre-monsoon season from

March to May is mostly dry and warm, postmon-

soon from September to November is sunny and

mostly dry with a gradual decrease in rainfall and

temperature.

In order to visualize the rain forest climate

we tried to construct a climatogram (fig. 3) which

is thought to present general climatic traits rather

than exact data. As there are no registrations

from the area the temperature curve for Kath-

mandu (elevation 1340 m) was lowered by 10°C,

corresponding to the adiabatic temperature

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

225

decrease of 1°C for 100 m of additional eleva-

tion. The fact that there is an occasional snow

cover is in accord with the subzero temperatures

in January. As for precipitations their general

distribution was assumed to be similar to that of

Kathmandu. Their amount was accepted to be

like that of Godavari at the foot of Mount Phul-

choki, i. e. 42% more than in Kathmandu. The

precipitation curve was increased by that

amount. Real values are certainly quite higher

and in monsoon times there is a lot of fog and

clouds.

In the graph, the temperature curve presents

a crude measure for evaporation. Thus the dif-

ference of both curves (hatched area) represents

the precipitation surplus which is very high

during the monsoon months.

2.2. Vegetation (see habitat photo fig. 2):

Mount Phulchoki is covered by mixed forests of

broadleaved evergreens from 1500 to 1800 m and

oak-laurel forest from 1800 to 2400 m. Above 2000

m there are some Pinus sp. scattered in the oak

forest. A large portion of the forest'below 2000 m

is damaged or destroyed by human farming ac-

tivities leaving only a few large trees. The slopes

facing south are generally converted into terraced

fields. The basal part of the Phulchoki region is

covered by mixed vegetation with a large number

of shrubs and small trees. The dominant species

are: Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Aims

nepalensis, Ilex doniana, Zizyphus incurva,

Leucoceptrum canum, Myrica esculenta,

Rhododendron arboreum, Prinsepia utilis,

Daphne papyracea, Rubus ellipticus, Rosa

brunonii, Ligustrum nepalense and Eurya

acuminata. There are quite a few climbers and

epiphytes towards the shady slopes of Phulchoki.

Some of the common genera are Rubia , Smilax ,

Cissampelos, Dioscorea, Clematis and Jasminum.

Epiphytic vegetation consists of orchids and ferns.

Phulchoki Area

annual mean *8°C >1800

Fig. 3. Climatogram of the Phulchoki area.

Parasitic Loranthaceae grow on trees (Flora of

Nepal and Godavari, p. 144).

2.3. Fauna of Phulchoki: No scientific

study has been done hitherto but according to the

reports of local people and birdwatchers there arc

more than 200 species of birds, more than 20

species of mammals and few species of am-

phibians and reptiles. Mammals observed by

villagers are: Leopard ( Panthera pardus), Jungle

Cat ( Felis chaus ), Leopard Cat (Prionailurus

bengalensis ), Jackal ( Canis aureus ), Tibetan

sand Fox ( Vulpes ferrilafa), Yellow throated

Marten (Martes flavigula), Common Palm Civet

(Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), Rhesus

Monkey (Macaca mulatto), Common Langur

( Presbytis entellus ), Porcupine ( Hystriyx in-

dica), Barking Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak ) and

many rodents. Sometimes Leopards take goats,

pigs and dogs from the villages.

226

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

3. FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON Japalura tricar inata

On Mount Phulchoki the species occurs

from 2000 to 2600 m and was found in 1989 and

1991. It lives in subtropical jungle which change

into mountain rain forest. This zone is clouded over

most of the year. Our last excursion took place on

16/07/1991 during fair (not rainy) weather with

even some sunshine and temperatures from 25-

28° C. Japalura tricar inata were disco verd by

walking on an asphalted but little frequented road

at an elevation of 2000 m along the forest edge from

13.50 h onwards.

The fleeing lizards betrayed themselves by

the rustling of dead plant material and could be

mostly captured by hand. Only a few of them

escaped. They were not regularly distributed along

the forest margin but occurred in groups with a few

meters of individual distance. Three females, two

subadult males and one juvenile but no adult males

could be found this way. Probably the adult males

were perched on branches and did not move when

we passed by. Crossing the dense forest by a nar-

row path brought no success and we conclude that,

at least in this area, Japalura tricarinata is limited

to the favourable microclimatic conditions of forest

margins exposed to sunshine.

During an earlier excursion on 23/06/1989

some females were still pregnant and shortly

before oviposition while in July 1991 all of them

were in nonreproductive state. The reason for

the very good yield (14 specimens) of the June

excursion was the better visibility caused by the

scarcer vegetation.

4. Other Records for

Japalura tricarinata in Nepal

Other records for Japalura tricarinata in

Nepal mainly made by K. B. Shah are:

- Ghorepani, western Nepal (Annapurna

Conservation Area), 2790 m, coll. 1980.

- Shermathan, 2570 m, Helambu, Central

Nepal, 1979, by verification through local in-

habitants.

- Daman, Central Nepal, 2360 m, visited in

July and August 1991 when 1 and 6 specimens

were collected.

- Phulchoki, 2200 m. During forestry

works done by local people a member of the

excursion (K.B. Shah) found a clutch of eggs.

The material collected by H. Schleich et al

from Phulchoki is stored in the Zoological State

Collection of Munich / F. R. Germany.

PART II. BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS IN JAPALURA TRICARINATA (BLYTH, 1853)

AND J. POLYGONATA ( HALLOWELL , 1861), (SAURIA : AGAMIDAE)

(With two colour plates and twenty text-figures)

The behaviour patterns of captive Japalura tricarinata and J. poly gonata are compared. Both

are predominantly arboreal, ambush hunters and thermoconform. J. polygonata is more sedentary

and its display consists chiefly in posturing while in/, tricarinata rhythmical bobs and pushups

prevail. The appendix contains a list of behaviour patterns in Japalura Swinhonis, polygonata , and

tricarinata.

Introduction and the optical signals of Iguanidae have been

Diurnal arboreal lizards present themselves intensely investigated (Greenberg and McLean,

as ideal objects for the study of reptile behaviour, ec*s*’ 1978) while corresponding works on

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

227

Agamidae are much scarcer (Carpenter and Fer-

guson 1977; further references). Playing an im-

portant role in isolating mechanisms com-

municative behaviour, more than other act sys-

tems, changes during speciation. Here the genus

Japalura offers a wide field for further obser-

vations.

Of the two species compared in this

study. /. polygonata (Hallowell, 1861) is

closely allied to the Taiwanese /. swin-

lionis Gunther, 1864. Its range extends

from northern Taiwan over the Ryu-Kyo

Islands in their full extent of about 800 km

from Irimoto Island (Irimoto-Shima) in the

south to Amani Island (Amani-O-Shima)

in the north. Three subpecies are recog-

nized (Ota 1991): Japalura polygonata

polygonata (greatest part of Ryukyu Is-

lands); /. p. ishigakiensis Van Denburgh,

1912 (Yaeyama group, southern Ryukyu

Islands); J. p. xanthostoma Ota, 1991

(lowlands of northern Taiwan).

Our second species Japalura tricarinata

(Blyth, 1853) from the Kathmandu valley,

Nepal, is a very distinct form concerning range

and systematics. In contrast to /. polygonata

its generic name has changed several times

since its description : Calotes tricarinata

Blyth, 1854; Tiaris ellioti Gunther, 1860;

Oriotiaris tricarinata Anderson, 1871;

Charasia tricarinata Stoliczka, 1872; Acan-

thosaura tricarinata Boulenger, 1888. The

northern limit of J. polygonata approximate-

ly coincides with the geographic latitude in

which/, tricarinata lives.

We are grateful to Mrs. Wenyu Wu, Inst, of

Paleontology, Academia Sinica, Beijing, for kind-

ly translating the article by Wei & Lin (1981) from

Chinese. She made a wealth of ethological obser-

vations available for interspecific comparison.

Material and Methods

Our observations on J. polygonata and J.

tricarinata are fragmentary as both species were

observed in captivity from August to October

(postbreeding season) in 1990 and 1991 respec-

tively. We had four J. p. polygonata males from

the animal trade without exact data on

provenience.

From J. tricarinata , six adult females and

two subadult males, were caught on 16/07/1991

in the mountain forest of Phulchoki at a height of

2300 m (see part I of this paper).

Both species were kept in a greenhouse 2 x

3.5 m planted with evergreen oaks, ferns and

vines. The northern wall entirely and the

southern and western sides up to the height of

one meter are covered with rocks. The local

climate at the northern border of the Bavarian

Alps with the greenhouse facing south offered

appropriate keeping conditions with a daily

sprinkling and an automatic aeration. In October

some additional heating with a 60 W spot lamp

was provided on rainy days.

During the observation months the animals

were checked at least every daytime hour. A

record was kept on locomotions. If social inter-

actions were going on the lizards were observed

over several hours. Our aim was to describe and

compare the behaviour systems of both species.

Behaviour Patterns of Japalura tricarinata

AND/, polygonata

1. Basic Spatio-temporal Behaviour

1.1. Daily activity phases: Both species are

strictly diurnal and spend most of their active

phases sitting and observing the surroundings.

The transition between sleep to intense ac-

tivity will be described later (2.7).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

13°°

Fig. 1. Examples of daily excursions oiJ. polygonata males which returned to or close to former resting sites.

Phases of locomotion can be observed in

connection with feeding, thermal behaviour, so-

cial encounters and investigation during which

the animals were running on the ground or on the

stone wall. As fig. 1 shows phases of locomotory

activity are short. Compared with natural condi-

tions the locomotory level was probably higher

because the animals lived under relatively

cramped conditions. According to Lin and Lu

(1982) the mean home range of a J apalura sxvin-

honis male is 33.47 m with a mean dispersal

distance of 8.8 m. We assume that the values for

J. polygonata and J. tricarinata lie in the same

order of magnitude and that the animals in the

greenhouse were under social stress. Often one

or two of them tried to escape through the lateral

window.

Temporal sequence of activity levels: As

there are no fundamental differences between the

two species, they can be treated together. Be-

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

229

Fig. 2. Obligatory activity levels in

J. tricarinata: a: sleep, b: eyes open, c. alert.

tween sleep and high locomotory activity there

are several intermediate stages mostly connected

with the circadian rhythm. Crudely simplifying

we classify them as states a to f, beginning with

the lowest one. The levels a to c (fig. 2) are called

"obligatory", because they are attained daily by

every healthy animal. They exclude any locomo-

tion and are bound to the sleeping position. In the

levels d to f the lizards leave this place. These

stages are facultative. During bad weather and in

low-ranked animals they lack or are much

reduced. But even high-ranked J. polygonata

may insert a "resting day" during a period of fair

weather.

In fig. 3 observations on both species during

August and the first ten days of September are

plotted but not directly comparable because four

J. polygonata males stand against six /.

tricarinata females. The two males of the latter

species were omitted because of their bad state

of health. During the observation periods days

were from one up to over two hours longer than

in the natural surroundings. In the right half of

the diagrams representing afternoon the transit

from full activity to sleep is also stepwise but

inverse. The generalized drawings in fig. 2 apply

to both species.

Obligatory activity levels: a. Sleep in ap-

propriate elevated position, head on substrate,

eyes closed, b. Eyes open but no observatory

motions, which are very evident in J. polygonata.

Position and posture as in a. c. Full alertness. The

animals normally lift their heads somewhat

above the substrate. Searching eye motions start.

Facultative levels which include locomo-

tion: d. Leaving sleeping position but remain in

its vicinity. In shrubs the animals climb some 10

to 20 cm upwards, e. Moving farther away from

the sleeping position, e.g. jumping on the

ground, f. Prolonged and intense locomotion,

jumping, running and climbing often connected

with investigatory behaviour.

The diagram fig. 3 shows that the "attach-

ment" of J. tricarinata to its sleeping sites at low

temperatures is less intensive than in J.

polygonata. Tanaka (1986) observed activity

from 7.00 to 19.00 h in July and October at air

temperatures between 24° and 30° C.

I. 2. Annual activity change: It occurred

in both species but was of different intensity.

J. polygonata : Until the beginning of Oc-

tober locomotory activities covered the whole

extent of the greenhouse. Rather abruptly all

animals adopted the resting state by October 6th

and but rarely interrupted later. In sharp contrast

to/, tricarinata all of them stayed in the open at

their normal sleeping sites and continued feed-

ing. Like /. tricarinata this species creeps into

crevices but apparently stays there only under

unfavourable weather conditions. Tanaka (1986)

found active 7. p. ishigakiensis even in Decem-

ber. According to Lin & Lu (1982) the closely

related /. swinhonis "formosensis" hides during

rain (one J. tricarinata hid from spraying) and

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Time 6

f

12

18

f

Fig. 3. Temporal sequence of activity levels in J. polygonata and J. tricarinata: a. sleep, b. sleeping posture, eyes open,

c. fully alert, d. leaving sleeping position, e. moving over greater distance, f. intense locomotion.

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

231

September

October

mu

c .

QQQQQ

d

e

al

ooooo

'i 1 'w

Fig. 4. Behavioural changes in five/, tricarinata females towards the end of summer, a. inspection of cavities,

b. number of animals sleeping open in plants, c. number of active animals (not resting) during sunny weather (1-5).

d. highest activity level observed that day, 1. slight shift of position, 2. basking, 3. running around , e. feeding,

i. intense, w. week, 0. zero values.

hibernates from November to February, but

emerges on warm winter days.

J. tricarinata : Striking behavioural changes

occurred towards the end of summer. As the

alternations took place during a period of sunny

weather sinking temperatures cannot be assumed

as a causative factor. Possibly decreasing day-

length timed an internal clock.

During September the lizards were seen

many times inspecting holes in the stone walls,

trying to creep into them, even if they were very

narrow (fig. 4a). In the following weeks the

number of animals sleeping on branches

decreased (fig. 4b). Often they spent the nights

in cavities and could be seen creeping out of them

in the morning. The number of active animals

which left their resting sites on branches or in

holes, even during sunny days, diminished (fig.

4c). After the first ten days of October no more

lizards could be seen running around on the

ground or on walls but they still basked. At the

same time food intake stopped (fig. 4e).

During the following winter months the

minimal air temperature in the greenhouse was

kept at 7°C. After hibernation the first lizard

reappeared on February 27th after more than four

months of inactivity in an excellent state of nutri-

tion and started drinking and feeding at once.

One female spent the winter hidden be-

tween leaves. She changed her position several

times but did not move farther than a few cen-

timeters.

The unfavourable weather conditions with

dry and cold winter monsoons from Central Asia

232

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Fig. 5. Resting pl<

suggest that Japalura tricarinata, at least at

higher elevations, hibernates several months.

1.3. Activity range and spacing: /.

polygonata: As already mentioned the base of

our greenhouse would have to be at least tripled

to offer the natural home range of one male

(comparable with/, swinhonis). Even under the

present dramatic compression the males

managed to divide the disposable space among

them without despotism. This is evident for

sleeping places (fig. 5) which were accepted after

three days and from there on used continually by

one of the animals, rarely two of them.

September Oct

oIJ. polygonata.

J. tricarinata: The activity ranges of males

and females in the glasshouse greatly differed.

Most animals slept high up in bushes and vines

(fig. 6) but during locomotory activities the

females very frequently moved on the ground or

walls while males spent most of their time in the

foliage. Among females activity ranges greatly

differed between high and low ranked animals.

One female moved about all over the greehouse

(it slept in the highest oak-bush) while another

one scarcely moved more than 40 cm off her

resting place, a fern at the right end of the south

side wall. The resting sites chosen were very

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

249

8

250

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Remarks: Nearly all social interactions of

lizards documented in literature belong to the

relatively ’’rapid" type lasting minutes, rarely

hours. The supplanting described above greatly

differs from this scheme and offers a series of

unfamiliar aspects worth mentioning:

1. The interaction lasts four days with the

animals sitting motionless for most of the time.

2. No intense levels of signalling including

threat behaviour are applied.

3. The animals interact far into the evening

during thsir normal resting time.

4. The supplanting male enters his rival’s

territory and "besieges" him, scarcely moving

from the spot for two days.

5. The besieged male clings tenaceously

to his oak. He leaves it on the second day but

returns several hours later. During the third

day he leaves and returns twice.

6. The besieger shows signs of heavy stress

(20.8. 1990 at 1 3.50h) three hours after his adver-

sary has left.

7. The two-male interaction ends in a

general turbulence seizing all four males in the

glasshouse. They obviously observe each other

steadily. Another striking effect is that the suc-

cessful defender, after getting rid of the intruder,

leaves his oak and returns but two days later. In

the meantime another male (number 1) resides

there.

8. The loser takes it easy. He was not chased

and feeds at once after his return.

9. The correlation of colour patterns

with definite situations is rather loose. A

dark brown to black colouring marks critical

situations with the rivals at close distance.

As none of them showed these hues during

the last two days of the interaction it might

be concluded that they were both tired of the

quarrel and left the oak.

In/, tricar inata only adult females inter-

acted, but almost all encounters occurred at a

low level without any threat posturing. Only

once the inferior female received a short bite

in the leg but normally the mere sight of the

dominant female at close distance (20 cm) was

sufficient to release flight.

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

251

Fig. 19. J. tricarinata, subadult male, resting posture.

The fleeing animal was never persecuted.

In mirror experiments the females either did not

react to their image, turned off or fled. The

reaction was released rather slowly, from 20 sec

to 3 min. Even if the lizards did not move their

respiration frequency rose, e.g. from 60 flat to 84

deep motions per min. Flight could sometimes

be released by moving the mirror.

Similarly during interspecific reaction a

resting conspecific did not release flight until it

moved.

5. Antipredator mechanisms

5.1. Cryptic mechanisms: Colour pat-

terns, postures and substrate choice interact to

create a cryptic effect which is perhaps most

effective in J. tricarinata males. Two disruptive

pattern elements are common to both species and

enhance the cryptic effect of colouring: the

elbow and knee spots and the thigh pit. The spot

interrupts the leg shape and looks like the broken

end of a twig. It is optically enhanced by a dark

border. The thigh pit is a flat pocket at the

proximal upper end of the upper thigh (pis. 1,5;

2,1&6) and differs from its surrounding in much

smaller scale size and brown colouring. Its func-

tion may also be a mite pocket.

As to the substrate choice the segregation

of /. tricarinata females and males attains a

considerable degree and possibly entails an an-

tipredator effect. Field and captivity observa-

tions affirm that the green males do not only

occupy a higher stratum of vegetation but - at

least the younger specimens -hide among leaves

while the females rest on branches. As the sexes

di ffer in colour, substrate and posture, an optical-

ly oriented predator has to master two rather

different prey schemata.

Resting J. tricarinata males (fig. 19) are

almost indetectable for the human eye, even at

close distance. In the greenhouse the two males

most time resided in the crown of a small oak

bush (number 7 in fig. 5) with a diameter of 50

cm. In this small space they usually were found

but after long minutes of search. Often their tails

were discovered first because they did not fit into

the array of leaves and twigs. A simple way of

getting them to move was to spray the foliage

with water.

Another form of cryptic behaviour was ob-

served when ants crept across the head of a /.

polygonata eyes. They did not release hindleg

scratching but closing of eyes which is probably

not perceivable by a watching predator.

5.2 Escape behaviour: Frightened /.

polygonata jump to the ground, even from

heights of two metres, and try to escape running

and jumping alternately. During a very low in-

tensity fleeing reaction a male crept backward

from the approaching hand.

In the field/, tricarinata females sitting on

the ground regularly betrayed themselves by a

252

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 20. Optical signals on gular regions of a./, polygonata xanthostoma , b. J. winhonis,

c.J. p.polygonata. The dotted region is orange.

rustling noise when they fled over dead leaves

while the males sitting among leaves remained

motionless. The fleeing distance for females was

about two metres. As there were no males dis-

covered sitting on the ground it could not be

tested if the different fleeing behaviour depends

on sex or surroundings.

In the greenhouse both species showed no

fear from humans, took insects from pincers,

tolerated close-up photographs and even

climbed on the hand.

Experiments with "predator” dummies can

release very vehement reactions in J. polygonata

and therefore were performed but a few times. A

five centimetres long plastic toy saurian was

mounted on a stick and approached towards the

resting Japalura. The young male reacted only

with substrate-licking. An adult male at once

jumped 20 cm away, climbed down from his

perch while his colour changed to dark green and

hid crouched behind the stem for two hours.

After this he turned light green, jumped to the

ground and tried for three hours to get through

the glass wall. Later he did not return to his

normal sleeping place.

5.3. Defense behaviour: When handled

after capture J. polygonata males threaten with

extended gular sac gaping at a 10 cm distant

finger and bite vehemently (J. tricar mat a never

did) if it comes to close. They take a firm hold,

even for half a minute, but their tiny teeth do not

pierce the skin.

On one occasion a handled J. polygonata

emitted four short peeping cries, each about 1 sec

long. Vocalization was also heard when a recent-

ly caught J. tricarinata was handled.

6. Discussion

We take the article of Wei and Lin (1981)

on Japalura swinhonis , closely related to J.

polygonata , as reference base for a comparison.

Many fixed action patterns are identical or can

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

253

be easily homologized (see appendix). As we

could not observe rival behaviour between our/.

tricarinata males nor any courtship a com-

parison with the flow diagrams in Wei and Lin

(1981) is impossible. But even our incomplete

observations show that the communicative sys-

tems of the three species diverge remarkably in

some points.

Optical colour signals presented during

gular extension and gape of threatening Japalura

are different (fig.20, pl.1,2; data on/, swinhonis

and/. p. xanthostoma by Ota, 1988 & 1991).

/. swinhonis: throat without a central yellow or

orange marking; chin and gular region with large

white roundish spots in transverse or semicircular

rows; palatal mucosa grey or dark grey.

/. makii & /. brevipes , Taiwan highlands:

throat without a central yellow or orange mark-

ing palatal mucosa dark gray or black.

/. polygonata : yellow or orange marking in

the middle of the throat; /. p. polygonata: chin

and gular region without white marking; palatal

mucosa pink; /. p. xanthostoma : palatal mucosa

yellow or yellowish pink; ventral surface of head

with obliquely arranged small white spots.

/. tricarinata : the whole gular region is

white (with tiny black spots in some) and its

colour is without importance for signalling. No

gular extension and gape could be observed.

After Wei and Lin (1981) threat display in/.

swinhonis comprises series of head-bobs as well as

signature display. In /. polygonata the only act

APPENDIX

STEREOTYPED BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS IN JAPALURA SWINHONIS, POLYGONATA AND TRICARINATA

(NUMBERS AFTER CARPENTER & FERGUSON, 1977; DATA ON J. SWINHONIS AFTER WEI & LIN 1981)

254

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BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICAR I NAT A AM) J. POLYGONATA

255

comparable with them are single pushups (fig. 15)

which strongly suggest a relictaiy character.

A similar reduction in display motions exists in

advertizing, where J. swinhonis in addition to pos-

turing performs a typical signature bob which ap-

parently lacks in J. polygomta.

Another example of signal scarcity in J.

polygomta is the rival encounter described in sup-

planting behaviour where almost no displays were

used.

Vocalisation during antipredator behaviour

seems rare but was heard from both our species.

Probably it does not lack in other related Agamids.

In Japalura tricarinata another shift in dis-

play evolution is evident: in females signature

display is frequent (it lacks in J. swinhonis) and

males, at least young ones, have a different sig-

nature pattern.

Several questions of major interest remain

open. It is still unknown if other Japalura species

defend their clutch sites as J. swinhonis does

(Wei and Lin 1981). A study of habitat partition-

ing amon^ males and females of J. tricarinata

would also be promising. Its implications with

feeding, fleeing and display behaviour are still

unknown.

PART III. SEM-STUDIES ON SKIN AND EGGSHELL STRUCTURES OF

JAPALURA TRICARINATA (SAURIA: AGAMIDAE)

(With five plates and two text-figures)

SEM-photos show that in this species the alveolar or honeycomb pattern of scale surfaces is very

widespread. There is a great variety in bristled tactile buds distributed widely over the whole body

surface while bristleless ones were only found in the mental region. The arrangement of the mainly

fibrillar shell structural elements is described. During several expeditions in 1989 and 1991 one of the

authors (Schleich) had the opportunity to collect Japalura tricarinata in the vicinity of Kathmandu,

Nepal, providing material for studies on this species. In previous works (Schleich and Kastle 1979,

1982, 1988) we have covered similar aspects in other reptiles.

1. Epidermal structures (fig. 1; pls.1-4).

In contrast to our previous studies, which

centered on adaptations for climbing, SEM

photos were also taken from different head and

body regions.

1.1. Head (pis. 1 & 2): In accordance with the

manyfold differentiations of head regions the

greatest diversity of scale structures were found here.

1.1.1. Pileus (pi. 1, figs. 1, 2): The weakly

keeled scutes bear tactile buds in their rear halves.

The association of these organs with edges is also

evident in other body regions. The bristle is pointed,

oval in cross section, and emerges scarcely from its

groove. The honeycomb pattern of the surface

keratin layer descends somewhat into the cavity.

1.1.2. Eye region (pl.l, figs. 3-7): The

eyelid is differentiated into several functional

regions with typical scales. Each lid bears a

longitudinal ridge of thick scales on its edge.

They carry one or two bristled tactile buds in

rather shallow depressions. Each of these scales

flattens into a thin elastic sheet towards the lid

slit which allows a tight closure. A part of this

free rim is not organized into scales. The gross

lid surface consists of gibbous polygonal scales.

The canthal scutes of the supraciliar region

carry tactile buds with extremely long bristles.

Where these scutes reduce their honeycomb pat-

tern the structure becomes alveolar with smaller

depressions and larger interstices.

256

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

1.1.3. Snout tip (pl.l, fig. 8): The tendency

towards smoothness is still more accentuated.

1.1.4. Labials (pi. 2, figs.l, 2): Supra- and

infralabials as well as most adjacent shields carry

tactile buds with rather short spikes.

1.1.5. Mental region (pi. 2, figs. 3,4): The

more exposed surface of the mental shield on the

right and the following gular ones are smooth

and carry series of round patches which can be

supposed to be bristleless tactile buds (for inter-

nal structure see von During and Miller (1979).

Their keratinous structure consists of a superfi-

cially flattened pillar which is countersunk into

a sharply cut hole.

1. 2. Hand (pis. 2 & 3): The rigidity of the

keratinous armour must be compensated by a

complex array of hinged mobile elements which

allow to combine free mobility, a firm grip and

tactile functions. Here we find a multitude of

different scales in close vicinity.

1.2.1. Palmar scalation (pi. 2, figs. 5-8:)

The most striking feature are the very solid

mucros which emerge from their upper surfaces

some distance behind the tip. Thus, even if the

palm is bent, these spikes cannot be pressed into

the skin but rise somewhat above it, providing

resistance from gliding off and guaranteeing a

firm grip. The scale surface in pi. 2, fig.8 is about

to disintegrate, partially breaking up along the

alveolar walls.

1.2.2. Scales on lower side of fingers (pi.

2, fig. 5, pi. 3, figs. 1-5): The view from below

(plate 3, fig.l) presents mainly bicarinate scales

which gradually change their shapes towards the

distal ends. Here they resemble parts of hollow

cones piled into each other and permitting a

downward mobility while the dorsal sides are

covered with simple flat scales. A more oblique

view (pi. 3, fig. 2) reveals that the borders are

emarginated in a peculiar way. When the finger

is bent the keels enter into the emarginations of

the more proximal scale so that a stronger flec-

tion is possible.

Tactile buds are evidently lacking in the

bicarinate scales but occur regularly on the rims

of the monocarinate lateral ones (pi. 3, fig. 5).

1.3. Tail (pi. 3, figs. 6-8): While the tail tip

scales are devoid of tactile buds these are present

on most (or all?) of the folllowing ones.

1.4. Body scalation (pi. 4): As a

homogeneous scalation is considered more

primiti veJapalura tricarinata presents a greatly

derived state. But this change chiefly affects the

dorsal region while the ventral one remained

totally regular.

1.4.1. Ventral scales (pi. 4, figs. 1, 2): At

the first glance the scalation looks very similar

to the dorsal one of an Agama (e.g. A. agama). It

is rhomboid, distinctly carinate and mucronate

and arranged in perfect longitudinal and oblique

rows. While the dorsal scales of Agama bear

several tactile buds on their lateral borders we

find them here at the scale tips. These present a

series of peculiarities (pl.3, fig.2): The bristle is

very long and distinctly flattened, nearly rectan-

gular in cross section at its base. It extends over

the keel of the next scale. The detail photo shows

a mucro which is somewhat turned to the side,

but this is rather the exception. The honeycomb

pattern is restricted to the free scale borders.

1.4.2. Ventrolateral scales (pi. 4, figs. 3, 4):

They are irregular in size, direction and distinc-

tiveness of keels and, in contrast to the ventral

ones, bear the honeycomb pattern. Tactile buds

are apical but they occur only on scales with

sharp keels. On pl.4, fig.4 one of the scales

apparently did not moult. Its tip rests on the

exposed rounded base of the next scale.

1.4.3. Dorsolateral scales (pi. 4, figs. 5-8):

The row of keeled scales in pi. 4, fig. 5 is the left

J. Bombay nat.Hist. Soc. 90

Kastle et al.: Japalura tricarinata and J. polygonata

Plate 1

7 8

Head-skin structures

1. Parietal shields; 2. Detail from fig. 1, tactile papilla; 3. Eye; 4. Tactile papillae on rim of eyelid;

5. Canthal scale of supraciliary region; 6. Bristled tactile papilla of the casnthal region; 7. Surface of an eyelid scale;

8. Surface of a snout tip scute.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Kastle et al: Japalura tricarinata and J. polygonata

1

2

7 8

Head/hand-skin structures

1. Supra and infralabials; 2. Tactile papilla on labial; 3. Mental region; 4. Detail from 3, tactile papilla;

5. Fingers of left hand; 6. Detail from 5, palmar scales; 7. Detail from 6; 8. Detail from 7.

iMiite

Plate 2

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Kastle et al.: Japalura tricarinata and J. polygonata

Plate 3

I la nd/ta il -skin structures

1. Fingers from below; 2. Fingers from below, oblique view; 3. Detail from Fig. 2; 4. Detail from Fig. 3;

5. Bristled tactile bud on side of finger; 6. Tail tip; 7. Detail from Fig. 6; 8. Detail from Fig. 7, bristled tactile organ.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Kastle et al.: Japalura tricarinata and J. polygonata

1

4

? 8

Body-skin structures

1. Ventral scales; 2. Detail from fig. 1, bristled tactile bud; 3. Ventrolateral scales; 4. Detail from fig. 3;

5. Dorsolateral scales; 6. Detail from fig. 5, double scale; 7. Detail from fig. 6, bristled tactile papilla;

8. Detail from fig. 5, bristled tactile papilla.

Plate 4

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Kastle et al.: Japalura tricarinata and J. poly gonat a

Plate 5

7 8

Eggshell Structures

1. Shell surface; 2. Detail from fig. 1; 3. Edge, total, boundary layer from below; 4. Shell from below (left half)

and ceiling of membrana testacea cavity; 5. Ceiling of membrana testacea cavity; 6. Detail from fig. 5 low center;

7. Detail from fig. 6 center; 8. Boundary layer from below.

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

Fig. 1 Distribution of tactile papillae on the heads oUapalura tricarinata (above) and

Calotes jubatus (latter redrawn after Schmidt, 1920).

258

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

lateral keel of the tricarinate species. The con-

nection between scale size and keel formation is

evident: all small scales are smooth and one

oversize scale bears two keels with a tactile bud

each. Keels and tactile buds are not strictly as-

sociated. A close look reveals some smooth

scales with tactile buds and keeled ones without

them.

1.5. Discussion In spite of the fact that only

a limited number of body regions could be ex-

amined it is apparent that the presence of the

honeycomb pattern on scales is the rule rather

than the exception. Only the mental region is

entirely devoid of it, on the ventral scales the

alveoles are limited to the rim, the snout tip bears

small and distant dimples while on the palmar

scales the honeycomb pattern is very flat. All

previously examined Agamids ( Aphaniotis

fusca, Ceratophora stoddarti, Cophotis

ceylanica, Otocryptis wiegmanni, Sitana pon -

ticeriana) (Schleich and Kastle 1979, 1982)

show this pattern on toe scales (others were not

controlled) with alveole size in the same order of

magnitude of about 10 /pm. Its biological im-

plications are unknown as well as its distribution

in Lacertilian taxa.

As to tactile buds only the mental region

bears bristleless ones. The distribution of the

bristled buds is very uneven.

As there are some data from Agama

agama (Harris 1963) and Calotes jubatus

(Schmidt 1920) they can be used for com-

parison (fig. 1).

Speculations about the modes of distribu-

tion or the function of different types of bristles

are considered premature as our knowledge is

sporadic.

2. Eggshell structures (fig. 2; pi. 5)

Egg quality: flexible-shelled.

Preparation: ex utero.

External and internal shell structure do not

strikingly differ from other soft-shelled lizard

eggs. The conventional building elements -

globules and fibrils - are clearly discernible over

most of the shell.

2.1. Shell surface: Surface gross morphol-

ogy (pl- 5, fig. 1): Deeply incised longitudinal

++: several buds may occur on one scale/scute; +: normally one bud per scale; +- : some scales with buds, others

without; no buds; no sign: no data.

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

259

Fig. 2. Shell structure of a Japalura tricarinata egg.

and transverse furrows cover the whole shell.

The first ones run approximately parallel over

great distances, fuse or bifurcate and sometimes

have a blind end. Their average distances are

about 90-110/ p.

There are two types of transverse furrows:

deep ones which cross several longitudinal fur-

rows and smaller ones connecting two of them.

The fields included by the furrows have

irregular convex surfaces.

260

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Surface fine morphology (pi. 5, fig. 2): The

furrow borders are irregularly denticulated as if

tom apart. The surface layer is perforated by a

great number of tiny pores about 1 / p, wide and

irregular slits. The globular elements are ce-

mented together immediately or by small

bridges. The open spaces left between the

globules form a complex system of narrow

cavities which is connected with the superficial

openings and the larger open spaces of the deeper

shell layers.

2.2. Cross section: (pi. 5, fig. 3): The large

open space between the fibrillar layers was probab-

ly enlarged during the process of preparation.

2.2.1. Covering layer: The transition from

the globular to the fibrillar layer at its base is

indistinct as the fibrils are largely fused and fonn

dense masses.

2.2.2. Membrana testacea (pi. 5, figs.

3-7): In this fibrillar layer a double in-

homogeneity is remarkable: In the horizontal

direction regions with a high degree of fusion

are interspersed with large spaces of loose

fibrils. An open space running parallel to the

surface forms two fibrillar floors with some

fibrils bridging the gap and holding the

membranes together (pi. 5, fig. 3).

Seen from below (pi. 5, figs. 5-7) the roof

of the gap shows a corrugated surface with fur-

rows running at approximatively right angles.

While the multitude of fibrils fonn a flat and

dense network others, lighter in colour, spread

above the surface and fonn a crosslink towards

deeper layers.

The fibrils are very heterogenous in shape

and size, rounded or flattened, some bifurcate.

The diameter of the smallest ones is 1 .5 / \x while

the largest ribbon is 18 / broad.

A stronger magnification (pi. 5, fig. 7)

reveals two more details: Two patches on the

largest fibril are porous as if the surface has been

formed by incompletely fused globules. Where

covering fibrils have been tom away the former

contact zones are devoid of the usual rough sur-

face cover. This substance has apparently been

unable to penetrate into the contact region.

2.3. Boundary layer: A dense lamella, 4-6 /

\x thick, at the base of the membrana testacea is

formed by fused globules and fibrils (pi. 5, figs. 4

left half, 8). In pi. 5, fig. 4 right half this layer has

been torn away presenting the ceiling of the

membrana testacea cavity. The border of the

broken lamella (pi. 5, fig. 3) shows vertical fraction

planes suggesting prismatic structural elements.

The lower surface is covered with globules which

are sometimes arranged in rows between ridges.

Three different regions of the boundary layer show

a very different density of the adhering globuli.

They are very scarce in pi. 5, fig. 4, densest in pi.

5, fig. 3 and intermediate in pi. 5, fig. 8.

The rough basal part of the boundary layer

offers a greatly enlargened surface for the attach-

ment of embryonic membranes.

2.4. Conclusion

The two principal tasks of soft-shelled

lepidosaurian eggs - protection and permeability

for some substances - can evidently be attained

by different structural plans even under very

similar conditions in the nests. It is, e.g. not yet

possible to correlate the occurrence of globuli

versus fibrils in the shell surface layer even in

closely related species (Schleich and Kastle

1988).

The physical aspects connected with the

energy and substance flow through reptilian

eggshells are discussed in Packard and Packard

(1988).

BIOLOGY OF JAPALURA TRICARINATA AND J. POLYGONATA

261

Acknowledgements

During the first excursion in June 1989 the

habitat of Japalura tricarinata was studied and

14 specimens were caught. The field trip was

organized by the Tribhuvan University (Dept.

Geology) with participants from the Department

of Geology and the Natural History Museum. A

second excursion was made possible by the

Goethe Institute, Kathmandu, in July 1991.

We deeply acknowledge the efforts of the

heads of following institutions who facilitated our

stay and research/lecture period in Nepal: Dr. Shar-

ma (Dept. Geol. Tribhuvan Univ.), R.L. Shrestha

and Dr. M. Giri (Nat . Hist. Mus.), Mr. B. Upreti

and Dr. T. Maskey (National Parks and Wildlife

PART I. R E

His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of

Forests, Department of Medicinal Plants (1969):

Flora of Phulchoki and Godavari. Thapathali, Kath-

mandu.

PART II. R E

Bartholomew, G. A. (1982): Physiological Control of Body

Temperature. In: C. Cans & F.H. Pough eds. Biology

of the Reptilia, 12: 167-211.

Carpenter, C. & Ferguson, C. W. (1977): Stereotyped

behavior in Reptiles. In: C. Gans & C. W. Tinkle eds.

Biology of the Reptilia, 7; 335-554.

Greenberg, M. & Mclean, P. D. eds. (1978): Behavior and

Neurology of Lizards. US Dept of Health Education

and Welfare, DITEW publication No. (ADM): 77-491,

11+352, Rockville, Maryland.

Gruber, U. (1975): Agame Japalura tricarinata aus dem

zentralen Nepal-Himalaya. Das Aquarium mit

Aquaterra, 9(77): 502-505.

Huey, R. B. (1982): Temperature, Physiology and the Biol-

ogy of Reptiles. In: C. Gans & F. H. Pough eds.

Biology of the Reptilia, 12: 25-91.

Liang, Y.S. & Wang, C.S. (1976): Review of the Genus

Japalura (Lacertilia: Agamidae) found from Taiwan.

Quarterly journal of Taiwan Museum (=Guoli

Gugong-Bowuyuan), 29: 153-189; (Taipeh=Taibei,

Taiwan).

Service). Without the friendship and personal

help from Mr. Shashi Bandari (Shashi’s Holiday

Tourist Travels, Kathmandu) we would not have

been able to solve customs and other problems

we faced while importing our equipment.

We also express our gratitude to Dr. U.

Gruber and Mr. D. Fuchs, Zool. State Collection

Munich, for help with literature, collegial

cooperation and assistance during field trips in

1989. Mr. G. Wester (Landshut) gave most valu-

able help during the 1991 field trips in the search

and observation of specimens at Phulchoki and

Mt. Daman. One of the authors (H.H.S.) wishes

to particularly express acknowledgements to

DAAD and Goethe Instilut who financed both

trips to Nepal for lecture programs.

ERENCES

Saii, R.B., Kirchner, M., Schauderna, H. & Schleicii, H.H.

(1991): Diatomites and their fossils from Kathmandu

Valley, Central Nepal. Muench. Geowiss. Abh., A, 19:

57-64; Munchen.

ERENCES

Lin, J. Y & Lu, K.I I. (1982): Population Biology of Japalura

swinhonis formosensis (Sa ur i a : Agamidae) in Taiwan.

Copeia, (2): 425-434.

Okada, Y. (1937): Studies on the Lizards of Japan Contribu-

tion II. Agamidae. Science Reports of the Tokyo

Bunrika Daigaku, Section B, 51: 84-94.

Ota, H. (1988): Re-evaluation of the Status of Japalura

mitsukurii Stejneger 1898 (Reptilia: Agamidae). Am-

phibia - R eptilia, 9(4):375-383.

Ota, H. (1991): Taxonomic redefinition of Japalura swin-

honis Gunther (Agamidae: Squama ta) with a descrip-

tion of a new subspecies of J. polygonata from

Taiwan. Herpetologica 47(3): 280-294.

Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, Reptilia and

Amphibia, Vol II- Sauria. London, Taylor & Francis.

Tanaka, S. (1986): Thermal Biology of the Forest-dwelling

Agamid Lizard Japalura polygonata ishigakiensis. J.

Herpet. 20 (3): 333-340.

Wei, S. Y. & Lin, J. Y. (1981): Behavioral study of Japalura

swinhonis formosensis (Sauria : Agamidae). Tunghai

Academy Journal (=Donghai-Xuebao), 22:33-48. Tun-

gha i/Taichung, Taiwan. Chinese, Engl, summary.

262

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

part in. References

During, M. V. & Miller, M. R. (1979): Sensory nerve

endings of the skin and deeper structures. In: (C. Gans

ed.) Biology of the Reptilia, 9: 407-441. Academic

Press, London.

Harris, V. A. (1963): The Anatomy of the Rainbow Lizard

[Agama agama (L.)], 104 pp.; Hutchinson & Co,

London.

Packard, G. C. & Packard, M. J. (1988): The Physiological

Biology of Reptilian Eggs and Embryos. In: (C. Gans

ed.) Biology of the Reptilia, 16: 523-605; Alan R.

Liss., New York.

Schleich, H. H. & Kastle, W. (1979): Hautstrukturen als

Kletteranpassungen bei Chamaeleo und Cophotis.

Salamandra , 15(2): 95-100; Frankfurt.

Schleich, H. H. & Kastle, W. (1982): Hautstrukturen an

Zehen und Schwanzen einiger Agamiden.

Salamandra, 18(3/4): 322-329; Frankfurt.

Schleich, H. H. & Kastle, W. (1988): Reptile Egg-shells,

SEM Atlas. 123 pp. 45 pi.; Fischer, Stuttgart, New

York.

Schmidt, W. J. (1920): Einiges uber Hautsinnesorgane der

Agamiden, insbesondere von Calotes, nebst

Bemerkungen liber diese Organe bei Geckoniden und

Iguaniden. A/zaL Anz., 53 (5/6): 113-139.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIRST RECORD OF GENUS DIPRION SCHRANK (HYMENOPTERA : SYMPHYTA ;

DIPRIONIDAE) FROM INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF ANEW SPECIES1

Malkiat S. Saini and Amarinder S. Thind2

(With five text-figaers)

A new species of genus Diprion , D. Kashmirensis, has been described and illustrated. This

represents the first record of this genus from India. Previously only four species of this genus

were known from the Oriental region.

Introduction

The genus Diprion was erected by Schrank

(1802), but its type species Tenthredo pini Linn,

was subsequently designated by Rohwer (1911).

Later on three genera, i.e. Lophyrus, Anachoreta

and Cristger were synonymised with it, because

all were based on the same type-species. Smith

(1975) listed six species of this genus from the

world, none from the Oriental region. Presently

four species of this genus are known from the

Oriental region.

This genus is characterised as follows :

Cenchri small, close together, distance between

them less than the breadth of a cenchrus;

metascutellum small, shorter than breadth of a

cenchrus (Fig. 3); forewing with first cubital cell not

more than half as long as broad; anal cell of

forewing narrowed at a point just under one-third

from the base and with a short cross-vein just

behind the middle (Fig. 1); anal cell of hindwing

has a long petiole much longer than the maximum

breadth of the cell (Fig. 2). This genus is a first

record from India, represented by a new species

Diprion kashmirensis

Abbreviations: EL = Eye length; IATS =

Inner apical tibial spur; ICD = Intercenchri

distance; IDMO = Interocular distance at the

level of median ocellus; ITD = Intertegular

distance; LID = Lower interocular distance; MB

= Metabasitarsus; OATS = Outer apical tibial

Accepted June 1991.

2Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002.

spur; OCL = Ocello-occipital line; OOL= Oculo-

ocellar line; POL=Postocellar line.

Diprion kashmirensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 5)

male: Colour: Body black, labrum, maxillary

and labial palpi, apices of all femora, all tibiae and

tarsi except claws yellow. Antenna, tegula, deflexed

sides of terga 2-8, all coxae, all trochanters, all

femora except their apices, and all claws brown.

Wings hyaline; costa, stigma and venation yellow to

light brown.

Length 7 mm. Antenna 1.1 x head width,

22-segmented, flagellum with 17 bipectinate and

3 terminal unipectinate segments; clypeus

roundly incised up to one-fourth of its median

length, with an irregular base; labrum rounded at

the apex, broader than long in ratio 2:1; malar

space 1.5 x diameter of median ocellus;

supraclypeal furrow merely indicated;

supraclypeal area roundly but moderately raised;

lower margin of eyes almost at the level of

antennal sockets; LID : IDMO : EL = 4:4: 1.8;

eyes parallel; head without postgenal carina;

frontal area above the level of eyes,

supra-antennal tubercles slightly raised and

confluent behind with similar frontal ridges;

median fovea in the form of groove between

antennal sockets, posteriorly ending in a pit;

lateral ocelli below the level of supraorbital line;

circum-, inter- and postocellar furrows present;

lateral furrows diverging posteriorly; postocellar

area convex, broader than long in the ratio of 2:1;

OOL : POL : OCL =1.1:1: 0.8; head narrowing

behind eyes : mesoscutellum flat; ICD :ITD = 1 :

264

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Figs. 1-5. Diprion kashmirensis sp. nov.

1. Forewing, 2. Hindwing, 3. Mesonotum and metanotum, 4. Penis valve, 5. Gonoforceps.

A = Anal cell, a = Anal cross-vein, C = Costa, Cl .... C4 = cubital cells, CN = Cenchri, D = Discoidal cell, GP =

Gonostipes, H = Harpe, I = Intercostal cross-vein, LLM = Lateral lobe of mesonotum, M = Median cell, MLM = Median

lobe of mesonotum, MS = Mesocutellum, MTS = Metascutellum, P = Posterior cell, PNS = Parapennis, R = Radial cell,

S = Submedian cell, S = Subcosta, ST = stigma, VC = Valviceps, VV = Valvura. (For other abbareviations, see text).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

265

4.5; distance between cenchri 1.4 x width of

cenchrus; mesepisternum obtusely raised without

carina or acute apex; metabasitarsus and three

following segments combined are in ratio 1 : 1.5;

tarsal claws simple without inner tooth; IATS : MB :

OATS = 1:2:1.

Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 4).

Gonoforceps (Fig. 5).

Sculpture: Head and thorax with large deep,

irregular confluent punctures; abdomen excepting

anterior margin and middle of first abdominal

tergum, deflexed sides of all terga and all stemites

are distinctly punctured. The remaining terga are

cross-striated.

FEMALE : Not found.

Holotype: Male, Jammu and Kashmir:

Pahalgam, 2700 m. 5 June 1984. Regd. No.,

Dl/RIT/ZPD. Holotype presently in anthor’s

collection. After this paper is published it will be

submitted to the IARI, New Delhi.

Population variation: Single specimen

examined.

Distribution: INDIA; Jammu & Kashmir.

Diagnosis: On the basis of black colouratioiv

of body, this new species is close to the male of D.

hytacharernae Smith, but varies as follows : in D.

Kashmirensis, head and thorax have large, deep

irregular confluent punctures; abdomen excepting

the anterior margin and middle of first abdominal

tergum, deflexed sides of all terga and all sternites

are distinctly punctured. In D. hytacharernae

punctures of head and thorax are dense with very

short or without inter-spaces; dorsum of abdomen

not punctured except extreme lateral area of terga

and sterna which are punctured.

Etymology: The species name is based on the

Indian state in which the collection locality falls.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. D.R. Smith (USNM

Washington) for endowing the type of D.

hytacharernae a species that closely resembles D.

kaslunirensis sp. nov. The financial assistance

rendered by CSIR, New Delhi is also gratefully

acknowledged.

References

Rohwer, S.A. (1911): A. classification of suborder

Chalastrogastra of the Hymenoptera. Proc. entomol. Soc.

Wash., 13: 215-226.

Schrank, F.V.P. (1802): Fauna. Boica, 2, Ingolstadt.,

pp. 412.

Smith, D.R. (1975) : Conifer sawflies, Diprionidae;

Key to the North American genera, Checklist of World

species and new species from Mexico (Hymenoptera).

Proc. Entcmol. Soc. Wash. 76: 409-418.

ANEW GENUS OF ANTHURIDAE (CRUSTACEA: ISOPODA: ANTHURIDEA)

FROM VISAKHAPATNAM COAST1

C. Jalaja Kumari, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari2

( With seventeen text-figures)

A new anthurid genus, namely Heteranthroides gen. nov. and a new species,//, rishikondensis sp. nov. of

the family Anthuridae is described from Visakhapatnam coast (Bay of Bengal), collected from the sponge

Callyspongia fibrosa. Similarities and dissimilarities and related genera and species are discussed.

In the present paper, a new genus species Heteranthroides rishikondensis are

Heteranthroides of the family Anthuridae and a new described.

Heteranthroides gen. nov.

Accepted January 1993.

2Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Large eyes present in male. Antennular

Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530 003. flagellum of eight articles and peduncle of two

9

266

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 1. Heteranthroides rishikond crisis sp. nov. ; Fig. 2. Antennule; Fig. 3. Antenna; Fig. 4. First pereopod;

Fig. 5. Second pereopod.

segments, antennal flagellum of six articles, rostrum

present. Maxilliped small and seven-segmented.

Pereonites 1-6 with mid-dorsal pit. All pereopods

non-chelate, not underriding propodus. Pleonites

1-4 free and distinct, pleonite 5 concealed. Dorsal

apex of exopod provided with a strong, blunt brush

spine.

The new genus is allied to Allanthura Kensley,

1980 in the presence of eyes, in the well developed

incisor, lacinia and molar of mandible and

operculiform first pleopod, but differs in the

segmentation of antennule and antenna, the number

of segments of maxilliped, in the pereopodal

structure and the fused nature of pleonites 1-5 and

the pleonite 6 not being united. It shows a similarity

to the genus Diaphorcinthurci in the presence of

eyes, in the segmentation of flagellum of antennae,

in the well developed incisor, lacinia and molar; in

the operculiform first pleopod; in having 1-6 free

pleonites and differs in antennule, segmentation of

maxilliped, in the subchelate nature of pereopods

1-3 and a telson which bears a single median

statocyst.

It resembles Excillanthurci Kensley, 1980 in

the presence of eyes, in well developed lacinia,

incisor and molar and differs in the segmentation of

maxillipeds and the subchelate nature of first

pereopod, and the present form has a seventh

pereopod.

The present genus resembles the genus

Heteranthura in the seven-segmented maxilliped

and middorsal pit in each 1-6 pereonites; it differs in

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

267

Fig. 6. Ventral view of cephalon; Fig. 7. Maxilliped; Fig. 8. Maxillule; Fig. 9. Mandible; Fig. 10. Uropodal endopod;

Fig. 11. Uropodal exopod; Fig. 12. Pleon; Fig. 13. Masculinum appendix of second pleopod.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 14. First pleopod; Fig. 15. Fourth pereopod; Fig. 16. Second pleopod; Fig. 17. Telson.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

269

the segmentation of antennule and antenna and the

reduced mandible.

Thus taking the present specimens into account,

the characters sufficient to create a new genus

Heteranthroid.es

Heteranthroides risliikondensis

sp. nov.

MALE: Body slender and elongated, cephalon

slightly more than half the length of first pereonite;

pereonites two and three equal in length and first

pereonite slightly shorter than them; fourth shorter

than first; fifth and sixth about equal in length and

seventh shortest. Cephalon wider than long; very

large composite eye present. The anterior margin of

cephalon produced anteriorly between the two

antennae which may be due to the closely packed

antennules. The last two segments of pleon not very

distinct, each pleonite gives off a plumose seta

laterally.

The peduncle of antennule two-segmented,

these are very thick, the basal segment is slightly

longer than the second. The flagellum comprises

eight segments. The first flagellar segment bears a

cluster of very long aesthetascs which are arranged

in three to four tiers. The terminal segment bears

two large spines and the fourth, fifth, sixth and

seventh segments bear an aesthetasc each. The

antenna has a flagellum of six segments, the

terminal three segments of which are provided with

setae.

Rostrum of cephalon low, from the ventral

side, the oral aperture has a rounded base and

extends along the sides of rostrum which is rather

conical. At its base the apices of setae and hairs of

mouth parts can be seen. Maxillule slender and

elongated and the terminal region provided with

setae. Maxilliped very small, slender and

7-segments; the apical segment bears two setae. The

segmentation of mandibular palp not distinct but

incisor, lacinia and molar well developed.

The unguis of first pereopod sharper and

smallest of all and about three times the length of

dactyle, the dactylus is longer and slender, the

propodus is not straight but slightly bent and armed

with 21-22 spinules and one strong ventro-distal

spine, carpus reduced and bears 6 simple setae and

one long seta. The unguis of second pereopod is one

and two thirds the length of dactyli. The propodus is

broader and shorter and bears a long simple seta in

the inner margin, on either side of which are

arranged 10 smaller simple setae and one stout

spine at its apex; the carpus is broader and bears

only one seta on the inner margin and about 3

longer simple setae on the outer margin. The unguis

of seventh pereopod is one and one third the length

of dactylus. The propodus is slender and elongated,

the inner margin bears 6 simple setae and there is a

spine at its apex, the arch beyond it is fringed with

small setae.

The fifth pleonite not distinct, all pleonites

provided with a plumose seta each on either side.

The endopod of first pleopod provided with five

long plumose setae and the exopod with 7 plumose

setae. The appendix masculinum of second pleopod

is slightly longer than the endopod, it has a regular

outlined lip up to about four fifths of the length

where it broadens and tapers to an acute tip; in this

region the margin is irregular or almost serrated and

the first pair of pleopods are operculiform.

The outline of telson is roughly linguiform.

The tip of posterior margin has small setae, on

either side of which are arranged about 8 setae; of

these the posterior ones are small and the four that

occur towards the apex are long. The ventral region

of exopod bears three very long and strong plumose

setae arranged one below the other, and the dorsal

region of exopod is hairy and covered with about 7

very long simple setae and its apex terminates in a

thick and strong blunt brush-spine; its ventral region

is transparent and lamellar in structure at the apex of

which arises a long seta and the margin of this

structure bears simple seta. The inner margin of

uropodal rami bears about 6 setae and the outer

margin is fringed with hairs.

Localities: The specimens were collected

from the rocky intertidal region of Rishikonda,

Visakhapatnam.

Material studied: Three male specimens were

collected from the sponge Callyspongia fibrosa

along the rocky intertidal region of Rishikonda,

Visakhapatnam. Holotype 1 male and paratypes 2

males are kept in the Department of Zoology,

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

270

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Habitat: The specimens were found in

association with the sponge Callyspongia fibrosa as

commensals.

Discussion

The present form resembles Panathura

macronesia Kensley, 1980 in bearing very thick and

stout peduncular segments but differs in the number

of segmentation and in all other characters. It

resembles Malacanthura mombase Kensley, 1980 in

having large eyes and well developed incisor,

lacinia and molar of mandible, but differs in all

other features. It resembles Exallanthura sexpes

Kensley, 1980 in having the incisor, lacina and

molar of mandible but differs in all other

particulars. The present form resembles

Diaphorcinthura hapla Kensley, 1980 in the

segmentation of antennal flagellar segmentation and

in the presence of incisor, lacinia, molar, and the

uropodal exopod folds dorsally over telson, but

differs in the other characters. It resembles

Diaphoranthura cracens Kensley, 1980 in having

well developed eyes, and a relatively large rostrum

and in both, the antennal flagella is 6-segmented;

they differ in all other characters. The present form

resembles Hetercinthura anomcila Kensley, 1980 in

the indurate integument, with a low rostrum, a 7-

segmented maxilliped, presence of mid-dorsal pit in

pereonite 1-6, free pleonite, 1-5 subequal, and each

pleonite with prominent plumose seta laterally, but

differs in the segmentation of antennule and antenna

and the mouthparts and in all other characters.

Since the present form differs from all the

above species in the aforestated characters, it is

described as a new species.

Acknowledgements

One of us (CJK.) is grateful to the Council of

Scientific and Industrial Research for financial

assistance. We are thankful to the authorities of

Andhra University for providing facilities.

Reference

Kensley, B. (1980): Anthuridean isopod crustaceans 1960-1965 in the Smithsonian collection. Smithsonia

from the International Indian Ocean Expedition, contrib. Zool. 304: 1-37.

AENHENRYA: A NEW GENUS OF ORCHID ACEAE FROM

SOUTHERN INDIA1

R. Gopalan2

(With nine text-figures)

This new genus is based on a recent gathering

by me from the Agastyamalai range in the Southern

W. Ghats of India, a region that continues to yield a

steady stream of novelties in orchids and other

families.

Aenhenrya gen. nov.

Herba terrestris; rhizoma re pens, crassum,

moniliforme, succulentum (hyalinum); radices

pilosae, pusillae, fasciculatae; caules

Accepted January 1993.

2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore 641 003.

decumbentibus, succulentis. Folia orbiculo-ovata,

carnosa. Inflo-rescentia 1-2-florate; scapus

albohirsutus; flores albi. Sepala alba, extus

longo-hirsuta; sepala dorsalis petalis labio et

columna includentia. Petalis falcato-oblonga.

Labium ad basim columnae affixum, 3-labatum;

labia lateralia duplicato-plicata, margo fimbriatus;

midlobus 3-lobulatus, lobulus lateralis

oblongo-ovatus, midlobulus triangulare rostratus;

appendix ensata ad basim labii adnatus; ligula 2 ad

basim labii adnatus. Columna longa, crassa,

angularis, dorse sulcuta, furcata ad apicem 2-

densibus semi-lunaribus; appendices 2 in sulcum

dorsalem inclusae; appendix supera curta, linearis et

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

271

Table 1

acutus, infra taeniaformis apica rotundo. Pollinia

absentia.

Herbs, terrestrial; rhizome creeping, thick,

moniliform, succulent (transparent); roots hairy,

short in bunches; stem decumbent. Leaves

orbicular-ovate, fleshy. Inflorescence 1-2-flowered;

scape white-hairy; flowers white. Sepals white, long

hairy outside; dorsal sepal enclosing petals, lip and

column. Petals falcate-oblong. Lip attached to base

of the column, 3- lobed; side lobes double-folded,

margin fringed; midlobe 3-lobuled, side lobule

oblong-ovate, midlobule triangular-beaked; a

sword-like appendage partially adnate to the base of

Up; 1 igules 2, auricular, at the base of lip. Column

long, thick angular, dorsally grooved, forked with

2-semilunar prongs at apex; appendages 2,

embedded in the dorsal groove, upper short, linear

and acute, lower ribbon-shaped with rounded apex.

Pollinia-absent.

Monotypic.

Typus: A. agastyamcilciyana sp. nov. (Figs.

1-9)

The genus is unique in Orchidaceae showing

characters which are not found in any other genus.

From the general appearance of the plant it looks

similar to Anectochilus, but can be differentiated as

Table 1.

Aenhenrya agas ty a in a 1 ay jv n a sp. nov.

Herbs, terrestrial, c. 20 cm tall, succulent,

translucent. Rhizome creeping, moniliform, rooted

at internodes. Leaves 15-30 x 2-22 mm,

orbicular-ovate, fleshy, glabrous, rounded at base,

entire, acute at apex, 5-9-nerved; petioles 10-15 mm

long, fleshy, pink, amplexicaule, c. 10 mm, adnate

or sheathed to stem, translucent. Scape c. 6 cm

long, white-pubescent, leafy bracteate, 1-2

flowered. Leafy sterile bract at base of the scape

larger, c. 10 x 5 mm, broadly elliptic-lanceolate,

acute to acuminate at apex, 5-nerved (rarely

3-nerved), reticulate; middle bract empty, c. 11 x 2

mm, linear-lanceolate, white hairy outside, glabrous

inside, acute to acuminate at apex, hairy at margins;

floral bracts up to 10 x 8 mm, linear to ovate-

lanceolate, acute to long-acuminate and recurved at

apex, densely white-hairy outside. Flowers 1-2,

white, sessile, densely white-hairy. Dorsal sepal

15-23 x 8-10 mm, ovate-lanceolate, concave, entire,

long-acuminate, with c. 6 mm long acumen,

mucronate and recurved at apex, hairy outside,

272

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Figs. 1-9 . Aenhenrya agastyamalayana sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. Dorsal and lateral sepals; 3. Sepals, petals and lip spread out from front; 4. Column and lip (side view);

5. Base of lip showing ligule and sword-like appendage; 6. Midlobe of lip (side view); 7. Midlobe spread out;

8. Column; 9. Apex of column.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

273

glabrous inside, 5-nerved; lateral sepals 20-22 x 5-6

mm, ensiform to obliquely lanceolate, entire or

slightly undulate at margin, with thick acumen,

incurved and mucronate at apex, hairy outside

(more on midrib), glabrous inside, 5-nerved. Petals

17-20 x 5-6 mm long, falcate-oblong, entire,

recurved and mucronate at apex, minutely

tubercled; midrib thick towards upper margin

ending in a mucro, with 2 thin additional nerves

below the midrib. Lip 17-20 x 10-12 mm, attached

to base of the column, 3-lobed, ligulate; ligules 2,

auricular at base of lip; a sword-like 10 mm long

appendage partially adnate to the base of lip. Lateral

lobes ovate-lanceolate, double-folded, fringed at

margin towards apex. Midlobe up to 2.5 x 6 mm,

3-lobuled; midlobule c. 1 mm long, triangular,

acute; side lobules 1-1.2 x 1.5-2 mm, incurved and

overlapping initially, later recurved revolute,

oblong, obtuse. Column 10-18 mm long 2

appendages, broad, angular, carinate at base,

grooved dorsal ly, narrowed towards apex, forked or

biclawed; appendages 2, attached to base of the

column dorsally and embedded along the groove,

dissimilar, the upper 8-9 mm long, linear-lanceolate,

obtuse and the lower 13-14 mm long, linear,

strap-like or spathulate, rounded or obtuse, enclosed

by the biclawed apex of the column. Pollinia absent.

(Figs. 1-9).

Holotype (Gopalan 93224, CAL) and isotypes

(Gopalan 93224, MH-acc. no. 157415-24) were

collected at Poonkulam (1120 m) in Agastyamalai,

Tirunelveli Kattabomman District, Tamil Nadu,

India on 24th April, 1990. Paratypes (Gopalan

96242, MH-acc. no. 157425-26) were also collected

from the same locality on 3 April, 1991.

The name Aenhenrya honours Dr. A.N. Henry,

Scientist ‘SE’, BSI, for his pioneering contributions

to the fl ora/vegetation of Agastyamalai hills.

Thanks are due to Dr. V.J. Nair, Scientist-SD,

BSI, for rendering the Latin translation and Dr. N.P.

Balakrishnan, Joint Director, BSI, for facilities and

helpful suggestions.

GNATHIA BENGALENSIS , A NEW SPECIES OF GNATHIIDAE (CRUSTACEA: ISOPODA :

GNATHIIDEA) FROM VISAKHAPATNAM COAST1

C. Jalaja Kumari, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari 2

(With two text- figures)

Gnathia bengalensis , a new species of the family Gnathiidae described from the rocky intertidal

regions of Rishikonda and Gangavaram of Visakhapatnam Coast. Five specimens were collected

from the sponge Callyspongia fibrosa. Similarities and differences with related species are

illustrated.

Introduction

Monod (1926) published a valuable work on

the isopods belonging to the family Ganthiidae. The

genus Gnathia was erected by Leach in 1815, the

salient features being as follow. Cephalon of male

large and quadrangular; that of female rather small

and subtriangular. Pereon composed of 5 well

developed segments, the other two being

rudimentary; the first being fused with the head and

Accepted January 1993.

Department of Zoology, Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530 003.

the last placed between the projecting lateral parts

of the fifth segment. First pair of pereopods in

males operculiform, composed of two articles and

those of female subpediform being divided into 3-4

articles. Five pairs of ambulatory pereopods present.

Pleon much narrower than pereon. Mandible

present in males; they are more or less flattened and

project beyond the anterior margin of cephalon.

Maxillipeds without epigrowths and palp comprised

of four articles.

In the present study, some specimens

belonging to the genus Gnathia have been collected

from the sponge Callyspongia fibrosa. As they

differ significantly from the other related species,

274

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 1 : A. Male of Gnathia bengalensis sp. nov.

1. Mandible; 2. Antenna; 3. Antennule; 4. Second pereopod.

0-3 mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

275

Fig. 1:A. Male of Gnathia bengale/isis sp. nov.

5. Fourth pereopod; 6. Sixth pereopod; 7. Telson.

276

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 2:B. Female of Gnathia bengalensis sp. nov.

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. First pereopod; 4. Second pereopod; 5. Third pereopod;

6. Sixth pereopod; 7. Uropod.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

277

they are described as a new species Gnathia

bengalensis.

Gnathia bengalensis sp. nov.

MALE: Cephalon somewhat rectangular in

shape. Eyes present in the mid-lateral region. Head

is covered by hairs; there is a depression in the

mid-anterior region. The antennule has a peduncle

of 4 articles of which the basal and the third article

are long and equal in length. The second article is

about 3/4 the length of basal article and the fourth

article is very small about l/3rd the length of the

second article. The flagellum bears 2 articles of

which the penultimate article is elongated and the

terminal slightly longer than l/3rd the length of the

penultimate article. Both are provided with

aesthetascs; the antenna has a peduncle of 4 articles,

of which the basal and the 4th article are equal in

length and the third is slightly shorter than them,

wfiile the second is the shortest of all. The flagellum

comprises’of 7 articles and all of them are provided

with setae. The mandibles are large and extend

conspicuously beyond the anterior margin of

cephalon. The outer margin is smooth and is bent

regularly whereas the inner margin is fringed with

setae. At the lower region, the inner margin is

produced almost acutely, and medially it is

produced only slightly.

Body is about two and half times longer than

broad; the first pereonite, though fused with

cephalon, can be located, the second to sixth

pereonite are distinct and well defined. These

segments are subequal in length, the sixth being

longest; the seventh is short and narrow and can be

distinquished just above the pleonites. The

pereopods are ambulatory.

Pleon narrow and elongated; all pleonites

equal in length, the exopods are roughly rectangular

and smaller in size than the endopods, the exopods

are fringed with nine plumose setae and the

endopods with seven. Telson is triangular in shape

and the apex has two small setae and above it two

rows of setae; the uropods are longer than the telson

and the endopod is longer than exopod; both are

fringed with plumose setae.

Three males were collected.

FEMALE: The animal is oblong-ovate in shape,

about twice as long as wide, cephalon smaller than

male, it is somewhat semicircular in shape; eyes

small, round, composite and located at the post-

lateral angles of head. Both pairs of Antenna as in

males.

The first pereonite is almost inconspicuous,

since it is short and narrow. Pereon gradually

becomes wider from the second segment onwards.

The second and third segments are distinct but the

demarcations for fourth, fifth, and sixth segments

are inconspicuous. The first pereopods are

4-segmented and the pereopods are more slender

than in the male and the spines and setae are less in

number. Pleon is also similar to that of the male.

The pleopods are roughly oval in shape and are also

fringed with plumose setae. The telson is smooth

throughout its length. One female specimen was

obtained in the collection.

Larva: Large, elongated, but the pereon is

either distended or inflated, when inflated, the

fourth, fifth and sixth segments are about as broad

as the third pereonite. Cephalon roughly triangular

in shape, if the mouthparts are included. The frontal

margin is truncate, antennules and antennae more or

less resemble that of male. The mouthparts project

conspicuously beyond the cephalon, maxillae are

present, the eyes very large and located on the

lateral side of cephalon.

The first pereonite is rudimentary and is fused

with the cephalon. The second and third pereonites

are short and subequal. The fourth and fifth

segments are united into one extremely long

segment which are not wider, at its anterior

extremity almost being as wide as the preceding

segment, but at its posterior extremity being almost

as narrow as the pleon. The seventh segment is

similar to the pleonites. The pleonites are provided

with pleopods. The telson is as in the male.

Localities; The speciemens were collected

from the rocky inter-tidal regions of Rishikonda and

Gangavaram, Visakhapatnam.

Material studied: Three male, one female

specimens and two larvae were collected from the

sponge Callyspongia fibrosa along the rocky

intertidal regions of Rishikonda and Gangavaram of

Visakhapatnam coast. Holotype 1 male and

paratypes 2 males + 1 female are kept in the

Department of Zoology, Andhra University,

Vishakhapatnam.

278

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Habitat: The specimens were found in

association with the sponge Callyspongia fibrosa as

commensals.

Discussion

The present species differs from Gnathia

coronadoensis (Schultz 1969) in possessing eyes,

the antero-frontal margin in G. serrata

(Richardsonl905) is serrated, the eyes are visible

from ventral view, and the ratio of length to breadth

of cephalon differs from the present form. The

cephalon is longer than wide in G. triospathiona

(Schultz 1969) unlike the present form; frontal

margin of G. crenilatifrons (Monod 1926) is

crenulate and the cephalon is about as long as wide;

the present form differs in these characters. Eyes in

G. multispinis (Richardson 1905) are small and

surrounded by long tubercles and the animal is

Refer

Monod, Tli. (1926): Les Gnathiidae : Essai

monographique. Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Phys. Maroc. 13: 1-668.

Richardson, M.R. (1905): A monograph on the

isopods of North America. Bull. U. S. natn. Mus. 54: 1-717.

spiny in appearance unlike the present species.

There is no rounded process on frontal margin of

cephalon set above anterior border of cephalon in

the present species as in G. hirsuata (Schultz 1969).

In G. cristata (Schultz 1969), the frontal margin of

cephalon is produced in the middle much beyond

the antero-lateral angle. As the present species

differs from the species mentioned in the structure

of mandible and in the shape and size of cephalon,

it is differentiated from the others as a new species

and named Gnathia bengalensis sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

One of us (C .J.K) is grateful to the Council of

Scientific and Industrial Research from financial

assistance. We are thankful to the authorities of

Andhra university for providing facilities.

NCES

Schultz, G.A. (1969). How to know the marine

isopod crustaceans. (Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers,

Dubuque, Iowa), pp. 1-359.

REVIEWS

1. THE CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS — Proceedings of an Interna-

tional consultation, held from 21 to 27 March, 1988, at Chiang Mai, Thailand. Edited

by O. Akerele, V. Heywood and H. Synge, pp. xx + 362 (23.5 x 15.5 cm). Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, 1991. Price not indicated.

This book contains the proceedings of

international consultations organised jointly

by the World Health Organisation (WHO), In-

ternational Union for Conservation of Nature

(IUCN) and World Wide Fund for Nature

(WWF). Presentations were made by 32 lead-

ing experts from various countries in their

respective fields. The objectives of the consult-

ation were to exchange views on various

problems facing the availability of Medicinal

Plants and to determine priorities and recom-

mendations for action plan.

Page xvii of the proceedings contain the

’’Chiang Mai Declaration -Saving life by saving

plants" — which affirms the importance of

medicinal plants and calls on the United Nations,

its agencies and member states, as well as other

International Organisations, to take action for

their conservation. The book contains the fol-

lowing broad topics:

1. The issue, 2. Science and Industry, 3.

Techniques for conservation, 4. Policies for con-

servation and 5. Experiences and programmes,

of conservation of Medicinal plants.

The book gives useful general informa-

tion and glimpses of the global state of art of

the medicinal plants and their conservation

today.

M. R. ALMEIDA

2. ENVIRONMENT, FOREST ECOLOGY AND MAN IN THE WESTERN

GHATS. By K. R. DlKSHlT. pp. i-xii, 1-213 (25 x 16 cm) with 33 text-figures. Jaipur,

Delhi, 1991. Rawat Publications, Price Rs. 300/-.

The publication under review provides an

excellent integrated account of the ecology of the

Mahabaleshwar plateau.

The book is in three parts. Part I presents

the physical aspects, climatological data and

detailed analysis of soil and hydrology of

Mahabaleshwar. Part II describes the forest

types, floristics and palaeoecology — a

reconstructed view and Part III provides various

social and human aspects vis-a-vis natural en-

vironment and economic problems followed by

an epilogue. The comparative situations obtain-

ing in some parts of W. Indian hill stations in the

Nilgiris are also briefly touched. It also discusses

frankly the problems and conflicts suggesting

probable solutions. This is followed by a fairly

detailed bibliography and index.

This reviewer finds this integrated account

of the environment of Mahabaleshwar to be the

best so far pointing out social conflicts arising

out of conservation action by the administration

and nature lovers and compulsions of lack of

resources of the local population. This is truly a

scholarly work embodying studies of a team of

students of Prof. Dikshit and his colleagues for

which Dr Dikshit and his co-workers deserve our

gratitude and compliments. Future workers in

the ecologically fragile montane regions of the

280

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

tropics, particularly the Western Ghats region

will find a wealth of information in this book.

The book reviews the contemporary

status of the Mahabaleshwar plateau and

presents a balanced picture of problems of

regeneration of nature suggesting some con-

crete measures and emphasising that the

cooperation of local inhabitants is vital to the

preservation of nature.

This book will be very useful for education-

al institutions and administration dealing with

development and conservation of hilly districts

of India where somewhat similar situations ob-

tain. I have no hesitation in recommending this

scholarly work to serious students of environ-

ment and conservation strategies.

P. V. BOLE

3. A GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THAILAND. By Boonsong Lekagul and Philip D.

Round, pp. 457 (22 x 14 cm) with 135 colour plates and 915 range maps. Bangkok [6

Charoen Krung 36 (Soi Rong Phasi) Bangrak, Bangkok 10500, Thailand], 1991. Saha

Kam Bhaet Co. Ltd. Price ?

In 1983, Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley’s

Pictorial Guide to Birds of the Indian Subcon-

tinent was published, providing the first portable

book illustrating all the birds of India; it has been

a great boon to area birdwatchers, ornithologists,

and tourists. As we write this, work is well un-

derway on more informative and current field

guides for the Indian subcontinent. The book

under review here occupies a similar status, that

of having greatly enhanced Dr. Boonsong

Lekagul’s previous field guide to birds of

Thailand. Boonsong and Round’s A Guide to the

Birds of Thailand is without a doubt the most

up-to-date, most comprehensive, and best-il-

lustrated field guide yet available for any part of

Asia. Over half of the birds found in the Indian

subcontinent are depicted in this book, making it

very useful here. This field guide would be a

necessary buy for serious Indian birdwatchers as

also for other regions of the subcontinent. Many

of the montane species of northwestern Thailand

also occur in northeastern India, while the birds

of peninsular Thailand tend to bear affinities to

those of Malaysia and Indonesia. Thailand en-

tirely lacks deserts and very high mountains and

thus most species of northwestern India and the

high Himalayas are lacking. Many widespread

lowland forest and open country birds are shared

between the two countries, but beware of the

almost inevitable racial differences in these

widespread species.

Every species of bird known from Thailand

is illustrated in color, as are important sexual,

age, and geographic plumage variations. Intro-

ductory material in this book includes a brief

history of Thai ornithology, followed by sections

on geography, climate, habitat, and conserva-

tion. Other sections provide bird- watching tips,

a list of relevant societies, birding localities, and

hints for use of the book. A glossary, selected

bibliography, and separate indices of common,

scientific, and Thai names appear after the

species accounts. Two appendices cover late ad-

ditions to the list of birds of Thailand and pos-

sible future additions based on occurrence in

neighbouring countries of some species and

vagrant tendencies of others.

The introductory text and the species ac-

counts appear to have been designed primarily

for birders visiting Thailand, and an introductory

stimulus that might prompt Thais to take up

birdwatching or serious ornithology seems to be

REVIEWS

281

lacking. In contrast, the matter-of-fact Pictorial

Guide and the educative Book of Indian Birds

have provided the necessary direction to many

Indian birders. We hope that a future Thai edition

will effectively address this problem.

The front endpapers feature a novel ap-

proach to keying out families: one or a few small

representative figures for each major bird group

are indexed with the beginning page number of

the plates for that group. The foreword is written

by Ben King, an acknowledged field expert on

birds of Asia, who notes that Dr. Boonsong’s

efforts and the first two versions of his guide

"helped immensely to raise interest in the birds

of Thailand, thereby kindling a desire to protect

them and their habitat." The parallel to Dr

Boonsong’s impact in India is, of course, the

tremendous influence Dr Salim Ali had in creat-

ing awareness of and enhancing the mechanism

for nature conservation. Dr Boonsong Lekagul,

Philip Round and Ben King have all utilized the

BNHS bird collections and Dr Salim Ali ar-

ranged for loans of specimens for this field guide.

Wherever possible, this book emphasizes

the necessity of conservation; Thailand has lost

a great percentage of its forest, including the vast

majority of lowland forest, and nearly all its

natural wetlands. A number of species have be-

come extinct or nearly so in Thailand due to

destruction of habitat, while tolerant open

country species have greatly prospered.

Thailand’s remaining forests are of global con-

servation importance; they are the primary range

of the highly threatened Gurney’s Pitta (Pitta

gurney i ) and a stronghold of many other species.

In addition, the enigmatic and elusive White-

eyed River-Martin ( Pseudochelidon sirintarae)

is known only from Thailand, as is the little-

known Deignan’s Babbler ( Stachyris rodoiphei).

The species accounts are interleaved with

the appropriate plates, but unfortunately not ex-

actly opposite the relevant plates, and there is no

reference to the plate number in the accounts,

though species numbers refer to both. The maps

are excellent, but neither they nor the text give

any indication of extralimital ranges which

would have made the book much more useful in

neighbouring countries. This has been singularly

lacking in field guides to the birds of the Indian

subcontinent and would be extremely useful in

future editions. While important geographic

variation is often mentioned and/or depicted, in

some species there is no indication of the range

within Thailand of highly distinctive or disputed

races, e.g. the race P. r. cantonensis of the Rosy

minivet. Another substantial enhancement in the

species accounts that is lacking in the Pictorial

Guide are the voice descriptions. Most Oriental

birds are clearly identifiable by their call. The

literal renditions of vocalizations are very help-

ful but one who is accustomed to the Handbook

of Birds of India and Pakistan misses the per-

sonal touch Dr Salim Ali so often provided with

his metaphorical descriptions of bird songs.

The illustrations, by Mongkol Wongkalasin

and Kamol Komolphalin, are of nearly uniform-

ly high quality, and set a new standard of excel-

lence for ornithological works for the Oriental

region. Most are very well executed; clearly the

artists have studied many of the birds in the field

and worked in close consultation with the

authors. This book provides the first accurate and

lifelike depictions of many Southeast Asian

species. We noted a few minor problems,

enumerated below; more may be obvious to

specialists on birds of the region. A few

misinterpretations of feather structure are ap-

parent, such as with #552, the Greater Racket-

tailed Drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus ), which is

drawn with two right-hand rackets (J. Anderton,

10

282

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

pers. comm.). In a few cases, primaries appear to

overlap the wrong way (e.g. flying adults of #224

and #230), as do rectrices in others (e.g. #650,

652). Some drawings are not correctly propor-

tioned, for example, on Plate 4, the herons’ legs

appear too short; #27, the Black-crowned Night-

Heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax) has an overly

large bill; for #33, the Painted Stork ( Mycteria

leucocephala ), the same base drawings ap-

parently were used for upper-and underwing

depictions, so the perspective is wrong for the

upperwing illustrations; the neck is too long on

#86, the White-bellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus

leucogaster)\ the bill is incorrectly shaped in

174, the Eastern Curlew ( Numenius madagas-

cariensis)\ the head of the standing Red-necked

Phalarope (#193; Phalaropus lobatus) is too

small; the flying Brown Noddy (#244, Anous

stolidus) has a misshapen tail; the legs of #307,

the Bam Owl ( Tyto alba), are in an impossible

posture; and the head shape of the Bay Owl

(#30 S;Phodilus badius) is incorrect. In #472, the

Nepal House-Martin {Delichon nipalensis), the

text correctly states the throat is black but the

birds are pictured with a buffy brown throat. The

figure of #370, the Wrinkled Hornbill

( Rhyticerosundulatus ) shows a pure white distal

tail, but this species, as with some other

hombills, often has the white portions of the tail

stained chestnut, which thus may look very dark

in the field (A. Sebastian, pers. comm.); the

species account states these areas are "frequently

stained yellowish". The variable staining of the

tails in this genus has led to frequent confusion

in field identification.

These criticisms are relatively minor, and

detract little from the overall excellence and

utility of this book. It is nearly free of careless

errors, is well-designed, has a sturdy binding and

good-quality paper, and is small enough to be

carried easily. We have had numerous conversa-

tions with persons who have used this guide

extensively in the field and in the lab, and all

agree that it is of outstanding quality and utility.

This book is and will continue to be invaluable

for ornithologists working in Asia, as well as for

travellers and conservation workers. We an-

ticipate the day when field guides of comparable

quality will be available for India.

PAMELA C. RASMUSSEN

BHARAT BHUSHAN

4. PLANTS AND HARAPPAN SUBSISTENCE: AN EXAMPLE OF STABILITY

AND CHANGE FROM ROJDI. By Steven A. Weber, pp. i-xii + 200 (24 x 15.5 cm)

with many figures. New Delhi, 1991. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., and

American Institute of Indian.Studies. Price: Rs. 175/-.

This book is a scientific interpretation of the

data based on excavation conducted at Rojdi, a

village in Saurashtra region in the state of

Gujarat. The project has conclusively revealed

that the excavated remains found in Rojdi sug-

gest their link with Nature and Late Harappan

Civilisation.

The title of the book lays more emphasis on

plants supposed to have been used by the then

prevailing people for their daily use which have

been now identified from the carbonised seeds.

Methods adopted for the entire study are

elaborately described in the book and interpreta-

tions of the data does not confine to only the

remains of plant materials but also includes all

other archaeological materials.

Although the methods adopted for studies

of seeds of Original Harappan Civilisation are

REVIEWS

283

appropriate, it appears that a large percentage of

materials isolated from Rojdi is contaminated

with plant material from modem time vegeta-

tion. As a result of the contaminations a number

of conclusions, based on available data, remain

hypothetical. If we believe that scientific iden-

tifications of botanical seed materials are

reasonably reliable, it is hard to understand why

identifications of living plants of the region show

tremendous amounts of errors and carelessness.

The above corrections of the names of living

plants found in the region noted on pages 36-37,

may help the reader in understanding the part of

the present flora of the area.

On the whole, the book provides good read-

ing material. However the hypothesis presented

in conclusions based on the plant materials iden-

tified could be confirmed in the future only if

more data on the subject is available.

M. R. ALMEIDA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. ELEPHANT CALF PREDATION BY TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS IN DALMA

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, BIHAR

Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary does not have any

of the large cats on its list. During my stay at the

sanctuary as a researcher of the BNHS Elephant

Project from January 1989 to May 1992 I

discovered the presence of a tiger (male) in the

sanctuary for the first two years. After 1990 the

tiger disappeared without any trace. The first record

was of pug marks on 30 January 1989 immediately

followed by a sighting at day time. Since Dalma

Sanctuary does not hold any large prey species

other than elephant (!) and bears the tiger started

predating earnestly on the village cattle and

livestock maintained within the core of the

Sanctuary by the staff of a temple. On 18 March I

discovered a dead and mauled male calf of elephant

inside the core of the Sanctuary on the northern

cooler slopes. On inspection I found that the neck

was broken and claw marks all around the head.

The summer ground litter around the spot was not

much disturbed indicating instant death. Part of the

hind leg and rump was eaten. The calf was around

an year old. Male calves often have a tendency to

make exploratory forays going away from the

mother. In the case of Dalma elephant they have not

been used to the presence of tigers for many years

any where in their range. All these factors might

have contributed to the killing of the calf. Very few

records are available of such predation and one such

account is given by C. H. Biddulph from erstwhile

Cochin state in 1936 (JBNHS 39: 387- 388) under

similar condition. In the case I recorded the tiger

never returned to the carcass up to the time it was

disposed by the forest officials a week after the

discovery.

December 30, 1992 HEMANT S. DATYE

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr Salim Ali Chowk, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER FRIGATE BIRD FREGATA MINOR

(GMELIN) IN ANDHRA PRADESH

On the 29th of July 1991, while conducting

field studies on the birds of Sriharikota Island

(13.45° N, 80.20°E) in south Andhra Pradesh, we

observed a solitary Lesser Frigate bird Fregata

minor soaring. The bird was sighted around 0830

hours near a casuarina belt of the island. The

individual was seen at close quarters for at least

ten minutes before it disappeared in a northerly

direction. The long and pointed, black,

streamlined wings, black, deeply forked tail and a

long bill were diagnostic. The kite sized bird had

a white breast and a black abdomen suggesting

that it was a female.

A rare straggler in the monsoon to the

Indian sea board, the species is recorded mainly

on the west coast of India and once on the east

coast (Balachandran et al.y JBNHS 83: 436-38.

1986). The current sighting is the first record

for Andhra Pradesh. Due to inclement weather

in the Bay of Bengal under the influence of the

SW monsoon during the last week of July 1991,

the bird may have straggled towards the Andhra

Pradesh coast.

March 28, 1992 PRAKASH RAO

K. K. MOHAPATRA

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Dr Salim Ali Chowk,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

285

3. INCIDENT INVOLVING A SNAKE AND A PURPLE HERON

ARDEA PURPUREA (LINN.)

Mohammed Nayerul Haque (1989, JBNHS

86(1): 95) reports an observation of a Purple Heron

Ardea purpurea feeding on a Checkered keelback

snake (Xenochrophis piscator) at Keoladeo Ghana

National Park, Bharatpur. The author mentions that

he could not come across any published record of

Purple Heron feeding on snakes which is erroneous.

However his observation of the snake species

involved is noteworthy.

While giving detailed accounts on the food

habits of water birds at Sunderbans, Mukherjee

(1971, JBNHS 68(1): 37-64) reports Purple Herons

showing a marked preference for reptiles especially

snakes (to an extent of about 21% of their diet). The

stomach contents of 70 adult Purple Herons

examined by him contained snakes such as the

Indian File or Wart Snake Chersydrus granulatus

(Fam.: Achrochoridae), Striped Keelback

Amphiesma stolata, Common Smooth Water Snake

Enhydris enhydris, Dog-faced Water Snake

Cerberus rhynchops (Fam.: Colubridae) and

Estuarine Sea Snake Hydrophis obscurus (Fam.:

Hydrophidae).

Incidentally, we ourselves have seen on 6

January 1991, a Purple Heron carrying away a

snake from the water edge of Thailur Tank

(12°36’N, 77°05’ E) in Mandya District, Karnataka

during the Asian Mid-winter Waterfowl Census

1991, organised by Birdwatcher’s Field Club of

Bangalore. However the snake species involved

could not be identified.

January 22, 1992 J. N. PRASAD

13, 8th cross, 30th Main, J. P. Nagar I Phase,

Bangalore 560 078.

S. KARTHIKEYAN

21, Opp. Banashankari Temple, Shakambarinagar,

8th Block. J ayanagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082.

S. SUBRAM ANYA

1 1 PI IT Scheme, J Block, GKVK, University of Agriculture

Sciences, Bangalore 560 065.

4. THE WHITE STORK CICONIA CICONIA (LINN.) AT POINT CALIMERE,

TAMIL NADU

During the Asian Waterfowl Count conducted

in January 1992, I sighted a flock of eight white

storks Ciconia ciconia — a species not listed so far

in the checklist for the Sanctuary. The storks were

seen in the grazing lands frequented by blackbuck.

The Asian Water Count has recorded the

following numbers of white storks for Tamil Nadu:

267 in 1987, 48 in 1988, 11 in 1989, 21 in 1990,

and 78 in 1991.

February 24, 1992 RAN JIT MANAKAD AN

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr Salim AH Chowk, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 100 023.

5. VOICE OF BLYTH’S BAZA A VICE DA JERDONI JERDONI (BLYTH)

Blyth’s Baza or the Northern Brown Lizard

Hawk is a medium-sized hawk with a conspicuous

upstanding crest. It is a rare bird and is also lesser

known than its southern cousin, A.j. ceylonensis. Its

voice was hitherto unrecorded (handbook 1: 215-216).

On 5 November, 1991 I observed two birds,

probably a pair, at about 9000 hrs between

Langcholiet and Nailalung in Dhansiri RF (Karbi

Anglong district, Assam).

They were flying in circles and also

perched on the top of trees, when they were

identified. While flying, one bird uttered a

shrill whistle wee-wee-wir, etc. It was similar

to that of the Pariah Kite ( Milvus mi grans) but

was softer and milder. It also resembled to

some extent the initial call of the Crested

Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela). I again

heard similar call on 10 and 24 November,

286

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (199 J;

about one and a half km -west. On both the days two January 21, 1992 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

birds were seen and were calling while in flight. Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Jslampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

6. THE CRESTED HONEY BUZZARD PERNIS PTILORHYNCUS (TEMMINCK)

BREEDING IN KERALA

Dr Salim Ali in his birds of kerala (1969)

says that the breeding of the Crested Honey

Buzzard had not been recorded in Kerala till then.

The purpose of this note is chiefly to establish the

fact that this bird does nest in Kerala. I hope to

publish a separate note on some aspects of the

plumage, behaviour and voice of the pair I had

found nesting at Kavassery, Palghat Dt., Kerala,

especially because of some striking differences

between my observations and published accounts

such as Rishad Naorojrs in JBNHS 82: 301-305

(1985).

Although frequent encounters with the Crested

Honey Buzzard in the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary

had made me familiar with the bird, most of the bird

books I had read asserted that the Honey Buzzard is

a bird of the hill forests and that, owing to the

extreme variability of its plumage phases, it is a

rather tricky bird to identify. So, when, on

25-xii-1989, I saw a pale-phase Honey Buzzard

flying over a large expanse of paddy fields in

Kavassery which is only some 90 m above MSL

and where, apart from the Brahminy and Pariah

Kites, the only large resident bird of prey is the

Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela ), I jumped

to the conclusion that this pale ‘eagle* was an

immature Serpent Eagle. The glimpse I got 3 days

later of a dark-brown eagle with a pattern of pale

and dark bands on wings and tail, served only to

support my hypothesis that the pale eagle I had seen

on 25- xii-1989 and, later in my own compound,

was an immature Serpent Eagle.

Soon it became clear these two eagles had

made a large mango tree in my own backyard their

base. Fortunate though it was that the birds had

taken up residence in my own compound and that a

pair of Jungle Crows that had a nest in coconut tree

some 150 m away, regularly gave me notice of the

arrival, presence and departure of these ‘eagles*

with loud protests and frenzied mobbing, the dense

umbrella of mango, coconut, neem and tamarind

foliage that covered the compound made close

observation of the birds extremely difficult. The

misconception that the two eagles were immature

Serpent Eagles prevented me from even suspecting

that they could be nesting in that mango tree

although the pale bird (which I had christened ‘PE’)

was often seen and heard near a disused nest of the

Jungle Crow situated 40 feet (c. 12 m) up the mango

tree (named OWMT = over-the-well mango tree).

I had to be away from home for 7 months

from 23-V-1990. Soon after my return on

28-xi i- 1 990 I noted that the old Jungle Crow nest in

OWMT seemed to have been appropriated by a pair

of Shikras ( Accipiter badius). 14 days later I noted

PE on OWMT and heard it uttering a run of low

klwikndikwlikwlik notes while a vociferous flock of

Jungle Crows was mobbing it. Thereafter PE was

often seen in OWMT and was found spending the

night on a branch of OWMT or another mango tree

some 50 feet (c. 15 m) to the northeast of it. PE

roosted on the latter on 6 consecutive days from

3-ii-1991.

Between 3-i-91 and 24-ii-91 the Shikras were

often seen visiting OWMT, sometimes going to the

old nest, often joining the crows in harassing PE

and, on a few occasions, actually attacking PE or

the dark ‘eagle’ (DE) which, too, visited OWMT

now and then. On the 22nd and 24th of February the

kwlik-wlik-wlik-wlik calls of PE (and/or DE), the

shrill screams of a Shikra and glimpses of flailing

wines in the nest suggested a fracas between these

birds. Around 1700 hrs on the 24th my wife found

on the ground under the OWMT nest two halves of

a small egg (c. 38 x 30 mm), white with a bluish

tinge, and with some yolk sticking to the inside of

the larger half. This was almost certainly an egg of

the Shikra, which had probably been broken, and its

contents consumed, by the larger bird which seemed

to have usurped the Shikra *s nest.

On 7-iii-1991 at 0900 hrs a man went up

OWMT to pluck mangoes and, at my request, took a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

287

look at the nest. PE had been sitting in the nest, and

flew off only when the man was a few feet below

the nest. It then flew round the tree two or three

times alighted on another mango tree some 9 metres

away and sat there quietly while the man was going

up to look into the nest. The man reported that there

were two large reddish eggs in the nest. One of

these he lowered in his basket for my inspection.

Unfortunately, the shell got slightly crushed in the

process. So I decided that there was no point in

returning it to the nest, and asked the man to come

down as soon as possible. However, he took more

than an hour to collect the remaining mangoes.

Around 1015 hrs the parent bird, pursued by a

rabble of crows, flew over the tree and disappeared.

After that there was no sign of the nesting birds for

the rest of the day and I feared that they had

deserted the nest.

The egg that had been taken from the nest was

almost round and measured roughly 54 x 44 mm. Its

ground colour was pale buff, almost completely

covered by overlapping blotches of light grey, light

rusty-brown and dark reddish-brown. Hardset, it

contained a well-formed, yellow-skinned, naked

embryo, with a membraneous sac dangling from its

vent.

It was the number of eggs in the nest and the

dimensions of the egg which had been removed

from the nest that served as clues to the identity of

the parents. When I found that these agreed only

with the description of the eggs of the Honey

Buzzard, I was able to confirm the identification of

the adults by following other clues such as the

pattern of the bars on the tail, the vulturine profile,

the rudimentary nuchal crest etc.

Between 7-i ii - 199 1 and S-iv-1991, though

both PE and DE were seen in the neighbourhood, I

seldom saw them going to OWMT and feared that

they had not cared to incubate the egg left in their

nest. However, on g-iv-1991, when the

mango-plucker came again, I asked him to take

another look at the nest. When he was almost within

reach of the nest, an adult (it turned out to be PE)

flew off the nest. It went on Hying in circles above

the tree while the man was looking at the nest and

even while he was climbing down. On reaching the

nest the man had found a duck-sized white downy

nestling in it. Soon after the man had reached the

ground, for 45 minutes PE without leaving the

perch, went on uttering very loud double

feeee-yoo s.

Thereafter I kept a closer watch on the

movements of the parents, greatly aided by the

behaviour of the Jungle Crows which announced

the arrival and departure of the Honey Buzzards

with frantic activity and excited calls.

The nestling left the nest at 0640 hrs on

S-v-1991, flew from OWMT to another mango tree

at 1732 hrs on 9-V-1991 and, 28 minutes later, to a

coconut tree c. 15 metres away where PE was

sitting. But the parent and the fledgeling behaved as

though they were absolute strangers. There was no

vocal greeting or any other display indicative of the

parent-chick bond. The parents, PE and DE also, on

the few occasions when they were close together,

had behaved like strangers!

On ll-v-1991 in the evening the fledgeling

flew to a coconut tree and appeared to settle down

to roost on a frond. Again, on 22-V-1991 it was seen

at dusk on a coconut frond and was still there at

0520 hrs on the next day.

Between 29-V-1991 and 16-vi-1991 (during

which period I was away from home from the 1st to

the 13th of June) although the adults were seen

occasionally, there was no sign of the juvenile. But

at 1330 hrs on 16-vi-1991 the juvenile was seen on

a coconut tree c. 100 metres away from OWMT. By

1350 hrs it had disappeared and was next seen only

on 7-viii-1991 when, from 0730 hrs till c. 0930 it

went on callin gfeeeyoo - feee yooo from a coconut

tree at the edge of a paddy field some 50 metres to

the north of OWMT. After that date, during the next

4 months no Honey Buzzard was noted in the area.

Soon after the juvenile and its parents had left

the place, while engaged in gathering material for a

supplement to Dr Salim Ali’s BIRDS OF KERALA, I was

going through the diaries of bird observations I have

been keeping since 1942. In one of the volumes

dealing with the birds I had watched at Chittur

(Palghat Dt.) between 1958 and 1962 I found the

sketch of a juvenile bird of prey that looked like a

photo-copy of some of the sketches I had made of

the fledgeling referred to in the first part of this

note. Both these juveniles were dark brown (almost

black) above, including the crown, the sides of the

head covering the lores, eyes and ear-coverts, and

288

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL 1LIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

the hindneck and the rest of the upperparts. Their

underparts from the sides of the face and the chin to

the under tail-coverts were pure white with blackish

shaft-streaks. Both had a prominent, long, thin,

graduated black crest which pointed backwards

from the hindcrown. The crest remained horizontal

even when the harassment by crows should have

excited the juveniles. Both looked rather slim in

comparison with their parents.

According to my diary, on 7-vi-1959 in a large

compound full of old mango trees and coconut trees

I had found a dark 'eagle* with white underparts and

a backward-pointing crest being bullied by a flock

of crows. It was holding in its talons the plucked

carcass of a small bird or a nestling which a dark

chocolate-brown 'eagle* had just given it. Although

the young eagle continually uttered plaintive,

metallic mewing notes, the adult remained on its

perch in another tree, also uttering mewing calls

from time to time. These ‘eagles’ spent the rest of

the day in the mango grove, frequently calling to

each other. On the next day also the same adult and

the juvenile were in the mango grove almost all day,

the adult often repeating a thin, plaintive

wheee-yooo or feee-yooo eight to ten times. On the

9th, only the juvenile was in the grove. Although it

went on uttering a low plaintive feeeyooo-feeeyooo

no adult was seen coming near it. After the 9th

neither the juvenile nor the parent was seen or heard

in the mango grove.

Hindsight, in the light of my observations of

1991, makes it clear that the ‘eagles’ I had seen

and heard at Chittur in June 1959 were a

dark-phase Crested Honey Buzzard and its young

one. That, therefore, may be considered the first

record of the breeding of the Crested Honey

Buzzard in Kerala.

The Honey Buzzards that nested in my

compound at Kavassery and their nest were seen by

a number of birdwatchers including R. venugopalan

and Suresh Elamon.

January 21, 1992 K.K. NEELAKANTAN

Kongalakode, Kcivassery (Pal ghat Dt.),

Kerala 678 543.

7. EASTERN GOSHAWK IN BANGALORE

On 16 November 1990, one of us (SS) was

attracted by the loud shrieking calls of Drongos

from within the canopy of a cashew tree

( Anocardium occidentale Linn.) about 5 m tall at

the Gandhi Krishi Vignana Kendra (GKVK; 13° 04'

N, 77°34' E), Bangalore. As the tree located within a

scrub jungle intermixed with Eucalyptus was

approached, an adult Goshawk (. Accipiter gentilis

Menzbier) burst out of the canopy, followed a little

later by three Grey Drongos Dicrurus leucophaeus

Vieillot and a Haircrested Drongo D. hottentotus

(Linnaeus). The hawk flew overhead affording a

clear view of its size, closely barred underparts,

banded wings and tail and a distinct white

supercilium. The bird very quickly vanished behind

the canopies of nearby trees and a search of the

scrub in the next one hour and on two subsequent

days did not reveal the presence of the hawk in the

area.

Subsequently, on 1 January 1991 a subadult of

the same species was observed in the Post and

Telegraph compound (13°54'N, 77°35'E) of J.P.

Nagar, Bangalore. The large size of the brownish

accipiter with boldly streaked underparts, barred

wings and a distinct whitish supercilium were

unmistakable. The hawk remained in the area till 1

April 1991. It was invariably seen perched on any

one of the fifteen 10 m tall poles present in the area.

The area is an approximately 20 ha. open grassland

partly covered with bushes and trees. A high

compound wall surrounds the area to prevent

human encroachment.

The Eastern Goshawk is a rare winter visitor

to northwestern India and Himalayan foothills (Ali

and Ripley 1987, Compact handbook). Hitherto,

the vagrants seen in Victoria Park, Bhavnagar,

Gujarat (Dharmakumarsinhji 1954, JBNHS 52: 211)

is considered to be the southernmost record for the

species within the Indian limits.

In this context, the above two sightings in

Bangalore in addition to being the southernmost

record, are of importance as the species has been

observed for the first time in the peninsula.

While the adult observed at GKVK can be

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

289

considered as a straggler, the continued presence of

the subadult for 79 days in the same locality

suggests that it is a vagrant.

April 20, 1993 S. SUBRAMANYA

HPHT Scheme, J Block University of Agricultural

Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065.

J. N. PRASAD

13, 8th Cross, 30th Main, J. P. Nagar I Phase

Bangalore 560 078

S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple,

8th Block Jayangar P.O.,

Bangalore 560 082.

8. IMPERIAL EAGLE AQUILA HELIACA SAVIGNY WINTERING

IN SOUTH EAST RAJASTHAN

I have been observing a pair of Imperial Eagle

(Aquilo heliaca) wintering at Alniya Dam near Kota

regularly for the last two winters. During the last

winter, the pair was seen at AJniya from November

1990 to March 1991 and the pair returned in the last

week of October 1991. As per the earlier records,

the wintering area of Imperial Eagle roughly falls

around 28°N latitude and 72°E longitude with a few

sightings from Kutch and Saurashtra. Its regular

arrival at Alniya Dam 25° 10' N latitude and 75° 52'

longitude could mean an extension of its wintering

range towards Central India. The pair seen at Kota

is very easily identifiable as the Imperial Eagle. The

larger bird has golden head and very prominent

white scapular markings. Its smaller partner had

buff head and no scapular marking. The pair

remains close to each other and has been observed

sitting on the island or a tree stump for hours

together. Recently, some fresh and large pellets

were found near the tree, where the pair had

roosted. The pellets were formed of breast and

abdominal feathers of Barheaded Goose ( Anser

indicus). This could be a case of active predation by

Imperial Eagle as there is no other large predator in

the area, which could have been robbed of its booty.

January 21, 1992 RAKESH VYAS

2-P-22, Vigyan Nagar,

Kota, Rajasthan, 324 005.

9. PAINTED SPURFOWL GALLO PERDIX LUNULATA (VALENCIENNES)

IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN

On the morning of 12th November, 1987

I saw a painted Spurfowl ( Galloperdix

lunulata ) near Pandupole temple in the

Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan. During my

two years stay in Sariska from July 1988 to

July 1990, I have seen Painted Spur-fowl all

over Sariska in rocky areas including

disturbed place's like the buffer areas and

temples. Females with chicks were also seen

twice during August, 1988, just after the

rains.

January 29, 1992 K. SANKAR

Wildlife Institute of India,

P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani,

Dehradun 248 006,

Uttar Pradesh.

10. THE COOT FULICA ATRA LINNAEUS BREEDING

FURTHER SOUTH IN THE INDIAN PENINSULA

On 17th October 1991, on our way to Kerala,

our train stopped for a while probably for a signal

around 3 O’ clock in the afternoon, approximately 3

km north of Kazipet Junction, Andhra Pradesh. The

railway track here intersects a vast wetland. The

fringes of this wetland towards the track is occupied

by Ipomoea carnia. We could see a number of

aquatic birds and were astonished to see an adult

290

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Coot ( Fiilica atra) with two chicks about 25 metres

away from our train. This sighting made us look for

more chicks but our quick search for about 10

minutes was not rewarded. By then the train started

moving.

There are only a few records of the Coot

breeding in the Peninsula. Khacher (1977, JBNHS

73: 525) has recorded Coot chicks from Nasik in

Maharashtra. Nests were reported by Fr. J.

Hernandes (Navarro 1980, JBNHS 77: 137) from

Khandala (Poona) and from Bhavnagar in Gujarat

by Dharmakumarsinhji (1947, JBNHS 46: 724)

However, to our knowledge there is no record of

their breeding further south of Maharashtra. AJi and

Ripley (1983, handbook Birds) state that the coot

breeds sporadically in peninsular India during

July-August and that in south India the season is in

November-December.

For the last few years, we have been observing

during our journeys to south India, a large number

of Coots wintering in this area. Even in summer a

few (5 to 10) were seen. However this was the first

time we saw the coot with chicks.

January 21, 1992 N. R. NADARAJAN

P. A. AZEEZ

C. R. AJITHKUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr Salim Ali Chowk,

S. B Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

11. ON A POSSIBLE SIGHT RECORD OF THE LITTLE GULLLAtftAS MINUTUS

PALLAS IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

The Little Gull (Lcirus mimitus) has been

recorded as an accidental vagrant in India

(handbook 3:/ 37). Stray records are available

from Ladakh (specimen), Bombay and Rann of

Kutch (both possible sight records).

On 17 March, 1991 I made a field survey of

D’Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary (formerly

known as the Lali Sanctuary) in West Siang district

of Arunachal Pradesh to assess the migration

pattern of water fowl. The sanctuary is located^on

the Assam border and encloses some chapories

(sandy islets and tracts) of the Siang or

Brahmaputra river (sometimes called the Lali also)

and adjacent water area.

At about 1300 hrs I came across a small gull

with the following characteristics: upperparts grey,

under parts white; underwing dark greyish

(blackish, etc.) and a conspicuously black bill. In

fact its black bill generated curiosity in me to

observe it. Since it was in flight and I was on a

motor boat, further details like colour of legs and

feet, and tail could not be recorded. However, as far

as I remember the tail was white. It was, in all

probability a little gull.

January 21,1992 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

12. RECENT SIGHTING OF BLUEBEARDED BEE-EATER NYCTYORNIS

ATHERTONI (JARDINE & SELBY)

On 3 February 1991 while surveying the

Madeshwara Range Forest (12°41’ N, 77°39’E;

952 m above MSL) situated about 38 km

southwest of Bangalore, we were resting on a

boulder in the middle of a dry streambed when

we observed a pair of Bluebearded Bee-eater

Nyctyornis athertoni (Jardine & Selby)

approaching us. The birds flew along the

streamside vegetation dominated by Terminalia

arjuna, Terminalia bellerica , Syzygium sp. and

D endro calamus strictus. They perched about 30

m from us and started calling. We observed

them making aerial sallies after insects from

the top of the trees. Later a third individual was

seen about 250 m further downstream which

was also calling.

Jardine and Selby (1830, illustrations of

ornithology 2: 58) describe the species collected

MIS CELIANEO US NOTES

291

by Lieut. J. Atherton from Bangalore. La terNorman

B. Kinnear assigned Bangalore as the type locality

for the species (1925, Ibis 12(1): 751-753).

Interestingly there has been no record of the

species being sighted close to Bangalore in the later

years. Even Salim Ali (1943, JBNHS 44: 9-26) did

not come across this species in the neighbourhood

of Bangalore during his survey of the birds of

Mysore. Hence we hold the present sighting to be

significant as it happens to be the only recent

13. SIGHTING OF BLACK BULBUL

(P.L.S. MULLER)

The Black Bulbul Hypsipetes

madcigciscciriensis psaroides Vigors is said to reach

the foothills in winter, locally entering the adjacent

plains, seldom as far as Delhi (Ripley, SYNOPSIS,

1982 citing Trevor Price, JBNHS 69: 651). That it

enters the plains much more south of Delhi in

extreme winters is brought out by the fact that one

was sighted on the outskirts of Gaya (24°49‘N,

85°0rE), Bihar on 18th January 1989. It was in a

sighting of the species after a period of 161 years

from the locality where it was first obtained.

December 17, 1991 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Bctnashonkari Temple, Shakambarinagar,

Stli Block Jciy ana gar P.O., Bangalore 560 082.

J. N. PRASAD

13, 8th Cross, 30 th Main,

J.P. Nagar I Phase,

Bangalore 560 078.

HYPSIPETES MAD A GAS CARIENSIS

IN GAYA, BIHAR

Bombax ceiba grove on the western bank of the

River Phalgu. The bird was actively feeding on the

nectar of the flowers and hawking insects by aerial

sallies uttering an a inch call as it moved from one

branch to another.

December 24, 1991 RASHID H. RAZA

15, Morrison Court, Aftab Hall, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh.

14. FRUIT EATING BY SUNBIRDS OF THE GENUS NECTARINIA

IN SRI LANKA

In most literature and in general opinion, the

food of Sunbirds consists of nectar, small spiders and

insects. Fruit is not mentioned, nor has it been noted in

stomach contents.

Observations made by me at the Yala National

Park in the south- east of Sri Lanka from the 1st to the

6th of June 1991 clearly establish fruit (berry) eating

as part of the diet of all three species of Sri Lankan

Sunbirds, namely the Purple-rumped (Nectarinia

ceylonica ceylonica), Lo ten's (N. lotenio lotenid) and

the Purple ( N . asiatica asiatica).

At the time several large Mustard trees

(Salvador a persica - Sapotaceae - Sinhalese Malitan,

Tamil Uvai) in the vicinity of the Yala visitors'

bungalow were profusely flowering and fruiting. The

Mustard tree is so named because its edible berries and

to a lesser extent other parts, taste strongly of mustard

when chewed. The twigs and roots are used as

tooth-brushes, hence the other popular name

Toothbrush tree’. It is a common tree in many parts

of the Yala National Park and generally of open

areas in the Dry and Arid Zone of south-eastern Sri

Lanka. It grows to about 4 or 5 m in height, has

drooping leaves and branches in a dense crown, and

loose hanging inflorescences are formed in leaf

axils at the end of the branches; on dunes the tree is

prostrate. At the time of the observation flowers and

fruit in all stages of development were present. The

flowers are tiny greenish-yellow stars, the fruits

when ripe are purplish-red, smooth round berries

about 4 mm in diameter, with a thin skin; they taste

sweet with a strong mustard tinge. These berries are

said to be rich in oil, particularly benzyl mustard

oil, and the seeds are said to yield 45% fat.

Between about 7 and 8 a.m. the trees attracted

considerable numbers of birds, most of which on

close observation proved to be Sunbirds, mainly

Purple-rumped, but also Purple and Loten’s.

Naturally 1 first thought they were visiting the

flowers of the trees, but soon saw that all were

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

vigorously grubbing the ripe fruit between the

mandibles, pulling them off the stalks and

swallowing them whole. The birds did this in

upright, horizontal or hanging positions.

Most of the Sunbirds were females and

juveniles (especially of the Purple Sunbirds), but

males of all three species also ate berries. Other

birds also visited the trees to eat the berries, though

in much smaller numbers; there were Red-vented

Bulbuls ( Pycnonotus cafer Jiaemorrhousus),

White-browed Bulbuls (Pycnonotus luteolus

insulae ), Ioras (Aegithina tiphia multicolor ), Green

Imperial Pigeon (Ducula aenea pusilla),

Orange-breasted Green Pigeon ( Treron bicincta

leggei). Whilst individual Sunbirds would- stay in

the trees for several minutes, gobbling down berries

in quantities, the other species remained only briefly

and flew away after eating a few fruit.

Several months after recording the above

observations in the Ceylon Bird Club Notes (June

1991), I came across a paper by Lambert (1991) in

Ibis , 133: 425-426, entitled ‘Fruit eating

Purple-naped Sunbirds, Hypogramma

hypogrammicum in Borneo'. Lambert’s report is

chiefly based on seed found in faeces of birds

caught in a mist-netting programme, mainly seeds

of a small tree Poikilospennum suavolus

(Urticaceae). He states that in Poikilospennum spp.

the seeds are contained in a structure which is

essentially very flower-like. He subsequently also

observed a few birds feeding on these flower-like

fruits (achenes), as well as on fruits of Dillenia

excelsa which also look like flowers. We have here

then more a case of flower eating rather than fruit

eating; only on one occasion was a Purple-naped

Sunbird observed by Lambert eating the succulent

fruits of Callicarpa longifolia.

As a matter of interest it may be mentioned

here that Nectarinia Sunbirds eat flowers. Ali and

Ripley mention that Purple Sunbirds are fond of the

fleshy t)lossoms of Madhuca indica and I have

observed Purple-rumped Sunbirds to eat and feed to

their young the whole corolla of Bougainvillea

flowers. Lambert refers in his paper to some other

reported cases of fruit eating by Sunbirds in

southern Africa, e.g. Nectarinia chalybea and N.

afro probing over-ripe Ficus spp. and grapes, a

liquid diet more akin to nectar feeding. Only Olive

Sunbirds (N. olivacea) and the Collared Sunbirds

(Anthreptes collaris) are known to eat whole fruits,

including seeds (Skead 1967 ref. in Lambert) in

Africa, according to Lambert.

There appears to be very little evidence in the

literature of true fruit eating by Sunbirds, and this

observation in Sri Lanka is exceptional in that three

species of Nectarinia were found to feed massively

on the berries of a particular tree.

March 6, 1992 THILO W. HOFFMANN

P.O. Box 11, Colombo 1, Sri Lanka.

15. PATTERNS OF NEST BEAUTIFICATION BY BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD

PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS (L.) IN EASTERN RAJASTHAN

(With three text-figures)

The Blackthroated Weaver bird, Ploceus

benghalensis (L.) utilises various types of yellow or

variants of yellow adornment to beautify its nest

(Sharma 1985, 1986 a, b). Cocks of Ploceus

benghalensis have been reported to add yellow,

orange, crimson and scarlet flowers and/or flower

petals of Lantana*, Lagerstroemia* to beautify their

nests (Ambedkar 1972, Ali and Ripley 1983, Mistry

1988). Male Ploceus benghalensis seems inclined

towards the colour yellow as exhibits for luring

hens to accept the nest. A common form of display,

*Species not quoted in original papers.

which consists of its alighting a few centimetres

from the female on a more or less horizontal arching

reed stem, bowing low so that its bill points to the

ground and its golden crown is presented to the

prospecting female (Ali and Ripley 1983).

Sometimes, while exhibiting this display, the cock

may present a flower petal to the hen (Ambedkar

1972).

A few experiments conducted by Sharma

(1986 a), prove the affinity of male P. benghalensis

to yellow or its variants.

MJS CEL1JTNE o us notes

293

Type of beautification: Various types of

beautification patterns are adopted by P.

bcnghalensis to beautify its nests. Few forms of nest

beautification observed in Eastern Rajasthan are

summarised below:

(A) Beautification in relation of nest surface:

Depending upon the surface of the nest, used

to keep the beautifying objects, two types of

beautification processes may be recognised:

(i)Exo-beautification,and (ii)Endo-beautification.

Exo-beautification: In this type of

beautification, aesthetic objects are kept on outer

surface of the nest, especially on the roof. Such type

of decoration is generally done at the post-

acceptance stage of the helmet, i.e. on completed

and accepted nests. Sometimes it may be initiated at

the pre-acceptance stage also (Fig. 1).

Endo-beautification: In this type of

beautification, the target surface is the egg-chamber

interiors, especially the edge of the chamber.

Internal decoration is done in helmets at

pre-acceptance stage only (Figs. 2 & 3). As soon as

a helmet is accepted by a prospecting female, it is

completed hurriedly by the cock to install her; once

a hen is installed in the completed nest, there is no

further internal decoration.

(B) Beautification in relation to plastering

material: Aesthetic objects may be kept with or

without prior use of wet substance(s) like cattle

dung, human excreta etc. Depending upon use of

such pasting materials, two types of beautification

were observed.

(i) Wet-beautification, and (ii)

Dry -beautification.

Wet-beautification: In such type of

beautification a certain amount of wet dung

or human excreta is pasted on potential sites

of the nest, before placing the floral material.

In other words, floral materials are kept on a

wet bed or pasting substance(s) (Fig. 2).

Dry-beautification: In such type of

decoration, floral materials are implanted in

the nest without placing a pasting bed below

them, i.e. aesthetic objects are inserted

directly between fibres. Two sub-types of

dry-beautification were identified:

(i) Absolute dry-beautification, and (ii)

Displaced dry- beautification.

Fig. 1. Completed nest ofP. bcnghalensis (L.) Ray

flora tes of Tagetes putula are used as beautifying material.

Fig. 2. Half built nest of P. bcnghalensis (L.). Two

complete heads and a piece of head of Acacia nilotica

s.sp. indica are used as beautifying material. (Chin-strap

is not shown in fig. It was cut thrown by cock itself; nest

is not placed at its original site).

Absolute dry-beautification: When pasting

materials are not used at all at any stage of nest

construction and floral objects are placed at suitable

points of nest (Figs. 1 & 3).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Fig. 3. Half built nest of P. benghalensis (L.) Three

complete, fresh heads of Acacia nilotica s. sp. inclica are

placed at edge of egg-chamber.

Displaced dry-beautification: In such type of

beautification though pasting material is used but

floral objects are placed away from them. This

behaviour is very strange. Possible reasons for this

are being dealt with in a separate communication.

(C) Beautification in relation of contents used:

One to many species of plants may be tapped to get

floral materials for nest decoration. Keeping the

contents in view, two types of beautifications may

be distinguished:

(i) Mono-specific beautification, and (ii)

Poly-specific beautification.

Mono-Specific Beautification: In this type,

aesthetic objects, applied on individual nests are

taken from one or many plants of the same species.

In other words all the aesthetic objects are of

‘mono-specific’ origin (Figs. 1, 2 & 3).

Poly -specific beautification: This is a rather

complex pattern of beautification in which floral

materials from more than one species are taken for

nest decoration.

(D) Beautification in relation of nest

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University

Press , Delhi.

Ambedkar, V.C. (1972): On the breeding biology of the

Blackthroated [Ploceus benghalensis (Linn.)] and

the Streaked (Ploceus manyar flaviceps Lesson)

Weaver birds in the Kumaon Terai. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 69 (2): 268-82.

acceptance: Beautification activities by males

commence at two different stages of the nest

construction. Based on Chronology of various

stages, two types of beautification may be

categorised:

(i) Pre-acceptance beautification or Primary

beautification, and (ii) Post-acceptance

beautification or Secondary beautification.

Pre-acceptauce beautification: When a nest

under construction, reaches the helmet stage (yet to

be accepted by a female), certain floral materials

may be applied to it. Such type of beautification of

nests, prior to approval of a hen, may be called

pre-acceptance beautification (Figs. 2 &3).

Post-acceptance beautification: As soon as a

helmet is accepted by a prospecting hen, the cock

proceeds towards completion of the nest in order to

install the approving female. At this stage, except

weaving, neither internal deposition nor internal

beautification is practised. As soon as the helmet

completed, the hen occupies it to lay eggs and to

raise offsprings. Sometimes such engaged

completed nests also may be decorated externally

by the cock. This second round of beautification

may be termed as post-acceptance beautification

(Fig. 1).

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to the Late Dr. Salim Ali,

for encouragement and guidance to conduct the

study. I also express my sincere thanks to Dr Shiva

Sharma and Dr Prabhakar Joshi, Department of

Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, for

encouragement and laboratory facilities provided by

them.

February 2, 1992 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Offcer, Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhaclol (F. ), Udaipur, Rajasthan.

E N C E S

Mistry, S. (1988): Observation on the nesting habits of the

blackthroated weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis

(Linn.) in the Baroda region. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 85 (2): 432-34.

Sharma, S.K. (1985): Use of wet dung in egg chamber of

half built nest by the Blackthroated Weaver bird. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 661-64.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

295

Sharma, S.K. (1986a): Colour selection by the Sharma, S.K. (1986b): Monochromic beautification of

Blackthroated Weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis. nests by Blackthroated Weaver bird Ploceus

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: (suppl.): 214-16. benghalensis. Vijnana Panshad Anusandhan

Patrika (Allahabad). 29(2): 149-53.

16. NEST BEAUTIFICATION BY PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS (L.)

In some of my earlier notes, I have recorded

the flowers of Momordica dioica as one of the nest

beautifying objects preferred by Blackthroated

Weaver Birds (Ploceus benghalensis).

The voucher specimen on verification at

RUBL herbarium were found to be of Momordica

balsamina and not Momordica dioica. The

correction then applies to all the notes published by

me.

1. Use of wet dung in egg chamber of half

built nest by the Blackthroated Weaver Bird. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 661- 64.

2. Plucking of male flowers of Momordica

dioica by the Blackthroated Weaver Bird Ploceus

benghalensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(1):

210-11.

3. Colour selection by the Blackthroated

Weaver Bird Ploceus benghalensis. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 83. (Suppl.): 214-16.

Necessary corrections may be made and where

plant M. dioica figures, it is to be taken as M.

balsamina. I regret the error.

November 13, 1991. SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Offcer, Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol (F.), Udaipur, Rajasthan.

17. ON THE BREEDING OF THE GREEN CALOTES CALOTES CALOTES (LINN.)

During my stay at Yercaud as part of the

Indian Tree Shrew Project funded by World Wildlife

Fund - US through World Wide Fund of Nature -

India (Tamil Nadu State Office) a deacj specimen of

Green Calotes Calotes calotes killed by boys was

obtained. The boys claimed that it was seen on a

coffee bush in the coffee plantation.

The specimen measured 557 mm in total length

of which the tail was 437 mm. Five fully formed white

eggs were exposed through the tom sides.

The Green Calotes has been recorded from the

Shevaroy hills earlier (Smith 1935). Murthy (1985)

writes that the species breeds in September while

Prasad and Jayanth (1991) record the breeding of

the species in May. The present observation of a

gravid female in April further extends the breeding

period of the species.

June 6, 1992 S. KARTMKEYAN

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple, Shakambarinagar,

8th Block Jay anagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082.

R EFERE NCES

Murthy, T.S.N. (1985): A Field Guide to the

Lizards of Western Ghats. Records of

Zoological Survey of India. Miscellaneous

publications No. 72, pp. 51.

Prasad, J. N. & Jayanth, M.S. (1991): Southern Green

Calotes Calotes calotes (Linn.) at Bandipur. J.

Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 291.

Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and

Amphibia. Vol. II, pp. 442.

18. FEEDING ECOLOGY OF PSAMMOPHILUS BLANFORDANUS (STOLICZKA)

In the present study food habits and feeding

activities of the rock lizard Psammophilus

blanfordanus (Stoliczka) are described. It is

distributed in Central India and Eastern and Western

Ghats and inhabits rocky hills. They were studied

under field conditions in the Eastern Ghats of

Visakhapatnam district.

P. blanfordanus were observed for 22 days and

many were collected to examine their stomach

contents. Immediately after the capture of the

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Table 1

ANALYSIS OF THE STOMACH CONTENTS OF THE ROCK LIZARD, Psammophilus blanfordanus

animals, the live specimens were first anesthetised

with chloroform (10%), after which the stomachs of

each was removed and preserved in 3% formalin for

further examination. In the laboratory, stomachs

were cut open along their greater curvature and

contents were dabbed with a blotting paper and the

contents weighed. The contents was transferred to a

petri-dish containing water and examined under a

dissection microscope for identification. After

identification the stomach contents were separated

and preserved in 70% alcohol in labelled tubes.

Food preferences of P. blanfordanus were

determined on the basis of stomach contents

analysis. Identification was made in the Department

of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,

Waltair. The rock lizards are active during summer

and rainy seasons while their activity is limited to

very few hours during winter.

P. blanfordanus is mainly insectivorous and

feeds on various types of insects and on some

occasions on snails and small skinks. The analaysis of

the stomach contents of P. blanfordanus identified

twelve types of prey species. Of these ten were insects

while the other two were snails and skinks.

A total of 74 stomachs were examined from

which 236 g of stomach contents was obtained.

Plant materials and unidentified parts of the

stomach contents together constituted 24.7% of the

total. Formicidae accounted for 28.5%, of the total

stomach contents and family Termitidae accounted

formed 12.47%.

Formicidae and lepidopteran larvae appeared

in all the 74 stomachs while Termitidae was

observed in 78.38% of stomachs examined. In two

stomachs skinks of the genus Mabuya were noted

(Table 1). The feeding activity of P. blanfordanus

was in two phases.

The major one of four hours duration was

between 0700 and 1100 h. The afternoon phase was

very short and commenced from 1530 h and ceased

by 1700 h. The presence of plant material in the

stomach contents of rock lizards was perhaps due to

accidental ingestion which their feeding on

Lepidopteran larvae.

February 27, 1992 CH. ARUNA

T. BYRAGI REDDY

M.V. SUBBARAO

Department of Environmental Sciences,

Andhra University, Waltair 530 003.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

297

19. FEEDING ECOLOGY OF AMPHIESMA STOLATA (LINN.)

The food habits of Amphiesmo stolata

(Linnaeus) the striped keelback collected in the

environs of the Andhra University campus were

studied in the Laboratory.

The food and feeding habits of A. stolata were

investigated by verifying field observations with

examination of the stomach contents.

Food preferences of A. stolata were

determined on the basis of stomach contents.

Identification was made in the Department of

Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,

Waltair.

The striped keelback A. stolata is largely

aquatic prefers rice fields, grasslands and shrubby

areas near fresh water bodies like ponds, lakes, and

canals. It shelters in burrows in termite nests etc. A.

stolata is diurnal and the activity between 0600 and

1800 h.

A. stolata is carnivorous and preys upon any

animal that falls within its prey size range. An

analysis of stomach contents and occasional direct

observations in the present study indicated that

toads and frogs rank first in importance in the diet.

28.76% of the total stomach contents by volume

were frogs and 12.28% were toads (Table 1). Other

food eaten by these snakes include insect larvae,

grasshoppers, scorpions, fishes, frogs, toads, skinks

and blind snakes.

The stomach contents obtained from 68 snakes

were examined and eight types of animal food were

recognised excluding vegetable material,

unidentified materials and sand particles. The last

three together constituted 16.33% of the total

stomach contents (Table 1).

Feeding took place in two phases. In the

morning A. stolata commenced foraging from 0730

hr and continued for a period of two and a half

hours. The evening foraging period commenced

from 1700 hr and ceased by sunset. After each

feeding phase the snakes become inactive and

retired to the nearest shelter available to them.

A. stolata drank water in considerable

quantities, mostly during the late afternoon. In

captivity they showed tolerance to starvation and

37% of captive snakes between 300 and 450 mm

SVL showed no loss in weight after six days. Later

on, an average weight reduction of 12.7% was

observed by the 15th day.

The present study reveals that 41% of total

stomach contents were frogs and toads of which

frogs were twice the number of toads. It was

reported earlier that toads alone account for 64% of

the total stomach contents (Parhi 1983).

All the adult snakes showed considerable

tolerance to starvation stress and for the first six

days the loss in weight of individuals was

negligible. This indicates that A. stolata can survive

stress conditions, especially when their prey species

Table 1

ANALYSIS OF THE STOMACH CONTENTS OF THE STRIPED KEELBACK A. stolata

11

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

are less in number or not available for a

considerable length of time. However, after 15 days

the loss of weight increased rapidly and the snakes

avoided all activity.

December 27, 1992 CH. ARUNA

T.BYRAGI REDDY

M.V. SUBBARAO

Department of Environmental Sciences,

Andhra University, Waltair 530 003.

20. ADDITIONAL MARKINGS ABOVE HOOD MARKING IN INDIAN

(BINOCELLATE) COBRA, NAJA NAJA NAJA

( With a plate)

In some of the binocellate cobra from Mangalore

area additional markings on the hood have been

observed. The usual hood marking of the binocellate

cobra on dorsal side shows a connected pair of rings. A

‘IT shaped marking connects the rings.

Some of the binocellate cobra from Mangalore

have markings similar to "eyebrows" in shape over

the spectacled marking. These additional markings

could be clearly seen in the figures given below.

In Plate, Figure 1, two spots above the

spectacled mark can be seen. In Figure 2, a twisted bar

shaped marking appears above the spectacled mark.

Eye lid shaped additional marking above the

spectacled mark is very conspicuous in Figure 3.

Further, the spectacle mark extends on both the

sides, away from the two inner black spots, till the

edge of the hood. In the same specimen, black lines

across the body also could be seen.

In Figure 4, the additional marking is a

continuous line and in the shape of a cycle

handle bar.

November 27, 1992 S. N. RAO ADDOOR

Post Add oor, Gurpur 574 145, Mangalore.

21. LENGTH RECORD OF THE COMMON WOLF SNAKE LYCODON AULICUS

FROM THE SHEVAROYS

A common wolf snake Ly codon aulicus was

caught under interesting circumstances on a sunny

morning, 17 March 1992 at 0840 hrs, at the edge of

a coffee plantation near Yercaud. My attention was

drawn to a sound from a heap of dry leaves. At first

only a reptile’s tail was seen followed by a short

silence. Then, considerable rustling, a snake rolled

out of the heap of leaf litter.

The snake was seen to be struggling to

retain its grip on a large Common Skink Mabuya

carinata. The snake had coiled around the skink

and held its head under its coiled body. The snake

was identified as the Common Wolf Snake

Ly codon aulicus.

At this instance, red ants Oecophylla smaragdina,

bit the snake. In a bid to rid itself of the ants lost the

snake its grip on the skink which escaped. The snake

was very lethargic and was captured.

The snake’s identity was confirmed using Smith (1935)

and measured. The total length was 820 mm and the tail 110

mm. The maximum length according to Daniel

(1983) is 765 mm, Smith (1935) 760 mm and

according to Whitaker (1978) 800 mm. Hence this

is a record length for the species.

Though the behavioural aspects mentioned by

Daniel (1983) tallies with that of the individual

caught, the fact that the snake was active at 0840

hours on a bright sunny summer morning is

interesting. Or did the snake just take a prey which

ventured close to its hiding place and emerged due

to the red ants?

This note is an offshoot of the Tree Shrew

Project funded by World Wildlife Fund - US

through World Wide Fund for Nature - India

(Tamil Nadu State Office).

June 4, 1992 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Banashankari Temple, 8th Block Jayana gar P.O.,

Bangalore 560 082.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Addoor: Hood marking in Naja naja naja

Plate

Hood markings in Indian cobra.

H

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

299

References

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The book of Indian reptiles. Bombay Whitaker, R. (1978): Common Indian Snakes: A field

Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 141. guide. MacMillan India Limited, New Delhi, pp.

Smith, M.A. (1935): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and 154.

Amphibia. Vol. III. pp. 583.

22. RECORD OF THE FROG KALOULA PULCHRA GRAY 1831 AT MAL-SAMOT,

BHARUCH DIST., GUJARAT STATE

Mal-Samot is a village area situated on the left

bank of Narmada river at a height of about 699 m

above the sea-level. It is a part of Rajpipla Forest,

East division. The river Devganga and many of its

rivulets, flowing through the area, augment the

vegetational cover there. From the westemside of

Devganga river, we collected a frog which was

resting on a tree-trunk at the height of about 2.4 m.

The specimen was identified as Kaloula pulchra

Gray, 1831. The fresh specimen had spots and

patches of red with black-brown pattern on the

dorsal side. Snout to vent length 35 mm. Inger &

Dutta (1986) and Sekar (1991) reported its

distributions from Assam, Karnataka, West Bengal,

Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Madhya Pradesh.

December 16, 1992 Y.M. NATK

K.R. VINOD

CHINTAN PATEL

Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science,

M. S. University ofBaroda, Baroda 390 002.

References

Inger, R.F. & Dutia, S.K. (1986): An overview of the Sekar, A.G. (1991): Distribution of the amphibian fauna

amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 125-127.

83 (Supplement): 135-146.

23. ICHTHYO-FAUNA OF SARISKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Sariska tiger reserve (27*5' to 27° 33; N and

76*17' to 76° 34' E) is situated in the Aravali range

and lies in the semi-arid part of Rajasthan (Rodgers

and Panwar 1988). The total area of the reserve is

800 sq. km. The tract is mainly hilly undulating and

having numerous narrow valleys. There is no large

perennial water body in Sariska, but there are a

number of ephemeral streams and pools. As the

summer advances, except in a few natural springs,

water dries up from all water points. Though the

fish fauna of Rajasthan has been extensively

studied, no attempt was made to study the fishes of

Sariska. Even in an extensive study conducted by

Zoological Survey of India, only the reservoirs and

tanks around Alvar region were included (Datta and

Majumdar 1970).

During the first week of March, 1990, fish

sampling was carried out from three perennial

water points in Sariska, namely Pandupol,

Algual and Bandipul, using cast net and seine.

A total of 14 species were identified, belonging to

the orders Cypriniformes and Siluriformes. A

striking pattern in the distribution of fishes was

observed (Table 1).

Noemachilus botia , Labio boggut , Puntius

sarana , Garra gotyla and Rasbora daniconius

were recorded only from Pandupol and Algual.

These sampling points are situated at elevated

and remote areas of the reserve. Garra gotyla

and Noemachilus botia are considered to be

hillstream fishes.

Since Bandipul is connected with a reservoir

at Umrain (outside the reserve) during the monsoon,

commercially important species such as Cirrhinus

mrigala and Wallago attu might have migrated into

Bandipul stream. There are about 14 ephemeral

springs in Sariska. The villagers and pilgrims use

these springs and pools and therefore none of them

remain undisturbed. The management authority of

Sariska should take immediate efforts to control the

300

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Table 1

FISH SPECIES RECORDED FROM SARISKA

use of detergents by the villagers and pilgrims at all

natural waterpoints, since it will affect the fish

fauna and fish-eating birds such as Brown Fish Owl

(Bubo zeylonensis).

K. SANKAR

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehera Dun 248 001.

October 12, 1992 C.R. AJITH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr Salim AH Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

References

Datta, A.K. & Majumdar, N. (1970): Fauna of Rajasthan,

India. Part 7. Fishes. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 62

(1-2): 63-100.

Rodgers, W.A. & Panwar, H.S. (19S8): Planning of

Wildlife protected area network in India. Volume II.

Wildlife Institute of India. 267 pp.

24. MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR IN A WEB SPINNER PSEUDEMBIA FLAVA ROSS

(EMBIOPTERA : INSECTA)

In the insects, parental behaviour lies at the

core of all levels of insect sociality and has arisen

independently in atleast 13 different orders.

Eickwort (1981). Maternal care has been recorded

for many species of webspinners. After egg hatch,

adult females were reported to stay with their

nymphs in Anisembia texcina (Mills 1932),

Oligotoma ceylonica ceylonica (Bradoo 1967),

Embia major (Imrns 1913). The significance of

these behaviour has not been studied, although it is

known that female Embia ramburi provided

macerated bark to newly hatched nymphs in

laboratory colonies (Dennis 1949, Le Doux 1958). I

have studied the maternal behaviour and its

significance in Pseudembia flava with the following

results.

To observe ovipositing behaviour, gravid

females as evidenced by their distended abdomen

were collected from the field. They were maintained

in plastic containers 3.5 x 1.5 cm, stoppered with

cap which has punched out entre-circle with cotton

plug inserted was used. These were first filled with

habitat material (bark) before introducing the live

embiids. Hatching success was determined by

examining emergence holes. Similarly to examine

the impact of guarding on the survival rate of

nymphs, separate containers composed of each

nymphal group (I, II, and III stages) were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

301

Table 1

PERCENTAGE OF SURVIVAL RATE OF NYMPHS WITH MATERNAL CARE AND WITHOUT MATERNAL CARE

Nymphal Nymphs along with mother Nymphs separated from mother

Stage

maintained in the presence or absence of female

embiids, providing a regular supply of habitat

material and water.

The impact of maternal care on nymphs reared

in the presence and absence of the female was made

as shown in Table 1. There are marked differences

in the survival rates of the two categories of

nymphs. In the presence of the female, the first

nymphal showed 50% survival; whereas in the

absence there was only 25%. The first nymphal

stage shows lesser percentage of survival than the

second and third nymphal stages. The late nymphal

stages, such as the third to fifth require less

attention from the mother and are self supporting.

The brooding female prepares the nest by chewing

pieces of bark and having them in the nest. This not

only serves the purpose of mechanical support and

protection to the eggs, but also as food for the just

emerged instars. The fourth and fifth nymphal

stages are less dependent on the mother, and wander

little distances making an independent attempt in

search of food.

I thank the CSIR New Delhi for financial

assistance, during the tenure of which this work was

carried out.

July 21, 1992 C.RITA

20, Kutchery Road, Mylapore, Madras 600 004.

References

Bradoo, B.L. (1967): Observations on the life history and

bionomics of Oligotoma ceylonica Ender.

(Oligotomidae, Embioptera) commensal in the nest

of social spider, Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3): 447-454.

Dennis, R. (1949): Order des embiopteres. In: Traite de

Zoologie, Masson and Cie, Paris, 9: 723-744.

Eickwort, G.C. (1981): Presocial insects. Social insects,

Vol. II (ed. by H.R. Hermann), pp. 199-226.

Academic Press, New York.

Imms, A.D. (1913): Contributions to a knowledge of the

structure and biology of some Indian insects - II. On

Embia major sp. nov. from the Himalayas. Trans

Linn. Soc. London (Zoology), 2: 167-195.

Le Doux, A. (1958): Biologie et comportment de Te

Embioptera Monotylota ramburi Rims-Kors.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Paris 2: 515-532.

Mills, H.B. (1932): The life history and thoracic

development of Oligotoma texana (Mel) Embiidina).

Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 25(3): 648-652.

25. UNUSUAL FEEDING BY TERMITES

I stayed in tents during my short stay at

Phanduwala, in Rajaji National Park, Dehradun in

February 1992. As winter rains are very frequent in

this region, I took my plastic synthetic raincoat

along with me. I kept it in the side pocket of the tent

in which I was staying but it fell down on ground

302

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

due to negligence on my part. I did not notice it. On

13th Feb. 1992, when I was leaving the camp I

found to my great surprise, that the plastic raincoat

was partially eaten by termites and there were many

holes in it. Termites usually feed on living and dead

vegetation. Eating of plastic by termites is an

astonishing fact.

This information can be used in the search of

agents for converting non-biodegradable materials

into degradable forms.

October 7, 1992 DHIRENDRA BHARGAVA

Indira Gnahdi National Forest Academy,

P.O. New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006.

26. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON LIFE CYCLE OF THE COMMON JEZEBEL

DELIAS EUCHARIS DRURY

The life cycle of Delias eucharis Drury was

studied in detail by Bell (1912). He observed that

the insect lays eggs in batches of 10 to 20 on the

underside of leaf of the tree parasite Dendrophtlioe,

and when the larvae hatch out, they first completely

devour the egg shell from which they emerge, and

having done so proceed to the margin of the leaf.

Here^they start feeding on the leaf, working side by

side, and devouring it.

On 2nd August 1992 we saw three

congregation each of 35-40 larvae on the twig

of a Dedrophthoe parasitising Cassia siamea.

We collected the infested branch. In doing so,

the bulk of the larvae fell off to the ground,

leaving 10 on the branch collected. The larvae

were in the final instar, and pupated themselves

the following day.

Bell had observed that when about to pupate

each larvae goes off on its own and attaches itself

by the tail pad and the girdle to a horizontal or

perpendicular surface. However, out of the 10

larvae in our possession, 8 preferred to pupate on a

single leaf resulting in pupal gregariousness, and the

remaining two set about the process on two

different leaves. The metamorphosed insect

emerged a week later, contra to Bell, who found that

a whole brood did not emerge at one time, the

emergence we observed was at one single point of

time in the evening.

Refer

Bell, T.R. (1912): The common butterflies of the plains

of India. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 21: 1131-57.

Aplin, R.T. et al. (1975): Examination of the large white

and small white butterflies Fieri s spp. for the

presence of mustard oils and mustard oil

Aplin et al. (1975) conclude Pieridae,

supposedly to be a well protected group,

generally aposematic in the adult stage and in

some species through their life cycle. In the

case of the Common Jezebel we are inclined to

believe that larval and pupal gregariousness are

the result of the aposematic nature owing to the

chemical content ingested by them from their

food plant Dendrophtlioe falcata which in turn

derived it from its host Cassia siamea. The

leaves and pods of Cassia siamea hold a toxic

alkaloid C14 Hig O3N which is fatal to pig. A

powdery substance with a golden color

darkening on exposure to air is present in the

central hollow space. The chief constituent of

the material is chrysophanhydroanthron C15

H12O3 (Wehmer 1931), which proves harmful to

livestock feeding on the plant. This may have

led to pupal gregariousness as on a dull

background creamish yellow pupae with black

markings are more conspicuous and warn a

predator to keep off.

September 29, 1992 N. CHATURVEDI

M.R. ALMEIDA

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

ENCES

glycosides. J. Ent. A 750 : 73-78.

Burkill, I. II. (1909): A dictionary of Economic Products

of the Malaya Peninsula, pp. 408.

Wehmer, I. (1929-31): Die Pflanzenstoffe. pp. 507.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

303

27. HOW DO THE BUTTERFLIES RAISE THEIR TEMPERATURE

ON COLD AND MISTY DAYS?

On a windy, rainy and misty day at Kodayar

(1220 m) in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, we

made an interesting observation on the

thermoregulation of Red Disc Bushbrown

( Mycalesis ocitlus Marshall). On a open path with

water flowing everywhere, they were two or three

pairs of these butterflies trying to raise their

temperature by orienting themselves to the

intermittent sunlight, whenever it became a little

clear. Butterflies are heliotherms known to raise the

temperature by behavioural acts like basking with a

wings stretched, maintaining ground contact with

their abdomen or by shivering (Clench 1966).

However, one of them had novel way to boost

its temperature. It sat on the running water, letting

its abdomen touch the water. We measured the

temperature of the water and the air. The

temperature of the water was 1° C warmer than the

air. While doing this, the butterfly kept the wings

closed, so obviously it was raising its temperature

from the flowing water.

September 29, 1992 T. GANESH

M. SOUBADRA DEVY

Pondicherry University Research Team, Upper Kodayar

627 427, Tamil Nadu.

Reference

Clench, H.K (1966): Behavioural thermoregulation in butterflies .Ecol. 47: 1021-1034.

28. CATOPSILIA POMONA FABRICIUS (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) AT HIGH

ELEVATION IN THE U.P. HIMALAYA

Catopsilia pomona Fabricius is a well known

migrant (Peile 1937, Wynter-Blyth 1957, Larsen

1987). In the hill districts of western Uttar Pradesh,

this species regularly migrates down the Bhimtal

valley (c. 1750 to 1400 m) in Nainital district, in the

outermost ranges of the Himalaya, in a north to

south direction, in August.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) observes that this species

occurs up to 8000 feet (2438 m) in the hills. There

does not appear to be any record of this butterfly

from high elevation alpine meadows.

I found the carcass of a male C. pomona

form crocale Cramer on July 26, 1987, lacking

the right hand side hind wing, the tattered wings

held together by the shell of the thorax, on the

west face of a spur at approximately 4200 m

elevation in the Khiron Valley in the Chamoli

district of Garhwal (30° 1.5' N, 79° 26' E). The

specimen appears not to have weathered a winter

at that elevation.

On August 19, 1992, I observed a number,

approximately 25 to 30 specimens of this butterfly

flighting lower down the Khiron valley, which runs

downwards from west to east. The butterfly came

over a spur at approximately 3000 m elevation,

down past Khiron village at 2600 m to the valley of

the Alaknanda at approximately 2000 m elevation.

Of these, I managed to obtain a male of the crocale

Cramer form and a female of the pomona Fabricius

form at approximately 2800 m elevation.

On August 20, 1992, I saw a male of the

species briskly fly past further up the valley at 3600

m elevation, travelling in the same direction as the

individuals the previous day. Fog restricted possible

further sightings.

It therefore appears that the specimen I found

further up the valley at 4200 m in 1987 was not

accidentally blown there by an updraft but "fell by

the wayside" on a migration.

The upper reaches of the Khiron valley are

flanked by high ridges (4800 to 6500 m) on all

sides except to the east. From the direction of

flight, it would appear that these butterflies

crossed into the upper reaches of the Khiron

valley from a neighbouring valley. They must

therefore have crossed the surrounding ridges at

an elevation of well over 4200 m.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol . 90 (1993)

Acknowledgement

I was awarded the Times Fellowship for the

year 1991 and this publication is the result of work

carried out in this capacity during August 1992. The

support of the Times of India Group is gratefully

acknowledged.

October 9, 1992 PETER SMETACEK

T.HJ.S., Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital 263 136

References

Larsen, T. (1987): Butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of

southern India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 52.

Peile, H.D. (1937): Guide to collecting Butterflies of

India. London, Staples, 58-59.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay

pp. 58-60, 446.

29. OCCURRENCE OF COPIDOGNATHUS SIDEUS BARTSCH, 1982

(HALACARIDAE: A CAR I) FROM INDIAN COAST

(With tM’elve text-figures)

Introduction

A faunistic survey for the marine halacarid mites

along the Indian coast conducted by us resulted in

bringing to light several species hitherto not known

either along the Indian Coast or from the Indian seas.

Preliminary findings of these survey have already been

published by us (Chatterjee 1991 a, b; Sarma and

Chatterjee 1991, 1993). Copidogncithus sideus

Bartsch, 1982 is reported for the first time along the

Indian coast. The biosystematic significance of the

present report lies in that the males, larvae and

protonymphal stage of the species are described and

figured for the first time besides that of the females.

The species was previously known only from its type

locality, based on a single female, collected from

Mozambique channel in the Western Indian Ocean

region (Bartsch 1982).

Locality: Many specimens were collected

from the thalli of the halophyte Potumogeton sp.

and rhodophycean Gracilaria sp. occurring in

Chilka lagoon (Bay of Bengal). A few specimens

were also recovered among Enteromorplia sp. in the

brackish water biota of Cochin backwater, Kerala

(Arabian Sea).

The specimens are in the author’s collection in

the Department of Life Science, Regional College

of Education, Bhubaneswar.

Description: Male-Idiosomal lengths of

males ranged between 340 p and 370 p .

All dorsal plates are separate and sculptured

with both rosette pores and panells (Fig. 1).

Anterodorsal plate (AD) with 3 areolae, one

located anteriorly and two posteriorly. The

posterior areolae may be rounded to pear-shaped

with anterior end sometime elongated. A few

rosette pores are embedded in the posterior

margin of AD. The dorsal seta l(dsi) is located on

the anterior margin of posterior areolae of AD

and dorsal seta 2 (ds2) on the anteromedian

margin of Ocular plate (OC). The OC with two

distinct cornea and two areolae. Of the two

areolae, one is located in the corneal zone and the

other halfway in the posterior region of the OC.

Postero-dorsal plate (PD) bears four costae. The

middle two costae are of two rosette pores width.

The dorsal setae 3,4, and 5 respectively (ds3, ds4

and dss) are on the anterior, middle and posterior

reaches of PD respectively and a pair of adanal

setae are present on either side of anal palpalle.

All ventral plates are completely separate (Fig.

2). Anterior Epimeral plate (AE) and Posterior

empimeral plate (PE) without any areolae. AE with

three pairs of ventral setae and PE with 3 ventral

and 1 dorsal seta. Very faint para-genital areolae are

present. Genitoanal plate (GA) with 12-16 pairs of

perigenital setae (PGS) besides 4 pairs of subgenital

setae (SGS) located in the Genital opening (GO).

Rostrum is stout and strong with the rostral tip

reaching the middle of the palpal patella (Fig. 4). A

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

305

Fig. 1. Idiosoma-dorsal of male; Fig. 2. Idiosoma-ventral of male;

Fig. 3. Genitoanal plate of female; Fig. 4. Gnathosoma of male.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

pair of Proto-, deuto-trito-besirostral setae are

present on gnathosoma. Gnathosoma

ventro-laterally is panelled and ventro-medially

beset with canaliculi. Palp is 4-segmented. Palpal

trochanter and patella are without any seta. Palpal

femur bears one dorsal setae. Palpal tibiotarsus with

3 basal setae and one distal eupathidia.

The chaetotaxy of

Trochanter

Basi femur

Telofemur

Patella

Tibia

legs I-IV as follows:

1-1-1-0

2-2 -2-2

5 -5-2-2

4-4-3 -4

1-1 -5-5

Tarsi setation is discussed in the text.

Telofemora III and IV devoid of any ventral

setae. Tibiae I and II have three ventral setae and 4

dorsal setae. Tarsus I has 3 dorsal long setae, 1

solenidion, 1 profamulus besides 3 ventral setae

(one filiform seta basally and two distal singlet

eupathidia) and 4 parambulacral setae (two doublets

eupathidia) (fig. 5). Tarsus II with 3 dorsal long

setae, 1 solenidion, no ventral seta and 2 eupathidia

doublets (parambulacral setae) (Fig. 6). Tarsi III and

IV bears 3 dorsal fossary setae, one proximo-dorsal

seta and 2 parambulacral setae (figs. 7 and 8). All

legs bear two lateral claws and a bidentate median

claw. Lateral claw of tarsus I bears an accessory

tooth dorsally and is not pectinate ventrally, while

those of legs II-IV are pectinate and bear an

accessory tooth.

Female: The idiosomal length of females

ranged between 340 p and 375 p. Similar to male

except for the genitoanal plate. Three PGS on each

side of the genital opening are present on GA. GO is

guarded by a pair of sclerites bearing a single pair

of SGS near the anterior end (Fig. 3).

Larva: Idiosoma of a larva measured 200 p

long and 150 p wide. Three pairs of legs are

present. All legs are 5 segmented. AD, OC and PD

are separate. AD bears 3 rudimentary areolae (Fig.

9). OC is very small; with a rudimentary cornea on

anterior side. PD bears 2 costae comprising of

rudimentary pores. The costae are one pore wide.

The first pair of setae (dsi) are located anterior to

the posterior rudimentary areolae of AD. Each of

the membranous cuticular zones present between

Fig. 5. Leg I of Male; Fig. 6. Leg II of Male;

Fig. 7. Leg III of Male.

AD and OC and between AD and PD bear a pair of

setae. The cuticular membranous zone between the

AE and the anal plate is very wide. The genital plate

is yet to appear. AE bears two pairs of setae and PE

one seta. The anal plate is without any genital

acetabula (Fig. 10).

Protonymph: Idiosoma of a protonymph

measured 267 p long and 169 p wide. Four pairs of

legs are present. Legs I, II and III have 6-segments

while the IVth leg bears only 5-segments. AD, OC

and PD are separate (Fig. 11). All dorsal plates are

smaller than those of adults. Areolae of AD are

rudimentary and the rosette pores are not well

developed. PD bears two costae. AE bears 3 pairs of

setae. PE with two ventral setae. The setae on the

dorsal plates conform with that of larva*. Genital

rfos

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

307

Fig. 8. Leg IV of male; Fig. 9. Idiosoma -dorsal of larva; Fig. 10. Idiosoma-ventral of larva;

Fig. 11. Idiosoma-dorsal of protonymph; Fig. 12. Idiosoma-ventral of protonymph.

308

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

plates is completely separate from the anal plate.

Genital plate with a single pair of genital acetabula

(Fig. 12).

Distribution: Mozambique channel (Western

Indian Ocean).

Chilka lagoon (Bay of Bengal), Eastern Indian

Ocean — present record. Cochin backwater, Kerala

Coast (Arabian Sea), Western Indian Ocean - present

record.

Discussion

This collection from the east and west coasts

of India is the first record of this species from the

Indian seas. The species appears to have a wide

distribution in the Indian Ocean. The euryhalinity of

the species is evident from its collection in brackish,

lagoonal and marine aquatic environments.

Refer

Bartsch, I. (1982): Weitere Halacaridae (Acari) aus dem

kanal von Mocambique. Cah. Biol. Mar. 23:

435-457.

Chatterjee, T. (1991a): Copidognathus eblingi, a new

species of Halacaridae (Acari) from Andaman

Islands (Indian ocean). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

88(1): 88-92.

Chaiterjee, T. (1991b)): A new species of Copidognathus

(Halacaridae: Acari) from Chilka lagoon (Bay of

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr Ilse Bartsch, Biologische

Anstalt Helgoland, FRG for her ready help in

providing the necessary literature; to Mr P. K. S.

Pillai, for his enthusiastic help at the time of

collection of samples from the Cochin backwater.

Thanks are also due to authorities of Regional

College of Education, Bhubaneswar for extending

the necessary laboratory facilities.

March 19, 1991 TAPAS CHAITERJEE

A.L.N. SARMA

P.G. Department of Life Sc. ,

Regional College of Education,

Bhubaneshwar 751 007, Orissa.

ENCES

Bengal)./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3): 406-409.

Sarma, A.L.N. & Chaiterjee, T. (1991) Occurrence of

Copidognathus hartwigi Bartsch (Halacaridae,

Acari) from Indian Ocean. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

88(2): 300-302.

Sarma, A.L.N. & Chaiterjee, T. (1993): Record of

Atelopsalis pacifica Bartsch, 1985 (Halacaridae,

Acari) from Eastern Indian Ocean. /. Bombay nat.

Hist Soc. 90(1): 117-119.

30. BAUHINIA ORNATA KURZ AND B. TOURANENSIS GAGNEP.

(LEGUMINOSAE) NEW TO INDIA

(With two text-figures)

During a detailed taxonomic study on the

Indian Bauhinias we came across some herbarium

specimens which were wrongly identified. Two

such specimens identified as ‘ Bauhinio rufa Grah.

and 'Bauhinio tenuiflora Wall.* actually turned out

to be Bauhinio ornata Kurz and B. touranensis

Gagnep., hitherto unreported from the present day

Indian circumscription and thus constituting new

records for India.

The morphological descriptions of the plant

specimens together with their illustrations and other

available data are provided.

1. Bauhinia ornata Kurz in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal

42(2): 72. 1873 et J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 45(2): 288.

1876; Baker in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 2: 281. 1878;

Brandis, Ind. Trees 259. 1906; Soe in Union Burma J.

Life Sci. 5: 312. 1972; Larsen & Larsen in Nat. Hist.

Bull. Siam Soc. 25 (1 & 2): 13. 1973; Larsen et al. in

Aubrevillae Sc Leroy (EDs.). FI. Gtmbodge, Laos &

Vietnam 18: 206. 1980; Larsen Sc Larsen in Thai For.

Bull. 13: 41. 1980. Phanera ornata (Kurz) Thoth. in

Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 19(2): 134. 1965; Schmitz in

Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. 110 (1 & 2): 14. 1977 ut

ornata (Kurz) Schemitz. (Fig. 1).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

309

Fig. 1. Bauhinia orncita Kurz: a. Leaf. b. inflorescence.

(Scale = 1 cm).

Large tendrilled climber. Leaf 19.5 x 18 cm,

broadly ovate. 13-nerved, bifid c. 1/3 their length

into subacute lobes at apex, cordate at base,

glabrous above, glabrescent below along nerves;

Petiole 12.3 cm long, pubescent. Stipules c. 0.6 x

0.4 cm, oblong, obtuse at apex, densely pubescent.

Inflorescence subumbelliform, 10 x 9 cm. Pedicels

c. 3 cm long, pubescent. Bracts subulate; bracteoles

minute, situated high up on pedicel. Receptacle

c. 0.5 cm long, turbinate, pubescent. Calyx c. 0.6

cm long, 2-3-lobed, pubescent. Stipe c. 0.1 cm long;

ovary c. 0.6 cm long, densely ferruginous

pubescent; style c. 0.8 cm long, glabrous towards

the minutely peltate stigma.

Fig. 2. B. touranensis Gagnep.: a. Leaf, b. immature pods.

(Scale = 1 cm).

Type: Pegu, Kurz 2579 (CAL!).

Distribution: INDIA: Nagaland; Burma.

Specimen Examined: Naga hills, Nagaland, F

Kingdon Ward 11245 (CAL).

This specimen, however, differs from the type

material in having densely pubescent inflorescence,

comparatively stout pedicels and glabrous stigma.

2. Bauhinia touranensis Gagnep. in Lee.,

Not. Syst. 2: 181. 1912; Chen in Ling. Sci. J. 18(4):

475. 1939; Larsen et al. in Aubreville & Leroy

(Eds.), FI. Cambodge, Laos & Vietnam 18: 186.

1980. Phanera touranensis (Gagnep.) Schmitz in

Bull. Jard. Bot. Nat. Belg. 43: 381. 1973. (Fig. 2).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Tendrilled climber; branch glabrous. Leaves

5.5-6 x 6.2-6.5 cm, ovate to suborbicular, 9 nerved,

bifid 1/7 their length into obtuse lobes at apex,

shallowly cordate at base, glabrous above, pubescent

b^low; petioles 1. 9-2.4 cm long, glabrous. Pods up to

10 x 1.9 cm (immature), oblong, glabrous; stalk c. 4.5

cm long, glabrescent.

Type: Tourane, Cochinchine, Janvier 1837,

Gaudichaud 260 (Syntype: P, photo. - CAL!).

Fr.: June.

distribution: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh; Burma,

Laos, Vietnam and China.

SPECIMEN EXAMINED: Noglo, Tirap F.D., Arunachal

Pradesh, 29-6-196 1 , DJI. LJeb 26322 (CAL).

Acknowledgements

)

We are grateful to Prof. Kai Larsen of Aarhus

University, Denmark for his comments on the

identity of the plant specimens and to the authorities

of the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle,

Laboratoire de Phanerogamie, Paris for providing

the negative of the type specimen.

January 15, 1993 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

B.D.SHARMA

Botanical Survey of India, P-8, Bra bourne Road,

Calcutta 700 001.

31. ADDITIONS TO THE MYRSINACEOUS FLORA OF BURMA

During taxonomic study of the family

Myrsinaceae in India, we came across some

unidentified specimens collected from Burma,

deposited in Central National Herbarium (CAL).

Critical study of these specimens reveal that these

belong to three species so far unrecorded from

Burma. Full descriptions of these three species

namely Embelia pulchella Mez; Labisia pumila

(Blume) Benth. et Hook. f. and Maesa argentea

Wall, are given below:

Embelia pulchella Mez, in Engl. Pflanzenr. 4:

324. 1902; Kanjilal et al ., FI. Assam 3: 170. 1939.

Woody shrubs, branches slender, densely

ferrugineous pilose. Leaves exstipulate, alternate,

ovate-oblong, 8-25 x 6-10 mm, base rounded,

sub-rounded or truncate, margin entire, recurved,

ciliate, midrib prominent beneath, other nerves

inconspicuous, glabrous except on the midrib

particularly beneath which sparsely to densely

covered with rusty-puberulous hairs, upper surfaces

turn blackish and lower surfaces turn deep brown on

drying; petioles hardly 1 mm long,

rusty-puberulous. Inflorescence axillary

subumbellate, peduncle as long as petiole, 10

flowered, densely rusty puberulous. Flower

unisexual, sessile or subsessile. Sepals 5, united at

base, ovate-acute, puberulous dorsally, margin

ciliated. Petals 5, free, elliptic, 2x1 mm, dorsally

sparsely puberulous, ventrally and at margin

densely rusty puberulous, not gland-dotted. Stamens

5, epipetalous, filaments for male flower larger than

anthers, filaments in female flowers as long as

anthers. Ovary in male flower small, abortive, ovary

in female flowers globose, distinct, densely covered

with rusty puberulous hairs, styles in female flower

curved or coiled, glabrous. Fruit not seen.

This species is closely allied to E. pa nd flora

Wall, but can be easily distinguished by its leaves

rounded at apex, sparsely pilose along nerves, petals

sparsely puberulous dorsally and ovary densely pilose.

Distribution: INDIA; Burma.

Mez (1902) described this species from

North-eastern India based on the collections from

Assam (Griffith 3545) and Manipur (Watt 7277).

There is no further record of the plant from adjacent

areas. The new record presented here from Burma is

also based on the old collection (1909). So, further

search is necessary to establish its present status.

Specimen cited for the new distribution:

Kung Tung, S. Shun State, ± 4000 ft. (1216 m),

Dec. 1909, Capt. R. W. MacGregor 1137 (CAL).

Labisia pumila (Blume) Benth. et Hook. f.

var. pumila. Benth. et Hook. f. Gen. PI. 2 : 645.

1876; Mez in Engl. Pflanzenr. 4: 171. 1902. Ardisia

pumila Blume, Bijdr. 688. 1826; A. DC., Prodr. 8:

1844; FI. Ind. Bot. 2: 1028. 1856. Ardisia spicata

Wall. Num. List. no. 2773. 1830; A. DC. in Trans.

Linn. Soc. 17: 135. 1834. Labisia pothoina Lindl. in

Bot. Reg. 31 et t. 48. 1845; C.B. Clarke in Hook. f.

FI. Brit. India 3 :518. 1882.

Erect or decumbent herbs, often with creeping

rhizomes, younger parts sparsely ferrugineous.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

311

Leaves exstipulate, alternate, lanceolate,

elliptic-lanceolate or oblanceolate (4-) 12-18 (-25) cm

long including the petiole, (1.6-) 3.5 - 4.5 (6.0) cm

broad, base of the lamina attenuately extended

throughout the whole length of the petiole as a wing,

apex acute, margin entire or decurrent, midrib raised

beneath, primary nerves numerous, more or less right

angled to the midrib and run parallel, upper surface of

lamina glabrous, lower surface glabrous or rusty-

pubescent near the midrib, sparsely gland dotted,

chartaceous, turn dull green on drying. Inflorescence

axillary peduncle, peduncle 2-6 cm long,

ferrugineously tomentose. Calyx 5-toothed, sepal

triangular 0.5 mm long, dorsally ferrugineously

tomentose; petals 5, ovate, sparsely ferrugineous

tomentose dorsally, induplicate - valvate in bud.

Stamens 5, epipetalous, filaments very short, anthers

oblong, acute, connective slightly prolonged. Ovary

globose, ferrugineously tomentose, style cylindric,

stigma capitate. Fruit globose, one-seeded, ovules

uniseriate,‘.

Distribution: Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Malaya

Peninsula, Burma. So far, the report of this species

from Burma establishes its extended distribution

towards north.

Specimens cited for the new distribution:

Upper cinchoua camp, Burma, 28-3-1924, C.C.

Colder s.n. (CAL); on the way to the base camp

Kycinchemg forest, Tenasserim, Burma, 100 feet (30

m), 18-2-1931, K. Biswas 1160 (CAL); Miachung,

near Lepokechemg, Tenasserim, Burma, 300-400 feet

(90-120 m), 13-2-1931, K. Biswas 920 (CAL).

Maesa argentea Wall, in Roxb. FI. Ind. ed.

Carey 2 : 333. 1824; A. DC. in Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. Ser.

16. t. 5. 1841. et in DC., Prodr. 8 : 81. 1844;

Brandis, For. FI. 283. 1874; Clarke in Hook f., FI.

Brit. India 3: 510. 1882; Mez in Pflanzenr. 4: 39.

1902. Beobotrys argentea Wall. Num. List. no.

2316. 1829.

Shrubs, stem and branches round, densely

brownish pilose particularly the younger parts.

Leaves exstipulate; alternate, elliptic, (8-) 10-12

(-17) x 4.5-6.0 (-7.0) cm, base acute to cuneate,

apex acuminate, margin dentate serrate, primary

nerves prominent, 8-12 on each side of midrib,

upper surfaces of lamina sparsely puberulous, lower

surfaces usually densely puberulous particularly on

the nerves, sparsely gland dotted, piembranous;

petioles 8-25 mm long, densely puberulous, flowers

compact, bracts triangular, 0.5 mm long, puberulous

dorsally, bracteoles 2, like those of bracts; pedicels

1-2 mm long, puberulous. Calyx 5-toothed, Jobes

broadly triangular, 0.5 x 0.5 mm, margin ciliate,

punctate or not. Corolla 2-2.5 mm long, white, 3/4

connate, lobes 5, ovate rounded, margin minutely

crenulate, not punctate. Stamens 5, epipetalous,

filaments 0.5 mm long, anthers ovate-rounded,

dorsifixed. Ovary 3/4 inferior, style 0.5-1.0 mm

long, stigma capitate. Fruits globose, 5 mm diam.,

one-seeded.

.Distribution: India; Nepal, Burma.

The species was previously recorded from

Western to Central Himalaya extending from

Kumaon to Nepal. The present new distribution in

Burma establishes its further extension eastward.

This disjunct distribution of the taxon requires

thorough search for its possible records in the

intermediate areas.

Specimens cited for the new distribution:

Kyanksiu, N. Burma, 5000-6000 feet (1520-1824

m), 24-6-1914, A. Rodger 169 (CAL); Mount

Victoria, Chun Hills, 9000, feet (2736 m), April

1939, EG. Dickason 8497 (CAL).

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr H.J. Chowdhery, Scientist ‘SD’,

Arunachal Field Station, Botanical Survey of India,

Itanagar, for all facilities and encouragement.

June 12, 1992 G.S. GIRI

S.K. DAS

Arunachal Field Station, Botanical Survey of India,

Itanagar 791 111.

M.P. NAYAR

T.C. 19-319, Trivandrum 695 006.

32. SEISMONASTIC MOVEMENT OF STAMENS OF OPUNT1A DILLENII

Seismonasty is the movement brought by body, poking with any hard object, drops of rains, a

mechanical stimuli such as contact with a foreign gust of wind, etc. Such a movement is known in

312

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

many plants like Mimosa pudica , Biophytum

sensitivum, Neptunia, Averrhoa, Dionaea etc.

Stamens of Opuntia dillenii are other

interesting examples of seismonastic movement. In

opened flowers of this species, the stamens are fully

spread above the petals. Whenever they are touched

with a finger or stick, they start rising above the

petals and start converging inwards and soon attain

an erect position in the central portion of the flower

around/^tigma. Whenever some nectar probing

insect comes in contact of stamens, the latter show

inward movement and due to their convergence

more and more stamens come in contact with the

insect, spilling pollen mass on body of insect. Thus,

the seismonastic movement of stamens of Opuntia

dillenii enhance and facilitate its cross pollination

through insects.

January 6, 1993 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Aravalli Afforestation Programme, Jhadol (F.),

Udaipur Dist., Rajasthan.

33. FLOWER-VISITORS AND POLLINATION OF ADHATODA ZEYLANICA

NEES (ACANTHACEAE)

Plant-animal interactions, particularly at the

flower level, are related to the structure,

organisation and continued functioning of the

respective communities (Heithaus 1974, Frankie

1976, Moldenke 1975, 1979). There is need to

understand such interactions, especially in the

species rich tropical ecosystem(s). The interaction

of 13 insect species with the flowers of Adhatoda

zeylanica Nees (Acanthaceae), a large tropical shrub

and an important medicinal plant is described here.

Adhatoda zeylanica blooms at Visakhapatnam

(17°42'N and 82° 18' E), every year, from January

to early April. Flowers are borne in the exils of leafy

bracts on 5-9 cm long pedunculate spike

inflorescence. They are zygomorphic, the corolla

base forming a short tube and the upper part

becoming 2-lipped and galeate. The outer three

petals are imbricate; the opposite two are united,

their facial margins forming a narrow groove

through which passes the filiform style with its

linear stigma. The two epipetalous stamens with the

introrse anthers are inserted in the corolla over most

part of their length and are placed, together with the

style, adjacent to and covered by the upper hooded

corolla lobe. The style is projected slightly beyond

the stigma, thereby precluding contact with anthers

when they dehisce.

The flowers anthese during the period from

0730 to 1830 h, a maximum anthesing being before

1100 h. Anthers dehisce shortly after anthesis,

exposing the pollens visible to the naked eye as

white powdery mass. Pollen grains are large in size

(65 x 45 mm), their number per anther averages

17800. Along with the anthesis nectar secretion also

begins. But the secretion is in traces and it continues

up to the time the flower drops off after 48 hours of

anthesis. Hand-refractometer readings showed that

the sugar concentrations range from 17 to 22%.

Paper chromatographic analysis revealed the

presence of sugars namely Sucrose, Glucose and

Fructose, the Sucrose being the dominant

constituent. Amino acids and proteins are also

present as indicated by Ninhydrine and

Bromo-phenol tests respectively.

In the flowering season of 1986, in all 13 insec?

species, 10 belonging to Hymenoptera and 3 to

Lepidoptera, were found foraging on the flowers of A.

zeylanica (Table 1). The visits of Amegilla sp., Trigons

sp., Ceratina sp., Pithitis sp., and Pseudapis sp. among

the Hymenoptera were directed to pollen collection

only. The other Hymenoptera and the Lepidoptera

confined their visits to nectar foraging. The 13 species

could only be recorded in the peak flowering phase

only, while in the other phases some of them were

found to be absent. In all the three flowering phases,

Amegilla and Apis cerana indica made a larger number

of visits than other species. At the peak phase of

flowering, besides these two species, Xylocopa and

Macroglossum also shared a sizable proportion of the

total visits. The absence of Xylocopa in the initial phase

could be understood because in that period it mostly

concentrated on Glyricidia maculata on mass bloom.

All the 13 flower-visitors are. diurnal in their

activity. They visited the flowers during 0630 to

1900 h. The first insect to visit the flowers was

Macroglossum gyrans. It foraged at the flowers for

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

313

Table 1

FLOWER -VISITORS OF A. Zevlanica, THEIR FORAGE TYPE, AND THEIR VISITATION RATES

RATES IN DIFFERENT PHASES OF FLOWERING IN 1986.

2 hours in the morning and also for 2 hours in the

evening when other visitors were less active.

Probably, the stratified foraging behaviour is a

strategy to avoid competition with other foragers.

Amegilla and Apis were active all through from

0630 to 1900 h. The activity of Pseudapis started

late in the morning and ceased early in the evening,

so also that of Ceratina and some butterflies. Both

the species of Xylocopci began their activity slightly

late in the morning and finished it a little early in

the evening. The activity of the various foragers was

not correlated to the weather parameters. It is

assumed that the availability of forage might

determine the visitation rates. Accordingly, in the

period before 1100 h there was a tendency for

greater activity because more number of flowers

open at that time. Although Macroglossum gyrans

appeared to confine itself to a cooler part of the day,

observations of its activity on other plant species in

the same biotope did not provide any support for

such a behavioural pattern. Data regarding the

number of flowers visited in a minute and the time

spent on a flower by 8 of the more common visitors

indicated that M. gyrans is a more mobile visitor

covering on an average 57 flowers in a minute and

spending an average time of 2 seconds per flower.

The corresponding figures for other visitors are

Trigona 13.5, 4.5; Pseudapis 12, 4; A.c. indica 7.5,

8.5; Ceratina 11, 5.5; Amegilla 8, 8.5; Xylocopa

latipes 6, 12; and.Y. pubescens 5, 11.5.

Controlled pollination experiments revealed

the total absence of apomixis. When tested for

autogamy, 50% of the flower set fruit with seed set

100% and fecundity 50%. Those tested for

geitonogamy yielded 75% fruit set, 100% seed set

and 75% fecundity. Those for Xenogamy gave 90%

fruit set, 100% seed set and 90% fecundity. A close

examination of the intrafloral behaviour of the 13

visitors revealed that the carpenter bees Xylocopa

latipes and X. pubescens only made meaningful

contact with the essential flower parts while

foraging, and vectored the pollen. The stamens and

style being placed adjacent to the upper lobe,

brushed against the upper side of the visitor thereby

depositing or receiving pollen nototribically. When

the carpenter bee. probes the flower for nectar, its

12.

314

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 90 (1993)

body size exactly fitted the gap between the two

corolla lobes. The zygomorphic nature of the

flowers with the essential parts placed towards the

upper lip is a precise adaptation for Nototribic

pollination by such large-bodied insects as

Xylocopas (see Proctor and Yeo 1972). The role of

this bee in vectoring pollen was verified by

observing the stigmas for pollen after the flowers

were visited by different visitors. Those stigmas

visited by Xylocopa alone revealed pollen, thereby

confirming the role of Xylocopa in pollination.

The pollinations that result from Xylocopa

visitation of A. zeylanica flowers might be either

auto-, Geitono- or Xeno-gamous. However, it was

found that both the species of Xylocopa visited a

few flowers in a foray and then flew away. This

type of behaviour of the forager, together with the

behaviour of the plant producing fewer number of

flowers per day and with minimal quantities of

nectar promote Xenogamy which is a superior mode

of reproduction in A. zeylanica (Cruden- 1976,

Faegri & Pijl 1979).

February 1, 1993 T. BYRAGI REDDY

C. SUBBAREDDY

S. N. REDDY

Department of Environmental Sciences,

Anclhra University, Waltair 530 003.

References

Cruden. R.W. (1976): Fecundity as a function of nectar

production and pollen-ovule-ratios, pp. 171-178. 7/i:

J. Burley and B. T. Styles (eds), Tropical trees:

variation, breeding and conservation. Academic

press. London and New York.

Faegri, K. & Pijl, L. Van Der (1979): The Principles of

Pollination Ecology. Perga moil Press, Oxford.

Frankie, G.W. (1976): Pollination of widely dispersed

trees by animals in central America, with an

amphasis on bee pollination systems, pp. 151-159.

In: J. Burley and B.T. Styles (eds), Tropical Trees;

variation, breeding and conservation. Academic

Pres' T ondon and New York.

Heithaus, R. (1974): The role of plant-pollinator

interactions in determining community structure.

Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 61: 675- 691.

Moldenke, A.R. (1975): Niche specialization and species

diversity along a California transect. Oecologia 21:

219-42.

Moldenke, A.R. (1979): Pollination ecology as an assay

for ecosystamic organisation: Convergent evolution

in Chile and California. Phytologia 42: 415-454.

Proctor, M. & Yeo, P. (1972): The Pollination of flowers.

Taplinger publishing Co., New York.

34. REMIREA MARI TIMA AUBL. (CYPERACEAE) — ANEW RECORD TO THE SEDGE

FLORA OF ANDHRA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

During the study of the sedge flora of Andhra

Pradesh a Cyperaceous species was collected from

Thungabhadra river bed near Kurnool town. On

critical study and comparison with specimens

housed at CAL it was identified as Remirea

maritime Aubl. This species was recorded earlier

from Kerala and Karnataka and the present report

extends its distribution to the Andhra Pradesh. Since

this is the first report of this taxon from Andhra

Pradesh a brief description and citation is given for

its future collection and easy identification.

Remirea maritima Aubl. in Hist PI. Guin.

Franc. 1: 45. t. 16. 1775; FBI 6: 677 . R. pedunculate

R. Br. Prodr. FI. Nov. Holl. 236. 1810. R. maritima

- Aubl. var. pedunculate Benth. FI. Austr. 7: 347.

1878. Mariscus pedunculatus (R. Br.) T. Koyama in

Gard. Bull. Singapore 30: 159. 1977 & in Dassan.

& Fosb. Handb. FI. Ceylon 5: 240. 1985. Cyperus

pedunculatus (R. Br.) Kern, in Acta Bot. Neerl. 7:

798. 1958 & in Steenis, FI. Males. 7: 644. 1974.

Mariscus maritimus Miq. 1860, not of Clarke 1896.

Perennial rhizomatous herb, to 10 cm tall;

rhizome horizontally long, creeping, branched,

rooting at nodes, clothed with membranous, acute,

brownish sheaths; culms tufted from the branched

head of the rhizome, rigid trigonous. Leaves

crowded, rigid, canaliculate, scabrid on the margins

in upper part, very gradually narrowed to the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

315

Fig. 1. Remirea man lima Alibi.

A. Habit; B. Flowering spikelet; C Achene enclosed by upper glume; D. & E. Glumes;

F. Ovary with style and stigmas; G. Achene.

triquetrous, pungent tip. Inflorescence head-like,

consisting of digitate! y arranged, sessile, short

spikes. Involucral bracts 3-5, patent, the longest

overtopping the inflorescence. Spike ovoid, to 12

mm long. Spikelets sessile, densely crowded, ovoid,

acute, slightly compressed, 1 -flowered, falling off

as a whole; rhach ilia disarticulating above the basal

2 glumes; uppermost internode strongly flattened,

finally thickened, corky, to 3 mm long. Glumes

broadly ovate, many- nerved, 3 lower ones empty,

to 3 mm long, the uppermost vetigial. Stamens 3;

anthers yellow. Stigmas 3. Achenes trigonous,

oblong, slightly compressed, shining, tightly

enclosed in the upper node of the rhachilla (Fig. 1).

Along wet, sandy edges of rivers and ponds in

Kurnool district. FI. & Fr.: August - December.

Specimens examined: Kumool town,

Thungabhadra river, 3-3- 91, K. Hanwnanthappa 10953.

316

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

We thank the Joint Director, Central National

Herbarium, Howrah for providing Herbarium and

Library facilities.

June 12, 1992 K. HANUMANTHAPPA

T. PULLAIAH

Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur 515 003, A.P.

35. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PANICUM ELEGANTISSIMUM HOOK.

F. (POACEAE) IN INDIA

(With a text-figure )

D.K. Banerjee (1971) reported Panicum

elegcintissimam Hook.f. as a new record for India.

Later, Majumdar (1973) also included it in his

account of Panicum on the basis of Banerjee ?s

collection. After critical analysis of two specimens

(Banerjee 4860, 4860 A) at Central National

Herbarium, Urhyal and Banerjee (1985) reported

that these specimens are of Panicum trypheron

Schult., not P elegantissimum Hook, f., hence the

occurrence of P. elegantissimum in India is

doubtful.

During collection of grasses of Bihar, we

collected a specimen which after critical study

exactly matches the type of P. elegantissimum ,

(Lumut, State of Perak, Malay Peninsula, Ridley

3116, 1892) which is available in the Central

National Herbarium. Eventhough, our plant looks

like P. trypheron , it differs from the latter by its

perennial habit, longer spikelets and lower glumes

which are half or less the length of spikelets. The

voucher specimens are housed in the Bhagalpur

University Herbarium, Bhagalpur. The following

description is based on live specimens.

Panicum elegantissiiiiuni Hook. f. FI. Brit.

Ind. 7: 52. 1896; Bor, Gr. Burma, Ceylon, India &

Pak. 325. 1960.

A tufted perennial, up to 80 cm high. Culms

erect, branched, slender, glabrous. Leaf-blades 5-35

x 0.4-0.6 cm, linear to linear-lanceolate, softly hairy

on both surfaces, base narrow, apex acuminate;

sheaths compressed, hispid; ligules fimbricate.

Panicles up to 25 cm long, erect, effuse, lax,

oblong-lanceolate; branches long, alternate, scabrid;

pedicels with swollen tips, scabrid. Spikelets 3.5-4

mm long, in pair, ellipsoid, scattered, tip purple to

green, acuminate. Lower glume 1.2-1. 8 mm long,

elliptic, 5-nerved, apex acuminate with short hairs.

Upper glume 3.5-4 mm long, elliptic-lanceolate.

Fig. 1. Panicum elegantissimum Hook. f.

1. Habit; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Spikelet; 4. Lower glume;

5. Upper glume; 6. Lower lemma; 7. Palea;

8. & 9. Upper lemma and its palea; 10. Stamen.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

317

7-nerved, cuspidately acuminate. Lower lemma

similar to upper glume, empty, 9-nerved, paleate.

Upper lemma 2.5-3 mm long, hermaphrodite,

elliptic-oblong, coriaceous, 3-nerved, white,

shining, obtuse; palea similar to the upper lemma.

Lodicules 2. Stamens 3; anthers up to 1.5 mm long.

Caryopsis up to 3.2 mm long (Fig. 1).

Specimens examined: Mirzachowki,

Sahibganj district, R. R. Jhq 7892.

Distribution: INDIA: Bihar; Burma, Malaya.

Ecology: Along railway tracks, open

grasslands; rare.

Flowers: August - December.

Acknowledgement

Thanks are due to Joint-Director, Central

National Herbarium, Howrah for permission to

consult the herbarium and CSIR, New Delhi for

financial assistance for revising the grasses of Bihar

( 9/24( 1 3 )/9 1 -EMR -I) .

August 25, 1992 R.R. JHA

Gram Vikas, At &Po Gayaganda, via-Kuluda,

Bhanjnagar, Ganjam, Orissa.

S.K. VARMA

Gram Vikas, Mohuda, Berhampur, Orissa.

References

Banerjee, D.K. (1971): Panicum elegantissimum Hook. f.

from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2):

494-495.

Majumdar, R.E. (1973): The genus Panicum L. in India.

Bull. hot. Soc. Bengal 27: 39-54.

Uniyal, B.P. & Banerjee, B.C. (1985): Does Panicum

elegantissimum occur in India? J. Econ. Tax. Bot.

6(3): 708.

36. SOME NOTES ON GRASSES OF BIHAR

During routine collection of grasses from

different places of Bihar, we came across four taxa,

namely Dactyloctenium aristatum Link., Digitaria

stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult. var. stricta, D.

stricta var. denudcitci (Link.) Henr. and D.

scinguincilis (L.) Scop. var. purpurea Haines which

have not been earlier reported from Bihar. These

taxa shovw great variation in their morphology. The

detailed description of the taxa is available in

literature hence in the present paper only critical

notes of the plants have been included after the

citation. The identity of all collected specimens

have been confirmed at Central National Herbarium

(CNH), Howrah and voucher specimens are

deposited at Bhagalpur University Herbarium,

Bhagalpur.

Dactyloctenium aristatum Link. Hort.

Berol. 1: 59. 1827; Bor in Gr. Burma, Ceylon, Ind.

& Pak. 489. 1960; Patunkar in Gr. Marth. 233.

1980; Babu in Herb. FI. Dehra Dun 599. 1977.

Eleusine aristata sensu Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. V:

296. 1896. pro parte.

Earlier Bor (l.c.), Babu (l.c.) and Patunkar

(l.c.) reported the occurrence of this plant from

Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra respectively. The

plant shows similarity with D. aegyptium (L.) P.

Beauv., but it can be easily distinguished from it due

to non- stoloniferous culms and solitary spike. Rolla

S. Rao and Kanodia (1963) reported it from Banner

and Jaisalmer district (Rajasthan) and the same has

recently been collected from Madhya Pradesh (Jain

1966). However, Hemadri (1980) reported that D.

aristatum , a native of N.E. Africa is rare in India

and the material collected by Rao and Kanodia

appears to be a misidentification for the dwarf form

of D. aegyptium. The same view is also expressed

by Babu (l.c.). In view of the above facts, the

present collection of this taxon from Gandhigram of

Godda district of Bihar (R.R. Jha 6349) is,

interesting and needs further critical study in the

field and the herbarium.

Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult.

var. stricta Syst. Veg. 2: 474. 1817; Bor in Gr.

Burma, Ceylon, Ind. & Pak. 305. 1960; Patunkar in

Gr. Marth. 142. 1980. Paspalum royleanum Nees ex

Thw. Enum. PI. Zeyl. 358. 1864. nomen et in Hook,

f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 18. 1896. Digitaria royleana

(Nees ex Thw.) Prain, Bengal PI. 1182. 1903;

Haines in Bot. Bih. & Oris. 3: 1055. 1961 (Repr.

ed.).

Bor (l.c.) created three varieties within D.

stricta complex, namely var. stricta , var.

318

JOURNAL, , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

glabrescens and var. denudata and Henrard (1950)

into two species, namely D. stricta Roth ex Roem. et

Schult., and D . denudata Roth ex Roem. et Schult., on

the presence of upper glume in the former and absence

in the latter. Recently Hemadri (1980) merged D.

denudata with D. stricta . After a critical examination

of materials (Rajmahal, Mokim 1497, CAL;

Mirzachowki, R.R. Jha 7022; Angwali, R.R. Jha 7283)

in fields as well as in herbarium, we found that two

population exist in our area and these have been given

variety status following Bor (he.).

Digitarla stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult.

Syst. Veg. 2: 474. 1817. var. denudata (Link.) Henr.

Monger. Digitaria 175. 1950; Bor in Gr. Burma,

Ceylon, Xnd. & Pak. 306. 1960. D. denudata Link.

Hort. Berol. 1:222.1827.

Bor (he.) reported the plant from Bengal and

Nepal. Although Gamble collected this variety

from Santhal Pargana division of Bihar (Santhal

Pargana, Gamble s.n. CAL acc. no. 10623), but it

was not included by Haines (1921-24), Mooney

(1950), Jain et al. (1975) in their work. The

collection of this rare grass again from two places

(Gilamari, Sahibganj district, R R. Jha 6135;

Gandhigram, Godda district, R. R. Jha 7069) in

Santhal Pargana after a lapse of more than hundred

years is interesting.

Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. var.

Refer

Hemadri, K. (1980): Grasses of Junnar and its

surroundings. Dehra Dun.

Henrard, J. Th. (1950): Monograph of the genus

Digitaria. pp. 1-99. Leiden.

Jain, S.K. (1966): Notes on Indian grasses - II. The

identity and distribution of certain species. Ind. For.

92: 362- 367.

Jain, S.K., Banerjee, D.K. & Pal, D.C. (1975): Grasses of

purpurea Haines, Bot. Bih. & Oris. 3: 1054. 1961

(Repr. ed.).

Haines (he.) reported it from Neterhat but

neither Henrard (1950) nor Bor (1960) gave it a

varietal status. This taxon which grows in potato

fields is closely allied to D . cruciata (Nees) A.

Camus but differs in the field by its deep purple

culms, leaves and spikelets and villous nodes.

Haines (he.) stated that lower glume is absent, but it

was present in specimens collected from Santhal

Pargana (Fojdari, 1 km south of Mirzachowki,

Sahibganj district, R. R. Jha 6504). The varietal

status of this taxa should be kept.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Prof. K.S. Bilgrami, Head,

University Department of Botany, Bhagalpur

University, Bhagalpur for providing necessary

facilities and to Director and Joint- Director, Central

National Herbarium, Howrah for giving permission

to consult herbarium. We are also thankful for grant

to CSIR for the revision of grasses of Bihar.

September 14, 1992 R. R. JHA

Gram Vikas, At &Po Gayaganda, via-Kuluda,

Bhanjnagar, Ganjam, Orissa.

S. K. VARMA

Gram Vikas, Mohuda, Berhampur, Orissa.

ENCES

Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist

Soc. 72: 758-773.

Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar

and Orissa. Catholic Press. Ranchi.

Rolla, S. Rao & Kanodia, K.C. (1963): Studies on the

vegetation and flora of Jodhpur division, Rajasthan

state. Ann. Arid Zone. 2: 35-60.

37. SOME NEW RECORDS OF PTERIDOPHYTES FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

During the recent floristic survey and

explorations in the remote localities of Garhwal

Himalaya, we made some interesting collection of

pteridophytic plants. Perusal of literature indicated

that these plants had not been collected by earlier

explorers from the North West Himalaya including

Garhwal region (Beddome 1883, Dhir 1980, Bir et

al 1983, Khullar and Sharma 1987, Khullar et al.

1987, Pangtey and Punetha 1987).

Hie present communication includes a short

description, habitat, general occurrence, place from where

the collection was made with approximate elevation, and

the collector’s Herbarium number of the newly recorded

plant species. The voucher specimens are housed in the

Herbarium Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal

University, Srinagar (GUH).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

319

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium subavesiiwm (Hook.) Bedd. Ferns

Brit. India t. 288 1866. Handb. Ferns Brit. India

144. 1883.

Fronds long, lanceolate, coriaceous, very

opaque stipe tufted, wiry, black, densely fibrillose.

Pinnae numerous, approximate, horizontal, sessile,

oblong, obtuse, upper half serrated, base cuneate.

Rachis ebony back, rigid, sparsely setose, costa and

veins sunk. Sori oblong, oblique, involucre firm,

membraneous.

A terrestrial fern growing on moist and shaded

rock crevices. Extremely rare, Raath, 2,000 m a.s.h,

GUH 12,129.

Hymenophyllaceae

Crepidomanes latealatum (V. d. Bosch)

Copel. Philip. J. Sci. 67: 60. 1938. Trichomanes

latealatum V. d. Bosch. Ned. Kr. Arch. 5: 138. 1863.

T. bipunctatum Poir. Encych 8: 69. 1808; Bedd.

Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 41: 1883.

Rhizome wide-creeping, dark brown,

branched, densely hairy. Fronds ovate, tripinnatifid.

Stipes nacked, slightly winged above. Main rachis

with a narrow wing or free below. Pinnae

ovate-rhomboidal, lower pinnule deeply pimiatifid,

ultimate segments linear. Texture firm

membraneous. Veins a single mid rib to each

segment, • vainlets diverging with scattered false

veins. Sori terminal on segments, tube sunk or

somewhat exserted.

Grows in humid shady forests as an epiphyte

on mossy tree trunks near streams, also found

growing as 'a lithopfeyte on moist, shaded rocks.

Rare in occurrence. Sutole, Chamoli district, 2,400

m a.s.l. GUH 12,194.

Dryopteris smo-fibriI8osa Ching. Bull. Far.

Mem. Hist. Biol. 10: 180. 1940; Dhir, Bibliotheca

Pteridologica 1: 64. 1980. Nephrodium fillix-mas

var. fibrillosa Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lend. II.

Bot. 1: 520. 1880. Lastrea filix-mas var.

par allelo gramma sub. var. fibrillosa (Clarke) Bedd.

Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 250. 1883.

Fronds very narrow, tapering at both ends, but

not attenuated with auricles into the stipe. Stipe and

main rachis densely scaly. Pinnae patent, cut down

to the mid rib, segments oblong-obtuse, serrulate at

the apex, fibrillose on the surface beneath.

A high altitude terrestrial fern, growing on

moist, densely shaded and humus rich forest floor.

Uncommon in occurrence, Har- Ki-Doon, 2,400 m

a .s.l. GUH 12,099.

Nephrolepidaceae

Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Presth Tent.

Pterid. 79. 1836, Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II.

Bot. 1: 540. 1880, Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India

282. 1883, Bir et al. PFGH 52. 1983. Polypodium

cordifolium L. Sp. PL 2: 1089. 1753.

Caudex sub-erect, roots often bearing tubers.

Stipes tufted, wiry, slightly scaly. Pinnae

imbricated, blunt, margins entire, or slightly

crenate. Rachis scaly, glabrous. Texture coriaceous.

Sori midway between the mid rib and margin.

Indusium persistent, reniform.

A terrestrial fern often replaced by cultivated

forms and growing on dry and exposed rocky hill

slopes. Rare in occurrence. Panyatal, Gadera 1,100

m a.s.l. GUH 12,089.

Oleandracea

Oleaodra undulate (WiJld.) Ching. Lingnan.

Sci. 1. 12: 565. 1933. O. cumingii J. Smith. Hook.

Sp. Fil. IV. 158, Bedd. Ferns Brit. India t. 135.

1866, Clarke Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II. Bot. 1: 542.

1880. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India 288. 1883.

Caudex creeping, thick, scaly. Fronds firm,

membranaceous, elongate, lanceolate, acuminate,

attenuated, gradually decurrent at the base,

pubescent-villous on the costa and veins. Stipes

subterminal, sub-aggregated, articulated. Sori quite

close to the mid-rib.

Grows as an epiphyte on tree trunk of Quercus

semecarpifolia in the forests or as an lithophyte on

exposed rocky walls. Rare, Pidola, and Bhasar,

2,100 ma.s.l. GUH 12,103.

Davalliaceae

Araiostegia clarkei (Bak.) Copel. Philip. J.

Sci. 34: 241. 1927, Dhir, Bibliotheca Pteridologica

1: 57. 1980. DavaUia clarkei Bak. Hook. & Bak.

Syn. Fil. 91. 1874. Hencostegia hookeri (Moore)

Bedd. Hanb. Ferns. Brit. India. 52. 1883.

Rhizome stout, scales dense, golden. Fronds

deltoid, 3-4 pinnatifid. Stipe slender, base scaly.

4

320

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Lower pinnae opposite or alternate, lanceolate or

deltoid. Pinnules deltoid, ultimate segments acute,

1-veined. Texture membranaceous. Sori at the base

or ultimate lobes. Indusium broad, persistent,

membranaceous.

Growing as an epiphyte on Cedrus

deodara tree trunks in the forests. Very rare in

occurrence. Mandoli Chamoli 3,000 m a.s.l.

GUH 12,424.

Refe

Beddome, R.H. (1883): Handbook to the ferns of British

India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula. Thacker

Spink and Co., Calcutta.

Bir, S.S., Satua, C.K., Vasudeva, S.M. & Goyal, P.

(1983). Pteridophytic Flora of Garhwal Himalaya.

Jugal Kishore & Co., Dehra Dun.

Dhir, K.K. (1980): Ferns of North-Western Himalayas.

Bibliotheca Pteridologica 1: 1-158. J. Cramer,

Vaduz.

Khullar, S.P. & Sharma, S.S. (1987): The ferns of

Western Himalaya (excluding Uttrakhand). In:

Western Himalaya Environment, Problems &

38. CONTRIBUTION TO

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the authorities of Botanical

Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehradun (BSD)

for providing Herbarium facilities.

July 25, 1992 R. D. GAUR

PREETI PAINULI

Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal University,

Srinagar 2461 74.

ENCES

Development, eds. Y.P.S. Pangtey & S.C. Joshi 1:

310-346.

Khullar, S.P., Sharma, S.S. & Chaudhary, V. (1987):

Ferns of Garhwal Himalaya - a check list. In:

Western Himalaya Environment, Problems &

Development, eds. Y.P.S. Pangtey & S.C. Joshi, 1:

347-388.

Pangtey, Y.P.S. & Punetha, N. (1987): Pteridophytic

Flora of Kumaon Himalaya. In: Western Himalaya

Environment. Problems & Development, eds. Y.P.S.

Pangtey & S.C. Joshi. 1: 389-412.

FLORA OF MANIPUR

The main noteworthy work on the botany of

Manipur state is by Deb (1961 a, b). He made

intensive collection and published a list of 2007

taxa of flowering plants. After Deb's comprehensive

works, Shukla and Baishya (1979) added 66 species

of plants from Manipur.

The present work is based on my collections in

different parts of Manipur during 1990-91. Ambrosia,

Arthraxon , Bergia, Centipeda, Crcissoceplui him,

Ctyptocotyne, Lasia, Parcimygnyci , Spiranthes are

new genera for the state. The family Elatinaceae is a

new addition to the flora of Manipur.

In the following enumeration species are

arranged alphabetically within the genera and the

families which are also arranged alphabetically. For

each species locality and field numbers have given.

Local names are also given as far as possible.

Amaranthaceae

Cyathula capita ta Moq. — Sparsely hairy

herb. Leaves elliptic, subcaudate acuminate. Heads

globose. Lokchao. FIB. 5368.

Araceae

Cryptocoryne spiralis Fisch. — Herbs with

creeping rootstock. Leaves linear lanceolate, spa the

sessile, tube short obconic. Keibullamjao. HB. 835.

Lasia spinosa (Linn.) Th waites — Herbs with

thick prickly rhizome. Leaves hastate, prickly on the

nerves beneath. Spa the purple thick, open at the base.

Local name: Wakhie yendem. Tender leaves

are used as a vegetable. Moreh. HB. 5511.

Asclepediaceae

Cynanchum wallichii Wight — Twining,

glabrous. Leaves ovate lanceolate finely acuminate,

peduncle shorter than the petioles, pedicels slender.

Khongkhang. HB. 5563.

As TER ACE AE

Ambrosia artemisiafolia Linn. — Herbs with

furrow stem. Leaves pinnatifid, with narrow

segments. Chandel. HB. 3386.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

321

Centipeda minima (Linn.) A. Br. & Asch. —

Prostrate herb with numerous stem from the base.

Leaves small oblanceolate or obovate. Head small

subsessile, yellow. Moreh. HB. 5215.

Conyza angustifolia Roxb. — Hairy and villous

herb. Leaves sessile, linear, bracts many. Tengnoupal.

HB. 3622.

Crassocephalum crepideoides (Benth.) Moore

— Herbs. Leaves alternate, pinnatifid. Heads discoid.

Moreh. HB. 5215.

Eupatorium birmanicum DC. — Herbs with

glabrous stem. Leaves lanceolate margin serrately

lobed. Heads blue.

Local NAME: Langthrei. Komlathabi. HB. 3361.

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens tomentosa Hayne — Simple erect

more or less clothed with crisp refuscent hairs.

Leaves short, uniform, obtuse or acute, more or less

scabrid or tomentose.

Local NAME: Khujang. Chandel. HB. 5399.

/. verticillata Wight — Glabrous erect herb.

Leaves opposite, narrow lanceolate, flowers

umbelled, lip boat shaped, spur straight or incurved

at the tip.

Local name: Khujang. Keibullamjao. HB.

839.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina clavata Clarke — Glabrous or

puberulous sparingly branched. Leaves ovate or

lanceolate, spathes peduncled, ovate lanceolate.

LOCAL NAME: Wangdengkhoibi. A good fodder.

Awangkhul. HB. 633.

Cyperaceae

Care x indica Linn. — Stout woody rootstock.

Stem trigonous leafing upwards, margins scabrid,

lower sheaths compressed. Lokchao. HB. 5342.

Cyperus cyperoides (Linn.) O. Kuntze —

Perennial herbs with short creeping rhizomes.

Spikelets in simple umbels and spirally arranged.

Chakpikarong. HB. 5592.

Elatinaceae

Bergia capensis Linn. — Glabrous herb with

procumbent rooting. Leaves elliptic lanceolate,

stipules narrowly deltoid. Keibullamjao. HB. 3340.

Gentiniaceae

Swertia nervosa (G. Don) Clarke — Herbs

with 4-winged or lineolate stem. Leaves elliptic

lanceolate, 3-nerved, panicles many flowered.

Ukhrul. HB. 3631.

Lamiaceae

Gomphostemma wallichii Prain — Stout herb,

densely tomentose. Leaves elliptic ovate, serrate,

densely tomentose beneath. Tengnoupal. HB. 5572.

Salvia saxicola Wall. — Herb with woody

rootstock. Radical leaves long petioled, broad,

oblong-lanceolate. Flowers in panicles.

Local name: Yenakhat. Keibullamjao. HB.

5513.

Malvaceae

Llibiscus cannabinus Linn. — Prickly, stem

glabrous. Leaves palmately lobed, petioles prickly.

Corolla yellow.

local NAME: Shougri. Keibullamjao. HB.

2101.

Mimosaceae

Albizia myriophylla Benth. — Woody

climbers. Leaflets 25-50 pairs, closely crowded.

Heads small, local name : Yang-li. Lokchao. HB.

5349.

Orchidaceae

Spiranthes lancea (Thunb.) B.B. & v. S. —

Plant grows in swamps, small. Leaves linear.

Flowers spirally arranged on the scape, flower

greenish white. Keibullamjao. HB. 5609.

Poaceae

Arthraxon lanceolatus (Roxb.) Hochst. —

Slender herbs, culms decumbent. .Leaves large,

ovate lanceolate to linear lanceolate. Keibullamjao.

HB. 5595.

Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf —

Perennial, culms tall. Leaves linear lanceolate.

Spikelets arranged in open or contracted panicles.

Keibullamjao. HB. 2114.

Panicum sanguinales Linn. — Stem erect,

stout. Leaves very variable, fascicled. Spikelets

loosely or closely imbricate. Chandel. HB. 3310.

I

322

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

POLYGONACEAE

Vacciniaceae

Polygonum glabrum Willd. — Stout herb

with woody rootstock. Leaves linear lanceolate,

glabrous. Inflorescence spiciform panicled

racemes. Keibullamjao. HB. 3220.

Rutaceae

Paramygnya annata Oliv. — Scandent

Shrub, glabrous. Leaflets elliptic or elliptic

lanceolate. Flowers small solitary or fascicled.

Chandel. HB. 5516.

Vaccinium griffithianum Wighti. — Small shrub.

Leaves oblong or elliptic lanceolate, serrulate, sparsely

hairy beneath. Chandel. HB. 2130.

Acknowledgement

I acknowledge my sincere thanks to Director,

Science and Technology, Environment, Govt, of

Manipur, for extending the financial facilities.

June 13, 1992 HIJAM BIKRAMJIT SINGH

Department of Life Sciences, Manipur Unversity,

Canchipur, Imphal 795 003.

References

Deb, D.B. (1961a): Monocotyledonous Plants of Manipur

Territory. Bull. Bot. Sun>. Inch 3(2): 115-138.

Deb, D.B. (1961b): Dicotyledonous plants of Manipur

Territory. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3 (3 &4): 253-350.

Shukla, U. & Baishya, A.K. (1979): A contribution to the

flora of Manipur. J. Bombay nat. Llist. Soc. 76(2):

224-230.

39. ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF ORISSA — I

Cuttack, one of the 13 districts of Orissa lies

between 20°1' N and 21°10' N latitudes and 84°58'

E and 87°3' E. The forest cover of this district is

1056 sq. km (Mishra 1981). Haines (1921-25) the

pioneer plant explorer of Bihar and Orissa collected

125 angiospermic taxa only from cuttack district.

Mooney (1950) added 68 species to the previous

compendium. After this work, floristic studies in

this district was practically nil except a few sporadic

reports made by the workers like Patnaik (1956),

Patnaik and Chayu Patnaik (1956), Panda and

Choudhury (1984) and Mohanty and Choudhury

(1984). Realising the unexplored nature of this

district a survey progfbmme was undertaken under

the auspices of P.G. Department of Botany, Utkal

University since 1987. Up till now 989

angiospermic taxa under 595 genera belonging to

132 families have been collected, preserved and

housed in the P.G. Department of Botany, Utkal

University, Bhubaneswar. After scrutiny of available

literature, 3 taxa turned out to be new records for

the state of Orissa. Correct nomenclature, short

diagnostic characters, phenology, locality of

collection, notes on ecology and distribution of

these taxa have been provided. Identifications of all

taxa have been confirmed at Central National

Herbarium (CNH), Calcutta.

Hibiscus talbotii (Rakshit) Paul & Nayer,

Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 22. 198. 1980. Saldanha et

Ramesh, in Saldanha FI. Karnataka 1: 252. 1984.

Hibiscus hirtus L. var. talbotii Rakshit, Sci. &Cult.

27: 193. 1961. (Malvaceae).

Erect herbs, up to 0.75 m. high. Branches

densely silky. Leaves long-petioled, ovate, lobed,

sserrate, 4-6 x 3-5 cm, obtuse, pubescent beneath,

absence of gland beneath, 3-nerved from base;

petioles larger than lamina. FIs. axillary, solitary,

long-peduncled, white. Epicalyx present. Sepals and

Corolla densely silky.

FIs. & Fils: December-June.

Specimens examined: Godishai (Cuttack).

H.N. Subudhi , 13607. Confirmed with Talbot 68,

Acc. No. 54871 Holotype (CAL).

Distribution: South West India.

Ecology: Growing in dry areas along the

verge of roads.

Vahlia digyna (Retz.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI.

227, 1891; Ramesh in Saldanha FI. Karnataka 1:

366. 1984. Oldenlandia digyna Retz. Obs. Bot. 4:

23. 1786. Vahlia viscosa Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 89. 1832;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

323

Haines, Bot. Bihar and Orissa 2: 356. 1961 (Repn.

Edn.). (vahlxaceae)

Erect, densenly branched herbs. Leaves

opposite, 1-2 x 0.3 -0.5 cm, lanceolate, apiculate,

densely pubescent all over. FIs. in subsessile,

axillary clustered cyme, 5-merous. FIs. white,

slightly exserted than calyx. Styles 2, connate at

base. Capsules dehiscent apical ly, many-ovuled.

FIs, & Fits. February - May.

Specimens examined: Baliput (Cuttack),

Mahanadi River Bank, H.N. Suhudhi , 13590.

Haines (l.c.) has not cited any locality from Orissa.

Confirmed with K.M. Sebastine, 9820 (CNH).

Illustration: Saldanha FI. Karnataka 1: 366. f.

58A. 1984.

Distribution: India; Ceylon, Persia, Egypt,

Tropical Africa.

Nesaea brevipes Koehne, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 3:

326. 1882, Matthew, FI. Tam. Carnatic 3(1): 610.

1983. (lythraceae).

Herbs up to 20 cm high. Leaves

elliptic-oblanceolate, 1.5-2.5 x 0.6-1. 0 cm, glabrous,

base sub-amplexicaul, apex subacute. FIs. axillary

cymes, subsessile. Sepals pinkish, ciliate. Petals

absent. Seeds many, ovoid.

Refer

Haines, H.H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa,

6 parts. London.

Mishra, G.D. (1981): District Statistical Handbook.

Cuttack.

Mqhanty, M. & Choudhury, B.P. (1984): Addition to the

hydrophytes of Cuttack. Bull. Env. Sci. (1): 9-12.

Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar

and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi.

40. FIVE NEW ADDITIONS TO

Floristically Karnataka has been well studied

by many authors. Important floristic work goes back

to late 19th and early 20th centuries. Cooke

(1909-1910) and Talbot (1909-1911) covered the

northern parts which include the districts of

Shimoga, North Kanara, Belgaum, Dharwar and

Bijapur while Gamble (1915-1936) covered the

southern parts of the state.

Besides those reported in several short papers,

more detailed studies of the vegetation of many

districts have been taken up in recent years. They

FIs. & Frts: January-May.

Specimens examined: Baliput, (Mahanadi

river bank), H.N. Suhudhi , 6633. Confirmed with

Biswas , 114 (CNH).

Illustration: Matthew, Ulus. FI. Tam. Carnatic

f. 181. 1982.

Distribution: Deccan peninsula, East Bengal;

Sri Lanka.

Ecology: Growing in marshy places along

river banks.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. & Head, P.G.

Department of Botany, Utkal University for

providing laboratory facilities and to the authorities

of Department of Science, Technology &

Environment, Govt, of Orissa for providing

financial assistance to the senior author to carryout

this piece of work.

February 27, 1993 H.N. SUBUDHI

B.P. CHOUDHURY

P.G. Department of Botany, Utkal University,

Bhubaneshnswar 751 004, Orissa .

ENCES

Panda, P.C. & Choudhury, B.P. (1984): A preliminary

survey of grass flora of Cuttack district. Bull. Env.

Sci (2): 34-41.

Patnaik, H. (1956): Some useful weeds in and around

Cuttack. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 141-152.

Patnaik, H. & Chayu Patnaik, N.K. (1956): The

Hydrophytes of Cuttack. J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 35(2):

167-170.

THE FLORA OF KARNATAKA

include The flora of Bangalore District by

Ramaswamy and Razi (1973), Flora of Hassan

District by Saldanha and Nicolson (1976), A

Synoptic Flora of Mysore District by Rao and Razi

(1981), Flora of Chikmagalur District by

Yoganarasimhan et al. (1983) and Flora of Coorg

by Keshavamurthy and Yoganarasimhan (1990). In

addition to these, Singh (1988) published Flora of

Eastern Karnataka covering eight districts. In

between Sharma et al. (1984) brought out an

analysis which takes into account all papers

324

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

published until then and relevant to Karnataka.

Flora of Karnataka (Vol. 1) by Saldanha covering all

the districts also appeared in 1984.

Under the scheme ‘Vegetation map of South

India’, French Institute of Pondicherry made several

ecological inventories, especially along the Western

Ghats (Pascal 1988). During such inventories five

species were found to be new additions to the flora

of Karnataka. However, their distribution by

ecological zones is more significant than by

administrative demarcations. Four of the five

species, were recorded from Kodagu (Coorg)

District alone. This region with dryness of 4-5

months is subject to bioclimatic conditions more or

less prevailing in the northern part of Kerala. Many

species characteristic of evergreen forests of Kerala

are found to extend up to the Coorg region which

may also be the northern most limit for such

species.

A brief description of the specimens collected,

updated nomenclature, phenology and some notes

on ecology and distribution of the five species have

been provided in this paper.

DlPTEROCARPACEAE

Dipterocarpus bourdilloni Brandis in J.

Hooker, l.c. PI. t. 2403. 1896, Gamble, FI. Madras

1:58. 1957 (re. ed).

Trees often reaching 45 m height. Flush

densely tomentose. Stipule large, up to 14 x 2 cm,

stellate tomentose without, glabrous within,

caducous leaving annular scar at nodes. Petiole

3.5-7 cm long; lamina ovate to elliptic-ovate, 6-45 x

9-28 cm acute to acuminate at apex, rounded to

subcordate at base, stellate pubescent beneath,

glabrous above; secondary nerves 16-26 pairs.

Inflorescence panicle. Fruit nut-like with 2 calyx

lobes accrescent (16 x 3 cm, 3 nerved and

reticulate); fruiting calyx tube 5-winged.

Specimens examined: Kodagu District :

Kadamakkal R.F., Sampaje range, B.R. Ramesh

1007.

Fruits: November.

To the south of the Palghat gap in the Western

Ghats, where the number of dry months varies from

2 to 4, Dipterocarpus bourdilloni is generally

confined to low altitudes, up to 600 m North of the

Palghat gap with the number of dry months 4-5, it

shows disjunct distribution. Some isolated patches

were encountered near Mukkali (Palghat Dt.) and

Carcoor Ghat (Cannanore Dt.) of Kerala. A patch

was also found near Uppangala in Kadamakal

Reserved Forest which may be the northernmost

limit in the distribution of this species.

Ebenaceae

Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis, Indian Trees

435. 1906; Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 547. 1957 (re. ed.).

Trees 25 m high. Bark black. Petiole 0.6 to 1

cm long, lamina 6.5-18 x 2-4.5 cm, narrow-elliptic

to oblong sometimes oblanceolate, bluntly acute to

acuminate at apex, acute to attenuate at base;

secondary nerves 6-9 pairs; tertiary nerves nearly

percurrent and horizontal to the midrib. Flowers

dioecious, 4-5 merous. Male flowers in axillary

cymes or on old wood; calyx hairy without, 8 mm

long; corolla cream, tubular, to 9 mm long with

reflexed lobes; stamens 12-18 in subequal pairs.

Female flowers in cymose clusters on old wood,

hairy; pedicel to 1.5 cm long; calyx broader at the

middle, 9 mm long, lobes acute; corolla cream, tube

9 mm long and broader at the middle, lobes

reflexed; staminodes 10-11; ovary hairy. Fruit

woody, globose to broadly ovoid, 7 cm across,

glabrous; fruiting calyx, pentagonal.

Specimens examined: Kodagu District:

Kadamakal Reserved Forest, Sampaje Range, B.R.

Ramesh 1018, 1334, D. Franceschi 189; Makut

forest, D. Franceschi 219.

Flowers: February; Fruits; November.

An endemic, cauliflorous tree in the evergreen

forests on the windward side of the Western Ghats,

found between 300 and 1000 m elevations. Present

record in Karnataka is the northernmost limit for

this species.

Diospyros nilagirica Bedd., l.c. t. 136. 1834,

Clarke in J. Hk. FI. Brit. India 3: 566. 1882;

Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 545. 1957 (re. ed.)

Trees reaching up to 20 m. Flush densely

ferruginous tomentose. Petiole to 1 cm long;

leafblade 6.5-18 x 2-4.5 cm narrow elliptic to

narrow oblong, sometimes oblanceolate, acute to

acuminate at apex, acute to attenuate at base,

glabrous when old; secondary nerves 6-9; tertiary

nerves obscure. Fruits axillary solitary globose, to

2.5 cm across. 8-celled; albumen not ruminate.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

325

Specimens examined: Kodagu District:

Gallibedu, Mercara taluk, J.P. Pascal 859.

Fruits: March.

It is mostly confined to evergreen forests at

the medium elevation (850-1500 m) in the Western

Ghats. Generally in its area of distribution, the

number of dry months varies from 2 to 4. In Kerala

it has been recorded in Pirmed, Thekkadi -

Devicolam, and Munnar (all Idikki District). In

Tamil Nadu it has been found in the High Wavy

mountains, the Anamalais and the Nilgiris. Near

Gallibedu, it is rare and has been encountered along

the margins of the sholas at 1100 m elevation.

Diospyros affinis Thw. Enum. PI. Zeyl. 179.

1860. Beddome, l.c. 127. 1871 Clarke in J. Hk. FI.

Brit. India 3: 566. 1882; Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 544.

1957 (re. ed.).

Trees to about 10 m in height. Petiole 4-10

mm in long; Leaf blade narrow elliptic to elliptic

lanceolate, 5-9 x 1. 7-3.2 cm obtuse to subacute at

apex, acute to attenuate at base, sparsely puberulous

when young; secondary nerves 8-10 pairs,

lowermost 2 pairs generally close and acute in

angle; reticulation obscure especially on upper

surface in mature leaves. Male inflorescence

axillary cymes of 3 to 10 sessile flowers, calyx

pilose 4-lobed; corolla tubular, cream, densely

pilose without, glabrous within, 1.1 cm long,

4-lobed; stamens 12 in unequal pairs, connectives

slightly hairy on the back; pistillode densely pilose.

Fruits globose elliptic 1.5 cm across, seeds 4;

endosperm ruminate.

Specimens examined: Mysore District,

Kollegal Division, Madeshwaramalai Reserved

Forest, B.R. Ramesh 1230, near Odayarapalya,

Edyarhalli Reserved Forest, B.R. Ramesh 705.

Male flowers: June; Fruits: January.

Notes: Diospyros affinis is a common species

in the drier zones of Sri Lanka (Kostermans 1981).

Beddome (1871) reported this species from

Tirunelveli hills. However, after his report, there are

no subsequent collections either in Tirunelveli

region or in any other part of India. In our recent

survey we have located this species not only in the

Tirunelveli hills (in Mundanthurai sanctuary) but

also in Dharmapuri Division (Mulakkadu R.F.,

Chitteri R.F. and Thirthagiri) in the northern part of

Tamil Nadu and in the Kollegal Division of

Karnataka. It is, however, only occasionally

encountered in all these regions and is found along

dry stream beds in dry deciduous forests.

Fabaceae (Faboideae)

Kunstleria keralensis C.N. Mohanan & N.C.

Nair, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 90: 207.

1981.

Liana with scaly bark. Leaves imparipinnate,

5-7 foliolate, rachis 3-13 cm long; leaflets 8-18.5 x

3-6.5 cm, elliptic-oblong to lanceolate,

caudate-acuminate with blunt tip at apex, acute to

rounded at base, chartaceous; secondary nerves 4-7

pairs; reticulation prominent, deeply impressed

above and strongly raised beneath. Pods in panicles,

to 12 x 3.5 cm, oblong, flat, reticulate, seeds single,

4 x 2.2 cm flat, kidney shaped.

Specimens examined: Kodagu district;

Kadamakal R.F., Sampaje range, D. Franceschi 460 B.

Fruits: February.

Kunstleria keralensis , a new genus recorded

for India and a new species in the genus has been

described by Mohanan and Nair (1981) based on the

collection from Quilon District, Kerala. Although,

in our survey, this species was commonly found

throughout the low and medium elevations in the

evergreen forests of the Western Ghats from South

Kerala up to Agumbe (Shimoga Dt., Karnataka), we

could not identify this earlier due to the lack of

reproductive material. However, we have included

this species in our vegetative key (Pascal and

Ramesh 1987) as an unidentified liana.

July 25, 1992 B.R. RAMESH

J. P. PASCAL

French Institute, Pondicherry 605 001.

Gamble, J.S. (1916-1935): Flora of the Presidency of

Madras. 3 vols.

References

Cooke, T. (1901-1908): Flora of presidency of Bombay. 3

vols.

326

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): Flora of British India. 7 vols.

Keshavamurthy, K.R. & Yoganarsimhan, S.N. (1990):

Flora of Coorg (Kodagu), Karnataka, India - With

Data on Medicinal Plants and Chemical

Constituents. Vimsat Publishers, Bangalore.

Kostermans, A.J.G.H. (1981): Ebenaceae in A Revised

Handbook of Flora of Ceylon (ed: Dassanayake &

F.R. Fosberg), Vol. 3, Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt

Ltd., New Delhi.

Mohan an, C.N. & Nair, N.C. (1981): Kunstleria Prain -

A new genus record for India and a new species in

the genus. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 90:

207.

Pascal, J.P. (1988): Wet Evergreen Forests of the Western

Ghats of India. Inst. fr. Pondichery, trav. sec. sci.

tech. Tome XX bis, Pondicherry.

Pascal, J.P. & Ramesh, B.R. (1987): A field key to the

trees and lianas of the Western Ghats (India). Inst

fr. Pondichery, trav. sec. sci. tech. Tome XXIII,

Pondicherry.

Ramaswamy, S.V. & Razi, B.A. (1973): Flora of

Bangalore District Prasaranga, University of

Mysore.

Rao, R.R. & Razi, B.A. (1981): A Synoptic Flora of

Mysore District Today & Tomorrows Printers and

Publishers, New Delhi.

Saldanha, C.J. (1984): Flora of Karnataka, Vol. 1. Oxford

& IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Saldanha, C.J. & Nicolson, D.H. (1976): Flora of Hassan

District Karnataka, India. Amerind Publishing Co.

Pvt Ltd., New Delhi. #

S harm a, B.D., Singh, N.P., Raghavan, R.S. & Deshpande,

U.R. (1984): Flora of Karnataka: Analysis.

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Singh, N.P. (1988): Flora of Eastern Karnataka. Vols. 2.

Mittal Publications, Delhi.

Talbot, W.A. (1909): Forest Flora of Bombay and Sind. 2

Vols., Poona.

Yoganarasimhan, S.N., Subramanyan, K. & Razi, B.A.

(1983): Flora of Chikmagalur District, Karnataka,

India. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun.

108TH ANNUAL REPORT AND ACCOUNTS

FOR THE YEAR 1ST APRIL 1991 TO

3 1ST MARCH 1992

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

: Prof P.V. Bole

: Mr Humayun Abdulali

: Mrs D.S. Variava

: Mr Kisan Mehta

: Mr Ulhas Rane

(from 173.1990 to 133.1992)

: Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal

(From 143.1992)

: Mr Bittu Sahgal

(From 173.1990 to 12.7.1991)

: Dr A. N. D. Nanavati

(From 13.7.1991 to 13.3.1992)

: Mr C.G. Wakankar

(From 14.3.1992)

: Dr Robert B. Gritbh

(From 1.4.1991 to 9-12-1991)

: Dr Jay S Samant

(From 10.12.1991)

MEMBERS

Mr M.R. Almeida, Vice Admiral M.P. Awati (Retd), Dr Erach K Bharucha, Maj. Gen. E.D’Souza

(Retd.), Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal, Dr Ashok Kothari, Mr Sunjoy Monga, Dr Shashi Menon, Dr

A. N. D. Nanavati, Dr Parvish Pandya

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Dr Lahiri Choudhury, Mr M. Y. Ghorpade, Prof Anil Gore, Mr. N. D. Jayal, Mr Ullas Karanth,

Mr Praveen Pardesi, Mr Karthikeya Sarabhai, Mr Toby Sinclair, Lt. Gen. Baljit Singh, AVSM,

VSM, Mr Romulus Whataker

AUDITORS

M/s Habib and Company, Chartered Accountants, Bombay 400 003.

Registered Office : Hombill House, Dr Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

President

Vice Presidents

Hon. Secretary

Hon . Treasurer

Acting Director

Director

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

108th Annua! Report

Report of the Executive Committee for the year ended 31 March 1992

During the year 1st April 1991 to 31st

March 1992, the Executive Committee met 24

times. The various Sub-committees also met

periodically and provided the needed advice to

the Executive Committee. The Advisory

Committee members also gave advice on

several issues concerning the Society’s

activities.

Mr Bittu Sahgal, who was elected as the

Honorary Treasurer in March 1990, resigned

his post in July 1991. In his place, Dr A N D

Nanavati was elected as the Honorary

Treasurer.

On the retirement of Mr J C Daniel as

Director of the Society on 31st March 1991,

Dr Robert B Grubh was made the Acting

Director from 1.4.1991. Mr J C Daniel was

elected Honorary member of the Society. Dr

Jay S Samant joined the Society in December

1991 as Director.

The newly elected Executive Committee

for the years 1992 and 1993 met on 14.3.1992

for the first time. This Committee included two

members who were nominated by the

Committee in terms of the amended Rules and

Regulations.

It was indeed the Society’s privilege that

Shri R Venkatraman, the then President of

India, kindly consented to become the Patron

of the Society.

The Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History (SACON) started functioning

at Coimbatore in November 1991 as an

autonomous body of the Ministry of

Environment, Forests and Wildlife. A Joint

Research Advisory Council has been formed

with three representatives each from BNHS

and SACON to formulate and implement

scientific projects. The first Annual General

Meeting of the SACON was held at Hornbill

House in March 1992.

During the year, the Society suffered

serious losses in the demise of Mr Rajiv

Gandhi, our Patron, Dr P J Deoras, a former

Executive Committee member, Mr J G Bodhe,

Consulting Engineer to the Society and Dr R

M Naik, a former member of the Advisory

Committee.

The activities undertaken by the Society

during the year through various

Sub-Committees are indicated below :

COLLECTIONS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson Mr M R Almeida

Members Mr H Abdulali

Dr B F Chhapgar

Dr Meena Haribal

Mr Nitin Jamdar

Mr Andy Mendonsa

Mr N D Mulla

Honorary Secretary Mr Ulhas Rane

Honorary Treasurer Mr Bittu Sahgal

Acting Director Dr Robert B Grubh

(1.4.91 to 9.12.91)

13

328

Director Dr Jay Samant

(from 10.12.91)

Staff members Mr A G Sekar

Mr Manoj Muni

Dr (Mrs) S Unnithan

Convenor Mr N Chaturvedi

Air-conditioning of the ‘Collections’

Rooms and rearranging the ‘Collections’ were

completed during the year. The Society is

thankful to M/s Batliboi & Co. Ltd. for

completing and commissioning the unit and to

the BEST authorities for the prompt supply of

electricity to run the unit.

All the specimens in the Collections were

periodically cleaned and checked throughout

the year.

The Parliament Committee, Gen. S F

Rodrigues, Chief of Army, Ms Bakul Patel,

Sheriff of Bombay and Dr A P Jamkhedkar,

Director of Archives and Museum, Govt, of

Maharashtra visited the Collections.

Mammals Section

Work of computerisation of the

card-index data was continued.

The ‘Collections’ department assisted

students and members in their studies on

certain species and identification of specimens.

A collaborative project on resurvey of

‘Mammals of India’ was initiated with the

Harrison Zoological Museum (HZM) of U.K.

Pilot study projects on ‘Fruit Bats of Bombay’

and ‘Hair structure study of Indian Mammals’

were undertaken during the year.

Reptiles & Amphibians Section

This year 1100 collection data has been

appended in the computer. During a trip to

Matheran in July 1991, 17 specimens were

collected. Based on their analysis, two papers

were submitted for publication in the Journal.

One of the scientists presented a paper at

the First International Conference of the

IUCN/ Species Survival Commission - Indian

Subcontinent Reptile and Amphibian

Specialist Group, held at Bhubaneswar, in

February 1992.

Birds Section

The catalogue of some specimens of birds

in BNHS Collection was published in the

Journal.

Entomology Section

200 specimens of butterflies collected

from Kerala by a member were received.

Specimens of bugs, beetles, butterflies,

dragonflies, lacewing flies and insects

collected on Leea plant were identified. A tag

with the message ‘Inform BNHS’ was

designed and attached individually on

butterflies to study their migration. Four

papers were published/accepted for publication

in the journal.

Herbarium Section

Data on 2050 specimens was entered into

the computer.

177 new herbarium sheets were prepared

and registered (specimens collected from

Manas Wildlife Sanctuary).

Bharatpur (Keoladeo) Ecology Project’s

collection of plants was added to the

‘Collections’.

LIBRARY SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson

Dr Ashok Kothari

329

The renovation of the Library has given

it the much deserved facelist. The segregated

air-conditioned ‘Reference’ section has

provided the much needed security for the old

and rare books.

The Society organised an exhibition of

rare books, which received enthusiastic

response not only from members but also from

the press and public. A proposal to

computerise the library has been approved by

the Executive Committee.

At the end of March 1992, the books in

the library stood at 11,790 (including bound

volumes of periodicals). In 1991, in all 168

books were added to the library - 8 books were

received from the publishers for favour of

review in the Journal, 32 were received as

complimentary /donation and 128 books were

purchased for the library and various projects.

MEMBERSHIP AND PROGRAMMES

SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal

The membership at the end of December

1991 was as follows :

Although the membership has increased

in 1991 as compared to 1990, there is need to

increase it substantially. A questionnaire was

sent to members in August 1991 to find out

their desired involvement/liking in various

activities of the Society. The replies received

are being looked into.

Members Mr S D Bhaumik

Dr Ashok Kothari

Annual Nature Camps at Sikkim and

sanctuaries in South India were organised.

330

Overnight weekend camps were arranged at

Bhimashanker, Sacred Grove, Bhanda-rdhara,

Lohgad Fort near Lonavala, Suryamal, Dapoli,

Kanchad Forest, Supa Farm, Ulhas and

Vaitarna valleys. A nature trek was organised

from Amboli to Dodamarg. Weekend outings

were arranged at IIT campus, Powai, Borivli

National Park, Tungareshwar, Palasdari lake,

Tulsi lake, Kanheri Cave, Bhoj lake and

Kamala Bird Sanctuary. A waterfowl count

was conducted at Powai lake and Elephanta

Island.

A quiz programme on Indian Wildlife

was conducted during the Wildlife Week. The

members also participated in a walk for

conservation of the Asiatic Lion. Several

scientific lectures, slide shows and films were

arranged for the benefit of members and local

public.

On the occasion of the birth anniversary

of Dr Salim Ali on 12.11.1991, the Mayor of

Bombay, Mr Diwakar Raote named the traffic

island near Hornbill House as ‘Padma

Vibhushan Dr Salim Ali Chowk\ We are

grateful to Municipal Corporation of Greater

Bombay for permitting us to maintain the

island and to Mr S P Godrej for helping the

Society in putting up the garden.

A Charity Film Show was arranged in

January 1992 to raise funds for the Society. A

souvenir was also released on the occasion by

Ms Bakul Patel, Sheriff of Bombay. We are

thankful to all advertisers, donors and

members for their patronage and

encouragement. Mr T V Sowrirajan played an

important role in this activity.

A photographic competition and

exhibition was held during February-March

1992. A total of 361 colour prints and 462

colour slides were viewed by a Panel of Judges

consisting of Mr Sharad Devare, Mr R A

Acharya and Mr Sunjoy Monga. The Society

is grateful to the judges for adjudging the prize

winners..

NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES

SUB-COMMITTEE

funded the following projects:

Salim Ali Loke Wan Tho Scholarships

1. Ecological and behavioural studies of

the Indian Black Ibis at Rajkot - Ph D

Programme - Scholar : Mr Sachin Vyas -

Guide - Dr V C Soni, Department of Bios-

ciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

This study was to survey the microhabitats

of the Indian Black Ibis for foraging and

feeding.

331

2. Feeding and breeding ecology of the

Openbilled Stork in Andhra Pradesh -

Ph D Programme - Scholar: Ms Mehrab

Johnson - Guide: Dr J V Ramana Rao,

Department of Zoology, Osmania Univer-

sity, Hyderabad.

Population estimation by visual counts and

photographic evidence for behavioural

traits were obtained.

3. The study of the bird life of scrub in the

forests in and around Delhi - M Sc Thesis

- Scholar : Mr Vivek Menon, New Delhi -

Guide: Dr R B Grubh, BNHS.

This study surveyed the bird species in the

study area, and identified habitat preferen-

ces of birds in four areas.

Education and Research Fund

1. Floristic studies in the Sanctuaries of

Orissa - Scholar: Dr B P Choudhary,

Professor of Botany, Utkal University,

Orissa.

A survey of plants in some parks and

sanctuaries were conducted.

2. Survey and natural history observations

on the Amphibian Fauna around

Sringeri - Scholar : Mr S VKrishnamurthy

- Research Supervisors - Dr Katre Shakun-

tala and Dr S Ravichandra Reddy, Profes-

sors, Dept, of Zoology, Bangalore Univer-

sity.

Surveys were conducted in many localities

around Sringeri and specimens were col-

lected.

Plant Studies Fund

Pilot studies for ecological survey of

Borivli National Park - Scholar : Mrs

Sashi Rekha Iyer, BNHS Member. A sur-

vey of all the plants in the Borivli National

Park was conducted.

Projects initiated with seed money

1. Study of the Guindy National Park - Its

Habitat Evaluation for Conservation

Strategies - Scholar : Madras Naturalists

Society.

Habitat evaluation of the Park was done

and a total of 80 quadrats was studied.

2. Ecology and Behaviour of Lampyridae

around Pune - Scholar : Ms Varsha

Karekar, University of Poona.

A general survey was made of ecological

conditions and the population densities of

Lampyridae were studied.

Ongoing Projects

Pirojsha Godrej Fund

1. A study of the Danaine Butterflies -

Scholar: Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal, BNHS.

Education and Research Fund

2. Documentation of Insect Fauna of the

Borivli National Park - Mr Naresh

Chaturvedi, BNHS.

NATURE EDUCATION

SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson Dr Parvish Pandya

Members Mrs Sadhana Rasa!

Dr Sanjay Bhagwat

Mrs Bijoor

Mr Shreekant Pol

Dr Arun Joshi

Mr Vilas Shingre

Mr Unmesh Brahme

Hon. Secretary Mr Ulhas Rane

332

Hon.Treasurer

Acting Director

Director

Mr Bittu Sahgal

Dr Robert B Grubh

(1.4.1991 - 9.12.1991)

Dr Jay S Samant

(From 10.12.1991)

Activities for Scouts

Some students were examined for the

proficiency badges (friends to animals). A talk

illustrated with slides on ‘Our Common Birds’

was arranged for the Scout and Girl Guide

Instructors at Bharat Scouts and Guides.

Convenor Mrs Shailaja R Grubh

A circular on Society’s Nature Education

activities was sent to about 500 schools in and

around Bombay inviting their participation in

the programmes. During the year,

approximately 7,000 students took advantage

of different programmes. Apart from students,

nearly 100 teachers and 150 trainee teachers

participated in the training programmes on

Environment Education. Besides, the

programmes have reached rural areas of

Maharashtra, Army and Navy personnel and

colleges in Tamil Nadu.

World Forestry Day Programme

To commemorate the World Forestry

Day, a quiz programme was organised in

February 1992. A painting competition was

also organised for school children at different

levels.

Environmental Awareness Course

This course with the theme "Ponds and

Forests for Prosperity and Posterity" was

conducted in January 1992 at Nagercoil,

Kanyakumari Dt. Professors, lecturers and

students from many colleges were attended the

course. The course was conducted through the

generous funding by the Ministry of

Environment, Forests and Wildlife,

Government of India and Asian Wetland

Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, and the Society wishes

to thank them for their help.

Other Camps

The Institute for Psychologically

Handicapped, Thane, Bombay and Indradhanu,

Pune, had organised survey camps for

students. A talk illustrated with slides was

arranged for them. A slogan competition was

held as a part of the Earth Summit in

collaboration with the British Council. 100

students from Marathi Vidnyan Parishad at

Pune/Bombay were shown the Society’s

collections and were introduced to Nature

Education activities. 42 field trips to Borivli

National Park and 3 to Karnala were

conducted during the year.

Students were taken to' the Prince of

Wales Museum (14 visits), Victoria Gardens

(6 visits) and Taraporewala Aquarium (10

visits). During the year 6 new schools were

introduced to the Nature Education Scheme. 5

talks were given on All India Radio on Nature

Education.

PERSONNEL SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson

Members

Hon.Secretary

Hon.Treasurer

Mr Kisan Mehta

(till 17.4.1991)

Dr A N D Nanavati

(from 18.4.1991)

Mrs D S Variava

Vice Adm M P Awati (Retd.)

Dr PR Saraiya

Mr Ulhas Rane

Mr Bittu Sahgal

333

Acting Director Dr Robert B Grubh

(1.4.91 to 9.12.91)

Director DrJaySamant

(from 10.12.1991)

Convenor Mr S V Ramakrishnan

During the year under review after

extensive discussions with the staff of the

Society, the Employees Service Rules were

introduced, effective from 1.1.1991. The pay

structure of staff was also revised as from

1.1.1991. The other important actions taken by

the Sub-Committee were a) re-utilisation of

services of staff attached to Projects at

Bharatpur and Pt.Calimere that ended in June

1991, b) recruitment to some posts including

that of the Director and c) taking up on Leave

& Licence basis a flat at Gokuldham in

Goregaon (E) as dormitory accommodation for

BNHS staff.

PRODUCT SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman

Members

Hon.Secretary

Hon.Treasurer

Acting Director

Director

Convenor

Maj Gen E D ’Souza (Retd)

Mr Sunjoy Monga

Mr Ajay Varadachary

Mr Ulhas Rane

Mr Bittu Sahgal

Dr Robert B Grubh

(1.4.1991 -9.12.1991)

Dr Jay S Samant

(From 10.12.1991)

Mr J Rodrigues

The Sub-Committee attended to the usual

sale of greeting cards and calendars. Few

additional products like caps, T-shirts and

coffee mugs were introduced during the year.

A renovated sale counter has been put up for

prominent display of Society’s products.

In May 1992, the Society put up a stall

in the Exhibition organised by Kuchi Mahila

Sangh, where the Society’s publications and

products were displayed.

PROJECTS SUB-COMMITTEE

During the year, the BNHS handled 6

major field ecological research projects. The

progress of research work under each of these

projects is detailed below:

1. Bird Migration Project

Research activities were carried out at

Point Calimere (Tamil Nadu), Sriharikota

(Andhra Pradesh), and Chhari Dhand (Kutch,

Gujarat). Field team from Point Calimere

conducted short term ringing camps at

Kodaikanal in the Western Ghats to monitor

fall and spring migration of passerines as well

as altitudinal movements of birds of the area.

334

Study of the populations and migratory

patterns of birds of the Eastern Ghats and

study of the bird communities of Sriharikota

Island were started.

2. Elephant Ecology Project

Current year’s study at Mudumalai and

Denkanikotta (Tamil Nadu) and Dalma (Bihar)

laid emphasis on population dynamics, the size

of the elephant population in the study area,

the population trend in the study area and the

impact of poaching of males on the

populations. Ranging behaviour and social

organisation and behaviour of the elephants

was also studied. Information on grass

dynamics, habitat utilisation by elephants,

elephant habitat interaction and ecological

significance of critical microhabitats were

analysed.

3. Birds of Prey Project

4. Grassland Ecology Project

On the Principal Investigator of the

Project joining the Aligarh Muslim University

(AMU) in June 1991, the Project was

implemented jointly by BNHS and AMU with

the approval of the GOI and USFWS. Based

on the research programme undertaken by the

BNHS earlier on the Great Indian Bustards,

Lesser and Bengal Florican, three types of

grassland habitats have been studied and

surveyed in some detail. Field stations were

established at Dudwa, Nanaj and Jaisalmer.

5. Point Caliinere Ecology Project

The Project ended on 30th June 1991.

The draft Report has been prepared.

6. Bharatpur (Keoladeo) Ecology Project

The project ended on 30th June 1991. The

summary report on the project was released in

July 1991 at Bombay.

Surveys for raptors were conducted in

various sanctuaries and national parks of

South, Central and Northern India. Four

resident species of raptor were found in Buxa,

Nokrek and Balpakram National Parks. The

most interesting find of the survey was the

sighting of the nesting pair of Redfooted

Falcon in the Jaggau forest outside the

Namdapha National Park. The bird was

reported nesting in North Cachar in 1928 and

since then there was no record of it.

Raptor trapping method was

demonstrated during a workshop organised

with experts from USFWS at Banni

Grasslands (Gujarat). In Corbett National Park,

previously unrecorded facts of behaviour were

observed on the Lesser Greyheaded Fishing

Eagle and Serpent Eagles.

7. Bird Hazard Research Cell

The Cell continued its activities through

the kind funding by AR&DB, Ministry of

Defence, Govt, of India. The AR&DB also

sponsored the visit of Dr S M Satheesan, to

the 21st meeting of the Bird Strike Committee,

Europe, held at Jerusalem, Israel, in March

1992.

PUBLICATIONS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman

Members

Hon.Secretary

Hon.Treasurer

Acting Director

Mr Bittu Sahgal

Dr B F Chhapgar

Mr Sunjoy Monga

Mr Ulhas Rane

Mr Bittu Sahgal

Dr Robert B Grubh

(1.4.91 to 9.12.91)

335

Director Dr Jay Samant

(from 10.12.91)

Convenor Mr Ajay Varadachary

Demand for various titles, in particular

The ‘Book of Indian Birds’ was reprinted

during the year; several other books will be

taken up for reprinting subsequently.

The Hornbill continues to be well

received by members. The change to a larger

format has permitted the inclusion of more

matter as well as more attractive layouts, with

the traditional emphasis on photographs and

illustrations.

Funding for the BNHS-NCSTC Hornbill

series of booklets on different aspects of

wildlife and the environment has been

received from the Department of Science &

Technology, Government of India, and work

on the series is in progress. A total of 36

booklets will be produced in English and

regional languages. The Pictorial Guide has

been extensively revised, with the addition of

textual descriptions, distribution maps, more

detailed identification characters, etc. The

book will be produced in collaboration with

the Guide Book Co. of Hong Kong.

SALIM ALI NATURE CONSERVATION

FUND SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson

Members

Hon. Secretary

Hon. Treasurer

Acting Director

Mrs D S Variava

Mr H K Divekar

Mr Rusi Engineer

Mr JC Daniel

Mr Ulhas Rane

Mr Bittu Sahgal

Dr R B Grubh

(1.4.91 to 9.12.91)

Director Dr Jay S. Samant

(from 10.12.91)

Convenor Mr Bharat Bhushan

(up to August 1991)

Mr Goutam Narayan

(September 1991 onwards)

1. Research projects funded

a. Large Dams

A sum of Rs.30,000/- was given to

Kalpavriksha, a Delhi based voluntary or-

ganisation, to support a project entitled

Post Construction Evaluation of Large

Dams. Detailed studies at three dams were

carried out and a preliminary report on one

dam site was prepared.

b. Sharavati and Pooyamkutty

SANCF had received requests from

activists in Sharavati valley in Karnataka

and Pooyamkutty in Kerala who are con-

cerned about the planned hydroelectric

projects in these areas. One of the former

BNHS scientists has surveyed the areas

and submitted report on Sharavati. The

report on Pooyamkutty study is under

preparation.

c. Blacknecked Cranes in Bhutan

A sum of Rs. 10,000 was sanctioned

to a member for a study of Blacknecked

Cranes in Bhutan. The report gives the

current status of the cranes in Bhutan.

d. Bhimashankar

The research project on wildlife-

people conflict at Bhimashankar Sanctuary

was completed. Follow up action was in-

itiated with Maharashtra state government.

336

2. Networking and Documentation

Publications and clippings on

environmental conservation received from

Centre for Education and Documentation,

Centre for Science and Environment, Forum

for Environmental Journalists (FEJI), Kerala

Forest Research Institute etc., are being

maintained by SANCF and they are available

with BNHS library.

3. Seminars, Training Workshops and

Lectures

a. Public Hearing and Preparations for

UNCED

A Public Hearing on Environment

and Development was organised in Bom-

bay by SANCF on 16 -17 November 1991

as part of preparations for NGO participa-

tion in the UNCED (Earth Summit) at Rio.

The discussion focused on wildlife and

nature conservation, policies and

framework for sustainable development,

urban development and industrialisation,

and concept of big dams with special ref-

erence to Sardar Sarovar Project.

On 28 January 1992, a talk on global

perspective of some agenda items for

UNCED - ‘Eco-politics’ - was arranged.

b. Dr Salim Ali Memorial Lecture

On the occasion of Dr. Sdlim Ali’s

95th birthday on 12 November 1991, a

lecture on the environmental problems of

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands was

delivered by Rev. Fr. Cecil J. Saldanha.

c. Armed Forces Cell

The Society committed itself to hold

training workshops for Army officers

during the Army Chief’s visit to BNHS on

20 December 1991. An Armed Forces Cell

was constituted and five workshops - one

for each Command of the Army will be

held during the course of next one year.

4. Environmental Issues

a. Andamans

Those present during Dr Sdlim Ali’s

birthday function passed a resolution ex-

pressing their concern for the preservation

of natural resources of the Andaman is-

lands and recommending certain remedial

actions. The Society is in touch with the

Ministry of Environment and Forests

regarding the conservation actions on the

islands.

b. Narmada

Several meetings of the environmen-

tal activists on Narmada project were or-

ganised at the Society during the year.

c. Darlaghat

The decision of the government to

denotify a part of the Darlaghat Sanctuary

was a matter of concern for the SANCF. A

team from the Society’s Environment Im-

pact Assessment Cell visited the site.

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Prof. P V Bole

Members Mr M R Almeida

Dr B F Chhapgar

Prof. Parvish Pandya

Dr Shashikumar N Menon

Mr J C Daniel

Dr V S Vijayan

337

Hon.Secretary

Hon.Treasurer

Acting Director

Director

Convenor

Mr Ulhas Rane

Mr Bittu Sahgal

DrRBGrubh

(1.4.91 to 9.12.91)

Mr Jay Samant

(from 10.12.91)

Mr N Chaturvedi

Dr Jay Samant took over as Head of the

BNHS University Department since January

1992.

Zoology

An application has been made to the

University of Bombay, requesting them to

increase the number of seats for M.Sc. (by

Research) and Ph.D. degree in Zoology.

The details of students who qualified/are

working for higher degree are given below:

a) Students who completed Ph.D.

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Mr Ravi Sankaran Mr J C Daniel

Mr T Sunderamoorthy -do-

b) Students who have submitted synopsis for

Ph.D.

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Mr Goutam Narayan Mr J C Daniel

Mr Ranjit Manakadan -do-

c) Students working for Ph.D. degree

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Mr Bharat Bhushan Mr J C Daniel

Mr Prakash Rao -do-

Mr Alagar Rajan Dr Robert B Grubh

d) Students registered for Ph.D.

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Mr N Chaturvedi Mr J C Daniel

Mr. N K Ramachandran -do-

e) Student who has submitted thesis for M.Sc.

(by Research)

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Mr Shahid Ali Mr JC Daniel

f) Students who continue to work for M.Sc.

(by Research)

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Mr Gurmeet Singh Dr Robert B Grubh

Mr Vivek Menon -do-

Mrs Nikita V Mathur Mr J C Daniel

Botany

The term of temporary recognition given

by University of Bombay to the Society for

guiding students for M.Sc. (by Research) and

Ph.D. in Botany expired in June 1992. An

application has been sent to the University

seeking permanent recognition to the Society

for awarding the degrees.

Student who continued to work for M.Sc.

(by Research)

Name of the Student Name of the Guide

Ms Neelam Patil

Mr M R Almeida

338

Donations:

The following donations were received during the year :

339

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Executive Committee acknowledges

with thanks the assistance given to the Society

by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and

Wildlife and the Ministry of Defence of the

Government of India, the United States Fish

and Wildlife Services, the Government of

Maharashtra, the Charity Commissioner,

Bombay, the ‘A* Ward Officer of the Municipal

Corporation of Greater Bombay, the

authorities of the Prince of Wales Museum of

Western India, the concerned officers of

various state governments where Society’s

research stations are functioning, the bankers,

the British Dy.High Commission, and US

Consular Office. It also thanks the several

donors, committed members and dedicated

staff for their wholehearted support in the

various activities of the Society.

Meena Haribal

Honorary Secretary

Bombay 400 023.

23 November, 1992.

340

HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH 1992

The following points need to be

highlighted while considering the Accounts

and Auditor’s report for the year 1991-92.

a) Income by way of sale of books, calendars

and greeting cards declined from Rs. 8.2

lacs to Rs. 3.9 lacs, resulting in a lower

operating surplus.

b) The total funds owned by the Society went

up by Rs. 22.08 lacs as follows :

i) Increase in Life Membership

Fund Rs. 1.99 lacs

ii) Increase in Corpus Fund

(Schedule A) Rs. 7.10 lacs

iii) Increase in other funds

(Schedule B) Rs. 12.99 lacs

Rs. 22.08 lacs

The increase of Rs. 12.99 lacs under (iii)

above may be compared with the

corresponding figure of Rs. 7.77 lacs for the

previous year.

In view of the financial situation

obtaining now, the fundraising efforts need to

be stepped up considerably in the coming

days.

C G Wakankar

Honorary Treasurer, :

Bombay 400 023.

9 January 1993

HABIB & CO.

Chartered Accountants

341

Patharia Place

75, Mohamedali Road,

Bombay 400 003.

AUDITORS REPORT

Date : 09.01.1993

Re: BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

(Registration No.F-244 Bom)

We have audited the attached Balance

Sheet of the Society as at March 31, 1992 and

also the annexed Income & Expenditure

Account for the financial year ended on that

date and report that in our opinion and to the

best of our information and according to the

explanations given to us:

(a) The accounts are maintained regularly and

in accordance with the provisions of the

Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 subject to

the observation that as per past practice

separate Receipts & Payments Account has

been drawn for the Nature Education

Scheme and the same has not been incor-

porated in the accounts of the Society. In

this context, we observe that as per the

accounts so drawn up, a sum of

Rs. 1,02, 966.87 is considered to be due

from the Nature Education Scheme as at

the end of the year. We have been given to

understand that on settlement of the claim

for arrears of the grant from the govern-

ment, the entire amount would be adjusted.

(b) The receipts and disbursements have been

properly and correctly shown in the ac-

counts, subject to the observations made in

other paras.

(c) The cash balance and the vouchers in the

custody of the accountant on the date of

audit were in agreement with the books of

accounts.

(d) The books, deeds, accounts, vouchers

and/or other documents or records required

by us were produced to us.

(e) The register of movable and immovable

properties has been maintained. However,

the changes therein have remained to be

communicated to the Regional Office. In

the context of the equipments and other

such capital items acquired out of the

various grants and other project funds, we

observe that initially the cost of such equip-

ments etc. is charged to the relevant project

accounts and on completion of the projects,

the Society generally seeks the pennission

of the concerned sponsoring authorities to

retain such assets as are found to be useful

for other projects and/or purposes and on

obtaining such approvals, the necessary

entries are passed in the books of accounts

to record the residual value of such items.

We observe that pending such approval, the

Society is actually utilising a number of

such capital assets including vehicles for

other projects. It will be appreciated, if the

matter is followed up with the concerned

342

authorities to regularise the matter and to

bring into account the value of such assets.

We have been given to understand that a

record of such assets is being separately

maintained by the project officers.

(f) The Dy.Director (Accounts) appeared

before us and furnished the necessary in-

formation required by us.

(g) We are not aware of any property or funds

of the Society having been applied for any

objects or purpose other than the objects of

the Society.

(h) The following items were outstanding for

more than one year:

Dues towards Supplies

& Services 19,992.05

Loans to staff 15,475.00

Advance for expenses 29,300.00

Other dues 41,130.05

Included under the head ‘other dues' are

certain expenses amounting to

Rs. 12,433.75, which have been incurred in

connection with certain projects and pend-

ing certain clarification sought from the

concerned sponsoring authority have

remained to be adjusted. Included under

the said head is a sum of Rs.6,534/- con-

sidered to be due from the Bihar State

Government, which is being carried for-

ward for the last few years. Considering the

age of the said outstanding the recovery

thereof is not free from doubts. The matter

may be reviewed and if the said amount be

considered to be irrecoverable, the same

may be written off. During the year under

report a sum of Rs.3,441/- representing

dues considered irrecoverable has been

written off. We have been assured that the

other outstanding balances are considered

good and realisable.

We also observe that a small difference of

Rs. 175.30 noticed in the books of accounts

has been charged to Income & Expenditure

a/c. The same may also be confirmed in the

next meeting of the Managing Committee.

Incidentally, it may be stated that included

under the head ‘advances to employees for

project and other expenses’ are the amount

of two remittances aggregating to

Rs.8, 199.25 made per Demand Drafts,

which are stated to have been lost in transit.

We are informed that the matter is being

followed up with the concerned Bank.

Pending the outcome of the enquiries, the

said amount is considered good.

. •' ' t.

(i) The renovation work of the building in

occupation of the Society, which was taken

up in the earlier year was completed during

the year. The expenditure incurred during

the year on that count amounted to

Rs.25, 755.75. The work, as stated in our

last report accompanying the statement of

accounts for the year ended 31/3/1991, was

carried out through a building contractor.

No tenders were called for the said work.

However, as stated in our last report,

limited quotations had been called for from

certain contractors and the contract was

awarded to the concerned contractor on his

quotation being approved.

(j) We are not aware of any money of the

Society having been invested in contraven-

tion of Sec. 35 of the Bombay Public Trust

Act, 1950.

343

(k) We are not aware of any immovable

property of the Society, therefore, the ques-

tion of alienation of any property contrary

to the provisions of Sec. 36 of the Bombay

Public Trust Act, 1950 does not arise.

(l) i) In regard to the expenses charged to

various grants and funds we have relied on

the information given to us and the authen-

tication of the Hon. Secretary and

Hon. Treasurer that the expenses so

charged relate to these grants and have

been spent on the specific objects for which

the grants were received. While checking

the statement of accounts in regard to the

expenditure incurred at various camps, we

have relied on the authorisation by the

Hon.Secretary and Hon.Treasurer, as to the

reasonableness of the expenditure.

ii) We observe that during the year under

report the Ecology of Keoladeo Ghana

Sanctuary Project was completed and the

expenses incurred on the said project

during the year aggregated to

Rs.8, 40, 626.70, which interalia include

Rs.38, 012.50 incurred towards transporta-

tion expenses of some of the item of furni-

ture and equipments etc. from Bharatpur to

Bombay and with unspent grant of

Rs.6, 82, 143.95 brought forward from the

earlier year, the said account shows a debit

balance of Rs. 1,58,482.75 as at the close of

the year, which has been carried forward.

We understand that though the project was

completed during the year, the compilation

of the report and other summing up process

of the study carried out was pending and a

further sum of Rs.1,66,606/- has been in-*

curred during the current year upto

31/10/92 in that connection. We are in-

formed that the necessary approval is being

sought from the sponsoring authorities for

retaining the assets that have been so

received back from the project site and on

obtaining the requisite approval the es-

timated value of the said items shall be

brought into account as per the accounting

policy adopted by the Society as outlined

in para (e) hereinabove and the balance, if

any, in the account shall be accordingly

adjusted in the current year.

iii) While on the above subject, we ob-

serve that some of the local field workers,

whose services were engaged for the said

project at Bharatpur, are claiming

reinstatement and other service benefits,

which is being disputed by the Society. The

contingent liability in this regard remains

undeterminate. The matter, we are in-

formed is pending before the Labour Court

at Bharatpur and Provident Fund

authorities.

iv) We observe that in respect of the total

expenditure of Rs. 15,07,248/- incurred

towards air-conditioning of library and col-

lection rooms at Hornbill House, the

Society had received a grant of

Rs. 9, 00, 000/- upto 31/3/92 from the

Central Govt. A further amount of

Rs.4,92,187/- has been sanctioned by the

Ministry of Environment & Forests in the

current year towards the said expenditure.

The same has been accounted in the current

year, as the sanction letter was received

much after the close of the financial year.

v) We observe that during the year ad-

vance of Rs.71,905/- for purchase of equip-

ments and accessories, which was being

14

344

brought forward from the earlier years has

been adjusted during the year. We are in-

formed that the imported material was

received in the preceding year and was

issued for the purpose of Bird Migration

Project and accordingly the said amount

has been charged to the relevant Grant a/c.,

which we suggest may be confirmed at the

next meeting of the Managing Committee.

vi) We also observe that during the year

under report the advance of Rs. 13,500/-

paid to Efficient Data Processing Pvt. Ltd.

for data processing work of members

records has been adjusted. We are informed

that though the entire work assigned to

them was not completed, the advance paid

has been considered to cover the volume of

work carried out and the softwares

developed by them are being used. The said

amount of Rs.13,500/-, as adjusted in the

General Expenses, we suggest, may be

confirmed at the next meeting of the

Mg. Committee.

vii) The income towards membership

subscription is being accounted on realisa-

tion basis.

viii) The subscriptions received in foreign

currency, we observe, are deposited in an

account maintained with Grindlays Bank

pic., London Branch. The said receipts and

disbursements made therefrom have been

accounted at the exchange rate prevailing

at the date of the Balance Sheet. The clos-

ing balance has been translated at the cur-

rent exchange rate, at the date of the

Balance Sheet and the difference in ex-

change amounting to Rs. 19,489.87 has

been credited to Income & Expenditure

Account. We observe that during the year

under report a sum of £.100 equivalent to

Rs.4,846/- was credited to the said account.

As no proper particulars in respect of the

said item were available, the said amount

has been credited to Suspense Account.

The said Suspense Account as at the date

of Balance Sheet shows a balance of

Rs. 16,793.42, which interalia includes

another item of unlinked credit of

Rs. 1,401/- relating to earlier year. We sug-

gest that effective action may be taken to

obtain proper particulars in this regard and

the said amounts may be adjusted to proper

accounts.

ix) We suggest the following items of

disbursements effected, appropriations

made and administrative charges levied

conferred and ratified at the next meeting

of the Executive Committee.

A. DISBURSEMENT FROM :

i) Salim Ali Nature Conservation

Fund Investment Revenue

Account 1,63,034.01

ii) Salim Ali / Lok Wan Tho

Ornithological Fund

Investment Revenue Account 3 1 ,883.52

iii) Pirojsha Godrej Foundation

Fieldwork Fund Investment

Revenue Account 2,778.46

iv) Col.Burton Nature

Conservation Fund Investment

Revenue Account 86.12

v) Charles McCann Vertebrate

Zoology Fieldwork Fund 766.87

345

xvii) Grant fromU.S.Department of Industries Limited for

Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service for : Environmental Study 19,128.55

346

xiii) Asian Wetland Bureau for

Environmental Awareness

Campaign 1991-92 23,539.51

xxiv) Grant Govt, of Maharashtra for

1991-92 towards Establishment,

Building Maintenance,

Educational activity (i.e. Journal

printing expenses) 2,15,000.00

xxv) Grant Indian National Science

c. ADMINISTRATIVE FEES

charged to various

Grants/Funds for handling

the projects etc. 8,42,873.25

While referring to the observations made

in para 1 (ii) hereinabove, we suggest that

the treatment accorded to the expenses on

Ecology of Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Project as referred to therein be confirmed

in supercession of the resolution passed in

the Executive Committee meeting held on

14.11.1992.

x) We observe that the contribution to

Employees Provident Fund (both the

employees and management contribution)

continue to be deposited with the Trustees

of a recognised provident fund established

by the Society and governed by the rules

framed for the purpose. There seems to

have been certain amendments to the

Employees Provident Fund and Miscel-

laneous Provisions Act, 1952, whereunder

the Society may be considered to be liable

not only to transfer the accumulated

balance in the Employee’s Provident Fund

a/c. to the Provident Fund Commissioner

Govt. Scheme, but also for the difference

in the amount of contribution. We suggest

that proper legal opinion may be sought in

this regard and needful may be done in the

matter. We have been informed that so far

no demand has been raised by the Pro* i-

dent Fund Commissioner and hence the

liability in this regard remains undeter-

minate.

(m) So far as is ascertainable from the books of

accounts and according to the information

and explanation furnished to us by the

347

Dy. Director (Accounts) and the

Hon.Secretary, there were no cases of ir*

regular, illegal or improper expenditure or

failure to recover the monies or other

properties belonging to the Society or loss

or waste of money or other property of the

Society, subject to the observations made

in para (h) hereinabove.

(n) Provisions of Sec. 31-A of the Bombay

Public Trust Act, 1950 and Rule 16- A of

the Rules framed under the said Act have

been complied with.

(o) The maximum and minimum number of

Executive Committee members is main-

tained having regard to the provisions con-

tained in the rules and regulations of the

Society.

(p) There is no specific provisions in the rules

and regulations of the Society regarding

the holding of the meetings of the Execu-

tive Committee.

(q) The minute book recording the proceed-

ings of the meetings is maintained.

(r) No member of the Executive Committee

has any interest in the investment of the

Society.

(s) No member of the Executive Committee is

a debtor or creditor of the Society, subject

to the observation that a sum of

Rs. 1,351.25 was due from three members

against bills for certain supplies of publica-

tion, etc. The said amount has since been

received.

(t) There were no irregularities pointed out in

our last report dt.6/9/91 accompanying the

statement of accounts for the year ended

31st March, 1991 except the observations

made in para (i), the observations whereof

have been reiterated hereinabove.

Sd /-

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

Bombay 400 023.

9th January, 1993.

348

Regn. No. F-244 (BOM)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUST ACT, 1 950

SHEDULE VIII VIDE RULE 17(1)

BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1992

FUNDS AND LIABILITIES Rs! Rs. PROPERTIES AND ASSETS Rs! Rs!

IMMOVABLE PROPERTIES NIL

INVESTMENTS (AT COST)

5.5% Govt Of India Loan 2000

Of The Face Value Rs.2000/-

(Market Value Rs. 1 335/-)

6300.381 Units Of Unit Trust Of India

Under CRTS 1981 Reinvestment Plan

Of The Face Value Rs.100 /- Each

(Total Face Value Rs.630038.1

Including Accumulated Units 4300.381)

(Repurchase Value Rs.71 8243.43)

70150 Units Of Unit Trust Of India

Under Unit Scheme 1964

Of The Face Value Rs.10/- Each

(Total Face Value Rs.701500/-)

(Repurchase Value Rs.1 006652.50) 999637.50

4560 Units Of Unit Trust Of India

Under CRTS 1981

Of The Face Value Rs.100/- Each

(Total Face Value Rs.456000/-)

(Repurchase Value Rs.519840/-) 501600.00

4400 Units Of Unit Trust Of India

Under CRTS 1981

Of The Face Value Rs.100/- Each

(Total Face Value Rs .440000/-)

(Repurchase Value Rs.501600/-) 506000.00

4470 Units Of Unit Trust Of India

Under CRTS 1981

Of The Face Value Rs.100/- Each

(Total Face Value Rs. 447000/-)

(Repurchase Value Rs.509580/-) 500640.00

2000.00

660963.61

Carried over

17757222.18

Carried over

3170841.11

349

Carried over

17803910.14

Carried over

8184094.04

350

Carried over

17803910.14

Carried over

14807134.42

351

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AS PER OUR REPORT OF EVEN DATE

Sd /-

J C DANIEL

HON. SECRETARY

Sd /-

C G WAKANKAR

HON. TREASURER

Sd /-

HABIB AND COMPANY

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

BOMBAY

Bombay, Dated 9th January, 1993

352

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1992

SCHEDULE A : CORPUS FUNDS

353

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1992

SCHEDULE B : OTHER FUNDS

354

Schedule ’B’ Contd.

Summary Of Expenditure From Funds/Donations

Expenditure Head Amount

” EsT

Nature Conservation 163034.01

Natural History Study 31173.35

Other Educational 31833.52

Photography Contest & Exhibition 8898.40

Beautification Of Dr.Salim Ali Chowk 15000.00

Cotribution For Staff Trip 1450.00

Depreciation 312966.83

Gratuity Paid To Staff 616.00

Library Furniture- 25000.00

589972.11

Details Of Amounts Transferred To Fixed Assets Fund

Amount

Es7

1. Grant Govt. Of India D.O.E. For

Airconditioning Library And

Collection Rooms :-

Grant Received Till 31-3-92

And Utilised For The Purpose

Including Rs.7,56,550/- Spent

During Earlier Years 900000.00

2. Donation From Seth Purshotamdas

Thakurdas & Divaliba Charitable

Trust For Library Furniture 25000.00

3. Surplus On Sale Of Old Car 34976.00

959976.00

Total

355

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1992

SCHEDULE C : GRANTS

Carried over

395903.50 296540.00 693443.50 379524.27 379524.27 313919.23*

356

Schedule ‘C’ Contd.

357

Schedule ‘C’ Contd.

Summary Of Expenditure Out Of Grants

Particulars Amount

Rs.

Expenditure On Various Projects

Including Capital Expenditure 6605422.65

Capital Expenditure From Grants

Transferred To Fixed Assets Fund

(Refer To Schedule B) 143450.00

Refund Of Unspent Grants 19578.10

Total Unspent Balances Rs. 4460648.55

Less: Overspent On Keoladeo

Ghana Sanctuary Project Rs. 158482.75

4302165.80

Total Rs. 6768450.75

Includes Refund Of Unspent Grant

Rs. 19578.10

358

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1992

SCHEDULE D : CASH AND BANK BALANCES

359

Regn.No. F-244 (BOM)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUST ACT, 1950

SCHEDULE IX VIDE RULE 17(1)

INCOME & EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31-3-92

EXPENDITURE Rs. Rs. INCOME “ Rs. Rs.

INTEREST (RECEIVED & ACCRUED)

EXPENDITURE IN RESPECT

OF PROPERTIES

Municipal Taxes

Building Insurance

Building Maintenance

Renovation Expenses

ESTABLISHMENT EXPENSES

Salaries Of Reference

Collectons & Maintainace Staff

Salaries Of Other Staff

Leave Travel Allowances

Medical Allowances

Washing Allowances

Management’s Contribution To

Provident Fund

Gratuity Paid To Staff

Casual Labour

Meeting Expenses

Postage Expenses

Printing & Stationery

Advertisements

Telephone Expenses

Electricity Expenses

Electrical Repairs

Travelling Expenses

Conveyance Expenses

Vehicle Maintenance

Bank Charges (Net)

Audit Fees

Repairs To Furniture

& Equipments

Insurance Other Than Building

Professional & Other Fees

Annual Report Exps

For 1989-90 & 1990-91

4926.00

278.00

21845.49

25755.75 52805.24

391478.00

974337.00

5437.50

19250.00

3840.00

84890.00

616.00

9376.00

35931.60

24867.80

59770.55

24146.00

43452.86

12955.80

5193.70

20025.60

10107.40

30486.69

6116.64

2000.00

68883.65

4473.00

41500.00

67382.50 1946518.29

On Govt Securities

On Fixed Deposits

On Saving Accounts

DIVIDENDS

On Units Of UTI Schemes

DONATIONS

For Specific Purposes

SANCF Corpus Fund

SANCF Revenue Fund

Charles MaCann Fund

Salim Ali Memorial Fund

Staff Welfare Fund

For General Purposes

Library Expenses

Hornbill Printing

Film Show Expenses

Rare Books Exhibition

GRANTS

From Govt.Of Maha. For

Establishment Expenses

For 1990-91

Collections

Nature Education

For 1991-92

Collections

From Govt. Of India Dept Of

Science & Technology

For Journal Printing

110.00

576522.39

36273.43 612905.82

435117.47

710000.00

751.00

600.00

164219.00

35.00

875605.00

5000.00

10000.00

11540.00

2480.00 904625.00

91090.00

47910.00

215000.00

75000.00

Carried over 1999323.53 Carried over 429000.00 1952648.29

15

360

Carried over

4339629.51

Carried over

339315.31 10029816.07

361

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AS FER OUR REPORT OF EVEN DATE

Sd /- Sd /- Sd/-

J C DANIEL C G WAKANKAR HABIB AND COMPANY

HON. SECRETARY HON. TREASURER CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

BOMBAY

Bombay, Dated 9th January, 1993

362

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

RECEIPT AND PAYMENT ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31-3-1992

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AS PER OUR REPORT OF EVEN DATE

Sd /- Sd/- Sd/-

J C DANIEL C G WAKANKAR HABIB AND COMPANY

HON. SECRETARY HON. TREASURER CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

BOMBAY

Bombay, Dated 9th January, 1993

363

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting held on 14th September 1991

The Annual General Meeting (AGM) of

the Society for the year 1990-91 was held at

Hornbill House on 14th September 1991 at

5.00 p.m. The following members were

present :

Ms Abdulrahman Beena, Mr Acharya

Jayprakash B, Mr Akhtar S Asad, Mr Almeida

M R, Mr Amladi M S, Ms Anthony Celene,

Mr Balsara D C, Mr Bannerjee Deb Priya, Mr

Behramfram M P, Dr Bhagwat A M, Dr

Bhagwat Sanjay, Dr Bharucha Erach, Mr

Bhatia P M, Mr Bhatia V R, Mr Bhatkal

Suresh G, Mr Bhaumik S D, Prof. Bole P V,

Mr Brahme Unmesh, Mr Bulsara Y N, Mr

Burman Sanat, Mr Chandramohan S, Mr

Chaturvedi N, Dr Chhapgar B F, Mr Daniel J

C, Mr Dastur Kersi, Mr Deepak S, Mr Desai

Narendra, Mrs Dev Joan M, Mr Devare Mihir,

Mr Dighe R D, Ms D’Sa Doreen, Maj Gen E

D’ Souza (Retd), Mrs Elavia Khurshid P, Mr

Elavia P T, Mr Fernandes Manuel, - Mr

Fernandes Peter, Mr Gandhi Sorab D N, Mr

Gogate Ashutosh, Dr Grubh Robert, Mr Gulati

R M, Mr Gupta Bharat, Mr Haritwal Vinod,

Mr Hussain S A, Ms Iyengar Kartika, Mr

Jacob Samuel, Mr Jamdar Nitin, Mr

Karamchandani K P, Mrs Khambata V R, Mr

Khamker Saleem S, Dr (Smt) Kirloskar M, Dr

Kothari A S, Mr Mehta Bansi, Mr Andy

Mendonca, Mr B Menezes, Dr Menon Shashi,

Mr Mistry Hirji C, Mr Modi R M, Mr Monga

Sunjoy, Mr Mulla N D, Mr Murthy S G, Dr

Nanavati AND, Mr Narayan Goutam, Prof.

Pandya Parvish, Mr Paralkar Ulhas, Mr Parikh

Niranjan O, Ms Patil Sobha, Ms Patrao Mona,

Mr Phadnis R S, Mr Quader Suhel, Mr Rane

Ulhas, Mr Ranjit Shashank, Mr Rego Rudi E,

Mr Remedios T, Ms Rustomjee Katie, Mr

Sahgal Bittu, M/s. Sanctuary Magazine, Mr

Sapre S S, Ms Savla Manju, Mr Sethna J, Mr

Sethna N D, Ms Shah Shridevi, Mr Shingre

Vilas, Mr Shirke Arvind Kumar, Mr Shroff R

K, Mr Soares Leo, Mr Srivastava Kiran, Mr

Tarapore S F, Mr Vaidya Sureshchandra R, Mr

Vajifdar K K, Ms Vajifdar Saber Kersasp, Mr

Varadachary Ajay, Mrs Variava D S, Mr

Vessaokar Eustace, Mr Wakankar C G.

The President, Prof. P V Bole, welcomed

the members to the AGM. Before commencing

the proceedings of the meeting, Prof. Bole

mentioned about the sad demise of Mr Rajiv

Gandhi, the Patron of the Society since 1985,

and of Dr P R Deoras, Ex-member of the

Ex.Committee. As a mark of respect to the

memory of these two persons, all the members

stood in silence for 2 minutes. The President

requested the Honorary Secretary to convey

the sad sentiments of the AGM to the members

of the bereaved families.

Item 1 : Confirmation of minutes

The minutes of the AGM for 1989-90

held on 15th Sept. 1990 were confirmed, duly

364

proposed by Mr Sohrab Gandhi and seconded

by Mr J C Daniel.

Item 2 : Annual Report of the Committee for

1990-91

Presenting the Report of the Committee

for the year ended 31st March 1991, Mr Ulhas

Rane, Honorary Secretary, mentioned that the

following corrections/omissions in the Report

would be suitably incorporated :

i) Report of the Products Sub-Committee

and the Journal would be incorporated, (ii)

Mrs D S Variava continued to be. the

Chairperson of SANCF Sub-Committee and

therefore, the figures ‘31.12.90’ appearing

against her name on page 13 of the Report

should be replaced by words ‘onwards’ and

(iii) the name of Dr A N D Nanavati would

be added above words ‘Hon. Treasurer’ on

page 24.

Giving the salient features of the

activities during the year, Mr Ulhas Rane

mentioned a few deficiencies namely about a)

the need to increase the rates of subscription

for members because of financial implications,

b) the delay in actual functioning of the

SACON, c) the delay in commencement of the

ODA Conservation Education Project, d) the

ending of the Projects at Bharatpur and Point

Calimere in June 1991 without further research

programme, e) the resignation of Dr A R

Rahmani, Senior Scientist and the need to

improve the research atmosphere in the

Society, f) the retirement of Mr J C Daniel,

Director, in March 1991 and the delay in the

appointment of his successor.

On the positive side, he mentioned about

a) the improved active interaction with the

Advisory Committee members, b) the

bi-monthly circulars initiating interaction with

outstation members, c) improved coordination

with State and Central Governments and

release of pending grants from the

Government of Maharashtra, DOE and DST,

d) the approval of Municipal Corporation of

Greater Bombay to name the Traffic Island at

the junction of K K Dubash Road and S B

Singh Road as Dr Salim Ali Chowk, e) the

acceptance of the Patronship of the Society by

Shri R Venkataraman, President of India, f) the

proposal to bring out a postage stamp in

honour of late Dr Salim Ali, g) the State

Govt.’s offer to give a piece of land near

Nagpur for putting up a Research Centre and

residential flats/plots for staff quarters in

Bombay, h) the formulation of Employees’

Service Rules and the Organisational Structure

and revision of pay structure of the staff, i) the

completion of the airconditioning work of the

Collection Room and the Library, j) the

bringing out of ‘Hornbill’ in a new format, k)

the participation of staff in national and

international events, and 1) the successful

organising of the Waterfowl Count with

involvement of members and voluntary

agencies.

The Honorary Secretary informed the

AGM about the new ventures such as a)

intensifying of the membership drive, b)

proposals to bring out new products and

publications, e.g. the cassettes on bird calls,

revision of the Encyclopedia and Pictorial

Guide of Birds, c) the exhibition of rare books,

d) the organisation of Nature Education

activities for the anned forces, teachers and for

the underprivileged children in Bombay and

rural areas and e) the setting up of a Research

Centre at the Society’s land at Goregaon.

365

The President invited comments from

members on the Report. There was a

discussion on the Report in which Dr B F

Chhapgar, Mr K P Karamchandani, Mr P M

Bhatia, Mr J C Daniel, Mr Goutam Narayan,

Mr Chandrakant Wakankar, Mr Behramfram,

Mr Sunjoy Monga, Mr Bharat Gupta, Mr Bittu

Sahgal, Ms K Rustomji, Mr J Acharya, Mrs

Joan D’Souza and Mr S Gandhi participated.

Questions were asked about the University

Studies Sub-Committee, market survey and

pricing of new Hombill and discontinuation of

old series of articles, registration system for

programmes, Nature Education activities

involving children and teachers. The

Hon.Secretary clarified various points. To a

query from Mr Karamchandani, Mr Bittu

Sahgal explained that he resigned from the

post of Hon.Treasurer as he did not agree with

some of the management and financial

decisions taken by the Committee.

The Annual Report was thereafter

approved, duly proposed by Mr Bharat Gupta

and seconded by Mr P M Bhatia.

Item 3 : Balance Sheet and Statement of

Accounts for 1990-1991

The Honorary Treasurer, Dr A N D

Nanavati explained the main features of the

Statement of Accounts. Mr P M Bhatia

enquired about the need to keep huge balances

in current account with banks (pg 41) and the

nature of unspent grants at Rs. 51,88,498 (pg

30). The Dy. Director (Accounts) and the Hon.

Secretary clarified the points. Mr J C Daniel

pointed out that the balance shown under

‘Other liabilities-SACON’ on page 31 of the

Report was not really needed for SACON as

they have already received the Govt, grants.

He suggested that this could be used as seed

money to put up the Research Centre at

Goregaon land.

The Accounts were thereafter approved,

duly proposed by Mr P M Bhatia and seconded

by Mr Niranjan Parikh. The members

expressed their appreciation for the efforts of

the Accounts Department for timely

completion of the audit.

Item 4 : Appointment of Auditors

The members agreed that M/s. Habib and

Co., Chartered Accountants, be reappointed as

Auditors of the Society for the year 1st April

1991 to 31st March 1992, on the same

remuneration as the last year i.e. Rs.2,000/-.

This was proposed by Mr Jayaprakash

Acharya and seconded by Dr A M Bhagwat.

The members expressed their

appreciation for the cordial cooperation

extended to the Society by M/s. Habib & Co.

Item 5 : Rules and Regulations - Amendments

The amendments circulated with the

notice of AGM were discussed and further

amendments proposed by Mr J C Daniel and

Mr Debi Goenka were also considered. The

amendments proposed by the Committee

evoked a keen discussion in which Messrs

Chandrakant Wakankar, N D Mulla,

Behramfram, Niranjan Parikh, S Gandhi,

Jayaprakash Acharya, Nitin Jamdar, J C

Daniel, Humayun Abdulali, Dr A N D

Nanavati, Mrs D S Variava, Mrs V Khambatta,

Dr B F Chhapgar and Dr Shashi Menon

participated. The following decisions were

taken :

Item i - Minor Changes : The

amendments proposed were approved.

366

Item ii - Emeritus Status : The new

Rule to be placed after Rule 14 on ‘Emeritus

Status’ was approved with the correction that

it should be by an unanimous vote of all

members of the Committee. This correction

was suggested by lAs Katie Rustomjee and

approved unanimously. The members desired

that for want of time the remaining amendment

may be considered at an adjourned meeting of

AGM.

Item 6 : Election to the Executive Committee

for 1992-93

The President informed the meeting that

13 valid nominations have been received for

election to the Executive Committee for the

Calendar years 1992 and 1993 as follows :

1 . Mr M R Almeida

2. Dr E K Bharucha

3. Mr Unmesh Brahme

4. Dr B F Chhapgar -

5. Mr J C Daniel

6. Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal

7. Dr Ashok S Kothari

8. Dr Shashi Menon

9. Mr Sunjoy Monga

10. Prof. Parvish Pandya

11. Mr Shreekant Pol

1 2. Mr T V Sowrirajan

13. Mr Chandrakant C Wakankar

Two nominations received after the last

date and not duly proposed or seconded had

been considered invalid. The President added

that since there was 13 nominations as against

12 vacancies, it would be necessary to conduct

an election. One of the senior members, Mr M

R Almeida offered to withdraw his nomination

at the AGM to avoid expenses of election. This

was not accepted as there was no provision in

the Rules. Further, there was a suggestion to

invite fresh nominations which also could not

be accepted as there was no provision in the

Rules.

Item 7 :

The Honorary Secretary thanked the staff

of BNHS for their continued assistance and

cooperation in carrying out the functions of

the Society during the year. As a token of

gesture, a senior staff member, Mr Bapu

Jadhav, was honoured for his long and

dedicated services to the Society.

The meeting ended with a vote of thanks

to the Chair.

367

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Minutes of the adjourned Annual General Meeting held on 11th November 1991.

An adjourned Annual General Meeting of the Society was held on 11th November 1991 at

Hombill House at 6 PM. The folllowing members were present :

Prof. P V Bole, President (In the Chair)

The meeting discussed the amendments proposed to the Rules and Regulations of the Society

as circulated with Honorary Secretary's letter no 4371/91 dated 11th October 1991, in which

M/s J R Acharya, M R Almeida, Celine Anthony, M S Behramfram, Unmesh Brahme, Dr B F

Chhapgar, J C Daniel, Debi Goenka, Nitin Jamdar, K P Karamchandani, D D Mchra, Rishad

Naoroji, Bansi Mehta, Parvish Pandya, A G Puranik, Bittu Sahgal, T V Sowriajan, Kiran

Srivastava and Chandrakant Wakankar participated. The decisions taken on the amendments were

as follows :

368

Rule No. Amendment to Rule in brief Resolution passed on the Rule

(1) (2) (3)

7 Life Family Membership

22 4 weeks notice to members instead of

the present 14 days for convening the

AGM

26 Delete the words "at least 10 ... of the

Society" and substitute the words "at

least 1% of the total membership at

that particular time".

28 i) The term of EC to be 3 yrs.

Mr J C Daniel mentioned that there was no need

for this Rule. This was unanimously accepted.

The Resolution as proposed by Mr N D Mulla

was approved unanimously.

The EGM resolved that a fresh call for

nominations for election to the EC be issued with

a reply period as per the new Rule, while the

validity of all nominations already lawfully

received is manintained. When put to vote, 24

voted for the resolution and 14 against.

As against the Executive Committee’s proposal,

Mr N D Mulla suggested a requisition by at least

25 members and Mr Debi Goenka suggested the

retention of status quo, i.e. 10 members. The

resolution was put to vote. The voting was 15 in

favour of 25 numbers, 3 in favour of 1% of total

membership and 2 in favour of 10 numbers.

Accordingly, a requisition by 25 members was

approved.

The amendment was put to vote. The voting was

as under :

10 members in favour of the amendment and 16

against it. Accordingly, the resolution was

defeated and the present term of 2 year period

was approved.

369

Rule No. Amendment to Rule in brief

(1) (2)

Resolution passed on the Rule

(3)

ii) 2 members to be nominated by the

4 ex - officio members and 10 elected

members

29 For the words "seven days prior to the

date of the meeting", substitute the

words "two days prior to the date of

the meeting".

47 Word "Benefactors" to be deleted.

Other Business :

Mr Ulhas Rane informed the meeting that

the Society has been paying to the Auditors

(in addition to the sum of Rs 2,000/- paid for

auditing the Society’s account), a sum of Rs

2,000/- for auditing each of the Project

accounts and the approval of the AGM had not

been obtained for the latter payments. He now

Nomination of members : The amendment in

slightly different combinations was put to vote

and the voting was as follows :

Thus, the Rule to provide for 12 elected members

and 2 nominated members was adopted.

The amendment was unanimously passed duly

proposed by Mr. N D Mull and seconded by Mr

Hirji Mistry

The members unanimously agreed to the

proposal made by the Committee.

requested the AGM to approve the payment of

fees for Projects also. The AGM resolved that

there seemed to be no objection for paying the

Auditors’ fees as hitherto and that specific

concurrence of the AGM was not necessary.

The meeting ended with a vote of thanks

to the Chair.

370

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hombill House, S. B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

Proposed amendments to Rules and Regulations of the

Bombay Natural History Society.

The Society’s Rules and Regulations do

not provide for taking action against any

member of the Executive Committee who

absents himself/herself without assinging

reasons from three consecutive meetings of the

Committee.

For the Extraordinary General Meeting

there is no provision for quorum. This is

proposed to be kept at the same level as for

the Annual General Meetings.

The proposed amendments will, therefore, be as under :

Rule No.

Amendments to Rule

New Rule after Rule 31

Addition to Rule 26

Absence from Committee meetings :

Any member absenting himself/herself without

assigning reasons from three consecutive

meetings of the Committee shall be deemed to

have vacated his/her seat on the Committee. In

such cases, the Committee shall fill the vacancy

by coopting any other eligible member.

Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM):

The quorum for EGM convened either at the

initiative of the Committee or upon the

requisition of members shall be the same as

prescribed under Rule 24 for Annual General

Meetings.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book ol Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint). 28 plates in

colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations.

( Price to members Rs. 170)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali 11th (revised) edition (Reprint). 74

coloured and many monochrome plates. ( Price to members Rs. 150)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by S41im Ali & S.

Dillon Ripley. (in press)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-

date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,

Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 2nd edition. ( Price to members Rs. 85)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 2

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &

J. D. Panday, Rs. 3

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J. C. Daniel ( Price to members Rs. 162)

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RN 5685/57

ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

THE SATPURA HYPOTHESIS: A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CHALLENGE TO

GEOLOGY ( With five text-figures)

By Lawrence W. Swan . 141

ON THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF TWO SYMPATRIC FLYING

SQUIRRELS OF WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

By N. V. K. Ashraf, A. Kumar and A. J. T. Johnsingh 158

FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND SEASONALITY IN TROPICAL DRY EVER-

GREEN FOREST IN PT. CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

( With nine text- figures )

By P. Balasubramanian and P. V. Bole 163

STUDIES ON THE ULTRA STRUCTURES OF ANTENNA OF Cylas formicarius

FAB. ( With three plates )

By S. Daniel Wesley, M. Gladstone and A. Mohan Daniel 178

HABITAT PREFERENCE OF FISHES IN WETLANDS IN RELATION TO

AQUATIC VEGETATION AND WATER CHEMISTRY

( With seven text-figures)

By C. R. Ajith Kumar and D. D. Mittal 181

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN BIRDS IN THE HISTOIRE NATURELLE DES

OISEAUX D’ AFR1QUE BY FRANCOIS LEVAILLANT

By L. C. Rookmaaker 193

ECOFLORISTIC STUDIES ON THE CHASMOPHYTIC ANGIOSPERMS ON

THE FORTWALLS OF PADMANAB-HAPURAM PALACE

( With two text-figures)

By P. Prema 206

STUDIES ON THE GENITALIA OF THE TYPE-SPECIES OF SOME OPHI-

DERINES (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) ( With thirty two text-figures)

By Ajay Srivastava and H. S. Rose 213

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF Japalura tricarinata AND J. Polygonata

(SAURIA: AGAMIDAE) ( With two colour plates, five black-and-white plates

and twenty five text-figures)

By W. Kastle, H. H. Schleich and K. B. Shah 223

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 263

REVIEWS 279

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 284

and published by J. C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY

HISTORY

SOCIETY

Yol. 90, No. 3

December 1993

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEDIA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

Assistant Editor

K.P. SHIRODKAR

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

J.S. SERRAO

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5" or 5.25"), using WordStar 5.5

or earlier, MS Word or Word Perfect, and MS DOS 4.0 or earlier versions.

3 . Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9x12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author's name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of

important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy

of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member's

contribution earlier than a non-member's.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 90 (3): DECEMBER 1993

Date of Publication: 1-6-1994

CONTENTS

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA UNDER SUBOPTIMAL

HABITAT CONDITIONS (With two text-figures )

By Erach Bharucha and Kiran Asher 371

THE DIEL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON (PYTHON MO LURUS LINN.) AT KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN (With four text figures)

By Karmavir Bhatt and B.C. Choudhury 394

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE (INDIA)

By M.S. Johal, J.S. Chahal and K.K. Tandon 404

STUDIES ON THE HYPERPARASITES OF DIAPHANIA INDICA (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)

THROUGH APANTELES TARAGAMAE (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) (With a text figure)

By Clement Peter and B.V. David 412

OCCURRENCE OF ARHODEOPORUS BONAIRENSIS (VIETS, 1936) (HALACARIDAE: ACARI)

FROM INDIAN OCEAN WITH ZOOGEOGR APHICAL REMARKS ON GENUS AR-

HODEOPORUS NEWELL (With eight text figures)

By A.L.N. Sarma and Tapas Chatterjee 417

IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PLANTS FROM ‘HORTUS MALAB ARICUS ’ (With three plates)

By M.R. Almeida and S.M. Almeida 423

AUTUMN HOME RANGE OF MUSK DEER IN BAIZHA FOREST, TIBETAN PLATEAU (With two

text -figures )

By Richard B. Harris and Cai Guiquan 430

THE INTRODUCED BUT NATURALIZED AVIFAUNA OF THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

(With a text figure)

By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan 437

POST HATCHING DISPERSAL AND GROWTH OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE, CROCODYLUS

POROSUS SCHNEIDER, IN ORISSA, INDIA

By S.K. Kar - 446

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS ERGASILUS NORDMANN, 1832 (COPEPODA: POECILOS-

TOMATOIDA) FROM KERALA (With twelve text figures)

By Shaju Thomas 451

A NEW SPECIES OF LABIDOCORIS MAYR (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE: ECTRICHODIINAE)

FROM SOUTH INDIA (With sixteen text -figures)

By Dunston P. Ambrose and S .J. Vennison 455

A NEW SPECIES OF CORANUS CURTIS FROM SOUTH INDIA (IN SECTA-REDU VIID AE-H ARPAC-

TORINAE) (With sixteen text figures)

By Dunston P. Ambrose and K. Sahayaraj 458

A NEW SPECIES OF PERIONYX PERRIER (MEGASCOLECIDAE, OLIGOCHAETA) FROM

NORTHWEST HIMALAYA, INDIA (With a text figure)

By J.M. Julka and R. Paliwal 461

INDIAN SPECIES OF THE DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPER GENUS S CAPH OTETTIX MAT-

SUMURA (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE) (With seventytwo text figures)

By C.A. Viraktamath and G.S. Mohan. 463

ON TWO NEW SPECIES OF CHELONUS PANZER (HYMENTOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM

INDIA (With six text-figures)

By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam

DESCRIPTION OF ADULT AND NYMPHAL STAGES OF TWO NEW GALL PSYLLIDS (PSYL-

LIDAE: HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA (With four text figures)

By K. Thenmozhi and C. Kandasamy

Prof. K.K. Neelakantan

By V. Santharam and C. Sasi Kumar

OBITUARY

REVIEWS

474

479

488

1. BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO WEALTH OF INDIA

Reviewed by Shashi Menon 490

2. NATURE GUIDES-COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA

Reviewed by Ramana M. Athreya 491

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Home range of Hanuman Langur (Presbytis

entellus) in four habitats in Jaipur, India

By Reena Mathur and

B. Ram Manohar 494

2. Study of activity pattern in Presbytis entellus

at Ambagarh Reserve Forest, Jaipur

By Reena Mathur and

P. S. Bhatnagar .495

3. Food habits of the fishing cat Felis viverrina

in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan

By M.D. Nayerul Haque and

V.S. Vijayan .498

4. New records of Mustela from Khunjerab

National Park, Pakistan

By Daniel T. Blum stein 500

5. A note on the morphometry of Ganges river

dolphin with comments on its mortality in

fishing nets

By S.A. Hussain, R.K. Sharma and

B.C. Choudhury .501

BIRDS

6. Another continental India record of

Accipiter gularis

By William S. Clark and

Bruce M. Beehler 505

7. Breeding of white-eyed Buzzard in the

Thar desert

By R.G. Soni .506

8. Coot feeding on water hyacinth

By Abdul J. Urfi 507

9. Recovery of Russian ringed Grey Plover

( Pluvialis squatarola) at Point Calimere

By S.A. Hussain and

S. Balachandran 508

10. Occurrence of the knot (Calidris canutus) in

Andhra Pradesh

By Prakash Rao and K.K. Mohapatra 509

11. Common Gull Larus canus Linnaeus

recorded in India

By Per Alstom 509

12. Further evidence on the occurrence of the

Black Tern Chlidonias niger (Linnaeus) on

India’s eastern coast

By K.K. Mohapatra and

Prakash Rao 511

13. Extension of range of the Indian Skimmer,

Rynchops albicollis Swain son (Aves: Laridae)

By N. Majumdar and C.S. Roy 511

14. The Indian Cuckoo ( Cuculus micropterus

micropterus Gould) in Sariska Tiger Reserve,

Rajasthan

By K. Sankar 512

15. Bird hits in Pondicherry

By E. Narayan and Raji Narayan 512

16. Playing with fire? Alpine Choughs play

with a Tibetan Red Fox

By Danial T. Blumstein and

J. Marc Foggin

513

17. Some notes on the habits and habitats of

Whitecapped Redstart Chaimarromis

leucocephalus (Vigors)

By M.L. Narang 515

REPTILES

18. Keeled Box Turtle in Karbi Anglong — A

new locality record

By Anwaruddin Choudhury ..517

19. First Record of Cyrtodactylus fasciolatus

(Blyth), the bent-toed banded Gecko (Sauria:

Gekkonidae: Gekkoninae) from Garhwal hills

By Akhlaq Husain and Pranjalendu Ray ......518

20. Presence of sandfish Ophiomorus

tridactylus (Blyth) in eastern Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 519

21. Nest-desertion by a King Cobra

( Ophiophagus hannah )

By R. Kannan 519

22. Range extension of the Bombay Shield-Tail

Snake Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters 1861)

Serpentes: Uropeltidae)

By A.G. Sekar and M. R. Almeida........ 520

AMPHIBIANS

23. Record of the Verrucose frog

Rana keralensis (Dubois) in Shoolpaneshwar

Wildlife Sanctuary (Bharuch Dist., Gujarat)

By Y.M. Naik and K.R. Vinod 521

24. The common toad Bufo melanostictus and

the Garden lizard Calotes versicolor feeding on

swarming termites

By Ranjit Manakadan. 522

FISHES

25. Occurrence of the Freshwater Grey Mullet

Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) at the

Tungabhadra - Krishna confluence near

Nandikotkur, Andhra Pradesh

By Ranjit Manakadan .522

26. Sexual dimorphism of a fresh water

puffer fish, Tetraodon (Monotretus)

travancoricus Hora & Nair, collected from

Trichur district, Central Kerala

By N.D. Inasu .523 -

INSECTS

27. Description of new records of the Genus

Goniagnathus Fieber (Cicadellidae:

Homoptera) from India

By V. Rama Subba Rao 524

28. Neptis cartica Moore (Lepidoptera:

Nymphalidae) in the Uttar Pradesh Himalaya

r ^metacek 527

*

29. ' eanolis albizonalis (Hampson)

iiaa. Jdontinae) as Mango fruit borer in

Audhra Pradesh

By S.M Zaheruddeen and

A. Sujatha .....528

30. Flower visitors and pollination of

Caesalpinia coriarea (Caesalpiniaceae)

By T. Byragi Reddy .528

31. Occurrence of Eriophyid mite induced Galls

in western Garhwal

By Babul Das 531

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

32. Portunid crabs of Visakhapatnam coast

By K. Nirmala Devi 535

33. Marine Gastropoda of Bombay - A recent

survey

By Deepak Apte 537

BOTANY

34. Floral Biology of Couroupita guianensis

Aubl. (Lecythidaceae)

By Raju J.S. Aluri and

C. Subba Reddi 539

35. Spilanthes uliginosa Sw. (Asteraceae) - A

new record for Gangetic plain

By S.C. Singh 541

36. Porana volubilis Burm. f. (Convolvulaceae)

- A new record for Andaman Flora

By A.R.P. Sinha and

Krishna Kumar 542

37. Additions to the Allium species of the

flora of Chamoli, Uttar Pradesh Himalaya

By K.S. Negi, K.C. Pant and

M.N. Koppar ....543

38. Notes on the distribution of some grasses

By Bhabesh Roy and

D. C. Pal 547

39. A few taxa new to eastern India with

annotations on distribution

By Sauris Panda and

A.P. Das.... 549

40. A new name for Bulbophyllum flavidum

Lucksom

By S.Z. Lucksom...... 551

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

December 1993

Vol.90

No. 3

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKED CK AN TILO PE CERVICAPRA

UNDER SUBOPTIMAL HABITAT CONDITIONS 1

Erach Bharucha And Kiran Asher2

(With two text - figures )

Key words : Antuope cervicapra, behavioural ecology, conflict issues

The occurrence of fragmented and localised hyperdense populations of Antilope cervicapra is a relatively recent

phenomenon in India. This has been induced following the notification of small protected Areas and the institution of schemes

such as Drought Prone Area Projects that offer this species some degree of protection. However, in such areas the limited

quantum of fodder leads to local intensification of people - wildlife conflict, due to unacceptably high levels of crop damage.

In these locations, sub - optimal habitat conditions have led to changes in habitat utilisation, feeding behaviour, movement

patterns as well as modifications in the herd size and structure of the blackbuck. This could be related to either a particular

herd - size and structural configuration being partial to a specific habitat sub - type or due to sub - optimal habitat conditions

inducing a change in herd - size and structure. Careful management based on habitat analysis and related blackbuck

behaviour can help to re-define management strategies towards mitigating conflict. The study focuses attention on Rehekuri

Blackbuck Sanctuary in Karjat Taluka of Maharashtra, which

areas in India.

Introduction

The population oiAntilope cervicapra appears

to have increased in some areas of India during the

last decade or two. This highly localized increase is

related to the notification of sanctuaries as well as the

establishment of Drought Prone Area Projects

(DPAP). Thus some observers have indicated that

the species is not under any further threat (Rahmani

1991). This is not necessarily true as the present total

population is nowhere close to the number that

existed in the great herds of the past decades (Jerdon

1874).

In Protected Areas (PAs) where blackbuck

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Saken, Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park, Pune

411 001.

typifies the situation encountered in several other semi-arid

populations show an upward trend they become

increasingly dependent on adjacent croplands,

leading to increasing man-animal conflict due to

localised intense crop damage. However quantified

information on crop damage is lacking for most

areas. In the past a large number of farmers were

affected by crop damage due to blackbuck. However

as the animals could spread over large areas the

amount of damage to the individual farmer was

small and was thus accepted as inevitable. Today the

protected pockets that have an unduly high population

density of blackbuck provide a milieu for excessive

localised crop damage for those farmers who live in

the immediate vicinity of these sanctuaries and

DPAP plantations.

Micro level habitat use by blackbuck has not

been studied and it is essential to collect data on

372

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL . 90 (1993)

several aspects of their behaviour and ecology to

manage their habitat appropriately. A brief survey

of blackbuck habitats in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

showed that the problem due to localized high

densities has a fairly consistent pattern. This paper

addresses itself to solving conservation problems in

Rehekuri Blackbuck Sanctuary which is an example

ofanimalslivinginsuboptimalconditionsleadingto

behavioural changes and in which localized

overabundance causes man-animal conflict.

Objectives

The primary goal of this study was to provide

information to help evolve an ecologically sound

management plan for Rehekuri so that it can be used

as a basis for the management of other similar

problem areas. The broad aim of the study was to

provide guidelines for the management of the area

within and outside the sanctuary limits with special

reference to man-animal conflict.

The objectives were to:

I. Study the present habitat conditions and

utilization pattern by the blackbuck:

a) To describe geographical, climatological

and land use patterns of the study area.

b) To document seasonal variations.

c) To provide a historical perspective of the

changes in the area in relation to the habitat of the

blackbuck.

d) To identify ecologically based zones in the

habitat utilized by blackbuck.

e) To record land use in the surrounding area,

quality and quantity of vegetation cover, and

availability of water.

II. Study the behavioural patterns of blackbuck

in relation to variations in habitat conditions:

a) To study the population density, herd size &

structure and its relationship to the mosaic of habitat

types in the area.

b) To document feeding be haviourand identify

food preferences including browsing and dependence

on crops.

c) To study interactions between local people

and blackbuck.

Methods

Regular observations were made at Rehekuri

from July 1986 to June 1987, so that all the seasonal

changes were covered. On an average a two-day

visit was made every fortnight. From June 1987

onwards visits were made once every 5 or 6 months

up to June 1992. Sightings of blackbuck herds were

recorded while following a standard circuit that

adequately covered various ecologically different

areas of the sanctuary. Each ecologically distinct

plot was transected in proportion to its size while

walking at a steady pace. Thus the transect length

and time spent in each plot was related to plot size

providingan adequate representation of habitat use.

All the blackbuck noted within a strip of about 100

metres on either side of the circuit were recorded.

Occasionally, blackbuck were flushed if hidden in

a particular thicket. It can be argued that a correction

factor should be used to equate the number of

sightings in open grassland, with those in plantations.

However, this was not necessary as the lightly

wooded area is a flat open plantation of small trees

which are in relatively straight rows with minimal

undergrowth that does not hide the animals within

hundred metres. Thus, as the observer walked along

the circuit a good view of the plantation area was

obtained.

One hundred sightings of herds were made

following the same circuit as described above. This

was done in different seasons during the course of

one year. Careful note was made of the activity of

the animals, the structure of the herd, the number of

animals per herd, the location of the sighting and

any habitat factor affecting their behaviour during

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

373

each circuit. Movements of the herds were also

recorded. The number of animals sighted is not to

be confused with the total population at Rehekuri, as

only a part of the population was recorded during a

circuit. Although we have analyzed the observations

made of a hundred herds, many sightings were made

while not on an observation circuit. These have not

been used for this analysis. However they helped

corroborate the observations made duringthe circuits.

The sanctuary and adjacent farmland used

most frequently by blackbuck was zoned ecologically

and the plots measured on the map by a digitizer.

Photographic documentation of the animals and the

condition of the habitat was made throughout the

study. An aerial survey of the area was conducted in

March 1987. A census was conducted in December

1986 with the help of the students of St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay and the Forest Department staff.

Discussion

1.1 - TSie Study Area : Rehekuri Blackbuck

Sanctuary lies in the Karjat taluka of Ahmednagar

district in Maharashtra in the rain shadow region of

the Western Ghats. The area is used for marginal

cultivation and the wasteland is overgrazed by sheep

and cattle. The erstwhile natural habitat was a

typical example of the ‘Southern Tropical Thorn

Forest’ where grassland and scrub were interspersed

with open thorn woodland characterised by Acacia

spp. reaching a height of 6 to 9 metres. This is now

highly modified. In the early 1960s the Forest

Department established a plantation of Eucalyptus

spp.,DalbergiasissooandAzadirachta indica under

the Drought Prone Area Project Scheme. Certain

species of grass were also introduced in the more

recent years. Rehekuri was notified as a sanctuary in

this DPAP plot in 1980 as several blackbuck began

to frequent the area. Between 1960 and 1980 the

population of blackbuck grew from about 20 animals

to around 200. The sharp rise in population soon

after protection can be attributed mainly to an

aggregation of blackbuck from surrounding

unprotected areas. A large proportion of the area

used by the blackbuck is outside the sanctuary and is

under cultivation. ‘Jowar’ ( Sorghum vulgare) is the

major crop. Pulses including ‘\ux\Cajanus cajan),

‘gram \Cicer arietinum ), and the local ‘julega’ are

sown as mixed crops. Some sunflower ( Helianthus

annuus ), ‘bajra ’(Penni setum typhoides) and

sugarcane {Saccharum offic inarum ) is also cultivated.

Due to the poor, ‘murrain’ and rocky soil condition,

and lack of water, some areas are barren or are

frequently fallow. The climate is essentially arid and

the area suffers from repeated drought. The mean

annual temperature is 25 °C, with a maximum of

40 °C in midsummer (May), and a minimum of 8 °C

in mid -winter (December). The vegetation, especially

the grass cover varies seasonally, being green for

only two or three months in a year during the rainy

season. The situation is further aggravated during

drought years when the grass growth is poor and

dries up even earlier. Karjat taluka was one of the

severely affected areas in the drought that hit this

part of Maharashtra duringthe period 1985 to 1987.

Figure 1 shows the habitat subtypes in different

plots.

1.2 (a) The Habitat Conditions within and

outside the Sanctuary:

A large proportion of the sanctuary area is

covered by a plantation. The trees used for afforesting

the area consist of 44.3% Acacia spp., 17.7%

Azadirachta indica, 29% Dalbergia spp., 9%

Eucalyptus spp. a few Sandalwood trees, and some

Ziziphus bushes. However there is one patch of open

grassland with a few Acacia trees still left in the

sanctuary which is reminiscent of the blackbuck’s

natural habitat. There is a percolation tank at one

end of the sanctuary. Water is also pumped to an

artificial water hole within the sanctuary. However

the area faces a severe water shortage in summer.

The surrounding area which is also utilized by this

population of blackbuck consists of agricultural

374

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL . 90 (1993)

Fig. 1. The habitat subtypes in different plots.

land. After harvest these areas of fallow agricultural

land outside the sanctuary continue to be frequented

by the animals that feed on the stubble and residual

weeds.

The sanctuary which covers only 2.17 sq.km,

has an irregular periphery (Fig. 1). Thus, animal

movements from one area to another frequently

involve transgressing the surrounding farmlands.

An agricultural area is present within the Protected

Area (Fig. 1).

Habitat Subtypes: The area canbe divided into

four ecologically diverse habitat subtypes:

A - The grassland, with a few relict trees and

bushes;

B - The thinly afforested area interspersed

with grass;

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

375

C - The old plantation area; and

D - The agricultural area which has seasonal

crops, or forms fallow land.

These four habitat subtypes are represented in

(4).

Plot 7 - This plot consists of agricultural land

which is generally partly cultivated. In patches it

resembles degraded grassland and is devoid of trees.

Due to its open nature it appears similar to plot 1 in

Table 1

PERCENTAGE OF AREA IN EACH HABITAT SUBTYPE

The area in habitat subtype B is 42.7%

Note: The total area (3.78 Sq. km) is greater than the size of the sanctuary (2.17 sq.km) as the study area includes

the agricultural land in its immediate vicinity.

seven adjacent plots (Fig. 1), Table 1.

Plot 1 -The typical grassland savannah habitat:

Type A.

Plot 2 -The central area of the sanctuary which

consists of thinly afforested plantation: Type B - (1).

Plot 3 - The area around the Forest Guest

House and including the Forest Department staff

quarters, which is thinly afforested but is highly

disturbed: Type B - (2).

Plot 4 - A thinly afforested area which had a

corral where the blackbuck were stall-fed during the

early part of the study: Type B - (3).

Plot 5 - A heavily afforested area consisting of

the older Eucalyptus plantations and relatively

heavy undergrowth especially alongthe watercourse

which flows towards the percolation tank. Until

1989 there was a Forest Department nursery on the

edge of the waterbody with considerable disturbance:

Type C.

Plot 6 - This is a thinly afforested area similar

to plot 2 but situated across the Karjat road:Type B-

summer. (Type D).

The area around the sanctuary is primarily

agricultural and is similar to plot 7 : Type D.

1.2 (b) - Seasonal Variations: The major

seasonal variation consists of changes in the grass

cover on which the blackbuck graze (Table 2). The

favoured forbs found here such as Indigofera are

preferred to the grasses and are rapidly grazed.

Some grasses and forbs which were found to flower

briefly in July - August were Aristida. Tribulus

terrestris, Justicia diffusa, Tricolepsis glaberrima,

Alysicarpus tetragonolobus, Desmodium triflorium,

Heliotropium marifolium, Melanocenchrus

jaquemontii, Tephrosia tenuis, Leucas linifolia,

Mansonia senegalensis and Cyanotis fasciculate.

As the grasses are overgrazed during drought

conditions by an invasion of cattle and goats, the

ground cover deteriorates considerably leaving

patches of the less favoured, unpuhtnble Aristida sp.

of grass. When most of the grass in the open area

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Table 2

SEASONAL CHANGES IN GRASS AND CROP AVAILABILITY

( Note: Subject to changes according to monsoon / drought conditions.)

dries up, small islands of yellow-green grass persist

only around the base of each tree in the plantation.

The most commonly browsed species of trees are

Ziziphus a nd A cacia . These a re i ncreas ingl y u ti li zed

by blackbuck after the grasses have been grazed

away. Duringthe drought when food was scarce the

blackbuck turned to chewing on Agave leaves,

destroying several fences in the process.

Seasonal changes in the crop patterns also

affect the movement and dispersal of the blackbuck

outside the sanctuary. The 4jowar’ crop is damaged

since the grass cover deteriorates during this period.

The blackbuck thus tend to move out of the sanctuary

to feed on the crops. Sunflower plants are not

damaged by the blackbuck. However, there are

unconfirmed reports of blackbuck eating the flower

itself. All other crops were damaged. The extent is

highly variable and is related to the distance from the

sanctuary and the extent of crop protection.

2.0 » Habits and Behaviour: The data on

population density, herd strength and structure at

Rehekuri is compiled from one hundred sightings

made during the course of the year (July 1986 to July

1987). (Fig. 2)

2.1 - Population Density: The blackbuck

population mainly uses an area of about 4 sq.km. On

occasion blackbuck are also seen further away. The

total number of animals in the sanctuary shows

fluctuations from time to time. A total count which

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

377

was carried out in December 1986 in Rehekuri

sanctuary and in the farmland around it showed that

there were 250 animals. Thus an estimated 250

animals frequent about 4 sq. kilometres. This gives

a population density of 1 per 1 .6 ha . However, Forest

Department census done previously, estimated that

there were as many as 400 animals in the sanctuary

area, i.e. about 1 blackbuck per ha.

Thus, there are between 250 to 400 animals

using 400 ha. of sanctuary and adjacent farmland.

Even if the lower figure of about 250 in 4 sq.km is

considered, this aggregation constitutes a very high

population density. Comparative figures on

population of blackbuck from Velavadar (Rashid

counts made by the Forest Department at Rehekuri.

2.2 - Habitat Preference: An analysis of the

100 herd sightings in different plots is shown in

Table 3. This shows that the most frequently used

area was plot 1, followed by plots 2, 4, 6, 3, 7, and 5

respectively.

Plot 1 is open Savanna-like grassland which

resembles the ecosystem that once constituted the

blackbuck’s favoured habitat. This is the most

frequented area in the sanctuary. Plots 2 and 4 have

large open strips of grass amidst the plantation

which has a low canopy cover and is thus frequently

used. Plots 3 and 6 are similar to 2 and 4 but are

Table 3

NUMBER OF HERD SIGHTINGS IN DIFFERENT PLOTS

1977) and Pt. Calimere (Daniel 1967) are appreciably

lower than at Rehekuri. Available data from other

areas (Nair 1976, Natrajan et al 1978) show that

census figures have wide variations. As these authors

have used different census techniques their results

show a considerable difference in the counts obtained

for the same area. This is supported by the findings

of Rahmani (1991) . This could account for the

variation in counts made during the study period and

disturbed due to the Forest Department quarters and

the Forest Bungalow. Plot 7 though open wasteland,

is ‘malki’ land, and is very close to well guarded

seasonal crops. Blackbuck move through this area

to go into Plot 6 if they are disturbed by tourists in the

sanctuary. They also graze on stubble after crops are

harvested. The least used area is Plot 5 in which

there was only one sighting. This has tall old

Eucalyptus trees and is full of gullies and eroded

Table 4

PERCENTAGE OF HERD SIGHTINGS IN DIFFERENT HABITAT SUBTYPES IN RELATION TO PERCENTAGE OF

_ TOTAL AREA

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murrum. It is thus an unfavourable area where the

animals are rarely seen . The area in habitat type D

consists of only the agricultural plots immediately

adjacent to the sanctuary. However, the animals

disperse outside this area to feed in similar croplands.

This habitat is used sporadically for a variable

distance from the sanctuary. Since the more

peripherally situated crops are visited infrequently

these have not been taken into account in this study.

Table 4 demonstrates that although habitat

subtype A (open grassland) constitutes only about

10% of the area, 42% of sightings were recorded

here. In contrast, in habitat subtype B (thinly

afforested plots), which consists of 50% of the area

there were 55 % of the sightings. Although the area

of habitat subtype B is 5 times larger than that of the

open grassland (Subtype A) the number of sightings

in subtype B are not appreciably higher than in A.

Only 1% of sightings were made in habitat subtype

C (Which consists of the heavily wooded old

plantation) but accounts for 14.2% of the total area.

Only 2% of the sightings were made in habitat

subtype D (Croplands) constituting 18.5% of the

area. However it is possible that blackbuck utilize

these cropla nds immed ia te ly adjace nt to t he sa nctua ry

more frequently after dark when there are crops or

residue to feed on. In the 9.9% area constituting the

unmodified grassland habitat in the area there were

42 sightings, i.e. 4.24 sightings per unit area [(1 x

42)/9,9]. In the modified 90.1 % of the area, there

were 58 sightings, i.e. 0.64 sightings per unit area

[(1 x 58) ,/90.1]. Thus the ratio of sightings per unit

area in modified: unmodified habitat is 0.64 : 4.24,

i.e. 1 : 6.6. It can be deduced that the animals utilize

the unmodified area 6 times more frequently than the

modified area.

Several factors affect habitat suitability of

different plots and produce a combination effect

which is related to the number of sightings. Some of

the important positive factors are availability of

grazing and browsing, access to water, and cover in

the afforested plots. A combination of factors is also

responsible for the marked preference for plot A.

The natural open grassland with scattered acacia

trees provides grazing and browsing. Italso provides

good visibility so that humans can be sighted from a

distance. Negative factors of the suboptimal habitat

include the overgrowth of scrub and thick tree

canopy, excessive and constant disturbance due to

human movements of residential staff, tourists, and

local inhabitants and the proximity to protected

croplands during the growing seasons from where

the farmers have to drive off the animals.

2.3 - Herd Size : At Rehekuri, the size of

blackbuck herds varies from 2 to 200 animals ( see

Appendix A). Large aggregations occur when the

area is disturbed by a sudden influx of several

tourists within the sanctuary. These very large

groups of over 100 animals which were seen

occasionally during the study were temporary

aggregations of smaller herds. Observations during

such periods of obvious disturbance have been

excluded. During 1986-87, groups of over 50 a ni ma Is

were seen on regular observation circuits in only 6

instances.

In a hundred herds sighted during the

observation circuits the total number of animals

counted- was 2121. Thus the average herd size is 21

(see Appendix A). Groups of less than 20 animals

have been designated as small herds and 21 or more

as large herds. There were 51 sightings of small

herds and 36 sightings of large herds (Table 7).

Blackbuck herds are known to be relatively

open societies where individual animals join or leave

the herd from time to time. The herd size and

structure is in a constant state of flux. Available

literature suggests that in an ungulate species there

is a close relationship between their size and weight,

their herd structure and their favoured habitat.

Jarman (1974) has shown that small light ungulates

that live in forests, are selective browsers, have a

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

379

small group size, their reproductive unit is a pair and

their anti-predator activity consists of hiding. In

contrast large heavy ungulates favour grasslands,

are nonselective grazers, have a large group size,

with a male dominated harem and mass defense.

Thus, 5 different groups of animals have been

identified. The group size varies as follows: group

that each species has an in built mechanism to live

in a certain group size and favours a specific habitat

(Table 5).

According to the above grouping system, the

blackbuck herd size fits into either group-group II

or group III. In group II there should be 2 to 12

animals where there is a male with some form of a

Table 5

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEHAVIOUR AND HABITAT SUITABILITY

IN DIFFERENT UNGULATE SPECIES

Body weight

Light

Heavy

Habitat

Diet

Group size

Antipredator activity

Forest

Selective browser

Pair

Hide

Grassland

Unselected grazing

Male dominated herd

Mass defense

(TABLE ADAPTED FROM BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY, JARMAN 1974).

I) 1 or 2 animals; II) 2 to 12 ; III) 12 to 100 : IV) upto

150; & V)upto 1000. The corresponding reproductive

units in the groups are: I) A pair; II) Male with

harem; III) Males, territorial inbreedingseason; IV)

Defense of females in herds; & V) Male dominant

hierarchy in the herd. Jarman (1974) thus suggests

‘harem’. In group III there should be 2 to 100

animals with males showingterritoriality. Blackbuck

do not forma true harem since the herd composition

changes constantly.

This study shows that modifications or

Table 6

DISTRIBUTION OF SIGHTINGS OF SMALL AND LARGE HERDS IN DIFFERENT PLOTS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL . 90 (1993)

variations in the habitat can influence herd size and

structure of ungulates. It suggests that herd size in

an ungulate may depend not only on the size and

weight of a species and its intrinsic behavioural

patterns but is related to temporal changes in

environmental factors and spatial variations in its

habitat.

The relationship between habitat subtypes and

blackbuck herd size is shown in Table 6. Smaller

herds were found more frequently under tree cover,

whereas larger herds were seen more often in the

open Savanna - like areas in Plot 1. Large herds were

also recorded in open wastelands when the animals

were sighted several kilometres from the sanctuary.

Where a variety of habitats from open to

thickly wooded areas are present in the same area,

a large variation in blackbuck herd size might occur.

Smaller herds prefer covered areas where they can

were recorded in India were found in open plains

(Dharmakumarsinhji 1978, Mungall et al. 1981,

Neginhal 1980). Our observations indicate that the

usual herd size in Rajasthan at Guda and Dhawa in

open country were relatively larger in size than in

Point Calimere in scrubland. At Kanha in Madhya

Pradesh the grassy ‘ma idans ’ surrounded by forests

had very small herds, however, the total number

here is too small to draw any definite conclusion.

An important ecological variable is

demonstrated by contrasting the frequency of habitat

utilization of the most natural category which is

Plot 1 ( the savanna - like area), with all the other

plots which are highly man - modified, (such as

afforested plantation areas, croplands, and those

that support human habitation), i.e. Plot 2 to 7.

Thus, a near natural plot consisting of 9.9% of the

area is compared with the highly man-modified

plots constituting 90% of the area.

Table 7

NUMBER OF SIGHTINGS OF SMALL / LARGE HERDS IN PLOT 1 COMPARED TO OTHER PLOTS

Chi - Square calculated = 6.28 with 1 degree of freedom. Significant at 5%.

hide from predators. The larger herds show a

preference for open areas where mass defence acts as

an anti-predator mechanism. In the larger herd, the

possibility of spotting a predator by one of the

animals when it raises it’s head during grazing is

higher than in a smaller herd. Smaller herds in

woodland may also develop more selective feeding

habits and change from grazers to browsers.

Historically, large herds of blackbuck that

In Plot 1 out of 37 sightings, 16, i.e. 43.3%

were of small herds, while 21, i.e. 56.7% were of

large herds. In plots 2 to 7, out of 50 sightings, 35,

i.e. 70% were of small herds, while 15, i.e. 30% were

of large herds (Table 7).

Of the 51 sightings of small herds, 16 were in

Plot 1, i.e.31.3%, while 35 were in Plots 2-7, i.e.

68.6%. In the 36 sightings of large herds, 21 were

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTI LOPE CERVICAPRA

381

in Plot 1, i.e. 58.3%, while 15 were in Plots 2 to 7,

i.e. 41.6%.

Mungall et al. (1981) found that Velavadar

represents the open plain habitat type where there

were herds of upto a thousand animals and that the

Pt. Calimere herds were much smaller and were

scattered through the brush, “moving across India

from northwest to southeast, the observer changes

perspective as to what a large herd is. One thinks of

tens or hundreds instead of thousands”. This may be

related to changes in habitat characteristics from the

more open to the more scrubcovered tracts in the

south.

Nair (1976) showed that at Pt. Calimere herd

size varies from 2 to 120 with a mean of 23. However

Daniel (1967) for the same area claimed that the

herd size is from 3 to 47, the normal being about 12.

Ranjitsinh (1982) suggests that as populations

increase and reach a certain size they split up and

that this point is reached between 40 and 60 animals.

Thus an increase in size leads to the formation of

more herds.

Herd size is a flexible arrangement that can

vary from place to place. Rehekuri shows a variable

pattern and demonstrates how the population

grouping may also be affected by human induced

changes in the habitat.

2.4 - Herd Structure: A review of literature

onungulates (Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay 1979,

Daniel 1967, Dharmakumarsinhji 1978, Krebs and

Davies 1981, Mungall etal, 1981, Ranjitsinh 1982)

shows that different authors use different terms to

describe the types of herds that are formed by

blackbuck. Terms suchaspseudoharem, quasiharem,

breeding harem, male dominated herd, bachelor

herd, female herd etc. have been often loosely used,

Table 8

NUMBER OF SIGHTINGS OF HERDS OF DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL CATEGORIES IN EACH PLOT

Small herds

+ Large herds

+ Lone male

Total

(a + b + c = 51)

(d+e =36)

(f = 13)

100

Mixed herds

+ Bachelor herds

+ Lone males

Total

(a + b + d = 46)

(c + e = 41)

(f= 13)

100

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and indicate various formations to different authors

(Mungall etal. 1981).

There are two structurally distinct types of

herds at Rehekuri (Table 8). In the 100 herds observed

46 had a mixed population with males and females

(Tables 8:a+b+d), while 41 had only males (Table

8:c+e). Thirteen isolated lone males were oblerved

(Table 8:f). The pattern described by some authors

also suggests the formation of purely female herds,

which were not observed at Rehekuri during this

period. This absence maybe related to anabnormally

high population density.

The herd size in relation to structural variations

showed that there were three structurally distinctive

types of small herds, i.e. herds with less than 20

animals. The herd structure of these small groups

had two types of small mixed herds. One type having

only one male and a few females - Type (a) , while

the other had more than one male with a few fema les,

These were territorial and associated with passing

mixed herds within their own territory for brief

periods from time to time (Walther et al. 1983).

The different herd patterns observed during

100 sightings are shown in Table 8. The frequency

with which herds having different structures were

sighted was: Small mixed herds with one male and

females, 11% (the least common); small mixed

herds with multiple males and females, 12% ; Large

mixed herds , 23 %; i .e. mixed herds were encountered

in 46% of the sightings. Large bachelor herds

constituted 13% of sightings; while small bachelor

herds (the commonest type) accounted for 28%.

Thus, all-male herds accounted for41% of sightings.

Sightings of lone males accounted for 13% (see

inset: Appendix A).

In the 51 small herds sighted, there were 462

animals, while in 36 large herds there were 1659

animals (lone males are excluded). Thus even

Table 9

AVERAGE HERD SIZE IN RELATION TO HERD STRUCTURE

- Type (b). These have been placed in separate

groups as it appears to be related to breeding biology.

There were also small herds formed entirely by a few

male blackbuck, - Type (c). The large herds of more

than 21 animals were of two types. Herds with

several males and females constituted a large mixed

group, - Type (d). Large herds were also formed by

several adult and subadult males forming bachelor

herds, - Type (e). The lone males, - Type (t),

remained solitary over a considerable length of time.

though small herds were sighted more frequently,

the large herds accounted for more than 3 times the

number of blackbuck (Appendix A).

The average herd sizes in each herd type are

given in Table 9 and Appendix A.

Considering the average herd sizes indifferent

categories of herd structure (Table 9) it is observed

that the large mixed herds have the largest number

of animals (49.7), followed by large bachelor herds

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTI LOPE CERVICAL RA

383

(38.5), small mixed herds with multiple males (9.8),

small mixed herds with a single male (9), while

small bachelor herds were the smallest of groupings

(8.7) (Appendix A).

However he also recorded a bachelor herd of 160 in

Velavadar which had a core group of 86 to 88. The

s a me authorstatesthatDha rma ku ma rs i nhj i re ca 1 1 ed

havingseen male herds of 1500 animals in Velavadar.

Fig.2. Number of sightings of different types of herds in the seven plots at Rehekuri.

Nair's study (1976) at Point Calimere shows

that the average strength of heterosexual herds was

23, of female herds 15, and of male herds 4. Ranjitsinh

(1982) found that bachelor groups of over 20 animals

each were only seen in high concentration areas

when totally numbering over 300 in a restricted area.

Ranjitsinh’s figure of the largest mixed herds observed

are 430 in Velavadar and 243 near Doli, the average

size of mixed herds being 20 to 60 animals.

Figure 2 shows the number of sightings of

different types of herds in the seven plots at Rehekuri .

2

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Table 10

AVERAGE HERD SIZE OF HERD-STRUCTURE CATEGORIES OBSERVED IN EACH PLOT

Table 11

AVERAGE HERD SIZE IN PLOTS - (GRASSLAND SUBTYPE)

COMPARED TO ALL OTHER PLOTS (2-1)- MODIFIED HABITAT

An interesting pattern emerges when

considering sightings of the different herd types in

each plot. As shown earlier, there is a definite

relationship between herd size and habitat subtype

(Table 6). The relation to structural pattern is

similarly shown in Table 8. This shows that large

mixed herds were most commonly seen in Plot 1.

This was also the area used maximally by territorial

males. This evidently provides the females of a large

mixed herd the greatest chance of associating with

a territorial buck. However, in contrast fewer large

bachelor herds were found in Plot 1 compared to Plot

2. This may indicate that these nonterritorial and

less dominant bucks prefer to remain out of sight of

territorial bucks even though Plot 1 is a more suitable

habitat.

The average herd size in various herd -structure

categories observed in individual plots is shown in

Table 10.

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

385

Table 11 shows a comparative analysis of

herds in plot 1 and plot 2 to 7 in relation to herd size

in different structural categories.

2.5 - Herd - Composition. Male : Female

Ratio: It is assumed that the hundred sightings are

representative of populations in terms of herd types,

structure and the male: female composition (Appendix

B).

As shown earlier the small herds numbering

less than 20 animals have 3 structural types, those

with one male and several females, those with

several males and females and the small bachelor

groups. The large herds consist of two types. The big

mixed aggregations which were usually sighted

either on the move or while settled in the open

Savanna. If on the move, these were difficult to

separate into males and females, and only a total

count could be made on some occasions. There were

also large bachelor herds. Thirteen sightings of

single males were recorded on the circuits.

If the counts were taken as they were, a number

of sightings in the big mixed aggregations would have

been left out tilting the ratio in favour of the males.

The technical problem was the inability to

count males and females separately in large mixed

herds especially while they were very close to each

other, or runningaway from disturbance. The male:

female ratio in such large mixed herds was obtained

in 15 sightings, and could not be obtained in 8

sightings. This has been corrected by assuming that

the average proportion observed in large mixed

herds is to be expected in these 8 groups as well. In

the known group, the male: female ratio is 46:513 or

approximately 1:11. The number of animals in the

large mixed herds where the composition was not

observed directly is 586 in8 herds, i.e. approximately

73 per herd. Thus it is expected that there should be

about 48 males and 538 females in these 8 herds.

Thus in the 2121 animals there should be 895 males

and 1226 females, i.e. a ratio of 1:1.37

Rashid (1977) found that the male: female

ratio at Velavadar was 1:3. He states that normally

it should be 1:6 and claims that this indicates a

preponderance of males at Velavadar. According to

him this indicates a need to translocate or cull

surplus animals. It is difficult to understand how the

author arrives at the conclusion that the normal ratio

should be 1:6. In the past the selective hunting of

males may have led to such a highly disproportionate

sex ratio. Of 1531 blackbuck counted in Velavadar

in 1981, 539 were males, mature and immature

(Ranjitsinh 1982). Sharma (1980) gives a male:

female ratio of 3:18 (i.e. 1:6), 5: 22 (i.e. 1:4.4) and

5:28 (i.e. 1: 5.6) during non-mating season. These

split off into smaller groups of 1:8, 1:11 and 1:14

respectively during the rut. Further it was observed

that all-male (bachelor) herd sizes increase up to 10

and occasionally up to 22. Daniel (1967) gives a

ratio for Point Calimere of about 1:2. Nair later felt

that along with a fall in numbers the male : female

ratio had become 1: 4.7. The ratio of 1:1.37 at

Re heku ri is s i mi la r to tha t fo u nd by se ve ra 1 obse rvers

from different study sites. However there appears to

be a wide variation in the ratio given by different

authorities.

Results and Conclusions

(1) The Rehekuri blackbuck sanctuary is 2.17

square kilometres in size. However, as the animals

are seen fairly frequently in the fields immediately

outside it's limits, the area occupied by them covers

approximately 4 square kilometres. The population

of blackbuck has been estimated to be 250 to 400

animals. This gives population density ranging

between 1 to 1.6 per hectare, which is relatively high

compared to several other blackbuck areas.

(2) During a one year period, hundred herd

sightings were recorded in the mosaic of habitat

subtypes in the study area. This shows a preference

for the near - natural small grassland patch which

constitutes only 9.9% of the total area but had 42%

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL . 90 (1993)

of herd sightings. In contrast, 90.1% of the area

consistingof modified conditions such as plantations

and farmland had only 58% of sightings. The ratio

of sightings per unit in modified: natural habitat is

1:6.6. The animals thus frequent the natural area 6

times more frequently than the modified area.

(3) In 100 herds sighted, there were 2121

animals. Thus the average herd size at Rehekuri was

21. In 51 sightings, the herds were larger than

average in size and in 36 sightings the herds were

smaller than average. The 13 lone males were

territorial breeding bucks.

(4) The relationship between herd size and

structure to habitat variables showed that in the

grassland patch, 43% were small herds while 56%

were larger than average. In the modified habitat,

70% of sightings were of small herds while 30%

were larger than average. Among the small herds

31% of sightings were in grassland and 68% in the

modified area, while large herds, 58% of sightings

were observed in grassland while 41% were in the

modified area. Thus, larger than average herds

showed a relatively greater preference for the open

grassland area than the smaller herds which preferred

the plantation.

(5) The herd structural configuration showed

that herds could be classified into mixed herds of

males and females in 46 sightings, all male herds in

41 sightings and lone males in 13 sightings. Among

smaller than average herds, there were 1 1 sightings

of mixed herds with an average size of 9 animals

which had 1 male with a few females; 12 sightings

had an average size of 9.8 animals which had more

than one male and a few females; and 28 sightings

of all male herds with an average size of 8.7. In the

large herds 23 were mixed, i.e. males and females

with an average size of 49.7 animals; while 13

sightings were observed of bachelor (all male) herds

withanaveragesizeof38.5. The 13 lone males were

breeding territorial animals which associated with

females from the mixed herds when they were in

their vicinity.

(6) Though the male: female ratio could not be

counted in the case of some of the large mixed herds,

the computed ratio in the population of blackbuck in

Rehekuri is 1: 1.37.

Management Issues

Crop Damage: Blackbuck cause considerable

damage to unguarded crops in the immediate vicinity

of the sanctuary. It was found that if a crop is left

totally unguarded overnight a relatively large

proportion of it can be trampled upon and destroyed

especially if a large herd happens to enter it. In

contrast, crop lands situated further afield show a

much smaller degree of damage.

Crop damage increases once the grass in the

sanctuary begins to dry. Blackbuck do not feed on

crops throughout their growth. “Jowar” is avoided

during the initial period of it’s growth, it is damaged

when about 15-20 cm high. "Bajra" is eaten when it

first begins to grow and then after the grain has

developed. Although legumes may be eaten during

the early phase, they are preferred once the beans

form. The Sunflower pi ant is not eaten and is a good

alternate crop as it requires less protection until the

flower is formed. However, sunflower residue is not

eaten by cattle and thus the farmer would have no

fodder to stall feed livestock. A crop well protected

by a vigilant guard especially at night is essential if

a crop is to be grown close to the sanctuary. Usually

it is only the totally unattended crop that suffers very

severe damage. Many authors have stated that the

blackbuck predomina ntly feed on the grass a nd forbs

in the crop. This would in fact benefit the farmer by

acting as a weed deterrent. Though this may be

generally true we have on occasion seen severely

damaged crops that were allegedly destroyed by

blackbuck by feeding and trampling on it. Krishnan

(1972) has stated that inquiry from villagers elicited

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

387

the information that loss of crops from blackbuck

was negligible. He found that at Point Calimere too,

the chital and pigs inhibited agriculture more than

blackbuck. He claims that these instances show “to

what extent a taste for buck-flesh lay behind killing

of blackbuck as crop raiders all over India”.

At Rehekuri several measures should be

instituted such as electric fencing to surround crops

close to the sanctuary, developing a rational system

of insuring crops on the basis of the farms’ distance

from the sanctuary as well as instituting crop

protection on a co-operative basis.

Management Recommendations

In view of the above, the following

recommendations are made to minimise people:

wildlife conflict issues and optimizing habitat

conditions for the blackbuck.

A) Management of the sanctuary:

1. Increasing the Size of the Protected Area:

Whenthis Blackbuck Sanctuary, coveringanarea of

2.17 sq.km was notified, the problem that could

arise due to their population growth was not

anticipated. The present conflict is a direct

consequence of a very high but localized

overabundance. To encourage a wider dispersal of

the present population another four or five similar

plots the Forest Department totally coveringanarea

of about 20 sq.km should be notified. This would

provide a cluster of several grassland patches which

could be closed by rotation for better rejuvenation of

grass. Once the population disperses into these areas

the localized over abundance and high density will

decrease and the serious crop damage affecting the

few farmers who live around the sanctuary would be

substantially reduced. A few ‘malki’ areas within

and on the borders of the sanctuary that are most

severely damaged should be acquired by the Forest

Department and adequate compensation paid to the

farmers. These areas could be developed using a

rapidly growing grass species. There has been a

suggestion that tranquilizing and translocating

animals should be attempted to reduce the population

of blackbuck. This would be prohibitively expensive

and carry a risk of mortality. To reduce the density

appreciably more than half the population would

have to be moved. This is an impractical suggestion.

Encouraging dispersal which will reduce density to

acceptable levels seems to be the only practical

solution at present.

2. Rangeland management within and outside

the Sanctuary: Closing off certain areas during the

growing season will improve the total biomass of

grass considerably. To set up a rotational pattern of

gra zi ng both fo r the a nte lope i n the sa nctua ry a nd fo r

the livestock outside is essential. This can only be

done effectively if several other patches of grassland

are notified and protected. The presence of adequate

grazing for blackbuck will reduce their dependence

on crops.

3. Fodder Supplement: The blackbuck should

be given fodder supplements at several locations in

the sanctuary. Branches and leaves from Ziziphus

and Acacia trees can be collected and stored as stall

feed forsunmier. The branches must be lopped from

well above the existing browse line to ensure that the

animals can reach the lower branches on their own.

4. Modifications in present Management:

a) ‘Lure crops': The crops planted by the

Forest Department to attract blackbuck result in bald

patches soon after they are grazed off by the blackbuck.

These are not recolonised by grass eveninsubsequent

years. This reduces the total biomass of fodder

available in the sanctuary. The Forest Department

contends that ‘lurecrops’ help ingaining confidence

of local farmers as they feel that the Forest

Department is attempting to reduce the dependence

of the blackbuck on their farmland by substituting

crops of their own. Though this may be a

psychological factor in improving relations between

388

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL . 90 (1993)

managers and people it is producinga further decrease

in availability of forage. The area under ‘lure crops’

must therefore be decreased considerably, and

substituted by grasses that can improve the biomass

in the area and prevent further erosion of soil.

b) Plantation: The Department continues to

plant trees both in the sanctuary and the neighbouring

DPAP plots. This should be decreased and the

emphasis shifted to developing the area as a grassland.

A thinning of those tree species that are not browsed

by blackbuck should be undertaken. (Species such

a Eucalyptus, Dalbergia and Neem which are less

browsed by blackbuck should be removed to reduce

the canopy. Acacia and Ziziphus are browsed and

thus should not be removed). Thinning will also

provide a more natural Savanna - like appearance as

it will break the monotony of the straight plantation

rows which is aesthetica lly unacceptable in a ‘ Wildlife

Sanctuary’. The wood collected during the thinning

operation should be given free of cost to local people

so that they begin to see the Protected Area as directly

beneficial.

c) Blackbuck dung piles : Since these act as

territorial markers they should be left undisturbed.

The practice of collecting them for the Forest

Department Nursery or garden should not be

permitted as this has been observed to lead to a

disruption in territoriality and social behaviour with

dispersal of blackbuck into the surroundingcroplands.

d) Tourism: Though one would wish to increase

wildlife tourism to enhance conservation awareness

in the area the present form of uncontrolled and

uniformed tourism is a source of serious disturbance.

e) Blackbuck fawns: Several abandoned fawns

have been found in the sanctuary. Their mortality as

reported by the forest department was very high.

These should be carefully reared, ear tagged, and

released in the sanctuary. The tagged animals would

provide information on several behavioral aspects of

blackbuck.

f) Disturbance : No further roads should be

constructed through the sanctuary area.

h) Research: Census techniques must be

standardized and experts not connected with

sanctuary management requested to be present.

i) Education : An audio visual on the importance

of protecting blackbuck should be specially designed

for the local people in Marathi. This should be

shown inschools and at village marketplaces around

Rehekuri. The same A-V can be used in the sanctuary

for tourists prior to entry.

B) Management outside Sanctuary Limits:

1. Crop Protection co-operatives: Preliminary

observations indicate that the extent of crop damage

incurred by an individual farmer is proportional to

the vigilance with which he guards his crop. It is

also related to the proximity of the crop to the

sanctuary. This requires further study to spatially

quantify the amount of damage. However if the

villagers are encouraged to form their own crop

protection co-operatives they could collectively

guard their crops more effectively with much less

individual effort.

2. Crop Insurance Schemes: Since crop damage

by blackbuck occurs primarily if the crop is left

unprotected it is difficult to provide compensation

for the damage. If, however, crop damage in the

presence of adequate protection is quantified, this

could be used as a baseline to provide compensation

for insured crops. Instead of assessing each claim in

detail individually, the amount to be paid for the

damage could be claimed on predetermined criteria

based on the type of crop and it’s distance from the

sanctuary. This wou Id avoid undue delays in settling

claims and compensate the farmer adequately. A

computer model which takes into account, the

distance of the crop from the sanctuary, the number

of times blackbuck visit that area and the type of

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTI LOPE CER VI CAPRA

389

crops are a few releva nt pa rameters that must be used

to quantify expected damage.

3. Cropping patterns : A few fanners who have

severe crop damage due to the close proximity of

their farm could be encouraged to change their

cropping pattern. Such fanns could benefit from

electric fencing.

4. Change in land use patterns: Incertainareas

farmers could be encouraged to grow palatable

grasses instead of crops. This would provide fodder

for stall feeding cattle and the residual grass would

support the blackbuck.

5. Development of Grassland Patches outside

Rehekuri Sanctuary: There are several areas under

the jurisdiction of the Forest Department in Karjat

taluka outside the sanctuary. It is suggested that

these are managed intensively as grasslands. A few

shrubs and trees indigenous to the Deccan Plateau

such as Acacia and Ziziphus may be randomly

planted in them to provide a natural Savanna-like

appearance. Once these are developed the blackbuck

will disperse into them thus reducing the very high

populationdensityatRehekuri. Though this dispersed

population will continue to collectively damage the

same amount of crops, the lower density would

reduce the damage suffered by individual farmers.

6. Poaching: A few farmers have reported that

blackbuck are being shot at night outside sanctuary

limit. This must be ascertained and preventive steps

Ref

Bhattacharya, T.& Chattopadhyay, B.N. (1979):

Population status of Indian B\ackbuck(Antilopecervicapra

Linn.) in Ballavpur wildlife sanctuary, West Bengal .The

Cheetal 20 (4): 39-47.

Chattopadhyay, B.N. & Bhattacharya ,T. (1986):

BasicDiurnal Activity Patterns of Blackbuck ofBallavpur

Wildlife Sanctuary, and its seasonal variation. J. Bombay

instituted.

Possible strategies for Blackbuck managemant

in India

The general principle for blackbuck habitat

management should aim at encouraging a of the

animals into smaller interlinked populations rather

than into single, fragmented, high-density

aggregations. This would lower the intensity of crop

damage to acceptable levels. Culling at this point in

time would lead to a serious negative impact on the

gradually growing conservation awareness in the

country. Thus, alternate site-specific management

practices based on the suggestions evolved for

Rehekuri, must be developed for other existing

Protected areas around which conflict is becoming a

serious problem.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the WWF Maharashtra and

Goa for the seed money provided for this study. Dr.

Anil Gore of the Statistics Department of Pune has

helped in the statistical aspects of this study. We

express our gratitude for his guidance in planning

and working out the complete calculations. They

also thank concerned officials and staff of the Forest

Department of Maharashtra who interacted with us

and went out of their way to provide infrastructural

help. The fact that several of the suggestions based

on these findings have already been implemented is

prehaps the most rewarding aspects of the work

carried out at Rehekuri.

RENCES

nat. Hist. Soc.83(3): 553 - 561.

Daniel, J .C. ( 1 967) : The Poi nt Ca I i mere Sa nctuary ,

Madras State./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3): 512-523.

Dharmakumarsiniui , R.S. (1978): The Changing

Wildlife of Kathiawar./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (3) :

636.

Jarman, P.J. (1974) : The social organisation of

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL . 90 (1993)

antelope on relation to their ecology. Behaviour 48(3-

4):215-267.

Jerdon, T.C. (1874): The Mammals of India. John

Wheldon, London, pp.335.

Krebs, J.R. & Davies, N.B. (1981): An introduction

to to Behavioral Ecology. Blackwell ScientificPublication,

Oxford.

Krishnan, M. (1972): An Ecological Survey of the

larger Mammals of Peninsular India J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 69(3) : 469-501.

Mungall, E.C., Patel, B.H., Prasad, N.L.N.S.

Dogherty, S.E. (198 1): Conservation and Management of

the Indian Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra - A Final

Report. U.S. Fish and wildlife service, sept. 1981

(unpublished) lllp.

Nair, S.S. (1976): A Populati on survey and

observations on the behaviour of the Blackbuck in the Pt.

Calimere Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(2):

304-310.

Neginhal, S.G. (1980): Ecological impact of

afforestation at the Rani Bennur Blackbuck Sanctuary J

Bombay nat.Hist.Soc. 75 (supplement) : 1254-1255.

Ranjitsinh, M.K.(1982) : Territorial Behaviour of

the Indian Blackbuck in the Velavadar National Park,

Gujarat. J. Bombay nat.Hist.Soc. 79(2) : 214-246.

Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1982) : Ecology and Behaviour

of the Indian Blackbuck with special reference to the

Velavadar National Park, Saurashtra, Ph.D thesis

submi tted to the ‘The Saurashtra University, ‘ unpublished.

Rashid, M.A. (1977): Census of the Blackbuck at

the Velavadar National Park, Gujarat. The Cheetal 19(1):

3-13.

Rahmani, A. R. (1991) Present distribution of the

h^cYbucVAntilope cervicapra Linn, in India, with special

emphasis on the lesser known populations. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc 88 (1): 35-46.

Sharma, I.K. (1980): Habitat Preference, feeding

and survival of the Blackbuck. Tigerpaper 7(8): 4-6.

Walther, F.R., Mangall, E.C. & Grau,

G.A.(1983):Gazelles and their Relatives • A study in

Territorial Behaviour . Noyes Publication, New Jersey,

U.S.A.

BEHAVIOUR PATTRNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

391

APPENDIX A

HERD STRUCTURE

1. No. of blackbuck in different herd sizes

2. Mean herd size in population

3. Mean herd sizes in different herd compositions (ie. M:F Ratio)

Size 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 56-60 85-90 195-200

Head

Class

9c

7c

200d

Thus 2 - 20 = Small herds (a), (b), (c). Over 21 = Large herds (d), (e). One male = Lone territorial buck (f)

392

JOURNAL, BOBMAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

2

1

BEHAVIOUR PATTRNS OF THE BLACKED CK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

393

46:513=559

(Y Unknown)

? 586

i.e. 48:538

X + Y

94:1051 = 1145

(1:8) (1=2.8) (1:11.2)

Therefore Males = 895, Females = 1226

i.e. Total = 2121

M:F = 1 : 1.37

THE DIEL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON {PYTHON MOLURUS

MOLURUS LINN.) AT KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,

BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN1

Karmavir Biiatt and B.C.Choudhury2

{With four text - figures)

Key words : Indian python, activity pattern, diurnal, bimodal, crepuscular, burrow - microclimate,

prey activity

The diel activity pattern of the Indian python {Python molurus molurus Linn.) at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

India was studied in an intensive study area of 0.5 Sq. Km. The activity pattern of pythons was estimated by monitoring a

permanent transect every four hours, on a 24 hr (diel) basis, to record python tracks and sightings. The diel variations in ambient

temperature, humidity, burrow -microclimate and prey activity were also quantified.

Results show a shift in diel activity pattern with seasons. It was di urnal in winter, uniform throughout spring and bimodal-

crepuscular in summer. Temperature and humidity affected the pattern considerably. There was no significant correlation

between python activity and other factors quantified. The microclimate variation existing between outsideand inside the burrows

possibly plays an important role in occupation of the burrow and the surface diel activity pattern. Other factors not quantified

during this study like reproductive behaviour, body size and biotic disturbances are also suspected to be responsible for the

observed duel activity pattern of pythons. The activity pattern

endogenous factors.

Introduction

Reptiles are not continuously active but rather

have discreet activity periods, daily as well as

seasonally (Harker 1958). The broad activity pattern

on a 24 hrs time scale is defined as the diel activity

pattern of an animal, which tends to vary during

different seasons. Owing to the poikilothermic

nature of reptiles, characteristics of the thermal

e nvi ro nment co ns ti tu te a n i mpo rta nt d e te rmi na nt o f

their activity (Bogert 1949, Heatwole 1976, Porter

1972). Within the constraints imposed by the physical

environment, the biological factors like food

availability, predation avoidance and competition

also influence reptilian activity. Endogenous factors

like reproductive cycles also play a critical role in

governing the activity of reptiles ( Heatwole 1976,

Gibbons and Semlitsch 1987).

is influenced by a combination of various abiotic, biotic and

although some have perceived reasons for the pattern.

Studies done by Heckrotte (1962), Landreth (1973)

and Sanders and Jacob (1980) on small-bodied

colubrid snakes suggest a general trend that at low

temperatures snakes tend to be 'diurnal', at

intermediate temperatures they show a bimodal

pattern of being ‘crepuscular’ and at the highest

temperature they are ‘nocturnal’.

This study deals with the diel activity pattern

of free ranging Indian pythons ( Python molurus

molurus Linn.), the most widely distributed python

species of the Indian subcontinent. Pythons are

found in a variety of habitats, from dry scrub forest

to tropical rain forest (Daniel 1983). It is one of the

largest snakes of the Indian subcontinent, with a

maximum recorded length of up to 5.8 m (Daniel

1983).

Diel activity of snakes in relation to the

physical environment has been extensively studied

in temperate species (Gibbons and Semlitsch 1987).

Most studies document only the timing of activity,

‘ Accepted August 1992.

2 Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani,

Dehradun - 248001.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted at Keoladeo National

Park (KNP), Bharatpur, India (27° 7.6’ to 27° 12.2'

N, 77° 29.5' to 77° 33.9' E). The park falls under the

semi-arid biogeographic zone in the Yamuna river

THE D1EL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON

395

flood plains (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). KNP is an

artificial wetland which attracts a variety of winter

migrant waterfowl. The area of the park is 29

Sq.Km. The general topography of KNP is flat with

a gentle slope towards the center forming a depression

which constitutes the wetland, the total area of which

is about 8.5 Sq.Km. The rest of the terrestrial area

is characterised by a mosaic of alluvial soil patches

with Salvador a - Prosopis community followed by

Mitragyna - Acacia woodlands and tall Vetiveria

grasslands (Perennou and Ramesh 1987).

The study was conducted in an approximately

0.5 sq.km of saline patch which is here designated

the intensive study area (ISA). The ISA consisted of

8 python burrow clusters. These are porcupine

burrows used by pythons, here referred as PI, P1A,

P2, P3, P3A, P4, P5 and P6 (Fig. 1).

Most of the ISA ground substrate was thin

saline soil, conducive for observing indirect python

evidence like tracks and spoor marks. The thick

alluvial soil present on the periphery of the ISA

supports woodlands, wetlands and grasslands. The

vegetation in the ISA was dry scrub jungle dominated

by Salvador a persica, S . oleoides and Prosopis

chilensis .

In the ISA two square transects, one outer and

one inner, were laid taking into consideration the

location of all the python burrows (Fig. 1). The total

length of both the transects was 2.4 km. The existing

mud road passing through the ISA was used as a

bicycle transect and was monitored regularly after

completion of foot transect. In the outer transect

(ABCD) from road near PI to road near P6 was not

sampled as the soil cover in this region was not

suitable for obtaining indirect evidence in the form

of tracks and for sighting pythons.

A day was divided into six four hourly time

classes starting from 0000 hrs. to 2400 hrs. Both the

transects were sampled for at least two time classes

in a day. The day (0600 - 1800 hrs) and night time

classes (1800 - 0600 hrs) were sampled on two

subsequent dates. For recordingthe activity of pythons

on the transect, indirect evidences of activity in the

form of number of fresh tracks were noted. In order

to avoid double counting of tracks during each

sampling, all fresh tracks were either obliterated or

marked. During each sampling the number of

sightings of pythons were also noted.

The basic assumption involved here is that the

frequency of encountering fresh tracks on the

permanent transects is a function of the actual level

of activity of the population.

The activity level for any time class can be

estimated asanactivity index (AI) which is expressed

as:

A I = Tracks encountered / the number of times

transects were walked in a time class.

From 1 December 1990 to 30 April 1991, each

month was divided into two halves, each is described

here as a fortnight period, hence the whole study

duration was divided into 10 such fortnight periods.

December - I to February -I (5 fortnight periods)

were regarded as winter and from February - II to

April - II ( 5 fortnight periods ) as summer.

Ambient temperature and ambient humidity

were recorded on a thermohygrograph installed in a

standard Stevenson screen, located approximately 2

km from ISA.

The ambient temperature and humidity records

at 0000 hrs, 0800 hrs, 1200hrs, 1600 hrs and 2000

hrs, were taken for comparison with the diel activity

pattern for the corresponding time classes. The

mean temperature and humidity fora particular time

class inall 10 fortnight periods were also calculated.

396

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Fig. 1. The study area, Keoladeo National Park (KNP), Bharatpur and details of the Intensive Study Area(ISA) showing locations of

Python burrows and transect lines.

THE D1EL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON

397

Temperature and humidity at 100 cm depth in

the python burrows were measured with the help of

a thermohygrometer (323i Trace model, England)

fixed on an extendable rod. The microclimate of two

selected burrows, P5 and P6 was consistently sampled

throughout the study. The burrow temperature and

humidity mean for each time class of each fortnight

period was compared with the diel activity pattern

for the corresponding time class and period.

While walking transect, the number of known

python prey species were, counted using a tally

counter. Mean number of prey encountered for each

time class in each period was assessed as an activity

index of prey activity for that particular time class

and period.

Results

Pythons were found to be chiefly diurnal during

the study duration as the concentration of the activity

was observed in the day hour (0600 - 1800 hrs) time

classes (Fig. 2). Activity in the early and late winter

fortnight periods (December -II and February - 1 )

was bimodal, during mid winter fortnight period

(December -II, January I and January -II) activity

was unimodal. An even activity trend was observed

during early summer fortnight periods (February -II

to March -II). The activity trend in the late summer

fortnight periods (April-I and April II) was, however,

bimodal - crepuscular (Fig. 2). The activity levels

shifted greatly even within a specific time class of the

day as also during periods. One way ANOVA

conducted on AI (Table 1) by fortnight periods and

time classes suggests that, there is a significant

difference between activity levels of time classes

(ANOVA;/F = 4.7204 P = 0.0012), but no difference

in the activity level of each period (ANOVA/; F =

1.3169 P = 0.2527).

Sightings of pythons was also considered an

indication of activity. Out of a total of 271 sightings,

the maximum sightings (of 29 individuals) occurred

in the January II fortnight period during the time

class 1200 - 1600 hrs, followed by sightings of 24

individuals in February - II fortnight period in 0800

- 1200 hrs. Sightings of pythons during different

fortnight periods were restricted to certain time

classes; most of the sightings were during winter

(Fig 3).

Ambient temperatures and burrow

temperatures exhibited similar trends during day

hours but during night hours burrow temperatures

were higher than ambient temperatures. Peak

temperatures were noted during the 1200 - 1600 hrs

time class during winter, and shifted to the 1600-

2000 hrs time class in summer. A trough of ambient

and burrow temperature was observed during the

0000 - 0400 hrs time class and this remained

consistent forthe whole of the study duration (Fig 4).

Ambient relative humidity (RH) and burrow

RH showed a similar but inverse trend; during day

time burrow humidity was higher than ambient

humidity, while night burrow RH was lower than the

ambient RH (Fig 4).

The diel activity pa Item of prey was consistently

bimodal with a peak at morning and evening hours

for all the fortnight periods. The level of the prey

activity, however, decreased with the onset of

summer.

Scatterplot between activity index and the

above factors does not suggest any linear relation

between them. Stepwise multiple regression was

tried with the current set of data and none of the

variables (factors) were correlated at the preset P

value of 0.05.

Zt-UiOC

398

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

w

i

Fig. 2. Diurnal python activitiy during the study period. In winter, activity is restricted to day hours. The summer activity tends to be

'bimodal' with activity peaks during early noon and late afternoons.

Individuals

Dec I Dec II Jan I Jan II Feb I Feb II Mar I Mar II Apr I Apr II

Periods

00-04 Hrs

12-16 Hrs

Time class

04-08 Hrs

16-20 Hrs

08-12 Hrs

20-24 Hrs

Fig.3. Sighting of pythons during the study period. Corresponding with increased activity of pythons, sightings increased during late

winter and early summer.

x>mszcc»

THE D1EL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON

399

January H Fabruary I Fabruary II

C

/

R

H

/

P

R

E

V

A

C

T

I

V

I

T

V

April I

100

to

00

TO

a-» io-ao ao-24

HOUR*

HOURS

C

/

R

H

/

I

V

I

T

Y

HOURS

(ZD PYTHON ACTIVITY

AMO TEMP

•* BURROW TEMP

-S- AMS RH

~X BURROW RH

— PREY ACTIVITY

Fig. 4. Relationship of various factors with python activity during the fortnight periods.

40>

400

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Table 1

The Pearson correlation coefficient was

calculated (using statistical package SPSS/PC+) to

test the relationship between the estimated factors

and the activity pattern of pythons.

The Pearson correlation coefficient calculated

for the activity for the activity index with each of the

variables is given in Table 1.

Discussion

The Diel Activity Pattern: The observed

trend of the diel activity pattern of the Indian python

is different from that observed in small -bodied snakes

by Heckrotte (1962), Landreth (1973) and Sanders

and Jacob (1980). The smaller snakes studied by the

above mentioned workers had a unimodai (nocturnal)

diel activity pattern in summer and a bimodal activity

pattern in spring. In the present study pythons

showed a uniform diel activity pattern in spring

which becomes bimodel (crepuscular) in summer.

The results obtained in KNP do not agree with the

work done by Slip and Shine (1988) on diamond

pythons ( Morelia spilota) in Australia where activity,

irrespective of season, was confined to early hours of

the day. Work done owEryx conicus , a close relative

of the python, by Griffiths (1984) demonstrated that

the species is exclusively nocturnal.

The present study agrees with Platt (1969) who

found two species oiHeterodon (hog-nosed snakes)

in Kansas active during early morning and late

afternoon on hot days and in late morning on cooler

days.

While the trend of the diel activity pattern

obtained based on indirect evidence (tracks), is a

manifestation of only one type of activity (moving),

there are other activities like basking and postural

thermoregulatory activities, which can be broadly

classified as stationary activities. The data (Fig. 3)

indicates that during winter sightings of python

were considerably higher. And the sighting frequency

tends to decrease with the onset of summer months.

The trend from sighting data is totally opposite to the

trend obtained from the tracks data.

The decrease in sighting of the pythons with

onset of warmer months can be explained on the

basis of the following reasons.

a) Emigration of pythons from ISA: The most

frequent place where sightings were high was near

burrows in winter. By onset of warmer months the

availability of precise optimum microclimate

increases outside the burrow and the movement of

snakes from the hibernaculum commences towards

breeding and foraging grounds (Huey et al. 1989,

Jacob and Painter 1980 and Sexton and Hunt 1980).

Similar events can be expected in Indian pythons

also as more tracks were encountered duringsummer

fortnight periods and sightings at burrows decreased.

This suggests that most of the pythons were moving

out of the ISA with the onset of warmer months.

b) Change in basking behaviour: A stretched

out python is conspicuous while basking. With the

onset of wanner months requirement for basking

decreases which result in a decrease in sightings of

pythons. Telemetry work done by Slip and Shine

(1988) on diamond pythons also attribute the decrease

in sightings in warmer months to the alteration in the

basking behaviour.

Relationship of the Activity with Abiotic

Factors: The relationship between temperature and

python activity was curvilinear. Such type of

THE DIEL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON

401

curvilinear relation between temperature and activity

has also been noted by other workers (Gibbons and

Semlitsch 1987, Semlitsch et ah 1981). The

relationship is also responsible for absence of

significant correlations between activity and

temperature.

The trend in the observed activity Pattern can

be explained by temperature to a certain extent. As

would be expected, there was an increase in activity

with an increase in temperature in fortnight periods

December II and January II (Fig. 4). It should be

noted that the increase in temperature does not

always mean an increase in activity, rather peak

activity occurs only at the favourable temperature

zone (20° - 30°C). Activity is more dependent on the

occurrence of a favourable temperature zone in time

and space. In winter, most activity occurred during

the middle of the day. As the season progressed,

favourable temperatures would occur earlier and

later in the day orat night, resultingin changes in the

diel activity rhythms in different fortnight periods.

The argument therefore holds good to the

relation of activity and temperature, only during

winter months (December I to February I). The

crepuscular activity in summer can be explained on

the basis of Peterson’s (1987) experiment on garter

s na kes t ha t, d u ri ng mo rni ng s na kes wa rm u p cj u i ckl y

and attain preferred body temperature for movement,

resulting in greater activity. The movement itself

(activity) raises the body temperature of snakes

further and snakes seek a microclimate where they

can radiate the extra heat attained by movement.

Johnson et ah (1975) noted in Australian pythons

that in summer pythons enter subterranean

environments which are characterised by a stable

microclimate. A similar phenomenon is suspected

to be the cause of the lull inactivity of Indian pythons

during day time in summer, though some amount of

movement occurs in order to utilise available

favourable micro-habitats outside the burrows (Fig.

4).

Similarly, relationship between humidity and

temperature (Fig. 4) would suggest a mechanism for

immediate compensation of activity. In general,

relative humidity and temperature vary inversely

with each other. The increase in RH would in part

compensate for the decrease in activity by a

temperature drop. The correlation analysis

( r = -0.1731 P < 0.05), also supports the argument

of inverse relationship of humidity with activity.

Theabsenceofactivity during certaintimes (afternoon

time classes) in certain periods (February to April)

can be explained on the basis of humidity regimes

present outside the burrow even though the

temperature regimes outside the burrows are

favourable. It is evident (Fig. 4), that very low

humidity and high temperatures during day time

classes can force the python to retreat inside the

burrow.

The relationship of burrow microclimate is not

discussed in detail here as the method employed to

quantify the burrow microclimate was found

insufficient to give a very realistic picture on burrow

microclimate actually used. It is evident that burrows

provide a favourable microclimate to the pythons in

all of the periods (Fig. 4), i.e. warmer and drier at

night, cooler and moist during day in comparison to

the microclimate outside the burrow. Such a climatic

gradient between burrow and the atmosphere was

found to affect the activity pattern of the snakes in

many cases (Brown and Parker 1976, Huey et ill.

1989, Jacob and Painter 1980, Sexton and Hunt

1980). Pythons are considerably active outside the

burrow during certain times of day and season

(February-March) even though the climatic

conditions inside the burrow are much more

favourable. Such activities can be attributed to

endogenous factors like foraging and body thermal

inertia. Any movement (activity) outside the burrow

during the much cooler winter months, therefore

may be attributed to basking to increase body

temperature or inter burrow movement in response

to disturbance. The present methodology and results

402

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

did not examine whether the activity rhythms in

Indian python is governed by endogenous factors or

not. But, the activity trends during the spring months

(February and March) can be attributed to one such

endogenous factor-the reproductive behaviour of the

pythons. Earlier workers (Bhupathy and Vijayan

1989) observed that the mating season of pythons in

KNP is during February - March. Hence, the activity

pattern can be expected to be partly governed by

reproductive behaviouras there could be considerably

more movement in search of mates. Moreover, the

temperature during this period was more or less

uniform throughout the day. Both these factors

operating during spring periods reflect the activity

pattern as evenly spread throughout the day (Fig 4).

Relationship of the Activity with biotic Factors:

While comparing the activity patterns of Australian

and north American snakes species, Shine (1979)

noted that larger species tend to be active when a

majority of their prey items are most active. The

effect of prey however was examined as prey activity

pattern. During the entire study span at KNP the diel

activity of prey was consistently the same, with two

distinct peaks, one in the morning and the other in

the evening (Fig. 4). The diel activity of the python,

however, showed great variation. Hence the prey

activity pattern and diel activity pattern of python

showed a very weak correlation (r = 0.2337, P >

0.05).

The fact that pythons during this present study

did not show any strong relationship with prey

activity, may be because of their foraging habits. In

general the python is a generalist opportunistic

feeder. During this study period not even one python

was observed feeding and only seventeen scats were

examined for diet.The scanty data suggest that birds

constitu ted 82 % o f d iet a nd ma mma Is 1 2 % . Preferred

body temperature for feeding is around 30-32°C

(Coggerand Halmes 1960, Johnson 1972, Webb and

Heatwole 1971). This may be partly attained after

the fortnightly period, February II, hence food intake

during winter can be expected to be very low

supporting the inconclusive relationship of python

and prey.

Tourist activity, observer disturbance and

activity pattern of the feral cattle in the park were not

considered major factors influencingpythonactivity

in the present study. However, the density and

movement of feral cattle may have a significant role

in the activity patterns of the pythons in KNP

considering the fact that cattle trampling is one of the

major causes of adult python mortality (Bhupathy

and Vijayan 1989).

Acknowledgements

We express our thanks to Shri V.D. Sharma,

Chief Wildlife Warden, Rajasthan for permission to

work at KNP, Shri L.K. Sharma, Director and Shri

Sunayan Sharma, Research Officer, KNP for their

support. We are indebted to Dr. V.S. Vijayan and

Shri S. Bhupathy and other field researchers of

BNHS for their help and guidance during the field

work. We wish to single out Shri Bholu Khan for

his personal involvement and support throughout

the study period. Dr. S.P. Goyal, Dr. Ajith Kumar

and Dr. A.J. T. Johnsingh of Wildlife Institute of

India, helped in designingthe methodology, analysis

of data and commenting on the manuscript.

Funds for the study was provided by the

Wildlife Institute of India.

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Bhupathy, S. & Vijayan, V.S. (1989): Status, Distribution and Rajasthan. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3) : 381-387.

General ecology of the Indian Python ( Python molurus Bogert, C.M. (1949): Thermoregulation in reptiles a factor in

molurus Linn.) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, evolution. Evolution. Ill (3) : 195-211.

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Brown, W.S. & Parker, W.S. (1976): Movement ecology oiColuber

constrictor near communal hibernacula. Copeia 1976 (2) :

225-246.

Cogger, T.J. & Halmes, W. (1960): Thermoregulatory behavior in

a specimen of Morelia spilotes vaigata ( Serpents : Boidae).

Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. 85: 328-333.

Daniel, J.C.(1983): The book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Gibbons, J.W. & Semlitsch, R.D. (1987): Activity patterns. In:

Seigel etal. (ed.). Snakes: Ecology and Evolutionary biology.

Macmillan, New York.

Griffiths, R.A. (1984): ;;The influence of light and temperature on

diel activity rhythms in the sand boa Eryx conicus. J.

Herpetol. 18: 374 - 380.

Harker, J. (1958): Diurnal Rhythms in the animal kingdom. Biol.

Rev. 33: 1- 52.

Heatwole, H. (1976): Reptile Ecology. University of Queensland

Press, St. Lucia.

Heckrotte, C. (1962): The effect of the environmental factors in the

Locoinotory activity of the Plains gartersnake (Thamnophis

radix rudix). Animal Behavior 10: 193- 207.

Huey, B.R. , Peterson, C.R. Arnold, S.J. & Porter, W.P. (1989):

Hot rocks and not-so-hot rocks. Retreat site selection by

garter snakes and its thermal consequences. Ecology, 70 (4)

931 -944.

Jacob, J.S. & Painter, C.W. (1980): Over winter thermal ecology of

C rota las viridas in the North -Central plains of New Mexico.

Copeia, 1980(4): 799-805.

Johnson, C.R., Webb, G.J. W.& Johnson, C. (1975):

Thermoregulation in Pythons III. Thermal ecology and

behavior of Black headed rock Python, Aspidites

melanocephalusl. Herpetologica, 31: 326-332.

Johnson, C.R. (1972): Thermoregulation in Pythons I. Effect of

Shelter, Substrate type and posture on body temperature of

the Australian Carpet Python. Morelia spilotes variegata.

Comp. Biochem. Physiology. 43 A: 271-278.

Landreth, H.F. (1973): Orientation and Behaviorof the rattle snake

(C.atrox). Copeia 1973 (1) : 26-3L

Perennou, C. & Ramesh, B.R. (1987): Explanatory notes on the

vegetation map of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur

(Rajasthan). The French Institute, Pondicherry and Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Peterson, C.R. (1987): Daily variation in the body temperature of

free ranging garter snakes. Ecology 68 (1): 160-169.

Platt, D.R. (1969): Natural history of the hognose snakes Heterodon

platyrhinos and Heterodon nasicus. Cnti. Kans. Publ. Mas.

Nat. Hist. 18: 23-420.

Porter, K.R. (1972): Herpetology. W.B. Saunders Company,

London.

Rodgers, W.A. & Panwar, H.S. (1988): Planning a wildlife

protected area network in India. Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun.

Sanders, J.S. & Jacob J.S. (1980): Thermal. Ecology of the

Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix). Herpetologica 37:

264-270.

Semlitsch, R.D., Brown, K.L. & Caldwell, J.P. (1981): Habitat

utilization, seasonal activity, and population size structureof

the southeastern crowned snake Tantilla coronata.

Herpetologica. 37: 40-46.

Sexton, O.J. & Hunt,S.R. (1980): Temperature relationships and

movementsof snakes (Elaphe obsoleta, Coluber constrictor)

in cave hibemaculum. Herpetologica 36 (1): 20-26.

Shine, R. (1979): Activity patterns in Australian Nelupid snake

(Squamata : serpents: Elapidae). Herpetologica 35: 1-11.

Slip, D.J. & Shine, R. (1988): Habitat use, movement and activity

pattern of free ranging Diamond pythons, Morelia spilota

spilota (Serpents: Boidae ) a radiotelemetric study. Aust.

Wild. Res. 15(5): 513-531.

Webb, G. & Heatwole, H. (1971): Patterns of heat distribution

within the bodies of some Australian Pythons. Copeia 1971:

209-220.

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE (INDIA)1

M.S. Johal, J.S. Chahal and K.K. Tandon2

Key words : ichthyofauna, Rajasthan state (India), zoogeography

Between May 1986 to March 1990 as many as 95 fish species belonging to 52 genera, 7 orders, 5 superorders and 2

cohorts were listed from Rajasthan State. Among these fifteen species were recorded for the first time. However eighteen species

have disappeared through changed ecological conditions. The fish fauna of the state is a mixture of three elements, namely

Western Himalayas, Aravallis and Peninsular India.

Introduction

A comprehensive knowledge of the fauna of a

State is a pre-requisite for rational planning and

successful execution of biological programmes.

Fishes ( as a whole) constitute an important group

among the vertebrates because of their economic

importance.

Rajasthan is the second largest State of India

(area-wise), having an area of 3,42,217 sq.km and

is ranked 12th among the Indian States as far as the

annual fish catch is concerned (Jhingran 1991).

In the absence of a comprehensive list of the

fishes of Rajasthan, an extensive fish survey was

conducted during 1986-1990 and the results are

presented in the present communication. We are of

the view that the findings of this survey will help

future fishery workers to plan strategies to increase

fish production.

Topography

Rajasthan State lies between latitude 23°03 '

30° 10’ N and longitude 69°30’ - 78°17 E.

The aquatic resources of this State consists of

five river systems, namely Chambal, Banas, Luni,

North-east river system and Western Ghats river

system, reservoirs ( Rana Pratap Sagar, Jaisamand

1 Accepted January 1992.

2 Fisheries Section, Department of Zoology, Punjab University,

Chandigarh 160 014, India.

Lake, Ghagger river depressions in Bikaner division,

Saliserh-Jaisamand, Morre, Baretha, Ghambhiri,

Bajaj Sagar, Kadana backwater, Kota-Baraz,

Ramgarh Lake, Gudha reservoir, Angi reservoirand

Jawai Bandh), irrigation canals and their

distributaries, numerous village ponds and water-

logged areas.

Material and Methods

Fishes were collected by us using different

types of nets or with the help of local fishermen or the

State Fisheries Department. Small fishes were di rectly

transferred tol0% formaldehyde solution. Care was

taken that fins remained stretched and helped in easy

counting of rays. In the laboratory they were washed

in running tap water and preserved in 10%

formaldehyde solution after identification,

classification and assigning of catalogue number.

Large sized fishes were given an injection of 10%

formaldehyde solution to prevent spoilage of visceral

organs.

For the purpose of identification the works of

Hamilton (1822), Day (1878), Misra (1962), Johal

and Tandon (1979, 1980), Srivastava (1980),

Jayaiam (1981) and Datta Munshi and Srivastava

(1988) were consulted.

Observations and Discussion

95 species belonging to 52 genera, 7 orders, 5

superorders and 2 cohorts are reported in the following

pages. Berg’s (1940) classification as modified by

ICHTHYOFA UNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE

405

Greenwood et al. (1966, 1967) has been followed.

The arrangement of fishes given in this list is

according to Jayaram (1981) with minor changes.

l.Gudusia chapra (Hamilton)

Genus : Hypoththalmichthys Bleeker

9. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes)

Subfamily: Rasborinae

Genus: Aspidoparia Heckel

10 . Aspidoparia morar (Hamilton)

Genus: Amblypharyngodon Bleeker

11. Amblypharyngodon microlepis (Bleeker)

12. A. mola (Hamilton)

Cohort:

Superorder:

Order:

Family:

Genus:

Archaeophylaces

Osteoglossomorpha

Osteoglossiformes

Notopteridae

Notopterus Lacepede

Genus: Esomus Swainson

13. Esomus danricus (Hamilton)

2. Notopterus chitala (Hamilton)

Genus: Barilius Hamilton

3. N. notopterus (Pallas)

14. Barilius bendelisis bendelisis (Hamilton)

Cohort:

Superorder:

Order:

Family:

Subfamily

Genus:

Euteleostei

Ostariophysi

Cyprini formes

Cyp^inidae

Cultrinae

Chela Hamilton

15. B. bola (Hamilton)

16. B. vagra vagra (Hamilton)

Genus: Rasbora Bleeker

*4. Chela (Chela) cachius (Hamilton)

Genus: Salmostoma Swainson

17. Rasbora (Rasbora) daniconius (Hamilton)

18. R. (Megarasbora) elanga (Hamilton)

5. Salmostoma bacaila (Hamilton)

6. S. gora (Hamilton)

*7. S.phulo orissaensis Banarescu

*8. S. phulo punjabensis (Day)

Genus: Danio Hamilton

19 Danio (Danio) devario (Hamilton)

20. D. (Brachydanio) rerio (Hamilton)

Subfamily: Hypophthalmichthyinae

Subfamily: Cyprininae

406

JO URNAL , BOMBA YNA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL 90 (1 993 )

Genus: Catla Valenciennes

21 .Catla catla (Hamilton)

Genus: Ctenopluiryngodon Steindachner

22. Ctenopluiryngodon idella (Valenciennes)

Genus: Tor Gray

23. Tor putitora (Hamilton)

24. T. tor (Hamilton)

Genus: Labeo Cuvier

25. Labeo angra (Hamilton)

26. L. bata (Hamilton)

27. L. boga (Hamilton)

28. L. boggut (Sykes)

29 . L.calbasu (Hamilton)

*30. L. dussumieri (Valenciennes)

3 1 . L. fimbriatus (Bloch)

32. L. gonius (Hamilton)

33. L. pangusia ( Hamilton)

*34. L. potail (Sykes)

35. L. roliita (Hamilton)

36. Osteobrama cotio cotio (Hamilton)

Genus: Cyprinus Linnaeus

37. Cyprinus carpio communis Linnaeus

38. C. carpio specularis Lacepede

Genus: Cirrhinus Oken

39. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton)

40. C. reba (Hamilton)

Genus: Puntius Hamilton

41. Puntius amphibius (Valenciennes)

42. P. chola (Hamilton)

43. P. chrysopterus (McClelland)

44. P.conchonius (Hamilton)

*45. P, parrah Day

46. P. sarana sarana (Hamilton)

47 . P.sophore (Hamilton)

48. P. terio (Hamilton)

49. P. ticto ticto (Hamilation)

Subfamily : Garrinae

Genus: Garra Hamilton

Genus: Osteobrama Heckel

50. Garra gotyla gotyla ( Gray)

ICHTHYOFA UNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE

407

51 .Garralamta Hamilton

Genus: Crossocheilus van Hasselt

*52. Crossocheilus latius punjabensis Mukerjii

Family: Psilorhynchidae

Genus: Psilorhynchus McClelland

*53. Psilorhynchus balitora (Hamilton)

Family: Cobiudae

Subfamily: Noemacheilinae

Genus: Noemacheilus van Hasselt

54. Noemacheilus botia botia (Hamilton)

*55. N. corica (Hamilton)

Subfamily: Botinae

Genus: Botia Gray

*56. Botia (Botia) birdi Chaudhuri

Subfamily: Cobitinae

Genus: Lepidocephalus Bleeker

57. Lepidocephalus (Lepidocephalichthys) guntea

(Ha milton)

Order: Siluri formes

Family: Siluridae

Genus: Wallago Bleeker

58. Wallago attu (Schneider)

Genus: Ompok Lacepede

59. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

Family: Clariidae

Genus: Clarias Scopoli

60. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

Family: Heteropneustidae

Genus: Heteropneustes Muller

6 1 . Heteropneustes fossil is (Bloch)

Family: Amblycipitidae

Genus: Amblyceps Blyth

*62. Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton)

Family: Sisoridae

Genus: Glyptothorax Blyth

*63. Glyptothorax telchitta telchitta (Hamilton)

Genus: Bagarius Bleeker

64. Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton)

Genus: Nangra Day

65. Nangra nangra (Hamilton)

Genus: Gagata Bleeker

* 66 . Gagata cenia (Ha mil ton)

Family: Schilbeidae

Subfamily: Schilbeinae

Genus: Clupisoma Swainson

67. Clupisoma garua (Hamilton)

Genus: Entropiichthys Bleeker

68. Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton)

408

JO URNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL.90(1993)

Subfamily: Ailinae

Genus: A ilia Gray

69. Ailia coila (Hamilton)

Family: Bagridae

Genus: Rita Bleeker

70. Rita rita (Hamilton)

Genus: Mystus Scopoli

71. Mystus bleeker i (Day)

72. M. cavasius (Hamilton)

73. M. vittatus (Bloch)

Genus : Aorichthys Wu

74. Aorichthys aor (Hamilton)

75. A. seenghala (Sykes)

Superorder: Atherinomorpha

Order: Atherini formes

Family: Belonidae

Genus: Xenentodon Regan

76. Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton)

Family: Poecilidae

Genus: Gambusia Poey

77. Gambusia afpnis patruelis (Baird and Girard)

Superorder: Acanthopterygii

Order: Channi formes

Family: Channidae

Genus: Channa Scopoli

78. Channa gachua Hamilton

syn. C. orientalist Schn.) according to Hora and

Mukerjii (1934) and Jayaram (1981).

79. C. punctatus (Bloch)

80. C. marulius Hamilton

81. C. stria tus (Bloch)

Order: Perciformes

Family: Gobidae

Subfamily: Gobinae

Genus: Acentrogobius Bleeker

*82 .Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Valenciennes)

Genus: Glossogobius Gill

83 . Glossogobius giuris giuris (Ha mi Iton)

Family: Belontidae

Subfamily: Trichogasterinae

Genus: Colisa Cuvier

84. Colisa fascia la (Schneider)

85. C. lilius (Hamilton)

Family: Mugilidae

Genus: Mugil Linnaeus

86. Mugil cephalus Linnaeus

Genus: Liza Jordan and Swain

*87. Liza parsia (Hamilton)

Genus: Rhinomugil Gill

88. Rhinomugil corsula ( Hamilton)

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE

409

Family: Nandidae

Genus: Nandus Valenciennes

89. Nandus nandus (Hamilton)

Family: Chandedae

Genus: Chanda Hamilton

90. Chanda baculis (Hamilton)

91. C. nama (Hamilton)

92. C. ranga (Hamilton)

Order: Mastacembeliformes

Family: Mastacembelidae

Genus: Macrognathus Lacepede

93. Macrognathus aculeatus (Bloch)

Genus: Mastacembelus Scopoli

94. Mastacembelus armatus armatus Lacepede

95. M. pancalus (Hamilton)

* New Records

Prior to the present survey, there were some

attempts to survey fishes, Mathur (1952), Datta

Gupta et al.( 1961), Dubey and Mehra (1962),

Moona (1963), Dhawan(1969), Datta and Majumdar

(1970), Mathur and Yazdani (1973), Johal (1982),

Johal and Dhillon (1981), Sharma and Johal (1984),

Gupta and Kulshreshta (1985), Johal and Sharma

(1986), Johal and Chahal (1988) and Ajith Kumar

and Vijayan (1988), dealing with different districts,

or a water body or a particular fish species.

Zoogeography of the fishes of Rajasthan has been

discussed by Hora and Mathur (1952).

During the last three decades, due to the

implementation of several projects, e.g. irrigation

canals (especially in the northwestern part),

construction of barrages on the rivers, drastic

ecological changes (e.g. appearance of water-logged

areas along the river banks, formation of cess-pools

along the sides of the irrigation canals) have taken

place, affecting the ichthyofaunal composition.

Out of fifteen newly reported species, nine

species namely, Chela (Chela) cachius, Salmostomu

phulo punjabensis, Crossocheilus la dus pun jabensis,

Psislorhyncluis balitora, Noemacheilus corica, Botia

(Botia) birdi, Amblyceps mangois, Gagata cenia

a ndGlyptothorax telchitta telchitta occur in fhe Indus

river system. The northwestern part of the State is

at present receiving water supply through irrigation

canals from the Indus river system and the end point

of the river Ghagger. Therefore, most of the fishes of

the Himalayan range have invaded the northwestern

part of Rajasthan. Considering the occurrence of the

above species in the northwestern part, it is inferred

that as the water of Indus river system (rivers Beas

and Sutlej) will be supplied to the interior of “Thar

Desert”, the fish fauna of the Himalayan range will

make its appearance.

Two species of the genus Labeo, namely L.

dussumieri and L. potail inhabitat of western part

of India. Their occurrence may be either due to close

proximity of the region or introduction by man. L.

dussumieri has been reported from Punjab waters by

Johal and Tandon (1979, 1980). More or less similar

explanation can be given for the occurrence of

Puntius parr ah, Liza parsia and Acentrogobius

viridipunctatus.

Salmostomu phulo orissaensis has been

collected from Jaisamund Lake, Udaipur. It has

been reported earlier by Banarescu (1968) from the

lower reaches of Mahanadi river in Orissa. As these

two localities are widely separated therefore the

occurrence of this species can be correlated with the

flow of water from east to west duringthe Pleistocene

410

JOURNAL, BOMBAYNATURALHIST. SOCIETY, VOL.90(1993)

period (pre-tilt period) as described by Menon (195 1).

From the earlier published data, it is concluded

that 18 fish species have disappeared. Species like

Labeo dyocheilus, L.nigripinnis, Chagunius

chagunio, Barilius barila, B.barna, Garra mullya,

Botia (Botia) lohachata, Silondia silondia have

disappeared due to changed ecological conditions,

as most of themare inhabitants of clear and unpolluted

waters.

Earlier workers have reported some fishes

which occur in South India or eastern part of India

or Gujarat coast, e.g. Puntius dorsalis , P.vittatus,

Salmostoma clupeoides, Danio aequipinnatus,

Noemacheilus denisonii, Aplocheilus lineatus and

Aphanius dispar. Their occurrence in the State was

accidental or they might have been introduced by

some agency for some specific purpose.

A few species, e.g .Rita pavimentata Silundia

gangetica ,H aplocheilus lineatus (J) atta Gupta etal.

1961) and Aplocheilus blochii (Mathurand Yazdani

1973) reported earlier do not appear in the list of

freshwater fishes of India (Jayaram 1981) and may

be considered as not established species.

Datta and Majumdar (1970) and Mathur and

Yazdani (1970) reported two new species, namely

Labeo rajasthanicus a nd Noemacheilus ra jasthanicus

from Jaisamund Lake and Partap Sagar, Jodhpur

respectively. According to them L. rajasthanicus

closely resembled L.boggut and N. rajasthanicus

with that of N. denisonii. These species have not

been listed by subsequent workers except Mathur

and Yazdani (1973). It is opined that these may be

abnormal specimens of closely related species or

hybrids.

Osphronemus goramy is an introduced species

(Jayaram 1981) for culture purpose in small ponds.

It has been replaced by common carp Cyprinus

carpio.

The occurrence of Tor khudree in Rajasthan

waters (Mathur 1952, Datta Gupta el al. 1961,

Dhawan 1969, Datta and Majumdar 1970) is

interesting. Accordingto Jhingranand Sehgal (1978),

this species occurs in Tamil Nadu and Kerala,

however Jhingran (1991) is of the view that it occurs

in Orissa and Peninsularlndia, especially Karnataka,

Kerala and Maharashtra hill streams. Moreover the

zoogeographical limits of different species of the

genus Tor Gray are very restricted and their

transplantations outside their distributional limits

are not successful.

Some species reported earlier have been

synonymised, e.g. Puntius stoliczkanus with P.

ticto;P. tetrarupagus with P. chola;P. stigma with

P. sophore and Labeo microphthalmus with L.dero

(Menon 1974, Jayaram 1981).

It may be concluded that due to increased flow

of water of Indus river system to Thar Desert, and

with the completion of lift canal in Bikaner division

and its various distributaries, the fish fauna of

Western Himalayas and Aravallis may intermingle

in the near future.

Acknowledgements

We thank the University Grants Commission,

New Delhi for providing financial assistance to

carry out the survey work, Principal, Khalsa College,

Sriganganagar (Rajasthan) and Chairman,

Department of Zoology, Punjab University,

Chandigarh for providing the necessary laboratory

facilities.

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE

411

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fossil. Trav. Inst. zool. Sci. USSR 5 (2) : 5 17. (Russian and English

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Datta,A.K. & Majumdar, r!.(1970): Fish fauna of Rajasthan,

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DattaGufta, A.K., Menon, P.K.B.,NairC.K.G. & Das, C.R.

(1961): An annotated list of fishes of Rajasthan. Proc. Rajasthan

Acad. Sci. Pilani 8 (1 & 2): 120 - 134.

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by Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, pp. 403.

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Dhawan, P. (1969): Fish fauna of Udaipur lakes .J. Bomb ay

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S.H. (1967): Named main divisions of Teleostean fishes. Proc. biol.

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Greenwood, P.H., Rosen, D.E., Weitzman, S.H. & Myers,

G.S. (1966): Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes with a provisional

classification of living forms. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat.Hist. 131: 33-

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Gupta, S.N & Kulshreshta, S.D. (1985): Fish and fisheries

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Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the

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Hora, S.L. & Mathur, B.B.L (1952): On certain

palaeographical features of Rajasthan as evidenced by distribution

of fishes. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 1: 32-36.

Hora, S.L. & Mukerjii, D.D. (1934): Notes on the fishes in

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Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

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studies of lakes in fisheries development. Proc. National Symp.

Past, Present & Future of Bhopal Lakes: Eds. S.K. Kulshrestha.

U.N. Adholia, O.P. Jain and Anita Bhatnagar, pp. 115-121.

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105-110.

Johal, M.S. & Sharma, K.P. (1986): Fish fauna of Sawai

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112-119.

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Mathur, B.B.L. (1952): Notes on the fishes of Rajasthan.

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Mathur, D. S. & Yazdani, G.M. (1970): Noemacheilus

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Menon, A.G.K. ( 1974): A check list of fishes of the Himalayan

and Indo-Gangetic plains. Special Publication No.l. Published by

Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore. pp.136.

Misra, K.S. (1961): An aid to the indentification of the

commercial fishes India and Pakistan. Rec. Indian Mus., 57 (1-4):

1-320.

Moona J. C. (1963): Notes on the fishes of Bharatpur

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Sharma, K.P & Johal, M.S. (1984): Fish and fisheries of

Kota district-Rajasthan State. Res.Bull.Panjab Univ.35 (3 & 4):

29-38.

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by Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Varanasi, pp. 207.

STUDIES ON THE HYPERPARASITES OF DIAPHANIA INDICA

(LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE) THROUGH APANTELES TARAGAMAE

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)1

Clement Peter and B.V. David2

( With a text- figure)

Key words : Diaphania indica, Apanteles taragamae , hyperparasites

Six hyperparasites of Diaphania ituiica were reared through Apanteles taragamae. These were Stictopisthus

srinaraini, Aphanogmus fijiensis, Eurytoma braconidis, Elasmus brevicornis, Brachymeria apantelesi and

Tetrastichus pantnagarensis. These hyperparasites constitute new records for A. taragamae. It was estimated that

55.43% of A. taragamae cocoons were parasitised by these six species of hyperparasites thus severely restraining the

biocontrol potential of this primary parasite.

Introduction

Apanteles taragamae is a gregarious endopa-

rasite and was described by Viereck in 1912 from

specimens reared from Taragamae dorsalis Moore.

It was recorded ixomDiaphania indica onsnakegourd

for the first time from Sri Lanka (Wilkinson 1931).

In 1948, Bhatnagar listed the following as hosts of

A. taragamae in India : a) Taragama dorsalisMooxe;

b) Autographa peponis Fab.; c) Homona coffearia

Nietner; d )Nephantisserinopa Meyrick; t) Diaphania

indica (Saunders); f) Grapliolitha molesta Busck; g)

Bocchoris artificialis Led.; h) Diacrisia obliqua

Walker; i) Laspeyresia sp.; j) Eucosoma critica

Meyrick; k) Cirphis unipunctata Howarth; 1)

Laspeyresia tricentra Meyr; m )Hyblaea puera Cram.

During the studies on natural enemies of

D. indica it was observed that A. taragamae was the

major parasite. Even though parasitism of D. indica

during certain seasons was as high as 80%, the pest

was not completely controlled in the field and it was

suspected that hyperparasites may be responsible for

suppressing the action of this primary parasite to

some extent. Hyperparasitism is defined as any form

of parasitism other than primary (Smith 1916).

There is disagreement over the importance of

1 Accepted March 1991.

2 Fredrick Institute of Plant protection and Toxicology, Padappai,

Tamil Nadu 601 301.

hyperparasitism to biological control (Narayanan

1957, Flanders 1963, Valentine 1974) but itgenerally

is conceded that the identification of hyperparasites

is supremely important to biological control. Hence

in the present study an intensive survey was carried

out to determine the hyperparasites attacking A.

taragamae and also the relative extent of suppression

it exercises on the role of this primary parasite.

Materials and Methods

This study was carried out at the research farm

of the Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and

Toxicology. Cocciniagrandis;Momordica charantia,

Trichosanthes anguina and Cucumis sativus were

maintained under unsprayed conditions for this

purpose. Cocoons of A. taragamae were collected

from the various crops at weekly intervals and

enclosed separately in glass specimen tubes. This

was kept under observation in the insectary until the

primary parasite (A. taragamae) ox ihc hyperparasite

emerged.

This procedure was carried out for one year

from January to December 1986. At the end of this

period a total of 266 A.taragamae cocoons were

collected from the field and held in the laboratory.

The numberof parasitised cocoons as well as the type

of hyperparasites emerging were recorded. The

STUDIES ON THE HYPERPARASITES OF DIAPHANIA INDICA

413

hyperparasites were identified and voucherspeciniens

deposited in the reference collection of the

Department of Entomology, Fredrick Institute of

Plant Protection and Toxicology.

Results and Discussion

The study carried out to determine the

hyperparasites of D. indica occurring through A.

taragamae revealed that this primary parasite was

attacked by the following six secondary parasites:

1. Stictopist/ius srinaraini Gupta

(Ichneumonidae: Hymenoptera)

2. Aphanogmus fijiensis (Ferriere)

(Ceraphronidae: Hymenoptera)

3. Eurytoma braconidis Ferriere

(Eurytomidae: Hymenoptera)

4. Elasmus brevicornis Gahan (Elasmidae:

Hymenoptera)

5. Brachymeria apantelesi Risbec

(Chalcididae: Hymenoptera)

6. Tetrastichus pantnagarensis Khan

(Eulophidae: Hymenoptera)

Of these six hyperparasites, S. srinaraini

attacked the parasitised larvae oiD. indica. The eggs

were laid in the larva oiD. indica in the field and the

hyperparasite adults emerged from the laboratory

held Apanteles cocoons. Only one parasite emerged

from each cocoon of A. taragamae . The number of

S. srinaraini adults emerging from each cocoon mass

ranged from 2-7 (average - 5.71). The other five

hyperparasites, namely A. fijiensis, E. braconidis,

E, brevicornis a nd B. apantelesiwcre pupal parasites.

The cocoons of A. taragamae were parasitised and

the hyperparasites emerged from these cocoons held

in the laboratory. Ramachandra Rao et al. (1948)

reported Calliceras manilae Ashm., Eurytoma

albotibialis Ashm., Perilampus microgastris Ferr.

and Brachymeria nephantidis as hyperparasites of

Opisina arenosella through A. taragamae.

Subsequently, Ghosh and Abdurahiman(1985)

recorded Pediobius imbreus and Eurytoma

braconidis as hyperparasites of Opisina arenosella

through A. taragamae. But both these workers have

reported A. taragamae as a solitary parasite, while

Nixon (1965) has indicated that A. taragamae is a

gregarious parasite, making white, papery cocoons,

loosely heaped together.

In the light of this observation it is quite clear

that the earlier record of hyperparasites of

A. taragamae were erroneous. It was probably reared

from some other solitary Apanteles sp. parasitising

O. arenosella and not through A. taragamae which

is a gregarious parasite. Hence, the present report of

these hyperparasites through A. taragamae

constitutes new records. A literature search on these

hyperparasites listed above has revealed the following

records:

Stictopisthus srinaraini Gupta was originally

described as a secondary parasite of A. ruficrus

(Gupta 1957). In this study, it was observed that it

attacked the phytophagous host of the prima ry pa rasite

and it developed on it within the host larva. This

species is a typical example of indirect secondary

parasitism (Flanders 1963).

Aphanogmus fijiensis (Ferriere) was origina lly

described as Calliceras fijiensis as a hyperparasite of

Tirathaba sp. through Apanteles tirathabae Wlk.

(Ferriere 1933). It has also been recorded as a

hyperparasite of Microgaster curticonis Granger

(Williams 1951). Later, it was reported as a parasite

of Cremastus (Trathala) flavo-orbitalis (Cameron)

in Fiji (Hinckley 1963). Ceraphron sp. near fijiensis

was also recorded as a hyperparasite of the coconut

pest, Artona catoxantha Hampson through

Apanteles artonae Roh. from Malaya (Lever 1964).

Eurytoma braconidis was originally described

as a hyperparasite of Platyedra sp. through

Microbracon luincocki (Ferriere 1929). E. braconidis

has been previously reported as a hyperparasite of

414

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY ,VOL.90 (1993)

Sylepta derogata through Apanteles sylepta

(Thompson 1953).

Elasmus brevicornis Ga ha n was fi rst described

as a primary parasite oiErionota thrax :Linn. (Ferriere

1929). E. brevicornis has earlier been recorded as a

primary parasite of Eutectona machaeralis, Pasara

stultalis Wlk. and Sylepta derogata F. (Thompson

1953). Among the hyperparasites associated with

A.taragamae , it was observed that E. brevicornis

was the only hyperparasite operating in the facultative

capacity. It has been earlier recorded as a

hyperparasite of Eutectona machaeralis through

Apanteles machaeralis (Thompson 1953). In the

present study, it was recorded both as a primary as

well as hyperparasite of D. indica.

Brachymeria apantelesi Risbec. has earlier

been reported as a hyperparasite of Diacrisiascortilla

Wallengrin through Apanteles aethiopicus

Wilkinson and A. procerae (Thompson 1953).

The results of the study conducted during 1986

to assess the relative degree of hyperparasitism by

the six species is summarised in Table 1. The study

revealed that 55.43% of the A. taragamae cocoons

collected from the field were parasitised and ot the

six hyperparasites, Stictopisthus srinaraini'wns the

most abundant species (18.11%) followed by

Aphanogmus fijiensis (13.58%), Eurytoma

braconidis (10.56%), Elasmus brevicornis (10.18%),

Brachymeria apantelesi (1.50%), Tatrastichus

pantnagarensis (1.50%). This corresponds to 32.64,

24.48, 19.04, 18.36, 2.72 and 2.72% of the total

parasitism by these six species, respectively (Fig 1).

The action of hyperparasites in restraining the

biocontrol potential of parasites particularly in

classical biological control attempts is well known

(Flanders 1943, Doutt and DeBach 1964, Van Den

Bosch and Messenger 1973). Muesbeck and

Doha man (1927) states that “hyperparasites have

STUDIES ON THE HYPE RIM RASHES OF DIAPI IANI A INDICA

415

Table 1

RELATIVE PARASITISM OF A. TARAGAMAE BY

THE SIX SPECIES OF HYPERPARASITES OUT OF THE

TOTAL 266 FIELD COLLECTED COCOON MASSES FROM

JANUARY TO DECEMBER 1986

often seriously interfered with the progress of the

studies in the biological control of injurious insect

species and with the institution of this method of

control on a practical basis”. They state further that

a primary parasite introduced for the purpose of

biological control may be overwhelmed by

hyperparasites before it can succeed in firmly

Refer

Bhatnagar, S.P. (1948): Studies on Apanteles Forster

(Vipionidae: parasitic Hymenoptera) from India. I ndianJ. Ent. 10:

133-203.

Doutt, R.L. & DeBach, P.(1964): Some biological control

concepts and questions. In : P.DeBach (ed.) Biological control of

insect pests and weeds. New York. Reinhold Publ. Corp. pp. 118-

142.

Ferriere, G. (1929): On three new chalcidoid parasites of

Platyedra. Bull. Ent. Res. 20: 255-259.

Ferriere, G. (1933): Chalcidoid and proctotrupoid parasites

of the coconut palm. Sty lops 2: 97-108.

Flanders, S.E. (1943) : Indirect hyperparasitism and

observations on three species of indirect hyperparasites. J.Ecotu

Entomol. 36: 921-26.

Flanders, S.E. (1963): Hyperparasitism, a mutualistic

phenomenon. Canadian Entomol. 95:716-720.

Ghosh, S.M. & Abdurahiman, U.N. (1985): Record of two

new hyperparasites of Apanteles taragamae Vier. (Braconidae:

Hymenoptera), a larval parasite of the black-headed caterpillar pest

of coconut. Curr. Sci. 54: 295-296.

Gupta, V.K. (1957): Some species of Apanteles Forster and

their hyperparasites from India with description of new species

establishing itself. Thus, most experienced biological

control workers believe that hyperparasites are

deleterious, based on the assumption that since

hyperparasites possess attributes similar to those

which ma ke a prima ry pa ras ite a n effective biologica 1

control agent, they can regulate a primary parasite

population. It is evident from this study that

hyperparasites play a dominant role in suppressing

the biocontrol potential of A. taragamae which is the

major parasite of D. indica.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr.A. Polaszek and Dr. Z.

Boucek of Commonwealth Institute of Entomology,

London, for the identification of the Ceraphronidae,

Eulophidae and Elasmidae; to Dr. T. C. Narendran,

University of Calicut, for the Chalcididae; to Dr.

M.A. Khan, G.B. Pant, University of Agriculture

and Technology, U.P. for the Eulophidae and Dr. L.

J. Kanhekar Modern College, Pune for the

Ichneumonidae.

n c e s

(Parasitic: Hymenoptera). Indian J. Ent. 19: 101-106.

Hinckley, A.D.(1963): The rice leaf-roller Susumia exigua

(Butler) in Fiji. J. Econ. Entomol. 56: 112-113.

Lever, R.J.A.W. (1964): Notes on some parasites and

hyperparasites and predators of coconut pests in Malaya. Pl.Prot.

Bull. FAO. 12: 42-43.

Muesebeck, C.F.W. & Dohanian, S.M. (1927): A study of

hyperparasitism with particular reference to the paras\teso(Apanteles

melanoscelus (Ratzeburg). U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1487: 1-35.

Narayanan, E.S. (1957):The phenomenon of insect

parasitism and their practical utilization in biological control of

insect pests. 44th Indian Sci. Congr. Pt. 2, Presidential address, pp.

1-22.

Nixon, G.E.T. (1965): A reclassification of the tribe

microgasterini (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Bull.British Mus.

(Natural History) Supplement , 2 : 66-67.

Ramachandra Rao, Y.R., Cherian, M.C. &

Ananthanarayanan, K.P. (1948): Infestation of Nephantisserinopa

Meyr. in South India and their control by biological method. Indian

J. Em. 10: 205-247.

Smith, H.S. (1916): An attempt to redefine the host

relationships exhibited by entomophagous insects./. Econ. Entomol.

4

416

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL: 90 (1993)

9 : 477-86.

Thompson, W.R. (1953): A catalogue of the parasites and

predators of insect pests, CIBC, Ottawa. Ont. Canada, Part 6.

Parasites of the Lepidoptera, 193 pp.

Valentine, E.W. (1974): Differential host relations of the

sexes in some New Zealand parasitic Hymenopltra. N.A.Entomol.

3:6-8.

Van Den Bosch, R. & Messenger, P.S. (1973): Biological

control. New York, Intertext Educational Publishers, 180 pp.

Wilkinson, D.S. (1931): Four new species of

Ichneumonoidae. Bull. Ent. Res. 22: 393 - 397.

Williams, T.R. (1951): The bionomics and morphology of

Brenthia leptocosma Meyrick(Lep. Glyphipterygidae). Bull. Ent.

Res. 41 : 629-635.

OCCURRENCE OF ARHODEOPORUS BONAIRENSIS (VIETS, 1936)

( HALACARIDAE: ACARI) FROM INDIAN OCEAN WITH ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL

REMARKS ON GENUS ARHODEOPORUS NEWELL1

A.L.N. Sarma and Tapas Chatterjee2

(With eight text-figures)

Key words : zoogeography, halacaridae, acari, Indian ocean, ecology

Arhodeoporus bonairensis (Viets, 1936) is reported for the first time not only along the Indian coast but also from the

Indian Ocean. A brief description including the classification, synonymy along with zoogeographic and ecological remarks on

the genus and its species is provided.

Marine halacarids received little attention and

almost remained undocumented in the faunistic

surveys and researches conducted along the Indian

Coast. About 700 species of halacarids are known to

science from different world oceans. Of these as

many as 67 (9.57%) named species are known from

the Indian ocean and eight along the Indian Coast.

Recently, Sarma and Chatterjee (1991 b, 1993) and

Chatteijee (1991 a, b) recorded four species from

Indian seas. In view of the paucity of information on

the bio-diversity of halacarids along the Indian

coast, a detailed comprehensive ecofaunistic study

of halacarids fromdiverse marine littoral environs is

being undertaken by us. The taxonomic studies

yielded a rich crop of species and would be described

elsewhere. Presently, the occurrence of

Arhodeoporus bonairensis (Viets 1936) is reported

here for the first time not only along the Indian coast

but also from the Indian ocean. The genus is

recorded for the first time from the Indian Coast.

Several specimens including males and females

of Arhodeoporus bonairensis (Viets 1936) were

seen among the littoral algal tufts of Halimeda

opuntia fromChiriatapu Island, Port Blair (Andaman

Islands), Muss Island, Nicobar Island (Bay of Bengal),

Gracilaria corticata from Kovalam beach, Kerala

Coast and Spongomorpha sp. from Goa (Arabian

Sea). A.bonairensis is so far known only from

Bonaris (Viets 1936) (type locality), east coast of

1 Accepted March 1991.

2P.G. Department of Life Sciences, Regional Collage of Education,

Bhubaneswar 751 007, Orissa.

North America (Newell 1947) (Atlantic Ocean) and

Galapagos (Bartsch 1977a) (Eastern Pacific Ocean).

Out of the 16 named species and three undetermined

species of the genus Arhodeoporus , four species

(including the present one are known from the

Indian Ocean, and the rest from Atlantic and Pacific

Oceans (Table 1). A brief description including

classification synonymy and relevant illustrations

of the species is given alongwith remarks on the

zoogeography and ecology of the genus.

Classification

Synonym: Copidognathus (Copidognathopsis)

bonairensis Viets, 1936. pp. 391,415; Viets, 1940, p.

53; Viets, 1956, p. 676. Copidognathus (s.str.)

bonairensis (Viets, 1936); Newell, 1947, pp. 130,

172. Arhodeoporus bonairensis (Viets, 1936);

Bartsch, 1977, pp. 60-61.

Description

The length of idiosoma of the males ranged

418

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

from 190 p to 221 \. i and of the females 208 p to 216

p. All the dorsal plates are separate (fig.l). Anterior

and posterior areolae on Antero-dorsal plate (AD)

are fused in the form of an inverted goblet-like

structure in the females (fig. 4) while, males nearly

approximate the conditions (figs. 5,6). Ocular plate

(OC) bears anteriorly two corneae and is posteriorly

drawn into a caudiform process extending beyond

the insertion of leg III. Postero-dorsal plate (PD)

with 4 costae made up of porose panels. All the

ventral plates are fused (figs.2,3) and sculptured

with distinct clusters ofpores forming porose panels.

Tibiae I-II with 4 ventral setae (figs. 7, 8). Genital

opening (GO) of female bears 2 pairs of subgenital

setae (SGS).

The specimens in general match well with the

available figures and description of the species (Viets

1936, Newell 1947, Bartsch 1977a). Bartsch (1977a)

observed no fusion of the anterior and posterior

areolae of AD in the case of males collected from

Galapagos in eastern Pacific Ocean. But in the

males collected by us the anterior and posterior

areolae are closely oriented, almost approximating

a goblet shape. However, the posterior areolae in the

males are seen to be relatively less broad comprising

of a few porose panels. Anteriorly, at the point of

fusion with the neckof the goblet, the porose sculpture

of the posterior areolae is feebly developed or absent

in the male (figs. 5,6). Intensive study of the species

from different geographical regions would resolve

the variability of this trait. Sexual dimorphism

among the males and females in the display of

ventral plates is not observed as these are fused in

both the sexes ( Figs. 2 and 3).

Regarding the zoogeography and ecology of

the distribution patterns of the genus Arhodeoporus

and its species, Newell (1984) observed three

significant facts: i) The genus is cosmopolitan in

distribution although none of its species are. ii) The

genus is represented by deep water forms in probably

all oceans, iii) Species of this genus have invaded

intertidal habitats only in the North Atlantic. Further,

he states “ the genus may be a better representative

in the subtidal zone rather than in the intertidal in

the North Atlantic. This is definitely true in the rest

of the world.... In the intertidal, it is basically an

interstitial group”.

A perusal of Table 1 shows that as many as

37% of the total species of the genus are known from

intertidal, upper subtidal and shallow water

environments. As such, the predominantly subtidal

deepwater inhabitation of the genus as advocated by

Newell (1984) may have to be accepted with

reservation. Newell (1984) opined that the intertidal

invasion by Arhodeoporus in North Atlantic basin

might have been caused by “...the evolution of forms

preadapted to intertidal life in the North Atlantic or

from diminished competitive pressures in the

intertidal fauna of this relatively new ocean or both.”

The present find from the tropical intertidal algal

thalli in the Indian Ocean, one of the oldest oceanic

basins with the most severe competitive pressures in

the tidal zone making it difficult for the alien

subtidal forms to populate, tends to cast doubt on the

invasion or migration of Arhodeoporus from

deepwater to the foreshore or being endowed with

preadaptations fora successful colonisation. Perhaps,

the possibility of the converse of the suggested

invasions may also deserve attention. Bartsch (1988),

while acknowledgingAr/iode0/>orws probably as an

exclusively shallow water genus considered those

mites collected from depths more than 1000 m as

deep-sea forms and those from less than 1000 m as

shallow water forms. This appears to associate an

extend bathymetric limit for shallow waters which

otherwise connote, at best, up to the continental shelf

(Sverduet et al . 1961).

Likewise, the predominantly interstitial nature

of the genus, between the tide marks, is to be taken

with caution, since species of the genus are known

from salt marshes, intertidal sands, algal bands,

coral mounds, hydrozoan and bryozoan colonies

OCCURRENCE OF ARHODEOPORUS BONAIRENSIS FROM INDIAN OCEAN

419

Table 1

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF GENUS ARHODEOPORUS AND ITS SPECIES

Bartsch, 1982 b

420 JO URNAL , BOMBA Y NA TURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1 993 )

Fig. 1. Idiosoma dorsal (female); Fig. 2. Indiosoma ventral (female) ; Fig. 3. Idiosoma ventral (male); Fig. 4. Areolae of AD (female) ;

Figs.5-6. Areolae of AD (male) ; Fig. 7. Leg I; Fig. 8. Leg II.

OCCURRENCE OF ARHODEOPORUS BONAIRENSIS FROM INDIAN OCEAN

421

(Table 1).

Bartsch (1982b) is of the view that the land

barriers and the intervening vast expanses of water

masses which affected the once widely distributed

Tethys fauna might be responsible for the present

distribution patterns of the species of the genus

Arhodeoporus. On the geographical distribution of

interstitial fauna of marine beach sands, Rao (1972)

stated endemism and the absence of identical interstitial

species in the intertidal sands all over the world might

have positively resulted due to lack of intensive

faunistic survey in different parts of the world besides

recessions and extinctions leaving behind the present

species as relicts. Thus the present discontinuity of the

species may be a secondary condition derived from a

primary continuity. This view finds further

substantiation in the fact that the bivalved gastropods

of the taxa Berthelinia and Julia known today

throughout the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans

(Ganapati and Sarma 1972, Sarnia 1975, Sarma and

Cha tterjee 199 la) were once thought to have puzzling

discontinuous distribution (Keen and Smith 1961,

Kay 1968). This discontinuity was mainly due to lack

of intensive faunistic researches.

It can, therefore, be reasonably assumed that

with increasing systematic researches, many species

of the genus Arhodeoporus may eventually turn out to

have extended zoogeographic distribution as is the

case with the species under report.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. Ilse Bartsch, Biologische

Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburg (FRG) for her help in

providing literature and expert comments. Thanks

are also due to the authorities of Regional College of

Education, Bhubaneswar for laboratory facilities.

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de la Mer Rouge. In: Mission Robert Ph. Dollfus enEgypte

26: 93-119.

Bartsch, I. (1973): Halacaridae (Acari) Von der Jorephine bank

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Forsch. Ergebnisse. D. No. 15: 51-78.

Bartsch, I. (1977a): Interstitielle Fauna von Galapagos. XX

Halacaridae (Acari). Mikrofauna Meeresboden 65 : 1-108.

Bartsch, I. (1977b): Erganzungen Zur Halacariden-Fauna

(Halacaridae, Acari) der Bretagne-kuste, zur Gattun'g

Arhodeoporus und Copidognathus. Acarologia 18: 626-

641.

Bartsch, I. (1980): Halcaridae (Acari) im niarinen Mesopsaimnal

der ostkuste nordamerikas. Entomol. Mitt. Zool. Mus.

Hamburg. 6: 393-407.

Bartsch, I. (1981) : Halacaridae (Acari) aus dein kanal von

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Bartsch, I. (1982a): Halacaridae (Acari) Von der Atlantikkuste des

borealen Nordamerikas. Okologische und tiergeographische

Faunenanalyse. Helgolander Maeresunters 35: 13-46.

Bartsch, I (1982b): Zur Systematik und Verbreitung der Gattung

A rhodeoporus (Halacaridae, Acari) und Bescreibung Zweier

neuer Arten. Zool: BeitrN.F.28: 1-16. (Published in 1983).

Bartsch, I. (1987): Arhodeoporus kunzi n.sp., eine Halacaride

(Acari) aus dem Mesopsaimnal Sudafrikas. Articulata 2: 389-

392.

Bartsch, I. (1988): Deep-sea halacarids (Acari) and description of a

new species. J. Nat.Hist. 22: 811-821.

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Halacaridae (Acari) from Andaman Islands (Indian Ocean)./.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 88-92.

Chatterjee, T. (1991b): A new Species of Copidognathus

(Halacaridae: Acari) from Chilka lagoon (Bay of Bengal)./.

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Ganapati, P.N. & Sarma, A.L.N. (1972): Bivalve gastropods of the

Indian Seas. Proc. Ind.. Nat. Sci. Acad B. 38 : 240-250.

Kay, E A. (1968): A review of the bivalved gastropods and a discussion

of the evolution within the Sacoglossa. Symp. Zool. Soc.

London 22: 109-134.

Keen, A.M. & Smith, A. G. (1961): West American species of the

bivalved gastropod genus Berthelinia. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci.

30: 175-206.

Morselli, I. & Mari, M. (1981/2): AJacaridi (Acari, Prostigmata) di

fondi sabbiosi della costa. Ionica del Salento. Atti. Soc. Tonsc.

Sci. nat. Mem. Ser, B 88: 229-247.

Newhi., I.M. (1947): A systematic and ecological study of the

Halacaridae of Eastern North America. Bull. Bingham

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Oceanograph. Collect. 10(3): 1-232.

Newell, I.M. (1971): Halacaridae (Acari) collected during cruise 17

of the R/V Anton Bauun, in the Southeastern Pacific Ocean.

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Newell, I.M. (1984): Antarctic Halacaroidea. Anterct. Res. Ser. 40:

1-284.

Rao, G.C. (1972): On the geographical distribution of interstitial

fauna of marine beach sand. Proc. Nain. Inst. Sci.Acad. B 38:

164-178.

Sarma, A.L.N. (1975): Three new species of bivalved gastropods

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Sarma, A.L.N. & Chatterjee T. (1991a) : Occurrence of Bivalved

gastropods in the West coast of India, Arabian Sea. J. Bombay

nat. Hist Soc. 88(1): 130-133.

Sarma, A.L.N. & Chatterjee, T. (1991b): Occurrence of

Copidognathus hartwigi Bartsch, 1978 (Halacaridae, Acari)

from Indian Ocean. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2) : 300-302.

Sarma, A.L.N. & Chatterjee, T. (1993): Record of Atelopsalis

pacifica Bartsch, 1985 (Halacaridae : Acari) from Eastern

Indian Ocean. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 (1): 117-119.

Sverdrup, H.U., Johnson, M.W. & Flening, R.H. (1961): The oceans.

Asia Publishing House 1-1087.

Viets, K. (1936): Zoologische Ergebnisse einer Reise nach Bonaire,

Curacao und Aruba im Jahre, 1930, No. 18 Halacariden aus

Westindien. Zool. Jbch. Syst. 67 (5-6): 389-424.

Viets, K. (1940): Meeresmilben aus der Adria. (Halacaridae und

Hydrachnellae, Acari). Arch. Naturg (N.F.) 9(1): 135.

Viets, K. (1956): Die Milben des subwassers und des meeres

Hydrachnellae et Halacaridae. III. Katalog der Halacaridae,

Meeresmilben. Gustar fisher verlag, Jena. 641-710.

IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PLANTS FROM ‘HORTUS M ALAB ARI CUS ’ 1

M.R. Almeida and S. M. Almeida2

(With three plates)

Key words: nomenclatural changes, Leucostegia alternifrons , Ehretia indica, Actinodaphne

quinqueflora, Embeliadrupacea, Quirivelia frutescens, Chonemorplui grandi flora, Parsonsia inodor a

The paper deals with the nomenclature of 6 plants of which one is a fern and the rest are flowering plants. The correct

Scientific names of the plants have been brought out and thus 6 new combinations have been established.

Hendrik AndrianvanDraakensteinvanRheede

(1678-93) published 12 volumes of ‘Hortus

Malabaricus’ comprising descriptions and figures of

more than780speciesofvascularplants. About250

figures fromRheede’s work were cited undervarious

species by Linnaeus (1753) in his pioneering work

on the binomial system of plant names. Since then,

various authors have tried to interpret and identify

plants described and figured by Rheede. Major

commentaries were written on this monumental

work by Dennstedt (1818), Dillwyn (1839), Hasskarl

(1867), Buchanan-Hamilton (1822-1835) etc. The

latest comprehensive work on entire interpretation

of Rheede’s work has been published by Nicolson et

al. (1988). This work basically covers the results

included in the Ph.D. Thesis undertaken by C.R.

Suresh. Dr. Suresh has really worked hard at

collecting information and arriving at conclusions.

In most of the cases he has succeeded in explaining

the identities of Rheede’s plants and in the

understanding of these species in terms of their

modern and correct scientific names. However, a

few identifications remain controversial and need

reinvestigation.

We have been working on the plants of

Maharashtra for the last two decades and ‘Hortus

Malabaricus’ was one of the topics of our interest in

the past. We have tried to work out the identities of

the plants on the basis of Flora of Maharashtra and

have arrived at certain conclusions. We in fact,

1 Accepted June , 1992.

2 Blatter Herbarium, St.Xavier’s College, Bombay 400 001.

wanted to continue publication of the facts

discovered by us. However we came to know of

Suresh’s work at Calicut University in collaboration

with Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Therefore, we withheld our publications to avoid

duplication in the presentation of facts. Inspite of our

best efforts, we could not procure Suresh’s work

earlier and we have been able to see it only in 1992.

As stated earlier, we do have some opinions

different to those published by earlier authors

including Nicolson et al. (1988) and in the following

pages we discuss the correct identification of some

of the species in ‘ Hortus Malabaricus’ in the light of

the plants known to us from Sou them India, especially

from Maharashtra.

1. Leucostegia alternifrons (Dennst. ) comb. nov.

Aspidium alternifrons Dennst., Schlussel 11,

19, 39. 1818. Asplenium alterniforns (Dennst.)

Dillwyn, Rev. Hort. Mai. 64. 1839. Cheilanthes

tenuifolia sensu Nicolson et al., Interpr. Hort.

Malab. 29. 1988 non (Burm. f. ) Swartz. Leucostegia

pulchra Presl., Tent pterid. 94, t. 4. 11. 1836.

Asplenium adiantum - nigrum sensu Swartz., syn.

Fil. 87. 1806 (pro parte excl. type); Datta, Bull. Bot.

Surv. Ind. 27: 133. 1985.

‘Kal-panna-marvara’ (Rheede, Hort. Mai. 12:

33, 1. 16. 1693) is identified by Nicolson etal. (1988)

as Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.f.) Sw. in

consultation with Dr. B.K. Nair. Rheede reported

424

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

that this species grows epiphytic on trees and also

occurs lithophytic on stones. However, his figure

shows a distinct epiphytic habit of the species which

has been described.

Dillwyn (1839), followed Swartz (1806) and

D. Don (1825) in considering the epiphytic habit of

the taxon and placed it in the genus Asplenium.

Dutta (1985), noticed that Swartz (1806) had quoted

Rheede’s figure under Asplenium adiantum-nigrum

L. and identified Rheede’s plant as that species.

However, on the basis of typification of Linnaeus’s

species, now it is restricted to North America and is

not available in Southern India.

Considering the fact that Cheilanthes tenuifolia

(Burm.f.) Swartz is never found epiphytic on trees

but is always a terrestrial species, we were forced to

search for an alternative identity of the species. We

had no difficulty in placing this fern, found at

Mahabaleshwar, as a species so far known as

Leucostegia immersa Presl. (1836). It is found

epiphytic on trees and lithophytic on laterite stones

at Mahabaleshwar. As Rheede’s element is the sole

basis oiAspidium alternifrons Dennst. (18 18) which

is the earliest name for this species, we propose a new

combination under the genus Leucostegia Presl.

calling it as Leucostegia alternifrons (Dennst.)

comb. nov.

Genus Leucostegia Presl. was established on

the species based on Davallia immersa Wall. (Cat

No. 256, 1826), which is a nomen nudum.

Besides the epiphytic habit, Rheede’s species

(Leucostegia alternifrons) also differs from

Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Retz. ) Swartz in the

following characters:

Since the name adopted here is based on

Aspidium alternifrons Dennst., it is necessary to

lectotypify the names. It seems that Rheede has not

preserved any original materials of his figures given

in Hortus Malabaricus (see Johnston, M.C. 1970).

Therefore it is necessary to choose a “Neotype” of

the name. A specimen from Mahabaleshwar (M.R.

Almeida - 787, BLAT) is selected herein as a

‘Neotype’ oiAspidium alternifrons Dennst.

The figure i n Rheede ’s “Ka 1-pa nna -ma ra va ra ”

pertains to a sterile specimen and exactly matches a

similar specimen collected by Rev.Fr. Ethelbert

Blatter (E. Blatter - A-l, BLAT) from High- Wavy

Mountains of Madura (Madurai).

2. Ehretia indica (Dennst. ex Kostel) comb. nov.

Bruxanelia indica Dennst. ex Kostel., AJlg.

Med. Pharm. FI. 5: 2002. 1836. Ehretia laevisRoxb.

var. canarensis C.B. Clarke, in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.

4: 142. 1883; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 203. 1905.

E. canarensis (Clarke) Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras

891. 1921. E. laevis Wight, Icon.t. 1382. 1848 (non

Roxb. 1796); Beddome, FI. Sylvat. t. 246. 1872.

A few years ago, (in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

83 (suppl.) 224. 1986) we identified “Sundari” of

Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus as Ehretia laevis Roxb.

This identification has been confirmed by Nicolson

Plate 1

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Almeida & Almeida: Plants from ‘Hortus Malabaricus’

"Pu-vallitt

Embella drupacea (Dennst.^

Almeida & Almeida

' v • , . V- A-

&>»> >: . > . *

Embelia tetrandra Graham

p V •<>\<\ <i»>

Ehretia indlca (Qennst, ex

Kostel ) Almeida & Almeida

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Almeida & Almeida: Plants from ‘Hortus Malabaricus

Plate 2

Leucostegia alternifrons

(f)ennst. / Almeida & Almeida

"Mala-poenna”

Actinodaphne guinguefl ora

(ifennst. ; Almeida & Almeida

IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PLANTS FROM 'HORTUS MALABAR1C US'

425

etal. in their recent book (1988). While working on

identity of “Sundari” we had in fact realised that

Rheede ’s other figure “Bruxaneli” (Rheede Hort.

Mai. 5: 83-4, t. 42. 1685) was also a related species

to that taxon. However, going by Rheede ’s figure

and not paying much attention to Rheede ’s description

of the species we were mislead by the unbranched

simple inflorescence shown in the figure.

However, the identification of ‘Bruxaneli’, by

Nicolson et al. (1988) as Blachia denudata Benth.

(Euphorbiaceae), prompted us to thoroughly

investigate the identity of this taxon once again.

In our fresh bid to re-establish the correct

identity of this species we have realised that we were

correct in thinking that “Bruxaneli” was a species of

Ehretia Linn. In fact, though Rheede’s figure shows

simple, (unbranched) inflorescence, in the text he

mentions it to be “extremis ramulis” meaning that it

is extremely branched, clearingall misunderstanding

about the unbranched inflorescence. Now we identify

‘Bruxaneli’ of Rheede as presently known taxon -

Ehretia laevis Roxb. var. canarensis C. B. Clarke.

Although Clarke (1883) considers this taxon

a variety of Ehretia leavis Roxb. We consider it to be

a distinct species as originally construed by Rheede

himself. Phytochemically, the plants must be

considerably different, because the leaves oiEhretia

indica turn black on drying while in Ehretia laevis

they are brown in colour.

Cooke (1905) in Flora of Presidency of

Bombay is apprehensive about var. canarensis being

a good reliable variety. Gamble on the contrary

raised it to the status of a distinct species. However,

Ehretia laevis Roxb. and Ehretia indica Almeida a nd

Almeida can be distinguished on the following

characters:

The leaf size and shape in this species varies

considerably. The apex is very often acute and

sometime even acuminate.

This species is very common in the evergreen

forests at Amboli and in North Kanara. It is called

‘Datrang’ at Amboli.

We, hereby designate the specimen from

Savantwadi (S.M. Almeida - 3205, BLAT) as a

‘Neotype’ of the species, since the specimens from

original protologue of Rheede are non-existent.

As per the citation of Gamble in Flora of

Presidency of Madras, the type of E. canarensis

(Clarke) Gamble should be the specimen (No.285)

in Hohenacker Herbarium.

3. Actinodaphne quinqueflora (Dennst. )

comb. nov.

Darwinia quinqueflora Dennst., Schlussel 12,

20, 3 1 . 1818. Litsea quinqueflora (Dennst.) Suresh,

in Nicolson et al. Interpret. Hort. Mai. 150. 1988.

Litsea liqustrina sensu Suresh in Nicolson et al.

Interpret. Hort. Mai. 158. 1988 ( in Synonymy, non

Benth. & Hook. 1880).

“Mala-poenna” (Rheede, Hort. Mai. 5: 17, 17-

8, t. 9. 1685) was first named Darwinia quinqueflora

Dennst. (1818). Kanis (1987), pointed out that

Dennstedt’s name is validly published under

426

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Darwinia Rudge (1815) according to the rules of

ICBN.

It was also inisidentified as Tetranthera

lanuginosa Wall, by Dillwyn (1839), a species now

known as Neolitsea lucida (D.Don) Kosterin.

Hasskarl rejected this identification on the basis that

Rheede’s figure lacked triplinerved leaves of that

species. He suggested that it could b t Litsea obovata

Nees [a Malesian species presently known as

Actinodaphne obovata (Nees) Blume].

Suresh in Nicolson etal. (1988) considers the

species as belonging to genus Litsea La mk. probably

on the grounds that the genus Malapoenna Ada ns on,

which is based on Rheede’s figure is rejected against

Litsea Lamk.

As there are only two species belonging to

genus Litsea which are known to be available in the

present Malabar region, Suresh applied the rule of

selection and elimination to the two species and

accepts nearest one as comparable with this species,

e.g. Litsea liqustrina (Nees) Benth.

After studying the figure and description

given by Rheede, we conclude that his plant belongs

to the genus Actinodaphne Nees, and Hasskarl was

correct in placing it near to Litsea obovata Nees.

There is a specimen at Blatter Herbarium

collected from Ekambi in North Kanara, by L. J.

Sedgwick and T.R.D. Bell (No. 7271). This male

specimen exactly matches with the figure of the

plant given by Rheede. This specimen was earlier

identified as Litsea wightiana but was corrected as

Actinodaphne by B.R.Ramesh on 17th November,

1980. This specimen shows whorled leaves as

shown in Rheede’s figure and natural size and shape

of leaves matches almost completely. Flowers also

have short pedicels and match with Rheede’s figure.

We agree with B.R. Ramesh in the identification of

this species ns Actinodaphne.

We designate the above mentioned specimen

from Sedgwick and Bell’s herbarium (7271, BLAT)

as the ‘Neotype’ of Dennstadt’s name and propose

new combination under the genus Actinodaphne

Nees.

Under the present circumstances it is very

evident that generic status of genus Actinodaphne

Nees (1832) is threatened against Malapoenna

Adanson (1771).

4. Enibelia drupacea (Dennst.) comb. nov.

Pothos drupaceus Dennst., Schlusel 15,24,33.

1818. Embelia viridiflora Scheff., Myrs. Arch. Ind.

45. 1867. E. bassal Mez., in Engler, Pflanzenr. 4:

328, t. 954. 1902 (non DC., 1834). E. tetrandra

Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 105. 1839. Samara

rheedei Wight, Icon.t. 1591. 1850.

Pothos drupaceus Dennst. is solely based on

the Rheede’s figure of “Pu-valli” (Hort. Mai. 7: 43,

t.42. 1688), Mabberly has identified it as a species of

Embelia. Nicolson et al. (1988), doubtfully keep it

under Embelia ribes Burm.f. Mabberly was correct

in predicting it as a species belonging to Embelia

Burm. f. It is presently known as Embelia viridiflora

Scheff. (Myrs. Arch. Ind. 45. 1867). In Gamble’s

Flora of Presidency of Madras, this species goes

under the name Embelia basaal Mez. (in Engler,

Pflanzenr. 4: 328, t. 54. 1902) (non DC., 1834).

Since this species has also not yet been typified

we hereby select a ‘Neotype’ for this species as

under:

Neotype: Mahabaleshwar (H. Santapau -

11837, BLAT).

This species is a common climber in semi-

evergreen forests at Mahabaleshwar.

Similarly Graham’s name is also without a

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90

Almeida & Almeida: Plants from ‘Hortus Malabaricus

Plate 3

"Pal-valli"

Cbonemorpha grandiflorA

t Koth . ; Almeida & Almeida

"Kudici-kodi"

Parsonsia inodora (Lour.)

Almeida & Almeida

f

427

IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PLANTS FROM 'HORTUS MALABARIC US'

type and his collection is also not located in any of

the herbaria so far. We tentatively designate a

specimen from Amboli Hills (S. M. Almeida - 1341,

BLAT) as a ‘Neotype’ for Graham’s name.

Quirivelia frutescens (Linn.) comb. nov.

Apocynum frutescens Linn., Sp. PL 213.

1753. Quirivelia zeylanica Poir, Encycl. 4: 42.

1804. Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn. ) R. Br., Mem.

Wern. Soc. 1: 61. 1809; Aiton, Hort. Kew. ed.2, 2:

69. 1811. Chonemorpha malabarica (Lamk.) G.

Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 76, (excl. E. Pala). “Pal-valli”

Rheede, Hort. Mai. 9: 19, t. 12. 1689.

The present name for “Pal-valli” is Ichnocarpus

fruitescens (Linn. ) R. Br. The genus Ichnocarpus R.

Br. (Mem. Wern. Soc. 1:61. 1809) was established

in 1809 and the card index of Index Nomina

Genericum lists I. frutescens (L.) R. Br. as its type

species. Initially, when Robert Brown described his

new genus, he did not actually make a new

combinationbut suggested that Apocynum frutescens

Linn, belongs to his new genus. Aiton (1811),

actually made a new combination under the genus

and later authors cite Aiton as the author for the new

combination. The genus has been conserved (from

1809) with Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br. as

its type species. However, it is not conserved against

any particular earlier published generic name; in

other words, no other generic name has been

rejected in preference to Ichnocarpus R. Br.

While going through the taxonomic literature,

we have ascertained that the earliest generic name

validly published for this species isQuiriveliaLamk.

(Diet. 6: 42. 1804). The sole species in genus

Quirivelia Lamk., when initially published, was

Quirivelia zeylanica Lamk. The specific epithet in

the new genus is illegitimate name because Lamarck

cited Apocynum frutescens Linn, in the synonymy

and according to rules of ICBN, when an already

existing specific name was available that should

have been chosen for the specific epithet.

Since the generic name Quirivelia Lamk. is

not rejected in preference to the conserved name

Ichnocarpus R. Br. , it is the correct name at the

generic level and must be followed. After checking

with Index Kewensis we find that there are about 21

species recorded so far belonging to the genus

Ichnocarpus. Santapau and Henry (1973) mention

that altogether about 15 species occur in the world

and, out of these, three are so far recorded from India.

In our opinion this is quite a reasonable number for

transferring under a new generic name and we

propose the new combination under genus Quirivelia

Lamk. as Quirivelia frutescens (Linn. ) comb. nov.

As we do not know the correct identity of other

species recorded from India, we are not making new

combinations for them.

Choneniorpha grand i flora (Roth) comb. nov.

Echites grandiflora Roth, Nov. PI. Sp. 136.

1821 (nonRoxb. 1832). C.fragrans (Moon) Alston,

Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Perad. 11: 203. 1929;

Cha tterj ee , Ke w B u 1 1 . 3 : 68 . 1 948 . £. fra grans Moo n,

Cat. Ceyl. PI. 20. 1824. E. macrophylla Roxb., FI.

Ind.2: 13. 1832 (non Kunth. 1819). C. macrophylla

G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 76. 1837. C. rheedei Ridl.,

Agr. Bull. Straits Fab. Malay. States 10: 146. 1911.

The earliest name published for “Belutta-kaka-

Kodi” was Echites macrophylla Roxb. (Hort.

Bengalensis 20. 1814). However, this name is not

validly published because it was not accompanied by

a description of the species, nor was it cited with the

reference to Hortus Malabaricus. In Flora Indica

(1832), Roxburgh validated his name by giving a

description and also cited Rheede’s "Belutta - Kaka

- Kodi". However, by that time Roxburgh's name

had become illegitimate name due to two reasons.

Firstly, Kunth (1819) proposed Echites macrophylla

for some other species (now) known as distinct

428

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

species - (see H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et. sp. 3: 218. 1819)

and the species had been described under new names

by some other authors. Presently, Chonemorphci

frangrans (Moon) Alston being accepted as a correct

name for this species. By going through the

taxonomic literature, we find that Ed lites grandiflora

Roth (1821) is the earliest published valid name for

this species. Therefore, we propose new combination

for it under the new generic name as Chonemorpha

grandiflora (Roth) comb. nov.

We do not have any knowledge regarding any

collection (Herbarium specimen) for Roth’s species,

but we tentatively designate herbarium specimen

from Savantwadi (SMA - 2180, B1AT) as the

‘Neotype’ for Roth’s name. In case any other type

material from Roth’s protologue is existent, then it

should supercede this choice.

Parsonsia inodora (Lour.) comb. nov.

Cynanchum inodorum Lour. FI. Conchinch.

166. 1790. (A) ganosma inodora Lour. FI. Cochinch.

166. 1790. Periploca alboflavescens (Demist.) Mabb.,

Taxon 26: 532, 1977. Periploca alboflavescens

Demist., Schlussel 12,23,35. 1818. Echites laevigata

Moon, Cat. Ceyl. PI. 20. 1824. P. spiralis Wall, ex G.

Don,Gen.Syst. 4:80. 1837. Heligme rheedii'W ight,

Icon.t.4(2) : 3, t. 1303. 1848. A ganosma laevigata

Graham, Cat. Bombay 11: 113. 1839 . P. laevigata

(Moon) Alston, Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradenia 11:

203. 1929. Bidaria inodora (Lour.) Decne, in DC.

Prodr. 8: 624. 1844 (Sp. dub.).

“Kudici-Kodi” (Rheede, Hort. Malab. 9:13, t.

9. 1689) is currently known as Parsonsia

alboflavescens (Dennst.) Mabberly. This name is

Refer

Adanson, M. (1771); Families des plantes. London.

Ajton, W. (1811): Hortus Kewensis. Kew - London.

Buoi^nan-Hamilton, F. (1826-1832): Commentary on Hortus

Malabaricus. London.

Clarke, C.B. (1872-1897): In: Hooker, J.D. , Flora of British India.

London.

based on Periploca alboflavescens Dennst. (1818),

whichis solely based on“ Kudici-Kodi”. Incidentally,

there are two figures of this species in Hortus

Malabaricus, the other one being “Wallia-pal-valli”

(Rheede, Hort. Mai. 9: 15, t. 10. 1689). There is

agreement among earlier commentators of Hortus

Malabaricus that both these figures and their

descriptions represent one and the same species.

During our studies on the taxonomic identities

of certain Indian plants, we came across (A ) ganosma

indiora Lour. (Cynanchum inodorum Lour., 1790)

which is said to have been described from the

specimen collected by Perrottet from Pondicherry.

From the description given by Decaisne (l.c.) and

from the habit of its occurrence mentioned by the

authorasa climberof sandy sea shores itappears that

it is the same species known as Parsonsia

alboflavescens (Dennst.) Mabberly. It is described

as “Plants with fistular glabrous stems having

rounded-ovate or - lanceolate, quite glabrous leaves.

It has a rounded or cordate leaf-base, slender petiole,

short peduncles, longer pedicels, puberulous flowers,

tube hairy within and stigma conical emarginate,

exceeding the anthers. J.D. Hooker in FI. Brit. Ind.

kept it as a doubtful species. We propose herein a

new combination for Loureiro’s name as Parsonsia

inodora (Lour.) comb. nov.

It appears that Ganosma inodora Lour. In the

original publication is misprint ioxAganosma inodora

Lour. We presume that it is only a typographical

error that has made the plant unrecognisable for so

many years.

We thank Dr. (Mrs.) A.R. Daruwalla forgoing

through the manuscript of this pa per a ndMr.Rajendra

Shinde and Mr. Kevin D’Cruz for the photography.

iNCES

Cooke, T. (1901-1906): Flora of Bombay Presidency. Calcutta

Datta, A. (1985): Bulletin Botanical Survey of India. Calcutta

Dennstedt, A.W. (1818): Schlussel Zum Hortus Indicus

Malabaricus. Weimar.

Dillwyn, L.W. (1839): A review of the references to Hortus

Malabaricus of Henry van Rheede van Draakenstein.

IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PLANTS FROM HORTUS MALABARICUS'

429

Swansea.

Don, D. (1825): Prodromus Florae Nepalensis. London.

Hamilton, F. (1822-23): A commentary on the Hortus

Malabaricus,. London.

Hasskarl, J.K. (1867): Horticultural Malabarici Rheedeani Clavis

Locupletissiina. Germany.

Johnston, M.C. (1970): Still no herbarium record for Hortus

Malabaricus. Taxon 19: 655.

Kanis, A. (1987): More validly published names from A.W.

Dennstedt’s key to Rheede’s Hortus indicus malabaricus.

Taxon 36. Germany.

Kunth, C.S. (1819): Enumeratio Piantarum. Paris.

Kunth, C.S. (1833-50): Enumeratio Piantarum. Paris.

Linnaeus, C. (1753): Species Piantarum. London.

Nees, C.G. (1832): Genera et species. Amsterdam.

Nicolson, D.H., Suresh, C.R., & Manilal, K.S. (1988): An

Interpretation of van Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus.

Germany.

Presl, K.B. (1836): Prodromus Monographiae. Prague.

Ramesh, B.R. (1980) Reidentification of the specimen of Litsea

wight iana deposited in BLAT a s Actinodaphne.

Rheede tot Drakestein, H.A. van (‘Rheede van Draakenstein’)

(1678-1693): Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. Amsterdam.

Roth, A. W. (1821): Novae Piantarum Indiae. Halberston.

Roxburgh, W. (1814): Hortus Bengalensis. Serampore.

Rudge, E. (1815): Lobeliacearum. London.

Santapau, H. & Henry A.N. (1973): Dictionary of the flowering

Plants in India. New Delhi.

Swartz, O. (1806): Synopsis Filicum earum genera et species

systematice complectens. London.

AUTUMN HOME RANGE OF MUSK DEER IN BAIZHA

FOREST, TIBETAN PLATEAU1

Richard B. Harris2 and Cai Guiquan3

(With two text-figures)

Key words : musk deer, Moschus, Tibetan plateau, home range, habitat

Aspects of the ecology of inusk deer living in a forested portion of the Tibet-Qinghai plateau were investigated

during 1988-1990. A radio-collared sub-adult male occupied a home range of approximately 18 ha during November

1990, using rock outcrops for daytime resting cover and forest-meadow edges for night time feeding. Incidental

observations suggested that musk deer often produce twins in this area, although fawns are difficult to see until mid-

October. Estimated density of musk deer was 2-3 km2 of occupied habitat. Musk deer home ranges occur in second-

growth forests and shrub fields lacking trees, suggesting that lack of virgin forest does not necessarily preclu Je occupance;

however, the relatively low density and wary nature of musk deer suggests that human exploitation pressures on them

remain high.

Musk deer (Moschus sifanicus), little studied

in the past, have recently aroused greater interest

among biologist as their population continues to

decline. Green (1985, 1986, 1987) conducted studies

in Kedarnath Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, India, and

reviewed the status of musk deer south of the

Himalayan divide. Kattel (1990) has recently

concluded an intensive ecological study in

Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. However, little

has appeared in English about musk deer populations

in China. Musk deer occur throughout the Tibetan

plateau (Feng et al. 1986), and the species is

considered by most Chinese scientists to be M.

sifanicus (Cai and Feng 1981), although some

taxonomists have tentatively concluded that sifanicus

should be considered conspecific with M.

chrysogaster (Groves and Grubb 1987).

Most Chinese work has focused on either these

taxonomic problems, or the difficulty of rearing

muskdeerincaptivity.ZhengandPi(1979)described

the natural history of musk deer in northern Qinghai

province, ecological studies in Sichuan province and

elsewhere have recently been published (Sheng

1987,Sheng et al. 1990, Wang and Sheng 1988).

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Montana Co-operative Wildlife Research Unit, University of

Montana, Missoula, Montana, U.S.A. 59815.

3 Northwest plateau Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of

Sciences, Xining, Qinghai, People's Republic of China.

This note provides some ecological information on

musk deer living in a forested area on the Tibetan

plateau, which may be useful for comparison with

Green (1985, 1986, 1987) and with the forthcoming

results from the intensive work by Kattel (1990) and

Kattel and Alldredge (1991).

Study Area

The study was conducted in Baizha Forest, a

no-huntingarea in Nangqian County, Yushu Tibetan

Autonomous Prefecture, in south-central Qinghai

Province, China, approximately 3 1.7° north latitude

and 96.7° east longitude. Nangqian county is one of

the few areas in Qinghai where forest is found, but

only 106 of the county’s 12,741 km2 supports true

forest, with an additional 427 km2 classified as

shrub/forest. Topography is mountainous and

dissected, with both steep and rocky ravines, and

gentle, grass-covered slopes. Elevations vary from

approximately 3800 m to over 5000 m. Local

watercourses in Baizha drain into the Ba Qu River

which flows through the Tibetan Autonomous Region

into Yunnan province, and later forms the Mekong

River. Precipitation totals approximately 50-70 cm

yearly, and most occurs between May and September.

Zhou etal .(1987) classify forests in Baizha as

“Western Sichuan Spruce” forest type, and most

AUTUMN HOME RANGE OF MUSK DEER IN BAJZHA FOREST , TIBETAN PLATE A U

431

north-facing slopes have a spruce (Picea likiangensis)

overstorey, and an understorey made up otSibiraea

angustata and S. laevigata and willow (Salix spp.)

South facing slopes consist primarily of patches of

juniper (Sabina tibetica) distributed primarily

between 3900 and 4500 m, and open grassy slopes

above. Precipitous cliffs, exposed rock formations,

and talus slopes are common on all aspects and

slopes. Other ungulates inhabiting the area include

whitelipped deer (Cervus albirostris), blue sheep

(Pseudobis nayaur), and serow (Capricornis

sumatrensis).

Methods

Field work was conducted during the period

August 10-16, 1988; August 19-November 14, 1989;

September 1- October 6, 1990; and November 1-30,

1990. Free-ranging musk deer were driven on foot

into nylon tangle-nets (2m high) which were hung

on vegetation or bamboo poles in suspected runways

or travel corridors (Kattel and Alldredge 1991).

Crews for flushing musk deer from morning resting

spots varied from 1 to 14 persons, but were most

often about 10. Most attempts to drive musk deer into

nets were “noisy” drives, but some were “silent”

drives. Because previous experience in the area

indicated that musk deer generally vacated the

immediate area upon disturbance, we were generally

forced to set nets > 250 m from known (or suspected)

musk deer resting spots, resulting in long (2-5

minute) drives, and often, misdirected animals.

Captured animals were temporarily

immobilized using 10 mg Ketamine hydrochloride

and 10 mg Xylazine hydrochloride (Green 1988),

weighed and measured, and equipped with a 225 g

radiocollar (Model 400: Telonics, Inc., Mesa,

Arizona, USA). All relocations were obtained on

foot, using a portable receiver and light - weight

antenna. During relocations, attempts were made to

make visual contact in order to maximize precision

of location fixes. Because detailed maps of the study

area were not available, locations were mapped

using a NAV-PRO 1000 geographic positioning

system (Magellan Systems Inc., Monrovia,

California, USA), which fixes locations and

elevations using signals received from satellites.

Positions fixed usingthe NAV-PRO have anexpected

standard error of 30 m.

Home range size was estimated using the

minimum convex polygon (MCP) method (Hayne

1949), and home range use was described using the

harmonic mean method (Dixon and Chapman

1980). Statistical independence of successive

locations (Schoener 1981) was tested using

procedures of Swihart and Slade (1985). Programs

MCPAAL (Stiiwe 1985), and Home range

(Ackerman et al. 1990) were used to estimate home

range parameters.

Additional observations of musk deerand their

sign were obtained in preparation for, or incidentally

to capture efforts. Patches of open terrain and

concentration of field work during early morning

periods allowed for relatively good observation

conditions of this usually reclusive species.

Observations were aided by 7 x 42 binoculars or 10-

42 power spotting scope, except unexpected

encounters, which were usually of short duration.

Chinese researchers have estimated musk deer

population size on the basis of pellet-group counts

(WangandSheng 1988, Yang etal. 1989),butdoing

so requires a number of assumptions as well as a

precise estimate of pellet-group density, which itself

presents problems (Harris etal. 1992). We estimated

musk deer numbers over 2 sma 11 areas ofabout3 and

5 km2 within the study area during 1991, based on

discrimination of known individuals from repeated,

mapped observations during and in preparation for

the capture work, as well as the known home range

size of the single radio-marked animal (see below).

5

432

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL NO (1993)

Results and Discussion

Capture and telemetry: Capture efficiency was

poor; we successfully captured only a single animal

in 47 drives, on November 17, 1990 (an additional

animal was captured but succumbed shortly

afterwards to injuries). Most drives resulted in

animals flushing away from the nets, probably

because of the disturbance associated with setting

them up, and because we lacked sufficient personnel

to direct animals toward them. The single captured

animal, a male weighing 10.5 kg, was fitted with a

radio-collar. One of us (RBH) estimated this animal’s

age as 4-6 months (born in spring 1990) on the basis

of its small (5x2 cm) musk pod, and short (< 1 cm)

canine (Green 1985).

The difficulty in capturing musk deer was

similar to that experienced by Green (1985), although

Kattel (1990), Kattel and Alldredge (1991) had

much better success with methodology developed in

Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. The two primary

reasons the present study fared more poorly than

Kattel’s are (1) musk deer population density are of

an order of magnitude lower than in Sagarmatha,

and (2) much more wary and cautious behavior on

the pa rt o f musk deer i n Ba izha , necessi ta ti ng setti ng

up nets and organizing drives at greater distances

(>250 m) from them. Our capture crew was rarely

able to approach musk deer nearly as closely as

possible in Sagarmatha (Kattel, pers. comm. ) .The

tendency of Baizha musk deer to flush at long

distances and/or away from nets probably resulted

from continued exposure to hunting with guns

(largely absent in Sagarmatha, Kattel, op. cit.), and

from living in relatively open conditions, leading to

their relying more on escape and less on concealment

to avoid predators.

We obtained 14 radio-fixes during November

1990, 11 of which were confirmed with a visual

observation (the scheduled study period concluded

in December, preventing further data collection).

The animal Bushed when approached by the senior

investigator, but because radio - tracking was done

quietly, on foot, and without accompanying persons,

Bushing distance was generally < 20 m, causing

negligible bias in recorded locations. Location fixes

were statistically independent (Schoener’s t2/r2 =

2.43, P < 0.05, Swihart and Slade 1985), and

although few in number, showed evidence of an

asymptote in estimating the animal’s seasonal MCP

home range size of 17.6 ha (Fig. 1, inset). The lack

of serial correlation among daily location fixes

suggests that the animal traversed all, ora substantial

portion of its home range daily, as suggested by

Green(1985).

Use of the MCP or any 2-dimensional home

range estimation procedure necessarily gives a

mislea d i ng u nde resti ma te of the a ni ilia l’s true ra nge

use, because of the elevational variation in its steeply-

sloped home range. Locations furthest from each

other in longitudinal and latitudinal directions were

587 and 593 m respectively, but an elevational range

of 500 m was also recorded within this small area of

use (Fig.2) Slopes of location fixes averaged 47

degrees.

The estimated 17.6 ha MCP home range of the

male fawn is probably biased low because of the

limited sample size, restricted time-frame, and bias

toward resting locations. However, it is within the

15-32 ha range estimated by Green (1985) for

Himalayan musk deer, although it is larger than

previous estimates from Chinese studies. Zheng

and Pi (1979) estimated a 9.6 ha home range for a

male musk deer in Qinghai, based on snow tracking.

Sheng etal. (1990) estimated yearly home ranges of

radio-tagged dwarf musk deer (Af. herezovskii) of 3-

7 ha in an experimental translocation to a small

island in Zhejiang province, although differences in

habitat may account for the much smaller range size.

By contrast, Bannikov et al. (1980) reported musk

deer home range size in the Soviet Union as 150-200

ha, an order of magnitude larger than these estimates.

AUTUMN HOME RANGE OF MUSK DEER IN BAJZHA FOREST, TIBETAN PLATEAU

433

Fig.l. Harmonic mean home range of a fawn musk deer in Baizha forest, southern Qinghai, during November 1990. Illustrated are contours

of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 95% harmonic values (grid size: 10 x 10). Approximate locations of rock outcrops used for resting, and open

meadows used for feeding are indicated, inset: Size of MCP estimate of home range size (ha) as a function of location sample size.

All locations recorded for this animal were on

a generally north-facing slope. Early morning and

late evening feeding activity occurred in both open

meadows and secondary stands of spruce forest.

Daytime resting sites were concentrated along a

band of steep cliffs located near the northern extent

of the animars movements (Fig. 1) On 2 occasions,

the animal was located resting in small rock crevices

in these cliffs. Latrines and other defecation sites

were also concentrated in and around these cliffs.

Observations of activity suggested the animal was

primarily nocturnal; resting activity was only

recorded from 0745 to 1830 hrs, with feeding before

and after these times. Data are therefore biased

towards resting locations because it was difficult to

obtain feeding locations in darkness in the steep

terrain.

At least one additional musk deer was known

to sha re this area . One of us (RBH) visua lly observed

another musk deer, and witnessed a chase involving

the marked and an unmarked musk deer, both near

the southwest edge of the marked animars range.

Incidental Observations : We observed musk

deer incidentally to telemetry work 217 times,

counting each musk deer seen as a separate

observation. Such observations were useful for

434

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL.90 (1993)

Fig.2. A surface plot of the area used by the fawn musk deer (see Fig. 1), showing individual location fixes in longitudinal, latitudinal

(UTM), and vertical (m) directions. Scale on z (elevational) axis is approximately 1.4 those on x and y axes.

assessing approximate densities and habitat use, but

not for quantitative analyses because they were

biased by density of vegetation, time of day, observer

effort, and weather conditions. The majority of

observations were of solitary animals, but groups of

2 or 3 animals were observed on 19 occasions. Of

these, only 1 association was known to be that of an

adult male and female. Female with offspring were

seen on 12 occasions, chasing behavior in which at

least 1 of the 2 animals was known to be a male was

seen four times, and three times the identity of 2

individuals seen in close proximity to each other

could not be determined. Of 6 identified mother-

offspring groups, 2 were of a single offspring, and 4

were of twins. Green (1985) reported that of 151

observations of musk deer during his study, only 1

was not of a lone animal.

Fawns in our study were not observed until

mid-October (whereas adults were observed

throughout the field periods), probably because, as

“hiders” rather than “followers”, they remained

hidden among dense vegetation and were visited by

their mothers for suckling bouts from birth until this

ti me. The obse rva ti on of a n adult ma 1 e a nd fe ma le i n

close proximity (for approximately 1 h) occurred on

November 6; however, no behavior that was clearly

suggestive of breeding was observed. These

observations suggest that the rut begins no earlier

than mid-November in southern Qinghai. It also

appears that twinning occurs among musk deer in

the study area, in contrast to Himalayan populatioas,

where births are reported to be primarily single

AUTUMN HOME RANGE OF MUSK DEER IN BA1ZHA FOREST, TIBETAN PLATEAU

435

fawns (Green 1985, 1987; Kattel 1990).

Estimated musk deer density in the study area

was approximately 2-3 individuals/km2. There was

no evidence of population change from 1989 to

1990, but local herders and forest guards reported

that musk deer had generally declined over the

previous 10 years (Harris 1991). This density is

similar to that reported by Green (1985, 1987), but

considerably lower than reported by Kattel (1990).

Musk deer were found in both north-facing

Picea stands and south-facing, Sabina dominated

aspects. Most Picea stands had been logged 30-40

years previously. On dry, southern exposures, patches

of Sibiraea and open, grassy meadows were used for

foraging, particularly during early morning and late

evening hours. Wang and Sheng (1988) suggested

that secondary forest was inferior habitat to primary

forest for musk deer in Sichuan province. Comparable

stands of primary forest were not available within

the present study area for comparison, butsecondary

forest was not completely avoided by musk deer. In

Qinghai ’s relatively dry forests with low snow depths,

type of forest canopy may be less important to musk

deer than the presence of forage plants and hiding

cover in the shrub layer. In a separate portion of

Baizha Forest, approximately 20 km distant, in

which both hunting and livestock grazing was

proscribed for religious reasons but which lacked

trees completely, musk deer density appeared at least

as high as in the main study area. This nearby area

was characterized by a dense shrub layer, primarily

of Sibiraea.

Resting sites and latrines were concentrated

on or near rock outcrops and steep cliffs. All

individually identified animals were associated at

some time with rocky, steep security cover. Native

predators on musk deer known to inhabit the area

include wolves (Canis lupus), snow leopards

(Panthera uncia, Harris, in press), and lynx ( Felis

lynx). However; the greatest need for escape terrain

wasprobably to avoid domesticdogs (Canis familiar is)

that are loosely associated with groups of nearby

semi-nomadic pastoralists. Dogs were known to

chase musk deer, and we also observed dogs

investigating the accessible portions of rock outcrops

used as security areas. The number and distribution

of these rock outcrops used for predator avoidance

probably limit potential musk deer density as much

as do vegetative characteristics.

There was no evidence of range shifts during

August-November among individually recognized

musk deer. Snow-cover was generally light during

the study periods, but during one period with 30-60

cm snow depth, snow tracking, like telemetry, also

indicated some overlap among individual

ranges, although data were inadequate to determine

if individuals attempted to exclude others of the

same sex.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Qinghai Wildlife Protection

Office; Yushu Prefecture Agriculture and Animal

Husba nd ry B u rea u ; a nd N a ngq i a n county a nd Ba i zha

township governments. For assistance in the field,

we are indebted to Liu ,Y.S. and Peng, X.D., and the

people of the Baizha area, particularly forest chief

Beimadongzhu and team leader Gamacairen.

Improvements to the manuscript were suggested by

B.W. O’Gara, D. Pletscher, Liu, Y.S., and R. Taber.

This study was part of a cooperative agreement

between the Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology,

Xining, Qinghai and the University of Montana,

Missoula, MT, USA. Principal support was provided

by the Robert M. Lee Foundation. Additional support

was fromthe World Wide Fund for Nature, Patagonia

Corporation, Duracell Corporation, the American

Museum of Natural History (Weatherhead Fund for

Asian Studies), and the Curby-Pavelsky Mammal

Research Council.

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL.90 (1993)

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THE INTRODUCED BUT NATURALIZED

AVIFAUNA OF THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES1

Mohammad Ali Reza Khan2

(With a text - figure)

Key words : UAE, introductions, residents, migrants, distribution, breeding, food

During the last four decades the number of bird species introduced in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has gone up to

60, out of a total of 360species so far listed here. Over a dozen of these have established themselves as poten tia I breeding residents

and are colonising new areas.

Introduction

About a decade ago there existed literally no

published information on the birds of the UAE. A

privately circulated list (Warr 1988) is considered to

be the first full report on the birds sighted here during

the last four decades or so. A fully comprehensive

report on the UAE birds and their expected status in

UAE, on a month-wise basis, has been published in

November, 1990 (Richardson 1990). He mentions

that some 360 species of birds are likely to be present

in UAE. Out of these only 70 or so species are

breeding here. That too all of them are not permanent

residents of UAE. Some are only breeding migrants

and several are escapes from private collection

which have become permanent breeding residents.

Richardson noted over 50 such species.

This paper deals with the present status of the

species which have been introduced in UAE either

intentionally or are escapes from captivity and have

established themselves as breeding residents. This

is based on my personal observations as well as the

information available in the literature. Additional

information was obtained by contacting serious

birdwatchers (Colin Richardson and J.N. Bish

Brown, pers. comm.). My personal observations

date back to December, 1983 when I first arrived in

the UAE and started working in AI An Zoo, where

I have noted over 100 species of birds up to May

1 Accepted January 1992.

2 Dubai Zoo, P.O. Box 67, Dubai, UAE.

1989, when I shifted to Dubai. I was amazed to see

Common Myna and Rose-ringed Parakeet building

nest in the Al Ain Zoo premise. This inspired me to

note the introduced species.

Study Area

Location: The UAE became a federated nation

of seven self-governed Emirates, namely Abu Dhabi,

Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ummal Qawain, Ras al

Khaimahand Fujeirah (Fig. 1) in 1971. UAE has an

area of about 83,000 km2 at the southern tip of the

Arabian Peninsula, lying between 20°50' to 26°N

and 51° to 56°E (Western 1989). It is a horse-shoe

shaped country whose western end meets Qatar and

Saudi Aabia, Eastern side is contiguous with Oman

and portion of it meeting the Arabian Sea through

the Gulf of Oman. The entire north is bounded by the

Arabian Gulf. Both the south and part of the west

merges with the arid ‘Empty Quarter’ of the Aabia n

Peninsula.

Climate: The Climate is typical of the desert

environment. The difference between day and night

temperature is usually above 10° C and the average

annual rainfall is below 250 mm. Although some

areas, especially the ‘eastern hilly terrain and coastal

belt received more rain than the interior arid zones’.

Average annual humidity is 60% in the coastal belt

and less than that in the interior. The lowest

temperature usually ranges from 9° to 12°C during

November to February. The highest temperature

438

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL.90 (1993)

Fig. 1. United Arab Emirates showing major towns, islands, oases, and mountains (Modified from Wstem 1989).

ranges from 45 to 49 °C during June to August. The

lowest temperature occasionally reaches as low as

5°C and the highest 52°C, Both rainfall and

temperature are very erratic in UAE and varies a

great deal from place to place and year to year (El-

Ghonemy 1985, Western 1989).

Topography: A detailed topographical features

of the UAE have been provided by El Ghonemy

(1985)and Western (1989). Sofarasthescopeofthe

present paper is concerned the UAE may be divided

into six distinct habitat types : offshore islands,

coastal lowlands, western dune plain, the central

desert, the alluvial plain and the mountain belt.

The offshore islands are usually close to the

mainland of Abu Dhabi. But some are far off, even

over 100 km from the nearest coast of the Arabian

Peninsula.

The coastal lowlands of both west and east

coast comprise most recently formed saline flats or

sabkha. The majority of human habitations and city

centres have developed along the coastal belt of the

country.

Most of the UAE comes under the category of

western dune plain. The south-west region of the

country comprise extensive gravel plain with banks

ofaeoliansand piled up by the prevailing winds, e.g.

THE INTROD UCED B UT NA TURALIZED A VI FA UNA OF THE UNITED ARAB EM IRA TES 439

Liwa and A1 Waggan oases.

The central desert extends from Abu Dhabi to

A1 Ain. It is formed of semi-mobile dunes and has

a relatively high water table. This area is actually an

‘island sabkha’.

The alluvial fan that extends and spreads out

westward from the Hajjar mountain range forms an

extensive plain with shallow and ever-decreasing

slope until levelling out when they meet the central

desert. These areas comprised pebbles and rock

detritus overlying gravelly alluvium close to the

mountains, and sand and gravel further west. The

plains around Khatt, Digdaga, Dhaid, Madam, Hatta,

A1 Hair and A1 Ainare quite fertile. Thus supporting

oases, townships and farming villages.

The mountain belt include theHajjar mountain

ranges starting at a point near A1 Ain in the south-

east and extending northward up to Sham, bordering

the Musandum peninsula of Oman in the north-east.

In the extreme east the range merges with the Gulf

of Oman. The range is very harsh with remote and

isolated peaks, often reaching 1000 m above nisi,

near Ain A1 Faydah. The dry, scrub-scattered slopes

look desolate. There are a few oases within the

mountain range, namely Hatta, Dibba, Masafi and

Huweilat. A number of dried up river beds, locally

called wadis, traverse the entire range. These may

bringflash floods in a matter of hours if there is rain

in the upper regions of the mountain.

Man-made environment: All the seven

emirates have developed their city centres and the

suburbs in such a way that there is no dearth of

greenery here. These are mainly established as

municipal parks and public gardens. Some hotels

and tourist centres have acres of grassy lawns dotted

with ornamental as well as local plants. There are

many farming communities with vast arable lands

around Abu Dhabi, A! Ain, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras A1

KhaimahandFujeirah.Coupleofgolfcoursesattract

a lot of birds too.

Vegetation: The commonest natural trees and

woody shrubby species are dominated by Acacia

tortilis, Prosopis cinerea , Phoenix dactylifera,

Zizyphus spina-christi, Tamarix arabica, Ficus

carica, F. salicifolia, Avicennia marina, Calotropis

procera, Nerium mascatense, Moringa peregrina,

Salvadora persica, Capparis cartilaginea, etc. The

most widely seen introduced species and growing

very wild is the Prosopis chilensis. In the cities,

suburbs and man-made parks and gardens we have

hedges of Clerodendron inerme, Bougainvillea

spectabilis, Nerium oleander and Vitex negunda.

The trees belong to Acacia arabica, A . nilotica,

Albizia lebbek, A . c/iinesis, Terminalia catappa ,

Delonix regia, Meliaazedarach, Thespesiapopulnea,

Ficus bengalens is, F. religiosa, F. elastica, Casuarina

equisetifolia, Inga dulce, Cocos nucifera,

Tamarindus indicus, Moringa oelifera, Eucalypt us

camaldulensis, Zizyphus jujuba, Parkinsonia

aculeata, Tecoma stans, Cordia myxa, Pongamia

pinnata, etc. Other ornamental garden plants include

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Dodonea viscosa, Nerium

spp., Plumeria rubra, P. alba, Gardenia, Lantana

camara, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Bauhinia spp.,

Pandanus odoratissimus, Cassia spp., Allamanda

sp., Bottle Brush, etc.

Background

In the early sixties (1962) when UAE first

struck oil prosperity boomed here. The rulers of

different emirates, locally called ‘sheikhs’ started

gettinga lotofanimalsas gift from the neighbouring

countries of the Indian subcontinent, Persia, Middle

east, Europe and Africa. Moreover, whenever the

local dignitaries went on a visit to a country they

sought or collected a variety of animals of their own

choice and brought them to UAE. Sometimes

military transport planes were used to bring full load

of animals from Africa (Otto. J. Bulart, pers. comm.).

This trend continued even up to the early eighties

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

(Heinz Eller, pers. comm.) .In one instance, during

August 1984, over 5,000 Pintailed Sandgrouse

arrived in AJ Ain Zoo as a gift from Syria (!) to a local

dignitary. During my five and half years stay at A!

Ain Zoo, on many occasions we were told by- the

authorities to receive and then release the Black

Francolin, Grey Partridge, Chukar Partridge,

Common Partridge, Mallard, African Yellow-legged

Spur-fowl, Stone Curlew and Dikkop in the private

gardens, man-made forests and Islands of Abu Dhabi

emirate. These were released in hundreds. So one

ca n expect ma ny birds of Africa n, Asia n a nd Eu ropea n

origin to occur in UAE as these either escaped from

captivity or were released systematically by the

social elites to ‘increase’ the local avifauna without

knowing the consequences.

Observation and Discussion

So far, over 50 species of birds have been

introduced intentionally or unknowingly whereas a

few have possibly crossed the sea-route abroad ocean-

going vessels and oil tankers (J.N. Bish Brown, pers.

comm., Gallagher & Woodcock 1980, Pilcher 1986).

Among them the House Crow, Grey Francolin

(Partridge), Common Myna, Rose-ringed Parakeet

and Ring Dove got established in such a way that it

is hard to believe that they have been introduced.

They occur in large numbers. A party of 100 myna,

100 parakeet and a couple of dozens of crows

heading for a roosting site isacommonsightinparts

of UAE . On one evening, in December , 1990 I

counted over 1, 000 Ringed Dove which came to

Saffa park (at Dubai) Bird Pond to roost on some 100

Prosopis chilensis trees. Where there were already

over 2,000 Palm Doves, 300 Common Myna, 50

House Crow, many House Sparrows, Mistle Thrush,

Reed Warbler and Chiff-chaff waiting to spend the

night.

An approach is made here to furnish a species-

wise accountand discussion on the introduced species

which are commonly seen in the UAE.

Collared Ring Dove Streptopelia decaocto

decaocto (Frivaldszky)

The Collared Dove occurs from Scandinavia to

E. China (Ali and Ripley 1983), Iraq, Persia to

Palestine and E. Arabia (Gallagher and Woodcock

1980.) Richardson (1990) states that it was, firstseen

in Arabia in 1963, though scarce in UAE prior to

1977. Gallagher and Woodcock (1980) considered

it as a passage migrant and winter visitor; .. also a

breeding resident on N. Batinah and Salalah (in

Oman), locally common. By 1991 the Collared

Dove had established itselfas the commonest resident

bird of UAE. It occurs in great numbers in the Saffa

and Mushrif parks of Dubai city, Ain AJ Faydah

Tourist Centre and Zoo at AJ Ain city, Digdaga,

Dhaid, Khatt, Madam, A1 Hair and Hatta area. It

often roosts in great numbers. Before going for the

roost, this dove often congregates on the electric

wire by the side of the highways in the fanning

villages. It is not uncommon to see this species

outnumbering the locally available resident Senegal/

Palm Dove Streptopelia senegalensis.

The preferred nesting sites of the Ring Dove

include Prosopis trees, Acacia tortilis and Zizyphus

trees. The breeding season extends from February to

August and May-June seems to be the peak period of

nesting activities. A pair nested behind my villa

within the Dubai Zoo premise during April-May,

1991. It was on a P.cinerea tree, about 6 m above the

ground level. Ring Dove prefers seeds of cultivated

crops, in addition to seeds and tiny fruits of desert

plants and those left over by humans.

Common Myna Acridotheres tristis tristis

(Linnaeus)

In the city limits, suburbs and man-made areas

the Common Myna is the commonest bird of UAE.

It is almost impossible to believe that it did not occur

in the UAEeven during the seventies. “Said to occur

as a naturalised escape at AJ Ain, UAE” Gallagher

THE INTRODUCED BUT NATURALIZED AVIFAUNA OF THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 441

and Woodcock (1980). Ali and Ripley (1983) did not

mention it to be present in Arabia. As per Richardson

(1990) it is a widely introduced, locally abundant,

resident, breeding freely, and spreading. Often

roosts freely in large flocks.

The nesting season begins at the end of winter

and lasts up to mid-summer with most nestlings out

in the open during April-May. Most preferred nest-

sites are the holes in the buildings, broken lamp-

posts and lamp - shades. Once in AJ Ain city I found

a nest with nestlings in the space between the cover

of an airconditioner and the wall of the building

holding the a/c at a fourth floor appartment.

The Common Myna almost entirely feeds on

garden refuse, insects, larvae and worms and

occasionally grains and seeds.

So far, Brahminy Myna Sturnus pagodarum,

Pied Myna sturnus contra and Bank Myna

Acrldotheres ginginianus have been reported to be

breeding in the emirates. I found an active nest of

a Brahminy Myna at Sharjah in late-April, 1990. It

was on a broken lamp-post in a residential area. The

parents were carrying food for the chicks. These

species are not breeding regularly and there seems to

be no well-established population.Bank Myna breeds

regularly on the bank of old and disused wells in

Digdaga and Khatt area.

House Crow Corvus splendens Vieillot

Quite common in the Arabian Gulf coastal

towns from Musandum in the north-east to Abu

Dhabi in the west and AJ Ain in the south. It has

extended its range up to Kuwait (Pilcher 1986). Also

very common in the coastal areas of Gulf of Oman

where it is counted by the thousands (Stanford

1973). First appeared in the east coast of UAE

possibly on boa rd ocea nic vessels in the ea rly seventies

either fromsouthernlranorthelndiansub-continent.

Usually not found in the oases far away from the

coastal township and fishing villages.

The areas where currently the House Crow is

resident in the UAE it seems to occupy the top

position in the food chain. It is to some extent

ecologically equivalent to some of the birds of prey.

The latter group includes a band of kestrels and some

owls which occur here seasonally. The crow feeds

on the nestlings of House Sparrow, Blue Rock

Pigeon (Dove), other doves, mynas and domestic

birds, in addition to dead fish and carrion. Thus it

is not only scavenging but also keeping a sort of

check on the unlimited growth of the introduced

avifauna that share the habitat of the House Crow.

Some amateur birdwatchers have become

alarmed by the recent expansion of the range of the

species and its increase in number. They have even

suggested to the Dubai Municipal authorities that

they (DM) should wipe out the crow population

(Colin Richardson and Alan Dickson, pers. comm.).

I don’t think the crow population has gone up to such

an extent that we need a systematic destruction of it

from the UAE. As there is no carrion-feeder in the

man-made areas the presence of House Crow might

be considered as a blessings in disguise.

The House Crow roosts communally or in

pairs. March to May appeared to be the nesting

season. In the absence of nest/brood parasites like

the koels and cuckoos, the House Crow is capable of

raising a whole clutch in its entirety. Preferred

nesting trees are Prosopis , Acacia, Eucalyptus &

Tamar ix.

Whether the House Crow is an unintentional

introduction by man or it has extended its natural

range by crossing the Arabian Gulf, that is from

coastal southern Iran (Pilcher 1986) has not yet been

established with certainty.

Rose»ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

borealis (Neumann)

The Rose-ringed Parakeet is one of the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

commonest commensals of man especially so in the

urban areas and farming villages. Sometimes they

occur in large flocks of over one hundred birds and

damage the cereal crops and fruit orchards. There is

no definite date of introduction of this species in

UAEbut has been referred in all the recent literature

of UAE and Oman. Back in 1974 1 have seen arabs

bu y i ng pa ra ke e ts fro m Cra wf o rd Ma rke t o f B o mba y ,

India. Manypetshops still sell parakeets indifferent

emirates of UAE. Uncounted numbers must have

escaped from captivity.

The breeding season extends from December

to May with a peak in March-April. Preferred sites

are holes and crevices in buildings, trees and broken

lamp-posts. Once in A1 Ain Zoo a pair built a nest

inside the horizontal exhaust, steel pipe (5 cm

diameter) of a diesel generator, which remained

unused for most part of the year as literally there was

no failure in the supply of electricity.

The natural diet of parakeet in UAE includes

seeds of Acacia tor tills, Prosopis cinerea, nuts of

Terminalia catappa, Zizyphus and Melia fruits.

Flowers and seeds of sunflower, Capparis, Salvadora

etc.are eaten almost regularly. They often raid crop

fields, mango, date palm, guava and sapota gardens.

As they cause heavy damage to the crops and fruits

farm and private garden owners often shoot them.

Grey Francolin (Partridge) Francolinus

pondicerianus mecranensis Zarudny and Harms

Peters (1934) is possibly the first to mention it

to be present in eastern Arabia (Muscat ) when Ali

and Ripley (1983) showed its extra-limital

distribution as southern Afghanistan, Southern Iran,

Eastern Arabia (as referred by Peters). Howard and

Moore (1980) do not include Arabia within the range

of the species possibly because it has been introduced

in the area. It is a common breeding resident in

Musandum, south through north Oman and Dhofar

(Gallagherand Woodcock 1980). Richardson (1990)

mentions it to be, common, even abundant resident

in some areas. Warr (1988) says, some, if not all

were introduced.

The Grey Francolin is now a common resident

ofalmostalltheurban,suburbanand newly developed

countryside townships or clustered houses. The date

garden, public garden, parks, roadside shrubberies

are the usual abode for this fra ncolin. It is more often

heard than seen. The road - side plantation of Dubai

City, especially the ones passing through the less

populated areas like Satwa, Jumeirah and Bur Dubai

support a good population.

The Grey Francolin has been introduced in

different emirates of UAE in hundreds during the

seventies, eighties and even beginning of this decade.

So it is almost impossible to say whether the range

of the introduced population has extended from the

Musandum peninsula and Hajjar Mountain ranges

to westward into the UAE or the ones systematically

released in the emirates have colonized the country.

But now it is a common and regularly breeding

resident bird of UAE.

Very raucous during the breeding season,

February to June, although most fledglings are seen

duringMay. Build nest on the ground, usually under

a well-concealed branch of Prosopis or Acacia

touching the ground. The nest is not more than a

lined scrape. Usually 4 to 6 chicks are seen following

the parents in quest of food.

Feeds mostly on the grains, seeds, dates, shoots

of the plants of the area it colonises. Also consumes

insects, worms and larvae. Sometimes ventures out

to busy roads, islands and well-watered round -

abouts to pick up windblown seeds and refuse tit-

bits.

Colonising all newly developed areas at a

THE INTROD UCED B UT NA TURALIZED A VI FA UNA OF THE UNITED ARAB EM IRA TES 443

much faster rate than all the other introduced species.

The other reasons being that it is growing almost in

a predator-free situation. Only natural predator is

the Arabian Fox.

Chukar Alectoris chukar f Black Francolin

Francolinusfrancolinus and Quail Coturnixcoturnix

have been sighted in UAE. As far as my experience

goes the first two species have been introduced by

the Government of Abu Dhabi and A1 Ain in the

recent past. Richardson (1990) says that a small

population of Chukar introduced some years ago

exists in Musandum (Oman) and strays have been

reported in the Dibba area. A definite and continuous

breedi ng of these species a nd Qua il ha ve not yet been

reported. The latter is bred commercially in several

farms, and in A1 Ain and Dubai Zoos.

White-cheeked Bulbul Pycnonotus

leucogenys leucotis (Gould)

Of the five sub-species of White-cheeked

Bulbul, three occur around the Arabian Gulf

countries: P./. mesopotamiae in Iraq,/5./, dactylusin

E. Saudi Arabia and P.l. leucotis in southern Iran to

north-west India (Howard and Moore 1980). Aliand

Ripley (1983) also include Iraq and Saudi Arabia in

the distributional range of the species. Gallagher

and Woodcock (1980) mention the species to be

breeding in S. Iraq, S. Iran, Bahrain and the mainland

nearby, and NW India. About its status in Oman

they say, it has been reported very rarely, presumably

as an escaped captive bird. Warr (1988) quoting

otherscientistssuggestthatitmightbe an introduced

one. Richardson (1990) definitely mentions it as an

uncommon resident breeder of Gulf coastal towns

and cultivations, currently spreading inland. The

species is well-established in the Mushrif Park of

Dubai, parks and gardens of other emirates.

The breeding season extends from January to

August with a peak in April-May. I found a nest in

mid-February at Mushrif park which was under

incubation by the parent. At the beginning of May,

the same year two pairs were found attending freshly

fledged chicks, still incapable of proper flight.

The White-cheeked Bulbuls are mainly

dependent on juicy, soft berries and fruits. They

consume figs, fruits of neem, Lantana, Salvadora,

Capparis, Zizyphus and nectar from the flowers of

Vitex, Tecoma and bottle-brush, and insects. After

rain makes aerial sorties to catch flying ants

(termites).

Red -vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer

(Linnaeus)

There seems to be an uncertainty with regard

to the sub-specific status of the Red-vented Bulbul in

UAE mainly because the population here is

represented by purely introduced specimens, which

have escaped from private possessions. But P.c.

humayuni Deignan is likely to be the one. It is

widespread in India and Pakistan. The Arabs might

have brought them from the subcontinent as they pay

frequent visits to these two countries.

The Red-vented Bulbul frequently intergrades

with the local species, Yellow-vented Bulbul

Pycnonotus xanthopygos and introduced White-

cheeked Bulbul producinga variety of intermediates

ranging from black cheek to Yellow-vented variety

as referred by Richardson (1990) and others.

The food and breeding season and habits,

preference for the habitats for the Red-vented Bulbul

in UAE are apparently similar to the White-cheeked

Bulbul. To me the red-vented appears to be more shy

than the white-cheeked. Also lesser in number than

the latter species.

Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus is

represented by a few, apparently resident, pairs in

Dubai. One pair frequents Jumeirah area. Said to be

444

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

escapes from captivity.

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos platyrliynchos

Linnaeus

The Mallard is one of the most recent

introductions in the environs of UAE. Between 1984

and 1986 more than 3,000 mallards in full plumage

were released in two artificial lakes at Ain A1

Faydah, a tourist resort built around an oasis of A1

Ain. By the beginning of 199 1 1 found none of them

excepting a few pairs which I presumed to be natural

winter migrants. I guess many thousands have been

released on different islands of Abu Dhabi and other

emirates by the local dignitaries.

Warr (1988) reported, a couple of hundred

introduced in 1984 into Dubai; present all months

and breeding freely with young in May. Gallagher

and Woodcock (1980) mentioned it to be a winter

visitor to Oman. All and Ripley (1983) did not

mention it to be present in the Arabian Peninsula

where Richardson (1990) says that its status is

obscured by the existence of introduced flocks which

breed in early spring.

Back in 1985 Matiur Rahman, the Photographer

of a local newspaper, “KhaJeej Times”, published a

black-and-white photograph of a mallard incubating

a clutch of over a dozen eggs in the Khor Dubai area

of Dubai township. Even now there is a small

breeding population in Khor Dubai area. During

August 1990 1 found seven juvenile mallards there.

Up to now a few pairs have bred in Khor Dubai, A1

Ain Zoo and Sir Bani Yas Island, off the Abu Dhabi

coast.

There are a few records of the breeding of

Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiacus from A1

Ain and Abu Dhabi. These are possibly the birds

which escaped from A1 Ain Zoo and private

collections. There is no established population.

Indian Silverbill (Whitethroated Muni a)

Lonc/uira malabarica (Linnaeus)

“Small parties in mountains and gravel plain.

An apparently isolated resident population in Dubai

area, first recorded in 1975 and possibly introduced

or escapes”, says Warr (1988). Gallagher and

Woodcock (1980) noted it as a breeding bird of E

Arabia, SE Iran to India, Sri Lanka. Fairly common

and widespread in N. Oman (not Masirah) with

regular and seasonal movements, they were noted

outside the Indian subcontinent and extralimitally

ranges westto southern Arabia. Some subspecies in

Africa south to Tanzania (Ali and Ripley 1983).

In UAE Indian Silverbill seems to be one of the

commonest birds associated with human settlements.

From a few dozen birds the number has crossed well

over 100 between 1984 and 1991 in a little two

square kilometre of developed area of A1 Ain Zoo.

Sometimes over 50 birds seen within the 2 hectare

Dubai Zoo compound. Here they enter the finch-

cum-budgerigar aviary, through its one square inch

weldmesh to get their daily ration and sometimes

to escape the local showers. Although Spotted and

Black-headed Munias are also found in the zoo they

can not enter into the nest through the weldmesh

possibly because they are little bulkier than the

silverbill.

The Indian Silverbill have been found in the

remotest human settlements in areas like hugged

mountains, Liwa and A1 Wiggan.

Most birds breed between January and March.

Preferred sites are hedges of Clerodendron, Vitex,

Euphorbia tirucalli , Tamarix, Acacia, Prosopis,

Bougainvillea and Zizyphus t rees.

One of the delicacies that the silverbills

definitely have in their menu is the seed of local

grasses lik ePennisetum divisum, Panicum turgidum

and Scirpus. They visit these low bushes in flocks

and are often found in the company of the House

THE INTRODUCED BUT NATURALIZED AVIFAUNA OF THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 445

Sparrow, House Bunting and other buntings.

Red Avadavat Amandava amandava, Chestnut

(Black-headed) Munia Lonchuramalacca, and Scaly-

breasted (Spotted) Munia Lonchura striata have

been seen in several parts of the emirates. As

mentioned earlier the last two species, sometimes

with dye applied by their captor, are even seen in

Dubai Zoo. But up to now their continuous breeding

to get the status of a resident breeder has not yet been

established. Although Richardson (1990) has

reported stray nesting.

Conclusion

It appears from the species-wise description

and discussion that most introductions have taken

place around centres of human activities, that is the

coastal cities and oases. From these centres the birds

are extending their range in various direction.

Although the main dispersal seemed to be, roughly,

from East to West mainly because the majority of

human settlements have in the past and present are

taking place along this direction following the

Arabian Gulf coast. The availability of man-made

greenery, including parks and gardens, farming

villages and artificial oases are also contributing to

the present trend of wilful and unintentional

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact edi lion. Oxford Universi ty Press, Bombay.

El-Ghonemy, A. A. (1985): Ecology and Flora of AJ Ain Region. Ai

Ain (UAE): University of UAE.

Gallagher,M. & Woodcock, M.W.(1980): The Birds of Oman.

Quartet Books, London.

Howard, R. & Moore, A. (1980): A Complete Checklist of the

Birds of the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford (UK).

Peters, J.L. (1934): Checklist of the Birds of the World II.

Cambridge (Mass., USA): Cambridge University Press.

Pilcher, C.W.T. (1986): A breeding record of the House Crow in

Kuwait with comment on species status in the Arabian Gulf.

introductions and establishment of the species.

Before some mistakes are made in introducing

the wrong species, which may ultimately wipe out

some local fauna and flora, government should come

forward with a clear policy on introductions. There

needs to be an establishment of a centre to monitor

the already introduced species and the ones to be

introduced in the future. A practical scientific

approach cannot be provided by the amateur bird-

watchers or the natural history groups alone without

the firm and continuous backing of the government.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Messers Colin Richardson,

Dubai’s bird recorder; J.N. Bish Brown of Emirates

Natural History Group, Abu Dhabi; Matiur Rahman

of Khaleej Times, Dubai; Dr. Alan Dickson, Dubai

Natural History Group; Messers Otto. J. Bulart,

Heinz Eller and Dr. Ghassan Ramadan AJ Jaradi of

Al Ain Zoo for providing me with valuable

information on the introduced species. Mr. Saleh

Ahmed, Administrator, Dubai Zoo and my wife

Nurun Nahar Huda accompanied me in many of my

field trips for which 1 am grateful to them.Specia!

thanks go to Dubai Municipality for permitting me

to conduct field trips in Dubai and northen emirates.

E N C E S

Sandgroiise 8: 102-106.

Richardson, C. (1990): The Birds of the United Arab Emirates.

Dubai: Hobby Publications.

Stanford, W. (1973): A note on the birds of Oman and the Trucial

states 1954-68. Muscat : Army Birdwatching Soc. Per. Pub!.

No.l. *

Warr, F.E. (1988): A list of the birds of the United Arab Emirates.

Unpubl. MSS. pp.39.

Western, R.A. (1989): The Flora of the United Arab Emirates - an

Introduction. Al Ain (UAE): University of UAE.

* not seen in the original.

POST HATCHING DISPERSAL AND GROWTH OF THE SALTWATER

CROCODILE, CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER, IN ORISSA, INDIA1

S.K.Kar2 *

Key words : grow and release, wild hatchlings, captive husbandry

This paper describes the post hatching dispersal and growth of the Saltwater Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus Schneider in

the river systems of Bhitarkanika WildlifeSanctuaiy,Orrisa for a period of three years. A comparison has been niadeon the growth

of the captive reared hatchings at the Crocodile Research Centre, Dangmal with the same age-group of wild caught hatchlings.

Factors responsible for survival of the wild hatchlings have been highlighted.

Introduction

The saltwater crocodile, in India was critically

reduced in number as a result of over hunting for

skins as well as over exploitation of mangrove

habitat (Bustard 1974, Behura and Kar 1984, Daniel

and Hussain 1975, Kar 1978, 1981, 1985; Kar and

Bustard 1989). With the initiation of the Government

of India /FAO/ UNDP project “Crocodile Breeding

and Management” early in 1975, a scheme for

conservationofsaltwatercrocodiles was implemented

by the Forest Department, Government of Orissa

alongwith Gharials, Gavicilis gangeticus and Mugger

crocodiles, Crocodylus palustris . A saltwater

crocodile Research and Conservation Centre was

established at Dangmal in the heart of the Sanctuary

with the purpose of quickly multiplying the population

using the ‘grow and release5 technique to save this

endangered reptile.

During the study period, maximum emphasis

was given to collection of wild laid eggs from the

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary for safe hatchery

incubation by simulating natural conditions, rearing

the young with sound husbandry, release of the

crocodiles (above 1.0 m length) in the river systems

of the sanctuary, monitoring the released crocodiles

and collection of relevant data on wild and captive

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Research Officer (Wildlife), Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden,

Orissa, 7-Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751007.

population of C. porosus. This paper describes the

post hatching dispersal of the saltwater crocodiles,

in the river systems of Bhitarkanika Wildlife

Sanctuary, Orissa for the years 1975, 1977 & 1978.

Weight and measurement and survival of the wild

caught hatchlings and location were recorded.

Materials and Methods

In the course of a detailed ecological study on

the saltwater crocodiles in the Bhitarkanika Wildlife

Sanctuary of Orissa (commencing in 1975 and still

continuing) hatchling saltwater crocodiles were

collected when located. Since all natural nests eggs

were collected as soon after laying as possible for

captive incubation and subsequent rearing of the

young prior to the release back into the wild as part

of the conservation management programme (FAO

1975), these hatchlings resulted from nests which

had been missed.

Following collection of wild hatchlings from

an area every effort was made to locate the nests from

which they had come. Knovvicuge of the nesting site

permitted calculation of the distance moved by the

hatchling and their age was calculated. In

Bhitarkanika most nests were laid within a few days

of each other at the end of May (Kar 1981, 1984,

1985; Kar & Bustard 1989) and hatch around the end

of the second week of August. In this study, for

purpose of comparison, a hatching date of 15 August

POST HATCHING DISPERSAL AND GROWTH OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

447

was assumed for all hatchlings.

Since hatchlings from wild laid eggs have been

reared each year in the Saltwater Crocodile Research

and Conservation Centre located at Da ngmal within

the Sanctuary, it is possible to compare growth rates

of captive and wild hatchlings.

Data on this topic were collected in the three

years 1975, 1977 and 1978. No wild hatchlings were

seen in 1976 probably as a result of a very successful

egg collection in that year.

Results

In the present study, no hatchlings were

observed with large crocodiles.

Dispersal: The distance moved by hatchlings

from the nest in relation to their age in days is given

separately for the three years in Tables 1-3. The

locations of the nests from which the hatchlings were

collected and the collection points of the hatchlings

was been indicated. Data for the three years are as

follows:

Table 1

CAPTURE DATA ON

WILD HATCHLINGS DURING 1975

Table 2

CAPTURE DATA ON WILD HATCHLINGS DURING 1977

* Nest site not located so distance moved cannot be calculated.

6

448

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

Table 3

CAPTURE DATA ON WILD

HATCHUNGS DURING 1978

* Nest site not located so distance moved cannot be calculated.

1975: Four hatchlings were collected from two

nests. Nest 1 was located near the head of a tertiary

creek. The first hatchling was collected well down

the secondary creek 1.0 Km from the nesting site

when 39 days old. The second hatchling collected

after 57 days, had moved a distance of 2 Km in the

same direction but had left the side creek and was in

the main Bhitarkanika nalla.

1977 : Thirty-six hatchlings were collected,

representing three nests, the location of only one of

which is known. Data from these nests are presented

in Table 2 which indicate the increasing dispersal

with time, particularly in the spread of hatchlings.

The mean distance moved for 12 hatchlings captured

after 45 to 48 days was 1.6 Km., whereas for 16

hatchling collected between 55 and 6 1 days the mean

was 3.2 Km. Only three hatchlings were collected

after 70 days (between 71 and 8 1 days) and the mean

for these (2.0 Km). Two showed almost no movement

- 0.4 and 0.5 Km - whereas the third had moved 6.0

Km. These data are shown roughly in Table 2.

1978: Twenty-one hatchlings were collected,

representingdefinitelytwoand probably three nests.

Those hatchlings located between 34 and 36 days (8)

were all close to the nest(s) and the mean distance

moved was 0.3 (range 0.15 - 0.5 Km). Subsequent

captures were much more spaced out as noted above

for 1975 and 1977. Six individuals captured after 60

- 72 days showed a mean dispersal of 2.6 Km., range

1.0 -4.8 Km. (Table 3).

Whereas the four 1975 hatchlings (two each

from two nests) showed definite movements

downstream towards the main river from the

secondary or tertiary creeklets where the nests were

located, the 1978 hatchlings (21) scattered but

appeared to settle in the secondary or tertiary creeks.

Only two hatchlings were located in the main

Bhitarkanika nallahasagainstseveninsecondary or

tertiary creeks (other than the one in which the nest

was located) and five in a secondary creek which

they had entered by migrating down the nesting

creeklet. Only three of these five, however, were

collected downstream of the nesting creek.

Growth: The growth data collected by

measuring and weighing the wild caught hatchlings

at the time of their capture is compared with the

growth of hatchlings from the population hatched

and reared at Dangmal within the same sanctuary,

under similar climatic conditions. The growth data

for the three years 1975, 1977 and 1978 is given in

POST HATCHING DISPERSAL AND GROWTH OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

449

tables 1-3.

1975: There is limited data on the wild caught

hatchlings and the captive hatchlings and the

comparison is based on hatchlings from the only

nest which were considered to be weak. Accordingly,

the wild hatchlings all slightly exceeded the captive

individuals in length and subsequently exceeded

them in weight.

1977: Captive growth data was based on five

nests. The length of captive and wild hatchlings was

similar in the period up to the end of October.

Weight data indicates that the captive hatchlings

were moving ahead of the wild hatchlings by late

September and increased this lead markedly

thereafter.

1978: Captive growth data were based on

hatchlings from four nests. The length of captive

reared hatchlings exceeded those from the wild from

the start of September and increased their lead until

mid October. Four individuals captured in the

second half of October and start of November,

however, were only slightly shorter than wild

hatchlings. The difference in weight was also well

marked throughout with the captive hatchlings being

substantially heavier.

Discussion

Dispersal of the hatchlings from the tertiary or

secondary creeks into the primary creek or the main

river, is influenced by the following factors:

a) Passage of time: This can be seen from the

Tables. The hatchlings gradually spread out over a

period of several months.

b) Tidal influences: There is the normal two

complete tide cycles per day in Bhitarkanika and the

effects of these undoubtedly assist the dispersal.

c) The peak annual rainfall occurs in July with

resultant flooding the following month. Rainfall

and flooding however, occurs at least until 15th

November by which time the hatchlings are 3 months

old.

Unless each nest under col lection at the time of

laying is located subsequently, it is not possible to

know the exact number of hatchlings which emerge

from the nest (see below).

Growth: In 1975 the growth of the wild

hatchlings was marginally better in length and

substa ntia 1 ly better i n weight tha n those rea red i n the

Centre. However, only four wild hatchlings were

captured in September and October and the captive

husbandry data is based on twenty-five hatchlings

resulting from a single nest. The 1977 data for

length shows that the captive hatchlings grew at

least as well as the wild hatchlings (note the scatter

of the latter above the former during late September

and October). The data for weight, however, indicates

that the captive hatchlings were heavier from the end

of September and these differences in weight had

increased greatly.

In 1978 the captive hatchlings were greater in

length than most of the wild hatchlings from

September in contrast to 1975 and 1977. However,

as in 1977, crocodiles can be grown much more

rapidly in captivity than they would in the wild. It

is interesting to note that the difference can occur so

markedly inextremely small hatchlings undercaptive

conditions. Food supply is of course much better

under captive conditions and although food is

abundant in Bhitarkanika, its availability to the

hatchlings is limited and the hatchlings vary in

ability to capture it.

The hunting effort was not the same for all

years. In 1975 there were very limited attempts to

collect wild hatchlings. In the tertiary or secondary

creeks, it is easy to collect the hatchlings as there is

minimumscatteringdue to restricted tidal influence.

This taskbecomes more difficult in the largerprimary

creeks and main river systems. The Dhamara river

is the largest river within the sanctuary. The poor

survival record here is thought to be due to high tidal

influences, particularly fast currents and human

450

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

disturbance such as fishing. Inthe mainBhitarkanika

river, survival is also less satisfactory and the

secondary spread of the hatchling crocodiles in a

number of primary creeks associated with the main

river posses problems for collection. It is thought

that predation on hatchlings is much greater in the

major rivers than inthe tertiary or secondary creeks.

Management implications : In view of the markedly

different early survival rates of wild and captive

reared hatchlings in the first few months of life,

every effort should be made to locate all nests as

quickly as possible after laying for hatchery

incubation. Loss atthe Centre after the initial month

are extremely low whereas it is considered likely that

these losses continue at a high level in nature.

In the event that some nests are not located,

Refer

Behura, B.K. & Kar S.K. (1984): The Bhitarkanika Wildlife

Sanctuary. Pranikee , 5:31-34.

Bustard, H.R. (1974) :India. A preliminary Suivey on the Prospect

of Crocodile fanning. FAO, Rome (FO/IND/71/033). 1-50.

Daniel, J.C. & Hussain, S.A. (1975) : A record (?) Saltwater Cro-

codile ( Crocodylus porosus Schneider). J. Bombay- tiat.

Hist. Sac. 71(2): 309-312.

F.A.O. (1975) : India: Ghariyal and Crocodile Conservation

Management in Orissa. F.A.O. , Rome(FO. IND/71/303). 1-

15.

Kar, S.K. (1978) : Saltwater Crocodile Resources in Orissa. Orissa

Review 3.5(3): 50-52.

Kar, S.K. (1981) : Studies on the Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus

porosiis Schneider.Ph.D. thesis submitted to Utkal University,

efforts should be made to collect the wild hatchlings

immediately after hatching to minimise loss.

Strenuous efforts should be made to locate all

nests missed at the time of egg collection to improve

the research base. It is important to know the

location of the nest and the nest contents should be

examined in order to confirm the number of

hatchlings which emerge from the nest and also to

check on the number of unhatched infertile eggs.

Where this information is available it is possible to

work out the exact loss on a nest by nest basis.

Prevention of disturbances in the creek system

where hatchlings occur is the main management

objective. The present ban on the use of gill nets for

fishing must remain in force.

E N C E S

Orissa, India.

Kar S.K. (1984) : Conservation future of the Saltwater Crocodile,

Crocodylus porosus Schneider in India. IUCN publications

New Series. Proceedings of the 6th Working Meeting of the

Crocodile Specialist Group, pp.29-32.

Kar S.K. (1985) : A decade of Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus

porosus Schneider) Conservation Programme in

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa. Nat. Conf.

Biosphere Reserve, Similipal, Orissa. Env. Soc. Bhermpur.

103-108.

Kar S.K. & Bustard, H.R. ( 1989) : Statusof the Saltwater Crocodile

(Crocodylus porosus Schneider) in the Bhitarkanika Wildlife

Sanctuary, Orissa, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86

(2): 141-150.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS ERGASILUS NORDMANN, 1832

(COPEPODA: POECILQSTOMATOIDA) FROM KERALA1

Shaju Thomas2

(With twelve text - figures)

Ergasilus vembanadensis sp.nov. collected from the gills of Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider) is described and

illustrated.

Introduction

The family Ergasilidae has more than 100

species, which parasitise mainly freshwater and

marine teleost fishes (Kabata 1979). Adult females

of the genus Ergasilus are usually attached to the

body surface or on the gills of the fishes whereas

males remain free-swimming throughout their life.

In the oriental region this genus has not been studied

in detail (Fernando and Ha nek 1973).

Karamchandani (1952) had given a key to the seven

species of Ergasilus described fro m Ind ia n wa ters . A

new species is described here.

Ergasilus vembanadensis sp. nov

Material* Twenty females were collected from

the gills of Wallago attu caught from the Vembanad

lake, Kerala. The holotype female will be deposited

in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, India.

female (Fig. 1) : Cephalothorax is longer than

wide and subtriangular. Cephalic fusion with the

first thoracic segment is marked by a dorsal groove.

Cephalonbroaderatthe regionoffusionand provided

with a pair of distinct dorso-lateral setules. Second

to fi ft h leg - bea ri ng segme nts gra d ua 11 y d i mi nishi ng

in size posteriorly. Genital segment is barrel-shaped

with several rows of fine spinulesventrally. Abdomen

three-segmented, each segment bearing a row of fine

5 Accepted May 1992.

2 Department of Zoology, Nirmal College, Mavattupuzha, Kerala

- 686 661.

spinulesventrally near the anterior margin (Fig. 12).

Uropod squarish with a long medial seta.

First antenna (Fig. 2) is six-segmented, basal

segment broader than long, second segment stout

and thick, succeeding segments dec. easing in size

and each segment bears numerous simple setae of

varying length. Second antenna (Fig. 3) is four-

segmented, basal segment is short and stout, second

segment longer than the first with a sens! Hum on the

distal half of the medial margin, third segment

slender and curved. Distal segment is a sharp and

strong claw. Mandible (Fig. 4) is indistinctly two-

segmented. Basal segment is massive, the mandibular

palp, with hairs on its inner margin, is present at the

distal end. The distal segment bears a papilla, from

which arises a terminal spine beset with hairs.

Posterior to the spine a large falciform blade is

present which is ventral ly fringed with hairs. The

base of the distal segment has an elongated spine

with fine hairs. First maxilla (Fig. 5) is round in

shape, armed with two long subequal setae. Second

maxilla (Fig. 6) is two segmented, basal segment

broad and thick, distal segment is thickly packed

with denticles. Maxilliped is absent.

First to fourth thoracic appendages are

biramousand have two-segmented sympod. Coxa is

devoid of ornamentation while basis has a plumose

seta on the lateral margin and fine spinules on the

distal inner margin. All setae on the appendages are

plumose. First leg (Fig. 7): exopod is three-

segmented, basal segment longer than broad with a

452

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL.90 (1993)

distal spine, the spine and the distal outer margin of

the segment are denticulated. Second segment is

about half the length of the basal segment with a

single seta on the inner margin and a row of

denticles on outer margin. Terminal segment is

small, bearing two spines with serrated flange and

five setae. The inner margin of the first and second

segments bear fine hairs. Endopod is three-

segmented, basal segment longer than broad with

denticles and fine hairs on the outer margin and

bea rs a n inner seta . Second segment is si mila r to the

fi rst segment. Dista 1 segment ca rries two spines with

denticular flange and four setae. The outer margin

has a row of denticles and fine hairs.

Second leg (Fig. 8): exopod is three-segmented,

basal segment long and stout with a distal spine and

fine hairs on the inner margin. Second segment is

shorter than the basal segment with fine serration on

the outermargin. It bears a single seta and fine hairs

on the inner margin. Terminal segment is

comparatively short, having fine serration on the

outer margin and six distal setae. First segment of

endopod is long having a single seta. Second and

third segments are almost equal in size, second

segment with two inner setae and distal segment

bears a strong spine and four setae. The outer

margin of all the segments have a row of spinules

between fine hairs.

Third leg (Fig. 9): exopod is three-segmented,

basal segment is longer than the second and third

combined together, bears a distal spine and fine hairs

on the inner margin. Second segment is short,

carries an inner seta and fine hairs on the inner

margin. Third segment bears a spine and six setae.

Endopod is three-segmented, segments decreasing

in length distally. Basal segment with a single seta,

second segment bears two setae and terminal segment

has one strong spine and four setae. The outer

margin of all the segments carry a row of spinules

between the fine hairs.

Fourth leg (Fig. 10): exopod is two-segmented,

basal segment long and stout with distal spine,

second segment short, bears one spine and five setae

distally. Endopod is three-segmented, segments

subequal in length, first with a single seta, second

with two setae and third carries one strong spine and

three setae. The outer margins of all the segments

carry fine hairs.

Fifth leg (Fig.ll): single segmented, longer

than broad with two subequal distal setae.

Uropod (Fig. 12): squarish with an elongated

medial seta and a short lateral seta between two

spiniform setae. Total length: 0.8-0. 9 mm.

male : Unknown.

This species has been named after the collection

locality, Vembanad Lake.

Remarks'. Ergasilus vembanadensis sp. nov.

resembles E.ceylonensis Fernando and Hanek, in its

general body shape. In both species, the cephalothorax

issubtriangularand indented mid-dorsally. Genital

segment is barrel - shaped and slightly wider than

the fifth segment in both species. But E.

vembanadensis differs in many respects from E.

ceylonensis. Inis. vembanadensis ihz caudal ramus

is squarish whereas in E. ceylonensis it is slender

and long. Though the first antenna is six-segmented

in both species, inis. cyelonensis the first segment

is long, contrary to the broad first segment of the

present species. Second antenna also exhibits

differences in both the species. Sensillum is absent

on the second antenna inis, cyelonensis , whereas it

is present on the second segment in the new species.

Mouth parts and thoracic appendages of both these

species are not similar, the exopod of fourth leg is

three-segmented in E. ceylonensis whereas in E.

vembanadensis it is two-segmented as in the case of

several Ergasilus species.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

453

Figs. 1 - 12 .Ergasilus vembanadensis sp.nov.

1. Female ; 2. First antenna ; 3. Second antenna ; 4. Mandible ; 5. First inaxilla ; 6. Second maxilla ;7. First leg ; 8. Second leg ;

9.Third leg ; 10. Fourth leg ; 11. Fifth leg ; 12. Genital segment, abdomen and uropod.

454

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Ergasilus scotti Sundara Raj (1923) and

Ergasilus bengalensis Southwell and Prasad (1918)

are other Ergasilus sp. reported from Wallago attu in

Indian waters. Though the new species is from the

same host, these species are quite different in

morphology and structural details.

The cepha lothora x of E. scotti is violi n-shaped

and in E.bengalensis it is more or less elliptical.

Whereas inis, vembanadensis , the cephalothorax is

subtriangular and indented. Sensillumis absent on

the second antenna of is. scotti and E. bengalensis

but it is present on the second segment of the second

antenna of the new species. Mouth parts and thoracic

appendages of E. vembanadensis are different in

structural details from E. scotti and E. bengalensis .

Uropod of E. scotti bears three long setae and E.

bengalensis carries two setae whereas in the present

species uropod is with an elongated medial seta in

addition to a short lateral and two spiniform setae.

The fifth leg in E. scotti is much reduced, papillae-

Refer

Fernando, C.H. & Hanek, George (1973): Two new species of the

genus Ergasilus Nordim.nn, 1832 (Copepoda, Ergasilidae)

from Ceylon. Crustanceana 25 (1): 13-20.

Kabata, Z. (1979): Parasitic Copepoda of British fishes. The Ray

Society, London, U.K. 667 pp.

Karamachandani, S.J. (1952): A new species of Ergasilus from the

gi 1 Is o f La beo bata( Ham i 1 to n ). R ec. In d. Mus. 50 : 281 -2 93 .

form with two spines and in£. bengalensis , it is knob

like withsingle spine. Butin£. vembanadensis fifth

leg is longer than broad with two subequal distal

setae.

E. vembanadensis sp. nov. can be distinguished

from all other species of the genus by the presence of

paired dorso-lateral cephalothoracic setules,

denticulation ofthesecond segment of second maxilla,

sensillum on second antenna, ornamentation and

armature of thoracic appendages, single segmented

fifth leg with two setae, and the spiniform setae on

the uropod.

Acknowledgement

I record my gratitude to Dr. M. Shahul Ha meed,

Professor, Department oflndustrial Fisheries, Cochin

University of Science and technology, Cochin, Kerala

for the encouragement and helpful guidance rendered

during the course of this study.

: n c e s

Southwell, T. & Prasad, B. (1918): Notes from Bengal fisheries

laboratory. No. 5. Parasites from Indian fishes with a note on

the Carcinoma in the climL.ig perch. Rec. bid. Mus. 15:

341-355.

Sundara Raj, B. (1923): A new copepod parasite from the gills of

Wallago attu. Madras Fish. Bull. 17 (2) : 45-58.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

455

A NEW SPECIES OF LABIDOCORIS MAYR (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE:

ECTRICHODIINAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

Dunston P. Ambrose and S.J. Vennison2

(With sixteen text-figures)

Introduction

LabidocorisMayrisa little knowngenusinthe

subfamily Ectrichodiinae of the family Reduviidae.

Distant (1902) has included only one species, namely

Labidocoris elegans Mayr in his Fauna of British

India Capri les (1990) also listed only one species of

Labidocoris , namely Labidocoris elegans Mayr

(Cimbus elegans Walker) from Indian faunal limits

and another two species viz. , L. insignis Distant

from Japa n a nd L.pectoralis (Sta 1) from Chi na. The

present study adds one more species to this small

genus. The new species is assigned to the subfamily

Ectrichodiinae by the presence of broad scutellum

with two apical spinous angulations and to the genus

Labidocoris , because of the following taxonomic

characters, such as seven jointed antennae, anterior

femora strongly tuberculate near apex, profoundly

sulcate anterior lobe of pronotum with two minute

discal tubercles.

Labidocoris tuberculatus sp. nov. (Figs. 1 - 16)

Total length 14.5 nun, width across the eyes

1.75 mm; across prothorax 3 mm.

Coral red, antenna except terminal segments,

eyes, lateral and ventral pterothorax, clavus,

membrane connexival spots, lateral fasciae of

abdominal segments and genital segment black.

Head length 2.5 nun; width 1.75 mm (Figs. 3

and 4 ) transverse immediately behind compound

eyes; postocular portion slightly raised compound

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Entomology research Unit, Department of Zoology, SL Xavier’s

College, Palayankottai - 627 002, India.

eyes slightly protruded antero-laterally, two black

transparent ocelli located at the slightly raised portion

of the postocular area, rostrum, (Fig. 4) 2.2 mm long

slightly curved, 2nd rostral segment the longest and

robust; antennae (Fig. 5) (7.65 nun long) 7 segmented,

outwardly deflexed, pedicel the longest; scape and

pedicel covered with short stout bristles; a n intercala ry

segme nt i n be twee n ped icel a nd 1st flagella r segment;

antenniferous tubercles prominent, neck distinct.

Pronotum (Fig. 3) (3 nun long; 4 nun broad)

shining, polished and transversely divided before

the middle and centrally strongly grooved, posterior

lobe of pronotum laterally grooved on each side;

antero-lateral pronotal angles obtuse and

posterolateral pronotal angles rounded, disc of

Figs. 1-2. Labidacoris tuberculatus sp. nov.

1. Male and 2. Female : dorsal view.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Figs. 3-11. Labidocoris tubereculatus (Male) : 3. head and pronotum; 4. head and pronotum lateral view; 5. antenna; 6-8. fore, mid

and hind legs; 9. abdomen dorsal aspect; 10. hemelytra; 1 1. hind wing.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

457

scutellum concave and its apex biangulate and wide

apart (Fig.3 ) ; apices of fore femora (Fig. 6) strongly

and intermediate and hind femora moderately

tuberculate beneath with a tubercle; hind legs (Fig.

8) the longest, middle legs (Fig.7) the shortest ; fore

and mid tibiae bear apical spongy fossula; hemelytra

(Fig. 10) (8.5 mm long; 3.5 mm broad) not reaching

the abdominal apex.

Abdomen (Fig. 9) (9.0 mm long ; 4. 0 nun

broad) elongately oval; 5 pairs of connexival spots

prominent.

Genitalia as in figures 12-16. Pygophore more

or less rectangular, its apex rounded. Phallus more

or less ‘S’ shaped and the parameres a little elongated

and sickle shaped. Female (Fig. 2) larger than male.

L. tuberculatus sp. nov. is allied to L. elegans ,

But L. tuberculatus sp. nov. can be distinguished

from L. elegans by its large size (14.5 mm long and

4. 0 mm broad) and the strongly tuberculate apices

of fore femora.

Holotype: Male, collected from Courtallam

tropical rain forest, Nellai Kattabomman

District, Tamil Nadu, India altitude 280 m( 8° 56' N

and 77° 16'30 E) collecdted by S. John Vennison on

10.vii.1990. The holotype is deposited in the Insect

collection (No.6), Entomology Research Unit, St.

Xaviers (Autonomous) College, Palayankottai, India.

Allotype: Female, collected from the same

locality.

Etymology: The species is named Labidocoris

Figs. 12-16 .Laoidocoris tuberculatus Male genitalia:

12. pygophore dorsal view; 13. pygophore ventral view; 14. strut;

15. phallus and 16. parameres.

tuberculatus due to the presence of tubercles in the

fore femorae.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. Dr. S. Ignacimuthu,

S. J., Principal and Rev. Fr. Stephen T. de Sousa,

S.J., Head of the Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s

(Autonomous) College, Palayankottai for facilities

and encouragement. The financial assistance from

the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Distant, W.L.(1902):TheFaunaofBritish India, IncludingCeylon Capriles, J.M. ( 1900): Systematic catalogue of the Reduviidae of

and Burma, Rhynchota Vol.ll (Heteroptera). Taylor and the World. University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez,P.R., pp.

Francis Ltd. London, pp. 313-314. 52-53 .(CarribeanJ. Science, special Edition.) pp. 6^4.

458

JORUNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

A NEW SPECIES OF CORANUS CURTIS FROM SOUTH INDIA (INSECTA -

REDUVIIDAE - HARPACTORINAE)1

Dunston P. Ambrose and K. Sahayaraj2

(With sixteen text - figures)

Dista nt (1902) described six species of Coranus

Curtis in his Fauna of British India. Capriles (1990)

listed six species of Coranus , namely C. militaria

Distant; C. niger (Rambur); C. siva (Kirkaldy); C.

spiniscutis Reuter; C. vitellinus Distant and C. wolffi

Lethierry and Severin (Reduvius aegyptius Wolff)

from Indian faunal limits. Ambrose (1980)

redescribed Coranus vitellinus Distant and Ambrose

& Vennison (1989) described a new species Coranus

soosaii from South India. In the present paper a new

species of Coranus is described and illustrated.

Coranus nodulosus sp. nov. (Figs. 1-16)

Total length 8.72 mm; width across compound

eyes 1.0 nun; across prothorax 1.94 mm and across

the abdomen 2.86 nun (Fig. 1). Piceous; antennae

(except 4th segment), tibiae, tarsi, brown, connexival

spots, interior corium fuscescent; head, thorax and

abdomen above and beneath bear stramienous fine

hairs; head oblong and bulbous, 1.92 mm long and

1.0 mm broad; transverse behind eyes, nodulose

anteocular portion twice as long as slightly raised

postocular portion, ocelli one on each side located

just behind the compound eyes (Figs. 1-3); antennae

3.96 mm long, five segmented antennae inserted just

i n fro nt o f the co mpo u nd e y es , s ca pe t he s ho rte s t a nd

not passing the apex of the head, third flagellar

segment the longest (Figs. 1, 5); rostrum slightly

curved; basal and medial segments almost equal and

3rd segment the shortest; rostral tip touching the

prosterna 1 groove (Fig. 4).

Pronotum 2.2 mm long and 1.94 mm broad,

unicolourous, nodulose, transversely divided just

1 Accepted July 1993.

2 Entomology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s

College, Palayankottai 627 002, India.

before middle, longitudinally impressed;

anteriolateral angles of the pronotum obtuse and

posterolateral angels of pronotum rounded (Figs. 1-

3). Scutellum triangular with an erect conical

tubercle; fore femora slightly incrassa led and swollen,

mid femora the shortest and hind femore the longest;

tarsi 3 segmented, 1st segment the shortest and 3rd

the longest; tibiae devoid of tibial pads but with tibia!

combs (Figs. 1, 5-7); hemelytra 4.96 mm long and

1.83 nun broad, slightly passing the abdominal

apex, venation of hemelytra and hind wings as in

figures 1, 8 and 9. Abdomen 4.80 mm Song and 2.86

nun broad, nodulose segmental sutures prominent;

elongately oval, coniiexivum narrow and spotted

(Figs. 1,9). Last abdominal segment bears a pair of

conspicuous piceous spots. Genitalia as in Figs. 11-

16.

Female has longer anteocular (1.14 111111 ) and

postocular areas (0.89 nun), distance between the

eyes (0.56 nun), antennae (4.13 nun), rostrum (2.12

nun), fore, mid and hind legs (1.85, 1.73 and 2.68

nun, respectively), longer abdomen (5.42 nun) and

Figs. 1-2. Curiums nodulosus sp. nov.

1. Male and 2. Female : dorsal view.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

459

Figs. 3-1 1. Coranus nodttlosus sp. nov. (Male) : 3. head and pronotum lateral view; 4. head and pronotum; 5. antenna; 6-8. fore, mid

and hind legs; 9. abdomen dorsal aspect; 10. hemelytra; 11. hind wing.

460

JORUNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. VO (1993)

Figs. 12-16. Cor anus nodulosus sp. nov.

Male Genitalia: 12. pygophore-dorsal view; 13. pygophore-

ventral view; 14. strut; 15. phallus and 16. parameres.

hemelytra (5.68 mm) and broader abdomen (3.34

mm) and hemelytra (2.10 mm).

Type information : Holotype : Male collected

from a cotton field at Sivanthipatti, Nellai

Kattabomman district, Tamil Nadu, India (altitude

125.33 + 2.87 m, 8° 30' N, 77°47' E) by Sahayaraj on

4. iii. 1990. The holotype is deposited in the Insect

collection (No. 7), Entomology Research Unit, St.

Xavier’s College, Palayankottai, India. The allotype

and paratypes (one male and two females ) were

collected from cotton fields in and around

Sivanthipatti by Sahayaraj on 25. iii .1990.

Affinity: C. nodulosus sp. nov. is closely related

to C. soosaii in having five segmented antenna and

scape and 3rd flagellar segment as the shortest and

the longest antennal segments, respectively; slightly

curved rostrum, with almost equal first and second

segments and third the shortest segment; pronotum

transversely divided before the middle; scutellum

triangular.

However, C. nodulosus sp. nov. can be easily

differentiated from C. soosaii by the slightly raised

postocular area, unicolourous pronotum, pale brown

corium and brown tibiae; oblong head, longer

anteocular (twice as postocular), nodulosus head,

prosternum and abdomen.

Etymology: The species is na med C. nodulosus

from its nodulose appearance.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. Dr. S. Ignacimuthu,

S.J., Principal and Rev.Fr.Stephen T.de Souza, S.J.,

Professor & Head, Department of Zoology, St.

Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Palayankottai for

facilities. The financial assistance from Ministry of

Environment & Forest, New Delhi is gratefully

acknowledged.

References

Ambrose, D.P. (1980): Bioecology, Eco physiology and Ethology of

Reduviids (Heteroptera) of the scrub jungles of Tamil nadu,

India. Ph.D thesis, University of Madras.pp. 60 - 62.

Ambrose, D.P. & Vennison , S.J. (1989): A new species of Coranus

from South India (Heteroptera - Reduviidae - Harpactorinae).

Acta. Entomol. Bohemoslov. 86: 67-71.

Capriles, J.M. (1990): Systematics catalogue of the Reduviidae of

the World. University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, P.R., pp.

179-187. (Carribean J. Science Special Edition, pp. 694).

Distant, W.L. (1902): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma, Rhynchota Vol. II (Heteroptera). Taylor and

Francis Ltd. London, pp. 380 - 382.

NE W DESCRIPTIONS

461

A NEW SPECIES OF PERIONYX PERRIER (MEGASCOLECIDAE,

OLIGOCHAETA ) FROM NORTHWEST HIMALAYA, INDIA1

J.M.Julka And R.Pauwal2

( With a text-figure) t

The genus Perionyx is endemic to the Indian

subcontinent. It comprises 53 species including the

common Indian compost worm Perionyx excavatus

Perrier which is recommended for vermiculture

because of its efficacy in degrading various organic

waste materials like cow dung, sewage sludge, crop

straw, etc. Most of the species are confined to sites

with high organic matter and moisture. Perionyx is

believed to have evolved so long ago in the Indian

Peninsula that time was available for its migration to

Sri Lanka before the latter was separated, and for its

penetration into the eastern Himalaya and Burma

a cross the Ra j ma ha 1-Garo Gap (Gates 1972). Species

explosion occurred in the eastern Himalaya, a region

with considerable and regular rainfall and high

organic matter in the soil. The genus is poorly

represented in the northwest Himalaya. Only two

endemic species, P. bainii Stephenson and P.

simlaensis (Michaelsen), both from Himachal

Pradesh occur in the northwest Himala ya (Stephenson

1923). The present paper describes one more new

species, Perionyx barotensis, from this region.

Perionyx barotensis sp.nov.

Description: Length 71-95 nun, diameter 2.5-

3 mm, 105-130 segments. Prostomium epilobic,

tongue open. First dorsal pore at 4/5, 5/6. Clitellum

annular, xiii-xvii, xviii. Setae perichaetine; aa= 1.2-

1.8u6=1.2-1.8bc=0.7-1.5yz=0.5-l.lzz on xii,

fla=l.l-1.8tf6=1.3-1.8bc=0.5-1.0yz=0.4-0.7zz on

xxiv; 39-51 on ii, 48-57 on vii, 53-59 on xii, 42-62

on xx, 5-6 between sperma thecal pore lines on vii, 6-

8 between male pore lines on xvii. Male genital area

‘Accepted April 1993.

2High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Zoological Survey of India,

Solan - 173 212 (H.P).

on xviii, transversely elliptical, extending laterally

to setae gh ; combined male and prostatic pores

minute, at centres of paired concave furrows, in line

with cd , 0.06-0.08 body circumference apart. Female

pore minute, single and median on xiv. Sperma thecal

pores paired, minute in 7/8/9 at c lines, 0.06-0.07

body circumference apart. Nephridiopores

inconspicuous, irregularly alternating between mid-

dorsal and mid-lateral lines (as determined

internally).

Pigmentation red. Septa 4/5-6/7 delicate, 7/8-

12/13 slightly muscular. Oesophagus with a small

and slightly muscular gizzard in v, enlarged and

moniliform in xi-xiii internally with uninterrupted

longitudinal whitish (calciferous) ridges; intestine

begins in xvii; typhlosole absent. Dorsal blood vessel

single and complete; supra-oesophageal vessel single

in x-xiii; extra-oesophageal vessels paired, v-xiii,

one vessel joins subneural trunk and the other passes

to parietes; subneural bends laterally in xiii and

turns up along anterior face of septum 13/14 to join

an extra-oesophageal, a thin vessel from subneural

extends anteriorly over a few segments beneath the

nerve cord; lateral hearts originating from supra-

oesophageal vessel with delicate connectives to dorsal

vessel in x-xiii, last pair of hearts in xiii. Holandric;

testes and male funnels free, in x and xi; seminal

vesicles paired, in xi and xii. Penial setae median to

openings of prostatic ducts, each ornamented with

indistinct broken ridges ectally, 0.29-0.35 mm long,

12-14 p diameter. Spermathecae paired, in viii and

ix, each with a sessile diverticulum at ental end of

duct; ampulla irregular in shape; duct shorter than

ampulla. Nephridia avesiculate.

Material examined: Holotype: clitellate, Barot,

alt. 1835 m, 25 July 1992, R.Paliwal; paratypes: 1

juvenile, 2 aclitellates and 3 clitellates with same

1mm

462

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

XII data as tor holotype; 1 juvenile and 2 clitellates,

Barot, 26 July 1986, J.M.Julka and A.Simonetta. All

specimens are in the Zoological Survey of India,

Solan (H.P.).

Perionyx barotensis sp. nov. belongs to a

group of species with spermathecal pores in

intersegmental furrows 7/8 and 8/9. Within this

group, it shows closer affinities with a northeast

Indian species, Perionyx fossus Stephenson, in

having little modified penial setae and last pair of

hearts in xiii. But it differs by the location of male

pores in paired concave furrows, spermathecal

pores close to mid-ventral line (0.06-0.07 body

circumference apart) and unidiverticulate

spennathecae, whereas in fossus, male pores are in

a single transvers groove, spermathecal pores wider

(0.75 body circumference apart) and spermathecae

beingbidiverticulate. Differences fromtwo northwest

Himalayan endemic species under this group are:

location of last pair of hearts in xiii as compared to

xii in bainii and absence of penes which are well

developed in simlaensis.

The species has been named after the collection

locality, Barot.

Acknowledgements

Fig.l. Perionyx barotensis sp. nov.

A. Clitellum and male genital area ; B. spermatheca;

C. penial seta.

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and Officer-in-Charge,

High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Z.S.I., Solan

for providing necessary facilities. Thanks are also

due to Mr. Anil Gupta, Artist, HAZFS, ZSI, Solan for

the help in preparing the illustrations.

j

Div.

References

Gates, G.E.(1972); Burmese earthworms. An introduction to the Stephenson, J.( 1923): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

systematics and biology of megadrile oligochaetes with Burma, Oligochaeta. Taylor and Francis, London, 518 pp.

special reference to southeast Asia. Trans. Am. phil. Soc. 62

(7):l-326.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

463

INDIAN SPECIES OF THE DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPER GENUS

MATSUMURA (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)1

C. A. V IR AKTAMATH AND G. S. MOHAN2

(With seventy two text-figures)

The genus Matsumura is redefined. Its relationship with Scaphoideus Uhler, with which it is often confused

is discussed. Five new species namely, Scaphotettix agumbensis sp. nov. (from Karnataka: Agumbe, Bhagamandala),

Scaphotettix arcuatus sp. nov. (from Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, Shembhaganur), Scaphotettix freytagi sp. nov. (from Kerala:

Thekkadi; Karnataka: Jog Falls, Mudigere), Scaphotettix malnadicus sp. nov. (from Karnataka: Jog Falls) and Scaphotettix

quadrifidus sp. nov. (from Kerala: Thekkadi) are described and illustrated. Scaphotettix redundatis (Distant) comb. nov. and

Scaphotettix indicus (Distant) comb. nov. earlier placed in the genusScaphoideus areaiso redescribed, illustrated and lectotype

designations are made. A key to species of Scaphotettix dealt with is also provided.

Introduction

Matsumura (1941) described the genus

Scaphotettix for the inclusion of Scaphotettix viridis

Matsumura from Taiwan. To date the genus is

known only from the type species and is not recorded

outside Taiwan. During revisionary studies on the

genusScaphoideusUh\cr ofthe Indian subcontinent,

we found a number of species which looked externally

like species of Scaphoideus but had distinctive fore

wing venation and male genitalia. These were later

determined as species of Scaphotettix. In this paper

we redefine the genus Scaphotettix a nd describe five

new species from India and transfer two species of

Scaphoideus described from India to Scaphotettix.

The species of Scaphotettix were always

collected in moist habitats on grasses mixed with

herbs. They were most common in areas receiving

an annual rainfall of more than 1000 mm.

The depositories of the types of new taxa are

abbreviated as follows.

IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

New Delhi, India.

NHM - The Natural History Museum, London,

U.K.

NMNH - The National Museum of Natural

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Department of Eutomology, University of Agricutral Sciences,

GKVK, Bangalore 560 065.

History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.,

U.S.A.

UAS - The University of Agricultural

Sciences, Bangalore, GKVK, Bangalore, India.

Genus Scaphotettix Matsumura

Scaphotettix Matsumura, 1914:227. Type species

Scaphotettix viridis Matsumura, by original designation.

Anterior margin of vertex with one or two

marginal and a submarginal inverted V-shaped

narrow, chocolate brown to black stripe. Head with

one, pronotum with an anterior and a posterior

submarginal and scutellumwith an anterior broader

transverse red, reddish brown or orange bands. Fore

wing brownish with transparent spots surrounded by

fuscous, veins dark brown.

Head including eyes eitheras wide as orslightly

narrower than pronotum; longer medially than

adjacent to eye; either acutely angled or obtusely

rounded. Vertex 0.72 times as long as interocular

width. Frontoclypeus widened dorsally. Clypellus

broadened at apex. Pronotum 0.4 times as long as

wide. Claval veins either fused in middle or

approximated medially and often connected by a

cross vein; a cross vein between outer claval vein and

claval suture; anteapical cells three, inner cell open

behind, outer one smallest, about 0.5 to 0.66 as long

as median anteapical cell; one reflexed vein

connecting basal outer angle of outer anteapical cell

7

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 99 (7993;

with costal margin. Fore femora compressed; with

a row of stout, short, spines on ventral margin in

addition to 10-15 hair-like setae on mesoapical area.

Mid femora compressed with a row of some short

and some long, stout spines along mesal margin.

Male pygofer either with or without a process

on caudal margin; with tufts of long or scattered

setae. Subgenital plates triangular, with rounded

apex, with an oblique row of stout setae in addition

to long hair-like setae. Style slender, elongate or

robust, preapical lobe well developed, ventral area of

apophysis serrated. Connective Y-shaped, articulated

with aedeagus, without paraphysis. Aedeagal shaft

slender, elongate or stouter, wider at base, with or

without processes. Gonopore apical or subapical.

First pair of valvulae of female ovipositor with

scale-like sculpturingarranged in rows. Second pair

of valvulae with 10-17 teeth on cutting edge.

Remarks : Scaphotettix resembles some species

of Scaphoideus externally, namely S. festivus

Matsumura, S. consanguineus Distant, S .

hieroglyphicus Distant and several undescribed

species from India and Sri Lanka. However,

Scaphotettix is only distantly related to Scaphoideus

and can be distinguished by the following table of

characters.

Table

Key TO SPECIES OF Scaphotettix Matsumura

1. Claval veins fused (Fig. 24); aedeagus with apical pair of

appendages strongly recurved and directed ventrally (Fig. 29)

S. freytagi sp. nov.

- Claval veins not fused; either approximated and/or connected by

across vein (Fig. 4); aedeagus when with appendage not as

above 2

2. Male pygofer without a caudal process 3

- Male pygofer with a caudal process (Figs 36, 45, 54, 64) 4

3. Aedeagal shaft straight ; bent dorsally in apical 0.33; without

appendages (Fig. 10) S. indicus (Distant)

- A.edeagal shaft strongly, uniformly curved caudodorsally; with a

pair of slender, short appendages at apical 0.66 (Fig. 19)

S. arcuatus sp. nov.

4. Aedeagus with two pairs of apical appendages (Figs. 69, 70);

caudal lobe of pygofer gradually narrowed to an attenuated

process, dorsal margin with a short, caudally directed process

(Fig. 64) S. quadrifidus sp. nov.

- Aedeagus with one pair of apical appendages (Figs. 41, 50);

caudal lobe of pygofer abruptly narrowed and produced into a

spine-like process (Figs. 36, 45, 54) 5

5. Appendages of aedeagus with crenulate margin (Fig. 41); stem of

connective more than 1.5 times as long as its arm (Fig. 39)

S. redundans sp. nov.

- Appendages of aedeagus smooth or with single tooth at mid

length (Figs 50, 59) ; stem of connective 0.5 times as long as

its arm (Fig. 48) 6

6. Aedeagal shaft slender, evenly curved; apical appendage of shaft

in caudal aspect L-shaped, with a tooth at midlength (Fig.

50) S. agumbensis sp. nov.

- Aedeagal shaft stout, wider near base than at apex, appendage of

shaft evenly curved ventrally in caudal view(Fig.59)

S \malnadicus sp. nov.

Scaphotettix indicus (Distant) comb. nov.

(Figs. 1 - 13)

Scaphoideus indicus Distant, 1908: 374. Lectotype female,

here designated, Burma (NFIM, examined).

Scaphoideus festivus sensu Ishihara, 1961: 252, not

Matsumura, 1902.

Ochraceous. Markings on head and thorax as

described in generic diagnosis. A submarginal

longitudinal stripe on extreme lateral area of

pronotum fuscous. Dorsal half of episternum and

dorsal 0.75 ofmesepimeron dark fuscous. Scutellum

margined by dark fuscous apically. Fore wing

fuscous, venation darker, apex of fore wing broadly

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

465

Figs. 1-13. Scaphotettix indicus (Distant): 1. Head and thorax; 2. Same, Profile; 3. Face; 4. Fore wing; 5. Male pygofer;

6. Subgenital plate; 7. Style; 8. Apophysis of style; 9. Connective; 10. Connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 11. Aedeagus ventral

view; 12. Ovipositor, 13. Apex of second pair of valvula (Scale indicates 0.5 mm in Figs. 1-4 and 12 and 0.1 mm in others).

dark fuscous except hyaline appendix. Legs

ochraceous, fore tibiae striped with brown; mid

tibiae with three brown spots, basal and median

trasomeres of mesothoracic leg brown; apex of hind

tibia, basitarsus, entire second tarsomere, basal half

of third tarsomere piceous.

Vertex conically produced in front, median

sulcus reaching 0.8 length. Pronotum shorter than

scutel lu m. Cla va i vei ns approximated a nd connected

by a cross vein, outer anteapical cell 0.5 as long as

median cell which is wider in middle.

Male genitalia : Caudal margin of pygofer

abtusely rounded with scattered setae, withoutcaudal

process, tergum of pygofer well sclerotized. Valve

with rounded caudal margin. Style robust, with

apophysis laterally directed, with a pointed apex,

ventral margin serrate. Stem of connective 0.5 as

long as arm. Aedeagus elongate, tubular, preatrium

0.25 as long as total length, dorsal apodeme short,

stout; shaft tapered caudally, curved abruptly dorsally

466

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (7993)

at apical 0.33, apex compressed, blade-like.

Go nopore subapical.

Female genitalia : Seventh sternum as long as

sixth, caudal margin rather straight. Second pair of

valvulae with 15 teeth, margin between teeth finely

serrate.

Measurements: Male 4.30 to 4.60 mm long,

1.20 to 1.25 mm wide across eyes. Female 4.60 to

4.70 mm long, 1.25 to 1.30 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Lectotype female, “Type,

H.T. (on red bordered disc)” “Scaphoideus indicus

Distant, type” “Myitta, Doherty” “Distant Coll. 1911-

383” here designated (NHM). Paralectotype female

“Assam, Margherita” “Distant Coll. 1911-383”

(NHM). Other material: India: Uttar Pradesh: 3

males, 5 females, Dehra Dun, 28. iv. 1975; West

Bengal: lmale, Calcutta, 1 1 .xi. 1981 ; 3 males, 2

females, lOkmN.Siliguri, l.i. 1981; Kerala: Ifemale,

Walayar Forest, 26.x. 1975; Karnataka: lmale,

Bannerghatta (24 km S. Bangalore), 9.viii, 1979, all

collected by C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: S. indicus is unique among species

of Scaphotettix in not having aedeagal shaft

appendages. Its wings are much darker than in

known species of Scaphotettix. Is hi ha ra (1961)

misidentified this species as Scaphoideus festivus

Matsumura as is evident from his excellent figures.

Scaphotettix arcuatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 14 - 20)

Lateral margin of pronotum with a fuscous

line. Proepimeron fuscous. Apices of claval veins

dark brown, much broadly so on inner claval vein;

clavus with three large whitish hyaiine spots; veins

marked with dark brown; apices of fore wings

hyaline except submarginal narrow fuscous band

along marginal vein. Legs as in S. indicus .

Head obtusely rounded, interocularwidth 1.49

aswideas median length of vertex. Outerclaval vein

slightly incurved but not touching inner claval vein.

Male genitalia: Pygofer caudally rounded,

without process, setae scattered. Style with parallel

sided middle portion, apophysis with a series of

ridges on ventral margin. Connective with stem 0.5

as longasann, anteriorly bilobed. Aedeagus elongate,

slender, with well developed, unpigmented dorsal

apodeme 0.5 as long as shaft, distally bilobed; shaft

caudo-dorsally curved, compressed, apex bifid, a

pair of slender, si ightly asymmetrical, short, ventrally

directed processes at apical 0.25. Gonopore subapical.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum three times

as long as sixth; hind margin broadly produced

medially.

Measurements: Male 5.30 to 5.40 mm long,

1.30 mm wide across eyes.. Female 6.00 mm long,

1.50 wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Tamil Nadu: Shembhaganur , 1300 m, lS.viii. 1979,

I. Dworakowska Coll. (UAS). Paratypes: 1 male, 1

female, mounted on the same card, S. INDIA:

Madras, Kodaikanal, T.V. Campbell (NHM).

Remarks: The specimens from the type series

of Scaphoideus redundans Distant collected from

Kodaikanal belong to S. arcuatus whereas those

from Lovedale to S. redundans. Externally both

species resemble very closely, however, S. arcuatus

has a much elongate, slender aedeagal shaft with

very short subapical processes while S. redundans

has shorter, stouter aedeagal shaft with longer,

stouter, apical aedeagal shaftappendages. S. arcuatus

appears to be related to S. indicus as they share the

character of pygofer and elongate aedeagal shafts.

The aedeagal shaft of indicus lacks the process

whereas arcuatus has slender, short, asymmetrical

pair of processes.

Scaphotettix freytagi sp. nov.

(Figs. 21-32)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

467

Figs. 14 - 20. Scaphotettix arcuatus sp. nov. : 14. Male pygofer; 15. Valve and subgenital plate; 16. Style; 17. Apophysis of style;

18. Connective; 19. Aedeagus, lateral view; 20. Aedeagus, dorsal view. (Scale indicates 0.1 nun.)

Colour as in S. indicus but reddish markings

on head and thorax are very bright especially in

female. In male,l, face with a few medially interrupted

bands at basal half of frons, antennal pits, a spot

below each eye, lateral margin, discal spot to lorum

dark brown to piceous. Claval veins, and some corial

veins bright red. In female, face darker especially in

apical half including parts of genae, entire lorum,

clypellus, apical 0.33 of fro ns dark brown, a transverse

fascia across middle of frontoclypeus and middle of

genae ochraceous.

Head obtusely rounded; interocular distance

on vertex 1.33 times as wide as median length.

Claval veins fused in middle.

Male genitalia: Pygofer with rounded caudal

margin, with scattered setae, without process. Style

468

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Figs. 21-32. Scaphotettix freytagi sp.nov. : 21. Head and thorax; 22. Same profile ; 23. Face; 24. Fore wing ; 25. Male pygofer ;

26. Subgenital plate ; 27. Slyle ; 28. Connective ; 29.Aedeagus ; lateral view ; 30.Same caudodorsal view ; 31. Ovipositor ;

32. Female second pair of valvula. (Scale indicates 0.5 mm in Figs. 21-24 and 31, and 0.1 mm in others.)

stout, apophysis curved with serra ted ventra 1 ma rgi n.

Stem of connective twice as long as arm. Aedeagus

rather L-shaped, dorsal apodeme well developed,

bifid distally; shaft straight, directed caudodorsally

with a pair of apical, long, strongly recurved

appendages directed ventrally and caudally.

Gonopore apical.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum three times

as long as sixth; hind margin conically produced in

middle. Second pair of valvulae with 15 teeth,

margin of teeth finely serrate.

Measurements: Male 4.40 to 4.70 mm long,

1.17 to 1.22 mm wide across eyes. Female 5.00 to

5.20mmlongand 1.35 to 1.40 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Kerala: Thekkadi, (840m), 27.iii.1977, C.A.

Viraktamath (UAS). Paratypes: 4 males, 5 females,

data as for holotype, 2 males, 4 females, data as for

holotype but collected by S. Viraktamath; 1 1 males ,

7 females, data as for holotype but collected on

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

469

26.iii.l977by C.A. Viraktamath (3 males, 2 females),

S. Viraktamath (3 males, 1 female), and B. Mallik (5

males, 4 females); Karnataka: lmale, Mudigere,

7.iv.l975, C.A. Viraktamath; 3 females, Jog Falls,

8.V.1976, B. Mallik; 1 male, 17.xi.1976, B. Mallik;

1 male, 10.xi.1976, C.A. Viraktamath (IARI, NHM,

NMNH,UAS).

Remarks: S. freytagi is distinctive among the

species of Scaphotettix in that the claval veins are

fused in the middle. It externally resembles S.

quadrifidus from which it differs in having only one

pair of aedeagal shaft appendages, much brighter

coloration and darker face.

The species is named in honour of Dr Paul H.

Freytag, Professor of Entomology, University of

Kentucky, Lexington, U.S.A.

Scaphotettix redundans (Distant) comb. nov.

(Figs. 33 - 41)

Scaphoideus redundans Distant, 1918:64. Lectotype , here

designated Nilgiris (NHM, examined).

Coloration as described by Distant (1918) and

very similar to that of S. arcuatus.

Male genitalia: Pygoferwith a ventral dorsal ly

produced process, exceeding dorsal margin of

pygofer. Style with laterally curved apophysis having

serrated ventral surface. Connective with stem twice

as long as arm. Aedeagus with well developed but

short dorsal apodeme, shaft curved caudo-dorsally

in lateral aspect slightly broaderat apex than at base,

with a pairof apical, latero-anteriorly directed blade-

Figs. 33-41. Scaphotettix redundans (Distant): 33. Head and thorax; 34. Same, profile; 35. Face; 36 Male pygofer; 37.

Subgenital plate; 38. Style and apophysis of style; 39. Connective; 40. Connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 41. Aedeagus, dorsal

view. (Scale Indicates 0.5 mm in Figs. 33-35 and 0.1mm in others.)

470

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Figs. 42 - 50. Scaphotettix agumbensis sp.nov. : 42. Head and thorax; 43. Same, profile; 44. Face; 45. Male pygofer, 46. Subgenital

plate; 47. Style; 48. Connective; 49. Connective and aedeagus; 50. Aedeagus, caudal view. (Scale indicates 0.5mm in Figs. 42-44 and

0.1mm in others.)

like appendages with crenulate margin. wide across eyes.

Measurements: Male 5.8 mm long, 1.45 mm Material examined: Lectotype , “Type, H.T.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

471

(on red bordered disc)” “Nilgiri Hills, Lovedale,

T.V. Campbell” “S. India, E.A. Butler, 1915 -60”

here designated (NHM). Paralectotype: 1 female

data as for lectotype, mounted along with lectotype

on the same card (NHM). Other material: India:

Tamil Nadu: 1 male, Naduvattam, 6.vi.l977, C.A.

Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: This species can be easily

distinguished by the aedeagal shaft appendages with

crenulate margin. It is distantly related to S.

agumbensis and S. malnadicus with which it shares

the similarly placed aedeagal shaft process and

pygofer process but differs in having the stem of

connective twice as long as arms,

Scaphotettix agumbensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 42 - 50)

Ochraceous. Anterior margin of red band on

vertex without a dark brown line. Fore wing pale

brownish hyaline with prominent dark brown

markings surrounding hyaline spots distributed on

clavus and corium; apex of clavus, a spot at apex of

inner claval vein, submarginal band on apex of fore

wing dark brown. Leg coloration as in S. indicus.

Head bluntly conical, slightly narrower than

prothorax. Vertex slightly shorter than interocular

width. Pronotum 1.8 times as wide as long. Claval

veins approximated in middle, outer anteapical cell

0.75 as long as median cell.

Male genitalia: Ventrocaudal angle of pygofer

lobe produced into a spine-like process directed

caudodorsally. Style slender, elongate, apophysis

short, slender, strongly curved laterally, its surface

pustulated. Stem of connective 0.5 as long as arms,

strongly bifid anteriorly, Aedeagus slender, dorsal

apodeme thin, plate-lilke, 0.5 as longas a shaft; shaft

gradually curved caudodorsally, of uniform width,

with a pair of apical appendages, each appendage

directed anteriorly atbasal 0.33 thenabruptly directed

laterally, with a tooth at midlength. Gonopore

apical.

Measurements : Male 5.00 mm long, head

1.27 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Karnataka: Agumbe, 23. xi. 1982, H.V.A. Murthy

Coll. (UAS). Paratype 1 male, India: Karnataka:

Bhagamandala, 1300 m, 25. i. 1980, S. Viraktamath

Coll. (NHM).

Remarks : S. agumbensis shares the character

of anteriorly bifid stem of connective and pygofer

process with that of S. malnadicus. It has however,

more slender, elongate style with shorter apophysis,

elongate, slender differently shaped appendages of

aedeagal shaft. It is also related to S. quadrifidus sp.

nov. as discussed under that species.

Scaphotettix malnadicus sp nov.

(Figs. 51 - 59 )

Coloration of head and thorax as in generic

diagnosis. Scutellum with basal triangles brown, red

band between them interrupted by ochraceous line,

apical half yellowish white with piceous lateral

margins. Forewing as in S. agumbensis.

Head bluntly conical, slightly narrower than

pronotum. Vertex 0.78 as longas interocular distance.

Pronotum 1.8 times as wide as long. Claval veins

approximated in the middle. Outer anteapical cell

0.75 as long as median anteapical cell.

Male genitalia : Caudoventral margin of

pygoferwitha caudally directed process, caudodorsal

margin membranous. Style with slender, strongly,

laterally directed apophysis with serrated ventral

margin connective rather x-shaped, anterior arm

very short, caudal arms slender, elongate. Aedeagus

with poorly developed dorsal apodeme, shaftslightly

caudodosorsally curved , broader at base than at

apex with a pair of apical anteroventrally curved

appendages. Gonopore subapical.

Measurements: Male 4.90 mm long, 1.30 mm

472

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Karnataka : 35 Km W of Jog Falls, 534 m, 18.xi. 1976,

C.A Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks : S. malnadicus is closely related to

S.agumbensis from which itcanbe distinguished by

the stouter aedeagal shaft, differently curved shaft

appendages and the shape of pygofer.

Scaphotettix quadrifidus sp. nov.

(Figs.60 - 72)

Coloration as described in generic diagnosis.

Dorsal half of frons in male brownish ochraceous,

in female with a series of medially interrupted

transverse fasciae, lateral frontal sulcus, antennal

half of scutellum beyond red band ochraceous,

apical half yellow. Fore wing coloration as in S.

agumbensis with darker venation, claval veins red,

more so in female. Leg coloration as in S. indicus.

Head 0.75 as long as interocular distance.

Pronotum 1.7 times as wide as long. Claval veins

connected by a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygofer lobe caudally

attenuated gradually and produced into a dorsally

curved process caudodorsal margin with a short

caudally directed process. Style with short, finger-

like apophysis directed laterally, with transversely

rugose ventral area. Connective with stem 0.5 as

long as arm. Aedeagus rather J-shaped with well

developed dorsal apodeme, shaft of uniform width

with a pair of apical and another pair of subapical

appendages. Gonopore apical.

Female genitalia : Seventh sternum as long as

sixth, its caudal margin medially, slightly, conca vely

excavated. Second pair of valvula with 17 teeth,

Figs. 51-59. Scaphotettix malnadicus sp. nov. : 51. Head and thorax ; 52. Same, profile ; 53. Face; 54. Male pygofer; 55. Subgenital

plate ; 56. Style ; 57. Apophysis of style ; 58. Connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 59. Same, dorsal view.

(Scale indicates 0.5 mm in Figs. 51-53 and 0.1 mm in others.)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

473

Figs. 60 - 72. Scaphotettix quadrifidus sp. nov. : 60. Head and thorax; 61. Same, profile; 62. Face; 63. Fore wing; 64. Male py gofer;

65. Subgenital plate; 66. Style; 67. Apophysis of style; 68. Connective; 69. Aedeagus, lateral view; 70.Same, dorsal view; 71.

Ovipositor; 72. Female second valvula. (Scale indicates 0.5mm in Figs. 60-63 and 71, and 0.1mm in others.)

entire dorsa 1 ma rgi n incl ud i ng teeth fi nel y ere nu la te .

Measurements : Male 5.3 to 5.5 mm long 1.37

to 1.42 mm wide across eyes. Female 5.8 to 6.0 mm

long, 1.47 to 1.62 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype male, India:

Kerala:Thekkadi (840 m). 26.iii.1977, C.A.

Viraktamath (UAS). Paratypes: 3 males, 4 females,

data as in holotype ; 1 male, data as in holotype but

collected on 27. iii. 1977., 4 males, 3 females, data

as in holotype but collected by S. Viraktamath (2

males, 3 females) and Mallik (2 males) (LARI, NHM,

NMNH, UAS ).

Remarks : S. quadrifidus can be easily

recognised by its aedeagal shaft appendages which

are four in number. The species S. quadrifidus , S.

agumbensis and S. malnadicus form a more or less

uniform group as they share the characters of

pygofer and connective. They are related to s.

redundans in this character but the latter has a much

longer stem of the connective. Externally S .

quadrifidus resembles S. freytagi in having bright

red coloured bands and claval veins. However, the

474

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

claval veins are not fused in S. quadrifidus.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr Paul H. Freytag, Professor of

Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington,

U.S.A. for the generic placement of Scaphoideus

rendundans and S. indicus and for the illustrations of

type series of Scaphoideus species described from

Ref

Distant, W.L. (1908) : Rhynchota - Hoinoptera vol. IV. In:

Bingham, C.T. (ed.) The fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis. 501 p.

Distant, W.L. (1918) : Rhynchota Vol. VII. Homoptera:

Appendix.Heteroptera: Addenda, bv Shipley, A.I. and

Marshall, G.A.K.(eds). The fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis. 210 p.

India received through Dr Baldev Sharma, University

of Jammu, Jammu. The first author thanks Dr W.J.

Knight and Mr. M.D. Webb for allowing him to

study the type series of species of Scaphoideus

described by Distant and Mr. Webb and Dr M.R.

Wilson, CAB International Institution of

Entomology, London for the hospitality provided

during his stay in London.

ERENCES

Iswhara, T. (1961) : Homoptera of Southeast Asia collected by the

Osaka City University Biological Expedition to Southeast

Asia 1957-58. Nat. Life Southeast Asia 1: 225 - 257,

Matsumura, S. (1902) :Monographie der Jassinen Japans. Term.

Fuzetek 25: 353 - 404.

Matsumura, S. (1914) : Die Jassinen und einege neue Acocephalinen

Japans. J. Agric. Coll. Sapporo 5: 165 - 240.

ON TWO NEW SPECIES OF CHELONUS PANZER (HYMENOPTERA:

BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3

(With six text-figures)

Chelonus ( M icrochelonus) pikeni sp. nov. and Chelonus ( Microchelonus ) raoi sp. nov. are descri bed and ill ustrated.

The Key to the Indian species of Chelonus (Microchelonus)

Introduction

Chelonus is a moderate sized genus belonging

to the subfamily Cheloninae of the family Braconidae.

Chelonus is divided into two subgenera, namely

Chelonus Panzer and Microchelonus Szepligeti.

The earlier works on the Indian species of Chelonus

are by Subba Rao (1955), Gupta (1955) and Rao and

Chalikwar(1971). In the present work two newtaxa

belonging to the genus Chelonus, namely Chelonus

(Microchelonus) pikeni and Chelonus

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Department of Zoology, New Arts,Commerceand Science College,

Ahmednagar - 414 001 (Maharashtra).

3 Department of Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad

(M.S.),

by Rao and Chalikwar (1971) is amended.

(Microchelonus) raoi are described and the key to

the Indian species of Chelonus (Microchelonus) by

Rao and Chalikwar (1971) is amended to include the

new taxa.

Types and other material of these species are in

the collection of the junior author for the time being

and will be deposited in the National Collection of

the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Chelonus (Microchelonus) pikeni sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

male : 3.1 nun (Fig. 1). Head (Fig. 2) trails-

verse, 2.5 x as wide as long; vertex rugose, pubescent;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

475

ocelli in triangle, with broad base, base of the

triangle twice the height: frons rugose, without

median longitudinal carina, closely punctate, pubes-

cent; face 0.5 times as long as wide, rugose, sparsely

punctate, pubescent, with median longitudinal ca-

rina; clypeus 0.45 times as long as wide, slightly

convex, shiny, closely punctate, pubescent; malar

space rugosely, sparsely punctate, pubescent, 1.25 x

as long as the basal width of mandible; mandible 3

x as long as the basal width, bidentate, punctate,

finely pubescent; antenna 2 + 22 segmented; scape

2.45 x as long as broad, finely, shallowly punctate,

finely pubescent; pedicel 0.65 times as longas broad,

finely, shallowly punctate, finely pubescent;

penultimate segment 1.5 x as longas wide; terminal

segment 2 x as long as wide; maxillary palps long,

5 segmented; occipital carina present; temple broad,

strigose, moderately punctate, finely pubescent, 0.4

times as wide as height of the eye; eye 2.5 x as long

as wide, with fine pubescence.

Thorax: Pronotum closely, deeply punctate,

pubescent; mesoscutum rugosely, closely punctate;

notauli distinct; disc of scutellum slightly convex,

irregularly, reticulately rugose, moderately, shal-

lowly punctate, with lateral depressions; scutellar

furrow with nine distinct carinae; mesopleurum

irregularly, reticulately rugose, pubescent, with

prominent mesopleural suture; metapleurum irregu-

larly, reticulately rugose, pubescent; propodeum

(Fig. 3) irregularly rugoso - reticulate, lateral pro-

jections distinct. Hind coxa globular, 1.8 x as long

as wide; trochanter 0.4 times as long as femur; femur

1.25 x as long as coxa; tibia 1.4 x as long as femur;

tibial spur 0.4 times as longas basitarsus; tarsus five

segmented; claw simple. Fore wing : 2.6 x as longas

broad; stigma 2.8 x as long as wide; radial cell on

wing margin 0.8 times as long as stigma; first

abscissa of radius 0.4 times as long as first

intercubitus, 0.8 times as long as second abscissa of

radius; apical abscissa of radius 5.5 x as long as first

abscissa; costa 2.25 x as long as stigma; medius 0.7

times as longas costa, 1.5 x as longas basal; nervulus

i y i 3

1 mm >

Figs. 1-3. Chelonus (Microchelonus) pikeni sp. nov. (male).

1. Adult, lateral view ; 2. Head, frontal view; 3. Propodeum

with abdomen.

inclivous, distad, 0.7 times as long as width of

stigma; subdiscoideus sclerotized, 1.75 x as longas

stigma; second intercubitus unpigmented, 0.5 times

as longas first intercubitus; cubitus 2.25 x as longas

stigma; Hind wing: 3.4 xas longas broad; subcostella

0.9 times as long as radiella; nervellus reclivous,

basad, 1.4 x as long as basella.

Abdomen : 1.9 x as long as wide, broadly

sessile, apex rounded, slightly shorter than head and

thorax combined, coarsely longitudinally striate at

basal half, pubescent; apical half reticulately rugose,

pubescent; foramen in the apex of the carapace

narrow, oval, well margined, 3.55 x as wide as its

height.

Genitalia : Gonoforceps, volsellaeand aedeagus

situated on sclerotic ring; volsella and aedeagus

enclosed by gonoforceps, later elongated;

476

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , KOI. 90 (7993;

gonosquammae elongate, curved; go nostipes flat;

gonocardo slightly rounded; gonolacinae weakly

taper apically, teeth absent; apodeme short;

distivolsella short, curved, apically moderately

pointed; aedeagus without teeth ; parameres elon-

gate, apically pointed; subgenital plate transverse,

wide than long, sparsely pubescent, anticosta mod-

erately sclerotized; spiculum short, triangular.

Coloration : Black. Scape, fore leg, mid leg,

femur and tibia of hind leg basal ly light brown;

stigma, veins reddish-brown; 0.45 basal part of

carapace white.

female : Unknown.

Holotype: male ; Ahmednagar, : Maharashtra

India, 13. viii. 1988, Malaise trap, S.M. Kurhade

Coll.; Antenna, wings, legs and genitalia mounted

on slides and labelled as above.

Paratype : 6 males, data same as holotype.

Comments : According to the key to the Indian

species of the subgenus Microchelonus by Rao and

Chalikwar (1971), the new species, Chelonus

(Microchelonus) pikeni runs close to Chelonus

( Microchelonus ) notaulii Rao and Chalikwar (1971)

in the characters of : (i) face with a median longitu-

dinal carina and (ii)antenna 24segmented. However

the new taxa differs from notaulii in the following

characters: (i) head 2.5 x as wide as long, (ii) fro ns

without median longitudinal carina, (iii) malar space

1.25 x the basal width of mandible, (iv) face 0.5

times as high as wide, (v) fore wing 2.6 x as long as

broad and (vi) stigma 2.8 x as long as wide. The new

species superficially resembles with C.

(Microchelonus) nigripes Rao and Chalikwar(1971),

but differs in the following characters: (i) head 2.5

x as wide as long, (ii) malarspace 1.25 x as the basal

width of mandible, (iii) fore wing 2.6 x as long as

broad, (iv) stigma 2.8 x as long as wide and (v)

antenna 24 segmented.

Chelonus (Microchelonus) raoi sp. nov.

(Figs. 4-6)

female: 2.5 - 2.8 mm. (Fig. 4). Head (Fig. 5)

2.45 x as wide as long; vertex rugose, finely

punctate, sparsely pubescent; interocellar space 0.7

times the ocellocular space; frons without median

longitudinal carina, transversely striate medially,

rugose on lateral sides ; face 0.5 times as long as

wide, rugose, punctate, pubescent; clypeus 0.8 times

as long as wide, closely, deeply punctate, pubescent;

clypeal fovea distinct; mandible bidentate, 2.5 x as

long as its basal width; malarspace 2.35 x as long as

basal width of mandible, rugoso-punctate, pubes-

cent; temple 0.5 times as broad as height of the eye,

rugose, striate, punctate, pubescent; eye 2.5 x as long

as wide, sparsely pubescent; occiput smooth, mar-

gined; antenna filiform, extending back nearly to the

base of carapace, 2+14 segmented; scape 2.25 x as

long as wide; pedicel 1.5 x as long as wide; post

pedicel 2.65 x as long as wide; penultimate segment

as long wide; terminal segment 2 x as long as wide;

antenna pubescent throughout the length.

Thorax : 1.25 x as long as wide; collar rugose,

sparsely punctate; pronotum rugoso-reticulate,

sparsely punctate, pubescent; mesoscutum reticu-

late, rugose, sparsely punctate, pubescent; notauli

absent; disc ofscutellum moderately convex, smooth

at the centre, crenulated on basal and lateral sides;

furrow crenulated at the base of the propodeum;

propodeum (Fig. 6) reticulately rugose, with three

median longitudinal carinae; apical transverse ca-

rina raised; outer pairof propodeal apophysis distinct,

acute; inner pair not distinct; propodeal spiracle

minute, circular; mesopleurum reticulately rugose,

foveolate, pubescent; mesopleural furrow crenulately

rugose, foveolate, pubescent; metapleurum reticu-

lately rugose, foveolate, pubescent. Fore wing: 2.6

x as long as broad; stigma 2.6 x as long as wide;

radial cell on wing margin 1.3 x as long as stigma;

metacarpus as long as stigma ; costa 1 .35 x as long as

medius; 1st abscissa of radius 0.65 times the width

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

All

of stigma; 2nd abscissa of radius as long as 1st

abscissa; 3rd abscissa of radius as long as length of

stigma, 6 x as long as 2nd abscissa; discoidal cell

confluent with 1st cubital cell; second inter cubitus

0.5 times the first intercubitus, unpigmented; basal

0.85 times the length of stigma, 0.5 times the length

of medius; discoideus 0.65 times the length of

medius; nervulus inclivous, distad, 0.85 times the

width of stigma; recurrent unpigmented, as long as

nervulus; submedius 1.35 x as long as medius;

brachius 1 .4 x as longas width of stigma ; subdicoideus

1.10 x as longas medius. Hind wing : 3.85 xas long

as broad; sub costella 1.65 x as long as mediella;

basella 0.1 times as long as mediella. Hind coxa

globular, shallowly punctate, pubescent, 1.5 x as

long as wide; 1st trochanter 1.75 x as long as wide;

2nd trochanter 1.65 xas longas wide; femur closely,

deeply punctate, pubescent, 3.3 x as long as wide;

tibia 1.25 x as long as femur, punctate, pubescent,

4.15 x as long as wide apically; longer tibial spur 3

x as long as basitarsus; basitarsus 0.4 times the

length of tibia; tarsus 5 segmented; claw simple,

bifid.

Abdomen : Broadly sessile, 1.7 x as long as

wide, apex rounded, longitudinally striate at basal

half becoming reticulately rugose on apical half,

finely pubescent, with two strong posteriorly con-

verging keels arising from the base; foramen in the

apex of carapace wanting.

male: Unknown.

Holotype: female; Aurangabad, Maharashtra:

India: 15. ix. 1990, reared on Heliothis armigera

larva by S.N. Ambekar; Antenna, wings and legs

mounted on slides and labelled as above.

Comments: According to the key to the Indian

species of the subgenus Microchelonus Rao and

Chalikwar (1971), Chelonus (Microchelonus) raoi

sp. nov. runs close to C.(M.) notaulii Rao and

Chalikwar (1971) in the characters of : (i) occiput

6

1 mm

Figs.4 - 6. Chelonus ( Microchelonus ) rdfai sp. nov. (Female).

A. Adult, lateral view ; 5. Head, frontal view ; 6. Propodeum with

abdomen.

smooth, margined, (ii) 16 segmented antennae, (iii)

propodeum reticulately rugose, (iv) outer pair of

propodeal projections distinct, (v)propodeal spiracle

minute, small, circular, (vi) mesopleurum reticulately

rugose, (vii) coxae globose, (viii) carapace broadly

sessile, apex rounded, (ix) carapace longitudinally

striate at basal half, (x) foramen in the apex of

carapace absent. However, the new taxa is

distinguished from Chelonus ( Microchelonus )

notauliiby the followingcharacters: (i) vertex rugose,

and finely punctate, (ii) frons without median

longitudinal carina, (iii) frons transversely striate,

(iv) clypeus closely, deeply punctate, (v) malar space

2.35 x as the basal width of mandible, (vi) scape 2.25

x as long as its own width, (vii) mesoscutum

reticulately rugose, (viii) notauli absent, (ix) fore

wing 2.6 x as long as broad, (x) stigma 2.6 x as long

as wide, (xi) first abscissa of radius 0.65 times the

breadth of stigma and (xii) basitarsus 0.4 times as

long as tibia.

478

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY ' VUL. 90 (7993)

The new taxa superficially resembles C. (M.)

ni gripes Raoand Chalikwar (1971) but differs from

it in the following characters: (i) vertex rugose,

finely punctate, (ii) inter oceilar space 0.7 times the

ocellocularspace,(iii) Irons without median longitu-

dinal carina, (iv) clypeus closely, deeply punctate,

(v) malar space 2.35 x as the basal width of man-

dible, (vi) scape 2.25 x as long as wide, (vii) temple

rugose, striate, (viii) mesoscutum reticulate, rugose,

(ix) disc of scutellum smooth at the centre, (x)

mesopleurumreticulately rugose, (xi) tibia 1.25 x as

longas femur and (xii) fore wing, 2.6 x as long broad.

The name raoi is in honour of Dr. S.N. Rao, Ex-

Professor of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

Key to the Indian species of Chelonus (Microchelonus) Panzer

by Rao and Chalikwar (1971)

1 . Front and middle coxae yellow; malar space 1 .3 x the basal

width of mandible. Basal 0.45 part of carapace white;

ovipositor 1.25 x as long as the hind basitarus; male with

antenna 24-25 segmented, foramen in the apex of carapace

3.5 x as wide as high

notaulii Rao and Chalikwar, 1971.

Front and middle coxae not yellow; malar space more or

equal to the basal width of mandible 2

2. Fore and mid legs light brown; malar space 1.25 x as the

basal width of mandible. Frons without median longitudi-

nal carina; male with antenna 24 segmented; foramen in

the apex of carapace 3.55 x as wide as high

.pikeni sp.nov.

Fore and mid legs reddish-brown or black; malar space

equal or more than twice the basal width of mandible 3

3. Legs dark reddish-brown; malar space 2.35 x the basal

width of mandible. Notauli absent Antenna 16 segmented.

Basal 0.45 part of carapace yellowish

white raoi sp. nov.

Front and middle coxae reddish -brown or black; malar

space equal to the basal width of mandible 4

4. Lateral lobes at base of scutellum present; stigma 2.6 x as

longas wide; radial cell on wing margin 0.75 times as long

as stigma and 0.8 times as long as third abscissa of radius;

basal 0.4 part of carapace yellow; male with antenna 25

segmented, extending to the middle of carapace, foramen in

the apex of carapace narrow, 4.5 x as wide as

high nigripes Rao and Chalikwar, 1971.

Lateral lobes at the base of scutellum absent; stigma 3.0 x

as long as wide; radial cell on wing margin almost as long

as stigma; basal third part of carapace white; male with

antenna 24-26 segmented; extending to the apex of cara-

pace, foramen in the apex of carapace 4. Ox as wide as high

heliopae Gupta, 1955

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. S.D. Kalyankar, Head, De-

partment of Zoology, Marathwada University,

Aurangabad for providing laboratory facilities. The

seniorauthor wishes to thank Principal K.H. Shitole,

New Arts, Commerce and Science college,

Ahmednagar for permitting to do this work at

Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

References

Gupta, V.K. (1955): On the new species of Chelonus ( Braconidae:

Parasitic Hymenoptera) from India. Agra Univ. J. Res. Sci.

4 :209-211.

Rao, S.N. & Chalikwar, M. R. (1971). Studies on the parasitic

Hymenoptera (Braconidae) from Marathwada III. Three

new species of Chelonus Panzer. Oriental Insects 5(4) :

469-476.

Subba Rao, B.R. (1955): A New species of Chelonus oaHeliothis

armigera Fab. lnd. Jour. Ent. 17: 63 - 64.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

479

DESCRIPTION OF ADULT AND NYMPHAL STAGES OF TWO NEW GALL

PSYLLIDS (PSYLLIDAE: HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA1

K. Thenmozhi and C. Kandasamy2

(With four text - figures)

Introduction

During 1984-85 psyllids were collected in the

forests of Siruvani and Thimbamand Yelagiri hills.

Of these two species were found to be new to Science

assignable to the genera Arytaina and Trioza. The

adults as well as the nymphal stages of the two new

species are described in detail.

Key to the Species of Arytaina Foerster

1 . Radius almost as long as cubital petiole

A. ramakrishni Crawford

Radiusionger than cubital petiole 2

2. Genal cone small with apical setae slightly longer than

vertex A. spinosa Mathur

Genal cone long with apical setae smaller than vertex

A.marsupiae sp. nov.

1 . Description of Adults

1. Arytaina marsupiae sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Colour: General Colourlightbrownwith ovoid

bla ck pa tches i n the la te ra 1 ma rgi ns of the prescu tu m,

antenna blackish brown at the tip of the two segments,

genitalia dark brown with highly serrated, forewings

hyaline and transparent.

Head: Moderately deflexed, sparsely pubescent,

vertex broader than long, about twice as broader as

long, possessing dark brown band on the middle

reaching the margins on either side, anterior ocellus

visible from the above, genal cones long, smaller

than the length of vertex, straight, widely placed,

possessing two long characteristic setae at the tip of

1 Accepted February 1993.

2 Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxicology, Padappai

601 301.

the genal conel, eyes small and hemisperical.

Antenna: Small, slender, longer than width of

the head, ten - segmented, two basal segments

robust, first broader than second, second as long as

first, third longest, about twice as long as first, fifth

as long as sixth and both of them shorter than fourth,

se venth lo nge r tha n e i gh th , ni nth a nd te nt h segme nt,

terminal segment brown in colour bearing two

unequal setae at the tip, sensoria present on segments

fourth, sixth, eighth and ninth.

Leg : Robust, sparsely pubescent, femur serrate

with minute setae arranged in lines, tibia shorter and

slender than femur, femur with a basal spurand with

three thick black spines at apex, in addition, a comb

of six thin long setae present, apical tarsal segment

broader with two claw like spines at its apex.

W ings : Forewing: S ma 1 1 , hy a 1 i ne, tra nspa re nt,

ovoid, about three times as wide as long, round at

apex, pterostigma long and narrow, veins thin, basal

vein as long as cubitus and shorter than radius,

cubital petiole shorter than radius, marginal cell

unequal, first marginal cell small and narrower than

second.

Hindwing: Small, transparent , membranous

and coastal vein with small setae widely placed.

female: Genitalia smaller than abdomen,

broader at the base, narrow and tapering at the apex,

dorsal plate longer than ventral, with long and short

setae on the surface, ventral plate broad at base

narrow and short at apex, ovipositor short, pointed,

8

480

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Fig.l .Arytaina marsupiae sp. nov.

A. Head; B. Antenna; C. Fore wing; D. Leg; E. Male genitalia; F. Female genitalia.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

481

anal pore ring ovate, with two rows of pores, inner

row longer than the outer.

male: Genitalia Smaller than abdomen, anal

valve broader and longer than parameres, wide in

the middle and narrow at apex, paramere with

uniform smooth margin, ending with strong pointed

tip, sparsely pubescent, hypandrium brown,

triangular inshape, shorter than anal value, aedeagus

short ending with spoon like structure.

recorded under the genus Arytaina. None of the

species are gall makers tough twisting and curling of

the young leaf are reported due to feeding by A.

puntipennis and A. ramakrishni (Mani 1973). The

present finding of A. marsupiae sp.nov. is a first gall

forming species under this genus and a new addition

to the genus Arytaina in India.

2. Description of the Third to Fifth Nymphal

Stages (Fig. 2)

FEMALE (MALE)

: 0.850 - 0.860 (0.830)

: 0.500 - 0.520 (0.490)

: 2.601 - 2.662 (2.295)

: 1.438 - 1.499 (1.420)

: 0.460 - 0.500

: 0.350 - 0.360

: (0.260)

: (0.340)

: (0.260)

Measurements (in mm) :

Width of the head

Width of the vertex

Length of forewing

Length of antenna

Dorsal plate

Ventral Plate

Hypandrium

Anal valve

Paramere

Host plant

Locality

Types

Date of collection

Collected by

Pterocarpus marsupium

Roxb. (Leguminoceae).

Siruvani

forest, Coimbatore,

Tamil Nadu (300 m.).

Holotype female, allotype

male mounted on slides,

paratypes one male and

two females.

August 4, 1984.

K. Thenmozhi.

Remarks: Arytaina marsupiae sp. nov. is

closely related to A. spinosa Mathur (Mathur 1975)

in the shape of the forewing and the radius being

longer than cubital petiol, but is distinct in having

long characteristic genal cone with two long apical

setae, shape of the anal valve and parameres.

In the Indian subcontinent five species are

Fifth Instar Nymph: Body 2.081 nun long

and 1.591 mm wide, head narrower than abdomen;

pro thorax fused with cephalic region and separated

frommeso-and meta thorax by a membrane; wingpads

large and projecting, eyes large and prominent; head

plate large extending up to prothoracic region;

thoracic plates small and well sclerotized apical

region of abdomen fused to forma sclerotized caudal

plate which is 0.6 12 mm long in the dorsal side of the

abdomen; small sclerotic plates present in throracic

region; antenna 0.796 mm long, robust, third segment

longer than fourth, fifth and sixth; terminal segment

longest bearing two apical spines at its apex, out of

foursensoria two present on segments third and fifth

and rest on segment seventh; wingpads well

developed, forewing pad 0.623 nun long, twice as

wide as long and slightly smaller than length of

antenna, margins of forewingand hindwing with 32

and 3 simple setae respectively, hindwing with one

lanceolate setae, both the wing pads beset with

minute setae and with few simple setae; legs sparsely

pubescent, tibia-tarsus articulation well demarcated,

tarsus and with two claw like spines, pulvilus small

and petiolate; abdomen 1.010 mm long and 1.049

mm wide bearing sclerotized area (anal plate)

surrounding the circumanal pore ring, four pairs of

well sclerotized plates present surrounding the

spiracle near lateral margin of abdomen; margin of

abdomen surrounded by simple setae and lanceolate

setae in the ratio of 9: 3, circum anal pore ring 0.290

nun wide; more or less bean shaped, placed at the

extreme posterior margin of abdomen, consisting of

double rings; outer ring with single row of slit like

482

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

1 trim

Fig.2 .Arytaina marsupiae sp. nov.

A. Fifth instar nymph: Aa. Leg; Ab. Antenna. B. Third instar nymph: Ba. Leg; Bb. Antenna. C. Fourth inster nymph. Ca. Leg,

Cb. Antenna.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

483

pores and inner ring with minute pores.

Fourth Instar nymph: Body 1.683 mm long

and 1.377 mm wide; antenna 0.734 mm long, seven

segmented with two sensoria on segments third and

fourth and two sensoria on seventh segment; forewing

pad 0.673 mm long and nearly two times as long as

wide; tibia tarsus articulation is not well defined;

tarsus end with two claw like spines; abdomen 0.826

mm long and 0.949 mm wide, caudal plate nearly

twice as wide as length of abdomen, circum anal

pore wing 0.269 mm wide and bean shaped.

Third instar nymph: Body 1.080 mm long

and 0.880 mm wide; antenna 0.430 mm long, twice

as long as width of head; five segmented, first two

segments robust, as long as each other; terminal

longest bearing two sensoria and two apical spines

of equal length, one sensoria on third segment;

wingpad demarcated, 0.410 mm long and 0.180 nun

wide, twice as wide as long; margins surrounded by

number of simple setae in the ratio of 2:1; abdomen

0.500 mm long and 0.670 mm wide; caudal plate

0. 380. mm long, nearly twice as long as the width of

the abdomen; circum anal pore wing 0.200 nun

wide, surrounding the anal opening.

Key to the species of Trioza Foerster

1. Head sub horizontal, genal cone long

Trioza longiantennata Mathur

- Head deflexed genal cone small 2

2. Genal cone very small sparsely pubescent, divergent

and bluntly round at apex T. bifurgata Mathur

- Deeply deflexed downward genal cone, almost triangular,

broadly rounded at apex T. yelagiriensis sp. nov.

3. Description of Adults

2. Trioza yelagiriensis sp. nov. (Fig. 3)

Colour: General colour dark brown, antenna

light brown of the segment first to eighth, ninth and

tenth segment dark brown, wings hyaline,

transparent, veins brown, legs light brown, abdomen

dark brown in colour.

Head: Head includingeyessmallerthanthorax,

moderately pubescent, vertex serrate, wider than

long, with two foval impressions near posterior

margin, both the comers of anterior margin projected

forward, anterior ocellus not clearly visible from

above, deeply deflexed downward, divergent, serrate,

eyes large and hemispherical.

Antenna : Antenna long, slender, 1.030 mm

long, first segment longest, fourth longer than rest of

other segments, fifth smaller than sixth, seventh as

long as eighth, last two segments small and slightly

wider, terminal segment bearing two setae almost in

equal length, sensoria present on segments fourth,

sixth, eighth and ninth.

Leg: Leg long, pubescent, femur, tibia and

tarsus beset with minute points, femur smaller than

tibia, tibia with subapical setae, three spine like tooth

and combof long thicksetaeat its apex, apical tarsus

longer than basal tarsus with two claw like spines.

Wings: Fore wing: Long and ovate, angled at

apex, thrice as wide as long, basal vein longer than

radius and cubitus, medium almost twice as long as

cubitus, radial sector short and curved to casts; first

marginal cell longerand wider than second ilia rginal

cell, veins with minute setae, wings hyaline.

Hindvving: Transparent, hyaline with row of

setae at apex of costal region.

female : Genitalia smaller than abdomen,

pubescent, ventral plate longer than dorsal plate,

dorsal plate broad basaly and narrow apicaly, 500 p

long, tip of the dorsal and ventral plate with bunch

of thicksetae, circum anal pore ringplaced on dorsal

plate consisting of two rows of pores, inner row with

elongated with elongated and outer with short round

pores, ovipositor short.

484

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

Fig. 3. Trioza yelagirie/isis sp. nov.

A. Head; B. Antenna; C. Fore wing: D. leg; E. Female genitalia; F. Male genitalia.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

485

male: Genitalia smaller than abdomen,

pubescent, hypandrium triangular, pa ramears longer

than anal valve, with thick apex, apex of the anal

valve with row of long setae, aedeagus 250 u long

and end with spoon like structure.

Measurements (in mm) : female (male)

Body length

Width of head

Width of vertex

Length of forewing

Length of femur

Length of tibia

Dorsal Plate

Ventral plate

Hypandrium

Analvalve

Paramer

Aedeagus

Length of antenna

: 3.250(2.968)

: 0.620(0.600)

: 0.320(0.300)

: 3.304(2.998)

: 0.500(0.500)

: 0.800(0.800)

: 0.600

: 0.380

: (0.220)

: (0.250)

: (0.260)

: (0.250)

: 1.050(1.030)

Host plant

: Ficus benga lensis Li nn .

(Moraceae)

Locality

Yelagiri hills, North Arcot,

Tamil Nadu (1600 m).

Type : Holotype female, allotype

male mounted on slides,

paratypes one female and

one male.

Date of collection : May 25, 1985.

Collected by : K. Thenmozhi.

Remarks: Trioza yelagiriensis sp. nov. is

closely related to Trioza bifurcata Mathur (Mathur

1975) in having short radial sector curved to costa,

more than one mm long antenna, hind tibia with a

strong and conspicuous apical spur, but is

distinguished from T. bifurcata in having almost

triangular broadly rounded at its apex and deeply

deflexed downward genal cone, hind tibia without

apical black tooth. Out of 29 species reported under

the genus Trioza in India, 19 are gall formers. The

present report on T. yelagiriensis sp. nov. adds to the

list of gall forming species. This is the first time a

gall maker from the genus Trioza is reported on

Ficus bengalensis (Moraceae).

4. Description of Third to Fifth Nymphal Instars

Fifth instar nymph: Body elongate, oval

2. 601 mm long, head and prothorax completely

fused and prothorax separated by a membrane from

meso - and metathorax; meso- and metathorax well

demarcated; head 0.750 mm long, 54 number secta

setae surrounding margin of head, antenna 0.270

mm long, nearly three times shorter than the width

of head, six segmented, four sensoria present in the

segment third, fourth, fifth and sixth; wing pad well

developed, triozine form, fore wingand hind wingpad

well demarcated, fore wingpad 1.150 mm long and

0.370 mm wide and each of margin surrounded by

122 numberof secta setae and hind wingpad margin

by 18 numberof secta setae; leg 0.970 mm long, tibia

tarsus articulation well defined, abdomen 1 .220 nun

long, margin of the abdomen surrounding 130

number of setae , circum a na 1 pore ri ng placed ventra 1

side of the abdomen consisting of double ring of

pores.

Fourth instar nymph: Body 1.560 mm long

and 1.120 nun wide, identical to that of fifth instar

except in the size and number of setae present in the

margin of body; head 0.720 nun wide, antenna 0.160

nun long five segmented with three sensoria present

in the segment third, fourth and fifth; legs robustand

stout; wingpad well developed; abdomen 0.920 nun

wide, weakly sclerotized on the dorsal side, ventral

side membranous, circum anal pore ring placed on

the ventral side of abdomen, the margin of head,

wingpads and abdomen surrounding 42, 103 and

120 number of secta setae.

Third instar nymph: Body oval shaped, 0.520

486

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Fig. 4. Trioza yelagiriensis sp.nov.

A. Third inster nymph: Aa. antenna; Ab. leg; Ac. anal pore ring; Ad. marginal secta setae of abdomen; Ae. marginal secta setae

of head; Af. marginal secta setae of thorax. B. Fourth instar nymph: Ba. antenna; Bb. leg; Be. anal pore ring; Bd. marginal secta setae

of abdomen; Be. marginal secta setae of head; Bf. marginal secta setae of thorax. C. Fifth instar nymph: Ca. antenna; Cb. leg; Cc. anal

pore ring; Cd. marginal secta setae of abdomen; Ce. marginal secta setae of head; Cf. marginal secta setae of thorax:

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

487

mm long and 0.829 mm wide, head 0.520 mm long,

wider than the length of antenna (0.150 mm) the

margin surrounded by a row of 36 number of seeta

setae, antenna two segmented, triangular shaped,

placed ventrally, two sensoria in segment second

and third; wingpad not well developed, anterior

wingpad 0.570 mm long, margin of fore wing and

hind wingpad surrounding 60:14 number of secta

setae: abdomen 0.765 mm wide with 77 number of

secta setae surrounding the margin, circum anal

pore ringplaced on central side of abdomen consisting

of double ring of pores.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. B.V. David, Director,

Coromandel Indag Group, Dr. I. D. Hodkinson,

Department of Biology, Liverpool Polytechnic, U.K.

and Mr. J.H. Martin, Department of Entomology,

British Museum (Natural History), London for

confirming the identity of Psyllids, and the Botanical

Survey of India, Coimbatore for identifying the host

plants. Thanks are due to Mr. S. James Fredrick,

Cha ‘m\\c\\\,Fippat for facilities provided and to CSIR

for financial assistance.

References

Mani, M.S. (1973): Plant galls of India. Macmillan India. Mathur, R.N. (1975): Psyllidae of the Indian Subcontinent, New

Delhi. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, pp. 429.

OBITUARY

Prof. K.K. Neelakantan

(1923 - 1992)

The passing away of Prof. K.K. Neelakantan

on 14th June 1992 was a great loss to ornithology.

Prof. Neelakantan was an unassuming but excellent

ornithologist. His thirst for knowledge of birds

remained unquenched till his last breath and it was

for ornithology that he devoted most of his life time.

Born on the 14th April 1923 at Kavassery,

Palghat District, Kerala, Prof. Neelakantan had his

early education in Mysore, where his father worked

as a veterinary doctor. He was later sent to Kerala to

continue his schooling. He passed intermediate at

the Malabar Christian College, Calicut and did B.A.

Hons, in English literature at the Madras Christian

College, Tambaram.

He started his career as a lecturer in English

literature at the Government Training College,

Rajamundry, Andhra Pradesh and later ‘migrated’

to Kerala and served as Professor of English Literature

in several colleges. He retired as the Head of the

Department of English Literature fromthe University

College, Trivandrum in 1978.

Prof. Neelakantan became interested in birds

from a very young age. He was a very keen and

competent observer of birds and their behaviour. He

paid great attention to the identification of birds and

interpretation of their behaviour. He meticulously

noted down his observations in thick, bound notebooks

and at the time of his passing away, he had well over

100 such note books. Through considered to be an

authority on the birds of Kerala, Prof. Neelakantan’s

interests were more on observing the behaviour and

habits of the birds around him than on their

Taxonomy, though he was equally proficient in

both.

Prof. Neelakantan discovered the largest

breeding colony of Spotbilled Pelicans at Aredu,

Andhra Pradesh in 1947. He brought this Pelicanry

to the attention of the scientific community by

publishinga note on its discovery in JBNHS 48: 656-

66 (1949). Following this, he was entrusted by the

A.P. Wildlife Department to cha Ik out a conservation

strategy for the pelicanry. The Spotbilled Pelican

was perhaps one of his most favourite birds and he

was concerned about its future, especially after the

Aredu Pelicanry was abandoned by the birds a few

years after its discovery. He wrote in several

conservation journals about his fears about the pelican

and also spoke about it in naturalists’ get-togethers.

His studies on bird behaviour have added

valuable information onthe natural history of various

species. He published over forty notes/papers in the

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,

besides several articles in Newsletter for Birdwatchers

and other scientific and popular journals and

magazines. He wrote under the pseudonym

‘Induchoodan’ in Malayalam.

Prof. Neelakantan’s greatest contribution to

ornithology was his publication in Malayalam

“Keralathile Pakshikal” (Birds of Kerala). This was

published first in 1958 by Kerala Sahithya Academy,

Trichur. An enlarged, revised edition was brought

out in 1986 which describes 260 species and has fifty

colour and black-and- white plates, executed by the

author himself. The book contains several original

observations by the author on the behaviour etc. of

birds. The book won him not only awards like the

Kalyani Krishna Menon Prize (in 1960) and the

honour of being one among the three Malayalam

books selected for an Indian Book Exhibition in

Moscow (in 1963), but also popular acclaim and

appreciation. As Dr. Salim Ali himself has aptly put

it, “ (K.K. Neelakantan’s) writings in

OBITUARY

489

Malayalam.... are predominantly responsible for the

awareness, appreciation and general interest in birds

that prevail among the public in this bird rich and

fascinating area today...”

Prof. Neelakantan has also published three

other books in Malayalam "Pakshikalum

Manushyarum ’ (Birds and Men) (1979, Macmillan

India) - an introduction to bird life and bird watching

intended for children, Pullutliottu Poonara Vare

(from Grass to Flamingo) - (1986, Kerala Sastra

Sahitya Parishad)- a collection of articles on nature

conservation and different aspects of birdlife and

Pakshikalude Arhbutha Prapancham (Wonderful

World of Birds) (1987, Kerala Sastra Sahitya

Parishad) - an abridged version of Pakshikalum

Manushyarum. These books also were well received

by the public and also won various awards. Several

people took to ornithology inspired by his writings.

However, his most awaited publication - "A

Book of Kerala Birds' (Part 1) which describes over

90 taxa of birds which have been added to the Kerala

listsince the Publication of Dr. Salim Ali’s ‘Birdsof

Kerala * (1969) is being published posthumously.

Prof. Neelakantan was giving finishing touches to

the manuscript of this publication at the time of his

death and it is really unfortunate that he did not live

to see it in print. Part II of this work will include

changes in the status of birds in Kerala, new

information on behaviour, distribution, nesting etc.

mostly, his own work.

Prof. Neelakantan was the founder/President

of the Kerala Natural History Society, Trivandrum.

He was also the Vice-President of Prakruti

Samrakshna Samithi, Trivandrum. Besides, he also

served as a member of the Kerala wildlife Board and

as a member, Kerala State Committee, World Wide

Fund for Nature-lndia.

Prof.Neelakantan was also an artist, and

illustrated his own books. His paintings of common

birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve (Thekkady) are

exhibited in the Reception Office of the Sanctuary.

In the death of Prof. Neelakantan, India has

lost an extraordinary Ornithologist and naturalist.

We hope his life a nd works would continue to inspire

several newcomers to this field in the years to come.

V. SANTHARAM, AND C. SASI KUMAR

REVIEWS

1. BIRDS : SUPPLEMENT TO WEALTH OF INDIA. Vol 2B. PP.109+47(28 x 22 cm), with

twenty two colour plates . New Delhi, 1990. Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR. Price

Rs.125, $45.00, £30.00.

Bird watching has now evolved into a popular

hobby in India. Various books both by Indian and

foreign authors cater to the needs of Indian bird

watchers. These books generally cover field

identification, behaviour and biology of Indian

species. The Information about the economic aspect

of ouravian species are usually very sketchy in these

books. The present publication on birds by CSIR

partly fills this lacuna. The book is a compilation of

information available on economic importance of

Indian birds. As a supplement to the Wealth of India

part2B it primarily looksatbirdsasan“economically

important commodity”. The approach is appropriate

to cover the scope of the book. The book deals with

various economical aspects of birds and classifies

them as game birds, plumage birds, song birds, cage

birds, scavengers, birds of prey, birds used in

medicine, birds with economically important nests,

birds in agriculture, horticulture and forestry.

The text is covered in 15 chapters. The first

chapter on classification of birds has been contributed

by none other than Dr.Salim Ali. The classification

is not very technical but more specific to Indian

species and groups them into various families with

explanations about their morphological and

behavioural differences. The subsequent chapters

deal mainly with the economical aspects of Indian

avifauna. The chapter on Game birds gives an

exhaustive list of Indian birds valued as trophies, for

table and forsport. In the context of Wildlife Act and

the complete ban on hunting this list is redumdant

and is purely of academic interest. It nonetheless

provides an insight to the fact as to how game birds

are more endangered due to human action as

compared to other species. The remark on Falconry

being a dead sport in India as unfortunate is quite

unwarrented, especially considering the present

status of our raptors. The chapters on plumage birds

covers the birds whose plumages are economically

important. It, however, does not indicate the mode of

collection of these plumages. One is particularly

interested to know the effect that, the established

trade in Peacock feather will have on the population

of our national bird.

The book also provides a list of Indian birds

economically valued as song birds. The Grey wing

Black bird tops the list as the best songster. The

chapter also covers mimicry amongst calls of Indian

birds. It lists Rufousbacked shrike, Black headed

shrike and the southern Indian greybacked shrike as

among the best mimics. Together these three have

been re ported to mimic about 32 species of birds. The

chapteron cage birds provides names of Indianbirds

valued as pets and also those trained for fighting

falconry & fishing. There is a separate chapter on

scavengers a mongst Indian birds which also provides

information about their ecological role. There is also

an account of the Birds of Prey and their feeding

habits. The chapter on birds in medicine lists the

various reported medicinal uses of birds. There are

some funny entries “like meat of cuckoos for mental

diseases or the pelican feet for rheumatism”. The

authors, neither do not mention how authentic are

the claims about the medicinal values nor do they

provide the source of these claims. The chapter

should have made more explicit the scientific basis

of these claims to avoid false claims and even

unnecessary slaughter of these birds.

The book also provides an exhaustive list of

birds as cross pollinators, controllers of insect pests

and in dispersal of seeds. Additionally the book

REVIEWS

491

provides a concise account of methods used for

controlling bird hazards in aviation. There is a

separate chapter on bird migration pattern in India.

It describes avian migrants of India in 3 groups-(l)

Winter migrants from palearctic region; (2) Winter

migrants from Himalayas; (3) Local migrants. The

last chapter on conservation deals with the status of

various bird species in India and lists them as

endangered, vulnerable and rare. It also gives a short

account of various measures being undertaken to

conserve our avifauna. The book at the end

incorporates a list of National parks, sanctuaries and

other areas where birds are abundantly found. The

book has 3 indices one for latin names, one for

english names and another for vernacular names.

The colour illustrations run to 22 plates but are

of poor quality and at some places do not reflect the

natural colours of the birds. They are not free of

mistakes either. Grey heron has been labelled as

Purple heron. Some of the birds illustrated have been

labelled casually, for instance, spotted owlet is labelled

as owlet, large pied wagtail is labelled as Wagtail.

The inclusion of White and Black Swans in the

i Illustrations is clearly out of place in a book dealing

with Indian species. In fact the birds are mentioned

only in classification.

As mentioned earlier the book is a compilation

ofvariousinformationand facts published elsewhere.

The book at several places is merely a list of birds.

The book will find its readership amongstexperienced

bird watchers, research workers in ornithology and

others seeking information on economic ornithology

of Indian avifauna. The books style of presentation

may not enthuse uninitiated laymen and beginners

in bird watching.

SHASHI MENON

2. NATURE GUIDES- COMMON BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA. By Thomas Gay, Isaac

David Kehimkar and Jagdish Chandra Punetha. pp.67 (24 x 14.5 cm), with eight

colourplatesand 70 black- and- white text -figures. Bombay, 1992. Oxford University

Press. Price Rs. 60/-.

During the early days of the WWF nature

camps, birds were the unchallenged centres of

attention for most of us. Mammals were seldom seen

and other groups were, for the most part, unknown

quantities. The world of an amateur naturalist in the

early 1980s consisted primarily of birds, occasional

mammals, some reptiles, insects and plants and a

few oddities like the flying frog. With time, this

highly skewed emphasis on mammals and birds has

been remedied to a large extent with the less visible

animals getting their due share of attention. Every

animal has its own fascinating tale to tell about its

role in nature's scheme of things. While bird-watchers

still dominate the scene, it is heartening to see more

and more “wildlife watchers” now a days.

The principal reason for this state of affairs

was the total lack of field guides for the amateur.

Dr.Salim AJi’s books on Indian birds had gone a

long way in nurturing the appeal that birds have for

most people. His series of books were addressed to a

wide variety of bird- watchers from the rank beginner

to the professional ornithologist. Other animals did

not have the benefit of an erudite voice selling them

to the layman in a popular manner.

When I developed an interest in butterflies six

years ago, there were only two identification books

in existence. Neither was easily available nor were

they meant for the beginner! The pictures were

terrible and butterflies had to be identified from

492

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

descriptions liberally sprinkled with unknown

technical terms. An “easy” butterfly like the Peablue

took two whole days; compare that with the ten

minutes it will take you with a good beginner's guide

which has a photograph of it. If you can get a good

beginner’s guide, grab it! ;It will save you a lot of time

and effort during the early days.

The WWF-India has brought out the Common

Butterflies of India as part of its series of Nature

Guides with the avowed purpose of inculcating

interest in our flora and fauna to promote the cause

of nature conversation.

It is the only identification guide available for

the beginner and the casual observer who wishes to

know about the butterflies he sees around him. The

authors have made it a point to use non-technical

language where possible. A glossary as well as

several figures explain the unavoidable technical

terms used in the text. The introduction is quite

comprehensive and gives a wealth of general

information on butterflies. All the butterflies dealt

with have been illustrated with many photographs

(both colour and black & White) and sketches. The

butterflies have been grouped into families with

emphasis on their characteristic features and habits.

In my opinion, the major feature of this book is

its emphasis on observing and identifying live

butterflies. It is perhaps the only guide without a

chapter on collecting butterflies. Butterfly guides

throughout the world give the impression that

collection is essential for their study. Many

entomologists turn their noses up at identification of

live butterflies. Some butterflies are tough to identify

without a specimen in hand; But “tough” is not the

same as “impossible”! Undoubtedly, specimen

collection has its proper place in a scientific study.

But many studies, including rigorous scientific ones,

do not require it. With some practice, all the common

species and many rare ones can be identified in the

field. If required, one can catch some of the tough

customers in a butterfly net and inspect them from

close and release them after identifying them. Close-

up photographs or line sketches along with notes on

their be haviourand habitat a long with some patience

will make for sufficiently accurate identifications

and provide you with an engrossing hobby without

having to bloody your hands and soul! You can

always take your notes and photographs to the

nearest butterfly collection and compare them with

the dead specimens. It is only proper that dead

butterflies are utilised to avoid killing more of their

kin!

Some of the other plus point of this book are the

various tips that the authors give about rearing

butterflies and photographing them. A butterfly

comingout of the chrysalis is a fascinating event and

well worth the effort and the patience that is required

to see it.

There are several points on which the authors

could have done better. Hopefully, these will be

rectified in future editions. To be fair, some of them

were no doubt unavoidable and occasioned by

constraints of time and economy. It is not easy to

bring out an inexpensive book which has so many

colour photographs and material.

While the colour photographs are reasonably

good (though not in the same league of many of

Isaac’s otherphotographs) the black & white ones as

well as the sketches leave much to be desired. I could

not see the Indian sunbeam or the Common castor in

the sketches, even after reading the caption! And

some photographs (e.g. the Black prince and the

Common crows on Heliotropium) do not serve any

purpose. Several such figures could have been

avoided. Sketches with shading seem to be

particularly bad while the plain line sketch of the

Tree nymph is much better. There’s not much use in

shading the white parts of a butterfly (sketch of the

female yellow orange-tip) in fact it is misleading.

The sketches of the handsome swallow-tails in the

REVIEWS

493

main text are superfluous considering the identical

colour plate on the back cover.

A few more lines of description were necessary

for the Blues and the Browns which consist of many

groups of closely related species. Mention could

have been made of allied species, warning the reader

of the pit-falls of casual identification. In the case of

the Gram blue it would perhaps have been more

appropriate to show a photograph of the underside

and describe the upper surface in just one line.

By and large the selection of butterflies is fa irly

representative. But considering some of the rarer

butterflies shown, some common ones like the Forget-

me-not and the chestnut bob (perhaps the commonest

skipper of the woodlands and one of the easier ones

to identify) and a few of the rarer ones like the Red

Helen and the peacocks (which are far commoner

than the Apollos anyway). Several other groups of

butterflies could also have been mentioned in the

passing without illustrations. Groups like the blue

crows and the royals are easy enough to identify

(though not the individual species) an a line or two

regarding themwould have sufficed. Closely related

species could have been mentioned while describing

some species, like a one line description of the Crimson

Tip while describing the Orange Tips.

The authors should have included a section on

the options a reader has when confronted with a

species not in this book. A list of the more

comprehensive guides and the butterfly collections

in this country would have been of immense help to

students who wished to go beyond this book.

Considering thatthe more detailed books on butterfly

identification follow the older system of nomenclature

the older Latin names ought to have been mentioned

to facilitate cross reference.

That I ’ve spent more time on the shortcomings

of the book is not an indication of my evaluation of

the book. This is an excellent book for identifying

bu tte rfl ies , a nd s pe ci a 1 1 y re co mine nded to begi nne rs .

It is well worth its cost even if it was not the only book

available to the non-specialist. If presenting this

book to children, you may well end up presenting

them with an engrossing and life-long hobby!

The last decade has seen a ground-swell in the

number of people who have embraced nature-

watching as a hobby; even better is the realization

that there is more to wildlife than a tigerora Siberian

crane; that much maligned creatures like the spiders

and snakes lead lives as fascinating as that of their

more visible brethren and that every part is essential

to the whole. In my experience, where animals are

concerned, familiarity does not breed contempt;

quite the contrary, it nurtures a fascination for the

natural world. Easily available inexpensive guides

would go a long way in making popular attitudes

friendlier towards out environment. Ultimately it is

only a change in public attitudes which will decide

the sort of environment we will inhabit. I shall end

this review on a note of hope that this guide to

butterflies is not the last of the series devoted to

various groups of little known animals.

RAM ANA M. A TORE Y A

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. HOME RANGE OF HANUMAN LANGUR ( PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS)

IN FOUR HABITATS IN JAIPUR, INDIA

The Hanuman La ngur(Presbytis entellus) lives

in a wide range of ecologically diverse habitats in

India, (Prater 1980). In Jaipur, this species occurs in

a variety of habitats like forests and urban areas

(temple, tourists spots and residential area, Mathur

and Ram Ma noha r 1987). The size of langur groups

varied in these habitat types. At Jagatpura (forest/

village habitat) the group size was large with 118

individuals, but in the temple area (Govindeo temple)

and the tourist area (Amber Fort) the langur groups

had each 42 animals respectively. At Brahmpuri

(residential area) 80 langurs were counted in a single

Unimale group. The home range of the langur

groups in the four habitats was studied by following

them from 6.00 a.m. - 6.00 p.m. for nearly 30 days

during the months January, February, March, April,

1986.

lcm grid). The average of the four different values

was calculated as home range (Table 1). The home

range of a Unimale langur group at Jagatpura Forest/

Village habitat was larger than that of the other

groups . The Uni male langur groups at Govindeo

Temple and Amber Fort-tourist area had similar

sized home ranges. The Brahmpuri-residential area

group had a medium sized home range. Group size,

availability of food, proximity of neighbouring group

are the factors influencing the size of the home range

of langurs (Lindburg 1971, Poirier 1968). It is

known from other research sites that populations

living in areas of low food availability tend to have

larger home range than those living in areas where

food is more abundant (Yoshiba 1968, Pirta and

Singh 1982). At Jaipur also the large Unimale

langur (Jagatpura) group had a larger home range

Table 1

HOME RANGE IN SQ. KM. OF UNIMALE LANGUR GROUPS IN DIFFERENT HABITATS

M . C. P. = Minimum Convex Polygon. C. P. = Convex Polygon.

The outermost location points of the langur

group sightings were marked on the detailed enla rged

maps of each habitat and later these points were

joined by straight lines. Totally four methods were

used to calculate the home range. Three of them

were done using McPal Software (specially

programmed for home ranges) on IBM personal

computer. The fourth one was Grid Method (1 cm x

and lived in a poorer resource area when compared

to the other groups living in other habitats.

REENA MATHUR

July 5, 1993 B. RAM MANOHAR

Department of Zoology , University of Rajasthan, Jaipur,

Rajasthan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

495

References

Lindburg, D.G. (1971): The rhesus monkey in North India: An

ecological and behavioural study, hi: Primate Behaviour.

Developments in Field and Laboratory Research, Ed.

Rosenblum Academic Press, New York, pp. 1-106.

Mathur, R. & Ram Manohar, B. (1987): Group number and

composition of Hanuman Langur (Presbytis entellus) in

Jaipur, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. soc. 84: 193-199.

Poirier, F.E. (1968): Analysis of Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johnii)

Home range change. Primates, 9: 29-43.

Prater, S. (1980) : The book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

history Society, Bombay.

Pirta, R.S. Sc Singh M. (1982) : Differences in home ranges of

rhesus monkey ( M. mulatto) groups living in three ecological

habitats. Proceedings Indian Acad. Sci. Anim. Sci.Ql(l) :

13-26.

Toshiba, K.(1968): Local and intertroop variability in Ecology and

Social behaviour of common Indian langurs. In: Primate-

studies in Adaptation and variability. Ed. P.C. Jay, Holt,

Rinehart, Winston, New York, pp. 217-242.

2. STUDY OF ACTIVITY PATTERN IN PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS AT

AMBAGARH RESERVE FOREST, JAIPUR

Introduction

A thorough understanding of activity patterns

of any primate species is crucial to understand its

behaviour and any change in it due to physical,

mechanical and climatic factors as well as human

interference.

In the field, the frequency of the majority of

social interactions, especially aggression among

primates is related to food availability a nd distribution

(Chalmers 1968). Changes in food availability may

also affect the day range (DeVore and Hall 1965,

Altmann and Altmann 1970). In case of Presbytis

entellus foraging and resting are its two most

prominent diurnal activities (Oppenheimer 1973,

Yoshiba 1967). The time spent on other interactions

would increase when time spent on foraging decreases

(Crook 1970) but when there is decrease in food

availability, feeding becomes the most time

consuming activity (Teas 1978).

The activity pattern of Presbytis entellus has

been studied at Orcha and Kaukori (Jay 1965),

Dharwar (Yoshiba 1967), Gir Forest (Starin 1973),

Mount Abu (Hrdy 1974), Singur (Oppenheimer

1973,1977), Shimla (Sugiyama 1976). A detailed

description of activity pattern in Presbytis entellus

was given by Oppenheimer (1977) regarding their

diurnal as well as seasonal changes.

Study Area

This study was carried out between October

1988 and September 1989 at Ambagarh Reserve

Forest (ARF) ( 26°55' N, 75°55' E) situated

approximately 7 km. from Jaipur city on the north-

eastern side. ARF has dry deciduous semi-arid forest

dominated by Anogeissus pendula, Maytenus

emarginata, Holoptelia integrifolia, Parkinsonia

aculeata and Acacia tortilis. The year was demarcated

into three seasons, namely winter (October-

February), summer (March-June) and monsoon (July-

September). Average maximum annual rainfall in

the region is approximately 600 mm. ARF includes

temples and a village, therefore, provides a semi-

wild environment to langurs. The monkeys got both

natural vegetation and provisioned food given by

devotees, they occasionally fed on ticks, lice and

grasshoppers (Mathur et al. 1990).

Methods

One unimale bisexual group (G III) with 119

individuals (1 adult male, 49 adult females, 7 sub-

adult females, 34 juveniles and 28 infants) was

selected. The observations were made using the scan

sampling technique (Altmann 1974). Observations

were made between October 1988 and September

1989. The group was scanned on the 10th, 21st and

9

496

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

28th days of each month. Observations were made

between 1200 and 1800 hrs. Each study consisted of

25 scan samples. Adult, subadultand juveniles were

scanned. Three activities, namely group movement,

grooming and feeding were noted. An activity was

recorded only when it leasted for at least 5 seconds.

As the group was large, each scan period was of 20

minutes. This was followed by 5 minute intervals.

All the group members were scanned. In the present

study morning was considered as between 0700 and

1100 hrs. afternoon as between 1 101 and 1600 hrs.

and evening as between 1601 and 1800 hrs.

Results

Feeding: The re was a distinctseasonal variation

each in morning and evening (Table 1).

Grooming: In winter, there were three peaks

of grooming, i.e. one each in morning and afternoon

and the third in the evening. During summer

maximum grooming occurred in morning and

afternoon (between 1000 to 1300 hrs.) During rainy

season, grooming was at its peak in the afternoon

(Table 1).

Group movement: Langurs moved maximum

during winter, in this season three peaks appeared,

one in morning (54.0%) and two in the afternoon.

During summer movement reached at its highest in

the afternoon (between 1400 to 1500 hrs). Langurs

move during summer because vegetation is scarce

and thus they have to move more to forage. In rainy

Table 1

PERCENTAGE OF THE SPENT ON THREE MAJOR ACTIVITIES BY Presbytis entellus

in time spent in feeding. During winter there were

two feeding bouts, one in the morning and the other

in the afternoon. In summer though some feeding

took place in the morning and evening also, to avoid

excessive heat, langurs preferred feeding in

afternoons between 1500 hrs to 1600 hrs, whereas in

wet months, again two feeding peaks appeared, one

season one peak each was noticeable in morning,

afternoon and evening (Table 1).

Discussion

Generally, the langurs of ARF were more

active during winter season, for all three activities

they had almost three peaks. During this season,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

497

very early mornings (before 0600 hrs) and late

evenings (after 1800 hrs) were extremely cold (6° to

18°C) otherwise, during the sunshine hours, the

winter days were warmer (18° to 24°C). On the other

hand, during summer, the days became unbearably

hot, and the langurs generally remained inactive

throughout the day. Concentration of activities

during mornings and late evenings were most evident

among them. During monsoon, the langurs followed

no set activity pattern. They spent maximum time in

feeding, probably due to abundance of green foliage.

During summer activities were restricted to

early mornings and late evenings, whereas, in winter

they were most active during the middle of the day.

Whenever there was an increase in feeding or group

movement, there was a fall in grooming. Time

devoted to any activity at a given time, varied in

Refe

Altmann, S.A. &. Altmann, J. (1970): Baboon Ecology. Basal:

Karger and Chicago Press.

Chalmers, N.R. (1968): The Social behaviour of free living

mangabeys in Uganda. Folia Primatol. 8 : 263-281.

Crook, J.H. (1970): The Socio-ecology of primates. In: Social

behaviour in birds and mammals. Ed. J.H. Crook. Academic

Press, New York. pp. 103-166.

DeVore, I. &. Hall, K.R.L. (1965): Baboon ecology. In :Primate

behaviour: Field studies of Monkeys and Apes. Ed. I.

DeVore, New York: Holt, Rinehard & Winston, pp. 20-52.

Hrdy, S.B. (1974): Male-male competition and infanticide among

langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan. Folio

Primatol. 22: 19-58.

Jay, P.C. (1965): The common langur of north India. In: Primate

Behaviour: Field studies of monkeys & apes. Ed. I. DeVore,

Holt, Rinehartd and Winston, New York. pp. 197-249.

Mathur, Reena, Bhatnagar, P.S. & Manohar, B.R. (1990): Ticks,

Lice & Grasshopper eating in Presbytis entellus. Human

Evolution 56: 531-536.

different seasons. Langurs spent more time feeding

during rainy season. Group movement was greatest

in winter. Langurs were least active in summer. A

great deal of time was spent in grooming in all three

seasons but at different time of the day.

The percentage of time devoted to any activity

during a season and also at any given point of time

in the day of a season, varied because langurs

adapted themselves according to seasonal changes.

In rhesus also, components of the eco-system have

been reported to affect the majority of activities

(Shukla et al. 1982)

May 31, 1993 REENA MATHUR

P.S. BHATNAGAR

Department of Zoology,

University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur, Rajasthan.

RENCES

Oppenheimer, J.R. (1973): Effects of environmental factors on the

activity of village dwelling langurs (Primates) in West Bengal.

Proc. Indian Sci. Congra. 60 (Part IV): 157 (Abstr).

Oppenheimer, J.R. (1977): Presbytis entellus, the hanuman langur.

In: Primate Conservation. Ed. H.S.H. Prince Rainier III of

Manaco and Bournl. Academic Press, pp. 469-512.

Shukla, A.K. Seth, P.R & Seth S. (1982): The Ecology of Free

ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in an arid forest

of India. In: Symposium on National Primate Programme.

Delhi Primatological society of India (Abstract).

Starin, E.D. (1973): A preliminary study of the Gir Forest Langur.

B. A. Thesis. Friends World College, Huntington, New York.

Sugiyama, Y. (1976): Characteristics of the ecology of the Himalayan

langurs. J. Human Evol. 5: 249-277.

Teas, J. H. (1978): Ecology and behaviour of rhesus monkeys in

Kathmandu, Nepal. Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins

University.

Yoshiba, K. (1967): An ecological study of hanuman langur.

Primates 8 : 127-154.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

3. FOOD HABITS OF THE FISHING CAT FELIS VIVERRINA IN KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

(With a text - figure)

Introduction

Ecological information not only on the fishing

cat but also all other lesser cats of the Indian Sub-

continent is scanty. No quantitative information is

available on the food habits of fishing cat except the

stray observations of Jerdon (1874), Prater (1965),

Roberts (1977). According to Sankhala and

Sharma (1985), fishing cat is limited only to Keoladeo

National Park, in Rajasthan.

Study area

Keoladeo National Park, (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2'

N and 77° 29.5' to 77° 33.9' E ) situated 50 km south

of Agra has an area of about 29 km2. The entire area

is flat with a gentle slope towards the centre forming

a depression of about 8.5 km2 which is the main

submersible pa rt of the pa rk. The water is drawn into

the park through a canal from Aj an Bund during the

monsoon (July-October) and it gradually recedes

and the park dries up during summer (March-June),

leaving only some pools in the deeper areas. Trees

which are planted on the mound inside the wetland

are being used by the colonial birds for nest building.

For a detailed description of the study area, see Ali

and Vijayan (1986).

Methods

Scats were collected mainly from the banks of

the waterspread area and also from the dykes which

divide the aquatic area where fishing cats were seen.

All the scats were washed, the contents dried and

examined under the dissecting microscope. Major

taxa of the animal matter were determined and

wheneverpossible prey groups were identified. Hairs,

bones, scales and feathers from the scats were

identified with the help of reference samples of

d i f f e re nt a ni ma 1 s co 1 1 e c te d f ro m t h e pa rk . Fre q u e nc y

BIRD RODENT

19 2

WINTER (n-50)

RODENT

10

SUMMER (n-44)

FISH

66

MONSOON (n-50)

Fig. 1, Percentage of various food remains in the scats of

fishing cat.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

499

Table 1

PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF FOOD REMAINS IN THE SCATS OF FISHING CAT IN DIFFERENT MONTHS

DURING THE STUDY PERIOD

Table 2

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD REMNANTS

IN THE SCATS OF FISHING CAT (N= 144)

Occurrence %

of occurrence of each item in the scats was recorded.

Altogether 144 scats were collected from November

1986 to October 1987.

The gut contents of the fishing cat found dead

outside the park on the Agra-Jaipur highway. 100 m

from the park were also examined.

Results and discussion

Fish is the staple diet of the fishing cat in the

park. Fish remains were present in the scats

throughout the year and out of the 144 scats analysed,

76% had fish remains in them (Table 2). Monthly

variation in the percentage of scats having fish

remains ranged from 41% to 100%. It was the

preferred food during winter (Fig.l).

Birds are the next preferred food (27%) of the

fishing cat. During different months the frequency

ranged from 13% to 53% although bird remnants

were not present in the scats during January, May

and June. It is difficult to give a valid reason for the

absence of bird remains during these months.

Grass formed 21% of the food of fishing cat. It

was present in all the months except August. The

frequency ranged from 8% to 96% (Table 1). Among

the three seasons (Fig.l), grass was preferred equa lly

during winter and summer while least during

monsoon.

Insects and rodents were seen in relatively

small numberofscats 13%and 9% respectively. The

maximum number of insects in the scats was in

summer followed by winter and the least in monsoon,

while the maximum number of rodents was during

monsoon followed by summer and the least in w inter

(F‘g-1)-

‘Others’ which formed 7% of the diet included

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 90 (1993)

seeds, hair, of hare and cattle, molluscs, scales of

snake and monitor lizard (Varanus bengcilensis) .

The fishing cat found dead just outside the

Park on 15 Feb. 1986 was 66 cm in length (Head and

Body) with a 24 cm tail. Its weight was 16 kg. and

its stomach had fish, scales of snakes, feathers and

insects.

Fish is the main food of the fishing cat in

Keoladeo National Park. Bhattacharya (1989)

reports in the Howrah district that the major food of

fishing cat is fish, although goats, chickens and

ducks of the nearby villages were killed. This is not

reported at Bharatpur. Observations (n=12) made

during moonlit night also confirm that they feed

mostly on fish by entering water and scooping the

prey with their paws. The visual observations also

reveal that they feed on grasses and gerbills which

are very common on the dykes of the aquatic area.

The presence of cattle hair in the scats of fishing cat

shows that they could scavenge (Haque 1988). The

gut contents of the dead fishing cat also confirm that

fish and bird are the major food. The other small

carnivore which feed mainly on fish is Smooth

Indian otter (Haque and Vijayan 1988).

Acknowledgement

We are grateful Mr. J. C. Daniel for going

through the manuscript and giving valuable

suggestions.

May 3 1, 1993 M. D. NAYERUL HAQUE

V.S. VIJAYAN

Bombay Natural History Society., Hornbill House,Dr. Salim A li

Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Rd., Bombay - 400 023.

References

Ali, S. & Vijayan, V.S. (1986): Keoladeo National Park, Ecology

Study, Summary Report 1980-85. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Bhattacharaya, T. (1989): Report on the survey of the status and

distribution of Fishing Cat in Howrah District of West

Bengal. Indian Society for Wildlife Research. Calcutta.

Haque, M. N. ( 1 988) : S cavengi ng ha bi t of Fishing Ca t Felis vi verrina

in Keoladeo national Park, Bharatpur. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 85: 183-184.

Haque, M.N. & Vijayan, V.S. (1989): Food habits of the smooth

Indian otter Lutra perspicillata in Keoladeo national Park,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Asian Ottar Specialist Group

Newsletter Number 2: 25.

Jerdon, J.C. ( 1874); The mammals of India. London.

Prater, S.H. (1965): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Roberts, T. J. (1977): The mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Benn

Limited, London.

Sankhala, K. & Sharma,V.D. (1985): Vanishing cat of Rajasthan.

Cheetal; 26: 5-23.

4. NEW RECORDS OF MU STELA FROM KHUNJERAB NATIONAL PARK,

PAKISTAN

The fauna of Khunjerab National Park (KNP),

Pakistan has received little attention. KNP is a 2,269

km2 alpine national park in Pakistan’s northern

areas. It shares a long border with the People’s

Republic of China. Until recently, there were no

small mammals collected from KNP in Pakistani

museums, and very few mammals collected from the

immediate vicinity are found in foreign collections.

As part of a long-term ecological study of Dhee Sar,

a 4100-4300 m alpine meadow in KNP, I have been

censusingthe birds and mammals found there. Here

I report the existences of two mustelids: Mustela

altaica , the alpine weasel, and M. erminea, the stoat.

Based on museum records, Roberts (1977)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

501

reported the existence of alpine weasels a little south

of KNP, but the known range maps for stoats did not

include the northern areas, and probable distributions

included only a bit of the area around Gilgit and

Skardu. Prater (1965) reported the stoat as found in

Chitral, Hazara, and Kashmir, but not Hunza. The

range maps in Corbet (1978) suggest possible

sympatry around KNP, but his maps are not detailed

enough to resolve it.

I lived at Dhee Sar for 242 days between May

and September 1989-1991. During this time adult

alpine weasels were periodically spotted (1989: 29

July; 22 August; 10 September ; 1990 : 21 July ; 23

July ; 1991: 4 July; 12 July; 11 August; 16 August),

photographed once, and unambiguously identified.

On no occasion did I spot juvenile alpine weasels.

On9 July 1991, Ispotted my first stoat in KNP.

I positively identified it based on it’s black-tipped

tail. On 19 July5or6stoatpupsand 1 adultwereseen

exploring a talus slope around our camp. They

permitted me to approach closely and I photographed

and videotaped them. On 26 July, I spotted an adult

stoat with a Royle’s high mountain vole ( Alticola

roylei) in its mouth runningacross a glacial moraine.

Both species of Mustela are sympatric in Dhee

Sar, and indirect evidence suggests their diets may

overlap. In 1989 and 1990, vole populations in our

camp decreased when an alpine weasel was seen

around camp, while in 1991, I observed the stoat

eating a vole.

Acknowledgements

I thank the government and people of Pakistan

for permission to work in KNP and for hospitality

while in Pakistan. My research in KNP has been

generously supported by: the University of California,

Davis; The University Research Expeditions

Program-UREP; The American Society of

Mammalogists; Sigma xi; The Explorers club; The

US National Park Service International Division;

The World Pheasant Association-Pa kis tan; World

Wide Fund for Nature - Pakistan; The North Face;

Hi-Tec Sports; and Bushnell of America.

May 17, 1993 DANIEL T. BLUMSTEIN

Department of Zoology,

University of California,

Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A.

References

Corbet, G.B. (1978): The mammals of the Palaearctic region: a History Society, Bombay. 324 pp.

taxonomic review. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 314 pp. Roberts. T.J. (1977): The mammls of Pakistan. Ernest Be nn

Prater, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian animals. Bombay natural Limited, London, 361 pp.

5. A NOTE ON THE MORPHOMETRY OF GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN WITH

COMMENTS ON ITS MORTALITY IN FISHING NETS

(With

Introduction

The Ganges river dolphin (Platanistagangetica)

is distributed in the northern parts of the Indian sub-

continent and inhabits the Ganges, Brahmaputra

and the Meghana river systems and their major

text- figure)

tributaries, from the tidal limits to the foot hills of

the Himalaya (Prater 1948); the Garo hills of

Meghalaya and the Cachar hills of Assam (Jones

1982). Once abundant, its population is now

declining all over its range due to habitat loss,

commercial exploitation and mortality in passive

502

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 90 (1993)

fishery (Perrin and Brownell 1989, Hussain and

Choudhury 1992). Apart from this, construction of

dams and barrages along the major tributaries have

isolated its population into several pockets that

eventually disappear (Haque 1976, Mohan 1989).

In recent years the Ganges River Dolphin is

receiving considerable attention and investigation

on their population status, ecology and behaviour

have been steadily advancing (e.g. Pilleri 1970,

Kasuya 1972, Kasuya and Haque 1976, Rao et al.

1989,Shrestha 1989, Hussain and Choudhury 1992).

Nevertheless the extent of its mortality goes

undetected. This paper presents a note on the

morphometry of a Ganges river dolphin with

comments on the extent of its mortality in fishing net

along the Chambal river.

Material and Methods

The field staff of the National Chambal

Sanctuary found a dead dolphin entangled in an

illegal fishing net near Rajghat upstream of Agra-

Bombay Highway bridge on October 10,1988. The

specimen was moved to Field Research station of

Wildlife Institute of India at Deori 15 kmaway from

the river. The specimen was checked thoroughly of

any possible infection and injury. It was sexed,

measured and then an incision was made at the

abdominal region to collect the gut contents for

analysis. The entire specimen was preserved in 10%

Formaldehyde.

Followingthis in 1989 a survey was carried out

and local fishermen were interviewed to asses the

extents of mortality in fishing nets and other man

induced disturbance factors that are detrimental to

dolphin population in the National Chambal

Sanctuary.

Results

Morphological details of the specimens

State : Freshly killed, No outer injury,

infection or parasite; no

decomposing effect at the time of

Colour

Sex

Weight

Total length

Tip of Upper

jaw to centre

of anus

Tip of upper

jaw to centre

of genital

slit

Tip of snout to

umbilicus

Tip of snout

to flipper

Length of

flipper

Width of

flipper

collection or measuring.

: Dark lead grey grading to

grey at the belly.

: Sub-adult male

:17 kg

: 117 cm

lighter

: 56 cm

: 72 cm

: 50 cm

: 37 cm

: 15.5 cm (left), 13.0 cm (right,

sign of deformity was found)

: 9.5 cm (left), 7.0 cm (right,

sign of deformity was found)

Length of

tail

Width of

tail

Fluke span

Height of doisal

ridge

Tip of snout

to eye

Tip of snout to

blow hole

Length of

blow hole

Length of

snout

Number of

teeth in

upper jaw

Number of

teeth in

lower jaw

: 21 cm

: 10 cm (fluke breadth)

: 25.5 cm

: 1.2 cm

: 21 cm

: 23 cm

: 4 cm

: 12.5 cm

: 20 + 20

: 30 + 2 + 30

Extent of mortality in fishing nets: Table 1

shows the mortality of dolphins in fishing nets

during 1988-1989. The result of the survey identified

two areas (Fig. 1); one between Rahu Ka gaon (1 10

km ) and Rajghat (195 km) and other at the end of

the Sanctuary between Bhareh (410 km) and

Panchnada (425 km). The extent of mortality in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

503

Fig. 1. Chambal River with some of the important tributaries and land marks.

Pali is river km. 0 and Panchnada is at river 425 km.

latter appears to be more frequent as stated

by the fisherman but we did not find first

hand evidence of it.

Discussion

The National Chambal Sanctuary (570

km. long) was created in 1988 for the con-

servation of gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus).

During 1985, Singh and Sharma

(1985) had estimated an overall density of

0.079 dolphin/river from the sanctuary. The

504

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

Table 1

MORTALITY OF DOLPHINS IN FISHING NET DURING

1988-1989 IN NATIONAL CHAMBAL SANCTUARY (KM

INDICATES RIVER KM FROM PALI)

dolphin distribution in the sanctuary is limited to

305 km stretch between Batesura and Panchnada

(Singh and Sharma 1985, Rao etal. 1989, Hussain

and Choudhury 1990, 1992). Thus the ecological

densities calculated for the period of 1985 to 1992

were 0.147, 0.193, 0.180 and 0.183 dolphin/km.

This indicates that the dolphin population is more or

less stable. During our annual gharial, dolphin and

other associated species survey we have frequently

observed juvenile dolphins (5% of the total sightings,

Hussain and Choudhury 1992), indicating that the

population is breeding. Besides the self regulatory

mechanismof a population, the other most important

factor that could affect the population is mortality of

dolphins in fishing nets.

Platanista are adapted to live in turbid water.

For their movement and locating prey they are

dependent on echolocation. Platanista have double

beam echolocation system which ensures wide

coverage of their surrounding area (Pilleri 1979).

However, the evidence of them getting entangled in

fishing nets suggests that research is needed to find

out why and how it occurs.

As evident from the mortality caused in illegal

fishing nets, the solution for the long term

conservation of Ganges river dolphin lies not only

in the creation of new protected areas but also in

minimizing fishing activities within protected areas.

Therefore it is suggested to take stringent protection

measures to control fishing by using gill nets in the

Chambal river specially within the sanctuary.

Acknowledgements

This information was collected through the

project “Ecology of aquatic mammals in National

Chambal sanctuary” sponsored by Wildlife Institute

of India, Dehra Dun. Thanks are due to Chief

Conservators) of Forest (Wildlife) of Madhya

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Forest

Departments for permission to work in the sanctuary.

September 10, 1993 S.A. HUSSAIN1

R.K. SHARMA2

B.C. CHOUDHURY3

ldt3 Wild life Institute of India,

Post Box 18, Dehra dun 248001.

2National Chambal Sanctuary, Morena 476 001.

R EFERENCES

Haque, A.K. M. Aminul (1976): Comments on the abundance and

distribution of the Ganges susu, Platanista gangetica, and

the effects of the Farakka Barrage on its population. Paper

presented to the Scientific Consultation on Conservation and

Management of Marine Mammals and their Environment,

Bergen, Norway, 31 August-9 September 1976. Rome,

FAO, ACMRR/MM/SC/ 32.2p.

Hussain, S. A & Choudhury, B.C.(1990): Ecology of aquatic

mammals in the National Chambal Sanctuary. First study

report, Unpubl. Mimeo. Wildlife Institute of India.

Hussain, S.A. & Choudhury, B.C. (1992): The Gangetic river

Dolphin ( Platanista gangetica ) and the status of its habitat

in National Chambal Sanctuary. Paper presented in the

Seminar on Conservation of River dolphin of Indian

Subcontinent. August 18-19, New Delhi.

Jones, S. (1982): The present status of Gangetic susu Platanista

gangetica (Roxburg), with comments on the Indus susu, P.

minor (Owen). In: Mammals of the sea. F. A.O. Fisheries

Series No. 5, Vol. IV, ISBN 92-5-100514-1, F.A.O, Rome.

Kasuya, T. (1972): Some information on the growth of the Ganges

dolphin with a comment on the Indus dolphin. Scientific

Rep. Whales Res. Inst.Tokyo 24:87-108.

Kasuya, T.& Haque, A.K.M. Aminul (1976): Some information on

the distribution and seasonal movement of the Ganges

dolphin. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. Tokyo 27: 81-94.

Mohan, R.S.L (1989): Conservation and managementof the Ganges

river dolphin, Platanista gangetica, in India. In: Biology and

conservation of the river dolphins, Ed. W.F. Perrin, R. L

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

505

Brownell, Jr., Zhou Kalya and Liu Jiankang. Occassional

papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. No.3:

64-69.

Perrin, W.F. & Brownell, R.L.Jr.(1989):Reportofthe Workshop

on Biology and conservation of the Platanistoid dolphins,

Wuhan, People’s Republic of China. In: Biology and

Conservation of the River dolphins, Ed. W.F.Perrin, R.L.

Brownell, jr., Zhou Kaiya and Liu Jiankang. Occasional

papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. No. 3.

PiLLERi, G. (1970): Observations on the behaviour of Platanista

gangetica in the Indus and Brahmaputa Rivers. In:

Investigations on Cetacea, edited by G. Pilled. Berne, Brain

Anatomy Institute, vol 2: 26-60.

Pilleri,G. (1979): Sonar field pattern in cetacean; feeding behaviour

and the functional significance of the pterygoschisis. Invest.

Cet. 10: 147-155.

Prater, H. S. (1948): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay. Third edition, 1980. pp.

313-314.

Rao, R.J., Hussain. S.A. & Sharma, R. K. (1989): The Status and

conservation of Gangetic dolphin ( Platanista gangetica) in

the National Chembal Sanctuary. Tiger Paper : 6 - 10.

Shrestha, T.K. (1989): Biology, status and conservation of the

Ganges river Dolphin, Platanista gangetica, in Nepal. In:

Biology and conservation of the river dolphins, ed. W.F.

Perrin, R. L. Brownell, Jr., Zhou Kaiya and Liu Jiankang.

Occassional papers of the IUCN Species Survival

Commission. No. 3: 70-76.

Singh, L.A.K. & Sharma, R.K. (1985): Gangetic dolphin, Platanista

gangetica: Observations and distribution pattern in National

Chambal sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 (3): 648-

653.

6. ANOTHER CONTINENTAL INDIA RECORD OF AC CIPHER GULARIS

The Lesser Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis

was known from India prior to 1980 only in the

Anda ma n a nd Nicoba r Isla nds (A1 i a nd Ripley 1983,

note that they called this form ‘Eastern Sparrowhawk’

A. virgatus gularis). Mees (1980) reidentified two

specimens that were collected in continental India as

A. gularis ; one from Mhow in Madhya Pradesh and

one from Point Calimere in Tamil Nadu. However,

Mees questioned the location and date of the Mhow

specimen. Salomonsen (1953) captured an A. gularis

at sea in the Bay of Bengal. Most authorities now

agree that A. gularis is a species distinct from A.

virgatus (Mees 1980, Amadon and Bull 1988).

Our new record refers to a hawk captured in a

mist net by Beehler and Shahid Ali at Wangasara in

the Visakhapatnam Ghats of northeastern Andhra

Pradesh (17° 50' N.; 82°30' E) on 28 September

1983 (Ripley et al. 1987). A single photograph was

taken of this hawk by Beehler shortly before release.

From this photo and the published notes, it has been

reidentified as A. gularis.

The hawk, which was a second-year male,

showed only a faint dark throat stripe, hadbarringon

leg feathers, and had 4 dark tail bands that were

narrower than the pale areas between bands. These

features are characteristic of A. gularis. A male of

A. virgatus would have had a thick dark throat stripe,

spotted or solid coloured leg feathers, and three dark

tail bands, each being as wide or wider than the pale

areas between bands.

Measurements taken at the time of capture are

not helpful in distinguishing whether it was virgatus

ox gularis as they are within the known range of both

species.

Ornithologists and birdwatchers should be on

the lookout for migrating or wintering Lesser

Sparrowhawks, especially along India’s east coast.

Acknowledgements

The Department of Forests and Environment,

Government of India are thanked for permission to

conduct field research in India, and the Department

of Forests, Government of Andhra Pradesh are

thanked for permission to work in their state. S. Ali

and K.S. R. Krishna Raju assisted in the Research.

July 18, 1991 WILLIAM S. CLARK1

BRUCE M. BEEHLER2

1 4554 Shetland Green Road,

Alexandria, VA 22312, U.S.A.

2National Museum Of Natural History,

Smithsonion Institution,

Washington, D.C. 20560, U.SA.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90 (1993)

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Amadon, D. & Bull, J. (1988): Checklist of raptors of the world.

Proc. West. Found.Vert. Zool. 3, no. 4

Mees, G.F. (1980): The Sparrow-hawks (Accipiter) of the Andaman

Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 371-412.

Ripley, S. D., Beehler, B.M. & Krishna Raju, K.S.R. (1987): Birds

of the Visakhapatanam Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84:

540-559.

Salomonsen, F. (1953): Migrants, observed and collected in the

Bengal Sea, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean ( in Danish

with English summary). Dansk Orn.For. Tidr. 47: 138.

7. BREEDING OF WHITE - EYED BUZZARD IN THE THAR DESERT

The White-eyed Buzzard ( Butastur teesa) is

well distributed over the Thar Desert, besides being

found in open deciduous forests, scrub a nd cultivated

lands of north and central India. They are commonly

observed (single bird perched on electric/telephone

posts) in Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts.

A nest was loca ted on 4 April 1991,60 km from

Bikaner on Pugal road on a telephone post 4.5 m

above the ground. Made of twigs, it looked slightly

larger than a crow’s nest measuring 46 cm across

and fairly deep. The nest was in the open and

exposed though there were groves of thickly folia'ged

trees nearby. The nest was barely 10 m from the road

and was surrounded by sand dunes. The female was

incubating and my presence made it climb up on to

the wires. The male soon arrived and even tried to

mate. They uttered a harsh, piercing “Chirrr” which

resembled the single alarm call of a spotted owlet.

The nest contained one egg.

While on 7.4.91 there was three eggs of very

light blue-green colour and appeared slightly larger

than the eggs of a domestic hen. When I approached

the nest the female flew off a nd sat on an exposed root

of ‘Phog’ on top of the nearby dune. The male soon

came and landed straight on the female and mated.

“Chirr Chirr” calls accompanied the mating.

On 18.4.91 only two eggs were seen in the nest,

(a few pieces of egg shells were found onground. On

21.4.91 only one egg was left which the female

continued to incubate. It hatched on 3.5.91 or

4.5.91, a minimum incubation period of 30days was

recorded. Salim Ali (handbook, 1968) mentions 19

days.

The one day old chick was pink skinned with

white down, bill thick, yellow at the base and black

at the tip. Legs were pinkish white. Its call was a very

faint “ Sirr, sirr” audible only up to 3 m. Eyes

dark brown a nd a ppea red longis h ra ther tha n circu la r.

The male frequently brought small lizards which

were common in the desert. Both parents brought

prey such as lizards, rodents, grasshoppers etc. and

fed the young, while the female incubated, the male

was generally seen guarding the nest within 500 m.

I once observed it chase a Short-toed Eagle up to 2

km.

By 23.5.9 1 , when the chick was 19 days old, the

wings had light and dark brown feathers, the primaries

still partly with needle like feathers. Head white,

three lines on the throat and neck were developing

from brown patches, a few brown patches on flanks

at the base of things, legs whitish feathered; feet

yellow and claws black. There were two blackish

prickles, one on each side of the red tongue 1 cm

short of the tip, pointed inwards may be so the prey

could be easily taken but prevented from slipping

out. A white powdery material was present at the

base of the bill. On close approach it reacted with

open gape and outstretched wings. It could now

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

507

swallow lizards whole (head first) and other small

prey.

On 3.6. 91, when the chick was 30 days old, it

was overall brown. Base of the bill and forehead

whitish, breast rufous brown with dark brown streaks;

eyes dark brown, legs yellow. Tail and outer feathers

of wings were fully developed to full length yet.

Underwings were whitish with dark brown spots.

Distinct white patch of the nape and slight white on

flanks was already visible.

On 10. 6.91 the chick almost resembled an

adult. The first flight was not observed and the

8. COOT FEEDING ON

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a

very troublesome aquatic weed. This free floating

plant with beautiful violetflowers and a conspicuous

floating organ is commonly encountered at most

freshwater bodies in India in the form of thick mats.

Not much is known about the interactions of the

plant with aquatic birds. However, I have observed

that some species of waterfowl - mainly Coot (Fulica

atrd) and to a minor extent Gadwall ( Anasstrepera ),

Shoveller (A. clypeata) and Mallard ( A .

platyrhynchos) graze upon hyacinth. The consumed

portions of the plant are leaf and the bulbous floating

organ. These observations were made at Okhla

Barrage, on River Yamuna near Delhi during the

winter of 1989-90 and also 1990-91.

According to Ali and Ripley (1983) Coots

chiefly consume vegetable matter, i.e. shoots and

seeds of aquatic plants and also, sometimes, small

fish and invertebrates. At Okhla Barrage Coots were

observed plucking rooted vegetation in the middle of

the reservoirand foragingat exposed mudflats during

low water. However, during January - February each

year, more Coots were observed feeding on hyacinth,

resulting in extensively cropped mats.

I have not observed water hyacinth being

fledging period was approx. 40 to 45 days. Around

this time the temperature recorded at Pugal (30 km

west of the nest) was an unbelievable 56°C. On

11.6.91, in the morning, the chick was seen dead on

the sandy ground below the nest. There were no

apparent injures and the death could havff been

caused by heat stress.

November 25, 1991 R.G.SONI

Conservator of Forests,

I.G.N.P., Stage. II,

Sagar road, Bikaner 334 001.

WATER HYACINTH

consumed by Coot or other waterfowl elsewhere, nor

have heard of reports confirming these observations.

According to Gopal and Sharma (1981) water

hyacinth has low digestible nutrient content and

high water content (~ 90%). This means that a

grazing Coot has to spend more time and energy

consuming large quantities of low value food (and

possibly spending more energy in the excretion of

excess water). However, the advantage to Coot may

be that since water hyacinth is locally abundant less

energy need be expended in food location or capture.

The distribution pattern of Coot and water

hyacinth at Okhla is noteworthy. Numerically

Table 1

ABUNDANCE OF SOME WINTERING WATERFOWL SPECIES AT DIFFERENT SITES

ON OKHLA BARRAGE BASED ON COUNTS DURING FEBRUARY, 1991

508

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo/. 96> (7993)

speaking, coot is the most abundant waterfowl species

in winter at Okhla. The reasons for this are not very

clear yet but it is easily confirmed by studying their

proportion in Waterfowl counts from several

randomly chosen sites on the barrage (Table 1).

Similarly, on the basis of visual estimates water

hyacinth appears to be the dominant vegetation in

terms of biomass at Okhla. A large amount of

hyacinth is brought in by the flow of the river which

gets clogged at the gates of the barrage besides the

one which propagates by floweringor vegeta tively in

the still areas of the reservoir.

Acknowledgement

I acknowledge a research associateship awarded by

CSIR, Delhi.

February 1, 1992 ABDUL J. URFI

School of Environmental Sciences,

Jawaharlal Nehru University,

New Delhi 110 067.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley S. D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition, Oxford, University Press, Delhi.

Gopal, B. & Sharma, K.P. (1981) : WaterHyacinth. Hindasia,

Delhi.

9. RECOVERY OF RUSSIAN RINGED GREY PLOVER ( PLUVIALIS

SQUATAROLA) AT POINT CALIMERE

The grey plover Pluvialis squatarola breeds on

the Arctic tundra of Europe and Asia from the Kanin

Peninsula to East Siberia, and in Arctic North .

America, and migrates south through Europe and

Asia to winter quarters in Africa, Madagascar,

India, Burma, Malaya and Thailand (Ali & Ripley

1983). It is almost cosmopolitan in distribution as

its winter range extends to coasts of South America,

Africa, southern Asia and Australia. But it is not

known whether there are any migratory divides

between birds migrating south-west to Europe, or

south to south-east to Asia a nd Austra 1 ia (Cramp a nd

Simmons 1983).

The bird migration study carried out under the

Bird Migration Project of the Bombay Natural History

Society confirmed the species as a regular winter

visitorto India in hundreds. At Point Calimere (10°

18* N; 75° 51’E) an adult grey plover with a Russian

Ring was recovered on 14th January 1990 in the

presence of Russian ornithologist Prof. E.I. Gavrilov.

Later we were informed that the bird was ringed by

him at Taldy Kourgansky (46° 41' N; 80° 36’ E) on

6th August 1989. As this species is known to breed

in the high Arctic region, it is evident that the

occurrence of this bird at the place of ringing in

August was on its autumn passage to the wintering

ground in south India. It is possible that the bird has

taken the straight route towards south as the places

of ringing and recovery fall almost in a straight line.

May 7, 1992 S.A. HUSSAIN

S.BALACHANDRAN

Bombay natural History Society ,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay - 400 023.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

509

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India Cramp, S. & Simmons, K.E.L. (eds.) (1983): The Birds of the

and Pakistan (Compact edition). Oxford University Press, Western Palearctic, Vol.3. Oxford University Press,

Delhi. Oxford.

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE KNOT (CALIDRIS CANUTUS ) IN ANDHRA

PRADESH

While carrying out studies on bird migration

at Pulicat bird Sanctuary (13° 25'-13° 55' N, 80° 03'-

80° 19' E) in south coastal Andhra Pradesh, a

solitary knot was trapped and ringed from the coastal

mudflats of the sanctuary on 21.12.1990. The

similar looking Eastern knot ( Calidris tenuirostris)

also recorded from Pulicat (Mohapatra and Rao,

JBNHS in press) has a longer bill and tarsus and dark

MESUREMENTS OF KNOT AND EASTERN KNOT (IN MM)

* BNHS Ring AB-129515. # BNHS Ring B-57777.

brown upper tail coverts as compared to the knot.

It appears that the knot is not so scarce as it was

once thought to be. A few in recent years are

annually found in Manner as also south SriLanka

(Hoffman JBNHS 86: 10. 1989).

However recently a few individuals of Knot

(17) and Eastern Knot (13) were ringed from

Mandapam in Tamil Nadu by the BNHS Bird

Migration Project. Prior to this there have been no

records of the knot from Andhra Pradesh coasts,

hence it is interesting to place its occurrence on

record.

May 29, 1992 PRKASH RAO

Bombay natural History K.K. MOHAPATRA

Society, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

11. COMMON GULL LARUS CANUS LINNAEUS RECORDED IN INDIA

On 19 January 1992, P.A. Dan Zetterstrom,

Goran Ekstrom and others observed a first -winter

Common Gull Earns canus at Yamuna river, Delhi.

This constitutes the first record from India.

The Common Gull was found roosting in a

little pool together with a few Brownheaded Gulls

L.brunnicephalus and several Blackheaded Gulls L.

ridibundus. It was watched for about 5-10 minutes

from a distance of c. 100 metres through telescopes

with 20 x magnification. At one point the whole

flock took off, and the Common Gull could be seen

well in flight, before it settled again. Unfortunately,

no photographs could be taken.

Description and identification: The Common

Gull was somewhat larger and heavier than

Brownheaded Gull. The bill was pale greyish pink

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90(1993)

with a black tip. The head, neck and underparts were

white with some sparse brownish mottling, mainly

on the neck and sides of breast. The mantle and

scapulars were medium grey. The lesser and median

coverts were brown with diffuse paler fringes, and

the greater coverts were pale grey-brown. The

tertials were dark brown with pale edges and tips.

The folded primaries were blackish. In flight it

showed blackish primary coverts, outer primaries

and secondaries, contrasting with paler inner

primaries and paler upper wing coverts.The under

wing coverts and axillaries were mainly whitish

with some dark feather-tips, forming dark bars. The

rump, upper tail - coverts and tail were white, the

latter with a clearcut, rather broad blackish band.

The legs/feet were pale pinkish, and the iris was

dark.

The common Gull was easily distinguished

from the Brownheaded - and Black headed Gulls it

associated with by, e.g. the larger size, darker grey

mantle/scapulars, lack of a dark ear covert spot, the

dark mottling to the head, neck and underparts, the

less reddish tinged bill and legs/feet, and in flight by

the all dark outer primaries and primary - coverts

and mottled underwing-coverts axillaries. It was

easily separated from first-winter Great Black headed

Gull Larus ichthyaetus by the much smaller size of

body and bill and the lack of a dark ear covert patch.

From second winter Herring Gull Larus argentatus

it differed in considerably smaller-sized body and

bill, less variegated pattern to the upper wing -

coverts (including rather uniformly grey - brown

greater coverts; these are strongly mottled in Herring

Gull), whiter and less mottled under wing - coverts

and whiter rump, upper - tail coverts and tail with

narrower and more clearcut terminal band.

It seems likely that the Common Gull was of

the subspecies heinei as that is the one breeding

nearest to India (breeding in Western and central

Siberia, wintering around Black and Caspian sea,

Iraq and Persian Gull). On plumage, first-winter

heinei is not distinguishable from the nominate

subspecies. The subspecies kamtschatschensis

(breeding in north-east Siberia, wintering in coastal

eastern Asia) and brac/iyrhynchus (north - west

North America) can be eliminated,’ as these show

more heavily mottled head, neck, underparts

underwings, rumpand uppertail- coverts and broader

tail-bands.

Status in the Indian Subcontinent:

J.S. Serrao (in litt.) has kindly informed me

that this was the first record from India, although he

mentions five previous records for the Indian

Subcontinent: in Nepal a first-winter bird at Kosi

Barrage on 12-21 January 1974 (Inskipp & Inskipp

1984) and an adult at Phewa Tal, near Pokhara on

21 January 1981 (Redman, Lambert and Grimmet

1984), and in Pakistan one (age?) in the Punjab area

on 27 January 1974, one (age?) at Rasul Barrage on

27 January 1974, and one(age?) at Rawal Lake, near

Islamabad on 17 November 1974 (Redman, Lambert

and Girmmet 1984).

Acknowledgements

I am most grateful to J.S. Serrao for supplying

information on the status of Common Gull in the

Indian Subcontinent

September 21, 1992 PER ALSTOM

Kungsgatan 3,

462 33 Vanersborg ,

Sweden .

References

Inskipp, C. & Inskipp, T. (1984): Additions to thee bird species Redman, N.J. , Lambert, F. & Grimmet, R. F. (1984): Some

recorded from Nepal./. Bombay nat Hist. Soc.81 : 702-706. observations of scarce birds in Nepal. J. Bombay nat Hist.

Soc. 81: 49-53.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

511

12. FURTHER EVIDENCE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK TERN

CHLID ON IAS NIGER (LINNAEUS) ON INDIA’S EASTERN COAST

On the 12th October 1990, while banding

aquatic birds at Pulicat Bird Sanctuary southern

Andhra Pradesh we ringed a solitary Black Tern

{Chlidonias niger) along with fifteen Whiskered

terns {Chlidonias hybrida ). The Black Tern was

identified from the other similar terns (Whiskered

and Whitewinged Black Tern) on the basis of a dark

mark on either side of the neck in front of the base

The Black Tern has been rarely reported from

the Indian Subcontinent (Alexander JBNHS 49:

120-121. 1950). However in the recent past there

have been two records of the species from Point

Calimere in Tamil Nadu (Abdulali and Ambedkar,

ibid. 80:640. 1983,Natarajanand Balasubramanian,

ibid. 87: 451-52. 1990).

Fromtheavailable information and thepresent

ring record it may seem that the Black Tern is an

uncommon but regular winter migrant to the eastern

coast of India. Due to its similarity with other terns,

it is quite possible that the species may be overlooked

amongst vast congregation of terns. Further records

of the species may give a clear indication of its

wintering status in India. The current record is also

an addition to the birds of Andhra Pradesh (Taher

and Pittie, Checklist of birds of Andhra Pradesh

1989).

May 29, 1992 K. K. MOHAPATRA

PRAKASH RAO

Bombay Natural History Society ,

Hornbill House, Ska heed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay - 400 023.

13. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE INDIAN SKIMMER, RYNCHOPS

ALBICOLLIS SWAINSON (AYES: LARI DAE)

During the study of a collection of avifauna

from Rajasthan, we came across a specimen of

Indian Skimmer, Rynchops albicollis Swainson

which was collected from Jodhpur district, Rajasthan.

The particulars of the specimen are as follows:

Material: 1 male, Tank in Dangiwas village,

Jodhpur district, coll. R. N. Bhargava, August 10,

1966.

Measurements (in mm): 1 male: Wing 326,

tail 97, bill (upper) 60 and (lower) 75.

This species mainly occurs in large rivers in

Pakistan, northern India, the southern limit being

16°N. latitude and east to Vietnam (i-iandbook birds

3: 75). It isTare in estuaries, inshore coastal waters

and in freshwater tanks and is a vagrant when found.

Butler (Stray Feathers 5: 225. 1876) recorded it from

Mount Abu, a hilly area in Rajasthanabouta century

back. The present specimen was collected from a

freshwater tank in Jodhpur, a semi-arid area in

Rajasthan, about 200 km north of Mount Abu.

July 10, 1992 N. MAJUMDAR,

C.S. ROY

Zoological Survay Of India,

M - Block, New Alipore,

Calcutta 700 053.

10

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 90 (1993)

14. THE INDIAN CUCKOO ( CUCULUS MICROPTERUS MICROPTERUS

GOULD) IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN

On the morning of 20th June 1989 in Sariska

Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, as I was walking on a

transect for bird community studies near Kundli

road I heard a bird call which is very familiar around

Dehradun. The bird was seen on an Anogeissus

pendula giving characteristic call of the Indian

cuckoo ( Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould).

It was dark grey above with a brownish tinge, pale

ashy and white below, cross-barred with widely

spaced broad black bands and also a broad, black

subterminal band on tail. The round and quick

flapping wings were all unmistakable. Later, on two

more occasions, the bird was heard calling during

July 1989. This bird may be a rare straggler and it

was not seen or heard during my stay at Sariska in

1988 and 1990.

February 28, 1992 K. SANKAR

Wildlife Institute of India,

P.O. Box 18,

Dehradun 248001.

15. BIRD HITS IN PONDICHERRY

During the last three years we noticed three

birds getting killed and another getting injured

apparently as a result of hitting the white washed

wall of building while in flight over Gorimedu in

Pondicherry. These accidents took place during

September - October, 1989 - 1991.

The first victim, an Indian Pitta, Pitta brachyura

was found lying dead in front of our house at 5.30

a. m. The second, also an Indian Pitta was found at

6 a. m. very near to the spot where the first one was

found. This bird was alive but was not able to fly.

When approached it hopped away and hid among the

bushes of the garden. The bird was in distress but

went about hopping and feeding on the ground for

a few days after which it disappeared. The third

victim was a brown bird, slightly larger than the

Indian Pitta. It was found dead at about 6 a.m. about

3 metres away from the spot where the two previous

Indian Pittas were found. This bird could not be

identified. The latest instance was on 12 October

1991 when a third Indian Pitta was found dead at 6

a.m. near the spot where the first one was found.

The body of the first Indian Pita was warm to

touch when found and the wings and legs of all the

three dead birds were easily movable. TLe necks of

all the three dead birds tended to droop. There was

no visible external injury on any of the birds.

The Indian Pittas were found near the centre

of a block of buildings having 8 flats on ground and

first floors. The 7.5 m tall block is constructed facing

south-east on the slope of Gorimedu, a hill about 33

m above mean sea level, located 5 km west of the bay

of Bengal. From Gorimedu the ground sloped

steeply down towards the bay allowing an

unobstructed panoramic view towards the bay from

the top of the building. The circumstances under

which the birds were found suggest that they might

have accidentally hit the building while flying from

south-east to north-west in the predawn darkness.

According to AJi and Ripley (1983, Handbook

Compact edition) the Indian Pitta is a passage

migrant in peninsular India, makingits way towards

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

513

north in May-June and in the opposite direction

towards Sri Lanka inSeptember-October. The place

where the dead and injured birds were found suggest

that they might have been flying in a north-westerly

direction at the time of the accidents. In the absence

of detailed information on the seasonal migratory

pattern of the Indian Pitta it is not possible to fully

understand the significance of these occurrences at

present.

February 19, 1992 E. NARAYAN

E-3, Jipmer Campus, RAJ I NARAYAN

Pondicherry 605 006.

16. PLAYING WITH FIRE ?

ALPINE CHOUGHS PLAY WITH A TIBETAN RED FOX

Playbehaviorhasbeendefinedas“all postnatal

motor activity that appears purposeless, in which

motor patterns from other contexts may often be used

in modified forms and altered temporal sequencing”

(Bekoff and Byers 1981, p. 300). Some behaviors

that initially appear to have an immediate function,

may upon further reflection, appear not so. Such

behaviors may be play. In this note, we describe an

observation that we interpreted to be interspecific

play in Alpine Choughs (Pyrrhocorax graculus).

Between 06:21 and 06: 22 h on 22 July 1992,

M.F. observed 5 or 6 Alpine Choughs circling

around and diving in turn at a Tibetan Red Fox

( Vulpes vulpes montana) in Dhee Sar (36°81'N, 74°

95' E), Khunjerab National Park, Pakistan. Dhee

Sar is a relatively flat hanging alpine meadow

(elevation 4,100-4,300 m) bordered by steep ridges

on two sides and glaciated peaks on the upper side.

A medial ridge bisects the upper portion of the

meadow. The choughs and fox were observed from

this ridge using 7x35 binoculars and a 15-45 power

spotting scope. This lookout gave an unobstructed

view of the interaction that took place less than 450

m away. The fox was viewed for 10 min prior to the

onset of the interaction.

Several or all of the choughs took turns diving

to within 1-2 m of the fox while the others swarmed

3-4 m overhead. No vocalizations were heard to

accompany this behavior, but a loud glacial stream

flowed between the observer and the location of the

incident. When the diving began, the fox immediately

ceased walking and either sidestepped or , more

commonly, crouched as each chough made its pass.

This interaction ended when the choughs flew away

after approximately 1 minute, and the fox appeared

to continue along its way. No direct contact between

the choughs and the fox was observed. Chough

( Pyrrhocorax spp.) feathers have previously been

identified in fox scats collected at Dhee Sar (Blumstein

and Robertson, ms).

We identified at least three mutually exclusive

interpretations for this observation.

First, the choughs could have been foraging.

Tibetan red foxes have been observed carrying prey

in their mouths on 5 other occasions and eating at a

large carcass on 4 different occasions. (Only two

days before, another fox was observed in the same

general area carrying a dead marmot). Choughs

have been observed scavenging at fox kill sites.

Other birds-Bald Eagles (reviewed in Bent 1937),

a nd Ravens (Bent 1946) a re known to a ttack terrestrial

predators with prey. The predator may consequently

abandon its prey which is then scavenged by the

birds. However, we reject this foraging hypothesis

as an explanation for the fox-chough interaction; at

the time of the attack, the fox was carrying no food.

Second, the Alpine Choughs could have been

mobbing the fox to defend nest sites a nd/or nestlings,

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 90(1993)

or foraging areas. We will address each of these in

turn.

Alpine Choughs are sometimes reported to

nest in colonies, and nest sites are primarily located

in cracks and niches of cliffs (Roberts 1992). In four

summers of work throughout Dhee Sar, no nest sites

were ever located. In late July, juvenile choughs

appeared adult- sized and foraged in mixed flocks

with adults. Furthermore, they appeared quite

manouvrable-engaging in what appeared to be

intraspecific locomotor play. Also, despite our

extensive movements throughout the meadow, no

Dhee Sar “Resident” (3-5 researchers / assistants)

has ever been swarmed and /or dived at by choughs.

Thus we reject the nest and/or nestling defense

hypothesis on three counts: no colonial nesting site

was located within at least 1 km of the interaction

site, the nearest potential nest sites (cliffs ) were over

100 maway, and fledglings appeared to be as capable

as adults in escaping predators.

However, the choughs could have been

attempting to discourage the fox from frequenting

chough foraging areas (Curio’s 1978 “moving on

hypothesis”). Foxes have been observed 45 times

over 387 days of research at Dhee Sar and Alpine

Choughs are seen daily. Yet, never before has anyone

seen choughs interact with foxes.

Since “mobbing” is assumed to be risky (Curio

and Regelmann 1986), foraging sites should only be

defended when there are clearand substantial benefits

from mobbing. However, we observed choughs

foraging throughout the meadow. The height of the

vegetation where the choughs dove at the fox was

low and was not significantly different than other

locations in the meadow (T = 0.5857, P > 0.5, df =

18). Nor were there obvious depressions or boulders

nearby where a fox could hide. In fact, the location

was somewhat remarkable for it afforded excellent

visibility for a chough-sized bird on the ground.

Unfortunately, our sightings of foxes were infrequent

enough to prevent a rigorous test of the hypothesis

that mobbing discourages foxes from returning to

the same location. However, even if we could have

tested this hypothesis, there are other reasons why a

fox might not return to the same location in subsequent

days. For instance, while the fox was interacting

with the choughs, golden marmots ( Marmotacaudata

aurea) from at least 6 surrounding groups were

aware of the fox, while marmots from 3 of these

groups alarm called at the fox. Signals may

discourage a predator from hunting in a particular

area (sensu Hasson 1991). Since we can identify no

specific immediate benefits from diving at the fox,

we reject the mobbing hypothesis in both forms.

Third, the choughs could have been playing.

We have not been able to reject this hypothesis.

Furthermore, several observations support this as a

probable explanation of the observed behavior.

First, play behavior is most common in gregarious

species, and other forms of play have been reported

in Alpine Choughs (Ali and Ripley 1987). Avian

play is most common in altricial species (Ortega and

Bekoff 1987), and choughs are altricial. Play betw een

birds and potential mammalian predators has been

reported between Ravens and wolves (Mech 1970).

Second, the observed swarmingand diving resembles

the mobbing behavior often used as a predator

deterrent in nesting colonies; it may have been

“practice” mobbing, which falls under Bekoff and

Byers’ (1981) definition of play (i.e. , “motor

patterns from other contexts”, p. 300). Third,

Alpine Choughs appear to commonly take risks by

approaching humans (Fleming etal 1984, unpubl.

obs.), and may perhaps more readily incur the

potential costs of play with hetero-specifics. Future

benefits (e.g. improved defense of nests or young, or

increased abilities to scavenge prey) may outweigh

the immediate costs, if any, ofplaying with a potential

predator.

We thank Marc Bekoff for comments on the

manuscript. We thank the people and government

of Pakistan for permission to work in Khunjerab

National Park. Support for this research was through

generous grants to D.T.B. by: The National

Geographic Society; The American Institute of

Pakistan Studies; The University of California,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

515

Davis (Graduate Fellowships, Jastro-Shields research

Scholarships, Graduate Research Awards; NSF

Research Training Grant in Animal Behavior); The

University Research Expeditions Program; The US

National Park Service; The American Society of

Mammalogists; Sigma xi; The Explorers Club; the

World Pheasant Association-Pakistan; WWF-

Pakistan. Commercial sponsors included: The North

Face, Hi-Tec Sports, Bushnell, Delta Airlines, and

Deckers Corporation.

March 30, 1993 DANIAL T. BLUMSTEIN1

J. MARC FOGGIN2

1 Animal Behavior Graduate Group,

Department of Zoology,

University of California,

Davis, CA 95616, U.SA.

2Departpment of Biology, McGill University ,

1205 Docteur Penfield Ave., Montreal,

Quebec, Canada H3A 1B1.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1987): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. 2nd ed. Compact Edition. Oxford University

press, New Delhi.

Bekoff, M. & Byers, J.A. (1981): A critical re-analysis of tire

ontogeny and phylogeny of mammalian social and locomotor

play: a ethologica! hornet’s nest, p. 296-337. In : K.

Immelmann, G.W. Barlow, L. Petrinovk:h, and M. Mains

(eds.), Behavioral development: the Bielefield

interdisciplinary conference. Cambridge university Press,

Cambridge.

Bent, A.C. (1937): Life histories of North American birds of prey,

part 1. Smithsonian Institution. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 167.

Bent, A.C. (1946): Life histories of North American jays, crows and

titmice. Smithsonian Institution U.S. National Museum

Bulletin 191.

Blumstein, D.T. & Robertson, M. (in review): Summer diets of

Tibetan red foxesand other predators at DheeSar, Khunjerab

National Park, Pakistan. The Journal of Wildlife

Management.

Curio, E. (1978): The adaptive significance of avian mobbing. I.

Teleonomic hypotheses and predictions. Zeitschrift fiir

Tierpsychologie 48: 175-183.

Curio, E. & Regelmann, K. (1986): Predator harassment implies a

real deadly risk: a reply to Hennessy. Ethology 72: 75-78.

Fleming, R.L., Sr. , Fleming R.L. Jr. & Bangdel, L.S. (1984): Birds

of Nepal with reference to Kashmir and Sikkim. 3rd ed.

Nature Himalayas, Kathmandu.

Hasson, O. (1991): Pursuit-deterrent signals: communication

between prey an predator. Trends in Ecology and Evolution

6: 325-329.

Mech, L.D. (1970): The wolf: the ecology and behavior of an

endangered species. University of Minnesota Press,

Minneapolis.

Ortega, J.C. & Bekoff, M. (1987): Avian play: comparative

evolutionary and developmental trends. Auk 104: 338-341.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The birds of Pakistan, vol. 2. Oxford University

Press, Karachi.

17. SOME NOTES ON THE HABITS AND HABITATS OF WHITECAPPED

REDSTART C HAIMARR ORN IS LEUCOCEPHALUS (VIGORS)

Whitecapped Redstart or River Chat

Chaimarrornis leucocephalus (Vigors) is one of the

commonest Chats found along the rivers and streams

of hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh. During the last

ten years from 1981, the species has been observed

by me in the NW Himalayan states of Jammu &

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Western Uttar Pradesh

and Punjab. According to Salim Ali and Ripley

(1973), this species is a common altitudinal migrant

in the Himalayas. The birds start arriving in their

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 90 (1993)

Table

S.No. Area Altitude Period of Remarks

obsercvation

winter habitat in October and are mostly gone by the

end of April as is evident from the Table .

During the surveys undertaken in the Mandi

and Kullu areas of Himachal Pradesh, it was found

that while the earliest arrivals have descended to an

altitude of 850 m, the last of the species were still at

an altitude of 1800 m (Table , S. No. 3 & 4). It can

be concluded from the above observations that,

weather remaining normal, these birds migrate

gradually and there is no sudden exodus from a

particular area. This fact is supported by the

observations made by me in the environs of Solan

since 1988. The city is located at an altitude of 1500

min Himachal Pradesh. These birds start descending

through Solan during the first half of October.

During the year 1988, the first arrival was observed

on 3.10.1988, whereas the last of the species was

seen on 29.10.1988 (Table , S. No. 11). The daily

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

517

temperature during this period tluctuated between

10.5° C to 24°C. The birds start ascending again in

the last week of March and early April. During the

year 1990, the birds were observed ascendingbe tween

the period 31.3.90 to 30.4.90 (Table, S. No. 13). The

temperature variation during this period was almost

the same as while the birds were descending.

During my observations on this species at

Solan, the birds, always singly, were seen feeding on

ground in the backyard of a residential building

pursuing insects. Very often, a bird was found

sitting on the roof of the building, giving its shrill

call announcing its presence in the locality.

Occasionally the bird would peep into a haU‘ built

house through the window but never enter it.

This species has been described as a strictly

water-bird dwellingon the banks rivers and mountain

streams particularly in forested areas (Salim Ali and

Ripley 1973, Whistler 1928). At Solan, however,

there is no running stream within one km radius of

the locality where these observations were made.

The vegetation of the locality is dominated by Primus

sp. followed by P inns roxburghii and Toonaciliata.

Three species of shrubs, namely Debregeasia sp.,

Rosa maschata and Berberis sp. are also common in

the area.

January 6, 1992 M.L. NARANG

Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry,

Solon 173 230, Himachal Pradesh.

References

ALI, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1973) : Handbook of the Birds of Wmsii£R, Hugh (1928) : Popular handbook of Indian birds.

India and aikistan. Vol.9, Oxford University Press, Delhi. Oliver and Boyd, London.

18. KEELED BOX TURTLE IN KARBI ANGLONG — A NEW LOCALITY

RECORD

The Keeled Box Turtle ( Pyxidea mouhotii) is a

small chelonian with a moderately elevated and flat-

topped carapace. There are three conspicuous keels

on its shell. The posterior marginals are serrated.

Heavily scaled limbs, which are dark grey in colour

are yet another notable feature. Its upper jaw is

hooked, the colour of the carapace is light yellowish-

brown. Topof head grey with maroon blotches. Iris

orange, pupil of the eye black.

In India, this turtle has been recorded in Tirap

district of Arunachal Pradesh, North Cachar Hills

district of Assam, and Garo Hills of Meghalaya.

Outside, it extends upto Vietnam (Das 1985, Indian

Turtles: A Field Guide. WWF-India.).

On 22nd May, 1992, a local Karbi (tribal)

shikari gave me a live turtle caught in the forests of

Dhansiri RF of Karbi Anglong district in Central

Assam (25° 40' N , 96° 20'E). I kept the reptile for

a week at the circuit House, Diphu. During captivity

it relished cockroaches. Then on 28th May, 1992, 1

released it back in to Dhansiri RF.

It measured: carapace length 14.5 cm; cara-

pace width 11 cm. The habitat where it was caught

in low hill forests with tropical semi -evergreen

vegetation, altitude of the place was about 200-250

m above mean sea level.

January 2, 1993 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road, Guwahati 781007, Assam.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

19. FIRST RECORD OF CYRTODACTYLUS FASCIOLATUS (BLYTH), THE

BENT-TOED BANDED GECKO (SAURIA: GEKKONIDAE: GEKKONINAE)

FROM GARHWAL HILLS

Cyrtodactylus fasciolatus (Blyth), the Bent-

toed banded Gecko has so far been recorded from

Shimla hills (Subafhu) and Kumaon hills (Almora,

c. 1,615 m) (Blyth 1860, Annandale 1914, Smith

1935). Recently, we collected a beautiful specimen

(17.2 cm in total length) of the species from the

crevices of a road side stone wall near Ghansali

along Tilwara road, District Tehri-Garhwal (c. 950

m, coll. Akhlaq Husain and Pranjalendu Ray) on the

night of 25th May, 1992. The lizard, being nocturnal

came out to feed on insects and two specimens were

collected. One escaped. Earlier, another specimen

(16.4 cm in total length) was collected from the

vicinity of village Damdeval, District Pauri-Garhwal

(c. 1,850 m, 24. iv. 1989, coll. Arun Kumar) during

a survey of the area.

The present find from Garhwal hills is

interesting from a zoogeographical point of view as

it completes the interrupted range of its distribution,

at least in one stretch of Western Himalaya. The

species is apparently endemic in the Western

Himalaya at low and moderate elevations, as pointed

out by Annandale (1914).

All the specimens, were males as determined

by the presence of paired postanal bones lying on

each side of the base of the tail just behind the vent

and the pores on all femoral scales (17-18 on each

side). The preanal scales (6-7) are without pores. It

is worth mentioning that according to Annandale

(1914) the males are without femoral pores and with

10-12 preanal pores whereas Smith (1935) was not

sure of the presence of preanal and femoral pores in

males as he could examine only female specimens.

The present material agrees in general with the

description of the species by earlier workers (op. cit.)

except for the following variations:

1 . Diameter of ear-opening 3 .0 - 3 .3, 3 times in

diameter of eye (vs. about half of the eye, Smith

1935).

2. Scales across the mid-belly between lateral

folds 26 in Tehri specimen (vs. 28 -34, Smith 1935).

3. Femoral scales 17-18 on each side (vs. 15-

16, Smith 1935), all with pores (vs. no femoral pores

in males, Annandale 1914).

4. Males with a row of 6 -7 enlarged preanal

scales behind femorals, without pores (vs. male with

10-12 preanal pores, Annandale 1914).

Besides, the following observations hitherto

unrecorded, have been made:

1 . Edge of eye-lid with two rows of backwardly

directed pointed tubercles, arranged alternately.

2. Cone-shaped enlarged tubercles on anterior

one-third of tail, arranged in transverse rows.

3-. Four parallel ridges running longitudinally

on middorsal of body and two such ridges on tail

(more prominent in Tehri specimen).

4. Scales on ventral and ventro-lateral sides of

body dotted with black.

We thank the Director, Zoological survey of

India, Calcutta and the Joint Director, In-charge,

Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Dehra Dun for encouragement and providing

facilities.

April 24, 1993 AKHLAQ HUSAIN

PRANJALENDU RAY

Zoological Survey of India,

Northern Regional Station, Kaulagarh Road,

Dehradun 248 195.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

519

References

Annandale, N. (1914): The Indian Geckos of the genus Reptilia. J. Asiat. SocEengal 29: 114.

Gymnodactylus. Rec. Indian Mus. 9(5): 325, figs. 3, 3a. Smith ,M.A. (1935): The fauna of British India including Ceylon

Blyth, E. (1860): Proceedings of the Society. Report of the Curator. and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Sauria 2: 40, 45-46.

20. PRESENCE OF SANDFISH OPHIOMORUS TRIDACTYLUS (BLYTH) IN

EASTERN RAJASTHAN

The Sandfish Ophiomorus tridactylus (Blyth)

is a weak-legged lizard that lives just below the

surface of sand dunes. It occurs in Punjab, Kutch,

Sind, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Persia (Smith

1935). According to Daniel (1983) it is peculiar to

the sandy tracts of north-western Rajasthan and

Pakistan.

Observations in 1984 revealed that it is very

common within and around the Desert National

Park, Jaisalmer. To locate this species outside the

desert region, eastern and southern Rajasthan were

widely surveyed.

In March 1992, the characteristic trails of

sandfish were observed in the approximately 2 ha

area nearJawaharNagarForest Officers’ Residential

Colony on the eastern outskirts of Jaipur city. It is a

moderately sandy locality and presently clad with a

R E F E

Daniel J.C.(1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

21. NEST - DESERTION BY A KING

Acacia tortilis plantation, raised in 1986.

In August 1992, an area approximately 10 m2

was dug up and three individuals of this species

were captured. After identification all of them were

released in the same locality. This may be the first

record of this species i n the eastern pa rt of Raj astha n,

far away from the Thar Desert.

Twenty years back the whole surrounding area

had no biotic interference due to human settlement.

But in recent years, the area has been badly affected

by unplanned humansettlementputtingthe sandfish

population under threat.

February 27, 1993 SATISH KUMAR S HARM A

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol (F.), Dist. Udaipur,

Rajasthan-313702.

E N C E S

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India. Vol. II. Taylor and

Francis, London.

COBRA (OPHIOPHA GUS HANNAH)

On 23 May 1992, a tribesman lead me to a Sanctuary, Anaimalai hills (altitude c. 740 m). The

deserted nest of a King Cobra in a dense bamboo man told me that a couple of months earlier several

jungle near Top Slip in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife village people had seen the parent snake guarding

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

the nest. He said that the snake would slither away

towards some nearby holes everytime someone

approached and showed no signs of aggression.

The nest was a mound of bamboo leaves at the

base of a bamboo thicket. After making sure the nest

was deserted, I carefully shifted aside the tightly

packed dry leaves down to a depth of about 30 cm

until I reached the decaying humus layer. Amongst

the dark coloured moist humus lay 10 decomposed

eggs. The clutch was in a bowl shaped circular

depression about 30 cm in diameter, apparently

made by the parent. The entire area was swarming

with small black ants with their tiny white eggs, and

one of the snake eggs had a maggot on it.

The eggs were leathery, dirty- white and greatly

wrinkled. Three of the eggs averaged 67 x 37 mm

in dimension. (We could not measure all the eggs

due to the threat of elephants in the vicinity). When

we returned to the site the very next day for taking

photographs, all but two of the eggs had been eaten

by some animal. Fragments of the eggs were strewn

about the area.

The nest was placed within 15 m of a water-

hole created by a check dam. This pool is visited

regularly by local people for fishing and washing,

and this disturbance probably led to the nest desertion.

King Cobras are quite familiar to many of the

tribals living around Top Slip. A few years ago an

adult measuring “about 5 m” was run overby a lorry

on the Parambikulam road about a kilometre from

Top Slip. The specimen was skinned by the Forest

Department and the exhibit remained in custody of

the Department for some time. More recently, I

picked up a 68 cm-long dead King Cobra from inside

the evergreen forests of Karian Shola National Park

near Top Slip. The reptile had been apparently

trampled to death by some animal.

January 2, 1993 R. KANNAN

Hornbill Project,

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

Top Slip 642 141, Tamil Nadu.

22. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE BOMBAY SHIELD-TAIL SNAKE UROPELTIS

MACROLEPIS (PETERS 1861) (SERPENTES: UROPELTIDAE)

On 20 October 1992, one of us (MRA) collected

a dead specimen of a Uropeltid snake along the

roadside, in the evergreen forests of Amboli hills

(15° 52'N, 73° 56'E) (1158 m msl) in Savantvadi

taluk, Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra.

The specimen, which was fresh and in good

condition, was identified in BNHS as the Bombay

shield -tail snake Uropeltis macrolepis. The specimen

measured 332 mm in total length, which is more

than the 300 mm described by Smith (1943), and

12.76 mm in diameter. The morphological characters

are as follows: body cylindrical; tail end obliquely

truncated above, the truncated portionslightly convex

and covered with mostly bicarinate scales forming a

disc. Scales smooth, in 15 rows; ventrals 1 24; cauda Is

9. The body was dark purplish-brown; a short broad,

yellow stripe on the lips and sides of the neck cont-

inued as large spots on the interior part of the body.

The distribution of Uropeltis macrolepis has

been described as Bombay hills (i.e. Matheran,

Khandala, Lonavla and Igatpuri) between 18° 7' and

19° 7'N by Smith (1943). A new form of this species,

Uropeltis macrolepis mahableshwarensis , was

described by Chari (1951, 1952, 1954). This form is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

521

restricted to Mahableshwar. The BNHS collection

records show that two j uvenile specimens of Uropeltis

macrolepis (Reg. No. 2729) have been collected

from Koyna, Satara district. The present collection

from the southern part of the state extends the range

of distribution of this species southwards from 19°7'

to 15° 52' N in the Western Ghats.

January 19, 1993 A.G. SEKAR

M.R. ALMEIDA

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

References

Chari, V.K. (1951): Localization of the striped variety of the

Roughtailed earthsnake Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters), to

Mahableshwar. J. Bombay nat. Hist.Soc. 50: 950-951.

Chari, V.K. (1952): Some more notes on Uropeltis macrolepis

(Peters) with special reference to specimens from

Mahableshwar (Western Ghats, Bombay). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc.51: 512.

Chari, V.K. (1954): A new form of the Burrowing snake, Uropeltis

macrolepis (Peters) from Mahableshwar. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc.52: 901.

Smith, M. A. (1943): The fauna of British India. Reptilia 8c

Amphibia. Vol. III. Taylor and Francis. Red Lion court,

Fleet St., London. Reprinted in 1974 at Today and

Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, New Delhi.

23. RECORD OF THE VERRUCOSE FROG RANA KERALENSIS (DUBOIS) IN

SHOOLPANESHWAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (BHARUCH DIST., GUJARAT)

Shoolpaneshwar wildlife sanctuary is a part of

Rajpipla forest and situated on the left bank of

Narmada river. The area is hilly and is located

between 73° 32' & 73° 54* E and 21° 34' & 21° 32'

N. During the faunal survey of this area we collected

three frogs which were identified as Rana keralensis

(Dubois) on account of the following characters:

Warty dorsal surface with several glandular folds;

smooth ventral surface. Moderately large head with

an obtusely pointed snout projecting slightly beyond

the mouth. Toes 3/4 webbed; two phalanges of the

4th toe free; outer metatarsals separated by web

nearly to the base. Tibiotarsal articulation reaches

nostril. Colour: brownish black above with darker

markings; limbs and lips barred. Ventrally white.

These frogs were seen near the streams flowing thro-

ugh the forest areas of Sagai and Mosda. The finding

constitutes a new record of this species in Gujarat.

Collection details: (a) Sagai, 12. x .91, (b)

Mosda, 15.iii.92, by K.R. Vinod and (c) Mosda,

8.xii. 91, By Y.M. Naik.

Measurements: (a) Sagai: Snout to vent length

61 mm., front limb 32 mm; hind limb 109 mm; (b)

Mosda: Snout to vent length 60 mm; front limb 32

mm; hind limb 115 mm. (c) Mosda: Snout to vent

length 62 mm; front limb3 1 mm; hind limb 107 mm.

The verrucose frog was first described as Rana

verrucosa by Gunther in 1875 and renamed in 1980

as Rana keralensis by Dubois. This little known

species is considered as endemic to the Western

Ghats (Daniel 1975). However this species can no

longer be considered as endemic to Kerala or Tamil

Nadu as its range extends further through Karnataka

up to Maharashtra (Daniels, R.J. 1992). Record of

this species in the above areas of Gujarat indicates

that the range of this species extends at least up to the

left bank of Narmada river in Gujarat.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out under the research

project Eco-environmental and wildlife management

studies on the Sardar Sarovar submergence area in

Gujarat. The help provided by Prof. Bonny Pilo for

the field studies is gratefully acknowledged. We

thank Dr. A. K. Sarkar, Zoological survey of India,

Refe

Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of Western India.

■J. Bombay nat. Hist.Soc. 72'. 506 - 522.

Calcutta for his help i n identification of the specimen.

August 7, 1992 Y.M. NAIK

K.R. VINOD

Department of Zoology,

Faculty of Science,

M.S. University ofBaroda,

Baroda 390 002. Gujarat.

E N C E S

Daniels, R.J. Ranjit(1992): Geographical range and ecology of the

verrucose frog Rana keralensis (Dubois). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 89 (2). : 199 - 203.

24. THE COMMON TOAD BUFO MELANOSTICTUS AND THE GARDEN

LIZARD CALOTES VERSICOLOR FEEDING ON SWARMING TERMITES

Instances of animals and especially birds,

capitalising on the abundance of prey during

swarming of termites for the nuptial flight is well

known. I report here such an instance in the case of

amphibians and reptiles. On 24.iv.92 at 0930 hrs at

Veda ra nya m (10 km no rth of Point Ca li me re Wildl ife

Sanctuary, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu), There

was a sudden summer downpour. Within five

minutes of the showers, I witnessed a congregation

of 23 toads Bufo melanostictus and 5 garden lizards

Calotes versicolor feeding on the termites swarming

out of a termite hole. What was interesting was the

swiftness with which the toads gathered, and during

the day.

April 24, 1993 RANJIT MANAKADAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 23.

25. OCCURRENCE OF THE FRESHWATER GREY MULLET RHINOMUGIL

CORSULA (HAMILTON) AT THE TUNGABHADRA - KRISHNA CONFLUENCE

NEAR NANDI KOTKUR, ANDHRA PRADESH

The freshwater grey mullet Rhinomugilcorsula

is reported from the Gangetic river system (Hamilton

1822), rivers and estuaries of Bengal and Burma

(Day 1889), Cauvery river system (Menon and

Jayaram 1977) and Bhima river (Pradhan and Singh

1984). Pradhan and Singh (1984) presumed the

recent recording of this species in the rivers of

Maharashtra as due to accidental introduction along

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

523

with carp fry from Calcutta by the State Fisheries

Department.

On7.xii.92, 1 made a trip to ‘ Sa nga meshwa ra m ’

the confluence of the River Tungabhadra (which is

in fact a tributary of the Krishna river) and River

Krishna near Nandikotkur (15° 52' N and 78°18' E),

and found the freshwater grey mullet in great

abundance there. This species is easily identified by

its peculiar habit of swimming in small shoals at the

water surface with its eyes protruding out of the

water.

Their occurrence here is of interest, as the

Bhima is a tributary of the Krishna, and poses

questions whether the occurrence of this species in

the Krishna river system is a result of accidental

introduction, or expansion/migration of the species

along the river system from areas where it existed

undetected earlier.

May 7, 1993 RANJIT MANAKADAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed B ha gat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

References

Day, F. (1889): The Fishes of India. William Dawson, London.

Hamilton, F. (1882): An account of fishes found in the river Ganges

and its branches. London.

Menon, A.G.K. & Jayaram, K.C. (1977) : The fresh water grey

mullet, Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) as a resource in the

Cauvery river system, south India. Science & Culture 43 (7)

: 302-304.

Pradhan, M.S. & Singh, D.F. (1984) : The first recored of the

freshwater grey mullet Rhinomugil coursula (Hamilton)

from Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 (1) : 202

-204.

26. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF A FRESH WATER PUFFER FISH, TETRAODON

(MONOTRETUS) TRAVANCORICUS HORA & NAIR, COLLECTED FROM

TRICHUR DISTRICT, CENTRAL KERALA

(With four text-figures)

Introduction

Hora and Nair (1941, Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 391-

393) reported a freshwater puffer fish, Tetraodon

(Monotretus) travancoricus from Pamba river,

southern Kerala. Since then there has been no report

of this species from any other locality. A good

number of specimens of this species were collected

by me from the inundated brickyards at Pudukkad,

Trichur, Kerala. A brief description of its sexual

dimorphism is given here.

Sexual Dimorphism

male: Males were longer and larger than

females. Golden yellow in colour on the ventral side

in live specimens. A dark bluish ventral band on the

middle of the golden yellow, starting from the mouth

and extendingup to the base of the caudal fin (Fig.l).

The golden yellow colour is also present at the base

of the dorsal, anal and caudal fins. This colour is less

prominent on the pectoral fins. Light black spots are

present throughout the body (Fig. 3). The shining

golden yellow on the body surface is less prominent

due to the discontinuous black spots. There are a

large number of narrow dark lines on the caudal fin

(Fig- 3).

female: Females shorter and smaller than

males. The golden yellow colour noted on the ventral

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

dark

side of the male is absent in the female, and less

pro mi lie nt o n t he ba se o f d o rsa 1 , a na 1 a nd ca u da 1 fi ns ,

The dark bluish band noted on the ventral side of the

male is replaced by a white coloured area in the

female (Fig. 2). Very few dark lines are present on

the caudal fin (Fig. 4), and prominent black spots on

the lateral sides (Fig.4). Almost a 11 females collected

during the months of May, June and September 1990

bore eggs. The eggs within an ovary are of unequal

size.

Male

1. Body larger and longer.

2. A dark bluish ventral band

from mouth to the caudal

persists even in preserved

specimens.

3. Golden yellow colour on

the ventral side.

4. Prominent golden yellow

colour at the base of the

dorsal, anal and caudal

fins.

Female

Body smaller and less elongated.

Absence of a dark ventral band.

White colour on the ventral

side.

Golden yellow colour is less

prominent at the base of dorsal

anal and caudal fins.

5. A large number of narrow

dark lines on the caudal

fin.

6. Light black spots on the

lateral sides.

Very few dark lines on the

caudal fin.

Prominent black spots on the

lateral sides.

Collection date and occurrence: The specimens

were collected during the months of May, June and

September 1992.

Tetraoden travancoricus Hora & Nair

Figs. 1-2. Ventral view. Figs. 3-4. Entire

body surface.

June 7, 1993

Department of Zoology,

Christ College,

Irinjalakkuda, Kerala.

N.D. INASU

27. DESCRIPTION OF NEW RECORDS OF THE GENUS GONIAGNATHUS

FIEBER ( Cl CADELLI DAE : HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA

(With six text-figures)

Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar and G. time in India. The male genitalia of G. nervosus is

guttulinervis( Kirschbaum) are recorded for the first described for the first time.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

525

Figs. 1-6. Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar : 1. Pygofer, lateral view ; 2. Style ; 3. Subgenital plates (fused) ; 4. Aedeagus, dorsal

view; 5. Aedeagus, lateral view ; 6. Female sternum VII.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

Genus Goniagnathus Fieber

Go/i/agrar/w/s Fieber, 1866. Zool. -Bot. Gesell.

Wien. Verhandl., 16: 506. Type species: Jassus

brevis Fieber.

Goniozygum Bergroth, 1920, n.nom., invalid

for Goniagnathus 1866. Linnavuori, 1978. Rev.

Zool. afr. 92 (2): 486.

This genus was adequately described by Ribaut

(1952) and Linnavuori (1978). Five species, namely

appellans, bicolor, fumosus, punctifer a nd uni for mis

have been found previously in India. Two more

species are recorded for the first time from India.

Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar(Figs. 1-6)

Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar, 1903. Horn. Faun. Ceylon:

180. Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar, Distant, 1908. Faun. Brit.

Ind. Rhyn. IV: 312.

Colour: Robust yellowish-brown leafhoppers

with brown dottingall over. Vertexabout fourtimes

as broad as medially long, infront broadly rounded,

the front margin with two reddish brown bow-

shaped transverse bands. Face on sides with several

black transverse irregular lines.

This species was described on the external

characters only. The male genitalia is described and

illustrated for the first time.

Male Genitalia: Pygofer with a pairof strongly

sclerified processes from dorso-posterior margin.

Macro-setae absent and only microsetae present.

Valve reduced. Subgenital plates fused, short and

broad, with microsetae and only a few macrosetae.

Style with apophysis i ncrassate, Preapical lobe absent.

Connective small and fused with aedeagus. Aedeagus

with five short appendages, one pair from baso-

lateral area, second single appendage from medio-

ventral area and third paired, dorso-subapical from

below the hood like apical structure; gonopore

subapical.

Female VII sternum as shown in the figure.

Specimens Examined: 2 Males, 3 females,

Ambalavayal, Kerala State, on Mango, 1. v. 1986,

Coll. V.R. S. Rao.

Distribution: Ambalavayal, Kerala State:

INDIA: SRI LANKA.

Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kirschbaum)

Jassus guttulinervis Kirschbaum, 1868. Nassau Ver. Naturk. Jahrb.

21-22: 116. Thamnotettix putoni Lethierry, 1874. Pet Nouv. Ent 1: 444.

Goniagnathus laminatus Ivanoff, 1885. Univ. Imp. Kharkov/, Soe. ties Nat.

Trav.19: 92.Goniagnathus ocellatus Jacobi, 1910. Schwedisehen Akad.

der Wiss. : 133, sya n. Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kbm.) Linnavuori,

1978. Rev. ZooL Afr. 92 (2): 493. Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kbm.)

Ribaut, 1952. Faune De France, 57: 190.

This species was adequately described and

illustrated by Ribaut (1952) and Linnavuori (1978).

It is reported here from India for the first time.

Specimens Examined: 4 Males, 8 females,

New Delhi (lawn, Buddajayanti Park), 5. IV. 1987,

Coll. V.R.S.Rao.

Distribution: New Delhi, India: Widely

distributed in different countries.

Acknowledgement

lam thankful to Dr. (Mrs) Usha Ramakrishnan,

Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, for her generous help and

encouragement.

November 19, 1992 V. RAMA SUBBA RAO

Department of Entomology,

Agriculture College,

Aswaraopet 507 301,

Khamman Dist., Andhra Pradesh.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

527

References

Bergroth, E. (1920): Hemipter? from British East Africa. Arkiv.

Zool. 12: 1-30.

Distant, W.L. (1908): Rhynchota-Homoptera. The Fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma 4: 1-501.

Fieber, F.X. (1866): Neue Gattungen and Arten in Homopteren

(Cicadina, Bur.). Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien. Verhandl, 16:497-

516 .

Ivanoff, P.B. (1985): Liste des Cigales (Cicadina) des environs de

Koupiansk avec tableaux synoptiques des especes de ces

insects. Univ. Imp. Kharkow. Soc. des. Nat. Trav. 19: 83-

158.

Jacobi , A .(1910): Hemiptera 12. Homoptera 7. Wissenschaftliche

ErgebnissederSchweaischen Zoologischen Expedition nach

dem Kilimandjaro, dem Meru an den Umgebenden

Massaisteppen Deutsch-Ostafrikas 1905-1906. Unter der

Leitung von Prof. Dr. Yngve Sjostedt herausgegeben mit

unterstutzung von der konigl. Schwedischen Akad. der.

Wiss: 97-136.

Kirschbaum, C. (1868): Die Cicadinen der Gegend von Wiesbaden

und Frankfurt A. M. nebst einer Anzahl neuer oder schwer zu

unterscheidender Arten aus anderen Gegenden Europas

tabellarisch beschrieben. Nassau. Ver. Naturk. Jahrb. 21-

22: 1-202.

Lethierry, L. (1874): Hemipteres nouveaux. Pet. Nouv. Ent.l :

444.

Linnavuori, R. (1878): Revision of Ethiopian Cicadellidae

(Homoptera), Paraboloponinae and Deltocephalinae:

Scaphytopiini and Goniagnathini. Rev. Zool. afr. 92 (2):

457-500.

Meuchar, L. (1903): Homopteran: Fauna Von Ceylon : 1-248.

Ribaut, H. (1952): Homopteres. Auchenorrhynques. II (Jassidae).

Faune. de. France 57: 1-475.0

28. NEPTIS CARTICA MOORE (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE) IN THE

UTTAR PRADESH HIMALAYA

Eliot (1969) notes that Neptis cartica cartica

Moore occurs along the Himalaya, from Nepal

eastwards to the Karen Hills in Burma and Tonkin.

Another sub-species, N. cartica burmana de Niceville,

occurs in south Burma and Thailand. Evans (1932)

and Wynter-Blyth (1957) assign a range from Sikkim

eastwards to Burma, despite the fact that Moore’s

Type specimens consist of a pair from Nepal (Eliot

1969). Hannyngton(inPeile 1937), in his otherwise

rather comprehensive list of the butterflies of

Kumaon, does not record this butterfly.

A single specimen of this butterfly (Male,FW:

3.1 cm.) was brought in by a local collector from the

Sattal Valley at 1300m. elevationinNainital district

(28°39' N, 78° 81'E) on May 16, 1986, among a

series of Neptis sankara Kollar (Nymphalidae). No

specimens came to light during subsequent years

until, in the summer of 1992, local collectors were

instructed to concentrate on obtaining series of

Neptini, in the hope that this species would turn up.

Two specimens were collected in the same locality

on May 4, 1992 and May 5, 1992 (FW: 3 cm. and 3.2

cm. respectively). .

On the basis of the above specimens, all in my

collection, the presence of this butterfly in Kumaon,

Uttar Pradesh , is reported.

Little is known of its habits and early stages.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) notes that it occurs at low

elevation in the Sikkim-Darjeeling area. It might

perhaps be more frequently met with at lower

elevation in Kumaon than in Sattal.

ACKN O W LED G EM ENT

I was awarded the Times fellowship for the

year 1991 and this publication is the result of work

carried out in this capacity during May and June

1992. The support of the Times of India Group is

gratefully acknowledged.

October 7, 1992 PETER SMETACEK

T.H.I.S

Jones Estate, Bhimtai.

Nainital 263 136, U.P.

11

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 90 (1993)

References

Eliot, J.N. (1969): Analysis of the Eurasian and Australian Neptini

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). .#«//. of the Brit. M us. (N.H.)

Supp. 15, London, p.93.

Evans, W.H. (1932): Identification of Indian Butterflies./. Bombay

nat . Hist. Soc. P. 168.

Peile, H.D. (1937): Guide to collecting Butterflies of India. London,

Staples, p.234 - 238.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region,

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, p.194, 196.

29. RECORD OF DEANOLIS ALBIZONALIS (HAMPSON) (PYRALIDAE:

ODONTINAE) AS MANGO FRUIT BORER IN ANDHRA PRADESH

A pyralid mango fruit borer causing

considerable damage in recent years in Godavari

districts of Andhra Pradesh was identified nsDeanolis

albizonalis ( Hampson) (Pyralidae: Odontinae). The

borer attacked mango fruits from marble size to

maturity causing serious loss. Sengupta and Behura

(1955) earlier reported this as a pest of graft mango

varieties from Puri in Orissa. This is the first report

of D.albizonalis (Hampson) occurring as a major

pest on mango in Andhra Pradesh.

We are grateful to the Director of Research,

Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University for

providing facilities to carryout the studies and to Dr.

M. Shaffer, International Institute of Entomology,

London for the identification of the insect.

June 8, 1993 S.M. ZAHERUDDEEN

A. SUJATHA

Agriculture Research Station,

Ambajipeta 533 214,

Andhra Pradesh.

Reference

Sengupta G. C. & Behura, B.K. (1955): Some new records of crop pests from India. Indian J. Ent. 17 (2): 283 - 285.

30. FLOWER VISITORS AND POLLINATION OF CAESALPINIA CORIAREA

(CAES ALPINI ACEAE)

Caesalpinia coriarea (Caesalpiniaceae),

commonly known as Divi-Divi, is a medium sized

spreading tree, with small crisp leaflets and white

flowers, commonly grown in waste lands and road

sides. The plants flower at Visakhapatnam (17°

42'N; 82° 78'E) in two seasons: April-July and

October-November, the former is associated with

hot weather season and the latter with the retreating

South-west monsoon season.

The flowers are arranged in axillary clusters.

The racemose inforescence is axillary and its length

varies from 5-8 cm, consequently the number of

flowers it bears varies from 180-302. Flowers

usually mature in basipetal succession. The flowers

are pedicellate. The length of each flower is [(x)0.8

cm with 0.3 cm tube]. Corolla light greenish white.

Stamens 10 didynamous below the level of stigma.

Anthers are small, dithecous,extrorse. Ovary sessile,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

529

few ovules are present. Style filiform, red in colour

an 0.7 cm in length. Stigma terminal, bifid and light

green in colour.

The flowers anthese during the period from

0300 to 0500 h. Anthers dehisce shortly after a nthes is

presenting the pollen. Pollen grains are small in

size, spheroidal 28-35 p.m in diameter, exine smooth

and granular cytoplasm. Their number per flower

averages 3058, of which 90% of the pollen grains are

fertile. The grains are viable for 14 h from the time

of anther dehiscence as indicated by fruit-set on

hand-pollinations.

Nectar secretion begins with anthesis. Nectar

volumes accumulated for 3 h intervals ranged from

0.01 to 0.05 pi. Sugar concentration ranges from 26-

48%. Paper chromotograpy analysis revealed the

presence of sugars namely glucose, fructose and

sucrose, the glucose being the dominant constituent.

Amino acids and proteins are also present as indicated

by Nynhydrine and Bromo-phenol tests respectively.

Histadine scale was recorded as 3.0.

Twenty two insect species were found foraging

at the flowers during the study period (Table 1). Of

these 11 are Hymenoptera (Apidae 3, 2 each of

Xylocopidae, Eumenidae and Sphecidae, 1 each of

Anthophoridae and Vespidae), 11 Lepidoptera

(Sphingidae 1, Danaidae 1, Nymphalidae 2,

Papilionidae 3, Pieridae 2 and Hesperidae 2).

Six of these 22 species foraged on pollen and

nectar, and the others foraged on nectar only. All the

visitors were not presented in both the years. All the

insects species found at the flowers are diurnal in

their activity. Most of the domina nt visitors exhibi ted

a period of peak activity. Among the bees Apis

cerana indica was more frequent during 0600-1400

h, Ceratina sp. 0700-1300 h,Bembixsp. 0700-1600

h, Sphex sp. 0800-1400 h, Delta conedus 0800-

1400 h, Rhynchium metallicum 0700-1500 h,

Graphium agamemnon 0700-1400 h and Papilio

polytes 800-1400 h.

The bees collected pollen as well as nectar. The

wasps and butterflies confined their visits only to

nectar foraging.

Data regarding the number of flowers visited

in a minute and the time spent on a flowerby common

visitors indicated that Graphium agamemnon is

more mobile covering on an average 30 flowers in a

minute and spending on an average 3 seconds per

flower. The corresponding figure for other species

are Papilio polytes 20, 5; Bembix sp. 20, 6;

Rhynchium metallicum 15, 6 ; Sphex sp. 14, 4;

Delta conedus 20, 4; Ropalidia spatulata 21,3 \Apis

cerana indica 10, 6; Xylocopa latipes 14, 6; and

X.pubescens 12, 6.

The forage offered by C.coriarea constitutes

both pollen and nectar to the flower visitors, the

latter being the more predominant to wasps and

butterflies. A close examination of intrafloral

behaviour of the visitors revealed that wasps and

butterflies made a larger number of visits compared

to the bees. Pollen depletion was mostly due to

foragers activity, and 60% of the pollen grains were

depleted during 0700-1300 h when the foragers'

activity was also found to be high.

Breedingexperiinentsruled-out the possibility

of apomixis and autogamy. Hand-pollinations

revealed that the presence of geitonogamy and

xenogamy, the latter one appears to be more

successful.

Pollination: Opened flowers are available

during day-time from 0600 h onwards. Wasps,

butterflies and bees visit the flowers during 0600-

1800 h and collect nectar and/or pollen. The flowers

are zygomorphic, hermaphrodite. Spontaneous

autogamy does not take place because the stigma is

located a little above the anthers and the contact with

the anthers is unlikely. All the insects visiting the

flowers are not equally effective as pollinators. The

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , POL. 99 (7993)

Table 1

particular of flower visitors on Caesalpiniti coriarea

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

531

bees such as A.c. indica, A. florea, Trigona sp.,

Ceratina sp., Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens

visited the flowers for both pollen and nectar. When

they collected pollen the ventral side of the body

touches the essential organs causing sternotribic

pollination. ThebeesA.c. indica, A. florea, Xylocopa

sp., the wasps Bembix sp., Sphex sp., Rhynchium

metallicum, Delta conedus, Ropalidia spatulata

foraged on nectar and then theirback of head/thorax

contacted the essential parts of the flower causing

pollination through nototribically, the butterflies

visited the flowers for nectar and contact of proboscis

with essential organs are unlikely.

Among the 22 flower visitors the bees such as

A. c. indica, A. florea, the wasps Bembixsp.,Sphex

sp., Delta conedus, Rhynchium metallicum and

Yopalidia spatulata are the major pollinators, because

their visits are consistent and more frequent, more

mobile at the flowers and picked up more number of

pollen. The remainder of species considered to be

minor pollinators. Of these minor pollinators the

butterflies Graphium agamemnon a nd Papilio polytes

made substantial visits but the contact of Proboscis

with the essential organs is probably unlikely.

June 8, 1993 T. BYRAGI REDDY

Department of Environmental Sciences,

Andhra University, Waltair 530 003.

31. OCCURRENCE OF ERIOPHYID MITE INDUCED GALLS IN WESTERN

GARHWAL

(With three text-figures)

Introduction

Plant galls are structural abnormalities

accompanied by overgrowth or hyperplasy of tissues.

In essence, they constitute a response of a host plant

to the feeding activities of a parasite. Gall causing

organisms may range from bacteria to nematodes.

Among gall inducing animals or cecidozoa perhaps

the eriophyid mites (Order: Acari, Superfamily:

Eriophyoidea) are one of the most prolific. Ranging

in length between 100 and 200 microns, these tiny

acarids may give rise to a bewildering diversity of

plant malformations. Eriophyid galls are usually

soft and hairy and in this respect are easily

distinguishable from others. Feeding by the

cecidozoa is confined to the undersurface, although

malformation may be more widespread. Maturity

and size of the latter depend on the population size

of the cecidozoa, the toxicity of the gall inducing

chemicals and the extent of defensive response by

the host plant. There is a high degree of specificity

in the association between eriophyid and host plant.

So much so that Keifer (1975) and Nalepa (1898)

pioneers in eryophyid systematics have dwelt on the

usefulness of gall characters to mite taxonomy. A

search was made for eriophyid galls in a few localities

in the western sector of Garhwal Himalayas.

Eriophyid mites obtained form this study have

been kept aside for a separate investigation. In this

532

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

commu nica tion, descriptions of the ga 1 1 a natomy a re

provided. The present data would add to the

information already available from the works of

Mani (1973). Observations were made using a

stereo-binocular microscope at 50 magnification.

The host plants are in the herbaria of the Department

of Biology, The Doon School, Dehradun. The

altitudes of the collection localities are only

approximate and given in Metres above mean sea

level. The galls were collected during the month of

June, 1992 by me.

1. Quercus leucotricophora A. Camus

Epiphyllous growth restricted to faint often

slightly raised chlorotic patches; undersurface of

galls with brownish hair or erineum; irregularly

placed, through often more concentrated between

veins; (2-3) mm in maximum width; solitary or

coalesced; erineal hair easily distinguishable from

normal leaf pubescence; mites found crawling, at the

base of the erineum, considerably hidden from view;

maximum infestation in leaves close to terminal

buds.

Locality : Devalsari, altitude 2231.

2. Juglans regia Linn.

Soft, epiphyllous outpushings, greenish,

turning brown with age; surface of convexity rugose;

irregularly placed, (2-15) mm in length, oblong

when mature; usually solitary, often coalesced, 5-8

galls per leaflet, appearing to spread from mid vein

to outside; undersurface with wide, open ostiole and

thick dense yellowish erineal hair in marked contrast

to green leaf surface; older galls with brownish

erinea ; most trees in the loca lity with heavy infestation;

often a second kind of gall found on leaves in the

same tree, as described below.

Locality : Devalsari, altitude 2231.

Eriophyid: Eriophyes erineus (Nalepa)

3. Juglans regia Linn. (Fig. 1)

Small innumerable spherical galls with smooth

yellowish epiphyllous surface, brownish tinge when

mature; 0.5 to 1.0 mm wide, solitary or coalesced,

appearing in dense clusters throughout leaf lamina,

concentrated along lateral veins; lower surface of

gall with short conical projection bearing a shallow

pit; mature galls with distinct fissure in the region of

pit indicating surface of dehiscence; gall cavity

divided into a dorsal and ventral half; inner margins

soft, green and fleshy contrasting with hard outer

surface; both upper and lower surfaces noticeably,

glabrous.

Eriophyid: Aceria sp.

4. Engelhardtia colebrookiana Lindl. ex Wall.

Galls with major and minor protruberances:

major outpushing either epiphyllous or hypophyllous,

four lobed with deep pit between lobes; solitary or

coalesced, more frequently along veins; gall surface

with minute hair, apically twisted, turning brown

with age; inner space four chambered fleshy,

coinciding with outer lobes; single solitary gall

about2 mm wide, mediumsize leaf with30-40 galls;

minor protruberance often with an elongate stalk

like projection; old galls dehisce along the groove

between lobes.

Locality: Devalsari, altitude 2231.

Eriophyid: Aceria sp.

5. Salix babylonica Linn.

Minute, with epiphyllous growth pouch like,

closed, bearing whitish straight, acute tipped hairs

on surface; width not exceeding 1 mm, between 10-

40 to a leaflet; undersurface marked by wide ostiole,

margin of which is raised, bearing tuft of covering

hair.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

533

Locality: Thatyur; altitude 1900.

Eriophyid: Eriophyes tetanothrix (Nalepa).

6. Berberis sp.

Epiphyllous elongate pouch galls; minute,

about 0.5 mm. long, not exceeding two in number on

each leaf; outer surface of gall bearing sparse, fine

transluscent hair; inner surface soft, fleshy; gall

cavity spacious; under surface marked by minute

ostiole.

Locality: Devalsari, altitude 2231.

Eriophyid: Undetermined.

7. Prunus cerasoides D. Don

Minute, blister like projections distributed on

upper and lowersurface of leaves, mainly along mid

vein; surface of blister greenish when young, reddish

brown when mature; gall cavity extremely small

lined by irregularsucculent growth, eriophyid mites

tiny and escape fromsenescent galls through ruptures;

only new and emerging leaves are infested.

Locality: Chamba, altitude 1676.

8. Hedera nepalensis Koch.

Galls minute, less than 1.0 mm wide, pustular

and epiphyllous; under surface plugged by soft tissue:

colour green above, pinkish below; sessile, usually

solitary, sometimes coalesced and scattered on leaf

surface; gall space restricted by fleshy irregular

projections; internal space divided into two or three

chambers; mites escape old galls through minute

hypophyllous ostiole.

Locality: Magra, altitude 2000.

Eriophyid: A ceriti sp.

9. Quercus dilatata Royle (Fig. 2)

Epiphyllous projections about 1-3 mm wide,

solitary or coalesced with dense mat of erinea on

undersurface; erineal hair wavy, brown, glistening

a nd tu rni ng opa q ue wi t h a ge ; mi tes fou nd wa nd eri ng

at the base of erinea.

Locality : Magra, altitude 2000.

Fig. 1 .Juglans regia Linn. ; Fig. 2. Quercus dilatata Royie ; Fig.3. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don.

534

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY \ VOL . 90 (1993)

Eriophyid: Aceria sp.

10. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don (Fig.3)

Thin epiphylious pouch galls up to 1.0 mm in

length; stalked, greenish, marked by presence of hair

on surface; cluster of dense stellate hair covers the

narrow undersurface ostiole; galls innumerable and

scattered on particularly younger leaves.

Locality: Magra, altitude 2000.

Eriophyid: Aceria sp.

11. Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude.

Malformation confined to swelling along the

lower extremities of midveins and petioles, mainly

on undersurface: swellings covered by transparent,

fluid filled, blunt hair; colour of such hair turning

reddish with age; mites found wanderingand feeding

among the hair.

Locality : Chakrata, altitude 2118.

Eriophyid: Aculops sp.

12. Alnus nepalensis D.Don

Epiphylious, subcircular projections, 2-5mm

wide, solitary or coalesced, scattered on the lamina:

ostiole wide and hypophyllous; gall cavity filled

with densely placed reddish succulent hair; hair

whitish when young; infestation may reach petiole

from leaf base.

Locality: Chakrata, altitude 2118.

Eriophyid : Aceria sp.

13. Quercus leucotriphora A. Camus

Essentially an erineal gall marked by diffuse

patches of undersurface whitish hair; when not

coalesced, patches 2-4 mm wide; hair stalked with

bulbous succulent heads, whitish, turning yellowish

with age; upper surface marked by weak projections,

numerous and scattered.

Locality: Chakrata, altitude 2118.

Eriophyid: Aceria triplacis (Keifer).

14. Indigofera heterantha Wall, ex Brandis.

Minute epiphylious galls 1-3 mm wide, sessile,

subcircular confined to terminal leaflets and buds;

cavity spacious with sparse, whitish subacutely tipped

nutritive hair along inner lining; undersurface closed

by a plug of soft hemispherical growth bearing hair

on outer surface; about 1-3 galls per leaflet.

Locality: Koti Kanasar, altitude 2500.

Eriophyid: undetermined.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Headmaster and the Head of the

Department of Science, The Doon School, Dehradun

for their support and encouragement.

April 26, 1993 BABUL DAS

The Doon School,

Dehradun, U.P.

References

614 pp.

Keifer, H.H. (1975): in Mites injurious to Economic plants, L.R. Manj, m. S. (1973): Plant galls of India. Macmillan India, 354 pp.

Jeppson, H.H. Keifer and E. W. Baker : Univ. Calif. Press, Nelepa, Alfred von (1898): Das Tierreich 4: 60-161.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

535

32. PORTUNID CRABS OF VISAKHAPATNAM COAST

Introduction

Eighty-seven species of crabs belonging to

fourteen families have been collected from the

Visakhapatnam coast. Among these, the family

Portunidae was the most abundant. Among the 24

species listed two are first reports from the coast.

Material and Methods

The present study is based on a collection

made over three years. Immediately after bringing

the crabs to the laboratory the colour was noted.

They were kept in refrigerator for a day to freeze

them to prevent the shedding of the legs and chelae.

After freezing, they were preserved in 10% formalin

and later examined in detail.

Discussion

Sub-family: Podophthalminae

Genus : Podophthalmus Lamarck

1 . Podophthalmus vigil (Fabricius 1798)

Speciments collected: Numerous.

An average male measures length = 23 nun

and breadth of the carapace = 45 mm (excluding

spine).

This species was collected from offshore fishing

station, Visakhapatnam.

Sub-family : Catoptrinae

Genus : Libystes Milne - Edwards

2. Libystes edwardsi A1 cock 1900

One female.

Length of carapace = 10 nun; breadth = 17 mm;

breadth of the front = 4 nun.

Distribution: Arabian Gulf, Andaman, Gulf

of Siam, Java Sea, China sea and India. Avery rare

crab collected from offshore fishing station,

Visakhapatnam and the first report from

Visakhapatnam coast.

Sub-family: Portuninae

Genus : Scylla de Haan

3. Scylla serrata (Forskal 1775)

An average male measures length of the

carapace: 29 mm, breadth =48 mm; female length =

36 nun, breadth 48 mm.

Genus: Lupocyclus Adams & White

4. Lupocyclus rotundatus Adams & White 1848

Male length= 17 mm: breadth = 20 mm;

female length = 12 nun; breadth =13 nun.

Genus: Portunus Weber

5. Portunus argentatus (Milne-Edwards 1861)

Male length = 39 mm; breadth = 41 mm;female

length = 15 mm; breadth = 22 nun.

6. Portunus gladiator Fabricius 1798

Male length = 35 mm, breadth = 58 mm.

7. Portunus gracilimanus (Stimpson 1858)

Male length = 12 nun, breadth = 16 nun;

female length = 11 nun, breadth = 16 mm.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ VOL. 90 (1993)

8. Protunus hastatoides Fabricius 1798

Male length = 15 mm, breadth = 23 mm.

female length = 15 mm, breadth = 20 mm.

9. Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus 1766)

An average male measures length = 60 mm,

breadth - 114 nun.

10. Porturws sanguinolenthus (Herbst 1783)

An average male measures, length = 54 mm,

breadth = 87 mm. An average female measures,

length = 46 mm and breadth = 80 mm.

Genus : Charybdis de Haan

11. Charybdis (Charybdis) annulata (Fabricius

1798)

Male length = 31 mm, breadth = 38 mm; female

length = 33 mm, breadth = 50 nun.

12. Charybdis (Charybdis) callianassa (Herbst

1789)

Male length = 26 mm, breadth = 38 mm.

(including lateral spine) ; female length = 19 mm,

breadth = 31 mm.

13. Charybdis (Charybdis) cruciata (Herbst 1789)

Male length = 80 nun, breadth = 121 mm.

14. Charybdis (Charybdis) lucifera (Fabricius

1798)

Male length = 41 mm, breadth 65mm, female

length = 27 mm, breadth = 36 mm.

15. Charybdis (Charybdis) miles (de Haan 1850)

Male length = 45 mm, breadth = 61 mm,

female length = 33 nun, breadth = 42 mm.

16. Charybdis (Charybdis) natator (Herbst 1789)

Male length = 36 mm, breadth = 52 mm,

female length = 36 mm, breadth = 50 mm.

17. Charybdis ( Charybdis ) orientalis Dana 1852

Male length = 22 mm, breadth =34 mm;

female length = 37 imn, breadth = 53 min.

18. Charybdis (Charybdis) rostrata Milne -

Edwards 1861

Male length = 17 mm, breadth = 24 mm.

19. Charybdis (Charybdis) variegata (Fabricius

1798)

Specimens collected : 3 males and 5 females.

Male length = 21 mm, breadth = 29 mm;

female length = 17 nun breadth = 22 mm.

20. Charybdis (Goniohellenus) edwardsi Leene

and Butendijk 1949

Male length = 49 nun, breadth = 58 mm;

female length = 35 mm, breadth = 44 nun.

Distribution: Martaban, Port Natal, East

Indies, East coast of Africa, Malabar coast of India.

This species, collected from offshore fishing

station, Visakhapatnam, is the first report from

Visa kha patna m coast.

21. Charybdis (Goniohellenus) hoplites (Wood-

Manson 1877)

Male lengths 15 mm, breadth = 19 mm female

length = 13 mm, breadth = 17 mm.

22. Charybdis (Goniohellenus) truncata

(Fabricius 1798)

An average male measures, length = 29 mm,

breadth = 29 mm; an average female measures

length = 20 mm and breadth = 29 mm.

23. Charybdis (Goniohellenus) vadorum Alcock

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

537

1899

Male length = 13 mm, breadth = 17 nun,

female length = 16 nun, breadth = 19 mm.

24. Thalamita crenata (Latrielle 1829)

Female length = 35 nun, breadth = 52 mm.

August 19, 1993 K. NIRMALA DEVI

J.MJ. College,

Tenali 522 202,

Andhra Pradesh.

33. MARINE GASTROPODA OF BOMBAY - A RECENT SURVEY

Introduction

This checklist of gastropod fauna along the

Bombay coast is based on a five-year survey (1987 -

1991) of various beaches such as Colaba (T.I.F.R),

Mahim, Bandra, Versova, Madh island, Khar Da nda

and Juhu.

Results and Discussion

SubrahmanyamrUtf/. (1952) Illustrated a total

of 187 species of the gastropods for Bombay and

listed 6 1 species. Of these, a few had previously been

recorded by Melvill and Ambrecrombie (1893) and

Melvill and Standen (1901).

In the present survey, only 102 species were

recorded (except the minute shells). Minute shells

from various families mentioned below were not

studied.

Table 1

ARCHIOGASTROPODA

1. Cellana radiata (Rod.)

2. Scutus unguis (Linn.)

3 . Diodora bombayana (Sowb.)

4. Trochus radiatus (Gme.)

5. Euchelus asper (Gme.)

6. E. tricar inatus (Lam.)

7. Clanculus ceylanicus (Nev.)

8. Isanda crenulifera (A. Ad.)

9. Umboniuyn vestiarum (Linn.)

10. Turbo brunneus (Rod.)

1 1. Astraea stellata (Gme.)

12 . A. scmicostata (Linn.)

13. Nerita crepidularia (Lam.)

14. N. albicella (Linn.)

15. N. oryzarum (Rec.)

1 6. Architectonica laevigata (Lam.)

Out of 102 species six are newly recorded.

Thus only 96 species out of 187 species (according

to previous records) a re present along various beaches

at Bombay.

MESOGASTROPODA

17. Cypraea arabica (Gme.)

18. C. lentiginosa (Gray)

19. Volva sowerbyna (Wien.)

20. Tibea curta (Sowb.)

21. Tonna dolium (Linn.)

22. T. allium (Dill.)*

23. T. fasciata (Lam.)*

24. Ficus ficus (Rod.)

25. Bursa spinosa (Lam.)

26. B. tuberculata (Brod.)

27 . Natica maculosa (Lam.)

28. N. picta (Rec.)

538

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, VOL 90 (1993)

29. N, lineata (Lam.)

30. N. rufa (Bom.)

31. N. didyma (Bolten)

32. N. pulcaria (Phil.)

33. Planaxis sulcatus (Bom.)

34P. acutus (Krauss)

35. P. similis (Smith)

36. Cerithium morns (Lam.)

37. C. rubus (Desh)

38. Potamidis cingulatis (Linn.)

39. Telescopium telescopium (Linn.)

40. Mitra obeliscus (Reeve)

41. M. circula (Kienner) *

42. Chrysame ambigua (Swain.)

43 . Acrilla acuminata (Sowb.)

44. Janthina roseola (Reeve)

45. Turritella duplicata (Linn.)

46. Vermatis sp.

47. Littorina intermediata (Phil.)

48. L. undulata (Gray)*

49. Tectarius malacanus (Phil.)

50. Xenephora Solaris (Linn.)

NEOGASTROPODA

51. Mur ex adustus (Lam.)

52. M. tribulus (Linn.)

53. Thais caranifera (Lam.)

54. T. rudolphi (Lam.)

55. T. bufo (Lam.)

56. T. tissoti (Petit)

57. T. sacellum (Lam.)

58. Drupa tuber culata (Blain)

59. D . hippocastanum (Lam.)

60. D. konkanensis (Mel.)

61. D. contracta (Ree)

62. Ocinebra bombayana (Mel.)

63. Conus piper atus (Ree)

64. C. mutabilis (Ree)

65. C. monachus (Linn.)

66. C. cumin gii ( Ree)*

67. Terebra capensis (Smith)

68. Surcula javana (Linn.)

69. S. fulminata (Kie)

70. S amicta (Smith)

71. Clavus crassa (Smith)

72. Babylonia spirata (Linn.)

73. Nassarina suturalis (A. Ad.)

74. Cantharus spiralis (Gray)

75. Polia rubiginosa (Ree)

76. Engina zea (Mel.)

77. Oliva gibbosa (Bom.)

78. Oliva nebulosa (Lam.)

79. O. nebulosa intricata (Mar.)

80. Nassarius canaliculata (Schp.)

81. N, olivaceous (Brug)

82. N. ornatus (Kienner)

83. N. jacksoniana (Q. & G.)

84. N. mucronatus (A.Ad.)

85. N. pictus (Dkr.)

86. N. lentiginosus (A. Ad.)

87. Zeuxis caelatus (A. Ad.)

88. Cyllene fuscata (A. Ad.)

89. Bullia lineolata (Wood)

90. Nassa thersitis (Brug)

91. Pyrene scripta (Lam.)

92. P. terpscichore (Sowb.)

93. Cancellaria costifera (Lam.)

94. Hemifusus pugilinus (Born.)

95. Pila doloides (Ree)

96. Ellobium auris jude (Linn.)

97. Cassidula nucleus (Gme.)

98. Melampus sincaporensis (Pfi.)

99. M. coffea (?)

100. Siphonaria basseinensis (Mel.)

101. Pyramidella pulchella (A. Ad.)

102. Dr ilia atkinsoni (Smith)

Species marked * are new records from the Bombay

coast.

A detailed checklist is given in Table 1. This

shows that many species have disappeared from the

Bombay coast. Five of the six species which are

newly recorded have been collected from the beach

behind the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,

at Colaba. This is a protected beach, such small

pockets of protected beaches can provide a safe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

habitat to these delicate and highly vulnerable

molluscs.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. M.G. Harasewych,

Associated Curator, Smithsonian Institution, U.S. A.

for help in identification of some species of seashells.

539

I offer my sincere thank to Dr. (Mrs.) M.R. Rao for

critically going through the manuscript.

October 6, 1992 DEEPAK APTE

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbi ll House, Dr. Salim A li Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay - 400 23.

References

Melvill, J.C. Sc Ambrecrombie, A. (1893): The marine mollusca of

Bombay. Mem. Sc Proc. Manchester Lit & Phil. Soc. Ser 7

(4): 17-51.

Melvill, J.C. Sc Standen, R. (1901): Mollusca of persian gulf, Gulf

of Oman Sc Arabian Sea as evidence mainly through the

collection of F. W. Townsend. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 2:

327-459.

Subrahmanyam, T.V., Karandikar, H.R.& Murti, N.N. (1951):

The marine gastropoda of Bombay. Jour. Univ. Bombay 20

( 1 ): 21-34.

34. FLORAL BIOLOGY OF COUROUPITA GUIANENSIS AUBL.

(LECYTHIDACEAE)

Introduction

Couroupita a genus of Lecythidaceae has about

15 species abundantly distributed in the neotropical

forests of South America and West Indies.

C.guianensis is one of the species commonly known

as“cannon-baH”or“snake-jasmine”tree is cultivated

in India. Its flowers are fragrant and present a

pleasing combination of rosy purple, white and

yellow colours. The published data on the floral

biology of this species was based on the trees from

Neotropics only (Ormond etal. 1981: Yarsick etal.

1986) and even the available information is

preliminary in nature. Similar data are lacking from

the Old World tropics. The present paper is therefore

a good occasion to describe the floral biology of C.

guianensis from India. The study was made on the

tree at the Andhra University, Visakhapatnam in

Andhra Pradesh.

Floral Biology

C. guianensis flowers almost throughout the

year with heavy flowering in February and March. It

exhibits ‘cauliflory ’ by producing flowers in clusters

on the trunk and main limbs. The flowers are

nectarless but produce abundant pollen. The

androecium is characterised by stamens of the ring

and hood which are connected by a stamen-free

ligular structure. Ring pollen is fertile while the

hood pollen is sterile in that the latter does not

produce germ tubes. Approximately 450 grains are

produced per ring anther of which 80% have the

viability to germinate. Gynoecium is syncarpous

with a style in the shape of a truncated cone. The

stigma has a starlike fissure with six to eight points

that correspond to the number of carpels.

The flowers opensimultaneously around dawn.

Flower-buds mature by evening and transform into

fully-open flowers by 0700 h. The plants in Venezuela

have flowers opening asynchronously between 0700

and 0830 h with a peak flower production around

0800 h (Ormond etal. 1981). Temporal differences

in the anthesis period in different geographic regions

may have been due to the prevailing climatic

540

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ VOL. 90 (1993)

conditions. Anthers of both ring and hood stamens

dehisce simultaneously in longitudinal fashion shortly

after anthesis as reported by Yarsick et al . (1986).

The floral fragrance is released into the atmosphere

through osmophores present in the corolla and in the

top of the filaments of hood anthers. Similar situation

of release of sweet odors is also found in other genera

of Lecythidaceae (Mori et al. 1978). It was this

aroma of the flowers that attracts the pollinators. The

hood stamens serve as “feeding stamina” while the

ring stamens as “pollinating stamina”. The

androecium of this nature with dimorphic pollen is

a clear case of heteranthery. Heteranthery is well

developed in Lecythidaceae but as a rule, it js a

characteristic of plants that exhibit poricidal anther

dehiscence, e.g. Cassia spp. and Melastomataceae

(Buchmann 1983).

C. guianensis is foraged by carpenter bees of

Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens, the honeybees

of Apis florea and A. cerana indica and the stingless

bee of Trigona spp. The bees forage from dawn to

noon. Carpenter bees while entering the flower push

the hood down causing the release of pollen tetrads

that simultaneously adhere to the ventral part of the

bee and are accessible for grooming. After entering

the flower, the carpenter bees, collect pollen from

Refer

Buchmann, S.L. (1983): Buzz pollination in angiosperms. In:

Handbook of Experimental pollination Biology, Eds.

C.EJones and R.J. Little. Scientific and Academic Editions

(New York). Pp. 73-113.

Mori, S.A., Prance, G.T., & Bolten, A.B. (1978): Additional notes

on the floral biology on neotropical Lecythidaceae. Brittonia

30 : 113-130.

the hood and during the pollen collection they rub

their dorsal parts against the ring anthers and the

stigma detachingseveral ring anthers in the process.

This behaviour results in nototribic pollination.

Other bees wander in the flower but pollination by

them is an accidental phenomenon. It is concluded

that carpenter bees are the only insects effective in

promoting cross-pollination in C. guianensis in

India. Studies by Ormond etal. (1981) and Yarsick

et al. (1986) also record the tree is exclusively

pollinated by carpenter bees and the other bees,

wasps, flies and thrips foraging are mere visitors in

Brazil and Venezuela of the new World. Carpenter

bees are therefore required for the success of

pollination and subsequent fruit production in C.

guianensis which is an obligate outcrosser (Ormond

etal. 1981).

The research was made while the first author

was under Pool Officers’ Scheme (CSIR), New

Delhi.

November 25, 1992 RAJU J.S. ALURI

C. SUBBA REDDI

Department of Environmental Sciences,

Andhra University,

Waltair 530 003,

Andhra Pradesh.

E N C E S

Ormond, W.T., Pinheiro, M.C.R. & Cortella De C as tells,

A.R.(1981): A contribution to the floral biology and

reproductive system of Couroupita guianensis Aubl.

(Lecythidaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Card. 68: 515-522.

v \RS1CK, S., Xena de Enrech, N., Ramitrz, N, & Angostini, G.

(1986): Notes on the floral biology ofC our oupita guianensis

Aubl. (Lecythidaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 73: 99-

101.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

541

35. SPILANTHES ULIGINOSA SW. (ASTERACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR

GANGETIC PLAIN

( With a text- figure)

While working on Spilanthes Jacq. I came

across two interesting plant specimens, one collected

fromRanchi district, Bihar and other fromLucknow,

Uttar Pradesh. After a critical study they were

identified as Spilanthes uliginosa Sw. This species is

not so far recorded from Gangetic Plain (Hooker

1904, Sivarajan and Mathew 1984, Sivarajan and

Remesan 1987). A detailed description with

ecological notes and illustration is provided.

Spilanthes uliginosa Sw. Nov. Gen. PI. Seu

Prod. Descr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 110. 1788; DC. Prodr.

5: 264. 1836; Sivarajan et Remesan, Jour. Econ.

Tax. Bot. 10(1); 146. 1987. 5. iabadicensis A. H.

Moore, Prod. Amer. Acad. Art. Sci. 42 (20): 524.

1907; Koster & Philipson, Blumea 6: 354. 1950;

Grierson, Rev. Handb. FI. Ceyl. 1:221. 1980(Fig.l).

Erect-ascending herbs up to 60 cm high. Stem

terete, often rooting at lower nodes, weak, slightly

hairy. Leaves up to 4 cm long and 1.5 cm broad,

ovate or ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate in upper

portion, acute, often unequal at base, margin coarsely

serrate or serrate, petiole up to 1 cm long, Heads

ra yed , o va te o r y o u nge r ones suborbi cu la r (i n pressed

specimens), up to 1 cm long and 0.5 cm broad;

peduncles up to 5 cm long; involucral bracts ovate-

oblong, pubescent, veined; palea up to 0.25 cm long,

nearly boat shaped, acute, fimbriate; ray florets 4-6,

female, up to 0.28 cm long, corolla tube with bulbous

base, inflated towards the middle, inflated portion 3

- lobed, middle one larger than laterals; style exerted

from the corolla tube near the inflated portion,

stigma bilobed, recurved; disc florets numerous, 0.2

cm long, corolla tube up to 0.13 cm long with

bulbous base, 4 lobed at the top, lobes ovate, spreading

or recurved at the top, acute. Achenes c. 0. 1 cm long,

dimorphic, trigonous or laterally compressed and

often ridged in the middle.

Distribution : Probably a native of Tropical

America and has been reported from Africa, Sri

Lanka and Java. In India it is recorded from Andman-

Nicobar, Sikkim Himalaya and Tamil Nadu. In

Ranchi and Lucknow, It is found growing in moist

places in cultivated fields.

Specimens examined : Singh 5695 (Ranchi)

CIMAP; Singh 5937 (Lucknow) CIMAP.

542

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY \ VOL . 90 (2993)

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Central Institute

of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Lucknow for

encouragements and facilities provided, to Head,

Botany & Pharmacognosy for suggestions and

Refer

Hooker, J.D. (1904): A Sketch of the Flora of British India. 1-55.

Koster, J.T. & Philipson, W.R. (1950): Nomenclatural Changes in

Spilanthes and Blainvillea with remarks and key to the

species oiSpilanthes in Malaya Archipelago. Blumea 6(2):

349-354.

Moore, A.H. (1907): Revision ofthegenusSpi/anthes. Proc.Amer.

Acad. Art. Sci. 42: 521-569.

critically going through the manuscript and to Mrs.

Indravati Rautela for making the illustrations.

July 30, 1992 S.C. SINGH

Central Institute of Medicinal

& Aromatic Plants,

Lucknow 226 016, U.P.

E N C E S

SiVARAJAN, V. V. & Mathew, Philip (1984): Notes on three new

immigrant species of Spilanthes Jacq. (Asteraceae) in India

and the identity of the common ‘ toothache plant’ Anc. Sci.

Life 3(3): 169-173.

Sivarajan, V.V. & Ramesan, C. (1987): The genus Spilanthes Jac(\.

(Compositae- Heliantheae)in India. Jour.Econ. Tax. Botany.

10(1): 141-147.

36. PORANA VOL UBILIS BURM.F. (CONVOLVULACEAE)- A NEW RECORD

FOR ANDAMAN FLORA

Introduction

An interesting species of Porana was collected

from two localities around Port Blair by us and later

identified as Porana volubilis Burin, f.

(Convolvulaceae), a species hitherto unknown to

occur in these islands Parkinson (1922) and Rao

(1986). Gamble (1921) in the flora of “Presidency

of Madras” writes that this is a Malay species also

common in gardens on both coasts of Peninsular

India which in turn is corroborated by Henry et al.

(1987). Kurz says this species extends to Khasi and

Roxburgh cites that it grows in various parts of India

but is scarce in Bengal and flowers during the cold

season in botanic garden, but the only example seen

are Malayan or cultivated (Hooker 1876). The

Present collection of this species has been made from

natural wild habitats.

Porana volubilis Burm. f. Lamk. 111. t. 186;

Roxb. fl.Ind. i.465 & ed. Carey & Wall. ii. 40; Blume

Bijd. 723; Wall. Cat. 1327; Don Prodr. 99; Wight

III.168 bis, fig, 8 & Ic. t. 347;Chois. Convolv. Or.

106, and in DC. Prodr. ix.436; Kurz in Trimen.

Journ. Bot. 1873, 137 & For. FI. ii. 220; clarke in

Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 4: 222. 1876; Gamble FI. Pres.

Madras 2: 921. 1921.

Large climber ascending tall tree; branches

cylindrical, warted, glabrous except the young

branches. Leaves simple, estipulate, petiolate, lamina

ovate, acuminate, base cordate - subcordate, 2.5 - 6

x 1 - 4.3 cm, entire, glabrous; lateral veins 8-11 pairs,

looping away from the margin ; petiole 0.7 - 1.7 cm

long tawny pubescent. Panicles axillary 12.5 cm

long tawny pubescent. Flowers pedicellate, pedicel

up to 3 mm long, tawny pubescent bracteate, bracts

up to 1.5 mm long, tawny pubescent , bracts several

on the base of pedicels and one longer than others

under its insertion; Calyx 0.5 -0.6 cm long, 5 lobed,

sepal lobes oblong, tawny pubescent joined at base;

Corolla sparsely tawny pubescent, campanulate, 1

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

543

cm long, white, limbs distinctly 5 lobed ; stamen 5,

0.3 cm long, glabrous, subincluded, filament filiform;

slender ; anthers 0.1 cm long, dorsifixed, on the

corolla tube; Pistils 0.5 cm long, style up to 0.4 cm

long glabrous, bipartite, one of the division slightly

shorter, exerted, stigma small, capitate, ovary 2

lobed, tawny pubescent at the distal end, seated on a

glabrous disc; Fruit capsule, globose, sepals in fruit

all equal, subspathulate with longitudinal not very

prominent nerves.

Distribution : Burma, Thailand, malaya, India

and Andaman Islands.

Specimens examined : Andaman Islands,

R E F E

Gamble, J.S. (1921): Flora of Presidency of Madras, 2: 921. Adlard

& Son Ltd., Hartsheet W.C.

Henry, A. N., Kumari, G.R. & Chithra, V. (1987): Flora of Tamil

Nadu India, Vol. II P. No. Ill Published by Scientist D, B.

S. I. Coimbatore on behalf of Director B.S.I. Calcutta.

Hooker, J. D. (1876): The flora of British India 4\ 222. L. Reeve &

South Andamans, Carbyn’s Cove, Port Blair, IT 25-

xii -89, A.R.P. Sinha 0059; South Andamans, South

point, Pro! Blair IT 7-xi -91, A.R.P. Sinha & Krishna

Kumar 0417.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Ministry of Environment &

Forest for the financial assistance for present survey.

September 15, 1992 A.R.P. SINHA

KRISHNA KUMAR

P.G. Department of Botany,

J.N.R. Mahavidyalaya,

Port Blair 744 104,

Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

E N C E S

Co., London.

Parkinson, C.E. (1922): A forest flora of the Andaman Islands.

Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

Rao, M.K. Vasudeva (1986): A preliminary report on the

Angiospennsof Andeman and Nicobar Islands. J. Eco. Tax.

Bot. 8 (1): 107 - 184.

37. ADDITIONS TO THE ALLIUM SPECIES OF THE FLORA OF CHAMOLI,

UTTAR PRADESH HIMALAYA

(With two text-figures)

Allium L. (Amaryllidaceae) has 700 species

confined chief! y to the northe rn tempera te a nd a Ipi ne

zones of the world, i.e. Europe, northern, middle,

south-east Asia, North- West America and the Altai

mountains (Jones and Mann 1963, Santapau and

Henry 1973, Kunkel 1984, Buijsen 1990). Hooker

(1892) has recorded 31 species from India. So far 30

species have been reported from temperate and

alpine zones of northern Himalaya in India.

Occasionally a few of them are cultivated locally

(Collett 1902, Duthie 1903-1929, 1906; Kachroo et

al. 1977, Mani 1978, Dharand Kachroo 1983, Negi

and Pant 1990, 1992, Negi and Gaur 1991).

During multi crop/region specific/crop specific

and ethnobotanical explorations during the years

1986-1988 in district Chamoli, Garhwal Region of

Uttar Pradesh Himalaya we collected six species of

A Ilium among which four species were grown widely

in kitchen gardens and backyards locally while two

species were found in the wild.

After critical morphological studies and

comparisons with authentic collections preserved in

12

544

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

northern circle. Botanical survey of India (BSD) and

Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD), specimens

were identified as Allium ampeloprasum L.,

A.ascalonicum L., A. auriculatum Kunth, A .

cernuum Roth, A. griffithianum Boiss. and A.

tuberosum Rottl. ex Spreng. Comparisons of

taxonomical characteristics, distribution, habitat,

method of utilization of the four species of semi-

domesticate Allium are presented in Table 1, while

two wild and endemicA Ilium species are described

in detail.

The present report of their occurrence and

cultivation forms additions to the flora of Chamoli,

U.P. Himalaya (Kala and Gaur 1982, Naithani 1984).

These species are also not included by Polunin and

Stain ton (1984).

A detailed description alongwith figures of the

specimens are provided here to facilitate further

collection easy identification. Seeds/bulbs/cloves and

plant specimens have been rejuvenated, multiplied

and maintained at NBPGR, Regional Station-

Bhowali.

Allium auriculatum Kunth, Enum. 4: 418.

1843; Baker in Journl. Bot. 295. 1874; Hook. f. FBI

6: 342. 1892; Duthie 188. 1906 (Fig.l).

(Loc. - Pharan )

Glabrous herb 60.0-75.0 cm long. Bulb

elongate, narrow, 10.5 - 12.5 x 0.5 - 1.0 cm; scales

brown, red, reticulate. Leaves 5 -10, narrowly linear,

flat, 15.5-35.0 x 0.2-0.4 cm, obtuse, stout. Scape

erect, solid, 40.0-50.0 x 0.2- 0.6 cm, exceeding the

leaves. Inflorescence globular umbel, fertile, bulbils

present. Tepels 0.4-0.6 cm, oblong to ovate, pink-

purple. Pedicels 1.2 -1.5 cm long. Stamens longer

than the perianth. Filaments arising from the basis

of tepels, 1.0-1.5 cm long. Anthers 0.3-0.6 cm long,

yellow. Seeds 0.2-0.4 x 0. 1-0.2 cm, black.

Flowering and fruiting: May-August.

Distribution and Ecology: M.N. Koppar and

K.S. Negi, NBPGRH-301, BSD 87001, Brahm

Mathya-Malari, district Chamoli, 3800 m, July 1988;

BSD 49025, Spiti, 4100 m, BSD 52146, Zanskar,

Ladakh, 4600 m, BSD 54724, BSD 83129, Zanskar,

Tangtse, Ladakh, 4300 m, July 1973, DD 2279, DD

68746, between Da and Hanle, Rupshu, Kashmir,

4100 m July 1931; native to India and Oriental

region.

There is no recent compilation or elaborate and

significant account regarding the food value of the

species, either from India or else where in the world.

Habitat: Found wild in alpine, sub-alpine and

sub-arctic zones from 3500- 5000 m. Common on

Hat rocks, stony slopes and screes.

Uses: Dried leaves and flowers are used for

flavouring or seasoning dal. curry, meat . Leaves are

extensively employed in the preparation of masalas

or curry powder.

Allium griffithianum Boiss., Diagm. Ser.

2,4: 117. 1959; Nasir, FWP 83: 20, 1975.

A. rubellum M.Bieb.var. grandiflorumBoiss.,

Ft. Oriental. 5: 253. 1882; Hook. f. FBI 6: 339. 1892.

A.tenue C. Kotch in Linnaea, 22: 238. 1849. A.

jacquemontii Kunth, Enum. PI. 4: 399. 1843. A.

longisepalum Bert, in Nov. Common. Acad . Bonon.

5: 429. 1842. (Fig.2).

(Loc.- Pharan, Jamboo)

Erect herb up to 50 cm. high. Bulb small,

solitary, clustered, ovoid, outer scale fibrous,

membranous, produced into a long neck. Leaves 4-

6, basal, half-round or flattish, 10.0-25.0 x 0.1 - 0.3

cm. Scape terete. 30 cm. long not exceeding the

leaves. Inflorescence terminal dense flowered

globose, fertile, 1. 0-2.0 cm dia., bulbils absent.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

545

Table 1

COMPARISONS OF TAXONOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS, VERNACULARS, DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT AND METHOD

OF UTILIZATION OF SEMI-DOMESTICATED ALLIUM SPECIES

S.NoA///wm ampeloprasum L. Allium ascalonicum L. Allium cernuum Roth

(V.-Hargandh, Sidhum, (V.- Dunna, Dhun, (V.- Sikwa)

Vilati lahsoon) Chapi, Palandu, Pyazi

12 3 4

Tolrna, District-Chamoli,2500 Kurhur, district-Chamoli,2500 NBPGRH-368.

m, July 1 988; NBPGRHH-325 . in, July 1988; NBPGRH-288.

7. Pseudostem and leaf blades are Leaves and leaf bases (young Bulbs are used for

cooked as vegetables. Cloves

are utilized as a pickles and

spices.

bulbs) are used to adulterate in flavouring and also pickled

many food dishes, often fresh

as garnishing. Bulbs are

frequently used for flavouring

food either raw, cooked or fried.

8. Native to south Europe, north

Africa, middle-east into west

USSR and Caucasus to Iran,

cultivated throughout south

east Asia.

Native to north Africa and east Native to new world

Mediterranean region, cultiva-

ted in USA,Europe, Africa, the

Caribbean countries and Asia.

Allium tuberosum

Rottl. ex Spreng.

(V.-Markua,Bang-gandina)

5

Herb upto 80 cm long.

Bulb swollen an enlarged, elongat

several set on a rhizome, bulbcoat

netted fibrous, white fleshy or

pale brown.

Leaves 4-9, distichous, glabrous,

flat.

Flowers white, fertile.

Flowering: July-October.

Semi-Domesticate upto 2000 m,

K.S. Negi, N-896,Siroli,Gopeshwar

Mandal, District-Chamoli,2000 m,

Octoberl988 ; NBPGRH-215.

Fresh leaves mostly green are used

as condiments in various local food

dishes.

Native to east Asia, cultivated from

east Mangolia to Japan, Siam, the

Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia,

and through Thailand to north India

Western Himalaya, Khasi hills,

Bengal.

546

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 90 (1993)

Fig. 1. Allium aunculatum Kunth

I : Flower spikes, leaves with bulbs ;

II : A. Floral heads, B Reproductive (Anthers).

Tepels bell shaped, 0. 4-0.6 cm long, oblong to ovate,

pink or rosy or pale yellow. Pedicels 1.2-1. 5 cm long.

Stamens longerthanthe perianth. Filaments included,

cohering at the base, 0.8 1.0 cm long. Seeds black.

Fig. 2. Allium griffithianum Boiss.

I : Flower spikes, leaves with bulbs ;

II : A. Floral heads, B Reproductive (Anthers).

Flowering and fruiting: August-December.

Distribution and Ecology: M.N. Koppar and

K.S. Negi- KN-748, Tolma, District - Chamoli,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

547

2500 m, July 1988: KN-749, Kailashpur-Malari,

District- Chamoli, 3160 m, July 1988, KN-780,

Bampa-Neeti, District- Chamoli, 3370 m, July 1988:

KN-795, Brahm- Mathya- Malari, district- Chamoli,

3500 m, July 1988; KN-804, Sukhi, district - Chamoli,

2400 m, July 1988; KN-819, Mana- Badrinath,

district- Chamoli, 3200 m, July 1988; NBPGRH

135; BSD 45936, Trilokinath, Upper Chenab,

Himachal Pradesh

Native to south Africa, Europe, Siberia

westward to the Ural.

Habitat: Found Wild in sub-alpine and alpine

Himalaya from 2500-4000 m altitude, Common on

flat rocks.

Refer

Buusen, J.R.M. (1990): Taxonomic Survey of Allium Species

Cultivated in South-Fast Asia. The Netherlands.

Collett, H. (1902): Flora Simlensis. London (Reprinted by BSI,

Calcutta, 1921), pp. 525-526.

Dhar, U. & Kachroo, P. (1983): Alpine Flora of Kashmir Himalaya.

Jodhpur.

Duthie, J. F. (1903-1929): Fora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of

the adjacent Siwalik and sub - Himalayan tracts. 3 Vols,

Calcutta (Reprinted New Delhi 1952)2: 337-345.

Duthie, J.F. (1906):Catalogue of Plants of Kumaon and of the

adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet 1918. Based on the

collections of Strachey and Winterbottom during the years

1846-1849 (Reprinted Bishen Singh and Mahendra Pal

Singh, 1974), Dehradun, pp. 188.

Hooker, J.D. (1892): Flora of British India (Reprinted by Bishen

Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun 1973) 6: 337-345.

Jones, H.A. & Mann, L.K. (1963): Onion and their allies. Botany,

Cultivation and Utilization. London.

Kachroo, P., Sapru, B.L. & Dhar, U. (1977): Flora of Ladakh; An

Ecological and Taxonomical Appraisal. Dehradun.

Uses: The plant is used as a carminative.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of northern circle,

BSI and TAxonomy Branch, FRI, Dehradun for

herbarium consultation. We are grateful to the

Director, Dr. R.S.Rana, NBPGR, Pusa, New Delhi

and Prof. R.D. Gaur, Department of Botany, Sh.

H.N. Bahuguna, Garhwal University, Srinagar for

encouragement

April 20, 1992 K.S. NEGI

Naltional Bureau of Plant Genetic K.C. PANT

Resources, M.N. KOPPAR

Regional Station - Bhowali 263132,

Niglat, Nainital, U.P.

ENCES

Kala, S.P. & Gaur, R.D. (1982): A contribution to the flora of

Gopeshwar (Chamoli Garhwal), 7/i:TheVegetational Wealth

of the Himalayas (ed. G.S. Paliwal), pp. 347-413.

Kunkel, G. (1984): Plants for Human Consumption; An annotated

Checklist of the Edi ble Phanerogams and Ferns. W. Genna ny .

Mani, M.S.( 1978): Ecology and Phytogeography of High Altitude

Plants of North-West Himalaya. New Delhi.

Naithani, B.D. (1984): Flora of Chamoli, Howrah. 2: 646-648 pp.

Negi, K. S. & Gaur, R.D. (1991): Little Known endemic wild

Allium species in the Uttar Pradesh Hills. Mountain Res.

Develop. 11(2): 162-164.

Negi, K.S. & Pant, K.C. (1990); Kitni labhprad hai parvatiya

vanaspati. Krishi Chayanika 11(1): 56-60 & 64.

Negi, K.S. & Pant, K.C. (1992): Less-known wildspeciesofA///nm

L. (Ainaryllidaceae) from mountainous region, India. Econ.

Bot. 46 (1): 248-254.

Polunin, O. & Stainton, A. (1984): Flowers of the Himalaya. New

Delhi, pp. 413-416.

Santapau, H. & Henry, A.N. (1973): Dictionary of the Flowering

Plants in India. New Delhi.

38. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME GRASSES

Duringthe course ofEthnobotanical studies in A critical examination of these grass species

Andamanand Nicobar Islands in 1987, we collected reveals that Brachiaria miliiformis, Echinochloa

about seventy-five grasses from Bay Islands. glabrescens, Eulalia trispicata, Ischaemum

548

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

References

Bor, N. L. (1960): The grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India an Pakistan. Pergamon Press, London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

549

39. A FEW TAXA NEW TO EASTERN INDIA WITH ANNOTATIONS ON

DISTRIBUTION

The central part of India is well-explored area.

Nevertheless, an analysis of the 772 taxa collected

fromSambalpur District, Orissa (India) during 1986-

1990 (Panda 1990) the following taxa were new to

the floristic records of Eastern India.

.Hedyotis caerulea Wt. et Arn., Prodr. : 412.

1834: J.D. Hook in J.D. Hook., FI. Brit. India 3: 60.

1880; Manilal & Sivarajan, FI. Calicut: 141. 1982

(Rubiaceae).

Oldenlandia caerulae (Wt. et Arn.) Gamb.,

Fl.Pres. Madr.: 597. 1921.

Specimen cited : Brook’s Hill, Sambalpur,

21.9.1988, Das tXPanda 1172.

FL&l Frt.: August -February.

Frequency : Rare.

Ecology : Found on moist loamy-lateritic soil,

in open places, growing mixed up with Dentella

repens (L) J.R. & G. Forst., Hedyotis corymbosa

(L.) Lam., Tridax procumbens L. , Justicia diffusa

Willd., etc.

Note: Previously the species was known to be

endemic to Sri Lanka and Peninsular India

(Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu).

This collection of the taxon from Sambalpur district

is a new record for Orissa and Eastern India, and

extends its northern distributional limit into Orissa.

Heliotropium zeylanicum (N.L.Burm.) Lain.,

Ency. 3: 94. 1789.

ssp. zeylanicum : Kazmi in J.Arn. Arbor. 51:

156. 1970-Plate 72e; Mathew, FI. Tamil Nadu

Carnatic Pt. 1: 990. 1983 (Boraginaceae).

H. curassavicum L. var. zeylanicum N.L.

Burm., FI. Ind. : 41, t. 16, f.2. 1768. H. linifolium

Lehm., PI. Asperif. : 35. 1818 Wt. Ic. 1. 1391.1848.

H.paniculatum auct. non R. Br. : C.B. Clarke in J.D.

Hook., FI. Brit. India 4: 151. 1883 ,p.p.

Specimen cited : Kholbilung, 3.11.1986, Das

et Panda 227; Nrusimhanath, 6.4.1988, Das et

Panda 1029.

FI & Frt. : January-December.

Frequency : Often found at Kholbilung,

Nrusimhanath, Deogarh and Badrama.

Ecology : Seen in open places on moist loamy

soil, growing in association with Polygala arvensis

Wild., Euphorbia hirta L. , Phyla nodiflora (L.)

Greene, Borreria pusilla (Wall.) DC., etc.

Note: This report of the taxon from Sambalpur

district, results in a new record for Orissa, also for

Eastern India. So far, it has been recorded from Sri

Lanka, Peninsular and Western India (Tamil

Nadu, Rajasthan), Trop. Africa. The epithet

<zeylanicum t may possibly indicate its origin as Sri

Lanka.

Hemigraphis crenata (Benth. ex Hohenack.)

Bremek. in Mat. mon. Strob. : 137. 1944; Pandey et

Singh in Shetty et Singh, FI. Rajasthan 2: 649. 1991

(Acanthaceae)

Ruellia crenata Benth. ex Hohenack. in Flora

32 : 558. 1849; Hemigrphis elegans (Hook.) Nees

var. crenata (Benth. ex Hohenack.) C.B. Clarke in

J.D. Hook. , FI. Brit. India 4: 425. 1884.

Specimen cited : Pradhanpat, 23.1.1989, Das

et Panda 1340.

550

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VOL. 90 (1993)

Fl.&Frt.: August-April.

Frequency : Rare.

Ecology: Only a few plants seen below

Pradhanpat falls, in rock - crevices. Associated

plants are Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet,

Petalidium barlerioides (Roth) Nees, Pogostemon

benghalensis (N.L. Burm.) Ktze., Ruellia tuberosa

L., etc.

NoraThis collection of the species from

Sambalpur district is a new record for the flora of

Orissa and Eastern India. The species is endemic to

India- Bangladesh- Myanmar region. In India*, so

far, the taxon was known to occur in Western and

Peninsular India (Rajasthan, Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Kerala).

Lobelia dichotoma Miq., FI. Ind. bat. 2: 576.

1856; var. dichotoma : Haridasan et Mukherjee in

Nayarcr al., Fasc. FI. India 19: 48. 1988 (Lobeliaceae)

L. zeylanica C.B. Clarke in J.D. Hook., FI. Brt.

Ind i a 3 : 425 . 1 88 1 , i ncl . va r . wa Ikeri p .p . ; L.heyneana

Moeliono in van Steenis, FI. Males, ser. 1, 6 : 129,

p.p. 1960, non Roth ex Roem. et Schult.

Specimen cited: Bamra, 3.11.1986, Das et

Panda 219.

FI SiFrt. : October-April.

Frequency: Less common.

Ecology: Growing on moist loamy soil, in

open waste places, in association with Tridax

procumbens L .,Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.V.

Muell., Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L., Euphorbia

heyneana Spreng., etc.

Note: The occurrence of the taxon in Sambalpur

district results in a new report for Orissa, also for

Eastern India: earlier it was recorded form Peninsular

India (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Sri

Lanka, Java, Malaysia. The availability in Sambalpur,

Orissa, may extend its range of distribution further

to other directions of the country. However, the plant

was seen only at Bamra, nowhere else in the district.

Murdannia pauciflora (Wt.) Brueckner in

Engl, et Prantl, Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 15a: 173. 1930;

Gandhi in Saldanha et Nicolson, FI. Hassan dist.

649. 1976 ( Commelinaceae).

Aneilema pauciflorum Wt. , Ic. t. 2077. 1853

(‘Pauciflora’), worn, illegit. non Dalzell (Hooker’s J.

Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 3: 136. 1851 = M. vaginata

(L.) Brueckner; J.D. Hook, in J.D. Hook, FI. Brit.

India 6: 378. 1892.

Specimen cited: Hirakud, 24.8.1986, Das et

Panda 103. FI. & Frt. : July - November.

Frequency: Rare.

Ecology: Grows on moist loamy-lateritic soil,

in open land, in association with Murdannia nudiflora

(L.) Brenan, M. hookeri (C.B. Cl.) Brueckner,

Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don, Vernonia cinerea (L.)

Less., Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn., etc.

Note: This collection of the species from

Sambalpur district, is new addition to the flora of

Orissa, as well as Eastern India. A few plants were

seen at Hirakud only. Earlier records are from

Malaya and Southern India (Karnataka, Kerala,

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh). The availability in

Sambalpur, Orissa, extends its range of distribution

to other parts of the country.

Acknowledgement

Financial assistance for the work was provided

by the Botanical Survey of India.

September 15, 1992 SAURIS PANDA1

A.P. DAS2

Central Botanical Laboratory,

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah 711 103.

department of Botany,

North Bengal University,

Dist. Darjeeling 734 430.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

551

Reference

Panda, S. (1990): Angiospermic flora of Sambalpur district, Orissa (India). Ph.D. Thesis (Vols. I & II). University of Calcutta.

40. A NEW NAME FOR BULBOPHYLLUM FLA VIDUM LUCKSOM

S.Z. Lucksom (1993) published a new species

of Bulbophyllum, namely Bulbophyllum flavidum

based on collection from Lachung Valley and

Phyangla R.F. (Sikkim). Perusal of literature revealed

that the nam t Bulbophyllum flavidum ispreoccupid

being published by Lindley in Bot. Reg. Misc. 83.

1840 for a tropical African species. As per the

Botanical code B. flavidum Lucksom (1993) is a

non. illeg. being a later homonym of B. flavidum

Lindl. (1840). Hence, a new name is proposed here

for this species:

Bulbophyllum pantliugii Lucksom nom. nov.

= Bulbophyllum flavidum (flavida) Lucksom in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90 (1): 71. 1993 ( non

Lindley 1840).

The Species is named after Mr. Pantling the

co-Author of the book the Orchids of Sikkim

Himalaya, who infact has contributed a lot towards

the exposition of the orchids of Sikkim Himalaya.

Thanks to Dr. C. S. Kumar, Tropical B. Garden,

Trivandrum for valuable comments.

October 12, 1993 S.Z. LUCKSOM

Divisional Forest Office (M/E),

Territorial Circle,

Gangtok, Sikkim.

ERRATUM

Vol. 90 (2)

Miscellaneous Notes

15. PATTERN OF BEAUTIFICATION BY BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD

PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS (L.) IN EASTERN RAJASTHAN

Figure 1, on p. 293

and

Figure 3, on p. 294

are upside down.

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CONTENTS

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS OF THE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

UNDER SUBOPTIMAL HABITAT CONDITIONS (With two text -figures)

By Erach Bharucha and Kiran Asher 371

THE DIEL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF INDIAN PYTHON (PYTHON MOLURUS

LINN.) AT KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

(With four text- figures)

By Karmavir Bhatt and B.C. Choudhury 394

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF RAJASTHAN STATE (INDIA)

By M.S. Johal, J.S. Chahal and K.K. Tandon 404

STUDIES ON THE HYPERPARASITES OF DIAPHANIA INDICA

(LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE) THROUGH APANTELES TARAGAMAE

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) (With a text-figure )

By Clement Peter and B.V. David 412

OCCURRENCE OF ARHODEOPORUS BONAIRENSIS (VIETS, 1936)

(HALACARIDAE: ACARI) FROM INDIAN OCEAN WITH

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REMARKS ON GENUS ARHODEOPORUS

NEWELL (With eight text-figures)

By A.L.N. Sarma and Tapas Chatter jee 417

IDENTIFICATION OF SOME PLANTS FROM ‘HORTUS MALABARICUS’

(With three plates)

By M.R. Almeida and S.M. Almeida 423

AUTUMN HOME RANGE OF MUSK DEER IN BAIZHA FOREST, TIBETAN

PLATEAU (With two text -figures)

By Richard B. Harris and Cai Guiquan 430

THE INTRODUCED BUT NATURALIZED AVIFAUNA OF THE UNITED

ARAB EMIRATES (With a text-figure )

By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan 437

POST HATCHING DISPERSAL AND GROWTH OF THE SALTWATER

CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER, IN ORISSA, INDIA

By S.K. Kar 446

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 45 1

OBITUARY 488

REVIEWS . 490

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 494

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and

published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023

520 PR XL

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