*

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY

NATURAL

HI STORY

SOCIETY

VOL. 93, No. 1

April 1996

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

F.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

K.P. SHIRODKAR

>

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

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3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9x12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text - figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author's name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of

important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy

of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a members's

contribution earlier than a non-members's.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 93 (1): APRIL 1996

Date of Publication: 01-4-1996

CONTENTS

NIGHT ROOSTING AND LUNAR PHOBIA’ IN INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT

LYRA ( With seven text -figures)

By R. Subbaraj and J. Balasingh 1

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIVE AND POST-DIVE PAUSE WHILE FORAGING IN TWO

DIVING DUCKS OF LAKE M ANSAR (With three text-figures )

By Y.R. Malhotra, N. Dcskyong and PS. Pathania 8

NOTES ON THE FEEDING AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GYMNOPLEURUS GEMMATUS

HAROLD AND GYMNOPLEURUS M1LIAR1S ( F.) (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)

( With a text-figure)

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 13

NOTES ON LONG-EARED HEDGEHOG HEMIECHINUS A UR IT US (GMELIN) (With a text-figure)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 20

ROOST SELECTION BY INDIAN PEAFOWL (PAVO CR1STATUS) IN GIR FOREST, INDIA

By Pranav Trivedi and A.J.T. Johnsingh 25

TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL STATUS OF MYRIONEURON R.BR. EX HOOK. F.

(RUBIACEAE)

By D.B. Deb 30

SOME ASPECTS OF BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATIONS: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE INDIAN

PLAINS AND THE ZIMBABWE PLATEAU

By D. Ewbank 34

FISH FAUNA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

By V.J. Zacharias, A.K. Bhardwaj and PC. Jacob 39

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF A LARGE COMMUNAL ROOST

OF WINTERING HARRIERS IN GUJARAT (NW. INDIA) AND COMPARISON WITH A

ROOST IN SENEGAL (W. AFRICA)

By Roger Clarke 44

STUDIES ON AMPHIPODS OF VISAKHAPATNAM COAST (With three plates)

By P. Somanadha Rao, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari 51

YELLOWTHROATED BULBULS AT HORSLEY HILLS (With a text-figure)

By S. Subramanya and J.N. Prasad 55

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF AGIOMMATUS CRAWFORD (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) —

AN EGG PARASITE OF A CUTWORM ON MULBERRY IN BANGALORE (KARNATAKA)

(With five text-figures)

By PM. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 59

CROSSOCHEILUS PERIYARENSIS, A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM THANIKKUDY

(THEKKADY), KERALA, INDIA (With a plate)

By A. G.K. Menon and PC. Jacob 62

ADDITION OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF CHALCOLEPIS CANDEZE (COLEOPTERA,

ELATERIDAE: HEMIRRHIPINAE) TO THE INDIAN FAUNA (With twelve text-figures)

By Punam, L.K. Vats and M.S. Saini 64

FIVE NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA:

MACROCHELIDAE) FROM EASTERN INDIA (With twenty-nine text-figures)

By R.K. Roy

68

OBITUARY

C.V. KULKARNI (191 1-1995) (With a plate)

By B.F. Chhapgar

REVIEWS

74

1. A NATURALIST IN KARBI ANGLONG

Reviewed by Philippa Mukherjee 77

2. ORN1THOBOTANY or Indian weaver birds

Reviewed by Zafar Futehally 77

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Meal eating by lion-tailed Macaque,

Macaco silenus (Zimmermann)

By G. Uniapathy and A. Prabhakar 79

2. Panther, Pantlicra pardus (Linnaeus) with

guinea worm infection

By Raza H. Tehsin 79

3. Some notes on Himalayan palm civet,

Panama larva la (Hainilton-Smith)

(Carnivora: Viverridac)

By M. L. Narang 80

4. Occurrence of the wolf

(Canis lupus Linnaeus) in

Rewa District (M.P.)

By A.M.K. Bharos 81

5. A record of the Nilgiri Marten

(Maries gwalkinsi Horsfield) in Upper Bhavani

By V. Gokula and N.K. Ramachandran 82

6. Back riding and possible aerial mating

amongst the large fruit bat,

Ptempus giganleus (Brunnieh)

By A.M.K. Bharos 82

7. Interbreeding between grizzled giant

squirrel, Ratufa macroura (Pennant)

and Malabar giant squirrel,

li. indica (Erxleben)

By Justus Joshua 82

8. Unusual feeding behaviour of squirrel,

Funanibulus spp.

By D.N. Haril 84

9. Toxicity of wax blocks against rodents

in laboratory and field conditions

By Y. Saxena 84

10. Fish oils as alternative to river dolphin,

Plalanista gangetica (Lebeck) oil for

fishing catfish Clupisoma garua in the

river Ganges. India

By R. S. Lai Mohan and

K.V. Mohammed Kunhi 86

BIRDS

1 1 . Large cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis

(Shaw) breeding in the Nilgiris

By Manoj V. Nair 89

12. Record of the painted spurfowl Galloperdix

lunulata (Valenciennes) in Ramgarh Sanctuary of

district Bundi. Rajasthan

By Shantanu Kumar 89

13. Painted spurfowl, Galloperdix lunulata

(Valenciennes) in Rajasthan

By Ashok Kumar Sharma 90

14. First record of fresh water crab Paralelphusa

spp. in the barn owl’s Tylo alba (Scopoli)

diet in Tranquebar Taluk, Tamil Nadu, South India

By R. Kanakasabai 90

15. Nesting in anchor-pipe by Brahminy myna.

Slurnus pagoda rum (Gmelin)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 91

16. Intraspecific brood parasitism in the common

myna, Acridotheres Irislis (Linn)

By Salwant K. Dhanda and Manjit S. Dhindsa 91

17. Sideways leap-frogging by the large grey

babblers, Turdoides nialcobni (Sykes)

By A.M.K. Bharos 93

18. Pipit (Antlius sp.) preying on leeches

By Manoj V. Nair 93

19. On some new breeding records of walerbirds

from the Delhi region

By Abdul Jamil Urfi 94

20. Recent additions to the bird list of the

Lakshadweep islands

By V. Santharam, D.N. Mathew. George Mathew

and Tara Gandhi 95

REPTILES

21. The keeled box turtle Pyxidea nwulwlii Gray on

the north bank of the Brahmaputra — a new record

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 97

22. Reproductive behaviour of Indian mugger

( Cmcodylus palustris) at Bhor-Saindan

Crocodile Sanctuary in Haryana

By R.C. Gupta and C.S. Bhardwaj 97

23. Records of water snakes (Homalopsidae: Serpentes)

from Gujarat state

By Raju Vyas 101

AMPHIBIA

24. Comments on the note “First record of

Microhyla rubra (Jerdon) (Amphibia: Anura)

from Maharashtra” by Kainble and Ghate

By C. Radhakrishnan 101

FISHES

25. Puntius dukai Day (Pisces: Cyprinidae) —

A new record from Uttar Pradesh hills

By K.D. Joshi and PC. Joshi 102

26. Record of new fishes from Periyar Tiger Reserve

By L.K. Arun, C.P. Shaji and PS. Easa 103

INSECTS

27. Biology and Altica coerulea (Oliv.)

(Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera) —

A potential bio-control agent against

Jussiaea repens L.

By U.K. Sar, C.K. Sar and K.K. Sar 104

28. Study of male Genitalia of some species genus

of Pheropsophus (Branchinini: Carabidae:

Coleoptera) and its taxonomic importance

By S.P. Singh 106

29. Ciliate infestation on the phytal Halacaridae

(Acari) from the Kovalam Beach (Kerala Coast)

By Tapas Chatterjee 107

30. Delphinium dltissimum Wall. (Ranunculaceae)

— a new record for Sikkim Himalaya

By S.Z. Lucksom 108

3 1 . Pycnoplinthopsis bhutanica (Hara) Jafri

(Brassicaceae): A new record from

West Himalaya

By D.S. Rawat, L.R. Dangwal.and R.D. Gaur 109

32. Kosteletzkya vitifolius (Linn.) Comb. Nov.

By Neelam Patil and M.R. Almeida 1 1 1

33. Some new records of legumes from

Garhwal Himalaya

By L.R. Dangwal, D.S. Rawat and R.D. Gaur 113

34. Stomata on seed of Bauhinia purpurea L.

(Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay and K. Thothathri 115

35. SEM studies on the testa surface pattern of some

species of Bauhinia (Leguminosae:

Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay and

K. Thothathri 116

36. On the occurrence of Gentiana infelix Clarke

(Gentianaceae) in Garhwal Himalayas

By D.S. Rawat and R.D. Gaur 1 1 8

37. SEM studies on the testa surface pattern of two

species of Bauhinia (Leguminosae:Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay

and K. Thothathri 120

38. Kaempferia siphonantha King ex Baker

(Zingiberaceae) in the Andaman Islands

By P.S.N. Rao and B.K. Sinha 121

39. On the occurrence of Dimeria kanjirapalliana

K.C. Jacob (Poaceae) in Andhra Pradesh

By M.S. Gayathri and T. Pullaiah 122

40. Two new records of orchids for Andaman Islands

By L. N. Ray, P.V. Sreekumar and

PM. Padhye 123

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1 26

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 143

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

161

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1996 Vol. 93 No. 1

NIGHT ROOSTING AND ‘LUNAR PHOBIA’ IN INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT

MEGADERMA LYRA 1

R. SUBBARAJ2 AND J. BALASINGH3

(With seven text-figures )

Key words: Megadenna lyra, moon light intensity, night roosts, foraging, lunar phobia

‘Night roosts’ of Indian false vampire bats Megadenna lyra include cow-sheds, unoccupied buildings,

ranging from small store rooms to large country houses. Observations of adult females occupying the night

roosts suggest that the duration of occupancy of night roosts and the duration of foraging bouts vary depending

on the phases of the moon and the reproductive conditions. Moon light avoidance (reflected by the duration of

occupancy of night roosts) is significantly higher during breeding season than during non-breeding season in

females. The behaviour of ‘lunar phobia’ in male M. lyra follows the patterns exhibited by the females. It is

possible that in M. lyra ‘lunar phobia’ is probably an adaptation for reducing losses to nocturnal predators that

are at least visually oriented.

Introduction

“Night roosts” of bats include places used to

ingest food transported from nearby feeding

areas, used by “sit and wait predators” and calling

roosts as part of leks. They may also serve as centres

for information transfer about the location of

food patches and facilitate social interaction (See

review Kunz 1982). Bats roost for short intervals in

the night roosts to consume prey that they have

captured in flight or on the ground. This behaviour

seems most common in those bat species that

'Accepted May 1994.

department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology,

School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University,

Madurai-625 021.

department of Zoology, St. John’s College,

Palayamkottai, Tirunelveli-627 002.

take relatively larger prey. For example the

intermittent returns and departures of Antrozous

pallidus at night roost (Orr 1954, Beck and Rudd

1960, O’Shea and Vaughan 1977) commonly involve

the transport of large insects. The selection and

the duration of occupancy of night roosts may

be influenced directly or indirectly by lunar

periodicity. For instance, some desert bats apparently

use more protected shelters during brighter lunar

periods than during darker ones (Hirshfeld el al.

1977)

We have gathered data concerning the foraging

behaviour of M. lyra from radio-tracking studies

(Doris et al. 1991). The foraging bouts of these bats

in relation to different phases of the moon. In this

present study the inhibitory effects of moon light on

the foraging is related to the “night roosting”

behaviour in these bats.

2

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

TIME ( h )

Fig. 1 . Foraging activity of tagged M. lyra relative to the phase of the moon. Each horizontal solid line ( )

represents the time spent in the “night roost” by a single female. Dotted lines ( ) cover those hours of the

night when the moon is either set or not yet risen.

The time spent in the night roosts ( ) by M. lyra is plotted subsequently just above ( ) “dark hours”

of the night.

Abbreviations : NM — New moon; IQ — First Quarter; FM — Full moon; LQ — Last Quarter.

Materials and methods

The night roosts of M. lyra were mostly located

50 m to 500 m away from the diurnal temple roost

(Tirunelveli, lat. 8° 44' N; long. 77°42' E, South

India). They include cow-sheds, unoccupied

buildings, ranging from a small store to large country

houses. Bats were banded with plastic collars fitted

with beads of different colours and combinations to

enable individual identification of bats while night

roosting (Balasingh et al. 1992). Weekly visits

covering 36 nights representing all the lunar phases

were devoted completely from dusk to dawn for

observing banded M. lyra at night roosts.

Interestingly one banded female M. lyra night

roosting continuously in an unoccupied house was

observed for 12 nights during the breeding season

(February, March and April 1989) and for 12 nights

during non-breeding season (September, October,

and November 1 989). Another banded maleM. lyra,

night roosting in a small two chambered temple was

observed for 12 nights during the months of

February, March and April 1989. Bats were observed

from a distance of less than 5 m with a red filtered

lamp or night viewing device (Litton Precision

Noctovision Sniperscope). The time spent by the bat

in the night roost was recorded with a stop-watch.

Timings of moon rise and moon set were obtained

from the tables of Ephemeris Nautical Almanac

published by the Director of Observatories, Calcutta

and were adjusted for longitude, latitude and Indian

Standard Time (1ST).

Results

M. lyra night roosted singly and not in groups.

Night roosts tend to be favoured places situated 50

m to 2 Km from the day roost. During breeding

seasons most of the lactating females night roosted

50 m to 500 m from the day roost. During rainy

months most of the night roosts were closer to day

roost while during the long summer, these night

Time (h)

NIGHT ROOSTING AND 'LUNAR PHOBIA' IN MEGADERMA LYRA

3

Fig. 2. Time duration of night roost occupancy by

female M. lyra (ordinate) in relation to different phases

of moon.

NM — New moon; IQ — First Quarter;

FM — Full moon; LQ — Last Quarter.

I Breeding; | | Non-breeding.

roosts were temporarily vacated by the bats.

An adult female bat continuously occupied the

night roost for more than 6 months. Variations in the

patterns of fdraging by this single female M. lyra

were correlated with the phases of the moon. During

new moon nights the bats engaged in prolonged

Fig. 3. Time duration of night roost occupancy by male

M. lyra (ordinate). Other details as in Fig. 2.

foraging bouts and as a result the duration of

occupancy in the night roosts were greatly reduced.

During first half of the “bright moon” nights (first

quarter moon) the bat suspended foraging activity

and prolonged the stay in the night roost (Fig. 1).

From the first quarter to full moon, despite the

presence of a relatively bright moon at sunset, the

M. lyra female left the day roost at the usual time

but stayed away long enough to complete one or two

4

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Figure 4 illustrates the duration of stay (I bout)

in the night roost by the female. The time spent in

the night roost was relatively higher during “bright

moon” hours of the first quarter moon and full moon

nights. The results are also in agreement with the

data collected for subsequent bouts in the night roosts

(Figs. 5, 6 & 7). Even though there were variations

in the time spent during different bouts in the night

roost by the female during breeding and non-

breeding seasons, the results of cumulative data

collected for all the rest of the bouts suggest that

during breeding season the moon light avoidance is

significantly higher than during non-breeding season.

Discussion

Fig. 4. Time duration ol 1 bout night roost occupancy

(ordinate) in breeding (|g ) and non-breeding (Q] )

female. Other details as in Fig. 2

feeding passes before returning to the night roost.

During full moon nights, even though there

was an occurrence of two or three feeding bouts they

were of shorter duration. The duration of occupancy

in the night roosts was significantly higher.

During most of the nights, at moon-set this

female M. lyra re-emerged from the night roost and

foraged till dawn. These data on the influence of

moon phases on the foraging activity of the female

M. lyra differs significantly during breeding and non-

breeding seasons. Fig. 2 shows clearly that the time

spent in the night roost by the female M. lyra was

significantly higher during breeding season

compared to the non-breeding season during all

phases of the moon. During last quarter, however,

the female spent significantly lesser time in the night

roost during non-breeding season than in the

breeding season (Fig. 2).

Figure 3 illustrates the dependency of the

duration of the night roost occupancy in an individual

male on the lunar periodicity. The pattern follows

those exhibited by the female. During “bright moon”

hours the male returned to the night roost and

remained there for a long time.

Bats are “faithful” to individual night roost as

long as the nearby area remains resourceful. During

rainy months most of the night roosts are closer to

day roosts since the ponds and the neighbouring

fields are flooded with water yielding rich food

resources. During long summer months bats make

long commuting flights between foraging grounds

and night roosts, hence several of the night roosts

were temporarily shifted to distant places which are

rich food resources.

The lactating females “night roosted” close to

day roost during breeding season because the mother

bats carried their young to the night roost and left

them in the night roost while they foraged. Since

they have to carry the extra baggage the mother bats

preferred to night roost closer to the day roost during

breeding.

The first indications of moon light avoidance

behaviour were given in the observations of Tamsitt

and Valdi vieso (1961), Villa ( 1 966), Wimsatt ( 1 969),

Schmidt et al. (1971) and Crespo et al. ( 1972) who

could catch less number of foraging vampire bats

and phyllostomids in their nets at moonlit nights than

they could before the moon had risen or after it had

set. A direct proof of the inhibitory effects of moon

light was, however, obtained only after months of

recording the flight activity of several captive bats

such as Artibeus jamaicensis and Phyllostomus

discolor under natural lighting conditions (Erkert

NIGHT ROOSTING AND ‘LUNAR PHOBIA ’ IN MEGADERMA LYRA

5

CD

E 3

2 a ^ a

Fig. 5. Time duration of II bout night roost occupancy

(ordinate) in breeding (Hi ) and non-breeding (| | )

female. Other details as in Fig. 2.

1974). The findings of the studies have since been

confirmed with a number of techniques, including

the radio-tracking of A. jamaicensis (Morrison

1978a, b), bat detector recordings of the activity of

various microchiropterans (Fenton et al. 1977) and

simulation experiments on A. lituratus and P.

hastatus in artificial light-darkness cycle in the

laboratory (Haussler and Erkert 1978).

In addition, the differential sensitivity of bat

activity patterns to moon light could also serve to

reduce the direct interspecific competition among

bats specialising on particular food resources by

temporal separation of foraging activity based on the

lunar cycle. Such a mechanism was proposed, for

(ordinate) in breeding ( H ) and non-breeding ( )

female. Other details as in Fig. 2.

example, by Owings and Lockard (1971) for two

rodent species of Peromyscus with differential

responses to moon light intensities.

The moon light avoidance behaviour of M. lyra

is not cued simply to ambient light level. M. lyra

left the day roost after sunset even on nights when a

bright moon was already present. At sunset, hunger

may be an over-riding factor, causing the bats to

emerge for a short bout of feeding despite the

illumination from the full moon. Furthermore, the

data of Lockard (1978) from field work measuring

activity of kangaroo rats throughout the full range

of naturally occurring conditions do clearly show

that light intensity alone is not the cue, for much

6

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Fig. 7. Time duration of IV bout night roost occupancy

(ordinate) in breeding (m ) and non-breeding ([^] )

female. Other details as in Fig. 2.

activity also occurred about the time of civil twilight

(sun 6° below the horizon) when the illumination

was about 10 lx. Whereas the full moon was on the

order of 0.5 lx. Later, when there was much less

illumination but a luminous disk was in the sky,

activity was inhibited. Thus any of the three

following hypotheses could account for the observed

behaviour in M. lyra :

(1) Activity is inhibited by any reasonably

conspicuous luminous disk in the sky.

(2) Activity is inhibited by a luminous disk in

the sky that provided the ambient illumination which

is above some threshold point.

(3) Activity is inhibited by an endogenous

clock running on lunar time.

. The limited data available in the present study

permitted to analyse only the influence of the lunar

periodicity on the night roosting behaviour in

A/, lyra. In this context, it is of interest that moon

Ph ases influence the activity of several bats

directly or indirectly acting through changes in

behaviour, abundance or availability of prey (Turner

1975).

We do not have complete data on the prey

abundance at different moon phases over the seasons.

However, it is possible that in M. lyra similar to other

bat species “lunar-phobia” is probably an adaptation

for reducing losses to nocturnal predators that are at

least visually oriented (Lockard and Owings 1974,

Lockard 1978, Morrison 1978a; Barclay 1985a, b;

Fleming and Heithaus 1986).

Acknowledgement

We thank Prof. M.K. Chandrashekaran for

critically reading the manuscript.

References

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convenient device for tagging bats in the field. Bat Research

News. 33: 6.

Barclay, R.M.R. (1985a): Long-versus short-range foraging

strategies of hoary ( Lasiurus cine reus ) and silver-haired

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prey-selection. Can. J. Zool. 63: 2507-2515.

Barclay, R.M.R. (1985b): The echolocation calls of hoary

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Beck, A.J. & R.L. Rudd (1960): Nursery colonies in the pallid

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Erkert, H.G. (1974): Der Einfluss des Mondlichtes auf die

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Fenton, M.B., N.G.H. Boyle, T.M. Harrison & D.J. Oxley

(1977): Activity patterns, habitat use and prey selection by

some African insectivorous bats. Biotropica 9: 2860-2867.

Fleming, T.H. & E.R. Heithaus (1986): Seasonal foraging

behaviour of the frugivorous bat Carollis perspicillata. J.

Mammal. 67: 660-671.

Haussler, U. &H. Erkert (1978): Different direct effects of light

intensity on the entrained activity rhythm in Neotropical bats

(Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). Behav. Process. 3: 223-239.

Hirshfeld, J.R., Z.C. Nelson & W.G. Bradley (1977): Night

roosting behaviour in four species of desert bats. South West.

Nat. 22: 427-433.

Kunz, T.H. (1982): Roosting ecology of bats. pp. 1-55, In:

Ecology of bats (T.H. Kunz, ed.), Plenum Press, New York.

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Lockard, R.B. (1978): Seasonal changes in the activity pattern

NIGHT ROOSTING AND LUNAR PHOBIA’ IN MEGADERMA LYRA

7

of Dipodomys spectabilis. J. Mammal. 59: 563-568.

Lockard, R.B. & D.H. Owings (1974): Moon-related surface

activity of bannertail ( Dipodomys spectabilis) and fresno (D.

nitratoides ) kangaroo rats. Anim. Beliav. 22: 262-273.

Morrison, D.W. (1978a): Lunar phobia in neotropical fruit bat,

Artibeus jamaicensis (Chiroptera: Phyllostomatidae). Anim.

Behav. 26: 852-856.

Morrison, D.W. (1978b): Influence of habitat on the foraging

distances of the fruit bat, Artibeus jamaicensis. J. Mammal.

59: 622-624.

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O’shea, T.J. & T.A. Vaughan (1977): Nocturnal and seasonal

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58: 269-284.

Owings, J.F. & R.B. Lockard (1971): Different nocturnal activity

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Turner, D.C. (1975): The vampire bat. Johns Hopkins University

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Nac. Auto. Mexico City. pp. 491.

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tion to hibernation in bats. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 124: 249-

267.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIVE AND POST-DIVE PAUSE WHILE FORAGING IN

TWO DIVING DUCKS OF LAKE MANSAR1

Y.R. Malhotra2, N. Deskyong3, P.S. Pathania3

( With three text-figures)

Key Words: dive, pause, ducks, relationship, diving

Relation between dive and post-dive pause while foraging is quantified in the two diving duck

species: Common pochard (Aythya ferina) and Tufted duck (A fuligula) that winter in Lake Mansar, Distt.

Udhampur, J&K. A total of 1641 dive cycles (98 1 dive cycles for Tufted duck and 660 for Common pochard)

were observed during the winter 1992-93. In both the species positive relationship between dive time and

post-dive pause has been analysed by Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient of correlation (r) method. However, such

positive relationship is more in Common pochard (r=0.88; t>0.05) than in Tufted duck (r=0.65; t>0.05).

This has been correlated with the diet difference of the two ducks. Common pochard which is largely a

vegetarian shows increase in pause time with dive time as compared to Tufted duck which feeds on sessile

or slow moving benthic prey.

Long dives (21 sec. and above) are observed more in Tufted duck than Common pochard. This

difference in dive time is influenced by diet difference and foraging decisions made while underwater.

Introduction

Foraging style of diving birds, that dive from

surface of water and after spending some time

underwater, returns to the water surface to breathe

is well known (e.g., Johnsgard 1965, Wallace and

Mahan 1975, Ali and Ripley 1978, Lessells and

Stephens 1983, Ydenberg 1986, Woakes and Butler

1986). Similarly considerable literature on

physiology of diving is also available. Butler and

Jones (1982) in their review “Comparative

physiology of diving in Vertebrates” listed almost

one thousand references. In contrast, publications of

diving behaviour and particularly on the relationship

between dive and pause is very scarce.

Diving behaviour of birds hold great

fascination not only among ornithologists but also

among naturalists and this can be summed up from

a Scottish physician and naturalist J.M. Dewar’s

(1924) statement: “Among the problems surrounding

the life of birds, none is more fascinating than the

underwater activities of diving fowl”.

'Accepted June 1993.

-Vice-Chancellor, University of Jammu, Jammu (J&K)-1 80 004.

3Post-Graduate Department of Bio-Sciences,

University of Jammu, Jammu (J&K)-180 004.

In this paper, we describe briefly some of our

studies on the comparative relationship between dive

length and post-dive pause when freely foraging, in

the two Aythya species, i.e. Tufted duck A. fuligula

and common pochard A. ferina, that winter in lake

Mansar. The starting point is the common place

observation that although some dives by birds are

made during courtship or to escape predators, most

are made to capture food.

Study Area

Lake Mansar (32°42* N and 75° E) is a heart

shaped sub-oval water body, 65 km to the east of

Jammu city (J&K), and is located at an elevation of

710 m above msl. The lake is 37 metres deep at the

centre, and has a circumference of 3.294 Km. It is

primarily fed by surface run off, and has some

submerged spring sources. It is classified as a fault

basin, non-drainage, type of lake without any distinct

regular inflow or outflow channel.

The lake is utilized by a number of migratory

aquatic birds in winter.

Methods

This study was conducted during the winter

of 1992-93 in a lake Mansar. Birds were watched

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIVE AND POST-DIVE PA USE IN DIVING DUCKS

9

and observation recorded for the duration of their

sequential dives and surface pause after re-

emergence using a stop-watch. Total of 1641 dive

cycles (98 1 for Tufted duck and 660 for Common

Pochard) were observed. Only one bird (of either of

the two diving duck species) was observed at a time.

During the present work only those dives were taken

into consideration which were made for foraging.

Divers make repeated foraging excursions from the

surface to which they must return to breathe

(Ydenberg 1986), though some distance away from

where they dive. Thus the underwater time and the

post-dive pause which is spent on the surface,

completes a dive cycle. During a dive cycle, the bird

under observation may get disturbed, by one way or

the other on quite a few occasions, particularly during

emergence at surface, thus either lengthening the

post-dive pause or forcing the bird to dive. All such

observations were deleted from the data so that we

have a data set purely of free foraging dive cycles.

To compare the post-dive pause time to its

preceding dive length time, all the observations were

grouped that were made under similar dive length

time (in seconds) and then the mean ± S.D. of all the

post-dive pauses were calculated for each group of

similar dive length (Table 1).

To analyse any correlation between dive length

and post-dive pause, statistical method of Karl

Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation (r) was applied

to the data-

r= Ixy

v Xx2 x ly2

Where x = (X-X) and y = (Y-Y)

X is the dive length,

Y is the mean post-dive pause time,

X is the mean dive length of the data,

Y is the mean pause time of the data,

To test the significance of the observed Co-

efficient of Correlation (r), t-test has been applied

as follows:

t = X

Where ‘n’ is the d.f.

Regression analysis has also been worked out

to estimate values of pauses (Y) at independent

values of dive (X).

Regression equation of Y on X is expressed

as follows:

Y = a + bX

X (dive) is the independent variable and ka’

and ‘b’ are constant having values of

a=7.17 and b= 0.26 in Tufted duck.

a=3.6 and b= 0.49 in Common pochard.

Result and Discussion

Table 1 and Fig. 1 summarizes comparative

data on dive length and post-dive pause relation-

Table 1

COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF POST-DIVE PAUSE

LENGTH TO ITS PRECEDING DIVE LENGTH IN THE

TWO DIVING DUCK SPECIES IN LAKE MANSAR

10

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

ship in the two diving ducks Aythyafuligula and A.

ferina in Lake Mansar. In both the species positive

relationship has been worked out, i.e. r=0.88

in Common pochard and r=0.65 in Tufted duck,

both of which are significant at 5% level

(i.e. t > 0.05).

Fig. 1. Dive-pause relationship in the two diving ducks:

Cp — Common pochard and Td — Tufted duck. Each

point is the mean of 10 to 132 dive cycles.

Similar to our observation, Dewar (1924) has

also shown positive relationship with significant

increase in pause time with dive time in diving ducks

and other divers (including loons, grebes, cormorants

and auks). Positive relationship between dive and

pause duration has also been worked out by Forbes

(1985) in Western Grebe Aecmophorus occidentalis,

and Stonehouse (1967) in cormorants Phalacrocorax

melanoleucos and P.carbo. Houston and McNamara

(1985) developed a general theory of central place

foraging for single prey loaders that takes account

of the fact that longer dives are followed by longer

pauses. Data from a variety of species show that

pause duration is directly related to the length of the

preceding dive which strongly suggests that this is,

at least, partly, recovery time during which

respiratory gases are exchanged (Butler and Woakes

1979). Comparative data on dive and surface times

suggest that different species, depending on their

foraging ecology, allocate the recovery time from

dives in different ways, such as, divers whose prey

may escape or hide between dives (e.g. fish) may

postpone recovery to dive more frequently until a

series of dives has been completed. Divers whose

prey are sedentary (e.g. shellfish) seem to complete

much more of the recovery after each dive (Ydenberg

1986). Diving is energy expensive (Woakes and

But(er 1983, 1986) and divers spend much time

underwater. Time spent on surface is used for

recovery from physiological effects (partial

asphyxiation) which may be a consequence of diving

and underwater life as also suggested by Ydenberg

( 1 986) and Ydenberg and Forbes (1988). Alongside,

body heat lost while underwater may be regained

while on the surface after a dive as also suggested

by Mac- Arthur (1984).

DIVE LENGTH (seconds)

Fig. 2. A comparison of the dive-pause relationship in

Common pochard (Cp) and Tufted duck (Td) by

Regression analysis.

Of the two dfving ducks, Common pochard

shows more increase in pause time with increase in

dive time than in Tufted duck, i.e. regression line

for pause time is steeper in case of Common pochard

than in Tufted duck (Fig. 2). This difference can be

related to the difference in diet of the two species.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIVE AND POST-DIVE PA USE IN DIVING DUCKS

DIVE LENGTH (seconds)

Fig. 3 Percentage of dives made at a frequency of

That Common pochard is more a vegetarian than

the Tufted duck, is well documented by Ali and

Ripley (1978). Ydenberg (1986) also explains that

difference in observation of Dewar (1924) where

steepest slope is for diving ducks as compared to

other divers like mergansers, loons, grebes,

cormorants, etc., is suggested to be due to different

diets of the latter from former. The diving ducks

generally feed on sessile or slow moving benthic prey

such as shellfish and crustaceans (Nilsson 1972,

Pehrsson 1976, Ali and Ripley 1978) whereas

other species (mergansers, loons, grebes, cormorants)

which capture fish in active pursuit. Ydenberg

(1986) explains that short pauses are advanta-

geous because prey may escape between successive

dives.

When dive time of the two ducks is compared

for same time (2 1 seconds and above), we find Tufted

duck diving for this duration on 77.5% of the total

DIVE LENGTH (seconds)

5 seconds in (A) Tufted duck; (B) Common pochard.

observation (Fig. 3, A), whereas Common pochard

does so for 52% of the total observations only (Fig.

3, B). The difference in dive duration is influenced

by diet difference in the two species as already stated

and also by the foraging decisions (Stephens and

Krebs 1986) made while underwater, namely which

prey to eat and which to neglect or how many prey

to capture and how long to continue a search before

surfacing. Houston and McNamara (1985) concluded

that, for a diving bird, the decision policy, for

accepting and rejecting prey items, is in favour of

that which maximizes the rate of energy gain which

makes the bird less and less selective as the dive

progresses, because rejection becomes more and

more costly.

Conclusion

Data collected and analysed thus shows

positive relationship between dives and post-dive

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

pause, i.e. with increase in dive time, post-dive pause

also increases. Such relationship in dive-pause is well

supported by reports of other investigators also.

Dive-pause relationship is more in Common pochard

than in Tufted duck and is well explained by

the difference in diets of the two species. Further

it is observed that on an average Tufted ducks go

for longer duration of dives and on more occasions

than Common pochard do, which can be related to

their differences in diet and foraging decisions made

while underwater.

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out at the Post-graduate

Department of Bio-Sciences, University of Jammu.

We are grateful to the staff of the Department and

especially to Prof. O.P. Sharma for providing good

working facilities.

References

Ali, SAlim & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford University Press, London, New

York.

Butler, P.J. & D.R. Jones (1982): Comparative physiology of

diving in vertebrates. In: Advances in physiology and

biochemistry. Vol. 8. D.E. Lowenslein (ed.). Academic Press,

New York, pp. 179-364.

Butler, P.J. & A.J. Woakes (1979): Changes in heart rate and

respiratory frequency during natural behaviour of ducks, with

particular reference to diving. ./. Exp. Biol. 79: 283-300.

Dewar, J.M. (1924): The bird as a diver. H.F. & G. Witherby,

London. 173 pp.

Forbes, L.S. (1985): The feeding ecology of Western Grebes

breeding at Duck Lake, British Columbia. Unpublished M.Sc.

thesis, Univ. of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 72 pp.

Houston, A.l. & J.M. McNamara (1985): A general theory of

central place foraging for single-prey loaders. Them: Popul.

Biol. 28: 233-262.

Johnsgard, P.A. (1965): Handbook of waterfowl behaviour.

Cornell Univ. press. New York.

Lessells, C.M. & D.W. Stephens (1983): Central place foraging:

Single prey loaders again. Anim. Behav. 31: 238-243.

Mac-Artiiur, R.A. (1984): Aquatic Thermoregulation in the

Muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus): Energy demands of swimming

and diving. Can. J. Zool. 62: 241-248.

Nilsson, L. (1969): Knipans Buceplwla clanyula beteende under

Vinterhalvaret. Var Fagelvarld 28: 199-210.

Pehrsson, O. (1976): Food and feeding grounds of the golden

eye Buceplwla clausula (L.), on the Swedish Coast. Ornis

Scan. 7: 91-112.

Stephens, D.W. & J.R. Krebs (1986): Foraging theory. Princeton

Univ. Press, Princeton.

Stonehouse, B. (1967): Feeding behaviour and diving rhythms

of some New Zealand Shags, Phalacrocoracidae. Ibis 109:

600-605.

Wallace, G.J. & H.D. Mahan (1975): An introduction to

Ornithology. MacMillan Pub. Co., Inc., New York. Collier

MacMillan Publishers, London.

Woakes, A.J. & P.J. Butler (1983): Swimming and diving in

Tufted ducks, A ythya fuligula with particular reference to heart

rate and gas exchange. J. Exp. Biol. 107: 311-329.

Woakes, A.J. & P.J. Butler (1985): Respiratory, circulatory and

metabolic adjustments during swimming in the Tufted Duck,

Aythya fuligula. J. Exp. Biol. 120: 215-218.

Ydenberg, R.C. (1986): Foraging by diving ducks. Congressus

internationalis ornithologici (19th: 1986: Ottawa, Ont.).

Ydenberg, R.C. & L.S. Forbes (1988): Diving and foraging in

the Western Grebe. Ornis. Scand. 19: 129-133.

NOTES ON THE FEEDING AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GYMNOPLEURUS

GEMMATES HAROLD AND GYMNOPLEURUS MILIARIS (F.)

(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) 1

K. Vfjenakumari2 and G.K. Veeresh3

(With a text-f igure)

Key Words: Gymnopleurus gemmcitus, G. miliaris, nesting, competition

Field studies on the feeding, mating and competitive behaviour of Gymnopleurus gemmatus and G.

miliaris were conducted in Bangalore. Both the species were diurnal and fed both at the pat and on dung balls

that they fashioned, transported and buried before feeding. Competition was intense both for dung balls and

mates within the species and for dung balls alone between the species. Species belonging to the genera

Onthophagus and Caccobius were found frequently as kleptoparasites in the brood balls of these beetles.

Introduction Material and Methods

Gymnopleurus , a dung rolling coprophagous

genus of beetle, is widely distributed in Asia, Europe

and Africa (Arrow 1931). The fashioning and

transportation (by rolling) of dung balls, by these

beetles not only reduces congestion at the resource

site but could also give the rollers a competitive edge

over the dung burying groups like the Coprini,

Onthophagini, Onitini, etc., which compete for food

and burial space beneath and around each dung pat

(Halffter and Matthews 1966).

It was Fabre (1897), the famed french

naturalist, who made the first systematic studies of

the three dung rolling genera Sccirabaeus,

Gymnopleurus and Sisyphus. Subsequently, several

studies on the ball making, rolling and burial

behaviour of Gymnopleurus have been made

(Hingston 1923, Honda 1927, Prasse 1957a, 1957b,

1957c, 1958a and 1958b).

In India, however, after Hingston (1923), the

behaviour of these beetles (in particular

Gymnopleurus ), has gone largely unnoticed. A study

on the field behaviour of two commonly occurring

species of Gymnopleurus , namely G. miliaris and

G. gemmatus was therefore undertaken.

‘Accepted February 1994.

2P.B. No. 43 1. Junglighat, Port Blair, Andaman Islands, 744103.

'Vice Chancellor, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

560065.

The feeding and breeding behaviour of G.

miliaris and G. gemmatus were studied in grazing

fields at two locations (Hebbal and Allalsandra) on

the outskirts of Bangalore (12° N lat. and 77° E long.,

916 m alt.) in S. India. The study sites are situated at

about 7 and 1 1 km north of Bangalore, respectively.

The rainy season which commences here in late April

continues till the end of September during which

period these beetles are active. During the period of

study (1984-1986) the mean maximum and mean

minimum temperatures were 29.8° C and 18.2° C

while the total annual rainfall amounted to 548.3 mm.

Observations were made on the following

elements of beetle behaviour, namely a) approaching

food, b) feeding, c) ball making, d) ball rolling, e)

mating, f) intra- and inter-specific competition, and

g) kleptoparasitism.

The rollers, G. miliaris and G. gemmatus were

identified by Dr. R. Madge of the British Museum

(Natural History), London.

Results and Discussion

The beetles commenced activity after the first

rains in late April. They are diurnal, with their period

of activity usually extending from 0700 to 1 830 hrs.

Light showers did not make them cease activity.

Approach to food: The beetles always located

14

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

their food by flying low, in a zigzag manner and

alighting at a mean distance of 8.65 cm (G.

gemniatus) and 8.85 cm (G. miliaris) from the food

source. Whenever they landed on their backs they

used their mid pair of legs as pivots to right

themselves. A few alighted directly on the dung pat.

Having detected the presence of food, the beetles,

with antennae waving feverishly, walked briskly

towards it. On reaching the food source, they walked

all over it to finally select a suitable spot to commence

feeding.

Feeding: Both the species of Gymnopleurus

were attracted to human faeces, sheep excrement and

cow dung. It was visually apparent that the beetles

preferred human faeces of the three sources of

excrement.

The beetles commenced feeding at the

dropping after having selected a suitable spot on. the

dung mass. When feeding on sheep-pellets, it was

noticed that the beetles fed exclusively in the inner

core by boring into the pellet. This brief period of

feeding was followed by ball making.

Balls of excrement were fashioned for various

purposes, namely i) for food, ii) as nuptial gifts, and

iii) for rearing brood.

Both the species of Gymnopleurus made food

balls, rolled, buried and fed on them unlike G. mopsus

Pallas andG. geojfroyi Fuessly (Prasse 1957a, 1957b,

1958a) which never made any food balls. Hingston

(1923) also reports food ball preparation in G.

miliaris.

Prasse (1957a) has reported that species of

Gymnopleurus undergo a ‘Reifungsfrass’ period of

3-3.5 months. In the present study the beetles which

emerged with the onset of the rains were found

mating on the first day and brood balls were made a

week after. So the Reifungsfrass period is definitely

shorter for these two species of Gymnopleurus.

Ball making: After selecting a suitable spot

on the faecal mass the beetles carved out circular

segments of dung from the rest of the mass using

their front tibiae and clypeus. During the process of

fashioning, bits of dung were added from the main

mass whenever the initial mass was found to be

inadequate.

The sphere was finally detached from the main

mass by the beetle moving down the side of the ball

to its point of attachment at the base. The beetle then

pushed against the ball with its middle and hind pairs

of legs till the ball got detached. It was then rolled to

the edge of the pat.

Perched on the ball they patted it into a smooth

sphere using their fore tibiae. Once again, any

deficiency in the quantum of dung making up the

sphere was made up by adding from the main mass

and if in excess, the extra material was cut away with

the clypeus and discarded. Each beetle took about

11.07 ± 1.03 min. (G. gemniatus) and 10.10 ± 1.23

min. (G. miliaris) to construct and fashion one ball.

In those cases where the partner was chosen during

the period of ball construction, the new partner also

helped in ball making.

When sheep pellets were used as raw material

for making balls, a different technique was adopted.

The beetles then broke open a number of sheep pellets

to collect sufficient material from the soft inner core.

These were then used sequentially in the fashioning

of a ball of requisite proportions.

Ball making was observed at temperatures

between 23.3°C and 29.4°C.

Ball rolling: The belli of dung once detached

was rolled away from the dung pat to a distance of

about 10-20 cm, where the beetle was generally

noticed to finally shape the ball. Sitting on the ball,

the beetle patted the ball into shape using its forelegs,

as well as by intermittently pressing the ball with its

clypeus. On completion of this final fashioning of

the ball into a compact spheroid the beetle began

rolling the ball. The average diameter and weight of

the balls rolled by a lone beetle was 1.0 ± 0.13 cm

and 0.34 ± 0. 1 1 g (G. gemniatus), 1 .03 ± 0. 1 cm and

0.36 ± 0.09 g (G. miliaris). On the other hand, when

pairs rolled the ball, it was 1 1 . 1 5 ± 0. 1 1 cm and 0.36

± 0.06 g (G. gemniatus), 1 . 1 3 ± 0.3 1 cm and 0.48 ±

0.03 g (G. miliaris).

As the ball was rolled along, it acquired a thin

coating of soil. If a single beetle was engaged in

rolling, it pushed the ball with its middle and hind

pairs of legs while it had its forelegs on the ground.

In 90% of the cases it was the male that made the

FEEDING AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF, GYMNOPLEURUS GEMMATUS AND G. M1LIARIS

15

ball; to be later joined by the female. As Thornhill

(1983) suggests, the “material benefits” — here the

dung ball — are provided by males probably to

reduce the loss of energy in the female in making a

ball as she has to spend a lot of energy on other

activities like — rolling, burying and brood ball

making, egg laying, etc.

However, it was noticed that the maker of the

ball, irrespective of its sex, did not readily accept as

a partner the first individual that came up to the ball.

If a male was the ball maker it fought and chased

away all approaching males; while it accepted an

approaching female, only after a brief combat of

about 1 5-20 seconds. If the ball maker was a female

it too chased away all females but accepted a male

after a brief combat. To ascertain the sexual identity

of each rolling pair, over 50 pairs of both G.

gemmatus and G. miliaris were dissected. Almost

every pair, it was found, consisted of a male and a

female. In only two instances members of the same

sex were found rolling the ball.

This was the result of intra-sexual combat in

which individuals of the same sex fought each other

in a bid to steal and gain possession of the ball. In

fact, females of both the species were rolling a ball.

This behaviour has been reported earlier for

Sccirabcieus sacer (Fabre 1897) and G. miliaris

(Hingston 1 923). In transporting the ball, males and

females took up characteristic stances in all cases.

The female always stood behind the ball, pushing

with the last two pairs of legs, while the male pulled

the ball from the front using its last two pairs of legs.

This contradicts Hingston’s ( 1 923) observation

that ‘as a rule’ the male pushes the ball while the

female pulls it. Observations similar to that in the

present study were made by Honda (1927) for G.

sinuatus (Ol.) and Prasse (1957b, 1958a) for G.

mopsus and G. ge affray i.

During the course of rolling the male was

unable to keep pace with the female. He would

tumble off but the female would continue rolling,

apparently unconcerned, while the male hastened to

catch up. On the other hand, in cases where the

female fell, the male waited with the ball for her to

rejoin him. He would permit her to resume her role

only after a short skirmish lasting 2 to 3 seconds. If,

for some reason, the female failed to return, the male

abandoned the ball after a period of waiting. In one

instance the male waited for 3 min. 40 sec. and in

another for 5 min. during which time they met new

females with whom they continued the activity of

rolling. Unlike males the females continued rolling

the ball and buried it even when the males had

deserted.

In some cases, the male was found sitting on

the side of the ball instead of pulling it, which

contradicts Hingston’s (1923) report that this is found

only in Scarabaeus sacer and never in G. miliaris.

Nevertheless Prasse ( 1 957b) has reported the same

for the two species of Gymnapleurus. In such cases

the male would get off the ball when the female

needed help in surmounting an obstacle.

The beetles never rolled the ball in a straight

line. Most were found rolling the ball in a haphazard

manner, sometimes crossing the same spot several

times and finally burying their balls close to the

starting point, even though the balls were rolled for

much greater distances than the shortest distance

between the food source and the burial site. This once

again contradicts Hingston’s ( 1 923) observations that

the pellets must be rolled strictly in straight lines.

Whenever the beetles encountered an obstacle

they adopted any one of the following three

strategies, i) crossed over the obstacle, ii) took a

detour, or iii) buried the ball at the base of the

obstacle.

The average distance rolled by a pair of beetles

was 11.71 m, n = 15 (G. gemmatus ) and 22.22 m,

n=15 (G. miliaris). The average distance rolled per

minute was 105.10 cm, n=15 (G. gemmatus) and

1 1 9.53 cm, n = 1 5 (G. miliaris). When a single beetle

rolled a ball it often stopped rolling, climbed on the

ball, checked all around the ball and got back into

position to continue rolling the ball. On the other

hand when a pair were engaged in ball rolling, the

female stopped periodically to inspect the surface of

the ball. On encountering the male on the other side

she often tried to butt him off, only to recognize him

later and then continue rolling. The average time

taken for rolling was 1 6 min., n = 1 0 (G. gemmatus)

16

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

and 20 min., n = 10 (G. miliaris).

Ball burying: In burying the ball, individuals

and pairs adopted different strategies. In the case of

pairs, it was always the female who selected the burial

spot. She walked away from the ball, examined a

certain area and then returned. When individual

beetles were involved, they tested and selected sites

while holding onto the balls with their hind legs.

Selecting a suitable burial site involved the

prior rejection of a number of sites. Four such rejected

sites were examined by digging. Strangely, the

kleploparasites Onthophag us pygmae us (SchaU.) and

O. centricornis (F.) were found to be present beneath

the soil surface.

When single beetles buried balls they came

out of their pits several times during the process of

digging to check for the presence of the ball. Having

made a small pit. the beetle dragged the ball into the

pit and disappeared beneath it to continue digging

as a result of which the ball disappeared into the soil.

In case of pairs, it was always the female which

took to digging while the male stood guard. After

making a small pit, she rolled the ball with her hind

pair of legs. Sometimes the male helped her in

pushing the ball into the pit. During the period of

burying the male either sat on the ball or walked

around the pit. Sometimes he held the ball with his

front two pairs of legs while he stood at the rim of

the pit. When 75% of the ball disappeared into the

soil, the male also entered the soil to join the female.

The average time required for burying the ball was

14.36 ± 4.06 min., n = 10 (G. gemmatus) and 13.45

± 2.08 min., n = 15 (G. miliaris).

Digging up twenty marked burial sites after a

day or two revealed the following.

1 . During the early part of the season, most of

the lone beetles used the balls for feeding and only

frass and faecal matter were found in the burrow.

2. Later in the season, lone females used the

ball for raising brood.

3. Balls rolled by the pairs used them both for

enticement and raising brood.

Mating: Both species generally mated in the

space between the side of the dung ball and the pit

and sometimes above the ball when it had fully

descended into the pit. The male then clasped the

female in the copulatory position, and kept

strumming on the female’s elytra with its forelegs.

The frequency of strumming increased whenever

other insects moved in the vicinity. The female

generally fed on the dung ball while engaged in

mating, while at times she stood still doing nothing.

On completing mating which took about 13 min.,

n = 4 (G. gemmatus ) and 19 min. 30 sec., n = 5 (G.

miliaris ), the male stayed with the female for a further

4-5 sec., after which time it either flew away or stayed

on to guard the female when he suspected the

presence of other males. The female continued

digging beneath the dung ball. Some pairs of beetles

(3 of G. miliaris and 2 of G. gemmatus) were seen

mating even before the pit was dug, such beetles

abandoned the ball and Hew away.

Occasionally males were found trying to mate

on the dung pat, but were not successful.

Brood ball construction: After mating, the

female proceeded to make a slanting tunnel which

terminated in a brood chamber. The ball was torn

apart and refashioned into a pear shaped ball. An

egg was laid in the egg chamber constructed at the

lop end of this fashioned brood ball. The ball rested

on its broad end in a pear shaped brood chamber

located at an average depth, of 5. 1 cm (G. gemmatus)

and 7.5 cm (G. miliaris). The average length and

breadth of the brood balls of G. miliaris and G.

gemmatus were 1 .45 ± 0.23 cm and 1 .2 ± 0. 1 8 cm (n

= 12); and 1.34 ± 0.31 cm and 1.1 ± 0.08 cm (n =

1 0), respectively. Their respective weights were 1.12

± 0.2 g (n = 12) and 0.99 ± 0.18 g (n = 10).

Competition: Both the species of

Gymnopleurus under review exhibited inter- and

intra-specific competition.

Intra-specific competition: There was intense

competition among the males to gain possession of

ready made dung balls. This was observed from the

very first day of activity.

Ball rolling males had to repeatedly fend off

males that challenged the right to ownership of their

ball. On sensing the arrival of a rival, the owner stood

on the ball with its head towards the ground. The

strategy of the rival male was always to move around

FEEDING AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GYMNOPLEURUS GEMMATUS AND G. MILIARIS

17

the ball trying to get a foot hold. The owner of the

ball would keep moving on the ball so that the rival

was always on the ground without access to the ball.

If the rival came too close, the owner tossed it away

using its clypeus. But if the rival managed to out

manouvre the owner and gel atop the ball, then it in

turn would toss the owner away.

Whenever a rolling pair was challenged by the

arrival of a rival male it was only the male that fought

him while the female remained passive. They butt

and toss each other in combat. If the period of waiting

was too long the female abandoned the fighting males

with the ball, in search of a new partner.

Whenever a pair of rollers were rolling a ball,

they were followed by males of their own species as

well as other species. The males followed the ball

either by walking or flying. Whenever the pair

stopped rolling, the male that was following behind

hid under grass or leaves in the vicinity. In this way,

males followed the ball till the pair started burying

the ball. Then the males in hiding attempted to reach

the digging female, but retreated whenever the

‘owner’ male noticed and chased them. It was also

observed that when the owner male succeeded in

getting at the smaller intruder males, he sat atop them

and started drumming on them with his clypeus and

forelegs after which the looser ran away and took

cover in the grass.

It was also noticed that whenever a male sitting

and waiting on a ball, saw another male sitting or

rolling a ball nearby it immediately chased the other

male and took possession of that ball. In one such

case a male took poosession of new balls on three

successive occasions.

Competition was seen even after the ball was

buried. Males of G. miliaris and G. gemmatus were

seen landing and walking straight into mounds of

soil where pairs of G. miliaris and G. gemmatus were

found with dung balls. Males of one species sneaked

into the burrows of other species.

Interspecific combat: Various species of

Onthophagus and Caccobius also compete for access

to dung balls in addition to the competition that has

been noticed between the two species of the

Gymnopleurus under study. Three species of

Onthophagus, namely O. centricornis. O. pygmaeus

and O. ludio Bouc. and one species of Caccobius ,

namely C. meridionalis Bouc., tried repeatedly to

gain entry into the brood balls of both G. miliaris

and G. gemmatus.

Competition was noticed between the males

of G. miliaris and G. gemmatus for the balls, and

was similar to that explained in intraspecific

competition. In one instance combat was observed

between two females of Gymnopleurus spp. for the

ball. The ball was pulled out by G. gemmatus and

during the process of combat the ball was being rolled

along.

The presence of kleptoparasites was noticed

right from the ball construction stage to even after

the egg had been laid in the brood ball. But they

proved to be more persistent attackers once the

beetles commenced rolling the balls. The

kleptoparasites followed the rolling pairs on the wing,

alighted in the vicinity of the ball and sought a hasty

entry into it whenever the pairs paused for some

reason. One pair of G. miliaris that was observed,

had to face attacks from G. gemmatus (once), O.

centricornis (eleven times), O. pygmaeus (four times)

and O. ludio (once), while having to traverse a

distance of 17.10 m.

If detected the Gymnopleurus spp. butted and

tossed away the sneaking kleploparasitic species.

Even those kleptoparasites that had managed to enter

the ball unnoticed were detected in a short while and

extricated from the ball after it had been pried open

by Gymnopleurus. Along with the kleptoparasitc a

small amount of dung was lost. The ball was then

refashioned once more and the process of rolling

continued.

It was also noticed that those males with the

ball abandoned by the female never extricated the

kleptoparasites when they entered the ball but Hew

away abandoning them.

The kleptoparasites that escape detection

convert the brood balls of Gymnopleurus into brood

masses for their own off-spring, O. centricornis was

observed to have made four brood masses out of one

brood ball in one instance. In two other cases they

had converted it into 2 or 3 brood masses. In the

18

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

latter case the brood masses weighed 160, 1 10 and

1 18 mg.

Predation: Analysis of the stomach contents

of the garden lizard Calotes sp. revealed fragments

of Gymnopleurus.

Ants of the genus Camponotus were also found

attacking ball rolling individuals of G. gemmatus.

When attacked, the beetles abandoned the balls and

Hew away.

G. gemmatus and G. miliaris invest a

considerable quantum of their time and energy in

the fashioning ( 1 1 .08 ± 1 .36 min., 1 0.40 ±1.14 min.

respectively) and burial (14.36 ± 3.66 min.; 1 3.45 ±

2.8 min. respectively) of dung balls. The evolution

of this behaviour not only enables these species, like

the other dung rollers, to rapidly acquire the

necessary resources in ball form, but it also provides

the females ample opportunity to choose a more fit

male. Hence, while giving these species an edge in

the competition for food and burial space over the

other burying groups like the Coprini, Onthophagini,

etc., which are competing beneath or around each

dung pat (Halffter and Matthews 1966) this

behaviour simultaneously ensures rigorous epigamic

selection (Huxley 1938). However, the greater

amount of time spent on the surface of the ground

while rolling exposes these beetles to the hazards of

parasitism and predation.

Observations made during the current study

indicate that while pre-mating female choice docs

occur in both the species, female choice during and

after mating are also possible.

Pre-mating female choice occurs during the

three stages of fashioning, transportation and burial

of the ball.

i. Ball fashioning: To increase their

reproductive success by attracting females, males of

G. miliaris and G. gemmatus have to fashion

relatively larger balls of excrement. As there is very

low correlation between the size of the male and the

size of the female (r=0.08) the female does not seem

to be choosing males. The weak correlation between

the male size and ball size indicates that large

individual size does not necessarily result in large

ball size (r=0.2). All this combined with the fact that

female size and ball size are relatively highly

correlated (i-0.57) points to the possibility of cryptic

female choice (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 . Relationship between length (cm) of

(a) male and female; (b) male and dung ball (dia.);

(c) female and dung ball (dia.) in G. miliaris.

FEEDING AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF, GYMNOPLEURUS GEMMATUS AND G. MILIARIS

19

Instead of choosing the larger males (1-O.O8)

females are choosing larger balls (r=0.57).

ii) Ball transportation: Having initially

chosen a male capable of making a larger ball, the

female further assesses male capability/fitness by:

a) watching how soon the male she has chosen

can ward off the intruder males; b) choosing the

winning male in the event of a skirmish. Males which

take either too long to win a fight or are ousted in

battle are abandoned by the females.

iii) Ball burial: In this phase males face the

danger of losing females to other competing males

or to having their effort wasted by intruding

kleptoparasites which occupy the dung balls and

destroy the eggs of Gynmopleurus. Intraspecific male

competition is thus intense during these phases.

iv) Mating: During mating the female can

exercise mate choice by regulating the mating

duration. However, since the number of mating

individuals observed during the study was small (n

= 4 for G. gemmatus, forC. mi liar is n = 5) no definite

conclusions could be arrived at in this regard (cv for

Refer

Arrow, G.J. (1931 ): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Coleoptera, Lamellicornia, III (Coprinae).

Taylor and Francis, London.

Fabre, J.H. (1897): Souvenirs Entomologiques. Vol. V. Paris

(translation by de Mattos, A.T. (1918) The Sacred Beetle

and Others, London).

Halfeter, G. & W.D. Edmonds (1982): The nesting behaviour of

dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae. Folia

Entomologica Mexicana 12-14: 1-312.

Halffter, G. & E.G. Mathews (1966): The natural history of

dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae. Folia

Entomologica Mexicana 12-14: 1-312.

Hingston, R.W.G. (1923): A naturalist in Hindustan. H.F. & G.

Witherby, London.

Honda, H. (1927): Intersting instincts of Gymnopleurus

sinuatus (01.). Proceedings Imperial Academy Tokyo, 684-

686.

Huxley, J.S. (1938): Darwin’s theory of sexual selection and the

data subsumed by it in the light of recent research. Am.

Nat. 72: 416-433.

Prasse, J. (1957a): Nahrungserwerb koprophager Pillenwalzer

( Sisyphus scliaefferi L. und Gymnopleurus ge affray i

Fuessl.). Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther

G. gemmatus was 1 6.6, while for G. miliaris it was

21.7).

v) Post-mating: The female makes her final

choice of the male by deciding whether to mate again

or not. Having mated once, females have been

observed to mate again. The presence of a horse-

shoe shaped spermatheca also points to the distinct

possibility of sperm precedence (Halffter and

Edmonds 1982) as the sperm of the last mated male

is most likely to fertilize the ova in spermatheca

shaped thus. This could be the reason for the male to

follow rolling bisexual pairs, waiting for an

opportunity to be the final one to copulate with a

female before she lays eggs.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. R. Madge, British Museum

(Natural History) for identifying the specimens. We

wish to express our gratitude to Mr. Prashanth

Mohanraj for having gone through the script and

Mahalingappa for his assistance in field work.

ences

Universitat Halle Wittenberg 6, 439-444, cited in Halffter

and Matthews (1966).

Prasse, J. (1957b): Das Brutfursorgeverhalten der Pillenwalzer.

Sisyphus scliaefferi L. und Gymnopleurus gepffroyi Fuessl.

(Col. Scarab.). Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-

Luther Universitat Halle Wittenberg, 6, 589-614, cited in

Halffter and Matthews (1966).

Prasse, J. (1957c): Die Entwicklung der Pillenwalzer Sisyphus

scliaefferi L. und Gymnopleurus gepffroyi Fuessl. (Col.

Scarab.) inder Brutbirne. Wissenschaftliche Zeischrift der

Martin-Luther Universitat Halle Wittenberg, 6, 1033 —

1044, cited in Halffter amd Matthews (1966).

Prasse, J. (1958a): Verhaltensweise des Pillenwalzer

Gymnopleurus mopsus Pall. (Col. Scarab.). Biol. Zbl. 77:

714-723.

Prasse, J. (1958b): Diekample der Pillerwallzer Sisyphus

scliaefferi (L.) and Gymnopleurus gepffroyi Fuessl. (Col.

Scarab.). Wissenschuftliche Zeitschrift der Martin — Luther

Universitat Halle Wittenberg 7, 89-92, cited in Halffter and

Matthews (1966).

Thornhill, R. (1983): Cryptic female choice and its implications

in the scorpion fly Harpobittacus nigriceps. American

Naturalist 122: 765-788.

NOTES ON LONG-EARED HEDGEHOG HEMIECHINUS AURITUS (GMELIN)1

Satish Kumar Sharma2

( With a text-figure )

Key Words: hedgehog, sex ratio, body-weight, nurseries, litter-size

The Long-eared Hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus (Gmelin) is a nocturnal mammal found in the arid and

semi-arid areas of Rajasthan. A study was conducted at World Forestry Arboretum. Jaipur, on the biology and

behaviour of H. Auritus between June 1989 and June 1991. Male-female sex ratio in adults was nearly 1:1. The

mean weight of the adult females (306.2 gms) was slightly more than that of adult males (256.6 gms). Their

breeding coincided with the rainy season and the Young are born in burrows. Litter size varies from 1-2. The

female alone takes care of the young. The young are born blind and without spines. Later the mother escorts her

babies during night rounds. The young become independent before commencement of summer. Hedgehogs are

destroyed in various ways in Rajasthan. We can save them only by creating awareness among the public.

Introduction

The Long-eared Hedgehog Hemiechinus

auritus (Gmelin) is a nocturnal spiny small mammal,

widely distributed and known in the slate of

Rajasthan by vernacular names such as ‘Jhaoo-

chuha’, ‘ Jhaoo-musa’ , ‘Jhaoo’, ‘Jhawla’,

kBhuinthda\ ‘Dhuan-dhuan’, ‘Gaoo-ghota’, etc. It

is mostly confined to arid and semi-arid portions of

the state. Very little is known about the breeding

biology and other habits of this animal. In this paper,

these aspects of this species are described.

Study area

The present study was mainly conducted at the

World Forestry Arboretum (Part A), Jaipur, confined

to an area of 1 .45 sq. km. The arboretum is situated

on the outskirts of Jaipur city between National

Highway (Bye Pass) No. 8 and Jhalana hills.

This place receives an annual rainfall of 548

mm. The maximum rainfall is received during July

and August. The average relative humidity is 58.6

percent. The temperature ranges from 2° C to 44° C

(av. 23°C). Eastern part of the arboretum is hilly but

aeolian (soil transported by wind) sand deposit is

confined to the foothill zone with Leptadenia

'Accepted August 1995.

:Range Forest Officer, Aravalli Afforestation Project, Jhadol (F.),

Udaipur 313 702.

pyrotechnica, Calotropis procera, Saccharum

bengalense, Mytenus emarginata, etc. The sandy

tract of the arboretum provides an ideal habitat to

the Long-eared Hedtiehog.

Materials and methods

Observations were taken from June 1989

to June 1991. Long-eared Hedgehogs were captured

during night time. Two of our night-watchmen

rendered their services for the purpose. From

July to October, intensive night surveys were

made to capture the animals. All the captured

animals were sexed, marked and freed

after weighing. To give a particular code number,

tips of spines of cephalic and lumber regions were

cut using scissors. Each year a fresh marking was

practiced.

Pit digging and planting are two major

operations in the forest areas during rainy season.

While doing these operations in the arboretum, all

the officials and labourers were requested to note

and inform about nurseries of Long-eared Hedge-

hogs, when encountered.

Foraging individuals were captured after dusk

and before dawn. No animal was found naturally

wandering in the day time. Bagged animals were

weighed on a portable dial balance in the field to

avoid any loss in body weight of animals due to

exertion and starvation.

NOTES ON LONG-EARED HEDGEHOG

21

Results

Breeding: Data on animals caught arc given

in Table 1 . It suggests that the breeding period of

the animal coincides with the rainy season, i.e. June

to September. It can also be concluded from Table 1

that during winters, to escape severe cold, the

animals probably hibernate. During the months of

October and November, when cold is not severe,

few wandering animals were observed in the night;

but, from December to February, which are the

severest months of the winter, not a single animal

was observed in the field. This suggests that they

probably hibernate, become lethargic during the

severely cold months. Prater (1980) has suggested

this possibility. It can also be deduced from Table 1

that 1 to 2 young are found in a litter. Interestingly

the litter size is very small in comparison to the five

pairs of teats present. Early in fant mortality may be

one of the reasons, for the recorded litter size.

At the time of birth, the young are blind and

lack spines. During infancy, babies have flexible

spines on their dorsal and lateral sides. As the young

grows, the spines stiffen. Initially a fairly good

number of spines seemed white in colour but

gradually became shiny black. Except light coloured

whiskers on snout, the head, chin, throat, limbs, ears

and ventral side generally lacked hairs. The bare skin

of these parts are pinkish in colour. Pinnae were

proportionally smaller in infants. As they grow, size

and erectness increases in pinnae and a fold develops

on lower edge of each pinna at adulthood. When

‘ball’ formation takes place, this fold helps the

animal to adjust the long ears in the minimum of

space.

Though adult individuals have a pointed pig-

like snout, the newly born do not have this character.

Their snouts are almost blunt having roughly equal

sized upper and lower jaws while in adults the upper

jaw projects far beyond the lower jaw. The blunt

snout of the baby hedgehog could be an adaptation

for suckling. As the young grows, the snout gradually

tapers and ultimately becomes pointed in adulthood.

Parental Care: The young are born in

burrows. It was general observation shows that

wherever the nursery of a female was disturbed,

it abandoned its burrow with its new born as

early as possible. The young are transported by

the mother at night only. She carries them by gripp-

ing the loose skin of the side of neck or body

Pig. 1. A female Hedgehog transporting her young.

(Fig. 1).

When the young are separated from their

mothers, they make a shrill sound. When a foraging

mother returns to her burrow and senses something

unusual (like the presence of an observer in a hide

near the burrow) she may wait among the thickets

till she is assured that there is no danger near the

burrow. She may even remain away from her young

for a whole day and a night or even more, as is evident

by the behaviour of the female C-6-1990. The

activities of the female are given in Table 2.

During September 1990, an adult female and

two small sized young were found run over in the

morning on the bye-pass road bordering the

arboretum. They had been run over during the night

and their bodies had became Hat. All the carcasses

were roughly in a straight line, parallel to the road.

Heads of all the three individuals were facing south.

Interestingly, corpses of both the young ones were

behind the mother. All three dead animals were

confined to a 40 cm x 20 cm area. An almost similar

incidence was observed in October 1990. These

observations led to the assumption that after the eyes

are open, the young hedgehogs follow the mother at

Table 1

MONTH-WISE DATA ON LONG-EARED HEDGEHOGS IN WORLD FORESTRY ARBORETUM. JAIPUR.

22

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

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NOTES ON LONG-EARED HEDGEHOG

23

Table 2

DEPARTURE AND RETURN TIMINGS OF DISTURBED FEMALE HEDGEHOG C-6-1990

night. During night surveys ‘Caravans’ of Hedgehog

families eaptured in groups of 1 + 1 or 1+2, with the

mother leading the juveniles, substantiates this fact

(Table 1 ).

During November 1990, three solitary young

of the current year were captured wandering at night.

One solitary young was also found dead in a water

tank. Before June and after December no female was

captured with young. These observations suggested

that the young hedgehogs become independent

before the summer of the same year.

Sex ratio and body weight: A total of 35 adults

and 1 3 young ones were weighed in the field. The mean

weight of adult females (306.2 gm, n= 1 7) was slightly

more than that of adult males (256.6 gm, n= 1 8). The

adult sex ratio was nearly equal. The blind young ones

about to open the eyes in burrows weighed only about

60.1 gm (n=10) while the independent young

hedgehogs weighed 125.2 gm (n=3)

Destruction of hedgehogs: A considerable

number of Long-eared Hedgehogs are destroyed in

Rajasthan every year. It is believed by rural people

that hedgehogs are rat-destroying animals, hence

they are transported to houses from fields. Due to

their removal from the fields, many mothers get

separated from their new born. It is obvious that the

young cannot survive without their mothers.

Similarly, there is a practice among rural people to

fumigate the Cucurbitaceous climbers, like Luffa

acutangula, L. cylindrica, Benincasa hispidci , etc.,

by burning the skin and spines of Hedgehogs to

induce heavy fruiting. Hedgehogs are killed for

medicinal purposes also. During epidemics of foot

and mouth disease of cattle, it is a general practice

in many parts of Rajasthan, specially in the southern

part, to bury a live hedgehog in a pit in front of each

house. Cattle are then passed over the pit.

During nights, wandering Hedgehogs may

stumble in wells and tanks that arc without parapet

walls (Sharma 1 993). Many are runover by vehicles

(Sharma 1988, 1992).

Conservation measures: Hedgehogs play an

important role in destruction of insects and even rats

and mice (Sinha and Ray 1983), hence they should

be protected. A considerable number of hedgehogs

are killed in rural areas. “Gram-Sewak” — an

‘agricultural guide' in rural areas can educate farmers

and agricultural labourers by teaching them about

the role played by the hedgehogs and other wild

animals in an agro-ecosystem. Agriculturists should

be advised not to bring the hedgehogs, specially

females, to the home, atleast during breeding season.

The children’s science books may also have a chapter

on these animals which are beneficial to our

agriculture.

Raising of parapet walls around wells and

tanks on agricultural land avoids the falling of

stumbling hedgehogs and other nocturnal animals

into them. Vehicle drivers should be careful of

animals crossing the roads.

Conclusion

It can be concluded from the present study that

female hedgehogs are slightly heavier than males.

Sex ratio among adults is nearly 1:1. Young ones

are given birth in burrows during rainy season when

24

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

grass cover and plenty of insects are available. Litter

size varies from 1 to 2. The female alone takes care

of the young ones. If a nursery of a female is

disturbed, she transports her young one by one to

another safer place during the night. Babies are

transported by her by griping the loose skin of the

neck or body as members of the Cat family do.

A large number of hedgehogs are destroyed in

Rajasthan every year for domestic uses. These animals

cannot be saved without creating awareness in public.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the night watchmen of the

arboretum, Jaipur, for helping me in hedgehog

collection during night surveys. I am thankful to all

the labourers and staff, specially to Mr. Vijay Saxena,

Forester, for having given me information about

nurseries of hedgehogs. Thanks are also due to Mr.

Subhash Bhargava for accompanying me for field

photography.

References

Prater, S.H. ( 1 980): The book of Indian animals. Bombay Natural

History Society. Bombay.

S harm a, S.K. ( 1988): Wild animals and road accidents. Vijnana

Parishad Anusandlmn Patrika 31(1): 43-53.

Siiarma, S.K. (1992): Accidents of wild animals on roads at

outskirts of Jaipur city. Vijnana Parishad Anusandlmn

Patrika 35( I ): 47-60.

Siiarma, S.K. (1993): Cemented tanks in forest areas and

wildlife management. Indian Forester 119(10): 849-

852.

Sinha, N.K. & P. Ray (1983): New Records of Hedge-hogs from

Madhya Pradesh. Cheetal 25 ( I): 36-37.

ROOST SELECTION BY INDIAN PEAFOWL (PA VO CRISTATUS) IN GIR FOREST, INDIA1

Pranav Trivedi2 and A.J.T. Johnsingh3

Key Words: roost, riverine forest, preference index, selection, structure, floristics,

predation

A study was carried out on roost selection of Indian peafowl ( Pavo cristatus) in Gir forest, Gujarat.

The results revealed that all the roosts were located in the narrow riverine forest bells. Peafowl selected tall

trees growing on steep river banks with thorny undergrowth and climber thickets in the canopy for roosting.

This clearly indicates that roost selection is chiefly influenced by the risk of predation from nocturnal mammalian

predators such as leopard. Trees of Pongamia pinna to and Holoptelia integri folia showed more than expected

use. However, it could not be confirmed whether a choice at species level does exist at all. Roost selection

appeared to be a hierarchial process with structure at first and floristics at second level affecting the choice.

Introduction

Roost selection is a vital component of the

overall habitat selection process. Therefore

information on roost selection by a species carries

immense importance for assessing its conservation

needs. Gadgil and Ali (1975) attempted to explain

the communal roosting habits of Indian birds based

on the existing hypotheses which include reduced

heat loss, information sharing, assessment of

population and reduced risk of predation. Though,

Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus ), a common bird of

India is known to roost in the trees at night, no

information exists on roost selection by the bird. In

a strict sense, it is neither a communal nor a solitary

rooster (Trivedi 1993).

This paper attempts to provide information on

roost selection by Indian peafowl in a wild landscape.

The following results were obtained during a study

carried out from November 1992 to April 1993

(Trivedi 1993) on habitat selection by peafowl in

Gir forest.

Study Area

The study was carried out in Gir National Park

(N.P.) and Sanctuary [(both collectively hereafter

'Accepted January 1994.

2WWF-India, Ahmedabad Division Office, ‘Sundarvan’, Jodhpur

Tekra, Ahmedabad 380 015.

’’Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Dehradun-248 001.

referred to as Gir Protected Area (PA)] located in

Gujarat, India. Gir PA (1412 sq. km) is the only

remaining large, contiguous, forested tract in the

Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat. The PA is covered

with tropical dry deciduous forests, thorn forests and

riparian forests. The chief floral elements include

Tectona grand is, Diospyros melanoxylon, Wrightia

tinctoria, Zizyphus mauritiana, Ficus bengalensis,

Morinda tinctoria, Phyllant/uis emblica, Bauhinia

racemosa, Holoptelia integrifolia, Boswellict serrata

and Lannea coroniandelica.

The PA is the last stronghold of the Asiatic

lion (P anthera leo persica) and apart from lion the

vertebrate fauna includes leopard (Panthera pardus),

jackal (Canis aureus), jungle cat (Felis chans) and

crested hawk eagle (Spizcietus cirrhatus) as potential

predators of peafowl. Checklist of mammals is

available in Spillett (1968). Nearly 250 species of

birds have been recorded.

The ‘Maldharis’ who are local pastoralists and

have changed their nomadic lifestyle to a settled one,

reside inside the Sanctuary in their settlements called

‘ness’. However, N.P. is free from all human

activities. Buffalo grazing, tourism, grass harvesting,

fireline burning and non-wood forest produce

collection are the chief human influences.

Methods

Eight different localities in three study sites

(Sasan, Chhodavdi, Dodhi) were surveyed for roost

26

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table I

PREFERENCE INDICES FOR SOME PHYSICAL FEATURES OF ROOST TREES USED BY PEAFOWL

PI= Preference Index.

tree use by peafowl. Both, direct and indirect

methods were used to locate and identify the roost

trees. The former involved walking along the

riparian areas during late evening or early morning,

to flush the roosting birds and locate the trees. The

latter involved searching for droppings below

potential roost trees to identify actual roost trees.

When a roost tree was located, GBH, height, of the

first branch, tree height, slope category of the site

where the tree was standing (rated qualitatively as

very steep, steep, gradual and flat), distance from

water (or water body), canopy and understorey

characteristics were recorded. The same data were

collected on the ten nearest trees from the roost tree

to get availability information. In this manner, use

and availability of the trees was determined. A

widely used method given by Neu et cil. ( 1 974) was

employed for analysing the availability-use

information. Preference index (PI) which is

expressed as a ratio of per cent usage to per cent

availability was calculated for the structural

parameters of roost trees.

Results

1 034 trees were quantified as described earlier.

Of these 128 were roost trees, which reflected the

use, and the remaining gave an idea about the

availability. All the roosts were located in riparian

areas. Roosts were found to be either continuously

spread along the riverine areas or located at the

confluence of two streams which is normally a steep

area.

Structure: There were differences in the use

of trees with and without certain structural features.

There was a significant difference between the use

of trees with and without thickets of climbers in the

canopy (x2= 10.62, df=l, p<0.01). Similarly, there

was also a significant difference between the use of

trees with and without thorny undergrowth (x2=

24.6 1 , df= 1 , p< 0.00 1 ). In both the cases, trees with

thickets of climbers in the canopy and with thorny

undergrowth were used more often for roosting.

Preference indices (PI) for various structural features

are presented in Table 1. Trees on very steep and

steep river banks received a higher usage followed

by gentler slopes. Trees growing on flat areas were

least used for roosting. All tree height categories

above 15 metres were highly used, while category

<10 metres was used least. Nearly ninety percent of

the trees were within 75 metres from water. Trees

with 8-10 m high first branch were used more and

the use went in a decreasing order towards 0-2 m

height.

Floristics: Twenty one plant species were

identified as roosts (Appendix 1 ) of which twenty

were trees and one was Dendro calciums strictus (i.e.

bamboo). Table 2 shows the availability and use of

ROOST SELECTION BY INDIAN PEA F OWL

27

Table 2

ROOST TREE PREFERENCE OF PEAFOWL

[Using Neu et al. (1974) technique]

Indicates that the species was used less than availability.

** Indicates that the species was used more than availability.

Rest were used in proportion to availability.

(Z=2.6899, X2= 45.36)

major roost trees by peafowl. Holoptelia integrifolia,

Tectona grandis, Pongamia pinnata, Syzygium

rubicunda, Tamarindus indica and Diospyros

melanoxylon were the commonest tree species

available and used as roost by peafowl. Rest of the

species were in meagre numbers and therefore these

were clumped and collectively called ‘others' for

analysis. Availability-use analysis of these six species

and others showed (Table 2) that only H. integrifolia

and P. pinnata were used more than expected; T.

grandis, S. rubicunda, D. Melanoxylon and others

were used in proportion to availability whereas T.

indica was used less than its availability.

Discussion

The five most striking features of the roost

trees selected by peafowl were; they had climber

thickets in the canopy, possessed thorny

undergrowth, were on steep river banks, were tall

and had a higher first branch. All these features

indicate that while selecting a roost tree, the most

important aspect is of reducing the risk of predation.

In Gallinaceous birds, predation is a major population

regulatory mechanism (Lack 1954, Hill and

Robertson 1 988) and therefore it is likely to influence

habitat selection significantly. Selection of trees with

the above mentioned features is obviously an

antipredatory strategy against nocturnal mammalian

predators such as leopard and jungle cat which can

climb trees and capture peafowl. In Gir, trees with

such features are available only in riverine areas and

therefore these forests become crucial for peafowl.

The location of roosts al the confluence of two

streams was due to the fact that this region is steep

and therefore predators would find it difficult to

approach from below.

It is pertinent to point out that the height of

first branch does not seem to be of significance in

roost selection. Similarly, distance from water carries

secondary importance as all the roosts are located in

the riverine area and one hardly finds a roost >100

m from water. However, trees growing right along

the bank with overhanging branches above the river

provide ideal roosts as birds are safe from the

predators due to water. The vital features, therefore

appear to be height of the tree, steepness of the bank/

slope on which the tree is situated and the presence

of thickets in the undergrowth and in the canopy. It

was realized that height alone can be sufficient for

selection if the tree is > 1 6 m. But, if it is shorter than

that, the other tree features play a crucial role. In a

semi-arid and deciduous forest system such as Gir,

trees hardly attain a height of over 15 m and therefore

it is the presence of thickets and steepness of the

slope that should be of significance in the selection

process.

Peafowl in semi-urban and rural landscapes

often use unusual substrates as roosts, like electric

pylons. Palmyra trees ( Borassus flabellifer) are

commonly used in the Southern districts of Tamil

Nadu (pers. obs.). This flexibility probably reflects

a synergistic effect of the absence of predation

pressure and a low availability of good quality

roosts.

28

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

Interpretation of the data suggests that it is the

strueture whieh is the unit of seleetion at a broader

seale, but at a finer scale, the selection can be for

species. Any tree which satisfies the structural

requirements for avoiding predators should be

selected by the birds. Structure undoubtedly appears

to be the first step in roost selection process. It is

possible that only certain tree species possess the

necessary structural features of an ideal roost tree

which means the choice can be at the level of species.

The situation seems to be one of a hierarchial

selection as described by Svardson (1949), Hilden

(1965) and Wiens (1985). However, this is just a

logical speculation and no experimental evidence is

available to test it. Peafowl (Genus Pavo) are

regarded as the terminal lineages of peacock

pheasants (Geist 1977). Pavo left their original rain

forest habitat and started exploiting the productive

forest-water ecotone (Geist 1977). They gradually

advanced to human dominated landscape also, but

were always lied to riverine habitats. Roosting on

riverine trees might have evolved at the time of their

dispersal from climax forests to more xeric

environments, because in these habitats only riverine

forests can provide good quality roosts.

One more important feature which influences

roost selection is the occupancy of trees by other

species. It was observed on ten occasions that

peafowl did not use particular trees (even when these

were ideal for roosting) because common langurs

( Presbytis entellus ) were roosting there. This brings

in the question of competition between taxa for a

crucial resource, as langurs also roost to avoid

predation by leopard. Langurs too, like peafowl arc

distributed along the riverine areas in Gir (Joslin

1973) and they too roost in riverine forest. However,

R E F E

Gadgil. M. & S. Ali (1975): Communal roosting habits of Indian

birds. J. Bombay not. Hist. Sac. 72(3): 716-727.

Geist, V. ( 1977): A comparison of social adaptation in relation to

ecology in gallinaceous bird and ungulate societies. Ann. Rev.

Ecol. Systematic s 8: 193-207.

Hilden, O. ( 1965): Habitat selection in birds: A review. Ann. Zool.

Fenn. 2: 53-75.

Hill. D.A. & P.A. Robertson (1988): The pheasant: Ecology,

the magnitude of such potential competition might

not be significant. Only one roost tree of chicks

was identified which was short (c. 10 m) and had

extensive thorny thickets wrapped around the

stem. With the exception of four trees (out of 128),

no roost tree was located close to the road

presumably to avoid the disturbance caused by the

vehicles.

Peafowl alone with common langur are

important buffer prey which facilitate the niche

separation of leopard and lion in the Gir PA (Ravi

Chellam 1993). Both the prey species need to be

conserved. Both need roost trees in the riparian areas.

In Gir, there is hardly any disturbance to the trees in

riverine areas, but incidences of repeated fire can

destroy the undergrowth thickets substantially

thereby reducing the availability of good quality

roosts. At present it is safe to conclude that the

population of peafowl in Gir does not face any

imminent danger. Our data on roost selection can be

used to predict and confirm the use of roosts in other

such deciduous forest ecosystems in a wild

landscape.

Acknowledgements

We extend our thanks to the Forest

Department, Gujarat for granting us the permission

to work in Gir and for providing the necessary

infrastructure. Qamar Qureshi and Ravi Chellam of

Wildlife Institute of India (W.I.I.) commented upon

the earlier draft of this paper and gave valuable

suggestions. Diwakar Sharma of W.I.I. provided

encouragement and support. We thank our field

assistants at Gir without whose help it would not

have been possible to obtain this data.

E N C E S

Management and Conservation. BSP Professional books,

Oxford. 281 pp.

Joslin, P. (1973): Behaviour and ecology of the Asiatic Lion

( Panthera leo persica). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh.

Lack, D. (1954): The natural regulation of animal numbers.

Clarendon Press, Oxford. 343 pp.

Neu, C.W.. C.R. Byers & J.M. Peek (1974): A technique for

analysis of utilization-availability data. WilclI. Manage. 38:

ROOST SELECTION BY INDIAN PEAFOWL

29

541-545.

Ravi Chellam (1993): Ecology of the Asiatic Lion ( Panthera leo

persica). Ph.D. thesis. Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Spilu-tt, J.J. (1968): A report on wildlife surveys in South and

West India, November-Deceinber 1966.7. Bombay not. Hist.

Soc. 65: 1-46.

Svardson, G. (1949): Competition and habitat selection in birds.

OikosL 157-174.

Trivedi, P. (1993): Habitat selection by Indian peafowl (Pavo

cristatus Linn.) in Gir forest, India. M.Sc. Dissertation,

Saurashtra University, Rajkot. 78 pp.

Wiens, J.A. (1985): Habitat selection in variable environments:

shrub steppe birds. In Cody, M.L. ed. Habitat selection in

birds. Academic press, Inc., New York. 227-252 pp.

APPENDIX 1

LIST OF SPECIES USED FOR ROOSTING BY PEAFOWL

1 . Holoptelia integrifolia

2. Tectomi grandis

3. Pon garni a pinnata

4. Syzygium rubicunda

5. Tamar Indus indica

6. Dio spy ms melanoxylon

7. Tenninalia belle rica

8. T. tomentosa

9. Manilkara lie.xandra

10. Syzygium at mini

1 1 . Ficus glome rata

12. F. bengalensis

13. Miliusa tomentosa

14. Mitragyna parviflora

15. Ga ruga pinnata

16. Sterculia urens

17. Acacia Senegal

18. Anogeissus latifolia

19. Phoenix sylvestris

20. Dendrocalamus striclus

2 1 . Sapindus emarginatus

TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL STATUS OF MYRIONEURON R.BR. EX

HOOK. F. (RUBIACEAE)1

D.B.Deb2

Key words: plant taxonomy, Rubiaceae, Myrioneuron, generic status, nomenclature

Taxonomic and nomenclatural status of Myrioneuron R. Br. ex Hook.f. (Rubiaceae) is discussed. The

generic status is upheld. Nomenclature is clarified. Lectotypes of the genus and the type species are selected.

Introduction

The genus Myrioneuron (Rubiaceae) is not yet

included in Index Nominum genericorum

(Plantarum). R.C. Bakhuizen (1975: 26, 29) treated

Myrioneuron R. Br. as synonymous with Mycetia

Reinw., and those of authors, non R. Br. as

synonymous with Keenania Hook. f. Van Steenis

( 1 987 : 1 06) treated Myrioneuron R. Br. ex Kurz 1 870

= ? Keenania. Myrioneuron spp. (in Herb.) =

Keenania. He (1 . c.) further included this name as a

synonym of Mycetia. Robbrecht (1988: 244) treated

Myrioneuron R. Br. ex Kurz, nomen = Keenania ?

Diane Bridson of Kew Herbarium (in lit.) drew

my attention to the situation on examining some

Indian material determined by me as Myrioneuron

nutans. She further observed “neither Dr. Brummitt,

nor I find any problem in accepting Myrioneuron R.

Br. ex Hook. f. 1 873 as valid (assuming Myrioneuron

R. Br. ex Kurz 1 870, nomen)”. Dr. Dan H. Nicolson,

Nomenclatural Editor, Taxon , in response to my letter

in this connection, advised me to publish a note.

History of Nomenclature

Nathaniel Wallich, the then Superintendent of

the Botanic Garden, Calcutta, in 1828, took to

London, all the specimens so far accumulated in CAL

and brought out those stored in the East India

Company’s India Museum , London (which was

dispersed in 1879), with a view to sort out the

specimens and name them. He sought help and

'Accepted June 1994.

2Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah,

India.

assistance from contemporary botanists, who were

interested in tropical plants.

‘A numerical list of the dried plants in the East

India Company’s Museum ” (1832), commonly

known as Wallichian Catalogue (Wall. Cat.), more

correctly, Wallich num. List is the result of that effort.

Robert Brown of British Museum named many

plants of the Rubiaceae. Wall. num. List No. 6225 in

page 211, 1832 names Myrioneuron R. Br., under

which M. nutans R. Br. is named for two gatherings:

6225a, collected from Sillet, in 1821, by Francis de

Silva and 6225b from Gualpara, Assam, on 27th

June, 1808 collected by Buchanan (later Francis)

Hamilton. The latter was named by Hamilton as

Bertiera nutans Ham. in Scheda (nom. nud.)

Robert Brown postulated generic status for

Myrioneuron to accommodate these two gatherings

and used the specific name given by Hamilton on

the herbarium specimens, i.e. Myrioneuron nutans

R. Br. as is evident in Wall. Num. List (1. c.). The

taxon remained in name only until J.D. Hooker, in

Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. p 1 . 2: 69. 1873 validated the

generic name with a description. He did not name

any species therein. Art. 37 of ICBN (1988) clearly

states that prior to Jan. 1, 1958, for validity of

publication of a new genus, it was not essential to

name the type species.

Kurz ( 1 877:55) validated M. nutans R. Br. with

a specific description for the material collected from

Chittagong by C.B. Clarke, working as the first

Curator of the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Garden,

Calcutta, Kurz must have studied the Wallichian

specimens of M. nutans R. Br. extant in CAL.

Citation of R. Br. as the author of the species

evidently supports this contention. Thus M. nutans

TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURE STATUS OE M YRIONEURON

31

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

R. Br. ex Kurz (1877) is the validating description

of the species which is selected as the lectotype of

the genus. Wall. Num. List No. 6225a (the left hand

specimen) collected by Francis de Silva from Sillet,

extant in CAL is selected as the lectotype of the

species.

Taxonomic status: The genus Myrioneuron

R. Br. ex Hook. f. is apparently allied to Keenania

Hook. f. and Mycetia Reinw. Characteristics of these

3 allied genera are given below:

Keenania Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 101. 1880.

Small subherbaceous shrubs. Leaves

membranous; stipules somewhat recurved,

membranous. Flowers sessile, in terminal solitary

shortly peduncled involucrate heads; bracts

imbricating, concave, coriaceous, unequal, outer

ones orbicular, inner linear-oblong or spathulate;

bracleoles in pair, spathulate, coriaceous, equalling

the flowers. Flowers unisexual. Hypanthium fleshy,

shortly oblong; calyx lobes 5 or 6, imbricate, unequal,

erect, oblong or spathulate, coriaceous, concave.

Corolla about as long as the calyx lobes; corolla tube

inflated, glabrous, with a ring of stiff hairs at the

throat; lobes 5, valvate, short, orbicular ovate,

apiculate, papillose externally. Stamens 5,

epipetalous at the base of broad lobed disc; filaments

short; anthers small, linear. Ovary 2-loculed; style

short; stigmas 2, flat, ovate; ovules numerous on

globose placenta, adnate to the membranous septum.

Fruit a capsule with hard endocarp.

Type species: Keenania modesta Hook. f.

Distribution: 5 species in India (Chachar,

Assam) and SE. Asia.

Mycetia Reinw. in Bl. Bijdr. 986. 1 826 & Sylb.

Ratisb. 2: 9. 1928. Syn. Ade nos acme Wall, ex Endl.

Gen. 1: 552. 1838.

Shrubs; branches with a conspicuous spongy

swollen corky bark. Leaves membranous, stalked

glandular at the margin; stipules tardily caducous,

oblong or lanceolate, stalked glandular at the margin,

sometimes toothed, and bifid above. Flowers

pedicelled, bisexual, heterostylous, sometime bi or

tri-formous, in axillary or terminal peduncled

paniculate or corymbiform, often with stalked glands

in floral parts. Hypanthium globose or hemispherical;

calyx lobes 4-6, persistent, stalked glandular. Corolla

tube cylindric; lobes 4-6, valvate in bud. Stamens 4-

6, inserted in the tube at different positions; filaments

short; anthers linear-oblong, dorsifixed. Disc annular.

Ovary 2 or 3-6 loculed; style slender or thickened

above; stigmas 2, linear; ovules numerous on fleshy

peltate placenta. Berry globose, white, spongy or not,

indehiscent or irregularly dehiscent, 2-6 loculed.

Seeds many, minute, angled; testa dotted; endosperm

fleshy; embryo minute.

Type species: Mycetia cauliflora Reinw.

Distribution: About 25 species, India to S.

China, Vietnam, W. Malesia.

Myrioneuron R. Br. ex Hook. f. in Benth. &

Hook. f. Gen. PI. 2:69, 1873.

Shrubs; branches stout, with a conspicuous

spongy swollen corky bark. Leaves large, coriaceous

or subcoriaceous; stipules large, coriaceous, bifid

above. Flowers on short stout peduncle in terminal

or rarely axillary capitate or corymbose cymes, erect

or nodding; bracts involucrate, rigid, coriaceous;

pedicels very short, one bracteolate. Hypanthium

ovoid; calyx tube very short, lobes persistent, rigid.

Corolla cylindric, 5-toothed, valvate in bud, densely

villous inside, shorter than the calyx lobes. Stamens

5, adnate to the corolla tube. Disc cushion like. Ovary

2-locular; style short; stigmas 2, lanceolate, cohering;

ovules many on hemispherical placenta. Berry ovoid

or globose, dry, sometimes fleshy, 2-coccous; cocci

horny, slowly dehiscent. Seeds black, many, minute,

angled, flat; testa pitted, albumen fleshy; embryo

minute.

Type species: Myrioneuron nutans Wall, ex

Kurz

Distribution: 3 species in E. India, Bangladesh

(Chittagong) and Myanmar.

Discussion and conclusion

Keenania Hook. f. was described as a

monotypic genus on the basis of a gathering by R.L.

Keenan from Duarbund, Cachar, Assam. The type

specimen of the type species Keenania modesta

Hook. f. of the genus was based on a specimen with

sterile anthers and it did not have any fruit. This

TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURE STATUS OF MYRIONEURON

33

species has never been recollected. Species described

under this genus subsequently from SE. Asia have

flowers apparently heterostylous, and the heterostyly

is probably combined with dioecism (Bremekamp

1947: 191 ). The fruit is a two-loculed capsule with

hard endocarp; flowers are sessile, apparently

unisexual and heterostylous; the inflorescence is in

terminal heads; leaves, stipules, bracts and calyx

lobes are without stalked glands; branches are

without spongy swollen corky bark. These

characteristics keep this genus distinct from others.

The genus Mycetia Reinw. with about 25

species is more widely distributed. The ranges of

vegetative and reproductive characters are much

more variable than those in the other two. Leaves,

stipules, bracts and calyx lobes are with stalked

glands at margins; the inflorescence is terminal or

axillary paniculate corymbiform or capitate cymes;

flowers are bisexual, heterostylous; the fruit is fleshy

or not, 2 or 5-6-loculed. These characters distinguish

Mycetia Reinw. from others.

Short pedicelled bisexual, isostylous flowers,

2 coccous fruits with horny cocci; bifid stipules;

leaves, stipules, bracts, calyx lobes, etc., without

marginal stalked glands, etc., distinguish

Myrioneuron R. Br. ex Hook. f. from the other

two.

In the branches with a conspicuous spongy

Refer

Bakhuizen von den Brink, R.C. (1975): Thai For. Bull. Bot. 9:

15-35.

Bremekamp, C.E.B. (1947): A monograph of the genus Pomazota

Ridley. J. Am. Arb. 28: 186-203.

Endlicher, S.L. (1838): Genera Plantarum. pail 8. Wien.

Hooker, J.D. (1873): Bentham, G. & J. D. Hooker, Genera

plantarum. Vol. 2. London.

Hooker, J.D. (1880): The Flora of British India, Vol. 3, London.

Kurz, S. ( 1 877): Forest Flora of British Burma. Caleutta.

Lindley, John ( 1 847): The Vegetable Kingdom, ed. 2.

swollen corky bark and in the ranges of vegetative

and reproductive characters sometimes extending to

such an extent that it appears that Mycetia is more

akin to Myrioneuron and farther away from

Keenania.

Myrioneuron R. Brown ex J.D. Hooker in

Benth. & Hook, f., Gen. PI. 2: 69. 1873 (T. non

designatus).

Myrioneuron R. Brown, nom.nud., in Wallich,

Num. List 21 1, No. 6225. 1832; Steud., nom. 2: 174.

1841; Walp., Rep. 2: 525. 1843; Endl., Gen. 566.

1838; Lindl., veg. Kingdom 765. 1847 (g.

Cinchonaceae). Lectotype selected here: M. nutans

R. Brown ex Kurz.

M. nutans R. Brown ex Kurz, For. FI. Brit.

Burma 2: 55. 1877. Lectotype selected here: Sillet,

1821, Francis cle Silva s.n. ex Wallich, Num. List

No. 6225a (the left-hand specimen) in CAL is

selected here as the lectotype.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Mrs. Diane Bridson (K) for

drawing my attention to the uncertainty of the generic

status, and to Dr. Dan H. Nicolson, Nomenclatural

Editor, Taxon, Smithsonian Institution, Washington

D.C., USA, for his views on nomenclature and

suggestion to publish this note.

ENCES

Robbrechr, E. (1988): Tropical Woody Rubiaceae. Oper. Bot.

Belz. I. Belzium.

Van Steenis, C.E.C. (1987): Checklist of generic names in

Malesia Botany.

Steudel, E.G. (1841): Nomenclator botanicus, Vol. 2. Stuttgart,

Tubingen.

Wallich, Nathaniel (1832): A numerical list of dried plants in

the East India Company’s Museum. London.

Walper, W.G. (1843): Repertorium botanices systematicae. Vol.

2. Leipzig.

SOME ASPECTS OF BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATIONS: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE

INDIAN PLAINS AND THE ZIMBABWE PLATEAU1

D. Ewbank2

Key words: bird/mammal association, Indian plains, Zimbabwe plateau

Some species of birds associate with mammals to feed on insects living either near or on them. This

paper attempts to quantify the size of these aggregations with mammals and compare them with unassociated

birds on the plains ol India and the plateau of Zimbabwe. In India four species of bird were observed associating:

two of them occurred in larger groups in such associations and preferred cattle to water buffalo. In Zimbabwe

in a drought situation, with a much lower density of mammals, a much higher proportion of observed birds

were in such associations. Egrets are known to obtain more food in such associations but this is not proved for

the other species involved.

Introduction

All organisms need a competitive edge of some

sort for survival. One such advantage is feeding

associations between birds and mammals which are

a common sight in the tropics. Some birds gain

significant amounts of food from such associations,

e.g. in Africa oxpeckers Buphcigus spp. are obligate

feeders on ticks (Ixodidae) and other ectoparasites

and have lost range in southern Africa with the

decimation of large mammal populations (Brooke

1984).

Another example of conservation significance

concerns the endangered Kirtland’s Warbler

Dendroicci kirtlandii in the United States, whose

range has recently been invaded by a nest parasite

the cowbird Molothurus ater. This bird was

previously an associate of the American Bison Bison

bison and has now expanded its range with the arrival

of cattle populations in the range of the warbler and

now reduces its breeding success by over a half

(McFarland 1981, Robisnon and Bolen 1989).

There have been few quantitative studies of

such associations and even fewer of a total

community. To the best of my knowledge there are

none published for India. Hence while travelling

around northern India by train mainly through

peasant owned farmland between April and August

1982 covering a distance of 3000 km, an attempt

was made to record all associating birds and domestic

'Accepted March 1993.

274 High St., Landbeach, Cambridge, U K.

mammals and quantify their associations. No attempt

was made to record all Common Mynas Acridotheres

tristis because they are liable to be overlooked when

perched in trees. The superabundance of the House

Crow Corvus splendens led to my recording all

sightings for only a portion of the total distance.

Other species recorded associating with domestic

mammals were Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis and the

Black Drongo Die rums macrocercus.

A similar study was performed over a number

of years in Zimbabwe by vehicle through European

farms and peasant occupied communal areas in the

late eighties covering a distance of some 5000 km

recording all birds associating and their hosts. The

birds involved here were mainly Cattle Egrets again

and Forktailed Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis, which is

considered a different species from the Indian bird.

There are published studies of Cattle Egret

associations in Southern Africa (Blaker 1969,

Siegfried 1978), but not of any other species.

Methods

A herd was defined as any group of animals

in a finite area seperated by a larger area from other

such groups. A bird was regarded as being in

association with a mammal if it was within two

metres of that mammal regardless of its perch. Where

mixed groups of mammals were observed these were

divided into species and the corresponding bird

species associating with them were recorded. The

number of mynas observed on Dal Lake, Kashmir

BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATIONS: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM INDIAN PLAINS AND ZIMBABWE PLATEAU 35

in June 1982 were used for the comparisons of the

number of birds in association and not associating.

Statistical analyses were performed on the results

using students t-tests to determine significant

differences. The percentage of all birds (excluding

mynas for reasons given above) observed

associating, out of the total number observed is also

presented. An attempt to see if the number of birds

in association with a group increased with increasing

group size failed because virtually all groups

observed were small (less than five animals). Animal

and bird masses are taken from Lander (1949) and

Ali and Ripley (1968-1974) respectively. These

animal masses are probably larger than the peasant

owned stock observed here. These have been used

as an estimate of the relative size of the animals and

birds concerned.

A similar study was done in Zimbabwe

travelling between Bulawayo and West Nicholson.

Statistics were not performed for this data but

otherwise methods were similar except that for

drongos the distance required for association was

increased even on occasion to the other side of the

road as this bird chases Hying insects which are

flushed by hosts.

Results

Eight types of domestic mammals were

observed in bird/mammal associations in India, but

of these donkeys, sheep, pigs, camels, and horses

contributed only a very small proportion of such

associations and are not further discussed. A total

of about 650 groups each of cattle and water buffalo

and nearly 300 groups of goats, giving a total of

between 5000 and 6000 head each, were observed.

Table 1 presents the frequency of bird/

mammal associations observed on the plains of India.

For each of the three mammals the percentage of

groups observed with each avian species is

presented. Further, the percentage of each bird

(except the myna) observed in such associations is

also presented. Table 2 presents the mean number

(± the standard deviation) of birds in association

with each mammal and those not in such associations

Table 1

FREQUENCY OF BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATIONS ON

THE PLAINS OF INDIA (EXPRESSED AS THE

PERCENTAGE OF GROUPS WITH ASSOCIATING BIRDS

AND THE PERCENTAGE OF BIRDS OBSERVED

ASSOCIATING OUT OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF

BIRDS OBSERVED)

are presented. Data are too meagre for such

calculations with goats. All these birds are believed

to be residents preforming at most local movements

in the area. At this time of the year, all four species

would be breeding (Ali and Ripley 1968-74): though

some species may be represented by nonbreeders for

instance the Cattle Egret.

The number of Common Mynas in mammal

associations is significantly larger than those not in

such associations (t= 2.812, p<0.05). This assumes

that flock sizes in Kashmir (altitude 2000 m) are the

same as those on the plains. The number of egrets

associating and not associating is not significantly

different; but the numbers associating with cattle is

significantly larger than those associating with water

buffalo (t= 1.813, p<0.05). Black Drongos, which

are the smallest of the four avian species considered

here, is the only one not to show a lower association

with the goat groups. The number of drongos in

associations is significantly larger than the number

of those not in such associations (t=2.116, p<0.05).

All species show a preference for the heaviest animal

(water buffalo) in terms of the number of groups

36

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Table 2

NUMBERS (MEANS ± STANDARD DEVIATIONS) OF

BIRDS WITH AND AWAY FROM HOSTS ON THE PLAINS

associated with. This makes sense if we assume that

the largest animal flushes the most insects or supplies

the best perch.

Thirty one records of two bird species and one

record of three species associating with the same

group of mammals (mostly water buffalo) were

observed.

Table 3

FREQUENCY OF BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATION ON

THE ZIMBABWE PLATEAU (AS TABLE I )

Table 4

NUMBERS OF BIRDS WITH AND AWAY FROM THEIR

HOSTS (AS TABLE 2)

Tables 3 and 4 present similar data from the

Zimbabwe plateau. A total of 579 herds of cattle and

262 herds of goats were observed giving a lower

density for each species and a much lower overall

biomass of domestic animals due to the absence of

water buffalo. In contrast to India the egret is a

passage migrant through the area: passing quickly

through around April and not associating much and

again in Sept. /Nov. when it does associate. The

drongo is a resident but like Indian birds undergoes

local movements when not breeding: in Zimbabwe

this is believed to be into more open areas (Irwin

1981). Like the Cattle Egret (Blaker 1969 and this

study), they associated more in the dry season. The

egret appears to aggregate in larger flocks with goats

than with cattle, though two large flocks of 16 and

30 were seen with goals in April, a time of year when

they occur in larger groups and do not usually

associate. No such flocks were seen with cattle at

this time of year. The drongo appears to show no

variation in numbers with either animal or away from

animals.

No records of more than one species

associating with the same group were obtained

despite the increased rate of association. Does this

imply that in India some groups are more attractive

to associating birds than others? While the drongo

is well known as an aggressive species, it is difficult

to believe that any territorial exclusion occurs

between the two species and no cases of agression

were observed. In any case the drongo takes flying

insects whereas the egret takes mainly grasshoppers

and they are presumed not to be in competition for

food.

Discussion

Dean and Macdonald (1981) have divided

bird/mammal associations into those which compete

with their host for food and those which use the

mammal to obtain their food. The myna and the crow

are omnivorous taking some vegetable food and are

thus potentially in competition with their hosts. The

other two species are purely insectivorous (Ali and

Ripley 1968-74). Another possible aspect of these

BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATIONS: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM INDIAN PLAINS AND ZIMBABWE PLATEAU 37

associations is disease transmission but this has not

actually been demonstrated (Dean and Macdonald

1981). It is possible that the birds also gain some

protection or concealment from predators from these

associations. It is not always clear what the mammal

gains from these associations though the myna has

been recorded as eating ticks in Southern Africa,

where it has been introduced (Dean and Macdonald

1981) and presumably do so in India. Another

suggestion is that the egret (at least) lakes

herbivorous insects, which compete with cattle for

food (Dinsmore 1973).

All these bird species feed on insects attracted

to or flushed by the mammals for instance,

coprophagous beetles. Some use the mammal as a

perch though egrets only do so in long grass

(Siegfried 1978) and I have never observed it.

Animals in woodland are less likely to have attending

birds. Drongos will also use a perch on a tree or a

fence near the herds for the same purpose. The other

species tend to forage on the ground behind the

animals though I have seen mynas preening while

perched on a mammal.

I doubt if the House Crow gains significant

amounts of food from these associations except

perhaps by raiding grain bins. Its very ubiquity

appears to lead it to perch on or around the mammals

especially in the absence of other suitable perches.

On the Calcutta Maiden, in the absence of the other

suitable mammals, they were observed attempting

to perch on goats. The goats however actively

attempted to dislodge these birds by running and

swinging their bodies until the crows dropped off.

Unless the crows were trying to glean ectoparasites,

which was not observed, I can only interpret this

behaviour as a type of play (McFarland 1981).

Indian Elephants Elephas maximus were

observed behaving similarly to dislodge mynas,

which appeared to have become too numerous and

too noisy, in Mudumalai Reserve in Tamil Nadu.

The crows are highly adaptable: in Calcutta

zoo they were observed associating with African

mammals, e.g. Eland Tauretragus oryx. Cattle Egret

occur in larger groups with cattle but they occur with

a larger percentage of groups of the bulkier water

buffalo but the actual numbers of egrets associating

with each species are similar. This is in contrast to

the situation in Australia where water buffaloes are

preferred (Siegfried 1978). This might also be a

function of the more aquatic habits of the water

buffalo, which appears likely to be the original host

in Asia. In Africa the original host is believed to be

the buffalo Syncerus coffer, which also prefers

flooded grasslands (Siegfried 1 978). The same flock

sizes with and away from hosts is in contrast to the

South Africa situation where flocks are larger and

away from their hosts (in this case only cattle)

(Blaker 1 969). Cattle Egrets acquire more prey with

less effort when associating with cattle (Dinsmore

1973). Smith (1971) has demonstrated this for two

species of anis ( Crotophaga spp.)

The Zimbabwe situation in the Cattle Egret is

different again with same size of flocks with cattle

as in India, an increased use of goats and much higher

percentage of birds in associations. This is believed

to be a reflection of very poor feeding conditions

due to the succession of drought years which

occurred in Zimbabwe during the study. The same

flock size in both areas may be a reflection of

territorial behaviour.

Benson (1964) reported that drongos were seen

associating with five groups of cattle on a journey

of 1 50 km in a nearby area of Zimbabwe. The former

author never observed such associations by drongos

in 30 years in Zambia and Malawi, which have a

higher rainfall than the southern areas of Zimbabwe

where these birds were observed. There is another

published record from Banket (Parnell 1962). Most

of these records come from low rainfall areas (less

than 600 mm per year). This makes it difficult to

understand why drongos in Zimbabwe did not

increase in numbers when with their hosts or why

they made a much lower use of goats in an area with

much lower domestic mammal densities. Yet they

doubled their use of cattle groups and the proportion

of birds with hosts as compared with India. This

suggests that the drongos were regulated by other

factors like territorial behaviour. I have also observed

a drongo perched on a small shrub near a chicken

and apparently associating with it. This bird has been

38

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

reported as associating with ostriches Struthio

came lens (Dean and Macdonald 1981).

I also observed Glossy Starling Lamprotornis

sp. and a Pied Crow Corvus albus once each

associating with cattle. It is striking that these four

birds represent the same families as the birds seen

in such associations as in India. Further in Britain a

starling Sturmis vulgaris and a crow Corvus corone

are also commonly observed in fields with domestic

animals most frequently sheep. Cattle egrets and

drongos do not occur in Britain. Are these birds/

families somehow preadapted to such associations

more than other families? Or are they birds who have

adapted well to farming habitats? The crows at least

are believed to have increased with human numbers.

Certainly the Cattle Egret has vastly increased its

Re

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1968-1974): Handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Benson, C.W. (1969): Birds associating with ungulates. Auk

8J: 436.

Blaker, D. (1969): Behaviour of the Cattle Egret Arcleola ibis.

Ostrich 40: 75-129.

Brooke. R.K. (1984): South African Red data book-birds. S.

Afr. Nat. Scient. Prog. Report No. 10.

Dean, W.R.J. & l.A.W. Macdonald! 1981 ): A review of African

birds feeding in association with mammals. Ostrich 52: 1 35-

155.

Dinsmore, J.J. (1973): Foraging success of Cattle Egrets

Bubulcus ibis. Am. Midi. Nat. 89: 242-246.

Irwin, M.P.S. (1981): Birds of Zimbabwe. Quest Publishers,

range due to its association with cattle in the wake

of their range being increased to include the

Americas and Australia (Siegfried 1978).

Bird/mammal assoiations have been very little

studied in the tropics though the tremendous increase

in the range of Cattle Egrets has generated interest

in this species. It is hoped that this contribution will

stimulate others to study such associations more

closely.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Mr. M.P.S. Irwin and Dr. K. Hustler

for comments on an early draft, Mr. K. Ratcliffe for

assistance with statistical analysis and to Mr. T.

Ewbank for the use of a computer.

ERENCES

Harare.

McFarland, D. (Editor) (1981): The Oxford companion to

animal behaviour. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Lander, P.F. (1949): The feeding of farm animals in

India. Macmillan, London.

Parnell, G.W. (1962): Birds following cattle. Honeyguide 39:

1-2.

Robinson, W.C. & E.G. Bolen (1989): Wildlife ecology and

management. Collier McMillan Publishers, London.

Siegfried, W.R. (1978): Habitat and modern range expansion

of the Cattle Egret. National Audubon Report No. 7.

Smith, S.M. (1971): The relationships of grazing cattle to

foraging rates in anis. Auk 88: 876-880.

FISH FAUNA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE1

V.J. Zacharias, A.K. Bhardwaj and P.C. Jacob2

Key Words: fishes, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, India

The status and distribution of fishes in the rivers and the lake of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala was

studied and 35 species belonging to 7 orders and 1 1 families were recorded. The family Cyprinidae contained

maximum number of species ( 1 3). Thirteen species of fishes collected during the study are endemic to Southern

Western Ghats. Two new species, namely Lepidopygopsis typhus (Schizothoracinae) and Cmssocheilus

pehyurensis (Cyprinidae) were recorded from Periyar while another, Echathalakanda ( Barbus ) opliiocephalus

(Cyprinidae) was rediscovered from Periyar river.

Introduction

The rivers in Kerala once harboured a rich fish

fauna according to earlier investigators like Pillay

( 1 929 ), John ( 1 936), Hora (1941 a,b), Raj (1941 a,b),

Chacko (1948), Silas (1951a, b). But very little

information is available on the present status of the

freshwater fishes of Kerala, which are threatened by

over exploitation, introduction of exotic fishes,

habitat destruction and pollution. In the midlands

and lowlands of Kerala many fishes have become

locally extinct and are disappearing fast. A limited

number of them remain in the hills; in protected

areas.

Periyar is known to support several interest-

ing and important fishes. Some preliminary studies

were done on the fish fauna of Periyar (Raj 1 94 1 a,b;

Chacko 1948, Silas 1951a, b). Very little is known

about the current status offish fauna in this reserve.

Chacko, made an attempt to make a survey of the

indigenous fish fauna in 1 946, with a view to develop

the fishery. He listed 35 species of fishes in the lake.

Raj (1941a) has described a small scaled

schizothoracine, Lepidopygopsis typus Raj, from

the Periyar river and Hora (1941a) has des-

cribed, from Mr. Jone’s collection a Homalop-

terid loach, Travancoria j one si, from Travan-

core.

Menon and Jacob (1991) have more recently

'Accepted August 1995.

-Periyar Tiger Reserve. Thekkady, Kerala 685 536.

described a small scaled Barbel, Cmssocheilus

periyarensis and rediscovered a Cyprinid fish Barbus

( Puntius) opliiocephalus (Raj) from the Periyar river

adding two more species of fishes to the fish fauna

of Periyar Tiger Reserve.

The purpose of this paper is to present a status

report of the fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve for

making comparative studies in future. It will also be

helpful to identify the conservation problems and

recommend management measures.

c

Study area

Periyar Tiger Reserve lies between 9° 16' and

9° 40’ N. lat. and between 76° 55’ and 77° 25' E.

long. It is bordered by Kottayam and Pathanamthitta

districts in the west and south, Peermade Taluk of

the Idukki District in the north and Madurai district

of Tamil Nadu in the east. The elevation of the

Reserve ranges from 800 to 2019 m. Several peaks

rise above 1600 m the prominent peak being

Vellimala (2019 m).

River, Periyar which originates from

Chokkampetti-Kallimalai side, about 58 Km from

Thekkady with its various tributaries form the main

drainage of the area. The lake, which was formed as

a result of the construction of the dam has an area of

26 sq. km. Maximum depth of water at highest watei

level is 46 m. Two other rivers, Pamba and Azhutha

also flow along the border of the reserve in the

Vallakkadavu range.

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Table 1

FISH FAUNA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

41

Table 1 (Contd.)

Materials and Methods

Fish samples were collected from January,

1992 to December, 1994 from different localities in

the rivers and lakes while conducting wildlife studies.

The collections were made from the Periyar river,

Mullayar river, and their tributaries and different

areas of the reservoir; boat landing, near dam,

Mullakkudy, Manakkavala, Swamikkayam and

42

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Padikkayam. Fishes were also collected from rivers

Pamba and Azhutha.

Fishes were collected by gill-nets, cast-nets,

hooks and bait. Worms, grasshoppers, small fishes,

fruits of some trees, boiled tapioca and even rice paste

were used as baits. For collecting small fishes, a

special method called ‘Watty” was used. Some were

collected from local fisherman. Fishes were

preserved in 5% formalin and identified in the

laboratory.

Results and Discussions

Thirtyfive species of fishes, representing 21

genera and 1 1 families were collected and identified

(Table 1). Morphological particulars of these species

are available in Day (1876-88), Flora ( 1 94 1 a,b),

Silas ( 1 95 1 a,b), Munro (1955), Talwar and Jhingran

(1991). Out of the 33 species mentioned in the list

of Chacko (1948), species YikeMystus cavasi us (Ham.),

M. vittcitus (Bloch), Notopterus notopterus (Pallas),

etc., were neither found in the reservoir nor in

the tributaries of Periyar and Pamba during this

survey.

The species Parluciosomci dan icon ins (Ham.),

Puntius melanamphyx (Day), Hypsilobarbus kurcdi

(Menon & Rema Devi), Garni mullya (Sykes) were

collected from almost all localities of the reservoir.

Among these 35 species, about 1 3 species are usually

found in upper streams and are adapted to lotic

torrential waters. They are Travancoria jonesi

(Hora), Garra mullya (Sykes), Garni gotyla

stenorhynchus (Jerdon), Tor khudree (Sykes),

Hypsilobarbus periyarensis (Raj), Crossocheilus

periyarensis (Menon & Jacob), Barbus

ophiocephalus (Raj), Lepidopygopsis typus (Raj),

Noe mac he i l us evezardi (Day), Glyptotliorax

madraspatanum (Day), Barilius bakeri (Day),

B.bendel is is (Ham.) and B. gatensis (Cuvier & Val.).

Some of them are adapted to cling to the substratum

by some attachment devices, e.g. Garra, Travancoria

and Glyptotliorax.

Fishes like Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch),

Ompaok bimaculatus (Bloch), Channel striatus

(Bloch), C.orientalis (Bloch & Schn.), C.marulius

(Ham.), Cyprinus ccirpio communis (Linn.),

Oreochromis mossambica (Peters), etc., are restricted

to lentic waters of the reservoir.

Among the hillstream fishes Crossocheilus

periyarensis (Menon & Jacob), a rare species was a

new discovery from Periyar. Another fish which was

believed to be extinct, Barbus ophiocephalus (Raj)

was rediscovered. Lepidopygopsis typus (Raj),

Hypsilobarbus kurcdi (Menon & Rema Devi), Tor

khudree (Sykes), Travancoria jonesi (Hora) are some

of the endemic species of the Southern Western

Ghats. Preliminary studies on the food habits of

Tor (through stomach content examination)

have indicated that this species took a variety of

fruits.

Conservation and Management

“Mannan” and “Paliyans” (local tribals) above

forty years of age speak of abundant fish in all the

rivers, especially in Periyar and in the reservoir in

the past. According to them, this abundance was due

to undisturbed conditions of Periyar, Mullayar and

their tributaries. But now all these areas are disturbed

by indiscriminate fishing, deforestation, hunting,

etc. In addition, new exotic fishes which were

introduced to the reservoir, namely Oreochromis

mossambica (Peters) and Cyprinus carpio communis

compete with native species of fishes for food and

habitat.

Recommendations

1. Fishing activities in Periyar should be

controlled.

2. Fishing during monsoon, which is the breed-

ing season of most of the fishes should be

banned.

3. Research should be conducted for assessing

population density and habitat requirements ol

fishes in the rivers and lake.

4. Remove the introduced fishes from the

reservoir and restock with fingerlings of species

like Tor khudree (Sykes), which has sport value.

5. Sport fisheries could be developed to cater to

FISH FAUNA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

43

the needs of tourists in the tourist zone

which could generate revenue for the

Government.

6. Puntius melanampyx could be used as an

aquarium fish.

7. Plant trees on the lake edges for providing food

for species like Tor.

Refer

Chacko, P.l. (1948): Development of Fisheries of the Periyar lake.

./. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192.

Day, F. ( 1 886- 1 888): Fishes of India, London.

Hora, S.L. (1941a): Homalopterid fishes from peninsular India.

Rec. hul. Mus. 43: 230-23 1 .

Hora, S.L. ( 1941b): The Freshwater fish of Travancore. Rec. hul.

Mus. 43: 234-256.

John, C.C. (1936): Freshwater fishes'and fisheries of Travancore.

./. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 38: 702-783.

Mf.non, A.G.K. & PC. Jacob (1996): Crossoclieihis perivarensis,

a new Cyprinid fish from Thannikudy (Thekkady), Kerala,

S. India. ./. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 93( I ): 62-64.

Monro, I.S.R. (1955): The marine and fresh water

fishes of Ceylon. Canberra (Dept. External Affairs), pp. 351 .

Pillay, R.S.N. ( 1929): A list of fishes taken in Travancore from

Acknowledgements

Wc arc grateful to Dr. A.G.K. Mcnon for his

suggestions and constructive comments on an early

draft of this paper. We thank Dr. M.P. Thobias for his

suggestion and help. Sri C.P. Shaji and

Sri P. Muhammed Jafer assisted in the collection of

specimens.

[•: n c f s

1901-1915. J. Bombay uat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.

Raj B.S. (1941a): A new genus of Schizothoracine fishes from

Travancore, South India. Rec. hul. Mus. 43: 209-214.

Raj, B.S. ( 1941b): Two new Cyprinid fishes from Travancore.

South India, with remarks on Barbus (Puntius) micro/ioyon.

Cuv. & Val. Rec. hul. Mus. 43: 375-386.

Silas E.G. (1951a): On a collection of fish from the Anamalai

and Nelliampathi Hills ranges (Western Ghats) with notes

on its zoogeographical significances. ./. Bombay not. Hist.

Soc. 49: 670-681.

Silas E G. (1951b): Fishes from High Range of Travancore. J.

Bombay uat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330.

Talwar, PK. & A.G. Jiiingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India

and adjacent countries: Vol. 1 & 2. Oxford & IBH Publishing

Co. Pvt. Ltd.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF A LARGE COMMUNAL

ROOST OF WINTERING HARRIERS IN GUJARAT (NW. INDIA) AND COMPARISON

WITH A ROOST IN SENEGAL (W. AFRICA)1

Roger Clarke2

Key words: Gujarat, locust, Montagu’s Harrier, Pallid Harrier, pellets, roosting

The largest communal roost of wintering harriers in the world reported in recent times occurred in the

grassland at Velavadar National Park, Gujarat, north-west India. It consisted of up to 2000 birds, mainly

Montagu's Harriers Circus pygargus (about 75%) and Pallid Harriers Circus macrourus (about 20%) and has

been known since the mid 1980s. Pre-roosting, roosting and post-roosting behaviours are described. About

30% of the harriers present were adult males, but only one dark morph Montagu’s Harrier was recorded.

Foraging behaviours are described; the Montagu’s Harriers fed mainly on locusts in shrublands and cotton

fields and male Pallid Harriers were observed hunting small birds in grassland. Of 134 pellets collected at the

roost, 60% contained locust remains, principally of the Tree Locust Anacridiuni rubrispinum. It was calculated

that the harriers attending the roost probably consumed more than 1 .5 million locusts each winter. The rest of

the prey remains in the pellets were mainly of small birds, principally larks, although the remains of a few

mammals and reptiles also occurred. The roost is compared to one found in Senegal, West Africa.

Introduction

More than 1 500 Hamers were counted roosting

at Velavadar Blackbuck Sanctuary and National Park,

Gujarat, north-west India in November 1991 (W.S.

Clark in lift.). This appears to be the largest roost of

harriers recorded in the literature since nineteenth

century observations of thousands of Montagu’s

Harriers roosting after the breeding season and before

migration at a marsh in the west of France (Barbier

Montault 1838). The great majority of harriers at

Velavadar were Montagu’s Harriers Circus pygargus

(about 75%) and Pallid Harriers C. macrourus (about

20%), but very few Marsh Harriers C. aeruginosus

and one or two ringtail Hen Harriers C. cyaneus were

also present. This paper details observations during

two visits to Velavadar, on 1-6 February 1992 and 25-

31 January 1993. On my first visit I collected 134

pellets from two settling areas which were attracting

about 500 and 300 birds respectively at the time. The

results of my analysis of the pellets and observations

of foraging and roosting behaviour are given below

and compared with observations on harriers and

'Accepted June 1993.

’New Hythe House, Reach, Cambridge CB5 OJQ, U K.

the results of analysis of 1 1 3 pellets collected at a roost

of about 1000 Montagu’s Harriers in

late December 1988 and early January 1989 near

M’bour, Senegal, West Africa (Cormier and Baillon

1991).

Roost Catchment Areas

The Indian roost site (22° North) is in a remnant

of grass plain occupying the northern half of 17.38 sq.

km of land preserved as a National Park in 1976 to

conserve the Blackbucky4/zf//oy?c cervicapra. The Park

is situated in a semi-arid area of alluvial plain known

as the ‘Bhal’ (reputed to mean ‘forehead’, i.e. a bare,

open landscape), on the western shore of the Gulf of

Khambhat (Arabian Sea). Some land between the Park

and the Gulf of Khambhat (20 km away) is a saline

wasteland irregularly inundated by the sea in the

monsoon, but much of the surrounding plain consists

of shrublands of Mesquite Prosopis chilensis and large

arable fields, in winter, mainly growing a special strain

of cotton not requiring irrigation. A high proportion

of the fields were ploughed at the time of my visits

and cotton was being harvested. In the day, many

Montagu’s Harriers were observed hunting over the

cotton fields.

LARGE COMMUNAL ROOST OF WINTERING HARRIERS IN GUJARAT

45

The African roost site (14° North) is situated

close to the Atlantic coast in fairly flat, open

savannah with abundant ground vegetation and a few

trees. The harriers hunted around brackish lanoons,

in savannah and dunes, not over crops.

Roost Sites

The Indian Harriers roosted in aDichanthium-

dominated grass community about 40 cm tall in large,

totally open fields which had been used as hay plots

and were now maintained just by shrub clearance,

although bordered by hedges of shrubs, especially

P l o s op is cli Hen s is .

The African roost was in ground vegetation in

an area of savannah with some trees, principally

Ziziphns niciuritiana, and with scattered humps of

old termite mounds 1-1.5 m high. Domestic grazing

herds, mainly of goats and cattle, crossed the site by

day, but the ground vegetation was still quite dense.

Pellet Analysis Methods

For the purposes of this paper, the term ‘locust’

includes large grasshoppers. Pellets from India

containing only locust or a mix of locust and reptile

remains were dissected dry. Pellets at least partly made

up of bird or mammal remains were dissected wet and

the remains were washed and allowed to dry. Pellets

of pure locust remains were very fragile and liable to

break in two on the ground or when collected. The

collection comprised 46 part pellets, which were

counted as 23 whole pellets, and 1 1 1 whole pellets to

give the equivalent of 1 34 pellets. The locusts were

identified from the manual issued by the Centre for

Overseas Pest Research (1992) and specimens in the

collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. The

number of locusts in each pellet was taken as the highest

number represented cither by mandibles or by

ovipositor valves. Care had to be taken to identify

dorsal and ventral pairs of ovipositor valves to arrive

at the correct number of female locusts that they

represented. Counts of locusts from mandibles were

based on the highest number of right or left mandibles

in the pellet. Bird remains were identified by matching

against reference collections. Larks were counted by

means of bill parts or hind claws. Pigeons and doves

were recognised from their white down and feather

fragments. Sparrows were recognised and counted by

the palatal thickenings from their bills. Bird remains

which could not be identified were counted as one bird

per pellet, but were few in number. Reptiles could not

be enumerated or identified since remains were almost

entirely loose scales. One pellet contained a lizard jaw.

Mammals were identified from their fur and teeth.

Indian Bush Rat Golunda ellioti and Gerbil Tatera

indica teeth were identified from the early, but accurate

illustrations in Blanford (1888). Mice and rats were

identified from hair, jaws or incisors. Lagomorph fur

was confirmed by microscopic examination of the

medulla (Koppikar and Sabnis 1976).

Observations

Roosting, pre-roosting and post-roosting

behaviour: The number of harriers using the

Velavadar roost fluctuated during each winter. In both

1991 and 1992, large counts ( 1500-2000) were made

in November/December. Later in each winter,

numbers dropped in January /February (800 birds in

early February 1 992 and 600 declining to 300 in late

January 1993). The full seasonal pattern is yet to be

established, but it seems likely that the roost is

reduced in size from midwinter because birds pass

south before coming back on return migration.

Further large roosts are known or suspected south to

Andhra Pradesh (southeast India) and research is

required to ascertain whether they peak later (A.

Mulchandani, pers. comm.). Migration of harriers

from the direction of Gujarat through the Western

Ghats has been observed in the past (Khacher 1 977).

The Indian harriers were using at least two pre-

roosting areas of bare, flat, dried mud, separated from

the night-roost grassland by Prosopis chilensis

thickets. Up to 126 harriers (26 January 1993) were

counted on the largest of these. Only a proportion of

the harriers seemed to be using them, since a constant

stream of harriers passed by, heading for the

grassland night-roost. The pre-roosting harriers stood

facing into the wind, well spread out in loose groups.

The mud was generally very flat, but many individual

46

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

harriers were noted perching on the slightest lumps

projecting from the surface. Numbers built up until

about sunset. After sunset, these pre-roosts would

gradually disperse, individuals and small groups

flying off to the night-roost.

Especially with a good breeze, aerial activity

at the night-roost was on two levels. The number of

birds ‘milling’ above the night-roost quickly built

up into a mass of up to several hundred birds towering

one hundred metres or more above the settling area.

At the same time, a significant number was

positioned much higher in the sky, using the warm

air until well after sunset and then individuals folded

in their wings to stoop down to lower levels, criss-

crossing each other’s flight paths in the sky, to join

the roost. Occasionally a separate tight ‘carousel’ of

circling birds would form. The cause of these could

not be ascertained at the time, but subsequent

observations suggest that they are a mutual warning

mechanism alerting birds to predators in the grass.

On some evenings the harriers formed up to three

groups of birds milling in the air, which roosted in

separate parts of the grassland. Settling by hundreds

of birds took place quite rapidly at about twenty

minutes after sunset and with some hesitation over

places, switching of places or displacement of one

harrier by another.

The Velavadar harriers dispersed from the

roost at an early dawn. By sunrise almost all had

gone, principally in flight-lines south to the main

post-roost and west to the main cotton fields and

shrublands. Male Pallid Harriers (grey males only

identified with certainty in the poor early morning

light) left in the same direction as the other harriers,

but on average a few minutes later than male

Montagu’s Harriers, and generally at lower altitude.

The largest pre-roosting area was watched on

the morning of 31 January 1993 and at its peak, 81

harriers post-roosted on the ground there. They stood

around in exactly the same manner as at pre-roost,

preening a little and eventually flying off before

sunrise. A dispute over food between 3 or 4

individuals was noted, involving some chasing low

over the ground.

The African harriers (Cormier and Baillon 1991)

are described as arriving at the roost site in the one

and a half to two hours up to dusk, the first ones

continuing to hunt over the site and settling on mounds

or trees to deal with the prey caught, then taking flight

to settle a little later. Communal aerial activity is

described as the formation of as many as two or three

simultaneous carousels of hundreds of birds each night

at about 1 5-20 minutes before dusk as they took flight

in alarm, which subsided before the harriers generally

took to the air prior to finally settling. No observations

of morning dispersal are given.

Proportions of grey males and dark morphs:

Cormier and Baillon (1991) recorded only 11% grey

males in Senegal, but made the point that this was

probably the result of differing preferences of males

and females for certain wintering areas. At Velavadar,

I recorded an average of 30.5% adult grey males,

Montagu’s and Pallids combined, from counts (n =

II counts, 397 birds in total) at the pre-roosts.

Successive counts were made at each pre-roost to

attempt to average out the effect of any difference in

arrival and departure times of the sexes. For example,

on 26 January 1993 at 1 807 hours there were no grey

males out of 16 birds, but 17 out of 35 birds at 1841

hours. On the January 1993 visit, I noted that a few

of the juvenile Montagu’s harriers present showed

signs of moult into adult male plumage with grey

heads, throats and upper breasts. To my knowledge,

just one dark morph harrier has been seen at

Velavadar — a totally dark brown female Montagu’s

Harrier observed once in flight towards the roost in

January 1993 (R. Naoroji, pers. comm.). This is in

contrast to the situation in Senegal where 5% of the

Montagu’s Harriers present were dark morphs

(Cormier and Baillon 1991).

Foraging behaviour: The great majority of

harriers observed foraging over the cotton fields close

to Velavadar were Montagu’s Harriers. Each one

hunted intensively and alone over a field or two, flying

3-4 m above the crop looking down into it for locusts.

through the crop intently to see any. Strike rate success

was casually assessed as on average once every 10-15

minutes. Strikes were usually a feet-first descent with

LARGE COMMUNAL ROOST OF WINTERING HARRIERS IN GUJARAT

41

wings upraised, but shallow stooping was observed

once. The rows of cotton plants were about Ini apart

and the harrier would momentarily disappear amongst

them. After a successful strike, they flew with the locust

held firmly at each end, clearly visible in lowered talons

and sometimes in tandem much in the manner

of an Osprey Pandion haliaetus carrying a fish. To eat

the locust, they flew to an open piece of ground

such as a ploughed field or a trackway. Occasionally

they fed on the locust in flight, bill and talons being

brought together to meet, in the manner of a Hobby

Fcilco subbuteo feeding on insects. There was a lull in

hunting activity during the heat of midday, when the

harriers tended to circle up in the sky in ones and

twos.

The few harriers I saw on the Velavadar

grassland during the day were adult male and juvenile

Pallid Harriers. They mostly hunted earlier and later

in the day, but also at midday if it was overcast. Whilst

it was warm, they flew slowly into the wind with

3-4 shallow flaps between each glide, then turning to

drift quickly downwind, and repeating. In early

morning and evening I saw fast low-level flight,

with agile swerves at small birds, reminiscent of the

fast, low bird-hunting flight mode of the Hen

Harrier (Wassenich 1968). One stoop at potential bird

prey on the ground from a few metres height was

observed (an unsuccessful strike). I saw one of the

adult male Pallid Harriers in fast, determined

level chases of small birds that he had flushed

or missed on a strike, clearly with some expectation of

success.

Pellet Analysis Results

The principal prey in the pellets from both

continents (Tables 1 and 2) were locusts, in Senegal

predominantly the Desert Locust Schistocerca

gregaria, and in Gujarat the Tree Locust Anacridium

rubrispinum. Locusts featured in 97% of African

pellets and 60% of Indian pellets respectively. In the

African pellets, Cormier and Baillon (1991) found

that ovipositor valves of female locusts greatly

outnumbered mandibles. They commented that the

male sub-genital plates were difficult to detect and

Table I

PELLETS CATEGORISED BY PREY CLASSES

* Cormier & Baillon (1991).

so females greatly predominated in the analysis,

although they give no hard figures. Only females

could be identified in the Indian pellets, since no

male sub-genital plates were evident. However, pairs

of mandibles usually substantially outnumbered the

count of females in pellets, based on ovipositor

valves, contrary to the African results.

Cormier and Baillon (1991) concluded that

the harriers in Africa often did not eat the heads

of locusts, preferring the content of the abdomen.

The predominance of mandibles in the Indian

pellets suggests that this was not the case in India.

However, remains collected from one ‘plucking’

place consisted mainly of wings representing

about 6 locusts, 5 pronotums, 7 whole and 3 part

hind-legs femurs (6 with the rest of the leg attached),

and 3 heads. All remains were that of Tree Locusts

apart from one Black-spotted Grasshopper

Cyrtacanthacris ranacea hind- wing.

Of the bird prey, larks could not be identified

to species. Pigeons and doves identified in the

pellets included Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia,

Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto, Little Brown

Dove S. senegalensis and Green Pigeon Treron

phoenicoptera.

48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 2

PREY IDENTIFIED IN INDIAN AND AFRICAN PELLETS

* Cormier & Baillon 1991.

** Total count of 682 locusts from mandibles, etc. (see Methods)

apportioned according to the ratio of the pronotums of the two

species found in the pellets (209:23).

*** Possibly Indian Desert Gcrbil Meriones hurrianae.

Discussion

The Senega] roost materialised in response to

the largest explosion in the population of the Desert

Locust in the area for 20 years, with large swarms

south of Dakar. In contrast, the Velavadar roost has

been known since 1984 (S.Rooke, pers. comm.) and

has recurred each winter. The economic value of such

roosts can be measured firstly in terms of the number

of locusts eaten and secondly in their wildlife tourism

potential. A tentative calculation of the number of

locusts taken from the surrounding fields by the

Velavadar roost in each of the winters might be based

on an average of 750 harriers (mean from pattern of

nil at beginning, 1 500 peak, nil at end) for 1 82 days

(October to March) consuming 10 locusts on average

(calculated from 682 locusts /1 34 pellets in my

sample = 5 x say 2 pellets per day) = 1.365 million.

This can be regarded as an underestimate, since the

pellet analysis probably significantly undercounts the

number of locusts eaten because some heads are

discarded and locust pellets disintegrate faster

probably reducing the number collected. Calculated

another way, 750 harriers on average x 75%

(Montagu’s Harriers) x 1 82 days x 2, 2-hour hunting

sessions producing 8 locusts each (one every 15

minutes) = 1.64 million. Without further research

these figures are crude estimates, but the true figure

is probably in excess of 1.5 million. This is one

measure of the worth of a protected grassland.

Five locusts were caught in the cotton fields close

to Velavadar by M. Pai, three of which

were Black-spotted Grasshoppers and two

Tree Locusts. Despite the tiny sample, this was a

surprising result in view of the scarcity of the Black-

spotted Grasshopper in the harrier pellets and prey

remains examined (about 10% of locusts). It begs the

questions: 1. Were more of the boldly-patterned

creamy-yellow and black Black-spotted Grasshoppers

caught because they are more obvious to the human

eye than the uniformly greyish-pink Tree Locusts? or

2. Do the harriers select Tree Locusts — cither for

palatability or for ease of capture? Further research is

required to answer these questions.

The broader food niche of the Velavadar roost

is of course to be expected because of the range of

harrier species there. Considering the Senegal results,

it might be assumed that the pellets of locust remains

at the Indian roost were mainly those of the

Montagu’s Harriers present, and this could be largely

correct. Observation of the birds leaving the roost in

the morning emphasised the difference in the flight

actions of at least the males of the two principal

species. The Montagu’s Harriers were able to leave

at an early dawn, intermittently flapping gently and

gliding out towards the croplands on their relatively

larger wings, whereas the Pallid Harriers left later

and at lower altitude. Sehipper (1977) found that

LARGE COMMUNAL ROOST OF WINTERING HARRIERS IN GUJARAT

49

Montagu’s Harrier ranged further from the nest than

other species of harrier sympatric with it in western

Europe and obtained enough return for hunting effort

from smaller prey. This appears to be because of its

light wing loading (Nieboer 1973). Locust prey

therefore suits Montagu’s Harrier well despite its

small size and its quantity provides the biomass

necessary to attract maximum number of birds to

one area. This was not only the case at Velavadar

and in Senegal, but ‘grasshoppers’ were also the

principal prey when Montagu’s Harriers roosted in

thousands in France in the nineteenth century

(Barbier Montault 1838).

I suspect that the Pallid Harriers took the largest

share of bird prey at Velavadar. The Pallid Harrier is

larger than Montagu’s Harrier. It exhibits a greater

degree of reversed sexual size dimorphism, has

proportionately larger feet and claws, and shorter but

proportionately more tapered wings (Nieboer 1973).

These adaptations point to feeding on birds. Size

dimorphism is generally greater in bird-eating raptors

(Newton 1979) and larger feet assist in grasping

manoeuvrable prey. The slimmer wing structure of the

Pallid Hamer favours swifter flight for chasing birds.

There is relatively little information on the diet of the

Pallid Harrier on its breeding grounds in the steppes

of western and central Asia. Early information

indicated that the majority of breeding season food

was small mammals (80% according to pellets analysed

— Osmolowskaja in Glutz von B lotzheim et al. 1971),

but birds have recently been found to constitute an

important part of the breeding season diet, especially

when rodents are scarce (Davygora and Belik 1994).

Apart from larks, the Velavadar grassland itself

appeared to hold little prey for the harriers. This is in

contrast to the situation in Andhra Pradesh (southeast

India), where Rahmani and Manakadan (1986) found

grasshoppers so abundant that they flushed a few at

every step, and ‘during the day, fifty to sixty harriers...

tirelessly quartering the grassland’ at a roost of 800-

1000 harriers (mainly Montagu's) in the 1985-86

winter. Similar findings were made by Satheesan and

Rao (1990) who identified both large and medium-

sized grasshoppers consumed.

The Marsh Harrier is the largest species of

harrier, with the shortest wings and tail relative to body

size (Nieboer 1973), and so some of the larger prey

items in the Indian pellets, such as hare, might be

attributed to them.

The occurrence of Hen Harriers at the Indian

roost shows, for a few individual birds, that the species’

distribution extends south of that quoted in Ali and

Ripley (1978).

Further work to be done on hairier roosts in India

should include an assessment of pesticide ingestion

by harriers, especially in view of the importance of

such a large number of harriers to the Asian breeding

population. It is possible that they acquire

organochlorines in parts of India which affect their

success on breeding grounds. Montagu’s Harrier is

under threat in many areas of the western part of its

breeding range. This makes the gaining of an

understanding the eastern component of the world

population all the more urgent. The status of the more

easterly-biased world Pallid Harrier population is not

well known, although recent information suggests that

the east European breeding population has largely

vanished and there may have been some shifting of

the range of the Asian breeding population due to major

losses of habitat to grazing and agricultural use

(Davygora and Belik 1994).

Acknowledgements

I thank Bill Clark, Graeme Hewson, Anil

Mulchandani, Manoj Pai, Rishad Naoroji, Steve

Rooke, the Bombay Natural History Society (Asad

Akhtar, S. Nayak and other staff), M.K.

Shivbhadrasinhji, the Jamsaheb of Jamnagar and the

Gujarat Forest Department for their assistance. Ray

Symonds at the University of Cambridge Museum

of Zoology provided access to bird specimens. The

observations were made during expeditions for the

Hawk and Owl Trust, the first sponsored by British

Airways, and as part of my studies as a postgraduate

student at Liverpool University. Further work is

being carried out on the Velavadar roost by the

Bombay Natural History Society, sponsored by the

Hawk and Owl Trust.

50

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

References

Ale S. & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Vol. 1 . Second Edition. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Barbier Montault, M. (1838): Notice sur les moeurs du Busard

Montagu, Falco cinerascens Temm. Revue Zoologique 1 :

221-223.

Blanford, W.T. (1888): The Fauna of British India. Mammalia.

Taylor & Francis, London.

Centre for Overseas Pest Research (1992): The Locust and

Grasshopper Agricultural Manual. Hobbs, Southampton.

Cormier, J. P. & F. Baill.on (1991): Concentration de

Busards Cendres Circus pygargus (L.) dans la region de

M’bour (Senegal) durant l’hiver 1988-89. Alauda 59: 1 63-

168.

Davygora, A.V. & V.P. Belik (1994): The Pallid Harrier ( Circus

macrourus) as an endangered species in the Palearctic. pp.

93-96, in Mcyburg, B.-U. & R.D. Chancellor (eds.) Raptor,

Conservation Today. World Working Group on Birds of Prey

and Owls.The Pica press.

Glutz von Blotzheim, U.N., K. M. Bauer, E. Bezzel (1971):

Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Bd. 4. Falconiformes.

Frankfurt a. M. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft.

Khacher, L. (1977): Migrating harriers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

74: 355-356.

Koppikar, B.R. & J.H. Sabnis (1976): Identification of hairs of

some Indian Mammals. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 5-20.

Newton, I. (1979): Population Ecology of Raptors. Poyser,

Berkhamsted.

Nieboer, E. (1973): Geographical and ecological differentiation

in the genus Circus. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Amsterdam.

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan ( 1 986): A large roost of harriers

in Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 203-

204.

Satheesan, S.M. & P. Rao ( 1 990): Roosting and feeding of harriers

in Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

87: 143.

Schipper, W.J.A. (1977): Hunting in three European harriers

(Circus) during the breeding season. Ardea 65: 53-72.

Wassenich, V. (1968): Durchzug and Uberwinterung der

Kornweihe. Regulus 9: 214-225.

STUDIES ON AMPHIPODS OF VISAKHAPATNAM COAST1

P. SOMANADHA RAO, K. HANUMANTHA RAO AND K. SHYAMASUNDARI 2

( With three plates )

Key words: nine genera, nine species, planktonic amphipods, Visakhapatnam

During a survey of amphipod fauna of Waltair coast, some gammaridean amphipods were encountered.

Nine species belonging to five families and nine genera are described. The order Amphipoda comprises four

sub-orders the Gammariidea, Hyperiidea, Caprelliidea and Ingolfelliidea. According to Barnard (1969) the

constant presence of atleast 6 pairs of thoracic appendage, five pairs of gills and four pairs of brood lamellae in

females are distinctive characters of Gammariidea and Hyperiidea.

Some of the recent contributions on the taxonomy of amphipods are those of Bellan-Santini and Dauvin

(1981), Dickinson (1982), Goeke and Heard, Jr. (1983, 1984), Andres (1985), Goeke (1985, 1987), Thomas

and Barnard (1986) and Locke and Corey (1989).

Samples were collected twice a week by towing a plankton net for a definite time. Each sample was

used for numerical estimation and identification in living condition. All collections were made in Lawson’s

Bay, 1 km away from the coast. Samples collected during June, 1984 and May, 1987 form the material for the

present study.

Family Ampeliscidae

Genus Ampelisca Krgyer

AmpeSisca zamboangae Stebbing

(Plate 1, Figs. 1-10)

Body transparent. The distinguishing character

is the fifth peraepod (Fig. 1). The expanded second

joint reaches beyond the third joint. The flagellum

and antenna of female have three segments. Coxal

plate of first gnathopod (Fig. 4) broader towards the

distal end fringed with plumose setae, second joint

of second gnathopod elongate, devoid of setae, fifth

and sixth joints subequal and setose, sixth narrow

distally. Peraeopod description is similar to that given

by Sivaprakasam (1966). The outer ramus of the third

uropod is longer than the inner ramus. There are four

spines on the outer surface and three setae on the

inner surface of the outer ramus. There is a deep notch

in the telson, each lobe bearing a spine and four setae

at its distal end.

1 Accepted June 1993.

department of Zoology, Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam-530 003, India.

Length: 4.5 mm.

Occurrence: Lawson’s Bay — 3 males; 3

females.

Distribution: Philippines, Sri Lanka, East

Indies, Arabian Sea, Red Sea and Bay of Bengal.

Family Haustoridae

Genus Uwthoe Dana

Urothoe ruber Giles

(Plate 1, Figs. 11-14)

Remarks: Fairly common in plankton.

Head slightly reduced. A common form in the

plankton. First antenna 5-jointed with a 2-jointed

accessory flagellum. Second antenna longer than the

body.

First gnathopod subchelate. Fifth joint longer

than sixth. There are long setae on the second joint.

In the second gnathopod, fifth joint is narrower than

that of the gnathopod one. Sixth joint apically

produced to form chela with dactylus. Long setae

on 2nd and 3rd joints. The first two peraeopods are

alike (Fig. 12). Fourth joint long, sixth joint club-

shaped and bears stout spines. Seventh joint cannot

be distinguished from the spines of the sixth joint.

52

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

The joints of the third peraeopod and plumose setae.

Fourth and fifth peraeopods have a flat joint.

Uropod 1 and 2 are alike. In the third uropod

(Fig. 1 4) the rami are flattened and bear long plumose

setae along the margins. The eleft telson has five

distal spines.

Length: Male 3.3 mm; Female 4.4 mm.

Distribution: Bay of Bengal.

Genus Platyischnopus Stebbing

Platyischnopus herdmanii Walker

(Plate 1, Figs. 15-17)

A number of males and a few females were

seen in plankton. Rostrum oblong. Head fairly long,

longer than the first four segments put together. First

antenna with a two jointed accessory flagellum.

Antenna extends beyond the body. Second antenna

shorter than the first.

First gnathopod has adistally expanded second

joint (Fig. 15). Third and fourth joints subequal in

length. Sixth joint forms a chela with the seventh.

Second gnathopod similar to the first. The structure

of the peraeopods agree with the description given

by Walker ( 1 904). First two peraeopods similar with

a distal ly expanded fourth joint. Fifth peraeopod long

and narrow. Telson cleft, each lobe with a strong

stouter tooth and 2 distal setae.

In the third uropod the inner ramus is small

with a pointed apex. The outer ramus is 2-jointed

with a spine-like second joint.

Occurrence: Lawson’s Bay — throughout the

year.

Distribution: Sri Lanka, South Africa,

Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

Family Oedicerotidae

Genus Perioculodes O. Sars

Perioculodes megapleon (Giles)

(Plate 2, Figs. 1 8-26)

Body uniformly broad, with a short rostrum.

Pleon segments large. First antenna short, stout, with

the peduncle bearing setae. Flagellum 9-jointed and

fringed with fine hairs. The joints of the peduncle of

second antenna decrease in width. In male, the

flagellum is longer than the body.

The two gnathopods are similar, subchelate.

First gnathopod with second joint very long and

slender. Palm slightly oblique, with fine teeth.

Second gnathopod similar to first, but slightly longer.

Palm more oblique than the first. Seventh joint forms

a chela with the fifth.

First and second peraeopods similar. Fourth,

fifth and sixth segments properly setose. Sixth

segment with 3 spines, seventh indistinguishable

from setae. In the third peraeopod, second segment

is broader. Third is small, rest are slender; long hairy

setae on every segment. Dactylus spiniform, with a

fringe of hairy setae. Fourth peraeopod is slightly

longer than the third. Fifth leg (Fig. 23) is longer

than the preceding legs.

Uropods (Figs. 24-26) are similar in structure.

Peduncle longer than the rami, with terminal spines.

Rami fringed with setae on both margins. The length

decreases successively from first to third uropod.

Telson bilobed, with four setae.

Family Gammaridae

Genus Hornellici Walker

Hornellia incerta Walker

(Plate 2, Figs. 27-29)

Body has serrated pleon segments. Peduncle

of first antenna fringed with short hairs. A long 20-

jointed flagellum and 2-jointed accessory flagellum.

Flagellum longer in males than in females. In the

first maxilla, the second joint of the palp has small

spines alternating with larger spines unlike that

observed by Walker (1905).

Both gnathopods similar with triangular fifth

joint. Palm border possesses spines (Fig. 27). Except

the first two, all other peraeopods are long, with all

segments spiny. Firt uropod (Fig. 28) is the longest

and reaches slightly beyond the third uropod. Outer

ramus of the first and second uropods shorter than

the inner. Rami of third uropod (Fig. 29) unequal,

inner border with a few plumose setae.

Length: 4.0 mm.

Occurrence: Lawson’s Bay.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93

Somanadha Rao etal.: Amphipods

Plate 1

Figs. 1-10. Ampelisca zamboangae Stebbing: 1. Mandible; 2. Maxilla; 3. Maxilliped; 4. Gnathopod 1;

5. Peraeopod 1; 6. Peraeopod 4; 7. Peraeopod 5; 8. Uropod 1; 9. Uropod 2; 10. Telson.

Figs. 1 1-14. Urotlioe ruber Giles: 11. Antenna; 12. Peraeopod 2; 13. Peraeopod 3; 14. Uropod 3 with telson.

Figs. 15-17. Platyischnopus herclmanii Walker: 15. Gnathopod 1; 16. Peraeopod 5; 17. Telson.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93 Plate 2

Somanadha Rao et al.\ Amphipods

Figs. 18-26. Pcrioculodcs megapleon (Giles): 18. Antennule; 19. Antenna; 20. Gnathopod 1; 21. Gnathopod 2;

22. Peraeopod 1; 23. Peraeopod 5; 24. Uropod 1; 25. Uropod 2; 26. Uropod 3.

Figs. 27-29. Horndlia incerta Walker: 27. Gnathopod 2; 28. Uropod 1; 29. Uropod 3.

Figs. 30-31. Megaluropus agilis Hoek: 30. Uropod 3; 31. Telson.

Figs. 32-35. Pseuclotiron brevidcictylus Pillai: 32. Gnathopod 2; 33. Peraeopod 2; 34. Peraeopod 5; 35. Uropod 3.

Fig. 35a. Parcdasinoplms suluensis Stebbing: Gnathopod 2.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93

Somanadha Rao et ai: Ainphipods

Plate 3

Figs. 36-39. Pcirelasnwpiis suluensis Stebbing: 36. Uropod 1; 37. Uropod 2; 38. Uropod 3;

39. Telson. Figs. 40-48. FJasmopus pectenicms (Bate): 40. Maxilla 1; 41. Maxilla 2; 42. Maxilliped;

43. Gnathopod 1; 44. Gnathopod 2; 45. Peraeopod 1: 46. Peraeopod 5; 47. Uropod 1; 48. Uropod 3.

STUDIES ON AMPHIPODS OF VISAKHAPATNAM COAST

53

Distribution: Sri Lanka, Arabian Sea and Bay

of Bengal.

Genus Megcilumpus Hoek

Megaluropus agilis Hoek

(Plate 2, Figs. 30-31)

First antenna as long as the peduncle of second

antenna with a 10-jointed flagellum and 2-jointed

accessory flagellum. Second antenna 13-jointed.

Gnathopods as described by Stebbing (1906).

The second segment in the third, fourth and

fifth peraeopods is expanded. Fifth peraeopod longer

than the body. Seventh segment spine-like with

plumose setae. All appendages setose, rami of the

third uropod (Fig. 30) highly expanded, bearing

scanty plumose setae. Telson cleft with rounded

distal lobes (Fig. 31 ).

Length: 4.2 mm.

Occurrence: Lawson’s Bay.

Distribution: Krusadai Island, Tamil Nadu,

Port Blair, Andamans, Sri Lanka, South Africa,

Mediterranean, North Sea.

Family Tironidae

Genus Pseudotiron Chevreux

Pseudotiron brevidactylus Pillai

(Plate 2, Figs. 32-35)

This species was first erected by Pillai (1957).

It has a compressed body with a square head. First

antenna with short accessory flagellum. Mandible

without a palp; accessory plate with seven barbed

spines. Outer lobe of first antenna has 9 spines. Inner

lobe small and bears 5 teeth and 1 seta. Inner lobe of

the second maxilla broader and slightly setose. The

inner lobe of the maxilliped truncate with seven stiff

setae.

Two gnathopods alike, with hook-like dactylus

(Fig. 32). Third, fourth and fifth peraeopods with

long spines (Figs. 33 and 34).

First and second uropods with spines. Tips of

all rami with three spines each. The rami of third

uropod slightly flattened, with long apical and short

outer spines and plumose setae on the inner border

(Fig. 35). Telson long, lanceolate, each lobe with a

long apical spine.

Length: 3.5 mm.

Occurrence: Lawson’s Bay.

Genus Parelasmopus Stebbing

Parelasmopus suluensis Stebbing

(Plate 2, Fig. 35a, Plate 3, Figs. 36-39)

Agrees in all essential details with the

description given by Stebbing (1906). Pleon

segments less massive. Fourth pleon segment bears

large teeth, the lower border of third pleon segment

has a single tooth. Male has a 3-jointcd accessory

flagellum. Gnathopods weak, fifth segment of second

gnathopod longer than broad. The palmar border of

sixth segment serrated (Fig. 35a). The apical spines

of the first and second uropods (Figs. 36-38) are

longer than in Stebbing’s illustration. The apical lobe

of the telson (Fig. 39) bears 3 spines.

Occurrence: Lawson’s Bay.

Distribution: Maidive and Laccadive Islands

and Bay of Bengal, Sri Lanka, Red Sea, East Africa.

Australia.

Genus Elasmopus Costa

Elasmopus pectenicrus (Bate)

(Plate 3, Figs. 40-48)

Antenna 1 is half the length of the ani-

mal. Peduncle and flagellum of equal length.

Peduncular joint subequal. Accessory flagellum

2-joined. Antenna 2 as long as the peduncle of

antenna 1 .

Inner lip with very small inner lobes. Fine setae

present on the anterior margin of both the lobes. First

maxilla (Fig. 40) with an outer and inner lobes and a

palp. Maxilla 2 (Fig. 41) with inner plate heavily

setosed. Outer lobe bears a number of apical setae

(8-10). Maxilliped (Fig. 42) with a narrower inner

and a broader outer lobe bearing long and slender

setae around them. Second joint of palm reaches well

beyond the outer lobe. The last joint of palp bears

apical ly long and hairy setae.

Gnathopod 1 (Fig. 43) smaller, second joint

long, fifth and sixth segments subequal in length,

54

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

sixth with parallel sides. Finger slightly curved to

fit the palm. Palm slightly oblique with a row of weak

spines. The whole appendage is heavily setose on

the margins.

Gnathopod 2 (Fig. 44) bigger than the first,

second joint elongated, fifth joint slightly cup-

shaped. Bands of setae present on the sixth article.

Palm oblique, sixth segment with a row of curved

Refer

Andres, H.G. (1985): The Gammaridea (Crustacea: Ainphipoda)

from the German Antarctic Expedition 1975/76 and 1977/

78: Acanthonotozomatidae, Parampthithoidae and

Stegocephalidae. Mitt. Hatnb. Zool. Mus. Inst. 8(20): 119-

154.

Barnard, J.L. (1969): The families and genera of marine

gammaridean Amphipoda. Pmc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 271: 1-535.

Bellan-Santini, D. & J.C. Dauvin (1981): Description of anew

species of Ampelisca of the French coast (Amphipoda).

Crustaceana 40(3): 242-252.

Dickinson, J.M. (1982): The systematies and distributional

ecology of the family Ampeliscidae (Amphipoda:

Gammaridea) in the north eastern Pacific region. Natl. Mus.

Nat. Sci. ( Ottawa ) Publ. Biol. Oceanogr. 0(10): 1-40.

Goeke, G.D. (1985): Amphipoda of the family Ampeliscidae

(Gainmariidea). V. H. hawaiiensis new species. Pac. Sci.

39(3): 261-265.

Goeke, G.D. (1987): Amphipods of the family Ampeliscidae

(Gainmariidea) VI. Ampelisca macroclonta new species from

the Falkland Islands (South Atlantic). Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington, ! 0(1): 4-1.

Goeke, G.D. & R.W. Jr. Heard (1983): Amphipods of the family

Ampeliscidae (Gammaridea). 1 . Ampelisca bicarinata, new

species of amphipod from the Gulf of Mexico. Gulf. Res. Rep.

7(3): 217-225.

teeth.

Peraeopods spinose, one and two alike (Fig.

45). Peraeopods 3, 4 and 5 (Fig. 46) characterised

by the inferior margin of the second joint developed

into a comb-like fringe. These peraeopods are armed

heavily with spines.

Length: Female 3.8 mm; Male 4.2 mm.

Occurrence: Lawson's Bay.

NCES

Goeke, G.D. & R.W. Jr. Heard ( 1 984): Amphipods of the family

Ampeliscidae (Gammaridea). 3. Ampelisca parapacifica, a

new species of amphipod from the western North Atlantic

with the designation of a substitute name for Ampelisca

eschrichtii pacifica. Gulf Res. Rep. 7(4): 331-339.

Locke A. & Y.S. Corey (1989): Amphipods and isopods and

surface currents. A case for passive dispersal in the Bay of

Fundey, Canada. J. Plankton. Res. 11(3): 419-430.

Pillai, N.K. (1957): Pelagic Crustacea of Travancore. Bull. Res.

Inst. Univ. Kerala Series C. 3: 27-29.

Sivaprakasam, T.E. (1966): Amphipoda from the east coast of

India. Part I. Gammariidea. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. India. 8(1):

82-122.

Stebbing, T.R.R. (1906): Amphipoda. I. Gammariidea. Das

Tierreicli. 21: 1-806.

Thomas, J.D. & J.L. Barnard (1986): New genera and species of

the Megaluropus group (Amphipoda: Megaluropedae) from

American seas. Bull. Mar. Sci. 38(3): 442-476.

Walker, A.O. (1904): Report on the Amphipoda collected by

Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rep. to Govt, of Ceylon

on pearl oyster fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar. 2(17): 229-

300.

Walker, A.O. (1905): Marine crustaceans. XVI. Amphipoda.

Fauna and Geography, Maidive Laccadive Arclis. 2(1): 923-

932.

YELLOWTHROATED BULBULS AT HORSLEY HILLS1

S. SUBRAMANYA2 AND J.N. PRASAD3

{With a text-figure )

Key Words: yellow throated bulbul, Pycnonotus xantholaemus, abundance,

food, feeding habits, Horsley Hills

Yellowthroated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus was studied at Horsley Hills to gather details on its

abundance, habits, food and feeding behaviour. Compared to other congeneric species, P. xantholaemus was

the most abundant on the hills. The species occasionally moved in groups of six birds though pairs were more

common. The diet of the species consisted of berries and insects. The birds adopted different methods to

capture insects, though aerial feeding was most common. Aggressive interactions with conspecifics and other

species were noticed. Though P. xantholaemus resembles P. luteolus closely with respect to certain habits and

call notes, distinct differences were noticed.

Introduction

The Yellowthroated Bulbul Pycnonotus

xantholaemus (Jerdon) is an endemic species,

restricted to South India (Ali and Ripley 1987,

Gaston 1984, Ripley 1955) and very little is known

on its habits (Ali and Ripley 1987). Much of what is

known on the habits of this species comes from the

observations made at Horsley Hills by P. Roscoe

Allen (1908). But for the observations of Ali (1942)

which threw light on the habitat type and food habits,

not much has been added to the knowledge of this

species (Ali 1 969, Ali and Ripley 1 987, Baker 1 922,

1932) since Allen (1908). In following up the

observations of Roscoe Allen, we visited Horsley

Hills between 17-20 October 1991 to add to

the present knowledge of this species as part of our

study on P. xantholaemus (Subramanya et ai 1990,

1991).

Though ornithologically, very little is known

about Horsley Hills (e.g. Allen 1908), Whistler and

Kinnear (1932) indicate that this may have possibly

been the location where Jerdon (1863) obtained the

type of specimen of P. xantholaemus. The two

specimens from Horsley Konda (Horsley Hills)

presently in the collection of Bombay Natural

'Accepted June 1995.

2HPHT Scheme, T Block, University of Agricultural Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Bangalore 560 065, India.

^Merlin Nature Club, No. 13, 8th cross, 30th main,

J.P. Nagar 1 Phase, Bangalore 560 078, India.

History Society (Abdulali 1982, BNHS reg. nos.:

2062 and 2063) are those collected by Roscoe Allen

on 29 April and 22 May 1908, respectively.

Study area

Horsley Hills ( 1 3° 4 V N, 78° 28' E), in Chittoor

District of Andhra Pradesh, so named after Mr.

M.W.H. Horsley, a member of Indian Civil Service

of the erstwhile British Raj, is part of a range of hills

in the Eastern Ghats. The presence of crude

fortification vestiges, indicate that at one time, it had

great local importance. Though the habitat is

predominantly of dry deciduous type, a small patch

of moist deciduous forest still exists. With the up-

gradation of its status as a hill resort, the

developmental activities and a large scale Eucalyptus

plantation in 1963 seems to have wrought changes

to the habitat. In the areas around the habitations

and along the road Eucalyptus has been planted

in small patches. Whatever wild vegetation

exists today is much disturbed. Though a meshed

fence has been erected on either side of the

road, villagers from neighbouring areas stray into

the protected area for wood cutting and their cattle

can also be seen frequenting the outer hills for

grazing. However, good natural tree vegetation exists

in places where the approach has been made

inaccessible due to the dense growth of Lantana.

In certain places, slopes are thickly covered with

grass.

56

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

Methodology

Horsley Hills was visited between 17-20

October 199 1 and the hill area was traversed on foot

and detailed notes were maintained on the relative

abundance of all congeneric bulbuls seen, food and

foraging habits, group size and other behavioural

observations on P. xantholaemus.

Results and Discussions

Relative Abundance of bulbuls: During the

observation period, four species of bulbuls, namely

P. cafer, Pjocosus, P. luteolus and P xantholaemus

were recorded. A total of 158 bulbuls were sighted.

In their relative abundance of different Pycnonotus

species, P. xantholaemus was the most abundant

species, while P cafer had the lowest relative

abundance (Fig. 1 ). Several authors have considered

(e.g. Allen 1908, Ali 1942, Ali and Ripley 1987,

Baker 1922) P xantholaemus to be an uncommon

species, but as it can be seen from the relative

abundances of the four congeneric species, its

Fig. 1. Relative abundances of different species of

bulbuls at Horsley hills. (17-20, October 1991; n=158).

preferred habitat P xantholaemus appears to be not

so uncommon. Contrary to observation of Allen

(1908), the species appears to be abundant not just

towards the end of May, but throughout the year.

Though P cafer and P. jocosus were seen

around human habitations, P. luteolus and P.

xantholaemus were found away from human

disturbed areas and in densely vegetated boulder

strewn regions of the hiils. The Mission bungalow

environs where Allen (1908) obtained his first of

the two specimens, is no longer a favourite haunt of

P. xantholaemus. Though Ficus trees in fruit were

found within the compound of the bungalow, where

we stayed during the study, P. xantholaemus were

not sighted anywhere close by.

Group Size: On the hills P. xantholaemus

occurred either singly or in groups of six birds.

However, pairs were more common. The larger

groups observed could be family parties, as in one

instance, one of the birds in a group of six were seen

feeding the other one, which could have been its own

offspring in a subadult stage. It is not known how

long the offsprings stay with their parents after

fledging.

Food and Feeding Habits: Both insects and

berries were observed being taken by P.

xantholaemus. Of these 34 instances observed, P.

xantholaemus took insects nearly 53% of the time

and the rest comprised of fruits.

Insects were either captured aerially by

hovering or by making a short sortie from a branch,

or by gleaning leaves or bark of the plants. While

capturing insects, the bird hopped from one branch

to the other. Before taking up the next position, it

scanned the section of the plant below and around it

in a manner typical of a Leaf Warbler — crouching

close to the branch on which it had perched

and bending its head down or by turning its

head sideways. On sighting an insect, the bird

hovered vertically for a short lime in front of a leaf

or cluster of leaves. On the other occasions, it readily

launched itself into a short sortie to take the

insect or picked up the insect from the leaf or bark

surface.

YELLO WTHROA TED B VLB ULS A T HORSLE Y HILLS

57

On one occasion, an insect was captured by

alighting on the ground and flying up a few inches

to secure it. In all the cases observed, the prey

captured were less than a centimetre in size, except

once when about a three centimetre long caterpillar

was gleaned from the bark. All successful insect

captures ended with rubbing of the beak following

feeding. Of the different methods adopted for

capturing insects, flycatching was the most common

method of insect capture by P. xantholaemus.

However, this could very well be a seasonally

induced behaviour owing to a preponderance of

flying insects during our visit.

Once a pair off! xantholaemus was observed

foraging along with two Terpsiphone paradisi, two

Nectarinia lotenia, Prinia hodgsonii and two P.

luteolus. These birds were active in the canopy of a

Ficus tree found amidst a dense growth of Lantana.

When one of the authors (SS) approached the group

to have a closer look, they moved away one after

another into the dense canopy of a nearby tree instead

of dispersing as expected, indicating that the pair

was part of an active hunting party.

Only three types of fruits were observed being

taken during our brief observation of which Solatium

indicum made up nearly 61% of the fruits. Ficus

benghalensis, Santalum album and Zizyphus were

taken at a frequency of 22.2%, 11.1% and 5.6%

respectively (n=18). Ali (1942) also obtained seeds

of Santalum from the stomach of P. xantholaemus

in Karnataka. Though Solatium berries with yellow,

orange and red colours were available on the plant,

the bulbuls were observed to select only the ripe red

berries.

Interaction with conspecifics and other

birds: During the study, P. xantholaemus were

observed either chasing their conspecifics or other

birds like P jocosus and Phylloscopus trochiloides.

Also, once a P. luteolus was also seen chasing a P

xantholaemus from a bush. Chasing of conspecifics

occurred only in larger groups.

Chasing of other birds by P xantholaemus

seems to indicate resource defence behaviour as

strong evidence of chasing P trochiloides. This

behaviour seems to indicate that P. xantholaemus

does not tolerate competing species whether for food

or for other resources. The single instance of P.

xantholaemus being chased by P. luteolus seem to

indicate that the bulbuls (Pycnonotus species) defend

locally established feeding territories. Instances of

chasing each other while feeding within a group of

P. xantholaemus probably indicate the presence of

intraspecific competition which may act as precursor,

a prelude to the breaking up of family groups in the

post-breeding season.

At one of the observation sites, a radius of 20

m area was shared by one P cafer, two P. jocosus,

one P. luteolus and six P xantholaemus. Though

other species moved about a great deal, the

movement of P. xantholaemus was much restricted

and for about 45 minutes, they moved among a few

selected trees and bushes within a radius of about 5

m. This area contained Solatium indicum, Santalum

album and Zizyphus sp. which were in fruit and a

three metre tall Vitex sp. in which a majority of the

insects were captured.

Other Observations: Compared ioP. jocosus

which was distinctly arboreal and occupied perches

from less than a metre in height to those about 30

m, all the movements of P. xantholaemus were

restricted to less than 10 m from the ground. Here

again, the activity was centred around spots with

dense bushes, trees with large canopy and boulders.

Allen (1908) indicates the species to be less shy and

more arboreal than P. luteolus. It was observed that

while in flight, the species often flies well clear of

the tree tops and invariably Hies into bushes or trees.

When not disturbed, the birds were observed to perch

openly on top of large boulders.

The call notes of this species can easily be

mistaken for those of P. luteolus but with little

experience, the chucklings of P. xantholaemus can

be told apart as being less harsh and mellower than

that of P. luteolus (see Subramanya et al. 1991).

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Mr. S.T. Baskaran of

Bangalore, Mr. Venkataramanappa of Madanapalle

and Mr. Kajapeer at Horsley Hills for their help and

58

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

arrangements made during our visit to Horsley Hills.

We are also thankful to Dr. Keshava Reddy, the

Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Andhra

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1982): Catalogue of Birds in the Collection of

Bombay Natural History Society, part 24./ Bombay nut.

Hist. Soc. 79 : 135-15 1.

Ali, S. (1942): The Birds of Mysore (with notes by Hugh

Whistler). Part II./ Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 43: 318-341.

Ali, S. (1969): The Birds of Kerala. 2nd edition. Oxford Univ.

Press, New Delhi, pp. 444.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, (2nd edition). Oxford Univ. Press,

Delhi, pp. 737.

Allen, P.R. (1908): Notes on the Yellowthroated Bulbul

( Pycnonotus xantholaemus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18: 905-907.

Baker, E.C.S. (1922): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, vol. 1.' Second edition. Taylor and

Francis, London, pp. 415.

Baker, E.C.S. (1932): The Nidification of the Birds of the Indian

Empire, vol. 1. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 470.

Pradesh Forest Department for giving the necessary

permission to take up the survey inside the Horsley

Konda Reserve Forest.

ENCES

Gaston, A.J. (1984): Is habitat destruction in India and Pakistan

beginning to affect the status of Endemic Passerine birds?

/ Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 636-641.

Jerdon, T.C. (1863): The Birds of India. Vol. 2, part 1 . Published

by the author, Calcutta, pp. 84-86.

Ripley, S.D. (1955): Considerations on the origin of Indian

avifauna. Bull. natn. Inst. Sci. India. 7: 269-275.

Subramanya, S., S. Karthikeyan, J.N. Prasad, T.S. Srinivasa &

B. Arun (1990): A trip to Thondebhavi in search of

Yellowthroated Bulbul. Newsletter for Birdwatchers

30(11 + 12 ): 7-8.

Subramanya, S., S. Karthikeyan & J.N. Prasad (1991):

Yellowthroated Bulbul at Nandi Hills. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 31(3+4): 7-8.

Whistler, H. & N.B. Kinnear (1932): Vemay Scientific survey

of Eastern Ghats, Orinthology. Part 2 . J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 35: 737-760.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF AGIOMMATUS CRAWFORD (HYMENOPTERA:

PTEROMALIDAE) — AN EGG PARASITE OF A CUTWORM ON MULBERRY IN

BANGALORE (KARNATAKA)1

P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NARENDRAN3

{With five text-figures)

A new species oi Pteromalidae, namely Agiommatus geethae parasitising eggs of Spodoptera litura

(Fab.) on mulberry is described from Bangalore (Karnataka). A key to the species of Agiommatus is also

provided.

Introduction

In this paper we have described a new species

cf Agiommatus Crawford (Hymenoptera:

Pteromalidae) parasitising the eggs of Spodoptera

litura (Fab.). Besides this new species from

Bangalore, only three species of the genus, namely

A. sumatraensis Crawford, 1911 from Sumatra,

A. attaci Ferriere, 1930 from Malay peninsula and

A. paria (Motschulsky) 1863 from Sri Lanka and

India are so far known from South Asia.

Agiommatus geethae sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-5)

female: Length 1.9 mm. Body dark metallic

blue, almost black on lateral part of head and thorax;

gaster including petiole brownish black, pale

ventrally; eyes dark cupreous; ocelli brown.

Antennae with scape, pedicel and anelli pale yellow,

remainder pale brownish yellow. Legs yellow with

fore and hind coxae almost brown; mid coxae pale

brownish yellow; tips of tarsi brown.

Head (Figs. 1, 3 & 4): Uniformly and finely

reticulate, with sparse white pubescence. In dorsal

view head width 1 .7 x length and in front view width

1.3 x height; temple length 0.4 x eye length; POL 3

x OOL; ocell-ocular area slightly depressed; clypeus

angularly projecting with anterior edge deeply

emarginate; malar space length 0.5 x eye length;

malar grooves distinct; eye length 1.4 x width in

profile. Antennae (Fig. 2) inserted below middle of

face; scape length 0.6 x eye length; third anellus

slightly longer than other two; club longer than two

'Accepted March 1995.

Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghat Field Research Station,

Calicut, Kerala 673 002, India.

^Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635,

India.

preceding segments combined.

Thorax (Fig. 1): Moderately reticulate, covered

with sparse white pubescence; pronotal edge rounded

without carina. Mesoscutum with notauli incomplete,

fading towards the posterior end, width 2 x length,

lateral lobe with a distinct fovea in lateral corner at

tegula and another at outer corner of axilla. Scutellum-

with reticulation finer on frenal area, almost as long as

wide. Propodeum width 2.3 x median length; median

carina and costula distinct; nuchal area almost shiny;

plicae distinct; spiracles elongatedly oval; callus with

few scattered hairs. Prepectus very small, almost

smooth. Mesopleuron slightly elevated making the

lateral panel of pronotum little low, with the anterior

face separated by a fine epicneminal carina.

Mesepisternum moderately reticulate. Upper

mesepimeron smooth and shiny, lower part separated

by a deep pit. Metapleuron very finely reticulate. Fore

wing (Fig. 5) length 2 x width, basal part almost bare

with few setae on basal vein; mv slightly thickened

uniformly. Relative lengths of smv, mv, pmv, and stv

as 14, 10, 6.5 and 4. All coxae smooth. Relative lengths

of hind coxa, femur, tibia and tarsus as 5.5, 10.5, 12.5,

and 10.

Gaster (Fig. 1): Elongatedly ovate; petiole

length 2 x width, little shorter than hindcoxa; gaster

length 2.8 x width in dorsal view; T1 angulate in the

middle; T2 deeply emarginate in the middle at

posterior end; T3 largest; ovipositor sheaths not

protruding out.

male: Not known.

Host: Eggs of Spodoptera litura (Fab.)on

mulberry.

Holotype: female: india; Karnataka:

Bangalore, 30.ix. 1994, Coll. Geetha bai, ex. cutworm

eggs on mulberry.

Paratypes: 10 Females, data same as that of

holotype. The type specimens are kept in the

collections of Zoological Survey of India, Western

60

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

.25 mm

.5 mm

Figs. 1-5. Agiommcitus geethae sp. nov. Female: 1. Body in profile; 2. Antenna; 3. Head in dorsal view;

4. Head in front view; 5. Forewing.

Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut but eventually Etymology: The species is named after Dr.

will be deposited in the National Zoological (Mrs) GeethaBai, Scientific Officer, Karnataka State

Collections of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Sericulture Development Institute, Bangalore who

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

61

was kind enough to send the specimens for our

studies.

Remarks: The species closely resembles A.

pciria (Motschulsky) but differs from it as follows:

( 1 ) gaster without yellow transverse stripes between

T1 & T2 and T3 & T4, ventral side not yellow; legs

with forecoxae almost entirely and basal two third

of hind coxae brown [in paria, gaster with yellow

transverse stripes between T1 & T2 and T3 & T4,

ventral side almost entirely yellow; base of fore and

hind coxae greenish]; (2) antennae with pedicel

distinctly longer than wide (2 x), club 1.4 x greater

than two preceding segments combined [in paria,

antennae with club as long as two preceding

segments combined, pedicel a little longer than

wide]; (3) mesoscutum only 2 x as wide as long with

parapsidal furrows indicated clearly up to an area

just above posterior margin [in paria, mesoscutum

more than twice as wide as long with parapsidal

furrows only anteriorly weakly inpressed]; (4) length

varies between 1.8- 1.9 mm [in paria, length between

2. 3-2. 5 mm].

Key to the species of Agiommatus Crawford

MODIFIED FROM FERRIERE (1931) AND MANI ( 1989)

1 . Anterior coxae with a distinct spine in front; legs including

coxae entirely whitish yellow; size 2.25 mm. Host: eggs of

Erionota thrax (L.) Sumatra sumatraensis Crawford

— Anterior coxae without spine in front; legs with coxae not

entirely whitish yellow; size 1 .8-3.5 mm 2

2. Antenna (fig. 2) with club 1 .4 x as long as two preceding

segments combined; gaster without yellow transverse

Crawford, J.C. (1911): Descriptions of new Hymenoptera.

No. 3 Proc. U.S. nut. Mus. 41: 267-282.

Ferriere, C. (1930): Asiatic Chalcidoidea. Bull. Ent. Res. 21: 353-

360.

Ferriere, C. (1931): New Chalcidoid egg-parasites from South

Asia. Bull. Ent. Res. 279-295.

stripes; parapsidal furrows indicated clearly up to an area

just above posterior margin of mesoscutum; forecoxae

almost entirely and two-third portion of hindcoxae brown.

Size 1.8- 1.9 mm; Host; eggs of Spocloptera litura (Fab.).

India: Karnataka geethae sp. nov.

— Antennae with club as long as two preceding segments

combined; gaster with two yellow transverse stripes;

mesoscutum with parapsidal furrows only anteriorly

impressed or reaching up to the middle; base of anterior

and posterior coxae greenish. Size 2. 3-3. 5 mm 3

3. Antennae with FI twice as long as wide, the succeeding

segments gradually shorter but longer than

wide; mesoscutum with parapsidal furrows weak and

reaching up to the middle; legs whitish, anterior and

posterior coxae completely green. Size 3-3.5 mm. Host:

eggs of Attacus atlas L. Malay peninsula (Kuala Lumpur,

Java) at tad Ferriere

— Antennae with FI a little longer than wide, others shorter,

4th and 5th quadrate; mesoscutum with parapsidal furrows

only anteriorly weakly impressed; legs more yellowish, only

the base of anterior and posterior coxae green. Size 2. 3-2. 5

mm. Host: eggs of Achewntia styx Westwood. Sri Lanka,

India paria (Motschulsky)

Acknowledgements

One of us (PMS) is grateful to the Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and the Officer-

in-charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats

Field Research Station, Calicut for providing

facilities and encouragement. We are also thankful

to Dr. (Mrs) Geetha Bai, Scientific Officer, Karnataka

State Sericulture Development Institute, Bangalore

for providing the specimens for our studies and the

authorities of the University of Calicut, Kerala for

the facilities provided.

NCES

Mani, M.S. ( 1 989): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries.

Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Part I & U.Zool. Sue India. 1-

1067.

Motschulsky, V.de. (1863): Essai d’un catalogue des In-

sectes de File Ceylan. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou 36, 2: 1-

153.

62

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

CROSSOCHEILUS PERIYARENSIS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM THANIKKUDY

(THEKKADY), KERALA, INDIA1

A.G.K. Menon2and P.C. Jacob3

( With a plate)

Crossocheilus periyarensis is described as a new species of Cyprinid fish from the Periyar River of the

High Ranges of the Western Ghats of Kerala State, South India, from four specimens. It is characterised as

follows: 8 branched rays in the dorsal fin, 34-36 scales on lateral line, 4.5 series of scales from origin of dorsal

to lateral line and 3.5 between lateral line and origin of pelvic fin, 15-17 gill rakers on the first arch, a pair of

rostral and maxillary barbels and prominent horny tubercles on the snout and cheek in the males, upper half of

body brownish black, lower yellowish, dorsal and caudal fins yellowish grey, the other fins clear. No lateral

stripe or black spot on caudal base as in C. latius latiu

Introduction

Three genera of the subfamily Cyprininae

occur in South and South-eastern Asia,

Crossocheilus Kuhl and Van Hasselt in Van Hasselt,

1823, Epalzeorhynchos Bleeker, 1 855, and

Paracrossocheilus Popta, 1904, characterised by

having the upper lip coalescent with the skin of

the snout (not separated from the snout as in

most other cyprinids) and crenulated. These three

genera are, therefore, grouped into the Crossocheilus

group (Banarescu 1986). Of these genera,

Epalzeorhynchos differs from Crossocheilus in

having a pair of movable, stiff lobes on the sides of

the snout (Weber and de Beaufort 1916, Smith 1 945)

and a narrow frenulum connecting both lips. In

Crossocheilus, the narrow frenulum connects the

upper lip with the lower jaw, not the lower lip.

Paracrossocheilus differs from both in having the

lips continuous at the corners instead of the lips being

connected by a narrow frenulum as in Crossocheilus.

In addition to the new species described here,

the following eight species and subspecies of

Crossocheilus are recognised: l . C. cohitis (Bleeker,

1 860); 2. C. gnathopogon W. and de Beaufort, 1916;

3. C. horai Banarescu, 1986; 4. C. langei (Bleeker,

'Accepted August 1995.

Zoological Survey of India, Madras-600 028.

'Dept, of Zoology, St. Thomas College, Kozencherry,

Kerala 689 641 .

s.

1 860); 5. C. latius latius Hamilton, 1 822; 6. C. latius

diplocheilus (Heckel, 1853); 7. C. oblongus

(Valenciennes, 1842) and 8. C. reticulatus (Fowler,

1934).

In the course of our studies of the fishes of

Periyar River in Kerala State, South India, four adult

male specimens of Crossocheilus were obtained

which are distinct from all the so far known species

of the genus. It is described here as a new species.

Material and Methods

The material examined in this study consists

of four specimens measuring 98.0 to 131.0 mm SL

collected by cast net in the fast flowing Periyar at

Thanikkudy, about seven km above the Thekkady

Lake. The description is based on measurements with

dial calipers with an accuracy of 0.02 mm. Data are

presented as percentages of SL and HL, with the

range followed by the mean in parentheses.

Crossocheilus periyarensis sp. nov.

Diagnosis: A species of Crossocheilus having

8 branched rays in the dorsal fin, 34-36 scales in

lateral line, 15-17 gill-rakers on the first arch, both

pair (rostral and maxillary) of barbels and horny

tubercles on the snout and cheek in the males.

Holotype: SRS/ZSI (Southern Regional

Station of Zoological Survey of India) No. F. 3508,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93

Mcnon & Jacob: Crossocheilus periarensis sp. nov.

Plate 1

Figs. 1-3. Crossocheilus periarensis sp. nov.

1. Lateral view (98.0 mm SL); 2. Ventral view of mouth, enlarged; 3. Lateral view of head, enlarged.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

63

131.0 mm SL, Periyar river, Thanikkudy

(Thekkady), Kerala State, South India, collected by

PC. Jacob, October, 1990.

Paratypes: 3 specimens, SRS/ZSI No. F.

3509, 98.0 to 1 15.0 mm SL, same data as holotype.

Description: Based on 4 specimens (holotype

and 3 paratypes) D.3/8, A. 3/5, P. 1/12, V. 1/7, L. 1.

34-36, Ltr. 5/1/5, Phar. Teeth 5.4.2/2.4.5.

Body moderately elongate, somewhat

compressed, dorsal and ventral profiles convex.

Depth of body 24.5-27.5 (M=25.6)% SL, length of

head 19.1-20.2 (M=19.6). Snout obtusely rounded

with prominent nuptial tubercles developed in males,

densely covering on snout and cheek, its length 8.8-

10.4 (M=9.8)% SL, 45.0-54.5 (M=50.5)% HL. Eye

shorter than snout, its diameter 20.3-27.5

(M=24.8)% HL and 45.8-68.7 (M=56.4)%

interorbital width. Paired rostral and maxillary

barbels, the rostral ones longer but much shorter than

eye, its length 11.1-15.0 (M=12.6)% HL. Mouth

wide, covered by the papillated upper lip, lower lip

fleshy, without post-labial groove and not connected

with the upper Sip at corners.

Caudal peduncle length 1 8.6-20.4 (M= 1 9.3)%

SL; its least height 59. 1 -68.7 (M=63.3)% HL, 50.0-

55.0 (M=53.0)% of its own length.

Squamation: Tube-bearing scales on lateral

line 34 to 36, scales in transverse series from midline

of back to abdomen 5/1/5 with 4.5 series from origin

of dorsal to lateral line and 3.5 between lateral line

and origin of ventral fin, predorsal scales 12,

circumpeduncular scales 13-14.

Fins: Dorsal origin much nearer to tip of snout

than to base of caudal, over 8th scale of lateral line:

dorsal margin of fin concave, its height more than

length of head, 23.5-27.5 (M=25.8)% SL; anal origin

opposite 20th scale of lateral line, its longest

branched ray 22.2-3 1 .5 (M=27.7)% HL. Pectoral and

pelvic fins subequal, slightly smaller than head,

length of pectoral 16.4-20.9 (M=18.8)% SL. Pelvic

origin under 11th scale of lateral line, length of

ventrals 17.6-21.4 (M=19.1)% SL. Caudal deeply

forked, longer than head, lobes pointed. Pre-dorsal

distance 41.4-44.1 (M=42.7)% SL, pre-pelvic

distance 43.3-47. 1 (M=45. 1 ), pectro-pelvic distance

24.4-30.3 (M=27.2), pelvic-anal distance 22.0-24.5

(M=23.5).

Body completely covered with moderately

large scales except on the chest which is covered by

smaller scales. The focal zone of scale is eccentric

and the upper part of posterior side of scales is thickly

pigmented.

Etymology: Named after the Periyar River in

which it occurs.

Coloration: Upper half of body brownish

black, lower yellowish, no lateral stripe or black spot

on caudal base as in Crossocheilus latius, fins clear,

the dorsal and caudal fins yellowish grey.

Distribution: Known only from the Periyar

drainage at Thanikkudy, Kerala, South India.

Remarks: Geographically, the closest relative

of Crossocheilus periarensis appears to be C. latius

latius Hamilton which is known from the Eastern

Himalayas (Ganges and Brahmaputra drainages),

Orissa (Mahanadi drainage) and the Bombay Ghat

portion of Western Ghats (Krishna drainage). Like

C.l. latius it has 8 branched rays in the dorsal fin and

both pairs (rostral and maxillary) of barbels but there

is no similarity in colour and nuptial tubercles on

the snout and cheek present in the males of C.

periyarensis.

Hora (1937, 1950) has shown the occurrence

in south-western India, especially in the rivers of

the Western Ghats, of a number of freshwater fishes

closely related to Eastern Himalayas, Indo-China and

the Indonesian Archipelago.

The origin of Crossocheilus seems to be in

South China, most probably Yunnan from where it

had spread westwards along the Himalayas as far as

Seistan and Afghanistan during the Pliocene and

southwestward to the Indian Peninsula and

southward to the Indonesian Archipelago during the

Pluvial periods of the Pleistocene (Menon 1973).

The Poona population of Crossocheilus with

a reduced number of scales along the lateral line (37-

39 as opposed to 39-41 in C. latius ) seems to be a

distinct species evolved in the Deccan Plateau of

the Indian Peninsula from the same Pleistocene

stock that gave rise to periyarensis in the Periyar

drainage.

64

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996 )

Acknowledgements for the generous help rendered to our ichthyological

survey of the Periyar river. We are also thankful to

We express our gratitude to Mr. J.K. Tiwari, Drs. Petru M. Banarescu and Tyson Roberts for going

Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Government of through the manuscript and suggestions given for

Kerala at Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary at Thekkady its improvement.

References

Banarescu, P.M. (1986): A review of the species of

Crossocheilus, Epalzeorhynchos and Paracrossocheilus

(Pisces: Cyprinidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nut. “G. Antijxi”, 28:

141-161.

Hora, S.L. (1937): Geographical distribution of Indian freshwater

fishes and its bearing on the probable land connections

between India and adjacent countries. Cun: Sci.. Bangalore

5(7): 351-356.

Hora, S.L. (1950): Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis — An aspect of

Indian Biogeography. Cun: Sci., Bangalore 19 (12): 364-

370.

Menon, A.G.K. (1973): Origin of fresh-water fish-fauna of India.

Cun: Sci.. 42(16): 553-556.

Smith, H.M. (1945): The fresh-water fishes of Siam or Thailand.

Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. J88, xi. 622 pp. U.S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, D C.

Weber, M. & L.F. de Beaufort (1916): The Fishes of the Indo-

Australian Archipelgo. 3-455 pp. E.J. Brill Ltd., Leiden.

ADDITION OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF CHALCOLEPIS CANDEZE (COLEOPTERA,

ELATERIDAE: HEMIRRHIPINAE) TO THE INDIAN FAUNA1

Punam2, L.K. Vats3 and M.S. Saini2

( With twelve text-figures )

To the previously recorded three Indian species of genus Chalcolepis Candeze, three are added. Described

and illustrated as new are C. nigriniaculatus, C. truncatus and C. emarginatus. A dichotomous key is provided

for all Indian species of this genus.

Introduction

Erected by Candeze (1857), the genus

Chalcolepis remained unreported from the Oriental

region, till 1992, when Vats & Kashyap described

three new species C. pannus, C. rotundoextremus

and C. kashyapi, from India. Candeze established

this genus with C. luczoti as its type species from

Neotropical region. In the present text three more

species are added from the Indian region. Holotypes

will be submitted to Indian Agricultural Research

Institute, Pusa National Collections, Division of

Entomology, New Delhi.

'Accepted July 1995.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147 002,

India.

department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshelra-

132119, India.

This genus is based on a combination of some

significant characters which include: Body covered

with scales of different colours, with or without

distinct patches; antennal segment 2 shorter than 3;

elytra truncate at posterior extremities; tarsi furnished

below with brushes of hairs; claw simple with setae

at base; aedeagus longer than parameres, and

parameres simple with or without subapical

processes.

Key to Indian species of genus Chalcolepis

Candeze

I . Body covered with scales of three colours intermingled

irregularly, with or without prominent patches 2

— Body covered with scales of two colours intermingled

irregularly, with prominent patches 4

No distinct patches of scales present 3

— Distinct patches of black coloured scales present

nigriniaculatus sp.nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

65

3. Mandibles dented; two depressions on either side of the

middle of pronotum and a transverse ridge interrupted in

middle on the posterior half present; posterior angles almost

parallel; prosternal spine canaliculate between coxae; elytra

rounded at extremities; last sternite of abdomen without

any fossae mtundoextremus Vats & Kashyap

— Mandibles simple; pronotum without any depression and

transverse ridge, but a pair of patches of black scales in the

middle; posterior angles divergent; prosternal spine

depressed between coxae; elytra truncated at extremities;

last sternite of abdomen with two deep fossae posteriorly

kashyupi Vats & Kashyap

4. Body covered with prominent patches of brownish and

blackish scales; metabasitarsus shorter than following 2

joints combined as 6:7 pannits Vats & Kashyap

— Body covered with prominent patches of whitish and

blackish scales; metabasitarsus equal to following 2 joints

combined 5

5. Pronotum with a small median longitudinal line; posterior

angles rounded; anterior margin of scutellum broadly

emarginatc; claw with a group of setae at base; head with

dense, hexagonal punetation emarginatus sp.nov.

— Pronotum without any longitudinal line; posterior angles

pointed; anterior margin of scutellum truncate; claw with a

seta at base; head with scattered, rounded puncta-

tion tnincatus sp. nov.

Chalcolepis nigrimaculatm sp.nov.

(Figs. 1, 3, 6, 8, 11)

Description.-Co/m/r: Body black. Antenna

and legs fuscous. Measurements: Body length = 29

mm, width == 7.5 mm; head length = 2.25 mm, width

= 2.75 mm; antenna = 6 mm, 2nd segment = 0.3

mm, 3rd segment = 0.5 mm, 4th segment = 0.6 mm,

last segment = 0.62 mm; thorax length = 8 mm, width

= 7.5 mm; elytra = 1 8 mm.

Structure: Body width more than 0.25 x its

length. Head flat with broad medial longitudinal

depression, broader than long as 11:9; antenna

reaching the middle of pronotum, 3rd segment longer

than 2nd as 5:3 but shorter than 4th as 5:6; mandibles

simple; labrum entire. Pronotum convex, longer than

broad as 6:5, with a transverse ridge on the middle

posteriorly and two shallow foveae one on each end

of the ridge, and with medial longitudinal carina

except anterior and posterior lA (Fig. 1); posterior

angles rounded, short, carinate, carinae small; lateral

sides of prothorax almost parallel; prosternopleural

suture concave, opened anteriorly; prosternal spine

rounded, straight with apex slightly declined,

margined, abruptly narrowing at base (Fig. 6).

Metasternum truncate between mesocoxae.

Scutellum flat, longer than broad as 3:2, anterior

margin with slight median notch, posterior margin

arcuate (Fig. 8). Elytra convex, 2.25 x prothorax

length, truncated at extremities, angles rounded,

striae distinct. Claw simple with a seta at base (Fig.

11). Metabasitarsus longer than following 2 joints

combined as 6:5.

Sculpture: Head with double, moderate, large,

rounded punetation intermingled with dense

fine rounded ones; pronotum with double, dense,

small, hexagonal punetation intermingled with

minute rounded ones; propleurae with double, dense,

large, hexagonal punetation; prosternum with

double, sparse, large, rounded punetation; elytral

striae with deep, distinct, rounded punetation;

interstriae with simple, dense, fine, rounded

punetation.

Pubescence: Body covered with dense,

scales of three colours; whitish yellow scales

intermingles with brownish scales without

distinct patches but blackish scales constitute

distinct patches; a pair of elongated patches, one

each on lateral side in the middle of pronotum

(Fig. 1 ) and a pair of inverted ‘C’ -shaped patches

one on each extreme lateral margin in the middle

of elytra (Fig. 3).

Male genitalia: Male not found.

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Assam, Jatinga, 750 m, 25.5.1994. Paratype: 1

female, with same data as holotype.

Distribution: India: Assam.

Diagnostic combinations: Body covered with

scales of three colours which are irregularly

intermingled with each other, and the presence of

distinct patches of black coloured scales on pronotum

and elytra, are the significant characters which

distinctly separate C. nigrimaculatus from other

Oriental species of this genus.

Etymology: Species name pertains to black

spots present on elytra and prothorax.

66

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Chalcolepis emarginatus sp.nov.

(Figs. 5, 10, 12)

Description: Colour : Body, black. Antenna

and legs fuscous.

Measurements: Body length = 33 mm; width

= 8.5 mm; head length = 3 mm; width = 3.25 mm;

antenna = 7.5 mm; 2nd segment = 0.2 mm; 3rd

segment = 0.5 mm; 4th segment = 0.6 mm; last

segment = 0.75 mm; thorax length = 9 mm; width =

8.5 mm; elytra = 20.5 mm.

Structure: Body width more than 0.25 x its

length. Head flat, with broad medial shallow

depression, broader than long as 13:12; antenna

extending beyond the middle of pronotum, 3rd

segment longer than 2nd as 5:2, but shorter than 4th

as 5:6; mandibles simple, labrum entire. Pronotum

convex, longer than broad as 18:17, with a broken

transverse ridge on the middle posteriorly and with

a small median longitudinal line; posterior angles

short, rounded, carinate, carinae small; lateral sides

of prothorax subcon vex; prosternopleural suture

almost straight, opened anteriorly; prosternal spine

rounded, straight with apex slightly declined,

margined, gradually narrowing at base. Metasternum

truncate between mesocoxae. Scutellum flat, longer

than broad as 4:3, anterior margin broadly

emarginate, posterior margin arcuate (Fig. 10). Elytra

convex, 2.27 x prothorax length, truncated at

extremities; striae distinct. Metabasitarsus equal to

following 2 joints combined. Claws simple with a

group of setae at base (Fig. 1 2).

Sculpture: Head with double, dense, small

hexagonal punctation intermingled with dense, fine,

rounded ones; pronotum with double, moderate,

rounded punctation; propleurae with double, dense,

large, rounded punctation; prosternum punctated like

propleurae; elytral striae with simple, small, shallow,

moderate punctation; interstriae with deep, distinct

punctation intermingled with cross-strialions.

Pubescence: Body covered with scales of two

colours with distinct patches of whitish and blackish

scales.

Male genitalia (Fig. 5): Phallobase with

anterior margin truncate. Parameres with lateral sides

Pigs. 1-2. Pronotum: 1. Chalcolepis nigrimaculatus,

2. C. truncatus, Fig. 3. Elytra of C. nigrimaculatus ;

Figs. 4-5. Male genitalia: 4. C. truncatus,

5. C. emarginatus; Figs. 6-7. Prosternal spine:

6. C. nigrimaculatus , 7. C. truncatus ;

Figs. 8-10. Scutellum: 8. C. nigrimaculatus,

9. C. truncatus, 10. C. emarginatus ;

Figs. 11-12. Tarsal claw: 11. C. nigrimaculatus,

12. C. emarginatus.

medially convex and abruptly nanowing posteriorly;

subapical processes long, inner lateral margins

convex, outer lateral margin convex with minute

anterior spine, Aedeagus slightly longer than

parameres, swollen in middle and gradually tapering

posteriorly into rounded tip; furcae long, ending just

before anterior margin of parameres.

Material examined: Holoytype Male, Assam,

Jatinga, 750 m, 15.9.1994. Paratype 1 male with

same data as for holotype.

Distribution: India: Assam.

Diagnostic combinations:.- Characters

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

67

separating C. emargincitus from its allied species C.

truncatus are discussed under the latter.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

emarginate anterior margin of scutellum.

Chalcolepis truncatus sp.nov.

(Figs. 2, 4, 7, 9)

Description: Colour : Body black. Antenna

and legs fuscous.

Measurements: Body length = 27.5 mm,

width = 7 mm; head length = 2.5 mm, width = 2.5

mm; antenna = 6.5 mm, 2nd segment = 0.2 mm, 3rd

segment = 0.4 mm, 4th segment = 0.7 mm, last

segment = 0.8 mm; thorax length = 7.5 mm, width

= 7 mm; elytra = 17.5 mm.

Structure: Body width more than 0.25 x its

length. Head flat, with broad medial longitudinal

concavity, inclined, as long as broad; antenna

extending beyond the middle of pronotum; 3rd

segment longer than 2nd as 4:2, but shorter than 4th

as 4:7; mandibles simple; labrum entire. Pronotum

convex with a broken transverse ridge on the middle

posteriorly (Fig. 2), longer than broad as 15:14;

posterior angles short, pointed, carinate, carinae very

short; lateral sides of prothorax subconvex;

prosternoplcural suture straight, opened anteriorly;

prosternal spine rounded, straight with apex slightly

declined, margined, gradually narrowing at base

(Fig. 7). Metasternum truncate between mesocoxae.

Scutellum flat, longer than broad as 5:4, anterior

margin truncate, posterior margin arcuate (Fig. 9).

Elytra convex, 2.33 x prothorax length, truncated at

extremities, angles pointed; striae deep, distinct.

Claw simple, with a seta at base. Metabasitarsus

equal to following 2 joints combined.

Sculpture: Head with double, scattered, small,

rounded punctation intermingled with dense, fine,

Refe

Candeze, E. (1857): Monographic des Elaterides I. Memoirs de

la Societe Royale des Sciences de Lie^e 12: 1-400.

rounded ones; pronotum with double, sparse in

middle but moderate on rest of surface, rounded

punctation intermingled with minute, rounded

punctation (Fig. 2); propleurae with simple,

scattered, large, rounded punctation; prosternum

punctated like propleurae; elytral striae with simple,

deep, distinct, squarish punctation; interstriae with

dense, fine punctation intermingled with cross-

striations.

Pubescence: Body covered with scales of two

colours with prominent patches of whitish and

blackish scales.

Male genitalia: Fig. 4. Phallobase with

anterior margin truncate. Parameres with lateral sides

almost parallel; subapical processes long, inner

lateral margins concave, outer lateral margin convex

with long anterior spine. Aedeagus slightly longer

than parameres, almost gradually narrowing into

pointed tip posteriorly except for broad medial

constriction; furcae long, ending just before anterior

margin of parameres.

Material examined: Holotype Male, Assam,

Jatinga, 750 m, 20.9. 1993.

Distribution: india: Assam.

Diagnostic combinations: A combination of

some significant characters distinguishes C.

truncatus from its allied species C. eniarginatus

which include: posterior angles pointed (rounded in

eniarginatus ); anterior margin of scutellum truncate

(emarginate in eniarginatus ); claw with a seta at base

(a group of setae in eniarginatus ); head with

scattered, rounded punctation (dense, hexagonal in

eniarginatus ) and median longitudinal line on

pronotum absent (present in eniarginatus). These

characters collectively impart it the status of species

novum.

Etymology: Species name pertains to truncate

anterior margin of scutellum.

ENCES

Vats, L.K. & S.L. Kashyap(1992): Four new species of subfamily

Hemirrhipinae (Coleoptera: Elateridae). ./. ent. Res. J6 (3):

193-200.

68

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

FIVE NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (AC ARINA:

MACROCHELIDAE) FROM EASTERN INDIA1

R.K. Roy2

( With twenty-nine text-figures )

Five new species of the genus Mucmcheles Latreille are described from eastern India, namely assamensis .

punctosternalis, sikkiniensis. bengalensis and cremilatus.

Introduction

This paper describes five new species from

eastern India. In an earlier paper (1988) I described

Macrocheles kamengensis based on material

collected from Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya.

Of the five species dealt with in the present paper,

two are from Assam ( M . assamensis and M.

punctosternalis), the third is from Sikkim (M.

sikkimensis), the fourth is from West Bengal (A/.

bengalensis ) and the remaining one occurs in Assam

and West Bengal ( M . crenulatus). Thus the number

of species from the region, new to science under the

genus, totals six to date.

The chaetolactic terminology used here is that

of Lindquist and Evans (1965) for the dorsal setae

and that of Evans (1963) for the leg setae.

Types have been deposited in the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. Measurements given in

the text arc in micrometres.

Macrocheles assamensis sp. nov.

female (Figs. 1-5): Dorsal shield (Fig. 1), 525

long, 300 wide, finely granular, with faint

reticulations confined anteriorly and provided with

28 pairs of simple setae. Verticals, (jl), short, their

insertions separated.

Sternal shield (Fig. 2) finely granulated, /. ang.

conspicuous; J.a.t. short, not reaching bases of

sternals I; l.o.p. short; sternal setae simple.

'Accepted May 1 995. This is the fifth paper in the series- “Studies

on Indian Macrocheles”.

^Department of Zoology, Dibrugarh Hanumanbox Surajmal

Kanoi College, Dibrugarh-786001, Assam, India.

Metasternal shields oblong, each with a pore at

anterior edge and a smooth seta posteriorly. Genital

shield broad, truncated posteriorly, genital setae

simple. Ventri-anal shield (Fig. 2) 165 long, 120

wide, finely granular, ornamented with faint

transverse lines between preanals I and III, preanals

simple, adanals and postanal also simple. Metapodal

shields represented only by weak sclerites laterad of

ventri-anal shield. Stigmata laterally between coxae

III-IV, peritremes extending anterodorsally beyond

insertions of zl .

Gnathosoma with six rows of deutosternal

denticles. Tectum (Fig. 3) tripartite, with central

element forked distally; lateral elements fused; tectal

base spinose. Movable digit of chelicera (Fig. 4) with

a stout bicuspid tooth and one small tooth apically;

fixed digit with a large backwardly directed tooth

and a small tooth at apex; dorsal cheliceral seta

simple; cheliceral brush less than half the length of

movable digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-405; II-3 15; III-285; IV-420; Tarsus I (90)

longer than tibia I (75). Tarsus II (90) as in Fig. 5;

tibia II (60). Genu IV with six simple setae.

male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype female, india:

Assam: Dibrugarh, Dibrugarh University Campus,

Rajabheta, 10. vii. 1976, ex Scarabaeus sp., R.K.

Roy coll.; Paratype : 1 female, data same as for

holotype.

Distribution: india: Assam.

Remarks: This new species shows

resemblance to M. neovernalis, a beetle-associa-

ted species, described from the western Trans-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

69

Figs. 1-5: Macrocheles cissamensis sp. nov. Female: Fig. 1. Dorsal shield; Fig. 2. Venter; Fig. 3. Tectum;

Fig. 4. Chelicera; Fig. 5. Tarsus II.

Figs. 6-9: Macrocheles piuictostenialis sp. nov. Female: Fig. 6. Dorsal shield; Fig. 7. Venter;

Fig. 8. Chelicera; Fig. 9. Tarsus II.

vaal by Ryke and Meyer (1958). But neovemalis

possesses the following differentiat-

ing characteristics: verticals, (j 1 ), plumose distally,

J5 slightly pectinate; sternal shield with dis-

tinct l.m.tr, larger in size (650 in length, 363 in

width).

Macrocheles punctosternalis sp. nov.

female (Figs. 6-9): Dorsal shield (Fig. 6), 606

long, 349 wide, punctate-reticulate and provided with

28 pairs of setae. Setae S4, S5, and Z5 plumose

distally, r2 slightly pectinate distally, remainder

simple and sharply pointed. Extra marginal setae

simple.

Sternal shield (Fig. 7) granular with punctate

ornamentation. Except l.m.t., /. arc. and J.o.a. other

liniae not discernible, sternal setae simple.

Metasternal shields small and each with a simple seta.

Genital sheild granular and with punctate

ornamentation. Ventrianal shield (Fig. 7), 197 long,

182 wide, granular and with transverse punctate

lines. Metapodal shields elongate and poorly

sclerotized. Peritremes looped laterally adjacent to

stigmata and continuing anterodorsally beyond setae

zl.

Gnathosoma with five rows of deutosternal

denticles. Tectum not examined. Chelicera (Fig. 8)

with both fixed and movable digit bidentate;

cheliceral brush more than half the length of movable

digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-450; 11-345; III-270; IV-420. Tarsus I

(90) longer than tibia I (70). Tarsus II (90) as in Fig.

9; tibia II (60). Genu IV with six simple setae.

male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype : female, india:

Assam: Nowgong District, Lumding, 28. xii. 1973,

ex nest material of Passer doniesticus (L.), R.K. Roy

coll.

Distribution: india: Assam.

Remarks: This species resembles Macro-

70

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

cheles bacchiisi Evans and Hyatt only in the punctate

ornamentation of the sternal shield, but differs in

possessing distinct J.o.a. Other differences are in the

shape of genital, ventrianal shield, dorsal chaetotaxy

and cheliceral dentition.

Macrocheles sikkimensis sp. nov.

female (Figs. 10-14): Dorsal shield (Fig. 10),

480 long, 255 wide, granular, weakly reticulate and

bearing 28 pairs of simple setae. Insertions of

verticals, (jl), contiguous.

Sternal shield (Fig. 11) elongate and with

punctate ornamentation, l.m.t. undulating, 1. arc. and

/. ang. well-defined; sternal setae moderately

long and simple. Metasternal setae simple, sub-

equal to sternals III, each inserted on a small shield.

Genital shield ornamented with punctate lines,

genital setae simple. Ventrianal shield (Fig. 11) 150

long, 135 wide, rounded, somewhat truncated

anteriorly and with three pairs of simple preanal

setae, adanals also simple, postanal lost. Melapodals

represented by a pair of small weak sclerites.

Stigmata and peritremes as usual for genus; each

peritreme continues anterodorsally nearly to insertion

of zl .

Ventral groove of gnathosoma with five rows

of deutosternal denticles, first groove without teeth.

Tectum (Fig. 12) tripartite, central element distally

divided; lateral elements fused, tectal base spinose.

Movable digit of chelicera (fig. 13) with a large

median bicuspid tooth and a smaller subterminal

tooth; fixed digit with a subterminal tooth and with

a broad median cusp; cheliceral brush short, less than

half the length of digit.

Approximate lengths of the legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-375; 11-300; III-240; IV-315. Tarsus I (75)

longer than tibia I (60). Tarsus II (Fig. 14) 75, tibia

II 60. Genu IV with six simple setae.

male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype : female, India:

Sikkim: Gangtok, 10. xi. 1977, ex Scarabaeus

erichsoni (Har.), R.K. Roy coll.

Distribution: India: Assam and Sikkim.

Remarks: Bhattacharyya (1971) misidentified

this species as Macrocheles merdarius (Berlese,

Figs. 10-14: Macrocheles sikkimensis sp. nov. Female: Fig. 10. Dorsal shield; Fig. 11. Venter;

Fig. 12. Tectum; Fig. 13. Chelicera; Fig. 14. Tarsus II.

Figs. 15-19: Macrocheles bengalensis sp. nov. Female: Fig. 15. Dorsal shield; Fig. 16. Venter;

Fig. 17. Tectum; Fig. 18. Chelicera; Fig. 19. Tarsus II.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

71

Figs. 20-24: Macrocheles crenulatus sp. nov. Female: Fig. 20. Dorsal shield; Fig. 21. Tectum; Fig. 22. Chelicera;

Fig. 23. Tarsus II; Fig. 24. Tarsus IV.

Figs. 25-29: Macrocheles crenulatus sp. nov. Male: Fig. 25. Dorsal shield; Fig. 26. Tectum; Fig. 27. Chelicera;

Fig. 28. Femur II; Fig. 29. Tarsus IV.

1889) and redescribed it. I collected it

from soil under grass, at Moera Tetli, Tezpur, Assam.

The present material has been collected from

Sikkim.

Macrocheles bengalensis sp. nov.

female (Figs. 15-19): Dorsal shield (Fig. 15)

636 long, 303 wide, faintly reticulate and bearing

28 pairs of setae. Verticals, (jl), plumose distally,

remainder simple.

Sternal shield (Fig. 16) as broad as long,

ornamented with punctures; l.m.t. well-defined,

l.o. p. punctate and extending medially. Metasternal

shields triangular and each with a simple seta. Genital

shield truncate posteriorly and ornamented with

punctate lines. Ventrianal shield (Fig. 16) 182 long,

182 wide, as long as broad and ornamented with

seven punctate transverse lines, ventrianal setae

simple. Ventral integument striate and with simple

setae. Metapodal shields elongate and weakly

sclerotized. Peritrematal shield fused with dorsal

shield for most of its length, peritremes extending

anterodorsally to setae zl.

Gnathosoma with five rows of deutosternal

denticles; external posterior rostrals one third the

length of internal posterior rostrals. Tectum as in Fig.

17. Movable as well as fixed digit of chelicera (Fig.

18) bidentate, dorsal seta thickened; cheliceral brush

more than half the length of movable digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-424; 11-348; III-258; IV-455. Tarsus I

( 1 06) slightly longer than tibia I (75). Tarsus II (Fig.

19) 90; tibia II 60. Genu IV with six simple setae.

male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype : female, india:

West Bengal: 24 Parganas (South), Narendrapur, 24.

xii. 1979, ex poultry bed litter, B.N. Putatunda coll.

72

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Distribution: India: West Bengal.

Remarks: This species differs from all other

species by the distinctive features of the sternal

shield.

Macrocheles crenulatus sp. nov.

female (Figs. 20-24): Dorsal shield (Fig. 20)

ornamented with scutellae, 788-848 long, 455-500

wide, heavily sclerotized and bearing 28 pairs of

setae of varying length. Margin crenulate, attenuated

posteriorly. Verticals, (j 1), plumose, their insertions

separated widely, setae J5 simple, pointed and

remainder plumose.

Sternal shield as long as broad, strongly

ornamented; sternal setae plumose. Metasternal

shields ovoid and each with a plumose seta.

Ventrianal shield 1 8 1 -242 long, 1 8 1 -288 wide, oval

and reticulate; ventrianal setae plumose including

adanals and postanal. Metapodals elongate lateral

to preanals II.

Gnathosoma with six rows of deutosternal

denticles. Tectum as shown in Fig. 2 1 . Movable digit

of chelicera (Fig. 22) unidentate; fixed digit

bidentate; cheliceral brush more than half the length

of movable digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (exclu-

ding pretarsi): 1-530; 11-485: III-500; IV-727.

Tarsus I (121) longer than tibia I (90). Tarsus II

(Fig. 23) 90 with stout setae, tibia II 60. Tarsus IV

long and with dagger like setae as illustrated

in Fig. 24. Genu IV with six plumose setae.

male (Figs. 25-29): Dorsal shield (Fig. 25)

424-428 long, 151-154 wide, ornamentation and

chaetotaxy as in female.

Genital orifice presternal in position.

Holoventral shield 424-426 long, 151-152 wide,

ornamentation similar to dorsal shield, and bearing

1 9 plumose setae. Tectum as shown in Fig. 26. Fixed

digit of chelicera (Fig. 27) unidentate; movable digit

also unidentate; spermatophoral process long,

cheliceral brush more than half the length of movable

digit.

Legs sclerotized as in female. Femur II (Fig.

28) with a thumb-like spur; leg IV without any spur

or protuberance; tarsus IV with thickened long setae

as in Fig. 29.

Material examined: Holotype : female, india:

West Bengal: Darjeeling, Botanical Garden, 14.

xi. 1973, ex leaf litter; Allotype : male, Assam:

Karbi Anglong District, Diphu, along Diphu

Lumding Road, 25. xii. 1973, ex forest leaf

litter; Pciratypes : 2 females, Assam: Nowgong

District, Lumding, Jholanphul, 30. xii. 1973, ex

decaying grass heap; 2 females, Assam: Majuli

(Brahmaputra River Island), 16. vi. 1976, ex

decaying wood log, J. Sharma coll.; 2 females,

Assam: Dibrugarh District, Ledu, 14. vi. 1976, leaf

litter mixed with dung, J. Sharma coll.; 1 male,

Assam: Majuli, 16. vi. 1976, ex leaf litter, J. Sharma

coll.

Distribution: India: Assam, West Bengal.

Remarks: M. crenulatus approaches

M. kolpakovae Bregetova and Koroleva in the

ornamentation of ventral shields; shape of the ventri-

anal shield and in dorsal chaetotaxy, but the

former can be separated from the latter in possessing

plumose z2 (simple in kolpakovae); J5 simple

(plumose in the latter); stemals II-III plumose (simple

ri kolpakovae). Moreover both the

species differ in cheliceral dentition: fixed digit

bidentate in crenulatus, quadridentate in kolpakovae

(vide Fig. 59, page 103, Bregetova and Koroleva,

1960; movable digit unidentate in present

species, bidentate in kolpakovae; cheliceral

dorsal seta is dentate in kolpakovae, simple in

crenulatus.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr. S.K. Gupta, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing unex-

amined material available in the Acarology Sec-

tion, collected by B.N. Putatunda, leading to the

discovery of one of the new species ( M . benga-

lensis).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

73

References

Bh attach aryya, S.K. ( 197 1 ): Studies on Indian mites (Acarina:

Messostigmata). One new species and five records from

Assam. Orient. Ins. 5(4): 495-500.

Evans, G.O. (1963): Observations on the chaetotaxy of the legs

in the free-living Gamasina (Acari: Mesostigmata). Bull.

Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 10(5): 277-303.

Lindquist, E.E. & G.O. Evans (1965): Taxonomic concepts in

the Ascidae, with a modified setal nomenclature for the

idiosoma of the Gamasina (Acarina: Mesostigmata). Mem.

Entomol. Soc. Canada 47: 1-64.

Roy, R.K. (1988): The genus Macrocheles Latreille, 1829 in

India. 1 . Two new species and three new records. Geobios

(Jodhpur) 7: 150-154.

Ryke, RA.J. & M.K.P. Meyer (1958): Some Parasitoid mites

(Mesostigmata: Acarina) associated with coleoptera in the

Western Transvaal. J. ent. Soc. S. Afr. 21: 139-161.

OBITUARY

C. V. Kulkarni

(1911-1995)

(With a plate)

Dr. Chandrakant Vinayak Kulkarni, a former

vice-president and Hon. treasurer of the Bombay

Natural History Society, died on 28th December,

1995.

Born at Borli Panchatan (Kolaba District) on

1 1 th August, 1911, CVK had his schooling at Bordi

and joined the Wilson Collge, Bombay, where he

obtained the B.A. (the Science) degree in 1934, with

botany and zoology as subjects. He did his B.Sc.

with zoology in 1935, and registered for M.Sc. by

research at this college which degree he obtained

after five years. It was during his postgraduate efforts

that he discovered a new genus (and species) of fish,

named Horaichthys setnai after the two stalwarts in

Indian fisheries. Dr. S.L. Hora and Dr. S.B. Setna.

Meanwhile, after a short stint as a demonstrator

in the Wilson College, CVK joined the Fisheries

Section of the Department of Industries in the

erstwhile Bombay Presidency as a Piscicultural

Assistant. The Section was headed by a dynamic

leader, Dr. S.B. Setna, who soon developed it to such

an extent that the Government established a separate

Department of Fisheries in 1945. This proved

beneficial to CVK who got promoted as

Superintendent of Fisheries. By this time, he had

obtained his Ph.D. degree in 1943, the subject of his

studies being the osteology of some Indian

cyprinodonts. After the heady success of having

discovered a new fish for his postgraduation, his

Ph.D. work was a sort of climbdown, as it was more

in the nature of routine, time-taking dissection

requiring a great deal of patience but not much

imagination. But CVK took it in his stride and got a

reward for his efforts by winning his degree in three

years.

In 1948-49, while an Assistant Director of

Fisheries, he was deputed to U.S.A. by Government

of India for a course in fisheries science at

Washington.

It was in September, 195 1 that I first met CVK.

The Taraporevala Aquarium with its own Marine

Biological Station had opened in May and I was

fortunate to be its first student. CVK was to be my

guide and, with his typical humility and matter-of-

fact manner, he told me that he was a “fish” man

and, therefore, I should not expect any technical

guidance from him. (I had been given the study of

taxonomy of marine and freshwater crabs of Bombay

State and larval studies of crabs.) He used to come,

dressed in a suit and necktie and a felt hat — a heritage

of his U.S. visit.

It is said that some persons are born great, some

achieve greatness, while greatness is thrust upon

others. Dr. Kulkarni came in the last category as,

with the retirement of Dr. Setna in 1954, as per

seniority, CVK stepped into the shoes of

Directorship. And then started his ordeal. It is

unfortunate that CVK is often compared with his

predecessor and considered not to be up to the latter’s

capability. Dr. Setna was a dynamic man, taking

quick decisions and inspiring his team by personal

example of the dignity of labour. CVK was more of

a plodder — a man finely tuned to slow, painstaking

research who would ruminate patiently for days

before pinning down a ticklish scientific problem. I

well remember how, as a newly married husband,

he used to spend his Sundays (the only leisure day

of the week, as Saturdays were half working days)

walking all the way from Andheri railway station to

Powai Lake (city buses did not ply there), and wading

waist-deep to observe his favourite Bengal carps,

which he had introduced there a few years ago.

His task as Director was made all the more

laborious as the Secretary at Mantralaya was a stern

taskmaster. His mode of working defied all modern

management practice; even a peon’s casual leave

application had to go to him for approval. The

outcome was that CVK took home two piles of

files — each the size of a washerman’s weekly

laundry — every day. He was literally burning

midnight oil to clear the backlog. Moreover, he liked

to keep his own finger on the administrative pulse.

Plate

Dr. C.V. Kulkarni

(1911-1995)

OBITUARY

75

As Curator of the Taraporevala Aquarium, if I shifted

fishes from one tank to another, there would be a

painful expression on his face, along with an

admonishment, “But you did not even tell me before

you did this.” I also remember, when I was an

Assistant Director in the sixties, that the head of a

central government organisation was to send his

departmental car to the airport to receive a foreign

scientist. CVK asked me to telephone that Head at 6

a.m. to remind him. When I did so, the Head blew

his top. It transpired that CVK had also asked our

Deputy Director to remind the Head telephonically,

and, not satisfied with that, CVK himself telephoned

the Head so as to be on the safe side. I can imagine a

person being disturbed three times in as many

minutes as if he was irresponsible. People who did

not know CVK well enough attributed such

behaviour to lack of trust in his subordinates, but we

who read him thoroughly took it in our stride, to be

tolerated as one of his weaknesses.

But, with his patience and true zeal as a

workaholic, he finally overcame his foibles and, with

the passing of time, even achieved the status of a

father-figure in Indian fisheries. He was helped

greatly by political developments. Bombay State was

a long, narrow stretch of land with a long coastline.

His predecessor, Dr. Setna had won laurels for his

grand success in the mechanisation of indigenous

fishing boats. With the reorganisation of States in

1 956, a vast chunk of land from the erstwhile Central

Provinces (Madhya Bharat) and the Nizam’s

Hyderabad State were added as Vidarbha and

Marathwada. The scheme of mechanisation of

fishing boats had lost its momentum, but aquaculture

in freshwater lakes and ponds got a fillip. Research

was CVK’s forte, and he soon won acclaim for taking

this up on a large scale in our State.

Dr. Kulkarni retired as Director of Fisheries

in 1970, and with his retirement ended the glorious

era of the State Fisheries Department as a balanced

mix of high class research and administration, which

could hold its head high and be favourably compared

with reputed departments such as of erstwhile

Madras and Travancore-Cochin. But CVK continued

to keep in close touch with fisheries, being on several

committees dealing with fishery research, education,

management, quality control and export promotion.

He was the founder President of the Indian Fisheries

Association and a President of the Bombay

Aquarium Society for a few years.

After retirement, his service were sought by

the Tata Electric Companies for establishing a centre

at Lonavla for breeding mahseer-an anglers’ delight

for which tourists come from all over the world, and

whose populations have declined all over the country.

With his meticulous planning and able assistance

from scientists on the spot, this scheme has become

a grand success.

List of publications

(1940): On the systematic position, structural modification.

Bionomics and Development of a remarkable new

family of Cyprinodont Fishes from the province of

Bombay. Rec. Ind. Mus. 42: 379-423.

(1946): Gourami Culture. Ind. Farm. 7(12): 565-571.

(1948): The Osteology of Indian Cyprinodonts, Part I,

Comparative study of Head Skeleton of Aplocheilus,

Ozyzias & Horaichthys. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sc. India 14(2):

66-119.

( 1 950): Breeding habits, eggs and early life history of the Indian

shad, Hilsa ilishu. (Ham.), in the Narbada River. Proc.

nat. Inst. Sc. Ind. 16(3): 169-176.

(1951 ): Hilsa fisheries in the Narbada river. J. Bombay, nat. Hist.

Soc. 49(4): 614-623.

(1952): A new genus of Schilbeid catfishes from the Deccan.

Rec. Ind. Mus. 49 (3): 231-238.

(1953): Local and scientific names of commercial fishes of

Bombay. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4): 917-923.

(1953): Rare ocean sun-fish ( Masturus lanceolatus Lienard in

Bombay waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4): 948-

950.

( 1 953): Occurrence of the brine shrimp Artemia sp. in Bombay.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4): 951-952.

(1954): Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) on the west coast of India: J. As.

Soc. 20(1): 47-53.

( 1 972): Spawning habits, eggs and early development of Deccan

Mahseer, Torkhudree (Sykes). / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67(3): 510-512.

(1975): Introduction of Indian Trout in Lonavala waters. ./.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3): 572-574.

(1978): Feeding, growth and early development of the Indian

Trout, Barilius ( Opsarius ) bola Ham. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 75(2): 266-272. (Jointly with Dr. S.N. Ogale).

(1978): The present status of Mahseer (fish) and artificial

propagation of Torkhudree (Sykes)./. Bombay nat. Hist.

76

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1 996)

(1980):

(1983):

(1987):.

Soc. 75(3): 651-660 (Jointly with Dr. S.N. Ogalc).

Eggs and early development of Tor Mahseer fish. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 70-75.

Longevity of fish Megalops cyprinoides (Brouss.). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 230-231.

Breeding of pond raised hybrids of Mahseer fish. Tor

klutdree (Sykes) and T. tor (Ham.) J. Bombay nut. Hist.

Soc. 84(2): 332-335. (Jointly with Dr. S.N. Ogale).

(1992): On the endangered Indian trout Barilius bola (Ham.).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(3): 277-281.

(1992): Recent observations on the longevity of Megalops

cyprinoides (Brouss.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(3):

384.

B.F. CHHAPGAR

REVIEWS

1 . A NATURALIST IN KARBI ANGLONG. By Anwaruddin Choudhury. pp. 78 (2 1 .5

x 14 cm), with illustrations. Guwahati, 1993. Gibbon Books, Islampur Road, Guwahati

781 007. Hardbound Rs. 275, £ 8, $ 15. Paper back Rs. 150, £ 5, $ 10.

Knowing little about Karbi Anglong, I was

fascinated by the obvious wealth of Bora and fauna

evident in the various districts to which the author

travelled in his year's sojourn.

His obvious desire to save his knowledge of

the environmental problems engendered by the

tribes.

His research into the local unique flora and

fauna was meticulous and the more I read of the book

the more enticing the area because I was particularly

interested by his reference to the Yeti in Chapter Six,

where he describes sightings by several reliable

sources of a large ape-like primate running bipedally

and covered in dense black fur which has been

sighted occasionally in various reserve forests in the

region. This is the first reference I have been to a

Yeti (Kheulong-po as called by locals) in this area

and backs up numerous other sightings by the people

of the western Himalayas.

His suggestion that ecotourism be encouraged

might if carefully monitored, benefit the region.

However, with the limited forest support systems I

wonder if implementation of any rules or laws could

be enforced.

My one criticism, if justified, is his use of the

English language which in places left a great deal to

the desired. Overall, this little book which appears

to be a one man effort should be recommended to

any naturalist interested in exploring further into the

less frequented areas of this country.

PHILIPPA MUKHERJEE

2. ORNITHOBOTANY of Indian weaver birds. By Satish Kumar Sharma. pp. 235 (21 .5

x 14 cm), with many coloured and Black & White illustrations. Udaipur & Delhi, 1995,

Himanshu Publications. Price Rs. 425.00.

The title of this book is a word coined by the

author to describe that part of nature study where

ornithology and botany overlap. The present volume

is a study of weaver birds which does not concern

itself with its breeding biology or field habits; it

concerns itself solely with the kind of vegetable

material it needs and uses mainly for nest building.

His studies were carried out in Rajasthan around the

three local species of the Indian Baya ( Ploceus

philippinus), the striated weaver bird ( P. manyar )

and the black-throated weaver bird ( P. benghalensis).

Although Dr. Sharma’s study is based mainly

on his own personal observations and experiments,

he makes use of the Old Masters to support and

reinforce his conclusions at every point. His list of

“Cited References” runs into 9 pages. His indices

and Glossary are complete and accurate. Dr.

Sharma’s work is meticulous and obviously reliable.

We all have a mental picture of the typical

group of baya nests dangling from some palm tree

in the middle of a field. Dr. Sharma spells out the

places you would not find a baya colony — for

instance, you would not find it in a thick forest, nor

in a tree with a heavy or large canopy, nor in a palm

with only upright leaves. The leaves must be green

and supple; although dead trees can be used if they

are surrounded by water which gives protection

against terrestrial predators. The next step is choosing

the right material for nest building — and sketches

are provided to show the exact manner in which strips

of green material is chosen, collected, and carried to

the nest site; after that comes the plastering (with

mud and dung) and then waiting for the approval of

a female before the nest is completed. The many half-

finished nests are proof of the failure of a cock to

win a mate.

Dr. Sharma uses innumerable sketches,

diagrams, tables and graphs to describe every aspect

78

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

of the baya’s nest building activity. One chapter is

devoted to Nest Beautification. It is well-known that

bay as will often weave a flower into their nest —

one assumes that this is just for “looks”. The author

describes this phenomenon minutely — again with

the help of diagrams and tables, and comes to the

conclusion that the most favoured colour for

“beautification” is yellow. The last chapter deals with

“abnormal” nests. Obviously, in any nest as intricate

as the bayas choose to make, there will be a margin

for mistakes and abnormality. Again, all such

abnormalities are carefully listed and documented

in words and pictures.

It might seem to amateurs, that the detailed

and accuracy in describing some of the things which

we tend to accept as obvious and everyday may not

always be necessary. And yet the true scientist is

one who will refuse to take anything for granted, no

matter how familiar. In that sense Dr. Sharma is a

true scientist. Salim Ali was the first to study the

Indian baya “in depth”. Dr. Sharma has used his

work, and the work of many subsequent naturalists

to give us a rounded, scientific and complete picture

of the Indian baya and its nest.

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

/

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . MEAT EATING BY LION-TAILED MACAQUE, MACACA SILENUS (ZIMMERMANN)

For the past one year we have been conducting

studies on the impact of habitat fragmentation on

small mammals in the wet evergreen or rainforests

in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (previously

Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary) in Tamil Nadu. The

study funded by the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Govt, of India, focuses on arboreal

mammals, terrestrial rodents and small carnivores.

On 27th December 1994 we were busy doing

group scan of our study troop of Lion-tailed macaque

(LTM) in a rain forest fragment at Varattuparai in

the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary near Valparai.

At 1545 hrs we heard the alarm calls of a giant

squirrel about 75 m to our right. We found that the

calls came from a Mesuaferrea tree where an adult

male LTM was actively taking apart a giant squirrel

nest, while two squirrels were giving alarm calls in

order to keep the monkey away. The male LTM

picked out a young giant squirrel (probably a sub-

adult) by its throat. Soon the LTM leapt to a Cullenia

excelsa tree with the squirrel in its mouth and sat in

the top peripheral canopy. The other monkeys of the

group were feeding on Cullenia fruits on the same

tree. The male started eating the giant squirrel,

peeling its skin from the head. It finished eating the

squirrel in 30 minutes, leaving only the claws, paws,

skull and skin. The skin measured 60 cm from head

to tail, with a tail of 35 cm. While feeding on its

prey, the male never allowed any other individuals

to come near. Feeding on mammalian prey has been

reported in baboons and chimpanzees. In the LTM,

feeding on giant squirrel infants has been reported

before in the Anamalais (Kumar 1 987). What makes

this observation striking is the size of the prey, which

was a sub-adult or juvenile. In addition to this we

have also observed LTM feeding on flying squirrels

in Puthutotum estate near Valparai. Studies in

undisturbed forests have shown that LTM gets

protein mostly from animal matter, especially foliage

insects, and rarely mammalian prey. It is likely that

predation on mammalian prey might increase in

highly degraded forests such as privately held estates

and forest fragments, because the availability of

foliage insects might be considerably less compared

to undisturbed forests.

March 13, 1995 G. UMAPATHY

A. PRABHAKAR

Division of Conservation Biology,

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History, Coimbatore-641 010, Tamil Nadu.

Reference

Kumar, A. (1987): The ecology and population dynamics South India. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of

of the Lion-tailed macaque {Macaco silenus) in Cambridge.

2. PANTHER, PANTHERA PARDUS (LINNAEUS) WITH GUINEA WORM

INFECTION

About 30 Km from Udaipur there is a place

called Dholi Ghati situated in a valley. In the early

fifties this area was inaccessible by road and sparsely

populated. Near Dholi Ghati there were three villages

Jogion-Ka-Guda, Sahawaton-Ka-Guda and Majam.

The whole area teemed with game and was a

favourite hunting ground of my father.

In those days the chief ailment of the people

of this region was, Guinea Worms, Dysentry and

Malaria. My father during his jungle excursions

always carried a first aid kit to treat the people

suffering from these aliments. To treat Guinea Worm

patients he used a simple method. When a Guinea

Worm protruded partly from a blister he would inject

a minute quantity of Tincture Iodine into the Worm

with a very fine hypodermic needle and would tie

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

the worm. Within 24 hours the iodine would kill the

worm thereby loosening its grip on the muscles of

the patient. Later it can be wound on a stick slowly

and extracted from the patient.

My father the late Shri T.H. Tehsin’s diary

shows that during the winter of, 1 948 he had treated

900 patients suffering from Guinea Worm at

Dholi Ghati during his stay of 2 months. One of

the parient’s had 80 Guinea Worms in his body.

One even protruded from his tongue. He expired

within a fortnight. This proves the gravity of the

suffering of the people from this disease in those

days.

While looking through the diaries I came cross

an interesting note. On 6th February 1952 my father

shot a leopard in Kachot, a place near Dholi Ghati,

in a beat. The animal was very lean. While skinning,

he found some yellowish fluid oozing out from a

small wound, just above the right eye of the animal.

He cut the flesh near the wound and extracted a thin,

long, white worm, which he noted was a Guinea

Worm. Leopards too apparently suffered from

Guinea Worm infection.

March 7, 1 995 RAZA H. TEHSIN

38, Panclnvati, Uclaipur-313001.

3. SOME NOTES ON HIMALAYAN PALM CIVET, PAGUMA LARVATA

(HAMILTON-SMITH) (CARNIVORA: VIVERRIDAE)

The Himalayan Palm Civet Pagiuna larvata

is a tree civet found in the outer and greater

Himalaya. Between 1989 and 1992 three dead

specimens of the species were found by me in the

university campus at Nauni and around Solan (30°

52' North latitude and 77° IF East longitude) in

Himachal Pradesh, at an altitude of 1 300 m and 1 500

m respectively. The forests around Solan are

represented by subtropical pine forests. (Champion

and Seth 1968). The dominant tree species is Chir

Pine (Pinus roxbugliii ) followed by Ban Oak

( Quercus incana) at higher altitudes. Shrubs are

represented by Rosa sp.. Viburnum sp. and

Debregeasia sp. Two of the dead civets bore bullet

marks on their body. The third one appeared to be a

case of natural death. The present communication

is based on the reports dealing with these dead

specimens, interrogation reports of farmers in the

study area and on observations made on a captive

specimen.

According to Roberts (1977), this species is

largely frugivorous and there are many instances of

their raiding apricot, pear and apple trees when the

fruit is ripening. A specimen of this species which

was shot by a farmer at midnight in May 1989 near

Solan was recovered by me.

The animal had been visiting a Loquat tree

( Eriobotrya japonica) near the farmer’s house for

a week doing a lot of damage to ripening fruits.

The faeces of the animal with Loquat seeds were

also recovered by me close to the Loquat tree.

Subsequently I visited several orchards mostly of

stone fruits like peach ( Primus persica ), plum

( Prunus domestica ), apricot (Prunus armeniaca)

and vegetable fields around Solan and in the

campus of Dr Y.S. Parmar University at Nauni.

Almost all the farmers when questioned about this

civet said that the animal is a serious pest of stone

fruits like peach, plum, apricot and vegetables like

peas and tomato. The farmers admitted that they

do not hesitate to kill it. The civet is locally called

‘Ooj’ since it damages their orchards and

vegetable crops. Their views were confirmed by

the analysis of gut contents of another specimen

which was shot and killed by someone near the

university campus in May 1991. The analysis

revealed that the animal had consumed green peas

and apricots which are grown in plenty in the

university campus and its surrounding areas. In

December 1992, civets are reported to have dug

up the seeds of apricot and peach stored in a pit

for stratification in the university campus at

Nauni. The endocarp of the seeds were removed

by the animals before consuming the kernels.

Another civet was found dead by me near the

Boy’s Hostel of the University in 1992. The animal

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

81

was also seen by the inmates of the hostel at noon a

few days prior to its death. This confirms

the findings of Roberts (1977) that the species is

not exclusively nocturnal. The dead specimen

was infested with ticks identified as Boophilus

microplus.

A live specimen of this species is kept in

captivity at Jawahar Park in Solan. The specimen

would readily eat fruits like plum, pear, apple, peach,

apricot, etc. It also relishes bananas eating the

endocarp and mesocarp while the ectocarp is

rejected. The animal likes tomatoes also but potatoes,

pods of beans ( Phciseolus vulgaris ) and chilli fruits

( Capsicum annum) were rejected. Only one pod of

peas ( Pisum sativum) was accepted out of three

offered. Its routine diet includes bread, milk and

bananas. The animal would approach the eatables

thrown into the cage sniffing alone the ground.

During the process the vibrissae are always kept

backwards. The animal is active mostly during

morning and evening hours and accepted food during

this period only. During the day lime, the animal

was always found sleeping and did not wake up even

when disturbed.

The flesh of the shot animals, as told by the

villagers, is not thrown but always consumed by the

villagers. But there were no reports suggesting that

the animal is killed for its flesh only.

It can be concluded from the above account

that Himalayan Palm Civet Paguma larvata

(Hamilton-Smith) damages fruits and vegetables in

the mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to the Head, Department of

Silviculture and Agroforestry, Y.S. Parmar

University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, for

facilities provided.

January 19, 1996. M. L. NARANG

Dr Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture

and Forestry, Nauni,

Solan- 1 73 230 ( Himachal Pradesh).

References

Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of the Roberts, T.J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Bcnn.

Forest Types of India. Government of India, New Delhi. London and Tonbridge.

4. OCCURRENCE OF THE WOLF (CANIS LUPUS LINNAEUS) IN

REWA DISTRICT (M.P.)

The present distributional status of the

species includes six civil districts of the

Madhya Pradesh State (S.P. Shahi, JBNHS , 79: 493-

503, accompanying map showed known wolf

habitats).

On 23 March 1993 while travelling from

my H.Q. at Sidhi to Rewa, a solitary Wolf was sigh-

ted in Chhuhiyaghat section on Govindgarh

side, around 1700 hr., crossing the road in front

of our slow moving vehicle. This location was

amidst hilly scrub forest. Incidentally, this degra-

ded area is a part of the same forest, where the

Ex-Ruler of Rewa State, captured a white tiger

Cub.

Earlier in the year 1978, a wolf was seen in

the scrub bush forest between Ranker and Keshkal

in the Bastar Dist. of Madhya Pradesh.

These locations are additions to the known

distribution of the species.

February 22, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

NC-6, MPEB Colony,

Raipur Road,

Bilaspur-495 223.

82

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

5. A RECORD OF THE NILGIRI MARTEN ( MARTES GWATKINSI HORSFIELD) IN

UPPER BHAVANI

The Nilgiri Marten (Maries gwatkinsi) was

sighted in Upper Bhavani on 22nd January 1995 at

0700 hr, while walking towards Bison swamp for our

field work. A sambar ( Cervus unicolor) was disturbed

by our presence and started running through the swamp

after giving its alarm call. Immediately a Nilgiri Marten

came from behind a hidden boulder and stood on its

hindlegs and looked around. It stood about 1 5 m ahead

of us. We were able to see it clearly with naked eye

and through binoculars. It was about less than a meter

from head to rump, dark brown in colour with buff

white on its throat and had a black stripe on its snout. As

we were puzzled, we could not make certain whether

the throat was dusty white or yellow. After a few

minutes it disappeared into the shola. The swampy area

was surrounded by different sized shola patches and

wattle plantations. The altitude of the area was above

2000 msl. All the above details coincide with the

descriptions given in Prater (197 1 , The Book of Indian

Animals). This is the first record from Upper Bhavani.

February 15, 1995 V. GOKULA

N.K. RAMACHANDRAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology

and Natural History,

Kalampalayam, Coimbatore 461010.

6. BACK RIDING AND POSSIBLE AERIAL MATING AMONGST THE LARGE

FRUIT BAT, PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS (BRUNNICH)

A rather interesting phenomenon was observed

by me on 1 0th September 1 99 1 around 1 800 hr., while

sitting outside the office campus at Beohari, Shahdol

District of Madhya Pradesh.

Several Large Fruit Bats (Pteropus giganteus)

were observed flying in our direction and flying over

and behind us. Suddenly, one of two almost equal

sized bats, which were flying parallel to each other,

indulged in an unexpected act. It mounted the other

bat, though for a few seconds only, then dismounted

and continued its normal flight. The noticeable points

were, that the impact of the mounting bat caused a

dip in the flight of the other bat and the dismount

was associated with jerks of the ventral portion of

the mounted bat, which suggests, possible mating.

Thereafter a keen eye was kept on other bats, but the

act was not repeated.

The carriage of young on their backs has

been recorded in other species of bats (Brosset

JBNHS 59: 57). The method of mating has

been described as the male overlapping female

while hanging and the normal copulation posture

is as that among mammals (Brosset JBNHS 60:

350).

February 22, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

NC-6, MPEB Colony, Raipur Road,

Bilaspur-495 001.

7. INTERBREEDING BETWEEN GRIZZLED GIANT SQUIRREL, RATUEA MACROURA

(PENNANT) AND MALABAR GIANT SQUIRREL, R. INDICA (ERXLEBEN)

The endangered Grizzled Giant Squirrel

(GGS) exists in a few isolated populations in Tamil

Nadu, Kerala and southern Karnataka (Davidar 1989,

Ramachandran 1989, Joshua 1992, Karthikeyan et

al. 1992) and Sri Lanka (Wroughton 1910, Phillips

1915, Ellerman 1961). The Srivilliputtur Grizzled

Giant Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary (SGGSWS) in

Tamil Nadu harbours the largest population of c.200

animals where it occurs in Ayyanarkoil, Viriyankoil,

Alagarkoil, Pulavukal, Koilaar and Sunde-

ramahalingamkoil areas which are isolated.

Ayyanarkoil Valley which lies on the southeastern

boundary of the sanctuary, is the southern most limit

for the species.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

83

GGS is sympatric with the Malabar Giant

Squirrel (MGS) in the Ayyanarkoil Valley in

Rajapalayam Hills in the SGGSWS (Joshua 1992). In

the Palani Hills where both GGS and MGS

are present, they occur at different elevations

(Moore and Tate 1965, Agarwal and Chakraborty

1979).

During a survey for these squirrels in

Ayyanarkoil Valley in January 1989, I saw a GGS

female and a MGS male lying close, one behind the

other on a branch of an Albizia lebbeck tree at 1 8 m

from the ground. The time was 0815 hrs, which

usually is the peak feeding time (Joshua 1992). At

09 1 2 hr. The MGS male approached the GGS female

where upon she turned and chased him. In GGS this

chasing usually ends up in mounting and is a

sequence in the mating behaviour. At 0928 hr., the

MGS male successfully mounted the GGS female

for a few seconds. After resting for about 20 min.,

the MGS male again started to go behind the GGS

female. In the meanwhile a GGS male interfered and

the MGS male started chasing the GGS male away

from the female. For the rest of the day MGS male

was involved in keeping the GGS male away during

which he attempted to mount the female only twice,

both unsuccessfully. At 1720 hr., the MGS male

moved away from that area.

On the second day both the squirrels were not

seen. As I continued my survey looking for squirrels,

I was surprised to see a MGS with grey colour instead

of the usual maroon around the belly and the flanks.

It was most probably a hybrid between MGS and

GGS. By the end of the survey I had seen nine R.

mcicroura, 1 1 R. indicci and seven hybrids. All the

hybrids had coat colours of both MGS and GGS.

The most preferred habitat of GGS is the

riverine habitat. In the past, in Ayyanarkoil Valley, a

6 km riverine patch, was destroyed and the GGS were

pushed towards the foot hills where MGS exists. That

is why they are sympatric in this area.

It is evident that mating of MGS and GGS is a

common feature at Ayyanarkoil Valley as GGS are

pushed into the MGS habitat due to habitat degradation.

It would be interesting to see whether these hybrids

are fertile. This could be a feature at Palani hills area

where both species co-exist. These areas should be

regularly monitored to see which species becomes

locally extinct and whether the hybrid would survive

or not. Monitoring is also necessary to see whether

one of the two is likely to face extinction from the

foothills due to competitive exclusion by the other

species. It is noteworthy to recall such competitive

exclusion of native red squirrel in southern and eastern

England by the introduced grey squirrel (Lloyd 1983,

Reynolds 1985).

July 4, 1995 JUSTUS JOSHUA

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology

and Natural History,

Kalampalayam P. O.,

Coimbatore-640 010.

References

Agarwal, V.C. & S. Chakraborty (1979): Taxonomic notes on

some Oriental squirrels. Mammalia 43: 161-172.

Davidar, R (1989): Grizzled Giant Squirrel Ratufa macroura

Distribution in Kudirayar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (3):

437.

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The fauna of India including Pakistan,

Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia (2nd edition), vol. 3. Rodentia.

The Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta.

Joshua, J. (1992): Ecology of the endangered grizzled giant

squirrel ( Ratufa macmura) in Tamil Nadu, South India. Ph.D

thesis submitted to Barathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli.

Karthikeyan, S., J.N. Prasad & B. Arun (1992): Grizzled giant

squirrel Ratufa macmura Thomas and Wroughton at Cauvery

Valley, in Karnataka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 360.

Lloyd, H.G. (1983): Past and present distribution of red and grey

squirrels. Mammal Rev. 13: 69-80.

Moore, J.C. & G.H.H. Tate (1965): A study of the diurnal

squirrels Sciurinea, of the Indian and Indo-Chinese subregion.

Fieldiana Zool. 48: 1-351.

Ramachandran, K.K. (1989): Endangered Grizzled giant squirrel

habitat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (1): 94-95.

Reynolds, J.C. (1985): Details of the Geographic replacement of

the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) by the Grey squirrels (S.

carolinensis) in eastern England. J. Ani. Ecol. 54: 149-162.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1935): Manual of mammals of Ceylon.

Colombo Museum, Ceylon. London. 28: 373.

Wroughton, R.C. (1910): Some notes on the giant squirrels of

India, Burma and Ceylon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 880-

896.

84

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

8. UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF SQUIRREL, FUNAMBULUS SPP.

The book of Indian animals by S.H. Prater

slates that the usual food of Squirrels are fruits, nuts,

young shoots, buds and barks. Insects are eaten at a

pinch, as also the eggs of birds.

Some years ago when I was in school at

Jaisalmer, Rajasthan (1976-77), a squirrel, perhaps

the live-striped, was noticed feeding on a bird (House

Sparrow). The bird was apparently sick and was

standing quietly at the side of a wall on the roof in

the summer around 3-4 p.m. The bird was perhaps,

unable to fly. I was watching the bird at a distance

of about 8 to 10 m. Suddenly a squirrel came down,

looked around and reached the bird. It caught the

bird which struggled a little, flapping its wings, but

it could not fly and free itself from the squirrel and

fell on the same spot. I kept on watching the

behaviour of both. Within a few minutes the squirrel

ate half of the hind part of the bird and went away,

leaving the rest behind.

This unusual behaviour of the squirrel

( Funambulus spp.) indicates that they are not only

herbivorous but are also occasionally carnivorous.

August 1, 1995 D.N. HARIT

Post Box No. 16, Kolasib-796081 ,

Mizoram, India.

9. TOXICITY OF WAX BLOCKS AGAINST RODENTS IN LABORATORY AND

FIELD CONDITIONS

Introduction

Wax block baits have lately drawn worldwide

attention in field rodents control by its easy

application, high acceptability, bait durability and

easily accountable left over. High acceptability of

cholecalciferol wax blocks against Tatera indica and

Rattus rattus was reported by Mathur and Jain 1 987,

brodifacoum wax blocks against some Indian rodent

species by Soni and Tripathi 1989, Bromadiolone

and Warfarin cakes against house rat by Jhala et al.

1984. On the basis of these observations, attempts

were made in the present investigation to evaluate

comparative efficacy of rodenlicide embedded in a

mixture of cereals and paraffin wax cakes in the

laboratory and field conditions.

Material and Methods

Laboratory no-choice feeding test was carried

out to evaluate the toxicity of poisoned baits of

fumarin 0.025%. warfarin 0.025%, Bromadiolone

0.005%, cholecalciferol 0.005% and flocoumafen

0.005% embeded in a mixture of cereals and paraffin

wax against M. hurrianae. All the animals were

sexed, weighed and acclimatized to laboratory

conditions prior to the experiments. Rat feed

(Hindustan Lever Ltd., Bombay) and water were

provided ad libitum. The animals were weighed and

starved for 24 h. Poison cake of 10 g each was

exposed to individually caged animals. For each

poison bait twenty animals of both the sexes were

used. Cakes were exposed for 24 hr. Leftover and

spilled food was also weighed and recorded. After

24 hr. of poison baiting fresh rat feed was provided

daily until death.

In another set of experiment, the field was

selected and the investigation was carried out in

village Nyla, 24 km from Jaipur. The village has a

compact block of wheat and barley crops. About 8

ha. of area was selected for each poison bait. The

pretreatment level of infestation was estimated by

adopting the burrow count method (Barnett and

Prakash 1975). The burrows in the study area were

sealed with wet soil and lime. The reopened burrows

next day were taken as live burrows. The burrows

of each field area were treated with wax cakes of

0.025% of fumarin, 0.025% of warfarin, 0.005%? of

Bromadiolone, 0.005% of brodifacoum, 0.005%? of

cholecalciferol and 0.005% of flocoumafen of 10 g

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

85

each. Alter treatment the burrows were closed and

marked.

On the second day the live burrows were

counted and closed again lor the next observa-

tion. Similarly on the third day, the live burrows

were again counted and observations were re-

corded.

acceptability. The efficacy was judged by the live

burrows. There was 90%, 86%, 88%, 80%, 78% and

75% control success observed with bromadiolone,

cholecalciferol, brodifacoum, flocoumafen, fumarin

and warfarin respectively.

Results evidently reveal that bromadiolone

wax cakes were found to be more effective, 90 per

Table 1

TOXICITY OF VARIOUS RODENTICIDE WAX BLOCKS AGAINST RODENTS IN LABORATORY CONDITION

Results and Discussion

The results of one day no-choice test reveals

78 to 94% mortality in the laboratory which suggests

that most of the poison could be used as single dose

poison (Table 1). However, while comparing the

efficacy of all the rodenticides the results indicate

that bromadiolone and brodifacoum require low

lethal dose with minimum days to death, i.e. 4- 1 2 in

case of bromadiolone and 5-13 with brodifacoum.

The mean consumption of poisoned cakes of

bromadiolone and brodifacoum was 4.24 and 4.65

mg/kg of body weight respectively. High efficacy

of bromadiolone and brodifacoum wax cakes against

Rat tits rattus has been reported by Dwivedi et al.

( 1 989). Mathur and Jain ( 1990) reported wax block

formulation of bromadiolone (0.005%) as very

effective and indicated 83.33% and 100% mortality

when it was exposed for 2-3 days respectively.

Observations from the field studies (Table 2)

indicate that poisoned cakes of bromadiolone,

brodifacoum and cholecalciferol were consumed

more by the rodents, which shows their higher

cent mortality; followed by brodifacoum (88%),

cholecalciferol (86%), flocoumafen (80%), fumarin

(78%) and warfarin (75%).

Bromadiolone has also been tried on other

species of rodent in different habitats. It has been

reported as effective in controlling/?, rattus on crown

of cocount palms, in houses, according to

Shamsuddin and Abdulla koya (1983). Marsh et al.

(1980) reported 87% control of Norway rats with

single dose application of bromadiolone in an

experimental field trial in West Indies. Toxicity test

carried out to test the efficacy of bromadiolone in

field and houses by Saxena and Singh (1987)

reported maximum kill between 6-8th day of

exposure of the poison. The findings are further

supported by the study carried out by Chopra et al.

(1982) who reported single exposure of poison bait

(Bromadiolone 0.005%) resulting in 100% mortality

of Rattus meltada and Mils platvthrix, 60% mortality

of Bandicota hengalensis and 85% kill of Rattus

rattus. The higher degree of acceptability of

bromadiolone wax cakes despite its toxicity to

rodents reveals that it is potentially useful for wide

86

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Table 2

TOXICITY OF VARIOUS RODENTICIDE WAX BLOCKS AGAINST RODENTS IN FIELD

range of rodents. The major rodent species present April 6, 1995 Y. SAXENA

in this study area were Meriones hurrianae, Rcittus Dept, of Zoology, University of Rajasthan,

meltada and Tatera inclica. Jaipur (India).

References

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash (1975): Rodents of Economic

importance in India. Arnold Heinemann, New Delhi, 1-

175.

Chopra, G., N. Ahmed & M.L. Sood (1982): Efficacy of

Bromadiolone against various rodent species. Rodent

Newsletter, ICAR, 6(3): 21.

Dwivedi, P.K., R.P.S. Tyagi & PC. Bansode (1989): Studies on

the efficacy of Bromadiolone and Brodifacoum cakes to

control house rats. Rodent Newsletter, ICAR, 23: 15-16.

Jhala, R.C., A.H. Shah, R.C. Patel & R.L. Patel (1984):

Effectiveness of Bromadiolone and Warfarin wax cakes

against rats damaging coconut palms in South Gujarat.

Rodent Newsletter ICAR, 8 (1-4): 5-6.

Marsh, R.E., W.E. Howard & W.B. Jackson (1980):

Bromadiolone: A new toxicant for rodent control. Pest

Control, 48 (8) : 22-26.

Mathur, M. & A.P. Jain (1987): Effectiveness of cholecalciferol

pellets and wax blocks against Tatera indica and Rattus

rattus. Rodent Newsletter, ICAR 11 (1-4): 3.

Mathur, M. & A.P. Jain (1990): Efficacy of bromadiolone wax

blocks against Funambulas pennanti under no-choice

condition. Rodent Newsletter, ICAR, 14 (1-4): 13.

Saxena, Y. & R. Singh (1987): Comparative efficacy of acute

and chronic rodenticides against domestic and field

rodents. Pesticides 21: 23-27 .

Soni, B.K. & R.S. Tripathi (1989): Bio-efficacy of Brodifacoum

wax block against some Indian rodent species. Rodent

Newsletter ICAR, 13: 12.

Shamsuddin, V.M. & K.l. Abdulla Koya (1983): A Trial of crown

baiting of cocount palms with Bromadiolone wax cakes

in Agatti island of Lakshadweep. Rodent Newsletter ICAR

7(3): 14-15.

10. FISH OILS AS ALTERNATIVE TO RIVER DOLPHIN, PLATANISTA GANGETICA

(LEBECK) OIL FOR FISHING CATFISH CLUPISOMA GARUA IN THE RIVER

GANGES, INDIA

( With a plate )

Introduction

The River dolphin’s ( Platanista gangetica) oil

is extensively used in the Ganges and Bramhaputra

rivers in fishing operations for the freshwater catfish

Clupisoma garua (Ham.) (Motwani and Srivastava

1961, JBNHS 58:285). It is estimated that oil is

extracted from about 50 river dolphins caught

annually between Patna and Rajmahal from the

Ganges (pers. obs.). It was suggested that the

poaching pressure on the river dolphin can be

reduced if an alternative to dolphin oil can be found.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93 Plate 1

Lai Mohan: River Dolphin oil

Fig. 1. Dolphin oil bait (on the wooden plank) and the dolphin oil in the aluminium vessel. Preparation of the bait.

Fig. 2. Bait being sprinkled from a 'Machan' in river Ganges. Fig. 3. Second phase of sprinkling of the bait.

Fig. 4. Clupisoma garua caught by using the dolphin oil bait in the river Ganges.

Ml SCULL A NEGUS NOLLS

87

The method of using dolphin oil for luring the catfish

is interesting. About 300 gin of dry cowdung is

powdered and 40 ml of dolphin oil added to it and

mixed well (Plate I , Fig. 1 ). This mixture is taken in

a vessel and sprinkled on the surface of the water by

a fisherman seated on a specially made platform

known as ‘Machan’ in the river where the water

depth was about 1.5 m (Plate I, Fig. 2). About two

hours after completing the sprinkling of the ‘lure’

the fisherman moves about 2 km upstream. Another

mixture prepared by mincing goat’s fat, stomach and

intestine with cowdung is made into a ball and a

depression made in its centre. About 10 ml oil is

poured into it. An experienced fisherman dissolves

the lure’ with a rhythmic action keeping the lure on

one hand and pinching a portion and dissolving it

with the other hand (Plate 1, Fig. 3). After about an

hour when all the ‘bait’ has dissolved, a rectangular

net is prepared to haul the fishes lured by the bait

near to the fishermen.

Material and Methods

Easily available fish oils like crude shark liver

oil with different acid values, sardine ( Sardinella

longiceps) oil and the Ganges river dolphin oils were

used for the experiments. The experiments were

conducted in the river Ganges near Bhagalpur in the

small village of Colgone, Bihar. The oils were given

to the fishermen and they were requested to carryout

the fishing in the traditional way under the

supervision of the authors and other field staff. The

trials were conducted simultaneously at different

centres. It is a mono-species fishery and only C.

garua were caught.

Observation

River dolphin Oil: Dolphin oil obtained from

blubber was mixed with cowdung and was used for

the experiment. Altogether about 60 ml of oil was

used, and 17-26 fishes (C. garua) (Plate 1, Fig. 4)

weighing 580-780 g were obtained in the four trials

from 0530 to 1 100 hr. But the catch was very poor

when the operation was carried out during 1 1 00- 1 500

hr (Table 1 ). The stomachs of the fishes caught were

gorged with the ‘lure’ indicating that they fed on it.

Crude shark liver oil: Five trials were

conducted by using crude shark liver oil (Table 2).

The amount of oil used was the same in all the trials

and it was conducted simultaneously in different

centres keeping the other parameters constant.

During the trials with shark liver oil, 31-5! numbers

of fishes weighing 940-1720 gm were obtained.

There was no marked difference between the crude

oil with different acid values. The catches were very

poor when the fishing was conducted at noon. Only

one fish was obtained in the noon trials.

Sardine oil: The sardine oil was also found to

lure the fishes. But it was not as efficient as shark

liver oil. The total weight of fishes obtained during

the morning operations ranged from 518 to 1080 g

Table I

RESULTS OF THE TRIALS USING RIVER DOLPHIN OIL FOR FISHING IN GANGES

88

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 2

RESULTS OF THE TRIALS USING SHARK LIVER OIL FOR FISHING IN GANGES

Discussion

The shark liver oil was found to be more

efficient than dolphin oil. Shark liver oil, dolphin

oil and sardine oil were found to be in that order of

efficiency with an average catch of 1518, 843, and

777 g respectively. When the cost of the oil was

considered the shark liver oil costs Rs. 35/kg whereas

the cost of dolphin oil and sardine oil were Rs. 50/

kg and Rs. 15/kg respectively. If we analyse the

economics of the operations, the sardine oil will be

demonstrated. The fishermen stated that up to

one quintal of fish were caught in one operation

using dolphin oil during the peak seasons of the

fishery.

If the fishermen could be convinced that the

fish oils could give better results than the dolphin

oils, they would go for the fish oils discarding the

traditional use of river dolphin oil. This will go a

long way in reducing the poaching pressure on the

dolphins and help to conserve the Ganges river

dolphins.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

X<>

Acknowi i :dc, ement March 2. 1995 R.S. LAL MOHAN

K.V. MOHAMMED KUNI (I

We are thankful to Mr. Allan Thornton, Conservation of' Nature Trust,

Environment Investigation agency, London for his Calient, B/24, Gandhi Nagar,

help and encouragement. Calicut-673 005, India.

1 1 . LARGE CORMORANT PHALACROCORAX CARLO SINENSIS (SHAW) BREEDING

IN THE NILGIRIS

On September 17, 1994 while watching birds

at the Glcnmorgan headwords damsite (c. 1970 m

above ms!) at the precincts of Ooty town. 1 noticed

small flocks of Large Cormorants flying to and fro

regularly towards a certain part of the reservoir. All

of them were in full breeding plumage with white

Hecks on head and neck, yellow gular pouches and

white thigh patches. Suspecting them to breed there,

I followed I heir path and was soon able to confirm

my suspicions. There were some partially submerged

dead trees in the reservoir and on them (lie birds had

nested. I counted 42 nests and all had incubating

birds. Close observation revealed that the brooding

birds were being intermittently received by their

mates. The total number of adult birds seen in the

reservoir was around 130 and almost all were in

breeding plumage. So it is quite possible that there

is a second breeding colony somewhere near,

probably elsewhere in the same reservoir. Earlier, as

I walked downstream along the Pykara river, I had

seen small numbers of these birds fishing in the

calmer stretches. In addition, about 20 birds in

breeding plumage were noted from the Kamaraj

Sagar dam, also situated at the Ooty environs. It

seems that the species has fairly established itself

and is evidently thriving at the high altitude lakes

and reservoir in the Nil "iris.

The large cormorant is normally a denizen ol

lowland rivers, jheels, reservoirs, tidal lagoons and

the like, but is also known to ascend up to

considerable elevations in the lakes of Nepal, Ladakh

and Kashmir (Handbook I: 37-38). The species

breeds in many localities throughout the country

mainly at lowland jheels, though it is suspected

to breed in the high lakes of Ladakh and Nepal

(synopsis 11 Edition: 10- 1 1 ). But there is no mention

of its occurrence and breeding anywhere in

the peninsular mountains. Hence this observation

at 1970 metres in the Nilgiri mountains is

noteworthy.

December 6. S994 MANOJ V. NAIR

34 Thoppil N cigar, Kuniarapnram,

Trivandrum, Kerala-605 Oil.

1 2. RECORD OF THE PAINTED SPURFOWL, GALLOP ERDIX LUNULATA

(VALENCIENNES) IN RAMGARH SANCTUARY OF DISTRICT BUNDI, RAJASTHAN

Ali and Ripley (1983) in handbook or thi- birds

of india and Pakistan mention that the painted spurfowl

(Galloperdix I unulata) is not found in Rajasthan. Paul

A. Johnsgard in his monumental work-T//c quails,

partridges and francolins of the world' also says that

this bird is not found in Rajasthan (page 248). I wish

to inform you that the bird has been photographed by

me in the Ramearh sanctuary of District Bundi,

Rajasthan (Lai. 25° 21' N and Long. 75° 39' E) on

1 4.4.87. These birds (one pair) were regularly seen bv

me between 1985 and 1987. The birds frequented the

ruins of the shikargah in the sanctuary and were

surprisingly friendly.

November 7, 1994 SHANTANU KIJMAR

Inspector General of Police,

Rajasthan Armed Constabulary,

Police Headquarters, Jaipur.

90

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

13. PAINTED SPURFOWL, GALLOPERDIX LUNULATA (VALENCIENNES) IN

RAJASTHAN

Ali and Ripley (1980) while deseribing

distribution of Painted Spurfowl Galloperdix

lunulata (Valenciennes) mentioned “Not in

Rajasthan During my studies on the birds of

Sariska National Park, I found it to be common in

the forests of Sariska (Sharma 1981). Subsequently,

I also observed it in the Jamwa Ramgarh Sanctuary

in Jaipur district. Studies of BNHS revealed it’s

presence at Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur (Vijayan

1987).

Dharmakumarsinhji observed and photo-

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 980): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan, Vol. 2: 70. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. & K.S. Lavkumar ( 1 972): Sixty Indian

Birds: p. 70.

graphed Painted Spurfowl in Ranthambhore National

Park (Dharmakumarsinhji and Lavkumar 1972). In

June 1992, I observed this bird in the contiguous

forests of Ranthambhore National Park, Kailadevi

Sanctuary, Sawai Man Singh Sanctuary and Ram-

garh Sanctuary of Sawai Madhopur and Bundi

districts.

December 2 1 , 1 994 ASHOK KUMAR SHARMA

6/6, S.ES. Agarwal Farm,

Mansarovar, Jaipur-302011.

I N CE S

Sharma, A.K. (1981): Distribution of some birds in Rajasthan.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers, 21 (12): 7-8.

Vijayan, V.S. (1987): Vertebrate fauna of Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur: p. 12.

14. FIRST RECORD OF FRESH WATER CRAB PARATELPHUSA SPP. IN THE BARN OWL’S

TYTO ALBA (SCOPOLI) DIET IN TRANQUEBAR TALUK, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA

Barn owl’s ( Tyto alba) diet consists exclusively

of rodents and other small mammals (Evans and

Emlen 1947, Colvin and McLean 1986) such as

shrews, moles, gophers, rabbits, mice, rats, flying

squirrels, oppossums, lemmings (Parmalee and

Klippel 1991), dibbler and dunnart (Dickman et al.

1991). Barn owl pellets occasionally revealed the

presence of birds and insects (Evans and Emlen

1947) and frogs (Parmalee and Klippel 1991). We

have also observed that the barn owl’s diet consist

of rats, mice, gerbils and shrews. While analysing

the pellets of barn owl collected from different

nesting sites in Tranquebar Taluk, we had seen the

appendages of crab ( Paratelphusa sp.) as prey

remains from a nesting site at Sri Sarnlharaikata

Swamy temple, Thillaiyadi, during June 1993, and

the pellets collected from the site also contained the

thoracic chitinous shells and a pair of chelae of

freshwater crab. These nocturnal freshwater crabs

inhabit the adjoining agricultural lands along with

rats. So it may be speculated that the barn owl might

have hunted the crabs from the agricultural lands

and brought them to the nesting sites for

consumption. No such earlier record is available so

far from any other region. This observation

encourages us to include the crab as one of the food

items in the Barn owl’s diet.

September 5, 1994 R. KANAKAS ABAI

Divn. of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College

( Autonomous ), Mayladuthurai-609 305,

Tamil Nadu.

Refe

Colvin, B.A., & E.B. McLean (1986): Food habits and prey

specificity of the common bam owl in ohio. Ohio J.Sci.

86(1): 76-78.

Dickman, C.R., S.E.J. Daly & G.W. ConnelI (1991): Dietary

relationships of the barn owl and Australian kestrel on

islands off the coast of Western Australia. Emu 91 : 69-72.

rences

Evans, F.C. & J.T. Emlen (1947): Ecological notes on the prey

selected by a barn owl. Condor 49 (I ): 3-9.

Parmalee, P.W. & W.E. Klippel (1991): Seasonal variation

in prey of the barn owl ( Tyto alba) in Tennessee.

Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science 66(4): 219-

224.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

91

15. NESTING IN ANCHOR-PIPE BY BRAHMINY MYNA, STURNUS PAGODAR UM (GMELIN)

(With a text-figure )

On 6.6. 1994 at about 12 hr. I was waiting for

an Alwar-bound bus at the bus-station at Khairthal

AP-Anchor-pipe, P-Telephone pole, N-Nesting site.

in Alwar district when I observed a pair of Brahminy

myna (Stumus pagodarum ) carrying small insects

to feed their chicks in an anchor-pipe, made of steel

that was placed to support the anchor-wire of a

telephone pole (Fig 1 ). The length of the pipe was

nearly 2 metres. Its lower end was buried in the earth

and the upper end was available to the birds to move

in and out. The diameter of the pipe was nearly 62

mm posing no problem to the bird’s entry. Since

summers are very hot in Rajasthan, steel becomes

very hot during the day time, specially at noon,

even then such a hot site was selected by the

birds for nesting. On the date of observation, the

maximum temperature was nearly 45°C in the

locality. I could see one bird (perhaps female)

frequently sitting at the mouth of the pipe in the wing

spread posture.

According to Ali and Ripley (handbook

1983) S. pagodarum nests in holes in tree trunks or

boughs, in a wall or roof of houses. Nesting in steel

anchor-pipes is a new site and hence worth placing on

record.

January 12, 1995 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jliadol (F.),

Dist. Udaipur (Raj.) 313 702.

16. INTRASPECIFIC BROOD PARASITISM IN THE COMMON MYNA

ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS (LINN.)

Intraspecific brood parasitism (IBP) refers to a

female laying one or more eggs in a conspecific nest.

It is much more common in birds that have self-

feeding young than in those where young are fed by

parents. Among the latter, it is more common in

colonial than in solitary nesting species (Rohwer and

Freeman 1987). IBP occurs in 28 passerine species

all of which have parentally fed young (Rohwer and

Freeman 1987, MacWhirter 1989, Dhindsa 1990).

Among Indian birds, this behaviour has been reported

in four passerines, all belonging to family Ploceidae

(Dhindsa 1983a, b;1990). In this paper, we describe

evidence of IBP in the Common Myna Acridotheres

tristis, a passerine species of the family Sturnidae in

which the young are fed by parents.

Observations were recorded while studying

breeding biology of the Common Myna during its

1992 breeding season in the Punjab Agricultural

University campus at Ludhiana (30° 56' N, 75° 52'

E, 247 m above msl). Thirty (15 wooden and 15

polyvinyl chloride) nest boxes were put up in different

parts of the University Campus. Two boxes were lost

while 22 of the remaining 28 boxes were occupied

by the common Myna. The nest boxes were checked

92

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

twice a week during nest building and daily from the

initiation of egg laying till three days after the clutch

was completed. To avoid disturbance to the incubating

female, nest boxes were not checked for one week

after making sure that the clutches were complete.

After this, however, boxes were again checked daily.

Evidence of IBP was recorded in one of 22 (4.5%)

nest boxes in which Common Mynas bred. The first

egg of the clutch in this box was laid on 22 April,

followed by three more eggs on 23, 24 and 25 April,

respectively. The nest was examined daily up to 28 April

but no more egg was found in it. The clutch of 4 eggs

was, therefore, completed on 25 April. When checked

after a week, i.e. on 5 May, there were five eggs in the

box instead of a clutch of four. The fifth egg was thus

laid after 28 April, i.e. at least 4 days after the clutch

was completed. The size of the fifth egg (28.3 x 21 .0

mm) was smaller than the average size of four eggs of

the clutch (29.9 x 22.0 mm).Hatching commenced on

7 May when two eggs hatched simultaneously. This

suggests that the incubation had started after second

egg of the clutch was laid. The remaining three eggs

did not hatch and remained intact in the box till 21 May

when the young were 14 days old. Both young fledged

successfully on 28 May, i.e. 21 days after hatching.

Like most passerines. Common Mynas lay eggs at

one day intervals. In the present study, no eggs were

ever laid after the completion of clutches in 21 of 22

nest boxes. The eggs in all the boxes were laid at regular

interval of 24 hrs except in three cases where one egg

of the clutch was laid at 48 hrs interval. In most passerine

species, females start incubating just after the

penultimate or last egg of the clutch is laid. The eggs

appearing in the nest thereafter cannot be taken as laid

by the owner female because ovaries and related

reproductive organs regress soon after the completion

of clutch. Moreover, the usual interval of 24 hr. (rarely

48 hr.) between successive eggs of a clutch of the

Common Myna also suggests that the egg laid 96 hr.

after clutch completion in this nest box was a parasitic

egg.

The reasons of IBP recorded in this study are not

clear. However, the smaller size of parasitic egg as

compared to the average egg size in the host clutch

suggests that this egg might have been laid by a young

female (Yom-Tov 1980). The second possibility may

be the shortage of suitable nesting sites. This factor

is important in species which lay in holes, cavities,

burrows and similar places (Yom-Tov 1980). In our

study area, 28 nests of Common Myna were in natural

holes in trees while the rest were built in tree branches

(Sandhu 1993). This suggests that Common Mynas

prefer breeding in natural holes which are definitely

in short supply in the study area. This is supported

by the fact that 22 of 28 (78.6%) nest boxes put up in

the study area were occupied by Common Mynas. In

10 nest boxes, they reared two and in 3 nest boxes,

three successive broods. One pair even evicted a pair

of ring doves Streptopelia decaocto from a nest box

after the female dove had laid an egg (Dhanda and

Dhindsa 1993). All this suggests that the number of

mated females may be more than the available nest

sites, leading to IBP.

IBP is successful in those birds which are unable

to recognize and eject conspecific parasitic eggs

(Dhindsa and Sandhu 1988). Common Mynas do not

eject their unhatched eggs from the nests. Even the

heterospecific eggs are not ejected by them. The

evidence of this came from the nest box from where

an egg of ring dove was neither ejected nor destroyed

by the Common Mynas which evicted the doves and

occupied the box to lay their own clutch (Dhanda

and Dhindsa 1993). This observation suggests that

even interspecific brood parasitism can be successful

in Common Myna.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Ram Parshad and Lai Bahadur

for help in field work. This study was supported by

the University Grants Commission, New Delhi

through a fellowship under the Faculty Improvement

Programme to Satwant K. Dhanda and by the Indian

Council of Agricultural Research through the All

India Network Project on Agricultural Ornithology.

1 4 October 1 994 SATWANT K. DHANDA

MANJIT S. DHINDSA

Department of Zoology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana- 141 004, Punjab (India).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

93

REFERENCES

Dl ianda, S.K. & M.S. Dhindsa (in press): Eviction of ring dove

Streptopelia decaoclo from a nest box by common myna

Acridolheres tristis. Pavo 31.

Dhindsa, M.S. (1983a): Intraspecific nest parasitism in two species

of Indian weaverbirds ( Ploceus benghalensis and P.

nianyar). Ibis 125: 243-245.

Dhindsa, M.S. ( 1983b): Intraspecific nest parasitism in the white-

throated munia. Notprnis 30: 87-92.

Dhindsa, M.S. (1990): Intraspecific brood parasitism in the baya

weaverbird (Ploceus pliilippimis). Bird Beliav. 8: 111-113.

Dhindsa, M.S. & P.S. Sandiiu (1988): Response of the baya

weaverbird (Ploceus pliilippinus) to eggs of the white-

throated munia (Lonchura malabarica): relation to

possible incipient brood parasitism. Zool. Anx. 220: 2 lb-

222.

MacWhirter, R.B. (1989): On the rarity of intraspecific brood

parasitism. Condor 91: 485-492.

Rohwer, F.C. & S. Freeman (1987): The distribution of

conspecific nest parasitism in birds. Can. J. Zool. 67: 239-

253.

Sandhu, S.K. (1993): Ecological studies on the association of

birds with trees with special reference to nest-site

selection. Unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana, India.

Yom-Tov, Y. (1980): Intraspecific nest parasitism in birds. Biol.

Rev. 55: 93-108.

17. SIDEWAYS LEAP-FROGGING BY THE LARGE GREY BABBLERS, TURDOIDES

MALCOLMI (SYKES)

Leap-frogging in the Common Babblers

( Turdoides cciudatiis ) has been recorded by me

earlier ( JBNHS 89: 376), but not so far among the

Large Grey Babbler ( Turdoides malcolmi).

On 11 September 1991 in front of my

residence at Sidhi, Madhya Pradesh, four birds were

seen perched on an electric line. Suddenly two of

them indulged in sideways leap-frogging by

performing closely huddled sideways jumps, one

over the other, in quick succession. In this manner,

they traversed a distance of about a metre on the

electric line, thereafter indulged in caressing each

other with bills. Before any more observations could

be made, the pair flew away.

January 12, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

27, MIG, Indravati Colony,

Raipur 492 001,

Rajasthan.

1 8. PIPIT (ANTHUS SR) PREYING ON LEECHES

Ponmudi (c. 1035 m above msl) is a spur hill

of the Southern Western Ghats, about 56 km NE. of

Trivandrum. I was watching birds there on 10.7.94

at the edge of an evergreen forest patch which abuts

a sleep grassy hill side with rocky outcrops and

slippery sheet-rocks. Here a Pipit was observed to

pick up and swallow a leech from the tip of a grass

blade. Within the next thirty odd minutes while I

watched it, the bird picked and gulped down two

more leeches. Once it even jumped up with wings

spread out to capture a leech which was moving at

the tip of a leaf blade some 1 m above the ground.

The characteristic undulating movement of the

leeches might have attracted the bird’s attention

leading to their predation. While several species of

insects together with other arthropods arc listed in

the dietary of pipits, it seems that leeches have not

been hitherto recorded. Moreover such an instance

of avian predation on leeches is interesting and

seemingly rare.

I was able to watch the bird very closely for a

long time using a pair of 8 x 40 field glasses, and

from the field characters and call, it was probably

the Brown Rock Pipit ( Anthus similis Jerdon).

October 1 8, 1 994 MANOJ V. NAIR

34 Thoppil Nay ar,

Trivandrum-695 Oil, Tamil Nadu.

94

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

19. ON SOME NEW BREEDING RECORDS OF WATERBIRDS FROM THE DELHI REGION

The most comprehensive account of the birds

of Delhi region exists in Usha Ganguli ’s book, 4 guide

to the birds of the Delhi area (Ganguli 1975). In this

work 404 species are described of which over 150

are recorded as residents, either with breeding records

or collected with enlarged gonads. Ganguli 's work is

largely based on her own observations till her death

in 1 97 1 and a compilation of contemporary and earlier

records. However, from some of our recent field work

in the Delhi region it emerged that some species of

waterbirds which have been described as having a

“vague” breeding status actually breed in this area.

Our coverage of wetland habitats in and around Delhi

was broadly the same as in the earlier work, with a

few exceptions. In this paper I intend to make a note

of these, possibly new breeding records.

1 . Rosy Pelican ( Pelecanits onocrotalus)

Ali and Ripley ( 1 983) refer to it as resident, at

least in part in the Indian subcontinent and “mainly

winter visitor to West Pakistan and North India...”.

Abdulali and Pandey (1978) record it as a migrant in

the Delhi-Agra-Bharatpur triangle while Rai (1983)

does not mention it in his checklist of the birds of

Meerut region. Ganguli records a couple of instances

when Rosy Pelican were seen in large numbers in

the wetlands of Delhi region and says, “In December

1969 more than 200 birds were present in Sultanpur

jheel; of these 13 or 14 were young birds in brown

plumage.”

I have seen wild Rosy Pelican breeding in the

ponds of the Delhi Zoo (Urfi 1993a). During 1989-

1991 I saw their nest on the ground (on islands in the

zoo ponds) underneath the canopy of Prosopis trees

and was informed by the zoo authorities that some of

the females among the pinioned pelican's, of the zoo’s

open-air exhibits, were impregnated by wild males

which fly in and out of the premises. Since the early

1990’s till now wild Rosy Pelicans have been

regularly visiting the zoo and there have been more

instances of breeding.

2. White Ibis (Th reskiornis aethiopica)

Ali and Ripley (loc. cit.) record it as resident

and nomadic in the Indian subcontinent. Abdulali and

Pandey record it as a local migrant/resident while Rai

refers to it as a local migrant. Ganguli says, “Occurs

at various times of the year, but there was no breeding

record for Delhi till September 1, 1969, when P.

Jackson found a small nesting colony near Sultanpur

Jheel.” She docs not mention any other nesting record.

I have seen White Ibis nesting in the heronries

of the Delhi Zoo along with painted stork, egrets and

cormorants. The zoo official’s claim that White Ibis

started nesting here as a result of the zoo’s programme

of releasing some captive-bred birds in 1989 (Urfi

1992). During August-Septcmber 1992 I saw atleast

23 nests (with chicks in many of them) atTilyarLake,

about 50 km from Delhi in the Rohtak District of

Haryana (Urfi 1993b). Besides these two sites there

are several anecdotal accounts of White Ibis nests in

the Delhi region.

3. Lesser Whistling Teal or Tree Duck

(. Dendrocygna ja van ica )

In the Indian subcontinent this bird is resident

and partial local migrant. Regarding its nesting Ali

and Ripley (loc. cit.) mention that it nests mostly in

the hollow of trees but also sometimes builds nests

on the ground, among reeds and scrub bordering a

tank or jheel. Abdulali and Pandey record it as a local

migrant/resident in their checklist while Rai records

it as a winter migrant in the Meerut region. Ganguli

records it as a winter visitor and very uncommon.

Regarding its breeding status she says, “In November

1969 during the 10th General Assembly of the

I.U.C.N., at one of the outings we saw 4 adults with

6 young birds swimming in Sultanpur jheel. They

were at a distance, but Peter Scott identified them as

Lesser Whistling Teals, a breeding record after nearly

a century.”

I have seen Lesser Whistling Teal on several

occasions at the Okhla barrage during 1989-1992.

On August 26, 1990 I saw a family of 2 adults and 6

chicks swimming in the barrage near the shore. As I

walked closer one of the adults climbed the shore

and did the ‘broken wing/injury display’. While I

watched this display the chicks and the other parent

had drifted several meters away in the deeper zone

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

95

of the barrage.

4. Bronzewinged Jacana ( Metopidius indicus )

Aceording to Ali and Ripley, this bird is

resident, common and wide spread throughout the

Indian subcontinent, excepting Western Punjab and

Western Rajasthan. Abdulali and Pandey record it as

resident in the Delhi-Agra-Bharatpur triangle while

Rai does not record it from the Meerut region. Ganguli

records it as a vagrant with only three records from

the Delhi region. One of these concerns an immature

bird seen twice (on 8th and 23rd March, 1953) at

Senipura jheel about 32 km east of Delhi. On another

occasion in May 1966 an adult was seen collecting

water-weeds in a swamp — the season and its

behaviour suggested that it might be nesting.

Refer

Abdulali, H. & J.D. Pandey (1978): Checklist of the

birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Popular Press, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan. (Compact edition). Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Ganguli, U. (1975): A guide to the birds of the Delhi area. Indian

Council of Agricultural Research, Delhi.

Rai, Y.M. (1983): Birds of Meerut Region. Vardhman Printers,

20. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE BIRD

In a recent paper, Kurup and Zacharias ( 1 994)

have summarized and listed out the birds so far

reported from the Lakshadweep archipelago. They

have compiled a list of 104 species reported between

1876 and 1992. Earlier, Daniels (1992) had put

together a list of birds seen by him and others who

visited these islands and related the biogeographical

theories to the patterns of bird distribution in the

Lakshadweep Archipelago.

The paper by Kurup and Zacharias includes

species recorded by us in 1990-91 , during the course

of our survey of the nesting terns on the Pitti sandbank

and some nearby islands. We had seen a total of 48

species of birds (including three unidentified) in the

course of four visits and eleven of these are new

records for the Lakshadweep Islands. A detailed

report on the status of the breeding terns and the

conservation measures suggested is published

elsewhere (Mathew et al. 1991 ). We now give some

details of our sightings of the eleven species recorded

I have seen Bronzewinged Jacana on several

occaions at the Okhla barrage during 1989-1992. In

September 1990 I saw 2 adults and 2 juveniles in a

seepage pond close to the Okhla barrage. Although

this pond was used by local people for cultivating

Trapa (Singhara) and there used to human

disturbance, I saw this family many times.

I thank Suresh Sharma for help in the field and

commenting on an earlier draft. I thank CSIR, New

Delhi for supporting my studies on waterbirds, at

several stages.

January 31,1 995 ABDUL JAMIL URFI

A-270, Jamia Nagai ; Okhla, New Delhi l JO 025.

:nces

Meerut.

Urfi, A.J. (1992): The significance of Delhi Zoo for Water-

bird Conservation. International Zoo News. 39/2:

13-16.

Urfi, A.J. (1993a): The birdlife of Okhla. Sanctuary Asia 13:

50-53.

Urfi, A.J. (1993b): Heronries in the Delhi region of India.

Oriental Bird Club Bull. 17: 19-21.

LIST OF THE LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

for the first time with some comments on their

distribution in the adjoining Maidive Islands.

Large(?) Cormorant Phalacrocorax carho

Two birds were seen in flight over Kavaratti

on 28 October 1990, close to the helipad, located at

the southern tip of the island. Later one of the birds

flew closer. We could see the white throat and hooked

bill, besides the overall dark plumage. As the sighting

was very brief, it is treated as unconfirmed. This

species has not been reported from the Maldives (Ash

and Shafeeg 1994).

Yellow Bittern Ixohrychus sinensis

On 28 April 1991, a single bird was spotted on

Bangaram Island, at the pond behind the Casino Hotel.

The bird was seen flying to a bush overhanging the

water and a few minutes later, it was again seen in flight.

This species has been reported twice in the Maldives

(Phillips 1963) and more recently an individual was

recorded in captivity (Ash and Shafeeg 1994).

96

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 U 996)

Gullbilled Tern Gelochelidon nilotica

Single birds were sighted in flight at Agatti

(I November 1990) and at Bangaram (4 February

1991). Strickland and Jenner (1977) say that

single birds have been seen in the winter months in

the Maldives while Ash and Shafeeg (1994)

mention that it is reported to breed there in March-

April.

Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis passe rinus

Two birds - a female in hepatic plumage and a

normal grey-coloured individual - were seen together

in the same area in Kavaratti on all days

from 27-31 October 1990. They were seen in the

scrub area near the helipad. We were also able to

obtain photographs of the birds. On our subsequent

visits in January/February and April 1991 , we could

not locate them despite careful lookout. Phillips

(1963) reports two records (in January and

November) in the Maldives and there appears to be

no recent record.

House Swift A pus tiffin is

On the afternoon of I February 1991, we

noticed 7-8 House swifts in overhead flight at

Kavaratti, close to the boat jetty. They were flying

about, hawking insects. Ash and Shafecg ( 1 994) have

cited old records of this species in the Maldives where

it occurs in small numbers.

Indian Pitta Pitta brachyitra

A solitary bird was noticed foraging on the

ground, in a coconut grove with a lot of undergrowth

C C C

at Kavaratti on 29 October 1990. It was not seen on

subsequent dates. There appears to be no report of

this species from the Maldives.

Collared Sand Martin Riparia ripciria

A single bird was seen in the company of

Common swallows ( Hinuulo rustica ), flying and

perched on wires on 29 and 31 October 1990, in the

southern portion of Kavaratti. A couple of

photographs were taken which confirm its

identification. This species has been reported in small

numbers in the Maldives, usually between September

and November and once in May (Phillips 1963,

Stickland and Jenner 1977).

Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acmcephalus dumetonun

We heard and saw three Blyth’s reed warblers

in the scrub area in the southern part of Kavaratti on

1 February 1991. They were active in the bushes,

especially Lantana. They were not located on a

subsequent trip in April. This species has not been

recorded from Maldives.

Tree Pipit Antlius trivialis

A single bird was noticed along with Yellow

wagtails (Motacillti flava) on 27 October 1990 at

Kavaratti, foraging on the grassy area close to the

lagoon. On 29 October 1990, three birds were seen

perched on coconut fronds in the same locality. It

has been recorded once in the Maldives (Phillips

1963).

Paddyfield Pipit A nthus novae seelandiae

We saw a single individual near the helipad at

Kavaratti on two occasions — on 29 and 30 October

1990. The bird lacked tail feathers. This species has

not been reported from the Maldives.

White Wagtail Motacilla alba

Solitary individuals were seen at Kavaratti on

30 October and at Agatti on 1 November 1990. No

records from the Maldives.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Department of Science

and Technology, Lakshadweep Administration for

financial support and for facilities. The late Mr. V.J.

Rajan, Secretary, Madras Naturalists' Society, Madras

accompanied us on some of the field trips and

encouargcd us.

August 26, 1995 V. SANTHARAM

68, 1st Floor, Santhome Hit'll Road,

Madras 600028.

D.N. MATHEW

Calicut University, Calicut Univ. P.O. 673 635,

Kerala.

GEORGE MATHEW

Lecturer in Zoology, St. Joseph s College,

l)c vagiri, Calicut-6 73 008.

TARA GANDHI

8, South Audley Street, London WL U.K.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

97

R E FF.RENCES

Ash, J.S. & A. Shafeeg ( 1994): The birds of the Maldives. Forklail

10: 3-32.

Daniels, R.J. Ranjit (1992): Island biogeography and the birds

of the Lakshadweep Archipelago, Indian Ocean. J. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc. 88: 320-328.

Kurup, D.N. & V.J. Zacharias (1994): Birds of Lakshadweep

Islands. Forktail 10: 49-64.

Mathew, D.N., T. Gandhi, V. Santhanam, V. J. Raian & G.

Mathew (1991): Pitti Island, Lakshadweep - — an

ornithological study. Madras Naturalists’ Society, Madras,

pp. 34 + 8 colour plates.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1963): The birds of the Maidive Islands, Indian

Ocean. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 546-584.

Strickland, M.J. & J.C. Jenner (1977): A report on the birds of

Addu Atoll (Maidive Islands). ,/. Bombay nat. His't. Soc.

74: 487-500.

21. THE KEELED BOX TURTLE PYXIDEA MOUHOTll GRAY ON THE NORTH BANK

OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA — A NEW RECORD

The Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii Gray,

1862. is one of the poorly-known hard-shell turtle

species of South-East Asia. In India, it is confined

to the North-East and has been specifically recorded

from North Cachar Hills, Assam, Garo and Khasi

Hills of Meghalaya (Das 1991), Mchao sanctuary

(Bhupathy and Choudhury 1992) and Namdapha

National Park, Arunachal Pradesh (Das 1991).

Recently this species has been recorded from

Dhansiri reserved forest, Karbi Anglong district,

Assam (Choudhury 1993). All these records were

from the south of the Brahmaputra river.

On 27 April 1995, I obtained a carapace of

keeled box turtle (AUC 39) in Madhupur village of

Lakhimpur district in eastern Assam. It measured

(in cm): Straight line carapace length^ 1 6.35; Curved

carapace length= 1 8.4; Straight line carapace width=

11.8; Curved carapace width= 17.9 and Carapace

height^ 6.0.

On enquiry, I was told by the villager who

collected it live, that it was found in a small hill

stream with Bowing water in Durpong Reserved

Forest of Papum Pare district (formerly part of Lower

Subansiri district) of Arunachal Pradesh. The inter-

state border is only about a kilometre from Madhupur

and the site of original collection was only a few

kilometre inside the foothill country. This part of

Arunachal Pradesh has been referred to as Daffla

Hills in earlier records.

November 23, 1995 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road, Guwahati-781 007,

Assam.

References

Bhupathy, S. & B.C. Choudhury ( 1992): Turtle fauna of Assam. Das, I. (1991 ): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the

Preliminary report. Wildlife Institute of India. Dehra Dun. Indian Sub-continent. R & A Publishing Ltd.. Portished.

22. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF INDIAN MUGGER ( CROCODYLUS

PALUSTRIS) AT BHOR-SAINDAN CROCODILE SANCTUARY IN HARYANA

The present study was conducted on the Indian

marsh Crocodile at Bhor Saidan Crocodile sanctuary

in Kurukshctra District of Haryana State in India 29°

45' N, 76° 44' E. The sanctuary is situated 1 3 Km

West of Kurukshctra on Kurukshctra- Pehowa road.

The total area of the sanctuary is 3.25 ha. In the

middle of the sanctuary, there is a big earth mound

riddled with tunnels, where crocodiles stay at night

during winter and lay eggs during the summer. The

earth mound is surrounded by a circular water body.

The mound is connected to the pond by two

longitudinal bunds at the front and back which

provides a passage to the mound.

In the centre of the pond, there is a platform,

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 < 1996)

Tabu la

SHOWING INCIDENCE OF PAIRING, MATING, ETC, DURING DECEMBER 1988 TO MARCH 1989

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

99

Table 2a

SHOWING INCIDENTS OF PAIRING, MATING. ETC., FROM DECEMBER 1989 TO MARCH 1990

Table 2b

THE INCIDENTS OF NESTING AND EGG LAYING AT BHOR SAIDAN CROCODILE SANCTUARY DURING 1990

April 6, 7

Freshly dug sand observed at the entranee of the tunnel.

An abandoned tunnel was observed to be in use as sand was dug out by the mugger.

The shells of damaged eggs were colleeted from the mouth of the tunnel up to June 16.

The egg laying came to notice in another tunnel from the appearance of damged eggs from the mouth of a

tunnel.

The female remained in the tunnel up to June 28th.

Females were still guarding the eggs.

— do —

One female left the tunnel. No hatchling was observed.

Another female also left the tunnel. No New born was observed.

which is the main basking site during winter. The

sanctuary is completely fenced all around.

The breeding behaviour of the mugger was

studied during 1988, 1989, 1990 on a regular basis

by making daily or weekly visits as the situation

warranted. On several occasions, the stay at the

sanctuary site was extended to several consecutive

days. But during 1991 and 1992 only a few visits

were made to the sanctuary site to study various

aspects of the breeding behaviour. Observations were

made with the help of binoculars and records made

with a camera and on a field note. Care was taken to

study the entire area of the Sanctuary on all

occasions.

100

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

Table 1 accounts for different activities of the

breeding periods of 1988-89 and 1989-90. It is

evident from table 1 that during the observation the

breeding season was between December to July.

According to Whitaker and Whitaker (1984) the

breeding season in the case of the mugger extends

from November to June in Madras in South India.

On the other hand, Prakash (1971) has reported

mugger breeding from December to May at Jaipur

in western India. It is clear that the breeding season

varies geographically and it could be broadly

generalised to correspond to December to July.

It is also evident from Tables 1 and 2, that the

breeding exercise of the mugger is broadly divided

into sub phases, namely pre-pair formation activities,

pair formation and courtship, mating, egg laying and

guarding of eggs.

The pre-pair formation activity is basically a

part of basking in the sun during winter. At the onset

of winter from October onwards every year

crocodiles bask at specific places. At that time they

bask in groups of five to six. As the winter progresses

the number of crocodiles in each group increases.

So the pre-pair formation activity may not be

considered a part of the breeding cycle.

In December every year, the groups of basking

muggers, segregate into smaller groups, that is, pairs

of male and female. This pairing is an extended

activity as it lasts for 3 months, from December to

February or March. Basically, the pair formation is

a courtship activity prior to mating, in which the male

follows a female the whole day while basking,

venturing into water and both stay in the same tunnel

at night. The male and female show intimacy by

various action tabulated in Tables la & 2a. This

intense courtship of 3 months or more leads to

mating.

It is pertinent to mention here that mating is a

very private exercise wherein male and female

become waterborne in deep water in the most

secluded corner of their residence.

Mating events could only be woven together

focussing on animals under observation, constantly

for many days, for many hours, coinciding with the

mating season. Any pair preparing to mate on any

given day disappears from the basking ground, at

least 5-6 hours prior to actual mating. This pair

remains water borne for at least 4-5 hours and their

movement is not discernible owing to their very

composed style of floating. At least half an hour

before actual mating, the male starts circling the

female, keeping his tail upwards out of water, slightly

curved. The snout of the male is always directed

towards the female.

This circling continues for 20 minutes or so.

The next five minutes of this phase are very crucial

and distinctive from the fact that the male and female

bite each other by locking their jaws while lying

juxtaposed to each other laterally. Mounting takes

place in this position, both the animals completely

submerge in water, the female submerge first. At this

point of time, the male moves his body downwards

at the same place where the female is lying in the

water. It appeared as if the male and female were

copulating belly to belly. After 5-6 minutes, the

female was seen biting the head scutes of the male.

Later, the male and female moved apart swimming

briskly. The observation with regard to the sequence

of courtship are somewhat in agreement with the

observations of Whitaker and Whitaker (1984).

However no hissing sound was audible,

as observed by Singh (1979a) and no activity

was observed on land as observed by Yadav

(1969).

Briefly before actually mating the male circles

the female and both bite each other, followed by

mating in deep water, the actual mating is not visible.

After courtship, the next activity during the

breeding season is nesting. In nesting, the mugger

identifies the place for the nest and digs. At Bhor

Saidan Crocodile Sanctuary the muggers did not dig

fresh nests, but lay in permanent nests that is, the

tunnels. The laying of eggs in tunnels has also been

reported by Singh (1979b). Before the egg laying

the muggers were observed clearing the debris from

the mouth of the tunnels. On a few occasions freshly

dug sand was also observed at the mouth of the

tunnels. This sand was probably dug out to lay eggs

in the tunnel.

Every year eggs have been retrieved from 2-3

Ml SC ELI A NEO US NOTES

101

tunnels in damaged condition. The reason for damage

of the eggs has not been identified. This is the sole

reason why hatchlings have never been observed in

the sanctuary where mortality rate of egg seems to

be 100%. It is curious to note that during late May

and June, it is very easy to discern the sex of the

animal as the females despite the inclement weather,

remain confined to the tunnels, in a bid to guard the

eggs lying inside the tunnel. On several occassions

R i-: i- 1- r

Prakash, M. (1971 ): Crocodile {Cmcodylus palustris) breeding

at the Jaipur Zoo. ./. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 6S(3)\ 835-837.

Singh, L.A.K. (1979a): Bride Crocodile from nature mates

groom in Captivity. Indian Eoresier 105(7): 546.

Singh, L.A.K. (1979b): Social attraction of a wild mugger

(Cmcodylus palustris Lesson) towards captive mugger. ./.

4-5 egg shells were seen lying at the mouth of tunnel

in which a female was lying.

August 14, 1993 R.C. GUPTA

Zoology Deportment, Kurukshetra University .

Kurukshetra, Haryana.

C.S. BHARDWAJ

Lecturer in Zoology, Day a I Singh College,

Karnal, India.

LNCHS

Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 167-172.

Whitaker. R. & Z. W HiTAKiiR (1984): Reproductive biology of

the mugger (Cmcodylus palustris). .1. Bombay not. Hist. Soc.

SI (2): 297-316.

Yadav, R.N. ( 1969): Breeding the mugger crocodile (Cmcodylus

palustris) at Jaipur Zoo. bit. Zoo. Year Book 9: 33.

23. RECORDS OF WATER SNAKES (HOMALOPSIDAE: SERPENTES) FROM

GUJARAT STATE

During surveys of snakes in Gujarat State, I

received five live water snakes, on February 2, 1988,

from local fisherman of Navsari, Valsad District. All

were trapped in fishing nets, during fishing in the

estuary of Purna river. Cerberus rhyncliops was the

commonest species and there was a specimen of

Gerardia prevostiana.

C. rhyncliops occurs in the estuaries of all big

rivers of south Gujarat, but G. prevostiana is being

recorded for first time from Gujarat.

Measurements and Details: Snout to vent

length 52 cm, tail length 8 cm and total length is 60

cm. Supralabials 7. 4lh touches the eye; infralabials

9 with two pairs of genials; temporals 1+2; 1 pre, 1

supra and 2 postoculars; body scales smooth and

18:17: 15 in row; venlrals 154; subcaudals 35 divided;

anal plate 2; sex: male.

Eye small with vertical pupil. Body colour

uniformly dark grey, upper lip and lower jaw

white and other three rows of body scales are

lighlgrey, belly white, with the edges being dark

grey.

According to Smith (1943. i-auna or British

India, Vol. Ill), this species is distributed in the coasts

and in tidal rivers of India, from Bombay to Malabar,

and is reported from Sri Lanka (Kalani river), Burma

(Gulf of Martaban) and the west coast of Malay

Peninsula. The present record from Purna river, 3

km from Navsari, Valsad District therefore extends

the range of the species.

October 16, 1995 RAJU VYAS

Sayaji Bang Zoo, Vadodara-3900 J 8.

Gujarat, India.

24. COMMENTS ON THE NOTE “FIRST RECORD OF MICROHYLA RUBRA (JERDON)

(AMPHIBIA: ANURA) FROM MAHARASHTRA” BY KAMBLE AND GHATE

Kamble and Ghate (1994) have recorded first time from Maharashtra based on a specimen

Microhyla rubra (Jerdon) (Amphibia: Anura) for the available in the Western Regional Station; Zoological

102

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 93 (1 996)

Survey of India, Pune, determined by M.S.

Ravichandran. However, the Amphibian specimens

available in the Western Regional Station, Zoological

Survey of India, Pune have been studied earlier and

the results published by Ravichandran and Pillai

(1990) through their paper entitled, “Amphibia of

Maharashtra with description of a new species of

torrent toad, Ansonia ”. Ravichandran and Pillai in

their paper cited above have clearly reported Bitfo

beddomii, Microhyla rubra and Ran a keralensis as

new records to Maharashtra and staled that Microhyla

rubra which was not known north of Malabar

(Kerala) in Western India and Bangalore in the

Peninsula now enjoys a more extensive distribution,

hence the record of interest.

Ravichandran and Pillai ( 1 990) having already

reported the occurrence of Microhyla rubra in

Maharashtra, the recording of the species of Kamble

and Ghate (1994) does not form the first record from

the area.

Kamble and Ghate (1994) have used the

specimen determined by M.S. Ravichandran for their

report.

July 28, 1995 C. RADHAKRISHNAN

Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Calicut-673 002.

References

Kamble, S.S. & H.V. Ghate (1994): First record of Microhyla Ravichandran, M.S. & R.S. Pillai (1990): Amphibia of

rubra (Jerdon) (Amphibia: Anura) from Maharashtra. J. Maharashtra with description of a new species of torrent toad,

Bombay nar. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 150-151. Anson ia. Rec. Zool. Suit. India 86 (3 & 4): 505-513.

25. FUNTIUS DJJKAI DAY (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) — A NEW RECORD FROM

UTTAR PRADESH HILLS

During the course of collection of fishes from

Gharhakiya Gad (a tributary of East Ramganga river

in Pithoragarh district, altitude 1 125 m.s.l.), a few

specimens of Puntius dukai Day were caught from

side pools of torrential streams. Subsequently, 5

specimens were also caught from Ladhiya stream (a

tributary of the Kali river system) at Chalthi,

Pithoragarh district.

A perusal of the literature on fishes of Uttar

Pradesh Hills (Hora 1 937, Mcnon 1 949 and Pant 1 970)

shows that this species was not known from the region.

The occurrence of P. dukai from this area

extends the distributional range of the species up to

U.P. hills, while in earlier studies the distribution of

the species was recorded as Teesta river, Darjeeling

(West Bengal) and nearby foothills of Terai and Duars

(Day 1889, Sen and Jayaram 1982).

A brief discription of the species is given below.

1 889, Barbus dukai Day, Fauna Br. India. Fish.

p. 564, pi. CLXVI, fig. 3.

1981, Puntius dukai Jayaram, Handbook

Freshwater Fishes India) p. 100 (distribution).

1 982, Barbus dukai Sen and Jayaram, Rec. Zool.

Sur. India. No. 39, Mahseer p. 15.

Local Name: Karanga, Sidhari.

Diagnostic features: D. 13(4/9), P. 15, V.9,

A. 7(2/5), C.19, L. 1.28-29, L.tr. 4.4

Head length 4-%-5, of caudal 4-3A-5, body depth

4-'/3-5 in total length. Body elongate and compressed.

Interorbital space rather convex. Sides of snout and

region below eye with large open tubercles. Lower

labial fold interrupted. The rostral pair of barbels

are slightly longer than the orbit, the maxillary pair

almost reach the angle of the opercle.

Maximum size recorded: 14.1 cm.

We are grateful to Dr. P. Das, Director, NBFGR

for encouragement. Thanks are also due to Dr. T.K.

Sen, ZSI, Calcutta for confirming our identification.

May 19, 1995 K.D. JOSHI

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,

351/28 Dariyapur; Talkcitora Road,

Post Box No. 19, Lucknow-226004, U.P, India.

P.C. JOSHI

Department of Zoology R.H. Govt. P.G. College,

Kashipui; Dist. Nainital, U.P, India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

103

References

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon

and Burma. Fishes 1. Taylor and Francis, London,

p. 564.

Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum

XXXIII on a collection of fish from Kumaun Himalayas.

Rec. Indian Mils. 39(4): 338-341.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh. Burma and Sri Lanka: A handbook. Govt, of

India, p. 100.

Menon, A.G.K. (1949): Fishes of Kumaon Himalayas. J.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 62(3): 535-542.

Pant, M.C. (1970): Fish Fauna of Kumaun Hills. Rec. Zool.

Snrv. India 64(1-4 ): 85-96.

Sen, T.K. & Jayaram, K.C. ( 1982): Mahseer fishes of India.

Rec. Zool. Suit. India 39: 15.

26. RECORD OF NEW FISHES FROM PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

The Periyar Lake, a man-made impoundment

and associated streams are situated within the Periyar

Tiger Reserve (9° 15' to 9° 40’ N; 76° 55' to 77° 25’

E) of Kerala. The lake has a total area of 26 sq. km,

and two third-order streams, namely Mullayar and

Periyar debouch into the reservoir. The lake and

associated streams support a diverse fish fauna.

As a part of the study on the structure of fish

communities in the lake and associated streams,

fishes were collected seasonally from the lake and

streams during May, 1994 and April, 1995. The

analyses of fish collections revealed the presence of

six new species of fishes in the Periyar Lake which

were not listed in the earlier investigations (Raj

1941a, b; Chacko 1948) in this area.

The following is the list of new fish species:

1 . Cyprinus carpio communis Linnaeus

2. Oreochmmis mossambicus (Peters)

3. Garret mcClellandi (Jerdon)

4. Bliavania australis (Jerdon)

5. Noemacheilus guentheri Day

6. Travancoria jonesi Hora

Of these, C. carpio communis and O.

mossambicus are exotic and were distributed

abundantly in the lake. Since no records are available

with the Forest and Fisheries Departments of the

State about the introduction of these exotic species,

these fishes are considered to be “accidentally

Refer

Chacko, P.I. (1948): Development of fisheries of the Periyar Lake.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192.

Menon, A.G.K. (1993): Rare and endangered fishes of Malabar.

Seminar on the conservation of endangered fauna of Malabar.

introduced” during the last few decades. Another fish

species G. mcClellandi, which was distributed both

in the lake and streams, has only been reported from

Cauvery basin (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The rest

were loaches distributed rarely in the stream and in

the confluence zone, where the streams join the lake.

Silas (1952) noted the presence of A. guentheri and

T. jonesi in the high range of Travancore which were

collected from different streams that drain outside

the Periyar Tiger Reserve. One of the rare loaches

collected from Periyar, T. jonesi has been considered

as endangered (Menon 1993). The specimens are

kept in the Wildlife Biology Division of Kerala

Forest Research Institute.

Acknowledgements

The project is supported by the Wildlife Wing

of the Kerala Forest Department and we thank the

Officials of the Department for their kind co-

operation and the Director of KFRI for constant

encouragement and guidance.

August 8, 1995 L.K. ARUN

C.P. SHAJI

PS. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peeclti-680 653, Trichur, Kerala.

ENCES

Paper 1 , Abstracts, Page 1 .

Raj, S.B. (1941a): On a new genus of Schizothoracine fishes

from Travancore, South India. Rec. bid. Mus. 43: 209-214.

Raj, S.B. (1941b): Two new Cyprinid fishes from Travancore,

104

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996 )

South India with remarks on Barbus ( Puntius ) micwpogon

Cuv. and Val. Rec. hid. Mas. 43: 375-386.

Silas, E.G. ( 1952): Fishes from the high range of Travancore. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330.

Talvvar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH. 1158 pp.

27. BIOLOGY OF ALTICA COERULEA (OLIV.) (CHRYSOMELIDAE: COLEOPTERA)

— A POTENTIAL BIO-CONTROL AGENT AGAINST JUSSI AEA REPENS L.

(With two text-figures )

The present communication deals with the first

report on the larvae and adults of leaf beetle, Altica

coerulea (Oliv.) (Fig. la, b) (Order Coleoptera,

Family Chrysomelidae, sub family Alticinae) as a

potential bioagent for the control of water primrose

Jussiaeci repens L. in the water bodies of fisheries

interest. Studies carried out at the Central Institute

of Freshwater Aquaculture, Kausalyaganga indicate

that the larvae and adults of the beetle do not attack

Fig. l.a. Imaginal and b. larval form of the leaf beetle,

Altica coerulea (Oliv.).

Fig. 2. Control of Jussiaea in a fish pond by leaf beetle.

any other plant of economic importance. The entire

life cycle of this beetle is completed within 62-78

days in the spring (at temperature range 16.0-

35.5°C). Elongated yellow eggs (Size 93-94 pm x

36-38 pm) are laid horizontally in patches (8-11

patches) on the ventral side of the host leaves for 72

hours consecutively. The dull black 1.5- 1.7 m larva

hatches out after 6-7 days of incubation and starts

feeding voraciously on the tender parts of th cJussicie

plant. This larva grows up to 9-1 1 mm in 21 days,

when it can consume 3 1 -39 mg of leaves and tender

stems per day (i.e. nearly 250-280% of their body

weight). At dearth of fresh leaf as a result of total

grazing by themselves, larvae bore into the stem wall

and excavate tunnels along its length, sometimes

traversing internodes, making larval galleries, where

they may eventually pupate. After actively feeding

for 2 1 -24 days full-grown larvae (12-14 mg) become

bowed and cease feeding for one day, then they

undergo pupation. The event takes place nakedly by

means of a split down the pre-abdomen and the pupa

gradually works the larval skin forwards until it

forms a crumpled mass at the oral extremity. The

light yellow coloured pupae (9-10 mg)

metamorphose into adults in about 4 days. The image

is 5-6 mm long and 13-15 mg in weight. There is

little difference between adult males and females,

the males are comparatively small and metallic

violet-black in colour, while females are metallic

greenish black. Life span (at 16.0°-35.5°C) is over

57 days. Aestivation occurs in moist places under

grass clumps and dry leaves on ground. The beetles

migrate to nearby infested water bodies, only when

the host plants become meagre. They are hardy and

vigorous defoliators, making holes in leaves

(consumption per day 16-24 mg/beetles). Artificial

hibernation over 50 days can be imposed by keeping

them at low temperature (4-5°C) in a closed moist

bottle, with complete resumption to normal life when

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

105

normal conditions are restored, which suggests easy

storage of inoculum and transport for dissemination.

The fecundity of this beetle has been recorded to

range between 140 and 160 (SD-3.35). Adults

copulate in overlapping position and the male

usually dies after mating. Females lay eggs in batches

(14-23 in a batch) and males copulate atleast 8-10

times in the intervals during oviposition. The

imaginal form has been found most suitable for

inoculation in Jussiaea infested ponds where they

multiply efficiently and establish themselves. Beetles

and their larvae start devastation from inocula-

tion sites and gradually spread all over (Fig. 2). Their

grazing verge can be demarcated apparently beyond

which the gravid female lays eggs and thus facili-

tates dispersal. Repeated grazing by both larvae and

adults lead to eradication of this weed from water

bodies.

This beetle has been found throughout the

year but in summer its population gradually

diminishes with the increasing intensity of

temperature which only adults can withstand,

aestivating under suitable shelter. With the onset of

rains they efficiently start propagating and become

most effective during winter months, when the host

plant’s growth period is at the peak. Except some

larvivorous fishes, so far no natural enemies have

been met with during the extensive field observa-

tions.

Control of excessive growth of aquatic

vegetation is a major problem. Chemical, manual

and mechanical control methods can be too

expensive, while biological control of weeds is not

only efficient but also ecologically acceptable and

economically viable. Though, insects have been used

for biological control of noxious aquatic plants

(Robson 1968, Chaudhuri and Janaki Ram 1975,

Refer

Chaudhuri, H. & K. Janaki Ram ( 1 975): Control of aquatic weed

by moth larvae. Nature 253 : 40-41.

Jayanth, K.P. & S. Nagarkatti (1986): Damage potential of

Neochetina eichhorniae Warner and N. hruchi Hustache

(Col., Curcurlionidac) against water hyacinth. Proc. Ori.

Euto. Syrup., Seph. 1986. Vol. 2: 169-174.

Jayanth and Nagarkatti 1986 and Sar 1991), no

satisfactory bioagent is known to control water

primrose, Jussiaea repens L. a marginal floating

aquatic weed of freshwater ponds. The present

studies reveal the potential of Altica coerulea beetle

and its larva as a bio-control agent for water

primrose, being hardy and easy to transfer to the host

plant in different localities where it readily

propagates.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. S.D. Tripathi, the former

Director of CIFA, Kausalyaganga for his

encouragement and suggestions. Thanks are also due

to Dr. M.D. Mehrotra, Head, Division of Forest

Protection, FRI, Dehradun for identification of the

beetle. The kind help of Dr. C.R. Basu, Division of

Coleoptera, ZSI, Calcutta for suggesting the new

generic name of the beetle is gratefully

acknowledged.

November 8, 1995 U.K. SAR

Dept, of Industrial Fish and Fisheries,

Asutosh College,

92 Syama Prasad Mukherjee Road,

Calcutta-700 026.

C.K. SAR

Aquatic Division,

Madhumita Construction (P.) Ltd.,

Chatterjee International Centre,

12th floor, F.No. 10, 33/A, J.N. Road,

Calcutta-700 071.

K.K. SAR

Rural Integrated Farming and

Piscihypophysation Centre,

Chorepalia, Midnapore, West Bengal.

NCES

Robson, T O. (1968); The Control of aquatic weeds. Ministry of

Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Bull. No. 194, p. 19.

Sar, U.K. ( 1 99 1 ): A new tool — Simyra conspersa (Lepidoptera:

Noctuidae) for biological control of lotus Nelumbo hucifera

in fish ponds. Proc. Nat. Syrnp. on New Horizon in Freshwat.

Aquae ult. pp. 117-119.

106

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

28. STUDY OF MALE GENITALIA OF SOME SPECIES GENUS OF PHEROPSOPHUS

(BRANCHININI: CARABIDAE: COLEOPTERA) AND ITS TAXONOMIC IMPORTANCE

(With three text-figures)

Pheropsophus (Soiler), commonly known as

the bombardier beetle, is widely distributed in India.

Andrews (1935) placed it under the subfamily

Harpalinae. In recent taxonomic studies considerable

importance has been given to genitalia (Sewak 1 985).

However, male genitalia of Pheropsophus has not

been studied. The male genitalia of three species,

namely P. catoirei (Deg.), P. heloris (Fal.) and P.

lineifrons (Chaud.) have been described and

illustrated in this paper.

Materials and Methods

Specimens of Pheropsophus catoirei

(Degean), P. heloris (Failer) and P. lineifrons

(Chaud.) were collected from different forests, rural

and urban localities of western Uttar Pradesh. To

study the male genitalia, dried and live specimens

were used. The dried specimens were placed in

boiling water and their abdomens treated with 10%

KOH solution overnight, were dissected out to

expose the genitalia and mounted in Canada balsam.

The drawings were made with the help of camera

lucida attachment.

Observations: The structure of phallobase,

aedeagus and parameres (Tuxen 1 956) of all the three

species reported here greatly differed and the main

differences are as follows:

Pheropsophus catoirei (Degean): Aedeagus

slender and narrow at the apex, well arcuate, rather

abruptly bent near the base than almost straight;

phallobase short, triangular and broad in the middle;

parameres elongated, right paramere narrow, sides sub-

parallel and rounded at apex, left paramere rounded at

the apex basically broad and bilobed (Fig. 1 ).

P. heloris (Failer): Aedeagus small, pointed,

at the apex, bent near the base; phallobase rounded,

broad in the middle; left paramere oval, broad,

rounded at the apex, right paramere narrow, sides

sub-parallel and pointed at the apex (Fig. 2).

P lineifrons (Chaud.) (Fig. 3): Aedeagus long,

straight, pointed at the apex, broadly towards the base;

phallobase triangular, broad in the middle; left

paramere narrow, sides sub-parallel and pointed at the

apex, right paramere oval, obtusely pointed at apex.

Male Genitalia of Pheropsophus ( 1 mm=3 cm):

Fig. 1. P. catoirei ; Fig. 2. P. heloris ; Fig. 3. P. lineifrons.

Abbreviations : Aed: Aedeagus; Pb: Phellobase;

Pm: Paramere.

Key to identify some of the Indian species based

ON MALE GENITALIA

1. Parameres elongated, pointed proximally; Phallobase oval;

Aedeagus elongated catoirei (Deg.)

— Parameres not elongated, phallobase rounded, aedeagus not

elongated 2

2. Parameres rounded in the middle; Phallobase triangular

shaped; Aedeagus small heloris (Failer)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

107

3. Parameres broad in the middle, phallobase oval, aedeagus

pointed lineifrons (Chaud.)

Taxonomic Importance

The oval shaped parameres and long pointed

aedeagus of male genitalia of genus Pheropsophus

show resemblance to other genera of Harpalini,

whereas the structure of parameres and aedeagus

greatly differs at both generic and species levels.

Parameres of Chlaenius are elongated, and narrow

whereas they are elongated and hairy in Trechus and

Tcichys, and pointed and with bristles in Abacetus.

Aedeagus of Diplocheila is broad apical ly and

narrow proximally. The oval shaped paramere and

long pointed aedeagus of the studied species

of the genus Pheropsophus resemble and show

similiarities with those of other genera of the family

Carabidae.

ACKNO W LEDG EM ENTS

I thank Dr. B.A. Khan, Reader, Zoology

Department, Agra College, for his guidance and

valuable criticism. My thanks are also due to the

Principal, Dr. M. Singh and to Dr. (Mrs.) R.K.

Sharma, HOD, Zoology, Agra College, Agra for

providing laboratory and library facilties.

August 1, 1995 S.P SINGH

Department of Zoology,

Agra College, Agra.

Reference

Andrews (1935): The fauna of British India. Coleoptera, tance.

Carabidae and Harpalinae. Taylor & Francis, London. Tuxen, S.L. ( 1956): Taxonomist’s Glossary of Genitalia in insects.

Sewak, R. (1985): Male genitalia of some species of Catlwrsiiis Cophenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard (Odonata). (by F.C.

Hope (Coleoptera: Scarabidae) and its Taxonomic impor- Fraser), pp. 25-30.

29. CILIATE INFESTATION ON THE PHYTAL HALACARIDAE (ACARI) FROM THE

KOVALAM BEACH (KERALA COAST)

The epibiontic ciliate infestation on the

macrolaunal assemblages of Pelagial, benthal and

phytal realms in the marine environment are well

known. However, the epibiontic ciliate infestations

on the meiofauna and their impact on the eco-biology

of the meiofauna are less known.

Hagerman (1966, Ophelia 3: 1-43) reported

an unidentified species of Halacaridae (Acari)

infested by ci bates found among the phytal sediments

of Fucus serratus from Oresund.

While studying the phytal meiofauna from the

Kovalam beach (Kerala coast), some halacarids were

observed to be heavily infested by peritrichous

ciliates and are reported here. The present

observation is of relevance in the ecobiology of the

phytal Halacaridae which are known to serve as

food for higher trophic levels in the littoral

environments.

Table I

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CILIATE

INFESTATION IN DIFFERENT HALACARID SPECIES

Among different species of Halacaridae, many

Rhombognathus scuttutus and R. papuensis were

108

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

infested by ciliates. The ciliate infestation, both

qualitatively and quantitatively appears to be

influenced by the relative size of the meiofaunal host

and its taxonomic position. Ciliate infestation was

absent in Copidognathus spp. and Agauopsis

brevipalpus brevipalpus (Table 1). Rhomb ognathus

larva and nymph were also not found infested by

the ciliates.

The number of ciliates per halacarid ranged

between 8-10. The attachment of the ciliates is

confined to the exo-skeleton or cuticular zones of

the host.

The impact of the ambient biotic and abiotic

parameters besides the physiogonomy of the

phyta on the epibiontic infestation needs

investigation. The halacarid found in the sandy

habitat (Psamobiont form, interstitial form) were

devoid of ciliate infestation. Most probably, the

physical angularities of the sand grains cause attrition

and dislodgement or abrasion of the attached

epibiontic life while the host animal burrows into

the sediments. However, the phytal sediments studied

from the Kovalam beach are sandy in nature. The

canopies of the littoral phytal realm appear to act

as shock absorbers against wave action. The phy-

sical frictional force of attrition of the sand grains

is ameliorated, facilitating settlement of epibiontic

life.

The ciliate infestation on the meiofauna may

possibly affect their competitive ability,

reproduction, locomotion and bio-energetics.

Acknowledgement

I wish to record my deep sense of indebtedness

to Dr. Use Bartsch, Biologische Anstalt Helgoland,

Hamburg, Germany for her encouragement, and

suggestions.

March 7, 1995 TAPAS CHATTERJEE

Deptt. of Biology,

Indian School of Learning,

I.S.M. Annexe,

Dhanbad-826004, Bihar.

— A NEW RECORD FOR

30. DELPHINIUM ALTISSIMUM WALL. (RANUNCULACEAE)

SIKKIM HIMALAYA

( With a text-figure )

During my recent plant survey of West Sikkim

in September 1994, 1 came across aDelphiniumlAnn.

in Sardong. The plant was identified as Delphinium

altissimum Wall, which had not been recorded earlier

from Sikkim Himalayas. The voucher specimens are

deposited in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey

of India, Gangtok.

The description of the species along with a

diagram (Fig. 1) is given below.

Delphinium altissimum Wall, in Hook. J.D.,

Flora British India 1 : 1 26. 1 888.

Plant 69-106 cm tall. Stem terete but slightly

grooved on one side, sparsely hairy, much branched,

with few dimorphic leaves. Radical leaves 2-4,

with 20-34 cm long petioles; lamina 5-13 x 6.3-15

cm. broader than long, 5-7 fid, lobes broadly cuneate

3-lobed, coarsely toothed, cordate at the base,

5-7 nerved, pale green above and whitish green

below, puberulous. Cauline leaves sessile, linearly

branched, 3-lobed, entire, alternate, sparsely hairy.

Inflorescence a receme, 7-18 cm long, terminal or

axillary; receme 2.5-9 cm long with 2-6 pedicellate

flowers, terete, sparsely hairy; Peduncle 4.5-9 cm

long, terete sparsely hairy; ovary 1.1 -2. 5 cm

long with 2-3 linear bractioles. Flowers 2. 5-2. 6 cm

across or 2.8-3 long, whitish blue, sparsely

hairy, spread-ing with 2 cm long spur behind. Spur

subulate, slightly incurved, sparsely hairy. Sepals 5

free; dorsal sepal 2.65-2.7 x 0.6-0. 8 cm, sparsely

hairy externally elliptic-ovate, apiculate tip

with tubular base enclosing spur; lateral sepals 4,

unequal, elliptic-oblong, upper whitish blue

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

109

Fig. 1. Delphinium altissimum Wall.

1. Whole plant; 2. Single flower; 3. Dorsal sepal;

4-5. Lateral sepal; 6. Posterior petal;

7. Sectional view of posterior petal;

8. View of petal and stamen; 9. View of anterior petal;

10. Pistil and ovary; 1 1. Stamen.

with a small ochraceous patch at the tip; upper

two sepals 1 .35- 1 .4 x 0.7-0. 1 8 cm, lower two sepals

1.48-1.5 x 0.55-0.6 cm. Petals 4, in equal pairs;

anterior pair hairy; obtusely 2-lobed, 1 . 1 - 1 .2 x 0.35-

0.4 cm with narrow stalk behind, posterior pair

linear 2 toothed infront, whitish blue with dark

blue patch at the tip c 2.5 cm long. Stamens many,

c 6 mm long’, curved with dark blue bithecal

anthers. Staminodes many, enclosed. Pistil 4 mm

long, green, glabrous; stigma simple; ovary single

celled.

Flowering time: September

Altitudinal Zones: 1220-1525 m.

Distributional status: Rare.

Ecology: It grows on rock crevices along with,

Didymocarpus sp., Setaria sp., Arundinella sp. and

Begonia sp.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Mr. N. C. Shengha, Princi-

pal Chief Conservator of Forest-cum-Secretary,

Forest Department, Government of Sikkim for

allowing me to conduct my field survey. I espe-

cially thank Dr P.M. Singh, Scientist SB, Bota-

nical Survey of India (Gangtok) for valuable

suggestions.

August 1 , 1 995 S.Z. LUCKSOM

Divisional Forest Officer,

Land Use & Environmental Cell,

Forest Department,

Gyalshing,

Govt, of Sikkim,

West Sikkim.

31. PYCNOPLINTHOPSIS BHUTANICA (HARA) JAFRI (BRASSICACEAE): A NEW

RECORD FROM WEST HIMALAYA

(With a text-figure)

Pycnoplinthopsis bhutanica (Hara) Jafri zones of Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal (Hara 1968,

(Brassicaceae) has been considered endemic to 1971, 1979; Jafri 1972, Grierson and Long 1984,

Eastern and Central Himalayas, confined to the alpine Polunin and Stainton 1984, Ohba 1988). How-

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

1 10

ever, Sharma and Balakrishnan (1993) have not

described it from India. Polunin and Stainton (1984)

have also quoted it as “rare but remarkable plant

locally abundant en route to Anapurna South base

camp, Nepal.” The recent discovery of this species

from Garhwal, West Himalaya in Indian territory

is of considerable phytogeographical interest.

A short description of the species is included in

this communication along with illustration.

Voucher specimens after proper documentation

are deposited and maintained in Herbarium,

Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal University,

Fig. 1. Pycnoplinthopsis bhutanica (Hara) Jafri

A. Flowring plant; B. Flower; C. Leaf; D. Scape and

Ovary.

Srinagar-Garhwal (GUH).

Pycnoplinthopsis bhutanica (Hara) Jafri

(Brassicaceae) in Pak. J. Bot. 4:74.1972; Hara,

En.Fl.Pl. Nepal 2:44. 1979; Grierson and Long,

FI. Bhutan 1(2):440. 1984; Polunin and Stainton,

FI. Himalaya. 40.1984; Ohba, The Himalayan

PI. 1:37.1988. Pegeophyton bhntaniciim Hara

in J. Jap. Bot. 43:45.1968; Pycnoplinthopsis minor

Jafri in Pak. J. Bot. 4:76.1972.

Perennial herbs with short unbranched

rootstock up to 0.5 cm thick. Leaves all radical,

densely rosultate at the apex of rootstock, rosette of

radical leaves 2.0-4. 0 cm across, leaves spathulate,

gradually narrowing down to base, with several

(usually 8-12) sharp teeth at the proximal end, 2.0-

2.5 x 0.4-0.75 cm, mid vein distinct and

much branched in proximal part, basal part

translucent. Scapes filiform, glabrous, translucent, up

to 2.0 cm long, arising from the axil of

leaves, slightly connate to leaves at the base, much

shorter than the leaves. Flowers small, 2. 0-3.0 mm

across, white. Sepals 2.5-3.0 mm x 2.0-2.5 mm, ovate,

rounded, one nerved. Petals spathulate, shortly

clawed, 3. 0-4.0 x 2. 0-3.0 mm, much larger than

the sepals. Nectariferous gland not distinct. Stamens

6 (4±2), 2 mm long including anthers, filament

linear, flat, one nerved, anthers blackish, rounded.

Ovary short, stigma broad, capitate, slightly

lobed. Seeds (immature) compressed, rounded to

reniform, 0.25 mm across, (mature fruits not seen).

(Fig. 1, A-D).

Flowering: July-August.

Distribution: Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal in

alpine zones. Recently collected by the senior

author from Garhwal Himalaya, at an elevation of

4800 m.

Specimens Examined: india, U.P., Chamoli

dist., Shilla Samudra, 4,850 m a.s.l., July, 1991, D.S.

Raxvat 19,790 (GUH); india, U.P., Chamoli dist.,

Roopkund area, August, 1993, D.S. Rawat 21,007

(GUH). A small population at both the sites were

observed.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of BSI, Northern

circle, Dehra Dun for providing Herbarium

and Library facilities. Sincere thanks are also

expressed to Prof. M. Quiser, Karachi Univ.,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

111

Pakistan and Dr. H. Ohashi, Tohoku University,

Japan for providing literature on the species.

Financial assistance to the senior author (DSR) from

UGC New Delhi is also thankfully acknow-

ledged.

April 8, 1995 D.S. RAWAT

L.R. DANGWAL

R.D. GAUR

Dept, of Botany, HNB Garhwal University »

Srinagar-246 174, U.P., India.

References

Hara, H. (1971): Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Second Report. Sharma, O. & N.R Balakrishnan (1993): Flora of India. Vol. 2.

University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

32. KOSTELETZKYA VITIFOLIUS (LINN.) COMB. NOV.

(With a text-figure)

Borssum (1966) places Hibiscus vitifolius

Linn, under genus Hibiscus section Pterocarpus

Garcke (1849). He mentions H. vitifolius Linn, as

the type of the section Pterocarpus Garcke (1849).

Borssum (1966), has not mentioned the type

species of Kosteletzkya Presl.

Mattei (1917), in fact had suggested separating

Garcke’s section Pterocarpus into a separate genus.

After publication of Kosteletzkya Presl. (1835),

Kearney ( 1 955), thought perhaps H. vitifolius L. can

be considered as belonging to a separate genus (sect.

Pterocarpus Garcke ), intermediate between Hibiscus

and Kosteletzkya.

Bentham and Hooker ( 1 862), listed 26 species

under Kosteletzkya. After considering facts it is clear

that Hochreutiner (1955) was correct considering

sect. Eucosteletzkya Hochr. as identical with

herbaceous species of sect. Pterocarpus and can be

separated on the basis of alate or angular capsules.

Genus Kosteletzkya Presl. (1835) was

originally described and accepted by Hochr. (1955)

with respect to the alate or angular capsules.

However, Borssum (1966) emphasised the

character of single ovule per carpel in 5-carpellate

ovary. This differentiation on the basis of 1 -seeded

carpels in Kosteletzkya in comparison to 2-5 seeds

per carpel in Hibiscus is definitely an artificial

generic segregation. If Kosteletzkya is segregated on

the basis of single seed, then genus Hibiscus L. will

have to be divided at least into 3 more genera on the

basis of the number of seeds per carpel. Seeds in

various species of Wissandia Medik. vary from 1 -3

per carpel. Similarly Abutilon Gaertn. also contains

species with 1 to many seeds. With the segregation

character adopted by Borssum, these genera will

require to be divided into more genera. Hochreutiner

( 1 955), included species with alate and angular seeds

under genus Hibiscus sect. Eucosteletzkya Hochr.

including species resembling Hibiscus sect.

Pterocarpus Hochr.

Therefore the genus Kosteletzkya should be

restricted to the species with angular capsules and

not to the species with single seeded capsules as

suggested by Borssum.

Therefore, the following new combination has

been proposed:

Kosteletzkya vitifolius (Linn.) Almeida & Patil.

March 9, 1 995 NEELAM PATIL

M. R. ALMEIDA

Bombay Natural History' Society’, Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bliagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

References

Bentham, G. & J.D. Hooker (1862): Genera Plantarum /: 206. * Garcke, A. (1849): Kristische Bemerkungen Znder familae

Borssum, Waalkes J.V. f 1 966): Malaysian Malvaceae. Revised der Mavaceen nebst Benschreibung neuer Artenaus derselben.

in Blumea 14(1): 95 & 198. Bat. Zeit. 7: 836.

1 12

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996 )

Fig. 1. Kostelelzkya vitifolia (Linn.) comb. nov.

1. & 2. Twig; 3. flower; 4. petal; 5. calyx; 6. staminal column; 7. fruit; 8. seeds; 9. pistil, t.s.

*Hochreutiner, B.P.G. (1955): Flora de Madag. et des Comores. *Mattei, C. (1917): Bol. Ort. Bot. Palermo n.s. 2: 71.

Fain, 129 : 98. *Presl, K.B. (1835): Relic/. Haenk. 2: 130, t. 70.

*Kearney, T.H. (1955): Leafl. West. Bot. 7: 272-273. * Not referred in original.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

113

33. SOME NEW RECORDS OF LEGUMES FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

( With six text-figures )

During recent plant explorations in remote

localities of Garhwal Himalaya we collected some

interesting Fabaceae. After critical study and

thorough checking of the literature the specimens

have been identified as of species which are new

records for the Garhwal Himalaya.

The present communication gives illustrations

of the newly recorded taxa, highlighting (lowering

and fruiting period, habitat, occurrence, approximate

distributional range and availability, and collectors

herbarium number. The plant specimens after

identification were matched with the authentic

specimens at the Botanical Survey of India, Northern

Circle, Dehradun (BSD) and Forest Research

Institute, Dehradun (DD) and deposited in the

Department of Botany, H.N.B. Garhwal University

(GUH), Srinagar Garhwal.

Astragalus cashmirensis Bunge, Mem. Acad.

Sci. St.-Pet. ser. 7, 1 1 :30. 1 868 & 1 2: 34. 1 869; Baker

in Hook, f., FBI. 2: 127. 1876; Sanjappa, Leg. Ind.

85. 1992. (Fig. 1. A-B).

Flowering and fruiting: July-September.

Distribution: Bhelpuri, Tehri Garhwal, 2800

m a.s.l.

Ecology: Rare, a few plants along waysides

in dry as well as moist localities, associated with

Polygonum sp. , Geum sp. and grasses.

Specimen examined: L.R.D., GUH- 1 2,3 1 4.

Notes: Hooker (1876) and Sanjappa (1992)

reported this taxon from Kashmir Himalaya. This is

a rare collection as well as new record from Garhwal

Himalaya, representing its eastward distribution.

Crotalaria burhiaHuch.-Ham. (in Wall., Cat.

5386. 1831-1832, nom. nud.) ex Benth. in Hook.,

London J. Bot. 2: 474. 1 843; Baker in Hook, f., FBI.

2: 66. 1876; Sanjappa, Leg. Ind. 1 17. 1992. (Fig. 2,

A-B).

Flowering and fruiting: February-March.

Distribution: Tapovan, Chamoli Garhwal,

1750 m a.s.l.

Ecology: Rare. A limited number of plants

occur along roadsides on slopes in dry places and

this taxon is associated wilhBerberis sp., Indigofera

sp. and some grasses.

Specimen examined: L.R.D., GUH-12,251.

Notes: Hooker (1876) reported this species

from Punjab, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. This taxon

has not been collected from Garhwal and Kumaon

Himalaya earlier.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb., PI. Corom. 2: 7, t.

113. 1799; Baker in Hook, f., FBI. 2: 231. 1876;

Duthie, F.U.G.P. 1: 263. 1903; Sanjappa, Leg. Ind.

137. 1992. (Fig. 3, A-B)

Flowering and fruiting: March-June.

Distribution: Ghasi Ram Naala, Pauri

Garhwal, 500 m a.s.l.

Ecology: Uncommon. A limited number of

plants have been collected from open fields in dry

localities, associated with Shorea robusta, Tectona

grandis, Pyrus pas Ilia and Mai lotus sp.

Specimen examined: L.R.D., GUH- 12,204.

Notes: Hooker (1876) and Duthie (1903)

reported it from Western Peninsula, Sikkim, Chota

Nagpur, and Bundelkhand. However, Sanjappa

(1992) mentioned its occurrence in Uttar Pradesh,

West Bengal, Nepal and Malaysia. This is a new

record for Garhwal as well as Kumaon Himalaya.

Desmodium tortuosum (Swartz) DC., Prod.

2: 332. 1825; Babu, Herb. FI. Dehradun 137. 1977;

Sanjappa, Leg. Ind. 162. 1992. (Fig. 4,

A-C).

Flowering and fruiting: November-January.

Distribution: Khankara, Pauri Garhwal, 750

m a.s.l.

Ecology: A limited number of plants found in

dry localities on slopes as well as in open fields, along

with Carissa opaca, Mimosa himalayana, Rhus

parviflora , and Grewia optiva.

Specimen examined: L.R.D., GUH- 12,285.

Notes: This is a native of tropical America and

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

Fig - 5 Fig.- 4

Fig. 1 A-B. Astragalus cashmirensis Bunge: A - Flowering branch; B - Flower.

Fig. 2 A-B. Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham.: A - Flowering branch; B - Flower.

Fig. 3 A-B. Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.: A - Floewring brarnch; B - Flower.

Fig. 4 A-C. Desmodium tortuosum (Swartz.) DC.: A - Flowering branch; B - Flower; C - Pod.

Fig. 5 A-C. Dolichos tenuicaulis (Baker) Craib: A - Flowering and fruiting branch; B - Flower; C - Pod.

Fig. 6 A-C. Dumas ia villosa DC. var. leiocarpa (Benth.) Baker: A - Flowering and fruiting branch;

B - Flower; C - Pod.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

it is in the process of naturalization in India. Sanjappa

(1992) had mentioned that it is naturalised in

Karnataka, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh. Babu (1977)

recorded it from Sahasradhara, Dehradun. However,

it is the first report of its occurrence in inner Garhwal

indicating its naturalization to this part of the

Himalayas.

Dolichos tenuicaulis (Baker) Craib, Contr. FI.

Siam. Dicot. 66: 1 9 1 2 in nota & FI. Siam. Enum. 1 :

460. 1928; Sanjappa, Leg. Ind. 167. 1992. (Fig. 5,

A-C).

Flowering and fruiting: August-October.

Distribution: Towards Chelusain, Pauri

Garhwal, 1600 m a. s. 3.

Ecology: Rare. A few plant specimens were

collected in dry localities, on slopes along dry

streams, and associated with the Berberis sp.

Specimen examined: L.R.D., GUH- 1 2,33 1 .

Notes: Recently Sanjappa (1992) noted its

occurrence from Sikkim, Meghalaya, Orissa, Nepal,

Bhutan, Burma, and China. This species has not been

collected earlier in this part of the Himalayas. Hence

it is a new record for Garhwal as well as Kumaon

Himalayas.

Dumasia villosa DC., Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris,

ser. 1 , 4: 96. 1825. var. leiocarpa (Benth.) Baker in

Hook, f., FBI. 2: 183. 1 876; Sanjappa, Leg. Ind. 1 68.

1992. (Fig. 6, A-C).

Flowering and fruiting: September-

December.

Distribution: Pinswar Road, Tehri Garhwal,

1800 m a.s.l.

Ecology: Rare. A few plants occur along the

roadsides on walls, associated with Eupatoriumsp.,

Berberis sp. and under the shade of trees.

Specimen examined: L.R.D., GUH- 12,346.

Notes: Hooker (1876) and Sanjappa (1992)

recorded its occurrence in Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand

and China. This taxon has not been collected earlier

from this part of the Himalayas. This is a new record

for Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of Botanical Survey

of India, Northern Circle, Dehra Dun (BSD) and

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (DD)

for providing herbarium facilities. Financial

assistance from Department of Environment,

Govt, of India, New Delhi is also thankfully

acknowledged.

September 8, 1995 L.R. DANGWAL

D.S. RAWAT

R.D. GAUR

Herbarium and Plant Systematics Laboratory ,

Dept, of Botany, H.N.B. Garhwal University,

Srinagar ( Garhwal )-246 174 (U.P.)

34. STOMATA ON SEED OF BAUHIN1A PURPUREA L. (LEGUMINOSAE:

CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

( With a text- figure )

Rugenstein and Lersten (1981, Amet: J. Bot.

68(6): 873-876) reported the presence of stomata on

seeds of some species of Bauhinia based mainly on

SEM observations. In B. purpureaL. they found that

the stomata on mature seeds are deformed and

partially obstructed by surrounding epidermal cells

which retain guard cell appearance but during a SEM

study following usual method on the testa surface

pattern we found that some of the stomata on mature

seeds of B. purpurea may also be normal in

appearance (Fig. 1 ). Both the types of stomata are,

however, recessed and lack subsidiary cells.

Mature seeds were collected in the Indian

Botanic Garden. Fruiting voucher from the plant

(Bandyopadhyay 1 5206) has been deposited in CAL.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Scientist-in-Charge,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

Fig. 1 . Scanning electron micrograph of a stoma on

mature seed of B. purpurea, x 650.

Note its normal appearance.

R.S.I.C. for the use of Scanning Electron Microscope

(PSEM 500)

January 5, 1995 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103.

K. THOTHATHRI

Plot No. 71,

Indira Gandhi Street,

Kaverirangan Nagar,

Saligramam,

Madras 600 093.

35. SEM STUDIES ON THE TESTA SURFACE PATTERN OF SOME SPECIES OF

BAUHINIA (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

( With a text-figure )

Kaur et al. (1992) studied the testa surface

pattern of some species of Bauhinia based on SEM

observations. Their studies, however, provided little

detailed information and adequate attention was not

paid to the correct names. Furthermore, in the course

of a SEM study on the testa surface pattern of 4

species of Bauhinia it was observed that our findings

either did not fully agree with theirs or even differed

entirely though we, too, had studied the same part

of the seed (Datt, pers. comm. 1994). Thus in the

present paper we have described, in detail, the testa

surface pattern of 4 species, namely Bauhinia

acuminata L.,B. malabaricaRoxb.,B. purpureaL.

and B. semla Wund.

Materials and Method

Mature seed samples were obtained from

herbarium specimens deposited in CAL. For SEM

the seeds were cleaned with cotton soaked in absolute

ethanol, air dried, mounted on metallic stubs with

silver paint after correctly orientating them (see Gunn

1991:16) and then gold coated in an Edward sputter-

coater. Observations were made with PSEM 500 and

the scanning electron micrographs were taken from

the central part of the seeds.

Specimens examined: B. acuminata: Sur

15201; B. malaharica: Jain 4082; B. purpurea:

Bandyopadhyay 15206; B. semla: Tarafder 18314.

Observations and Discussion

B. acuminata (Fig. la): The testa surface is

pitted. The pits are sparsely or closely situated and

vary in size. They are circular, angular or elongated.

Kaur et al. (1992) described the testa surface

as pitted and reported of some deposition which

seems to be scattered on the testa surface (see Fig.

2B in Kaur et al. (1992).

B. malabarica (Fig. lb): The testa surface is

regulate with scattered pits.

Kaur et al. (1992) described the testa surface

as smooth with distinct cracks (Fig. 2A) but this

could not be corroborated.

B. purpurea (Fig. 1 c-d): The testa surface is

reticulate. The reticula vary in size and are angular

or more or less polygonal.

B. triandra Roxb. studied by Kaur etal. (1992)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

117

Fig. 1 . a-f. Scanning electron micrographs of testa surface pattern, a. B. acuminata : a, x650.

b. B. malabarica: b, x650. c-d. B. purpurea: c, x650. d, x 1300. e-f. B. semla: e, x650. f, x 1300.

is a synonym of B. purpurea. They described the

testa surface as pitted but this, too, could not be

corroborated. However, it might be that they

inadvertently studied the part near the margin of the

seed where the testa surface pattern ranges from

reticulate to pitted. Further, it was confirmed (Datt,

pers. comm. 1994) that the scanning electron

micrograph of the testa surface pattern (Fig. 2D)

labelled as B. triandrci is actually that of B. semla.

B. semla (Fig. 1 e-f): The testa surface is pitted.

The pits are closely situated and vary in size. They

are circular, angular or slightly elongated and have

fine striations around them.

Kaur et al. (1992) overlooked B. semla , nom.

nov. for B. retusa Roxb. The description of the testa

surface pattern provided by them, however,

corroborates with ours but the scanning electron

micrograph of the testa surface pattern (Fig. 2C)

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

\ 18

labelled as B. return was likely to have been

interchanged with that of B. triandra.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India for providing necessary facilities and

encouragements to the Scientist-in-Charge, R.S.I.C.

for the use of SEM and to Dr. Bhaskar Datt, National

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, who on our

request kindly made contact with one of the authors

of the paper cited in the reference and conveyed to

us the latter’s comments to our queries regarding part

of seed studied by them and the caption of Fig. 2D

given in their paper.

April 8, 1995 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103.

K. THOTHATHRI

Plot Ho. 71, Indira Gandhi Street,

Kaverirangan Nagar, Saligramam,

Madras 600 093.

References

Gunn, Charles R. (1991): Fruits and seeds of genera in Kaur, Harbans, R.P. Singh, A. Pal & K. Sahai (1992):

the subfamily Caesalpinioideae (Fabaeeae). U.S. Morphology, spermoderm pattern and anatomy of some

Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1755: Bauliinia species (Caesalpinioideae-Leguminosae). J.

200-205. " Indian bot. Soc. 71(1-4): 135-138.

36. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GENTIAN A INFELIX CLARKE (GENTIANACEAE) IN

GARHWAL HIMALAYAS

( With a text-figure )

During plant explorations in the alpine zones

of Garhwal Himalayas a few plant specimens

belonging to the Genus Gentiana were collected from

Kedarnath area. After checking at the Herbaria of

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (DD) and B.S.I.

Dehran Dun (BSD) and checking recent literature

(Garg 1987, Gentianaceae of Northwest Himalaya.

CSIR, New Delhi) they have been identified as

Gentiana infelix Clarke (Gentianaceae).

This species has been considered extremely

rare in India and except the syntype from Sikkim

and Kumaon there is only one collection from

Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh and one from Sikkim

(Garg 1987). It is interesting to note that although it

is described from Kumaon on the basis of Strachey

and Winterbottom’s specimen it has not been

collected from Kumaon and Garhwal.

In this communication the full description of

the species together with illustrations has been

provided to facilitate further collections and easy

identification of the species from North-West

Himalayas.

The voucher specimens are deposited and

maintained at Herbarium H.N.B. Garhwal

University, Srinagar Garhwal, India (GUH).

Gentiana infelix Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit.

India 4:111.1883; Kusn. in Acta Horti Petrop.

15(3): 359.1904; Nair, FL Bashahr Himal.

186.1977.

Perennial, subglabrous, woody based herbs,

branching from the base. Branches many from

rootstock, prostrate or ascending, 1 .0-2.5 cm long,

woody in lower half. Leaves opposite, dry on lower

half portion of stem, ovate-oblong, sessile,

subobtuse-acute, imbricate, 1-3 x 2-6 mm, one

nerved, leaves of uppermost pair pointing upward;

leaf pair forming tubular sheath up to 1 mm long,

imbricate in sterile branches. Flowers pedicellate,

solitary - terminal, inflexed, violet, 8-11 mm long,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 , A-F. Gentiana infelix Clarke

A. A flowering plant; B. Uppermost leaf;

C. Middle leaf; D. Flower; E. Capsule; F. Seeds.

usually tetramerous, or pentamerous. Pedicel 1-4 mm

long, narrowly alate on upper side. Calyx tubular,

4-5 mm long, tube 2-3 mm, lobes 4 (5), ovate with

rounded tips, infundibulilorm, lobe 2-2.5 x 1.5-1 .75

mm, pubescent on outer side specially on nerves.

Corolla tubular, 6-10 mm long, subinfundibuli

form to campanulate, tube 4-7 mm long, lobes 4 or

5, ovate, subobtuse to obtuse, 2-3 mm long, plicae

integral, up to 0.75 mm long, triangular, entire,

acute. Stamens as many as corolla lobes, attached to

middle of corolla tube; filaments 3-4 mm long,

anthers ovate-oblong, 0.5-0.75 mm, one nerved.

Ovary elliptic-oblong, sessile, 4-6 mm long, 2-3 mm

broad, laterally compressed; style 0, stigma of

two diverging papilose lobes. Capsule sessile,

included in the persistent corolla, oblong-elliptic, 6-

1 19

8.5 mm long, 2-3 mm broad, with persisting

stigma lobes. Seeds oblong-elliptic, c. 1 mm long,

glabrous, pale green to brown, many in a capsule

(Fig. 1 A-F).

Flowering and fruiting: August-October.

Distribution: Himachal Pradesh (Kinnaur),

Kumaon (Brij Kang Pass); Sikkim (Nathula) and

recently from Garhwal (Kedarnath) by us.

The species is also distributed in Tibet, China and

Nepal.

In Kedarnath area the species grows on

exposed grassy slopes along with Gentiana tubiflora

and other species.

Specimens Examined: Sikkim, Nathula, 4270

m, 12.8. 1945, Bor's collect. 558 (DD). Nepal, Lumbe

Sumba Himal, 4875 m', 1 8.7. 1 956, J.D.A. Stciinton,

124658 (DD). Himachal Pradesh, Kinnaur, Chinni,

2775 m, 3.5.1962, Nair, 22369 (BSD). Garhwal,

Kedarnath area, 4600 m, Sept. 1993,

D.S. Rawat and A.K. Badoni, 19904 (GUH);

Kedarnath area, 4500 m, 10.8.1994, D.S. Rawat,

19987 (GUH).

The collection of this species from Garhwal

is of considerable interest as it has been collected

after about 150 years from the region of Kumaon

and Garhwal and except the type specimens only

two collections are known from India.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of the Forest Research

Institute and the Botanical Survey of India, DehraDun

for providing herbarium and library facilities. The

Senior author (DSR) is thankful to UGC,

New Delhi for granting a fellowship for research

work.

April 8, 1995 D.S. RAWAT

R.D. GAUR

Dept, of Botany,

HNB Garhwal University,

Srinagar (Garhwal) -246 1 74, India

120

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1 996)

37. SEM STUDIES ON THE TESTA SURFACE PATTERN OF TWO SPECIES OF

BAUH1NIA (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

( With a text-figure )

SEM studies on the testa surfaee pattern of

some species of Bauhinia have been undertaken by

Trivedi<?f a/. (1980), Gunn (1991), Kaur etcil. (1992),

Bandyopadhyay et al. (1993). In the present paper

we have described the testa surface pattern of two

species, namely Bauhinia diphylla Symes and B.

vahlii Wight & Arn. that have not been studied

earlier.

Materials and Method

Mature seed samples were obtained from

herbarium specimens deposited in CAL. For SEM

the seeds were cleaned with cotton soaked in absolute

ethanol, air dried, mounted on metallic stubs with

silver paint after correctly orientating them (see Gunn

1991: 16) and then gold coated in an Edward sputter-

Fig. 1, a-d. Scanning electron micrographs of testa surface pattern,

a-b. B. diphylla: a, x 650; b, x 1300. c-d. B. vahlii ; c, x 3 00; d, x 600.

coater. Observations were made with PSEM 500 or

PSEM 515 and the scanning electron micrographs

were taken from the central part of the seeds.

Specimens examined: B. diphylla : Kurz.2511\

B. vahlii: Rao 23296.

Observations

B. diphylla (Fig. 1 a-b): The testa surface is

pitted. The pits are closely situated and vary in size.

They are elongated, slit-like or angular, sometimes

more or less circular and have fine striations around

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

121

them.

B. vahlii (Fig. 1 c-d): The testa surface is pitted.

The pits are closely situated and vary in size hut are

comparatively larger than those of B. diphyllci. They

are angular to elongated, sometimes more or less

circular but rarely slit-like.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India for providing necessary facilities and

encouragement, to the Scientist-in-Charge, R.S.I.C.

and Dr. G.V.S. Murthy, Botanical Survey of India

for the use of SEM.

April 8, 1995 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 71 1 1 03.

K. THOTHATHRI

Plot No. 71, Indira Gandhi Street,

Kaverirangan Nagar, Saligramam,

Madras. 600 093.

R E F E RENTES

Bandyopadhyay. S., K. Thothathri & B.D. Siiarma (1993): On

an interesting collection of Bauliinia (Leguminosae:

Caesalpinioideae) from Arunachal Pradesh. J. Bombay mil.

Hist. Soc. 90(1): 120. See errata in ./. Bombay nal. Hist.

Soc. 90(2): 326.

Gunn, Charles R. (1991): Fruits and seeds of genera in

the subfamily Caesalpinioideae (Fabaeeae). U.S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1755: 200-

205.

Kaur, Harbans, R.P. Singh, A. Pal &. K. Sahai (1992):

Morphology, spermoderm pattern and anatomy of some

Bauliinia species (Caesalpinioideae-Leguininosae). ./.

Indian hot. Soc. 71(1-4): 135-138.

Trivedi, B.S., G.D. Bagchi & Usha Bajpai (1980): Studies on

seeds and spermoderm structure of Bauliinia.

Phytomorphology 30: 11-16.

38. KAEMPFERIA SIPHONANTHA KING EX BAKER (ZINGIBERACEAE) IN THE

ANDAMAN ISLANDS

(With a text-figure )

The genus Kaempferia L. is represented

by eight species and one variety in India

(Karthikcyan 1989) of which K. siphonantha King

ex Baker is endemic to the Andaman group of

islands (Vasudeva Rao 1986). Collected by King’s

col lec-tor and later described by Baker in Flora

British India (Hooker 1890). K. siphonantha King

ex Baker is the only representative of the genus in

the islands.

While on survey in Kalpong reserve forests

in North Andamans, the first author collected

specimens of the species and confirmed its

identification after consulting CNH at Calcutta and

scrutiny of literature. The present collection of this

rare, vulnerable, herbaceous, endemic plant after a

gap of more than a century indicates that the species

has not become extinct yet but is on the verge of

extinction as the natural habitats have already

deteriorated or are under destruction in view of the

proposed first ever hydroelectric project in the

collection site.

In the present communication, a description

of the species accompanied by an illustration (Fig.

1 ) are given in order to facilitate easy identification

and conservation in the field or by ex situ

conservation and propagation.

Kaempferia siphonantha King apud Baker

in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 222. 1890.

Herbaceous annuals up to 20 cm tall, no

leafy stem. Root stock tuberous with slender

root fibres. Leaves 3-4 in a tuft, leafblade up to 8-9

x 2-2.5 cm, oblong, acute, minutely crenate,

glabrous, membranous, base unequal sided, sides

rounded, oblique; petiole 8-9 cm long. Spike as long

122

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Pig. 1. A-C: Kaempferia siplionantha King ex Baker

A. Habit; B. Flower; C. Long style and turbinate

stigma with crested anthers on either side of the style.

as or longer than petiole; flowers solitary on a

slender spike. Corolla tube much exerted from bract;

lobes c. 1.2 cm long, oblong, lanceolate, greenish;

lip white, broad, bifid or not, distal end and median

tinged with purple blotches. Stamens one, fila-

ments short; anthers on either side of style;

connective crested. Ovary 3-celled, style

long, filiform; stigma turbinate. Fruits not

seen.

Specimens examined: Kalpong hill forest

slopes between Diglipur and Kalighat (near forest

camp), North Andaman, 3.9.1988, P.S.N. Rao,

13250; Inland evergreen forests of Betapur, Middle

Andaman, 23.7.1974, N. Bhargcivci, 1850

(unidentified).

Note: The species is endangered due

to restricted distribution with limited populations,

rapid destruction of natural habitats and

deforestation/ecological disturbance in its specific

niches.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for

encouragement and facilities.

April 8, 1995 P.S.N. RAO

B.K. SINHA

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair-744102 (India).

R E l; E REN C E S

Karthikeyan. S., S.K. Jain. M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa ( 1989): V as u dev a Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary repori on

Florae Indicae Enumerate: Monocotyledonae. B.S.l. the angiosperms of Andaman-Nicobar Islands. H(l): 107-

Publication. Calcutta. 184.

39. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF D1MERIA KA NJ IRA PA LLIA N A K.C. JACOB (POACEAE)

IN ANDHRA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

During the floristic survey of grasses of and East Godavari districts, which was identified as

Andhra Pradesh, we collected a grass from Medak Dimeria kanjirapalliana K.C. Jacob and constitutes

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

Fig. 1, A-J: Dimeria kcinjirapal liana K.C. Jacob

A. Habit; B. Spikelet; C. Lower glume;

D. Upper glume; E. Lower lemma; F. Upper lemma;

G. Palea; H. Pistil; I. Stamen; J. Caryopsis.

a new distributional record for Andhra Pradesh. It

was earlier reported from Idukki, Quilon and Calicut

of Kerala (Sreekumar and Nair 1991, Flora of Kerala-

grasses. BSI, Calcutta). A detailed description and

illustration is given below for easy location of this

grass.

Dimeria kanjirapalliana K.C. Jacob in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 48. 1947; Manilal &

Sivaraj, FI. Calicut 231. 1982. (Fig. 1).

An annual, tufted grass; culms up to 25 cm

tall, erect, occasionally branched near the base; nodes

sparsely bearded or glabrous. Leaf sheaths 3-4 cm

long, glabrous, keeled; ligule membranous, ovate,

acute; blades linear, 2-6 x 0.2-0.4 cm, rounded at

base, bulbous based hairs along the margins,

acuminate at apex. Spikes 2, 3-8 cm long, divaricate;

rachis flat, zig-zag, margins sparsely ciliate, narrowly

winged. Spikelets sessile, 4.5 mm, oblong-

lanceolate; callus villous. Lower glume linear-

lanceolate, 2.5 mm, chartaceous, sparsely hairy at

the apex, acuminate; upper glume lanceolate, 3 mm,

chartaceous, hairy at the apex, margins hyaline, lower

lemma hyaline, 2 mm, oblong, 1 -nerved; upper

lemma hyaline, 3 mm (excluding the awn), bifid,

awned at the sinus, awn 1 cm long. Stamens 2,

anthers oblong, 0.9 mm, filament 0.5 mm; pistil 1 .75

mm. Caryopsis linear, 1.85 x 0.1 mm.

Occasional on humus soil and rocky areas

of Medak and East Godavari districts. Associa-

ted with Drosera species.

FI. & Fr.: October - January.

Specimens examined: Pocharam (Medak

District, Andhra Pradesh), T. Pullaiah & M.S.

Gay at hr i 12024 (SKU).

January 5, 1995 M.S. GAYATHRI

T. PULLAIAH

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur 515 003, A.P.

40. TWO NEW RECORDS OF ORCHIDS FOR ANDAMAN ISLANDS

During a recent plant exploration trip to some

remote areas of the Ritchie’s Archipelago (Middle

& South Andaman), we came across two interesting

and rare orchids, which on critical examination, were

identified as Acriopsis indica Wt. and Kingidium

deliciosum (Reichb. f.) Sweet. Both of them were

collected from a Mangrove swamp and found

growing on Heritiera litto rails Dry and. as epiphytes.

124

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1 996)

In India, the former is reported so far only from

North-East India (South Tripura) and the latter from

peninsular India & North-Western Himalayas. The

occurrence of these two orchids as epiphytes in the

Mangrove swamps of Middle Andaman forms new

distributional records for Andaman islands. Hence

the present collection and notes of these two species

of orchids would be of much interest in highlighting

the extended range of distribution in new regions of

India. A detailed description for each plant species

has been provided to facilitate easy identification and

further study. The specimens have been deposited

in the herbarium of Andaman and Nicobar circle,

Botanical Survey of India, Port Blair (PBL).

The genus Ac riopsis Reinw. ex Blume consists

of 12 species, distributed in Indo-China, W.

Malaysia, New Guinea, Solomon Island, etc., (Willis

1973) of which 2 species occur in India and one in

Andaman & Nicobar islands. Similarly, the genus

Kingidium P. Hunt holds over 5 species in W.

Malaysia and India, of which 3 species occur in

India (Karthikeyan et al. 1 989) and one in Andaman

& Nicobar islands. The present report on both these

plants form new generic records for the Bay

islands.

Acriopsis indica Wt.,Ic. t. 1748. 1852; Hook,

f., FI. Brit. India 6: 79. 1 890; C.L. Malhotra & Deori

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 15: 153, t. 1-8. 1973;

Seidcnf. In Opera Bot. 72: 103. 1983.

Epiphytes on Heritiera littoralis Dryand.

Pseudobulbs 0. 5-2.0 cm long, oblong or ovoid,

densely tufted, covered with scarious fibres, annual

rings pinkish-brown. Roots white, branched, spongy,

spreading copiously. Leaves 2.0-12.5 x 0.3-0.8 cm,

narrowly linear, acute at apex, convolute at base.

Inflorescence a panicle, dark green, lateral, erect from

the base of the pseudobulb, laxly flowered, 8-28 cm

long (including scape); scape stout, branched, 8.5-

12.5 cm long. Flowers small, greenish-yellow, sub-

erect, pedicelled. Pedicellate ovary c. 7 mm long.

Bracts small, ovate, acute. Sepals and petals faintly

blotched with purple, spathulately obovate, gland

dotted; dorsal sepals arched, c. 4x2 mm, 5-nerved;

laterals connate, incurved, c. 4x2 mm. Petals equal,

c. 5.0 x 2.5 mm, 3-nerved. Lip c 4.5 x 2.5 mm,

constricted above the middle, obtuse, adnate to the

basal half of the column by short claw forming a

narrow tube, 3-nerved, blade white with a few violet

spots and two erect lamellae on the disc about the

middle, gland-dotted, margins undulate; column

erect with two slender decurved processes on either

side of the stigma, 4 mm high; rostellum beaked;

anther oblong; pollina 2, with longitudinal furrow

on a common slender stipe, with minute gland; ovary

pedicelled, pedicel c. 5 mm, capsule oblong, 10 mm

long, 6 ridged, suberect, smooth, green.

FI. & Fr.: September-November.

Distribition: NE. India (Assam), Burma,

Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaya, Java, Borneo, Celebes,

Philippines.

Ecology: Rare, in mangrove forests, found

growing on Heritiera sp. in association with other

epiphytic herbs, namely Dischidia nummularia R.

Br., Bulbophyllum sp., etc.

Specimens examined: Middle Andaman,

Parlo Island (Near Long Island), 25.10.1994,

Sreekumaret L.N. Ray , 16484.

Kingidium deliciosum (Reichb. f.) Sweet in

Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 39: 1095. 1970; Seidenfaden

in Orch. Pen. Malaysia & Singh. 657. 1992.

Phalaenopsis deliciosa Reichb. f. in Bonplandia 2:

93. 1 854. Doritis wightii (Reichb. f.) Benth. in Benth.

& Hook. f. Gen. PI. 3: 575. 1883; Hook, f., FI. Brit.

India 6: 32.1890.

Phalaenopsis wightii Reichb. f. in Bot. Zeit.

214. 1862.

Kingiella decumbens (Griff.) Rolfe in Orchid.

Rev. 25: 197. 1917; Fischer in Gamble, FI. Pres.

Madras 3: 1006. 1957. Kingidium decumbens (Griff.)

Hunt in Kew Bull. 24: 97. 1970; Henry et al. in FI.

Tamil Nadu (Anal.) 3: 16. 1989.

Epiphytes. Stem 1-2 cm long. Leaves 2-3, sub-

coriaceous, pendulous, sessile, 3-15 x 2.5 - 5.5 cm,

oblong-oblanceolate, spathulate or elliptic, undulate

at margins, blunt, minutely or obliquely notched al

apex. Inflorescence pendulous, from the stem

beneath the leaves, 7-13 cm long, slender below,

slightly thickened towards the tip, sometimes with a

short branch. Flowers 1-2 cm across, white, marked

with violet and purple. Pedicels 5- 10 mm long. Bracts

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

125

ovate, acute, minute. Sepals unequal, 10-15 x 5-6

mm, the dorsal oblong, obtuse, blunt; lateral sepals

shorter but broader, spathulate. Petals equal to the

lateral sepals, oblong, blunt. Lip with a short wide

spur, white with purple markings, 3-lobed; lateral

lobes broader than long, apex rounded to truncate,

mid-lobe obcordate with a broad emarginate apex.

Pollinia 4, unequal in size. Immature capsules c. 5 x

0.4 cm, linear, ridged.

FI. & Fr.: September-October.

Distribution: Peninsular India, North-Western

Himalayas; Sri Lanka; Malaysia, China, Philippines,

Java & Thailand.

Ecology: Rare, in shady mangrove forests, as

epiphyte on tree trunk.

Specimens examined: Middle Andaman,

North Passage Island, 24.10.1994, Sreekumar et

L.N. Ray 16473.

Ac KNOW LEDG EM ENTS

We are grateful to Dr. Gunnar Seiden laden for

kindly confirming the identity of the plants and Dr.

P.K. Hajra, Director, Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta for encouragement.

June 12, 1995 L.N. RAY

P.V. SREEKUMAR

P.M. PADHYE

Botanical Survey of India

Andaman -Nicobar circle

Port Blair-744 102.

R K F H R K N C H S

Kaktmikhyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjaita ( 1989): Wii i.is, J.C. ( 1973): A Dictionary of the Flowering plants & ferns.

Florae Indicae Monoctyledonae. Calcutta. Cambridge.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

110th ANNUAL REPORT AND ACCOUNTS

FOR THE YEAR 1ST APRIL 1993 TO 31 MARCH 1994

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR 1993-94

President Mr. B.G. Deshmukh, I.A.S. (Retd.)

Vice Presidents Mrs. D.S. Variava, Dr Pratap Saraiya,

Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chavda

Hon. Secretary Mr. J.C. Daniel (up to 1993)

Dr. Ashok Bhagwat (from January 1994)

Hon. Treasurer Mr. Sunil Zaveri

Director Dr. Jay Samant

MEMBERS (UP TO DECEMBER 1993)

Mr. M.R. Almeida, Dr. Erach K. Bharucha, Dr. Ashok Kothari,

Mr. Sunjoy Monga, Dr. Shashi Kumar Menon, Prof. Parvish Pandya,

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar, Mr. Nandan Maluste, Mr. Shrikant Pol,

Dr. A.M. Bhagwat, Mr. T.V. Sowrirajan, Mr. Yogi Andley,

The Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India,

The Director of Archaeology & Museums, Govt, of Maharashtra.

MEMBERS (FROM JANUARY 1994)

Mr. M.R. Almeida, Mr. Yogi Andley, Dr. B.F. Chhapgar, Mr. J.C. Daniel, Dr. Arun Joshi, Dr. Ashok

Kothari, Mr. K.P Karamchandani, Dr. Shashi Menon, Dr. A.N.D. Nanavati, Mr. Ulhas Rane,

Mr. Rajendra Shinde, Dr. V.S. Vijayan,

The Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India,

The Director of Archaeology & Museums, Govt, of Maharashtra.

SPECIAL INVITEES

Mr. Humayun Abdulali, Dr. E.G. Silas

ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Dr. D.K. Lahiri Choudhury, Prof. Raghavendra Gadagkar, Dr. Anil Gore, Prof. K.C. Malhotra,

Dr. A.N.D. Nanavati, Mr. Ulhas Rane, Dr. E.G. Silas, Lt. Gen. Baljit Singh, AVSM, VSM,

Mr. Samar Singh, Mr. Romulus Whitaker.

AUDITORS

M/s. Habib & Company, Chartered Accountants, Bombay.

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

127

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

ANNUAL REPORT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1994

COLLECTIONS

Curator: N. Chaturvedi

Mammal: Scientist — Mr. Manoj Muni

Work of computerisation of the card- index data

was continued. In all 1 5500 records completed.

For preparation of status report on the mammal

collection condition of 8000 specimens was checked.

Assisted Ms. Mery Willis from the Washington

University for her study on the mammals.

37 bat specimens were received from the Harrison

Zoological Museum as half of the total animals

collected during the Harisson Zoological Museum-

BNHS joint mammal survey in 1992.

87 specimens loaned to Dr. Charles Woods of the

Florida Museum of Natural History, USA were

received back.

A scientific paper was presented in the First Indian

National Bat Research Conference held at Nagpur.

Visited Harrison Zoological Museum in UK for

training on taxonomy of bats.

Participated in the Indo-British Course on the

Biomonitoring of Forests conducted by the Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun.

A paper on “A new record of Leaf-nosed bat

Hipposideros lankadiva from Sangameshwar,

Maharashtra” was prepared and submitted for the

publication in the JBNHS.

Paper “Resurvey of Indian Chiroptera” was

prepared and submitted for the publication in the

proceedings of the Indo-British course on the

Biomonitoring of the Forests.

Molluscs

23 shell specimens sent in by Dr. M. Kirloskar

were identified.

Bird: Scientist — Dr (Mrs) S. Unnithan

During the year specimens of Flowerpeckcrs and

Sunbirds were worked out, measured, catalogued as

species and sub-species. A Wren-Babbler skin (part

of it) collected from Arunachal Pradesh, was

identified as Mishmi-Wren-Babbler and added to the

collection. 32 specimens of Anthus collected by Dr.

Salim Ali during the years 1966, 1967 and 1968 and

left unidentified, were studied, identified and added

to the collection after registering.

Training was given to Ms. Malvika Chaudhuri of

Bareily College in collection and identification of

bird.

Part 37 of the catalogue dealing with Sunbirds

and Flowerpeckers was completed and ready for

publication. Since the previous part, ( Anthus ) is still

being worked out, part 37 is withheld.

Herpetology: Scientist — Mr Aloy sius G. Sekar

1116 specimens of 74 species of amphibians,

tortoises and snakes were checked for their condition.

Specimens of caecilians were referred to by Dr.

R.S. Pillai, Emeritus Scientist from ZSI southern

zone. Ms. Gitanjali Tiwari referred the snake

collection for identification.

1900 collection data of reptiles have been entered

in the computer.

Specimens of lizards sent by Mr. L. Subraya were

identified as of Hemidactylus brooki, H. leschenaulti

and H. frenatus. Slides of lizard brought by Mr.

Ramana Athreya were identified. Assistance

was given to members and visitors in studying

collection.

(a) A project was undertaken to study the

community structure of amphibian fauna in tropical

monsoon forest. The field work was done in the

Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivli. (b) Tadpoles

of common toad were reared to find out the period

of metamorphosis.

Participated in the Indo-British Biological

monitoring course conducted at WII, Dehradun.

(a) A paper entitled kOn the morphometry,

advertisement call and habitat of the bush frog

128

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY VOL. 93(1996)

Philautus leucorhynus , and a note on the ‘Range

extension of the spotted forest Gecko, Cyrtoclactylus

c. collegalensis ’ were accepted for publishing in the

Journal of BNHS. (b) Another paper on ‘the

community ecology of amphibians of Sanjay Gandhi

National Park’ was submitted for the proceedings

of the seminar on Biological monitoring course

conducted at WII.

Entomology: Scientist — Mr. N. Chaturvedi

100 Specimens of Butterflies and other insects

received from Grassland Ecology Project were

identified. 40 specimens of Moths and butterflies

received from Dept, of Life Science, Sophia College

were identified. Information on collection and

preservation was given to M.Sc. (Entomology)

students of college from Ulhas Nagar. Insects visiting

ground lilies of species Chlorophytum and Scilla

were collected. Plant insect interaction was studied

in relation to plant Ceropegia oculata.

Publications

Notes on ‘Some observation on Lifecycle of

Delias eucharis, Trichodesma amplexic aulis ’ , ‘an

adult male attractant of Danaid butterfly’, and a note

on ‘Rose Ringed Parakeet’ were published.

Herbarium: Scientist — Ms Neelam Patil

136 specimens of plants brought by the Scientist

from Grassland Ecology project were identified

and report was submitted. 51 specimens received

from Life sciences dept., Sophia College were

identified. Besides these specimens photographs

brought by members and staff were identified.

Assistance was given to members and staff in

identification of plant specimens and referring

herbarium.

The bibliography of the papers and short notes

published in JBNHS in the field of Botany from 1976

onwards was prepared (earlier ones has been

prepared by BSI)

CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT

Project Co-ordinator: Dr Jay Samant

Project Field Manager: Mr A. Karandi/car

Duration: September 1993 — August 1996

The Conservation Education Project commenced

in September 1993. The foundation stone of the

Centre was laid at the BNHS land at Goregaon (East)

by the Governor of Maharashtra Shri P. C. Alexander

on 21st September 1993.

A series of workshops were conducted which were

attended by Mr David Elcome of RSPB from UK, the

staff members and others involved in the project.

During the first such workshop Mr Ken Smith from

RSPB was also present. Project Schedule was worked

out and project is progressing accordingly.

Prof. K. C. Malhotra from Indian Statistical

Institute, Calcutta, who is also on the Advisory Board

of BNHS conducted three days workshop with

project staff and consultants and gave valuable

information on various aspects of the project.

Similarly outside statistical help is being sought for

data analysis in the project.

The Baseline Survey was completed in the

February 1994 in three project areas, i.e. i) Borivli,

Bombay ii) Bharatpur, Rajasthan and iii) Gudalur,

Andhra Pradesh. This provides socio-economic data

of the population and their level of awareness and

attitude towards wildlife, forests and its management.

The Experimental Phase was initiated in March

1994 during which different media would be tried

with various target groups for different issues.

School based and village level programmes would

be conducted in this phase at all the three field

stations. The project team and the concept are now

well accepted by people, officials, NGOs and other

groups in the project areas. This contributes towards

promotion of BNHS in addition to spreading the

message of nature conservation.

Tender for constructing the Conservation

Education Centre at BNHS land, Gorgoan (East),

was approved in May 1994. Work on site

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

129

commenced immediately.

Equipment necessary for the field mobile units

has been procured.

NGO are being contacted for networking towards

conservation education. A meeting of NGOs

working locally at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary

was arranged and more are planned. BNHS initiative

in networking is well appreciated by these NGOs

and these have shown interest in taking part in the

project activities.

LIBRARY

Librarian - Mr. Isaac Kehimkar

Asst. Librarian - Ms Shubhangi Puradkar

An exhibition of rare books on Indian wild life

organised at Hornbill House was a big success. Media

all over the country hailed it and gave it a wide

coverage beyond all expectations. The precious

books in our possession were kept in glass cabinets,

kindly loaned to us by the Prince of Wales Museum

and the Asiatic Society. As aimed, well deserving

focus was drawn on activities of BNHS. Enrollment

of new members as well as sale of products at the

products counter were maximum during this period.

The exhibition also gave us an opportunity to

check our books which were found in satisfactory

condition. Rev. Father Correa, Director of Heras

Institute, an authority on rare books was pleased

with the condition and richness of BNHS collection

and the manner in which the books were exhi-

bited.

Mr J.J. Bhabha, while inaugurating the exhibition

donated a handsome sum of Rs. 1,00,000/- from Sir

Dorabji Tata Trust and promised further flow of help

in future.

Mr. Gokhale who had also visited this exhibition

gave a donation of Rs. 1 ,00,000/- from Govind

Dattatraya Gokhale Charitable Trust towards

preservation of books in the library and for

educational activities of the Society for the year

1993-94.

Since our Journals are available on microfiche

also, Mirofiche reader-cum-printer was installed

during this year. This facility is available to outsiders

also. This was possible due to kind donation received

from M/s. Venkateshwara Hatcheries.

The Asst. Librarian joined the Society from

December 15, 1993.

At the end of March 1994, the library collection

stands 12,208 books (including bound volumes of

periodicals). In 1993-94, 328 books were added to

the library. 16 books were received from the

publishers for the purpose of publishing reviews in

our Journal and 260 as complimentary copies from

authors, individuals, etc 52 books were purchased

for the library and various projects.

MEMBERSHIP

Membership Officer: Ms. Caroline Vincent

130

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93(1996)

The Membership particularly of Ordinary

Members has shown a slight rise to 1663 in 1993-

94. An attempt to increase membership has been

started with some effect. In this regard, we have

appointed a Membership Officer who will undertake,

special membership drives in collaboration with

other BNHS departments, like Nature Education &

Products.

We shall be happy to receive any suggestion from

our members and well wishers.

NATURE EDUCATION

Nature Education Officer: Mrs Shailaja Grubh / Mr Deepak Apte

Nature education is imparted through field trips,

exhibitions, visit to Museum, Aquarium, Zoo, etc.

Nature orientation workshop for teachers,

competitions like painting, essay, quiz on wildlife,

film shows, slide shows and so on.

The field trips are mainly arranged for school

students between 8th and 12th std. A group of 30

students is taken for excursion, in which various

aspects of nature like birds, trees, insects, ecosystems,

etc., are taught.

This year a total of 2200 students participated in

various activities. Field outings were arranged at

Karnala, S.G. National Park and Tungareshwar.

Students were taken to Juhu seashore to study marine

life. Each outing was followed by a group discussion.

Visits were also arranged at Bombay zoo.

Talks/slide shows/film shows were arranged at

various schools.

The Nature Education Organiser went on long

leave followed by resignation. The activities were

conducted with assistance of Herbarium-collection

staff. The new Education Officer (Mr. Deepak Apte)

took charge in January 1994.

NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES

The following activities were undertaken with

financial assistance from the Natural History Studies

Funds.

“A study of host preference and avian frugivory

of strangler figs in a tropical evergreen forest in the

Southern Western Ghats, India” by Ms. Vidya

Athreya.

A project “Survey of Migratory Birds —

specifically Flamingoes and Curlews” has

undertaken by Mr. Chandrashekharan and Mr.

Mangesh Chavan.

A study on “Ecology of Amphibians of Northern

Western Ghats” with special reference to the Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, Borivli, Bombay by Mr. A.G.

Sekar.

PROGRAMME

Programme Officer: Mr. P. B. Shekar

Annual Nature camp: Annual Nature camps

are enjoyed by our members from all over India. This

year the annual Nature camps were arranged at

Chopta (near Tungnath) in Garhwal Himalayas,

Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and

Dudhwa National Park in terai area of Uttar Pradesh.

Overnight Nature Camps: Overnight Nature

camps were arranged at various places of Natural

History interest not only around Bombay but also

all over Maharashtra. The participants of Nature

camps at Bhimashankar and Marleshwar got first

hand information on Sacred Groves of Bhimashankar

and Udgiri. During the Nature camp at Dajipur

Wildlife Sanctuary the members had a close

encounter with gaur. Overnight Nature camps were

arranged to study aquatic avifauna of the area near

man-made wetlands like Nandur Madhmeshwar,

Bhandardhara (Wilson Dam), Tansa lake. Nature

camps were also arranged at Rehekuri, Sawantwadi,

Murud-Janjira and Matheran.

Nature walk: Weekend outings were arranged

at Borivli National Park, Yewoor trail, Tungareshwar,

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

131

Kondgaon Lake, Kothligad and along Chillar River.

Outings were also arranged at Goregaon creek and

Kihim to study waders, at Godrej land to study

mangrove flora and fauna and to study trees and other

vegetations at Borivli National Park and Jijamata

Udyan. Bird watching programmes were arranged

at BNHS land at Goregaon (E) and at Borivli

National Park. Bird Banding camp was organised

at Kodaikanal.

Film/Slide shows: Video films on various

subjects of Natural History interest were screened

during the year. Slide shows-Magic of

water, Monsoon flora of Sahyadri’s, Harkidoon,

wonders of nature, Trek from Kedarnath to

Kalpeshwar, Gangotri the receding Glacier, and on

Nature Education experiment were arranged for

members.

Slide presentation was made by the participants

of Nature Camp at Arunachal Pradesh and of Chopta.

From this year we introduced a series of popular

scientific lectures like “Handicap Principle or the

cost of a bright red comb for the male jungle fowl”,

“Landscape in evolution and the Redqueen

Hypothesis”, “fragmented forest, Planets of the

apes”, sea shore life. The talk “Use of waste heat

energy for useful purpose particularly heat

generation”, and “sustainable rural development for

earthquake affected Latur district” were of interest

to all.

Wildlife week:First week of October was

celebrated as Wildlife week. An exhibition of

Wildlife photographs, postal stamps and Natural

History specimens was organised.

Salim Ali National Bird Count: The First Salim

Ali National Bird Count was arranged on 14th

November 1994. (Two days after 12th November

the birthday of Late Dr Salim Ali).

We are thankful to the Forest Officials connected

with National Parks and Sanctuaries where our

Nature camps were held. The Chief Wildlife Warden,

Tamil Nadu for permitting to Bird Ringing

Programme and members of the Society for

Voluntary support, staff of Godrej park, Vikhroli,

Film librarian, British Council, Bombay.

PRODUCTS

Products Officer - Mr Joslyn Rodrigues

The Products Department introduced 12 new

designs of greeting cards and 2 calendars.

The gross sale for the last season amounted to

Rs. 30 lakhs. Out of which 1 3.5 lakhs was a special

order for wall calendar from M/s. Colour Chem

Limited. A total of 2.38 lakhs cards and 75,000

calendars (special and BNHS) were sold.

The net earnings were in the range of Rs. 4 to 4.5

lakhs.

Special thanks are due to Mr Mantosh Lai (for

designing the catalogue at subsidised rates) and Mr

Atul Mathur for helping out with marketing

strategies, etc.

The department also plans to include

more ecofriendly items to tap the corporate gift

market.

Besides cards and calendars, items on sale include

publications, tea mugs, T Shirts, Stickers, haversacks,

caps, and photographic prints. The marketing

strategy adopted during the year was mainly by

despatching catalogues to corporate houses,

telemarketing and personal visits by our sales team.

Efforts are being made to substitute imported art card

with wood free paper.

PROJECTS

During the year the BNHS handled 7 major and

minor projects and surveys. Bird Hazard Research

Cell continues to function. The progress of research

work is detailed below:

Birds of Prey Project (Budget Rs.39.21 lakhs)

Scientist in Charge : Dr Vibhu Prakash

Duration: January 1 990-December 1992

Extension upto June 1994.

Term of the Project ended in March 1993. No cost

extension upto June 1 994 to complete residual work

and the final report has been granted. Draft final

technical report has prepared and sent to the funding

132

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93(1996 )

authorities (US fish & Wildlife Services) for

comments.

A workshop was conducted at Bharatpur for

identification of raptors. Mr William Clark USFWS

advisor and Dr Vibhu Prakash conducted the

workshop. Research staff of BNHS and members

participated in the workshop.

Grassland Ecology Project: (Budget Rs. 54.63

lakhs)

Scientist in Charge: Dr. Asad R. Rahmani

Duration: August 1990 — July 1995.

Research under this project continued in

collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University.

Research work continued at the field stations at

Dahod (Gujarat), Nannaj (Mah.), Rollapadu (A.P.),

Dudhwa (U.P) and Fulay-Chhari (Kutch).

U.S. Advisor Prof. Mark Behan with Dr. A. R.

Rahmani visited some of the field stations.

Radio Telemetry Studies of Elephant: (Budget Rs.

2.96 lakhs)

Scientist in Charge : Mr. Ajay Desai/Mr. N.

Bhaskaran.

Duration: April 1993-March 1994.

Studies were continued for one year starting April

1993 with the funds from Ministry of Environment

and Forests. Report is under preparation.

Birds of Sriharikota (Budget Rs. 1 .86 lakhs)

Scientist in Charge : Mr Prakash Rao

Duration: January 1993 — June 1994 (18 months).

Research work at Sriharikota continued

throughout the year on this ISRO funded project.

Endangered Turtles of Pondicherry (Budget

Rs.1.95 lakhs)

Scientist in Charge: Dr. S. Balachandran

Duration: December 1992-November 1993.

Research work on this project was concluded in

November 1993. Final technical report has

been prepared and submitted to the funding

authorities.

Harrier Project: (Budget 0.43 lakhs)

Scientist in Charge: Mr. Asad Akhtar

Duration: November 1992- April 1993.

Study of roosting harriers at Velavadar National

park was undertaken from Oct. 1993 to April 1994.

A report has been prepared. The study was funded

by the Hawk & Owl Trust, U.K.

Giant Squirrel Project: (Budget Rs.32.23 lakhs)

Principal Investigator: Dr. (Ms) Renee Borges.

Duration: September 1991 -August 1996.

Observations were started on focal squirrel in the

Bhimashanker Wildlife Sanctuary. Over 10,000 trees

were marked and phenological data gathered.

Position of all marked trees were mapped on a 50

square metre grid. Samples of dietary items were

collected for laboratory analysis. Statistical and

nutritional analysis of the data was also undertaken.

Final report on conservation problem and

Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary was submitted to

Chief Wildlife Warden and Principal Chief

Conservator of Forests, Karnataka.

Bird Migration Data analysis

Data collected during the project period 1980-

1992 are being scrutinised in collaboration with

Dept, of Statistics, University of Poona. A bio-

statistician, Mr Prashant Muley, has been appointed

for this work. So far tabulations for about 25 species

have been completed. Migration patterns of

migratory as well as resident birds are being

analysed.

Concluded Projects

1 . Point Calimere Ecological Project Ended in June

1991

2. Bird Migration Project Ended in September

1992

3. Elephant Ecology Project Ended September 1992

Permission for appropriation of assets belonging

to above projects has been granted by the funding

authorities.

PUBLICATIONS

Publications Officer: Mr. Ajay Varadachary

The Publications Division has been successful in as Book of Indian Birds, Book of Indian Animals and

making itself self-supporting, with its prime titles such the Book of Indian Reptiles. The marketing and

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

133

promotional support of the Oxford University Press,

our sole selling agents, has helped to professionalize

this Department and tap some of its potential as a

substantial fund raiser for the Society.

The revisions of Pictorial Guide to the Birds of

Indian Subcontinent aiid the Book of Indian Birds

are well under way. The mammal and reptile books

are under revision, while new titles on Indian Trees,

Seashore life and Shells are being processed.

The Hornbill scries of booklets on various

aspects of natural history are being prepared and 6

titles are near completion.

Hornbill magazine and the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society are a resource drain, though

some advertising support has been obtained for

Hornbill. The Department of Science and

Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology has

given an additional grant amounting to Rs. 50,000/-

towards production of the Journal. The deficit is

met by the Society as the role of these two

publications in popularizing natural history and

disseminating scientific information is invaluable to

the pursuance of the major aims of BNHS. Two

issues of the Journal Vol. 90(1) and 90(2), and

Hornbill Vol. 93( 1 ) and 93 (2) were published during

the year.

SALIM ALI NATURE CONSERVATION FUND

Conservation Officer : Mr. Goutam Narayan

Environmental awareness workshop for trekkers

was organised at Bombay during August, 1993. 45

persons from trekking and climbing clubs

participated. Assistance was given for organising

workshop on “Avian Conservation — India”. The

Conservation Officer participated in this workshop.

Financial assistance was given to Indian Peoples

Tribunal on Environment and Human Rights.

The fourth Army Environment & Nature

Conservation Workshop, was held at Dehradun, from

12 to 19 April 1993. Resource persons were drawn

from the Wildlife Institute of India and other

Institutes at Dehradun. Conservation officer also

participated in the workshop, for the Army’s Central

Command.

Another Army Environment & Nature

Conservation Workshop was conducted in the North-

east at Missamari near Tezpur from 25 to 28

November 1993.

Assistance was provided in organising Wildlife

week Programmes to create awareness among

public.

BNHS (SANCF) was one of the co-convenors

for the session on Forest, Wildlife and Tribal Rights

at the Human Rights, Environment and Law

Workshop (1 to 5 June 1993).

SANCF was one of the sponsors and co-ordinating

agency for the International Seminar on “the

Conservation of Asian Elephant” held at Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary from 1 3 to 18 June, 1 993.

“Zoos and Conservation Education Workshop”

was jointly organised on 28th & 29th January by

SANCF, MCGB and ZOO Outreach organisation

(ZOO). It was mainly conducted by Mr. Malcolm

Whitehead of International Centre Of Conservation

Education, U.K.; with Ms. Sally Walker of Zoo. Over

30 participants, attended the workshop at the Hornbill

House and Zoo.

Dr. Jeremy Cherfas, the author and TV personality

of Zoo 2000 fame from U.K., conducted the first

workshop for the journalists “Role of Media in

Conservation” on 18th January at the Hornbill

House. The workshop was under the auspices of the

Bombay Earth Forum established in 1 992 by BNHS

and the British Council (BDHC/BCD).

As the regional co-ordinator of the Asian

Waterfowl Census for the states of Maharashtra,

Madhya Pradesh and Goa, the Conservation Officer

coordinated wetland bird count which commenced

on 8th January 1994.

134

JOURNAL, BOM BAY NAT URAL HI ST. SOCIETY, VOL. 93(1996)

UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT

Head , University Studies Department: Dr.. Jay Samant

We are happy to inform that the Bombay University University has also given extension for M.Sc. by

has increased the quota of seats for M.Sc. by Research/ Research/Ph.D. in Botany till June 1995 and has also

Ph.D. degree course in zoology from 10 to 30. The increased the quota of students from 6 to 10.

The details of the students who qualified or are working for M.Sc. or Ph.D. are given below:

A.G.M. 1 993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

SUB-COMMITTEES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

The following office bearers were Ex-officio

members of all the Sub-Committees.

Hon. Secrearv Mr. J.C. Daniel (up to Dec. 1993)

Dr. Ashok Bhagwat (from Jan. 1994)

Hon. Treasurer Mr. Sunil Zaveri

Director Dr. Jay Samant

COLLECTIONS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr. M.R. Almeida

Members Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. Andy Mendonca

Mr. Oswald Thayil

Convenor Mr. N. Chaturvedi

CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROJECT

Mr. Chandrakant Wakankar

Development

Officer BCD Mr. Ramesh Dandekar

Project Field

Manager Mr. Aravind Karandikar

Project

Administrator

and Convenor Mr. T.K. Bharatan

LIBRARY SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Ashok Kothari

Members Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Mr. Kiran Srivaslava

Ms. Doreen D’Sa

Mr. V. K. Paralkar

Convenor Mr. Isaac Kchimkar

PERSONNEL SUB COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Jay Samant

Members Mrs. D.S. Variava

Dr. Pratap R Saraiya

Dr. A M. Bhagwat

Mr. Yogi Andley

Convenor Mr. N. Chaturvedi

PRODUCTS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson

Members

Convenor

Mrs. D.S. Variava

Mr. Mantosh Lai

Mr. Atul Mathur

Mr. Pritish Basu

Mrs. Ranjana Shah

Mr. J. Rodrigues

PROJECTS SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairperson

Members

Convenor

Dr. A.M. Bhagwat

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. Kisan Mehta

Adm. M.P. Awati (Retd.)

Mr. K.P. Karainchandani

Mr. J.C. Daniel

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Dr. Renee Borges

Mr. S.R. Nayak

PUBLICATIONS SUB-COMMITTEE

MEMBERSHIP & PROGRAMME SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr. J.C. Daniel

Members Dr. Pratap Saraiya

Mr. Bittu Sahgal

Mr. S unjoy Monga

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Convenor Mr. Isaac Kehimkar

SALIM ALI NATURE CONSERVATION FUND

SUBCOMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Erach K. Bharucha

Members Mrs. Dilnavaz S. Variava

Convenor Mr. Goutam Narayan

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

SUB-COMMITTEE

Chairman

Head, Univ. Dept.

Members

Convenor

Prof. P.V. Bole

Dr. Jay Samant (Director)

Mr. M.R. Almeida

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar

Dr. Parvish Pandya

Dr. Shashi Menon

Dr. Renee Borges

Mr. N. Chaturvedi

136

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY. VOL. 93 (1996)

HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH 1994

I have pleasure to report on the 1 10th Annual Aceounts of the Society and the following points may be

higlighted while considering the Accounts and Auditors Report for the year 1993-1994:

1 . During the year the Society has received permission to retain the Assets/Unspent Surplus of the projects. The said

unspent surplus which has been allowed to be retained by the Society, amounts to Rs. 1,45,820.36. However, the

same is a net of accumulated overruns on certain projects since closed. If there existed no overruns then the

additional surplus to the Society would have been Rs. 12,75,823/-.

2. The Society has still not received any grant for the running and maintenance of airconditioners for Reference

Collection Rooms, from the Government of India. This is so in spite of the Society fulfilling all the conditions

as laid down by the concerned Ministry. The expenditure till date as receivable from the Government of India

is Rs. 8,63,707.46. However, the Society is not hopeful of receiving the full amount. In such an event, the

Society will have to consider appropriate action to be taken.

3. As the Society has not received any final slock pos.uon and the sales during the year from the Oxford University

Pi ess till the date of the declaration of the Annua! Conen! Meeting the income receivable and the surplus, if

any, from the OUP sales remains to be taken into acc unt

4. On 29th of March 1993, the Society received the s .action letter from the Government of Maharashtra for

upkeep, repairs, and maintenance of Hornbiil House and its Collections. The amount has since been received

and spent as per the sanction letter.

5. During the year, the Society has opted for the L.l.C. Group Gratuity Scheme. The Society has provided from its

own funds Rs. 9,35,664/- for the creation of the BMHS Employees Group Gratuity Fund.

6. Last year, it was reported that the Society had started a vigorous exercise on internal control, internal checks

and strict budgetary controls. 1 am happy to report that the exercise has yielded positive results.

7. Surplus on sale of products and publications has increased from Rs. 3.22 lacs of the year 92-93 to Rs. 1 1 .50 lacs

for the year 1993-94.

8. The above has resulted in the Society not facing a serious situation. In spite of the same, the Society still faces

a crisis of inadequate funding to the tune of Rs. 1 8,87,919. This can be highlighted from the following:

A. FIXED CORPUS AND CAPITAL FUNDS

1. Life Membership funds

2. Corporate Life Membership Funds

3. Vice Patron Funds

4. Corpus Funds (Schedule ‘A’)

5. Other Funds (Schedule ‘B ’ )

B ASSETS REPRESENTING THE ABOVE CAPITAL

1 . 5.5% Government of India Loan

2. Various Units of UTI

3. Fixed Deposit with HDFC/ICICI/IDBI

4. Vehicles

5. Furniture, Fixtures and Equipments

6. Stock of Books and Publications

7. Bank Balance (other than project)

8. FDR

1,39,64,045 1,44,55,559

* This is the shortfall ‘A’-‘B’

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

137

Thus the Society should, as soon as possible, cover the deficit in the capital funding to the tune of

Rs. 18,87,919.

9. In the current year also the Society is pursuing it^ budgetary exercises with modification to provide for a good

management information system. The same, till d,tic, has not been fully functional but we are confident that till

the year end it should be totally operational and the next year promises more hopes to the Society.

10. The Society now has a full-fledged Fund Raising Sub-Committee. The Committee has, till date, received the

funds or the sanction advices of nearly Rs. 25,00 lacs. Notwithstanding the same, it is necessary to work harder

and strive to raise more funds for the Society and get more projects in the field of conservation of nature and

natural resources, research, environmental studies, awareness and education.

1 1 . We have given the earlier year's figures for the sake of comparison.

For BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Sd /-

Honorary Treasurer

Place: Bombay.

Dated: 12th September 1994.

AUDITORS’ REPORT

Re: BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Registration No. F-244 {Bom)

Wc have audited the attached Balance Sheet of

the Society as at March 31,1 994 and also the annexed

Income & Expenditure Account for the financial year

ended on that date and report that in our opinion and

to the best of our information and according to the

explanation given to us:

(a) The accounts are maintained regularly and in

accordance with the provisions of the Bombay Public

Trust Act, 1950 subject to the observation that as

per the past practice separate Receipts & Payments

Account has been drawn for the Nature Education

Scheme and the same has not been incorporated in

the accounts of the Society. In this context, Rs.

1 ,5 1 ,353.37 is considered to be due from the Nature

Education Scheme as at the end of the year. We have

been given to understand that on settlement of the

claim for arrears of the grant from the government,

the entire amount would be adjusted,

(b) the receipts and disbursements have been

properly, correctly shown in the accounts, subject to

the observation that as per the accounting practice

adopted, grants from State Government and other

sponsoring organisations are being accounted in

anticipation of receipt of sanction letters based on

the claims preferred/to be preferred. While referring

to the observations made in para (b) of our last report

dated 27th Sept. 1993 accompanying the statement

of accounts for the year ended March 3 1 , 1993. we

observe that the following items accounted in the

previous year still remain unrealised:

Grant from State Govt. Rs. 2,30,804/-

Central Govt. (Ministry of

Environment & Forests) Grant for

Air Conditioning of reference

collection room and Library *Rs. 6,05,7 1 3.40

(*claim as revised)

Govt, of India (Environment

& Forest) Grant for Nature Conservation

Course for Indian Army Rs. 1 ,00,000/-

We observe that in the case of Central Govt, "rant

for Air conditioning of reference collection room &

library, the claim for expenditure incurred in the

earlier year having been reviewed, a sum of Rs.

39,194.98 being considered ineligible for grant

purpose, has been adjusted in the accounts for the

year under report and expenditure of Rs. 2,57,994.96

incurred during the year towards electric charges and

maintenance of Air Conditioning system has been

treated as recoverable by way of grant. Thus the

aggregate amount of grant accounted as receivable

amounts to Rs. 8,63,707.46 as at the date of Balance

Sheet. Wc also observe that a sum of Rs. 29,000/-.

which had been accounted in the earlier year as grant

recoverable for NOCIL Environment Study Project

had to be written back, as the anticipated receipt did

not materialise. We are not in a position to offer any

comments about the realisabilily of the aforesaid

outstanding dues. We reiterate our views that the

income of such nature be recognised as income, when

there is no uncertainty about its realisation.

Incidentally, it may be pointed out that in the case of

Nature Environment Course for Army, the Society

has already incurred expenditure of Rs. 43.557.60

by the date of Balance Sheet,

(c) the cash balance and the vouchers in the

custody of the accountant on the date of audit were

in agreement with the books of accounts,

(d) the books, deeds, accounts, vouchers and/or

other documents or records required by us were

produced to us,

(c) the Register of movable and immovable

properties has been maintained. However, the

changes therein have remained to be communicated

to the Regional Office. In the context of equipments

and other such items of capital nature acquired out

of various grants and other project funds, we observe

that initially the cost of such equipments, etc., is

charged to the relevant project accounts and on

completion of the projects, the Society generally

seeks the permission, of the concerned Sponsoring

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

139

authorities to retain such assets, as are found to be

useful for other projects and/or purposes and on

obtaining such approvals, the necessary entries are

passed in the books of accounts to record the residual

. value of such items. We observe that during the year

underreport value of certain assets so retrieved from

the following projects have been brought into

accounts on estimated basis. In the absence of any

other audit evidence, we have relied on the estimates

made by the management:

Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary Project

Study of Migration Patterns of

Indian Birds

Ecology of Indian Elephants

Endangered Species/Florican

Ecology of Pt. Calimere Sanctuary

Rs. 13,35,000

Rs. 3,75,000

Rs. 4,50,000

Rs. 2,50,000

Rs. 1,25,000

Rs. 1,35,000

The said amount has been initially adjusted

against the over run expenses under the first three

named projects and the balance amount has been

transferred to Income & Expenditure Account

alongwith the unspent balance in the case of certain

other projects, which we are informed, have been

allowed to be retained and appropriated by the

Society as detailed herein below:

Ministry of Environment & Forests

(for purchase of service equipments)

Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary Project

Ecology of Indian Elephant

Endangered Species/Florican

Ecology of Pt. Calimere Sanctuary

Study of the Migration Pattern of

Indian Birds & Avifauna Migration

Study Data Bank

Chief Wildlife Warden J & K for

survey of Black necked Crane

7,355.60

1,10,072.07

24,210.93

1,25,000.00

1,88,175.42

(3,35,105.60)

26,111.94

1,45,820.36

The relevant letters from the sponsoring

authorities were however, not produced to us for our

verification. We have placed reliance on the

information and explanation that was furnished to

us and we suggest that the value of the assets so

brought into accounts and the amount of Rs.

1,45,820.36 so appropriated to Income &

Expenditure Account be confirmed in the next

Executive Committee meeting.

We also observe that certain vehicles, which had

been likewise retrieved from some of the projects

completed in some earlier years have been disposed

off during the year and a sum of Rs. 1,80,15 1/- having

been realised has been credited to Fixed Assets Fund.

On enquiry, we understand that pending certain

clarification the value of a Jeep charged to certain

project in the past years remain to be brought into

account. In the absence of adequate information, it

has not been possible for us to verify if the value of

all the items allowed to be so retained has been

adjusted.

While on the subject, we further understand that

the Society is holding a number of ‘medals’ of different

precious and semi precious mctalic contents, which

were awarded to late Dr. Salim Ali and which under

his Will have been obtained by the Society. The same,

we are informed, are being held as commemorative

souvenirs. The value thereof, has not been brought into

accounts as it is contended that the said Souvenirs being

of aesthetic and sentimental value and commemorative

nature, the same can not be reduced to monetary value,

(f) the Hon. Treasurer and the Accountant

appeared before us and furnished the necessary

information required by us,

(g) we are not aware of any property or funds of

the Society having been applied for any objects or

purpose other than the objects of the Society,

(h) the following amounts were outstanding for

more than one year:

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 93(1996 )

Included under the head ‘other dues’ are

Rs. 6,534/- considered to be due from Bihar State

Govt., which is being carried forward for the last

few years and Rs. 10,252.25 representing three

remittances made per Demand drafts which are stated

to have been lost in transit. We are informed that the

matter is being followed up in both the cases. Pending

the outcome of these measures the amount has been

considered as good by the management. The said

item also includes Rs. 12,433.75 which have been

incurred in connection with certain projects and

pending certain clarification sought from the

concerned sponsoring authorities have remained to

be adjusted. We are not in a position to express any

opinion about the realisability of these dues. In the

context of the aforesaid outstanding of Rs. 26, 1 48.45

representing advance to the employee, we understand

that it includes Rs. 20,923.45 due from two persons,

who are no longer in the employment of the Society

and the said amount is proposed to be adjusted

against the retirement dues payable by them. The

advances to others (for project & other expenses)

include Rs. 15,890.75 paid to certain organisation

for certain project. It will be appreciated if proper

account of the said advance is obtained from the said

organisation and the account is appropriately

adjusted. In regard to the balance in Suspense

account, we suggest that effective steps be taken to

recover the amount and clear the balance in suspense

account.

Subject to the observations made in para (e)

hereinabove, no amount has been written off during

the year. We have been assured that the outstanding

balances are considered good and recoverable,

(i) During the year under report there were no

repairs or construction carried out involving an

expenditure exceeding Rs. 5,000/- at any time,

(j) we are not aware of any money of the Society

having been invested in contravention of Sec. 35 of

the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950,

(k) we are not aware of any immovable property

of the Society, therefore, the question of alienation

of any property contrary to the provisions of Sec. 36

of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 does not arise,

(1) i) in regard to the expenses charged to various

grants and funds we have relied on the information

given to us and the authentication of the Hon.

Secretary and Hon. Treasurer that the expenses so

charged relate to these grants and have been spent

on the specific objects for which the grants were

received. While checking the statement of accounts

in regard to the expenditure incurred at various

camps, we have relied on the authorisation by the

Hon. Secretary and Hon. Treasurer, as to the

reasonableness of the expenditure,

ii) while on the above subject, we observe that

some of the local field workers, whose services were

engaged for the said project at Bharatpur, are

claiming reinstatement and other service benefits,

which is being disputed by the Society. The

contingent liability in this regard remains

underterminate. The matter, we are informed, is

pending before the Labour Court at Bharatpur and

Provident Fund authorities. An ad-hoc provision of

Rs. 2,83,991/- has been made in the accounts by

debiting various projects accounts. The liability has

not been determined on actuarial basis,

iii) the income towards membership subscription

is being accounted on realisation basis,

iv) while referring to the observations made in

para ( 1 (i v) of our aforementioned report dated 27th

Sept. 1993. we observe that the account maintained

with the Grindlays Bank, London has been closed

during the year under report and the exchange

difference of Rs. 2,908.04 arising at the time of

closure of the account has been credited to Income

& Expenditure account,

v) we are given to understand that on physical

verification of the fixed assets certain items were

found to be lying with some members for research/

study purpose. We suggest that proper records in this

regard may be maintained & year and confirmation

be obtained from such borrowing members,

vi) we suggest the following items of

disbursements effected, appropriations made and

administrative charges levied be confirmed and

ratified at the next meeting of the Executive

committee,

AG. A/. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

141

A. DISBURSEMENT FROM

i) Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund

Investment Revenue Account 1 ,52, 1 00.25

ii) Salim Ali — Lok Wan Tho Ornithological

Fund Investment Revenue Account 3,023.50

iii) Pirojsha Godrej Foundation

Fieldwork Fund Investment Revenue

Account 4,300.00

iv) Col. Burton Nature Conservation Fund

Investment Revenue Account 86. 12

v) Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology

Field-work Fund 26,450.00

vi) Education and Research Fund created

a)

b)

c)

d)

8,412.00

387.00

11,07,896.00

out of Income

vii) Salim Ali Memorial Fund

viii) Staff Gratuity Fund

ix) Ministry of Defence,

AR&DB, for Bird Hazard

Research Cell 1,73,659.10

x) Department of Space, Ecological

Investigation of Avian Community

83,405.90

2,82,879.85

24,887.95

9,60,410.80

24,865.00

of Sriharikota

xi) Elephant Telemetry Projects

xii) Ministry of Environment &

Forests — Nature Conservation

Course — Indian Army

xiii) Grants from United States,

Department of Interior, Fish and

Wildlife Service for:

Ecology of Dry Grassland

Ecology of Point Calimere

Sanctuary

Study of the Migration Patterns of Indian

Birds and Avifauna Migration

Study Data Bank 4,736.00

Study of Conservation of Birds of Prey

with particular emphasis upon

restoration of Endangered

Species 4,77,536.60

xiv) Hawk & Owl Trust — Grassland

& Roosting Harriers 56,490.65

xv) Endangered Turtles of Pondicherry 95,350. 15

xvi) Wetland, Mangrove & Coral

Reefs in India (UNDP) 1 1 ,420.60

xvii) Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, for revision of

‘The Handbook of Birds of India

and Pakistan’ 28,871.70

xviii) Neyveli Lignite Corporation

Limited for Environmental Study

at Rajasthan Plant 3,78,064.35

xix) Grant from Chilka Lake 14,000.00

xx) Grant from Gujarat Ambuja Cement Co. Ltd.

for Enviromental Study 1 1 , 1 38.00

xxi) National Organic Chemical Industries Ltd.

for Environmental Study 74,086.45

xxii) Grant from Govt, of Maharashtra for 1993-94

towards Establishment, Building Maintenance,

Educational activity 2,50,000.00

xxiii) Conservation Education

Project 34,84,036.79

B. APPROPRIATIONS

i) Proposed Institution 5,00,000.00

ii) Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology

Fieldwork Fund 600.00

iii) Salim Ali Memorial Fund 2,00,000.00

iv) Publication Fund — BNHS 50,000.00

v) General Reserve Fund 2,00,000.00

vi) Staff Gratuity Fund 2,00,000.00

vii) Staff Welfare Fund 1,00,000.00

viii) Fixed Assets Fund towards depreciation

on Fixed Assets 4,61,859.12

C. Administrative Fees charged to various

Grants/Funds for handling the

projects, etc. 1 0,52,926. 1 9

D. Addition to Fixed Assets 14,85,354.00

(1) vii) The balance of Rs. 1,21,685.52 in Sundry

Debtors A/c. for supplies & services has been taken

as per the balance appearing in the General Ledger.

The same remains to be reconciled with Subsidiary

Ledger. In the absence of such reconciliation, the

advances received have not been segregated and

shown separately.

viii) We observe that the contribution to

Employees’ Provident Fund (both the employees and

142

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93(1996 )

management contribution) continues to be deposited

with the Trustees of a recognised provident fund

established by the Society, and governed by the rules

framed for the purpose. There seems to have been

certain amendments to the Employees’ Provident

Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952,

whereunder the Society may be considered to be

liable not only to transfer the accumulated balance

in the Employees’ Provident Fund A/c. to the

Provident Fund Commissioner Govt. Scheme, but

also for the difference in the amount of contribution.

The liability in this regard remains underterminate.

We suggest that proper legal opinion may be sought

in this regard and needful may be done in the matter,

(m) So far as it is ascertainable from the books

of accounts and according to the information and

explanation furnished to us by the Hon. Treasurer

and the Hon. Secretary, there were no cases of

irregular , illegal or improper expenditure or failure

to recover the money or other properties belonging

to the Society or loss or waste of money or other

property of the Society, subject to the observations

made in para (h) hereinabove,

(n) provisions of Section 31 -A of the Bombay

Public Trust Act, 1950 and Rule 16-A of the Rules

framed under the said Act have been complied with,

(o) the maximum and minimum number of

Executive Committee Members is maintained having

regard to the provisions contained in the Rules and

Regulations of the Society.

(p) there is no specific provisions in the Rules

and Regulations of the Society regarding the holding

of the meetings of the Executive Committee,

(q) the minute book recording the proceedings of

the meetings is maintained,

(r) no member of the Executive Committee has

any interest in the investment of the Society,

(s) in the absence of a list of outstanding dues

and advances for supplies and services duly

reconciled with the financial books being produced

to us, we are not in a position to aver if any amounts

are due to/from any members of the Executive

Committee,

(t) there were no irregularities pointed out in our

last report dt. 27.9.93 accompanying the statement

of accounts for the year ended March 31,1 993 except

the observations made in paras (e), (h), the

observations whereof have been reiterated

hereinabove to the extent the issues remain still

outstanding.

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

Bombay,

1 2th September, 1994.

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

143

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149

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH 1994

150

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY. VOL 93(1996)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH 1994

SCHEDULE B : OTHER FUNDS

69.84.939.75 8.02,671.79 2,63,953.95 80,51.565.49 6.56.617.99 6.56.617.99 73.94.947.50

Carried over ...

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151

Schedule ‘B’ (contd..)

Summary Of Expenditure From Funds/Donations

Expenditure Head Amount

Rs.

Expenses on objects:

Nature Conservation 1 ,52, 1 00.25

Natural History Study 39,248.12

Other Educational expenses 3,023.50

1,94,371.87

Others

Miscellaneous :

Beautification of Dr Salim

Ali Chowk

Gratuity to staff

Depreciation

387.00

11,07,896.00

4,61,859.12

Total Rs.

17,64,513.99

152

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93(1996)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST MARCH, 1994

SCHEDULE C : GRANTS

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

153

Schedule ‘C’ (Contd....)

154

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93(1996)

Schedule ‘C’ (Contd....)

Note-1 : Estimated value of the Fixed Assets allowed to be retained by the Society.

Note-2: Net of adjustment for unrealised grant.

A.G.M. 1993-94 - PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

155

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF THE BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31-3-1994

SCHEDULE D : CASH AND BANK BALANCES

10,50,000.00

27,82,402.31

Total Rs

156

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Sd/- Sd/- Sd/-

HONORARY SECRETARY HONORARY TREASURER HABIB AND COMPANY

CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

Bombay, BOMBAY

12th September, 1994.

160

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 93(1996)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

RECEIPT AND PAYMENT ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31-3-1994

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AS PER OUR REPORT OF EVEN DATE

Sd/- Sd/- Sd/-

HABIB AND COMPNAY

HONORARY SECRETARY HONORARY TREASURER CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS

BOMBAY

Bombay,

12th September, 1994.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Annual General Meeting held on 15th September, 1994

The Annual General Meeting of the Society

held on 15.9.1994 at 6.30 P.M. when the following

members were present:

Mr. Rokad Zubair, Dr. Virinder Singh, Mr.

humayun Abdulali, Dr. A.S. Kothari, Mr. K.P.

Karamchandani, Mr. R.G. Deshmukh, Dr. Pratap

Saraiya, Dr. Shashi Menon, Mr. K.K. Vajifdar, Mr.

T.R. Munsief, Dr. Rajendra Shinde, Mr. Ulhas Rane,

Ms. Ashraf I. Macchivalla, Mr. S.M. Kalim, Mr. S.

Asad Akhtar, Mr. M.G. Rao, Mr. Shashank Ranjit,

Mr. J.P. Irani, Mr. Gopal Bodhe, Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri,

Ms. Namita Sankhe, Mr. R.V. Bhatardkar, Mr.

Deepak Apte, Mr. Ulhas Paralkar, Mr. A.S. Parab,

Dr. B.F. Chhapgar, Mr. G.L. Kalro, Mr. S.L. Chullani,

Mr. Sam Bhacka, Mr. C.F. Gursahani, Ms. S.K.

Vajifdar, Mr. Mihir Devare, Mr.D.P. Bamuniya, Ms.

Deepika Bhardwaj, Mr. Prajakti Satish, Mr. Bansi

Mehta, Mr. U. Deshmukh, Mr. Sachin Kulkarni, Dr.

Nitin Kumar, Mr. Pratap M., Mr. Rishad Naoroji,

Mr. Anish Kapadia, Mr. Meghnad Kulkarni, Mr.

C.B. Mehta, Mr. K.G. Nayak, Mr. G.S. Ranganathan,

Mr. Pervez Cama, Mr. D.S. Gogate, Mr. D.W. Smith,

Mr. T.S. Chandran, Lt. Kanwar Bir Singh, Mr. C.N.

Chandrasekhar, Mr. S. Chandrashekaran, Mr. Nitin

Jamdar, Mr. N.D. Mulla, Mr. Bittu Sahgal, Mr.

Bhushan V. Samant, Mr. Ravi Mahimkar, Ms. V.

Shubhlaxmi, Mr. Suresh Sawant, Ms. Kini, Mr. Leon

Lobo, Mr. D.C. Balsara, Mr. Manoj J. Karkhanis,

Mr. H.S. Gala, Mr. Suresh G. Bhatkal, Mr. S. Kala,

Mr. K.R. Shah, Mr. PH. Mistry, Dr. A.M. Bhagwat,

Mr. D.V. Golalkar, Mr. S.G. Vakil, Ms. D.S. Variava,

Mr. Amal S. Mehta, Ms. Khaira Vakil, Ms. Vidya

Athreya, Mr. Ramana Athreya, Mr. T.V. Jose, Mr

N.O. Parikh, Mr. N.S. Dalai, Ms. Hema Somnathan,

Mr. M.J. Fernandes, Mr. Eustace Alexandra, Ms.

Jayshree Sethna, Mr.B. Pimento, Mr. Manoj Gupta,

Dr. A. Karim M. Naik, Mr Arvind Kumar Shinde,

Mr. M. Bharucha, Ms. Mehra Dubhash, Mr. S.D.

Bhaumik, Mr. Kiran Srivastava, Ms. Doreen D’sa.

Earlier Mr. Humayun Abdulali, was felicitated.

He also completes 50 years of active service to the

BNHS. The EC also took this opportunity to felicitate

its major donors during 1993-94. this programme

was followed by High Tea. The AGM then started

at 6.30 p.m.

The President, Mr. B.G. Deshmukh welcomed

the members and said that, “You must have seen that

the membership is on the increase but not at the rate

at which we will like it to be. We are taking extra

measures to increase membership by arranging visits

and talks at various schools and colleges to begin

with in and around Bombay. We are also planning to

extend this activity to places outside Bombay. I

would request all the members that they may kindly

find time to help the Society in enrolling more

members.”

He further observed that, “I would also like to

state that the membership outside Bombay should

increase in counter some sort of propaganda being

made that the BNHS is not an all India Society but

only a Bombay Society.

If you see our membership form, we have got

members not only from India but also from abroad.

There were also suggestions to change the name of

the Society. However, it would not be desirable.

Commenting on the financial positions of the society,

he stated that, “we had to withdraw Rs 1 8 lakhs from

our own funds to meet the necessary expenditure.”

He also informed that the Society was giving due

attention to the conservation issues and had identified

such issues, to get their scientific study made, to

organize technical seminars and then public debates;

and also to approach the Governments. Dr. Pratap

Saraiya, chairman, Salim Ali Nature Conservation

Fund, explained the action they had taken regarding

the same.

The minutes of the Annual General Meeting

held on 5th November 1993 were taken for

confirmation.

The President requested Honorary Secretary

to inform members about action taken on these

minutes.

162

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93 (1996)

The Honorary Secretary reported:

Regarding conservation issues, he informed

that action had been initiated as per suggestions that

the BNHS should become a Nodal Agency and

should invite and interact with people and come out

with some plans which could be put forward to the

Governments so that these issues could be tackled.

We had made attempts to gather information from

the members and organisations regarding different

conservation issues. Some members have responded

to our letters by suggesting specific areas that need

immediate attention. On that basis we had a meeting

on 8th September 1994, Dr. Saraiya was Chairman

of the meeting and a large number of NGOs and

members interacted so as to come out with a specific

plan, Hon. Secretary requested Dr. Saraiya to give

details of the meeting, Dr. Saraiya briefed the house

about conservation issues. He also informed the

members that our plan was to have some selected

issues which could serve as model. In the meeting

two issues were selected, one was denotification of

sanctuaries. They also had discussions about how

the BNHS can participate in it actively.

Mr Virinder Singh demanded that the Society

should pass a resolution condemning a series of

denotification which have taken place.

Honorary Secretary, informed the house that

the President has personally written letters to Gujarat

Government regarding the problems of the

denotification of the areas in Gujarat state

specifically. Letters had also been sent regarding the

Melghat Tiger Reserve.

Some of the members suggested that before

passing a resolution, the issue requires proper

discussion wherein all members can participate.

The President assured that we can certainly

pass a resolution. However, it would be better if a

special meeting is called for the same.

Mr. Bittu Sahgal pointed out that inspite of

not being on the Agenda, a resolution worded simply

that the recent actions of the Governments for

denotification be condemned and we ask for a

moratorium on all the denotifications until such time

as the nation had opportunity to debate and the value

of these resourts established.

He suggested that the AGM accept a

resolution, word it categorically, but not necessarily

against one particular Government. The BNHS

members then can discuss the matter but there should

be a general body mandate. President suggested that

this point deserves proper discussion, if the House

so desires.

Regarding health status of collections staff, the

HS informed that collections staff were sent to Dr

Kothari for medical check up. Reports have been

received and follow up actions have also been taken.

Staff has been sent to the specialist for further

treatment. The Society has agreed to bear all the

expenditure incurred for such treatment.

A query was raised by Mr Parvez Cama that

how this took one year. HS answered that it was

initiated almost 8 months ago, it took long time for

medical professionals to give their report. They had

the staff screened twice because they could not come

to any definite conclusion and as a result the final

reports came only about two months ago and after

that the remedial actions have been taken.

Minutes were accepted as proposed by Mr.

Karamchandani and seconded by Dr A M Naik.

Item II.

Annual Report of the Ex-Committee for the

year 1994

The HS gave information regarding the status

of projects which are in the pipeline and then the

report was discussed. The President informed the

Committee that our research staff is doing excellent

work. Mr Ulhas Rane proposed and Mr.

Chandrasekhar seconded that the report be adopted.

It was so adopted.

Item III.

The Balance sheet and Statement of Accounts

for the year 1 993-94 were taken up for consideration.

The Honorary Treasurer (HT) explained the

current accounting procedures.

One of the members wished to know the

position as to how the Society is going to recover

government grants and what are the efforts made for

Nature Environment courses for Army. The Society

MINUTES OF THE G. M. OF THE BNHS

163

has already incurred an expenditure of Rs. 45,587/-.

However, as the Army has a provision to spend

money on such courses. Society need not have spent

any money.

In reply, to this query, HT informed that (1)

regarding grants to be received from the government,

arrears have gone up to Rs 4,80,000/- and (2) we

have been allotted one Charity Race on this behalf

for maintenance of collections and we have received

a sanction letter for R. 8,52,000/-. The grant for air-

condition has yet to come. Regarding money which

has to come from Army, we have a sanction of Rs.

1,00,000/-. Mr. Bittu Sahgal observed that the

collection of administrative fees is lower; he also

felt that members should have got the report 3 weeks

before the AGM.

HT advised that the copies of balance sheet

were available 7 days in advance. Regarding

administrative fees, he stated that it has increased

from Rs. 5,97,000/- to Rs. 10,52,000/-. President also

explained the difficulties in increasing the income

and also requested members to give their suggestions

as to how to generate funds to run the Society.

Mr Nitin Jamdar expressed concern about not

getting the copy of balance sheet in time. HT advised

that there were certain government conditions which

made us change certain figures and due to that report

was delayed.

Mr. Bittu Sahgal raised the point that scientific

staff is not a burden on the Society and Society

should look after them properly. He suggested that

numbers should be put on the pages of annual report

so that it would be easy for members to refer it.

Regarding project and other accounts, his

query was why we cannot put it in one account. The

HT answered that it is as per rules and if any member

would like to take a look at the breakup it can be

shown.

Mrs Variava explained in detail the financial

position (past and present) of the Society. She also

expressed her ideas about the working of the Product

Section and requested members in come up with

suggestions and new ideas for Product Section of

the BNHS.

The HT appreciated that during the year

income from the products had been very good but

expressed concern about non-availability of greeting

cards for Diwali Season.

Mrs Variava informed that they had some

problem regarding the catalogue, design, etc. but this

is getting sorted out.

To a query by a member as to how we

contacted companies for sale, Mrs Variava explained

that they are being contacted by telephone and also

requested members to help the Society by

introducing hardworking persons for the Product

Section. The member inquired whether any

Professional Management Consultant has been

appointed for Product Section, Mrs Variava said she

is looking into it.

Dr. Shashi Menon expressed his feelings on

the remark of some members that the BNHS is not

giving support in scientific staff. He said that all

scientists are on contract and so they should write

project proposals well in advance so by the time their

ongoing project gets over, new project comes in, he

further said that Society should realise that unless

we give good and attractive salary to the scientists

they would not accept our offer, Mr. S Kala wished

to know the increase in expenditure of staff. The HT

informed that since Government has refused to give

funds for our staff, and this has to be borne by the

Society. On a query regarding group gratuity scheme,

HT informed that keeping the interest of our staff in

mind, our own gratuity scheme has been provided

through externally funded LIC group gratuity scheme

and for this we have paid Rs 9,35,000/- which

includes Rs 98,000/- for past services rendered.

Scientific and other staff have been covered.

President was confident that the Society will

come out of these financial difficulties.

Dr Pratap Saraiya raised a question regarding

increase in income because of product and

publications. He wished to know how much is the

increase due to publications and products. The HT

gave him a detailed reply, Mr N D Mulla appreciated

that annual report and balance sheet have come out

well. He raised a question that some years back we

had got grants from government for publications and

who is responsible for not getting them this year.

164

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL 93 (1996)

The HT advised that for these publications we

received grant 5 years back. We hope that this year,

we will be able to publish 4 or 5 booklets out of 36

of NCSTC Series. Regarding Mr Sahni’s book, the

matter is being pursued vigorously and by this year

we should be able to have a draft copy ready.

The HS informed that NCSTC work is being

coordinated together by Mr Daniel and Mr Bittu

Sahgal.

While explaining the situation, Mr. Bittu

Sahgal stated that there is a fault in the system and

he would like Publication Sub-Committee of BNHS

to s^ive him some freedom to choose the authors and

articles to enable him to complete the work as soon

as possible. While commenting on Mr. Bittu Sahgal’s

remarks. President stated that he was given powers

3 years back to select authors for the Series. He also

informed that it has been decided in a recent EC

meeting to withdraw this project from Mr. Bittu

Sahgal.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali asked about index for

the journal and publication of his articles and said

that at least the work of indexing of the Journal

should be done as early as possible. He raised the

point that at the last AGM members were told that

computerisation of indexing is being done. He

wished to know how enlighten the House on this

point. Since Dr. Chhapgar was not aware of this,

President requested HS to find out the situation and

mention it in the next Journal and make members

aware of that.

Mr. Rishad Naoroji raised a point about huge

backlog of ornithological papers received for

publications. The President informed that the matter

will be referred to the Publications Sub-Committee

to explore the possibility for bringing out a

supplement of the Journal to clear the backlog.

Dr Abdul Karim suggested that HS should

make an appeal in his monthly circular and ask every

member how much money, energy and time each

one can devote for the job at the Society and their

ideas and suggestions should be noted and made best

use of.

Mr. Anish Kapadia suggested that we can and

should approach the organisations like ICICI, etc.

for funding and should not think about their nature.

Dr (Ms) Saikia pointed out that there are some

members at Pune who are interested in doing research

and other activities for the BNHS and would it be

possible for the BNHS to open a branch at Pune.

President advised that this point has been noted in

the meeting held at Pune in the past and would be

looked into.

Mr Naik proposed and Mr Chandrahas

seconded the report be adopted. It was so adopted.

Item IV

Appointed of Auditors for the year 1994-95

It was resolved that M/s Habib and Company,

Chartered Accountants, Bombay 400 023, be

reappointed as the Auditors for the Society for the

year 1.4.1994 to 31.3.1995 on a total remuneration

of Rs 5,000/- (Rupees five thousand only).

Item V

President read out some resolutions received

from the members regarding the Conservation

Education Project at Goregaon and denotification

of sanctuaries.

Mr Safal Kumar Mishra suggested to revive

the practice of giving reprints, the minimum order

for this and how much should be charged. This can

be decided by the Publications Sub-Committee. This

point was noted.

Mr Suresh Sawant suggested/informed that he

and other members had approached the Filmcity

personnel to stop environmental damage. They were

told that the BNHS itself is damaging the same by

constructing the Centre. He would like the BHNS to

stop the work and save the environment.

The HS advised that construction work is

going on our land and not in the National Park. This

land was given to us by the Government of

Maharashtra and the Centre is being built for the

cause of nature conservation only. On request made

by the HS, Mr Rane informed that our land is not a

part of the National Park, Centre is being built on an

area of 7 10 sq. m when our land is 33 acres, and the

remaining area will be maintained green. He also

said that whoever wants to see the land can come

MINUTES OF THE A. G M. OF THE BNHS

165

and satisfy himself.

Dr Virinder Singh requested that the

correspondence between the Forest Department and

the BNHS about the legal position of the land be

shown to members and make members aware of the

construction activities.

Dr. Shashi Menon informed that we got the

Conservation Education Project only because we had

land. The BNHS could not do anything on the land

during these 1 0 years period because of lack of funds.

A member asked if before commencing this

project we have done any environmental audit, etc.

President answered that it was a barren land and it

was members who helped us a lot in making the land

green. He also informed that HS had circulated the

detailed information about all this in his monthly

circular.

Mr Nitin Jamdar informed that when he and

other members wanted to go to the land, they were

asked by the National Park personnel to enter from

outside, i.e. from the film city area. He wished to

know the exact situation and expect the BNHS to

keep them informed.

Mrs Variava shared some thoughts on this

matter. Her concern was that since we are doing good

work, we should tackle the problems and go ahead.

Mr Beharamfram expressed that we should

complete the work as early as possible before some

other lobby comes and grabs it from us.

President also requested members to visit the

land, go through the papers and satisfy themselves

and help the Society in tackling the problem.

Mr Anish Kapadia expressed that Society

should do its best, solve the problem and go ahead

with its work.

Mr Banerjee suggested that members should

have a meeting to understand the BNHS’ stand. Clear

understanding between BNHS-EC and members

would help in solving the problem.

President assured members, that we will

arrange a workshop to discuss in detail some of these

important issues. One is how to preserve the BNHS’s

reputation in conservation matters; and without

compromising the basic objective, how it can

restructure its finances, get projects and how to build

up a pool of good scientists and how to retain them.

Mr Bittu Sahgal raised question regarding

airconditioning grant which is outstanding to the tune

of Rs 15 lakhs. The concern was to maintain the

collections. He saw fungus on the walls. It would

not take much time for it to go on the specimens. He

suggested either to keep the windows open or to give

explanation for what is being done. Mr Sunil Zavcri

explained the position in detail and invited members

to visit the collection and see for themselves.

Mrs Variava proposed an amendment to the

resolution that the construction of the Centre should

be done, provided it is not within the National Park.

Mrs Mehra Dubhash stated that last year when

a function held, and the Governor had come to lay

the foundation stone, everyone was present. So

everyone is quite aware of the activities and now

there is no point in discussing the same thing again

and again.

There was a suggestion that there is harassment

from the forest department to the members when they

go for bird watching. President advised that this point

has been noted and the matter is being looked into.

We are hopeful to get good results after discussing

the same with foreset officials. Suggestions were

made by Mr Suresh Sawant and Mr Pardiwala to

review and analyze camp charges properly. President

advised them that they can sit in the office and go

through the charging method. Dr Shashi Menon

wondered whether other organisations can arrange

camps for the BNHS. A decision can be taken in

this AGM only.

Suggestions made by Lt. Gen. Baljit Singh

regarding series of denotification in various areas.

President advised that he will have the matter looked

into.

Mr Nitin Jamdar suggested that the resolution

be passed by the BNHS and to do it as soon as

possible.

Dr Pratap Saraiya expressed concern that any

resolution passed by the BNHS should be exact and

accurate and we should be careful about it.

Mr Virinder Singh expressed his views

regarding the same.

Mrs Variava had detailed discussions with the

166

JOURNAL BOMBAY NAT URAL HIST. SOCIETY. VOL 93 (1996)

members on this matter. Members of the BNHS have

recorded their serious concern about any

denotificaions or proposed denotifications of

National Parks and Sanctuaries without adequate

assessment of the ecological value of the areas being

denotified and without adequate public disclosure

and debates. No resolution was moved.

Mr Parvez Cama enquired about books

reported lost from the Library and success in

recovering them. The HS informed that it was not

very encouraging. Mr. Cama complimented the

Society for using alternative material instead of wood

for construction of doors.

Mr N D Mulla complimented the Honorary

Treasurer for completing the auditing of accounts in

time and calling the meeting within 7 days of

completion of auditing.

Mr Bibhas Amonkar inquired about release of

Bird-call cassettes which were pending since last 10

years. Dr Saraiya informed that master cassette is

being prepared by Dr Bharucha as this work was

entrusted to him in 1983.

Mrs D S Variava proposed the vote of thanks,

and the AGM then terminated.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint). 28 plates in colour by Paul

Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. (Price to members Rs. 170)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ah, 11th (revised) edition (Reprint). 74 coloured and many

monochrome plates. (Price to members Rs. 150)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Salim Ah & S. Dillon Ripley.

(Updated) (Price to members Rs. 245)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date checklist of all

the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka,

2nd edition. (Price to members Rs. 85)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 2

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali & J.D. Panday Rs. 3

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel (Price to members Rs. 162)

Some Beautiful Indian TVees, by E. Blatter and W. Millard. With many coloured and monochrome

plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). (Price to members Rs. 160)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by N.L. Bor and M.B. Raizada. With many coloured

and monochrome plates, 2nd edition. (Price to members Rs. (120)

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R.E. Hawkins (Price to members Rs. 225 )

A Century of Natural History, Edited by J.C. Daniel (Price to members Rs. 160)

Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects, Edited by J.C. Daniel and

J.S. Serrao (Price to members Rs. 300)

Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on Dec. 1995)

III. Individual — Student

(only within India) Rs. 25 Rs. 75 (annual) Free Rs. 80

Proof of studentship from

concerned institution required

at the time of enrolling and

renewal every year

RN 5685/57

ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

NIGHT ROOSTING AND ‘LUNAR PHOBIA’ IN INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT

MEGADERMA LYRA {With seven text-figures)

By R. Subbaraj and J. Balasingh 1

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIVE AND POST-DIVE PAUSE WHILE FORAGING

IN TWO DIVING DUCKS OF LAKE MANSAR (With three text-figures)

By Y.R. Malhotra, N. Deskyong and PS. Pathania 8

NOTES ON THE FEEDING AND BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GYMNOPLEURUS

GEMMATUS HAROLD AND GYMNOPLEURUS M1LIAR1S (F.)

(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) (With a text-figure )

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 13

NOTES ON LONG-EARED HEDGEHOG HEMIECHINUS AURITUS (GMELIN)

( With a text-figure)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 20

ROOST SELECTION BY INDIAN PEAFOWL (PAVO CRISTATUS) IN GIR FOREST

INDIA

By Pranav Trivedi and A.J.T. Johnsingh 25

TAXONOMIC AND NOMENCLATURAL STATUS OF MYRIONEURONR.BR. EX

HOOK. F. (RUBIACEAE)

By D.B. Deb 30

SOME ASPECTS OF BIRD/MAMMAL ASSOCIATIONS: CONTRIBUTIONS

FROM THE INDIAN PLAINS AND THE ZIMBABWE PLATEAU

By D. Ewbank 34

FISH FAUNA OF PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE

By V.J. Zacharias. A.K. Bhardwaj and PC. Jacob 39

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF A LARGE

COMMUNAL ROOST OF WINTERING HARRIERS IN GUJARAT (NW.

INDIA) AND COMPARISON WITH A ROOST IN SENEGAL (W. AFRICA)

By Roger Clarke 44

STUDIES ON AMPHIPODS OF VISAKHAPATNAM COAST (With three plates)

By P. Somanadha Rao, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari 51

YELLOWTHROATED BULBULS AT HORSLEY HILLS (With a text-figure)

By S. Subramanya and J.N. Prasad 55

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 59

OBITUARY 74

REVIEWS ,..71

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 79

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 126

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 143

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING 161

Printed at Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and

published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

JOURNAL

OF THE

. c

VOL. 93, No. 2 August 1996

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

K.P. SHIRODKAR

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5" or 5.25"), using Word Star,

Word Perfect. MS Word or in MS DOS.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9x12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text - figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author's name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 92{ I ): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of

important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy

of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a members's

contribution earlier than a non-members's.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 93 (2): AUGUST 1996

Date of Publication: 05-8-1996 A \

CONTENTS

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OF THE BENGAL FLORICAN (With four text-figures ) R >

By R. Sankaran 167

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK IN GUINDY NATIONAL PARK,

MADRAS ( With three text-figures )

By T.R. Shankar Raman, R.K.G. Menon and R. Sukumar 178

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DURANTA REPENS ( VERBENACE AE) ( With three text-figures )

By T. Byragi Reddy and C. Subba Reddi 193

OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOFT CORALS (OCTOCORALLIA: ALCYONACEA) FROM

THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS ( With a text-figure)

By V. Jaya Sree, K.L. Bhat and A.H. Parulekar 202

STUDIES ON CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN) IN

ORISSA

By L.N. Acharjyo, S.K. Kar and S.K. Patanaik 210

CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER USING A COMBINATION OF

KETAMINE AND XYLAZINE HYDROCHLORIDE

By S.A. Hussain, PK. Malik and B.C. Choudhury 214

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION: AN UPDATE (With a text-figure )

By Sudhir Vyas 219

BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS

By P. Neelanarayanan, R. Nagarajan and R. Kanakasabai 238

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY - 37: DICAEIDAE, NECTARINIIDAE AND ZOSTEROPIDAE

By Humayun Abdulali and Saraswathy Unnithan 242

SOME ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF ONTHOPHAGUS GAZELLA (F.) AND

ONTHOPHAGUS RECTECORNUTUS LANSB. (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) (With a plate)

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 252

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

AN INTERESTING NEW SPECIES OF ANNECKEIDA BOUCEK (HYMENOPTERA: TORYMIDAE)

FROM INDIA (With five text-figures)

By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 257

TWO NEW SPECIES AND A REVISED KEY TO GENUS NEODIPLOCONU SHY SLOP (COLEOPTERA,

ELATERIDAE: MELANOTINAE) FROM INDIA (With eleven text-figures)

By Punam and V. Vasu 260

A NEW SPECIES OF DILOPHILA THOMS. (BRASSICACEAE) FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(INDIA) ( With a text-figure)

By D.S. Rawat, L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur 262

A REMARKABLE NEW GENUS OF BRACONIDAE (HYMENOPTERA) FROM INDIA

( With six text-figures)

By C.G. Rema and T.C. Narendran 264

THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA: MACROCHELIDAE) IN INDIA -

ADDITIONAL NEW SPECIES AND NEW RECORDS ASSOCIATED WITH DUNG BEETLES

(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA (With sixteen text-figures)

By Ranjit Kumar Roy

267

OBITUARIES

B.K. Tikader (1928-1994)

By A.K. Ghosh 276

M. Krishnan (1912-1996) (With a photograph )

By J.C. Daniel 277

REVIEWS

. 280

281

282

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS BIRDS

1. PALEOBOTANY

Reviewed By A.R. Kulkarni ..

2. GREEN IMPERIALISM

Reviewed By S. Asad Akhtar

3. THE END OF A TRAIL

Reviewed By J.C. Daniel

1 . First record of commensalism in the

golden langur Presbytis geei Khajuria at a

new location in Assam

By Vivek Menon 284

2. Observation on an unusual sexual behaviour

in Asiatic Lion ( Panthera leo persica)

By Sanat A. Chavan 285

3. Jackal ( Canis aureus ) hunting common langur

( Presbytis entellus) in Kanha National Park

By E.P. Eric D’Cunha 285

4. Rat killing by a Jackal ( Canis aureus)

By Raza H. Tehsin 286

5. Comparison of sustained and weekly

baiting in field rodents of Jaipur region

By Rajni Chawla 287

6. Laboratory evaluation of eholecalciferol against

Mils musculus (Blyth)

By Qamar Aziz, Y. Saxena

and J.P Srivastava 288

7. About Dillenia aurea and feeding behaviour

of elephants

By Heinant S. Datye 289

8. Taxonomy of yak: Bos (Poepliagus) grunniens

By R.N. Pal 290

9. Unusual congregation of Nayan Ovis amnion

hodgsoni Blyth at Gyam Tsona, north Sikkim

By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 292

10. Blackbucks using the Nilgiris eastern slopes:

A corridor connecting Moyar valley and

Pillur slopes forests

By T.R.K. Yoganand and S. Mohamed Ali 292

1 1. Albino little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis

By A.M.K. Bharos 293

12. Whitenecked or Woolly-necked stork

Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) nesting

on cliffs

By Asad R. Rahmani and Bharat Singh 293

13. Greyheaded fishing eagle, Ichthyophaga

ichthyaetus ichthyaetus (Horsfield)

feeding on turtle

By G. Maheswaran 294

14. Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus Linn.) in Sidhi

district, Madhya Pradesh, India

By A.M.K. Bharos 294

15. Range extension of the Malabar whistling

thrush, Myiophonus horsfieldii (Vigors)

By A.M.K. Bharos 295

16. Nests of thickbilled flowerpecker

By V. Santharam 296

17. Seasonal movements in small sunbird

(Nectarinia minima) and emerald dove

( Chalcophaps indica)

By V. Santharam 296

18. Variations in olivebacked sunbirds

Nectarinia jugularis (Linnaeus) of Andaman,

Car, Central and Great Nicobar Island

By Saraswathy Unnithan 297

19. Sight record of green munia Amandava formosa

in the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer,

Rajasthan

By Asad R. Rahmani 298

20. Some notes on the birds of Bhutan

By F.J. Moet 299

REPTILES

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

21. Distribution of Kaclmga smithii (Gray)

in Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 301

22. Indigenous method of translocation of the

tucktoo Gecko gecko Linn, as practised in

Mizoram, India

By D. N. Harit and D. K. Harit 302

AMPHIBIA

23. “Battalion movement” in recently

metamorphosed bicoloured frogs

(Rana curtipes)

By Chris Wemmer and K.A. Nanjappa 302

24. Additions to the updated species list of

amphibian fauna of India

By Aloysius G. Sekar 303

FISHES

23. Extension of range of distribution of

Horadandia atukorali Deraniyagala

(Pisces: Cyprinidae: Rasborinae) to Pondicherry

and Tamil Nadu

By K. Rema Devi 303

26. Fresh water fishes of Pambar river, Chinnar

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala

By PS. Easa and C.P. Shaji 304

INSECTS

27. Occurrence of Thosea andamanica

Holloway (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

on coconut in the Nicobar islands,

Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean

By K. Veenakumari and Prashanth Mohanraj 306

28. Strange behaviour of mottled emigrant males

By Krushnamegh Kunte 307

29. Prevention of Rhinoceros beetle ( Oryctes rhinoceros)

in coconut palm using red ants

By V. Kumaresan 308

30. New distributional record of Trichotria tetractis

(Rotatoria/Trichotridae) and Daphnia lumholtzi

(Branchiopoda/Cladocera/Daphnidae) from

Kolleru lake, Andhra Pradesh with notes on

indicator value

By S.Z. Siddiqi and S.V.A. Chandrasekhar 309

31. Redescription of Macrocheles limue Samsinak

(Acarina: Macrochelidae)

By R.K. Roy 3 1 1

BOTANY

32. Two additional species of Brassicaceae

for the flora of Orissa

By PC. Panda and P. Das 314

33. Helicteres isora - a keystone species

By V. Santharam 316

34. Some new combinations in Asteraceae

By R.C. Srivastava and C. Jeffrey 318

35. Micro-morphology of Aeginetia indica

L. seed

By Anuradha S. Upadhye and M.S. Kumbhojkar ... 318

36. Rediscovery of Streptocaulon sylvestre

Wight - an endangered and little known

endemic plant of Eatern India

By A.P Das 320

37. Presence of wild plantain ( Ensete superbum)

in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 322

38. Rikliella kernii (Raymond) Raynal,

a new record for Andhra Pradesh

By K. Indira, M. Chenna Kesavulu

and R.R. Venkata Raju 323

39. Some little known and rare high altitude

species of Poa from Garhwal Himalaya

By R.D. Gaur and D.C. Nautiyal 324

40. Some new plant records for India

By R.C. Srivastava 327

d

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

August 1996 Vol. 93 No. 2

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OF THE BENGAL FLORICAN1

R. Sankaran2

(With four text-figures )

Key words: Bengal florican, bustards, displays, triggers, stimuli

I studied the territorial displays of male Bengal florican Houbampsis bengalensis to understand why their

displays are often triggered by calls of unrelated species. Only three of 14 males were within acoustic range of each

other. The closest of males were at distances that varied from 0.35 km to 2.25 km (mean 1 .2 km, SD 0.67 km, n=14).

Males performed two types of territorial displays. The first was by erecting the plumes on the neck and head, and the

second territorial display was an exaggerated flight. The flight display was accompanied by auditory signals. Unique

to the flight display was a loud clapping sound produced by the wings. There was greater propensity of males within

acoustic range of another to display soon after a neighbour displayed. Displays of Bengal floricans were also triggered

by calls of other species of birds, chiefly peafowl Pavo cristatus, and the jungle crow Corvus mucrorhynchos. Of 61 1

display flights recorded, 66% immediately followed such calls. Displays by Bengal floricans were occasionally triggered

by other sounds. Calls of the Indian pied hornbill Anthracocems malabaricus, red wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus,

and on one occasion a gunshot, triggered display.

Introduction

Territorial displays in the bustards, Otididae,

are as spectacular as they are diverse, and can be

broadly classified into four categories (Osborne et

al. 1984). The ‘balloon’ type display is seen amongst

the heaviest members of this group and is the

prevalent form of display in the genera Ardeotis,

Neotis and Otis (Mattingley 1929, Cramp and

Simmons 1980, Osborne et al. 1984, Hellmich 1988;

Rahmani 1989). The second is the running type of

display, which is seen in the houbara bustard

Chlamydotis undulata (Mendelssohn et al. 1979).

The third and fourth categories are both aerial

displays and are performed by the smaller members

‘Accepted July 1994.

2Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore 641 010, India.

of the bustard group. One of these is a display leap

or jump as is seen in the little bustard Tetrax tetrax

(Schulz 1985) and the lesser florican Sypheotides

indica (Dharmakumarsinhji 1950, Ridley etal. 1985,

Sankaran 1991). The other is an aerial display flight

and is seen in African bustards such as the black-

bellied Eupodotis melanogaster, buff crested E.

ruficrista and black bustards E. afra (Osborne et al.

1984) and in the Bengal florican (Narayan and

Rosalind 1988, Narayan 1990, Sankaran 1991).

Based on their territorial displays, polygynous

bustards can be categorized into three types. Species

that display on the ground, those that have a jumping

display and those whose territorial displays are

exaggerated flights. The species that perform

jumping displays are the smallest (wing length < 250

mm), those that have flight displays are medium sized

(265-350 mm) while those that have ground displays

168

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

are the largest (390-761 mm). The Bengal florican

and the black-bellied bustard (342 and 346 mm

respectively) appear to be at the size threshold above

which all species have only ground displays

(Sankaran 1991; source of wing measurements:

Cramp and Simmons 1980, Ali and Ripley 1983,

Collar et al. 1986). These two species are of

considerable interest because both have ground

displays and aerial displays (this study; Cramp and

Simmons 1980).

In the study reported here, I quantitatively

describe the territorial displays of male Bengal

llorican with reference to the kinds of displays

performed, frequency of performance by and

variation between individuals, temporal distribution

of displays and the influence of displays by one male

on another. I then examine in detail a fascinating

aspect of male Bengal florican behaviour; the

phenomenon of calls of unrelated species, for

example the peafowl Pavo cristatus and the jungle

crow Corvus macrorhynchos, triggering territorial

displays of this species.

Materials and Methods

Study Area: I studied the Bengal florican at

four separate grassland sites within the Dudhwa Tiger

Reserve (area 815 sq. km), in the northern extremity

of Lakhimpur Kheri district of Uttar Pradesh, India

(28° 24' and 28° 40' N and 80° 34' and 80° 50' E).

The study area lies in the western extremity of the

range of the Bengal florican, and differs from areas

further east in being relatively drier (cf. Narayan

1990).

The wet alluvial grasslands ( terai ) that

comprised my study area were characterised by a

few dispersed trees and a distinct mosaic of grass

communities. ‘High ground’ areas were not subject

to inundation during the monsoons and were

dominated by shorter grass species like Imperata

cylindrica and Desmostachya bipinnata. ‘Low

ground’ areas, which tended to be inundated during

the rains were dominated by taller grasses such as

Schlerostachya fusca, Saccharum spontaneum and

Erianthus munja. Those areas where water was

retained for prolonged periods were characterised

by grasses lik ePhragmites karka and A rundo donax.

The tree cover in the grasslands was sparse;

predominantly Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo and

Bombax ceiba. These grasslands bordered dense

Shorea robusta forests.

The four grassland sites studied varied in area,

the sizes being 62, 85, 120 and >250 hectares. The

former three had one territorial male each, while the

last had three. I named the 5 males studied according

to the grassland they occupied. Kowaghatti,

Navalkhad and Chapra (abbreviated accordingly in

this paper) were solitary males while Seethagadaia

East and West were males that were within acoustic

range of each other.

Study Animal: The Bengal florican is one of

the world’s rarest bustards (Osborne et al. 1984) and

the current world population is estimated at 400 birds

(Rahmani et al. 1991). It is a large bird (adult males

weigh about 1 .5 kg), and occupies a monotypic genus

in the family Otididae (Osborne et al. 1984). This

species is promiscuous and exhibits a dispersed lek

mating system (Sankaran 1991). In my study area,

the breeding season commences in the first week of

March and ends at the end of June coinciding with

the onset of the monsoon, during which period males

occupy territories (briefly described below) that are

fiercely defended from other males (Sankaran

1991).

Females did not associate with males, except

very briefly. Thus a male performed territorial

displays in the absence of females and, in most cases,

other males. A distinct pre-copulatory display is

performed by males when a female approaches it.

Circumstantial evidence showed that parental care

is only by the females.

Methods: The study period covered 341 days

between 1987 and 1989; from 30 April to 6 June

1987, 22 January to 22 June in 1988, and 15 February

to 15 July in 1989.

As males occupied disjunct territories,

machans (platform) were built on suitable trees in

or adjacent to the territories of the males under study.

I carried out observations from the machan from day

break until the bird left the display area. I resumed

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OF THE BENGAL FLORICAN

169

observations about 4 hours before sunset and

watched the male from when it returned to its display

area until it roosted at dusk. Over a period of 10

days, males of each grassland site were observed

for the morning and evening on two days.

Observations conformed mainly to the focal

animal sampling method (Altmann 1 974). The males

were observed continuously with a spotting scope

and changes in activity (e.g. foraging, standing,

preening, display, etc.) were noted to the nearest

second.

As peacock calls were the primary triggers of

display, the frequency of peacock calls were noted.

This followed two methods. Initially I noted down

the occurrence of the peacock calls to the nearest

second, and its effect on the Bengal florican.

Subsequently the number of peacock calls that were

heard over every half an hour period were recorded.

The timelag between a peacock call and display of a

florican was recorded using a stopwatch, the time

being measured from the end of the call to the

beginning of a display. As peacocks have different

calls, the kind of call that triggered display and the

presence or absence of triggers each time the Bengal

florican performed territorial display were noted. In

the case of other sounds which triggered displays

(e.g. crow calls), I only noted the type of the trigger.

Results

Territory: The male Bengal florican is

territorial, and spacing patterns of territories indicate

that the breeding system of this species can be

defined as the dispersed lek. The size of male

territory varies from 1 8 to 28 hectares.

Within the territory, a male had a core area

from which it displayed; this varied in size between

males from 2.1 to 8.4 hectares. Display sites were

located in an area of short grass that resulted in males

becoming conspicuous as soon as they moved into

the ‘display area’. All males studied came into their

‘display area’ about 2.5 to 3 hours before sunset.

They roosted at the display sites in the night and left

the sites about 3 to 3.5 hours after sunrise. Males

generally spent the day in areas of longer grass away

from the display sites, but within the territory.

Most males were beyond acoustic or visual

range of each other, as the intervening areas were

often forested. Of the 14 territorial males that I

monitored, 9 were not within acoustic or visual range

of another. The distances of the nearest neighbouring

males varied between 0.35 km and 2.25 km (mean

1.2 km, SD 0.67 km, n=14). In the grassland which

had three territorial males, intra-male distances were

between 350 and 400 m.

Types of Display: Males perform two types

of territorial displays during the breeding season. The

first is a neck fluff display which is achieved by

erecting its elongated neck and head plumes, either

partly or fully. Partial fluffing of neck feathers

resulted in a perceptible thickening of the neck while

full fluffing of the neck resulted in the plumes being

spread out fully like a fan. The overall mean duration

of the neck fluff display was 17 seconds (SD = 32

seconds, n = 679). The mean duration of the full neck

fluff was 16 seconds (SD = 32 seconds, n = 482),

and that of partial neck fluff was 23 seconds (SD =

16 seconds, n = 197). The full neck fluff display was

of a significantly shorter duration than the partial

neck fluff display (Mann-Whitney U test, U = 4179,

p < 0.002).

The second territorial display was an aerial

one. This flight display consisted of an initial rise to

about 3 to 4 metres followed by a descent and then

another rise before the male landed in a dive. The

mean duration of flight displays was 6. 1 seconds (SD

=0.59, n = 64). The distance covered by the display

flight varied between 15 and 25 metres. The flight

display is accompanied by auditory signals. The one

unique to the flight display is a loud clapping sound

produced by the wings during the first ascent. This

lasts about 1-1.2 seconds and consists of between

12 and 15 individual claps. Once the first peak is

reached, the bird then begins vocalizing. This is the

‘chik’ call, but is not unique to the flight display as

it is made during regular flight and threat displays

as well. Between 4 and 6 individual ‘chik’ calls are

made during each display flight (mean = 5.49, SD =

0.56, n = 33). About 1 ‘chik’ call is made for every

1.1 seconds of display flight.

170

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Nine percent of flight display can be termed

as ‘extended flight displays’ and vary from the

normal in that after the first ascent and descent, the

male carried on flying and then landed in a display

dive (i.e. the second ascent and descent). Or, the

display began in the typical manner but did not end

in a display dive, or the male began flying normally

but landed in a display dive. The average duration

of the extended flight display was 1 6.5 seconds (SD

= 7.4, n = 8). Males differed in the frequency of

extended flight displays. In two males over 16% of

display flights were extended flight displays

compared to less than 4% in three others.

The neck fluff display did not always

culminate in a flight display. For instance, of 420

territorial displays (both neck fluff and flight)

observed in three males, 174 (41%) were neck fluff

displays that did not result in the flight display.

However, the flight display is preceded by the neck

fluff display, the duration of which was variable. The

duration of neck fluffing was significantly lower

when the fluffing culminated in the flight display

than when it did not (t = - 3.406, p <0.001).

Intensity in territorial display varied. The most

passive form was a male advertising its presence by

standing in an area of short grass, or on a small

mound of sand within its territory and thus becoming

very conspicuous. Among active territorial

advertisements, the partial neck fluff display was

Frequency occurrence

Sunrise

more passive than the full neck fluff display, during

which the males were visibly more excited. The most

active territorial display was the flight display and it

was often a culmination of a series of partial or full

neck fluff displays.

Display Periods: Territorial displays are

clustered around sunrise and sunset (Fig. 1 a, b). 70%

of morning displays occurred within 85 minutes of

daybreak and 70% of evening display occurred

within 50 minutes to sunset. A peak in number of

displays occurred at about 20 minutes after sunrise

and 20 minutes before sunset. Only one male out of

the five studied showed a preference to display in

the mornings (Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.01), the

others had no such preference (p > 0. 1 ).

The number of display flights performed by

males in a display period were few. For almost 25%

of observed display periods, males in spite of being

present within their territory did not perform flight

displays (Table 1). For 80% of display periods, males

performed 5 or less flight displays. On an average,

males performed between 2.2 and 7.4 display flights

per display period (Table 2).

Variation in display rates within the

breeding season: The display rates varied

considerably between days and even between the

morning and evening of a day (Fig. 2 a, b, c).

Correspondingly the display rates did not show any

consistency between males.

Frequency occurrence

Sunset

Fig. 1. Distribution of territorial displays of male Bengal floricans during the morning and evening display periods

in relation to sunrise (la) and sunset (lb). Maximum display occurs within a narrow time frame of sunrise

and sunset.

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OF THE BENGAL FLO RICAN

171

Table 1

THE NUMBER OF DISPLAY FLIGHTS PERFORMED BY FIVE MALE BENGAL FLORICANS IN A DISPLAY PERIOD.

THE FREQUENCY TABLE SHOWS THE NUMBER OF TIMES EACH MALE WAS OBSERVED TO PERFORM 0 TO >9

FLIGHT DISPLAYS DURING A DISPLAY PERIOD. DATA IS FROM 206 DISPLAY PERIODS (BOTH MORNING AND

EVENING). (SEE. E„ SEE. W„ KOW., NAV. & CHAPRA ARE THE IDENTITY OF 5 TERRITORIES

Table 2

COMPARISON OF NUMBER OF DISPLAYS PERFORMED PER DISPLAY PERIOD BY FIVE MALES USING MANN-

WHITNEY U TEST

Table 3

DIFFERENCES (BY T TEST) IN THE MEAN DURATION OF THE NECK FLUFF DISPLAY THAT WERE TRIGGERED BY

CALLS (PEACOCK AND CROWS) AND NOT TRIGGERED BY CALLS

Key : WPC = With peacock calls; WCC = With crow calls; WNT = Without sound triggers

A sound was said to have triggered a display when there was no time lag between the end of the sound and the commencement of

display, that is, the sound began slightly before males responded by displaying.

172

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Kowaghatti male

Displays/Hour

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Weeks of the breeding season

Chapra male

Displays/Hour

Navalkhad male

Displays/Hour

Curve-least square fit; Data from 1989

Fig. 2. Variation in weekly display rates of three male

Bengal floricans through the breeding season.

Variations in display rates between males:

I tested display rates to see whether variations existed

between males and whether two males which were

within acoustic range of each other had greater

display rates than solitary males. Though the display

rates of the males that were within acoustic range

were higher than the solitary males (Table 2), only

one of these males (See. E.) had significantly higher

display rate than the others. Even between solitary

males differences existed in the number of displays

performed during a display period.

Stimuli and Triggers: Of the 14 identified

territorial males in the study area, only 3 males were

within acoustic range of each other. There was a

greater propensity of these three males to display

soon after a neighbour displayed. On some occasions

(7%) one male responded to another by displaying

immediately, that is both were in the air together.

More often (27%), males displayed a short time

(within 2 minutes) after a rival displayed (Fig. 3).

Displays of Bengal floricans were often

triggered by the calls of other species of birds, chiefly

peafowl, and to a lesser extent the jungle crow. A

sound was said to have triggered a display when there

was no time lag between the end of the sound and

the commencement of display (0 seconds), that is,

the sound began slightly before males responded by

displaying.

Of the 611 display flights recorded, 66%

immediately followed such calls. Of these, 72%

followed peacock calls and 28% followed crow calls.

Frequency occurrence

Time lapse between displays (minutes)

Fig. 3. Time lapse between flight displays of three male

Bengal floricans which were within acoustic and visual

range of each other. Males tend to display within a

narrow time frame of another male's display.

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OF THE BENGAL F LORI CAN

173

59% of instances of neck fluffing was not followed

by flight display (n = 509) were triggered by calls.

87% of these were triggered by peacock calls and

13% by crow calls. Displays by Bengal lloricans

were occasionally triggered by other sounds. Calls

of the Indian pied hornbill Anthracoceros

malabaricus, red wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus,

and on one occasion a gunshot, triggered either neck

fluffing or flight display.

I measured time lapse between peacock calls

and Bengal florican displays. Of the 196 instances

when time lapse could be measured between the end

of a peacock call and the commencement of a display,

82% of displays occurred while the peacock was

calling (Fig. 4). A uniform distribution of displays

at all other intervals show that there was no lag effect

of peacock calls on the Bengal florican ’s display,

and that the call had an effect for that instance only.

As both peacock calls and Bengal florican

displays occur at greatest intensity in a narrow time

range, that is, at sunrise or sunset, it was possible

that both occurred at identical moments purely due

to chance. On testing the data I found that Bengal

florican displays had a significantly higher

probability of following peacock calls than that

expected purely by chance (chi square 277.5, DF 1 ,

p< 0.0001).

I examined the effect of the presence and

absence of sound triggers on the duration of neck

fluff display. I expected to see two patterns. Firstly,

if there was a difference in the degree of trigger effect

between calls, I expected that the duration of neck

fluff display culminating in flight display would be

least in those displays triggered by peacock calls.

Secondly, because triggers have an instantaneous

effect on display, I expected that the duration of neck

fluffing will be longest when the neck fluff display

occurs independently of triggers.

Correspondingly, I divided neck fluff displays

into two: (a) when the flight display followed, and

(b) when the flight display did not follow. As

expected, when displays were triggered by peacock

calls, the duration of neck fluff was significantly

lower than in those displays which were triggered

Frequency occurrence

Time lapse from peacock calls (seconds)

big- 4. The time lapse between peacock calls and the displays of male Bengal florican. Display at 0 seconds

indicates that both display and calls occurred at the same instant. The effect of a trigger releasing display is

instantaneous, and apparently does not have a delayed (or lag) effect.

174

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93 (1 996)

by crow calls or which occurred independent of

triggers (Table 3). However, though the mean

duration of neck fluff was greater when flight display

occurred independently of triggers than when

triggered by crow calls, the data did not vary

significantly.

Similarly, when not followed by display flight,

neck fluff displays triggered by peacock calls had

significantly shorter duration than neck fluffing without

triggers. The duration of neck fluffing triggered by

crow calls did not vary statistically from the other two,

though the mean value was the highest (Table 3).

To see whether there was any variation in

trigger effect in the loudness of peacock calls, I

ranked calls as loud, medium or faint. Loud calls

were those which were assessed to have been emitted

within 150 m of the male florican, medium 150 -

300 m, and faint calls were over 300 m away. Of all

peacock calls that acted as triggers, 49.48% were

loud, 32.47% were medium, and 1 8.04% were faint.

Peacock calls are varied, but the three most

common are the 'Mayaw-Mayaw' , the ‘ Kia-Kia' and

the ‘ Kok-Kok ’ and variations of these calls. Of these

the last is almost purely an alarm call while the

former two are contact and/or territorial calls.

Displays of the Bengal florican are mainly triggered

by the ‘ Mayaw-Mayaw ' calls. Only on three

occasions did the ‘ Kia-Kia call trigger displays, two

of which were flight displays, and one was neck

fluffing. Twice, variations of these calls triggered

off flight displays.

Discussions

There are two main features of the territorial

displays of the Bengal florican that need emphasis.

(1) The low number of displays that males perform

during a display period and the lack of a distinct

peak in display during the breeding season and (2)

the existence of triggers and stimuli in territorial

displays.

Territorial displays are signals that pass on

information both to rival males and to females.

Displays however are of many forms, and include at

one extreme specifically evolved advertisements and

at the other by simply being conspicuous within its

territory by for example standing in a prominent

position so that other individuals can easily see it.

The form the display takes will determine the

distance over which the message is signalled.

Amongst bustards, both ground and aerial displays

are seen, larger bustards have ground displays whose

effective signalling distance is enhanced by males

displaying from higher ground (e.g. Rahmani 1989).

Small bustards have jumping displays because the

effecti vity of the signal is enhanced by the male rising

above the vegetation.

However, a territorial signal will be effective

only if it is performed frequently enough. Male lesser

floricans display jump as many as 500 times a day

(Sankaran 1991) and male great Indian bustards may

perform their balloon displays for as long as an hour

or more continuously (Rahmani 1989). For both

these species, display is the prominent activity during

the breeding season. In contrast, male Bengal florican

perform less than 4 or 5 flight displays during a

display period.

The frequency of aerial displays will be limited

by, among others, body size. Adult male Bengal

florican are medium sized bustard that weigh about

1.5 kg. I suggest that due to energy limitations

brought about by size, frequent displays (like, for

example, the lesser florican) cannot be performed.

However, for territorial displays to be optimally

effective, the message must be signalled frequently,

or over a longer duration of time (as is the case with

the lesser florican and great Indian bustard). The

Bengal florican has two forms of displays. Aerial

displays, in its grassland habitat have the function

of signalling over longer distances. The ground

displays, on the other hand have signalling value over

shorter distances. I suggest that the low frequency

of flight displays that signal over longer distances

are compensated by advertisements that are effective

over shorter distances.

The lack of distinct peaks in the display rate

over the breeding season can be best explained by

the nesting patterns in hens. Nesting occurs through

every month of the breeding season (Baker 1921).

This is an expected response as nesting habitat and

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OF THE BENGAL FLO RICAN

175

food are abundantly available for most of the

breeding season (Sankaran 1991). If receptivity in

females is not concentrated to specific parts of the

breeding season, and females solicit males

throughout, then males too should not have distinct

peaks in display rates.

Males occasionally display immediately on

hearing a rival display, but more often males display

a short while after a rival displays. I believe that this

pattern is an expected one. A display signals a

message, and in territorial displays it probably signals

strength or ability to retain its territory. So a male

should listen to or watch a rival male’s display in

order to assess the other before it responds. The few

occasions when the males responded immediately

to a rival’s display by displaying can they be easily

attributed to higher levels of pugnacity at that

moment.

The calls of unrelated species acting as

releasers of Bengal florican’s displays is less easily

explained. To explain why Bengal floricans display

to calls of other species, I use a proximate approach

rather than an ultimate one. The essential problem

of using an ultimate approach is that possible

explanations that were examined, did not account

for the immediate response by the males to calls of

unrelated species. I believe that the observed

behavioural pattern can be explained by classical

ethology from which period experimental

demonstrations of complex behavioural patterns

being triggered by a variety of objects exist (Gould

1982). Though this approach has lost popularity in

recent times (McFarland 1985), the concept of the

‘Fixed Action Pattern’ and ‘Sign Stimuli’ has stood

up to examination and shows no real sign of

‘diminished usefulness’ (Thorpe 1979). I believe that

this approach is all the more valid in this case

because, as a rule, territorial or courtship displays

are innate and are not learned.

The sounds which trigger Bengal florican’s

territorial displays are diverse and include calls of

peafowl, jungle crow, Indian pied hornbill, red

wattled lapwing, swamp partridge and gunshots.

Displays can be triggered by humans mimicking

peacocks (Narayan and Rosalind 1988). It was

thus apparent that it was not a call per se but

sound which triggered displays. I suggest that this

is a case of sound acting as a sign stimuli to release

displays, in much the same pattern as has been

demonstrated by Tinbergen (1951, 1972) for such

diverse life forms sueh as butterflies, fish and

birds.

I am unsure as to how this fixation of sounds

triggering displays came to exist in the Bengal

florican. One possible explanation lies in the

observation of males being stimulated (sometimes

immediately) to display on hearing the acoustic

signal (wing clap) of the flight display of a rival male,

and this perhaps leading to sound being fixed as a

trigger in floricans.

The propensity of peacock calls triggering

displays needs further perusal. If sound triggers

display, then the loudest sounds are those that should

elicit the most reactions (‘super normal sign stimuli’;

Tinbergen 1951, 1972). Peacock calls are amongst

the loudest sounds in the Bengal florican’s habitat

and are therefore essentially ‘super normal sign

stimuli’. In the absence of loud calls, other sounds

should release display as indeed indicated by the

trends in data collected. This is also corroborated in

the duration of neck Huff being significantly lower

when triggered by peacock calls, thus indicating a

stronger trigger effect, as is to be expected of the

functioning of a ‘super normal sign stimuli’

(Tinbergen 1951, 1972). Though the existence of

sign stimuli releasing fixed action patterns has

several advantages, occasionally responses to cues

which are obviously inappropriate exist, which with

a slight increase of ‘specificity in filtering

mechanisms’, might have been avoided (Gould

1982). This is important in context to the Bengal

florican, because the sounds that trigger a complex

breeding activity, territorial display, are cues that are

irrelevant to its breeding.

Another question of interest is why has such

behaviour evolved in this species, while in others,

which also have acoustic components to display, such

trigger patterns are not apparent?

A striking feature of Bengal florican attraction

displays is their sporadicity. In 90% of observed

176

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

display periods, males performed 7 or less flight

displays; as each display flight has a duration of about

6. 1 seconds, the time over which the male was

actually displaying is minuscule. Thus display is not

an activity that occupies time, but exists as individual

acts. This is in striking contrast to other species of

bustard, e.g. lesser florican where males can

display at rates up to 2 or 3 jumps per minute for an

hour or more (Ridley et al. 1985, Sankaran 1991),

or the great Indian bustard, in which display also

occupies considerable periods of time (Rahmani

1989).

I suggest that the existence of triggers in

displays in the Bengal florican has arisen because of

the sporadicity of its displays. In species where

display occurs continuously over periods of time, a

stimulus can elicit a bout of display but not each

display act, as these are performed too frequently.

In the Bengal florican, however, sporadicity of

display has resulted in each display act being a single

independent unit, i.e. one display flight is not

immediately followed by another (as in the lesser

florican) but after a significant time lag. Thus the

fixation of unrelated triggers or the use of ‘simple

sign stimuli’ to release behaviour sequences appears

to be a function of the sporadicity or the rarity of the

performance of an act.

Acknowledgements

This study was a part of the Bombay Natural

History Society’s Endangered Birds Project, funded

by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and sponsored

by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt,

of India. I am indebted to a number of individuals

for support received during my field work and the

many valuable discussions I had with them: J.C.

Daniel, A.R. Rahmani, Mehboob Alam, G. Narayan,

L. Rosalind, P.A. Azeez, N.K. Ramachandran, A.

Desai, and A.J.T. Johnsingh. I am grateful to the

Uttar Pradesh Forest Department Personnel of the

Dudwa Tiger Reserve for all their logistic support. I

wish to thank C. Perrins, A. Zahavi, Ajith Kumar, R.

Borges, R. Gadagkar, A. Varadachari and an

anonymous referee for their helpful comments on

earlier versions of this manuscript.

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Ali, S. & S.D Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. (Compact edition). New Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press.

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour: sampling

methods. Behavior 48: 227-265.

Baker, E.C.S. (1921): The game birds of India, Burmah and

Ceylon. Vol. 2. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Collar, N.J., P.D. Goriup, & PE. Osborne (1986): Suborder

Otides, Family Otididae. In. The birds of Africa. Vol II. Urban,

E.K., Fry, H.C. & Keith, S. (Eds.). London: Academic Press,

pp. 148-179.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons ( 1 980): (Chief eds.). Handbook of

the birds of Europe, Middle East and North Africa. Vol II.

Hawks to Bustards. London: Oxford Univ. Press.

Dharmakumarsinjhi, K.S. (1950): The Lesser Florican

[Sypheotides indica (Miller)]: Its courtship display, behaviour

and habits. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 201-216.

Gould, J.L. (1982): Ethology. The mechanisms and evolution of

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(Ardeotis kori). Zool. Garten N.F. 58: 345-352.

Mattingley, A.H.E. (1929): The love display of the Australian

bustard. Emu 28: 198.

McFarland, D. (1985): Animal behaviour. Psychobiology,

ethology and evolution. Bath: Pitman Publ. Ltd.

Mendelssohn, H., U. Marder & M. Stavy (1979): Captive

breeding of the Houbara ( Chlamydotis undulata maccjueeni)

and a description of its display. In: XIII Bulletin I.C.B.P.,

Cambridge, pp. 265-279.

Narayan, G. (1990): General ecology and behaviour of the Bengal

florican. In: The status and ecology of the lesser florican and

Bengal florican. Final report. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay, pp. 17-34.

Narayan, G. & L. Rosalind (1988): Ecology of Bengal Florican

in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, In: The Bengal Florican. Status

and conservation. Annual Report 3. Bombay Natural History

Society. Bombay: pp. 5-42.

Osborne, P, N. Collar & P.D. Goriup (1984): Bustards. Dubai:

Dubai Wildlife Research Centre.

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard. Final report.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rahmani, A.R., G. Narayan, L. Rosalind, R. Sankaran & U.

Ganguli-Lachungpa (1991): Status of the Bengal florican

Houbaropsis bengalensis in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.

88: 349-375.

Ridley, M.W., R.D. Magrath & J.C.Z. Woinarski ( 1 985): Display

leap of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica. J. Bombay

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licit. Hist. Soc. 82: 271-277.

Sankaran, R. ( 1 99 1 ): Some aspects of the breeding behaviour of

the lesser florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) and the

Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis (Gmelin). Ph. D.

Thesis. Univ. of Bombay.

Schulz, H. (1985): Grundlagenforschund Zur Biologie Der

Zwergtrappe Tetrax tetrax. Braunschweig.

Thorpe, W.H. (1979): The origins and rise of ethology.

Praeger.

Tinbergen, N. (1951): The study of instinct. New York: Oxford

Univ. Press.

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an Ethologist. Vol. 1, field studies. Cambridge: Harvard Univ.

Press.

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK IN

GUINDY NATIONAL PARK, MADRAS1

T. R. Shankar Raman2 *, R. K. G. Menon2 and R. Sukumar4

( With three text-figures)

Key Words: Guindy National Park, Axis axis , Antilope cervicapra, population ecology, habitat use,

feeding, wildlife management

We studied population size, density, and structure, seasonal habitat use, and feeding habits of chital and

blackbuck in the 2.7 km2 Guindy National Park, in Madras, Tamil Nadu, using line-transect sampling during 1991-

92, and compared these with observations made during 1975-82 in the park. The chital population (density of 212.3/

km2 during 1991-92) has been stable or even increased between 1975 and 1992. Artificial feeding may be responsible

for low fawn and adult mortality and thus for maintaining very high chital density. On the other hand, the blackbuck

population has declined sharply from about 250 animals in 1 979 to about 85 (density of 1 7.5/km2) today. Demographic

changes include a lower fertility and a lower recruitment into the young male age classes. The likely causes for the

decline are habitat changes in blackbuck territorial areas and competition with chital. There was much overlap in

space use and food items of the two ungulates. Management measures such as habitat manipulation, cessation of

artificial feeding, control of exotics, and introduction of blackbuck from other areas may be needed for saving the

blackbuck in this insular park, once considered a stronghold of this endangered species.

Introduction

Guindy National Park (GNP), in Madras city

(Tamil Nadu, southern India), harbours a diversity

of animal and plant life (Sclvakumar 1979,

Selvakumar et al. 1981, Mf non 1986a, Santharam

1986). It is an important remnant of the tropical dry

evergreen forest of the Coromandel coast (Champion

and Seth 1968). A substantial population of

introduced chital (Axis axis Erxleben) and a smaller

native population of blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra

L.) inhabit GNP (Krishnan 1972). In the past, GNP

has been regarded as one of the southern strongholds

of blackbuck (Ranjitsinh 1989, Rahmani 1991), an

antelope now given endangered status and placed in

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972

(Anon. 1992).

We (RS and RKGM) along with R.

Selvakumar have been making ecological

observations in GNP since 1974. By the early 1990s

'Accepted August 1995.

-Zoology Department, Loyola College, Madras - 600 034.

Present Address'. Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute

of Science, Bangalore - 560 012.

’18, IV Main, Gandhi Nagar, Madras - 600 020.

4Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore - 560 012.

we had noticed a drastic decline in the blackbuck

population. We then began a more systematic

monitoring of the ecology of GNP particularly to

understand the dynamics of chital and blackbuck and

explore the causes of the latter’s decline. In this paper,

we present results (for 1 99 1 and 1 992) on population

densities, demography, and seasonal habitat

utilisation of chital and blackbuck, including a

qualitative account of their feeding habits. These

results, we believe, will be of value in formulating

scientific management strategies.

Study Area

Location and Area: GNP is a 2.7 km2 park

located in the southwest corner of Madras city (13°

N, 80° E). Arterial roads to the city, and densely

populated areas fringe GNP on the northern and

western sides. A wall of 9.5 km perimeter surrounds

the park, which also has an extensive network of

roads (14 km) and trails. GNP has two large tanks

(Kathan Kollai or KK Tank and Appalam Kolam or

AK Tank) and two ponds, which have little or no

water during the dry months (Fig. 1 ).

History: Before 1821, Raj Bhavan (then

called the Guindy Lodge) was in private hands. In

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OE CH1TAL AND BLACKBUCK

179

MIT MADRAS

500

_J

netre

LEGEND

Park boundary

-> — Transect

| F orest Office

Road

(2D Pond

Fig. 1. Map of GNP showing habitat types, transects and surrounding areas.

1821, it was bought by the government and made

the official country residence of the state Governors.

The original area of about 505 ha. was declared a

Reserved Forest in 1910. However, between 1961

and 1977, 172 ha. were set aside for various

educational institutions and memorials. The

remaining area popular as the Guindy Deer Park was,

under suggestions from local naturalists, declared a

National Park in 1978. More details about the history

of the park are given by Menon (1986a).

While blackbuck are a native faunal element

of GNP, chital were introduced into the park from

the Government House on Mount Road when Raj

Bhavan was developed (Krishnan 1972). The exact

year of introduction is not given. However, Raj

Bhavan became the only official residence of the

Governor of Madras in 1946 (Chaudhuri 1990).

Thus, the present chital population is probably

derived from individuals introduced in the late 1940s.

Some albino male blackbuck were also introduced

by the Maharaja of Bhavnagar.

Climate: This region has a tropical

dissymmetric climate (Meher-Homji 1974). The

mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures

are 32.9°C and 24.3UC. The mean annual rainfall is

1 ,2 1 5 mm (range 522 to 2, 1 35 mm) (Climatological

Table, India Meteorological Dept., Madras -

Minambakkam 1931-60). The total rainfall in 1991

was 1,313 mm, while in 1 992 it was 1 ,09 1 mm (Fig.

2). Based on rainfall pattern and water availability

in the environment, we defined three broad seasons

for this study.

(a) Dry’ Season ( January 1 - March): January,

February, and March are the months of least mean

rainfall - 25.8 mm, 6.3 mm, and 15.1 mm,

respectively. Dew is an important source of moisture

180

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93 (1996)

Mean daily maximum

Total precipitation

Mean daily minimum

Data from daily weather reports for

Madras (Minambakkam)

Fig. 2. Monthly weather data for the study area, 1991-92.

during this season.

(b) Summer or Pre-Monsoon Season ( April -

May): This season is characterised by high

temperatures, and erratic rainfall. This regime is

believed to determine the peculiar vegetation of the

Coromandel-Circar coast (Meher-Homji 1974, Puri

et al. 1989).

(c) Monsoon or Wet Season ( June -

December): During this season, Madras receives rain

from the south-west (SW) monsoon (June-

September) and the north-east (NE) monsoon

(October-December). Maximum precipitation occurs

during October-November from NE monsoon

depressions in the Bay of Bengal. In June 1991, there

was 217 mm of rain, but poor rainfall in June 1992

necessitated inclusion of that month’s data in the pre-

monsoon season as hot, dry conditions prevailed.

Vegetation: GNP is an isolated remnant of the

tropical dry evergreen forest (Champion and Seth

1968) once spread over the Coromandel-Circar

coastal plains. This vegetation has been reclassified

as the ‘ Albizia amara Boiv. community’ (Puri et al

1989). Over 350 species of plants, both native and

exotic have been recorded (Dr. C. Livingstone, pers.

comm.). Physiognomically, it occurs as

discontinuous or dense scrub-woodlands and thickets

(see Meher-Homji 1973, 1974, Puri et al. 1989, for

floristic aspects). Plant nomenclature in this paper

follows Mayurnathan (1929) as updated by Matthew

(1983).

The park can be divided into four broad

habitats based on canopy and dominant plant species

(see Fig. 1, Selvakumar 1979):

Area 1: This area has nearly closed canopy

dominated by introduced Acacia planifrons. There

is a dense undergrowth dominated by Clausena

dentata shrubs.

Area 2: This area has semi-open scrub and

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK

181

thickets. The dominant tree is the palmyrah palm

( Borassus flabellifer). Randia dumetorum , R.

malabcirica, and Carissci spinarum are very common.

Area 3: This is an open, cleared meadow

called Polo Field which measures about 230 x 160

m. A total of 67 species of herbs, grasses, and sedges

were collected from this area.

Area 4: This is probably a true remnant of

the original vegetation of the region.

Physiognomic ally similar to Area 1, it is

characterized by presence of Acacia chundra , the

exotic cactus Cereus peruviana , and predominance

of Glycosmis mauritiana in the understory.

Fauna: Besides chital and blackbuck, other

mammals such as bonnet macaque ( Macaca radiata),

jackal ( Canis aureus ), common mongoose

(. Herpestes edwardsi), small Indian civet (Viverricula

indica), common palm civet ( Paradoxurus

hennaphroditus), blacknaped hare ( Lepus

nigricollis), threestriped palm squirrel ( Funambulus

palmarum), several species of bats and rodents are

present. Nearly 150 species of birds have been seen

in the park (Selvakumar et al. 1981, V. Santharam,

unpubl.). Reptiles such as the saw-scaled viper ( Echis

carinatus) and the fan-throated lizard ( Sitana

ponticeriana) are typical. Nine species of amphibians

and several fishes are known (R. J. R. Daniels,

unpubl.) from the area.

Methods

Density estimation: We collected systematic

data on a monthly basis from January 1991 to

December 1992. Three broad habitat types were

identified for sampling:

(a) woodland (Area 1 & 4) occupying about

34% of GNP

(b) scrubland (Area 2) occupying about 59%,

and

(c) grassland or Polo Field (Area 3) covering <

3% of the area.

Water bodies covered about 3% of the park

area.

The line transect method was used to estimate

animal density (Burnhams al. 1980). Three transects,

each about 1 km long, were laid randomly and marked

with paint. Two were placed in the scrubland, and one

in the woodland to sample the habitats in rough

proportion to their availability. Each transect was

walked twice every month by one of us (TRSR).

Sampling was uniform between the two time blocks

of the day when animals were active (0600 - 0900 h

and 1600 - 1900 h). A transect length of 6 km per

month, or 144 km over the two years, was covered.

For each sighting, the species, group size, age-sex data,

and perpendicular distance from the transect line to

the centre of the group (using a rangefinder) were

noted. Total counts were made in the grassland every

month. Data on age, sex, and group size were also

collected along roads and trails. The mean group size

(Y), and its standard error (SeY), were estimated by

habitat type and season for the entire study area. All

observations were made on foot.

The computer program TRANSECT (White

1987) was used to estimate density of groups (Dg,

number of groups/km2), and its standard error

(SeDg), using the Fourier Series estimator (Burnham

et al. 1980, Karanth and Sunquist 1992). The mean

ecological density (D, number of individuals/km2),

and its standard error (SeD), were derived using

standard equations (Drummer 1987 as used by

Karanth and Sunquist 1992):

D = Dg x Y

SeD2 = SeDg2 x SeY2/n + SeDg2 x Y2 + SeY2/

n x Dg2

where: n - number of groups.

Population size was calculated by

extrapolating density estimates to the park area

excluding the area under water bodies (= 2.6 km2).

Blackbuck density was extrapolated to the park area

excluding the grassland. The mean number in the

grassland (derived from the systematic total counts)

was added to the above estimate to derive the

population size of blackbuck. A total count was

carried out in GNP and Raj Bhavan to cross-check

the results of the TRANSECT analysis. This

was done mid-way through the study on 29

December 1991, when blackbuck were confined to

the high-visibility open scrubland and grassland

areas.

182

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Demography: Chital were assigned to age-

sex classes after Schaller (1967) and based on

observations on known-aged animals in the adjacent

Children’s Park Zoo. Chital fawns were classified

as small (< 2 months old) and big fawns (2- 1 0 months

old). Fertility rate of females was estimated by the

method in Sinclair (1977). After the birth-peak and

hiding period in January-February, changes in the

proportion of fawns (per 100 females) could be

followed easily between March and October. A

regression equation of log proportion of fawns

against time was calculated over this period.

Assuming that all births occurred on January 1,

projecting the above equation backwards gave the

log proportion of pregnant females on January 1.

Fertility would be underestimated in this method if

mortality is higher in the first two months. However,

converting to logarithms reverses this trend and the

residual bias is low (Sinclair 1977: 171-3). The mean

monthly mortality rate of chital fawns born in the

early part of the year was also calculated over March-

October in the following way: the instantaneous

monthly mortality rate (z) was calculated as: z = logc

N - log N where N = number of fawns/ 100

females in month t, and e is the base of natural

logarithms (after Caughley 1977). This was

translated into the finite monthly mortality rate as 1

- e~z. The mean monthly mortality rate was averaged

over the months March to October and expressed as

a percentage. Adult mortality was based on carcasses

found; this being only a minimum measure of

mortality.

Blackbuck were classified by horn, coat-

colour, and body-size characteristics (after Schaller

1967, Mungall 1978, Selvakumar 1979) as adult

males (age > 3 years), subadult males (age < 3 years),

adolescent males (age < about 14 months), females,

and fawns. Fawns were classified as small (age <

about 1.5 months old) and big fawns.

Results

CHITAL

Crude density of chital: The crude density

of chital in GNP during 1991 and 1992 was 185.4/

km2 (± 29.3/ km2 - 95% confidence interval) and

239.2/km2 (± 37.2/km2), respectively. The mean

population total shows a statistically significant

increase from 482 in 1991 to 622 in 1992 (z = 2.22,

p < 0.05; Table 1). However, it is emphasized that

this trend needs to be monitored further before

definite conclusions, can be drawn.

Table 1

CHITAL POPULATION DENSITY AND SIZE IN GUINDY

NATIONAL PARK

Seasonal habitat utilization of chital: The

seasonal density of chital in a habitat type was often

higher than the high crude densities reported above

(see Table 2). The mean chital density in GNP over

the two years was 212.3/km2. A seasonal density in

the considered habitat type greater or lesser than this,

can be taken to indicate greater or lesser utilization,

respectively. Data analysis showed a similar pattern

of seasonal habitat utilization in both years. Hence,

the two years’ data were pooled (Fig. 3).

Dry Season: The woodland is now highly

preferred by chital (Table 2). In January, many chital

still used the scrubland and grassland. But as the

season progressed, the use of these habitats

decreased. Overall, the scrubland was underutilized

and very few chital used the grassland (mean number

on Polo Field = 4.3, range = 0- 14, n = 37 total counts).

Summer or Pre-Monsoon : Chital continued to

occur at a higher density in woodland than in

scrubland or grassland. The grassland still had very

few chital (mean number on Polo Field = 1 .94, range

= 0-8, n = 34 total counts). Seen relative to the

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK

183

Table 2

SEASONAL HABITAT UTILISATION OF CHITAL IN

GUINDY NATIONAL PARK, 1991-92

CiD - 95% confidence interval of density,

a - Densities based on transect estimates; n - number of groups

(sample size).

b - Mean density and its standard error (SeD) were calculated

from systematic total counts for the grassland. The 95%

CiD was calculated as mean ± 1.96 SeD; n - number of

total counts.

available area, the woodland was overutilised, and

the scrubland and grassland underutilised as in the

Dry Season (Fig. 3).

Monsoon or Wet Season: The situation was

reversed after the rains with chital density increasing

in the scrubland and grassland, and decreasing in

the woodland. Considerable numbers of chital

aggregated in the grassland (mean number on Polo

Field = 25.3, range 1-83, n = 85 total counts). The

scrubland and grassland were clearly overutilised

relative to the available area (Fig. 3).

General feeding habits of chital: During the

dry season, chital frequently ate fallen fruits (e g.

Ficus benghalensis, Albizia lebbeck, Limonia

acidissima ) in the woodland. Much browsing

occurred, mainly on Randia dumetorum, R.

malabarica, and Carissa spinarum. Leaves of

Maytenus emarginata, Cassia roxburghii , and

Syzygium cumini, fruits of Phoenix loureirii , and the

inflorescence of R farinifera were eaten. From March

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Dry Summer Wet Dry+Summer Wet Available Area

Mean percentage of animals

Chital Blackbuck

Season

Woodland

Scrubland

Grassland

Fig. 3. Seasonal proportions of ungulates in the three habitat types. 1991-92.

184

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93 (1996)

onwards, chital also consumed the paragrass

(. Brachiaria mutica ) provided by the Forest

Department at ten feeding sites.

During summer, chital often fed on the pods

of Tamarindus indica dropped by foraging bonnet

macaques. Fallen fruits of Acacia planifrons , Albizia

lebbeck, Ficus benghalensis, Borassus flabellifer,

and Phoenix sylvestris were also eaten. One rumen

examined, had seeds of Polyalthia longifolia.

Browsing occurred on both Randici species, Capparis

sepiaria, and Canthium pcirviflorum. Chital

commonly grazed near the edges of ponds and fed

on garbage along the park periphery. Aggregations

of 20-50 chital fed at the artificial feeding sites in

the evenings.

During the early wet season, chital were most

frequently seen grazing. They ate many common

grass species: Heteropogon contortus, Cynodon

dactylon, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Eragrostis sp.,

Vetiveria zizanioides, and Aristida setciceci. Many

grasses appeared extensively grazed and stunted,

compared to other scrub-jungles near Madras. Sedges

( Fimbristylis sp.), and herbs like Limnophila indica ,

and Spermococe articularis were also eaten. Chital

fed on fallen fruit, as of Syzygium cumin i, Madhuca

indica, Lannea coromandelica, and Prosopis

juliflora. During the late wet season, browsing is

again frequent, especially on Randia malabarica, R.

dumetorum, Carissa spinarum, and Ziziphus

xylopyrus.

Chital consumed many garbage items along

the park periphery, including paper, polythene,

cardboard, popcorn, surgical cotton, and even human

faeces (on two occasions). They were also seen

chewing on bones and bark, on one occasion each.

Demography: During this study 11,828 chital

were classified (sampling with replacement, Table 3).

The sex ratio was biased towards females ( 1 00:47.2 in

1991 and 100:47.6 in 1992). The female:fawn ratio

was 100:18.0 and 100:14.1 in the two years,

respectively. There was a birth-peak in January-

February (T.R.S. Raman, unpubl. results). An estimated

47% of the adult females were pregnant on 1 January

1991, but the figure for 1992 was only 15%.

Table 3

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF CHITAL IN GUINDY

NATIONAL PARK

The mean monthly mortality rate of fawns was

9.7% between March and October 1991 , but in 1992

mortality was negligible (0%). Data on adult deaths

in 1991 were not collected. In 1993, eight adult chital

carcasses were found during the dry season, from

late February to early May, only one of which was

probably a feral dog kill. This was higher than the

number of deaths (2) recorded over a comparable

period in 1992.

BLACKBUCK

Crude density of blackbuck: The crude

density of blackbuck in 1991 and 1992 was 19.6/

km2 (± 6.4/km2; 95% confidence interval) and 15.3/

km2 (± 4.4/km2), respectively. The decrease in mean

density between 1991 and 1992 is not statistically

significant (z = 1 .09, p > 0.05). The average density

for 1991-92 (17.5/km2) extrapolated to the park area

excluding Polo Field gives a population of 45 (± 1 5)

animals. This, added to the mean number of

blackbuck on Polo Field (15.0, n = 151 total counts),

gives a population of 60 (± 15) blackbuck (Table 4).

In the total count, 40 animals were enumerated. Since

some may have been missed and a small area could

not be censused, we estimate 40-50 blackbuck in

GNP. In Raj Bhavan (RB), 25 blackbuck were

enumerated in the total count. The population in GNP

and RB taken together is thus 85 (± 15) animals.

This is much lower than past estimates and the

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OE CH1TAL AND BLACKBUCK

185

Table 4

BLACKBUCK POPULATION DENSITY AND SIZE IN GUINDY NATIONAL PARK

CiD - 95% confidence interval of density.

CiP -95% confidence interval of total population,

n - Number of groups (sample size).

possible reasons for this decline form the major focus

of this paper (see Discussion).

Seasonal habitat utilisation of blackbuck:

The data for the dry season and summer were pooled

to obtain sufficient sample size for TRANSECT

analysis. Blackbuck used the woodland only during

the dry months (Fig. 3). Density estimates for the

scrubland and the grassland are given in Table 5.

Dry season and Summer: The mean density

of blackbuck in the scrubland during this period was

1 8.2/km2. To obtain a relative estimate of blackbuck

use of the woodland we compared the number of

blackbuck groups seen within 10 m from the transect

line (visibility bias thus being small) in the scrubland

and woodland. In 22 km of transect, 7 groups were

seen in the woodland, and 8 in the scrubland,

indicating almost equal usage. On the grassland (Polo

Field), an average of 14.6 and 6.5 blackbuck were

seen during the dry season and summer, respectively

(n = 35 and 33 total counts, respectively). Fewer

blackbuck were seen on Polo Field in the mornings

than in the evenings. While the scrubland and

grassland were used more or less in proportion to

availability, the grassland was highly preferred by

blackbuck (Fig. 3).

Wet season: The blackbuck avoided use of the

woodland and concentrated in the scrubland and

grassland areas after the green Hush of vegetation

following the rains. The mean density in the

scrubland increased slightly, and the Polo Field

grassland became the primary centre of blackbuck

activity. The mean number of blackbuck on Polo

Table 5

SEASONAL HABITAT UTILISATION OF BLACKBUCK

IN GUINDY NATIONAL PARK, 1991-92.

CiD - 95% confidence interval of density,

a - Mean density and its standard error (SeD) were calculated

from systematic total counts. The 95% CiD was calculated

as mean ± 1 .96 SeD; n - number of total counts,

b - Densities based on transect estimates; n - number of groups

(sample size).

Field was 17.9 (n = 83 total counts) during this

season. Both the scrubland and grassland were

overutilized when seen relative to available area (Fig.

3).

General feeding habits of blackbuck: During

the dry season, blackbuck in the woodland foraged

in small clearings, or along road edges. They browsed

extensively on Carissa spinarum, Randia

dumetorum, and R. malabarica. Fallen fruits of

Pithecellobium dulce and leaves of Aegle marmelos

were also eaten. Only twice, in the late dry season a

male was seen feeding at the artificial feeding site

on Polo Field, when no other animals were present.

186

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Many blackbuck feed on dry, coarse grasses in

Polo Field and near KK Tank, especially in the

evenings.

In the wet season, blackbuck mostly grazed

on grasses such as Aristida setae ea , Cynodon

barberi, Heteropogon contortus , Cymbopogon

flexuosus , Chty’sopogon fiilviis, Vetiveria zizanioides,

sedges such as Fimbristylis ovata, and herbs such as

Justicia prostrata and Indigofera linnaei. These

plants were common in Polo Field and nearby open

areas.

Demography: During the study, 3,108

blackbuck were classified (sampling with

replacement, Table 6). The adult sex ratio was

100:21.0 (females : males) in 1991, and 100:18.8 in

1992. The proportion of sub-adults and young

declined from 13.2% in 1991 to only 6.3% in 1992.

Table 6

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF BLACKBUCK IN

GUINDY NATIONAL PARK

a - From Selvakumar (1979), (total count).

The female: fawn ratios were 100:6.4 and 100:3.1,

respectively. In 1991, most births occurred in

September-October, while in 1992, most births were

in November-December (T.R.S. Raman, unpubl.

results). Thus in 1991, the fawn: female ratio peaked

at 27.8: 100 in October, while in 1992, it was highest

at just 10.5:100 in December. Fawn mortality was

difficult to estimate. Out of five fawns regularly seen

with the blackbuck herd on Polo Field in November-

December 1992, only two were seen with the herd

in January 1993.

Predation: In GNP, the only natural predators

are a few (about 6-12) jackals and some feral dogs.

Both jackals and dogs chased chital and blackbuck

on several occasions. The albino blackbuck male

suffered a large wound on its thigh after being

attacked by two jackals in 1993, but managed to

survive.

Discussion

POPULATION TRENDS IN CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK

The average population size of chital and

blackbuck in GNP in 1991-92 was 550 and 60,

respectively. Comparison with past data suggests that

while chital have either remained stable or increased

slightly in numbers, the blackbuck have declined

drastically.

Selvakumar ( 1 979) reports a population of 360

chital for 1979. This is probably an underestimate

and should be taken as the minimum number,

as the total count method used (in which RS and

RKGM participated) would have missed animals in

dense vegetation. Menon (1982) used line transects

and estimated an average population of 520 chital in

1981-82. The current trend (1991-92, this study)

appears to be one of increase.

In contrast, blackbuck were far more nume-

rous in the past. An average of six censuses (Forest

Dept, records, total counts and transects) in

1975-80 gives a total of 295 blackbuck. Selva-

kumar (1979) likewise estimated 260 blackbuck in

1979. The average of four line-transect esti-

mates in 1981-82 was 333 blackbuck (Menon

1986a, unpubl. data). These estimates and other

observations (by RS and RKGM) clearly showed

that at least 250 blackbuck inhabited the com-

bined GNP and Raj Bhavan areas till 1981. The

current trend (1991-92, this study) appears to

be one of decline, with a population of only 85

animals.

BLACKBUCK DECLINE: ROLE OF HABITAT CHANGES

Provided that obvious requirements such as

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OE CH1TAL AND BLACKBUCK

187

food, space, and water are available, a major

requirement for free-ranging blackbuck is the

opportunity for the males to express territorial

behaviour. Non-territorial males rarely reproduce

(Walther et al. 1983). Blackbuck are well known to

prefer open areas for their territorial activities and

feeding. The availability of such habitats is thus

likely to be a decisive factor in blackbuck population

dynamics. For instance, in this study, Polo Field, the

main territorial ground, occupying less than 3% of

GNP’s area held about 25% of the blackbuck

population through the year (Fig. 3). Loss of this

small area can disproportionately lower the

population that can be retained in GNP.

While no quantitative data exist regarding

habitat changes in GNP over the last 1 5 years, certain

striking aspects are evident. Based on comparative

notes kept on the vegetation of the Park in the 1970s

by one of us (RS), we find that the major changes

are:

i) Vegetation change and deterioration of

territorial areas: Polo Field, in 1979 was an open

meadow occupied by five to six territorial males

(Selvakumar 1979, RKGM, unpubl. data). During

the current study, it was found overrun by numerous

weeds ( Cassia torn, Cassia occidentalis, Croton

bonplandianus , Sida cordifolia, and Prosopis

juliflora ) and tree saplings (Cassia fistula, Borassus

flahellifer), until cleared by the Forest Department

in April 1992. The number of territorial males on

Polo Field during the current study was never more

than 2 until the rut of April 1992. After the weeds

on Polo Field were removed, 3 males were regularly

seen there. A fence now separates this area from Raj

Bhavan.

Two other open areas used by blackbuck in

the past have been lost. The first is an area classified

by Selvakumar (1979) under Area 3. In 1984-85,

this 2.5 ha. area west of KK Tank, was fenced off to

grow grass for the animals in Children’s Park zoo.

The area is almost wholly unused now. While many

chital easily get across the partially collapsed fence,

only two blackbuck males were seen inside in 1992.

Female blackbuck shy away from entering this area.

When under our suggestions, a portion of the fence

was removed, female blackbuck were seen using the

area (A. T. F. Vanak, pers. comm.) and males were

observed initiating territorial activity (RKGM, pers.

obs.). The second grassland area that has been lost,

along the eastern bank of the KK Tank, is now

overrun by dense clumps of Acacia auriculiformis

trees and saplings.

Other vegetation changes may not have been

evident. Dodonaea viscosci , once a common plant

in the Park, is now rare. The fate of many other

species is not known.

ii) Increase in plant biomass: The vegetation

in many areas is clearly much denser today. The

undergrowth of Clausena dentata in Area 1 is now

almost 1 - 2 m taller (and denser) than it was in the

1 970s. As mentioned earlier, Polo Field too has been

overrun with shrubs and weeds. Some areas included

by Selvakumar (1979) in Area 3, are

indistinguishable from Area 2 now. These areas were

also grazing grounds for cattle in the past. The

exclusion of livestock may have contributed to the

growth in the vegetation.

There is also a large influx of biomass into the

Park every year in the form of artificial fodder. One

ton fresh weight (or an estimated 350 kg dry weight)

of grass, provided for about 100 days each year for

the last 15 years, totals 525 tons dry weight of

biomass (nearly 200 tons/km2). This large influx of

biomass may have upset the nutrient cycles in GNP

leading to an increase in woody and herbaceous

vegetation. The curtailment of wood-poaching by

the Forest department in recent times could also have

led to an increase in woody vegetation. This may

have shaded-out the growth of grass in some areas,

forcing chital to forage in other places such as Polo

Field.

iii) Fragmentation: GNP has lost considerable

area in the past to memorials and educational

institutions, and has been isolated from the adjacent

Raj Bhavan and the Indian Institute of Technology

(IIT) campuses by physical barriers. It is not known

when the Raj Bhavan fence was built, but the wall

separating IIT and GNP was built in the late 80’s

and completed by about 1989. It is unlikely that the

observed blackbuck decline is a simple result of the

188

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 93 (1996)

sub-division of a once-contiguous population, with

the blackbuck lost by GNP being gained by other

areas. Our observations suggest that there has been

a parallel decline in blackbuck numbers in IIT also

(RKGM and TRSR, unpubl. data). In GNP, the

fragmentation is likely to have mainly affected the

spatial distribution of blackbuck territories

(especially between GNP and Raj Bhavan) and

seasonal movements of the ungulates.

BLACKBUCK DECLINE! COMPETITION WITH CHITAL

While habitat changes are likely to be the

primary cause for the blackbuck decline, competition

with the high-density chital population may be

another important factor. Chital are a highly

adaptable species (Krishnan 1972) and may be

exerting considerable competitive pressure on

blackbuck for food and space. The density of chital

in GNP was higher than in other areas for which

information is available (Table 7). Competition is

possible as chital and blackbuck share many food

items in common (see Feeding Habits). Also, during

Table 7

ECOLOGICAL DENSITIES OF CHITAL IN OTHER

NATURAL AREAS

the wet season, chital are found in large numbers in

the scrubland and grassland areas which are prime

blackbuck habitats. Polo Field may be occupied by

as many as 100 chital in October-November in the

evenings, physically disrupting the blackbuck herd,

and the territorial behaviour of males, as has been

noticed on a few occasions.

How are chital maintained at such high

densities in GNP? A natural factor may be that the

vegetational diversity and edge-to-forest ratio in

GNP is high (Eisenberg and Seidensticker 1976).

However, the other contributing factors are artificial

feeding of chital and low mortality from predation.

i) Artificial feeding: In temperate Parks,

artificial feeding during winter is known to maintain

populations of deer at higher densities, with lower

mortality, higher body weight, and better

reproduction (Putman and Langbein 1993). In GNP,

when no feed was provided, fawn mortality (in 1991)

and adult mortality (in 1 993) were high. In contrast,

mortality was much lower in 1992, when artificial

feed was provided. Artificial feed may also help

chital attain higher fertility due to improved

nutritional status during the dry months, which

coincides with the peak rut of chital in GNP (Miura

1981, T. R. S. Raman, unpubl. results). The absence

of artificial feeding in 1991 would then explain the

lower fertility observed in 1992.

Blackbuck do not seem to prefer the artificial

feed provided. Possibly, the milling aggregations of

20-50 chital at these feeding sites physically deter

blackbuck. Aggressive interactions between chital

and blackbuck have been recorded at feeding sites

in Texas (Walther etal. 1983: 216). Thus only chital

benefit from the artificial feed provided.

ii) Low mortality from predation: Many large

mammal populations are limited by predation, and

increase when predators are removed (see Sinclair

1989, for a review). Menon (1987) gleaning data

from Forest Department records reported that, in

1979, a total of 107 deer (about 17% of the total

population) were killed by feral dogs. While few kills

may have been due to jackals, dogs are the most

important predators of chital in GNP. Blackbuck

mortality to dogs was not high in GNP and IIT

compared to chital (Menon 1986b). No data are

available regarding the total number of kills during

the current study. However, in 1992, the Forest

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OE CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK

189

Department sanctioned the shooting down of dogs

in GNP, thus removing this source of mortality of

chital.

TRENDS IN HABITAT UTILISATION

Understanding the seasonal distribution and

movements of the ungulates in GNP is important in

considerations of the dynamics of the two species.

The seasonal movements of chital and blackbuck

were clearly governed by the availability of food in

the three habitat types. Between January and May,

drying up of grass forage in the scrubland and

grassland led to frequent browsing and increasing

use of woodland. In summer, most trees set fruit

(Rajasekhar 1992) and shed their leaves, and these

are then consumed. After the first monsoon showers,

the grass flush in the scrubland and grassland

induce high utilisation of these areas. This is not

surprising as both species are predominantly grazers

(Mungall 1978, Mishra 1982). Late in the season, as

the grasses mature, there is a return to frequent

browsing presumably because deeper-rooted browse

species produce fresh growth even after the rains

cease.

While this pattern is similar to the one

described by Selvakumar (1979), two notable

differences exist. In the past, considerable movement,

especially of chital, used to occur between GNP and

the surrounding areas (Menon 1982). Today, with

the walling-up of GNP it has become a small, closed

system. Secondly, systematic total counts of chital

Table 8

SOME PAST TOTAL COUNTS OF BLACKBUCK ON THE

POLO FIELD GRASSLAND

and blackbuck on Polo Field during 1977-78 by one

of us (RKGM) showed few chital (up to 12 or so

individuals) and many more blackbuck on Polo Field

(Table 8). Currently, the reverse situation, with more

chital on Polo Field during the wet season, prevails.

The maximum number of blackbuck seen on Polo

Field during the current study was 29, and chital was

102. Poor availability of grass forage in other areas

due to dense growth of woody vegetation may be

responsible for the present shift to the grassland.

VIABILITY OF THE BLACKBUCK POPULATION

Small, isolated populations of wild animals are

vulnerable to extinction through demographic,

environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and

catastrophes such as disease epidemics (Shaffer

1981). In this light, several aspects of blackbuck

demography require attention.

Currently, the proportion of fawns and young

males in the population is much lower than in 1979

(Table 6). Fewer fawns are seen per female than in

other blackbuck populations in places like Mudmal

(Prasad 1983), Point Calimere (Natarajan 1989),

areas reported by Schaller (1967), Velavadar and Tal

Chapar (Ranjitsinh 1989). The percentage of fawns

in the GNP population declined from 4.6% in 1991

to 2.5% in 1 992. Also, in 1 992, no adolescent males

were seen at all in GNP, indicating total lack of

recruitment into that age class. At present, there are

just 8 adult blackbuck males in GNP and 2-3 younger

males. In terms of behaviour, the presence of younger

males may play a beneficial role in influencing

territorial behaviour and reproduction of adult males

(Walther et al. 1983). Currently, large mortality of

adult males in any year may spell disaster for the

blackbuck in GNP at prevailing recruitment rates.

The sex ratio of blackbuck in GNP is more

biased towards females than in the other natural areas

mentioned above and even when compared to the

population in 1979. If only some of the eight adult

males in the population are doing most of the

breeding, it would decrease the effective population

size and accentuate inbreeding (Frankel and Soule

1981).

190

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Selvakumar (1979) found that the August-

October rut of blackbuck contributed the major

proportion of the annual fawn crop the following

January- April. During this study, the March- April

rut contributed most of the fawn crop, with births

occurring almost entirely during September-

December. The reasons for this reversal are not

evident. Increased interference by large chital

aggregations on the territorial activities of blackbuck

on Polo Field during the October rut may be a reason.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND MANAGEMENT

What are the conservation objectives that

define feasible management options for GNP?

We suggest that GNP can serve as a useful reserve

for maintaining a viable population of blackbuck,

preserving the remnants of the natural vegetation,

and addressing social and educational functions of

the park in Madras city. The following management

suggestions are made in the light of this study:

1. Habitat manipulation can be used to

improve and increase the territorial grounds of

blackbuck in GNP. This can be targeted at two

particular areas without disturbing the natural

vegetation of the Park:

(a) the defunct 2.5 ha. grass plot west of KK

tank - where the entire fence surrounding the plot

must be removed to allow free access to blackbuck

males and females, and (b) the area east of KK tank

- where the profusely growing clumps of Acacia

auriculiformis can be removed.

As these areas are close to Polo Field and

represent past territorial grounds, they are likely to

be used by blackbuck when these changes are made.

Close monitoring will yield valuable information on

the results of such management measures. Periodic

control of weeds and woody plants on Polo Field

will also be beneficial.

2. Reduction in chital numbers can be achieved

by allowing natural mortality factors to operate.

Artificial feeding of chital during the dry season

and the shooting of dogs should stop. Stopp-

ing artificial feeding is also important to stop

the inflow of large quantities of biomass into the Park.

Stopping artificial feeding may have slightly

deleterious effects on the blackbuck in the short term,

as chital may eat a greater amount of food during

the dry season, which may otherwise be available

for the blackbuck. However, in 1991 and 1993, when

artificial feeding was either not carried out or

minimal, the blackbuck population did not seem to

be affected by increased competition with chital. This

is probably because, during the dry season, many

blackbuck feed on dry and coarse grasses in areas

like Polo Field and near KK Tank, where few chital

feed.

3. Control of exotic plants, specifically Acacia

auriculiformis, Prosopis juliflora, Antigonon

leptopus, and Cereus peruviana is suggested. The

vegetation in Area 4 can be targeted for intensive

protection from invasion by exotics, wood-removal,

and disturbance, as a ‘remnant’ patch of the tropical

dry evergreen forest.

4. Introduction of a few blackbuck from other

areas, including some sub-adult males from IIT, is

recommended to counter inbreeding depression

and loss of demographic vigour, and modify the

distorted population structure. Standard guidelines

suggested for such introductions can be followed

(Sale 1986).

5. Regular long-term monitoring of the

ecology of the Park will be valuable in assist-

ing management. Monitoring population trends,

mortality, and results of management actions such

as habitat manipulation, will be useful.

Conclusions

The decline of blackbuck in GNP illustrates

that mere protection of a National Park may not be

enough to ensure its viability. Prudent and interactive

management is called for, especially in parks like

GNP. GNP represents the plight of many such small,

isolated nature reserves. Maintaining a viable

population of blackbuck in GNP is however a

feasible and challenging task. The experience so

gained will be useful in management of other

sanctuaries in the country. GNP harbours a remnant

of tropical dry evergreen forest vegetation which

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK

191

today occupies only 1% of the potential area along

the Coromandel coast (Meher-Homji 1986). In

Chingleput District, near Madras, satellite data show

that over 99.9% of the area under scrub-jungle

vegetation has been lost (P. Dayanandan, pers.

comm.). Conservation of GNP is also important for

tapping its valuable potential as a field laboratory to

train students in the field of ecology and to educate

tourists about conservation.

Acknowledgements

TRSR would like to thank his parents for the

support given, for funding most of the field work,

and for living with a son who filled the house with

loads of bones, pellets, and plant specimens. We

thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department especially

Messrs. V. R. Chitrapu, Sugato Dutt, B. Sugirtharaj,

and R. Suryamurthy who took a keen interest in our

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work, and A. Srinivasan and O. Ezhumalai for

assistance in the field. We are much obliged to Drs.

R Dayanandan, C. Livingstone, and D. Narasimhan,

Mr. Ravichandran, and Ms. A. Vasuki of the

Department of Botany, Madras Christian College,

for identifying plant specimens. Special thanks also

to R. Selvakumar and B. Rajasekhar for much help

and discussion. Drs. C. Barrette, V. M. Meher-Homji,

A. Raman, A. J. T. Johnsingh, A. P. Gore, and Mr. S.

Varman helped with discussions and literature. Our

thanks to other friends who helped in many ways:

V. Santharam, R. Kannan, Abi Tamim, Anin

Nandanan, and Divya Mudappa. For institutional

support, we are indebted to the Centre for Ecolo-

gical Sciences, the Wildlife Institute of India, Madras

Snake Park, and Loyola College. We thank Drs. A.

Raman, Ravi Chellam, Y. V. Jhala, and an anony-

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Unit.

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DURANTA REPENS (VERBENACEAE)

T. Byragi Reddy and C. Subba Reddi* 2

( With three text-figures )

Key words: Duranta repens, butterflies, moth, Macroglossum gy reins, pollination

Duranta repens L. flowers chiefly during July-December. Anthesis is staggered round the clock and the

flowers offer pollen and nectar as the reward to their insect visitors. The flowers are small and hermaphrodite.

Nectar is secreted in measurable quantity on the first day, but only in traces on the second day. The nectar sugars

are sucrose, glucose and fructose. Sucrose is predominant. Sugar concentration ranges from 12-21%. Protein and

amino-acids too are present. The breeding system includes both geitonogamy and xenogamy.

A total of 30 diurnal insect species which are diurnal in their activity were found foraging at the flowers.

The bees collected pollen as well as nectar from the flowers. Whereas the wasps, the butterflies and moths collected

the nectar only. Heads of the bees and wasps, proboscids of the moths, proboscids and legs of the butterflies were

seen touching the anther and stigmas thereby effecting pollination in the D. repens.

Introduction

Compared to bees the amount of research

carried out in establishing butterflies’ role in natural

pollination is meagre. The dearth of information in

the field of butterfly pollination was realised as early

as 1949 by Verne Grant. Even then there are not many

additions to the literature on butterfly pollination.

However, there are some studies highlighting

the role of butterflies in the pollination of certain

plants (Moldenke 1976, Cruden and Hermann-Parker

1979, Pajni and Sukhwinder Kaur 1979, Courtney

etcil. 1983, Bawa etcil. 1983, Webb and Bawa 1983,

Jennersten 1984, Subba Reddi & Meera Bai 1984,

1986; Meera Bai 1987, Byragi Reddy and Aruna

1990). These studies stressed the need to undertake

detailed studies in different geographical regions to

appreciate the role of butterflies in pollination.

The present paper deals with the interactions

oi Duranta ‘And its pollinators in Visakhapatnam with

special reference to butterflies.

Material and Methods

Duranta repens L. a hedge plant planted at

Visakhapatnam ( 1 7° 42' N and 82° 1 8' E) was utilised

'Accepted March 1994

2Dept. of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,

Waltair-530 003.

for the study. Mature buds were identified based on

the blue colour development on corolla. To record

the anther dehiscence time: floral buds of different

stages were slit open and observed with the help of

a field macrolens of lOx magnification. Pollen output

per anther was assessed by counting all the pollen

grains in a sample obtained by gently crushing and

tapping the anther on a clean microscope slide and

spreading the pollen mass uniformly. Similarly, the

pollen deposited on the stigmas were assessed at

regular intervals. The inflorescences were bagged

in the early hours (0500 hr) in order to have virgin

flowers for controlled experiments. As and when the

desired insect alone visited the virgin flower, the

stigmas were immediately plucked and screened for

the pollen loads. The longevity of pollen and stigma

was assessed based on the fruit set success from hand-

pollinations at regular intervals. The flowers to be

hand-pollinated were emasculated in the bud

condition. Test for apomixis/autogamy, geitonogamy,

xenogamy were conducted through controlled

pollinations. Apomixis was tested by bagging the

emasculated flowers free of pollen, autogamy by

pollinating flowers with the pollen of the same

flower, for geitonogamy with the pollen of different

flowers of conspecific plant, and for xenogamy with

the pollen of the different conspecific plants.

Nectar produced in flowers protected from

194

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93 {1996)

insects for a 3 hr period was measured using

disposable micro-pipettes. Refractometer was used

to determine nectar sugar concentration. Paper

chromatography was used to determine nectar sugar

composition (Harborne 1973). Amino acids and

proteins were identified by the method of Baker and

Baker (1973).

Insect foragers other than butterflies collected

during the study period were identified through the

courtesy of commonwealth Institute of Entomology,

London and Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

The butterflies caught over the flowers were

identified with the help of Wynter-Blyth (1957). The

nomenclature used is after Varshney (1983). The

behaviour of visitors, the length of a visit and Bowers

visited in unit time using a stop watch were carefully

studied. Four patches consisting of ten inflorescences

each were marked at four study sites and visits were

counted at half-an-hour intervals from 0600 to 1 800

hours. The same procedure was repeated thrice on

different dates. The more frequent visitors were

caught and their bodies were examined under a

stereomicroscope for the pollen adhering to body

areas and then washed off with alcohol. The washings

with a droplet of Lactophenol aniline-blue were

observed for pollen under a light microscope.

Results

1. Blooming phenology: The plants flower

chiefly during July-December in conjunction with

monsoon rains. During the summer months of

March-May the plants defoliate and are leafless. With

rains from mid-June, vegetative growth begins.

Inflorescences arise on the newly formed branches.

When water is available, it is not uncommon to find

plants in llower outside the normal Bowering season.

The racemose inflorescence is both axillary

and terminal. Its length varies from 5-15 cm,

consequently the number of Bowers it bears varies

from 31-123. It blooms for 11-19 days. Flowers

usually mature in basipetal succession. The number

of Bowers produced per day per inflorescence varies

from 1-9 (av. 4.2) as indicated by the observations

on ten inflorescences. The average pattern of flower

production did not reveal any specific trend.

2. Phenology of anthesis: On any day during

the flowering life of an inflorescence, there is no

uniformity in the maturation and anthesis of flower

buds. Buds were seen opening round the clock. On a

clear sky day, a mature bud takes 20-30 minutes to

open fully. The temperatures during anthesis on the

day of observation ranged between 26.3 - 30°C and

relative humidity between 89-77%.

3. Pollen characters: Anthers dehisce just

prior to anthesis by longitudinal slits. Grains,

spheroidal, 30-35 pm in diameter, tricolporate, exine

smooth and cytoplasm granular. Their number per

anther ranged from 950-1210 and averaged 1060.

They retained viability for 12 hr from anther

dehiscence as indicated by their capability to set fruit

in controlled experiments. Grains stored for 4 hr gave

64% fruit set, those for 6 hr 48%, 8 hr 20%, 10 hr

12%, and 12 hr 4%. Thereafter, there was no fruit

setting. Pollen-ovule ratio came to 1060 : 1 .

4. Stigma receptivity: Stigma remained

receptive for 24 hr beginning with anthesis. On hand-

pollinations 6 hr old stigmata gave 68% fruit set, 9

hr old ones 56%, 1 2 hr old ones 48%, 1 5 hr old ones

28%, 1 8 hr old ones 24%, 24 hr old ones 1 6%, still

older stigmata were not receptive.

5. Flower life-time: Corolla persisted for

about 48 hr after anthesis and then fell off along with

stamens. Flower visitor activity caused the corolla

to fall even earlier by 3-5 hr.

6. Nectar dynamics: Flowers secreted nectar

continuously from the time they opened until the

corolla dropped off. Nectar was secreted in

measurable quantity on the first day, but it was

negligible on the second day. Measurements at 3 hr

intervals ranged from 0.3- 1 .0 pi. Sugar concentration

ranged from 12-21%. Sucrose, glucose and fructose

were present, the former being dominant. Proteins

and amino acids were present; histidine scale was

4.0.

7. Flower-visitor activity dynamics:

i) Composition and abundance: A total of 30 insect

species foraged at the flowers (Table 1). Of these 1 1

are Hymenoptera (Apidae 3, Xylocopidae 2,

Anthophoridae 4, Megachilidae 1, and Vespidae 1),

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DURANTA REPENS

195

Table 1

PARTICULARS OF FLOWER-VISITORS ON

Duranta repens

and the others Lepidoptera (1 Sphingid moth, 2

Danaids, 4 Nymphalids, 1 Acraeid, 4 Papilionids, 4

Pierids and 2 Hesperids). Apart from these flower

visitors, a floriphagous beetle ( Mylabris pustulata)

was also observed. Lizards and spiders were seen

waiting near the flowers to prey on the flower visiting

butterflies and bees.

All the 30 species were not common to all the

study sites (Table 2). Thus Apis cerana indica,

Amegilla sp., Thy re us histrio, Xylocopa sp.,

Macroglossum gyrans, Danaus chrysippus, Precis

lemonias, Atrophaneura hector, Papilio polytes,

Graphium agamemnon, Catopsilia pyranthe,

Catopsilia crocale pomona, Barbo cinnara and

Pelopidas mathias were common to all the study

sites. More constant and abundant of these visitors

were Apis cerana indica , Amegilla sp., M. gyrans,

D. chrysippus, P. polytes, G. agamemnon, A. hector,

C. pyranthe and C.c. pomona.

Of the four groups of visitors, namely

butterflies, bees, hawkmoths and wasps, the

former dominated and their visits made up 49.75%

of the total visits. Bees accounted for 34.75%,

hawkmoth 14.5% and wasps 1.0%. At each of

the four study sites, the same order of frequency of

visits by different insect groups prevailed, of course,

while their actual percentage of visits varied

(Fig. 1).

ii) Diurnal activity. All the visitors listed in

Table 2 are diurnal in their activity, and visited the

flowers during 0600-1800 hr. Individual foragers

exhibited peak activity in certain hours. On fine

weather days M. gyrans exhibited stratification,

visiting the flowers during two specified periods

from 0600-0800 hr and again from 1600-1800 hr.

But on cloudy days the visits were uniformly

distributed over 0600-1800 hr. Thus the wild bee

Amegilla sp. was more frequent during 0900-1300

hr, A.c. indica during 0900-1300 hr, C.c. pomona

during 0800- 1 300 hr, C. pyranthe during 0900- 1 500

hr, G. agamemnon during 0800-1200 hr, P. polytes

during 0600-0900 hr. and A. hector during 0600-

1000 hr.

iii) Flower visits per unit time and length of a

visit: Table 3 gives the data concerning length of a

visit and total flowers visited per minute by different

flower visitors. M. gyrans, Amegilla sp., G.

Table 2

CENSUS OF FLOWER VISITORS ON D. repens IN 1986 SEASON

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DURANTA REPENS

197

Fig. 1. Insect group abundance on D. repens flowers at different study sites.

agamemnon, P polytes, and/4, hector spent relatively

less time at each flower and consequently covered a

large number of flowers in unit time.

iv) Insect behaviour at flowers: The bees

landed on corolla rim and probed for nectar. Then

their head region touched the anthers. From the visual

observations it was evident that the pollen collection

and nectar gathering were not done in the same bout.

Amegilla discriminated new from old flowers and

visited mostly fresh flowers. M. gyrans while

collecting nectar hovered at the flower, and probed

the flowers in rapid succession. The butterflies were

seen landing on the inflorescence for foraging. The

papilionids characteristically fluttered while

foraging. The proboscis and legs contacted the

anthers and stigmas.

v) Pollen transfer in the first visit by various

visitors: The amount of pollen removed from anthers

and transfered to stigma in the first visit varied with

different insect species. Of the 12 species for which

such data were collected (Table 4), the efficiency

order is descending from Xylocopa, Amegilla, A.c.

indica, P. polytes, G. agamemnon, A. hector and M.

gyrans, etc.

vi) Pollen in body-washings of various flower

visitors: Of the nine species for which such data

were collected, Amegilla, Apis cerana indica,

T. histrio, Ceratina sp., and P. polytes carried rela-

tively a larger number of pollen on their bodies

(Table 5).

vii) Pollen depletion from anthers vs. pollen

deposition on stigmata under foragers activity:

Pollen-deposition could be related to pollen-

depletion. During 0800-1200 hr there was 74% of

pollen removal. In the same period pollen deposition

was also high (Table 6). Both these events could be

positively related to foragers activity which was high

during this period.

viii) Pollen loads on stigmata under

lepidopteran activity: Figures 2 and 3 give the

NO. OF STIGMAS HAVING POLLEN N°’ °F ST IGMAS HAVING POLLEN

198

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

NO. OF POLLEN GRAINS ON THE STIGMA

Fig. 2. Histogram diagram showing the frequency of stigmas having different number of pollen grains after

hawkmoth visits.

NO. OF POLLEN GRAINS IN THE STIGMA

Fig. 3. Histogram diagram showing the frequency of stigmas having different number of pollen grains after

butterfly visits.

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DURANTA REPENS

199

Table 3

LENGTH OF A VISIT OF FORAGERS ON Duranta repens

AND NUMBER OF VISITS IN UNIT TIME

number of pollen grains deposited on the stigmata

after the flowers were visited by butterflies and

hawkmoth. These stigmatic pollen loads are

suggestive of the role of lepidopterans in the

pollination of Duranta repens flowers.

ix) Breeding systems : Bagging experiments

ruled out the presence of apomixis and autogamy. Out

of the 50 flowers pollinated with geitonogamous

pollen, 58% resulted in fruit set. The 50 flowers

pollinated with xenogamous pollen gave 68% fruit

set. In both cases, seed set was 100%. Thus xenogamy

appears to be relatively more successful in this taxon.

x) Natural fruit set: In open pollination 37%

fruit set was observed. Seed set and fecundity was

100% each.

Discussion

The flowers are hermaphrodite and

Table 4

POLLEN DEPLETION FROM ANTHERS vs. POLLEN

DEPOSITION ON STIGMAS IN FIRST VISIT OF SOME

FORAGERS ON D. repens

Name of the

visitor Mean no. of Pollen Mean no. of Pollen

Pollen/flower deple- pollen/stigma deposi-

after 1st tion after 1st tion

visit (%) visit (%)

Apis cerana

Average number of pollen produced per flower = 4240.

Number of flowers sampled = 10.

horhogamous. They are compatible with geitono-

and-xeno pollen only. The flowers open at any time

of the day. They are tubular ( 1 3 mm long) with a flat

rim, always orienting upwards. They are visited

during daytime by a number of insect species that

included bees, a wasp, a hawkmoth and butterflies.

The visitors are suitably rewarded with nectar and

in case of bees pollen also formed part of the forage.

These insects possess relatively long nectar

collecting organs, namely tongues (bees and wasp)

and proboscids (moth and butterflies) which enable

them to manipulate the tubular corollas of D. repens.

Further, the upward facing flowers with flat rims

facilitated convenient landing of the foragers. The

narrow tube with epipetalous stamens and introrse

anthers facilitate the deposition of pollen on the

proboscis of the foragers. Nine species out of the 30

species of foragers, namely the bees A.c. indica,

200

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

Table 5

POLLEN AMOUNTS IN BODY-WASHINGS OF

DOMINANT FORAGERS ON D. repens

Amegilla sp., the diurnal moth Macroglossum

gyrans, and the butterflies Danaus chrysippus,

Papilio polytes, Graphium agamemnon,

Atrophaneura hector, Catopsilia crocale pomona, C.

pyranthe were constant and more frequent at all sites

studied (Table 2). Of these Amegilla, M. gyrans, P.

polytes, G. agamemnon and A. hector visited the

flowers in rapid succession in short time (Table 3).

They carried sufficient numbers of pollen on their

proboscids (Table 5) and could transfer enough

number of pollen on the stigma in their first visit

(Table 4). Based on these observations they can be

considered as the major pollinators of D. repens.

Other foragers can also effect pollination, but their

lower frequency of visits inconsistency, categorise

them as minor pollinators.

The pollination that results from insect-visits

may be geitonogamous and/or xenogamous. Foragers

such as Amegilla sp., Macroglossum gyrans, the

papilionid butterflies, and Xylocopa made frequent

inter-population visits and could carry out

xenogamous pollinations to a larger extent. In fact,

xenogamy is a more successful mode of reproduction

in this taxon.

An examination of the daily timing of foraging

activity revealed that Macroglossum gyrans tended

to avoid high temperatures by restricting its foraging

time to the morning (0600-0800 hr) and to the

evening (1600-1800 hr) hours. It appears that the

Table 6

POLLEN-DEPLETION FROM ANTHERS

v.v. POLLEN-DEPOSITION ON STIGMAS OF

D. repens UNDER FORAGERS ACTIVITY

foraging activity of M. gyrans is conditioned by

weather factors as no such staggered activity was

seen on a cloudy day.

Though opened flowers of D. repens are

available all through the day no nocturnal visitors

were noticed in the study area.

D. repens flowers are bluish in colour and

are abundantly visited by butterflies. According

to Baker et al. ( 1 983), the butterfly flowers range from

white to yellow, pink and even red, but

not blue. Ilse and Vaidya (1 956) stated that butterflies

show a preference for blue colour. Not only

the colours of D. repens, but other blue flowers of

Hyptis suaveolens and Stachytorpheta indica in

this locality are frequently and abundantly visited by

butterflies. Our finding corroborates the views of Ilse

and Vaidya but not Baker et al. The sucrose

and amino acid rich nectar of D. repens comes under

the category of nectars that are preferred by butterflies.

It may, therefore, be concluded that Duranta

repens flowers are primarily meant for butterfly

pollination. Next to butterflies the hawkmoth M.

gyrans and the wild bees Amegilla sp. may be

considered as the most effective users of D. re pens

floral resource in a mutualistic way.

Acknowledgements

The senior author thanks R.E. Schultes,

Botanical Museum of Harvard University,

Cambridge, Massachusettes for his critical

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DU RANT A REPENS

201

comments, and also Dr. E.U.B. Reddy, scientist,

Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,

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Key words: Alcyonacea, soft corals, distribution, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, new record

Occurrence and new distributional records for 26 species of Alcyonaceans are given. These include 12 species

of Sinularia, 6 of Lobophytum, 6 of Sarcophytum, one of Cladiellaand one of Nephthea. Their ecological information

on habitat and associations with the other organisms is also noted. A major factor limiting the distribution of soft

corals is the availability of hard substratum for settlement. Other factors that determine their faunistic composition

and abundance are correlated with resistance to harsh environments and life history parameters. Competitive interaction

with other benthic reef-organisms also plays a major role in the distribution of soft corals in the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

Introduction

Though studies on the systematics and

distribution of Indian Ocean octocorals were initiated

during the last century and have been continued to

the present time knowledge on the group is scanty.

In spite of the earlier surveys information on

octocorals in some parts of the Indian Ocean is

limited. These areas include certain remote island

groups such as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

as well as Lakshadweep, Mandapam area on the east

coast and Sri Lanka. Apart from the “Investigator”

Expedition collections (Thomson and Henderson

1 906 and Thomson and Simpson 1 909), a few reports

mention soft corals in recent literature on

Lakshadweep (Pratt 1903, 1905; Hickson 1903,

1905; Van of Wegen and Vennam 1991 and

Alderslade and Prita 1991).

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands spread out

in the Bay of Bengal between Lat. 6°45' N and 1 3°45'

N and Long. 92° 15' E and 94°0 'E have one of the

richest coral reef formations with fringing reefs on

the eastern side and barrier reefs on the western side

(Anon. 1977, Pillai 1983,Tikader 1986). The present

communication deals with the distribution and new

records of soft corals in the Andaman Sea.

‘Accepted September 1994.

2National Institute of Oceanography,

Dona Paula, Goa-403 004, India.

Materials and Methods

Field observations were made and the soft

corals were collected at windward reef at North Bay

(depth 3-5 m), and Carbyn’s Cove, Chiriatapu and

Burmanaal (intertidal) and on the New Wandoor (3-

5 m), western coast of south Andaman by surface

snorkelling. At each locality, details of habitat type

and water depth and other field conditions were

recorded along with their quantitative availability.

The material made available by the Institute of

Chemical Technology (I.I.C.T.), Hyderabad and

organic chemistry group of Andhra University,

Waltair from the eastern side of Andaman from

Mayabundar, Digilipur and Rangath (Intertidal) were

also studied and included (Fig. 1). All the material,

preserved in 70% ethanol, are deposited in the

Marine Biology Museum and Taxonomy Reference

Centre at the National Institute of Oceanography,

Goa.

Results and Discussion

Throughout the systematic account, references

are often given just to major works such as Verseveldt

(1970, 1971, 1980, 1982, 1983), Verseveldt and

Benayahu (1983) and Tixier-Durivault ( 1 945, 1951,

1956, 1958, 1966, 1970) from which the original

specific descriptions can be traced.

SOFT CORALS FROM THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

203

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204

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

The collection chiefly comprises of 26 species

of Alcyonaceans.

In addition, the species collected are of new

geographical records found for the first time in this

region. Table 1 presents the systematic account of

the species with ecological information on habitat,

faunistic composition and availability. The average

temperature, salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen of

the surrounding water are min. 25.5°C and max.

32.0°C, min. 30.5 1 ppt and max. 33.08 ppt, min. 7.71

and max. 8.54, min. 2.91 ml/1 and max. 4.64 ml/1

respectively.

This study shows that coral reefs of the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands contain a diverse

alcyonacean fauna. These comprise of Sinularia,

Sarcophytum, Lobophytum and Cladiella

characteristic of shallow reef habitats, such as reef

flats and the upper fore reef zones. They usually

create a monospecific carpet composed of nume-

rous colonies, which locally may cover several

square metres. The most abundant Sinularia in

this study are S. gibberosa, S. polydactyla. The

abundant Lobophytum are Lobophytum strictum

and L. pusillum. Cladiella pachyclados is the

most common species in all reef localities. Its

colonies are usually found on the reef flats of

Chiriatapu, Burmanaal, Carbyn’s Cove and also

found in the subtidal areas of North Bay. Simi-

larly the genus Sarcophyton represented by the

species Sacrophyton trocheliophoruni is the most

abundant soft coral. Colonies of this species create

dense mats below the reef flats or on reef slopes

(Wandoor, 2-5 m). Large colonies of S.

trocheliophoruni with a disc diameter of 50-80 cm,

are a usual sight. S. andamanensis, a new species

found during the current survey (Jayasree and

Parulekar, in press) is widespread in the entire

intertidal area of Carbyn’s Cove. Most of these

colonies bear small buds arising from the stalk. It is

assumed that they detach from the colony and serve

for asexual propagation. Also this species

morphology shows that it has less abundance of

sclerites, flexibility and hollow tubular nature of

coenenchyme. These characters are quite essential

for this intertidal soft coral, where there is less current

and wave action, these can accumulate more water

in their hollow interior so that they are not dessicated

during low tides.

All 6 Lobophytum species are found in the

subtidal waters. These colonies usually grow in the

rocky crevices or between stony corals. The reason

for the rarity of L. pane if lo rum at the reefs of

Havelock, is due to the absence of rocks and over

exploitation of stony corals by tourism and

commercial activities.

Nephthea species inhabit mostly the

depressions on reef flats at Chiriatapu and North Bay

(2 m). The faunal characteristics of this region appear

to be of the Indo-Pacific zoogeographical pattern.

Most of the species have been described earlier

from the Pacific Ocean (Verseveldt 1980, 1982 and

1983).

One of the most striking features of many

alcyonaceans is patchy distribution (Benayahu

and Loya 1977, 1981; Tursch and Tursch 1982).

This feature may promote varied species composition

and abundance in different localities. Such a

spatial distribution results from the short pelagic

phase of the planulae and their settlement (Benayahu

and Loya 1984c). It is reported that asexual

reproduction which is common in many soft corals

may cause development of monospecific

aggregations (Benayahu and Loya 1984b).

The important limiting factor for alcyonacean

distribution is the availability of firm substratum

suitable for larvae to settle. The present survey

reveals that the soft coral assemblages at Andaman

and Nicobar Islands are correlated with the suitable

habitat and environmental factors (Dinesen 1983).

Similar distribution of alcyoniid genera was recorded

on reef flats off the Great Barrier Reef, Australia

(Dinesen 1983).

Although the present survey lacks data on the

soft coral diversity in deeper zones, it appears that

in shallow waters of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

soft corals are dominated by accumulations of

numerous alcyoniids.

Competitive interactions with other reef

organisms clearly play an important role in

determining the distribution of soft corals (Benayahu

SOFT CORALS FROM THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

205

Table 1

SPECIES COMPOSITION, DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION ON ANDAMAN ISLAND SOFT

CORALS

2.

3.

4.

8.

9.

10.

11.

206

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

cucumbers, giant clam

fishes and occasional

appearance of

Acanthester planci.

SOFT CORALS FROM THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

207

and Loya 1981, Sammarco et al. 1983). It is

suggested that the abundance of alcyonaceans could

be regulated by difference in life history parameters,

mainly reproductive strategies (Benayahu 1985).

Benayahu also reported that the rare occurrence of

Nephtheids is due to their low reproductive potential

and short distance dispersal of planulae. Life history

studies on these soft corals would probably provide

additional explanation for the distributional patterns

of the various species. The alcyonarian fauna of the

shallow reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

appear to be very rich, compared to the intertidal

areas, being mostly prominent on places covered by

living scleractinians or non-living scleractinians. It

is reported, that in general when there are more living

scleractinians, there are less alcyonaceans and vice-

versa (Fishelson 1970).This selective occurrence of

the two most important components of reef habitats

seems to be controlled by environmental factors or

by competition. The most important of these factors

appear to be wave actions, the amount of sediment

in the water and extreme low tides. Scleractinians

are much more adapted to withstand wave actions,

whereas alcyonaceans may be less sensitive to

sedimentation.

Other associations are reef fishes such as

pomacentrids, shrimps, sea cucumbers, Holothuria

scabra, Thelenata ananas and Actinopyga

mauritiana, sea anemone, Stoichactis giganteum

with a symbiotic fish, Amphiprion, sponge, Dysidea

herbacea andTedaniasp., crabs, seaweed mostly of

brown, green algae and the sea grass Thallassia sp.

208

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

This preliminary survey leaves no doubt

about the rich and highly diverse soft coral fauna of

this geographical area though no quantitative

comparative data are available as yet for other

locations. It is suggested that further explora-

tion would help us obtain new alcyonacean

records.

Acknowledgements

We thank the present and former Directors of

Refer

Anon. (1977): Indian fisheries 1947-1977 Issued on the occasion

of the Fifth Session of the Indian Ocean Fishery Commission

held at Cochin, pp, 96.

Alderslade, P. & S. Prita (1991): New species of soft corals

(Coelenterata: Octocorallia) from the Laccadive Archipelago.

The Beagle. Records of the Northern Territory Museum of

Arts and Sciences 8(1 ): 189-233,

Benayahu, Y. (1985): Faunistic composition and patterns in the

distribution of soft corals (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea) along

the coral reefs of Sinai Peninsula. Proc. 5tli Inter. Coral Reef

Congress, Tahiti, 6: 255-260.

Benayahu, Y. & Y. Loya (1977): Space partitioning by stony

corals, soft corals and benthic algae on the coral reefs of the

Northern Gulf of Eilat (Red Sea). Helgolander Wiss.

Meeresunters 30: 362-382.

Benayahu, Y. & Y. Loya (1981): Competition for space among

coral-reef sessile organisms at Eilat, Red Sea. Bull. Mar. Sci.

31: 514-522.

Benayahu, Y. & Y. Loya (1984a): Life history studies on the Red

Sea. Soft coral, Xenia macrospiculata Gohar, 1940. II.

Planulae shedding and post larval development. Biol. Bull.

166: 44-53.

Benayahu, Y. & Y. Loya (1984b): Substratum preferences and

planulae settling of two Red Sea alcyonaceans: Xenia

macrospiculata Gohar and Pererytliropodiuni fulvum fulvum

(Forskal). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 83: 249-261.

Dinesen, Z.D. (1983): Patterns in the distribution of soft corals

across the Central Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs. J: 229-

236.

Fishelson, L. ( 1 970): Littoral fauna of the Red Sea; The population

of non-scleractinian anthozoans of shallow waters of the Red

Sea (Eilat). Mar. Biol. 6: 106-116.

Hickson, S.J. (1903): The Alcyonaria of the Maldives. Part I.

The genera Xenia, Telesto, Spongodes, Nepthea,

Paraspongodes, Chi rone p lit he a, Siplwnagorgia,

Solenocaulon and Melitodes. In: The fauna and geography

of the Maidive and Laccadive Archipelagoes Gardiner, S. J.

(ed.). 2(1): 473-502.

Hickson, S.J. (1905): The alcyonaria of the Maldives. Part III.

the National Institute of Oceanography for

extending all facilities. We gratefully acknowledge

the assistance of Mr. Yadav, Deputy Conservator

(Forest and Wildlife) and Mr. Arif Mustafa,

Department of Fisheries during field collections.

We also thank Prof. A.S.R. Anjaneyulu, Andhra

University, Waltair, Dr. Venkateswarlu, Indian

Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad

for sending part of their soft coral collections to

us.

ENCES

The families Muriceidae, Gorgonethidae, Melitodidae and the

genera Pennatula, Eunephthea. In: The fauna and geography

of the Maidive and Laccadive Archipelagoes (Gardiner S.J.

(ed). 2(4): 807-826.

Pillai, C.S.G. (1983): Coral reefs and their environs. Bull. Cent.

Mar. Fish. Res. Inst. 34: 36-40.

Pratt, E.M. (1903): The Alcyonaria of the Maldives. The genera

Sarcophytum, Lobophytum, Sclerophytum and Alcyonium.

Fauna Geogr. Maid. Laccad. Archip. 2(1): 503-539.

Pratt, E.M. (1905): Report on some Alcyoniidae collected by

Prof. Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. In Herdman W. A. and

Honell, J. Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl

and Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar 3(19): 247-268.

Sammarco, P.W., J.C. Coll, S. La Barre & B. Willis (1983):

Competitive strategies of soft corals (Coelenterata:

Octocorallia): Allelopathic effects on selected scleractinian

corals, coral reefs 1: 173-178.

Tixier-Durivault, A. (1945): Les Alcyonaires du Museum 1.

Famille des Alcyoniidae 2. Genre Sinularia. Bulletin du

Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle (2) 7 7(1): 55-65; (2):

145-152; (3): 243-250.

Tixier-Durivault, A.( 1 95 1 ) : Revision de la famille des

Alcyoniidae le genre Sinularia May, 1898. Memoires de

VI nstitut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique (2), 40:

1-146.

Tixier-Durivault, A. 1956 (1957): Les alcyonaires du Museum

1. Famille des Alcyoniidae 4. genre Lobophytum. Bulletin

du Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle (2) 28(4): 401-

405; 28(5): 476-482; 28(6): 541-546; 29(1): 106-111.

Tixier-Durivault, A. (1958): Revision de La Famille des

Alcyoniidae, les genres Sarcophytum et Lobophytum. Zool.

Verhand. 36: 1-180.

Tixier-Durivault, A. (1966): Octocoralliares de Madagascar et

des lies avoisinantes. Fauna de Madagascar 21: 1-456.

Tixier-Durivault, A. (1970): Les Octocoralliares de Nouvelle-

Caledonie; (L’Expedition francaise surles recifs coralliens de

la Nouvelle-Caledonia organisee sous L’egide de la fondation

singer — polignac 1960-1963). 4: 171-350.

Tikader, B.K. (1986): Seashore animals of Andaman & Nicobar

SOFT CORALS FROM THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

209

Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1-88.

Thomson, J.A. & W.D. Henderson (1906): The marine fauna of

Zanzibar and British East Africa and collections made by Cyril

Crossland in the years 1901 & 1902 ‘Alcyonaria ' .Proc.Zool.

Soc. London. 393-443, Fig. 85, Pis. 26-31.

Thomson, J.A. & J.J. Simpson (1909): An account of the

alcyonarians collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey

Ship “Investigator” in the Indian Ocean 1 1 . The Alcyonarians

of the littoral area. Trustees Indian Mus. Calcutta. I-XVIII 1-

39. Pis. 1-9.

Tursch, B. & A. Tursch (1982): The soft coral community on a

sheltered reef quadrate at Laing Island (Papua New Guinea).

Mar. Biol. 68: 321-332.

Van of Wegen, L.P. & J. Vennam ( 1991 ): Notes on Octocorallia

from the Laccadives (SW. India). Zool. Med. Leiden, 65(9):

143-154, figs 1-7.

Verseveldt, J. (1970): Report on some Octocorallia (Alcyonacea)

from the northern Red Sea. Israel ./. Zool. 19(4): 209-229,

Figs. 1-10, Pis. 1-3.

Verseveldt, J. (1971): Octocorallia from north-western

Madagascar (Part II ).Zool. Verhand. Leiden 117: 1-73, Figs.

1-40, Pis. 1-15.

Verseveldt, J. (1980): A revision of the genus Sinularia May

(Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zool. Verhand. Leiden 179: 1-

128.

Verseveldt, J. (1982): A revision of the genus Sarcophyton

Lesson (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zool. Verhand 192: 1-

91.

Verseveldt, J. (1983): A revision of the genus Lobopliytuni Von

Marenzeller (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea). Zool. Verhand. 200:

1-103.

Verseveldt, J. & Y. Benayahu (1983): On two old and fourteen

new species of Alcyonacea (Coelenterata, Octocorallia) from

the Red Sea. Zool. Verhand. Leiden. 208: 1-33.

STUDIES ON CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

(GMELIN) IN ORISSA1

L.N. Acharjyo2, S.K. Kar3 and S.K. Patanaik4

Key words: gharial, captivity, breeding pool, courtship, mating, egg-laying, nests, clutch size,

incubation & hatching, hatchlings

The gharial Gavialis gangeticus Gmelin bred in captivity for the first time at the Nandankanan Biological

Park, Orissa in 1980. Since then, breeding of this species is a regular feature in the park. This paper embodies data

on courtship, mating, egg-laying, nests, clutch size, incubation and hatching success recorded in the park during

the fifteen year period from 1980 to 1994.

Introduction

The river Mahanadi and its tributaries in the

State of Orissa are within the southern most limit of

distribution of the gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus),

considered as an endangered species. Several

attempts are being made in the country to save the

species from extinction. Captive breeding is

considered as one such attempt. The Government of

Orissa (State Forest Department) has initiated a

project on captive breeding of gharial at the

Nandankanan Biological Park (the park lies within

the geographical range of the species) with assistance

from Government of India since 1975 - 76. The

technical expertise for this project was provided by

FAO / UNDP Consultant Dr. H.R. Bustard.

A large oval-shaped concrete breeding pool,

with a capacity of 2.7 million litres was constructed

inside the park. The pool measured 60 m at the

longest part, 30 m at the widest part and had a depth

of 9.15 m at its deepest. There was a 2.4 m sand

bank with suitable riverine vegetation on one side

of the enclosure for egg-laying and basking. The area

was fenced with a 2 m high wall all around the area

except 30 m on the viewers’ side where a dry moat

'Accepted, January 1996.

2House No. M-71, Housing Board Colony, Baramunda,

Bhubaneswar-751 003.

’Research Officer (Wildlife), C/o Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa,

7 - Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751 007.

4Director, Nandankanan Zoological Park, Mayurbhawan,

Janapath, Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751 007.

and a parapet 0.5 m high was provided.

The three near adult gharials, then available

in the park, measuring 2.7 m (male), 2.5 and 2.65 m

(females) were released into this breeding pool

during February, 1976. Subsequently, four more sub-

adult females measuring 2.3 m (one) and 1.5 to 1.8

m (three) were added in 1 979 to this pool. In January,

1980, an adult male measuring 3.7 m received on

breeding loan from the Frankfurt Zoological Society,

Germany was added, increasing the breeding

population to eight (2:6). Unfortunately, the resident

male was killed by the Frankfurt male during the

breeding season in February, 1980.

The first successful breeding of the Gharial

was recorded in 1980 and since then, the species is

breeding regularly. This paper records the

observations made on aspects of breeding of the

Gharial in the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa

during the last fifteen years from 1980 to 1994.

Observations and Discussion

Courtship, mating and egg-laying: Courtship

and mating of the gharials have been observed during

the winter months (January and February) every year.

All the 57 clutches of eggs laid by six female gharials

during a period of 15 years (1980-1994) was

recorded regularly during the month of March (8-

30) only. According to Table 1 the first female laid

only five clutches during eight years from 1980 to

1 987 and no further egg-laying was recorded for this

female from 1 988 to 1 994 (seven years). The second

YEAR OF EGG-LAYING : CLUTCH SIZE

CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS G ANGETICUS ( GMELlN )

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212

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

female laid 12 clutches of eggs from 1981 to 1992

continuously but egg-laying was not recorded during

the subsequent two years ( 1 993 and 1 994). The third

female laid nine clutches of eggs from 1983 to 1994

with no record of egg-laying during 1984, 1990 and

1993. The fourth female laid 1 1 clutches in 1 1 years

from 1984 to 1994. The fifth female laid lOclutches

of eggs from 1984 to 1994 with no egg-laying during

1987. The sixth female laid 10 clutches of eggs

continuously from 1985 to 1994. These observations

suggest that annual egg-laying is not a regular feature

in all the individual female gharials. It was not

possible to ascertain the reasons of failure of the first

female to lay eggs continuously for seven years since

1988. In no year, more than five female Gharials

laid eggs. It is presumed that one male might not be

able to mate with more than five females during each

breeding season.

According to Whitaker and Basu (1982)

mating of gharial takes place between December -

January (the winter months) with low water levels

and low temperatures. Mating occurs in water in cold

weather months of December - January (Daniel

1983). He further states that the gharials nest in late

March, early April and the nesting season does not

vary by more than 10 days in any year and the

females in an area nest more or less within a week.

All the nine nests of 1976, located in the Narayani

and Kali-Gandaki Rivers in Nepal were laid between

29th March to 21st April (Bustard 1980). No

information on the frequency of egg-laying of

individual gharials could be found in the available

literature.

Nest: Observations, on 28 nests of five egg-

laying females were made between 1986 to 1991.

The distance of the nest on the sand bank from the

water’s edge of the breeding pool varied from 5.71

m to 10.94 m (mean 8.02 m). The nests were pitcher

shaped, diameter varying from 38 to 120 cm (mean

56.6 cm, n = 21 nests). The upper depth of the nest

varied from 20 to 45 cm (mean 28.4 cm) and the

lower depth of the nests varied from 33 to 70 cm

(mean 45.04 cm). The eggs were laid in layers.

One of the nests in the Satkosia Gorge

Sanctuary, Orissa was at a distance of 5.9 m from

the water’s edge at a height of 2.6 m above the water

level (Singh and Bustard 1977). Whitaker and Basu

(1982) stated that gharials dig their pitcher-shaped

nest holes on steep sandy river banks at night and

the average nest hole is 40 cm deep. The first layer

of eggs in one clutch laid in Satkosia Gorge

Sanctuary was 37.5 cm below the surface and the

bottom 30 x 22.5 cm (Singh and Bustard 1 977). The

study of 28 nests in Chambal river revealed that

nests were located at a distance of 4.6 to 14.5 m

(mean 9.5 m) and at a height of 1 .5 to 3.5 m (mean

2.4 m) from water (Whitaker and Basu 1982). They

stated that three nests along Girwa river were situated

2.5 to 4.0 m (mean 3.2 m) and at a height of 1 .0 to

3.0 m (mean 2.0 m). Nest depth varied from 30 to 37

cm with a width of 22 cm (Daniel 1983).

Clutch size: Table 1 shows that six female

gharials laid 1832 eggs in 57 clutches from 1980 to

1994. The clutch size varied from 2 to 57 (mean

32.14). The clutch size of first female varied from

15 to 28 (mean 24.40); second female 5-39 eggs

(mean 28. 17); third female 5-42 eggs (mean 21 .78);

fourth female 26-5 1 eggs (mean 36.00); fifth female

29-57 eggs (mean 40.80) and sixth female 2-50 eggs

(mean 37.20). Each female gharial laid a single clutch

during each breeding season. There is great variation

in clutch size of individual female gharials. More

observations on the breeding biology of captive

gharials are required to understand such variation.

The clutch size of eggs recorded in Narayani

and Kali-Gandaki Rivers in Nepal in 1976 (nine

nests) varied from 16 to 39 eggs (mean 25.5); in 1977

(16 nests) the range was 16 to 61 (mean 36.9) eggs

and in 1978 (10 nests) the range was 18 to 45 (mean

31.0) eggs (Bustard 1980). The clutch size varies

from 10 to 96 with an average of 40 eggs (Daniel

1983). The study of clutch size of gharial eggs of

Girwa / Chambal Rivers in India and Rapti / Narayani

Rivers in Nepal during 1976 to 1980 reveals that

3147 eggs were laid in 80 clutches with a mean of

39.30 eggs (range 18-95) (Whitaker and Basu 1982).

According to Smith (1931), gharials lay about 40 or

more eggs in sand banks.

Incubation and Hatching: The incubation

period observed in 47 cases (date of egg laying to

CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)

213

the date of hatching, both days inclusive) in nest

varied from 55 to 79 days with a mean of 65.1 days.

Similarly the incubation period observed in 44 cases

in artificial hatchery varied from 57 to 89 days, with

a mean of 71 days. This variation of incubation

period recorded in different years may be due to the

influence of local climatic factors. It is interesting

to note that the incubation period observed in

artificial hatchery was invariably longer than in

natural nests. This might be due to the fluctuations

in temperature during the process of translocation

of eggs from natural nests to artificial hatchery.

Incubation period ranged from 72 to 92 days

with a mean 84.5 days (Daniel 1983). According to

Bustard ( 1 980) the mean incubation period observed

during 1976 and 1978 in Narayani and Kali-Gandaki

Rivers in Nepal was 84 and 83 days, respectively,

whereas the mean incubation period observed among

16 nests during 1977 in the same area was 94 days

and this was attributed to low temperature existing

in the natural sand bank in that year as a result of

early April pre-monsoon shower at the time of egg

laying, which persisted till the onset of the monsoons

in June. Singh and Bustard (1977) stated thatGharial

eggs incubated at Tikerpada in April-June, 1975

under artificial hatchery conditions, hatched after 7 1 -

76 days. Gharial nests on the Chambal took an

average of 60 to 65 days to hatch (Whitaker and Basu

1982). Young gharials appear in March and April

Refer

Bustard, H.R. (1980): Clutch size, incubation and hatching

success of Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus Gmelin) eggs from

Narayani river, Nepal, 1976-1978.7. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc.

77(1): 100-105.

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 15-16.

Singh, L.A.K. & H.R. Bustard (1977): Studies on the Indian

Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia)

(Smith 1931).

Of 1832 eggs, 1046 eggs were allowed to

incubate in natural nest and the rest 786 were shifted

to an artificial hatchery about 50 m away for

incubation. The eggs were shifted to the hatchery

invariably during the second half of incubation

period, i.e. from late April to early May.

In all, 576 hatchlings hatched during May and

June (7 May to 1 1 June) out of 1 046 eggs kept in the

natural nest (55.07% hatching success), whereas 659

eggs have hatched (7 May to 15 June) out of 786

eggs kept in the artificial hatchery (83.84% hatching

success). Thus, 1235 hatchlings hatched, out of total

1832 eggs laid (67.41% hatching success). The

percentage of hatching was higher in hatchery in

comparison to natural nest, which may be due to

controlled temperature and moisture conditions in

the hatchery.

The weight and measurements recorded in 49

newly hatched gharial hatchlings during the year

1986, 1990 and 1991 revealed that the hatchlings

measured from 35 to 40 cm with mean of 37.35 cm

including tail lengths of 18 to 21 cm (mean 19.6

cm). The weight ranged from 100 to 124 gm with a

mean of 1 16.34 gm. According to Smith (1931 ) the

newly hatched gharial hatchlings measure 375 mm.

Hatchlings measured on an average 325-375 mm

at birth with a weight range of 75-97 gm (Daniel

1983).

NCES

V: Preliminary observations on maternal behaviour. Indian

Forester 103(10 ): 671-678.

Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. I. Taylor

and Francis, London, pp. 39-40.

Whitaker, R. & D. Basu (1982): The Gharial (Gavialis

gangeticus): A review. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3): 53 1 -

548.

CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER USING A

COMBINATION OF KETAMINE AND XYLAZINE HYDROCHLORIDE1

S.A. Hussain, RK. Malik and B.C. Choudhury2

Key words: Smooth-coated otter, Lutra perspicillata , immobilization, ketamine, xylazine

Two adult and three juvenile smooth- coated otters (Lutra perspicillata) were anaesthetized with Hellabrunn

mixture (HBM) (400 mg of ketamine hydrochloride (KHCL) and 500 mg xylazine hydrochloride (XHCL). The

mean dose of HBM used was 1 .04 ml/otter or 1 5 mg of KHCL and 1 8 mg of XHCL/kg body weight. Induction time

varied from 3-10 minutes and the duration of anaesthesia varied from 55-90 minutes. Long duration of sedation (2-

1 1 hours) was observed in almost all the cases which can be attributed to xylazine hydrochloride. The experiment

showed that HBM provided adequate immobilization of the smooth-coated otter for surgical manipulation.

Introduction

Several drugs have been used successfully to

immobilize different species of otter. William and

Kochner (1978) tested five anaesthetic agents

(CI744, etorphine, fentanyl, ketamine hydrochloride

and halothane) to establish a safe, effective and short

acting anaesthetic dosage for use in sea otter

(. Enhydra lutris). Subsequently Williams and Siniff

(1983) immobilized sea otter using fentanyl in

combination with azaperone. Seal and Erickson

(1969) and Seal et al. (1970) used phencyclidine

and promazine to immobilize North American river

otter (Lutra canadensis). Kane (1979) and Melquist

and Hornocker (1979a, b) immobilized North

American river otter with ketamine hydrochloride

(KHCL). Hoover ( 1 984) tried KHCL in combination

with xylazine and acepromazine maleate for the

general anaesthesia of American river otter. Jenkins

and Gorman (1981), Reuther (1983), and Reuther

and Brandes (1984) used KHCL for the

immobilization of European otter (Lutra lutra)

and Kane (1979) tried KHCL on the oriental small

clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea). Reports on the

chemical immobilization of smooth-coated otter

(Lutra perspicillata) are, however, not available.

To implant radiotelemetric devices for an

ecological study of the smooth-coated otter, it was

'Accepted March 1995.

3Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box 1 8, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun-248 001, India.

imperative to select a safe, rapid and effective

anaesthetic agent that could be easily administered

and produced no undesirable side effects. A mixture

of 400 mg of ketamine hydrochloride (KHCL) and

500 mg of xylazine hydrochloride (XHCL) - the

Hellabrunn Mixture (HBM) - was chosen in the

present study considering its safety margin. This

paper presents effects of HBM on smooth-coated

otters.

Materials and methods

Five smooth-coated otters (3 males and 2

females) were anaesthetized using HBM. The initial

anaesthetic experiment and trial implantation were

carried out on a captive adult male. Subsequently,

two male otters (one adult and one juvenile) and

two juvenile female otters, captured by using

Tomahawk and leghold live traps in the National

Chambal Sanctuary (NCS), were transported 40 km

north-east to the field research station of the Wildlife

Institute of India at Deori in the Morena district of

Madhya Pradesh for surgery. Of the four wild otters

caught, two were anaesthetized and implanted with

radio-transmitters within 30 hours of capture. The

other two otters were held for a period of 6 weeks

in a cement pool and maintained on a live fish diet

till surgery.

All the animals were kept off food for 8-10

hours prior to surgery. Each animal was then

anaesthetized using a Teleinject blowpipe through

CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER

215

a gas pressurized syringe filled with freshly prepared

Hellabrunn Mixture HBM (ketamine hydrochloride

400 mg, Ketaset, Veterinary Products, Bristol

Laboratories, Syracuse, New York, + xylazine

hydrochloride 500 mg dry substrate, Rompun, Bayer

Leverkusen, Germany).

The initial dose for the otters was calculated

based on body weight and supplementary dosages

were administered intramuscularly to achieve

complete anaesthesia for surgery. Following

administration of HBM, clinical signs and the timing

of effects of drugs were recorded. During surgery,

respiratory and heart rates were checked and changes

or abnormalities were noted.

Induction time was recorded as the period

between administration of the drug and failure of

the animal to resist when handled. In the absence of

suitable methods for measuring the duration and

degree of anaesthesia, duration of anaesthesia was

recorded as the interval from induction to the time

when the animal regained ability to resist being

handled and/or reacted to external stimuli. The total

duration of sedation was recorded as the time when

the animal completely gained consciousness and

became normal. In order to allow for the completion

of surgical procedure for radio-implantation,

anaesthesia was maintained for a desirable period

by supplementing with additional doses when

required.

Results

The mean dose of HBM required to

anaesthetize was 1 .04 ml/otter (± 0. 143 range=0.5-

1 .3 ml) or 0. 1 82 ml/kg body weight (± 0.024 ml/kg

body weight, range=0. 12-0.26 ml/kg) or 15 mg of

KHCL and 1 8 mg of XHCL/kg body weight. The

HBM produced immobilization and analgesia, with

good muscular relaxation, adequate to perform

surgery ranging from 55 to 90 minutes (Table 1).

Induction was achieved within 3-10 minutes

(mean=6.4, ± 1.30 minute) after delivery of the

drugs. In animals 1 and 3, a subsequent dose of 0.3

ml HBM was given intramuscularly to achieve

induction. In case of animals 1 and 4, additional

doses of 0.4 and 0.2 ml HBM respectively, were

required to prolong the anaesthesia for completion

of surgery. The duration of anaesthesia varied from

55-90 minutes (mean=68, ± 6.04 minutes). We did

not find significant correlation between per kg dose

of HBM and duration of anaesthesia (Spearman rank

correlation, rs = 0.70, P>0.05).

Following anaesthesia the heart rates and the

respiratory rates decreased slightly, and then

remained stable during surgery. In two cases slight

muscular tremors were observed 10 to 15 minutes

after induction and lasted for 20-30 seconds. During

the anaesthesized period the eyelids remained open,

muscle tone was normal and no muscular rigidity

was observed at any stage. While recovering, control

of the head was gained first, followed by fore and

hind limbs. Otters were slightly aggressive during

the early stage of recovery. Three animals urinated

immediately after recovery from deep anaesthesia.

On recovering from anaesthesia, the otters

responded to slight noise and tactile stimuli, but they

remained in a state of sedation for 2-11 hours

(mean=5.4 hours, ± 1.63 hours).

However, 24 hours after surgery the captive

adult male died. Necroscopy revealed that it had

swallowed a piece of surgical rubber drape that had

been spread in the cage, which blocked the trachea

leading to asphyxiation and death.

Discussion

Ketamine has been widely used to immobilize

different species of otters, but it often causes muscle

rigidity that hinders surgical procedure. Some

mortality during anaesthetic procedure was also

reported by William and Kochner (1978). Other

effects included decline in body temperature,

increased salivation, convulsions, depressed

respiration and cardiac stimulation [Beck et al.

(1971), Kolata and Rawlings ( 1 982) cited in Logan

et al. ( 1 986)] . Besides, the use of ketamine alone in

case of otters frequently results in hyperthermia in

conjunction with poor relaxation, apnoea,

tachycardia and hyperexcitability during the

recovery phase (Seal and Kreeger 1987).

216

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 1

DOSAGE AND TIMED OBSERVATIONS FOR FIVE SMOOTH COATED INDIAN OTTERS

IMMOBILIZED WITH HELLABRUNN MIXTURE (400 mg KETAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE +

500 mg XYLAZINE HYDROCHLORIDE)

Alternatively, ketamine can be easily administered,

is readily effective, has a wide margin of safety and

its effects are not cumulative as those of barbiturate,

therefore the doses can be frequently repeated

(Ramsden et al. 1976, Melquist and Hornocker

1979a, b).

Ketamine when used in combination with

xylazine, another central nervous system depressant

that produces analgesia with sedation and muscle

relaxation [Hebert and McFetridge (1981) cited in

Logan et al. (1986)] causes reduction in salivation,

muscle rigidity, emesis and convulsions (McWade

1982). To eliminate the side effects of ketamine

anaesthesia, acepromazine, oxymorphine,

trifluromazine and xylazine are used in fields

(Amend 1972, Herbst etal. 1985, Logan et al. 1986).

Apart from this the combination of KHCL and

XHCL has been used to immobilize many other

carnivores (e.g. Stephenson et al. 1978, Knight

1980, Hebert and McFetridge 1981, Parry et al.

1981, Nielsen et al. 1982, Herbst etal. 1985,

Kreeger etal. 1986, Terry etal. 1986). These drugs

usually result in smooth induction and recovery

(Harthroon 1976). Thus, Seal and Kreeger (1987)

recommended the use of ketamine (15 mg/kg) and

xylazine (1 mg/kg) as the safe anaesthetic agent for

otters. In this study we have used Hellabrunn

Mixture which has a specific combination ratio

(1:1 .25) of ketamine and xylazine.

Xylazine often causes prolonged sedation

(Parry et al. 1981, Hatch et al. 1982) that can be

eliminated by using yohimbine hydrochloride, an

antagonist to XHCL (Hatch et al. 1982, Cronin et

al. 1983; Goldberg and Robertson 1983, Jessup et

al. 1983). In our experiment we observed prolonged

sedation (2- 1 1 hr) that could be attributed to XHCL.

The duration of sedation could have been altered at

least in the fourth and fifth cases.

There is evidence that drug choice, drug dose

and animal response differ among species and may

vary within species (Seal and Kreeger 1987). Even

though the dose/kg body weight varied considerably

we did not find significant variation in duration of

anaesthesia. This may be due to the small sample

size and various age and sex of otters. The variation

in initial drug dose in the two juvenile females

appears to be due to temperament of the otters just

before administration of the drugs. One of the

juvenile females (case 4) was agitated when

compared to the other (case 2). Both the adult males

CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER

217

took longer time to achieve induction compared to

the juvenile male (case 5) and juvenile female (case

2). Except for longer duration of sedation no other

physiological complication such as nausea, muscle

rigidity, and apnoea were observed. The urination

in most cases might have been due to the xylazine

induced hyperglycaemia. In this study we could have

reduced the long sedation period by using

yohimbine, but it was not available to us.

From the experiment we conclude that

Hellabrunn Mixture is a safe anaesthetic agent for

otters. However, to eliminate the side effects of

xylazine, yohimbine hydrochloride can be

administered. Care should be taken to keep the

animal preferably in a clean wooden squeeze

cage avoiding surgical drapes and polyethylene

sheets.

Refer

Amend, J.F. (1972): Premedication with xylazine to eliminate

muscular hypertonicity in cats during ketamine anaesthesia.

Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clin. 67: 1305-1307.

Beck, C.C., R.W. Coppock & B.S. Ott (1971): Evaluation of

Vetalar (ketamine HCI): A unique feline anaesthetic. Vet.

Med. Small Anim. Clin. 66: 993-996.

Cronin, M.F., N.H. Booth, R.C. Hatch & J. Brown (1983):

Acepromazine-xylazine combination in dogs: Antagonism

with 4-aminopyridine and yohimbine. American J. Vet. Res.

44: 2037-2042.

Goldberg, M.R. & D. Robertson (1983): Yohimbine: A

pharmacological probe for study of the alpha 2-

adrenoreceptor. Pharmacol. Rev. 35: 143-180.

Harthroon, A.M. (1976): The Chemical capture of Animals.

Bailliere Tindal, London, England, 416 pp.

Hatch, R.C., N.H. Booth, J.D. Clark, L.M. Crawford, Jr, J.V.

Kitzman & B. Wallner (1982): Antagonism of xylazine

sedation in dogs by 4-aminopyridine and yohimbine.

American . I. Vet. Res. 43: 1009-1014.

Hebert, D.M. & R.J. McFetridge (1981): Chemical

immobilization of North American Game Animals. 2nd Ed.

Fish and Wildlife Division, Alberta Energy and Natural

Resources, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 250 pp.

Herbst, L.H., C. Packer & U.S. Seal (1985): Immobilization

of free-ranging African Lions ( Pantliera leo) with a

combination of Xylazine hydrochloride and Ketamine

hydrochloride. Journal of Wildlife disease 21(4): 401-404.

Hoover, J.P. (1984): Surgical implantation of radiotelemetry

devices in American river otters. J.Ant. Vet. Med. Assoc.,

Vol. 1X5, No. 11: 1317-1320.

Jenkins, D. & M.L. Gorman (1981): Anaesthesia of the

European otter (Lutra Ultra) using Ketamine hydrochloride.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Mr. H.S. Pan war, Director,

Wildlife Institute of India for providing logistic and

technical support. Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan

Forest Departments permitted us to capture otter

from NCS. Director, National Zoological Park

permitted us to implant radiotransmitters in the

captive otter for trial. Dr(s) Rakesh Maheshwari,

Louis Silio and R.J. Rao helped in implanting

transmitters. Dr(s) Ajith Kumar of Salim Ali Centre

for Ornithology and Natural History, David A.

Jessup of California Fish and Game Service, Sheila

Macdonald and Chris Mason of University of Essex,

England and Paul Krausman, University of Arizona

and Ms Ruchi of Wildlife Institute of India gave

valuable comments on the manuscript.

E N C E S

J. Zool. 194: 265-267.

Jessup, D.A., W.E. Clark, PA. Gullet & K.R. Jones (1983):

Immobilization of mule deer with ketamine and xylazine

and reversal of immobilization with yohimbine. J. Am. Vet.

Med. Assoc. 1X3: 1339-1340.

Kane, K.K. (1979): Medical management of the otter.

Proceedings of the Anna. Meet. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. pp. 100-

103c.

Knight, A.P. (1980): Xylazine. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 176:

454-455.

Kolata, R.J. & C.A. Rawlings (1982): Cardiopulmonary effects

of intravenous xylazine, ketamine and atropine in the dog.

Am. J. Vet. Res. 43: 2196-2198.

Kreeger, T.J., G.D. Del Guidice, U.S. Seal & P.D. Karns

(1986): Immobilization of white tailed deer with xylazine

hydrochloride and ketamine hydrochloride and antagonism

by tolazine hydrochloride. J. Wild!. Dis. 22: 407-412.

Logan, K.A., E.T. Throne, L.L. Irwin & R. Skinner (1986):

Immobilizing wild mountain lions ( Felis concolor) with

ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. ./.

Wildl. Dis. 22(1): 97-100.

McWade, D.H. (1982): An evaluation of ketamine and xylazine

in combination as agents for the remote chemical

immobilization of feral and stray dogs. In Chemical

immobilization of North American Wildlife, L. Nielsen et

al. (eds). Wisconsin Humane Soc. Inc. Milwaukee, pp. 175-

187.

Melquist, W.E. & M.G. Hornocker, ( 1 979a): Development and

use of a telemetry technique for studying river otters. In:

F.M. Long, Ed. Proceedings 2nd Int. Conf. Wildl.

Biotelemetry, Laramie, pp. 104-114.

Melquist, W.E. & M.G. Hornocker (1979b): Methods and

218

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

techniques for studying and censusing river otter

populations. Moscow, Idaho, University of Idaho. Wildlife

Range Exp. Stn. Tech. Rep. 8, 17 pp.

Nielsen, L., J.C. Haigh & M.E. Fowler (1982): Chemical

immobilization of North American Wildlife. Wisconsin

Humane Soc. Inc. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 447 pp.

Parry, K., S.S. Anderson & M.A. Fedak (1981): Chemical

immobilization of grey seal. J. Wilcll. Manage. 45: 986-990.

Ramsden, R.O., P.F. Coppin & D.H. Johnston (1976): Clinical

observation on the use of Ketamine hydrochloride in wild

carnivores. J. Wildl. Dis. 12: 221-225.

Reuther, V.C. (1983): Experiences with the immobilization of

the European otter ( Lutra lutra) with ketamine

hydrochloride. Berl Munch Tieraztl Wochenschr. 96: 40 1 -

405.

Reuther, V.C. & S. Brandes ( 1 984): Incidence of hyperthermia

during immobilization of European otters ( Lutra lutra) with

Ketamine hydrochloride. DTW. 96: 401-405.

Seal, U S. & A.W. Erickson (1969): Immobilization of

carnivora and other mammals phencyclidine and promazine.

Fed. Proc. 28: 1410-1419.

Seal, U.S., A.W. Erickson & G.J. Mayo (1970): Drug

immobilization of the Carnivora. Intern. Zoo Yearbook JO:

157-170.

Seal, U. & T.J. Kreeger (1987): Chemical immobilization of

furbearers. In: Furbearer Management and Conservation in

North America. Ed. M. Novak, James A. Baker, M.E. Obbard

and B. Mulloch. Pub. Ontario Trappers assoc. Ministry of

Natural resources, pp. 191-215.

Stephenson, J.C., D.I. Blevins & G.J. Christae (1978): Rompun/

Ketaset combination in dogs; a two year study. Vet. Med.

Small Anm. Clin. 73: 303-305.

Terry, J.K., U.S. Seal & A.M. Fagella (1986): Xylazine

hydrochloride-Ketamine hydrochloride immobilization of

wolves and its antagonism by Tolazoline Hydrochloride.

J. Wildl. Dis. 22 (3): 397-402.

William, T.D. & F.H. Kochner (1978): Comparison of

anaesthetic agents in the sea otter. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.

173: 1127-1130.

William, T.D. & D.B. Siniff (1983): Surgical implantation of

radiotelemetry devices in sea otters. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.

183: 1290-1291.

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION: AN UPDATE

SUDHIR VYAS* 2

{With a text-figure )

Key Words: Delhi, birds, Porzana porzana, Charadrius asiaticus, Surniculus lugubris, Prinia

flaviventris, Megalurus palustris, Saxicola leucura

A complete list of birds recorded from the Delhi region during two separate periods, 1977-79 and 1984-86, is

compared with previous checklists. The comparison reveals changes in status and populations of various species,

notably sharp declines for many resident raptors (such as Crested Honey Buzzard, White-eyed Buzzard, Tawny Eagle,

Pallas’s Fishing Eagle, King Vulture, Laggar Falcon, Red-headed Merlin and Dusky Eagle-Owl), several riverside

species (Blacknecked Stork, Greater Adjutant, Great Stone Plover, Little Tern and Indian Skimmer) and some passerines

(Marshall's Iora, White-browed Fantail Flycatcher, Paradise Flycatcher, Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, White-bellied

Minivet, Spotted Grey Creeper and wintering Wheatears). Six additions to the Delhi checklist are recorded, including

three breeders (Spotted Crake, Caspian Plover, Drongo-Cuckoo, Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler (breeder), Striated Marsh

Warbler (breeder), Whitetailed Bush Chat (breeder).

Introduction

A checklist of the birds of the Delhi region

was first attempted by Basil-Edwards (1926) and

later, Frome ( 1 947, 1 948) prepared a second checklist

covering the period 1931-45. Subsequent additions

to the list were made by Benthall (1949) and

Alexander (1949). More recent checklists are based

on Hutson's observations in 1943-45, which,

supplemented by Alexander's records, were

published in book form, Hutson (1954); and on

relatively intensive field work in this area over the

years 1958-70 by several ornithologists (Malcolm

MacDonald, Julian P. Donahue, Victor C. Martin,

Peter Jackson, Usha Ganguli, etc. - collated in Usha

Ganguli's Guide to the Birds of the Delhi Area,

1975). Abdulali and Panday’s (1978) Checklist of

the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur is the latest

and most comprehensive of these checklists

available.

Since all these comment to one extent or the

other on the status, populations and habifat

preferences of the various species, they are of interest

in their illustration of how Delhi’s bird life has

evolved along with the city itself. Indeed, it appears

'Accepted January 1995.

2Deputy High Commissioner, High Commission of India,

Dar-Es-Salaam, C/o. Ministry of External Affairs,

South Block, New Delhi-1 10 Oil.

that with the creation of new habitats, and the

protection accorded to certain patches of habitat

(river, scrub, garden or forest) within the city’s

limits, both avian diversity and numbers of many

species actually increased uptil the 1960s.

Thereafter, judging from personal observations in

the late 1970s and mid 1 980s, increasing urbanisation

in South Delhi and east across the Jamuna river has

destroyed, or blocked access, to some of the best

bird habitats and resulted in the decline of some

species; at the same time, there has also been new

colonisation by a few species, such as two marsh

haunting warblers (Yellow-bellied Wren-Warbler,

Striated Marsh Warbler) and a thrush (White-tailed

Bush-Chat).

Methodology

Records of bird observations were maintained

during two separate periods of residence in Delhi,

from end 1977 to September 1979 and from end-

1984 to July 1986. Compared, in particular, with

the status notes recorded by Usha Ganguli, these

observations provide some indication of how Delhi’s

birds have fared since the early 1970s.

The area covered was not, however, as

extensive as that covered by the earlier studies; it

includes essentially the following habitats: (i) the

Jamuna river, with its associated cultivated and

220

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93 (1996)

Fig. I. Sketch map of the immediate neighbourhood of Delhi. Birdwatching Sites indicated on the map.

1. Marshes near the Coronation Memorial Pillar and Model Town, North Delhi; 2. Old Delhi (Northern) Ridge;

3. New Delhi (Southern) Ridge; 4. Delhi Zoo; 5. Sunder Nursery, Humayun's Tomb area; 6. New Delhi Golf Links; 7. Lodi

Gardens; 8. Hauz Khas ‘city forest’; 9. Jawaharlal Nehru University Campus;

10. Qutub Minar and associated ruins, Mehrauli; 11. Tughlakabad; 12. Okhla;

13. Madanpur marshes, between Agra Canal and the river; 14. Surajkund; 15. Anangpur Dam;

16. Scrub country near Tughlakabad; 17. Road to Gurgaon, Sultanpur, Sohna, Nuh.

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OE THE DELHI REGION

221

marshy areas, from Wazirabad in North Delhi to

about 6 km south of Okhla; (ii) New Delhi, including

parks and the artificial city forests of South Delhi;

(ii i) the marshes near the Coronation Pillar and

Model Town in North Delhi; (iv) the New Delhi

Ridge, and the associated thorn-scrub country

extending southwards past the Jawaharlal Nehru

University campus to the Qutub Minar/Mehrauli area

and east to Tughlakabad and Surajkund; (v) scrubby

rocky areas near Sohna, south of Delhi, and (vi) the

Sultanpur Lakes and countryside near Gurgaon,

southwest of Delhi. West Delhi and the Najafgarh

area, and the now rapidly colonising countryside

across the Jamuna river were neglected completely.

The sketch map of Delhi's immediate neighbourhood

(Fig. 1) indicates most of these sites.

Observations were taken during field trips as

and when time permitted, and did not follow any

pattern or periodicity. No collecting or netting was

done.

Bird list

In the list of species recorded by me, I have

included comments where my observations differ

from Ganguli (1975) and Abdulali and Panday's

(1978) Checklists.

The following symbols are used in attempting

to define the status of each species;

R: Resident (seen all year).

RB: Resident, breeding confirmed.

W: Winter visitor.

IW: Irregular winter visitor (not annual).

M: Migrant, in seasons other than winter.

PM: Passage migrant (both passages, unless

specified).

V: Vagrant.

The following symbols attempt to define the

population of the species, in the appropriate season

of occurrence:

a: Abundant, in large numbers in the right

habitat.

c: Common, will usually be found in the right

habitat.

fc: Fairly common, or regularly (but not

always) seen in the right habitat.

o: Occasional, not expected to occur, even in

the right habitat.

s: Scarce, less than a couple of records each

season.

r: Rare.

001. Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis -

R, c.

002. Great Crested Grebe, Podiceps cristatus

- W, o. A few records in winter, all of single birds,

on the Jamuna river and Sultanpur lakes.

003. Rosy Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus -

W, c. Sultanpur Lake; numbers vary from year to

year; maximum of 400 in winter 77-78, over 1000

in winter 78-79, very few (less than 20) in winter

85-86. A few present with Dalmatian Pelicans at

Okhla in March 1979.

004. Dalmatian Pelican, Pelecanus crispus

- W, fc. Few each winter at Sultanpur, maximum

of about 15 (not in one flock) in March 1986.

Dalmatians, with a maximum of 1 7 on 7 March 1 979.

are often present just downstream of the Okhla weir

on the Jamuna in March, when the gates of the weir

are opened, presumably resulting in an abundance

offish below the gates.

005. Large Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo

- RB, fc.

006. Indian Shag, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis

- RB, fc.

007. Little Cormorant, Phalacrocorax niger

- RB, c.

008. Indian Darter, Anhinga rufa - R, fc.

All the above four species are doing well.

Large Cormorants and Shags appear to have

increased since Usha Ganguli’s time, with 100-400

present at Sultanpur in winter. Flights to roosts of

Large Cormorants north along the river at Okhla in

summer may total several hundred. Shags breed with

Little Cormorants at Delhi zoo; Large Cormorants

on acacia covered islands in Sultanpur Lake.

009. Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea - RB, fc.

Small numbers, breeding locally.

0 1 0. Purple Heron, Ardea purpurea - RB, c.

Very common at Okhla, May-September. Breeding

in reedbeds at Madanpur village, south of Okhla;

222

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi 93 (1996)

about 40 nests on 6 July 1986. Nests contained well

grown young; a few fledged juveniles hunting on

short grass but flying back to nest on parent’s return.

More birds probably breed on reedy islands at Okhla.

The increase in the populations of this species noted

by Usha Ganguli appears to have been maintained.

011. Little Green Heron, Butorides striatus

- R, s. Only noted at Surajkund, where present all

year. Some wandering after breeding, indicated by

one juvenile seen in Delhi zoo, August 1984.

012. Indian Pond Heron, Ardeola grayii -

RB, c.

013. Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis - RB, a.

014. Large Egret, Egretta alba - RB, c.

015. Smaller Egret, Egretta intermedia - RB,

c.

016. Little Egret, Egretta garzetta - RB, c.

017. Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax -

RB, c.

All the above six species evidently doing well,

breeding locally.

018. Chestnut Bittern, Ixobrychus

cinnamomeus - M(or R?), o.

019. Yellow Bittern, Ixobrychus sinensis -

M(or R?), s.

Both bitterns were recorded from early June

onwards through the monsoon at Madanpur and

Okhla, the former also at marshes in North Delhi.

Pairs of both species seen flying back and forth high

over reedbeds at Okhla with slow flapping flight.

The Chestnut Bittern appears the commoner of the

two.

020. Painted Stork, Mycteria leucocephala -

RB, c. Has maintained its abundance. Breeding freely

in Delhi zoo. Often large gatherings during the

monsoon by the river, maximum of 250 in July 1985.

021. Openbill Stork, Anastomus oscitans -

M, o. Remains unusual, though rather more

frequent than what the few records in the 1960s

and 1970s appear to indicate. A few present every

year March to August about Okhla and elsewhere,

with a maximum of 32 on 7 March 1979 at Okhla.

022. Whitenecked Stork, Ciconia episcopus

- RB, fc. Fairly common, frequent records of pairs

or small parties, in cultivation by the river, marshy

areas near Model Town in North Delhi and open

country about Gurgaon and Sultanpur. No noticeable

change in status or population.

023. Blacknecked Stork, Ephipporhynchus

asiaticus - R, s. Appears to have declined since the

1970s, when it was considered fairly common by

Usha Ganguli. One pair usually present at Sultanpur

Lake, and a single bird on a Jamuna sandbank in

March 1979 are the only records. No evidence of

breeding.

024. Adjutant Stork, Leptoptilos dubius - M,

s. Up to 4-5 birds present in July-August by the

river about Okhla nearly every year. No evidence

of the large congregations recorded by Usha Ganguli

in the 1960s.

025. White Ibis, Threskiornis

melanocephala - R, fc. Seen only at Sultanpur

Lake, maximum of about 30 birds on a given day.

Numbers may have declined.

026. Black Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa - RB, o.

Scattered pairs or parties of up to 6, by the river and

at Sultanpur. Breeding recorded in July 1986; pair

building nest on an unusual site, on the crossed steel

struts, at a height of about 30 m, of a giant power

pylon standing in an open field at Madanpur, south

of Okhla. Building material was carried by only one

of the pair, the other following the former on each,

visit to the nest site. Observations could not be

continued to determine whether breeding was

successful.

027. Spoonbill, Platalea leucordia - R, fc.

No evidence of breeding, but remains in good

numbers throughout the year, both at Sultanpur

and by the river; numbers increase December to

March.

028. Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus

roseus - R?, fc. Up to 200-500 birds present at

Sultanpur usually, all year, but numbers vary

irregularly; at times, up to 1500. In 1985 and 1986

birds were for the first time seen by the Jamuna

river, up to 200 between March and June with smaller

numbers till October.

029. Whitefronted Goose, Anser albifrons -

V. 1 immature, associating with Spotbills (rather

than with nearby parties of Greylag) was present at

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION

223

Okhla on 21 January 1986.

030. Greylag Goose, Anser anser - W, c.

Probably under 500 at Sultanpur each winter, except

in December 1985, when over 1000. Very

occasionally seen by the river.

031. Barheaded Goose, Anser indicus - W,

c. May have increased in the Delhi area and is now

commoner than the Greylag. Minimum of 1500-

2000 at Sultanpur in winter 1985-86. Much more

frequent by the river than the Greylag, with parties

of 10-20 often present at Okhla in midwinter.

Numbers increase (passage?) in March, with a

maximum of 150 on 2 March 1986 on Okhla

sandbanks.

032. Lesser Whistling Teal, Dendrocygna

javanica - M(Breeding?), o. Not recorded 1978-

79, but up to 25 were present during May 1985 and

between 20 April - August 1986 about Okhla. On

6 July 1986, pairs and foursomes were seen flying

about and settling in reedbeds at Madanpur -

indication of nesting activity? On 5 August 1989,

6-7 pairs were noted flying out from small islets in

the Okhla reservoir towards surrounding fields. In

comparison with the few earlier records, this species

appears to have increased and is possibly breeding

in the area.

033. Ruddy Shelduck, Tadorna ferruginea

- W, c. Maximum of 250 on the 8 km stretch of river

from Old Delhi to south of Okhla.

034. Common Shelduck, Tadorna tadorna

- IW, s. Maximum of 9 birds present on the Jamuna

river through 1979. 5 seen at Sultanpur on 28

December 1985.

Most of the ducks appear to have maintained

their numbers in spite of increasing urbanisation on

the east bank of the river. The large numbers which

were noted wintering on the river north of the old

Okhla weir in 1 978-79 appeared to have shifted their

main resting area to just downstream, where the new

Okhla barrage has resulted in the impoundment of a

large body during the monsoon, which remains until

midwinter when dessication sets in.

035. Pintail, Anas acuta - W, a. With

Shoveller, the commonest duck in winter. On the

river, maximum of 6000 on a 6 km stretch; at

Sultanpur, maximum of 5000 in December 1985.

036. Common Teal, Anas crecca - W, c.

037. Spotbill, Anas poecilorhyncha - RB, c.

Populations may have increased since the 1960s-70s.

Maximum numbers during end March- August. Over

2000 counted in two hours on feeding flights on a

late May evening at Okhla. Breeding freely,

ducklings noted May-August. Wild birds breeding

at Delhi zoo.

038. Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos - W, o.

Maximum of 30 at Sultanpur on 1 March 1 986.

039. Gadwall, Anas strepera - W, c. In

smaller numbers than the Pintail.

040. Falcated Teal, Anas falcata - V. At

least one male with Gadwall at Okhla on 2 February

1979.

041. Wigeon, Anas penelope - W, c.

Maximum in 100s on the river and Sultanpur.

042. Garganey, Anas querquedula - PM, c.

Both passages, abundant in spring, 8 March-24 May.

043. Shoveller, Anas clypeata - W, a.

044. Redcrested Pochard, Netta rufina - W,

fc. Maximum of under 250 in winter, usually only

in 10s on the river and Sultanpur.

045. Common Pochard, Aythya ferina - W,

c. Maximum of 2000 on the river.

046. White-eyed Pochard, Aythya nyroca -

W, fc. Small numbers only, 10s rather than 1 00s.

047. Tufted Pochard, Aythya fuligula - W,

c. At times outnumbering all other Pochards on

the river, as in winter 1985-86.

048. Cotton Teal, Nettapus coroman-

delianus - M, o. Small numbers only, March to

August. Maximum of about 30 in water lily covered

borrowpit in August 1989. No evidence of breed-

ing.

049. Nukta, Sarkidiornis melanotos - M, s.

Mostly recorded in summer, late March to June.

Maximum of 28 seen returning to daytime rest area

on the river on a late May morning.

050. Blackwinged Kite, Elanus caeruleus -

RB, fc. Thinly scattered in open areas, even within

city limits (e.g. New Delhi Ridge). Flying young

accompanying parents at the end of December 1985.

051. Crested Honey Buzzard, Pernis

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

ptilorhynchus - R? s. Has declined since the 1960s.

A pair in December 1985 at Mehrauli, another pair

which haunted the New Delhi Ridge in March-May

1 986, and an immature which descended to an Okhla

sandbank to drink on a hot early morning on 17 May

1986 are my only records in this entire period!

052. Pariah Kite, Milvus migrans - RB, a.

The race govinda is an abundant breeding resident;

the race lineatus is occasionally seen in winter.

053. Brahminy Kite, Haliastur indus - M, s.

May have declined in the area. Singles at the Delhi

zoo in August, and 2 immatures at Okhla in July

1985 are the only records.

054. Shikra, Accipiter badius - RB, c. Nest

building in second-half of March, feeding newly

hatched young in May, at Lodi Gardens, 1986.

055. Sparrow Hawk, Accipiter nisus - V (or

IW?), r. A female in January 1979 seen within city

limits is the only record.

056. Longlegged Buzzard, Buteo rufinus -

W, fc. Well distributed in winter, even within and

over the city. Most birds tend towards the pale phase,

but one classic dark phase bird was recorded by the

river at Madanpur on 19 January 1986. May have

become actually more common since the 1960s.

057. White-eyed Buzzard, Butastur teesa -

R? s. Appears to have declined and is now distinctly

scarce. Occasional sightings near the river and

Tughlakabad in 1978-79; a pair at Palam in

September 1985 and one bird in Sunder Nursery

within city limits in March 1986 are the only

records.

058. Booted Hawk-Eagle, Hieraetus

pennatus - W, o. Usually singly, once a pair seen in

March 1986. Only about 1 in 5 appear to be of the

pale phase; the dark phase and an occasional

intermediate phase are more frequent. The

intermediate phase has the typically patterned upper

parts of this species, including the pure white

shoulder-spot; the throat and breast are dark buff-

brown, the belly paler; lesser underwing coverts

medium buff-brown, middle and greater underwing

coverts dark blackish-brown, this colour linked with

the dark outer primaries and appearing as a dark band

across the middle of the underwing; a pale wedge

on inner primaries; secondaries dark with noticeable

barring.

O

059. Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle, Hieraetus

fasciatus - V? r. One adult seen over Tughlakabad

in December 1985.

060. Imperial Eagle, Aquila heliaca - W,o.

At least one adult was recorded each year (when

observations were made) in the riverain and

cultivated areas just north and south of Okhla. In

some winters, additional individuals were present

some 6-8 km further downstream from Okhla.

Sultanpur Lake holds at least one bird each winter;

in the 1985-86 winter there were two, an adult and a

juvenile. This species appears to actually be more

regular now than in the 1960s.

06 1 a. Tawny Eagle, Aquila rapax vindhiana

- R, o. Not common, and appears to have declined

since the 1960s. Not recorded over the city, unlike

previously, and only occasionally in cultivation by

the river. No breeding records.

06 1 b. Steppe Eagle, Aquila rapax nipalensis

- W, c. Widespread winter visitor to all areas,

including over the city.

062. Greater Spotted Eagle, Aquila clanga -

W, fc. A minimum of 2-3 birds at Sultanpur Lake

each winter. When the reservoir at Okhla is full,

Spotted Eagles are often present; 2 well-marked

juveniles and one adult were recorded in March

1985. Also occasionally seen in other marshy areas

in North Delhi. Hostility is shown towards it by

both Steppe and Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

063. Lesser Spotted Eagle, Aquila pomarina

- V? r. One bird, whose identification can only be as

certain as this species permits, was recorded in North

Delhi over the marshes beyond Model Town. Only

record, January 1986. A smallish head like the

Longlegged Buzzard’s, noticeably broad rounded

wings held forward and drooping from carpal joints

when soaring (quite unlike the Steppe/Tawny

silhouette) and shortish rounded tail, about two-thirds

width of wings. Uniform dark brown body and

upper- and under-wing coverts, with darker blackish

flight feathers. No white markings at all, above or

below. Size, compared with Kite, about 10% larger.

064. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle, Haliaeetus

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OE THE DELHI REGION

225

leucoryphus - W? r. Has clearly declined. One

immature in winter 1978-79, another in December

1985-January 1986, both about the river at Okhla,

are the only records. Birds which were recorded in

the 1940s and 1950s as breeding by the river in

North Delhi and Okhla have evidently abandoned

these sites.

065. King Vulture, Torgos calvus - V(or R?),

r. Very scarce; populations appear to have declined

sharply since the 1960s. One pair seen in winter of

1977-78, another in December 1985, both over New

Delhi are the only records.

066. Indian Griffon, Gyps fulvus - W, s.

Single birds, very infrequent, recorded soaring or

perched with other vultures in winter.

067. Longbilled Vulture, Gyps indicus - R?

o. Never over the city, but not uncommon in low

hilly and rocky areas as at Sohna, south of Delhi, in

winter.

068. Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps

benghalensis - RB, a.

069. Scavenger Vulture, Neophron

percnopterus - RB, c.

070. Pale Harrier, Circus macrourus - W, s

and PM, o. Very small numbers in mid-winter (4

singles in 4 years), more frequent in March when

presumably on passage. Numbers may have declined.

071. Montagu’s Harrier, Circus pygargus -

W, r. One male in dry open scrub country near

Mehrauli, March 1979, only record.

072. Marsh Harrier, Circus aeruginosus -

W, c. Arrives early, on 5 August.

073. Short-toed Eagle, Circaetus gallicus -

R? s. Now rare in immediate vicinity of the city, but

still seen occasionally in the riverain tract, Surajkund

and Sultanpur.

074. Crested Serpent Eagle, Spilornis cheela

- PM, s, or V? 3 records of single birds in 4 years;

end March and 7 April 1979 and end March 1986;

in New Delhi gardens and the Ridge.

075. Osprey, Pandion haliaeetus - W, r.

Sharply declined, now not usually present in Delhi’s

vicinity. Only recorded once, at Okhla, winter 1978-

79.

076. Laggar Falcon, Falco jugger - R? r.

Markedly declined and now very scarce. Only 2

records, one bird chased by crows near the Red Fort

in December 1984 and one circling over the city on

17 April 1985.

077. Peregrine, Falco peregrinus - W, o. A

couple of birds every winter on the 8 km stretch of

river centered at Okhla, perching on power pylons

and hunting over the river and surrounding fields.

078. Redheaded Merlin, Falco chiquera -

R? r. Declined markedly. Only one record, 8 March

1986, one flying low along the river bank about 3

km south of Okhla.

079. Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus - W, fc.

080. Black Partridge, Francolinus

francolinus - RB, fc.

081. Grey Partridge, Francolinus

pondicerianus - RB, c.

Both partridges have maintained their numbers

where their preferred habitat remains, the Black in

cultivation, marshes and scrub, the Grey everywhere

in dry country, including rambling New Delhi

gardens and the Ridge.

082. Rain Quail, Coturnix coromandelica -

Breeding M (or R?), o. Frequent locally in wet

grassy and marshy areas in both North and South

Delhi. Calling at Sultanpur from as early as 4 March

through the monsoon. Not noted in winter.

083. Peafowl, Pavo cristatus - RB. c. In a

semi-feral state, including within city limits.

084. Bustard-Quail, Turnix suscitator - RB,

o. A male recorded with 3 well grown young on

New Delhi Ridge on 25 May 1986.

085. Common Crane, Grus grus - W and

PM (spring), o. In winter at Sultanpur, dispersing

to feed over the surrounding fields. Estimated

minimum of 300 on 1 March 1986. Small parties

of 3 or 4 noted occasionally elsewhere, as at Okhla.

In end March, flocks of about 150 noted on 3 separate

occasions flying northwards, high over the river at

Okhla in 1979 and 1985.

086. Sarus Crane, Grus antigone - RB, o.

Scattered, in small numbers, in surrounding

countryside. No large gatherings noted. Parties of

parents with flying young occur, so presumably

resident in the area.

226

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

087. Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoides virgo

- PM? s. 1 1 birds at Sultanpur Lake on 1 March

1986.

088. Spotted Crake, Porzana porzana - V

(or W, r ?). New record for Delhi. One bird, studied

closely from 6 m distance through binoculars,

feeding along the edge of a reedy pond at Sultanpur

at 8 a.m. on 4 March 1979.

089. Baillon’s Crake, Porzana pusilla - PM?

o. Small numbers, usually under 1 0 on a given day,

occasionally seen about hyacinth covered channels

at Okhla, in March.

090. Ruddy Crake, Porzana fusca - R, s.

Small numbers seen in winter 1985-86 feeding in

waterlogged openings in reedbeds at Madanpur,

about 6 km south of Okhla. This is the same place

where they were first recorded for Delhi by J.

Donahue in June-July 1962. Not only has this species

maintained itself in Delhi, the birds are probably

residents.

091. Brown Crake, Amaurornis akool - R,

o. Noted both summer and winter in marshes in

North Delhi, about Okhla and Madanpur,

occasionally elsewhere, even on the edge of small

ponds in dry scrub country such as the campus of

Jawaharlal Nehru University. Singles and pairs.

May have increased in both numbers and range since

the 1960s.

092. Whitebreasted Waterhen, Amaurornis

phoenicurus - RB, c.

093. Watercock, Gallicrex cinerea - M

(breeding)? s. In July 1979, at least 4 males in

breeding plumage were seen feeding in the open and

‘singing’ in the evening at marshes in North Delhi

near the Coronation Pillar. Further investigation will

probably prove it to be a regular breeder in these

marshes (if the habitat does not deteriorate) as well

as around Okhla and Madanpur.

094. Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus - RB, c.

Downy chicks noted on 22 March 1986.

095. Purple Gallinule, Porphyrio porphyrio

- RB, c.

096. Coot, Fulica atra - W, a, and R, s. Large

numbers in winter. Very few birds are also seen

through the summer, especially in North Delhi, but

no evidence of breeding.

097. Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus

chirurgus - M (breeding), fc, and R, s. Fairly

common second half of March to September,

presumably breeding. Very small numbers in winter.

098. Bronze-winged Jacana, Metopidius

indicus - V? or R? s. There are very few earlier

records of the species from Delhi. Not recorded

1978-79. In 1985-86, single birds or pairs were

present in February and May at Okhla; a pair was

again present in the same area on a later visit, 5

August 1989. Perhaps establishing itself as a

resident.

Most of Delhi’s waders have maintained their

populations; some species, previously considered

rare stragglers during spring migration have, in recent

years, occurred with increasing regularity, such as

the Curlew Sandpiper and the Lesser Sand Plover.

099. Whitetailed Lapwing, Vanellus leucurus

- W, fc.

1 00. Green Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus - W,

o. Small parties of usually under 20, once about

40, between December and March.

101. Spurwinged Lapwing, Vanellus

duvauceli - RB, c. Common about Jamuna

sandbanks. Judging from behaviour, several

scattered pairs had either eggs or young in the same

general area in Okhla in May 1986.

1 02. Red-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus

- RB, c.

103. Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus

malabaricus - R, fc. Small numbers in dry country

near Tughlakabad, Mehrauli and Surajkund.

104. Grey Plover, Pluvialis squatarola - V,

on spring passage. 2 in partial breeding plumage on

Okhla sandbank on 6 May 1979.

105. Little Ringed Plover, Charadrius

dubius - RB, c. Breeding in May; by end-May, small

parties form, of 10-15 adults and juveniles.

106. Kentish Plover, Charadrius

alexandrinus - W, c. From March, several in

breeding plumage, and increased numbers indicating

passage. A pair in breeding plumage was present at

Okhla in mid-June, but no evidence was noted of

breeding.

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION

227

107. Caspian Plover, Charadrius asiaticus -

V, in spring. New record for Delhi. One bird, in

breeding plumage was present on closely cropped

grazing land near Sultanpur Lake on 1 March 1986,

loosely associated with a pair of Indian Coursers.

Studied through binoculars from about 28 m

distance.

Size about two-thirds that of a Courser. Rather

pale brown crown, back and wings, and a clearcut

brown band from eye curving back and down to meet

brown hindneck. Forehead, long broad eyebrow,

lores, throat and cheeks pure white. Broad rufous-

chestnut band across breast bordered below with a

thin black line. Belly and vent white, conspicuous

when bird dipped. In flight wings appeared long

and narrow (like a Golden Plover in the distance);

faint wingbar, underside of wings whitish. Tail short.

Eye dark and conspicuous, bill dark, legs brownish.

108. Lesser Sand Plover, Charadrius

mongolus - PM (spring), o. Throughout the second

half of May, both in 1985 and 1986, a maximum of

20 birds were present daily on sandbanks at Okhla

below the weir; in 1986, one was present as early as

9 May. Most were in full breeding plumage.

109. Curlew, No men ins arquata - W, o.

Singly or in parties of up to 20, preferring marshes

to the river.

110. Blacktailed Godwit, Liniosa limosa -

W, fc. Wintering numbers vary year to year. At

Sultanpur, abundant 1978-79, few (under 100) 1985-

86.

111. Dusky Redshank, Tringa erythropus -

W, o, and PM in spring. Marked spring passage,

e.g. about 150, most in breeding plumage, at

Sultanpur on 5 May 1985.

1 12. Redshank, Tringa totanus - W, fc.

113. Greenshank, Tringa nebularia - W, c.

114. Marsh Sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis -

W, o and PM. Sometimes common on autumn

passage, many still in breeding plumage, in late-July

and August, and in spring in April.

115. Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola - W,

c.

1 1 6. Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus - W,

117. Terek Sandpiper, Xenus cinereus - V,

on spring passage. One, in breeding plumage, on

Okhla sandbank with numerous other waders on 9

May 1 979. Has been recorded once earlier at about

the same date at the same place (Usha Ganguli) in

1968.

1 1 8. Common Sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos

- W, c.

119. Common Snipe, GalSinago galSinago -

W, c. At times very numerous in North Delhi

marshes, with numbers that must run into a few

hundreds scattered over inundated grassy marshes,

e.g. in December 1985.

120. Little Stint, Calidris minutes - W, fc,

and PM, a, in spring. Numbers at Okhla in April-

mid May can be spectacular, running into several

hundreds if not thousands, with smaller groups

present till early June.

121. Temminck’s Stint, Calidris temminckii

- W, c. Often commoner than Little Stint in mid-

winter; numbers increase in spring.

122. Dunlin, Calidris alpinus - W, o. Small

numbers regular at Sultanpur, irregular by the river.

Occasionally seen in breeding plumage at Okhla in

the first week of May.

123. Curlew Sandpiper, Calidris testaceus -

PM (spring), o. Not infrequent on spring passage at

Okhla, up to 30 birds present on sandbanks below

the weir, between 5 May and 9 June, many in

breeding plumage. One autumn record of about 10

at Okhla on 21 October 1985.

124. Ruff, Philomachus pugnax - W, fc. In

1 986, 2 males were present at Okhla as late as 9 June;

one in nearly complete breeding plumage with black

ruff and ear-tufts, reddish around eye and a reddish-

orange bill.

1 25. Painted Snipe, Rostratula benghalensis

- RB, fc. More often noticed May to July, feeding

in the open, chasing each other, flying about and

calling.

126. Blackwinged Stilt, Himantopus

himantopus - W, c. Small numbers seen in summer

but no evidence of breeding.

1 27. Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta - R, fc.

Present both in winter and dry season, by the river,

c.

228

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lakes and marshes. Maximum of 300 on the Jamuna

river in winter 1978-79, but such numbers were not

seen in 1985-86. It appears to have become

commoner since the 1960s.

128. Stone Curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus -

RB, fc.

129. Great Stone Plover, Esacus magniros-

tris - R? s. Records of singles or pairs on river

sandbanks, in late winter and summer. The flocks

of “20 to more than 50” recorded by Usha Ganguli

in the 1960s are gone. This species has clearly

declined in the area.

130. Indian Courser, Cursorius coroman-

delicus - RB? s. Very local. Curious display by a

pair seen in March 1986; on alarm, pair flew off,

then suddenly changed style of flight to deep jerky

wingbeats, like a displaying Shikra or a pigeon in

‘delayed wingbeat mode’; both birds then swooped

upwards and towards each other with partly closed

wings, then down again; this sequence repeated

thrice.

131. Oriental Pratincole, Pratincola maldiva-

rum - M, fc. Present around river from May, then

in increased numbers from June to August-

September, when Bocks of 50-75 occur, wheeling

and calling at dusk. No evidence of breeding.

132. Little Pratincole, Pratincola glareola -

R (RB ?), c. Present all year, but most visible from

February to June, when swarms of several hundred

may occur at dusk at Sultanpur and on the river. In

late May-early June 1986, several birds scattered

over sandBats at Okhla performed ‘broken-wing

trick’ on approach, but no nests could be found.

1 33. Herring Gull, Larus argentatus - W, o.

Small numbers, maximum of 15, at Sultanpur Lake

and the river. There may be two races, since some

birds have the back distinctly darker grey than

others.

134. Great Blackheaded Gull, Larus

ichthyaetus - W, o. Most often noted in spring, both

on the river and Sultanpur Lake.

1 35. Brownheaded Gull, Larus brunnicepha-

lus - W, fc. Flocks of up to 100 in March- April,

indicative of passage.

136. Blackheaded Gull, Larus ridibundus -

W, c. Often in larger numbers than Brownheaded;

both species appear to have increased since the

1960s, and become more regular.

137. Whiskered Tern, Chlidonias hybrida -

R, fc, and PM (spring), a. Present all year in fair

numbers, e.g. up to 200 around Okhla and 100 at

Sultanpur in December 1985. Massive spring

passage evident from early March to mid-May, when

most birds in breeding plumage. By mid-April, the

river swarms with these terns with about 3000 birds

in a 3 km stretch upstream in Okhla. After mid-

May, numbers reduce sharply, with most birds

thereafter on the river not in breeding dress. Several

birds at marshes in North Delhi in July 1979 may

indicate breeding, but no confirmation.

138. Whitewinged Black Tern, Chlidonias

leucoptera - V. On spring passage. One in breeding

plumage with Whiskered Terns at Okhla on 9 June

1986.

139. Gullbilled Tern, Gelochelidon nilotica

- W, fc. Small numbers in winter; commoner

March-June when Bocks of 25-30 occur, usually in

breeding plumage. There appears to have been some

reduction in numbers since the 1960s.

140. River Tern, Sterna aurantia - RB, c.

Just Bedged juveniles in early June at Okhla. By

early August, 50% of the River Terns present at

Okhla appear to be juveniles of the year.

141. Blackbellied Tern, Sterna acuticauda

- RB, c. Rather less common than River Tern.

142. Little Tern, Sterna albifrons - M

(breeding?), o. Small numbers by the river in

summer and monsoon. By July-August several

juveniles are seen, and then the birds also wander

to Booded marshes away from the river. Maximum

of 25 at Okhla in August 1989. May have declined

since the 1960s.

143. Indian Skimmer, Rynchops albicollis -

PM? or V? r. This species has declined sharply.

Compared to earlier records of breeding on the

Jamuna sandbanks, and presence in some numbers

during the summer, the bird was noted only twice

over 4 years - a pair each in September 1 978 and on

25 May 1985, on the river.

144. Indian Sandgrouse, Pterocles exustus -

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OE THE DELHI REGION

229

RB, fc. Stony scrub in South Delhi and around

Sultanpur Lake.

145. Painted Sandgrouse, Pterocles indicus

- R (RB?), o. Small numbers throughout the year

in scrubby and rocky areas near Mehrauli and the

Jawaharlal Nehru University campus.

146. Common Green Pigeon, Treron

phoenicoptera - RB, fc. More noticeable from

February to May, the breeding season.

147. Blue Rock Pigeon, Columba livia - RB,

a. Feral.

148. Ring Dove, Streptopelia decaocto - RB,

a.

149. Red Turtle Dove, Streptopelia

tranquebarica - RB, fc. Breeding freely in the

green areas of the city March to May, thereafter

spreading out in flocks of up to 50 in the surrounding

countryside.

150. Spotted Dove, Streptopelia chinensis -

V. 4 records of singles, January, February and April,

in 4 years.

151. Little Brown Dove, Streptopelia

senegalensis - RB, a.

152. Large Indian Parakeet, Psittacula

eupatria - RB, fc. Has increased since the 1960s.

153. Roseringed Parakeet, Psittacula

krameri - RB, a.

154. Blossomheaded Parakeet, Psittacula

cyanocephala - RB, fc.

155. Pied Crested Cuckoo, Clamator

jacobinus - M (breeding), fc. Recorded between

June 1 and October 24.

156. Common Hawk-Cuckoo, Cuculus

varius - RB, fc. Well distributed from early March

onwards, but rarely noted in winter.

157. Common Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus -

V. Straggler during spring passage. One record, 5

April 1979.

1 58. Drongo-Cuckoo, Surniculus lugubris -

V. New record for Delhi. One was seen on 10 May

1 986, perched on a kikar tree on the New Delhi Ridge

in the evening, a day after a violent storm. Its

presence attracted two noisy Black Drongos to the

tree; disturbed, it flew off, followed by the Drongos.

The Cuckoo’s different style of flight, a continuous

lazy flapping, its shallow incomplete tailfork with

some whitish on vent and different shape of beak

were clues to identification.

159. Koel, Eudynamys scolopacea - RB, c.

1 60. Sirkeer Cuckoo, Taccocua leschenaultii

- RB, o. Widely distributed though uncommon, on

the Ridge, Mehrauli, Surajkund and Sultanpur.

161. Greater Coucal, Centropus sinensis -

RB, c. Often in reedbeds.

162. Barn Owl, Tyto alba - RB, s. Most

easily seen about the Red Fort at dusk.

163. Eagle-Owl, Bubo bubo - RB, o. Often

around ruins and rocky areas of Mehrauli.

Distraction displays in January near nest.

164. Spotted Owlet, Athene brama - RB, c.

165. Shorteared Owl, Asio flammeus - PM

(spring), r. Two records, both near Okhla, on 17

March 1979 and 8 March 1986.

166. Indian Nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus

- RB? o. Appears to have declined. Heard calling

in open stony country in South Delhi. No records of

gatherings of up to a dozen birds in September-

October (indicative of migration?) as recorded

previously.

167. Franklin’s Nightjar, Caprimulgus

affinis - RB? (or M, breeding?), o. A few birds

recorded in March-April 1979 calling in Bight over

rocky ravines in the Jawaharlal Nehru University

campus. Previously recorded in various months

between May and September, in the Delhi area.

168. House Swift, Apus affinis - RB, c.

169. Palm Swift, Cypsiurus parvus - V.

Singles noted at Okhla and over New Delhi on 17

March and 14 July 1979 respectively.

170. Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis - RB, c.

171. Common Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis -

RB (and W?), c.

172. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon

smyrnensis - RB, c.

173. Bluecheeked Bee-eater, Merops

superciliosus - M (breeding), fc. Earliest record 24

May. Late-July to September, very large gatherings

sometimes occur on overhead wires, etc. especially

near marshes and the river, probably preparatory to

migration.

230

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

174. Little Green Bee-eater, Merops

orientalis - RB, c. Numbers increase in spring,

when parties of up to 20 birds may be seen in March

flying northwest in the mornings.

175. Indian Roller, Coracias benghalensis -

RB, fc. A few birds appear to enter city limits in

summer from surrounding areas to breed in city

parks, etc.

176. Hoopoe, Upupa epops - RB, c.

177. Grey Hornbill, Tockus birostris - RB,

fc. Flying young in late-March and April.

178. Green Barbet, Megalaima zeylanica -

RB, c.

179. Coppersmith Barbet, Megalaima

haemacephala - RB, c.

180. Wryneck, Jynx torquilla - W, o.

Numbers increase in first half of March, evidence

of passage.

181. Goldenbacked Woodpecker, Dinopium

benghalense - RB, fc.

182. Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker,

Picoides mahrattensis - RB, o. In thorn scrub.

183. Redwinged Bushlark, Mirafra

erythroptera - RB, c.

1 84. Ashycrowned Finchlark, Eremopterix

grisea - RB, c.

185. Rufoustailed Finchlark, Ammomanes

phoenicurus - RB? r. In very small numbers in rocky

terrain at Tughlakabad, and further south near Sohna

and Nuh (in cultivated country).

186. Short-toed Lark, Calandrella cinerea -

W, c. Most frequent in neighbourhood of marshes

as at Sultanpur.

187. Sand Lark, Calandrella raytal - RB, c.

About the river.

1 88. Eastern Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha

bimaculata - IW, r. About 20 seen with Short-toed

Larks and Spanish Sparrows in open ground near

the marshes near the Coronation Pillar in North Delhi

on 10 February 1978; one seen with Short-toed Larks

near Mehrauli on 4 January 1986.

1 89. Crested Lark, Galerida cristata - RB, c.

190. Little Skylark, Alauda gulgula - RB, fc.

191. Indian Sand Martin, Riparia paludicola

- RB, c.

192. Dusky Crag Martin, Hirundo concolor

- RB, fc.

193. Common Swallow, Hirundo rustica -

W, c.

194. Wiretailed Swallow, Hirundo smithii -

RB, c.

195. Cliff Swallow, Hirundo fluvicola - RB,

fc.

1 96. Redrumped Swallow, Hirundo daurica

- RB, fc.

197. Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor -

RB, c. In the surrounding countryside, cultivation

and scrub.

198. Baybacked Shrike, Lanius vittatus - RB,

c. In babool and prosopis groves, even in city parks.

199. Isabelline Shrike, Lanius isabellinus -

W. fc. Noted in the uncultivated dessicating flats

surrounding drying-up marshes in north and south

Delhi and around the Sultanpur lakes, and fallow

fields adjacent to the river. Not in cultivation or dry

scrub country.

200. Rufousbacked Shrike, Lanius schach -

RB, fc. In wooded areas and near water. Least

numerous of the three resident shrikes.

201. Brown Shrike, Lanius cristatus - V.

Delhi lies at the western edge of the usual wintering

range of this species. One bird was present between

15 and 25 December 1985 at Okhla.

202. Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus - M

(breeding), c. In city gardens and the larger groves

in the countryside. Arrives by end-March.

203. Black Drongo, Dicrurus macrocercus

- RB, c. In winter, most birds seem to leave the city

for the surrounding countryside, returning to breed

in city parks, etc. in March. Some migration is

also evident; by end-March, when many pairs have

established territory and are building, others, singly

or in parties of up to 7, are seen flying northwest

over Delhi at about 30 m height.

204. Grey Drongo, Dicrurus leucophaeus -

V or PM (spring), r. One record; a bird on 3 1 March

1985 in a New Delhi garden.

205. Whitebellied Drongo, Dicrurus

merulinus - V. Two records; singles on 26 October

1978 and 19 January 1986, both times in Prosopis

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION

231

woodland in New Delhi zoo.

206. Greyheaded Myna, Sturnus

malabaricus - V or PM (spring), r. Two records;

singles on the same date, 7 March, in both 1979

and 1985 at Okhla and in a city garden respectively.

207. Brahminy Myna, Sturnus pagodarum

- RB, c.

208. Rosy Pastor, Sturnus roseus - PM, s and

W, r. In contrast to the large scale passage noted by

Hutson and Ganguli in the 1 940s- 1 960s, this species

is now remarkably scarce. In autumn, small parties

of about 10, mostly juveniles, are seen rarely; in

spring, only a few small groups of 3 to 6 between

30 March and 20 April. Once in mid- winter, about

15 in a roost with Common Mynas in January 1978.

209. Starling, Sturnus vulgaris - W, fc.

Locally common.

210. Pied Myna, Sturnus contra - RB, c.

211. Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis -

RB, a.

212. Bank Myna, Acridotheres ginginianus

- RB, c. Breeding freely in flood control bunds and

dykes. Enormous roosts of 1000s in green areas of

the city, such as the Central Vista in March and

April.

213. Indian Treepie,Dendrocitta vagabunda

- RB, c.

214. House Crow, Corvus splendens - RB, a.

215. Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos

- RB?, s. Small numbers are present all year, in

contrast to the 1960s, when it seems to have been

far rarer.

216. Common Wood-Shrike, Tephrodornis

pondicerianus - RB, c.

217. Large Cuckoo-Shrike, Coracina

novaehollandiae - V. One record, one bird on 5

April 1979 on the Ridge, hotly chased by a Crow.

218. Longtailed Minivet, Pericrocotus

ethologus - W, o.

219. Little Minivet, Pericrocotus

cinnamomeus - RB, fc.

220. Marshall’s Iora, Aegithinia nigrolutea

- R, r. In the 1960s and earlier, this species was

recorded as a resident in small numbers from several

localities in the Delhi area. It is now extremely

scarce. Noted only on the New Delhi Ridge, where

it was seen occasionally in 1978-79, but only once

in the years 1985-86, on 1 June 1986.

221. Redwhiskered Bulbul, Pycnonotus

jocosus - RB, c.

222. Whitecheeked Bulbul, Pycnonotus

leucogenys - RB, fc.

223. Redvented Bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer -

RB, a.

224. Yelloweyed Babbler, Chrysomma

sinense - RB, fc.

225. Common Babbler, Turdoides caudatus

- RB, c.

226. Striated Babbler, Turdoides earlei - RB,

fc. In marshes and reedbeds; also noted in Prosopis

scrub covering the sides of flood control

embankments by the river.

227. Large Grey Babbler, Turdoides

malcoSmi - RB, fc.

228. Jungle Babbler, Turdoides striatus -

RB, c.

229. Redbreasted Flycatcher, Muscicapa

parva - W, fc. Few in mid-winter, but marked

passage from mid-March to mid-April.

230. Verditer Flycatcher, Muscicapa

thalassina - PM, r. A pair on 9 March 1986 at

Surajkund, the only record.

231. Greyheaded Flycatcher, Culicicapa

ceylonensis - W, o. Not uncommon in singles or

twos and threes in better wooded corners.

232. Whitebrowed Fantail-Flycatcher,

Rhipidura aureola - R, s. Appears to have sharply

declined in numbers since the 1960s.

Previously considered a not uncommon

resident. Now only very occasionally seen in babool

woodland, usually singly, and appears shy and

vagrant. Exceptional in city gardens or in Prosopis

woodland on the Ridge. Its decline may well be

linked to the rapid loss of former indigenous habitats

around Delhi.

233. Fantail-Warbler, Cisticola juncidis -

RB, c.

234. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler, Prinia

hodgsonii - RB, c. In taller scrubland, parks,

woodland on the Ridge.

232

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

235. Rufousfronted Wren-Warbler, Prinia

buchanani - RB, c. In low, dry thorn scrub.

236. Streaked Wren-Warbler, Prinia gracilis

- RB, fc. In grass and tamarisk trees near the river,

reedbeds in marshes.

237. Plain Wren-Warbler, Prinia subflava -

RB, c. In cultivation, grass and bush areas,

reedbeds.

238. Ashy Wren-Warbler, Prinia socialis -

RB, c. In gardens, parks, taller cultivation such as

sugarcane, etc.

239. Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler, Prinia

flaviventris - RB, c. New species on the Delhi list.

First recorded in March 1979 in the reedbeds by the

river just above the weir at Okhla, and again in 1 985-

86 at the same place as well as in the extensive

reedbeds at Madanpur, a few kilometres further

south. In both localities it is common, and co-exists

with the equally abundant Streaked, and the less

common Plain Wren-Warbler. Evidently resident,

seen in pairs and singing freely in March; mating

observed in July. The presence of this species in

Delhi, especially as a breeder, represents a

considerable range extension.

240. Tailor Bird, Orthotomus sutorius - RB, c.

241. Striated Marsh Warbler, Megalurus

palustris - R, fc. Another new species on the Delhi

list. First recorded in November 1 978 at the marshes

near the Coronation Pillar in North Delhi, and found

later through 1979 and in 1985-86 at the same place

and at Madanpur south of Okhla. Recorded

throughout the year, and song and display flights

noted, so presumably breeds. The Delhi area is well

within the range of the species, so its presence here

is not unexpected.

242. Indian Great Reed Warbler,

Acrocephalus stentoreus - M (breeding?) or RB?

fc. Often common at suitable localities between

March and August. Many noted singing in May and

July at Madanpur in South Delhi.

243. Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus

dumetorum - PM, fc. More noticeable in spring,

early-April to mid-May.

244. Paddyfield Warbler, Acrocephalus

agricola - PM (spring), s. Small numbers, last week

of March through April.

245. Booted Warbler, Hippolais caligata -

PM (spring), s. Irregularly and in small numbers,

from the last week of March to the second week of

May, in gardens and reedbeds. Unlike previously,

not recorded in autumn.

246. Orphean Warbler, Sylvia hortensis -

W, r. Only two records, January 1978 and December

1985.

247. Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca -

W, c.

248. Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus colly bita - W,

c.

249. Olivaceous Leaf- Warbler, Phylloscopus

griseolus - W, o and PM, fc. Formerly considered

only a passage migrant. Small numbers were

present all winter in 1977-79 and 1985-86 in

suitable habitat on the Ridge, at Surajkund and at

Tughlakabad, with marked spring passage in March.

250. Yellowbrowed Leaf-Warbler,

Phylloscopus inornatus - W, c.

251. Brook’s Leaf- Warbler, Phylloscopus

subviridis - PM (spring), s. Small numbers

presumed on passage in the second half of March

in Prosopis woodland on the New Delhi Ridge; birds

are then singing freely, which assists in their

identification from the common Yellowbrowed

(Hume’s) Leaf-Warblers. May also be present in

winter.

252. Greenish Leaf- Warbler, Phylloscopus

trochiloides - P^M, o. Previously recorded as

occurring only, though fairly commonly, on autumn

passage, with very few in winter. Records during

1977-79 and 1985-86 are only of small numbers,

but on both passages, September-early October in

autumn, and mid-March to mid- April in spring, when

singing freely.

253. Green Leaf- Warbler, Phylloscopus

nitidus - V or PM (spring), r. One record of a well

marked bird on 20 April 1979, on the New Delhi

Ridse.

254. Large Crowned Leaf-Warbler,

Phylloscopus occipitalis - PM, r. Two records, one

on 20 September 1979 and two on 23 March 1986,

on the New Delhi Ridge.

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION

233

255. Common Rubythroat, Erithacus

calliope - V or PM, r. Two records, a male on the

Ridge on 3 1 October 1978 and another at Okhla on

24 March 1979.

256. Bluethroat, Erithacus svecicus - W, fc.

257. Magpie-Robin, Copsychus saularis -

RB, o.

258. Black Redstart, Phoenicurus ochruros

- W, fc.

259. Brown Rockchat, Cercomela fusca -

RB, fc.

260. Collared Bushchat, Saxicola torquata

- W, c. In surrounding cultivation.

26 1 . Whitetailed Bushchat, Saxicola leucura

-RB,fc. New species on the Delhi list. First noted

in December 1 978 at the marshes near the Coronation

Pillar in North Delhi. Subsequently found to be

common in 1979 and in 1985-86 in reedbeds and

wet cultivation about Okhla and Madanpur in South

Delhi, where it is resident and present all seasons.

Males noted singing as early as late-January; song

flights recorded in March, the males flying up 5 m

then fluttering down with open tail, singing all the

while. By last week of March, some pairs are

building, a few already feeding just-fledged

young.

262. Pied Bushchat, Saxicola caprata - RB,

fc. Usually near water, river, canal banks, lakes or

marshes.

263. Desert Wheatear, Oenanthe deserti -

W, o. More frequent in March, by the river and in

open country near Surajkund.

264. Indian Robin, Saxicoloides fulicata -

RB, c.

265. Blue Rockthrush, Monticola solitarius

- W, o.

266. Blackthroated Thrush, Turdus ruficollis

- W, o. Present most winters, usually in small

numbers.

267. Grey Tit, Parus major - V. One on 4

January 1986 with a mixed party of warblers,

minivets and a Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker in a

South Delhi ‘city forest’.

268. Firecapped Tit, Cephalopyrus

flammiceps - PM (spring), r. A party of 5 in a

shisham grove in a New Delhi nursery on 29 March

1986.

269. Chestnutbellied Nuthatch, Sitta castanea

- R, r or V. This species was scarce even in the past

and seems to have declined further. A group of three

in a New Delhi garden in December 1978 and a

single at Okhla in March 1979 are the only records.

270. Indian Tree Pipit, Anthus hodgsoni -

W, fc.

271. Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis - PM

(spring), s. Considered by Usha Ganguli as a winter

visitor, ‘not too common’ but more frequent than

the Indian Tree Pipit. It now appears to be only a

scarce passage migrant; very few records in the last

week of March. Usually in heavier grassy cover than

the Indian Tree Pipit.

272. Indian Pipit, Anthus novaeseelandiae

- RB, c.

273. Tawny Pipit, Anthus campestris - W,

o. In low open scrub and grazing areas about

Tughlakabad and Mehrauli.

274. Vinaceousbreasted Pipit, Anthus

roseatus - W, o. Frequent in some winters, scarce

in others, in marshes and about canal banks and

bunds near the river; entering into breeding plumage

in March.

275. Brown Rock Pipit, Anthus similis - W

and PM, s. Most often noted in spring, also in mid-

winter. In low rocky scrub on the Ridge and

elsewhere and on flood protection embankments by

the river.

276. Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava - W, c.

Abundant on spring passage.

277. Yellowheaded Wagtail, Motacilla

citreola - W, c. M. c. calcarata is a spring passage

migrant, noted between 15 March and 24 May.

278. Grey Wagtail, Motacilla caspica - W, s.

279. White Wagtail, Motacilla alba - W, c.

Both personata and dukhunensis occur commonly,

the latter rather more so. One alboides recorded in

full breeding plumage at Surajkund on 9 March

1986.

280. Large Pied Wagtail, Motacilla

maderaspatensis - RB, c.

281. Purple Sunbird,Nectariniaasiatica-RB, c.

234

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

282. White-eye, Zosterops palpebrosa - RB , c.

283. House Sparrow, Passer domesticus -

RB, a.

284. Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis

- IW, s. About 30 with Short-toed Larks and Eastern

Calandra Larks at marshes in North Delhi on 10

February 1978; about 20 with Short-toed Larks,

Starlings, Red Turtle Doves and House Sparrows at

Sultanpur on 28 December 1985, are the only

records.

285. Yellowthroated Sparrow, Petronia

xanthocollis - RB, fc. There seems to be a breeding

influx into wooded areas of the city in summer.

286. Baya Weaver, Ploceus philippinus -

' RB, c.

287. Blackthroated Weaver, Ploceus

benghalensis - RB, c. Appears to have increased

since the 1960s when it was recorded as very

uncommon. Large flocks are now seen in reedbeds

and marshes, and by the river, and it breeds freely

in these areas in the monsoon.

288. Striated Weaver, Ploceus manyar - RB,

fc. In contrast to the position recorded in the 1960s,

this species now appears less common than the

preceding one. It also occupies a different ecological

niche, preferring smaller channels and ponds with

overhanging grass and vegetation; the Blackthroated

prefers reedbeds or areas of tall grass standing on

wet ground.

289. Red Munia, Amandava amandava -

RB, fc. Appears to have increased around marshes

and wet cultivation. In the non-breeding season,

small parties also occur in dry short grass and scrub

areas such as the Ridge and Mehrauli.

290. Whitethroated Munia, Lonchura

malabarica - RB, c.

29 1 . Spotted Munia, Lonchura punctulata -

RB, s. Occasionally seen at Okhla. A family party

of 2 adults and 3 juveniles once seen on the Ridge.

292. Blackheaded Munia, Lonchura

malacca - RB? Escapes? About 20 at Madanpur

on 6 July 1986. Previously recorded by P. Jackson

breeding at this locality in September.

293. Common Rosefinch, Carpodacus

erythrinus - W, o. Sometimes common on the

Ridge, particularly on passage in April.

294. Redheaded Bunting, Emberiza

brunniceps - V or PM, r. Formerly (1960s)

considered a fairly common spring migrant, it now

seems very scarce; 3 on 4 February 1979 is the only

record over five seasons.

295. Whitecapped Bunting, Emberiza

stewarti - W, o and PM, fc. Small numbers present

in suitable thorn scrub areas such as the Ridge all

winter. Commoner and more widespread on passage

from early-March to mid- April.

296. Greynecked Bunting, Emberiza

buchanani - PM, r. One on 28 March 1979 in dry

open scrub near Mehrauli, only record.

Discussion

A comparison of the above with previous

literature would appear to indicate a definite change

in the populations of several species. 6 species were

recorded for the first time in the Delhi area; 20

species appear to show an increase in their

populations; and 27 species appear to have decreased.

These are listed in Table A.

The total number of species recorded in

the Delhi area so far is about 410. 296 were recorded

during the above periods of observation. Of the

remaining 1 14 species:

— 16 fall in the category of former/presumed

breeders.

— 1 1 have been characterised in past literature

as rare but probably regular winter-visitors

or passage migrants.

— 17 have been characterised in past literature

as irregular winter-visitors or passage

migrants.

— 69 fall in the category of vagrants or

inadvertent stragglers; these are not considered

further in this paper.

The first three categories are listed in Table B.

A perusal of the two tables would indicate:

1.13 species of birds of prey are noted as

decreasing, and 2 raptor species, formerly recorded

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION

235

Table A

as irregular visitors were not re-recorded.

Significantly, 11 of the 13 decreasing species and

one of the formerly irregular visitors are resident

species. In contrast, most migrant raptors (winter

visitors) have maintained their numbers, and three

(Long-legged Buzzard, Imperial Eagle and Greater

Spotted Eagle) actually appear to be commoner and

more regular than previously recorded.

This is an ominous sign. Even relatively

common raptors, such as Tawny Eagle, White-eyed

Buzzard and Crested Honey Buzzard, have

noticeably declined. If migrant raptors can maintain

their numbers, it would appear that shortage of food

or loss of habitat is not a major constraint (at least

for most species); this points to disturbance in their

breeding cycles as the likely cause of the decrease

of resident species in the Delhi area. This is as likely

to be direct - physical disturbance, noise pollution,

loss of traditional nesting sites - as indirect, effect of

pesticides and other poisons, for example - or, likely,

both. In the case of the two falcons (Laggar and

Red-headed), which have adapted well to urban areas

elsewhere, the latter is probably the likely cause.

Much more detailed study would be required to

establish the causes precisely.

2. Similar factors as for raptors are probably

involved for the 3 owls, particularly the Dusky Eagle-

owl, which were formerly categorised as not

uncommon breeders, but were not re-recorded at all

in the present study.

236

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table B

3. Water and marsh haunting species pre-

sent a mixed picture. Some are doing relatively better

than may be expected. Expansion of seepage

marshes and waterlogging may be an explana-

tion. 14 such species (2 cormorants, 2 herons/

bitterns, 1 stork, 3 ducks, 1 crake, 1 jacana, 1 avocet,

2 gulls and 1 weaver) appear to have increased;

further, the three new breeding records for Delhi (2

warblers and 1 bush-chat) are all of marsh-haunting

species.

On the other hand, 6 wetland species (3 storks/

ibis, Great Stone Plover, Little Tern and Indian

Skimmer) have decreased; 3 former breeders (2

bitterns and 1 rail) were not re-recorded. Further, 5

wetland species which were formerly considered rare

or irregular visitors (2 snipe, 1 pelican and 2 storks/

ibis) were also not recorded.

The most significant declines are of the large

storks (Black-necked and Greater Adjutant in

particular) and the sand-bank nesting birds (Stone

Plover, Little Tern and, especially, Skimmer). The

latter have evidently been seriously affected by

increasing disturbance along the Jamuna sand-banks,

both by people and their animals, including stray

dogs; no doubt, other breeding terns, pratincoles and

plovers have been similarly affected, though no

major decline is noticeable yet.

4. The decline of some of the passerines is

striking; especially so for Marshall’s Iora, 2

flycatchers (White-browed Fantail and Paradise),

Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, White-bellied Minivet,

Spotted Grey Creeper and wintering Wheatears - all

insectivorous species. The falling populations of

many of these had been noted as early as the 1 960’s,

and attributed to loss of indigenous acacia country.

This loss has enormously accelerated since, with

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OE THE DELHI REGION

237

expanding urbanisation, and most ‘green’ areas have

been taken over by Prosopis. A massive increase in

the House Crow population and consequent

destruction of eggs and young may also be a factor.

In spite of this, the decline of the White-browed

Fantail Flycatcher and Paradise Flycatcher, species

which have adapted to modified habitats elsewhere,

remains enigmatic.

5. Two passage migrants, Rosy Pastor and

Redheaded Bunting, appear to have declined sharply

in numbers. The former was regular and abundant

on both passages over Delhi at least uptil the 1960s;

the latter was described as fairly common in spring

and rare in autumn. Now both are definitely unusual.

There seems to be a change in the status of the

Greenish Leaf Warbler too - formerly recorded only

on autumn passage, it now appears regularly in

spring. While changes in the status of the Redheaded

Bunting and Greenish Leaf Warbler could possibly

be ascribed to a reduction in grain cultivation in the

immediate neighbourhood of the city and to increase

Refer

Abdulali, H. & J. D. Panday (1978): Checklist of the Birds

of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Alexander. H. G. (1949): The Birds of Delhi and District. J.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 48: 370-372.

Basil-Edwards, S. (1926): A contribution to the Ornithology

of Delhi. 2 parts. ./. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 31: 261-272

and 567-578.

Benthall, E. C. (1949): The Birds of Delhi and District. ./.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 48: 368-370.

in planted tree cover within city limits respectively,

the case of the Rosy Pastor is strange.

6. On the positive side, Delhi still remains a

great birdwatching locality. Most waders and ducks

have maintained their numbers, and their

concentrations in winter can be impressive, as can

those of raptors; the Jamuna river appears to be an

important migratory pathway, especially in early

summer, when several species, normally unusual or

rare so far inland, may occur; and the continued

presence of species such as Painted Sandgrouse,

within city limits as it were, is remarkable. But green

areas and the thorn scrub countryside continue to

be encroached upon, the river is getting more and

more polluted and the vastly increased traffic across

the Okhla barrage and the inevitability of a new

bridge being constructed across some of the best bird

areas near Okhla to cater to the increasing

urbanisation across the Jamuna, will all take their

toll. It will be interesting to see how the birdlife

fares.

ENCES

Frome, N.F. (1947): The Birds of Delhi and District../. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc. 47: 277-300.

Frome, N.F. (1948): The Birds of Delhi and District. J. Bombay

not. Hist. Soc. 47: 751-753.

Gangull U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of the Delhi Area.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

Hutson, H. P. W. (1954): The Birds about Delhi. The Delhi

Birdwatching Society, Delhi.

Jackson, P. F. R. (1968): Some new bird records for Delhi. J.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 65: 780-782.

BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS1

P. Neelanarayanan, R. Nagarajan and R. Kanakasabai2

Key words: burrow morphology, Bandicota bengalensis , Mus boodugci, Millardia meltada,

Tatera indica, soil pluggings, rodent pests

This communication describes the burrow morphology of four species of field rodents, namely Bandicota

bengalensis, Mus booduga, Millardia meltada and Tatera indica of the cauvery delta, Tamil Nadu. The burrow

entrances of B. bengalensis had a large quantity of heaped soil and large sized pebbles while those of M. booduga

had a small quantity of heaped soil with small sized pebbles. The burrows of M. meltada went vertically downwards

with no soil heap. T. indica's burrows usually had more than one entrance and the burrows were slanted

(approximately 45°) with a small quantity of heaped soil. The burrow morphology of rodent species did not vary

with the crop fields but the diameter of their burrow entrance was significantly different.

Introduction

Four species of rodents, namely Bandicota

bengalensis, Mus booduga, Millardia meltada, and

Tatera indica cause extensive damage to paddy and

pulses grown in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu

(Jayaraman and Velayutham 1977, Sivaprakasam

1988). A comprehensive knowledge of the burrow

morphology of rodents is useful, since it can be used

to distinguish them from other burrowing animals,

for population estimation, placing poison baits and

also for physical control. The nature of the burrow

entrances of field rodents have been reported for#.

bengalensis, (Barnett and Prakash 1975, Sridhara

1976, Sivaprakasam 1988), M. booduga

(Sivaprakasam 1988), M. meltada (Urs 1968,

Sivaprakasam 1 988) and T. indica (Chandrahas and

Krishnaswamy 1974, Barnett and Prakash 1975,

Sivaprakasam 1988). No published information on

the nature of burrow entrances of field rodents are

available from Cauvery delta, Tamil Nadu, and

hence the present investigation.

Methods

The study was carried out in Paddy,

Sugarcane, Soyabean, Cotton fields and barren lands

'Accepted December 1994.

:Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College (Autonomous),

Mayiladuthurai-609 305, Tamil Nadu, India.

of approximately 2 hectares each in Mannampandal,

Kanjanagaram and Natham Villages of

Nagapattinam, Quaid-e-Milleth district, Tamil Nadu

( 1 1 ° 2' N and 79° 49' E) during February and March

1993 and April 1994. In the selected crop fields,

structure and nature of burrow entrances of field

rodents were studied visually and noted down. The

available quantity of soil heaps and size of pebbles

at the burrow entrances of B. bengalensis and M.

booduga were compared visually. Simultaneously,

the diameter of the burrow entrances of field rodents

in different crop fields was measured with the help

of a divider whose length was read from a calibrated

scale and recorded. The difference among the

diameter of the four species of rodents were tested

statistically by employing Student’s “t” test

following the method suggested by Sokal and Rohlf

(1981).

The plugged (burrow entrance) and

unplugged burrows of B. bengalensis and M.

booduga and unplugged burrows of A/. meltada and

T. indica were excavated, the animal’s presence and

absence in the respective burrows were recorded.

Results and Discussion

Our observations revealed that each rodent

species had a typical pattern of burrow entrance.

The burrow entrances of the lesser bandicoot rat, B.

bengalensishad a large quantity of heaped soil with

large sized pebbles whereas the Indian field mouse,

BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS

239

M. booduga’ s burrow entrances had small quantity

of heaped soil with small sized pebbles. Studies of

Barnett and Prakash (1975) and Sridhara ( 1 976) also

confirm the presence of a heap of soil at the burrow

entrances of B. bengalensis in Rajasthan and

Karnataka, respectively. Similar observations have

been made by Sivaprakasam (1988) for B.

bengalensis and M. booduga in Tamil Nadu.

Besides, the burrows of both the species were

located at the sides of the bunds.

The diameter of the burrow entrances of these

two rodent species is another scale for identifying

the occupant species. The burrow entrance diameter

of B. bengalensis (overall range: 4.6 - 7. 1 cm) was

larger than that of M. booduga (overall range: 1 .8 -

2.6 cm) (Table 1). The difference between the

burrow entrance diameters of B. bengalensis and

M. booduga is statistically significant (P < 0.05,

Table 1).

Both the rodent species close their burrow

entrances after entering into it. Sridhara (1985) has

also reported similar main outlet plugging behaviour

of B. bengalensis and M. booduga either with soil

or grass during the day. The observed behaviour of

these two rodent pests might be to prevent the entry

of predators. In the present study, the number of

burrow openings ranged from 1 to 3 for B.

bengalensis and one for M. booduga. In contrast,

Sridhara (1985) has observed 5 to 15 openings per

burrow for B. bengalensis.

To confirm the presence of animals, the closed

and open burrows, were excavated. In the closed

Table 1

DIAMETER (CM) OF THE BURROW ENTRANCE OF FIELD RODENTS IN DIFFERENT CROP FIELDS OF

MANNAMPANDAL, KANJANAGARAM AND NATHAM VILLAGES OF NAGAPATTINAM QUAID-E-MILLETH

DISTRICT, TAMILADU

B. bengalensis M. booduga M. meltada T. indica

(6.5-10.0) 2-3

* Mean of ten individual observations.

** Mean of fifteen individual observations.

a. Significant difference between the burrow diameters of B. bengalensis and M. booduga.

b. Significant difference between the burrow diameters of B. bengalensis and M. meltada.

c. Significant difference between the burrow diameters of M. meltada and M. booduga.

d. Significant difference between the burrow diameters of T. indica and B. bengalensis, M. meltada and M. booduga.

(Student's “f ’ test at 5% level)

Figures within the parenthesis indicate the range of the respective values.

240

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93(1996)

burrows of B. bengalensis and M. boocluga the

animals were present while they were absent in the

unplugged burrows (Table 2). Of the 114 elosed

burrows of B. bengalensis excavated, 112 were

occupied. On the other hand, of the 52 open burrows

of B. bengalensis excavated, none was found to be

occupied. Similarly, 48 closed burrows of M.

booduga were excavated, of which 47 burrows were

occupied by this rodent species while the

examination of 22 open burrows revealed their

complete absence (Table 2).

The burrow entrance of soft furred field rat,

M. meltada was characterised by the absence of a

heap of soil and the burrow goes vertically

downwards and its entrance remained open. The

number of burrow openings per burrow system

ranged from one to two. Similar observations have

been made for M. meltada by Sivaprakasam (1988).

Contrary to this, Urs (1968) has observed small

stones, pebbles and mud pot pieces around the

burrow openings of this rodent species. The burrow

entrance diameter of M. meltada ranged from 3.2 to

4.5 cm.

The difference between the burrow entrance

diameter of M. meltada and B. bengalensis, M.

booduga and T. indica were statistically significant

(P < 0.05; Table 1). Seventy nine burrows of M.

meltada were dug, of which 30 burrows were found

occupied (Table 2).

Interestingly, in all the crop fields under study

these three species of rodent pests had similar

burrow morphology. The diameter of the burrow

entrances of B. bengalensis, M. booduga and M.

meltada did not vary significantly among the crop

fields studied (Table 1). It is also interesting to

mention here that burrows of T. indica were not

observed in the bunds of crop fields.

The Indian gerbil, T. indica's burrows were

observed only in the barren lands and they had more

than one opening (range: 2 to 3) adjacent to each

other and the distance between them was nearly 0.5

to 1.0 m. The burrows were slanted (roughly 45°)

and the entrances had a small heap of soil. Our

observations of more than one burrow openings are

compatible with the observations of Barnett and

Table 2

FIELD RODENTS' BURROW OCCUPANCY BASED ON

THE NATURE OF BURROW ENTRANCE IN DIFFERENT

CROP FIELDS

Prakash ( 1 975), Pingale et al. ( 1 967), George et al.

(1982) and Sivaprakasam (1988). The diameter of

burrow entrance (overall range: 6.4 - 10.0 cm) was

significantly larger than that of the other three

species of rodent pests (P < 0.05, Table 1). Of the

75 burrows of T. indica opened, 18 burrows were

occupied by the species.

Thus, from the present study it is inferred that

the burrow entrances of the four species of field

rodent pests of Cauvery delta are highly species

specific. Their burrow morphology did not differ

among the crop fields. However, the burrow

entrance diameter of four species differed

significantly from one another. Further, with the help

of these keys one can identify the occupant rodent

species under field conditions.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Principal and

Management of the College for having provided the

necessary facilities. We gratefully acknowledge

Mr. K.S. Subiah, Madras and Dr. R.P. Mathur,

Rodent Biologist, Pest Control (India) Ltd., Madras

for their help and encouragement. Our thanks are

also due to ICAR, New Delhi for financial

assistance.

BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS

241

References

Barnett, S.A. & 1. Prakash (1975): Rodents of Economic

Importance in India. Arnold — Heinemann, London, New

Delhi. 175 pp.

Chandrahas, R.K. & A.K. Krishnaswamy (1974): Studies on

the ecology of the Indian gerbil, Tatera indica Hardwieke

(Gray) in Kolar (Mysore State). Indian J. Med. Res. 62:

971-977.

George, C.M., P.J. Joy & C.C. Abraham (1982): Distribution,

feeding habits and burrowing patterns of Tatera indica

cuvieri (Waterhouse). J. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 79: 296-

301.

Jayaraman, V. & B. Velayutham (1977): A survey on the

occurrence of field rats in four localities of Tamilnadu and

their ectoparasites. The Farm Science 6 (3): 11-15.

Pingale, S.V., K. Krishnamurthy & T. Ramasivan ( 1967): Rats.

In: Food Grain Technologists’ Research Association of

India, Hapur. pp. 1-91.

Sivaprakasam, C. (1988): Studies on the burrow ecology,

population and food habits of the field rodents in and

around Mannampandal and Arupathy areas. M.Sc. Thesis,

Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli.

Sokal, R.R. & F.J. Rohlf (1981): Biometry (2nd Ed.). W.H.

Freeman and Company, New York. 859 pp.

Sridhara, S. (1976): Burrow patterns of Bandicota bengalensis

bengalensis (Gray) in the paddy fields of Karnataka.

Current Research 5: 207-209.

Sridhara, S. (1985): Management of Rodent pests - Biological

and Behavioural aspects. Indian Rev. Life Sci. 5: 107- 1 39.

Urs, Y.L. (1968): Habits and habitats of rodents. In:

Manual of Rodent control (Ed. S.K. Majumdar), Central

Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, pp. 25-

35.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY - 37: DICAEIDAE, NECTARINIIDAE AND ZOSTEROPIDAE

Humayun Abdulali and Saraswathy Unnithan

{Continued from Vol. 92 (3): 359)

This part deals with 666 specimens of 46 species and subspecies and 2 extralimitals, up to sypnosis No. 1937 in

the Indian handbook (10:61) and No. 2349 1 of the Society’s register. We do not have specimens of 7 forms (2 species and

5 subspecies) in our collection. As in the earlier parts (34, 35 and 36), the bulk of the work has been done by S.U. with

H.A cursorily checking to refine the original work.

1892, 1894. Dicaeum agile agile (Tickell)

(Borabhum and Dholbhum) Indian Thickbilled

Flowerpecker 3:435

35: 15 males 12 females 8 o?

1 Kalka, N.W.H; 1 Jabli, Bhagat State, N.W.H; 1 Baragam,

Gonda Dist., U.P.; 1 Rajputtee, Saran, Bihar; 2 Dediapada, Rajpipla

State, 1 Nadiad Dt., Kaira, Gujarat; 1 Jaithari, Bhopal, 2 Paryat,

Jabalpur, C.I.; 1 Wada, Bhiwandi, Thana, 1 Khandala, 1 Kihim,

Alibag, Kolaba; 2 Deviwadi, Tal, Rajapur, 3 Ratnagiri; 1, Kadra, 1

N. Kanara; 1 Cherangodu, Gudalur Taluk, Nilgiri; 1 Wynaad, 1

Maraiyur, Travancore; 3 Badrama, 2 Barkot, 1 Farahabad,

Hyderabad; 1 Banupratappur, Ranker, C.P., 1 Bhopalpatnam, Bastar

Dt., C.P, 1 Kameli, Bailadila, Bastar Dt. C.P; 3 N’ Krang, Upper

Burma.

Three specimens, all unsexed, from N’Karang

in upper Burma appear different from the others in

so far as they are darker above and all show a dirty

wash on the underparts which separates them from

all the others. Was this the form described as

mode stum by Hume?

Measurements on p. 247.

1893. Dicaeum agile zeylonense (Whistler)

(Kumbalgamuwa, Ceylon) Ceylon Thick-

billed Flowerpecker 3.435

nil.

1 895. Dicaeum chrysorrheum chrysochlore

Blyth (Arracan) Yellowvented Flowerpecker

3: 426,427

6: 3 males 1 female 2 o?

1 Rupachena, Cachar, 2 North Cachar; 1 Ataran, Burma, 2

Katnaing, Upper Burma.

Measurements on p. 247.

1896. Dicaeum melanoxanthum (Blyth)

(Nepal) Yellowbellied Flowerpecker 3: 439

nil.

1897. Dicaeum vincens (Sclater) (Ceylon)

Legge’s Flowerpecker 3: 425

nil.

1898. Dicaeum trigonostigma rubropygium

Baker (Mergui) Orange-bellied Flowerpecker

3: 425

1 male from Singapore.

Measurements on p. 247.

1 899. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythror-

hynchos (Latham) (India) (restricted to Bombay by

Baker) Tickell’s Flowerpecker 3: 432

33: 16 males 1 1 females 6 o?

1 Badmain, Bajji State, N.W.H.; 1 Dehra, Dehra Dun Dt.;

1 Ranibagh, U.P; 3 Baghownie, Tirhut; 1 Songadh, Navsari Dt; 1

Dediapada, Rajpipla State, 1 Pandwa, Surat Dangs, Gujarat; 1 Pali

Hill, Bandra, 1 Trombay Island, 1 Gorbunder, 1 Andheri, 1 Borivli,

Salsette, Bombay; 1 Khandala; 1 Durgawadi, 1 South Konkan, 1

Kadra, N. Kanara, 3 Karwar; 2 Jabalpur, C.I., 1 Bhanupratappur,

Ranker, 1 Chota Dongar, 1 Darba, 2 Kameli, Bailadila, Bastar Dt.,

C.P; 2 Badrama, Bamra, Orissa; 1 Sankrametta, 1 Jeypore Agency,

Vizagapatnam; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 247.

1 900. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos ceylonense

Babault (Boista, Ceylon) Ceylon Small

Flowerpecker 3: 433

nil.

1901. Dicaeum concolor olivaceum Walden

(Tounghoo) Plaincoloured Flowerpecker 3:430

7: 3 males 3 (2 juv.) females 1 o?

1 Hungrum, 2 N. Kachar; 2 Lait Kensew, Khasia Hills;

1 Frame Dt.\ 1 S.E. of Maymyo, Burma.

The 2 juveniles both have a light coloured bill.

Measurements on p. 247-248.

1902. Dicaeum concolor concolor Jerdon

(Malabar Coast) Nilgiri Flowerpecker 3: 439,430

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

243

19: 7 males 7 (1 juv.) females 5 o?

1 Savantwadi; 1 Canacona, 2 Molem, Goa; 1 Balamani; 3

Kadra; 1 N. Kanara; 2 Karwar; 1 Attikan Estate, Mysore; 1 Kotagiri,

2 Cherangodu, Gudalur, 1 Kotamalai, 1 Avalanche, Nilgiris; 1

Peerumedu, 1 Periyar, Travancore.

This has been recorded as far north as

Mahabaleswar by BNHS ringing camps. Though

1901 & 1902 are separately marked and listed We

can see no differences between the two in size or

colour. The female marked juvenile has pale bill.

Measurements on p. 247-248.

1903. Dicaeum concolor virescens Hume

(Neighbourhood of Port Blair, Andamans) Andaman

Flowerpecker 3:431

4: 1 male 3 females

1 Bakultala, Middle Andaman; 1 Sippighat, 2 Wrightmyo,

S. Andaman.

Measurements on p. 247-248.

1904. Dicaeum cruentatum cruentatum

(Linnaeus) (Benghala) Scarletbacked Flowerpecker

3: 421

12: 8 males 3 females 1 o?

1 Longview, Darjeeling; 1 Lakhimpur, U. Assam, 3

Dibrugarh, 1 Goma Reserve, Goalpara, Assam; 4 Kani, Lower

Chindwin, 1 Thayetmyo Dt., Burma., 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 248.

1 905. Dicaeum ignipectus ignipectus (Blyth)

(Sangau, Lushai Hills) Firebreasted Flowerpecker

3: 427

28: 18 males 9 females 1 o?

3 Basantpur; Bhajji St; 5 Simla Hills, N.W.H; 1 Kumaon,

1 Dhanaulti, Mussooree; 1 Tung, Sikkim, 3 Rinchinpong, 1 Temi,

W. Sikkim; 1 Darjeeling; 1 Dening, Lohit Valley, N.E. Assam; 2

Honka, W. Bhutan, 1 Batase, 1 Khosela, 1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan;

1 Rongtong; 1 Narphong, 1 Wamrong, 1 Tashigong, 1 Deothang,

E.Bhutan, 1 Kangpokpi, Manipur.

There are black streaks on the belly in males.

The males show appreciable variation in the shape

of the red on the breast. 2 females Nos. 25564 &

25567 from Honka, W. Bhutan have white chin

though they are not smaller than the others.

Measurements on p. 248.

1906. Anthreptes singalensis rubinigentis

(Baker) (India restricted to Cachar) Rubycheek

3: 370

5: 4 males (2 by plumage) 1 female

1 Gaylegphug, C. Bhutan; 1 Rupachena, Cachar; 1

Cherapunji, Khasi Hills; 1 Upper Burma, 1 Rangoon.

In the absence of any bird marked lepida they

are all placed under rubinigentis.

The female bird marked with a query has a

pale rufous on the chin and throat but lacks the green

above and the yellow below.

Measurements on p. 248.

1907. Nectarinia zeylonica sola (Vieillot)

(Pondichery) Indian Purplerumped Sunbird

3: 406

45: 28 males (2 by pi.) 15 females 2 o?

1 Thana, 1 Uran, 1 Santacruz, 2 Bandra, 3 Andheri, 2

Malabar Hill, 1 Colaba, Bombay; 2 Poona, Deccan, 2 Satara; 1

Canacona, Goa; 1 Kumta, N. Kanara, 6 Karwar, 2 Ulavi, Sorab

Taluk, Shimoga, Mysore; 1 Thekkadi, Travancore; 1 Jamestown,

Kanyakumari Dt.; 1 Madras, 1 Mettupalayam, 1 Kurumbapatti,

Salem Dt.; 1 Koduru, 1 Seshachalam Hills, S. Cuddapah, 1

Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool, 1 Kumbum Valley, Kurnool Dt.; 2

Kuldiha, Nilgiri; 2 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Orissa; 1 Calcutta; 3

Bhanupratappur, Kanker; 1 Geedam, 1 Dantewara, Bastar Dt., C.P.

Measurements on p. 248.

1908. Nectarinia zeylonica zeylonica

(Linnaeus) (Ceylon) Ceylon Purplerumped Sunbird

3:406

nil.

We have no specimens from the type locality

Ceylon, of this form which has almost the same size

wing 50-57, in sola 51-58.

1909. Nectarinia minima (Sykes) (Ghauts,

Dukhun) Small Sunbird 3: 405

17: 1 1 males (1 by pi.) 6 females

2 Matheran, 2 Khandala, Western Ghats; 1 Molem, 1 Valpoi,

Goa; 3 N. Kanara, 1 Kanara; 1 Perrengodu, 2 Cherangodu, 2

Morappalam, 1 Kodanadu beyond Kotagiri, Nilgiris; 1

Shembagnur, Palni Hills.

Measurements on p. 248.

1910. Nectarinia sperata brasiliana

(Gmelin)

(Brazilia in errore = Java) Van Hasselt’s

Sunbird 3: 400

3: 2 males 1 female

2 Rema Tea Estate, 1 S. Sylhet.

Measurements on p. 248.

1911. Nectarinia lotenia hindustanica

(Whistler) (Kumta, North Kanara) Indian

Maroonbreasted Sunbird 3:394

15: 9 males 6 females

1 Tulsi Lake, 2 Borivli, Salsette, 1 Santacruz, Bombay; 1

Molem, Goa; 2 North Kanara, 3 Karwar, Kanara; 1 Nallamalai

244

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Range, S. Kurnool, 1 Kurumbapatti, Salem Dt., 1 Gudalur, Nilgiris,

1 Kodikkarai, Point Calimere; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 248.

1912. Nectarinia lotenia Sotenia (Linnaeus)

(Ceylon) Ceylon Maroonbreasted Sunbird 3: 394

nil.

1913. Nectarinia jugularis andamanica

(Hume) (Andaman Group) Andaman Olivebacked

Sunbird 3: 404

12: 8 (1 by plumage) males 4 females (3 by pi.)

1 Landfall Island, 1 Aerial Bay, Diglipur, N. Andaman; 2

Bakultala, Middle Andaman, 2 Wrightmyo, S. Andaman, 6

Narcondam.

Measurements on p. 249.

1914. Nectarinia jugularis klossi

(Richmond) (Great Nicobar) Nicobar Olivebacked

Sunbird 3: 401-2

10: 5 males 5 females

3 Nancowry, 2 Trinkut, 1 Camorta, Central Nicobars, 4

Campbell Bay, C. Nicobar.

Measurements on p. 249.

1915. Nectarinia jugularis proselia

(Oberholser) (Car Nicobar Is.) Car Nicobar

Olivebacked Sunbird 3:401

9: 7 males 2 females

2 Perka, 7 Car Nicobar.

Measurements on p. 249. .

EL. Nectarinia jugularis flammaxillaris

Blyth (Tenasserim)

1 male (by plumage) from Inhabit, Henzada Dt., Burma.

(See note on p. 297).

1916. Nectarinia asiatica brevirostris Blanford

[(Persian) Baluchistan near Jalk] Sind Purple

Sunbird 3: 399

5: 4 males 1 female

1 Chaharbar, Persian Gulf, 1 Mand, 1 Pahrah, 17 m E of

Bampur, 1 Peshawar, N.W.F.P., 1 no locality.

In addition to the slightly smaller size the

males have a tinge of purple on the head and nearby

areas of the upper parts. The size can be included in

the range of size and it may be noted that Koelz in

his papers on the Birds of Londa Dist., North Kanara,

has named his birds as “brevirostris \

Measurements on p. 249.

1917. Nectarinia asiatica asiatica (Latham)

(India = Gurgaon) Indian Purple Sunbird 3: 396

91:68 males 23 females

l Jabli, 1 * Koti, 2 Bhagat St., 2 Solon, Simla Hills (?), 2

Sardar River, 1 Jallander, 2 Jagadhri, 2 *Ambala, 2 Meerut, 1

Bulandshahr, 5 Delhi, 1 Hamawas Lake, Pali Dt., 2 Bharatpur,

Rajasthan, 1 Deesa, Palanpur, 1 Radhanpur, 1 Mandvi, 1 Kutch, 1

Dabka, Baroda, 6 ***Bhavnagar, 1 Badarwas, Gwalior St., 1

Jabalpur, 1 *Pimpri, Surat Dangs, 1 *Dohad, 1 Kihim, Raigad dt.,

1 Murbad, Kalyan, Thana, 1 Shil, Thana, 1 Pawai, 3 Godbunder, 2

Bhandup, 2 Andheri, Salsette Is; 3 Khandala, 1 Madhmeswar,

Niphad, Nasik, 3 Jalgaon, E. Khandesh, 2 Satara, 1 Molem, Goa,

1 Anshi, 2 Kadra, Karwar, I N. Kanara, 1 Ulavi, Shimoga, Mysore,

1 Gudalur, Nilgiris, 1 Padagiri, Nelliyampathi Hills, Cochin, 1

Thekkady, Travancore, 1 Madura, 1 Foothills of Palni, 1 *Manalur,

1 Sheshachalam Hills, S. Cuddapah, 1 Cumbum Valley, Kurnool

Dt., 1 Sankrametta, 2 Anantgiri, Vizag, 2 Kameli, Bailadila, 1

Geedam, 1 Konta, Bastar; 2 Bhanupratappur, Kanker, 1 Gurguria,

Simlipal Hills, 1 Keonjhargarh, 2 *Koira, Bonai, 1 Barkot, Bamra,

1 Orissa, 1 Baghownie, Darbhanga Dt., 1 Rampur, Bihar, 1 no

locality.

* Males marked thus have a touch of purple

in their upper plumage. Female No. 18431 from

Bhagat State, N.W. Himalayas is mostly yellow

below and may be a juvenile as also those with grey

chins. Several with a black line down the throat are

marked female, presumably in error. The two from

Solon, were collected by Mr H. M. Whittel, whose

postal address is recorded as Solon.

Measurements on p. 249.

1918. Nectarinia asiatica intermedia

(Hume) (Tippera) Assam Purple Sunbird 3:398

13: 9 males 4 females

1, S.Sylhet, Assam, 1 Singhaling; 1 Maymyo , 3 Kani, Lower

Chindwin, 1 S. Slum State, 1 Y atsanh, S. Shan States, 1 Thayetmyo

Dt., 1 Inbin, Henzada Dt., 1 Sandoway, 1 Prome, L. Burma, 1

Daudaung, Ataran, Burma.

Measurements on p. 249.

1919. Aethopyga gouldiae gouldiae (Vigors)

(Himalayan mountains = Simla - Almora area)

Mrs Gould’s Sunbird 3: 385

12: 9 males (1 juv.) 3 females

1 Simla, 5 Koti St., N.W.H., 1 Dhanaulti, Mussooree, 1

Pandukeswar, Badrinath, Garhwal, 1 Kurseong, Sikkim, 1

Deothang, 1 Rongtong, 1 Wamrong, East Bhutan.

The juvenile male (31st August 1927 from

Simla) is marked with yellow on the belly while

the three females have traces of pale yellow below.

The male (Kurseong, Sikkim, 9th July 1944) has

lines of white spots on each side of the black on the

chin.

Measurements on p. 249.

1920. Aethopyga gouldiae isolata Baker

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

245

(Manipur) Manipur Yellowbacked Sunbird

3: 385, 386

nil.

1921. Aethopyga gouldiae dabryii

(Verreaux) (Tu-tsien-leou, SetcSiuan O.) Dabry’s

sunbird 3: 387

4: 1 male 3 o?

1 Taunggyi, 1 Lahatznshi, 1 Loi Kan, 1 South Slum States,

Burma

Measurements on p. 249.

1922. Aethopyga nipalensis horsfieSdi

(Blyth) (Himalayas = Mussoorie) Western

Yellowbacked Sunbird

3: 3 (1 by pi.) males

1 Bhim Tal, Kumaon, 2 Naini Tal

Measurements on p. 249.

1923. Aethopyga nipalensis nipalensis

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Nepal Yellowbacked Sunbird

3:391

4: 3 males 1 o?

1 Darjeeling, 1 Jorepekri, Jalpaiguri, 1 Tung, Sikkim, l

Nepal Valley.

Measurements on p. 249.

1924. Aethopyga nipalensis koelzi Ripley

(Dening-Dreyi trail, Mishmi Hills, NE. Assam)

Eastern Yellowbacked Sunbird 3:391

18: 10 males 8 females

1 Phuntsholing, 4 Gedu, West Bhutan, 2 Shamgong, Central

Bhutan, 3 Wamrong, 1 Narphong, East Bhutan, 2 Singtam, Teesta

Valley, 2 Martham, Rongni Valley, 2 Chirrapunji, 1 Kalaktang,

Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 249.

1925. Aethopyga saturata saturate

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Himalayan Blackbreasted

Sunbird 3: 388

12: 10 males 2 females

1 Kumaon, 1 Garhwal, 2 Pershoke, Sikkim, 1 Darjeeling,

1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 2 Tama, Central Bhutan, 2 Gomchu, 1

Deothang, East Bhutan, 1 Dening, Lohit Valley, NE. Assam.

Measurements on p. 250.

1926. Aethopyga saturata assamensis

(McClelland) (Assam) Assam Blackbreasted

Sunbird 3: 388

13: 7 males 5 females 1 o?

5 Laitkensew, Khasia Hills, 1 Kohima, Naga Hills, 1 Hai

Bum, 1 Kalaktang, 1 Miao, 2 40th mile from Miao, Deban Div.,

Arunachal Pradesh; 1 N. Krang, Upper Burma, 1 Jungtang, Burma,

assamensis were included with saturata in Stuart

Baker’s Fauna and except for 2 skins dating as far back

as 1 906 from the Khasia Hills we cannot separate them

either. These have lost the green on the head which

now appears purple. They are however listed separately

according to distribution.

Measurements on p. 250.

1 927. Aethopyga siparaja seheriae (Tickell)

(near Seheria in Borabhum) Indian Yellowbacked

Sunbird 3: 378, 380

35: 26 males 6 females 3 o?

2 Kalka, 1 Jabli, 2 Bhagat St., 1 Simla Hills, N.W.H.; 3

DehraDun 1 Bhim Tal, 2 Ranibagh, Kumaon, 1 Bans Behari, Nepal,

1 Pershoke, Sikkim, 1 Darjeeling, 1 Backsa Duar, Jalpaiguri Dt., 1

Kangpokpi, Manipur, 2 Rupachena, Cachar, 3 Badrama Bamra,

Orissa; 1 Cuclar? 2 Upper Burma, 4 Kamaing, Upper Burma, 2

Singhalig, Burma, 1 Hsi paw, N. Shan States, 1 Loilong, S. Shan

States, 2 North of Maymyo, Burma.

Of the 6 females all except one and two of three

unsexed have a slight wash of red on the chin.

Measurements on p. 250.

1 928. Aethopyga siparaja labecuIa(Horsfield)

(Assam) Assam Yellowbacked Sunbird 3: 378

1 0: 5 males 5 females

1 Batase, 1 Mangdechu, Central Bhutan, 1 Deothang, E.

Bhutan, 1 Laitkensew, Khasia Hills, 2 chirrapunji, 1 Reena Tea

Estate, S. Sylhet, 1 Margherita, 1 Mornai Tea Estate, 1 Goalpara,

Assam.

Measurements on p. 250.

1929. Aethopyga siparaja vigorsii (Sykes)

(Ghauts, Dukhun) Vigors’s Yellowbacked Sunbird

3:381

1 0: 8 males 2 females

1 Songadh, Navsari Dt., 1 Juna, Rajpipla, 1 Waghai, Surat

Dangs, 2 Bhowra; 2 God bunder, Salsette Is, 1 Matheran, 2

Khandala, W. Ghats.

One female from Waghai, Surat Dangs (sexed

by Salim Ali, on 24 March 1 948) has a patch of red on

the throat and upper breast. Another male (6 April

1885, Matheran) has a yellow streak running up the

middle of the upper breast through the chin to the base

of the bill.

Measurements on p. 250.

1929a. Aethopyga siparaja nicobarica

Hume (Kondul) and Meroe Islands, Nicobar group)

Nicobar Yellowbacked Sunbird

6: 5 males 1 female

4 Campbell Bay, 2 Pilu Bhabli, Great Nicobar.

The wing of the female (45 mm) is not

246

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

mentioned in the handbook and the bill of the male is

a little smaller than in vigorsii.

Measurements on p. 250

EL. Aethopyga siparaja cara (Hume) (Tenas-

serim)

1 male from Cara Hills, East of Moulmein, Burma.

Forehead and crown badly damaged, no date

nor collector's name.

1930. Aethopyga ignicauda ignicauda

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Firetailed Yellowbacked Sunbird

3: 383

15:9 males 2 females 4?

1 Kalka, Ambala Dt. Punjab, 1 Kat, Nepal, 1 Chungthang,

Lachung, 1 Rinchinpong, W. Sikkim, 1 Sikkim, 2 Kurseong, 6

Phalut, Darjeeling, 1 Darjeeling, 1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan.

All the nine males are in non-breeding

(eclipse) plumage.

The two females differ from the males by the

absence of both yellow and red anywhere on the

underparts. The handbook states that the females

are olive, with more yellow on rump and belly.

Measurements on p. 250.

EL. Aethopyga ignicauda flaviscens Baker

Mt. Victoria (Chin hills) Rippon’s Firetailed Sunbird

3:384

One unsexed skin in full male breeding plumage,

from Mt. Victoria.

1931. Arachnothera longirostris

longirostris (Latham) Bengal (restricted to Sylhet

by Baker) Little Spiderhunter 3:418

19: 1 1 males 5 females 3 o?

1 Anshi, 1 North Kanara, 1 Chezwad, 1 Rajampara,

Panthalam Hills, 1 Thekkady, Travancore, 1 Wangasara, Andhra

Pradesh, 1 Lamasinghi, Vizag, 2 Rupachena, Cachar, 1 Laitkensew,

Khasia Hills, 1 Rema Tea Estate, S. Sylhet, 2 Margherita, 1

Dibrugarh, Assam, 1 Arunachal Pradesh; 2 Upper Burma, 1

Gamonchaung, 1 Kyibin, Henzada Dt., Burma.

Measurements on p. 250.

1932. Arachnothera magna magna

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Streaked Spiderhunter 3:414

23: 14 males 5 females 4 o?

3 Sevoke, Darjeeling; 1 Samchi, W. Bhutan, 2 Mangdechu,

C. Bhutan, 1 Deothang, E. Bhutan, 1 Bhutan Duars, 1 Laitkensew,

Khasia Hills, 1 Guryong, 3 Hungrum, 1 N. Cachar, 1 Chera,

Chirrapunji, 1 Margherita, 1 Kurbia Tea Estate, 1 Sadiya, Upper

Assam, 1 Namorah, Arunachal Pradesh. 1 Taumai, Upper Burma,

1 Nyaungchi Sauk, Taungup, Prome Dt., Burma, 1 Tangtel 1 no

locality.

Measurements on p. 250.

1933. Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa

(Temminck) (Bengal) Indian White-eye

3: 358-61

68: 39 males 19 females 10 o?

1 Kashmir, 1 Malakand, N.W.F.P., 2 Shikohpur, Jallander,

1 1 Simla, 1 Koti State, 1 Bavlowgunj, Mussooree, 1 Kalka, 1

Ambala, 1 Nepal, 1 Gurna, 1 Almora, U.P, 1 Bulandshahar, U.P.,

2 Harunabad Bahawalpur St., 1 Sunda Hills, Jodhpur, 1 Jawahar,

Jaswantpura Dt., Jodhpur, 1 Deesa, Palanpur State, N. Gujarat, 1

Dalkhania, Amreli Dt., Kathiavyar, 1 Dabka, Baroda, 1 Vaghjipur,

Mehsana Dt., 1 Mahal, 1 Pimpri, Surat Dangs, 2 Ambakona, M.P.,

1 Narwar Fort, 1 Surawaya, Gwalior state, 4 Bhanupratappur,

Kanker, 1 Geedam, 1 Golapally, Bastar Dt., C.P., 2 Pili, Melghat,

1 Chikalda, Berar, 1 Market, Bombay, 1 Mehda, Satara, 1

Savantwadi, 1 Nilpara, Jalpaiguri, Bengal, 1 Hungrum, N. Cachar,

1 Pun, Khahet, 2 Baghownie, Darbhanga, 2 Mangdechu, 1 Tama,

1 Gaylegphug, C. Bhutan, 1 Gomchu, 1 Tashigong, E. Bhutan, 1

Martam, Rongini Valley, 4 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya, U. Assam; 1 N.

Krang, Upper , 1 Taunggyi, Burma.

Z.P. palpebrosa specimens, when arranged

geographically N. Western birds in common have

an olive green tinge on the upper parts, N. Eastern

ones are more brownish above and birds from

southern Gujarat, Maharashtra, M.R, and Orissa, are

more yellowish above.

Measurements on p. 251.

1934. Zosterops palpebrosa salimalii

Whistler (Farahabad, S.E. Hyderabad) Andhra

White-eye 3: 358

22: 13 males 7 females 2 o?

2 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Mahendragiri, 1 Kanta, Keonjhar, 1

Tikarpara, Angul Dt., Orissa, 2 Anantagiri, 3 Sankrametta, Vizagh,

1 Kaulas, Nander Dt., Hyderabad, 3 Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool,

1 Yellandu, Warangal Dt., 3 Shevaroy Hills; 2 Singara Rd., Gudalur

Tk, 1 Anaribetta, 1 Edubuthi, Billigirirangan Hills.

All the specimens were identified by Dr. Salim

Ali and Whistler. But from even a cursory

examination appear to need a radical change.

2 from Gudalur Taluk, Nilgiris (900 m) and

another two from the Billigirirangan Hills were

listed in nilgiriensis, but they are distinctly salimalii

and have been included there.

Measurements on p. 25 1 .

1935. Zosterops palpebrosa nilgiriensis

Ticehurst (Coonoor) Nilgiri White-eye 1 : 358

7: 3 male 2 females 2 o?

1 Ootacamund, 1 Kotagiri, 1 Coonoor, Nilgiris, 3

Shembagnur, Palnis, 1 Santanpara, Cardamom Hills.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

247

Measurements on p. 25 1 .

1936. Zosterops palpebrosa nicobarica

Blyth (Nicobar Islands) Nicobar White-eye

12: 5 males 4 females 3 o?

1 Bamboo Flats, Andaman, 1 Bakultala, Middle Andaman,

2 S. Sentinel, S. Andaman, 4 Car Nicobar; 2 Nancowry, 2 Trinkut,

Nicobar.

Some of them have a definitely larger bill and a

small patch of yellow on the rump. Of the four with

yellow on the rump 2 are from the S. Sentinel Island,

1 from Car Nicobar and the fourth from Trinkut Island.

The only explanation is inter island movement, which

can only be accepted by careful watching of ringed

birds — until this is confirmed by regular movements

to and fro, we have no option but to accept these

differences in size and colour as variation within this

same group.

Measurements on p. 251.

1937. Zosterops ceylonensis Holdsworth

(Nuwara Eliya) Ceylon White-eye 3: 366

2: 1 female 1 o?

1 Nuwara Eliya, 1 Ceylon.

Darkest of all Zosterops, dark olive green above,

head a shade darker, breast light olive green rather than

yellow and abdomen almost grey instead of white,

undertail coverts light olive green contra to the yellow

of other species.

Measurements on p. 251.

Part 37

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

29-31 av. 29.9

31-34)

27-30 av. 27.9

27-30)

27, 27, 28

27-31)

26

20

24-27)

21- 25 av. 23.4

22- 27)

20-24 av. 22.3

22-25)

19, 20, 22

21- 23

22- 25

23- 26)

23

248

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93 (1996)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

249

1916-18. Nectarinia asiatica subspp.

Males

1922-24. Aethopyga nipalensis subspp.

250

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

251

(To be continued)

SOME ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF ONTHOPHAGUS GAZELLA (F.)

AND ONTHOPHAGUS RECTECORNUTUS LANSB. (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)1

K. Veenakumari2 and G.K. Veeresh3

(With a plate )

Key words: Onthophagus gazella, Onthophagus rectecornutus, biology, nesting

Reproductive biology of O. gazella was studied in the laboratory. The duration and size of different

developmental stages were recorded. On the average the development from egg to adult took 41 .3 days. Hatching

of an egg of O. gazella and larval emergence were observed under a stereo microscope. Mites belonging to

Caloglypluis karnatakensis were found feeding on the eggs of O. gazella and the fungi Beauveria sp. and Metarhiz.ium

sp. infected their pupal stage. O. rectecornutus took 31.8 days to complete its life cycle.

Introduction

Various species of Onthophagus have been

extensively studied (Fabre 1897, Main 1922, Sim

1930, Lindquist 1933, Riteher 1945, Halffter and

Mathews 1966, Tyndale-Biscoecf ct/. 1981, Fincher

and Hunter 1987, to cite a few). Halffter and

Edmonds (1982) have defined seven nesting patterns

of dung beetles. Onthophagini fall under pattern I.

Pattern I is characterized by the following characters:

a) very high fecundity, b) larval food in the form of

a brood mass, c) construction of pupal chamber by

the larva within the brood mass. Rougon and Rougon

(1980) reported that O. gazella took 41 days to

complete its life cycle. Lee and Peng (1982) worked

on the nesting density and progeny size of O. gazella.

O. gazella has been introduced to Australia (Lee

1 979) and to Solomon islands (Stapley 1 979) for the

biological control of bush flies. As Onthophagus is

the largest genus in the entire animal kingdom

(Matthews 1976) many of the species have been

poorly studied. In this connection an attempt was

made to study the reproductive biology of the two

commonly occurring South Indian species —

O. gazella and O. rectecornutus.

'Accepted March 1994.

^Central Agricultural Research Institute, P.B. No. 431,

Junglighat, Port Blair, Andamans 744103.

Vice Chancellor, University of Agricultural Sciences,

G.K.V.K., Bangalore, 560065.

Material and Methods

This study was conducted in Hebbal, which is

on the outskirts of Bangalore, Karnataka. The mean

minimum temperature, mean maximum temperature

and total annual rainfall were 18.2°C, 29.8°C and

548.3 mm, respectively.

Adults of O. gazella and O. rectecornutus were

collected from cow dung pats and also from the soil

beneath dung pats in pastures. O. rectecornutus were

found in large numbers in shaded dung pats.

Glass jars (33.5 cm x 10.5 cm) were filled with

moist soil and freshly deposited cow dung was

dropped on the soil. Five pairs of beetles of either

sex of the same species were released in the jars.

The top of the jar was covered with a wire gauze

and the jars were kept in the dark. After about 5-8

days the soil from the jar was removed carefully and

the brood of each species was maintained in plastic

boxes with moistened soil. Duration and size of

different developmental stages were recorded.

Observations were also made on nest construction

and mating of O. rectecornutus in the glass jars.

Observations were made on the nature of emergence

of the larva of O. gazella from the egg using a stereo

microscope.

Results

Adults of O. gazella emerged after the first

showers in May. They were found from May to

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93 Plate 1

Veenakumari & Veeresh: Onthophagus gazella

Fig. 1. Cylindrical brood masses of Onthophagus gazella (F.); Fig. 2. Intial stages of cocoon construction by O. gazella (F. );

Fig. 3. Cocoon of O. gazella (F.) in brood mass; Fig. 4. Newly formed adult of O. gazella (F.) in the cell.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF O. GAZELLA AND O. RECTECORNUTUS

253

February with peak population in May.

Feeding: Adult beetles were found feeding

either in dung or in shallow vertical tunnels beneath

the dung. They dug tunnels underneath the dung and

filled the tunnels by bringing dung little by little

from the surface. These food burrows were made 5-

6 cm deep. In this fashion the males and the females

fed separately in their individual food burrows for

8-10 days.

Brood burrows: After the completion of the

feeding period males and females were found

together in much deeper burrows (16.5 ± 3.0 cm, n

= 8). A broad ended burrow was constructed and

the female provisioned it with dung. Sometimes the

male helped her. After filling 3/4 of the broad ended

tunnel she laid an egg in it and closed the egg

chamber with a layer of dung. Following the

construction of one brood mass she excavated a

neighbouring cavity in which she fashioned a second

brood mass. The brood masses were cylindrical in

shape. The average length, width and weight of

brood masses are 40.6 ± 0.03 mm, 16.0 ± 0.08 mm,

8.4 ± 0.9 g (n = 15), respectively (Plate 1, Fig. 1).

Egg: The egg was laid in the egg chamber

which stood in a vertical position. The inner side of

the egg chamber was smeared with the excreta of

the female. The eggs were elongate, cylindrical and

creamy white. Later on the egg increased in size and

became spheroidal in shape. Those eggs which were

lying on their sides became black and never hatched.

On an average a female laid 6 eggs in one nest in the

laboratory. The measurements of the eggs are given

in Table 1 .

Hatching: Close to hatching, the egg shell

became transparent and the ‘V’ shaped larva was

clearly visible through the chorion. The larva

emerged with its abdominal end first. It contracted

and expanded its body several times. After some time

the head also emerged. The larva withdrew its

abdominal end many times and stretched its body

and touched the distal end of the abdomen with the

head and shrank back. This was repeated many times

till it completely freed itself from the shell.

The newly emerged larva was transparent,

with only the tips of the mandibles being dark brown.

Table 1

DIMENSIONS OF DIFFERENT LIFE STAGES OF

O. gazella AND O. rectecornutiis IN mm

O. gazella

L= Length; B = Breadth

All the legs on each side appeared to be attached to

each other distally.

Larva: The larva had its characteristic hump

which it used as a pivot when it fed on the dung in

the brood mass. For the first few days the hump

remained transparent.

These larvae once taken out of their brood

masses were seen moving on the lateral sides of their

abdomen and never used their legs. They excreted a

greyish brown semi-solid paste. Using this material

they repaired any damage to the brood mass. From

the second instar onwards the larva started biting

with its mandible once disturbed. The measurements

of different larval instars are given in Table 1.

Whenever a larva was placed in an artificially

fashioned dung ball with a cavity bigger than what

254

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

the larva required, the volume of the cavity was

reduced so that it fitted against the larval body. It

did this by pulling and remaking the inner wall of

the brood mass with its mandibles.

Cocoon construction: Towards the end of the

third instar the larva started constructing a cocoon

or pupal cell. A greyish brown paste was excreted

from the abdominal end and held on the truncated

end of the abdomen till it dried partially (Plate 1,

Fig. 2). The larva constructed the cocoon till 3/4th

of it is finished and then used its mouth parts to

extend the paste and spread it across the opening.

Table 2

NUMBER OF DAYS TAKEN TO COMPLETE EACH LIFE

STAGE OF O. gazella AND O. rectecornutus

O. gazella

During this process the construction collapsed many

times. Inspite of this, the larva worked continuously

till the whole cocoon was completed. The inner

surface of the cocoon was very smooth and the outer

surface coarse. These cocoons could be easily

separated from the brood mass. The upper 1/3 of the

cocoon easily came off as a cap when a little pressure

was applied on that region (Plate 1, Fig. 3).

By the time the larva finished constructing the

cocoon, it had become creamy white, and its

alimentary canal was entirely empty.

The larva then attained the prepupal stage and

did not feed further. The larva had considerably

shrunk in size and showed very little movement even

when disturbed. The cocoon length and breadth are

given in Table 1 .

Pupa: The newly formed pupae were creamy

white, shiny, with five pairs of finger-like processes

on the dorso-lateral region of the abdomen. Later

on, the pupae turned golden brown in colour with

the tips of fore tibiae and clypeus being dark brown.

Sexual dimorphism was evident in pupae. The male

pupae had two horns on the head along with a median

projection, whereas the female had only the median

projection. The average length and breadth of the

pupae are shown in Table 1 .

Adults: Once the adults emerged they stayed

in the cocoon for about 3-4 days (Plate 1, Fig. 4).

They made their way out by boring a hole in the

brood mass and entered the soil. Adults took 3-4 days

to develop pigmentation. The last three abdominal

segments were left exposed in a newly formed adult.

The durations of different developmental stages are

presented in Table 2.

Natural enemies of O. gazella: 75 pupae were

affected by the white muscardine disease ( Beauveria

sp.). Some of the newly formed adults also had the

fungus appearing white and fluffy all over their

bodies. Twelve pupae were affected by green

muscardine disease ( Metarhiziiun sp.). In both the

cases the pupae were immobile. In addition mites

belonging to Caloglyphus karnatakensis (Acari:

Acaridida: Acaraidae) were found feeding on the

eggs.

Biology of O. rectecornutus: Biology of

O. rectecornutus resembled O. gazella in many

respects. Flowever there were some differences like

the number of days taken for development of each

life stage, the number of eggs laid by the female,

etc.

Adults of O .rectecornutus were found

throughout the year with a peak population during

the month of December.

Feeding: Adult beetles fed in shallow food

burrows which measured 4-5 cm. These food

burrows were inhabited by both sexes separately.

They fed in these food burrows for a week and then

started making brood burrows.

Brood burrows: The brood burrows were long

(12 ± 2 cm, n=7) with a broad brood chamber at the

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF O. GAZELLA AND O. RECTECORNUTUS

255

base. The females constructed the brood chamber

either alone or in cooperation with a male. A detailed

description of a pair constructing a nest and mating

is given below.

A vertical tunnel was constructed below the

dung pat and both the male and female were seen

moving in the tunnel. The male carried dung from

the top and deposited it midway. The interaction

between the male and the female was observed only

once when the male met the female who was coming

up the tunnel. Initially, he appeared to behave

aggressively by butting her with his clypeus. Then

he pushed the female and stood above her and

copulated with her, supporting himself by leaning

on the walls of the tunnel (soil and glass wall) with

his front legs. During mating the female exhibited

some backward jerking movements. They mated for

2 minutes and 30 seconds.

The male collected the dung with his forelegs

and moved down the tunnel and deposited it mid-

way down the tunnel. The female went upwards and

collected the dung with her forelegs and moved down

the tunnel with her rear end first. She brought it to

the broad end of the chamber and packed it against

the wall of the chamber. When the male did not bring

a sufficient quantity of dung the female virtually

scraped the place and collected whatever dung was

sticking against the walls of the burrow and brought

it down the chamber. Sometimes she was also seen

dropping dung down the tunnel without carrying it.

When the male did not return she herself went and

brought the dung. Now and then the male and female

met each other but they behaved calmly without

exhibiting any hostility towards each other.

The brood masses are cylindrical in shape. The

number of brood masses varied between 10 and 15,

the average being 12 brood masses per nest (12 ±

2.5, n = 5). The average length and breadth of the

brood masses was 34.7 ± 0.33 mm, and 1 1 .3 ± 0. 1 1

mm (n=15), respecively.

Egg: The egg was cylindrical and creamy

white in colour and resembled that of O. gazella but

for the size. The measurements are given in Table 1 .

Larva: The larva resembled that of O. gazella

in all instars but for the measurement (Table 1).

Behaviours such as movement, cocoon construction,

repairing the damage of brood mass was similar to

that of O. gazella. The pupae were also similar to

that of O. gazella. The measurements of different

larval instars and pupae are given in Table 1.

The number of days taken to complete the

developmental stages are presented in Table 2.

Discussion

There are two types of nests in Onthophagini.

They are simple nests and compound nests (Halffter

and Edmonds 1982). Both O. gazella and

O.rectecornutus belong to the latter nesting type as

they produce several brood masses in a single nest.

O. gazella produced 6 brood masses per nest whereas

O. rectecornutus produced 12 brood masses per nest.

Halffter and Edmonds (1982) have reported that O.

gazella is a prolific breeder and produces about 1 80-

200 brood masses per female. Here the reduction in

number of brood masses may be due to the restricted

place that was provided for the breeding pair. As the

brood masses of O.rectecornutus were smaller than

those of O. gazella , more brood masses were

produced. Even though there is no true cooperation

between the male and the female as in Copris spp.

(Halffter and Edmonds 1982), there was some

assistance from the male to the female in bringing

the dung to make the brood masses.

Rougon and Rougon (1980) studied the

biology of O. gazella and reported that it needs 41

days to complete its life cycle. In the present study

it was found that while O. gazella took 41.3 days to

complete its life cycle O. rectecornutus took a shorter

time of about 3 1 .8 days. This is because of the short

larval stage of O.rectecornutus.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. R. Madge, British

Museum (Natural History) for identifying the

beetles, Dr. H.R. Ranganath, for identifying the mites

and Dr. M. Jayaramaiah for identifying the fungus.

We are also thankful to Mr. Prashanth Mohanraj for

reading through the manuscript.

256

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

References

Fabre, J.H. (1897): Souvenirs Entomologiques, Vol. V, Paris

(Translation by de Mattos, A.T. (1918): The Sacred Beetle

and Others, London).

Fincher, G.T. & J.S. Hunter (1987): Mortality of beetles

caused by different egg treatments required for importa-

tion of exotic species. South West Entomologist 19: 32 1 -

325.

Halffter, G. & W.D. Edmonds (1982): The nesting behaviour

of dung beetles (Scarabaeidae). Instituto de Ecologia,

Mexico, D.F.

Halffter, G. & E.G. Matthews (1966): The natural history of

dung beetles of the subfamily Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera:

Scarabaeidae). Folia. Ent. Mexicana 12-14: 1-312.

Lee, B. (1979): Dung beetles to the rescue. New Scientist 82:

46-47.

Lee, J.M. & Y.S. Peng (1982): Influence of adult size of

Onthophagus gazella on manure pat degradation nest

construction and progeny size. Env. Entomol. 10: 626-630.

Lindquist, A.W. (1933): Amounts of dung buried and soil

excavated by certain Coprini (Scarabaeidae). J.Kans. Ent.

Soc. 6: 109-125.

Main, H. ( 1 922): Notes on the metamorphosis of Onthophagus.

Proc. Ent. Soc. London: 14-16.

Matthews, E.G. (1976): A revision of the Scarabaeine dung

beetles of Australia, III. Tribe Coprini. Aust. J. Zool. 38:

1-52.

Ritcher, P.O. (1945): Coprinae of Eastern North America with

descriptions of larvae and keys to genera and species

(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Kentucky Agric. Expl. Stat.

Bull. 47: 1-23.

Rougon, C. & D. Rougon (1980): Contribution a la biologie

des Coleopteres Coprophages en region Saheliene, Etude

du development Onthophagus gazella (Coleoptera:

Scarabaeinae). Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 17: 379-392.

Sim, R.J. (1930): Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera, Observations on

species unrecorded and little known in New Jersey. J.N.Y.

Ent. Soc. 38: 139-147.

Stapley, J.H. (1979): Notes on biological control in the Solomon

islands. IOBC Newsletter No. 11/12, 8: 4-5.

Tyndale-Biscoe, M., M.H. Wallace & J.M. Walker (1981):

An ecological study of an Australian dung beetle

Onthophagus granulatus Boheman (Coleoptera:

Scarabaeidae) using physiological age grading techniques.

Bull. Ent. Res. 71: 137-152.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

AN INTERESTING NEW SPECIES OF ANNECKEIDA BOUCEK

(HYMENOPTERA.TORYMIDAE) FROM INDIA1

PM. SURESHAN2 ANDT.C. NARENDRAN3

( Wi th fi ve text-figu res)

A new species of Torymidae, namely Anneckeida indica is described from the Indian sub-continent.

Introduction

The genus Anneckeida Boucek was so far

unknown in the Indian sub-continent. Boucek

(1978) recognised five species, A. watshami (Type

species) from Rhodesia, A, angustifrons, A.

orientalis , A. latifrons and A. laotica from the

Oriental Region.

Our studies of the torymid fauna (Narendran

1984, 1994; Narendran and Sureshan 1988, 1989)

reveal the existence of Anneckeida in the semi-

evergreen forest patch at Kottiyoor, under the

Kannur forest division of Kerala. The recorded

species, A. indica is recognised as new and hence

described. This forms the first record of the genus

from the Indian sub-continent.

The type specimens are presently kept in the

collections of Zoological Survey of India, Western

Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut but eventually

will be deposited in the National Zoological

collections of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Anneckeida indica sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-5)

female: Length 2.0 mm. Body black, with T1

metallic bluish violet, mainly on dorsal side; eyes

dark cupreous; ocelli pale yellow. Antennae

testaceous, with club slightly darker. All coxae and

hind femora concolorous with body; fore and mid

'Accepted December 1995.

Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field Research

Station, Calicut, Kerala-673 002, India.

^Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala-673 635,

India.

femora and all tibiae dark brown; tarsi testa-

ceous, with tips dark brown. Tegulae dark brown;

wings hyaline with pubescence and veins pale

brown.

Head (Figs. 1, 3 & 4) uniformly micro-

reticulate, with dense pubescence. In dorsal view

head width nearly 2x length (25:13); temples

strongly receding, length nearly 0.5x eye length;

POL: OOL =8:1; maximum diameter of ocellus 4.

In front view head width 1 .3x height (29:23); width

of fronto- vertex at median ocellus 0.3 1 x head width

(9:29); malar space length 0.38x eye length; inner

orbits converging upwards; ocelli in acute angular

triangle, lateral ones nearly touching the eyes;

anterior part of clypeus slightly convex, smooth,

anterior margin rounded.

Antennae (Fig. 2) short, formula 1 183; scape

length Q.38x eye length (12:31); pedicellus plus

flagellum nearly half of head width (19:37).

Thorax: Dorsum of thorax with dense

squamose reticulate sculpture and dense pubescence;

collar nearly as broad as mesoscutum, anterior edge

rounded, lateral panel depressed. Mesoscutum width

2.3x length, with notauli complete, shallow.

Scutellum almost as long as broad, anterior margin

separated by a deep groove; smooth frenal area

taking up one third length. Propodeum shiny, width

4. lx median length, with large reniform spiracles;

median carina strong, intersecting broad triangular

foveolate depression; callus densely hairy.

Mesepimeron smooth and shiny, with a crenulate

vertical furrow in the middle. Mesepisternum

moderately reticulate, slightly depressed posteriorly

and delimited anteriorly by a sharp edge. Prepectus

small, shiny. Metapleuron densely hairy, slightly

258

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Figs. 1-5. Anneckeida indica sp. nov. Female: 1. Body in profile; 2. Antenna; 3. Head in front view;

4. Head in dorsal view; 5. Forewing.

depressed and reticulate. Fore and mid legs normal.

Hind coxae (Fig. 1) large, lateral face flat and bare

with moderately raised reticulation; dorsal and

ventral edge hairy. Hind femur very large, length

1 .4x width, reticulate, ventral edge with a comb of

teeth, these minute up to middle, larger and wider

towards tip, length of long spur about 0.7x the

breadth of tibial apex. Hind tarsus length equal to

hind tibia. Forewing (Fig. 5) densely pubescent,

length 2x width. Relative lengths of smv, mv, pmv,

and stv as 24, 1 1.5, 5.5 and 2.

Gaster (Fig. 1) sessile, convex, length 1.8x

width in dorsal view and length 1.2x that of hind

femur in profile; T1 large and bare; T2 and T3 visible

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

259

only laterally; T4 large and hairy, apieal edge bare;

ovipositor sheath and ovipositor strongly protruded.

male: Length 1 .8- 1 .9 mm. Similar to female,

but body slightly shorter with bluish violet gloss on

T1 less prominent and apex of gaster slightly

different.

Holotype: female: india: Kerala: Kottiyoor

R.F (Kannur), Ambayathodu, 2.ii.l995, Coll. P.M

Sureshan.

Allotype: male: Same data as that of holotype.

Paratype: 1 Male, data same as that of

holotype.

Remarks: This species differs from all

Oriental species in the absence of a conspicuous

large tooth at the beginning of comb of teeth on

hind femora. However, it resembles the Oriental

species A. angustifrons in having inner orbits of head

distinctly converging upwards, narrow frons and

ocelli in acute angular triangle with lateral ones

virtually touching the eyes. But it differs from

angustifrons in having comparatively wider

frontovertex (0.3 lx head breadth), scutellum with

smooth frenal area taking up one third length, length

of long spur of hind tibia about 0.7x the breadth of

tibial apex, tip of T4 only bare and apex of T! and

base of T4 not being in the same plane and in its

smaller size (2.0 mm). (In angustifrons frontovertex

is 0.25x head breadth, smooth frenal area of

scutellum taking up only a quarter of the length,

length of long spur of hind tibia about 1 . 1 x breadth

of tibial apex, apical third of T4 bare, apex of T1

Refer

Boucek, Z. ( 1 978): Study on the non-podagrioninae Toryinidae

with enlarged hind femora with a key to the African genera

(Hymenoptera). J. Ent. Soc.Sth. Afr. 41(1): 91-134.

Narendran, T.C.(,1984): On three interesting species of

Torymidae from India (Hymenoptera:Chalcidoidea). Boll.

Lab. Ent. agr. Filippo Silvestri 41: 109-118.

Narendran, T.C.(1994): Torymidae and Eurytomidae of

Indian Sub-continent (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea)

and base of T4 almost in the same plane and size

larger 2.5 mm).

Following Boucek ( 1 978), the species comes

close to A. watshami , but differs from A. watshami

in having frontovertex narrow with inner orbits

distinctly converging; inner margins of eyes

distinctly diverging mouthwards; antenna with first

flagellar segment slightly shorter than second,

pedicellus not ovoid, longer than three following

segments combined; clypeus almost rounded

anteriorly; hind coxa on bare part with reticulation

not umbilicate, hind femur with teeth wider apart

and length 2.0 mm. (in watshami frontovertex not

much narrower with inner orbits not distinctly

converging; inner margins of eyes only slightly

diverging mouthwards; first flagellar segment

slightly longer than second, pedicellus ovoid, about

as long as three following segments combined;

clypeus sub-truncate anteriorly; hind coxa on bare

part with umbilicate punctures and hind femur with

teeth closer and length 2. 1-2.4 mm).

Acknowledgements

P.M.S. is grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and the Officer-in-charge,

Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field

Research Station, Calicut for providing facilities and

encouragement. We are thankful to the authorities

of University of Calicut, Kerala for the facilities

provided.

E N C E S

Zool. monograph. Dept. Zool. Uni. of Calicut, Kerala pp. 1 -

500.

Narendran, T.C. & P.M. Sureshan (1988): A contribution to

our knowledge of Torymidae of India. Boll. Lab. Ent. agr.

Filippo Silvestri 45: 31-41.

Narendran, T.C. & P.M. Sureshan (1989): On some Torymidae

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from India. Hexapoda 1: 45-

53.

260

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

TWO NEW SPECIES AND A REVISED KEY TO GENUS NEODIPLOCONUS HYSLOP

(COLEOPTERA, ELATERIDAE: MELANOTINAE) FROM INDIA1

PUNAM AND V. VASU2

( With eleven text-figures )

To the previously recorded four species of genus Neodiploconus Candeze from India, two new species have

been added. The new species described and illustrated are N. dirangensis and N. neeraae. A key for identification of

all Indian species of this genus is provided.

Introduction

Candeze ( 1 860) erected the genus Diploconus

based on eleven species. Because this name was

preoccupied, Hyslop (1921) renamed it as

Neodiploconus which was treated by Schenkling

(1927) in the Coleopterorum catalogus as such. So far

only four species of this genus were known from the

Indian subcontinent, and all have been described under

the genus Diploconus Candeze, i.e. three species by

Candeze (1860, 1891, 1896) and one by Fleutiaux

(1902). In the present paper two new species have been

described and illustrated providing complete

distributional data and population variation (if any).

A dichotomous key for the Indian species is given.

Holotypes of new species will be deposited at the

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa National

Collections, Division of Entomology, New Delhi.

Key to Indian species of Neodiploconus Hyslop

1. Body unicoloured; pronotum with median tubercle at its

posterior border 2

— Body bicoloured; pronotum simple 3

2. Legs black; pronotal punctation very fine

nigenimus (Fleutiaux, 1902)

— Legs ferruginous; pronotal punctation very large

co) acinus (Candeze, 1 860)

3. Elytra black; pronotum mainly red 4

— Elytra red with brownish margins; pronotum black

ornatus (Candeze, 1891)

4. Elytra truncate at extremity; pronotum with one small, black

median spot brevis (Candeze, 1 896)

‘Accepted December 1995.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147002,

India.

— Elytra rounded at extremity; pronotum with three median

spots 5

5. Pronotum with small, median, almost rounded spot one each

on lateral sides, confluent with broad median spot covering

most of dorsal surface (Figs. 1 ,2); antenna extending beyond

posterior angle of prothorax, segment 3 longer than 2 as

3:2; posterior angle with a tuft of setae

dirangensis sp.nov.

— Pronotum with small, median, almost rounded spots one

each on lateral sides and another on dorsal surface (Fig. 3);

antenna not reaching posterior angle of prothorax, segment

3 equal to 2; posterior angle without a tuft of setae

neeraae sp. nov.

Neodiploconus dirangensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1,2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11)

Description. '.Colour: Body black, alizarine

are: lateral one fourth of pronotum except median,

almost rounded spot and pronotal angles (Figs. 1,

2); propleurae entire; all sternites entire. Antenna

black. Legs piceous.

Measurements: Body : Length 9.5 mm, width

1.75 mm; head: length 0.75 mm, width 1.25 mm;

antenna 3.5 mm; thorax: length 2 mm, width 1 .75 mm;

elytra 6.5 mm.

Structure: Body width less than 0.25 x its

length. Head flat, broader than long as 5:3; frons

with anterior margin rounded, supra-antennary crest

transverse (Fig. 9). Antenna serrate (Fig. 7),

extending beyond posterior angle of prothorax;

segment 3 longer than 2 as 3:2 but distinctly shorter

than 4 as 4:9. Pronotum subcon vex with faint medial

longitudinal depression in its posterior 1/3, longer

than broad as 8:7, gradually narrowing anteriorly,

bicarinate, carinae short, not reaching middle of

prothorax; posterior angles rounded, with a tuft of

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

261

setae (Fig. 1). Prosternal spine pointed, not margined,

gradually narrowing at base, inclined at 30° from its

main axis. Scutellum flat, longer than broad as 5:3,

anterior and posterior margins rounded, lateral sides

constricted anteriorly (Fig. 4). Elytra flat, 3.25x

prothorax length, rounded at extremity (Fig. 11);

striae distinct. Metabasitarsus equal to following 2

joints combined.

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense,

moderate, rounded punctation; pronotum with

simple, sparse, small, rounded punctation; propleurae

punctated like pronotum; prosternum with simple,

sparse, small, rounded punctation; elytral striae with

deep, distinct, rounded punctation; interstriae with

shallow, scattered punctation.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

dense, erect, blackish pubescence.

Male genitalia: Fig. 6. Phallobase with two

anterolateral processes, anterior margin arcuate.

Parameres simple, with subapical processes.

Aedeagus longer than parameres, tubular and ending

into nipple-like apex: furcae long, extending well

beyond anterior limits of parameres.

Material examined. Holotype : Male, Arunachal

Pradesh, Dirang, 1500 m, 10.5.1992. Paratypes : 3

males, 1 female, with same data as holotype.

Distribution, india: Arunachal Pradesh.

Population variation: Lateral medial black

spot may be narrowly to broadly confluent with

broad medial black spot (Fig. 2).

Diagnostic characters: On the basis of some

broad key characters such as: bicoloured body; black

elytra with rounded extremities and bicoloured,

simple pronotum, N. dirangensis remains distinctly

separated from all the Indian species of this genus

but comes close to N. neeraae from which it differs

in pronotum having large blackish dorsal surface

(small spot in latter), antenna extending beyond

posterior angle of prothorax (not reaching posterior

angle in latter), segment 3 longer than 2 (equal in

latter) and posterior angle with a tuft of setae (without

setae in latter).

Etymology: Species name pertains to its type

locality.

11

Figs. 1-3. Pronotum: 1. Neodiploconus dirangensis,

2. N. dirangensis (Population variation),

3. N. neeraae; Figs. 4-5. Scutellum:

4. N. dirangensis, 5. N. neeraae;

Fig. 6. Male genitalia of N. dirangensis ;

Figs. 7-8. Antenna: 7. N. dirangensis, 8. N. neeraae',

Figs. 9-10. Head: 9. N. dirangensis, 10. N. neeraae',

Fig. 11. Elytra of N. dirangensis.

Neodiploconus neeraae sp. nov.

(Figs. 3,5,8,10)

Description: Colour: Body black, alizarine

are: pronotum (Fig. 3) except three small, medial

spots (one each on lateral side and one on dorsal

surface); propleurae; mesosternum; mesosternal

plate; and all sternites except posterior half of apical

one. Antenna black. Legs piceous.

Measurements: Body : Length 10.5 mm, width

2.5 mm; head length 0,75 mm, width 1 mm, antenna

3 mm; thorax length 2.25 mm, width 2.5 mm; elytra

7 mm.

Structure: Body width less than 0.25 x its

262

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 93 (1996)

length. Head flat, broader than long as 4:3; frons

with complete carina, anterior margin truncate,

supra-antennary crest oblique (Fig. 10). Antenna

subserrate (Fig. 8), not reaching posterior angle of

prothorax; segment 3 equal to 2 but distinctly shorter

than 4 as 2:3. Pronotum convex with a distinct

median longitudinal furrow in its posterior 1/3,

broader than long as 9:8, gradually narrowing

anteriorly, bicarinate, carinae short, not reaching

middle of prothorax; posterior angles rounded,

diverging, without tuft of setae; prosternal spine

pointed, not margined, gradually narrowing between

mesocoxae, descending at 30° from its main axis.

Scutellum flat, longer than broad as 5:3, anterior

margin arcuate, posterior margin truncate, lateral

sides straight and parallel (Fig. 5). Elytra flat, 3. 1 x

prothorax length, rounded at extremity; striae

distinct. Metabasitarsus equal to following 2 joints

combined.

Sculpture: Head with simple, dense,

moderate, rounded punctation; pronotum with

simple, sparse, minute, rounded punctation;

propleurae and prosternum punctated like pronotum;

elytral striae with deep, distinct, rounded puncta-

tion, interstriae with shallow, scattered fine

punctation.

Pubescence: Body covered with simple,

moderate, erect, blackish pubescence.

male: Not found.

Material examined: Holotype : Female, Uttar

Pradesh, Fata (Sonprayag), 2000 m, 13.6.1994.

Population variation: Single specimen

examined.

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh.

Diagonostic characters: The characters

differentiating N. neeraae from N. clircingensis have

already been indicated elsewhere in this paper.

Etymology: Species name is after its collector,

Dr. Neera Raghav.

Acknowledgement

We thank Prof. L.K. Vats, Kurukshetra

University, Kurukshetra for his valuable suggestions.

References

Candeze, E. (1860): Monographic des Elaterides III. Mem. Soc.

R. Sci. Liege 15: 1-512.

Candeze, E. (1891): Elaterides recueillis en Birmanie en 1888

par M.L. Fea. Ann. Soc. Civ. Star. not. G. Doria, Genova, 10:

771-793.

Candeze, E. (1896): Elaterides nouveaux, VI. Mem. Soc. R. Sci.

Liege, 19(2): 1-88.

Fleutiaux, E. (1902): Contribution a la faune indo-chinoise. 18

mem. Deuxieme addition aux Cicindelidae et Elateridae. Ann.

Soc. ent. Fr„ 71: 569-580.

Hyslop, J.A. (1921): Genotypes of the elaterid beetles of the

World. Proc. U. S. not. Mas.. 58: 621-680.

Shenkung, S. (1927): Coleopterorum Catalogus, Elaterdae II.

W. Junk, Berlin 88: 265-636.

A NEW SPECIES OF DILOPH1LA THOMS. (BRASSICACEAE) FROM

GARHWAL HIMALAYA (INDIA)1

D.S. Rawat, L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur2

( With

During recent plant explorations near the

snow-line in the alpine zones of Garhwal Himalaya

(Northwest Himalaya), a few specimens of

Brassicaceae were collected from Roopkund area

(4850 m a.s.l.). After checking the literature these

were identified as of a new species of the genus

'Accepted November 1995.

:P.B. 86, Deptt. of Botany, HNB Garhwal University,

Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174, India.

text-figure )

Dilophila Thom, which is named after Prof. V. Puri.

Dslophila purii sp. nov.

(Fig. 1 A-M)

Herbae parvae perennes, acaulescentes, cum

caudice longo. Caudex supra ramosis, unusquisque

ramus rosulam foliorum terminalem ferens. Folia

spathulata, longe petiolata, 6.0-12.0 x 2. 0-4.0 mm,

succulentia. Scapus uniflorus, menifeste oriens e

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

263

Fig. 1. A-M. Dilophila purii sp. nov.: A. Flowering plant; B. Leaf; C-1 C2. Flowers; D. Sepals and nectary ring;

E. Sepal (side view); F‘-F4. Sepals; G‘-G4. Petals; H. Stamens; I. Gynoecium;

J1- J2. The way in which gynoecium open up; K. T.S. of Ovary; L. V.S. of Ovary; M. Two placentae separated.

caudice inter rosulam foliorum, 6.0-10.0 mm 2.0 x 0.75-1.0 mm. Petala 4, alba ad eburnea, ad

longus, sparsim glandularis. Sepala 4, ovata, viridia, apicem bifida, obovata, 2. 0-3.0 x 1 .0-2.0 mm. Gians

marginibus alba, papyracea extus glandularia, 1 .5- annularis nectarifera praedita inter petala et stamina.

264

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Stamina 6, lobi antherae ovati, extrinsecus reflexi,

flavi. Carpellum late rotundatum compressum, 2.0-

2.5 x 1.5-1.75 mm, uniloculare, ovuli affixi in

quoque latere in placentatione parietali, pauci (4-

8). Carpellum aperiens a valvis; stylus parvus,

stigma fusca. (Fructi maturi non visi).

Typus: india, Northwest Himalaya, Roopkund

(4850 m), 11th Aug., 1993,0.5. Rawat, Holotypus

GUH 22,498 A; Isotypus GUH- 22,498 B.

Small acaulescent perennial herbs with long

rootstock. Rootstock branched above, each branch

carrying a terminal rosette of leaves. Leaves

spatulate, long petioled, 6.0-12.0 x 2. 0-4.0 mm,

succulent. Scapes single flowered, directly arising

from the rootstock from the centre of the rosette of

leaves, 6.0- 1 0.0 mm long, sparsely glandular. Sepals

4, ovate, green with white papery margins, glandular

outside, 1. 5-2.0 x 0.75-1.0 mm. Petals 4, creamy

white, bifid at the tip, obovate, 2. 0-3.0 x 1. 0-2.0

mm. Annular nectariferous gland present between

petals and stamens. Stamens 6, anther lobes ovate,

reflexed outward, yellow. Carpel broadly rounded,

compressed, 2. 0-2. 5 x 1.5-1.75 mm, unilocular,

ovules attached on either sides in the parietal

placentation, few (4-8). Carpel opening through

valves; style small, thick; stigma dark (mature fruits

not seen).

Flowering: August.

Habitat: Among the boulders and scree near

snow-line.

The species is allied to Dilophila salsa Thoms,

but differs from it in having only radical leaves

(differently shaped radical and cauline leaves in D.

salsa), radical leaves being spatulate. Flowers inD.

purii are solitary on slender scapes which arise

directly from the rootstock in the centre of leaf

rosette while D. salsa has a condensed and compact

raceme of 10-20 flowers. Furthermore pedicels and

sepals (outside) are glandular in D. purii.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. V.J. Nair, Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew for his critical comments and Prof.

H. Ohba, University of Tokyo, Japan for providing

literature. Thanks are also due to Dr. N. C. Majumdar

for latin diagnosis. The senior author (DSR) is

thankful to UGC, New Delhi for financial assis-

tance.

A REMARKABLE NEW GENUS OF BRACONIDAE (HYMENOPTERA) FROM INDIA1

C.G. Rema and T.C. Narendran2

( With six text-figures )

A new Braconid genus, namely Neoclarkinella gen. nov. of the subfamily Microgastrinae from India is described

and its affinities discussed.

Introduction

In continuation of our studies on Indian

Braconidae (Narendran etal. 1992,1996; Sumodan

and Narendran 1990), we found out that the species

described by Sumodan and Narendran (1990) from

Nilambur, actually belongs to a remarkable genus

new to science and not to the common genus

Apanteles Foerster as thought by Sumodan and

Narendran (1990). This new genus is described

'Accepted March 1996.

department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala-673 635.

hereunder and its affinities are described. The

species is also redescribed adding further details for

identification based on fresh materials.

Neoclarkinella gen. nov.

Type species: Apanteles nilamburensis

Sumodan & Narendran

Diagnosis: Scutellum broad and slightly

convex. Scutellar lunules large and triangular.

Forewing with radius shorter than first intercubitus.

Forewing without areolet. Margin of vannal lobe of

hindwing nearly flat and with few sparse hairs.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

265

Propodeum dull with a strong midlongitudinal

carina and rather weak transverse carina basally.

T1 about 4x as long as its apex, aciculate and

narrowed at apex. Hypopygium large and striated

along median line. Ovipositor longer than hind tibia.

Ovipositor sheath hairy throughout, 0.6x as long as

hind tibia.

Remarks: Neoclarkinella closely resembles

the genus Clarkinella Mason (Mason 1981) in

having propodeum with a complete median carina

and a transverse basal carina; T1 parallel sided on

the basal half, thence strongly tapered to a narrow

apex, hypopygium about half as long as abdomen,

ovipositor sheath long and hairy throughout.

Neoclarkinella however differs from Clarkinella

Mason in having large and triangular scutellar

lunules (lunule of scutellum small and arcuate in

Clarkinella ), forewing without areolet (small areolet

present in Clarkinella), radius shorter than first

intercubitus (radius longer than first intercubitus in

Clarkinella ), transverse carina of propodeum not

forming a fork on either side of spiracle (transverse

carina of propodeum sending a fork on either side

of the spiracle in Clarkinella ), T1 aciculate (T1

mostly smooth except for small area of finely

aciculate or granular sculpture centrally in

Clarkinella), hypopygium striate along median line

(hypopygium not striate along median line in

Clarkinella).

Neoclarkinella also resembles the genus

Xenogaster Mason (Mason 1 98 1 ) in having coarsely

punctate mesonotum, forewing without areolet,

propodeum with a midlongitudinal carina and a

basal transverse carina, T2 subtriangular and T3

longer than T2, ovipositor sheath hairy throughout

their pigmented part. But Neoclarkinella differs

from Xenogaster Mason in having large and

triangular scutellar lunules (lateral lunules of

scutellum absent in Xenogaster), propodeum dull

(propodeum mostly shiny in Xenogaster), T1 about

4x as long as its apex, narrowed at the apex and

without a median groove (in Xenogaster T1 nearly

twice as long as wide, basally parallel sided, broadly

rounded on the apical 0.4 and with a sharp median

groove basally), ovipositor longer than hind tibia

(ovipositor shorter than hind tibia in Xenogaster),

hypopygium large, nearly half as long as abdomen,

striated along the median line (in Xenogaster

hypopygium short and not striated).

Neoclarkinella nilamburensis (Sumodan &

Narendran) comb. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

Apanteles nilamburensis Sumodan &

Narendran, 1990. J. Ecol. 2(3) p.239 (DZCU)

examined.

Metatype female: Length 2.9 mm (excluding

ovipositor) ovipositor 1.4 mm; forewing 3 mm;

antenna 3.7 mm. Head and thorax black, mandibles

yellow; eyes brown with black patches; antenna

black (except basal part of scape), scape testaceous

basally; ocelli shining yellow; wings hyaline; tegula

yellow, stigma and wing veins dark brown; fore and

mid legs honey yellow, hind leg honey yellow except

apex of hind tibia and hind tarsi which are dark

brown; tibial spur pale yellow; tergites black except

(T1 having U shaped yellow part basally); ovipositor

yellow; ovipositor sheath black.

Head: Transverse, width 2x as its length;

occiput smooth, vertex punctate, pubescent; OOL:

POL-3:4; antenna longer than the body, all

flagellomeres with 2 ranks of placodes. Flagellar

formula: 2L/W=3.6, 14L/W=2, 8L/W=3, L2/

14=1.8, W2/14=l ; face lightly punctate, pubescent

with a faint median longitudinal carina; eye length :

malar space 9:2.

Thorax: Both upper and lower grooves of side

of pronotum deep and crenulate, the area between

them punctate; mesoscutum coarsely punctate,

pubescent; prescutellar furrow crenulated; disc of

scutellum coarsely punctate, sparsely pubescent;

propodeum dull with a strong mid-longitudinal

carina and a transverse carina at basal one-third,

remaining parts with few carinulae.

Wings: Stigma shorter than metacarp, breadth

of stigma shorter than r, r shorter than r-m, breadth

of stigma equal to recurrent; hind coxa shiny,

punctate, longer than first three tergites combined,

longer hind tibial spur longer than half metatarsus

266

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

0-5mm

ScuteUar

lunulc

5

0-5 mm

05mm

Figs. 1-6. Neoclarkinella nilaniburensis comb, nov.: 1. Body profile; 2. Head front view; 3. Head dorsal view

4.Mesoscutum and scutellum; 5.Propodeum; 6.T1-T3 (Tergite 1-Tergite 3).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

267

and shorter spur one-third of it.

Gaster: T1 at apex 0.43x as wide as base,

aciculate; T2 length 0.23x length of T1 , 0.6x of T3,

apical width 3x length, basal width = length; T3

longer than T2, T2 and T3 almost smooth, but

sparsely punctate at apex, T3 with a transverse

depression basally; remaining tcrgites smooth and

laterally compressed; ovipositor sheath longer than

metatarsus, but shorter than hind femora;

hypopygium about half as long as abdomen, 0.5x

as long as hind tibia, apical and ventral margins, in

profile, making an angle of 50°.

male: Characters same as that of female.

Metatype female: India, Kerala, Anakatty,

T.C. Narendran, 7. i. 1989. Other materials examined:

1 Male, india, Kerala, Neendakara, T.C. Narendran,

22. ii. 1987; 1 Male, india, Kerala, C.U. Campus,

Refer

Mason, W.R.M.( 198 1 ): The polyphyletic nature of Apanteles

Foerster (Hymenoptera : Braconidae): A phylogeny and

reclassification of Microgastrinae. Mem.Ent.Soc. Canada

115 : 1-147.

Narendran, T.C., RK. Sumodan & C.G. Rema (1992): A study

of Indian species of Chelonus Panzer (Hymenoptera:

Braconidae). J.Zool.Soc. Kerala 2(2): 1-9.

T.C. Narendran, 1988. (All specimens deposited in

the collections of Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut).

Note: Apart from the above materials the ori-

ginal Holotype and Paratypes of Apanteles

nilamburensis Sumodan and Narendran (1990) were

also studied.

Etymology : Neoclarkinella , name derived

from Clarkinella, owimi to the close resemblance

of this genus to Clarkinella Mason.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Council of Scientific

and Industrial Research and to the University of

Calicut for financial assistance and facilities for our

studies.

ENCES

Narendran, T.C., C.G. Rema & M. Madhavikutty (1996):

Three new species of Cassidibracon Quicke (Hymenop-

tera: Braconidae) from India. Bioved ./. 5(2): 125-

132.

Sumodan, P.K. & T.C. Narendran (1990): Five new species of

Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from

Kerala, India. J. Ecobiol. 2(3): 239-248.

THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA: MACROCHELIDAE) IN INDIA -

ADDITIONAL NEW SPECIES AND NEW RECORDS ASSOCIATED WITH DUNG

BEETLES (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

Ranjit Kumar Roy2

(With sixteen text-figures )

Additional new species of insecticolous Macmcheles, namely M. erichsonii and M. quadrilineatus are described

from South India. In addition, the paper presents further distributional records for M. nialabaricus Evans & Hyatt, M.

nevernalis Evans & Hvatt, M. cevlonicus Evans & Hvatt from Peninsular India.

Karnataka. The present contribution describes two

more new species from South India. The present

paper is based on material recovered from dung

beetles collected from Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In addition to the description

of two new species (M. erichsonii and M.

quadrilineatus ), the paper gives new distributional

records for M. nialabaricus, M. nevernalis and M.

ceylonicus described by Evans and Hyatt (1963).

Introduction

In part IV of the series (Roy 1994a), two new

species of insecticolous Macrocheles , namely M.

punctovariata and M. sisiri were described from

'Accepted February 1996. This is the seventh paper in the series.

“Studies on Indian Macrocheles”.

department of Zoology, Dibrugarh Hanumanbox Surajmal Kanoi

College, Dibrugarh - 786001, Assam, India.

268

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

M. malabaricus , earlier known only from Malabar,

has been recorded from Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. While the other two species,

initially known to be distributed only in Tamil Nadu,

are now found in the other southern states as well.

The collections were made on three field

collecting trips undertaken by me during 1980, 1988

and 1992.

An earlier publication in the series (Roy

1994a) was based on the examination of 7 specimens

of Heliocopris sp. 1 revealing M. punctovariata, a

new species (total 8 females and a male recovered),

and 1 0 specimens of Copris sp. 1 revealing the second

new species, namely M. sisiri (total 19 females

recovered). Seventeen specimens of beetle material

utilised in the study were also part of the total

collection of beetles harbouring macrochelid mites

during the present course of study.

The beetles were usually collected under street

lights after 9 p.m., till midnight and also from dairy

farms using a petromax lantern as the source of

illumination to attract beetles and also by laying traps

baited with dung in the vicinity of cattle sheds.

Four hundred and two coprid beetles were

collected during the field trips. Mites belonging to

six families were represented, namely the

Macrochelidae, Pachylaelapidae, Eviphididae,

Parasitidae, Uropodidae and Ascidae. The family

Macrochelidae was found on 302 beetles, either

exclusively or with phoretic non-macrochelid mites.

Another 68 beetles harboured only non-macrochelid

mites and the remaining beetles carried no mites.

Macrocheles fauna recovered from 133 beetle

specimens (material comprising 18 species of Coprid

beetles) out of the total collection of 302 beetles is

being presented in this series. The other macrochelid

genera represented in the material ar eNeopodocinum

Oudemans and Glyptholaspis Filipponi &

Pegazzano. The former genus was recorded earlier

(Roy 1994b) in a preliminary report and the latter

genus was treated in an earlier publication (Roy

1988). Additional information now available on both

the genera, together with information following

completion of the unexamined material on the family

Macrochelidae would be dealt with in subsequent

publications.

In recent years, the largest study on phoretic

Macrocheles associated with dung beetles was

conducted by Wallace (1986) in Australia. The study

was based on the examination of a large collection

of beetles maintained in the Australian National

Insect Collection (ANIC) housed at Commonwealth

Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

(CSIRO), Division of Entomology, Canberra and

nine species of Macrocheles phoretic on dung beetles

were reported by Wallace (loc.cit.). Bhat etal. (1983)

reported two adult females of Nothrholaspis sp.

recovered from Rattus rattus gangutrianus and

S uncus murinus from India. Berlese (1918) erected

the genus Nothrholaspis and it was included in the

family Macrochelidae by Vitzthum (1930). The

genus is no longer valid and it has been synonymised

with the genus Macrocheles by Evans & Browning

(1956) comprising the largest number of species

among mesostigmatids. Bhat et al. (loc. cit.) also

collected nymphs of Nothrholaspis sp. from man

(probably the only record), cattle sheds, chicken

coops and Rattus rattus gangutrianus from the states

of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim. The

female specimens collected by them may be

members of the glaber group (unpublished research

data under preparation) and they occasionally

become phoretic on insects (beetles and synanthropic

flies) and often on vertebrates. Nymphs excluding

the genus Neopodocinum among the Macrochelidae

are non-phoretic. Pending examination of the

material collected by Bhat et al, the identity of the

specimens remain doubtful.

Phoresy is a form of commensalism, an

association evolved between forms capable of fast

movement (insects and vertebrates) and others (mites

and nematodes) lacking that capability, through co-

sharing a common habitat — the latter forms exploit

the former to their advantage for quick dispersal in

search of a suitable habitat when adverse conditions

threaten their survival in a particular habitat.

Adaptive trends towards a phoretic mode of life are

seen among members of the genus Macrocheles

accompanied by cheliceral modification for grasping

the host body (Evans and Hyatt 1963) as well as

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

269

reduction in the size of the ventral shields together

with the degeneration of sclerotisation to reduce body

weight in the true phoretic forms, in contrast to the

members that only occasionally become phoretic

(Unspecialised phoresy). Scarabaeus sp. 1 with M.

perglaber Fil & Pegg, grasping bristles around the

mouth parts of the beetle, together with soil

nematodes phoretic on the mite has been collected

on two occasions from light traps at Dibrugarh during

the present study.

The primary aim of the study is to provide

information on biological resources associated with

various types of dung, which would be the essential

prerequisite to stimulate applied research focussing

attention on other biological parameters like feeding

habits, food preferences and behavioural

relationships among the dung dwellers leading to the

evaluation of their possibility as biological control

agents. In the developed countries the trend of

applied acarological research has been directed

towards the goal of controlling synanthropic flies

by employing some species of Macrocheles

occurring in dung with considerable success. In

recent years in Malaysia studies aiming at similar

objectives have been initiated by Ho and Ismail

(1988,1990); Ho (1990) and Ho and Auemetua

(1990).

The material is in my collection.

Measurements cited in the text are in micrometres.

Methods

Mites were recovered from beetle hosts using

a fine brush or often with a needle and placed in

lactophenol, which was then heated until the mites

were clean enough for microscopic examination.

Mites were usually found lodged around coxal

cavities, mouth parts and under the elytrae. Camera

lucida drawings were prepared from temporary

mounts. Tarsus II of female was drawn in situ.

Chelicerae of both sexes, legs II and IV of male were

dissected for illustrations. Heinze-PVA mounting

medium was used for mounting the types and the

dissected parts on slides. The other specimens, after

microscopic study, were preserved in 70% alcohol.

Description of species

1 . Macrocheles erichsonii sp. nov.

female (Figs. 1 -5) : Dorsal shield (Fig. 1 ) 606-

652 long, 333-348 wide, faintly reticulate. Vertical

setae, (jl) distally plumose, their bases almost

contiguous, setae j4, z4, Z3, Z4, S5 and Z5 distally

plumose; other dorsal setae pointed and simple.

Extra-marginal setae simple.

Sternal shield (Fig. 2) granulated throughout

and covered with punctures; /. m. t. and /. ang.

present; sternal setae smooth. Metasternal shields

each with a simple seta. Genital shield ornamented

with punctate lines, genital setae smooth at

posterolateral corners. Ventrianal shield 182-212

long, 182-197 wide, ornamented with punctate

transverse lines; ventrianal setae fairly long and

smooth.

Gnathosoma with five rows of deutosternal

denticles. Tectum as shown in Fig. 3. Both movable

and fixed digit of chelicera (Fig. 4) bidentate;

cheliceral brush more than half the length of movable

digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-424; 11-303; III-288; IV-424. Tarsus I

(90) longer than tibia I (75), Tarsus II (Fig. 5) 106;

tibia 11-75. Genu IV with six simple setae.

male (Figs. 6-11). Dorsal shield (Fig. 6) 530-

575 long, 288-333 wide, ornamentation as in female,

attenuated posteriorly and bearing 30 pairs of setae.

Setae j 1 , j4, z4, r3, Z4, j5, S5 and Z5 pilose.

Genital orifice presternal in position.

Sternitigenital shield (Fig. 7) 227 long, 121-136

wide, non-reticulate and with five pairs of simple

setae. Ventrianal shield (Fig. 7) 166-197 long, 152-

182 wide, devoid of reticulation and with 9 simple

setae.

Gnathosoma as in female. Tectum as shown

in Fig. 8. Chelicera (Fig. 9) with movable digit

unidentate; fixed digit bidentate; sperm atophoral

process long; cheliceral brush two-thirds of movable

digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-439; 11-318; III-242; IV-424. Femur II

270

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Figs. 1-5: Macrocheles erichsonii sp. nov. Female: Fig. 1. Dorsal Shield; Fig. 2. Venter; Fig. 3. Tectum;

Fig. 4. Chelicera; Fig. 5. Tarsus II.

(Fig. 10) with a prominent lateral spur; tarsus II with

a protuberance (Fig. 10); trochanter and femur IV

(Fig. 11) spurred; tarsus IV (Fig. 11) with a

protuberance.

Material Examined: Holotype : female, India:

Andhra Pradesh: Arku Valley, 20.iii. 1 980, ex

Scarabaeus erichsoni Harold; Allotype male, Tamil

Nadu: Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University Campus, Central Dairy Farm, 1 3.iii. 1980,

ex manure heaps; Paratypes: 1 female, Coimbatore,

near Central market, 16. ii. 1992, ex Onthophagus

orientalis Harold; 2 females, Nilgiri Hills,

Ootacamund, Botanical Garden, 1 8.ii. 1 992, ex O.

orientalis ; 1 female, Nilgiri Hills; Pykara, village

area, 1 9.ii. 1 992, exCatharsius molossus L. ; 3 males,

Coimbatore, TNAU Campus, Central Dairy Farm,

1 3.111. 1 980, ex manure heaps; 6 females, Nagercoil,

3.111. 1992, ex Scarabaeus erichsoni ; 2 females,

Madras, Deer Park, 1 5.iii. 1 992, ex Scarabaeus

erichsoni; 3 females, Andhra Pradesh:

Visakhapatnam, cattle shed near Andhra University

campus, 30.iii. 1992, ex Scarabaeus brahminus Cast;

2 females, Karnataka: Mysore, Zoo Garden,

1 6.iii. 1980, ex Gymnopleurus maculosns McLeay;

1 female, Bangalore, Nandi Hills, 1 0. viii. 1 988, ex

Cop ris spinator Harold; 2 females, Kerala:

Trivandrum, outskirts of Rly. Station, 2.iii. 1992, ex

Catharsius granulatus Sharp.

Distribution: india: Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: Macrocheles erichsonii is close to

M. robustulus (Berlese) in respect of punctate

ornamentation of the sternal shield and also in dorsal

chaetotaxy. M. robustulus has been redescribed as

Macrocheles punctillatus Willmann, 1939 by

Bregetova and Koroleva (1960) and as M.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

271

rothamstedensis by Evans and Browning (1956).

Costa (1966) also illustrated the species. Setae jl,

j4, z4, r2, S5, Z5 and Z3-4 are plumose in erichsonii.

Plumose nature of setae may vary; seta z2 plumose

as illustrated by Evans and Browning (Fig. 14, p.

1 5, 1956); z2 being simple as shown by Costa (1 967),

Bregetova and Koroleva (1960); the seta is simple

in the present species. The sternal shield in erichsoni

is finely granular and /. ang. and /. o. p. discernible,

even though formed by punctures, but in robustulus

these liniae are not discernible as illustrated by

Bregetova and Koroleva (Fig. 91, p. 127, 1960).

Besides the shape and ornamentation of the

ventrianal shield of robustulus figured by Bregetova

and Koroleva is also different. The occurrence of

this species in manure heaps was reported by Axtell

(1961), Costa ( 1 967). Ridsdill Smith and Hull ( 1 984)

recorded a good collection of M. robustulus in dung

baited pitfall traps in Western Australia. This species

could not be located on any of the dung beetles or

from manure heaps during the present study. M.

erichsonii belongs to robustulus group for its

affinities with M. robustulus.

2. Macrocheles quadrilineatus sp. nov.

female (Figs. 12-16) : Dorsal shield (Fig. 12)

500-600 long, 315-345 wide, reticulate and bearing

28 pairs of simple setae, insertions of verticals

adjacent.

Sternal shield (Fig. 13) granular, l.o.p.

extending almost to the centre of the shield; l.o.a.

also distinct, /. arc. and l.a.t. well-marked; sternal

setae smooth.

Metasternal shields elongate, each with a

simple seta, subequal to sternals. Genital shield

granular, truncated posteriorly, ornamented with

punctate lines along accessory sclerites and a medial

punctate line in the form of an inverted ‘U’; genital

setae smooth. Ventrianal shield 165-180 long, 150

wide, finely granular, subtriangular, ornamented with

faint transverse lines; ventrianal setae in most of the

specimens lost. Metapodal shields as usual, close to

the coxae IV. Ventrolateral integument striate,

integumental setae short and simple. Stigmata typical

of genus, peritremes each terminating anterodorsally

to a median point between insertions of jl and zl.

Gnathosoma with five rows of deutosternal

denticles. Tectum as illustrated in Fig. 14. Chelicera

as shown in Fig. 1 5. Cheliceral brush more than half

the length of the movable digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

Figs.6-11: Macrocheles erichsonii sp. nov. Male: Fig. 6. Dorsal Shield; Fig. 7. Venter; Fig. 8. Tectum;

Fig. 9. Chelicera; Fig. 10. Trochanter, femur, genu, tibia and tarsus of leg II.

Fig. 1 1 . Coxa, trochanter, femur, genu, tibia and tarsus of leg IV.

272

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996 )

pretarsi): 1-315; 11-375; III-300; IV-450. Tarsus I (90)

longer than tibia I (60). Tarsus II (Fig. 16) (90); tibia

II (60). Genu IV with six simple setae.

male: Unknown.

Material Examined: Holotype : female: India:

Karnataka: Mysore, Zoo Garden, 1 6.iii. 1980, ex

Scarcibaeus brahminus ; Paratypes : 5 females

collection data as that of holotype; 5 females, Tamil

Nadu: Nagercoil, 3.iii.l992, ex Heliocopris midas

(F.); 4 females, Tirunelveli, 1 1 .iii . 1 992, ex

Heliocopris bucephalus (F.); 4 females,

Kanyakumari, 4. iii. 1992, ex Gymnopleurus

maculosus McLeay; 2 females, Tirunelveli,

1 1 .iii. 1 992, ex Onitis singhalensis Lansb.

Distribution: India: Karnataka and Tamil

Nadu.

Remarks: Setae of both dorsal and ventral

shields in most of the specimens were lost. Altogether

21 specimens could be recovered from beetle hosts

on which this description has been based.

3. Macrocheles malabaricus Evans & Hyatt

Macrocheles malabaricus Evans and Hyatt,

1963, Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 9(9): 354.

Material examined: 1 female, Andhra

Pradesh: Guntur, 1 9.iii. 1 992, ex Heliocopris

bucephalus ; 2 females, Vijaywada, 18.iii.1992, ex

Heliocopris bucephalus ; 2 females, Eluru,

1 7. 111. 1992, ex Heliocopris dominus Bates; 2 females,

Karnataka: Gundelpet, 1 5.ii. 1 992, ex Catharsius

molossus L.; 3 females, Bangalore, GKVK campus,

1 0. viii. 1 988, ex Heliocopris dominus ; 2 females,

Bangalore, IISc campus, 1 1 .viii. 1988, ex Onitis

singhalensis Lansb; 4 females, Bangalore,

Krishnarajapuram, 1 1 .viii. 1988, ex Onitis subopacus

Arrow; 1 female, Bangalore, Nandi hills,

10. viii. 1 988, ex Onitis philemon; 6 females,

Bangalore, Golap Bagh, 1 2. viii. 1 988, ex Copris

sp.2;l female, Kerala: Quilon, 1. iii. 1992, ex

Catharsius granulatus Sharp; 1 female, Trivandrum,

Kerala University campus, 2. iii. 1992, ex

Onthophagus cervus (F.); 3 females, Palghat,

14. 111. 1980, ex O. unifasciatus F.; 2 females, Tamil

Nadu: Coimbatore, TNAU campus, Dairy Farm,

1 3 .111 . 1 980, ex O. unifasciatus ; 4 females,

Ootacamund, Botanical Garden, 1 8.ii. 1 992, ex O.

orientalis; 1 female, Kodaikanal, Bryant Park,

12. 111. 1980, exO. orientalis ; 2 females Rameswaram,

7. 111. 1992, exO. cervus (F.); 1 female, Pamban area,

7. 111. 1992, ex Onitis philemon; 3 females

Dhanushkodi, 8 . iii . 1 992, ex Onitis singhalensis

Lansb.

Distribution: india: Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: Evans and Hyatt (1963) described

this species based on a single female off

Gymnopleurus maculosus McLeay in the collections

of the British Museum (Natural History), London.

Since 1963, this is the first record of the species from

south India. The species seems to be distributed only

in peninsular India.

4. Macrocheles nevernalis Evans & Hyatt

Macrocheles nevernalis Evans & Hyatt, 1963,

Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 9(9): 361.

Material examined: 1 female, Andhra

Pradesh: Guntur, 19.iii.1992, ex Oniticellus sp.l; 4

females, Vijaywada, 1 8. iii. 1 992, ex Onitis philemon ;

3 females, Visakhapatnam, cattle shed near Andhra

University campus, 30.iii. 1992, ex Copris sp.2; 4

females, Karnataka: Bangalore, Golap Bagh,

1 2. viii. 1 988, ex Copris spinator; 3 females,

Bangalore, Nandi Hills, 10. viii. 1988, ex Catharsius

molossus ; 4 females, Kerala: Trivandrum, Kerala

University campus, 2. iii. 1992, ex Onthophagus

orientalis; 5 females, Tamil Nadu: Arkonam,

1 3. 111. 1992, ex Scarabaeus erichsoni.

Distribution: India: Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: Evans and Hyatt’s (1963)

description of nevernalis was based on 4 females

collected ex Scarabaeus brahminus cast at Namakal,

Salem, Tamil Nadu.

5. Macrocheles ceylonicus Evans & Hyatt

Macrocheles ceylonicus Evans & Hyatt, 1 963,

Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 9(9): 341.

Material Examined: 1 female, Andhra

Pradesh: Rajahmundry, 20.iii.1992, ex Scarabaeus

erichsoni; 7 females Rajahmundry, 22. iii. 1992, ex

Scarabaeus sp.l; 1 female, Gudur, 11. iii. 1992, ex

Copris sp. 2; 4 females, Karnataka: Gundelpet,

1 5.ii . 1 992, ex Catharsius molossus; 1 female,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

273

Figs. 12- 16. Macrocheles quadrilineatus sp. nov. Female: Fig. 12 Dorsal Shield; Fig. 13. Venter; Fig. 14. Tectum;

Fig. 15. Chelicera; Fig. 16. Tarsus II.

274

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Kerala: Quilon, 1 .iii. 1 992, ex Catharsius molossus ;

4 females, Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, Bryant Park,

1 2.iii. 1 980, ex Scarabaeus brahminus\ 6 females,

Rameswaram, 7. iii. 1992, ex Onthophagus

orientalis; 5 females, Pamban area, 7.iii. 1 992, ex

Onth op hag us an ifascia tus .

Table 1

LIST OF KNOWN BEETLE HOSTS FOR M. erichsonii SP.

NOV., M. quadrilineatus SP NOV., M. malabaricus EVANS &

HYATT, M. neve null is EVANS & HYATT, AND M. ceylonicus

EVANS & HYATT

M. quadrilineatus (Female only)

Beetle host Number of Collections

M. nevemalis (Female only)

Distribution: sri lanka and india: Andhra

Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Remarks: Macrocheles ceylonicus was

described by Evans and Hyatt (1963) based on 3

females collected ex Scarabaeus erichsoni at

Colombo, Sri Lanka and six females recovered from

the same host collected from Madras.

Discussion

Table 1 presents a list of beetle hosts

comprising 18 species of dung beetles totalling

133 specimens as the source material for the pre-

sent communication. Two species of beetle hosts

represented by a collection of 17 specimens were

utilised in Part IV of the series. Altogether seven

species of phoretic Macrocheles (4 new species

and three earlier known species) have been reco-

vered from 20 species of beetle hosts (Total num-

ber of specimens 150) from southern India.

M. punctovariata (Roy) and M. sisiri (Roy) are

unrepresented in the present material.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

275

Ac K NO W LEDG EM ENTS

I express my gratitude to Dr. Shyamrup

Biswas, Coleoptera Section, ZSI, Calcutta, for

identification of the majority of the beetle material.

The help with literature resources on Scarabaeidae

from Mrs. Mary Liz Jameson (Dept, of Entomology,

Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, USA) and C.S. Scholtz

(Dept, of Entomology, Univ. of Pretoria , Pretoria,

RSA) and a wealth of information on acarine

literature from Drs. R.B. Halliday (Div. Entomol.,

CSIRO, Canberra) and T.M. Ho (Div. Acarol.,

Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia) are greatly appreciated.

References

Axtell, R.C. (1961): New records of North American

Macrochelidae (Acarina: Mesostigmata) and their predation

rates on the housefly. Ann. Ent. Soc. Anier. 54(5): 748.

Berlese, A. (1918): Centuria quarta di Acari nuovi. Redia 13:

115-192.

Bhat, H.R., S.M. Kulkarni & A.C. Mishra (1983): Records of

Mesostigmata, Ereynetidae and Pterygosomidae (Acarina) in

Western Himalayas, Sikkim and hill districts of West Bengal.

J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 80: 91-110.

Bregetova, N.G. & E.V. Koroleva (1960): The maerochelid mites

(Gamasoidea, Macrochelidae) in the USSR. Parasit. Sbornik.

Zool. Inst. 19: 32-154.

Costa, M. ( 1 966): Notes on macrochelids associated with manure

and coprid beetles in Israel. I. Macrocheles robastiilus

(Berlese, 1904) development and biology. Acarologia 8(4):

532-538.

Evans G.O. & E. Browning (1956): British mites of the subfamily

Macrochelinae Tragardh (Gamasina, Macrochelidae). Bull.

Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 4(1): 3-55.

Evans, G.O. & K.H. Hyatt (1963): Mites of the genus

Macrocheles Latr. (Mesostigmata) associated with

coprid beetles in the collection of the British Museum

(Natural History). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 9(9): 327-

401.

Ho, T.M. (1990): Phoretic association between Macrocheles

niuscae domesticae (Acari: Macrochelidae) and flies

inhabiting poultry manure in peninsular Malaysia. Appl.

Acarol. 10: 61-68.

Ho, T.M. & T.V. Auemetua (1990): Effects of age and sex of

mites, and temperature, on the predation rates o i Macrocheles

merdarius on Musca domestica eggs. Tropical Biomedicine

1: 97-101.

Ho, T.M. & Saleh Ismail (1988): Laboratory investigation of the

comparative toxicities of three pyrethroid insecticides to

Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) and Macrocheles

muscaedomesticae (Acarina: Macrochelidae). Tropical

Biomedicine 5: 103-106.

Ho, T.M. & Saleh Ismail (1990): Effects of temperature on

predation rates of male and female Macrocheles muscae-

domesticae on Musca domestica eggs. J. Bioscience 1(2):

119-122.

*Ridsdill Smith, T.J. & G.P. Hull (1984): Beetles and mites

attracted to fresh cattle dung in southwestern Australian

pastures. CSIRO Aust. Div. Ent. Rep. No. 34: 1-29.

Roy, R.K. (1988): Indian species of the genus Glyptholaspis

(Acari: Macrochelidae) with descriptions of two new species.

In: Progress in Acarology, Vol. 1, G.P. Channabasavanna, C.A.

Viraktamath (eds.). Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New

Delhi, pp. 343-353.

Roy, R.K. (1994a): The genus Macrocheles Latreille (Acarina:

Macrochelidae) in India. 4. Two new species associated with

dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) from South India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 91(1): 111-117.

Roy, R.K. (1994b): A report on the genus Neopodicinum

Oudemans (Acarina: Macrochelidae) from India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc.. 91(2): 331-333.

V itzthum, H.G. (1930): Acarologische Beobachtungen. Zool.

Jali rb. Jena (Syst.) 59 (2-3): 281-350.

Wallace, M.M.H. (1986): Some maerochelid miles (Acari:

Macrochelidae) associated with Australian dung beetles

(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Acarolopia 27(1): 3-15.

*Not seen in original.

OBITUARIES

B.K. Tikader

(1928-1994)

Dr. Benoy Krishna Tikader, M.Sc., Ph.D.,

D.Sc., was born on 1st June, 1928, at Joydihi, District

Khulna (now in Bangladesh).

Dr. Tikader had a difficult childhood, in a

family of limited income and financial constrains. It

was with his indomitable spirit only, that he could

finish his schooling in a village in undivided rural

Bengal. His memories of rural life had taught him

the sense of being a part of the community, the joy

of caring and sharing.

The village boy, on arrival at Calcutta, was

perhaps most intrigued by the way of life of the city.

Nevertheless, he was quick in adapting without

losing the basic values of sensitive humane approach.

His simplistic rather rustic manners earned him a

unique popularity. He made many friends from

college days, who later sealed the bond of long lasting

friendship. He, in his own characteristic way, finished

graduation with distinction and sailed through post-

graduate degree in Zoology from the University of

Calcutta.

After a short stint as a Lecturer in Zoology,

Dr. Tikader joined the Zoological Survey of India in

September, 1956. He was fascinated with arachnids,

particularly spiders. He felt strongly that this group

which offered so many species of diverse form and

behaviour was so little known and was worthy of

much closer attention. He made extensive collection

of spiders in every part of the country and diverse

ecosystems. Later, for his outstanding researches on

spiders he was awarded the degree of Ph.D. and D.Sc.

by the Calcutta University in 1962 and 1969

respectively. Dr. Tikader had described numerous

new species of spiders and was recognised as an

authority on this group. Besides spiders he had keen

interest on wildlife and nature conservation

problems; photography was his most favoured hobby

during his field work.

His humane nature was evident at an early age.

He was a very cordial person who tried his best to

comfort and console the distressed irrespective of

caste and creed. Later in his office (Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta), he was always very keen

to hear patiently the problems and sufferings of his

subordinates and tried to solve these in an amicable

manner.

Dr. Tikader was a prolific and accomplished

writer. He has to his credit two volumes on Spiders

and a volume on Scorpions under the famed fauna

of india series, besides numerous scientific papers.

His books entitled “Threatened Animals of India”,

“Birds of Andaman & Nicobar Islands”, “Handbook

of Indian Testudines”, “Glimpses of Animal Life of

Andaman & Nicobar Islands” and “Handbook on

Indian Spiders”, have been widely acclaimed in India

and abroad.

Dr. Tikader had held varied positions in the

Zoological Survey of India and headed both the

Eastern and Western Regional Stations at Shillong

and Pune, respectively. He returned to the

Headquarters at Calcutta as the Director of the

Zoological Survey of India on 31st March, 1981.

During his tenure he showed a prodigious capacity

for work. A long list of his achievements as Director,

ZSI, can be given of which one would always

remember his zeal towards construction of 10 storied

Headquarter building at Calcutta and initiation of

MARC project at Digha.

In recognition of his scientific contribution,

Dr. Tikader was elected as a Fellow of Zoological

Society of India, a Correspondent of the Centre

Internationale de Documentation Arachnologigue

(CIDA), Paris for India, and Vice President of the

Indian Association of Biological Sciences. Dr.

Tikader was also honoured by the Asiatic Society,

Calcutta and was awarded the prestigious - Joy

Govind Law Medal in 1992.

Dr. Tikader died on 12th August, 1994 at

Calcutta at the age of 66 after a brief illness. He is

survived by his wife, two sons and a daughter. His

loss would surely be felt by his friends, colleagues

and associates.

A.K. GHOSH

OBITUARIES

277

List of papers published in the JBNHS

(1960): On some new species of spiders (Arachnida) of the

family Thomisidae from India. 57:173-183.

(1960): Revision of Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne

(Argiopidae: Arachnida). 57: 547-556.

(1961): Protective devices of some orb-weaving spiders from

India. 58: 826-829.

( 1 962): Studies on some spiders of the genus Oecobius (Family

Oecobiidae) from India. 59: 682-685.

(1963): Further studies on Indian spiders of the genus

Cyrtarachne (Family:Argiopidae). 60: 268-275.

(1964): Observations on the caecilian Ichthyophis beddomii

Peters from Kotegebar, District Chikamangalur, Mysore.

61:697.

( 1 968): Observations on the limbless lizard Ophisaurus gracilis

(Gray) from Shillong, Assam. 65: 233.

(1968): Gregariousness and mimicry during cocoon stage by

the butterfly Eurema hecabe (L.). 65: 242-243.

( 1 968): A new spider of the genus Ischnothyreus Simon (Family

Oonopidae) from India. 65: 257-259.

( 1 969): Spider fauna of India: Calalogue and Bibliography. 66:

81-91.

(1969): Futher observations on the limbless lizard, Ophisaurus

gracilis (Gray) from Shillong, Assam. 66: 382.

( 1 970): Spider fauna of India: Catalogue and Bibliography.66:

491-499.

(1970): Spider fauna of India: Catalogue and Bibliography. 67:

212-221.

( 1 872): Spider fauna of India: Catalogue and Bibliography. 69:

91-101.

(1973): Spider fauna of India: Catalogue and Bibliography. 70:

95-103.

(1975): A new species of spider of the genus Cheiracanthium

Koch (Family Clubionidae) from India. 72: 43-45.

(1975): A new species of spider of the genus Ctenus

(Family :Ctenidae) from Meghalaya, India. 72: 79 1 -793.

(1975): A new species of spider of the genus Lutica (Family

Zodariidae) from India. 72:794-796.

(1975): A new species of spider of the genus Plator Simon

(Family: Platoridae) from India.72:797-799.

(1976): Two new species of spiders of the genera

Cheiracanthium Koch and Clubiona Latreille (Family:

Clubionidae) from India. 73:1175-1177.

(1976): The ground activity of spiders (Araneae) and

harvestmen (Phalangidae) in West Bengal, India.

73:121-141.

(1976): A new species of spider of the genus Plator Simon

(Family-Platoridae) from Almora, India. 73:178-179.

(1976): Key to Indian spiders. 73: 356-370.

(1976): Redescription of a jumping spider Harmochirus

brachiatus with a new record from India. 73: 410-

411.

(1976): Redescription of type specimens of the species

Eucamptopus coronatus Pocock and Euprosthenops

ellioti (Cambridge) (Family Pisauridae) with critical

notes. 73: 539-543.

(1977): A new species of scorpion of genus Scorpiops Peter

(Famiily Vejovidae) from India. 74: 140-143.

( 1 977): Description of two new species of wolf-spider (Family

Lycosidae) from Ladakh, India. 74: 144-146.

(1977): Studies on some Mygalomorph spiders of the family

(Tenizidae and Theraphosidae) from India.74:306-319.

(1977): Sexual dimorphism in the jumping spider Phidippus

pateli Tikader (Family: Salicidae).74: 543-546.

( 1 978): Two new species of spider of the genus Tharpyna Koch

from India (Family: Thomisidae).75: 903-905.

(1980): A new species of high altitude spider of the genus

Erigone Audouin (Family: Erigonidae) from India.

77:490-491.

(1981): Studies on spiders of the genus Lutica Marx (Family-

Zodariidae).78: 1 39-142.

M. Krishnan

(1912-1996)

( With a photograph )

Mr. Krishnan who died on 18 February, 1996

at the age of 83 was India’s quintessential Naturalist.

For over four decades he held the centre stage of

Indian Natural History.

Krishnan was born on 30 June 1912, at

Perunkulam, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu, the last of

eight children of a family of considerable literary

attainments. He had a liberal education graduating in

Tamil, English, Botany and Zoology and finally a

degree in law. All these subjects gave an excellent

foundation to his writings, except perhaps law which

seems to have been something of an afterthought or

perhaps the result of family persuasion, as an elder

brother retired as a Chief Justice of the Madras High

Court.

Curiously enough Krishnan had a dichotomous

career starting life as a commercial artist and till his

37th year he dabbled in various fields ending up the

278

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996 )

first half of his career as Political Secretary in the State

of Sandur in Karnataka. With the merger of the State

he finally stopped being a paid employee and started

on the second leg of his career as a free-lance artist,

writer, naturalist, and nature photographer and

Krishnan at long last came into his own.

Mr. B. Vijayaraghavan, the President of the

Madras Naturalists Society compares him with EHA

(Edward Hamilton Aitken) whose delightful style

of writing had a light hearted effervescence to it.

Krishnan had a wry sense of humour but he differed

from EHA in being very serious where natural

history was concerned. Again quoting Mr.

Vijayaraghavan.

“Krishnan scored over EHA in his scientific

acumen, his vast experience of the jungles and his

expert skill as a wildlife photographer.

Krishnan dedicated his book Nights and Days:

My book of India’s Wildlife (1985) to his readers to

whom alone he felt he had a responsibility. He spoke

of the enjoyment he had derived from his love of

wildlife which in some measure he hoped to pass on

to his readers. If the book fails in this, I can plead

nothing in extenuation, for a professional can have

no excuse for his ineptitude in his chosen field. He

surely does not fail.

He never failed his readers. That was not easy

for one who regularly wrote innumerable notes for

newspapers and journals, obligated to meet

deadlines, and on an incredible variety of topics in

natural history, all based on his own experience and

observations. The craftsmanship that went into every

one of his pieces made them a delight to read. The

balanced sentence, the well-turned phrase and the

elegant idiom reigned supreme.

There are few writers on natural history who

can write with scientific objectivity and without

resort to poetic imagery and yet transmit to their

readers some of their elation. Strange though it may

seem, the serious observer of nature is often a dried-

up specimen lacking in sensitivity. That was why

Hazlitt referred to the naturalist who catches the

glow-worm, carries it home with him in a box, and

finds the next morning nothing but a little grey worm

while the poet visits it in the evening when beneath

M. Krishnan

the scented hawthorn and the crescent moon it has

built itself a palace of emerald light. Krishnan

showed us that a good naturalist-writer could be

accurate and yet be enchanting.

Krishnan had a special empathy for elephants

and was in his day the authority on the behaviour of

elephants. His observations were accurate and

meticulous as is evident from his study of the larger

mammals of Peninsular India which he undertook

under the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship

(incidentally he was the first awardee). The results

were published in a series of articles in this Journal

and later in book form by the Society. His fortnightly

column in the “Statesman” ran without a break for

46 years and was an editor’s dream as the article

was perfect in all respects and required no editing.

In fact M. Krishnan was such a craftsman that

whatever he wrote required no editing and when any

editing was done it brought down his wrath on the

unfortunate editor. I had once to shorten an article

OBITUARIES

279

of his for inclusion in an anthology and I made the

mistake of editing the article without consulting him.

He was deeply hurt though he never showed his

displeasure. He was always helpful with advice if

he felt that a mistake had been made. I had once

written an article for a Govt, of India publication at

his instance which in the process of publication got

mutilated beyond recognition. I wrote a sarcastic

letter to the editor with a copy to Krishnan. He replied

immediately cautioning me against sarcasm which

he felt left a festering sore of resentment with the

recipient.

It was in photography that Krishnan gave full

expression to his talents. He worked exclusively in

monochrome and such is the quality of his

photography that they stood enlargements to any size

List of papers published in the JBNHS

(1951): Koels ( Eudynamis scolopaceus) eating the poisonous

fruit of the yellow oleander. 50:943-945.

(1955): The Rosy Pastor in the Bellary Area.53:128.

( 1 965): Wild dogs. 62:543-545.

(1971): The esturine crocodile Crocodilits porosus Schneider off

the Orissa coast. 67:573-574.

(1971 ): An ecological survey of the larger animals of peninsular

India. 68:503-555.

(1972): An ecological survey of the larger animals of peninsular

India. 69:26-54.

he wanted. Krishnan’s photographic studies of

wildlife cannot be bettered. It would be a tragedy

indeed if his negatives and his meticulous field notes,

are not given the status of a national heritage, and

protected as such.

Krishnan, in the course of his life picked up

many awards; the Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship, the

Padma Shri and the Global 500 Roll of Honour for

1995.

He leaves behind his wife with whom he

was to have celebrated his 60th wedding anni-

versary during the year and his son who is the

Principal Chief Conservator or of Forests, Tamil

Nadu.

J.C. DANIEL

(1972): An ecological survey of the larger animals of peninsular

India. 69:297-351.

( 1 972): An ecological survey of the larger animals of peninsular

India. 69: 469-501.

(1974): R.H Waller’s observations on wildlife sanctuaries in

India. A partial rejoinder. 71:594-598.

( 1 978): Disconnected observations on a species of Scolapendra.

75:239-240.

( 1978): Emotive kinships in the study of mammals.75:613-617.

(1980): The availability of nesting materials and nesting sites as

vital factors in the gregarious breeding of Indian water

birds.77: 1143-1 152.

REVIEWS

1 . PALEOBOTANY - plants of the past, their evolution, paleoenvironment and applications

in exploration of fossil fuels. By Shripad N. Agashe. pp. vii + 359 (24 x 15.5 cm), with many

illustrations. New Delhi, 1995. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Ltd. Price. Rs. 150/-

The author deserves special compliments for

fulfilling a long standing need for a text book in

paleobotany, specially for Indian students with

emphasis on Indian fossil floras. Except for Dr.

Andrews’ (1960) “Principles of paleobotany” no other

published text book on paleobotany gives due

consideration to paleopalynology, an aspect whose

basis and applications have been brought out in this

book.

The basic subject matter has been covered in

13 chapters which deal with systematic account of

representative fossils of different plant groups

starting from fungi to Angiosperms. Two useful

chapters on Gondwana and Tertiary floras of India

are added. Applications of paleobotany in

considerations of paleofloras, paleoenvironment,

coal and oil prospecting are dealt with in the last

three chapters. The scope of the subject matter has

been ably introduced, followed by basic information

on history of paleobotany, geology of earth and the

time scale, methods of geological age determination,

types of plant preservations and the techniques

employed to study them. Exhaustive references and

a useful index have been appended. The book is

suitably illustrated and the language is fluent.

The book will serve the purpose of not only

graduate and post-graduate students of botany but

also of basic geology, as claimed by the author. The

price is also within the reach of students who would

like to have their own copies.

There are, however, a number of shortcomings

of different types in several chapters of the book which

could be taken care of during publication of the new

edition. Some of these are pin-pointed below:

1. Page 1: “Plant remains which are younger

than 1 m.y. are normally studied in archeology”.

However, as per present concept plant remains

associated with human history are studied in

archeology and those beyond human history come

under paleobotany.

2. Pages 27-28: Dendrochronology, counting

of growth rings in animal shells and valves do not

give absolute age in geological time scale as claimed

in the book.

3. Page 47: It is stated that impression fossils

represent only an imprint; the original organic

material has been completely destroyed, while on

page 210 Glossopteris leaves are claimed to be

preserved as impressions with or without organic

carbon content.

4. Page 52: The statement that “in petrifactions

much of the original organic matter of the plant is

preserved” is incorrect.

5. Chapter 6 on Precambrian Paleobiology

refers to Escherichia coli found in coprolites

belonging to Eocene age.

6. The concept of classification of major plant

groups as per Taylor (1981) given on page 60-70

does not seem to have been followed consistently in

the subsequent text; neither are the prefixes to major

taxa used are as per code of ICBN though claimed

to be so.

7. Page 125: Class Sphenopsida has been

described to be containing 3 orders: Pseudoborniales,

Sphenophyllales and Equisetales while in the text

the order Calamitales is also added (p. 130).

8. In Chapter 19 Coniferophyta, it is stated that

this group (division rank?) is divided into two

classes: Cordaitopsida and Coniferopsida (p. 196)

while in the text class Gnetopsida is also included

and Coniferales, Ginkgoales are treated as orders of

class Cordaitopsida (p. 202).

9. There is confusion in the use of terms

‘System’, ‘Series’ and ‘Stages’ while describing

Gondwana flora. The book fails to introduce the

monumental work of Ottokar Feistmantel.

10. Simple leaves of Glossopteris are termed

as fronds (p. 210); Vertebraria - a root axis is included

under male fructification of Glossopteris (p. 217).

Pentoxyleae is included in Taxales (p. 240). The

REVIEWS

281

terms ‘Pentoxylease’ and ‘Pentoxylales’ have been

incoherently used. Williumsonia sewardiana is

regarded as stem attributed to Williumsoniaceae (p.

249).

1 1. Chapter 21 Tertiary flora of India does not

take into account recent contributions. Ample

accumulation of data on Siwalik exposures is entirely

omitted. Palmocaulon. (p. 260) is not valid as at

present. New light thrown on affinities of

Cyclanthodendron, Tricoccites and some others are

not mentioned.

12. Birbal Sahni has been credited to have

claimed the age of Deccan traps to range from

Palaeocene to Eocene to Miocene (p. 271) though

nobody has claimed Deccan traps to be as young as

Miocene.

13. One ponders over the significance of some

localities of Cuddalore sandstone series which are

known only for preservation of Gymnosperm fossils

(p. 273) though the age is claimed to be Miocene

dominated by Angiosperm flora.

14. References appended have omitted some

of those cited in the text. Tom and Taylors (1993)

“The biology and evolution of plant fossils” and

Rothwell’s (1993) “Paleobotany and evolution of

Plants” are not listed.

15. The concluding chapter giving a detailed

account of the ongoing paleobotanical research

activities in various parts of the world (page 2) is

entirely missing.

Because of above mentioned drawbacks and

because the two major chapters on Indian

paleobotany, i.e. Gondwana flora and Tertiary flora,

require comprehensive revision, the book as it stands

today would not serve the purpose of research

students.

A.R. KULKARNI

2. GREEN IMPERIALISM. By Richard H. Grove, pp. xiv + 540 (25.5 x 14 cm), with 23

illustrations. New Delhi, 1995. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 375/-.

The book documents the origins and early

history of environmentalism and correlates it with

the ‘explosion’ of popular and governmental interest

in environmental problems in recent years. It traces

the role played by a cross current of ideas in the

emergence of a coherent environmental thinking.

This was brought about, as the book points out,

though not very convincingly, by the emergence of

professional scientists. We know for sure that

traditional societies had their checks and balances

in place which made the wise use of resources

mandatory and practical.

Though, as the book rightly points out, these

legitimate and sustainable demands went out of hand

when they were meant to cater to unnatural

conditions like war, this was true throughout history.

The chronology of events presented in the book

brings into focus very succinctly the involvement

and concern of every major world civilization with

environmental issues.

The book is divided into chapters which delve

into the environmental history of Islands and early

empires. Indigenous knowledge, climatic environ-

mentalism, beginnings of global environmentalism.

Professional science, oceanic islands and the East India

Company, 1768-1838, The East India Company

medical services and the emergence of state

conservationism in India, 1760 - 1857.

While referring to the emergence of state

conservationism in India, it acknowledges the

permeation of indigenous Indian knowledge about

the consequences of deforestation, this knowledge

was directly instrumental at a number of stages in

the formation of colonial perceptions of rates and

mechanisms of environmental change. The author

acknowledges, that on balance, indigenous

knowledge, management and afforestation methods

were more important to the evolution of the East

India Company’s environmental policy than any set

of ideas imported from outside the country.

282

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93 (1996)

The book, while documenting available

evidence, indicates that the seeds of modern

conservationism developed as an integral part of the

European encounter with the tropics and with local

classifications and interpretations of the natural

world and its symbolism. As colonial expansionism

proceeded, the environmental experiences of

Europeans and indigenous peoples living at the

colonial periphery played a steadily more dominant

and dynamic part in the construction of new

European evaluations of nature and in the growing

awareness of the destructive impact of European

economic activity on the peoples and environments

of the newly discovered and colonised lands. Sadly

this trend continues today also, at the cost of local

skills and resources.

We are informed that by 1 850, the problem of

tropical deforestation was already being conceived

of as a problem existing on a global scale and as a

phenomenon demanding urgent and concerted state

intervention. The author acknowledges the fact that

scientists and environmentalists once again have the

upper hand in state and international environmental

policy.

It is an excellent work of painstaking

documentation and exhaustive cross references, of

human involvement with environmental issues

through the millenia. Highly recommended for all

students of Natural History, environmental managers

and policy makers.

S. ASAD AKHTAR

3. THE END OF A TRAIL. By Divyabhanusinh Chavda. pp. xxii + 248 (24 x 18.5 cm),

with many coloured and black and white photographs & line drawings. New Delhi, 1995.

Banyan Books. Price Rs. 750/-

In India the study of wildlife has a singular

blessing, the dedicated, motivated and talented

amateur. Traditionally the amateur has contributed

a sizeable share to our knowledge of the country’s

wildlife. In Divyabhanusinh a hotelier by profession

and a committed conservationist by inclination, the

Indian cheetah, the little known and enigmatic

species of the Indian plains has found a remarkably

talented chronicler of its history.

In the eleven chapters of this meticulously

researched book, the author leads us on the trail of

the cheetah from its origin, its involvement with man

and its final extinction in the remote forests of the

Surguja district of Madhya Pradesh. Widely

distributed in the past in the plains of the African

and Indian continents, the cheetah occupied a

somewhat narrow environmental niche as a

fleetfooted hunter, built for a sudden incomparably

high burst of speed which brought it hunting success

and finally spelt its doom on the plains of India.

After a brief review of the differences between

the leopard and the cheetah which are often confused

in their identification, the author turns to his main

theme, the association of the cheetah with man as a

hunting partner. In the remote past the Egyptians at

the time of the Pharoahs had tamed them or atleast

the Pharoahs had received them as gifts. Whether

the cheetah had been trained for hunting at that point

of time in India is not known. We did not have a

comparable civilisation with written and visual

records. However, the capture and training of the

cheetah is probably an ancient art in India as

tribals such as the Cheetahwala Pardhis are probably

the remnants of our ancient past who have

with commendable stubborness kept out of the

changing mainstream of Indian life. Though cours-

ing with cheetahs was in practice with the Hindu

kings before the advent of the Mohammedans, it was

under the Moghuls that it flourished and attained its

zenith.

In chapters 3 and 4, Divyabhanusinh gives a

well researched review of the status of the cheetah

as a hunting tool of the kings of India, particularly

the Imperial Moghuls based on the memoirs they

wrote and the miniature paintings they had caused

to be executed to record the life of their times.

REVIEWS

283

What emerges is the history of the life of the

cheetah, its habits, distribution and abundance in the

1 6th and 1 7th Centuries. At the peak of the Moghul

presence in India, the Emperor Akbar had a

menagerie of a thousand cheetahs and is believed to

have had 9000 cheetahs during his lifetime. The large

number taken into captivity, says the author, was

perhaps one of the main causes of the decline of the

cheetah. There was a constant and heavy drain from

the wild of a species which apparently refused to

breed in captivity. It must be noted that the cheetah

has now been successfully bred in captivity and could

have been bred in captivity in the past as available

literature indicates that the techniques were known.

It was, however, easier to capture them from the wild

and train them to course the Antelope.

The Mohguls, says the author, “turned the

coursing with cheetahs into a peerless spectacle”.

The Emperor Jehangir, for instance, coursing with

cheetahs caught 426 Antelopes in a period of 1 2 days

in the Palam area of Delhi where Jet planes take off

now on National and International flights! An

elaborate organisation had been developed to keep

the Empire supplied with Cheetahs and the Empires’

demands took a heavy toll on the wild population, a

toll which was continued by the Maharajas and other

potentates with the eclipse of the Moghul Empire.

The decline was further accelerated not only by

suitable habitats going under the plough but also by

the senseless slaughter by the British who now

appeared on the scene. It is difficult to comprehend

how the killing of a harmless and beautiful predator

can be considered sport. Surely there was something

savage and murderous in the psyche of the British

of those days who could write with pleasure of the

slaughter of six cheetahs at a time! By the turn of

the present Century the cheetah was on its last leg

and after independence coursing with the cheetah,

which was now dependent on animals imported

from Africa, disappeared with the Maharajas. It is a

pity that the species which was part of a sport of

kings was finally extinguished by a Raja in the

remote forests of the Surguja District of Madhya

Pradesh.

A chapter is devoted to the now defunct art of

capture, training and hunting with cheetahs. As in

the domestication of any wild animal, the training

of the cheetah ultimately amounts to the breaking

of its spirit, the so called wildness of the animal. In

the case of the cheetah also it is through coercion,

starvation and finally a tenous attachment to its

keeper and reactions which are a conditioned

reflexes. Yet with all its training the cheetah remains

remote and withdrawn- a robot ruled by its keeper

that looks through you into the far distance. If you

are of a sentimental nature the cheetah’s far away

look is an expression of its yearning for freedom. A

more prosaic explanation would be that the cheetah

habitually looks out for its prey in the far distance

and ignores nearby distractions!

The final chapters consider the cheetah in

Africa and Asia and the present status of the species

in Asia where a few animals still probably exist in

Iran and the possibilities of reintroduction into India.

To me, having personally, seen the remote forests of

Surguja district where the Cheetah was last sighted

by reliable people, there is a flickering hope that the

cheetah is still extant in India and deserves a

determined search.

This excellently produced book is the last

word on the Indian Cheetah and the author and the

Publishers are to be congratulated.

J.C. DANIEL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . FIRST RECORD OF COMMENSALISM IN THE GOLDEN LANGUR PRESBYTIS

GEEI KHAJURIA AT A NEW LOCATION IN ASSAM

The Golden Langur ( Presbytis geei Khajuria)

is described from the six type specimens collected

by H. Khajuria of the Zoological Survey of India in

1955. It has been named Presbytis geei in honour

of E.P. Gee, India’s pioneer wildlifer and the person

responsible for bringing the new primate to public

attention. The monkey was reported by E.O.

Shebbeare in 1907 and later by C.G. Baron in 1947

(Gee 1964). Both these records were near Jamduar

on the Sankosh river in Assam. In 1953, Gee was

able to see two troops of about 55 individuals at

Jamduar and on a later expedition in 1959-60 on

west bank of the Manas river, six more troops were

seen. Based on these he recommended to the

Zoological Survey of India to send a team to collect

type specimens and also estimated a total of about

550 individuals to exist between the Sankosh and

Manas rivers in Assam (Gee 1964). A number of

other scientists have also confirmed the limits of

the distribution of the species to be the two rivers

and the species is not known to extend either west

of the River Sankosh or east of the River Manas

(Oboussier and Maydell 1959, Wayre 1968,

Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Prater 1980 and Tikader

1983). The species also extends to south-central

Bhutan up to an altitude of 2400 m (Roonwal and

Mohnot 1977). Gee (1968) records the species to

be timid and never raiding crops as the rhesus does

(which is sympatric in some localities), while

Roonwal and Mohnot ( 1 977) record it as being shy,

avoiding man and almost exclusively a forest

dwelling langur. In brief, the species which was the

most important primatological discovery of the sub-

continent in this century was known only from a

narrow strip of mixed deciduous forests bound by

the rivers Manas and Sankosh and was known to

avoid all contact with man.

On 21.5.95, I accompanied an Assamese

friend of mine, Kamini Barua to visit the Umanando

Temple, a 200 year old Ahom temple located on a

small island just off the coast of Guwahati, the

capital of Assam. The island or ‘chapori’ is a riverine

creation of the Brahmaputra which regularly creates

and destroys river islands every year. The island is

known basically for the temple and I was also told

that I could photograph Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis

entellus ) there. As the distribution of the hanuman

langur in Assam is rather patchy, it was an interesting

species to document. However on arrival at the

temple I saw four light golden to creamy white

langurs on a mango ( Mangifera inciica) tree. As this

was more than a hundred kilometres further east than

the recorded range of the golden langur, I closely

studied the group for more than half an hour. Then

upon advice from the local temple priests and my

friend I bought 6 Rupees worth of bananas from a

local stall and called the langurs as is usually done

in the case of the rhesus ( Macaca mulatto) and the

common langur ( Presbytis entellus ) in Hindu

temples. Within a few minutes, the adult male

responded and came to feed within touching

distance. Soon he was joined by a juvenile male as

well. The adult female with a smaller juvenile (sex

undetermined) remained on top of the tree and did

not come down. Both the males however displayed

absolutely no fear of human beings and accepted

the bananas readily from the hand as well.

Upon enquiry from the local priests, it was

learnt that two adult golden langurs were brought

to the island two years ago (in 1993) by Bihari

devotees. The source of the monkeys was believed

to be somewhere in Bhutan which corresponds with

the original range of the golden langur. The monkeys

have bred in the new location and the two offspring,

are a result of that. However apart from the offerings

of the pious, these monkeys live a wild existence

and do not permit themselves to be handled. This is

the first record of a temple golden langur which is

hitherto not known to be a commensal species.

During the hour’s observations, the monkeys

displayed all activities of a normal wild primate

including grooming, feeding, foraging and play.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

285

There was no threat or aggressive display however

and all four displayed a very gentle and calm

temperament. Apart from its interesting

commensalism, the occurrence of the species in the

wild for the first time outside the Manas-Sankosh

complex may be noted, although the species has

been helped by man into its new habitat. The

breeding success of the primates in Umananda may

Refer

Gee, E. P. (1964): The Wildlife of India. Collins, London.

Oboussier, H. & G. A. Von Maydell (1959):/;/: Primates of South

Asia, Roonwal and Mohnot (1977).

Prater, S. H. ( 1 980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Roonwal, M. L. & S.M. Mohnot (1977): Primates of South Asia.

indicate the start of a new colony near the south

bank of the Brahmaputra.

August 26, 1995 VIVEK MENON

Programme Officer,

TRA F FI C- India,

WWF-India, I72-B, Lodi Estate,

New Delhi-110003.

NCES

Harvard University Press, London.

Tikader, B. K. (1983): Threatened Animals of India. Zool. Survey

of India.

Wayre, Philip (1968): Some observations on the golden langur,

Presbytis geei (M.S. Khajuria). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:

473-77.

2. OBSERVATION ON AN UNUSUAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN ASIATIC LION

{PANT HERA LEO PERSIC A)

I chanced to see an unusual sexual behaviour

in a male Gir Lion. On 2nd February, 1988 when I

was visiting Amritval Settlement area with a group

of other officers, a mating pair was observed at

Dhanatal area. I returned alone, a few hours later, to

observe them more critically.

When the male was ready to copulate, he got

up and walked to the female and mounted her. It

was obvious that the female was non-receptive. The

lioness kept sitting on its belly, tail flat on the ground,

and not in the usual receptive posture, for copulation.

The male mounted almost half way, over her back.

After this, the male kept rubbing his penis on the

female’s back for 10 to 15 seconds. Having done so

the male got up quickly and ejaculated on the ground,

very close to the female. This he did a couple of

times.

July 4, 1995 SAN AT A. CHAVAN

Yashashree, A -2/3,

Kabir Complex,

M aka rp Lira Road,

Vadodara-390 009,

Gujarat.

3. JACKAL {CAN IS AUREUS) HUNTING COMMON LANGUR {PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS)

IN KANHA NATIONAL PARK

The Jackal Canis aureus has been considered

to live mainly on carrion or on small prey in the

Indian jungles. I have witnessed in Kanha National

Park, Madhya Pradesh (22° 17'N, 80° 38 ’E) in the

last few years its skills as a hunter. I feel they are

worth recording and I do not think that hunting of

common langur Presbytis entellus by the jackal Canis

aureus has ever been reported from India.

I first saw a jackal killing a langur in February,

1991 in Kanha meadows and I thought it was a stray

case, but since then I have recorded four cases of

langur hunting by jackals. The common langur

Presbytis entellus is an intelligent animal and to hunt

them a predator needs great skill and stealth which

the jackals of Kanha seem to have mastered over the

years. The operation of hunting langurs usually

involves a small pack of jackals consisting of three

to five individuals which would locate a troop of

langurs in the meadows frolicking and running

around seemingly relaxed. The pack would slowly

286

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

approach the troop of langurs and then lying in a

small circle with their bellies to the earth, muzzles

pointed towards the troop, would identify a langur

sitting on the ground far away from a tree. Then one

or two of the jackals would run towards the langur

at great speed and before the langur can react to reach

the safety of a tree would leap at its throat and bring

the animal down. Usually the prey is a subadult

langur and the adults of the langur troop do try to

put up some resistance by slapping the jackal with

their palms or by trying to bite. Soon other jackals

of the pack converge on the scene of action and the

langurs finally give up.

In the last few years the jackal population in

Kanha National park has gone up considerably and

now it is emerging as a potential predator. Hunting

in small packs, the jackals are often seen pulling

down fawns of Chital Axix axis and are even

responsible for high fawn predation in the Hard-

ground Barasingha Cervus duvauceli branded of

Kanha National Park.

August 26, 1995 E.P. ERIC D’CUNHA

Wild Chalet Resort , Indian Adventures,

Kanha National Park, Dist. Mandla (P.O. Kisli),

Madhya Pradesh.

4. RAT KILLING BY A JACKAL (CANIS AUREUS)

There is a small village, Veesma, about 60

Km from Udaipur City, Rajasthan. Uncultivable

enclosed land is called Beed in Mewar. On 1 3th June,

1995, 1 was crossing a Beed near this village when I

spotted a Jackal at 6.1 0 p.m. I was near a Babool tree

(. Acacia nilotica). Slowly I crouched behind the tree

to observe the Jackal. There was scanty vegetation in

this Beed. Apart from seven Babool trees, there were

a few bushes mostly of Zizyphus species.

The Jackal slowly and cautiously moved

diagonally away from me. It stopped near a

very small bush about 50 m from me. Some excavated

fresh soil was visible from my position and I guessed

that it might have been a burrow of some rat.

The Jackal started moving around the bush in a

haphazard way sniffing the ground. After 10 minutes

of this reconnaissance it stopped near the excavated

mound of earth and urinated there. Suddenly it dashed

towards my tree. As I followed its movements, I saw

that there was a burrow in between two bushes about

30 m from me and from this burrow two pups of the

Jackal emerged. The female Jackal rushed towards

them and pushed them back into the burrow. Again

she went to the place and started excavating the earth

beyond the small bush. After excavating the earth it

again refilled it with her hind legs. In this way she dug

the earth at five different places near the bush and

refilled them. After a pause of 3 minutes she moved to

the place where she had urinated and started digging

the earth frantically. After some time she disappeared

into the burrow.

After some time she emerged from the burrow,

hind quaters first, with something in its mouth

and moved towards the burrow where its pups

were. I could make out that it was carrying a

dead rat and from coloration I can reasonably say that

it was a Metad ( Millardia meltada). It en-

tered its own burrow again, emerged from it

and moved towards the freshly excavated

burrow and picked up another rat. In this fa-

shion it removed three rats and two young ones

and deposited them in its burrow or fed them to its

pups.

I came out of hiding and examined the area well.

The Jackal had ascertained the most often used hole

of the rat colony. It blocked the hole by urinating over

it. Apparently smell of fresh urine of the Jackal kept

the rats from using this hole for escape. The Jackal

found out the alternate holes of escape and after

excavating partially and refilling them, the Jackal

plugged all the escape routes. It then excavated the

main entrance, reached the chamber and killed

the rats. The whole episode took 43 minutes.

October 10, 1995 RAZA H. TEHSIN

41, Pan chaw ati,

Udaipur-3 13001, Rajasthan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

287

5. COMPARISON OF SUSTAINED AND WEEKLY BAITING IN FIELD RODENTS

OF JAIPUR REGION

There is an increasing awareness all over the

world of economic significance of vertebrate pests,

especially rodents. Anticoagulant rodcnticides have

been evaluated in the Indian subcontinent and some

of them were found to be effective, Mathur and

Prakash (1980). The present study is conducted to

evaluate the weekly and sustained baiting of two

anticoagulants, warfarin (0.025% concentration) and

bromadiolone (0.005% concentration) in field

conditions.

Materials and Methods

The field trial was conducted at village

Muhana, 22 km away from Jaipur city. Treatment

was carried out in ten different plots, approxi-

mately 2.2 hectares each. The pre-treatment level

of rodent infestation was estimated by adopting

the burrow count method, Barnett and Prakash

(1975). The burrows were located, checked

for occupancy and plugged with wet soil and

lime in experimental plots. The reopened burrows

on the next day were treated with 20 gm of poison

bait. Sustained baiting with warfarin wax cakes of

0.025% concentration in four plots and weekly

baiting with bromadiolone wax cakes of 0.005%

concentration, being placed deep inside the burrows

in rest of the four plots. Two untreated plots served

as the control. Baiting started within fifteen days

of planting until the crop was twelve week old.

After treatment, burrows were closed and marked.

The experimental plots were kept under strict

vigil and visited thrice a week. The efficacy

of rodenticides was evaluated on the basis of

burrow reduction in each plot.

Results and Discussion

Control obtained with bromadiolone (0.005

per cent wax cakes) was 90 per cent as compared to

83 per cent with warfarin (0.025% wax cakes) Tables

1 and 2. Marsh et al. ( 1 980) in field trials against the

three commensal rodents reported bromadiolone to

Table I

SUSTAINED BAITING WITH WARFARIN (0.025% WAX

CAKES)

be highly potent and with a high degree of

palatability. Redfern and Gill (1980) reported cent

per cent mortality with bromadiolone after three days

of feeding against rats and mice.

Warfarin requires considerably longer feeding

period to be effective. Similar results have been

obtained for T. indicci and M. hurrianae which were

less susceptible to warfarin than R. norvegicus,

Bentley and Larthe (1959), B. bengalensis , Brooks

et al. (1980).

From the results it can be concluded that

sustained baiting requires excess amount of bait

which is not economical and involves much labour,

whereas weekly baiting is more effective as it gives

maximum control success with less quantity of

poison bait. The studies further indicate that weekly

baiting reduces cost and reduces possible risks to

non-target species which is an important factor. The

observations also show that when both the poison

288

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

warfarin and bromadiolone are used in the field, as

wax cake formulations, bromadiolone was more

effective compared to warfarin.

Refer

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash (1975): Rodents of Economic

Importance in India, pp. 1-175. Arnold Heinemann, New Delhi

and London.

Bentley, E.W. & Y. Larthe (1959): The comparative rodenticidal

efficacy of five anticoagulants. J. Hyg. Camp. 57: 135-49.

Brooks, J.E., P.T. Htun & H. Naing (1980): The susceptibility of

Bandicota bengalensis from Rangoon, Burma to several

anticoagulant rodenticides. J. Hyg. Camp. 84: 127-135.

Mathur, R.P. & I. Prakash (1980): Laboratory evaluation of

October 27, 1 995 RAJNI CHAWLA

Department of Zoology,

University of Rajasthan, Jaipur (India)

ENCES

anticoagulant treated baits for the control of the Northern palm

squirrel, Funambulus pennanti Wroughton.7. Hyg. Camb. 85:

421-426.

Marsh, R.E., W.E. Howard & W.B. Jackson (1980):

Bromadiolone: A new toxicant for rodent control. Pest control

48(8): 22, 24 & 26.

Redfern, R. & J.E. Gill (1980): Laboratory evaluation of

Bromadiolone as a rodenticide for use against warfarin resistant

and nonresistant rat and mice. J. Hyg. Camb. 84: 263-268.

6. LABORATORY EVALUATION OF CHOLECALCIFEROL AGAINST MUS MUSCULUS (BLYTH)

Introduction

Material and Methods

Rodents are one of the major vertebrate pests

causing considerable damage to crops, stores,

aodowns and other articles of human value. At

present there is a diverse selection of excellent

rodenticides available for rodent control.

Cholecalciferol is both a single and multiple feeding

toxicant effective on Mus musculus, Rattus rattus

and Rattus norvegicus (Marshall 1984).

Cholecalciferol (vit. D?) is closely related with

calciferol (vit. D j. The efficacy of calciferol against

warfarin resistant and non-resistant rats and mice

were reported by Renninson (1974), Rowe et al.

(1974) and Muktha Bai et al. (1978). In the present

investigation the toxicity and palatability of

cholecalciferol (vit. D?) were evaluated against Mus

musculus (Blyth) in choice feeding test.

Choice feeding test was carried out in the

laboratory against Mus musculus (Blyth). Prior to

the experimentation, animals were acclimatized for

1 5 days. They were fed on mice feed (Brooke Bond

Lipton India Ltd.) and water ad libitum. Thirty Six

healthy individually caged animals were weighed

and sexed (18 Males and 18 Females). After 24 hr

of starvation they were exposed to poison and plain

baits. The poison baits were prepared in broken bajra

(P. typhoides ) mixed with 3% til oil ( Sesamum

indicum). The plain baits contained broken bajra

mixed with 3% til oil only. The period of exposure

was 24 hr only. The left over and spilled food were

weighed the next day. After exposure the animals

were kept on mice feed and water ad libitum. The

observations were made up to 15 days.

Table 1

TOXICITY OF CHOLECALCIFEROL (VIT. Dj AGAINST Mus musculus (BLYTH) [CHOICE FEEDING TEST]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

289

Results and Discussion

The results of the investigation are summarized

in the Table 1. Since non-significant (P > 0.05) sex

difference in mortality was found, hence mortality

data for both sexes was combined for analysis. The

observations evidently indicate that cholecalciferol

gives good results against Mus musculus (Blyth). It

further indicated that the lower concentration 0.025%

of cholecalciferol yielded 50% kill in the range of

7-15 days, where as both the higher concentrations

(0.075 and 0.05%) resulted in cent per cent mortality

in the range of 2. 9-5. 4 and 3-6. 1 9 days respectively.

The consumption of poison bait reveals its good

acceptability and palatability. Poisoning symptoms

were noticed after 48 hr exposure which involve

sluggishness, crawling movement, pulmonary

distress and loss in body weight. Field studies have

also revealed that cholecalciferol (vit. D3) gives

94.44% control success, Saxena et al. (1988).

Refer

Marshall, E.F. (1984): Cholecalciferol a unique toxicant for ro-

dent control. Proc. lJth Vert. Pest Cant. Univ. Cali. Davis. 95-

98.

Muktha Bai, K., M.K. Krishna Kumari & S.K. Majumdar (1978):

Toxicity of Calciferol, warfarin and their combinations to Rattus

rattus norvegicits (albino) and Rattus rattus. Pesticide Sci. 9:

44-50.

It is evident from the above finding that both

the higher concentrations, namely 0.075 and 0.05%

of cholecalciferol are quite effective against Mus

musculus (Byth) and its use on large scale will be

boon for the farmers.

Acknowledgement

We thank New Chemical Industries, Kandivli,

Mumbai for a generous gift of Quintox

(Cholecalciferol Tech. Cone. 7.5%). Q. A. is thankful

to SAP for financial assistance.

October 27, 1 995 Q AM AR AZIZ

Y. SAXENA

J.P. SRIVASTAVA

Department of Zoology,

University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur-302 004 (India).

N C E S

Renninson, B.D. ( 1974): Field trial of Calciferol against warfarin

resistant infestation of the Norway rat, Rattus norvegicits Berk.

Rowe, F.P., F.J. Smith & T. Swinney ( 1 974): Field trials of calciferol

combined with warfarin against house mice Mus musculus L.

J. Hyg. Camb. 73: 353-360.

Saxena, Y., D. Kumar & V.S. Panwar (1988): Bioefficacy of

Quintox (Vit. D3) Pellets in field. Z. Angew. Zool. 75: 505-507.

7. ABOUT DILLENIA AUREA AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF ELEPHANTS

I studied the Ecology of elephants of Dalma

Wildlife Sanctuary for four years between 1989 to

1992. Dalma is situated on the Chhotanagpur Plateau

of south Bihar. The essential feature in the physical

aspect of the elephants’ habitats in south Bihar, is

the prevalence of plateaux and hills, often rising into

mountains which rarely exceed 1000 m in elevation.

The forest of Dalma belongs to a unique Shorea-

Cleistanthus-Croton series (Gadgil and Meher-

Homji 1986). The Champion and Seth (1968)

classification shows the forest as consisting of dry

peninsular hill sal ( Shorea robusta ), and northern

mixed dry deciduous type. The forests of the

Chhotanagpur plateau exhibit a variety of habitat

types ranging from dry deciduous to evergreen

though the study area constituted only dry deciduous

type of forest.

Dillenia aurea is also found in the forest along

with Dillenia pentagyna — the more common

associate of sal ( Shorea robusta ) in other places. H.H.

Haines in his two classics on the flora of this region,

namely Forest Flora of Chhotanagpur (1910) and The

Botany of Bihar and Orissa (1925), while describing

Dillenia aurea writes “Fruit edible and is greedily

eaten by wild elephants, which destroy the trees to

obtain them.” I monitored this species with special

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93(1996)

interest and found that elephants fed on the bark of

this tree albeit rarely. Surprisingly, they neither

touched the fruits nor destroyed the trees. This visual

observation was substantiated by local tribals who

said they had never seen elephants feeding greedily

on the fruits of this species but had seen them feeding

on the bark of the species on rare occasions. The

macro-component analysis of the dung samples

never showed remnants of the fruit of D. aurea.

Is there a change in the food selection of

elephants over a span of 65 years? H.H. Haines never

visited Dalma Sanctuary, but his observations were

made in other parts of Bihar and in Orissa. The

logical explanation to this behaviour could be that

the density of this species must have gone low over

the years and as a result it was excluded from the

dietary of elephants. Presently, this species is

common in the Sanctuary and its fruit is relished by

the tribals and I enjoyed it equally!

Gadc.il, Madhav & V.M. Meher-Hom.ii (1986): Localities of great

Indian significance. Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci./Plant Sci.) siippl.:

165-180.

Haines, H.H. (1910): A forest flora of Chhotanagpur including

It would be interesting to know whether

elephants feed on the bark and the fruit of this tree

in other elephant areas.

Incidentally, H.H. Haines quotes Hamilton’s

observations about the size of the fruit of this species

that the fruit was as big as a large-sized apple. Haines

notes that he never saw the fruit as large but much

smaller. I found that in Dalma Sanctuary and other

forests in South Bihar, the fruit is less than half the

size of an Apple, golden-yellow in colour, and very

sweet when ripe. Thus, my observations support

Haines. In that case, in which areas of its distribution,

are the apple-sized fruits of Dillenia aurea found?

Apri 1 25 , 1 995 HEM ANT S . DAT YE

C-5, Samant Blocks ,

Ghantali,

Naupada,

Thane 400 602.

E R E N C E S

Gangpur and the Santhal Parganahs. Superintendent,

Government Printing, Calcutta.

Haines, H.H. (1925): The botany of Bihar and Orissa. Six pails.

Adlard & Son and West Newman Ltd., London.

8. TAXONOMY OF YAK: BOS ( POEPHAGUS ) GRUNNIENS

Yak, a mammal of economic importance,

living at high altitude (3500 - 6000 m above msl) in

the Himalayas, Kun Lun, Pamirs, Tien Shan and

Altai, has been known as (Bos grunniens or

Poephagus grunniens ), for nearly two and half

centuries. Its adaptation to life in gelid climates has

always drawn considerable interest among naturalists

and biologists. Remoteness, inaccessibility of the

habitat, political restrictions and religious strictures

preventing excavations in the hometract

(Palaentological study), had, so far, delayed the

establishment of its correct nomenclature. Recently,

some studies have been conducted to establish its

correct nomenclature and to ascertain the

domestication process of yak and to establish its

ancestry. Incidentally, the ancestry for most of the

other domesticated animals has already been

established scientifically. In this communication,

an effort is made to record observations

on the taxonomy of the yak, made by different

scientists.

Linnaeus (1758) named yak as Bos grunniens.

He included the yak in the cattle group (Bos),

possibly due to its likeness and nearness to cattle

and gave the species name grunniens, or the grunting

ox. Gmelin in 1760, termed yak as ‘ Vacca grunniens

‘ villorci, Cauda equina ’ because of its grunting sound

and horse like tail. Buffon, another naturalist of the

1 8th century, contemporary to Gmelin, described in

1767 the yak in a similar manner and called it, a

cow of ‘ Tartary ’. Almost a decade later Pallas, called

yak as horsetailed buffalo (Bonnemaire 1984). Smith

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

291

(1827) classified the yak as “ B . poephagus of Aelian,

the B. gnumiens of Pallas.” Aelianus Claudius ( 1 70-

235 A.D.) named yak as Poephagus which means

grass eater. The observations of Smith were based

on physical characters and did not cite any

comparison of skull, or skeleton. Incidentally,

Linnaeus also did not cite any discussion or

comparison of yak before placing it in the genus Bos.

Jerdon (1836) cited yak as Bison poephagus based

on its physical appearance on a similar fashion as

‘ Poephagus of Aelian And Bos gnumiens of Pallas.’

The taxonomical names of yak were based

mostly on its physical characters and its nearness to

Bos or to Bison. Gray ( 1 843, 1 846 and 1 852) listed

yak as Poephagus grunniens after conducting a

detailed study of the skull and skeleton. According

to him the key difference between [he Bison and Bos

were in the formation and placement of the

intermaxillaries, which are — “short, triangular,

acute behind and not reaching the nasal, being

gradually shorter in proportion from Poephagus to

Bison. In Bos they are elongated reaching the suture

between the nasal and the cheek bone.” Lydekker

( 1 898) classified yak as Bos grunniens based on the

arrangement of premaxillaries, intermaxillaries and

nasal bone though he observed yak to be closer to

Bison than Bos. In an earlier work (Lydekker 1 876)

recorded yak as Bison or Poephagus grunniens.

Jerdon (1874), on the line of Georges Cuvier divided

sub-family Bovinae into three groups, the Bisontine

(Bison, Moschatus and Poephagus ), the Taurine

(. Bos ; hump and humpless cattle and Gavaeus Hat

horn cattle); and Buboline (buffaloes) probably on

the observations recorded by Gray and other workers

in favour of Poephagus. Incidentally reports

published in India in 1924 gave yak as Poephagus

grunniens L., Bos poephagus Smith and Poephagus

grunniens Gray (Annon. 1924). Olsen (1991) also

opined, that probably very few, if at all any, skeletal

materials were available for the earlier works of the

17th and 18th centuries for detailed comparisons.

Olsen (1991) on the basis of observations from 27

skulls in museum collections in the United States,

USSR, England and People’s Republic of China is

in agreement with Allen (1940) who classified yak

as Poephagus grunniens and further states “the

species grunniens be re-established in the genus

Poephagus, rather than be included in the present

genus Bos”.

August 26, 1995 R.N. PAL

National Research Centre on Yak (ICAR),

Dirang-790 101 ,

West Kanieng District,

Arunachal Pradesh, India.

References

Annon. (1924): BNHS Mammal Survey of India., Burma and

Ceylon. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XXIX, 424.

Allen, G.M. (1940): The Mammals of China and Mongolia.

Ainer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. pp. 620.

Bonnemaire, J. ( 1 984): Yak. Evaluation of Domesticated Animals.

Mason I. L. (Edi.), Longman, London, pp. 452.

Gray, J.E. (1843): List of Mammals in the British Museum.

London. 153.

Gray, J.E. ( 1 846): Annual Megazine, Natural History. Vol. XVIII.

British Mus., London. 18: 233.

Gray, J.E. (1852): Catalog of Mammals. British Mus., London.

3: 16-17.

Jardine, W. (1836): Naturalist’s Library — Mammals, Vol. IV,

Part 2, London, pp. 264.

Jerdon, T.C. (1874): A Hand Book of the Mammals of India.

Reprinted 1989, Mittal Pub., New Delhi-300.

Linnaeus, C. (1758): System Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae,

Secumdum Glasses, Ordines, Geneva, Species, Editio Decima,

Reformata, Vol. I, Laurenti Salvii, Stockholm, pp. 824.

Lydekker, R. (1874): Indian Tertiary and Post-Tertiary

Vertebrata, Vol. 1.3 Mem Geol. Surv. India, Ser. X. 3 Crania

of Ruminants from Indian Tertiaries. Geol. Surv. India.

Calcutta, pp. 171.

Olsen, J. (1991): Confused Yak Taxonomy and Evidence of

Domestication. Ulenois State Museum Scientific Reports, Vol.

23, Spring Field.

Smith, C. H. (1827): Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, Vol. IV.

London.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

9. UNUSUAL CONGREGATION OF NAYAN O VIS AMMON HODGSON1 BLYTH AT

GYAM TSONA, NORTH SIKKIM

The wildlife of the trans-himalayas of north

Sikkim is not so well known as the area is ‘restricted’

and is the boundary between Tibet (China) and India.

One of the big animals found here about which not

much information is available even in literature is

the Nayan or the Great Tibetan Sheep.

On 10th December 1992 while on a winter

survey of lakes in this region our jeep was

immobilised with high-altitude problems. So I went

to the nearest army unit for help. There, after a

discussion about the local wildlife, the officer-in-

charge rang up various look out points and on

locating a herd of ‘sheep’ over the phone we went to

Chhoilung Valley, near the lake Gyam Tsona.

There, spread over the stark, undulating

landscape were five groups of a loosely scattered

herd of Nayan on either side of the road which was

in a sort of shallow valley. One group was to our left

and four to our right. The cold-desert topography

and elevaion ofc. 4900-5000 m makes distances very

deceptive. The nearest animals were 200-500 m away

and the farthest more than a kilometre away.

We counted 94 individuals. This was most

unusual as local people reported congregation of not

more than 15 and usually 5. Most of them were adult

males distinguished by their curving horns and dark

head, neck and back. Many were also light coloured

with shorter horns obviously females and sub-adults

but it was difficult to do a sex count because of the

distances and postures of the animals, some of which

were grazing and moving away from us and some

lying down.

Photographs were taken to record the total

number using a 200 mm telephoto lens which was

not very adequate. The animals were unafraid of the

approaching jeep and not even startled when we got

off. The nearest ones moved away only gradually

feeding as they went. This behaviour was worth

recording keeping in view the general opinion about

wild animals in military zones.

I am grateful to Lt. Col. B.B. Singh for

assisting me in sighting this unusual congregation.

August 26, 1995 USHA GANGULI -

LACHUNGPA

Project Officer (Wildlife), Forest Department,

Government of Sikkim, Deorali,

Gangtok -737 102, Sikkim, India.

10. BLACKBUCKS USING THE NILGIRIS EASTERN SLOPES: A CORRIDOR

CONNECTING MOYAR VALLEY AND PILLUR SLOPES FORESTS

The Nilgiri hills is flanked by two rivers

flowing along the foothills and filling up the Lower

Bhavani reservoir to the east of the hills. The river

Bhavani originates in the Upper Nilgiris plateau and

flows along an east-northeast gradient bordering the

eastern slopes of the hills. The north-northeastern

slopes are bordered by the Moyar river, which flows

through a valley lying between the Nilgiris and

Talamalai hills.

The Moyar valley holds a moderately

disturbed stretch of forest, contiguous with Sigur

Reserve Forest and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary.

The major vegetation type of this area is dry

deciduous and dry thorn forests. Moyar valley forests

form an important corridor facilitating the movement

of elephants and other animals between Western

Ghats and Biligiri Rangan hills part of Eastern Ghats.

These forests also support a population of about 200

Blackbucks, one of the four remaining populations

of Blackbuck in Tamil Nadu (Ranjitsinh 1989). This

area referred to as Sujjalkuttai forests is proposed to

be declared as a wildlife sanctuary (Rodgers and

Panwar 1988). There is a narrow stretch of forest

along the Nilgiris eastern slopes connecting the

Moyar valley forests to the Nellithurai and Pillur

slopes forests to south-east of the hills. The Pillur

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

293

forests are contiguous with Attapadi forests of Kerala

thus facilitating the movement of animals further

west. There has been reports of elephant movement

along the Nilgiris eastern slope corridor between

Moyar valley and the Pillur forests.

We have seen a Blackbuck and a doe in the

Forest College & Research Institute (FCRI) campus

at Mettupalayam in March 1988, recorded for the

first time in this area. The animals had moved from

the Moyar valley forests to the eastern slopes through

the narrow corridor. We had previously seen

blackbuck droppings along this corridor, but this was

Refer

Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1989): The Indian Blackbuck. Natraj

Publishers, Dehradun. 156 pp.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a wildlife

1 1 . ALBINO LITTLE GREBE

On 10 November, 1994 I saw in a small road

side pond, three Little Grebes ( Tachybaptus

ruficollis), near village Khodri, Bilaspur District of

M.P. Amongst them, there was an albino bird which

could be distinguished from the others by its unusual

coloration.

the first time we had sighted the animal. We had also

seen wild dogs in the same area. These sightings

confirm our supposition that various animals use this

corridor. The foothills area bordering the eastern

slopes is heavily disturbed by human activities, and

this corridor needs to be protected.

October 14, 1995 T.R.K. YOGANAND

S. MOHAMED ALI

Mettupalayam Wildlife Preservation Society,

250, Main Road, Mettupalayam-64 1 301,

Tamil Nadu.

E N C E S

protected area network in India. Vol. 1. Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehradun.

TACHYBAPTUS RUFICOLLIS

Occurrence of albinism in this species has not

been recorded in available literature.

March 3, 1995 A. M.K. BHAROS

27, MIG, Indravati Colony,

Raipur-492 001, M.P.

12. WHITENECKED OR WOOLLY-NECKED STORK CICONIA EPISCOPUS

(BODDAERT) NESTING ON CLIFFS

The Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus

is reported to nest on tall trees (Ali and Ripley 1983,

Brown et al. 1982, Roberts 1991, Hancock et al.

1992). Even in the latest authoritative handbook (del

Hoyo et al. 1992) it is mentioned that C. episcopus

is a “tree nester” (p. 459). However, on 20 October

1994 in the Chambal river near Kota in Rajasthan,

we saw from a boat, at a distance of about 15 km,

three active nests of Woolly-necked Stork on cliffs

on both sides of the river. In two nests, one parent

was present, while the third nest had both the parents.

We also saw atleast 16 more Woolly-necked Storks

in groups of 4, 5 and 7, either flying or sitting on

rocks in the river. These storks may also be nesting

somewhere. A large number of Indian Longbilled

Vultures Gyps indica, few Egyptian Vultures

Neophron percnopterus and a pair of Bonelli’s Eagle

Hieraaetus fasciatus were also nesting on the cliffs

along the river.

The Black Stork Ciconia nigra also shows two

types of nesting sites: in most parts of the Palaearctic

region, it nests on tall trees in forests, but in Spain

and South Africa, it nests on cliffs (del Hoyo et al.

1992). Similarly, the European White Stork Ciconia

ciconia and the Oriental White Stork C. boyciana

(earlier considered as the same species) have

dissimilar nesting habits. C. ciconia invariably nest

on buildings, pylons, cliffs and man-made structures,

while C. boyciana nest on trees. According to Brown

et al. (1982), the behavioural difference between

294

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

ciconia and boyciana is that the former nest on

houses, while the later on high trees.

It appears that all the species of Ciconia utilizes

which ever is the safe site for nesting. Ours is the

first record of the Wooly- necked stork nesting on

cliffs. Just 300 km north of Kota, in the Keoladeo

National Park near Bharatpur, this species nests on

trees.

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan (compact edition). Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Brown, L„ E.K. Urban & K. Newman ( 1 982): The Birds of Africa.

vol. I. Academic Press, London.

Hancock, J.A., J.A. Kushlan & M.P. Kahl ( 1 992): Storks, Ibises

February 22, 1995 ASAD R. RAHMANI

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology ,

Aligarh Muslim University ,

Aligarh 202 002.

BHARAT SINGH

Bhim Niwas, Gumanpura,

Kota, Rajathan.

E N C E S

and Spoonbills of the World. Academic Press, London.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (eds) (1992): Handbook

of the Birds of the World, vol. I. Lynx Editions, Barce-

lona.

Roberts, T.J. ( 1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vols. 1 & 2. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

13. GREYHEADED FISHING EAGLE, ICHTHYOPHAGA ICHTHYAETUS ICHTHYAETUS

(HORSFIELD) FEEDING ON TURTLE

On 29 December 1994 while observing the

Blacknecked stork (Eph ipp iorhyn chus asiaticns ) in

Bankitaal of Dudwa National Park at about 1400 hr,

I saw a Greyheaded Fishing Eagle ( Ichthyophaga

ichthyaetus ) feeding on something on the ground

fully covered by Wild-rice ( Oryza sp). I could not

properly see what it was feeding on except some red

coloured material which might have been the

intestine. The eagle was constantly pulling it from

right to left. Later, I found that it was a turtle.

When I approached in order to collect the half-

eaten turtle, the eagle flew away carrying the turtle

to a nearby tree.

According to Ali & Ripley (1983), the food of

Greyheaded Fishing Eagle mainly consists of fish

(exclusively) and rarely will it go for Junglefowl and

smaller mammals like squirrels. Lowther (1949)

reported that he saw 5 turtle shells in the nest of

Pallas’s Fish Eagle, Haliaeetus leucotyphus (Pallas),

while he was photographing the nest. The

Greyheaded Fishing Eagle feeding on turtle is a new

record.

February 2 1 , 1 995 G. MAHESWARAN

Stork Ecology Project,

Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology,

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh-202 002 (U.P).

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India Lowther, E.H.N. (1949): A Bird Photographer in India. Oxford

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. University Press, 150 pp.

14. CUCKOO ( CUCULUS CANORUS LINN.) IN SIDHI DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH,

INDIA

During my period of posting in Sidhi District

(Vindhya Pradesh Region) of Madhya Pradesh, some

interesting variations in the diet, feeding methods

and, observations on the possible breeding of the

Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus) in that region were

noticed, and are described below.

The species was sighted from May to October.

The birds were seen singly, in twos and occasionally

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

295

in scattered flocks of 4 to 5 birds (24 and 26 June

1993).

Birds were more vocal during morning and

evening hours and called sparsely during the day.

The calls were made from perches on trees or on

telegraph/electric lines and on the wing. The birds

kept their wings drooping, tails partly cocked up

when calling from a perch.

The longest duration of call recorded, was by

a bird perched close-by, on a tree, for about 28

minutes (24 June, 1993) with three short

intermissions of about 1 Vi-2 minutes each at regular

intervals. Calls were mostly heard between June to

end of July. Birds sighted in some locality in early

August and later, were usually silent.

Addition in Dietery and Variation in

Feeding Pattern: Some variations to the diet and

feeding pattern as mentioned in the handbook of the

Birds of india and Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1987,

Compact Edition, pp. 23 1 ) and the fauna of British

india by Stuart Baker, Vol. IV, pp. 136, Ed. 1927)

were observed. The species was observed hawking

winged termites on 4-5 July, 1993 in the manner of

flycatchers on more than two occasions. A bird

perched on an electric line, passing over a field

pounced on and captured a lizard about 10 cm long

in its bill and carried it to nearby tree. On another

occasion a bird descended on a ploughed field,

probed for food, hopped around in the manner of

crow pheasants ( Centropus sinensis).

The presence of the bird caused alarm amongst

such species, as Large Grey Babblers ( Turdoides

malcolmi ) and Rufousbacked shrikes ( Lanins

schach ) both known as fosterer for the species

(Stuart Baker, Vol. IV, p. 1 36) and confirmed breeders

in that locality. On several occasions, they were

observed harassing and driving away cuckoos.

Other known foster birds, e.g. Reed Warblers

( Acrocephalus , sp.) Chats other than Brown

Rock Chat (Cercomela fused), were more or less

absent.

The breeding behaviour of male birds such as

courtship chase of females while calling on the wing

was observed several times.

The species is known to breed in the hilly

regions of Central India (Stuart Baker, Vol. IV, p.

136) and recorded at Sagar, Mhow and Kamptee.

The behaviour of cuckoos and reaction of possible

foster species suggests breeding of the species in

Sidhi District also.

April 1 1, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

27, MIG , Indravati Colony,

Raipur 492 001, (M.R).

15. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE MALABAR WHISTLING THRUSH,

MYIOPHONUS HORSFIELDII (VIGORS)

The distribution range of the species extends

in the East to Chhotanagpur (Sarguja) and further

to Sundergarh district (Orissa). It inhabits hill

streams in dry season, but spreads into the foothills

and adjacent plains in rains. The bird is

also to be seen sometimes on forest paths, in gar-

dens and compounds, (handbook Ali & Ripley, p.

598).

During my posting at Sidhi (M.R) which has

predominantly forested hilly terrain, interspersed

with plains and plenty of ravines, a bird was sighted

at village Karondiya on 15.10.91, around 0900 hr.

perched atop a fence post, in an undulating field,

adjacent to a nallah. The size of the bird and plumage

coloration matched the illustration available, thereby

confirming its identification. Later, the bird moved

to a nearby post, stayed for there for few seconds

and then flew away.

The sighting of the species suggests extension

in its distribution range up to Sidhi District also,

which has suitable habitats.

January 24, 1995 A.M.K. BHAROS

NC-6, MPEB Colony,

Raipur Road,

Bilaspur 495 223, M.P.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

16. NESTS OF THICKBILLED FLOWERPECKER

In his “birds of kerala”, Dr. Salim Ali

mentions that there is no specific nesting data on the

Thickbilled Flowerpecker ( Dicaeum agile) in Kerala.

This species is common in the Peechi-Vazhani

Wildlife Sanctuary (Trichur district) and I had the

opportunity to locate five nests of this species.

The nests were seen between the months

December to March. The majority (four out of five)

of the nests were seen in the months of February to

March. One nest, that was first seen under

construction on 3 1 December 1 99 1 had a young one

sitting outside it on 1 February 1992, suggesting that

the period of incubation and fledging is less than a

month.

The nests were pouch-shaped and suspended

from thin branches or twigs. They were constructed

with vegetable matters (fibres) and were well

camouflaged.

One of the nests was at an height of 2 m from

the ground, on a bush while an exceptional nest was

about 18 m from the ground, on a Terminalia tree.

Three others were placed at heights ranging from

3.5-11 m the known range, according to the

handbook. The nests were located in fairly disturbed

forests and in Teak-Bombax plantations.

Acknowledgement

These observations were made during the

course of my research on the ecology of

woodpeckers, supported by WCS/The New York

Zoological Society, NY, U.S.A.

January 24, 1995 V. SANTHARAM

68, I Floor, Santhome High Road,

Madras-600 28.

17. SEASONAL MOVEMENTS IN SMALL SUNBIRD (NECTARINIA MINIMA) AND

EMERALD DOVE ( CHALCOPHAPS INDICA)

The lower altitudes of the Peechi-Vazhani

Wildlife Sanctuary (Trichur district, Kerala) have

four species of sunbirds — Purple ( Nectarinia

asiatica), Purplerumped (V. zeylonica ),

Maroonbreasted ( N . lotenia ), Small (N. minima) and

the Little Spiderhunter ( Araclmothera longirostris).

Of these, all but the Small Sunbird are permanent

residents though the Spiderhunter is the least

common and patchily distributed. The sightings

of the Small Sunbirds at Peechi (foothills) sugges-

ted a pattern indicating the bird has regular sea-

sonal movements that are perhaps linked with the

rains.

My sightings of the Small Sunbird have been

just before and after the southwest monsoon. In

the monsoon months of August and September, it is

quite common. It can then be seen not only in the

forest areas but also in the campuses like the

Veterinary College Campus at Mannuthy, on the

outskirts of Trichur town. After September, the bird

becomes scarce at the foothills of Peechi and

gradually disappears. It then makes its appearance

again towards the end of the dry season, in early

May, after the first few summer showers and a few

weeks before the onset of the monsoon (in early

June).

Elsewhere, in the upper reaches and stret-

ches bordering the semi-evergreen forest, I have

seen the Small Sunbird in February-March, the

peak of the dry season. During the months the

bird visits the Peechi foothills, it is quite com-

mon. Incidentally, in the other months, the

Purple and Purplerumped sunbirds are the

commonest.

Another bird that appears to show some

seasonal movements is the Emerald Dove. It is

quite common in the environs of Peechi in the

months of August-October. It does not dis-

appear totally in the dry months like the Small

Sunbird, though its numbers are definitely lower

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

297

than during the wet season. I have not seen its

nests or any signs of its breeding in my study

areas.

Seasonal movements in nectar-and fruit eat-

ing birds have been recorded in literature. It may

be interesting to investigate such movements in

order to understand the habitat requirements of

these specialized species for conservation plann-

ing.

Acknowledgements

These observations were made during the

course of my research on the ecology of

woodpeckers, supported by WCS/The New York

Zoological Society, N.Y., U.S.A.

January 3 1 , 1 995 V. S ANTHARAM

68, I Floor Santhome High Road,

Madras 600 028.

18. VARIATIONS IN OLIVEBACKED SUNBIRDS NECTARINIA JUGULARIS

(LINNAEUS) OF ANDAMAN, CAR, CENTRAL AND GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

While cataloguing the sunbirds in the BNHS

Collection (Catalogue Part 37), I had noticed the

differences among birds within the same race of the

species Nectarinia jugularis, collected from different

islands of the Andamans and Nicobars. I critically

studied the 32 specimens of N. jugularis innumerable

times, arranging them island-wise, and each time

noticed the variations among them. The 25

subspecies of N. jugularis, listed in the checklist of

the birds of the world (A complete checklist of the

Birds of the World, Richard Howard and Alick Moore

1980, Oxford University Press) are distributed

mainly on the islands of south and southeast Asia,

from the Andamans, Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra,

Java, Borneo, Philippines, Sula Is., Kei Is., New

Guinea to the Solomon Islands east of New Guinea

(The Reader’s Digest Great World Atlas, 1981, p.

94-95). Out of the 25 subspecies, 3 are in the Indian

list, found in the various islands of Andamans and

Nicobars.

The 19 islands comprising Nicobars are more

widely dispersed than the 204 in Andamans, hence

chances of geographic isolation or the formation of

races are more in the Nicobars.

Nectarinia jugularis andamanica (Hume)

(Andaman group)

We have specimens both from Andaman (n=6)

and Narcondam (n=6), an island 128 km from

Andaman towards Tavoi, Myanmar. Narcondam

birds are slightly, but consistently larger in their wing

and tail measurements: male wing 56-60 mm (53-

55 in Andaman birds), tail 33-34 mm (30-31 in

Andaman). The pectoral tufts are brighter in the

Andaman birds. In the absence of any other major

difference, Narcondam birds are grouped with the

Andaman birds under the same subspecies.

Nectarinia jugularis klossi (Richmond)

(Great Nicobar)

There are two groups of specimens of this

subspecies, one from Campbell Bay in Great Nicobar

(n=4) and the other (n=6) from islands to the north,

and below Car Nicobar ( proselia ). There is almost

no difference in wing and tail sizes between these

two groups, but birds from Great Nicobar have a

larger bill (20.5 mm) than those from Trinkut and

Nancowry (16.5 - 18 mm). The pectoral tufts in the

northern birds are almost as bright as those in

proselia, whereas in the southern Campbell Bay

birds, they are duller. With a larger series of birds it

may be possible to separate these two groups into

races. We do not have access to the topotypes of

Baker’s blanfordi from Kondol Island, which is

treated as a synonym of klossi, but it is possible that

a comparison of skins from Great Nicobar with those

from Kondol Island may show reasons for their

separation.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Nectarinia jugularis proselia (Oberholser)

(Car Nicobar)

They are like klossi but definitely with a

shorter bill and very distinctly bright orange-yellow

pectoral tufts.

Salim Ali and Ripley (handbook Vol. 10, pp.

30-33, 1974) have placed the three forms from the

Andaman, Car Nicobar and Nicobar Islands as

subspecies of Nectarinia jugularis. Baker (fauna Vol.

3, pp. 401-404, 1926) considered the birds from

Andamans ( andamanica ) to be quite different from

those in other islands (of the same group) and placed

it in a separate species, Leptocoma flammaxillaris

together with birds from Myanmar (Burma), with

whom they have greater affinity, as the nominate

race. This is a more correct classification, considering

the fact that these birds (Andaman) have a very large

bill, the males have a non-breeding (eclipse) plumage

(no. 221 19 from Wrightmyo in our collection) as in

asiatica , and a brown band just below the metallic

throat and breast of the breeding male. The abdomen

is pale yellow, while in others it is very bright yellow.

The pectoral tufts are yellow in andamanica contrary

to the bright orange in the other two subspecies. The

forehead is plain light brown whereas it is glossy

metallic in proselia and klossi. The only specimen

we have of the flammaxillaris is a breeding male

from Ingabu, Henzada Dt., Myanmar (Burma), dated

8.1.1931. The bright orange and black breast band

has faded into light orange and dark brown.

Specimens of andamanica resemble this bird in every

respect but lack the orange and black (brown) breast

band, instead of which there is a brown one. The

pectoral tuft is bright orange and yellow in

flammaxillaris whereas it is yellow, with no orange

in andamanica. Baker mentions the presence of an

eclipse plumage in flammaxillaris also.

Speciation is an extremely slow process.

According to Mayr ( 1 942, Systematics and the origin

of species), birds with their highly uniform internal

environment exhibit a minimum of changeability

through external causes. The variation of the

phenotype in birds is exceedingly narrow. Or it may

be that the environment in the different islands are

similar and hence the evolution has taken up almost

the same pattern, without any drastic difference. Still

the difference in the sizes of the bills of the birds

from various islands and the small differences in the

colour of the pectoral tufts are noteworthy. It was

formerly believed that insular forms are invariably

smaller than the mainland forms, this is by no means

true. The only generalization we can make is that

island forms are often different in size from the other

population of the species.

I am indebted to Mr Humayun Abdulali for

the discussions I had with him and for correcting an

earlier manuscript.

February 8, 1996 SARASWATHY UNNITHAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023.

19. SIGHT RECORD OF GREEN MUNIA AMANDAVA FORMOSA IN THE DESERT

NATIONAL PARK, JAISALMER, RAJASTHAN

The Green Munia Amandava formosa

(Latham) is a rare endemic species, very locally and

unevenly distributed, mainly in Central India from

Mount Abu, Gwalior, Jhansi, Surguja south to

Mahableshwar, Utnur (Adilabad) and

Visakhapatnam Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1983). Stray

records are reported from Lucknow (Reid 1881),

Bihar and Lahore (Currie 1916a, b). Currie (1916a,

b) found a small breeding colony consisting ol 4-5

nests in August 1914 in some ornamental trees

in the municipal gardens in Lahore, which H.

Whistler presumed were escaped cage birds (Roberts

1991). There has been no record since then, so

Roberts ( 1 992) has excluded it from the checklist of

Pakistan.

On 24 July 1993, I saw an individual sitting

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

299

on a Capparis bush inside Sudasari enclosure in the

Desert National Park in Jaisalmer district of

Rajasthan. The nearest known area (Mt. Abu) is

about 400 km from Sudasari. According to Ali and

Ripley (1983), the Green Munia is found in grass

and low bushes, tall grasslands, sugarcane fields, and

boulder-strewn scrub jungle. The Sudasari enclosure,

where we saw one bird, has up to 1 m tall grasses,

thanks to good protection during the last 10 years.

Suresh C. Sharma (in litt. 1993) has seen it on

29 and 3 1 March 1991 in the Taal Chapper Wildlife

Sanctuary in Churu district of the Thar desert, which

is around 400 km northwest of Gwalior district from

where this species was reported earlier. Incidentally,

during my 6 years of studies on the Great Indian

Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps and other birds (see

Rahmani 1991) in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary in

Shivpuri district, and extensive surveys of Gwalior

and Shivpuri districts, I did not encounter this species

anywhere.

Refer

Ali, S.A. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact edition. OUP, Bombay.

Currie, A.J. (1916a): The Birds of Lahore and the Vicinity. ./.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 561-577.

Currie, A.J. (1916b): The Occurrence of the Green Munia

(Strictospiza formosa ) at Lahore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

24: 594.

What could be the reason for the sighting of

this species in two widely separated areas in the Thar

desert? Despite its rarity, the Green Munia is caught

for pet trade (Rajat Bhargave, pers. comm. 1994).

These recent sightings could have been of escaped

caged birds. The Taal Chapper Sanctuary adjoins the

village of the same name, so Sharma’s sightings

could have been from escaped birds but Sudasari is

very remote and it is about 65 km from Jaisalmer

and I have never seen cage birds being sold in

Jaisalmer. The monsoon of 1993 was very good, and

during our visit in July, the vegetation was lush green,

so most likely, these munias spread out in the desert

to avail of the temporary abundance of food and

shelter.

February 22, 1995 ASAD R. RAHMANI

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh-202 002.

ENCES

Rahmani, A.R. (1991): Birds of the Karera Bustard

Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

88: 172-194.

Reid, G. (1881): The Birds of Lucknow Civil Division. Stray

Feathers 10: 1-88.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan, vol. 2. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

20. SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BHUTAN

During my stay in Bhutan from March 1989

till May 1994 I did some birdwatching in my spare

time. Most of my observations were in accordance

with the information given in the handbook of the

birds of india and Pakistan by Salim Ali and S.

Dillon Ripley. However, on several occasions I noted

differences or additional information. This paper is

written in order to share these observations with

others. I will also add some notes that need further

investigations, e.g. because the subspecies is

uncertain. The sequence of the species will be the

same as in the handbook.

I . Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna fe rruginea): A

pair of this species was observed by me on Gagomo

Tso near the Yalela (pass) just south-east of Lhingshi,

in the north-western part of the country at an altitude

of 4600 m, on May 14, 1993. Although I did not

observe a nest, local people told me that ducks were

breeding at another lake near Lhingshi. The presence

of a pair of these ducks on a location similar to their

normal breeding grounds suggests that this species

could be breeding in Bhutan as well.

2. Buzzard species, probably Upland Buzzard

(Buteo hemilasius): Three Buzzards were seen by

me on May 12, 1993 in Lhingshi at an altitude of

4100 m. One gave an aerial display with the typical

300

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

buzzard-like mewing call. The tails were heavily

barred, unlike most of the tails of the Longlegged

Buzzards {Buteo rufinus ) I observed so frequently

in Bhutan in winter (I have seen a Longlegged

Buzzard in Bhutan in May as well, on May 5, 1989

in Lhuntsi, East Bhutan). The handbook states that

the Upland Buzzard may nest in the higher

Himalayas. This observation can support this view.

3. Hobby ( Falco subbuteo ): In the summer of

1993, very often I observed a pair of this falcon in

the Gidakom valley south of the capital city of

Thimpu. One day a nestling was shown to me by

children, reported to have fallen out of a nest near

the place where I saw the birds regularly. Race

uncertain, but probably F.s. centralasiae.

4. East Himalayan Kestrel ( Falco

tinnunculus interstinctus ): The handbook states that

there is only circumstantial evidence of breeding in

the Eastern Himalayas. However on the top floor of

the house where I lived for 14 months in Lhuntsi, in

the eastern part of Bhutan a pair of this bird was

reported to have bred for several years. As the house

was renovated before I came, the birds did not return

the year I lived there, but they were around the whole

summer. I also found the rest of their nest under the

roof with a mummified full grown nestling.

5. Tibetan Partridge ( Perdix liodgsoniae ):

This species is not recorded from Bhutan, but I saw

a pair on May 10, 1993 near Chomolhari base camp

at an altitude of 4100 m. Again a pair was seen by

me on May 13, 1993 in Lhingshi (4200 m).

6. Purple Moorhen ( Porphyrio porphyrio ):

On December 2, 1989 I was called by local people

who had caught a rather unusual bird near a small

stream in Lhuntsi, East Bhutan, at an altitude of 1400

m. It turned out to be this species. As far as I know

this bird has not been reported from this area. The

bird was kept in captivity.

7. Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ): Singing males

of this bird were observed yearly in Gidakom valley

(2400 m). Probably this concerns subspecies bakeri.

According to the handbook, this subspecies is

recorded by Ludlow up to 3300 m altitude in summer.

In Lhingshi I saw 2 singing males at an altitude of

4100 m, but may be these were birds of subspecies

canorus which is recorded in adjacent Sikkim up to

4100 m.

8. Slenderbilled Blacknaped Oriole ( Oriolus

chinensis tenuirostris ): Although reported as a winter

visitor from October to March, I observed a male

bird in Lhuntsi on April 16, 1989. A singing male

was seen by me on May 16, 1992 in Wangdiphodrang

in West Bhutan, at an altitude of 1200 m. This last

bird could have been a Golden Oriole as well, as I

did not have my binoculars with me that time.

However the song was clearly different from the song

of the Golden Oriole I know so well from Europe.

The Golden Oriole is not reported to have bred in

Bhutan.

9. Dark Grey Cuckoo-Shrike ( Coracina

melaschistos melaschistos ): This bird was seen by

me on June 7, 1 992 in Gidakom valley, at an altitude

of 2800 m which is 900 m higher than recorded

before in Bhutan.

10. TickelPs Leaf Warbler ( Phylloscopus

affinis ): On May 14, 1993 I observed several singing

male birds of this species in Lhingshi at an altitude

of 3900 m. According to the handbook this bird was

not recorded in Bhutan in the breeding season before,

although it is recorded in nearby Sikkim.

1 1 . Blue Rock Thrush ( Monticola solitarius ):

Recorded by me in Lhuntsi, East Bhutan, in April

and August 1989.

12. Beautiful Nuthatch (Sitta formosa ):

Occurrence in Bhutan is not certain according to the

handbook. I observed 3 birds near Tingtingbi,

Shembang district, on January 31,1 992 at an altitude

of about 600 m.

13. Himalayan Blackbreasted Sunbird

( Aethopyga saturata saturata ): This bird was seen

by me several times in winter (February 19, 1994

for instance) in Gidakom valley (alt. 2400 m). The

handbook states that this bird winters in Sikkim

below c. 1000 m and in the western Himalayas

between 500 and 1500 m.

January 28, 1995 F.J. MOET

C/o Van Galenstraatz,

7907 AN Hoogeveen,

The Netherlands.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

301

21. DISTRIBUTION OF KACHUGA SMITHII (GRAY) IN ASSAM

Kachuga smith 'd has a wide distribution in the

northern parts of the Indian sub-continent. In Assam,

the species has been recorded from Sibsagar

(Choudhury 1990), Manas and Kaziranga National

Parks, and Jorhat (Das 1991). It has an oval carapace

with a blackish vertebral stripe. I, here report, some

more localities where I examined the species.

During August and September, 1990, I

examined three specimens of K. smithii in

Dhakuakhana area of Lakhimpur district. These

specimens were captured in the Brahmaputra river

near Matmora. After measurement, they were

released in the Charikaria river. All were immature

and their carapace was olive (greenish-grey). In

adults, the prominence of brown colour on carapace

is noticeable. Neck striped with alternate greenish

weak spine is present in animals from the eastern

parts of the range (i.e. Assam), however, he did not

mention of any specific example. The blackish

vertebral stripe was conspicuously present in all the

specimens.

The records near Saikhowaghat in far eastern

Assam (95° 40' E) are now the easternmost for the

species. Its range has now been extended by about

200 km with Jorhat being the recorded easternmost

locality. The Sibsagar specimen ( AUC 01 ), although

tentatively identified as K. smithii, is a very unusual

one with a weak spine, and it appears to me to be

somewhat intermediate between K. smithii and K.

tentoria.

The plastron of all the live specimens

examined was patterned and hence, they were of the

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS (IN CM) OF K. Smithii

SCL = Straight line carapace length; CCL = Curved carapace length; SCW = Straightline carapace width; CCW = Curved

carapace width; SH = Shell height; CH = Carapace height; PL = Plastron length.

and yellow.

In March, 1994, 1 examined a live turtle caught

in the Lohit river near Saikhowaghat in Tinsukia

district. Also, in April, 1994, I obtained a carapace

(my collection number: AUC 24) from the same

locality. The most remarkable feature of all the five

specimens was lack of spine, not even a weak one,

on the carapaces. Das (1991) had mentioned that a

nominate subspecies, K. smithii smithii. The

measurements are listed in Table 1.

November 23, 1995 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Is lamp ur Road,

Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

References

Choudhury, A. U. ( 1990): Two freshwater turtles of the Genus Das, I. (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of

Kachuga from Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(I)\ 151- the Indian Sub-continent. R & A Publishing Ltd.

52. Portishead.

302

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

22. INDIGENOUS METHOD OF TRANSLOCATION OF THE TUCKTOO GECKO

GECKO LINN. AS PRACTISED IN MIZORAM, INDIA

Tucktoo is the largest among the geckos and

the common house gecko of south east Asia,

found in India only in Bihar, Bengal, and Assam

(Daniel 1983). The lizard has however been ob-

served in the main towns of Mizoram like Aizwal,

Champhai, Kolasib, Serchhip, Lunglei, Lawngtlai

and Vairangte by us. It is locally known as OK.

OK., as its call appears to sound like that. Literature

reveals that none of the Indian lizards including

Geckos are poisonous (Daniel 1983, The Book of

Indian Reptiles). However, the Mizos believe that

the Tucktoo is very poisonous, and allege that its

bite as causing death of people in Mizoram. Apart

from that it is also believed that the house

which harbours a tucktoo, and if it calls OK..

OK., nine times continuously at a stretch is a lucky

house.

Many people dislike the presence of the lizard

in houses due to its droppings. Therefore to get rid

of these lizards they translocate them without killing,

by using tobacco. Some chewing tobacco sold as

‘Khaim’ and ‘Sada’ in pan shops is kept as paste or

dry at the end of a dry bamboo which is taken towards

the mouth of the tucktoo. The tobacco is kept on the

bamboo in such a manner that when the bamboo is

moved towards the mouth of the Tucktoo, from a

distance, it (tucktoo) bites the bamboo and

immediately some tobacco goes into its mouth.

Within 2 to 5 minutes of this operation, the tobacco

exerts its effect and the lizard loses its balance.

Its limbs start shivering, lose their coordination

and the gecko falls down, it is then caught by

hand and placed in a container, where it remains

senseless for 20 to 30 minutes. During this period

the Geckos are translocated to Forest/Jungle areas

in a humane manner without damaging or killing

them.

January 13, 1996 D.N. HARIT

Lecturer & Head , Department of Zoology,

Government Kolasib College,

Kolasib-796 081 , Mizoram, India.

D.K. HARIT

Hon. Animal Welfare Officer,

AWBI, P.O. Kaland ,

Meerut-250 342 ( U.P. ), India.

23. “BATTALION MOVEMENT” IN RECENTLY METAMORPHOSED BICOLOURED

FROGS ( RANA CURTIPES )

While visiting a cardamom plantation in the

Coorg Hills on the morning of the 19 March 1994,

we observed a curious swarm of bicoloured frogs

emerging from a pond. The pond in question is

located in a wooded defile and is one of the

two which is fed by the Madenad stream on a

plantation belonging to Mr. K.M. Chengappa, the

junior author’s brother-in-law. The plantation is

located 8 kilometres from Madikeri. Large swarms

of tadpoles were visible in the two ponds and

were seen to display the shoaling beha-

viour characteristic of the species (Daniel and

Sekar 1989, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 194-

202). On a steep grassy bank we noticed a closely

spaced column of frogs emerging from the water and

slowly creeping through the vegetation. The

movement of the frogs proceeded in a single mass

and after one meter, gave way to a side column,

which was equally dense in its spacing. After a

distance of 1.5 m the individual spacing increased

and the frogs began to disperse in diverging

directions. The movement of these frogs was

distinctively battalion-like and differs from the

unsynchronized movement usually seen in recently

metamorphosed anurans upon emerging from water.

We have not found a descriptionof this movement

in the literature, but note that V.S. Vijayan obser-

ved (in Daniel and Sekar 1989) that “enormous

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

303

numbers of the metamorphosed young occur on

the hanks of the many inlets of the Periyar Lake in

the summer months” where they are eaten by wild

boar. The tightly packed battalions of these frogs

would seem to place them at a disadvantage to

predation.

We thank Mr. J.C. Daniel for identifying this

distinctive species, based on our description.

November 29, 1 995 CHRIS WEMMER

Zoo Conservation & Research Centre,

1500 Remount Road, Front Royal,

Virginia 22630, U.S.A

K.A. NANJAPPA

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.

24. ADDITIONS TO THE UPDATED SPECIES LIST OF

AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA

In 1 986 Inger and Dutta reviewed a faunal list

of amphibia of India which included 181 species.

Chanda and Ghosh (1988), and Das (1990) pointed

out the omission of 25 species in that list. Recently,

Dutta (1992) presented an updated species list of

amphibia, comprising 197 species, with the

explanations to the species omitted by Inger and

Dutta (1986).

However, two valid species Ansonia kamblei

Ravichandran and Pillai 1990, collected from

Maharashtra and Micrixalus gadgili Pillai and

Refer

Chanda, S.K. & A.K. Ghosh (1988): Addenda to the amphibian

fauna of India. ./. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 85: 626-627.

Das, I. (1990): Amphibians from India some further species. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 310-312.

Dutta, S.K. ( 1992): Amphibians of India; Updated species list

with distribution record. Hamadryad 17: 1-13.

Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta ( 1 986): An overview of the amphibian

fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (Suppi): 135-

Pattabiraman 1990, collected from Kerala were not

incorporated in the new updated species list and no

explanation was given in the list for the omission of

these two species. Therefore, the total number of

amphibian species of India is 199 with the addition

of these two valid species.

December 20, 1 995 ALOYSIUS G. SEKAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Dr Salim Ali Chowk, Mumbcii-400 023.

E N C E S

146.

Pillai, R.S. & R. Pattabiraman (1990): Amphibians from

Sabarigiri forest. Western Ghats, Kerala, including a new

species of Micrixalus. Rec. Zool. Shi v. India 86(2): 383-

390.

Ravichandran, M.S. & R.S. Pillai (1990): Amphibia of

Maharashtra with description of a new species of Torrent

toad, Ansonia. Rec. Zool. Suit. India. 86(3&4): 505-513.

25. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF DISTRIBUTION OF HORADANDIA ATUKORAL1

DERANIYAGALA (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE:

TAMIL

Horadandia atukorali Deraniyagala, 1943,

was described from the weedy freshwater ponds of

the coastal plains of Sri Lanka. It is characterized by

the absence of barbels and lateral line and was

thought to be endemic to Sri Lanka until 1 992, when

RASBORINAE) TO PONDICHERRY AND

NADU

it was found in the west coastal plains of Kerala,

India. Based on differences in body shape, the lateral

line scale number and the number of branched dorsal

fin rays, the west coast Indian form was described

as a new subspecies H. atukorali brittani Rema Devi

304

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

and Menon, 1 992. Later it was considered a synonym

of H. citukorali (Menon 1993). The present record

of the species from the freshwater bodies of

Kalpakkam and Pondicherry, by scientists of the

Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India extends the range of distribution of the species

to the eastern coastal plains of India. The report is

based on 7 specimens 11-17 mm SL collected during

1992 and 1995 and deposited in the reserve

collections of the station.

Horadandia atukorali Deraniyagala

Horadandia atukorali Deraniyagala, 1943, J.

Royal Asiat. Soc., Vol. xxxv, 96: 158, 159, fig. 1

(Type locality: Attidiya, Colombo, etc., Ceylon);

Munro, 1955, Marine and Fresh water Fishes of

Ceylon : 41, pi. 17, fig. 107.

Horadandia atukorali Rema Devi and

Menon, 1 992, Tropical Fish Hobbyist, Vol. XL (10):

175-176, figs. 1 & 2, table 1 (Type locality: Pond in

Pathiramanal Island, Shertallay, Kerala, India).

Distribution: Sri Lanka, india: Coastal wet

zones of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry.

Remarks: From India , Horadandia atukorali

has so far been reported from the western coastal

wet plains, in ponds, ditches and in the Vembanad

Lake of Kottayam and Allepey Districts of Kerala

(Rema Devi and Menon 1992, Rema Devi et al. in

press). The present report extends its range of

Refer

Brittan, M.R. ( 1 96 1 ): Another Midget. Tropical Fish Hobbyist

9(7): 33-34.

Menon, A.G.K. (1993): Check List-Freshwater Fishes of India,

457 pp., ZSI, Madras. Submitted to Dept, of Environment,

Govt, of India.

Pethyagoda, R. (1991): Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife

Heritage Trust, Colombo, xiv + 362 pp.

Rema Devi, K. & A.G.K. Menon (1992): Horadandia atukorali

26. FRESH WATER FISHES OF PAMB AR RIVER

Introduction

Freshwater fishes of Kerala, especially

Travancore region had gained attention of various

workers in the past (Day 1878, Pillay 1929, John

distribution to the eastern coastal wet zones. It was

found among weeds, along the littoral regions of the

Sankaraparni river, flowing through Villianur in

Pondicherry and a freshwater pond in Kalpakkam,

Madras. Parental care is lacking in this species

(Brittan 1961); and the eggs attached to submerged

vegetation and the fry tend to become an easy prey

to carnivorous species occurring in the same habitat.

Regarding its habitat and utility value, Pethyagoda

(1991) writes that it is essentially a still (or slow-

moving) water fish, frequenting less saline mangrove

swamps and less polluted canals, rice fields and similar

still waters. He remarks that it is a useful mosquito

larvivore and that its habitat in Muthurajawela swamp

(Sri Lanka) is heavily fished for small shrimps (kuni)

which are sun-dried and sold and that Horadandia

forms a noticeable proportion of the kuni. Grows to a

length of 25 mm SL.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India and to the Officer-in-Charge,

Southern Regional Station, ZSI, for providing

necessary facilities and to Dr. A.G.K. Menon,

Emeritus Scientist, for going through the manuscript.

February 6, 1 996 K. REMA DEVI

Zoological Survey of India,

Southern Regional Station, Madras.

E N C E S

brittani, a new subspecies of Rasborinae (Pisces:

Cyprinidae) from Kerala, South India. Tropical Fish

Hobbyist 40 (10): 175-176.

Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra & K.G. Emiliyamma (in Press):

On the fish collections from Kerala, deposited in

Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India by NRM, Stockholm, 19 pp. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India.

, CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA

1 936, Hora and Law 1941, Hora and Nair 1941, Raj

1941 a & b, Silas 1949, 1951 a & b). However,

there has been no authentic record of the fish fauna

of the region for the last forty years.

The Pambar river and its tributary Chinnar, one

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

305

of the three east flowing rivers of Kerala, passing

through Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary were surveyed in

June, 1995. Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, situated in the

Idukki district of Kerala is covered mostly with dry

deciduous forests. The area is bordered by Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu and forests

of Marayur Range and Eravikulam National Park of

Kerala.

Methods

The river Pambar and the tributary of Chinnar

have a width of about 7-10 metres and depth of 1 .0-

1 .5 metres, and the bottom was rocky in most of the

areas with intermittent rocky pools. The temperature

varied between 22°-24° C and pH was 7.00. The

conductivity of water was 280-485 pmhos/cm.

Collections were made using cast net, gill net and

scoop net. The list of species collected, along with

notes on some species of interest is given below.

Family: Cyprinidae

Sub-family: cyprininae

1. Puntius carnations (Jerdon)

2. Tor khudree (Sykes)

Sub-family: rasborninae

3. Rasbora daniconius daniconius (Hamilton)

4. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton-Buchanan)

5. B. gatensis (Cuv. & Val.)

Sub-family: cultirinae

6. Salmostoma acinaces (Val.)

Sub-family: garrinae

7. Garra gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon)

8. Garra mullya (Sykes)

9. Garra menoni Remadevi & Indra

Family: Homalopteridae

Sub-family: noemacheilinae

10. Noemacheilns denisoni denisoni (Day)

Family: Cobitidae

Sub-family: cobitinae

11. Lepidocephalus thermalis (Hamilton)

Results and discussion

Eleven species of fishes belonging to three

families were collected from the area. Most of these

are widely distributed throughout Western Ghats.

However, of these, Barilius bendelisis is a new record

from Kerala and Garra menoni is the second report

of the species from a different location.

Garra menoni was originally reported from

Kunthi river in Silent Valley National Park (Remadevi

and Indra 1981, 1986). It is rare in Pambar compared

to Garra mullya and Garra gotyla stenorhynchus.

It is different from all other known species. It

is close to Garra hugi Silas but differ from it in the

presence of scales in the mid-dorsal streak. Talwar

and Jhingran (1991) synonymised G. menoni with

G. mullya (Sykes) but it differs in the shape of head

and snout, absence of scales on chest and belly, and

marked position of vent.

Barilius bendelisis (Ham. & Buch.) was

considered to be present throughout India except

Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).

Chacko (1948) reported its occurrence in Periyar

lake, Thekkady, but later Jayaram (1981), Talwar and

Jhingran (1991) and Menon (pers. comm.) considered

it as erroneous. The present survey confirms the

occurrence of this species in Kerala.

Discussion

Puntius carnaticus (Jerdon) is described so far

only from Wynaad (Cauvery river system), Canara and

Bhavani river (Day 1 878, Rajan 1 955). The occurrence

of this species in Chinnar shows its extended range.

Similarly, Garra gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon) is

reported only from the Cauvery river system. These

species indicate faunal similarity between the eastward

flowing river systems of Kerala. The presence of Garra

menoni (Remadevi and Indra), described originally

from the west flowing Kunthi river adds further

importance to the fish fauna of Chinnar.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Kerala Forest Department

(Wildlife) for financial assistance and the Director,

Kerala forest Research Institute for encouragement.

August 18, 1995 PS. E AS A

C.P. SHAJI

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi,

Thrissur-680 653, Kerala.

306

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

References

Chacko, P.I. (1948): Development of Fisheries of the Periyar lake.

./. Bombay licit. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India; being a natural history of

fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India,

Burma and eeylon. Today and Tomorrow’s Book Agency,

New Delhi.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The fresh water fish of

Travancore. Rec. Indian Mas. XLIII: 233-256.

Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair (1941): New records of Fresh

water fishes from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mas. XLIII : 387-

393.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Fresh water fishes of India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Hand Book of ZSI,

Calcutta. No: 2, XII + 475 pp.

John, C.C. (1936): Fishes of Travancore. ./. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 38: 702-733.

Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.

Raj, B.S. (1941a): A new genus of Schizothoracine fish

from Travancore, South India. Rec. Ind. Mas. XLIII: 209-

214.

Raj, B.S. (1941b): Two new fishes from Travancore-South India,

with remarks on Barbas (Pantias) micropogon C. & V.

Rec. Ind. Mas. XLIII: 375-386.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the headwaters

of the Bhavani river. South India. ./. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53: 45-48.

Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra (1981): A new species of the

Garni nienoni, a new Cyprinid fish from Silent

Valley, Kerala, South India. Ball. Zool. Suit. India 5: 121-

122.

Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra (1986): Fishes of Silent Valley. Rec.

Zool. Suit. India. 84: 243-257.

Silas, E.G. (1949): On a collection fish from Travancore. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 792-797 .

Silas, E.G. (1951a): On a collection of fishes from Anamalai

and Nelliampathy hill ranges (Western Ghats) with notes

on its Zoogeographical significances./. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 49: 670-68 1 .

Silas, E.G. (1951b): Fishes from the high ranges of Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330.

Talwar, PK. & A.G. Jhingran ( 1991): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New

Delhi.

27. OCCURRENCE OF THOSEA ANDAMANICA HOLLOWAY (LEPIDOPTERA: LIMACODIDAE)

ON COCONUT IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS, BAY OF BENGAL, INDIAN OCEAN

Seventeen of the 31 species included in the

genus Thosea are insular endemics, of which T.

andamanica has one of the most restricted

distributions (Holloway et cil. 1987).

As early as in 1925 outbreaks of Thosea

andamanica were reported from South Andaman

(Isaac 1925), the first of the Andaman group of islands

to he colonised by literate man in the late nineteenth

century. These outbreaks, between the years 1922-1925

were reported on coconut ( Cocos nucifera L.).

Subsequently, in 1991 (Bhumannavar et al. 1991) it

was reported as a minor pest of oil palm ( Elaeis

guineensis Jacq.). This was followed by a report in

1 992 of an outbreak of the limacodid in a 68 ha coconut

plantation in S. Andaman (Ansari et al. 1992).

Thosea andamanica has so far not been

recorded from the Nicobars (Holloway et al. 1987),

a group of islands separated from the Andaman

islands by the 150 km wide ten degree channel (Snow

1970). For the first time we report the presence of

this moth on coconut from the Central and Southern

Nicobars in the islands of Katchal and Great Nicobar.

The larvae, which were found in large numbers on

coconut fronds (2 to 3 larvae per leaflet), were

collected by K. Veenakumari from the Nicobar

islands during a recent survey for insects in August,

1 993. They looked larger and appeared to be different

from, the T. andamanica larvae collected from the

Andaman islands. However, the adults that emerged

from these larval rearings were identified as T.

andamanica by Dr. J. D. Holloway of the

International Institute of Entomology, London.

Aphanogmus mcinilae (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera:

Ceraphronidae) were collected from containers

containing deadT andamanica larva c. Aphanogmus

spp. are known to be hyperparasitoids. And, Isaac

(1925) found Fornicici sp. parasitising larvae of T.

andamanica which in turn were in all probability

parasitised by what Isaac ( 1 925) tentatively identified

as Aphanogmus sp.

In the Andamans the hosts of this moth

included Atrahotrys sp. (Annonaceae) and

Glochidion hirusutum (Euphorbiaceae) both of

which are new host records for the species (cf. host

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

307

records in Cock et al. 1987).

Thosea andamanicci has so far been recorded

only on coconut and oil palm in the Andaman

islands (Isaac 1925, Bhumannavar etal. 1991). Both

these species were introduced to the Andaman

islands for cultivation. While the latter was

introduced as recently as in 1975 (Prashanth et al.,

in press) the former which is native to the Nicobars

was introduced to the Andamans by the early

British settlers (Temple 1901). Therefore, if coconut

is the original host plant of this species, from

which it has diversified to include other plants

in its diet, then T. andamanicci must be native to

the Nicobar group of islands from where it

has extended its range northward to the Anda-

mans.

It is, however, likely that the original food plant

of the species was Areca (Ansari et al 1992),

Barringtonia (Holloway et al. 1 981),Atrabotrys, or

R EFE

Ansari, M.M., K. Veenakumari & A.K. Bandyopadhyay ( 1592):

Outbreak of Thosea andamanica on coconut in Andaman

islands. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, pp. 164-166.

Bhumannavar, B.S., Mohanraj Prashanth, H.R. Ranganath, T.K.

Jacob & A.K. Bandyopadhyay ( 1991 ): Insects of agricultural

importance in Andaman and Nicobar islands. CARI Research

Bulletin VI. 49p.

Cock, M.J.W., H.C.J. Godfray & J.D. Holloway (Eds.) (1987):

Slug and Nettle caterpillars: The biology, taxonomy and

control of the Limacodidae of economic importance on palms

in south — east Asia. C.A.B. International, U.K.

Holloway, J.D., M.J.W. Cock & R. Desmer de Chenon (1987):

In: Cock, M.J.W., Godfray, H.C.J. and Holloway, J.D.

(Eds.), 1987. Slug and Nettle caterpillars: The biology,

taxonomy and control of the Limacodidae of economic

importance on palms in south - east Asia. C.A.B. International,

28. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF

It was almost the end of July 1992 and the

heavy showers of monsoon had made everything turn

lush - green. Walking along the grass, near Malwadi,

the western outskirts of Pune, my attention was

attracted by two males of the Mottled Emigrant

(■ Catopsilla pyranthe). The two males were hovering

around a Lantana twig. I could see the wings of a

G. hirusutum (cf. above); in which case T.

andamanica could have spread/dispersed from the

Andamans to the Nicobars or vice versa across the

ten degree channel. In such a situation T. andamanica

would be a native of the Andaman and Nicobar

archipelago.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. A.K. Bandyopadhyay,

Director, C.A.R.I., for his encouragement. We thank

Dr. J.D. Holloway and Dr. A.K. Polaszek, HE,

London for identifying the specimens.

March 14, 1995 K. VEENAKUMARI

PRASHANTH MOHANRAJ

Central Agricultural Research Institute,

Port Blair, Andamans,

India.

ENCES

U.K.

Isaac, PV. (1925): The South Andaman coconut slug caterpillar

0 Thosea unifacia Wlk.). Agricultural Journal of India 20:

373-379.

Prashanth, Mohanraj, K. Veenakumari & A.K. Bandyopadhyay

(in Press): Perilous aliens: Plant and animal and introductions

to the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Society for Andaman

and Nicobar Ecology, Port Blair.

Snow, D.M. (1970): The eastern Indian ocean islands: a summary

of their geography, fauna and flora. In Papers presented at

the IUCN Eleventh Technical Meeting New Delhi. India, 25-

28, Nov., 1969, Vol. I IUCN Publications, N.S. No. 17, pp.

212-223.

Temple, R.C. (1901): Census of India. Vol. III. The Andaman

and Nicobar islands. Office of the Superintendent of Govt.

Press, Calcutta.

MOTTLED EMIGRANT MALES

female Emigrant on the underside of a leaf.

Emigrants generally mate on the ground. The female

sits with her wings wide open and projects the

abdominal tip outwards. The male lands on her back

and clasps her abdomen with the claspers adapted

for the purpose. Then he immediately takes off. The

female remains suspended.

308

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HI ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

But on this occasion, the female was sitting

on the underside of the leaf and the two males were

fluttering around her. On a closer look I realised that

the female was dead and a crab spider was clutching

her firmly in its legs. These anxious males were

probably trying to mate with a dead female. But as

she was on the underside of the leaf, they were not

able to land on her. Finally they gave up and flew

away. A few more males also came later and

exhibited similar behaviour.

When I twisted the twig to get a photograph,

a male landed on the female and started rubbing

his proboscis on her thorax. He was trying to

suck something. The spider was trying to

push him off the female’s body. I could easily

document this moment on film. The photograph

clearly shows the male sitting on the spider

and the dead female, and apparently sucking

something from her thorax. The spider also can be

seen pushing the male. After a few seconds the male

flew away.

The males were probably attracted towards

the female and were unable to differentiate between

a dead and a live female. The last male, which

actually landed on the female’s body probably

also did not notice the well camouflaged spider.

The more surprising facts, however, were that

the spider that had just killed a female, did not

attempt to kill the male and that the male also was

not deterred even after the spider started pushing it

off. Finally what was the male sucking from the

female’s body?

December 2 1 , 1 995 KRUSHNAMEGH KUNTE

Life research Foundation,

10, Pranav Society,

1000/6-C Navi Peth,

Pune 411 030.

29. PREVENTION OF RHINOCEROS BEETLE ( ORYCTES RHINOCEROS ) IN COCONUT

PALM USING RED ANTS

Rhinoceros beetle ( Oryctes rhinoceros ) has

been one of the most important and major pests of

coconut palms in almost all coconut growing regions

of the World. The adult beetle is stout with dark

dorsal surface and reddish - brown ventral surface.

It is 35.50 mm in length and 14-21 mm in width,

and has a slightly tapering horn on its head. The

female beetle lays eggs singly in any decaying

organic matter in the field. The eggs hatch in 8-14

days and produce larvae. After completing larval

and pupation stages adult beetles emerge from the

organic matter and then cause severe damages to

coconut palms. Besides, it also damages palmyra

palm ( Borassus flabellifer ), toddy Palm ( Phoenix

sylvestris), oil palms ( Elaeis quianensis ), aloe,

sugarcane, pineapple and screw-pine (Seshagiri Rao

1972). BHC, Oil cakes and Chlordane dust are used

for controlling the beetles.

Red ants ( Oecophylla smaragdina Fb.) has

been known for their pest control activity. In Arabia

caterpillars and large boring beetles were destroyed

in date palms using the red ants in 1775 ( Debach

1974). Coconut moth ( Levuana irridenscens) in Fiji

was killed using the red ants (Tothill et al. 1930).

Citrus shield bugs ( Rhynchocoris sp.) in citrus farms

in China have been killed using the red ants (Hill

1983). This pest eating property is used to prevent

rhinoceros beetle in coconut palms.

25 young (5-9 years old) coconut palms severely

attacked by rhinoceros beetle were selected in seven

plantations in different parts of Kanyakumari District,

Tamil Nadu. Red ants were collected along with their

nests from Thespesia populnea tree and introduced

into the crown of the affected coconut palms. Killed

insects were added into the crown to feed the ants.

After a month the pest damage was tested in the palms.

All the test palms were cured by the ants. The young

leaves were quite normal and did not have symptoms

of the beetle attack. 25 adult beetles were collected

from compost pit and introduced into the crown of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

309

palms in which the ants were living. This was done by

tying one of the legs of each beetle with a thread. Even

if the beetles were introduced into the crown, they tried

to fly away from the crown, and did not produce any

symptom of the beetle attack. When this was done in

antless, five years old, coconut palms 7 beetles escaped

from the crown and the remaining 18 beetles made

holes in the stalks of young leaves. Thereafter the

affected palms were cured by introducing red ants.

Even though rhinoceros beetles have hard skin,

red ants tried to catch and eat them when the beetles

were introduced into the crown of palms with red ants.

The vicious bites and injection of formic acid at

sensitive parts of the beetles might be the reason for

Refer

Debach, Paul (1974): Biological Control of Natural Enemies.

Cambridge University Press.

Hill, Dennis S. (1983): Agricultural pests of Tropics and their

control. Cambridge University Press.

Kumaresan, V. (1994): Myremecophily: A harmful association

on A reca catechu. L.J. Swamy Bot. Club. Vol-II. pp. 59.

the control of beetles in ant introduced trees. But red

ants have been considered as minor pests for coconut

for many years because they cause some difficulties

in harvesting (Hill 1983). However they increased yield

in coconut palms ( Kumaresan 1994).

I thank Prof. R. Bothi, Head of the Department

of Botany, Vivekananda College of encouragements

and Dr. Dunston P. Ambrose, Entomology Research

Unit, St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai for

references and suggestions.

July 4, 1 995 V. KUMARESAN

Dept, of Botany, Vivekananda College

Agasteeswaram, Tamilnadu-629 701.

ENCES

Seshagiri Rao, D. (1972): A HandBook of Plant Protection. S.V.

Rangawamy and Co. Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore.

Tothill, J.D., T.H.C. Taylor & P.W. Paine (1930): The coconut

moth in Fiji: A history of its control by means of parasites.

Publ. Imp. Bur. Entomol. (Now the Commonwealth Institute

of Entomology), London, pp. 269.

30. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD OF TR1CHOTRIA TETRACTIS (ROTATORIA/

TRICHOTRIDAE) AND DAPHNIA LUMHOLTZI (BRANCHIOPODA/CLADOCERA/

DAPHNIDAE) FROM KOLLERU LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH WITH NOTES ON

INDICATOR VALUE

Ecological studies on Kolleru lake (lat. 16° 32'

and 1 6° 47' N, long. 81° 21’ and 81° 51' E), Krishna

and West Godavari Districts, Andhra Pradesh have

been in progress by the junior author. The rotifer

plankter, Trichotria tetractis occurred in samples

from Kolleti Kota in the eastern flank of the lake,

Krishna District, while Daphnia lumholtzi was

observed in samples from Kovvadi Lanka, in the

western flank, West Godavari District.

Despite general status reports (Radhakrishna

1988, Seshavatharam and Dutt 1978, and Rama

Murthy 1982) comprehensive systematic studies

on the zooplankton component from around the

region are few and far between (Reddy 1 977, Durga

Prasad 1981 and Durga Prasad and Padmavathi

1991).

Trichotria tetractis (Ehrenberg, 1 832)

Remarks: Rather uncommon in distribution,

it has not been reported/recorded as frequently as

other rotifer species. The only earlier reports of this

rotifer from Indian plankter are by Arora 1966

(Nagpur), Wulfret 1966 (Baroda), Nayar and Nair

1969 (Kerala) and Dhanapathi 1974 (Bhimavaram,

West Godavari Dist., A.P.). Elsewhere, Daems and

Dumont (1974) recorded T. tetractis from Nepal.

Apparently, the rotifer, Trichotria tetractis is rare

in occurrence and was observed only in samples,

from Kolleti kota in the eastern zone. Indian studies

recording Trichotria tetractis as indicator of water

quality are therefore not known. Kuezynski (1987)

rates the species as occurring in low II or

310

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

oligoconductive waters (Conductivity 180 - 500 p

Scms1). Sladecek (1983) has assigned this spe-

cies b-0 saprobic degree, i.e. both beta-beta sapro-

bity and oligosaprobity and further computed its I,

(the indicative weight of the species) as 3 and its S,

value (individual saprobic index) as 1.6. In Kolleru

lake the ploimate rotifer ( T. tetractis ) occurred in

waters with high conductivity (130 mS/m), and

relatively higher total alkalinity and total (EDTA)

hardness, etc. The reported phosphorus and other

heavy metal ion contents for eastern zone are much

higher than the western zone. Arora ( 1 966) recorded

the species from sewage polluted tanks (Jumma &

Sakardara tank, Nagpur), with a BOD value ranging

between 35-40 ppm. T. tetractis therefore is an

indicator of eutrophic conditions.

Daphnia lumholtzi Sars, 1885

Remarks: Despite its cosmopolitan distribu-

R EFE R

Arora, H.C. (1966): Studies on Indian Rotifer-Part I. Arch.

Hydrobiol. 61(4): 482-493.

Daems, G. & H.J. Dumont (1974): Rotifers from Nepal with the

description of a new species of Scaridium and a discussion

of the Nepalese representatives of the genus Hexarthm. Biol.

Jh. Dednaea 42: 61-81.

Dhanapathi, M.V.S.S. (1974): Rotifers from Andhra Pradesh,

India — I. Hydrobiol. 45 (4): 357-372.

Durga Prasad, M.K. (1981): Taxonomy and Ecology

of Branchiopoda. Ph. D. Thesis. Nagarjuna University,

Guntur.

Durga Prasad, M.K. & P. Padmavathi (1991): Temporal

Distribution of Cladocera of lake Kolleru, Abstract, Natl.

Workshop on Kolleru Environment Information System 4-

5 October 1991, J.N.T.U., Hyderabad.

Kuezynski, David (1987): The Rotifer fauna of Argentine

Patagonia as a potential limnological indicator.

Hydrobiologia 150: 3-10.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India: Indian

Cladocera. Govt, of India.

Nayar, C.K. & K.K.N. Nair (1969): A collection of Brachionid

rotifer from Kerala. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 69: 223

tion, this species has not been recorded earlier

from Kolleru lake. Further, Daphnia lumholtzi has

also not been documented from other lake

ecosystem as well. The only previous record of this

daphnid plankter from the state is from Fish ponds

in Fish seed farms, A.P. Fisheries, Hyderabad

(Michael and Sharma 1988).

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

India (ZSI), Calcutta and the Officer-in-Charge, ZSI,

Fresh water Biological Station, Hyderabad for

facilities and encouragement.

April 15, 1996 S.Z. SIDDIQI

S.V.A. CHANDRASEKHAR

Freshwater Biological Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

1-1 -300/B,

Ashok Nagar,

Hyderabad-500 020 (A.P.)

ENCES

233.

Radhakrishna, Y. (1988): Research on Kolleru lake. Status

Report. In: Indo-US Workshop on Wetlands, Mangroves

and Biosphere Reserves. Government of India, Ministry of

Environment & Forests, New Delhi.

Rama Murthy (1982): Physico-chemical parameters of the lake.

In: Eco-development and Kolleru lake Status Position and

Approach Document. Institute of Coastal Research

(INCOR), Visakhapatnam.

Reddy, Y. Ranga (1977): Studies on Systematics and ecology of

free living freshwater copepods of Guntur and its environs

(Andhra Pradesh, India). Ph.D. Thesis. Nagarjuna

University, 462 pp.

Seshavatharam, V. & B.S.M. Durr (1978): “Studies on ecology

and weed biology of Kolleru lake” - Technical Report.

Report of CSIR Research Centre, Dept, of Botany, Andhra

University, Waltair.

Sladecek, V. (1983): Rotifers as indicators of water quality.

Hydrobiol. 100: 169-201.

Wulfert, K. (1966): Rotatorian aus dem stausee Ajwa under

Trinkwasser - Aufbereitung jer stadt Baroda (Indien).

Linmologica 4: 53-93.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

311

31 . REDESCRIPTION OF MACROCHELES LIMUE SAMSINAK (ACARINA:

M ACROCHELID AE) 1

{With fourteen text-figures)

Introduction

Macrocheles limue was originally described

from China by Samsinak (1962). The description was

based only on females and the specimens were

collected off Oniticellus cinctus Fabr. at Canton,

China. The species is very common in India and has

been collected from diverse habitats. This is a

subsequent record of the species from another

geographical region since its original description.

Male hitherto unknown, is recorded for the first time

from India. A redescription of the female is also

presented in this paper, as variations have been

observed, together with a description of the male.

Except where the name of the collector is

mentioned, the material was collected by the author.

Measurements given in the text are in micrometres.

Macrocheles limue Samsinak, 1962.

Macrocheles limue Samsinak, 1962. Cas. csl.

spol. entom. 59: 202-203.

female: (Figs. 1-6); Dorsal shield (Fig. 1)810-

960 long, 495-570 wide, reticulate, very finely

punctate throughout; ornamented with characteristic

sclerotized pits in some specimens while absent in

most others; with a poorly defined procurved line

behind insertions of setae z6 and bearing 28 pairs of

setae. Vertical setae, (j 1), approximately 60, plumose

with their bases closely apposed; j5, z5, j6, z6 short

among dorsal setae (approximately 30); zl pilose

distally; j4 smooth, sometimes appearing distally

pilose; j5 pectinate throughout; remaining dorsal

setae simple. Margin smooth, extramarginal setae

simple.

Sternal shield (Fig. 2) punctate-reticulate,

posterior margin highly concave; l.m.t. well-defined;

l.o.p. bifurcated in their posterior halves; with a distinct

l.arc.\ l. ang. distinctly continuous posteriorly into a

weakly sclerotized medial ridge; area of shield anterior

to linea angulata porose as also the posterior margin;

sternal setae fairly long and simple. Metasternal shields

triangular adjacent to sternal shield and with a pair of

simple setae. Genital shield punctate-reticulate,

truncated posteriorly, and with a pair of simple setae.

Ventri-anal shield 270-315 long, 315-405 wide,

broader than long, somewhat truncated anteriorly,

flanked laterally, rounded posteriorly, and ornamented

with a series of arched punctate lines forming a

network, ventri-anal setae fairly long and smooth.

Metapodal shields posterior to coxae IV, elongated

and thickly sclerotized. Stigmata laterad of coxae III-

IV, peritremes extending laterally and fusing with

dorsal shield half way between setal insertions of jl

and zl.

Gnathosoma (Fig. 3) with five rows of

deutosternal denticles. Tectum as shown in Fig. 4.

Movable digit of chelicera (Fig. 5) with a bicuspid

tooth and a distal tooth; fixed digit with small tooth

at apex, one large median tooth; dorsal seta thickened

and spatulate; cheliceral brush extending almost half

the length of movable digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi) 1-495; 11-510; III-465; IV-660; Tarsus I

(120-150) longer than tibia I (105-135). Tarsus II

(Fig. 6) 120-165; tibia II (75-90). Genu IV with six

setae of which is al pilose.

male: (Figs. 7-14): Dorsal shield (Fig. 7) 630-

690 long, 375-405 wide, punctate-reticulate,

posterior margin crenulate beyond setae S4 and

bearing 28 pairs of setae. Setae j 1, j4, z4, z6 and Z4

distally plumose, j5 smooth or pectinate.

Genital orifice presternal in position. Sterniti-

genital shield (Fig. 8) 300-315 long, 135-165 wide;

punctate-reticulate and with 5 pairs of simple setae.

Ventri-anal shield 195-200 long, 210 wide, broader

than long, shape of the shield as in female, laterally

more sharply flanked with punctate-reticulate

'This is the sixth paper in the series "studies on Indian Macrocheles".

312

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HI ST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996 )

Figs. 1-6. Macrocheles limue Samsinak, Female

1. Dorsal shield; 2. Sternal shield; 3. Gnathosoma; 4. Tectum; 5. Chelicera; 6. Tarsus II.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

313

Figs. 7-14: Macrocheles limue Samsinak, Male

7. Dorsal shield; 8. Sternitigenital shield; 9. Tectum; 10. Chelicera; 11. Femur II; 12. Femur IV;

13. Genu IV; 14. Tibia IV.

ornamentation and bearing 3 pairs of preanals, a pair

of adanal and a postanal setae.

Gnathosoma as in female. Tectum as shown

in Fig. 9. Movable digit of chelicera (Fig. 10) with

one large tooth and a large spermatophoral process

IV2 times as long as digit; fixed digit with 2 small

apical teeth and one large median tooth; cheliceral

brushes as in female.

Femur II (Fig. 11) laterally with a strong spur

apically rounded; genu and tibia II each with a lateral

spur. Legs IV show variation in spur development.

Femur IV (Fig. 12) spurred; genu IV (Fig. 13)

variable either with a spur or small protuberance or

without; tibia IV (Fig. 14) with a spur. Genu IV with

six setae, plumosity obscured.

Material examined: 2 females, Andhra

Pradesh: Waltair, Simachalam Temple premises, 24.

iii. 1980, ex soil litter; 1 female, Tirumala

Devasthanam, 22. iii. 1980, ex decaying grasses; 2

females, Assam: Dibrugarh, S. Ghosh’s Garden, near

Brahmaputra bank, 8. iv. 1975, ex garden soil; 13

females, 4 males, Dibrugarh, Gosala, 26. vi. 1979,

ex cowdung; 7 females, Dibrugarh, Bishop’s Church

compound, 6. iv. 1974, ex banana plantation litter; 1

female, Tinsukia District, Ledu, 3. iii. 1974 ex

decaying areca nut peelings; 1 female, Tinsukia

District, Makum, Orange Garden, 5. v. 1974, ex

grassy soil; 3 females, Dibrugarh District, Mohanbari

Airport, 30. xii. 1982, ex grassy soil; 3 females,

Sibsagar District, Jayasagar, Sibsagar College

campus, 3. iv. 1978, ex soil under heap of grasses; 2

females, Jorhat District, Titabar, Sericulture Research

Institute campus, 10. v. 1971, ex compost heap; 3

females, Karbi Anglong District, Diphu, 7. iv. 1981,

ex cowdung; 1 female, Nowgong District, Lumding,

Jholanpul, 3. xii. 1976, ex elephant dung; 1 female,

North Cachar Hills District, Hallong 1650 m, lake

area, 3. xii. 1974, ex soil litter; 3 females, Cachar

District, Badarpur, near Rly. Station, 6. x. 1975, ex

dung heap; 3 females, Cachar District, Loharband,

10. xii. 1969, ex Onitis singhalensis Lansb.; 2

females, Sonitpur District, Tezpur, near lake area, 2.

xi. 1977, ex decaying water hyacinth ( Eichhornia

sp.); 2 females, Bihar, Patna, Rajendra Agricultural

University Farm, 27. xii. 1981, ex decaying husks;

2 females, Gujarat: Gir Forest, 6. vi. 1973, ex soil

litter; 1 female, Karnataka: Bangalore, ex Copris sp.;

2 females, Kerala: Palghat, near Rly. Station, 14. iii.

1980, ex dung heap; 1 female, Walayar Forest, 14.

iii. 1980, ex leaf litter; 1 female Maharashtra:

Bombay, Colaba, nearTIFR, 20. v. 1970, ex compost;

1 female, Pune, near Poonam Restaurant, 1 . vi. 1970,

314

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

ex humus soil; 1 female, Manipur: Moirang, near

INA Memorial, ex decaying grasses; 1 female,

Meghalaya: Khasi Hills, Ranikar, 16. iii. 1974, ex

soil litter; 2 females, Garo Hills, Baghmara, 16. iii.

1974, ex dung heap; 2 females and 2 males,

Nagaland: Kohima-1459 m, 25. xii. 1980, ex refuse

dump: 2 females, Mokokchung, 25. xii. 1980, ex

Copris sp.; 2 females, New Delhi; JNU Campus, 2.

vii. 1981, ex leaf litter; 2 females, Pondicherry:

Botanical Garden, 8. iii. 1980, dung heap; 3 females

and 2 males, Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, T.N.A.U.

campus, Central dairy Farm, 13. iii. 1980, ex dung

heap; 2 females; Madras, Adiyar, near I.I.T., 6. iii.

1980, ex ass dung; 3 females, Madras Deer Park, 6.

iii. 1980, ex leaf litter; 4 females, Madras, Zoo

Garden, 5. iii. 1980, ex grassy soil; 2 females,

Tripura: Agartala, Arundhutinagar, 8. x. 1978, ex

dung heap, R.P. Shah coll.; 2 females, Sabrum, near

Inspection Bungalow, 14. x. 1978, ex compost heap,

R.P.Shah coll., 2 females, Dharmanagar, 3. x. 1978,

ex decaying grasses, R.P.Shah coll.; 3 females, West

Bengal: 24 Pargana Dist., Sonarpur, Sitala, collection

data unstated, Heliocopris bucephalus (F.) S.K.

Bhattacharyya coll.; 9 females, 24 Parganas District,

15 iii. 1976, Heliocopis dominus Bates, S.K.

Bhattacharyya coll.

Distribution: China (Samsinak 1962, Cas. csl.

spol. entom. 59: 186-204) and India.

India: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,

Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Nagaland, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu,

Tripura and West Bengal.

Remarks: The species is very common in

India occurring in various litter, soil and dung

samples and also in association with beetles.

According to Samsinak’s description, the dorsal setae

j 1 , j4 and s2 are of the same appearance with their

terminations club-like and smooth; but these setae

are mostly with distal pilosity in the material

collected in India. Lateral margins are smooth in

Indian specimens in contrast to their Chinese

counterpart. Since the original description, the

present report represents the first subsequent

collection from another geographic region. The male

is recorded for the first time. Sternal shield features

and the nature of dorsal chaetotaxy of the species

are typical of the glaber group.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Karel Samsinak, Entomolo-

gical Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of

Sciences, Prague, for making available to me

pertinent literature and for comparing the dia-

grams and photographs for determination of the

species.

May 19, 1995 R.K. ROY

Department of Zoology,

Dibrugarh Hanumanbox Surajmal Kanoi College,

Dibmgarh-786 001,

Assam, India.

32. TWO ADDITIONAL SPECIES OF BRASSICACEAE FOR

THE FLORA OF ORISSA

(With a text figure)

During a critical study of herbarium and live

specimens of the family Brassicaceae pertaining to

the flora of Orissa. We came across two wild species

of the family which have not hitherto been reported

to occur in the state. These two taxa turned out to be

new plant records for Orissa and are of considerable

phytogeographical significance. Nomenclature, short

botanical description, phenology, collection number,

place and date of collection, ecological and

nomenclatural notes, etc. have been provided for both

the species. The specimens have been housed in the

Herbarium of Regional Plant Resource Centre,

Bhubaneswar (RPRC).

Cardamine scutataThunb., Trans. Linn. Soc.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

315

Lond. 2: 339. 1794; Hara, Journ. Fac. Sci. Univ.

Tokyo Bot. 6:59. 1952; Babu, Herb. FI. Dehra Dun

57. 1977. ( Cardamine hirsuta Linn. var. sylvatica

sensu Haines, Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1 ; 27. 1921 (non

Cardamine sylvatica Linn., 1803).

Sub-erect, glabrous or puberulous, annual

herbs. Stem simple or sparsely branched, obs-

curely ribbed. Leaves alternate, pinnately 3-7 lobed;

leaflets usually small and rounded, often dentate

or lobulate, terminal leaflet 3 (rarely 5)-lobed.

Racemes terminal, many-flowered. Flowers white.

Sepals clawed, narrow. Stamens 6. Ovary sub-

sessile, linear; ovules 2-seriate; style very short;

stigma entire, hairy. Siliqua compressed, linear,

tapering at both ends, not beaked; valves with

distinct mid-rib, curling up elastically on dehis-

cence.

Not very common; locally abundant in damp

and shady places.

FIs. & Frts.: February-June.

Specimens examined: Regional Plant

Resource Centre (Ekamrakanan) premises (Khurda

district), 1.2.1990, PC. Panda 55S\ 16.5.1995, R.K.

Moharana 4776; State Botanical Garden, Barang

(Cuttack district), 6.9.1992, PC. Panda 2977.

Distribution: Indomalaya (india-U.P., M.P.,

H.P., West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa).

Rorippa montana (Hook. f. & Thoms.) Small,

FI. S.E.U.S. (ed. 2) 1336. 1913. Nasturtium

montanum Wall, ex Hook. f. and Thoms. J. Proc.

Linn. Soc. Bot. 5: 139.1861.

Erect, glabrous, perennial herbs. Leaves

usually entire, crenate, elliptic-oblong, alternate.

Racemes terminal, many-flowered, elongating in

fruiting. Flowers small, yellow. Sepals elliptic-

oblong, not pouched. Petals 4. Ovary sub-sessile,

linear; style short; stigma entire on obscurely 2-

lobed, hairy. Fruit linear, terete, dehiscent, 2. 5-3. 5

cm long, less than 0. 1 cm wide; seeds many, 2-seriate.

(Fig- 1)

Occasional, a weed in moist shady localities

in gardens.

FIs. and Frs.: December-June.

Specimens examined; Regional Plant

Resource Centre (Ekamrakanan) Campus, (Khurda

8PASS !C(\CU\L

E , 3 <*'**<■*»

30 I 90

Ered herbs. Flowers y cllt*>

Fru<( terete t Jehisant * seOs

man y 2- senate . C< c<st'Cr>al m

moist Staiy pickets.

' S C Jena

1 Dr P C Po nc/a

Fig. 1 Herbarium specimens of Rorippa montana

(Hook. f. & Thoms.) Small.

District), 30.1.1990, S.C. Jena 555; 5.3.1990, R.K.

Moharana 3630.

Distribution: Indomalaya (india-U.P, M.P,

H.P, Karnataka and Orissa).

Note: Babu (1977) has cited Nasturtium

montanum Wall, ex Hook. f. and Thoms. [-Rorippa

montana (Hook. f. & Thoms.) Small] as a new

synomym under R. indica (Linn.) Hiern and

considered the former as conspecific with the latter.

Saxena and Brahmam (1994) have also held the

above view in taxonomic treatment of these two taxa

based on study of pertinent literature; but no

specimens have been examined to arrive at this

conclusion. The description of leaf and fruit provided

316

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

in these works are also different from the one given

above. After critical study of a large number of

live specimens in the field and also herba-

rium materials of both Rorippa indica and

R. montana, we are of the opinion that R. indica

and R. montana are undoubtedly two distinct

species which can be distinguished from each

other by the following consistent key characters.

A similar treatment has also been followed

by Singh (1984) and Panigrahi and Murti

(1989).

Refer

Babu, C.R. (1977): The herbaceous flora of Dehra Dun. C.S.I.R.,

New Delhi.

Panigrahi, G. & S.K. Murti (1989): Flora of Bilaspur District,

M.P., Vol. 1. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1994): The flora of Orissa, Vol. 1.

33. HELICTERES ISORA

Helicteres isora Linn. (Sterculiaceae) is a

common undergrowth shrub in the deciduous forests

of southern India. Very little has been reported

on the pollination aspects of Helicteres, though

it is known to be frequented by birds (Subramanya

and Radhamani 1993). These authors have repor-

ted that three species of birds visit it: Hill Myna

( Graculci religiosa ), Purplerumped Sunbird

( Nectarinia zeylonica) and Purple Sunbird

( Nectarinia asiatica). In another note (Santharam

1996), I discuss the visitation patterns in terms of

frequency and temporal activity of the various

visitors to a clump of Helicteres. Though it exhibits

typical characteristics of a bird flower, Helicteres is

also frequented by several butterflies. But they visit

fewer flowers in comparison with birds (Santharam

1996).

These observations were made at

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu and the

Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. The

observations at the former site were made during

January, 1988 and at the latter site between August

1991 and May 1993. At Peechi-Vazhani, flowers

1. Sub-erect herbs. Leaves pinnatifid; pinnae ovate-

lanceolate, dentate. Fruit 1 .5 to 1 .75 cm long and 0. 2-0.3

cm wide R. indica

— Erect herbs. Leaves usually not lobed, crenate, elliptic-

oblong. Fruit 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, never more than 0.1 cm

wide R. montana

September 7, 1995 PC. PANDA

PDAS

Regional Plant Resource Centre,

Bhubaneswar-75 1 0 1 5 ,

Orissa.

iNCES

Regional Research Laboratory and Orissa Forest

Development Corporation, Bhubaneswar.

Singh, B.G. (1984): Brassicaceae. In: Flora of Karnataka, Vol. I

(C.J. Saldahna, Ed.). Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New

Delhi pp. 320-324.

A KEYSTONE SPECIES

were seen in the months of August to October while

at Mundanthurai, flowers were present in the month

of January. The differences in flowering dates at the

two sites may be related to the rainfall patterns at

the sites: the Kerala side of the Western Ghats

receives rain in the months June-August (Southwest

monsoon) while in Tamil Nadu, rain is delayed until

the onset of the Northeast monsoon in late October

and last until late December.

I present a list of animals (Table 1) that were

seen visiting the flowers at the two sites. This list

includes 21 species of birds, nine species of

butterflies and one mammal. It may be noted that

the species listed from Peechi may not be complete

as no intensive studies were conducted.

This impressive list of animals seen feed-

ing on the nectar of this shrub indicates that it may

be an important keystone species for the nectar-

feeding guild. Besides, this is a very common species,

flowering synchronously at the beginning of the

dry season, earlier than that of the other bird flo-

wers such as Bombax, Erythrina and Butea (pers.

obs.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

317

Table 1

LIST OF ANIMALS SEEN FEEDING ON THE NECTAR OF

Helicteres isora

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Priya Davidar for the

encouragement and suggestions. Observations at

Peechi-Vazhani were made during the course of

my study of ecology of woodpeckers for my doc-

toral degree and this study was funded by

the NYZS/The Wildlife Conservation Society,

U.S.A.

August 2, 1995 V. SANTHARAM

68, I Floor,

Sant lio me Fligh Road,

Madras 600 028.

References

Santharam, V. (1996): Visitation patterns of birds and butterflies

at a Helicteres isora Linn. (Sterculiaceae) clump. Current

science 70: 316-319.

Subramanya, S.andT.R. Radhamani (1993): Pollination by birds

and bats. Current Science 65: 201-209.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 93(1996)

34. SOME NEW COMBINATIONS IN ASTERACEAE

Precursor to the Flora of Sikkim, following

new combinations are necessary:

1. Ligularia lancifer (J.R. Drumm.) R.C.

Srivastava & C. Jeffrey, comb. nov.

Senecio lancifer J.R. Drumm. in Kew Bull.

6:270.1911.

2. Parasenecio chola (W.W. Smith) R.C.

Srivastava & C. Jeffrey, comb. nov.

Senecio chola W.W. Smith in J. Asiat. Soc.

Beng. n.s. 7:72. 1911.

3. Parasenecio pentaloba (Hand.-Mazz.) R.C.

Srivastava & C. Jeffrey, comb. nov.

Cacalia pentaloba Hand.-Mazz. in Acta H.

Gotob. 12,298.1938.

4. Parasenecio mortonii (C.B. Clarke) R.C.

Srivastava & C. Jeffrey comb. nov.

Senecio mortonii C.B. Clarke, Comp. Ind.

208.1876.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India. Calcutta and Regius Keeper,

Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. for

facilities and to INSA, New Delhi and Royal Society,

London, for sponsoring the visit of senior author to

British Herbaria.

August 2, 1 995 R. C. SRIVASTAVA

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad-211002.

C. JEFFREY

Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, England.

35. MICRO-MORPHOLOGY OF AEGINET1A 1NDICA L. SEED

( Wi th fou r text-figu res)

During the medico-botanical studies in western

Maharashtra, the brownish-black powder of the

epiphyte Aeginetia indica L. was recorded to be

useful in painful menstruation. The capsules of A.

indica were collected and analyzed in laboratory. On

the basis of external appearances, it was difficult to

guess the nature of brownish black structures

liberated from the capsules.

In the laboratory, observations under light

microscope revealed that the black powder consists

of the seeds of Aeginetia indica. Floristic reports

(Hooker 1885, Cooke 1906) on exomorphic

characters mention the minute size, yellowish-brown

colour of seeds. But no more structural details could

be found in available literature though reports on

host-parasite relationship of this species are available

(Padte et al. 1978). Hence, seed-coat micro-

morphology was studied using scanning electron

microscope with respect to its surface

characterization in relation to taxonomy.

The collected seed material was fixed in 4%

formaldehyde (24 hr), passed through 10% - 100%

acetone grades (30 min. each) and mounted in jelly.

The usual gold coating was followed for SEM

observations.

Micro-morphology of the seeds of A. indica

(Family: Aeginetiaceae) was carried out using

Stereoscan SI 20, Cambridge Microscope. It was

noticed that the seeds are minute brownish-black in

colour. Most of them are triangular in shape, but

occasionally round or squarish oval seeds are also

observed. Seed size ranges from 86.66 pm x 58.66

pm to 184.21 pm x 300 pm. External appearance of

the seed shows polygonal or irregularly shaped

epidermal cells, which are raised and depressed. The

characteristic reticulation is observed which is of

rugose reticulate type (Figs. 1-4). Dimensions of single

polygon (average) 50 pm x 45 pm to 80 pm x 70 pm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

319

3

4

Figs. 1-4. Aeginetia indie a seeds under SEM. 1. Seed having circular circumference; 2. Triangular, seed; 3.

Polygonal cells with rugose reticulation; 4. Micropylar end of the seed.

The polygonal cup-like cells form cavities.

These may store water which is useful at the time of

germination or may help in preventing desiccation.

These characters can be utilized in the identification

of species especially while working with herbarium

materials as they retain their form even after

drying.

June 12, 1995 ANURADHA S. UPADHYE

M.S. KUMBHOJKAR

Agharkar Research Institute,

G.G. Agarkar Road,

Pune 411 004.

320

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

References

Cooke, T. (1906): (Reprinted ed. 1967) Flora of Presidency of Co., London.

Bombay II: 384. Botanical survey of India. Calcutta. Padte, S.N., H. Patle, & J.V. Joshi (1978): Notes on Aeginelia

Hooker, J.D. (1885): Flora of British India. IV: 320. Reeve & indica L. Geobios 5(2): 95-96.

36. REDISCOVERY OF STREPTOCAULON SYLVESTRE WIGHT - AN ENDANGERED

AND LITTLE KNOWN ENDEMIC PLANT OF EASTERN INDIA

( With a text-figure)

Streptocaulon sylvestre Wight

(Asclepiadaceae) is a small suffrutescent prostrate

plant, originally collected by Hamilton (Ham. Herb.

No. 763) from Sannyasikata (not Sanaashygota as

in Wight 1834) in the district of Jalpaiguri (West

Bengal, India) on 7th of April 1809 and doubtfully

thought to be a species of Periploca. Later Wight

(1834) named it as Streptocaulon sylvestre. Wallich

recorded the specimen in his catalogue of dried

specimens in 1847 (Wall. Cat. No. 8251), with no

duplicate.

S. sylvestre is a very rare plant and is reported

to grow only in the foothill regions (Terai) of Eastern

Himalaya, namely Siliguri (in West Bengal) and foot-

hills of Sikkim Himalayas (Hooker 1883, Prain

1903). Apart from the Type (Ham. Herb. no. 763 in

CAL) only few specimens were located at CAL: C.B.

Clark 1 1656 (2 sheets), Siliguree (= Siliguri), May

27, 1870; C.B. Clark 11707, Purnea, May 24, 1870;

C. B. Clark 26455 (2 sheets), Siliguree, May 31,

1875; Ribu and Shomoo 3790, Titalya (Terai plains),

March 4, 1910. No other specimen was found in any

other Indian Herbaria. However, no material from

Sikkim was seen.

It now appears that the species is endemic

to the Terai region of Bihar and West Bengal

(Sikkim?) in India. So far, only two floras, the Flora

of British India (Hooker 1883) and Bengal Plants

(Prain 1903, using same specimen), have recorded

the species. Hara and his co-workers (Hara 1966,

1971; Ohashi 1975; Hara et al. 1978, 1979, 1982)

floristically explored the adjoining regions of its

places of original distribution but have not recorded

the plant.

Quite a few plants are now found growing

in a field with savannah type of vegetation with

thick grass cover within the campus of the University

of North Bengal. This grassland is free from graz-

ing and is dominated by Cymbopogon pendulus

(Nees ex Steudel) W. Weston, Saccharum

spontaneum L. and Iniperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.

and attains a height of over 2 m in flowering season

of the first species (i.e. September to January).

However, mowing of grasses for fodder is a common

practice.

Search has been made in the regions adjoining

the University campus, at some places in Purnea,

the Type locality, i.e. at Sannyasikata, and in a wide

area of the Terai during the last four years but with

no success. Large scale modification of these areas

during the last two centuries for dwelling and

cultivation (as for the rapid expansion of Siliguri

Municipality), the manifold increase in grazing,

probably led to the elimination of the species from

these areas. The strictly prostrate habit of the plant

with slightly woody but easily breakable stem, which

never produces any adventitious root (from nodes

and/or internodes) but always grows under grasses

renders the species highly unsuitable for a rangeland

flora.

No detailed description, specially of its fruits

and seeds, as well as a drawing, is available in the

existing literature. These are given here to facilitate

further exploration of the species.

Streptocaulon sylvestre Wight, Contrib. Ind.

Bot. 65 (1834): FI. Brit. Ind. 4:10 (1883); Beng. PI.

2:509 (1903). (Fig. 1)

A suffrutescent strictly procumbent herb with

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

321

Fig. 1. Streptocaulon sylveslre Wight

1. A twig; 2. Rower; 3. A sepal; 4. Androecium;

5. A stamen on a petal; 6. Bipollinium; 7. Pistil;

8. Stigma; 9. Pair of follicles; 10. Seed with coma.

milky latex, never rooting from branches; stem terete,

c. 0.13 cm in diameter, shortly tomentose. Leaves

opposite, with 0. 3-0.4 cm long petiole; lamina (4-

6.3 x 3.8 - 5.7 cm) ovate to rounded-ovate, entire,

apiculate, shortly cordate-auriculate, leathery, shortly

hispid below, minutely pubescent above; 5-veined

from base, midvein strong, 5-7 nerved laterally, all

veins elevated below. Bracts linear-subulate,

0.15 - 0.22 cm long, hairy. Flowers in axillary, shortly

peduncled (0.5 - 0.8 cm), 1-9 flowered cymes, shortly

pedicellate (0.5 - 1.1 cm), actinomorphic,

hypogynous, bisexual, 1-1.2 cm in diameter. Sepals

5, 0.2-0.25 x 0.08-0.09 cm, connate only at base,

broadly ovate, entire, acute, hairy, quincuncial,

brownish-purple, alternating with linear glands

at base, slightly enlarged in fruit. Corolla rotate

with a very short (0.1 cm) greenish - white tube;

lobes 5, 0.7-0. 8 x 0. 15 cm, linear oblong, obtuse,

twisted to the right, curved downward after open-

ing, deep purple. Stamens 5, inserted on the base of

corolla, antipetalous; filaments short (0.04 - 0. 1 cm),

flattened, white, alternating with minute teeth;

anthers flattened, 0.1 - 0.11 cm, oblong, bithecal,

base slightly sagittate, with a short triangular

corona, connivent and attached near the tip of stigma;

pollen masses 2 in each cell, linear, attached to a

slender and short corpuscle, tip dialated; corona

produced from the base of filament, slender

whip-like, 0.6-0.65 cm long, deep brown at base,

white above, tips do not coil. Carpels 2, united

little below the stigma; ovaries 2, oblong, 0.7 - 0.75

cm long, hairy, 1 -chambered each, ovules nume-

rous, inserted on marginal placenta; style short;

stigma conical, cap-like margin 5-lobed, each lobe

cordate, obscurely 2-lobed at tip. One of the pair

of follicles generally does not develop but becomes

equal if it grows, terete with a longitudinal ventral

furrow, conical from middle to tip, or lower 3/5

oblong and conical above, smooth walled, minutely

villous, 3.8 - 8.8 x 1-1.3 cm, dehiscent; seeds

(0.6 - 0.85 x 0.4) numerous, ovate-oblong to ovate,

flat, reddish brown; hairs of coma 1 - 4.4 cm long,

white.

Specimen cited: A. P. DAS 1 917, North Bengal

University campus, September 16, 1990 (Herbarium

NBU).

It is now clear that this endemic species

(for Terai of West Bengal and Bihar) with beauti-

ful foliage and deep purple flowers is now extre-

mely endangered. Further extention programme of

the University may, any day, eliminate the

322

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1 996)

species from its last known natural habitat. How-

ever, quite a few plants are now growing well in

pots and on the ground inside the Medicinal and Rare

Plants Garden and Padmaja Naidu Park

of the University. Some seeds have been collected

for germination studies and for further propaga-

tion.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of

R E FE

Hara, H. (ed . ) ( 1 966, 1971): The Flora of Eastern Himalaya. 1st

& 2nd Reports. Tokyo University.

Hara, H., W.T. Stearn & L.H.J. Williams (1978): The

Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal Vol. I

London.

Hara, H. & L.H.J. Williams (1979): The Enumeration of the

India for permitting us to use their herbaria and

libraries and Dr. U.C. Bhattacharyya, the then Joint

Director, B.S.I. for assistance in collecting

information from other herbaria.

September 15, 1995 A.P. DAS

Department of Botany,

North Bengal University,

Siliguri 734430,

W.B., India

E N C E S

Flowering Plants of Nepal. Vol II. London.

Hara, H., A.O. Chater & L.H.J. Williams (1982): The

Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal, Vol III.

London.

Ohashi, H. (ed.) (1975): The Flora of Eastern Himalaya. 3rd

Report. Tokyo University.

37. PRESENCE OF WILD PLANTAIN (. ENSETE SUPERBUM ) IN RAJASTHAN

In the Flora of Rajasthan, Vols. I, II & III;

Shetty and Singh (1987, 1991, 1993) have recorded

only, Musa paradis iaca Linn, as a representative

plant of family Musaceae from the State of Rajasthan.

During my field visits since 1986 in forest areas of

Jhadol, Kotra, Mamer and Ogna Forest Ranges of

Southern Aravallis in Udaipur district, I have

observed wild plantain ( Ensete superbum) growing

in different Reserve Forests as given in Table 1 .

Table 1

DISTRIBUTION OF E. superbum IN RAJASTHAN

Invariably it occurs on inaccessible crags and is

patchily distributed in forest areas. At Na Sandol

Reserve Forest, it grows in crevices of bare rocks in

association with Euphorbia caducifolia. The E.

superbum is mainly distributed in the western part of

South India which has a high rainfall area while it

grows in Rajasthan, in the 600-800 mm rainfall zone.

At the commencement of the monsoon rains it produces

new leaves from its perennial underground parts and

becomes dry in October-November. It has a swollen

pseudostem base and is monocarpic, rarely suckering.

This plant is familiarly known to the Bhils

(local tribals) as “Magra ko kelo” or “Magra kel”,

i.e. banana of the hills. It is used in some ethno-

medicines also. Sap of leaves of this plant is given

to cure infertility among women. This plant is useful

from the ethnometeorological point of view also.

New sproutings of this plant is taken as an indication

of commencement of monsoon rains by local tribals

and preparation for sowing of Kharif crop is made

accordingly.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

323

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Dr. R.P. Pandey, BSI,

Jodhpur; Dr. V.A. Amalraj, NBPGR, Trichur and Dr.

P. Joshi, TBGRI, Pacha-Palode for providing

information about the species.

January 15, 1996 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range of Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F),

Dist. Udaipur (Raj.), Pin-313 702.

38. RIKLIELLA KERNII (RAYMOND) RAYNAL, A NEW RECORD FOR

ANDHRA PRADESH

Fig. 1. Rikliella kernii (Raymond) Raynal: A. Twig; B. Spike; C. Rhachilla; D. & E. Glume entire and spread out;

F. Pistil with stamen; G. Nut.

324

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

Intensive floristic explorations for aquatic

angiosperm taxa in Andhra Pradesh yielded one rare

and interesting taxon. Based on critical taxonomic

studies and comparisons with authenticated

specimens at MH and CAL, this was identified as

Rikliella kernii (Raymond) Raynal. This was hitherto

not reported from Andhra Pradesh. Brief description

along with nomenclatural citation, ecological and

phenological data is provided to facilitate easy

identification.

Rikliella kernii (Raymond) J. Raynal,

Adansonia Ser. 2,13:155.1973.

Scirpus kernii Raymond, Naturaliste Canad.

86:230. 1959; Raynal, Adansonia ser.2,8:95, t.l, f. 1-

5. 1 968; Saldanha and Nicolson in FI. Hassan District,

695-696.1976. (Fig. 1)

Small tufted annual with brownish fibrous

roots. Culms few to several, slender, up to 6 cm tall.

Leaves only at base, 1-3 to a culm, filiform, subacute

at apex, sheaths papery red-purple. Spikes oblong-

ovoid, bearing many glumes imbricated on a straight

rhachis; spikelets reduced to a single glume

subtending a bisexual flower; glumes obdeltoid-

obovate, cuneate; with an arista of equal length;

stamens one; style very short. Achenes obovate.

Ecology: Moist places at low elevations, rare.

Flowering: August - December.

Distribution: world: Tropical Africa. India:

Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh.

Specimens examined: Nirmal (Adilabad

District), MHR&KI- 14577.

Note: Rikliella kernii (Raymond) Raynal is

mostly akin to Rikliella squarrosa (L.) Raynal but it

can be distinguished from the latter by its narrow

leaves, bi-fid stigma and distantly spreading bracts.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research, New Delhi for financial support.

September 6, 1 995 K. INDIRA

M. CHENNA KESAVULU

R.R. VENKATA RAJU

Department of Botany, S.K. University,

Anantapur-515 003, India.

39. SOME LITTLE KNOWN AND RARE HIGH ALTITUDE

SPECIE S OF POA FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Garhwal Himalaya represents one of the most

interesting floristic zones, not only in the Himalayan

belt but of the Indian subcontinent because of rich

vegetational diversity, sustained in varied

topographic, climatic and edaphic extents. The

Poaceae is represented by maximum number of

species (Duthie 1 906), and the type genus Poa is the

most interesting one, on account of its distribution

in the temperate and alpine zones of the Himalayas

as well as its ambiguity in taxonomic details, as it

requires critical microscopic observations of glumes,

lemmas, paleas, anthers and other pheno-

typic features (Rajbhandari 1991). In recent efforts

on the floristic explorations to Garhwal Himalaya,

we collected some interesting species of Poa

from high altitude zones of Garhwal Himalaya.

Perusal of literature (Hooker 1896, Duthie 1906,

Bor 1960, Semwal and Gaur 1983, 1986; Naithani

1985; Rajbhandari 1991; Uniyal et al. 1994),

indicated that these species are new and or rare

records from this part of the Himalaya, represen-

ting extension of their eastward or westward

distribution.

A key of these little known species of Poa

together with brief description along with their

habitat, occurrence, approximate elevation and

collector’s herbarium number is given. Plant

specimens were matched with the authen-

tic specimens of Botanical Survey, Northern

Circle, (BSD) and Forest Research Institute, (DD),

Dehradun and deposited at the Herbarium H.N.B.

Garhwal University, Srinagar-Garhwal (GUH).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

325

Key to the species of Poa

1 . 1 Basal sheaths with a bulbous thickening at the base:

2.1 Lemma keel scabrid; spikelets non-proliferous

2. P bacteriana

2.2 Lemma keel ciliate on the lower part; spikelets

proliferous 3. P bulbosa

1.2

Basal sheaths without bulbous thickening at the base:

3.1 Tufted non-rhizomatous plants:

4.1 Panicle spreading; palea keels scabrid:

5. 1 Lemma quite glabrous, broadly hyaline

on the margins only.

P aitchisonii

5.2 Lemma at least ciliate on the keels and

nerves, hyaline on the margins as well

as at the tips:

6.1 Lower glumes smaller, reaching half-

way up on the lowest lemma, or less;

lemmas 3.4-4. 5 mm long.

4. P. himalayami

6.2 Lower glumes longer than half the

lowest lemma; lemmas 3-4 mm

long:

7.1 Lemmatal nerves conspicuous;

lower glumes very narrow, 1-

nerved; lowest branches of the

panicle 3-5 nate

5. P khasiana

7.2 Lemmatal nerves inconspicuous;

lower glumes lanceolate or elliptic,

3-nerved; lower branches of the

panicle 2-nate

10. P. sterlis

4.2 Panicle branches ascending densely

contracted; palea keels semipilose.

6. P koelzii

3.2 Rhizomatous plants:

8.1 Plants conspicuously curved at the base;

ligules short, about 1 mm long

7. P. pro tens is ssp. alpigena

8.2 Plants erect from the base; ligules 1 .5-2.3 mm

long:

9.1 Basal leaves narrow, almost setaceous;

ligules 1 .5-2 mm long

8. P. pratensis ssp. anguistifolia

9.2 Basal leaves broad and flat; ligules 2-

2.3 mm long

9. P. pratensis ssp. pratensis

Poa aitchisonii Boiss. FI. Orient. 5: 602. 1 884;

Bor in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 835. 1953;

GBCIP554. 1960.

Tufted, 14-27 cm tall herbs; leaves flat; sheaths

glabrous; ligules 0.8-1 mm long; panicle spreading;

spikelets 3-5 flowered; anthers. 1.9-2 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: October-November.

Specimen examined: Dali (Chamoli), 3900

m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,001.

The species occurs in sporadic patches along

the open alpine meadows, usually associated with

species of Kobresia and Carex. Earlier, the species

was recorded from the far North West Himalaya,

Kurram Valley and Afghanistan ( see Bor 1960).

P. bacteriana Roshev. in Bot. Mater. Gerb.

Glavn. Bot. Sada 4: 93. 1923; Bor, GBCIP. 556.

1960; Cope in Nasir & Ali, FI. Pak. 143: 403. 1982.

Tufted, 2-3 noded herbs; 20-48 cm tall; leaves

flat or folded; sheaths glabrous, bulbous at the base;

ligules 1.5-3 mm long; panicle branches ascending;

anthers 1.5- 1.7 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined: Tapovan (Uttarkashi),

5000 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,003.

Rare, along the alpine slopes, usually

associated with species of Pedicularis, As t ragal lus

and Leontopodium , etc. Earlier this species was

reported from Lahul (H.P.) by Bor (1960) and Aswal

and Mehrotra (1994).

P. bulbosa L.,Sp. PI. ed. 1:70. 1753; Hook.f.,

FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 338. 1896; Bor, GBCIP. 556. 1960;

Uniyal et ai, Grasses. U.P 72. 1994.

Tufted herbs; 18-42 cm tall, nodes 2; leaves

flat or folded; sheaths glabrous, bulbous at base;

ligules 1.2-3 mm long; spikelets mostly proliferous;

anthers 1-1.3 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined: Gaumukh (Uttarkashi),

4500 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,004.

This species was collected from a high altitude

zone along the Gaumukh glacier. Rare, associated

with Trisetum spicatum, Saxifraga and Androscice

populations. This species was reported from Lahul

valley (Bor, 1960, Aswal and Mehrotra 1994).

P. himalayana Nees ex Steud., syn. PI. Glum.

1: 256. 1854; Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 344. 1896;

Bor, GBCIP. 557. 1960; Uniyal et ai, Grasses. U.P.

72. 1994.

Tufted, sometimes stoloniferous, terete, 3-5

noded herbs; leaf blades flat; sheaths glabrous;

326

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

ligules 0.8- 1 .6 mm long; panicle branches spreading;

spikelets 2-3 flowered; anthers 0.7-1 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined: Chirbasa (Uttarkashi),

Yamnotri (Tehri Garhwal), 3500 m, D.C. Nautiyal,

GUH: 14,006, 14,915.

Rare, in scattered population, only a few

specimens collected under moist boulders. This was

recorded from Sikkim (Hooker 1896, Bor 1960).

P. khasiana Stapf in Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 7:

343. 1 896; Bor in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 830.

1952; GBCIP. 557. 1960.

Loosely tufted herbs; 20-56 cm, terete,

smooth; leaves flat; sheaths glabrous; ligules 0.8-2

mm long; panicle spreading, lower branches 3-5;

spikelets 2-3-flowered; anthers 0.7-1 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined: Bhojbasa (Uttarkashi),

3900 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,008.

Rare, occurs under rock crevices and in

between boulders, in shady localities. This species

has been reported from eastern Himalaya particularly

from Khasia and Shillong hills (Hooker, 1896, Bor

1960).

P. koelzii Bor in Kew Bull. 1948; 139. 1948;

GBCIP. 557. 1960; Uniyal et al, Grasses. U.P. 75.

1994.

Densely tufted herbs; culms not above 15 cm

tall, glaucous or not, nodes 1-2; leaf blades folded,

glaucous, glabrous; sheaths glabrous; ligules 1.2-2

mm long; panicle 6 cm long; branches ascending;

palea keels semipilose; anthers 1.2- 1-5 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: October-November

Specimen examined: Gaumukh (Uttarkashi),

4000 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,009.

Rare. Under rock crevices and boulders,

associated with Deuxia pulchella, Elymus nutans and

Kobresia sp. Earlier this species was reported from

Kashmir (Bor 1960) and Lahul, H.P. (Aswal and

Mehrotra 1994).

P. pratensis subsp. alpigena (Blytt.) Hitt.,

Suomkasvio: 205. 1933.R alpigena Lindm., Svensk

Fanerogam. FI. 91. 1918; Bor, GBCIP. 555. 1960;

Uniyal et al., Grasses. U.P. 72. 1994.

Rhizomatous herbs, with curved underground

stem; culms 6-22 cm, node 2-3; leaves flat; sheaths

glabrous; ligules 1 . 1 - 1 .5 mm long; panicle branches

spreading or ascending; anthers 1 .5-1.6 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined: Tapovan (Uttarkashi),

5000 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,011.

Rare, on alpine meadows, on sandy soil and

associated with Elymus nutans, Polygonum and

Kobresia. Earlier reported from Yatung and Gyanste

in Tibet (see Bor 1960).

P. pratensis subsp. anguistifolia (L.) Gaud.,

Agrost. Helv. 1: 214. 1811; Uniyal et al., Grasses.

U.P. 75. 1994, P. anguistifolia L., Sp. PI. ed. 1: 67.

1753; Bor, GBCIP. 555. 1960. P. pratensis L. sub

sp. pratensis met. non L.: Ohwi in Hara. FI. E. Himal.

2: 145. 1971. P. pratensis L. var. anguistifolia (L.)

J.E.Sm., FI. Brit. 105. 1800; Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind.

7: 340. 1896.

Rhizomatous, erect herbs; 22-60 cm tall; leaf

blades folded, almost setaceous; sheaths glabrous;

ligules 1.5-2 mm long; panicle spreading; spikelets

3-4 flowered; anthers 1.2-2 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined Bhojbasa (Uttarkashi),

3900 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,012.

Rare, under rock crevices and shelter of

boulders along the timber line zone, often associated

with species of Astragalus, Festuca and Geranium,

etc. This species was collected earlier from Kashmir

and Tehri Garhwal by Duthie (see Bor 1960).

P. pratensis L., Sp. PI. ed. 1: 67. 1 753. sub sp.

pratensis Stapf in Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 339. 1896;

Bor, GBCIP. 559. 1960; Uniyal et al., Grasses. U.P.

75. 1994.

Rhizomatous, erect herbs; culms 6-75 cm,

terete, nodes 2-3; leaves linear; sheaths glabrous;

panicle spreading or ascending; anthers 1.5-2 mm

long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined: Tapovan (Uttarkashi)

5000 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,013.

Rare. Open alpine meadows, usually

associated with species of Primula, Ranunculus sand

Elymus, etc. Earlier this species was reported from

Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

327

P. sterlis M. Bieb., FI. Jour. Cans. 1:62. 1808;

Bor, GBCIP. 560. 1960; Uniyal etal Grasses. U.P.

75. 1994.

Tufted, scabrid herbs; culms 30-40 cm tall,

nodes 2-3; leaf blades flat or sometimes convolute;

sheaths glabrous or scabrid; ligules 2.5-3 m long;

panicle spreading; anthers 1 .7-2.2 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen examined:- Gangotri (Uttarkashi),

3140 m, D.C. Nautiyal, GUH: 14,014.

Rare. In moist and shady banks of streams;

associated with Festuca, Poa annua and Carex sp.

Species known exclusively from Ladakh and

Kashmir (Bor, 1960) and from Lahul (Aswal and

R E FE R I

Aswal, B.S. & B.N. Mehrotra (1994): Flora of Lahul-Spiti.

Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Bor, N.L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and

Pakistan. London.

Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of the Plants of Kumaon and of

the adjacent portion of Garhwal and Tibet. London (Rep. ed.

1974). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Hooker, J.D. (1896): Flora of the British India, Vol. VII. London.

Repr. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Naithani, B.D. (1985): Flora of Chamoli, Vol. 2. BSI Howrah.

40. SOME NEW PLANT

During the course of studies on Flora of

Sikkim, some interesting collections were recorded.

Further studies of these specimens with the help of

types/ protologues and the specimens housed at CAL,

K, BSHC, and E. Herbaria and a scrutiny of the

literature (Hooker 1892, Karthikeyan, et al. 1989)

revealed that these are additions to the Flora of India.

Brief taxonomic accounts of these taxa are provided

here to facilitate their identification in the field.

Juncus amplifolius A. Camus in Not. Syst.

1(10): 281.1910.

Herbs. Roots-stocks stout, woody. Stems up

to 35 cm high. Scale-leaves many, reddish. Rosette

leaves up to 1.5 x 0.3 cm; cauline leaves up to 3,

shorter than stems; sheaths without auricles.

Inflorescence terminal, with 2-4 unequally peduncled

capitula. Capitulac. 1 cm in diameter, 3-4-flowered;

Mehrotra, 1994).

We thank the authorities of the Botanical

Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehradun (BSD)

and Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD)

for providing Herbarium facilities. Financial

assistance from Department of Environment,

Govt, of India, New Delhi is also thankfully

acknowledged.

January 15, 1996 R.D. GAUR

D.C. NAUTIYAL

Deptt. of Botany

H.N.B. Garhwal University

Srinagar 246174 (U.P.)

■ N C E S

Rajbhandari, K.R. (1991): A Review of the genus Poa L.

(Gramineae) in the Himalaya. The Himalayan Plants, Vol. 2.

University of Tokyo Press.

Semwal, J.K. & R.D. Gaur (1981): Alpine Flora of Tungnath. ./.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-510.

Semwal, J.K. & R.D. Gaur (1986): Addition to alpine Flora of

Tungnath. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 267-27 1.

Uniyal, B.P., Bipin Balodi & Baij Nath (1994): The Grasses of

Uttar Pradesh. A checklist. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehra Dun.

RECORDS FOR INDIA

lowest bract leafy. Perianth lanceolate, subequal, 4.5

-6 x 1.2 -1.5 mm, dark reddish-brown. Stamens

shorter than perianth, anthers 2 -2.4 mm long. Stigma

lobes twisted. Capsules ellipsoid, c. 5 x 2.4 mm,

abruptly contracted into slender exserted beak,

chestnut coloured.

FI. & Fr.: June-July.

Specimen Examined: Monlepcha-Phedang,

ca. 3800 m, ESIK 750(E).

Habitat: In Abies-Rhododendron forests

along streams, bogs and road-sides at 3250-4000 m

2. Juncus bryophilus Noltie, Edinb. J. Bot.

51(2): 137-138.1994.

Herbs. Rhizomes short. Stems loosely tufted,

swollen at base, clothed with dark brown, leafy scales

at base. Cauline leaf solitary, filiform, almost,

bitubular; sheaths auricled. Flower solitary,

328

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

apparently lateral; lowest bract leafy, up to 1.5 cm

long. Perianth subequal, linear - lanceolate, 2.5 - 3.8

mm long, acute, chestnut brown. Stigma-lobes short,

cream. Capsules ellipsoid, trigonous.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Specimens examined: Dzongri, c. 400 m,

ESIK 698 (BSHC,E).

Habitat: Among moss on wet rocks and

boulders in alpine zone.

3. Juncus glaucoturgidus Noltie, Edinb. J.

Bot. 51(2): 132-133.1994.

Herbs. Rhizomes not distinct. Stems densely

tufted, up to 25 cm high, sheathed with many straw

coloured scale leaves at base. Cauline leafy solitary,

subbasal, upto 12 x 3.2 cm, cylindric, hollow, blunt

at apex, contracted below at apex, glaucous. Capitula

terminal, c. 2 cm in diameter, c. 12-flowered;

involucral bracts subequal, reddish-brown. Perianth

subequal, oblong-lanceolate, up to 6.5 x 1.6 mm,

outer ones keeled, inner-ones not keeled. Filaments

shorter than perianth, anthers narrowly oblong, upto

3.5 mm, pale-yellow, exserted. Stigma-lobes stout,

cream. Capsules ellipsoid, c. 4.5 x 2.5 mm, golden-

brown, beaked.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Specimens examined: Samiti-lake,

Bungoteng-cho, c 4300 m, ESIK 572 (BSHC, E,K).

Habitat: On open, sandy, calcareous slopes

in alpine zone above tree-line.

4. Juncus hydrophilus Noltie, Edinb. J.Bot.

51(2): 138.1994.

Herbs. Stolons short, slender, dark brown,

clothed with scales and fibrous remains of old scales.

Stems loosely tufted, up to 40 cm high, with a leaf-

like basal scale. Cauline leaves 3-4, evenly spaced,

up to 17 x 0.3 cm; sheaths up to 4 cm long, reddish-

brown, without auricles. Inflorescence of a single

anthela with 3-4 capitate partial inflorescence.

Capitula 4-9 flowered, c. 1 .5 cm in diameter; lowest

bract shorter than inflorescence. Perianth narrowly

lanceolate, 3. 5-5. 3 x 1-1.4 mm, acute, inner slightly

larger. Filaments longer than perianth, anthers

exserted, narrowly oblong, pale-yellow; stigma-lobes

0.5- 1 mm, Capsules narrowly ovoid, c. 6 x 1 .8 mm,

straw coloured.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Specimen examined: Prek-chu bridge below

Bakhim, c. 2300 m, ESIK 771 (BSHC, E, K).

Habitat: On wet-cliffs in Oak forests.

5. Juncus nepalicus Miyam & H.Ohba in

J.Jap.Bot. 68:28-30.1993.

Herbs. Root-stocks woody, rhizomatous.

Stems tufted, ascending, slender, striate, up to 20

cm long. Leaves Battened; cauline ones 1-2, linear-

lanceolate, up to 2 x 1.5 mm, basal linear up to 12 x

0.2 mm; leaf-sheaths obliquely truncate. Heads 1-2,

chestnut brown; lower bracts lanceolate, up to 1.5 x

0. 1 cm, brown. Flowers 6-8 x 1 .8 -2.2 mm; pedicels

upto 2 mm long. Perianth segments ovate-lanceolate,

inner slightly longer. Stamens 6, 2. 5-3. 5 mm long,

anthers linear - elliptic; stigma reddish. Capsules

ovoid, trigonous, c. 4x2 mm, deep brown.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Specimen examined: Lachen, 10000 ft,

Hooker, s,n, dt. 6.7.1849 (K); Hooker, s.n. (K)

p.p.

Habitat: In screes at 3000-4400 m in North

Sikkim district.

6. Juncus perpusillus Sam. in Hand.- Mazz.,

Symb. Sin. 7:1237-1238.1936.

Densely tufted, dwarf herbs. Rhizomes short,

stout. Stems 1.5-8 cm high. Leaves bitubular,

filiform; basal ones with dark purple-brown sheaths;

cauline ones sometimes lacking; sheaths with

reddish-brown auricles. Capitula 2-4 -Lowered;

bracts chestnut brown, lowermost exceeding

inflorescence. Perianth oblong, up to 4.5 x 1 mm,

blunt, white, turning to dark purple. Filaments

exceeding perianth, anthers c. 2 mm long. Stigma

lobes spreading. Capsules oblong-ellipsoid, c. 3x2

mm, abruptly contracted into beak.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Specimen examined: Above Chunaikiang,

near foot of eastern Rathong glacier, c 4550 m, ESIK

375 (E).

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey

of India, and Regius Keeper of the Herbaria at RBG,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

329

Kew and RBG, Edinburgh, for facilities; to INSA,

New Delhi and The Royal Society, London, for the

grant of fellowship for visit to British Herbaria; and

to Drs. R Cribb and D.A. Simpson of K and Mr. H.

J. Noltie of E herbaria for the help extended during

Refer

Hooker, J.D. (1892): Flora of British India, Vol. vi., London.

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa

my visit to their herbaria.

November 21, 1995 R.C. SRIVASTAVA

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad-2 1 1 002

NCES

(1989) Florae Indicae Enumeratio: Monocotyledonae.

Calcutta.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 4th edition (Reprint). 28 plates in colour by Paul

Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. ( Price to members Rs. 170)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 11th (revised) edition (Reprint). 74 coloured and many

monochrome plates. (Price to members Rs. 150)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley.

(Updated) (Price to members Rs. 245)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley H. An up-to-date checklist of all

the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka,

2nd edition. (Price to members Rs. 85)

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Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali & J.D. Panday Rs. 3

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J.C. Daniel (Price to members Rs. 162)

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E. Blatter and W. Millard. With many coloured and monochrome

plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). (Price to members Rs. 160)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by N.L. Bor and M.B. Raizada. With many coloured

and monochrome plates, 2nd edition. (Price to members Rs. (120)

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R.E. Hawkins (Price to members Rs. 225 )

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J.S. Serrao (Price to members Rs. 300)

Types of membership, fees and subscription for publications (As on Dec. 1995)

RN 5685/57

ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS OP THE BENGAL FLORICAN {With four text-figures)

By R. Sankaran 1 67

ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF CHITAL AND BLACKBUCK IN GUINDY

NATIONAL PARK, MADRAS {With three text-figures)

By T.R. Shankar Raman, R.K.G. Menon and R. Sukumar 178

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF DURANTA REPENS (VERBENACEAE)

( With three text-figures)

By T. Byragi Reddy and C. Subba Reddi 193

OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOFT CORALS (OCTOCORALLIA:

ALCYONACEA) FROM THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

( With a text-figure)

By V. Jaya Sree, K.L. Bhat and A.H. Parulekar 202

STUDIES ON CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

(GMELIN) IN ORISSA

By L.N. Acharjyo, S.K. Kar and S.K. Patanaik 210

CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER USING A

COMBINATION OF KETAMINE AND XYLAZINE HYDROCHLORIDE

By S.A. Hussain, PK. Malik and B.C. Choudhury 214

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI REGION: AN UPDATE

( With a text-figure)

By Sudhir Vyas 219

BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS

By P Neelanarayanan, R. Nagarajan and R. Kanakasabai 238

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY - 37: DICAEIDAE, NECTARINIIDAE AND

ZOSTEROPIDAE

By Humayun Abdulali and Saraswathy Unnithan 242

SOME ASPECTS OFTHE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF ONTHOPHAGUS GAZELLA

(F.) AND ONTHOPHAGUS RECTECORNUTUS LANSB.(COLEOPTERA:

SCARABAEIDAE) {With a plate)

By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 252

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 257

OBITUARIES 276

REVIEWS 280

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 284

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and

published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr.Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

JOURNA

OF THE

BOMBAY

NATURAL

HI STORY

SOCIETY

VOL. 93, No. 3

December 1996

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M;K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

ANIL GORE

R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3. 5") using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has

been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important

species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free

copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s

contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

Editorial

The study of Ornithology in the Indian Subcontinent has been, up to the very recent

decades, the prerogative of the talented amateur. The men who laid the foundations for this

study came from various professions. Hume, who could be termed the father of systematic

Indian ornithology, was an administrator. Oates, an engineer, and Blanford, a geologist,

wrote the first series of volumes on India’s avifauna. Baker, who wrote the eight volume

second edition on Indian avifauna was in the police force of Assam State. In fact, until the

appearance of Salim Ali on the scene, ornithology in India was very much a preserve of the

British official establishment.

It has been suggested that Salim Ali took up the study of Ornithology as a challenge

because an anonymous reviewer of Stuart Baker’s Fauna lamented that he had not seen a

reference to a single paper written by an Indian in Baker’s Bibliography. Nothing could be

further from the truth. Salim Ali was hooked on to birds from the time as a young boy he

walked through the portals of the Bombay Natural History Society with a yellowthroated

sparrow in his hand, and for the next 69 years, the Society and Salim Ali lived in a state of

mutualism. In the beginning it was Salim Ali who was dependent on the support of the

Society, then the position was reversed when the Society was on the brink of extinction at

the time of Independence. Salim Ali more or less single-handedly resurrected it. In his lifelong

association with the BNHS for over 69 years he and the Society became synonymous in the

eyes of the world. Finally the Society was his family and all that he cared for in his later years

and to it he left whatever he thought was valuable in his possession.

Salim Ali’s association with the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society started in

1927-28 when he functioned briefly as one of the editors. He resumed his connection with

the Journal in 1944 (Vol. 45), collaborating with S.H. Prater and C. McCann. Upon their

leaving India, Salim Ali took over as General Editor assisted by Dr. S.B. Setna for a year,

when Fr. H. Santapau joined the board. He published the results of his ornithological studies

more or less exclusively in the Journal.

In this commemorative issue we had requested those who had known him as a person,

an ornithologist and as a conservationist, as well as his many students to contribute papers.

The response has been quite positive, though in some areas especially from those who knew

him intimately and from some of his senior students it was disappointing. This Journal is a

tribute to Salim Ali’s decades of endeavour in the study of the ornithology of the Subcontinent

and for the conservation of its natural resources.

J.C. DANIEL

VOLUME 93 (1): DECEMBER 1996

Date of Publication: 01-12-1996

CONTENTS

DR. SALIM ALLS CONTRIBUTION TO KUTCH ORNITHOLOGY

By M.K. Himmatsinhji v

sAlim ajli

By Lady Peng McNeice viii

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT — A SALIM ALI CENTENARY YEAR OVERVIEW

(With a plate and a map )

By Lavkumar Khacher 331

TWENTIETH CENTURY CHANGES IN THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

By T.J. Roberts 374

NEW BIRD RECORDS IN SRI LANKA AND SOME CONNECTED MATTERS

By Thilo W. Hoffmann 382

THE RECENT DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND DISJUNCT BIRDS IN KERALA STATE:

PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF AN ONGOING SURVEY (With fifteen maps)

By Anthony J. Gaston and V.J. Zacharias . 389

AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FLORICAN (With four text-figures)

By R. Sankaran 401

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON PAL AE ARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

(With eleven text-figures)

By Madhusudan Katti and Trevor Price 411

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD-DISPERSED PLANTS IN THE

TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE, SOUTH INDIA

(With three text-figures)

By P. Balasubramanian 428

STRATEGIES FOR LONG-TERM CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS IN INDIA (With two plates and a text -figure)

By Asad R. Rahmani 442

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES (With four text-figures)

By S. Subramanya 459

A REVIEW OF THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

By R. Sugathan and Aby P. Varghese 487

BREEDING SEASONS AND CONSERVATION OF THE TERNS STERNA FUSCATA AND ANOUS

STOLIDUS IN THE LAKSHADWEEP (With two text-figures)

By D.N. Mathew, George Mathew and Tara Gandhi 507

KYASANUR FOREST DISEASE AND THE BIRD MIGRATION STUDY OF THE BOMBAY

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

By A.N.D Nanavati 511

CONSERVATION NOTES

EVOLVING A RATIONAL STRATEGY FOR AN INTEGRATED PROTECTED AREA SYSTEM

IN MAHARASHTRA ( With two text figures)

By E.K. Bharucha 513

CONSERVATION PRIORITIES FOR THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

By Priya Davidar 555

IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE RANGING BEHAVIOUR OF ELEPHANTS IN THE

NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTH INDIA ( With a text-figure)

By Ajay A. Desai and N. Baskaran . 559

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF PUERARIA DC. (FABACEAE) FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, U.P, INDIA

(With fifteen text figures)

By L.R. Dangwal and D.S. Rawat 570

GARRA SURENDRANATHANIl - A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM THE SOUTHERN WESTERN

GHATS, INDIA (With four text figures)

By C.P Shaji, L.K. Aran and P.S. Easa 572

THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA:MACROCHELIDAE)IN INDIA. A NEW

SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH DUNG BEETLE (COLEQPTERA: SC ARAB AEIDAE) FROM

MADHYA PRADESH (With four text figures)

By Ranjit Kumar Roy 576

REVIEWS

1. FENCING THE FOREST

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 578

2. CHANGING PERSPECTIVE OF BIODIVERSITY STATUS IN THE HIMALAYA

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 579

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Grey musk shrew (S uncus murinus)

feeding on toad

By Krushnamegh J. Kunte 581

2. On the occurrence of the Indian tree shrew

(Anathana ellioti ) in the Garhwa Forest, Bihar

(With two text-figures)

By H.S. Gupta 581

3. Sighting of ratel (Mellivora capensis) in

Sidhi Dist. of Madhya Pradesh

By A.M. Bharos 582

4. Sighting of two cat species (Felis sp.) from

the Western ghats South India

By E.A. Jayson 582

5. The marbled cat Felis marmorata Martin in

Assam - some recent records

(With one text-figure)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 583

6. Goat predation by clouded leopard

(Neofelis nebulosa)

in Kalko reserve forest of Assam

By Ashif Ahmed Hazarkia 584

7. Sighting of takio (Budorcas taxicolor) in the

Mehao wildlife sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh

By S. Areendran 585

BIRDS

8. A white coot at Kanewal, Gujarat

By B.M. Parasharya, R.B. Chauhan and

A.G. Sukhadia 586

9. An Albino red vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer

By Justus Joshua. 586

10. Attempts of female magpie robin to catch a fish

By Satish Kumar Sharma 586

11. A note on the endemic broadtailed grass warbler

By V. Santharam 587

12. Whitebrowed blue flycatcher (Muscicapa superciliaris)

delineation of its wintering range in West India

By Lavkumar Khacher 587

13. Notes on green munia

By Rajat Bhargava 588

14. Comments on some new bird records from

Tamil nadu

By V. Santharam 589

REPTILES

INSECTS

19. Breeding season of horse-shoe pit viper

(Trimeresurus strigatus ) in Nilgiri BOTANY

Biosphere reserve

• •• • # t t ••

IV

DR. SALIM ALPS CONTRIBUTION TO KUTCH ORNITHOLOGY

M. K. Himmatsinhji1

The history of ornithology is spread over a long

and glorious period in Kutch. At least during the last

eight ceiituries those people who came over into Kutch,

mainly from Sind and Rajasthan, settled down and

evolved the kutchhi dialect, have taken a keen interest

in nature throughout that period. In that almost every

species of flora had been named, and all animals along

with many of the birds endemic to this region have

local kutchhi names. Animal life has been woven into

legends, art, as also into prose and poetry. Even some

geographical features have been named after animals

such as ‘sinh jhar’ (lion valley) and ‘sinh khatlo’ (lion

hill), to give just two examples. In the case of birds,

the name ‘hansa’ is used for swan and ‘hanj’ denotes

the flamingo. The Gujarati name coined (perhaps in

recent years) for the goose is ‘hansa’, whereas the

kutchhi name is ‘gaj’.

No wonder the erstwhile rulers of Kutch were

naturalists too and some of them took a keen interest

in the birdlife of the region. Unfortunately there are

no earlier records, and the only written record is that

of four generations starting from the early nineteenth

century. Maharao Shri Pragmalji II planned to have

a Natural History Museum in Bhuj in the first half

of the nineteenth century, for which bird specimens

were collected. However, he died at an early age and

that scheme did not fructify. Maharao Shri Khengarji

who succeeded as ruler was also a keen naturalist

and bird-lover in whose time documentation of the

birds found in Kutch was first undertaken. Both

Maharaos Vijayrajji and Madansinhji were

naturalists and sportsmen. It was during the reign

of the former (1942-48) that Dr. S£lim Ali took up

the reins of bird study and surveys in this region. It

may be mentioned here for the sake of interest and

for the record that the other remarkable ornithologist/

naturalist, Humayun Abdulali, had stolen a march

over S A in paying a visit to Kutch somewhere in the

’Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat.

year 1936 and had contributed a few new bird records

for this area.

It would be necessary here to go back into the

period of time in order to relate the sequence of

events, as also records of birds from the earliest

available sources. Apparently the first person to study

the fauna of this area was a geologist. Dr. Ferdinand

Stoliczka, who made a systematic list of birds he

saw and collected from Kutch in the latter part of

the 1860s and which were mainly identified by the

great A.O. Hume. Stoliczka then published a paper

on the mammals and birds of Kutch in the Journal

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1872. Those who

study birds would be interested to learn that the first

specimens of Saxicola macrorhyncha (Stoliczka’s

Bush Chat or Whinchat) were collected by him from

Kutch and described. The bird has now disappeared

from some of its former distributional areas

including, perhaps, Kutch.

A.O. Hume also kept a tag on the birds to be

seen in Kutch. He appended remarks regarding bird

records of this region to a list of birds prepared by

Capt. E. A. Butler, stationed at Mt. Abu, and published

it in Stray Feathers in the years 1 875 and 1 876. It seems

that Butler himself did not visit Kutch more than once

or twice. The first edition of the birds of kutch was

prepared by one Mr. Hugh Palin in 1878. He was

followed by Capt. C.D. Lester, apparently quite a

competent ornithologist, who revised the list of Palin

in 1898 and added some more species to his own

previous effort before he authored the 2nd edition of

the birds of kutch printed in 1904.

At that period the British Political Agent, his

staff and a British Indian unit of the army used to be

stationed in Bhuj. Among them were a few

birdwatchers who also contributed their observations

on the avian occurrences in Kutch. Apart from them,

there was that famous chronicler of the birds of

British Somaliland, Sir Geoffrey Archer, who spent

a number of years in Kutch. He, however, spent most

of his time in the Kandla port area, but was able to

make some useful observations. Unfortunately, the

better part of his bird collections went to museums

outside the country, though his collection of eggs

was presented to the Bombay Natural History

Society.

Most of the progress in the field of ornithology

in Kutch took place in the long reign of Maharao

Khengarji whose own greatest achievement was the

discovery he made of the Greater Flamingo breeding

in the Great Rann of Kutch in 1893. Since then, that

breeding colony became a place of pilgrimage for

many ornithologists, but it was Dr. Sdlim Ali who in

the later years made some important discoveries

while visiting the Flamingo City, as Charles McCann

called the breeding colony.

The object of my giving this rather long

preamble in the form of a resume of the history of

Kutch ornithology was to show that as in the rest of

the Subcontinent, in this region too, much of the

initial ground was covered by British officers. When

Dr. S&lim Ali came on the scene he started working

in right earnest, at times against heavy odds and by

the end of his career the pinnacles of achievements

he had reached were, if not greater, at least equal to

his predecessors. He never hesitated in appreciating

the talents or good points or the expertise of anyone.

Apart from those who taught and guided him in the

initial stages of his career, he even kept in touch with

experts such as Hugh Whistler and others and sought

their opinions from time to time on points of

ornithological interest. When he was invited by

Maharao Vijayrajji to come to Kutch and prepare a

fresh account of the birds of Kutch in 1943, he took

up the assignment with the greatest of enthusiasm

and earnestness. The Kutch State did not spare any

effort or expense in facilitating the full and detailed

survey of the area.

Now Dr. Sdlim Ali realised the usefulness of

Lester’s the birds of kutch which he was to update,

and which he used as his checklist. Thus began the

survey which was undertaken between 1943-1944.

Those were the peak years of the Second World War,

with many commodities, particularly petrol, in short

supply. The jeep had not come into civilian use and

the rather large area of Kutch in those days had to be

traversed by the good old convertible Ford, the best

means of negotiating sandy tracts and bullock cart

tracks in which the vehicle often used to get stuck

and had to be pushed across through manpower!

Where the car could not go the ubiquitous bullock

cart or camel always came in use. As was his wont

Dr. S£lim Ali kept meticulous notes and never failed

to collect specimens during his field trips. Here again,

owing to the war he had to face some handicaps, the

chief among these was the unavailability of the

collections abroad for comparative study as they

were packed away and dispersed for safety at that

time. But undaunted by these hurdles which for S A

were minor, he went ahead and completed the revised

new edition of the birds of kutch which even today

is an extremely useful field guide for the region.

During the survey it became very clear to the great

ornithologist that Kutch was an important area from

the point of view of bird study, not only because of

the speciality of some endemic species, but more so

as it lay on the route of many of the migrating birds

which come into India to spend the winter and return

at the beginning of spring every year. In his

Introduction to the birds of kutch (1945) Dr. Salim

Ali mentions: “But the chief interest of Kutch

ornithology lies in the geographical position of this

narrow strip of land relative to the mighty tide of

migration that sweeps into India from beyond its

northern and north-western boundaries... Apart from

the migrants that come to spend the winter... the area

is of further importance in that it lies on the extreme

eastern fringe of a broad stream of through migration

that flows down from Central and Northern Asia in

a south-westerly direction...”. He followed this up

at the earliest opportunity he got for organizing a

bird-ringing camp in Kutch which was followed by

others at some intervals of time. Bird netting and

ringing provided very important and interesting

information on bird species and their migration and

on the movements of the endemic birds also. A few

new species were added to the then existing list. It

was believed till then that the Great Rann of Kutch

acted as a barrier against the movement of resident

species between Kutch and Sind. The ringing

VI

programmes at least partially showed that this was

not so.

There are several big and small islands situated

in the Great Rann which are formed by silt and have

some vegetation and a good growth of grass on them,

and so the insect life also subsists there. In view of

this fact, birds such as the larks, house sparrow (these

are commonly seen on BSF posts), doves and bee-

eaters could easily stop over on these islands and go

across into Sind (Pakistan), and vice versa. In the

case of Merops orientalis , it is likely that wider

investigation may reveal the presence of the paler

race beludschicus in Kutch.

Dr. Scilim Ali’s contribution to Kutch

ornithology is so valuable that no words can

adequately describe it. He possessed an uncanny

quality of recognizing talent and knowledge in

persons and his chief aim was always to serve the

cause of the Bombay Natural History Society. SA’s

other remarkable attribute was to develop an

acquaintance into friendship and partnership. There

were quite a few examples of this, but prominent

among them were two wartime acquaintances. One

was W.T. Loke who had come away to India in the

wake of the Japanese occupation of the then British

colony of Malaya. Loke accompanied Dr. S&lim Ali

during the Kutch survey. SA had this to say about

it: “I would like to express my thanks to W.T. Loke

(of Malaya) who accompanied me throughout the

Kutch survey, and was such a help both in the field

and later in the museum. His enthusiasm for birds

and proficiency with the camera have combined to

produce some of the beautiful photographs that

illustrate the birds of kutch, 1945. This was the

beginning of the benefits that followed, to Indian

ornithology in general and to the BNHS in particular,

through this friendship till the untimely death of

Loke.

The other example of friendship developed by

the great SA goes beyond the limited field of Kutch

ornithology and entered a far wider scope in the

history of Indian ornithology. This was the

partnership of Dr. S£lim Ali with Dr. S. Dillon Ripley

II, which was instrumental in the publication of that

monumental work of Indian ornithology, the

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN along

with Dr. Ripley’s most useful a synopsis of the birds

of india and Pakistan and of course the other works.

Thus a long felt need for the replacement of older

works such as those of E.C. Stuart Baker could be

fulfilled.

Coming back to the main subject, the keen

sense of perception, planning and marvellous

anticipation of the great naturalist all combined,

resulted in the furtherance of the cause of Indian

ornithology and conservation of nature in general.

Kutch also got the benefit of this. The most important

Bird Migration Study Project carried out at Chhari

Dhandh as also the Grasslands Ecology Project in

the Banni which were undertaken after his passing

away were actually the residue of the targets set by

him for further research. One could only hope and

desire that those concerned would take up the thread

from where he left it and make good the targets set

by Dr. S&lim Ali for the future of Indian Ornithology

and Conservation.

vii

sAlim ali

Lady Y.P. McNeice1

It was as refugees from the Japanese

occupation of Singapore that my mother and I,

together with my brother, Loke Wan Tho, arrived in

Bombay in 1942 which led in the succeeding three-

and-a-half years to our friendship with Dr. Silim Ali,

a friendship that deepened over the years even after

we had left India. It became a profound love for and

appreciation of this truly remarkable man.

Originally, it was an article on bird watching,

written for a Forces publication by my brother during

his stay in India, which attracted the attention of his

former school master, Mr Gibson, who was then

teaching in Ajmer College. Mr Gibson introduced

Wan Tho to Salim and this was the beginning of a

deep and fruitful period of mutual communion in

their sharing of the Joys of Nature.

The gap of some 30 years between their ages

was insignificant, as their characters blended to a

consistency which Salim’s ageless enthusiasm was able

to match with the great respect with which Wan Tho

regarded him. The common bond which drew these

two men together was a love of birds. This, together

with Salim’s great knowledge of ornithology and Wan

Tho’s talent for photography, made it a perfect

combination. Moreover, both possessed a keen sense

of humour, were quick in repartee and therefore

enjoyed each other’s company to the

full.

Salim visited me and my husband a number

of times; both in our house in Singapore and at our

holiday home at Fraser’s Hill in Malaysia. S£lim

marvelled at the thickness of our jungle compared

with the light forest areas in India. (Having visited

Bharatpur and Ranthambore myself, I can understand

what he meant). Bird watching can be exasperating

in Malaysia, for birds are more easily heard than seen,

and even more so for those that frequent the upper

canopy of our jungle.

I have also happy memories of a safari in

Africa on which he accompanied us, when he was

able to make comparisons between the wildlife of

Africa and that of his own country. At various lodges

where we stayed, fellow naturalists from other parts

of the world would come up and greet him. Such

was the fame and affection that his personality had

inspired. On our last evening in Africa, Salim,

anxious to see ever more of the wildlife, urged our

guide to go further into the bush. We eventually

found that our vehicle had got bogged down in the

soft sand. It was then “all hands” to try and extricate

ourselves, gathering any brushwood that we could

find. One of us kept a lookout and, to our horror, we

saw a rhinoceros not far away. There was a small

bush between him and us. As we know, the

rhinoceros has poor eyesight but a keen sense of

smell. However, luck was on our side and after some

extremely anxious moments, our vehicle managed

to break free and all of us heaved tremendous sighs

of relief!

These are our own particular memories of the

great man, S£lim Ali, to which I would like to add the

name of his kindred spirit, my brother, Loke Wan Tho.

1 22 Handy Road, # 12-02, Cathay Apartments, Singapore 0922.

PADMA VIBHUSHAN DR. SALIM ALI

1896-1987

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93 Plate 1

Lavkumar Khacher: The Birds of Gujarat

A flock of Crab Plovers at Beyt

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

December 1996 Vol. 93 No. 3

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT - A SALIM ALI CENTENARY YEAR OVERVIEW

Lavkumar Khacher1

(With a plate and a map )

Introduction

The late Dr. Salim Ali had undertaken field

surveys of what is today the Gujarat State in pre-

independence years, largely at the invitation of some

of the Princely States of Kachchh, Vadodara,

Radhanpur, Palanpur, Khambhat and Rajpipla.

Collections were also made in the forest rich tribal

area of the Dangs. These surveys had Salim in the

field “for varying periods of a month to five months

at a time between the years 1944 and 1946 with

shorter field trips up to 1948.” The Kathiawar

peninsula, today known as Saurashtra, was partially

covered, thanks to several “Gaekwadi” territories

which touched on to the Gir forest and the southern

part of the Gulf of Kachchh in what is known as

Okha Mandal, today a taluka of the Jamnagar district.

Fortunately, the Kathiawar region was intensively

“birded” by several, very keen naturalist families of

which mine of Jasdan was one. To our south, the

Bhavnagar State was fully covered by the three royal

brothers Maharaol Krishnakumarsinhji,

Nirm al kumarsi nhj i and Dharmakumarsinhji. What

this sporting trio missed was hardly worth recording.

My cousin, the late Shivrajkumar Khachar and I were

guided into high level birdwatching by the

Bhavnagar “Gurus” — their seasonal visits to

Hingolgadh and our return forays to the Bhavnagar

‘646, Vastunirman, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382022.

seaboard were momentous occasions. To our north

was Wankaner with an actively knowledgeable

sporting family and much of today’s Jamnagar

district was the hunting ground of the Jam Sahebs of

Nawanagar. The outcome of all this active interest

in birds produced two well illustrated books: the

birds of kutch by Salim Ali and the birds of

saurashtra by Dharmakumarsinhji. All these and

several other princes were members of the Bombay

Natural History Society. In addition, there were

several “commoners” who either developed an

interest in birds through their association with their

feudal employers or who had developed an interest

entirely on their own; among these mention must be

made of the following stalwarts: Harinarayan

Acharya, Manubhai Jodhani, Niranjan Varma,

Jaymal Parmar, Pradyumna Desai, Vijaygupta

Mauriya, Chhotubhai Sutar, Haribhai Chauhan and

the poet Dinkarray Vaidya. These men must be

saluted since they all have contributed in moulding

contemporary attitudes towards birds by their

popular writings in Gujarati. Pradyumna Desai was

an artist of considerable talent.

Salim Ali renewed his active association with

the newly established Gujarat State when BNHS

started mistnet captures of birds for banding;

Kachchh was his first choice. The netting operations

were later started at Hingolgadh in Saurashtra and

the ornithologist established a close and affectionate

association with birdwatchers of Saurashtra, Lalsinh

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

333

Raol particularly impressed him and K.P. Jadav’s bird

drawings delighted him. Gujarat continues to have a

fairly large number of amateur birdwatchers and it

is hoped that through this article concern for the

active conservation of the region’s still dramatically

visible birdlife will be rekindled and that the Society

will see the importance of once again exploiting the

immense potential within the State. Without popular

concern, the trends forewarned by S&lim Ali in 1954

and continually harped on by others including myself

will never be halted.

Lalsinh Raol has written extremely readable

books in Gujarati which have used standardised

birdnames in the vernacular, and a checklist of the

birds of Gujarat was updated by him and myself.

Considerable new information had been accumulated

by bioscience students of the Saurashtra University,

Rajkot, where the late Prof. R.M. Naik gave our

interest a scientific aura. Notable among the young

men who acquired scientific credentials at the

University are Bhavbhuti Parasana who has to his

credit qualitative research on egrets and herons, and

Taej Mundkur who streaked like a meteor across

Saurashtra’s ornithological firmament to rekindle the

waning enthusiasm among those of us from

yesteryear. Today, there are knowledgeable amateur

groups in Bhuj lead by MKS Himmatsinhji, and in

Bhavnagar encouraged by MKS Shivbhadrasinhji.

There are competent amateurs in Jamnagar,

Ahmedabad, Baroda and Surat. Hingolgadh

continues to be a rallying point for naturalists. We

may yet be able to generate a powerful popular

commitment for the conservation of Gujarat’s

birdlife. Unless quality programmes are taken on in

the next few years, Sdlirn All’s warning: “Conditions

affecting wildlife in general, directly or indirectly,

have changed and are changing rapidly, and

unhappily not for the better”, in Part I of his paper.

The Birds of Gujarat (JBNHS Aug.-Dee. 1954) may

well be the understatement of the century! We have,

for all practical purposes, lost the Great Indian

Bustard. Other species are in precarious situations.

In the 1940s birdlife was plentiful and confiding,

particularly so in the regions of Kachchh, Kathiawar

— present day Saurashtra, and the densely populated

and intensely cultivated “champaigns” of mainland

Gujarat. This was on account of the basic sentiments

of the people strongly influenced by the Jain and

Vaishnava repugnance for taking life, and a land

based economy which encouraged care of the land,

be it for agriculture, grazing, or growth of grass or

trees. Technological limitations prevented over-

exploitation and this created a happy situation of

what we today hear so frequently talked about in

environment circles — “Sustainable use of natural

resources”. Social restrictions were enforceable in

the mileau of the times and birdlife throve. True,

there were pockets of poorly managed and even in

those times over-exploited lands, but they added

habitat variety — considerable areas were

overgrazed, poorly farmed and degraded, and there

were communities which surreptitiously killed

against the popular sentiments. Their impact,

however, was low though they were the seeds of

much of what we see today. With the advent of

democracy what had tended to be discreet came out

into the open and paradoxically, because of the still

existing strong sentiments against the taking of life,

there has emerged no powerful, legally empowered

hunting lobby capable of enforcing regulations.

Livestock owners, who were always a problem, were

emboldened, often encouraged by political

opportunism to circumvent restraints on entry into

grass preserves, most of which very quickly merged

into the surrounding overgrazed common lands.

Trees, whether they were on hills, along water

courses or forming avenues were mercilessly lopped

by goatherds, and felled by fuel gatherers. Kachchh

suffered the most, with an active charcoal mafia

exploiting ancient stands of Acacia nilotica.

Waterbodies which had been largely sacrosanct were

netted for the first time, and despite setting up of

Wildlife Advisory Boards and promulgating wildlife

laws there evolved no effective means of restraint in

a democratic dispensation. Wildlife, particularly the

more visible, rapidly declined.

If the direct assault on wildlife had done

considerable damage and continues to do so even

today, it is a set of indirect effects which today

threatens to produce an almost total collapse. What

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

set these into motion needs to be examined if we are

to prevent the extinction of most of our birds and

other animals. Since most of the developments were

initiated for the betterment of the general population

and considerable gains have accrued, many of those

wanting to halt the processes find themselves

isolated. Issues tend to be separated into those

involving human welfare versus those for wildlife.

The same refrain was heard in the late forties by

political and social activists is today carried forward

by the more aggressive, more powerful

“development” lobby with the political leadership

invariably responding to populist appeals.

Fortunately, though it has taken time, the

general public has begun to realise that issues are

not trees and animals against human beings, but that

they involve groups aiming for highly personal gains

at the cost of social benefits, and that efforts are

aimed at quick short term gains, heedless of long

term losses, and at highly exploitative economics

contra sustainable utilisation of resources. Public

debates are on and it will suffice here merely to

highlight a few basic issues:

1. Agriculture: The shift to largely single

crop cultivation has destroyed the diversity of niches

within agricultural lands. Intensive agricultural

practices have destroyed hedgerows and obliterated

grass verges. Significantly, this practice was

encouraged as pest control action! Spraying of

pesticides (on several occasions by low flying

airplanes) has created havoc. Hard sell advertising

has resulted in an almost compulsive use of inorganic

fertilisers. After World War II there had been drives

to eradicate mosquitoes and rats — rodent poisons

and DDT which poisoned the biosphere were

dumped on to an unsuspecting population. These

processes, though now banned in more perceptive

societies are still practised, if not actively

encouraged, in India and continue to weaken the

biological dynamics. Both insectivorous birds and

raptors have registered a very significant decline.

2. The Wetlands: Village tanks were

traditionally central to the community and

considerable tacit restraint was enforced to permit a

varied use. Invariably, killing of birds and fishing

was not countenanced. Birdlife was particularly

plentiful and diverse, as well as absurdly confiding.

Pulsating communal nesting colonies of ciconiids

and cormorants existed everywhere and Sarus bred

fearlessly throughout the region. Unhappily, with

water being supplied by taps, community concerns

diminished and with overall authority weakening,

today most wetlands, like other common lands, are

under intense pressure. Many are being encroached

upon for cultivation or being used as dumping sites

near urban centres. The peripheral trees are mutilated

for fodder and bark peeled off to kill the trees so as

to circumvent laws against felling live trees! Most

of the nesting colonies have gone. Several of the

larger tanks are leased out by the authorities for

fishing and the former sentimental proscriptions are

dying out. Reed beds are cut by marginalised

communities for thatching. More insidious, however,

is the poisoning of the water by greater quantities of

detergents and sewage inflows, and the draining in

of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers from

surrounding agriculture. Tidal forests have been

almost wiped out.

3. Forestry Practices: Prior to the merger of

the States, Wildlife fell under the purview of Shikar

Departments. Where the landed gentry lacked shikar

compulsions, wildlife cared for itself, protected by

and large by popular sentiment. There was, however,

a lively awareness of wildlife which is common to

all people living close to the land. Some of the finest

wildlife caretakers were from communities which

also had traditions of snaring birds and small

mammals. Such men often enjoyed a considerable

reputation, their almost instinctive knowledge of the

wilderness being highly appreciated. In north

Gujarat, Kachchh and Saurashtra there were Grass

Departments enjoined to care for grasslands {Vidis

in Kathiawar and Rakhals in Kachchh) from where

grass was extracted as a valuable resource. Avenue

trees fell within the purview of the authority charged

with road maintenance — some of the major roads

were shaded by magnificent, large, evergreen trees

dominated by Ficus sp.

With the merger of the newly formed

Saurashtra State and Kachchh into the bilingual

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

335

Bombay State an omnibus Forest Department took

over grasslands, roadside plantations and wildlife.

Grass became a “minor forest produce” and beautiful

grasslands which had acquired characteristic

biological communities seemed an affront to the

forester’s eyes ! Roadside avenues became extensions

of forestry plantations. Down the decades the Forest

Department, unable to adjust to the changed political

scenario, found its role in the democratic situation

quite like a tightrope walk. The resultant conflicts

have still not been resolved. In any case, we find a

penchant for favouring quick growing exotics and

nonbrowse species almost to the exclusion of all

others. Despite the very notable efforts of a few

officers, the Department which professionally is the

guardian of biodiversity remains quite confused.

There are indications of younger officers who are

thinking ahead of their times and there is indeed hope

of a renaissance in wildlife management involving

the people. Unhappily, vast areas have been

overgrown by Prosopis chilensis, thanks not so much

to the tree’s great capacity, but to its aggressive

propagation by the Department and on account of

the continued assault by fuel gatherers and domestic

stock on native species. Birdlife has suffered. We

have lost the Great Indian Bustard.

4. Industrialisation: Much of Gujarat’s

industrial development has had a direct as well as

indirect adverse effect on the environment in general

and birdlife in particular. The need for lift irrigation,

particularly in the Saurashtra region encouraged the

vigorous manufacturing of diesel engines and pumps

in the small scale industries and an intensive

marketing drive within the area that resulted in

overdrawing of water from rivers and subsoil

aquifers. All watercourses today have totally dried

up and former perennial river pools and their

reedbeds have disappeared. The widespread use of

pesticides and inorganic fertilisers has already been

referred to. A great majority of the more profitable

industries are manufacturing detergents, chemicals

and dyes, all of which are produced by processes

which are banned in industrially advanced countries.

The end products are, however, in demand there,

hence the profitability. Rivers and depressions carry

large quantities of toxic effluents along with

untreated sewage from growing urban centres, of

which aquatic life has borne the brunt. River Terns,

Blackbellied Terns, Pied Kingfishers, Little

Cormorants and Darters have all but disappeared.

What impact the larger petrochemical and cement

units are likely to have on birds is a matter of

conjecture. Strategies will have to be worked out to

diffuse their impact. To conclude, the situation

cannot be worse. The protagonists of “man first,

everything else after” have done their worst. Already

environmental degradation is adversely affecting

human beings and there is public concern. The

ancient values for life are fortunately alive and the

band of dedicated birdwatchers is vigorous, more

youthful and fortunately less apologetic in advancing

the cause. There need be no more losses if some

qualitative and highly imaginative programmes are

undertaken. Birds are still very visible and confiding;

Gujarat is a major centre for wintering cranes, the

Sarus are still common and loved, peafowl are

plentiful and confiding almost everywhere;

Jamnagar’s Ranmal Lake is a marvellous bird

sanctuary and Bhavnagar’s Victoria Park and Pele

Gardens are pulsating waterbird nesting sites; around

Ahmedabad there is a large number of village tanks

where stork colonies thrive; flamingoes of both

species regularly nest in the Ranns; in the Gulf of

Kachchh there are coral and mangrove islands that

are largely undisturbed, with thriving colonies of

egrets, herons and darters; the tidal mudflats draw

teeming flocks of Palaearctic waders — each autumn

flocks of birds pass over down the Indus flyway to

peninsular India or to Arabia and East Africa. Gujarat

remains a major avian area of the world. Bird

enthusiasts need to articulate their concerns and work

in cooperation on projects which would arouse

popular interest.

Physiography

In part I of his paper, “The Birds of Gujarat”,

S&lim Ali very succinctly outlines the great diversity

of Gujarat’s biotopes ranging as they do, in his

language, “from practically ptare sandy desert (e.g.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93 (1996)

the Great Rann of Kutch) with an annual rainfall of

less than 10 inches, to tropical semi-evergreen forest

(e.g. portions of Navsari district and the Surat Dangs)

with an annual precipitation of over 80 inches”. It

may be noted that both the Great and the Little Rann

of Kachchh are not sandy deserts, in fact they are

not deserts in the accepted sense as are the Thar

Desert of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan or the Sahara — they

are vast, flat saltpans often glistening like a Polar

sea when salt encrustation is maximum; at other times

they are vast stretches of blue, highly saline water, a

period when their lifeless expanses start pulsating

with life. Understanding this Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

character of the Ranns would make it possible to

ensure that there is no confrontation between the

needs of salt industries and of wildlife. As a matter

of fact, the danger of denotification of the Little Rann

of Kachchh as a wildlife sanctuary is emanating from

this very absence of understanding. Also, few

naturalists seem to be alive to the fact that the rainfall

whether averaging less than 10" or topping 80" per

annum is caused under the influence of the SW

monsoon with most of the precipitation occurring

between June end and September. The rest of the

year is a long drought. Also not appreciated is that

rainfall fluctuations are considerable and particularly

so in Kachchh, with some of the heaviest down-

pours experienced anywhere in the subcontinent.

Wind velocities during the height of both the

monsoons are very high over Saurashtra and

Kachchh, generating a correspondingly intense rate

of evaporation. Knowledge and awareness of these

factors would make reforestation efforts signifi-

cantly different here than elsewhere. Success or

failure in revegetating the land on a qualitative

basis will determine the survival of Gujarat's

avifauna.

The two Gulfs of Kachchh and Khambhat have

not been adequately recognised, nor are their

differences sufficiently highlighted before. Both

Gulfs are tapering in and as such, experience great

tidal rise and fall at their heads, creating wide tidal

mudflats eminently suited for the teeming multitudes

of northern shore birds, and for the flamingoes. Both

the Gulfs were fringed by excellent mangrove forests,

themselves unique bird habitats on account of the

rich detritus generated for marine life, and in

providing roosting and nesting sites for herons,

egrets, spoonbills, ibises, cormorants and darters.

There is, however, a significant difference in that

the Gulf of Khambhat is highly turbid on account of

large rivers flowing into it — the estuaries of

Sabarmati, Mahe, Narmada and Tapti permit inflow

of tidal influence far into the alluvial plains, thus

interlacing with saline habitats the vast plains to the

west and south of Ahmedabad which are themselves

converted into, quoting S61im Ali” ... a chain of

marshy jheels ... attracting abundant wildfowl”. The

Nal Sarovar is perhaps the most well known of the

brackish water lakes. There are a host of freshwater

jheels notably Kanhewal, Narda, Pariej, etc., all

creating a rich mosaic of wetlands. The Gulf of

Kachchh wedged between Saurashtra to the south

and Kachchh to the north has no large river flowing

in. Tides are high, there are immense mudflats

equally attractive to shore birds, but the waters are

clear and there are coral and mangrove islands along

the sheltered Saurashtra coast. Much mangrove

vegetation still exists on the outlying islands and

several important heronries exist. The Gulf of

Kachchh at its head extends on to tidal flats which

merge with the expanses of the Little Rann of

Kachchh. Seasonally powerful winds drive sea water

into the Little Rann as they do up the Kori Creek on

the west of Kachchh on to the Great Rann; the Gulf

and the Ranns are thus interlinked systems of great

biological significance. The Ranns imperceptibly rise

on the edges to form grasslands and sedge marshes,

the largest of which is the famous range land of

Banni. In the not too great antiquity, Saurashtra and

Kachchh were islands and the Ranns were shallow

inland seas with tides washing up from both the Gulfs

to mingle in the Little Rann. The entire complex of

shallow seas, salt pans, tidal mud, coral reefs and

mangrove jungles fringed by typha marshes and

extensive waterlogged depressions into which fresh

water collects during the rains creates an amazingly

rich bird paradise terminal to the great alluvial plain

of the Indus. We have here a nodal area of

considerable importance for migrating birds. In his

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

331

inimitable language S&lim Ali stated thus: “The

geographical position of Kutch, Banaskantha and the

Kathiawar peninsula and the natural conditions that

obtain ... make them ideal venues for the study of

Indian bird migration”. He goes on to mention that

Kachchh “lies athwart the main route of the hordes

of species that sweep into India from the north and

northwest in autumn and out in the reverse direction

in spring.” This massed avian transit is still visible,

unhappily less so among raptors and some passerines

but with undiminished numbers where waders are

concerned. The region also has migrants from Central

Asia to Arabia and East Africa passing through

mainly during autumn. These are passage migrants

teeming for a month or so in October, to be gone by

mid November, demonstrating marvellously how

birds optimise the rich availability of food after the

monsoon rains; the same birds, however, return to

Central Asia presumably by the Red Sea and across

Iraq. In doing so they benefit from a food source

generated by winter rains in those areas; in any case,

they are not seen in our area on their return migration.

The large number of amateur birdwatchers in Gujarat

are raring to help in manning observation posts “...

strung out along the northern base of the transverse

range of hills ...” from Kuar Beyt in the west to Bela in

the east, overlooking the flat Great Rann to the north.

What could not be achieved in the feudal age may well

happen under a democratic dispensation, field

ornithology in India will indeed “come into its own”.

If the Ranns, the two Gulfs with their tidal flats,

mangrove marshes and fresh water jheels have

tended to be dramatised as bird habitats of Gujarat,

the undulating plateaux and volcanic extrusions of

Kachchh and Saurashtra are equally important

biotopes with their valuable grasslands, thorn and

dry deciduous forests. Along the eastern boundary

of the State are outcrops of the Aravalli range and

the eroded escarpments of Mewar in the north and

of the Malwa plateau to the east. Still further south

beyond the rift valley down which flows the

Narmada, draining water from the heartland of

central India, are the outliers of the Satpura

mountains looming above Rajpipla. Good moist

deciduous forest still exists, with a delightful bird

population. The valley of the Tapti separates the

Rajpipla hills from the escarpments overlooking the

Dangs which are the northernmost reach of the

dramatic Sahyadris of Maharashtra. The higher

rainfall supports moist deciduous forests which

harbour forest species of the wetter tropical forests

of southeast Asia. The rivers and streams of

Saurashtra and eastern Gujarat were shaded by

evergreen forest corridors which, in years gone by,

formed a network amidst drier situations producing

an unique intermingling of forest species with those

of savannah and thorn jungles. It is of utmost

importance to ensure that this biodiversity is

protected by highly qualitative afforestation

programmes which can best be achieved by

encouraging natural regeneration as against the

highly manipulative plantation drives. Management

of grasslands and wetlands needs to be strongly

emphasised. The story of the Great Indian Bustard

should not be repeated with other species.

Paradoxically, the peoples’ needs and those of the

birds converge, and herein lies our hope.

... AND THE BIRDS

Apart from the highly visible and confiding

birdlife of Gujarat, and the area’s nodal position on

a major migratory route as already referred to, the

great diversity of habitats resulting from the

geomorphology and the fact that the region is

wedged, as it were, between the deserts of Sindh and

Rajasthan which themselves are extensions of the

Saharo- Arabian system, and the Indo-Oriental

plateaux of peninsular India, Gujarat has a very

diverse composition floristically and hence avian.

Careless or thoughtless damage to the ecosystems

of the region resulting from various human actions

would mean the loss of some important bird species.

In the Dangs and the Rajpipla hills we have the

already doubtful existence of the Forest Spotted

Owlet Athene blewitti. The Heartspotted

Woodpecker Hemicircus canente and the Great Black

Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis may well be lost if

favoured forest remnants are cleared or further

degraded. The endemic Whitewinged Black Tit

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Parus nuchalis which favours thorn and Salvadora

forests of Kachchh and adjacent north Gujarat has

suffered a shrinking of its already circumscribed

range, thanks to the spread of alien species. Neglect

of and faulty afforestation drives in grasslands has

placed the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica in a

precarious situation in its major breeding areas of

Saurashtra. Gujarat enjoys the responsibility of

conserving the largest nesting location of the

Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in the world and

the only nesting sites of the Lesser Flamingo

Phoeniconaias minor outside Africa; any thought-

less development in these hitherto largely undisturbed

areas might mean a major ornithological disaster.

Pollution of rivers and waterbodies and

destruction of Acacia trees around village reservoirs

have wiped out hundreds of communal nesting sites

of herons, egrets, spoonbill, ibis and cormorants. The

world’s largest population of the Darter Anhinga rufa

continues to survive on the coral and mangrove

islands off the Jamnagar coast of the Gulf of

Kachchh; this population along with vigorous nesting

communities of the Grey Heron Ardea cinerea , Large

Egret A. alba , and the Smaller Egret Egretta

intermedia depend heavily on the few mangrove

groves for their continued reproduction. The once

commonly widespread Little Egret Egretta garzetta

has lost most of its inland nesting sites and we may

well lose this species as it has of late been reported

to interbreed with the Reef Heron E. gularis of the

coasts. Saurashtra is a major wintering area of the

Demoiselle Crane Anthropoides virgo , while the

saline grassland verges of the estuaries and the Ranns

are important wintering areas for the Common Crane

Grusgrus , already, the planting of Prosopis chilensis

on these valuable crane habitats is causing concern.

The intensely cultivated plains of Mehsana,

Ahmedabad and Kheda are the stronghold of the

Sams Crane Grus antigone. Unhappily, breeding

failures are causing concern. Birds of prey have, as

has already been indicated, shown a dramatic decline.

The reasons are manifold, but if the huge

concentrations of wintering harriers in the Velavadar

National Park are any indication, habitat damage is

one of the main reasons.

Having given a rather generalised idea of the

present scenario which may appear rather alarmist,

let me hasten to reiterate that Gujarat still continues

to be a major avian region of the world. Birdwatchers

visiting us invariably go away with excitement as

indeed did S£lim Ali on his last visit to Saurashtra

where, for the first time he saw Crab Plovers Dramas

ardeola in flocks of hundreds. In the report on his

surveys he has this to say for this attractive bird “Not

met with by the Surveys, and apparently a very rare

vagrant”. In fact, during his “rediscovery” of

Kachchh and Saurashtra with the starting of

mistnetting, a considerable amount of interesting new

information emerged and several new additions were

made to Gujarat’s bird list. We await the publication

of the considerable data accumulated in the sixties

and seventies.

This paper concludes by enumerating each avian

family with specific comments on the conservation

problems of the group. A systematic list is not

attempted; Gujarat’s Checklist is available with

standardised vernacular names. S&lim Ali, who

embarked on his tryst with birds by using a systematic

listing which started with Crows and ended with Divers

(in the case of Gujarat it would be the Grebes) went to

considerable pains to explain why in his 1954 paper

he had reversed the order. In the intervening years,

placement of bird families has once again undergone

a further reshuffling so that we now end with the finches

instead of the crows! This arrangement was adopted

by Dr. Dillon Ripley in the synopsis as also it appears

in the handbook of birds of indla and Pakistan and a

PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT;

this arrangement is followed here. Almost half a

century after S£lim Ali’s collection forays into

the region, we are poised in a scenario which may

well result in a great many deletions from Guja-

rat’s checklist. I consider it appropriate that a loud

and clear warning goes out in this, his Centenary

Year.

Conservation needs — A systematic appraisal

An appraisal of conservation needs of birds

has been made at specific levels. We know the

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

339

reasons for the extirpation of the Great Indian

Bustard; there was no need for this to have happened.

Scientific studies by ornithologists of the Lesser

Florican substantiate what we have all been warning

against and, demonstrating forcefully that the

degradation of grasslands has damaged Gujarat’s

agrarian economy — the florican ’s needs are the

same as those of human beings. The quality of the

environment is at stake and birds, in their varied

niches, are excellent indicators of environmental

quality. In attempting to provide niches for different

birds we may well enrich the human environment

and enhance our quality of life.

Family Gaviidae: Loons and Divers

Vagrant to the subcontinent as winter visitors,

however, their essentially marine habitat during the

non-breeding winter months makes their possibility

greater off our seaboard. Overfishing and oil slicks

pose major threats.

Family Podicipedidae: Grebes

Of the four species of Grebes on the Indian List,

in the 1940s both the Great Crested Grebe Podiceps

cristatus and the Blacknecked Greb ePnigricollis were

considered “rare winter visitors” or vagrants. P.

cristatus was first recorded nesting on the Khijadia

Wetland near Jamnagar by Taej Mundkur and for the

last decade there has been regular breeding there and

assured sightings on several reservoirs of Saurashtra,

Kachchh and central Gujarat. Freshwater jheels

adjoining saline marshes appear to be favoured locales

and P. cristatus may spread to suitable water bodies

along the coast, provided these are not polluted by

sewage and untreated industrial effluents. P nigricollis

has been recorded on several occasions on open, deeper

reservoirs and appears to be less of a vagrant than was

believed. The Rednecked Grebe P griseigena has been

unsatisfactorily identified and more regular

birdwatching is needed to confidently place it, albeit

as a rare winter visitor, on our checklist. The Little

Grebe Pruficollis continues to be a common resident

species with numbers augmented in winter by northern

migrants. It disperses during the southwest monsoon

to nest in rainfed depressions. Threat is mainly from

pesticide and inorganic chemical manure

concentrations in the water affecting aquatic insects

and fish on which the young are fed. During the

non-breeding season, the birds concentrate on the

perennial waterbodies where they get entangled in fish

nets.

Family Procellariidae: Petrels and Shearwaters

These are all birds of the open ocean.

Occurrence in our area is accidental. We can

contribute little towards their conservation.

Family Hydrobatjdae: Storm Petrels

Pelagic, undoubtedly occuring on high seas.

Little information from seafarers. No conservation

action recommendable.

Family Phaethontidae: Tropic Birds

Tropical Oceanic Birds. Occasional in our seas.

No quantitative information. No conservation action

recommendations.

Family Pelecanidae: Pelicans

Three species mainly winter visitors. Great

fliers optimally using water bodies. The Rosy Pelican

Pelecanus roseus successfully nested with

flamingoes in the Great Rann. S£lim Ali discovered

the nesting in 1960. They may regularly nest with

the flamingoes. Pelicans need plenty of fish and the

main conservation need is to ensure water quality

of freshwater jheels. The Dalmatian Pelican P.

crispus is a threatened species worldwide, while the

Spottedbilled Pelican P philippenis nests in South

India in declining numbers.

Family Sulidae: Boobies

Three species of these oceanic island-nesting

birds occur out at sea. Sightings are unreported

except for occasional storm driven birds on our

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

shores. Information needs to be collated. No

conservation action indicated within our area.

Family Phalacrocoracidae: Cormorants and

Darter

Gujarat has a major role to play in the

continued success of this family. Formerly there were

thriving nesting colonies of the Large Cormorant

Phalacrocorax car bo, the Little Cormorant P. niger

and the Darter Anhinga melanogaster across

Kachchh, Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat. Most of

these colonial nesting sites are lost on account of

felling of trees. The pollution and drying up of river

pools has reduced fish populations, hence these birds.

In fact the Darter can no longer be considered

“Common” in freshwater locales, though a

significant population remains centred on the

mangrove swamps of the Gulf of Kachchh.

Significantly, the Darter is considered a freshwater

species — the Gulf of Kachchh population is marine

and the Marine National Park off Jamnagar and

extending to Beyt Dwarka is an important area for

conservation of this species which, because of

pollution of freshwater habitats, is endangered. Trees

in flooded areas are important for cormorants to nest

on. The Indian Shag P. fuscicollis still remains an

enigma and S£lim Ali’s 1954 comment “Noted:

Kanewal (Cambay). Possibly overlooked elsewhere”

holds true. I believe the immense flocks periodically

observed near Jamnagar and flying up some of the

Saurashtra rivers could be of this species. Nesting

colonies have to be yet confirmed. Fishing nets in

Kanewal and other freshwater jheels are a threat to

these diving fish predators.

Family Fregahdae: Frigate Birds

Birds of oceanic islands. Not yet reported from

our area. Two species in Indian Ocean.

Family Ardeidae: Herons, Egrets and Bitterns

Gujarat is an important area for this family. In

the Gulf of Kachchh there are mixed nesting colonies

of Grey Heron Ardea cinerea , Large Egret A. alba.

Smaller Egret Egretta intermedia , Indian Reef Heron

E. gularis and Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax

on remnant mangrove jungles in the Marine National

Park off Jamnagar; breeding commences early in

April and continues into May and June. On the

Bhavnagar coast and in locations in the city nesting

continues during the southwest monsoon. August and

September are important in flooded areas of

Ahmedabad and Kheda Districts. Most of the inland

colonies of Kachchh and Saurashtra are lost. The

Little Egret E. garzetta which nested during the rains

over the region is now compelled to nest with E.

gularis and interbreeding has been reported. The

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea is less common than

earlier in the century on account of loss of the

favoured reedbeds. The Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

and the Pond Heron Ardeola grayii are holding out

well and nesting colonies are established in every

available grove of tall trees during the height of the

southwest monsoon. The mangrove nesting site at

Kandla referred to by S£lim Ali no longer exists. If

birds are still nesting at Kandla they would have

transferred to new trees inland as they have in the

precincts of Bhavnagar port. Night Herons N.

nycticorax are to be found all over the region in

full crowned old trees, seen within urban locales.

Scilim Ali writes about the Little Green Heron

Ardeola striatus “Solos in bushes bordering streams

and tidal mangroves... Doubtless resident, but no

data on breeding within area”. We have not yet

bettered this information. Water pollution and

destruction of waterside vegetation undoubtedly

must have had adverse effects on this little heron’s

range.

In his surveys S£lim Ali came across none of

the bitterns. Both the Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus

sinensis and the Chestnut Bittern /. cinnamomeus

have been recorded flying over reedbeds by many

birdwatchers. Parasarya has confirmed nesting

records of these two bitterns along with that of the

Black Bittern /. flavicollis while Lalsinh Raol has a

recent sighting of the Bittern Botaurus stellaris in

North Gujarat, a species referred to by S£lim ali on

the basis of old shikar records. Birdwatchers should

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

341

keep a vigilance for the Little Bittern I. minimus and

the Tiger Bittern Gorsachius melanolophus, both

species most likely to turn up in winter if not nesting

with us. Water pollution and filling in of wetlands

pose a threat to their existence.

Family Ciconiidae: Storks

S£lim All’s comments for all our resident storks

remain valid today, except that nest site crowding

on account of loss of larger trees particularly in older

traditional sites is considerable. There is an unusual

nesting colony of the Painted Stork Mycteria

leucocephala on a sandstone island in the Gulf of

Kachchh. Openbill Storks Anastomus oscitans nest

on smaller inundated trees in the flood plains of

central Gujarat. Whitenecked Storks Ciconia

episcopus has become more frequent in Saurashtra

and also Kachchh but whether this is dispersal on

account of increase in population or influx of birds

from outside the State in search of favourable nesting

trees is a moot point. The Blacknecked Stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, if anything, has become

sparser and the greatly separated pairs seem not to

be successful in breeding, the species needs to be

carefully watched.

The status of both the White Stork Ciconia

ciconia and the Black Stork C. nigra has undergone

a dramatic change. Both are winter visitors, C.

ciconia has been seen in flocks of above 200 among

fields and in roadside ditches south of the Nal

Sarovar. Birds are, however, very mobile and

concentrate or disperse depending on food

availability. C. nigra has become more regular in the

Gir and other parts of the State; there has been an

increase, but whether this is on account of a

population increase or because of dispersal for

suitable remaining habitats is questionable. Both

species of Adjutant Storks Leptoptilos dubius and L

javanicus are on the Gujarat list because of old sight

records in Kachchh and north Gujarat.

Our resident storks are pressed for nesting sites

and existing trees need to be identified and protected

even as suitable planting of former known locations

is commenced as a special programme.

Family Phoenicopteridae: Flamingoes

Both the Ramingo Phoenicopterus roseus and

the Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor are

plentiful. Gujarat is the breeding and dispersal centre

for the flamingoes of the subcontinent. The former

is more widespread in freshwater jheels, estuarine

mud and on flooded Ranns and saltpans. The latter

is concentrated along the sea coasts and the Ranns.

The expanding salt industry has provided favoured

habitats for both flamingoes and at times they

assemble in thousands on larger pans. At the Great

and Little Ranns, both species assemble to nest in

immense flocks. Considering the huge numbers of

P. minor with juveniles, it is puzzling why no large

nesting colony has been recorded. This is largely, I

aver, on account of a casual approach by us

birdwatchers. This, however, is to advantage since

publicity has resulted in groups of visitors to

Flamingo City once making the birds desert a highly

successful nesting endeavour — such disturbances

for a disaster prone lifestyle as of flamingoes can

prove seriously damaging to the species’ very

survival. Flamingoes of both species appear to find

rich feeding in sewage discharges as well as in

effluent ponds of chemical industries. Long term

effects on the birds’ vitality, however, need to be

examined. It must also be borne in mind that the

Ranns are highly unstable ecosystems and that of

late the huge quantities of salt encrustation are being

eyed by industry. Effective management strategies

need to be evolved to the benefit of the birds and for

industrial needs before serious confrontation

develops. That flamingoes are a tenacious group of

birds apparently highly adaptable to human

proximity is demonstrated by a magnificent flock of

several thousand P minor regularly visiting a sewage

drainage area within Porbandar city where I was

shown several pairs attempting to nest in full view

from a busy road.

Family Threskiornithldae: Ibises, Spoonbill

Both the White Ibis Threskiornis aethiopica

and die Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa are holding

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

out well, the former regularly nesting on inundated

trees at all existing communal nesting sites and on

islands in the Gulf of Kachchh, the latter has adapted

well to nesting on tall trees in cities. In the Gulf T.

aethiopica starts nesting in March as do the marine

herons, egrets and darters. On inland locations

breeding occurs during August and September. The

Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia , though widespread,

has perceptibly declined and no longer can be

considered “common”. The decline is attributable

to decimation of the former inland nesting sites in

Saurashtra and Kachchh.

The Glossy Ibis Plegadisfalcinellus continues

to be an enigma. This is a very visible bird on

inundated areas of central Gujarat and a large roost

exists on the outskirts of Vadodara, yet there were

no nesting records till a colony was located among

water logged Prosopis juliflora plantation in

Kachchh by J.K. Tiwari on a BNHS field

programme. If local birdwatchers were as active

during the rains as they tend to be in the cool season,

colonies would assuredly be located.

Family Anatidae: Ducks, Geese, Swans

This group of wildfowl were best observed and

information collated of on account of the many

“Sporting” events formerly organised by the

aristocracy. A good many jheels were well covered,

the most well known being the Nal Sarovar, striking

distance to its east from Ahmed abad and from its

west from Limbdi whose princely family organised

annual “shoots” for fellow princes and British

dignitaries. Kachchh too was intensely covered.

Today our information on waterfowl is far more

sketchy, though the annual waterbird counts are

replacing the shoots as “events”. Most of what was

recorded by S£lim Ali remains true, with a few very

significant changes. The Greylag Goos eAnser anser,

recorded as “rare in northern Gujarat”, is fairly

plentiful around Ahmedabad and morning flights

from irrigated croplands to roost beside the large,

newly constructed reservoirs on the major rivers are

stirring sights. The Barheaded Goose A. indicus has

started regularly wintering on a couple of Saurashtra

tanks. It was in one such flock that the intrepid Taej

Mundkur spotted a Snow Goose Chen hyperborea

subsequently confirmed by the late Shivrajkumar

Khachar. As greater numbers of amateur

birdwatchers go on “wildgoose chases” more

interesting information on geese and other waterfowl

is to be expected. Great care, however, needs to be

exercised in identification, particularly in the case

of the rarer geese and swans, since we do not want

veracities doubted as was Stolizcka’s claim of

sighting swans in the Great Rann in 1870. Off colour

flamingoes in belly deep water look remarkably like

swans to an eager enthusiast!

Comments for pur wintering ducks remain the

same, though the large concentrations of the forties

seem to have evaporated. Both the “dabbling” duck

and the “diving” duck are found in smaller numbers

today. If the high concentration of coot on the Nal

and other jheels is any indication, vegetational

changes in the traditional waterbodies appear to be

the reason. Netting for fish now legal on most

waterbodies, may also be a significant contributory

factor for the decline in water fowl.

The Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea is

certainly not “a rare and erratic” winter visitor. The

larger reservoirs all over the State have their

complements of this “wide awake” though not

necessarily “excessively wary” bird. The Common

Shelduck Tadorna tadorna continues to be “a very

rare winter visitor”.

Among our resident ducks, the Spotbilled

Duck Anas poecilorhyncha has most certainly

increased in numbers, having successfully used the

great many percolation farm ponds to its advantage

to nest in. The Lesser Whistling Teal Dendrocygna

javanica seems to be less successful and needs to

have a watch kept on its annual nesting successes.

This is true of the Comb Duck Sarkidiornis

melanotos as well as the Cotton Teal Nettapus

coromandelianus. I am not too sure whether their

spread into Saurashtra is on account of population

increase or resulting from disturbances at their former

Gujarat nesting village ponds. Loss of large trees

with nesting hollows should be a matter for concern.

Felling of trees, deterioration in water quality and

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

343

fishing are accelerating threats to the group,

particularly our tree nesting ducks. A greater number

of reservoirs and extension of irrigation will be of

advantage, especially to the winter migrants.

Family Accipitridae: Raptors, Vultures

This magnificent group of birds has shown a

dramatic decline. Where once a single morning’s

outing would yield scores of hawks and eagles, today

a 100 km drive produces hardly a bird or two! The

fading away of raptors from our avian fauna

highlights most graphically the immense degradation

that has taken place in our environment. Perhaps a

very detailed report needs to be prepared. The

reasons for the decline are manifold — pesticide

poisoning, habitat loss and prey availability reduction

are all contributory. In the case of migrant raptors,

problems are international, but for our resident

species, one of the most significant problems is the

loss of large nesting trees. This is most graphically

demonstrated by the Whitebacked Vultures almost

compulsively moving into public parks within cities.

The more shy eagles are being driven to extinction

largely on account of nesting failures. The Tawny

Eagle Aquila rapax , once a common bird, is now

rare. Other breeding eagles like the Short-toed Eagle

Circaetus gallicus and the Bonelli’s Eagle

Hieraaetus fasciatus have become scarce. Salim

Ali’s reassuring “fairly common” no longer obtains

for the former, while the latter perhaps still operates

from traditional nesting sites on old forts or hill crags,

most tree eyries are lost.

Booted Eagles Hieraaetus pennatus are

comparatively common in winter, though there has

been no subsequent record of the species nesting in

our area since Salim Ali’s record at Deesa. The

Blackwinged Kite Elanus caeruleus is perhaps our

commonest raptor in cultivated and lightly wooded

country. Goshawks, Shikra, and Sparrow Hawks

need more attention, though the resident Accipiter

badius is holding out fairly successfully.

Pariah Kites Milvus migrans have certainly lost

ground. There was a very noticeable crash in numbers

in the 1950s after concerted drives to poison rodents

whose predation is again vigorous as before, though

kite losses have still not been made up! Apart from

a bird seen by Shivrajkumar, there are no recent

records of the Red Kite M. milvus and S&lim Ali’s

conjecture that the bird is “a regular winter visitor

to Kutch but has been overlooked ...” may well apply

to Saurashtra and northern Gujarat.

The buzzards of the genus Buteo are all winter

visitors, not easy to identify and their numbers have

very considerably declined as have those of the once

exceptionally plentiful White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle

Butastur teesa, which in the forties had been our

“Commonest hawk of the area”. To see one calls for

some excitement! Fortunately, the Honey Buzzard

Pernis ptilorhychus continues to be regularly sighted

perhaps because its food - the Rock Bee — is still

very plentiful in mainland Gujarat. Elsewhere it is

more often seen during the cool season when

northern birds arrive. The Crested Hawk Eagle

Spizaetus cirrhatus continues to be “not uncommon

in forested country” as indeed the Crested Serpent

Eagle Spilornis cheela is in the Gir and the Dangs.

Though there has been considerable forest

degradation, little pesticide use has been resorted to

by the “backward” tribal farmers, and as such Salim

Ali’s notations of half a century ago can still be

applied to the Serpent Eagle.

The Pallas’s Fishing Eagle Haliaeetus

leucoryphus and the Greyheaded Fishing Eagle

Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus have become great rarities

now that the larger rivers are dammed and riverpools

overfished and dynamited. In Saurashtra, both

species used to predate heavily on inland mixed

nesting colonies of cormorants, egrets and spoonbill.

The migrant Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis ,

the Imperial Eagle A. heliaca, the Greater Spotted

Eagle A. clanga and the Lesser Spotted Eagle A.

pomarina have all become scarce and all sightings

need to be recorded. S£lim Ali has “Definitely

observed only once - a single...” Black Eagle

Ictmaetus malayensis at Jambughoda an area

considerably north of the Narmada valley. I am not

aware of any subsequent sightings. This magnificent

raptor is a bird of the forested Western Ghats systems

and despite considerable degradation of the hill

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

forests, birdwatchers should be advised to keep a

look out for a long winged black eagle coursing along

the escarpments specially over hills of Rajpipla and

the Surat Dangs further south. Another magnificent

eagle still fairly common along the western seacoast

south of Bombay is the Whitebellied Sea Eagle

Haliaetus leucogaster. There seems no reason for

this fine bird from occurring further north along the

seaboard and it should not be surprising if pairs are

found nesting on tall trees along coastal plantations

in Navsari District. Nonbreeding individuals may

well turn up over the estuaries of the Mahe and the

Sabarmati at the head of the Gulf of Khambhat.

Infact, though S£lim Ali had not come across this

eagle during his surveys, he lends credance

incorporating a sight record by Hannarayan Acharya

at Gobhlaj jheel “18 miles south of Ahmedabad on

9.2.1 936. ...” This is a freshwater jheel at some

distance from the seacoast, but the deep intrusions

by tidewater up the estuaries certainly makes is quite

possible for a superb flier to drop in on water well

stocked by fish and aquatic birds.

This brings us to the vultures. The Black

Vulture Sarcogyps calvus, never numerically

plentiful, is now restricted to the Gir and Kachchh

largely on account of nesting tree loss, I believe. The

still common Whitebacked Vulture Gyps

bengalensis, less shy has converged for nesting on

large trees in urban parks not, as some believe, on

account of population increase, but because of felling

of large trees in rural areas. There are reports of this

vulture nesting on house tops in western Kachchh!

The Longbilled Vulture G. indie us, always limited

by its nesting on crags, continues to be as common

as before. If there has been a marginal decline, I

would suspect it is on account of pesticide poisoning.

This is most certainly the main reason for the

Scavenger Vulture Neophron perenopterus dropping

from Salim Ali’s “Fairly common over the whole

area”, to what I would call uncommon. Both the

Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus and the

Griffon Gyps fulvus are winter visitors in small

numbers. The latter certainly is not “a rare straggler”

as recorded by S£lim Ali. This, however, is true of

the Himalayan Griffon G. himalayensis which strays

down in winter, as proved by an exhausted bird

captured at Hingolgadh and housed for years in the

Ahmedabad Zoo.

Of late, harriers have highlighted Gujarat most

favourably on account of immense congregations

assembling to roost in the Velavadar National Park.

This assembly is entirely because of the prime harrier

habitat remaining (by active manipulation) in the

Park. Elsewhere, sighting a couple of these harriers

causes excitement, whereas a few decades ago all

three — the Pale Harrier Circus macrourus ,

Montagu’s Harrier C. pygargus and the Hen Harrier

C. cyaneus were the joy of birdwatching on windy,

winter mornings. Strangely, S&lim Ali makes no

mention of C. cyaneus. The decline of the three

Harriers can be attributed to the loss of grasslands,

infestation of pastures by Prosopis chilensis and the

shift of “Kharif ’ cultivation from cotton, millets, etc.,

to monoculture of groundnut and of course the

attendant spraying of pesticides. On the other hand,

the distinctively sexually dimorphic Marsh Harrier

C. aeruginosus continues to be a “Winter visitor,

fairly common, singly, at jheels and marshes”.

The Osprey Pandion haliaetus is a “Winter

visitor, not abundant but usually one or two present

on most of the larger rivers and jheels” and I may

add all along the sea coast as well as on the large

reservoirs constructed after 1947.

Family Falconidae: Falcons

Falcons were greatly valued in princely times

as they are today by the rich Arab Sheikhs.

Knowledge of falcons: their identification, capture

and training to fly off the fist after hare, partridge

and bustard, was honed to a fine skill. Unhappily

today, the art of falconry is dead and information on

this great group of birds is as meagre as it was

voluminous and qualitative half a century ago. Like

the other birds of prey, falcons have considerably

declined in number on account of habitat

degradation, pesticide poisoning and above all, in

the case of the resident Laggar Falcon Falco

biarmicus and the Redheaded Merlin F. chicquera

because of felling of tall trees holding traditional

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

345

nests. Those laggars nesting on fort balconies and

hill crags are continuing to successfully raise young,

as indeed does the Shaheen F. peregrinus

peregrinator on the crags of Girnar in Saurashtra,

and Mt. Abu just north of Gujarat. S£lim Ali does

not mention the Shahin and his “Fairly common”

for F. biarmicus and F. chicquera no longer operates

and our responsibility towards conservation

programmes for them is great because they breed

here. Preservation of existing nests, and putting up

artificial nests are among the significant steps to

take.

The migratory race of the Peregrine Falcon F.

p. japonensis continues to be a “winter visitor. Not

common and occasional.” Its fate depends more on

situations in its temperate breeding range. Fairly

frequent and excellent sighting can be had around

the seacoast and on the edges of the Ranns where

prey is plentiful in the vast hordes of shorebirds. This

is also true for the Hobby F subbuteo. Unhappily,

the “common winter visitor” the Kestrel F.

tinnunculus is considerably less so no doubt on

account of altered habitats of grass and open

savannah and pesticides. In recent years, the Lesser

Kestrel F. naumanni and the Redlegged Falcon F.

vespertinus have been recorded in Saurashtra, the

former outside Rajkot and the latter twice on the

western seacoast. The status of wintering desert

falcons is very unclear, thanks to our general

incapability of identifying them.

Family Phasianidae: Pheasants, Partridges, Quails

This traditionally hunted and snared family of

birds has shown an appreciable decline in numbers,

not only on account of illegal snaring but because of

habitat destruction and pesticide use in agriculture.

The position of the Black Partridge Francolinus

francolinus in Kachchh undoubtedly is the same as

that of the Painted Partridge F. pictus elsewhere. The

invasion by Prosopis chilensis on sand dunes,

pastures and into grass preserves cannot but have a

deleterious effect on the local fauna. The Painted

Partridge is holding out well in the broken hill

country of eastern Gujarat, which cannot be said for

it in Saurashtra. The widespread Grey Partridge F.

pondicerianus continues to be “a common” but

certainly not “abundant gamebird over the entire

area”, while the Blackbreasted Quail Coturnix

coromandelica continues to be heard in short

monsoon vegetation. In Kathiawar in particular,

numbers have declined as indicated if only by the

otherwise continual calling during rainy days being

less heard. The former “common winter visitor”, the

Common Quail C. coturnix is no longer plentiful,

its decline possibly reflects habitat change in its

northern breeding range. Both the Rock Bush Quail

Perdicula argoondah and the Jungle Bush Quail P.

asiatica are holding out in appropriate terrain, though

large coveys are less “tread on” than before.

The position of both the Red Spurfowl

Galloperdix spadicea and the Grey Jungle Fowl

Gallus sonneratii cannot be said to be “common” or

“uncommon” respectively and population decline is

attributable to both direct snaring and indirect habitat

degradation. The common Peafowl Pavo cristatus

continues to be still visible and by and large

unmolested, but its former highly favoured urban

habitats of large, overgrown compounds have

considerably dwindled, with the break up of

properties and construction of high-rise buildings,

though in Rajkot, peahens have taken to egg laying

in balconies and on roofs! In the countryside too,

the droves formerly seen are missing, undoubtedly

on account of intensive farming practices and the

application of pesticides. The loss of tall, sturdy

boughed trees to roost in must also be a contributing

factor. In the Gir forest, Pranav Trivedi has recorded

them roosting high on electricity pylons.

Family Turnicddae: Bustard-quails

These tiny and highly inconspicuous little

birds need more direct evidence to affirm their

present status, though the loud, droning call of the

Common Bustard-Quail Turnix suscitator is less

heard than in the past. Over large tracts of cultivated

land, intensive agriculture with the compulsive

eradication of “weeds”, obliterating of grassy verges

and copious application of pesticides have made

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

conditions inhospitable for all birds, including these

tiny cousins of the stately Sarus. Marginal lands

along riverbeds, with rocky outcrops, provide retreats

where they survive under siege conditions.

Family Gruidae: Cranes

Gujarat continues to be a major crane region

of the world and the fact that such huge numbers

should continue to be audible and visible in a densely

populated and highly agrarian landscape speaks

volumes for the traditional values among the general

population, and the great adaptability of these

magnificent birds. Wintering flocks of Demoiselle

Crane Anthropoides virgo continue to be evocative

of clear winter mornings over Saurashtra’s

windswept landscape. Salim Ali had, and rightly so,

continually emphasised the importance of the

escarpments overlooking the Great Rann as vantage

points to observe “migration, and the numerous

species observed there... in the first week of October,

perhaps the most spectacular were the flock upon

flock of Demoiselle and Common Crane”. The latter

is more partial to the edges of the Ranns and estuaries

where it feeds on tubers of a xerophytic sedge. The

people of Gujarat should be proud of the fact that

the State’s agricultural heartland continues to be the

most important habitat of the Sarus Crane Grus

antigone in the Subcontinent. Intensive cultivation

of rice on former Sarus marshes, garbage disposal

in others near urban centres and the draining in of

chemical effluents, sewage, pesticides and inorganic

fertilizers into all depressions have disrupted the

wetland ecology, making successful breeding by

these large and spectacular birds difficult. Unless

some very imaginative and popular programme is

conceived, we may well witness a sharp decline in

the population of the Sarus along with other resident

waterbirds.

Family Rallidae: Rails and Coots

These excessively secretive birds have never

really been well observed. Especially for the species

of the genera Rallus and Porzana , all information

on status is rather casual and observations incidental;

whether there are resident and/or migratory

populations appears to be largely speculative. The

Ruddy Crake Porzana fusca was first recorded by

me during the cool season and I am not sure how

many further records exist. It was I who showed the

late Dharmakumarsinhji the Brown Crake

Amaurornis akool near Bhavnagar, and later showed

that it commonly breeds in Kathiawar, Saurashtra.

Salim Ali cites early observations by Butler which

correspond to my observations — A. akool was

common and widely distributed. The same is true of

the Whitebreasted Waterhen A. phoenicurus which,

however, is less secretive and singularly noisy during

the rains when it nests. Salim Ali recorded it as “not

common”, though I would say it was, as it still is,

locally common in the past, being absent from some

of the better known “shikar jheels”. Very little was

known of the large Kora Gallicrex cinerea till

suddenly in the 1960s they started turning up in quite

unexpected places like irrigated farmlands — the

quite phenomenal disappearance of reedbeds and

desiccation of perennial river pools literally flushed

out this otherwise extremely secretive bird. The

position today remains an enigma. The Moorhen

Gallinula chloropus was “fairly common” but today

its numbers have gone down and sightings are

less frequent. The large and showy Purple Moorhen

Porphyrio porphyria , in my opinion, had

concentrations on larger wetlands in Gujarat

from where they spread out to nest in the monsoon;

thus the great fluctuations — it certainly is no longer

common in Saurashtra. The Coot Fulica atra has a

strong inflow of wintering birds but a few pairs

have nested, curiously enough quite patchily. Large

concentrations of Coot appear to indicate an

ecological shift from clear water preferred by

diving ducks to more weed choked water, attrac-

tive to moorhens and the like. Today, the destruc-

tion of reedbeds, overgrazing and wallowing by

buffaloes, pollution by sewage, industrial dis-

charges and landfills have severely disturbed the

habitat of this group of marsh birds. We may

well lose several species without knowing of the

loss.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

347

Family Otidae: Bustards

The disappearance of the Great Indian Bustard

Choriotis nigriceps and the precarious current status

of the Lesser Florican Sy pile Glides indica are a shame

on grassland management by the State

administration, which annually incurs huge expenses

on purchasing hay from neighbouring States to feed

its starving cattle. Kathiawar (Saurashtra), Kachchh

and the hilly tracts of Gujarat can all produce

immense quantities of hay for a highly profitable

livestock industry. On this subject, the less said the

better! Even well known nesting sites of the Great

Indian Bustard — a couple of them declared Bustard

Sanctuaries are overrun by livestock and planted

over with Prosopis chilensis . Both the people and

the birds have lost out! The Houbara Chlamydotis

undulata is not “rare”. It is, rather, a regular winter

visitor to the semidesert margins of the Ranns and

on the sand dunes of Saurashtra and Kachchh coasts.

Disturbance by livestock and infestation by Prosopis

chilensis on the saline grasslands and sand dunes

would appear to be negative factors.

Family Jacamidae: lac an as

Family Haematopidae: Oystercatcher

Family Rostratulidae: Painted Snipe

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus

chirurgus is still common and widespread during

monsoon in weed filled depressions. The drying out

of Saurashtra and Kachchh waterbodies and pollution

in Gujarat must be seen as threats to this as well as

the “decidedly uncommon” Bronzewinged Jacana

Metopidius indicus. The resident Painted Snipe

Rostratula benghalensis ;s perhaps commoner than

believed; its highly cryptic colouring and capacity

to remain “hidden” beside the smallest of wet areas

undoubtedly makes it easy to overlook. Besides, the

breeding season is during the monsoon when few

keen amateur birdwatchers are out in the field, so

calling females are not heard. The boldly pied

Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus is still fairly

common during winter on the Kachchh and

Saurashtra coastline. Numbers are greater on the

oyster-encrusted rocky headlands from Okha to

Pirotan Island north of Jamnagar.

Family Rectjrvirqstridae: Stilts, Avocets

Family Dromadidae: Crab Plovers

Family Burhsnxdae: Stone Curlews

I consider the Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus

himantopus an indicator of the quality of water. This

“one of the commonest waders on inland waters:

present in varying numbers at every swamp, jheel,

puddle or tidal mudflat” is still common. I believe

stilts on tidal mudflats are quite incidental, since

much of the diet there has to be vigorously probed

for, for which the fine bills of stilts are not ideal. On

the saltpans and the flooded Ranns, however, there

often appear huge concentrations of free swimming

copepods which, like mosquito larvae are ideal for

stilts to pick off. As water gets polluted fish

disappear, though mosquitoes breed in immense

quantities with impunity and the teeming larvae

attract large flocks of stilts. Further pollution,

especially by chemical discharges, suppresses larvae

and aquatic fauna, and stilts disappear. Their

numbers have most certainly increased over the

region. On the other hand, the Avocet Recurvirostra

avosetta is enigmatic. A winter visitor, it appears at

times in appreciable numbers, both on freshwater

and on the saltpans — concentrations on the latter

at times are a bird spectacle worthy of specially

travelling to see! Salim All had “discovered a large

breeding colony in the Great Rann of Kutch, off Nir

on Pachham Island” in April 1944. There may well

have been other such nestings in subsequent years.

Avocets, like the stilt, appear to benefit by moderate

water pollution and their large assemblages must

consume huge quantities of mosquito larvae.

All information of the distinctive Crab Plover

Dm mas ardeola till my visit to Pirotan Island in

December 1970 was faulty. Salim Ali’s “apparently

a very rare vagrant” and Dharmakumarsinhji’s

disbelief at my identifying a distant flock of what

he dismissed as terns, typify the knowledge till then.

The Pictorial Guide has this to say “Largely

crepuscular, maritirfie waders”. Crab Plovers are not

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93 (1996)

crepuscular, they operate at the very edge of the tide

and their feeding and resting are dictated by the

rhythms of the tide. So wedded are they to the water’s

edge that even in flight, while they readily fly across

open water, flying low over it, they skirt headlands

and sandbars, never crossing them! At high tide, all

birds of a particular stretch of shoreline or exposed

reef, collect to rest on a sandspit in flocks from forty

to four hundred birds. On the tide turning, they scatter

about, when an observer may see singletons at a

distance. The enigma remaining is — where do the

Gulf of Kachchh flocks nest? They are breeding very

successfully, judging from the proportion of juveniles

in each flock. Taej Mundkur suspects nesting off

Jakhau in Kachchh. The Gulf of Kachchh is perhaps

the best place to see this large, distinctive and

ridiculously confiding wader.

The Burhinidae has two species, the Stone

Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus and the large Great

Stone Plover Esacus magnirostris. The former is

“common” across the State, quietly resting in the

shade of shrubs and trees in scrubland, unkept

orchards and edges of cultivation. The bird’s

presence is made known by the distinctive call

uttered “at evening dusk and before sunrise, and also

on moonlit nights”. The urban sprawl, resulting in

the breakup of suburban properties with their

rambling gardens has evicted this largely invisible

yet audible bird from its most favoured habitats. The

Great Stone Plover is a bird of rocky seacoasts, rocky

outcrops around large reservoirs and the rocky beds

of large rivers. They are certainly commoner than

before, thanks to the many large dams constructed

after the formation of the Gujarat State.

Family Glareolidae : Coursers, Pratincoles

Our knowledge of the two species of coursers,

the Creamcoloured Courser Cursorius cursor and

the Indian Courser C. coromandelicus has not

increased beyond what was known half a century

ago! The former is presumably a regular winter

visitor to the desert-like edges of the Ranns, while

the latter is largely overlooked in open cultivation,

pastures and the undulating rocky plateau country

of Saurashtra; information on their breeding is

needed. Surprisingly, Salim Ali makes no mention

of Pratincoles; both the Large or Collared Pratincole

Glareola pratincola and the Small Indian Pratincole

Glareola lactea are frequent over the many old and

new reservoirs of the area. They nest sporadically

beside the Saurashtra and Kachchh reservoirs. Their

status has most assuredly improved!

Family Charadriidae: Plovers, Sandpipers, Snipe

The extensive tidal mudflats, inundated Ranns,

associated saltpans and the network of rainfilled

jheels and flooded depressions, all form a rich mix

of habitats favoured by this family of birds known

collectively as waders. Their numbers have shown

no decline. The Broadbilled Sandpiper Limicola

falcinellus which Salim Ali mentions while

commenting on flocks of small waders in the

following vein: “These flocks, doubtlessly contain

examples of the Broadbilled Sandpiper” are

confirmed as regular visitors especially on either side

of the Gulf of Kachchh, where recent reports of the

Eastern Knot Calidris tenuirostris suggest that the

species is a regular winter visitor. There have been

no recent sightings of the Sociable Lapwing Vanellus

gregarius which is enumerated by Salim Ali on the

strength of Butler’s 1876 report of the species being

“very common during the cold weather in the

neighbourhood of Deesa”. More extensive

birdwatching has revealed the rather frequent

occurrence of Rednecked Phalaropes Phalaropus

lobatus on saltpans and brackish lagoons on the

Saurashtra seaboard. Observations have revealed that

the Bartailed Godwit Limosa lapponica has a

preference for sea coasts, while the Blacktailed

Godwit L. limosa prefers backish, inland water and

freshwater jheels. In their preferred habitats both

species are equally plentiful. The Temminck’s Stint

Calidris temminckii of which Salim Ali states

“Usually in mixed flocks...” is more a bird of fresh

rather than saline waters which are equally favoured

by the undoubtedly more plentiful Little Stint C.

minutus. Apart from these observations, the status

of all other waders remains unchanged. Some

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

349

intensive scientific examination, however, needs to

be undertaken to assess the effect of huge quantities

of sewage and industrial wastes being emptied via

the rivers into the Gulf of Khambat. Any increase

in toxins into the tidal mud may well affect a

sizable segment of the population of Palaearctic

waders.

Family Stercorarhdae: Skuas

Family Laridae: Gulls, Terns

Skuas are gull-like predators of Polar seas and

in Salim Ali’s language “Within our limits, the

records are mainly of accidental waifs storm-tossed

during heavy monsoon gales.” He does not mention

them in his Gujarat reports. Being a maritime state

but lacking seagoing birdwatchers, Gujarat may well

have Skuas turning up more frequently. We have our

fair share of gulls and terns, however. The

Blackheaded Gull Larus ridibundus and to a lesser

extent the Brownheaded Gull L. brunnicephalus are

plentiful at all ports and present in smaller numbers

on inland reservoirs especially in Kachchh and

Kathiawar, and in concentrations over the inundated

Ranns. Both the Lesser Blackbacked Gull Lfuscus

and the Herring Gull L argentatus are met in small

numbers on inland reservoirs and along the coast,

with a particularly impressive gathering each winter

at Okha, where the latter are predominating. S£lim

Ali makes no mention of the Great Blackheaded Gull

L. ichthyaetus which is regular in solos and small

parties on larger reservoirs of Kachchh and

Saurashtra; it is also a regular feature along the sea

coast and especially so on the reefs of the Marine

National Park between Okha and Jamnagar. The

Little GullL. minutus was seen by Sdlim Ali himself

in flocks over the flooded Great Rann during one of

his later visits there; Taej Murid kur has seen them

though I have no other reports. Dharmakumarsinhji

spoke of the Slenderbilled Gull L. genei as a rare

winter visitor in a vague sort of manner and it was

Lalsinh Raol, whom S£lim Ali rated very highly,

who definitely confirmed that the bird was a not

uncommon wintering species off the Jamnagar coast,

I have regularly seen them off Beyt Dwarka. Our

knowledge of terns, especially the migratory, and

more marine ones is comparatively meagre and more

information is needed. Taej Mundkur reported

nesting of the Little Tern Sterna albifrons in saltpans

on the Jamnagar coast, while a regular colony breeds

at Bhavnagar, where the birds had been filmed by

Dharmakumarsinhji. The Large Crested Tern S.

bergii and the Sandwich Tern S. sandvicensis and

the lesser crested tern S. bengalensis are commoner

than believed. More intensive birdwatching may

confirm that Gujarat is on the itinerary of the

migratory Common Tern S. hi r undo, the Roseate

Tern S. dougalli and the Black Tern Chlidonias niger.

S£lim Ali did not come across the regular, though

uncommon wintering Whitewinged Black Tern C.

leucopterus . Both C. niger and C. leucopterus can

be overlooked in winter plumage among the flocks

of wintering Whiskered Terns C. hybrida, a plentiful

species along the coasts and inland.

The large number of reservoirs have provided

nesting islands for the Indian River Tern S. aurantia ,

but pollution and desiccation of rivers and inland

marshes have made this formerly familiar species less

so. S£lim Ali’s notation “ I can trace no record of its

breeding in Gujarat...” surprises me, since I have

been inducted into the joys and tribulation of bird

photography at Jasdan in Saurashtra, sitting over nests

of this and the Blackbeliied Tem S. melanogaster of

which S&lim Ali writes “Status uncertain”. The large

reservoirs constructed during the last few decades

have most certainly become nesting areas for these

terns in Gujarat — River Terns have been nesting

regularly on the Aji and Niari reservoirs of Rajkot.

The Little Tem S. albifrons is common on large

inland reservoirs and along the coast, particularly so

in sheltered water of the Gulf of Kachchh. S. albifrons

has been filmed nesting near Bhavnagar by

Shivbhadrasinh as had been done earlier by his

naturalist uncle, Dharmakumarsinhji. Taej

identified both S. a. albifrons and S. a. sounder si

around Okha; they are now considered distinct

species.

The Gullbilled Tern Gelochelidon nilotica is

perhaps one of the most visible species over tidal

flats and inland, even highly polluted water. Salim

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Ali’s “it is not unlikely that they may breed in the

neighbourhood” (Nir on the edge of the Great Rann)

should encourage amateur birdwatchers to extend

their outings beyond comfortable weekend jaunts.

The Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspica is an

unmistakeable presence on the Kachchh and

Saurashtra coasts as well as on larger inland

reservoirs. There is all likelihood of this fine tern

nesting in Kachchh and on the Jamnagar coast. Salim

Ali did not come across the Indian Skimmer

Rynchops albicollis flocks of which, sometimes a

hundred strong, sporadically put in an appearance

on major waterbodies both fresh and brackish. Status

remains uncertain.

Family Pteroclididae: Sandgrouse

I can, with confidence, state that our

knowledge of this family has not been improved

since the 1940s report by Scilim Ali. The Indian

Sandgrouse Pterocles exustus continues to be

widespread over the entire State, including as I found

on the sand dune islands of the Gulf of Kachchh.

The Painted Sandgrouse P indicus is also holding

out well in rocky hill country amidst degraded forests

of all types. More effort needs to be put in to update

the information on the wintering Imperial

Sandgrouse P orientalis and the Spotted Sandgrouse

P senegallus. There is all likelihood of the former

being more regular and commoner than believed and

even “very abundant” as recorded by Butler and the

latter actually breeding along the edges of the Ranns

which are their main habitat.

Family Columbedae: Pigeons, Doves

The Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia

continues to live up to Salim Ali’s observation

“Common over the entire region, affecting buildings,

whether derelict mins or in occupation... A popular

nesting site ... is down the vertical shafts of disused

wells ...” To these favoured places I may add rocky

islets out at sea, emphasising the virtuosity of this

highly adaptable bird. High rise buildings are

providing more vertical nesting space in urban

conglomerations, as are the ubiquitous industrial

sheds. Thus, this species continues to be a highly

successful one. Surprisingly, the Yellowlegged Green

Pigeon Treron phoenicoptera (which half a century

back was known as the Southern Green Pigeon), is

unobtrusively successful in all its strongholds of the

Gir forest in Saurashtra and over mainland Gujarat;

unhappily most of the fine old avenues of shade trees

which provided it a ramification into other parts are

gone thanks to old trees being felled by road

widening and their replacement by “quickie” trees

so dear to the professional forester.

Of the four resident doves, the Indian Ring

Dove Streptopelia dednocto, the Red Turtle Dove S.

tranquebarica , the Spotted Dove S. chinensis and

the Little Brown Dove S. senegalensis, S.

tranquebarica seems to have specially suffered

immense losses along the new highways with their

speeding traffic. This dove just has not learnt to

recognise the danger of vehicles, and tends to take

off too late to avoid collision with the speeding

behemoths. In the countryside, as well as in lightly

built-over area, all the other doves are doing well. S.

chinensis , never an urban bird, continues to be

plentiful all over its former “wellwooded areas”. The

winter migrant Rufous Turtle Dove S. turtur

presumably continues to be “Excessively shy” and

“Not uncommon in open glades and along cart tracks

in bamboo and mixed deciduous forest” or what may

be left of them in the Surat Dangs where too, the

Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica can still be heard.

Its range has assuredly got constricted, judging from

the efficient destruction of natural vegetation on the

hills north of the Dangs and by no stretch of the

imagination can this pretty dove be thought to occur

at Songadh which “appears to be the most northerly

record for this species on the western side of India”.

Birdwatchers may attempt to confirm the Emerald

Dove’s existence in “...Rajpipla and at least to the

Narbada River” in what today is the much publicised

Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary.

Family Psotacidae: Parakeets

The three parakeets the Roseringed Parakeet

Psittacula krameri, the Alexandrine Parakeet P

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

351

eupatria and the Blossomheaded Parakeet P.

cyanocephala are holding out. S&lim All’s

observations on the last species can be upgraded by

adding the Gir forest to its range. The destruction of

gnarled trees with their cavities for nesting and the

practice of highly sterile moonoeultural forestry

plantations are a threat to this otherwise vigorous

family. P. eupatria and P cyanocephala have not

taken to nesting in buildings, nor have they learnt to

raid crops and are far less successful in adapting to

“progress” than P. krameri , which in S&lim Ali’s

words occupies “Holes in walls of buildings

... even in the heart of noisy bazaars”. There are

immense roosts in large trees outside the Ahmedabad

Junction and in the compound of the Circuit

House in Vadodara. Unhappily, the new high

rises are singularly free of potential nesting

sites.

Family Cucuudae: Cuckoos

Of the eight cuckoo species recorded by Salim

Ali, the Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacohinus

continues to herald the welcome S W monsoon rains

throughout Gujarat. The Koel Eudynamys

scolopacea continues to be a shadow of the

ubiquitous House Crow. The Sirkeer Cuckoo

Taccocua leschenaultii and the Coucal Centropus

sinensis , both nonparasitic cuckoos, are fairly

common and appear to be doing especially well in

dense shrubberies of eroded river banks and

hedgerows. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus

varius is fairly common in mainland Gujarat and

over the last couple of decades appears to have

adapted to thorn-scrub in Hingolgadh where we had

never ever heard it, even at the height of the

monsoon. The Cuckoo C. canorus is one more of

the avian enigmas of the region : S£lim Ali found

cuckoos “searching for nests to lay in”. This he

observed in August in Kachchh when “larks and

pipits were breeding.” I always believed that

Cuckoos were largely autumn passage migrants,

with a few staying over in winter. The Cuckoo was

heard calling in the Panch Mahals, along with the

Pied crested cuckoo and the Hawk-Cuckoo on 21st

July, 1996 - obviously not a passage migrant!

Birdwatchers would be advised to place cuckoos as

a group on their prime agenda, since we need to

determine the status of the Indian Banded Bay

Cuckoo Cacomantis sonnerati, which Salim Ali

records and comments on the resemblance of its call

to that of the Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus

and the Indian Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis

passerinus, both species which should be

anticipated. The reconfirmation of the 31st October,

1945, sight record at Ajwa, Baroda of the Small

Greenbilled Malkoha Rhopodytes viridirostris is

another recommended assignment. The occurrence

of the unusual looking Drongo-Cuckoo Surniculus

lugubris is worth investigating in the heavy rainfall

areas of south Gujarat.

Family Strigidaei Owls

Owls, unfortunately, are so surrounded by

superstition that very few people are remotely aware

of their tremendous value as predators of nocturnal

rodents, and large insects - mainly beetles whose

grubs cause damage to plant roots in the soil. Their

decline has caused hardly a ripple of concern among

ornithologists. In fact, very little new information

has been garnered since the classical period of

collections. Their status at best can be a matter largely

of conjecture. All our resident owls are hole nesters

and over large stretches of Saurashtra and Kachchh,

the loss of old trees and the absence of crags and

deeply eroded river sides to provide alternate nesting

and daytime roosting sites has greatly restricted the

ranges of most owls. The Barn Owl Tyto alba

continues to lead its phantom life in urban areas as

well as in the countryside where there may be larger

buildings of old landlord families. Unhappily,

modern construction is owl-unfriendly, lacking

rafters and false ceilings to provide shelters. The

“common” Spotted Owlet Athene brama, because

of its small size, continues to be widespread and

appears to have benefited by streetlights which attract

night-flying insects. The widespread spraying of

pesticides most certainly has had adverse effects on

this engaging wide-awake little owl. If special

352

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

endeavour is justified to rediscover the chimaeral

Forest Spotted Owlet A. blewitti , it should be

justifiable to make a comprehensive study of the

status of all the other species of owls like the Collared

Scops Owl Otus bakkarnoena which, as mistnetting

operations established, was more widespread than

suggested by S£lim Ali’s reports; the Jungle Owlet

Glaucidium radiatum “Common” in S. Gujarat, the

Brown Hawk-Owl Ninox scutulata “Heard and seen”

at several places in Surat Dangs, the Mottled Wood

Owl Strix ocellata noted by Sdlim Ali in mainland

Gujarat and recorded by Dharmakumarsinhji as well

as myself in Saurashtra. All these owls must have

lost ground, thanks to the disappearance of old trees,

the widespread plantations of Eucalyptus and

Prosopis chilensis, two among the several “quick

growing” aliens so favoured by the Forest

Department and of course the terminal effects of

pesticides. A winter visitor, the Shorteared Owl Asia

flammeus, is perhaps more plentiful than previously

thought, though its preferred habitat of grassland is

considerably reduced.

Of the large resident owls, the Great Horned

Owl Bubo bubo continues to be widespread

particularly among ravines, around forts

(Hingolgadh is a favoured base) and quarries out of

commission. Few large enough trees survive to

shelter this large owl. Confirmation of the status of

the Dusky Horned Owl B. coromandus and the

Brown Fish Owl B. zeylonensis calls for continual

monitoring; the latter is still present in the Gir, though

elsewhere, Salim Ali’s “not uncommon in wooded

country in the neighbourhood of tanks and rivers”

for the latter and “A very diurnal owl, often on the

move and hunting during daytime” for the former,

in what is the most intensively cultivated part of the

State, needs to be confirmed.

Family Caprimulgidae : Nightjars

Nightjars are birds best identified by their calls.

Both the Common Indian Caprimulgus asiaticus and

the Franklin’s C. affinis were plentiful, the former

in orchards, gardens and cultivation, as well as in

light grass and scrub jungle, while the latter, more

locally common in scrub and deciduous jungle in

broken country. Unhappily, developments over the

last few decades have not been kind to nightjars:

apart from pesticides reducing prey insects, the major

threats have been clearing of hedgerows and grassy

verges for cultivation; further degradation of scrub-

covered, marginalised, highly eroded riversides and,

of all things, the network of highways and increasing

traffic on them! A great many collision deaths were

reported in the 1970s and since then the almost total

absence of nightjars on roads is troubling.

S£lim Ali’s comment of “Common in teak and

mixed deciduous forest areas” for the Indian Jungle

Nightjar Caprimulgus indicus needs to be

reconfirmed and areas beyond the Dediapada forests

and the Dangs south of the Narmada valley

examined, since Shivrajkumar Khachar with

Dharmakumarsinhji had repeatedly mentioned

hearing C. indicus in the heart of the Gir forest.

S£lim Ali’s procuring a specimen of the Syke’s

Nightjar C. mahrattensis near Vadodara on estuarine

ground suggests the possibility of this species

occurring not only in Kachchh but in suitable habitats

in north Gujarat and down the saline coastal pastures

south of Vadodara. We have very little information

on the European Nightjar C. europaeus which Sdlim

Ali found “a fairly common and abundant autumn

passage migrant through Kutch” passing through

between mid-September and mid-October. Amateur

birdwatchers in Kachchh should make a special effort

to reconfirm this observation.

There has been a recent report of a Ceylon

Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger by Sanat

Chavan of the Gujarat Forest Department from the

Narmada valley, though I have seen no published

report. If confirmed, this extends the range of this

bird considerably north, all previous reports are from

N. Kanara and south into Kerala.

Family Apopidae: Swifts

Swifts are great fliers and few birdwatchers

spend time to observe them, with the result that what

may seem to be vagrants or rare visitors are, in reality,

regular visitors; in making this statement I have my

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

353

record of the Pallid Swift Apus pallidus at Jasdan

and Shivrajkumar Khachar’s two sightings of the

Large Whiterumped Swift A. pacificus at Jasdan and

at Hingolgadh. The Alpine Swift A. melba, continues

to be a regular bird, though “...of capricious

movements, loose parties appearing suddenly from

nowhere ... disappearing just as suddenly.” Our birds

are perhaps winter visitors from the Himalaya as well

as foraging flocks from their nesting sites in the

Western Ghats and possibly Mount Abu.

Hingolgadh, Pavagadh and Mt. Girnar among other

prominent hills are ideal places to observe the

breathtaking flight of these swifts. The House Swift

A. affinis continues to be “a common species over

the entire area, though somewhat patchy, with old

established colonies under arches and gateways

everywhere”. S£lim AM’s observation of nestlings

taken from a nest of the “Striated Swallow” in

Kachchh is in keeping with later researches by the

late R. M. Naik at the MS University, Vadodara,

where swifts accepted nest boxes. S Alim All’s

observation of differential sizes of the nestlings

suggesting that brooding “had commenced with the

first egg” substantiates my belief that these little birds

spend nights inside their nests, an observation based

on the traditional colony in the south gate of

Hingolgadh. The Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus has

been noted over Jasdan in Saurashtra and

Ahmedabad on distant forays from their headquarters

in Palmyra palms which grow aplenty south of the

Mahi River. Even a small, isolated cluster of these

palms attract this swift, as I saw at the foot of Mt.

Girnar. It is thus conceivable that if the palm is

planted in other parts of the State, the breeding range

of C. parvus would be extended and conversely if

the palms get thinned out, there would be a

corresponding constriction and a consequen-

tial decline in population; however, one point has to

be borne in mind, palms must not be exploited —

their fronds being heavily lopped explains SAiim

Ali’s “...but curiously enough not as common

locally as the palms would warrant ” The palms

are, after all, themselves under severe human

pressure.

S£lim Ali noted the lovely Crested Tree Swift

Hemiprocne longipennis in wooded areas of today’s

Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary south of the Narmada and

at Songadh (where I doubt if it exists any longer)

into the Dang forest. The high corridor forests so

characteristic of the Gir in Saurashtra are still the

home of this lovely swift. Possibly, imaginative

afforestation along rivers may well extend this bird’s

range further north.

Family Trogonidae : Trogons

•\

The Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus is a

bird of the Dangs in South Gujarat and S&lim Ali

collected several specimens. While he suggested the

possibility of its occurrence in the Rajpipla hill

forests south of the Narmada, the status in the Dangs

needs investigating. We have very little recent

information on the bird. One hopes Silim All’s

“fairly common in the Dangs” holds true today.

Family Alcedinidae: Kingfishers

All five species of Gujarat’s kingfishers, the

Lesser Pied Ceryle rudis, the Little Blue Alcedo

atthis , the Storkbilled Pelargopsis capensis , the

Whitebreasted Halcyon smyrnensis and the

Blackcapped H pileata have been placed under

great pressure due to habitat disturbance, each in a

special way. C. rudis is a bird of free-flowing streams

and rivers, these are today either dried up or

heavily polluted; A. delights in reed-margined

marshes, shaded free flowing streams and rocky tidal

pools: the first two habitats are considerably

disturbed and today this little gem of a bird is

perhaps best seen along the sea coasts. P. capensis

“absent in Kuchchh and Saurashtra”, has much of

its forested habitats along the eastern hill areas of

the State heavily disturbed and the former perennial

streams are choked with silt and quite unfit for fish;

a special investigation is called for to ascertain

whether it still continues to be “Not uncommon on

forest streams” ranging from Balaram in northern

Gujarat south through Chota Udaipur, Jambughoda,

the Rajpipla hills to the Dangs. Halcyon pileata

recorded by S&iim Ali on the Ambika River of south

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Gujarat has been seen all along the coast in recent

times, suggesting its favoured former mangrove

habitat extended to the Kori Creek in western

Kachchh. The species is decidedly very scarce. Only

H. smyrnensis, more catholic in diet, is holding out

well — at times at great distances from water.

Salim Ali is rather unclear on the subject of the

entire group’s nesting season in Gujarat. I believe

all our kingfishers nest during the hot season, no

doubt due to the easy availability of fish in

drying river pools and prior to the heavy rams of

late Jifne and July, when flood waters would drown

nest holes.

The presence or absence of kingfishers would,

I suspect provide indications of the quality of water

in Gujarat and the success of afforestation both on

the hills and along the coastline.

Family Meropidae: Bee-eaters

Family Coracidae: Rollers

Family Upupidae: Hoopoes

Salim Ali records the Bluecheeked Bee-eater

Merops superciliosus thus “Evidently an autumn

passage migrant over Kutch ... like the Kashmir

Roller”. Actually Kachchh and Saurashtra and

perhaps north Gujarat are on the fringes of its

breeding range since it nests regularly outside

Bhavnagar as first recorded by Dharmakumarsinhji.

I have observed several pairs excavating in May in

1948 near Jasdan and very much later, with

Shivrajkumar Khachar I saw a large colony at Nir

on the edge of the Great Rann. The bird certainly is

both a passage migrant and a winter visitor over

much of Gujarat. Interestingly, this bee-eater spends

a lot of time gliding high in the air capturing insects

carried up by warm currents, quite unlike the Green

Bee-eater M. orientalis which makes sallies from an

exposed perch. The larger bee-eater is, therefore, less

seen than its smaller cogenitor which is a common

resident over much of the State. There is, however,

considerable local movement, with birds scattering

during the SW monsoon. I have seen M. orientalis

snapping up small crabs at the edge of the tide on

Beyt.

The Bluetailed Bee-eater M. philippinus

closely resembles M. superciliosus. In fact, the two

were considered to be subspecies. M. philippinus has

been reported from central and south Gujarat though

we need to ascertain whether it nests in these areas.

I found a cluster of nest holes in the chalk heaps of

the Gujarat State Fertiliser Corporation outside

Vadodara which, I suspect, belonged to this species.

The European Bee-eater M. apiaster has been

recorded by Shivrajkumar Khachar at Jasdan and I

am under the impression there have been recent

records from Kachchh — at best, this beautiful bird

is most probably a scarce passage migrant in autumn.

The last of Gujarat’s bee-eaters is the Bluebearded

Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni which Salim Ali

heard in south Gujarat but concludes “Confirmation

is desirable.”

In our area we have two rollers, the European

Roller Coracias garrulus an autumn passage migrant

“abundant between second week and end of September

and gone by end of October”. The degradation of

grasslands and the infestation by Pro sopis chilensis in

its favoured habitats of Kachchh, North Gujarat and

Saurashtra must, most assuredly, place a heavy strain

on the migrating birds. The Indian Roller C.

benghalensis nests wherever there are large trees with

cavities and after breeding, spreads out into agriculture

throughout Gujarat. Of late, numbers have appreciably

declined, no doubt on account of pesticides and the

destruction of suitable nest trees. The decline needs to

be monitored.

The Hoopoe Upupa epops is resident in better

wooded areas of mainland Gujarat - I have a pair

nesting in a nest box at my Gandhinagar residence.

Elsewhere, it is “frequent” over the entire area during

winter when there is an “influx of immigrants from

the north”. Trees with holes and buildings with

cavities in walls are important for the continued

proliferation of this handsome bird.

Family Bucerotidae: Hornbills

Gujarat has only one hornbill, the Common

Grey Hornbill Tockus birostris. The hornbill was

found in better wooded areas from near Palanpur in

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

355

north Gujarat, through Vadodara and south to the

Dangs. It also was found in the Gir forest of

Saurashtra. The exact situation needs confirmation

since the birds are persecuted for alleged medicinal

values and their need for large trees with nesting

cavities which are growing scarce.

Family Capitonidae: Barbets

Three species of these arboreal frugivorous

birds have been recorded in Gujarat. The sparrow-

sized Crimsonbreasted Barbet Megalaima

haemacephala continues to be a common resident

throughout the State. The exact status of the other

two requires confirmation. The large green Barbet

M. zeylanica was “abundant and noisy where

occurring” but the proviso “restricted to well wooded

country” qualified its distribution in mainland

Gujarat to select patches, many of which have lost

the large trees which were so universally valued as

avenue trees, particularly the Ficus. I recollect

hearing this barbet in Mehsana at the railway station

in the early fifties. I presume the Small Green Barbet

M. viridis still continues to be “restricted to moist

decidous forest in the Ghats foothill country, and

here not uncommon”. However, great changes have

taken place — certainly not for the better — and we

need updated information on this and other forest

species in south Gujarat.

Family Picidae: Woodpeckers

S&lim Ali lists ten species of woodpeckers for

Gujarat. The most vulnerable among them are the

woodpeckers associated with forest country,

particularly of the hill areas of Rajpipla and the

Dangs. These are the Rufous Woodpecker

Microptemus brachyurus , the Small Yellownaped

Woodpecker Picus chlorolophus , the Great Black

Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis , the Heartspotted

Woodpecker Hemicircus canente , the Blackbacked

Woodpecker Chrysocolaptesfestivus and the Larger

Goldenbacked Woodpecker C. lucidus. All the above

listed woodpeckers were recorded in the then well

timbered hill country south of the Narmada; forest

degradation in the last fifty years will have greatly

reduced their ranges, if not striking them off the

Gujarat list. I am happy to say that I was shown a

pair of Hemicircus canente and observed in flight a

Dryocopus javensis in the Dangs in the late eighties.

Exact information, however, on these and the

remaining four species is urgently required. Indeed,

the presence and numerical abundance of all these

woodpeckers would confirm the biodiversity build-

up through forest regeneration.

Of the remaining four species, the Lesser

Goldenbacked Woodpecker D inopium benghalense

continues to be “not uncommon” in mainland Gujarat

and the Gir forest of Saurashtra, the Pigmy

Woodpecker Picoides nanus is perhaps often

overlooked (as it seems to have been in the Pictorial

Guide) and should still be “Common” in the teak

tracts of Gujarat as well as in the Gir forest frequently

being passed over as the still widespread

Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker Picoides

mahrattensis. This last species has lost ground over

much of Saurashtra with the felling of former thickets

of Acacia nilotica , to which it seemed to have been

partial. We need the latest information on the

situation in Kachchh. I anticipate this woodpecker’s

comeback with the excellent regeneration and active

plantation by the Forest Department of the “desi”

babool.

The fourth, and last of our woodpeckers, the

Wryneck Jynx torquilla is a winter visitor which, I

regret to record, is no longer “fairly common”,

though the exact position can be commented on only

by very regular birdwatching which, despite the large

number of amateurs, is unhappily not being done.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

The Families which follow contain the bulk

of species, both resident and winter migrants, which

are more visible around homes and in cultivation.

The majority live in and among vegetation, be it

herbaceous or the tallest of trees, and build nests on

the ground among grass, in shrubs and up in trees;

several nest in holes in walls, or gnarled trees. Their

food ranges from seeds, nuts and fruit to insects and

356

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

many very readily come to feed on “chapati” crumbs.

This large assemblage of Families and still greater

number of species are all grouped into a single Order:

Passeriformes and in popular parlance are known as

Song Birds. The purpose of this introductory

insertion is to emphasize that few ornithologists seem

to be over concerned about the need for conservation

of these more widely dispersed and “common place”

birds; this is perhaps so because they occupy no very

distinct habitat, and preferences if any are very subtle.

There has been a very dramatic decline in numbers

of a great many species, while others have had their

ranges reduced. Unlike the large, more visible birds

on whom considerable attention has been focused,

song birds are not long lived and this adds to the

great urgency of taking on very immediate

conservation action — we do not have time for the

luxury of scientific research. Fortunately, what is

pleasing to human beings is of advantage to these

birds — well maintained avenues, good shady

gardens — even pergolas with flowering climbers

or a collection of foliage plants in pots suffice; food

on bird tables and nest boxes are gratefully accepted,

and above all, a popular awareness of birds will

register any fading of the morning birdsong, which

in turn will generate widespread alarm. A richly

endowed avian environment is great for us human

beings since birds, especially the vibrant song birds

with their high metabolic rates and rather short

lifespans need a clean environment to live their

vigorous lives in apd respond very quickly to

changes. As such, their plentitude or paucity may

well reflect the state of the environment, providing

early warning of possible deterioration. More

significantly, every individual can do something

which is not possible for action to conserve, say the

Great Indian Bustard. We now resume our discussion

of Families with a very lovely bird, one of a group

so brightly coloured that they are often referred to

as Jewel Thrushes.

Family Pthidae: Pittas

Salim Ali did not see or hear the Indian Pitta

Pitta brachyura but comments “Possibly arrives in

suitable localities, as elsewhere, as a forerunner of

the SW monsoon”. He cites Dharmakumarsinhji

having “found it, widespread and calling frequently

in the Gir Forest”. Pittas turn up in May and June in

the smallest of shady gardens or under dense

vegetation along hedgerows and in eroded riverain

country. Dharmakumarsinhji had reported a pitta

nesting in jungle on the sacred Shetranjaya Hill in

Saurashtra and I showed Shivrajkumar Khachar two

juvenile pittas still being fed by parents in the

Hingolgadh scrub forest. Since few birdwatchers are

out during the monsoon, P. brachyura is likely to be

overlooked. The Dangs forest is an eminently

suitable pitta habitat but the tribal children with their

lethal catapults are a nemesis to ground and shrub

birds. Calling in secondary teak forest and suspected

to be nesting in Panch Mahals north of the River

Mahi, 20th July 1996. There have been confirmed

reports of the bird nesting in the Gir forest.

Family Alaudidae: Larks

Gujarat is great lark country. The Redwinged

Bush Lark Mirafra erythroptera continues to be

“common” in scrub covered hummocky country and

edges of cultivation, though less widespread in

southern Gujarat. The Singing Bush Lark M.

javanica is certainly no longer “not uncommon”,

since the prime grasslands it preferred are either

grazed over or planted with Pro sopis chilensis. More

careful observations on all larks are necessary as they

are quite confusing, especially the Eastern Skylark

Alauda gulgula, of which Sdlim Ali had this to say

— “Fairly common in suitable localities on moist

grassy margins of tanks, etc.” Novices and a good

many otherwise recognised bird watchers tend to

gloss over the larks as a group, so more serious

attention needs to be given to the family as a whole.

Gujarat has the distinction of possessing all three

crested larks. The Crested Lark Galerida cristata is

still “fairly” common in more arid portions of the

area, in Kutch, N. Gujarat on the edges of the Great

and Little Ranns. It is also plentiful on the Gulf of

Kachchh islands particularly Ajad and Beyt. The

Sykes’s Crested Lark G. deva is more partial to the

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

357

Deccan trap plateaux of Saurashtra and Kachchh,

where it shares its habitat with the Rufoustailed

Finch-Lark Ammomanes phoenicurus. The Malabar

Crested LarkG. malabarica was recorded up to south

Gujarat in the Western Ghats type of country.

Dharmakumarsinhji extended the range further north

to the edges of saltpans near Bhavnagar and I have

seen pairs on halophytic meadows on Pirotan Island

near Jamnagar. The bird is, however, totally absent

from interior Saurashtra and much of Gujarat. S£lim

Ali recorded the Sand Lark Calandrella raytal along

seacoasts of Kachchh, but it is now established that

the bird in a very distinct, dark form occurs on the

Saltpans of Bhavnagar — there is all possibility of

the bird occurring across the Gulf of Khambhat in

Gujarat; the lighter Kachchh form occurs on coastal

dunes and sandy islands south of the Gulf of

Kachchh till Beyt Dwarka off Okha. The

Blackbellied Finch-Lark Eremopteris grisea is a

common resident which has found habitat

degradation helpful in extending its range into areas

otherwise not normal for it. The Blackcrowned

Finch-Lark E. nigriceps was first recorded by

Shivrajkumar Khachar during bird banding at Kuar

Beyt in the Great Rann, and later he saw a flock at

Jasdan in Saurashtra; perhaps E. nigriceps is more

common than believed, being overlooked among the

ubiquitous E. grisea ; I have yet to see the bird and

its status is to be confirmed. The huge flocks during

winter of the Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea

in open country seem to have thinned considerably,

undoubtedly on account of overgrazing reducing

grass seed on which the immense flocks depended.

Change in agriculture patterns with groundnut and

cotton largely replacing the former extensive millet

and “bajri” along with intensive farming practices

obliterating all weeds within crops and grass verges

between plots, have considerably depleted food

supplies. The large Desert Lark Alaemon alaudipes ,

earlier known more expressively as the Hoopoe Lark,

continues to be free of any threat on the barren sandy

“Pats in the Rann”. It is, however, yet to be seen

what effect the burgeoning salt industry around the

Little Rann will have on this fine lark, but for the

time being the species, it would seem, is not in any

danger, living as it does in the most hostile of

habitats.

Family Hirundinidae: Swallows

S£lim Ali had recorded seven species in his

Gujarat Surveys. In those days there was only one

species of Sand Martin, Riparia riparia , but since

he goes into trinomials, i.e. subspecies, it is apparent

that he only came across the resident subspecies and

that too along the larger sandy rivers of mainland

Gujarat. The now separate species Plain Sand Martin

R. palaudicola is locally common, nesting in large

colonies on all the major rivers, but more widespread

in Saurashtra and Kachchh, with the winter migrant

not reported by Salim Ali, the Collared Sand Martin

R. riparia. This last species is plentiful, with other

swallows hawking for aerial insects over water

throughout Gujarat. The Dusky Crag Martin Hirundo

concolor is still “Common” around rock

escarpments, forts and large monuments where it

places its half-cup shaped nest of mud pellets on

narrow ledges or attaches it to the wall under arches;

it has readily taken to large new buildings like the

Vidhan Sabha and the Secretariat blocks in

Gandhinagar and the Sardar Patel Institute of Public

Administration in Ahmed abad. The very similar, and

largely overlooked. Crag Martin H. rupestris is a

winter visitor to be looked for at Hingolgadh,

Pawagadh, Mt. Girnar and Salher Fort in south

Gujarat, where also S61im Ali collected the black

and white House Martin Deliclnon urbica, a bird I

have yet to see away from the Himalaya. Both the

swallow Hirundo rustica and the wintering race of

the Redrumped Swallow H. daurica are common in

season, collecting in large flocks at communal roosts

in reed beds and sugarcane. The resident race of H.

daurica continues to breed “freely” all over the State

and in particular in Gandhinagar where pairs have

appropriated unfinished bungalows. If any species

has benefited by “development” it is the Cliff

Swallow H. fluvicola which has taken to the many

large concrete bridges constructed over rivers like

the Vatrak, Mahe, Narmada, etc. Here the nests are

in packed colonies, with the owners swarming like

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 93 (1996)

bees disturbed at a hive! Elsewhere in Saurashtra

and Kachchh, they are found in lesser numbers with

a patchy distribution. The lovely Wiretailed Swallow

H. smithii is uniformly distributed over the State,

though my general impression is that it is less

common than a couple of decades ago on account,

no doubt, of the general drying up of water and the

pollution of what remains in the channels in

cultivation.

Family Lanidae : Shrikes

Of the nine species of shrikes occurring in the

Subcontinent, Sdlim Ali records six. The Grey Shrike

Lanius excubitor he found resident and common.

“Met with singly or in pairs in sparsely scrubbed

semidesert country interspersed with cultivation”.

Over the years, the numbers have declined

significantly and one might like to understand why.

The areas this shrike specifically seemed partial to

were certainly not free of heavy grazing. I suspect

the decline is on account of felling of even the thin

thorny trees, and later their replacement by Prosopis

chilensis , which forms dense thickets. L. excubitor

needs open spaces with stunted trees to use as

vantage points and to build nests in. The Baybacked

Shrike L. vittatus has recorded a dramatic decline,

which to my mind is due to the widespread use of

pesticides. This pretty little shrike was a bird of more

intensive cultivation; it also seems to have a

preference for, as indeed S£lim Ali notes most

specifically, “Affects semidesert country ... but

slightly better wooded — with babool groves, etc.”

The babool tree was the first to be wiped out. L.

vittatus is certainly no longer “fairly common” nor

is it as widespread as it formerly was. During the

last two decades, there has been a remarkable

rehabilitation of the native Acacia nilotica and we

may anticipated a resurgence in this attractive

shrike’s numbers. The widespread use of pesticides

too must be seen as having been instrumental in

reduction of all shrikes since they are entirely

carnivorous — large insects and small reptiles being

their mainstay. The very similar Redbacked Shrike

L. collurio is one of those autumn passage migrants

which pass over Kachchh, North Gujarat and

Saurashtra from mid September to the end of

October. S£lim Ali records it as “a not uncommon

passage migrant (regular ?)” but I have, over the

years, come to the conclusion that it is indeed not a

regular passage bird; my doubt is substantiated by

S£lim Ali’s own questioning of the status of this

shrike. During the first birdbanding operation at

Changalra, Kachchh, we saw not a single bird, let

alone mistnet any. I have seen L. collurio at

Hingolgadh during what might have been an

especially heavy inflow. The Rufousbacked Shrike

L. schach continues to be fairly common, though

the breeding range appears to have got restricted,

particularly in the drier parts of Kachchh and

Saurashtra and we need to keep an eye on the status

of our resident, breeding subspecies. The wintering

subspecies continues to be fairly plentiful. The Pale

Brown Shrike is now considered a subspecies of the

Redbacked Shrike and this is now scientifically

named L. collurio phoenicuroides , while a very

similar subspecies is named L.c. isabellina. Both of

these are winter visitors to open cultivation and

drying edges of jheels where they can be confused

with the very similar, less common winter visitor

the Brown Shrike L. cristatus. Shrikes as a group

need some qualitative observation. Their populations

have undoubtedly declined due to a variety of man-

induced pressures. Special attention needs to be given

to our three resident shrikes L. excubitor , L. vittatus

and L. schach .

Family Orioudae : Orioles

Gujarat has two species of Orioles : The

Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus and the Blackheaded

Oriole 0. xanthomus. The former is widespread

among trees in cultivation, more so during winter; it

is, however, a resident nesting species in Gujarat,

Saurashtra and also Kachchh, though in Kachchh

needs confirmation. S£lim Ali’s notation

“Uncommon in Kutch; sporadic solos frequent

elsewhere. Apparently only a winter visitor” is

puzzling. 0. xanthomus was recorded as “common

and resident” south of the Narmada in well wooded

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

359

country. It occurs in the Gir forest, though its present

status needs confirmation.

Family Dicruridae: Drongos

The Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis (this

specific nomenclature has been recently changed!)

is no longer “Common” as in the earlier part of the

century. Numbers have declined, no doubt on account

of widespread use of pesticides. I can confirm S£lim

Ali’s observation of birds migrating to and from

Sind — what he recorded at Nir on the edge of the

Great Rann, I have seen on Pirotan and other islands

to the south of the Gulf of Kachchh. Nesting is, as

noted by S&lim Ali, during the hot season. It is more

a bird of open country, capturing much of its insect

prey from the ground, over crops and grass, unlike

the wintering, though superficially very similar, Grey

Drongo D. leucophaeus. This wintering species

prefers large well crowned trees and is entirely

arboreal, spending much time “flycatching” inside

the trees. It is most certainly more widespread than

supposed; Sllim Ali does not mention Saurashtra

and about Kachchh says “Not met with in Kutch. I

have examined a vagrant shot in the well-wooded

grounds of Vijay Vilas Palace, Bhuj”. Actually this

drongo is common at Gandhinagar, and in the

wooded gardens of Ahmed abad. It is a regular visitor

to Jasdan in Saurashtra and palace compounds of

Gondal should be highly favoured habitats, as would

indeed be the tall corridor forests of the Gir. A

talented mimic, the Whitebellied Drongo D.

caerulescens is a “common, resident” of the well

wooded valleys of the hill country stretching from

Mt. Abu in the north to the Dangs in the south. During

the non-breeding season there is a wide dispersal

into Saurashtra and presumably Kachchh, from

where there seem to be no records! Kachchh

however, has the distinction of a record of a wintering

Haircrested Drongo D. hottentotus procured by MKS

Himmatsinhji in the Vijay Vilas compound at

Mandvi. There are all possibilities of this species

occurring in winter in other well wooded locations,

especially in the Rajpipla and Dangs forests. It is in

these hill forests that the spectacular Greater Racket-

tailed Drongo D. paradiseus successfully evades the

catapults of tribal boys, living high up in tall forest

trees. S&lim Ali, however, records an interesting

observation of one of these fine drongos “imitating

to perfection the call of a Shikra, only to be chased,

killed and eaten by the hawk!”

Family Artamidae: Swallow-Shrike

Salim Ali makes no mention of the Ashy

Swallow Shrike Artamus fuscus , nor have I seen the

bird in Gujarat though Lalsinhbhai Raol has a record

of watching three birds near Rajpipla and there is

every likelihood of it occurring in suitable hill forests

south of the Narmada.

Family Sturnidae: Mynas and Starlings.

Apart from the specimen collected by S&lim Ali

near Ajwa of the Greyheaded Myna Sturnus

malaharica I have no recent information. Even S£lim

Ali fails to make any comments on the species’ status.

I would, however presume S. malaharica is more

plentiful than supposed, spreading north in

nonbreeding season. Both winter migrants, the Rosy

Pastor Sturnus roseus and the Starling S. vulgaris

continue to be as in the 1 940s : The former “Common

and abundant” and the latter “Evidently an uncommon

straggler in winter” though during some winters I have

noted S. vulgaris as common, at other times totally

absent. The Blackheaded Myna S. pagodarum

continues to enjoy the status as noted by Salim Ali

“Uncommon, capricious and local in Kutch; fairly

common in Saurashtra and Gujarat”. I would qualify

this by considering it more plentiful in Gujarat, where

there are still many old trees with cavities for nesting

in. Nest boxes are readily occupied and the species

would indeed make up any decline if provided with

them. Both the Common Myna Acridotheres tristris

and the Bank Myna A. ginginianus are common, the

latter fairly patchy in distribution, this no doubt on

account of its tendency to nest colonially. The

availability of natural and artificial nest holes

encouraging colonial nesting could restrict its spread.

Both mynas have become commensal on human

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

beings, finding food and nesting locations in the most

densely populated urban areas. The Jungle Myna A.

fuscus should be looked out for in the better forested

hill country of south Gujarat.

Family Corvidae: Crows, Tree Pies

Half a century ago, the Indian Tree Pie

Dendrocitta vagabunda was “Common in all the

better wooded portions of the area” but during the

last two decades I have noted a decline in numbers.

For instance, I do not recall noting a Tree Pie in my

otherwise bird-rich Gandhinagar neighborhood. The

decline is difficult to explain, though I suspect faulty

monoculture practices in forestry and the

replacement of large avenue trees bearing figs and

other fruit could well be one of the reasons. It would

be interesting to note whether S61im All's comment

for Surat Dangs “... it is one of the five commonest

bird species in bamboo and mixed deciduous forest

...” still holds true. Wherever found, the bird is fairly

vociferous and can be easily recorded. Birdwatchers

in Kachchh may like to confirm whether the Ranns

have indeed insulated the district from D. vagabunda.

The House Crow Corvus splendens continues to

prosper right across Gujarat while the all black

Jungle Crow C. macrohynchos has a curiously

patchy distribution in Gujarat and Saurashtra,

where it is entirely missing from the central parts of

the peninsula, occurring in the Gir, Girn4r, and on

Beyt and along the northern coast of Saurashtra

till Jamnagar. Its status in Kachchh needs

verification. To see the magnificent Raven C. corax

one must go to the Kachchh edges of the Great and

Little Ranns. Our knowledge is no further improved

beyond Salim Ali’s, who has little to record about its

exact status in our area. I dimly recollect Shivrajkumar

Khachar mentioning the Brownnecked Raven C.

ruficollis during one of his visits to Kachchh — I

mention this merely to urge the several very

knowledgeable birdwatchers of Bhuj to keep a lookout.

Family Bombyciludae:

Waxwings, Silky Flycatchers.

Salim Ali makes no mention of the enigmatic

Grey Hypocolius ampelinus of which he himself had

collected a specimen in Kihim, south of Bombay. Bird

netting in the sixties yielded a pair at Pachham Island

“thirty years after his own ... at Kihim. Had he been

alive today, he would have been glad to learn that (it)

has been recorded for five seasons running from

January 1990 to November 1994. During the Bird

Migration Study and the Grassland Ecology Projects

young J.K. Tiwari reported over a hundred H.

ampelinuf. I quote MKS Himmatsinhji. With Tiwari

now in Kachchh I hope to see my first Hypocoliusl

Family Campephagidae :

Cuckoo Shrikes and Mini vets.

I have yet to see a Pied Flycatcher-Shrike

Hemipus picatus and the large Wood Shrike

Tephrodornis virgatus in Gujarat. Salim Ali records

both in the Surat Dangs. Their exact status needs

confirming. The Common Wood Shrike T.

pondicerianus appears to be holding out all over the

State. They are largely overlooked by most

birdwatchers who give less attention to bird calls.

The Large Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina

novaehollandiae and the smaller Blackheaded

Cuckoo-Shrike C. melanoptera are both best

recorded by their calls. My impression is that cuckoo-

shrikes are more widespread as monsoon nesting

species than is believed. C. melanoptera is quite

vociferous in the scrub jungle around Hingolgadh

and I have heard it in the Sundarvan Nature Centre

in Ahmedabad. The former tends to wander a great

deal outside the nesting season, though nesting

records are needed. Salim Ali emphatically says both

are “absent from Kutch”. There are three mini vets

listed for Gujarat — the Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus

flammeus , the Small Minivet P. cinnamomeus and

the Whitebellied Minivet P. erythropygius. The

Longtailed Minivet P. ethologus of the middle

elevations of the Western Himalaya may straggle

south into the hill forests adjoining Mt. Abu. P.

flammeus is “Resident. Common in hilly bamboo

and mixed deciduous forest” of south Gujarat, while

P. erythropygius is a bird of open thorn jungles

“Resident : Common in Kutch, though rather patchy

and local”. It should also be looked for east of the

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

361

Little Rann in suitable tracts, while in Saurashtra

the bird is found in grasslands of northern Gir and

the Hingolgadh jungle. S£lim Ali’s “rather patchy

and local” in Kachchh is because, I suspect, the

importance of grass admixed with the thorn scrub

being to the species’ preference. At Hingolgadh, as

in Kachchh, both erythropygius and cinnamomeus

share the same habitat, and I have had the

opportunity of closely observing both minivets — it

was evident that erythropygius depends heavily on

slender green grasshoppers, particularly plentiful in

the first flush of tender grass, to feed the young, while

cinnamomeus feeds its young on green grubs and

minute black beetles. The former exclusively built

its nest in the light crowned Acacia Senegal while

the latter used more densely foliaged Acacia nilotica ,

Tamarindus indica, etc. P. cinammomeus is found

throughout Gujarat, overlapping the ranges of P.

erythropygius in the drier northwest andP flammeus

in the moist, well wooded south.

Family Irenidae: loras and Leaf Birds

Gujarat has two species of loras, the Common

lora Aegithina tiphia and Marshall’s Iora A.

nigrolutea. There has been some doubt about A.

nigrolutea being a distinct species, but in Gujarat

the two occupy very distinct habitats, the former

being “fairly common in the well-watered portions

of Gujarat inhabiting cultivated country interspersed

with large trees, groves about villages, roadside

avenues and wooded compounds in towns, as well

as light deciduous forest”. It is also found in the

orchard country of southern Saurashtra from

Junagadh at the base of Mt. Gimar and the arc of the

Gir hills. A. nigrolutea occurs all over the drier parts

of Saurashtra, north Gujarat, and of course Kachchh

where, as at Hingolgadh, it “is common ... to the

complete exclusion of tiphia ”. S£lim Ali confirms

my own observation as follows “I found the call notes

of Marshall’s Iora distinct from those of the common

species ... I found the notes of the two so distinct, in

fact, that after having met the Common Iora all

through Gujarat, I detected the presence of this

species at once by ear ...” In my case, having grown

up listening to A. nigrolutea I immediately

recognised A. tiphia by ear in Ahmedabad and in

my compound trees at Gandhinagar. It would be

interesting to examine the interaction of the two

species along the habitat interface, as along the

northern edge of the Gir forest in Saurashtra or at

Radhanpur in north Gujarat. Salim Ali notes that the

Goldfronted Leaf Bird Chloropsis aurifrons is

“Frequent in deciduous forest”, but did not come

across it north of the Narmada valley. However, my

knowledgeable friend Lalsinh Raol personally told

me he watched one at Chhota Udaipur and the bird

undoubtedly should be occurring in forested

locations well upto the Pavagadh hill in Panch Mahal.

The Goldmantled Leaf Bird C. cochinchinensis has

been recorded by Salim Ali at Pavagadh and further

south in “opener country than the Goldfronted

species”. Perhaps, both chloropses are commoner

than believed, being largely overlooked among the

tall, densely crowned trees they inhabit. I have yet

to see either in Gujarat, though I must admit I have

had few opportunities of intensive birding in

Gujarat’s hill forests.

Family Pycnonotidae : Bulbuls

Salim Ali saw only one pair of the

Red whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus at Waghai

in the Dangs. I myself have never seen this jaunty

bulbul, though there are very suitable habitats all

along the eastern hill country up to Mt. Abu where it

is fairly common. The Gir forest too is eminently

suitable country. The Redvented Bulbul P. cafer

continues to be “Common throughout the area in

every biotope save pure desert (eg. the Great Rann)

...” Numbers, however, have shown a perceptible

decline around Hingolgadh, no doubt suggesting

degradation of the once strictly protected thorn scrub.

The Whitecheeked Bulbul P. leucogenys is common

in association with Salvadora persica and S.

oleoides ; as a result it often shares a habitat with P.

cafer where suitable semidesert country ramifies into

agriculture, as up estuaries of the major rivers. On

the Gulf of Kachchh islands, it is the main bulbul

species. The Whitebrowed Bulbul P. luteolus inhabits

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dense scrub in deeply eroded river banks of mainland

Gujarat, being totally absent in Saurashtra and

Kachchh. Salim Ali recorded it in Mehsana District

north of Ahmedabad, and I have seen it as fairly

numerous in the tangled vegetation and trees

of the Laxmi Vilas Palace grounds in Baroda. A pair

was resident in a small patch of lantana and grass in

the Sundarvan Snake Park in Ahmedabad, suggest-

ing that this bulbul is very parochial and continues

to thrive in the most circumscribed of suitable

habitats.

Family Muscicapidae : Babblers, Flycatchers,

Warblers, Thrushes and Chats

This is a large family and we shall discuss the

species under the subfamilies as by S&lim Ali in his

paper, following the same sequence though priority

has been reshuffled in the synopsis and the pictorial

guide.

i. Subfamily Muscicapinae : Flycatchers

Flycatchers as a group have registered a sharp

decline in the intensely cultivated parts of the State,

both on account of indiscriminate use of pesticides

and the clearing of shrubberies on edges of fields.

Degradation of habitat, thanks to over grazing and

extraction of brushwood for fuel, has reduced

suitable habitats elsewhere; in Kachchh, large areas

of northern Gujarat and parts of Saurashtra, the exotic

Prosopis chilensis has overrun the countryside

almost to the exclusion of indigenous plants and

cannot but exert a limiting role, adversely affecting

a multitude of insectivorous birds, flycatchers,

warblers, and babblers among them. The Spotted

Flycatcher Muscicapa striata , an autumn passage

migrant through Kachchh and Saurashtra, continues

during “the height of passage, between 2nd and 4th

week of September to be fairly common .” S£lim Ali

presumed the Brown Flycatcher M. latirostris to be

a resident in the Dangs, but it has been recorded in

the Gir forest and at Jasdan in Saurashtra by

Shivrajkumar Khachar: the species’ exact status

seems unclear. I was shown one by S£lim Ali in his

Bandra garden during the cool season, so presumably

this forest flycatcher wanders considerably outside

its breeding season. The Redbreasted Flycatcher Af.

parva is no longer as “fairly common” a winter

visitor as a few decades ago, when its clicking sound

was to be heard all over Gujarat in farmland,

suburban compounds and every type of jungle.

Lalsinhbhai Raol personally informed me of his

recording the Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher M.

superciliaris in the lessor hills of northern Gujarat

and again in a temple grove beside the Hathmati

River north east of Ahmedabad. S£lim Ali does not

mention this species and quite apparently, it is more

often than not overlooked for the more widespread

and very similar sounding M. parva. The Tickell’s

Blue Flycatcher M. tickelliae is a common breeding

bird in the Girnar, the Gir and the Dangs, as well as

the shaded hill streams of eastern Gujarat. Salim Ali

notes it as one among the commonest five species in

bamboo and mixed deciduous forests of south

Gujarat. Outside the nesting season this flycatcher

disperses widely and can be expected in shaded

locations all over Saurashtra and Gujarat, though

records from Kachchh are lacking. The Verditer

Flycatcher M. thalassina from the mid elevations in

the Himalaya is a winter visitor to mainland Guajarat.

It has been recorded in the Gir forest and at Jasdan

in Saurashtra by me. The Greyheaded Flycatcher

Culicicapa ceylonensis, Salim Ali presumed to be a

winter visitor, “not common”. This lively little bird

is a regular winter visitor to be looked for in groves

of large trees, and is quite regular and certainly not

uncommon. In Saurashtra it has been seen by me in

the Gir and Girnar forests as well as near Jasdan, it

is a regular winter visitor to Sundarvan Park,

Ahmedabad. Birdwatchers in Bhuj should keep a

look out for this active little bird in the Vijay Vilas

compound atMandvi. Both the Whitebrowed Fan tail

Flycatcher Rhipidura aureola and the smaller

Whitethroated Fantail Flycatcher R. albicollis are

present in mainland Gujarat, absent in Kachchh and

the former occurring in Saurashtra where its range

today has become restricted to the Girnar and Gir

Forests though it was a common bird around Jasdan

in 1940s. Where ever still found, it is partial to mango

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

363

groves and forest clearings. Both fantails can be seen

in Ahmedabad and around Baroda, though/?, aureola

prefers more open situations with large trees, while

R. albicollis is restricted to dense shrubberies and

undergrowth though, as S£lim Ali states, “in

borderline localities the two are sometimes found in

the same patch and even in the same tree!” For the

Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi S£lim Ali

says “The status of the Paradise Flycatcher needs to

be determined”. He hazards a guess that it “is resident

and breeds in the better wooded parts, e.g. Navsari

district, Rajpipla and Surat Dangs, and it has recently

been reported to do in the Gir forest ... by K.S.

Dharmakumarsinhji.” I have seen it during the

breeding season in the Girnar Forest, a pair was

regularly nesting in the lovely Ramparda Vidi near

Wankaner and currently this flycatcher is a regular

breeding bird in the Indroda Park outside

Gandhinagar. During the non-breeding season, birds

turn up almost throughout the State many of the

individuals no doubt being migrants from the North.

The Blacknaped Flycatcher, Hypothymis azurea is

recorded by S£lim Ali as being “Resident. One of

the commonest birds in bamboo, teak and mixed

deciduous forest” of south Gujarat, but non-breeding

birds appear to scatter widely as indicated by S£lim

Ali’s record from Dwarka, and mine from Jamnagar

and Rajkot. In the Gir forest this Flycatcher

presumably breeds and is more plentiful than

believed.

ii. Subfamily Timalinae: Babblers

Of the 124 species on the Indian List under

this subfamily Gujarat has only eight. Of these, the

Spotted Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps , the

Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus and the

Quaker Babbler Alcippe poioicephala are restricted

to the moister hill forests south of the Narmada

valley, though there is a very early record of the last

species from Rajkot! I would personally like to

question this, though S£lim Ali refers to it without

comment. These three forest Babblers seem to have

been fairly common, though we need qualitative

confirmation since there has been considerable

degradation and Songarh so repeatedly mentioned

in S&lim Ali’s paper no longer has forest worth

mentioning. It may be pointed out that Pomatorhinus

horsfieldi occurs far to the north at Mt. Abu and so

there are possibilities of small populations occurring

in remnant jungle in the area in between. The tiny

Rufousbellied Babbler Dumetia hyperythra was

“Common in scrub jungle, particularly where cut up

by ravines” all along the eastern hill country from

near Palanpur in north Gujarat down south and along

the deeply eroded riversides of the major rivers like

the Mahe, Narmada and Tapi. In Saurashtra the bird

was recorded by Dharmakumarsinhji at Bhavnagar,

and by Salim Ali near Kodinar south of the Gir forest.

I have seen this Babbler near Sasan in the Gir.

Elsewhere in Saurashtra, semi-arid parts of north

Gujarat bordering the Rann and Kachchh these

shrubbery loving babblers are absent. The attractive

Yelloweyed Babbler Chrysomma sinense continues

to be “not uncommon” over the entire State though

it disappears where overgrazing thins grass and

tangled shrubberies; over much of central Saurashtra

the bird has been extirperated and its status in

Prosopis chilensis overgrown parts of Kachchh needs

confirmation.

The three remaining babblers are widespread

and are still holding out well There is considerable

overlapping of ranges and a detailed study of the

three would reveal fascinating species habitat

preferences. The Common Babbler Turdoides

caudata is “Common over a. wide range of terrain

from right away on the barren Rann through sandy

cultivation with scrub interspersed, to fairly thick

but dry thorn and scrub jungle... Dry sandy ravines

bordered by Capparis, Zizyphus , Acacia and

Prosopis are its favoured haunts”. This habitat occurs

over Kachchh, much of northern Saurashtra and the

agricultural plains of Gujarat all the way south to

the Mahe estuary and perhaps along the saline coastal

flats till the Narmada; the eroded “badlands” along

these rivers provide favoured habitats well into

otherwise unacceptable areas. S£lim Ali has

frequently mentioned the Rann, an impression being

gained that it is an arid, dry, lifeless desert of perhaps

sand and rocks; that the Ranns are unique

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geographical features is undoubtedly a fact, the

uniqueness has indeed been indicated by Salim Ali

in his Birds of Kachchh : the uniqueness is that the

Ranns are the most expansive of saltpans on earth

and periodically they get inundated by water blown

up by strong southwest monsoon winds from the sea

or by especially high equinoxal tides spilling over;

heavy rains in Rajasthan and north Gujarat send

floods down rivers like the Luni, the Banas and the

Saraswati which debouch onto the Ranns turning

them into shallow seas of clear but highly saline

water. At times, great expanses of the drying Ranns

become encrusted by layers of shimmering salt

crystals giving an impression of a frozen Polar sea!

The Ranns it bears repeating, most certainly are not

deserts of sand and rock like the Thar, the Rub al

Khali or the Sahara. That T. caudata often moves

out on to the dry Ranns is because it feeds on seeds,

insects and spiders blown out by the strong surface

winds so prevalent in these parts.

Salim Ali did not come across either of the

Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus or the Large Grey

Babbler T. malcolmi in Kachchh, though both

babblers were recorded in Kachchh by earlier

European ornithologists. Interestingly, T. striatus is

common in the Gir and areas south of it, but totally

absent across rest of Saurashtra; interestingly an

isolated population survives at Wankaner north of

Jasdan from where a flock was trapped and released

at Hingolgadh two decades ago, the birds have settled

down well. Significantly, though, there has been no

expansion into surrounding areas. In Gandhinagar,

when I moved in, I had both T. caudatus and T.

malcolmi freely patronising the birdtable but there

were no T. striatus. After my compound became

densely foliated followed by a thick leaf litter, a flock

of T. striatus dropped in and now they and I caudatus

share the offerings while T. malcolmi , though present

outside the compound do not come in ! Both the larger

babblers are common throughout Gujarat, keeping to

their favoured habitats, whenever a flock of one

intrudes into the habitat of the other there is a

cacophony of babbler calls till the intrusion is vacated.

While on the subject of babblers it may be

worth recalling an interesting observation. I had

shifted to Gandhinagar in March. To my surprise I

found all the T. malcomi with dark brown breasts! I

had considered collecting a couple of specimens to

send to the Bombay Natural History Society, my

rather poorly developed scientific temper quickening

to the possibility of describing a new subspecies!

Fortunately my zeal as a scientist was not motivating

enough and I did nothing for a month by which time,

the brown breasted babblers had assumed the normal

light colouring! The non violent scientist in me was

piqued and I began to ask questions: the answer

flashed upon me when I realised that the coral trees

which were in full bloom at the time of my shift had

lost their inflorescences — the brown on the breasts

was on account of the dark brown pollen. Next March

I confirmed this explanation and further noted that

the Blackheaded Mynas also had their breasts

smudged. Pollination of these “birdflowers” was

done by the pollen brushing off on to the breasts and

not the foreheads of the birds! Enough on babblers,

let us move on.

iii. Subfamily Sylvinae : Warblers

Warblers are a confusing group and there is

very little qualitative information to add to S£lim

Ali’s notes of half a century ago. There is, perhaps,

considerable data awaiting research in the records

of the huge numbers of birds mistnetted in the ’60s

and 70s. The most significant was the adding of a

large warbler — the Thickbilled Warbler

Acrocephalus aedon ; this wetland vegetation bird

was overlooked all along for the very similar Indian

Great Reed Warbler A. stentoreus. A. aedon is a

winter visitor which, it would appear, is widespread

and not uncommon. A. stentoreus more vocal though

equally a skulker in dense reeds where S&lim Ali

found it “fairly common”. He makes no notation to

the effect that it is a winter visitor. This is what it

was believed to be till it was found calling loudly

among mangrove thickets of the Gulf of Kachchh, I

suspect it nests in the Pirotan mangrove swamp north

of Jamnagar, as well as on the major islands of

Bhaidar, Nora and Chank at the entrance of the Gulf.

The Paddyfield Warbler A. agricola was very

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

365

plentiful in reedbeds during winter but with the

desiccation and destruction of reeds across

Saurashtra and Kachchh, the status of this Warbler

and the Blyth’s Reed Warbler A. dumetorum need

checking. “Curiously,” as S£lim Ali notes, “...not

met with at all in Kutch, Saurashtra or elsewhere in

Gujarat” but if I recollect clearly, many were indeed

netted and A. dumetorum is a bird more of Acacia

thickets. S£lim Ali makes no mention of the

Moustached Sedge Warbler A. tnelanonogon, again

a case no doubt of its being a great skulker during

winter. I recall the late Shivrajkumar Khachar

mentioning it and I myself seeing what I suspected

was this bird on a couple of occasions. The reedbeds

are gone and so, presumably with them, this species.

Another skulking reedbed Warbler similar to

A. melanopogon and perhaps confused with it is the

wintering Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia ,

which Salim Ali collected near Cambay and observed

on wetlands around Baroda. Perhaps this bird is

widespread though “not common or abundant ...

usually flushed in likely patches ...tall standing or

flattened down grass at the edge of drying-up tanks

or in swampy depressions”. Salim Ali failed to meet

the Bristled Grass Warbler Chaetomis striatus which

Capt. A.E. Butler found “not uncommon about Deesa

(north Gujarat) in the rains at which season it breeds”.

Grass, whether wet or dry as in the grass reserves of

Kachchh and Saurashtra, is a favoured haunt of the

tiny Streaked Fan tail Warbler Cisticola juncidis. It

is a monsoon breeding bird, the little males drawing

attention to themselves by their “zigzag chip-

chipping” soaring display flight. I found these little

birds on the sand islands of Bhayder in the Gulf of

Kachchh.

Sharing very similar habitat along the sea coast

from Beyt and on to the sand dune grasslands

bordering the Ranns in Kachchh is the tiny, but very

longtailed Streaked Wren-Warbler Prinia gracilis ,

recorded by Salim Ali in Kachchh, on the “Beyts”

in the Little Rann and at the head of the Gulf of

Khambhat near the old seaport of that name. I

recorded it on each of the grass covered dune islands

of Pirotan, Karumbhar, Bhayder and Hanuman Dandi

of Beyt along the southern side of the Gulf of

Kachchh. Another widespread warbler is the Plain

Wren Warbler P subflava which inhabits edges of

wetlands, standing millet and grassy verges of fields,

as well as young sugarcane. It continues to be a

“common, resident”. The attractive Ashy Wren-

Warbler P. socialis appears to be absent in Kachchh.

It is very localised in Saurashtra but widespread

in Gujarat, preferring better vegetation both along

streams, and in farmland and gardens. In

Gandhinagar, it is a confiding inmate of my

garden.

Two wren- warblers with very specific habitat

preferences are the tiny Rufousff onted Wren- Warbler

P. buchanani and the large Jungle Wren-Warbler P.

sylvatica. The former is “Resident. Affects dry

sparsely scrubbed semidesert country” sharing the

habitat of the Redwinged Bush Lark, both birds being

common in the preferred habitat across Saurashtra,

north Gujarat and Kachchh. P. sylvatica appears to

prefer taller grass and a heterogenous admixture of

shrubs and small trees, and is distributed all over the

State. Its present status in Kachchh needs

confirmation as does its continued presence in central

Saurashtra where considerable damage has been done

to protected grasslands. The least demanding in

habitat other than perhaps the most arid is the tiny

Franklin’s Wren-Warbler P. hodgsonii which

continues to be “Resident. Common and gene-

rally distributed” all over the State. This little warbler,

like P. socialis and the Tailor Bird Orthotomus

sutorius , stitches leaves of fast growing monsoon

herbs, thereby optimally exploiting ephemeral

vegetation in the most degraded of habitats.

Interestingly, P. hodgsonii has a longer tail dur-

ing the non-breeding period and has the grey upper

parts replaced by brown, making for confusion in

identity.

The perky Tailor Bird Orthotomus sutorius

continues to thrive throughout the State and the loud

call is heard even in the smallest of gardens in rapidly

expanding urban sprawls. Reading through Sdlim

Ali’s paper I was thrilled to learn that under pressure

of the absence of broad-leaved plants in Kachchh,

“The bird builds a nest of the Cisticola type, woven

out of vegetable down with a number of narrow

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leaves sewed to it at the sides for support.” This

explains the versatility of the little bird; at my bird

table, it feeds on chapati crumbs and bananas along

with the mynas and bulbuls.

The remaining species of warblers belong to

three genera, one among them is an autumn passage

migrant, the rest are winter visitors. It takes

considerable experience to identify the members of

this entire group, except for the Orphean Warbler

Sylvia hortensis, from one another in the field.

Though not shy and permitting fairly close

observation, their restless movements while hunting

insects among thickets of thorn, and among foliage

of trees makes it difficult to register the minor

differences. Some of the tiny Phylloscopus species

are difficult to identify even in the hand. Experience

goes a long way in recognizing the species as I learnt

fairly early when going out with the Delhi Bird

Watchers’ Club under the guidance of the legendary

Horace Alexander to whom S£lim Ali deferred in

opinion on the “Little Brown Jobs”. Most amateur

birdwatchers of the present time are abysmally

ignorant where warblers and pipits go, and we may

never really get substantial field information. Over

the years, I have noticed a very dramatic decline in

the number of all the wintering warblers. This, I

suspect, is largely due to habitat alteration and

degradation. One of the best methods of identifying

individual species was by the locale it was seen in

— for example the Booted Warbler Hippolais

caligata was “abundant between September and

January” in “babul, Khandi, and similar scrub jungle,

keeping to the canopy (italics mine). A continual

“harsh chuck , chuck or churr, churf ’ draws attention

and assists in identification. Sdlim Ali indicates the

possibility of this warbler being resident, but there

is no confirmation to the effect. The Lesser

WhitethroatSy/v/tf curruca continually utters a “low

tek, tek, tek like the clicking of one’s tongue against

the palate” as this formerly “common, abundant and

widely spread winter visitor” restlessly hunts among

its preferred babool and kandi groves and

hedgerows. Apart from the sound, the distinctive

white throat stands out to advantage. S. curruca has

three subspecies wintering with us; formerly these

were considered separate species and we used to

spend considerable time deciding whether the bird

in sight was S. curruca , S . althaea or S. minula. The

WhitethroatS. communis is no longer an “abundant”

passage migrant following the retreat of the SW

Monsoon in September. Kachchh and Saurashtra are

on the eastern edge of this bird’s outward migration

route and the alteration in habitat most certainly has

reduced the numbers. Of course, most birdwatchers

today tend to go out birdwatching in winter and then

too, gloss over the warblers. A very attractive and

really quite distinctive wintering bird in tamarisk and

Acacia Senegal thickets is the not common though

regular Desert Warbler S . nana. Kachchh and the

edges of the Little Rann in Saurashtra is where one

should go in search of this quietly attractive

warbler.

As a group, the several Leaf Warblers are

distinctive with their small size, restless movement

among foliage and flicking of wings. Identifying the

various species of these wintering birds, however, is

another matter. I was rather fortunate in that I was

introduced to the group early in life in Delhi which,

during the 1950s, was a birding capital. One needs

to be very committed and regular birder to be able

to remember the distinctive calls and identification

formulae of one or two wing bars, a bar down the

crown, and other colour combinations of greens,

browns and yellows. We would be advised to be very

cautious like S£lim Ali who was always very

concerned not to be wrong! The Brown Leaf Warbler

Phylloscopus collybita is perhaps the commonest and

most widespread, with a distinct preference for

babool and waterside shrubs, less so in dry

hedgerows where it could be confused with the very

similar Hippolais caligata , barring the flicking of

its wings. The Olivaceous Leaf Warbler P. griseolus

has a very distinctive habit of operating on boles of

trees and rock outcrops instead of among foliage and

herein lies its identification character; Hingolgadh

and situations like it are this warbler’s preferred

habitat where, though not common, it continues to

be regular. The other Gujarat Phylloscopii are the

Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler P. inomatus easier to

identify by its lisping “tis yip, tis yip ” call, the Dull

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

367

Green Leaf Warbler P. trochiloides with a high

pitched " chiwee ”, the Large Crowned Leaf Warbler

P. occipitalis which is usually overlooked, being

silent and partial to taller trees, and the Tytler’s Leaf

Warbler P tytleri , a bird I have yet to record to my

satisfaction. S£lim Ali records it as “not uncommon”

in the Dangs. I am sure other Leaf Warblers drop in,

especially in better forested locations, but are largely

overlooked for the reasons indicated earlier. A

serious birdwatcher with an academic bent of mind

may well produce a scholarly paper on habitat

preferences of our wintering warblers, highlighting

the need for qualitative afforestation instead of the

present efforts.

iv. Subfamily Turdinae : Thrushes, Robins and

Chats

This subfamily has ninety three species on the

subcontinent’s list, most of which are Himalayan

and of Oriental origin. Others are winter migrants

from temperate Eurasia with races breeding in the

high Himalaya and still others, especially chats, from

the deserts of Southwest Asia and Arabia. Only eight

are resident or likely to be so in Gujarat; of these,

the Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata continues to

be a “common” resident freely associating with

human beings, with a penchant for placing its nest

in cornices under eves of houses and fuse boxes of

lamp posts in Gandhinagar.

The Brown Rock Chat Cercomela fusca is

endemic to India. It can be overlooked as a female

Indian Robin though it never cocks its tail. The hill

forts of Kachchh and the rocky outcrops north of

Palanpur are this chat’s home where it is “not

uncommon”. It was with great surprise that I saw a

bird on the ruined temple of Harshad on the west

coast of Saurashtra north of Porbandar. I would not

be surprised if this chat is found on the rocks of the

Barda Hills near Porbandar. A pair was seen on rocks

of a narrow gorge in Panch Mahals north of the Mahi

by Pranav Trivedi and identification confirmed by

Lalsinhbhai Raol.

The fine voiced magpie Robin Copsychus

saularis is absent in Kachchh, but is a breeding bird

over much of Gujarat and Saurashtra wherever old

mature trees survive. In non-breeding season this bird

scatters over a wider area, affecting tangled

shrubberies and hedgerows where it is joined by the

Blackbird Turdus merulus which was — atleast till

very recently — exceedingly common as a breeding

bird at Mt. Abu. S£lim Ali says it is “absent” in

Kachchh and he had not come across it in Saurashtra

though it was a regular nonbreeding visitor to gardens

at Jasdan. The shaded high corridor forests of the

Gir and Girnar are eminently suitable for it.

Incidentally, C. saularis is particularly plentiful in

the Gir. The Blackbird’s nesting on the higher hills

of Gujarat like lessor in the north, adjacent to Mt.

Abu and those of Rajpipla and the Dangs needs to

be confirmed. The exact status of the Orangeheaded

Ground Thrush Zoothera citrina also needs

checking; S£lim Ali came across a single bird in

South Gujarat but is unsure of the species’ status.

The Malabar Whistling Thrush Myophonus

horsfieldii was recorded by him in the south where

its present status needs confirmation as does the

possibility of its occurring in the Rajpipla hill forests.

The importance of regular bird watching by amateurs

cannot be over emphasised and we have a fine

example of the record of a very unusual winter

visitor, the Dark Thrush Turdus obscurus at

Porbandar on the western seaboard of Saurashtra.

This thrush is a winter migrant to the Oriental Region

from Eastern Siberia where in breeds. In India there

have been very few observations by earlier

birdwatchers. The Porbandar record being the most

recent by Lalsinhbhai Raol who in the late sixties

and seventies was habituated to go birdwatching to

selected locations every weekend. He as was his

habit took down careful notes on the spot and not

finding the bird in his run of the mill books, went

out again the next morning — which tortuitously

was a holiday — and found the bird rumaging among

litter under dense babool shrubberies as on the

previous day. He took further careful notes and sent

them onto me and I could immediately identify the

species from Stuart Baker’s fauna. This brings me

to another point Sdlim Ali always urged, to the point

of nagging, birdwatchers, he insisted, must

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immediately make notes and not leave things to

memory — an ommission, I have sadly been

indulging in through my own half a century of

watching.

The tiny Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata is a

resident in open hill country of South Gujarat, though

elsewhere it is a winter visitor from north India along

with the Stone Chat S. torquata, both species being

common in fallow cultivation and on the edges of

drying jheels in Kachchh, Saurashtra and Gujarat.

Numbers appear to have thinned out, no doubt on

account of the indiscriminate use of pesticides

resorted to in the 1970s. There has been a very

perceptible drop in numbers of these formerly “fairly

common and abundant” Black Redstart Phoenicurus

ochruros all over the state in cultivation, along nallas

in scrub and dry deciduous forest, and on old

monuments. The decline is undoubtedly on account

of pesticides, among other deleterious factors like

changes in cropping and degradation of vegetation

quality.

Both the Blue Rock Thrush Monticola

solitarius and the Blueheaded Rock Thrush M.

cinclorhynchus are winter visitors, the former to

rocky coasts, prominent hills and large buildings, in

use and in ruins, abandoned quarries and the like,

while the latter in forest country, principally of south

Gujarat though it has been recorded on several

occasions at Hingolgadh in central Saurashtra and I

am convinced it visits the lessor hills close to Mt.

Abu where there was an early record. It should be

looked for in the Girnar and Gir forests.

Sdlim Ali has no record of the Blue Chat

Erithacus brunneus , a bird well known for its

supposed nonstop flight from the Himalaya to the

Nilgiris and associated high hills of Kerala and

further south in Sri Lanka, however I have recorded

a female at Hingolgadh after a violent thunderstorm

in late September, when interestingly enough S£lim

Ali was visiting with us. Undoubtedly, this was a

storm tossed migrant blown off its normal epic flight.

The Bluethroat E. svecicus continues to be a

“common, and locally abundant” winter visitor

favouring reedbeds and sedges on wet ground,

irrigated winter wheat and lucerne and suchlike

locations. Though normally seen when flushed, it is

not a shy bird and can be watched hopping on the

ground at fairly close range when the Redspotted

and the Whitespotted races can be made out in the

males. In March, prior to emigration, males may be

seen on telegraph wires singing vigorously. During

September, Kachchh and the northern half of

Saurashtra (Hingolgadh inland and the Jamnagar

coast) have the attractive Rufous Chat Erythropygia

galactotes passing through on its way to wintering

grounds in Africa. The numbers tend to fluctuate

from one autumn to another; it is a very attractive

little bird, quite un-chatlike in deportment and worth

making a special effort to see.

To conclude this section we are left with the

several species of Oenanthe chats, all of which are

partial to semidesert and desert facies. They are all

winter visitors and range from common to

uncommon from Kachchh in the northwest towards

east and south. The Isabel line Chat O. isabellina and

the slightly smaller Desert Chat 0. desertii are fairly

plentiful on edges of salt deserts, heavily grazed

pastures, dried margins of reservoirs and coastal sand

dunes. The Redtailed Chat 0. xanthoprymna is a bird

of desert country around the edges of the Ranns

specially with rocky outcrops. There are old records

from the base of Mt. Abu and Morvi in Saurashtra.

I have seen it near Jasdan and below Hingolgadh.

The Pied Chat 0. picata is inexplicably no longer

“very common and abundant in Kutch and the

semidesert western portions of N. Gujarat.” It was

equally abundant in the hill pastures of Saurashtra.

The decline was noticed by myself and pointed out

to Shivrajkumar Khachar in the Jasdan area some

two and a half decades ago; the reasons are puzzling.

This chat is polymorphic and has three very distinct

colour phases, one all black, one with a white crown

and the more plentiful one without a white crown

and a white lower breast and abdomen. The last

colour phase can be confused with the Hume’s chat

O. alboniger of Baluchistan, and the white crown

phase with Pleschanka’s Chat 0. pleschanka and the

very similar Hooded Chat 0. monacha. The former

breeds in the arid mountains of NWFP, Gilgit,

Ladakh and Lahaul, while the latter is a winter visitor

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

369

to the Mekran Coast — there are possibilities of these

three desert species appearing on the hills of

Pachchham, Khadir and Bela south of the Great Rann

in particularly severe winters.

Family Paridae: Tits

Three species of tit occur in Gujarat, the

endemic Whitewinged Black Tit Parus nuchalis , the

Grey Tit P. major and the Yellowcheeked Tit P.

xanthogenys. P. nuchalis needs to be carefully

monitored since Kachchh and adjacent rock hills of

B alar am and similar rocky outcrops further south

are its main habitat, this tit was recorded by S£lim

Ali as “fairly common in Kutch but capriciously

patchy”. The immense alterations in vegetation in

Kachchh and northern Gujarat, thanks to

unimaginative blanket plantations of Prosopis

chilensis cannot but have had an adverse effect. P.

major is patchily distributed in the better wooded

parts of Gujarat and in the Giraar and Gir forests in

Saurashtra, though it is absent from those areas

inhabited by P. nuchalis in north Gujarat and

curiously absent from most of Saurashtra and the

agricultural areas of central Gujarat. Since P. major

has been recorded near the base of Mt. Abu not far

from Balaram, the ecological imperatives of the two

species would make a fascinating study. The

handsome Yellowcheeked Tit P xanthogenys has a

patchy distribution in forested hill country along the

eastern edge of the State, the locations recorded by

Salim Ali being Hathidhara near Mt. Abu, the

Rajpipla hill forests south of the Narmada and the

Dangs further south. The present status in these

specific locations calls for investigation.

Family Sittedae: Nuthatches and Tree Creepers

The beautiful Velvetfronted Nuthatch Sitta

frontalis was found to be “fairly common” in moist

deciduous forests of south Gujarat, and the Spotted

Grey Creeper Salpornis spilonotos was “not

uncommon” in such ecologically diverse situations

as around Deesa on the edge of the Rann in north

Gujarat and in the teak forests of Rajpipla! I myself

heard a song which I believe was of this species in a

babul grove near Ahmedabad. We need current

information on both these little birds which

presumably are resident in Gujarat. Their continued

presence may well confirm the health of the forest

ecosystems they inhabit, which may, by and large

appear to be badly damaged.

Family Motacillidae: Pipits and Wagtails

Like the warblers, pipits are a very neglected

group of birds. Identifying the different species

requires considerable experience and very regular

observation. Except for the Paddyfield Pipit Anthus

novae see landiae, all the others are winter visitors.

Our resident pipit occurs in cultivation and on grassy

verges of jheels over much of the State. S£lim Ali

noted it as “a common resident species”. I am not

sure the position remains the same. The migratory

pipits often sharing the same habitat as the resident

species should actually make for exciting bird

identification and amateur birdwatchers should spend

more time unraveling their seemingly confusing

identities. The first two are the Indian Tree Pipit

Anthus hodgsoni and the very similar Tree Pipit A.

trivialis. S£lim Ali considers the former as

“uncommon” and the latter as “rare in Kutch and

common and abundant in Gujarat and Saurashtra”.

The Tawny Pipit A. campestris continues to be even

now “common and abundant”, especially on open

pastures and stony plateaux. The Red throated Pipit

A. cervinus is not common and this view was held

also by Dharmakumarsinhji, though I suspect it is

often overlooked. The same may be true of the

Vinaceousbreasted Pipit A. roseatus and the Water

Pipit A. spinoletta , specimens of the former were

collected by Dharmakumarsinhji, and examined by

S£lim Ali and the latter unsatisfactorily identified as

such by S£lim Ali. The rather large and dark Brown

Rock Pipit A. similis is not uncommon as indeed

Salim Ali found it to be in dry, rocky country by

preference. There are specific demands by each

species and the location of sighting could help field

identification immensely, but being migrants and

with habitats all heavily disturbed by human activity,

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birds may turn up anywhere. Even so, qualitative,

very patient observation over several years may be

most enlightening, specially in understanding how

confusingly similar species indeed maintain their

specific identity.

On the other hand, wagtails in their full

breeding plumage are a delight to watch and easy to

identify. Confusion however, is generated at the time

of their arrival in September and October, when a

large number are juveniles and have yet to don their

adult plumage. By March, just before they migrate

to the Himalaya and beyond, all the birds are in

brilliant nuptial attire and flocks of them on cropped

grass beside water or in irrigated plots are a feast for

the eyes. Broadly, among the wintering Wagtails we

have the Pied or White Wagtail Motacilla alba with

white underparts, french grey upper parts and varying

amounts of black on the crown and breast; the several

subspecies of the Yellow Wagtail M. flava with

yellow underparts and greenish grey upperparts; the

two subspecies of Yellowheaded Wagtail M. citreola

and the Grey Wagtail M. cinerea with a light yellow

wash, especially on the abdomen and vent and light

ashy grey above. M. cinerea tends to be a solitary

bird, to be looked for beside shady forest streams

and along roads in well wooded compounds. It is

uniformly distributed in suitable locations throughout

the State, though the ideal locations are along the

hill streams from Mt. Abu south to the Dangs and

the Girnar and Gir forests. Before migrating, the

males become lemon yellow on the lower parts, with

a black throat. The several subspecies of Yellow

Wagtails in full plumage are so distinctive that they

were formerly considered separate species. Salim Ali

collected the Greyheaded Yellow Wagtail M. flava

thunbergi , the Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail M. f

beema and the Blackheaded Yellow Wagtail M.f

melanogriseus during the surveys, later all the

subspecies were trapped in mistnets. Yellow wagtails

formerly used to literally swarm over irrigated fields

and collect in large roosts in reedbeds along withM.

alba and swallows, their numbers have sharply

declined undoubtedly on account of the heavy,

indiscriminate use of pesticides. M. alba was a

common sight on lawns of palaces and large houses

of the elite, and with the break up of properties and

lawns being abandoned, this bird is now less

frequently seen within urban settings. Pesticides too

have reduced their numbers. Of the two subspecies

of M. alba , Salim Ali mentions only M. a. dukhuensis

though M.a. per sonata has been seen on several

occasions at Jasdan. The Society’s mistnetting data

may help us to update our subspecific knowledge of

both M. flava and M. alba. Both subspecies of the

Yellowheaded Wagtail M. citreola occur with us;

never swarming as M. flava did, they are still fairly

common though more in solos among other Wagtails

on the grassy verges of irrigation tanks. Like the

pipits, the Wagtails show very distinct habitat

preferences which need to be studied. S£lim Ali has

the following to say about the resident Large Pied

Wagtail M. maderaspatensis “Resident. Local and

uncommon in Kutch and Saurashtra, more generally

distributed in Gujarat though nowhere abundant.”

The position remains the same today though heavy

pollution of all water courses in Gujarat and their

disiccation in Kachchh and Saurashtra have had

adverse effects on numbers.

About the Forest Wagtail M. indica S£lim Ali’s

observations remain true “Winter visitor. Rare.

Sporadic solos met with in moist deciduous biotope.”

His conjecture that it “possibly occurs” in the Gir

forest of Junagadh (Saurashtra)” has, to the best of

my knowledge, been proved true. To see this unusual

wagtail, which wags its tail from side to side, the

best bet would be to quietly walk along forest streams

of the Rajpipla hills or those of the Dangs. I have

yet to add this species to my life list.

Family Dicaedae: Flowerpeckers

Family Nectarinidae: Sunbirds

Family Zosteropedae: White-eyes

Gujarat has two species of flowerpeckers, the

Thickbilled Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile and the

Tickelf s FlowerpeckerD. erythrorhynchos. Both are

tiny, very nondescript birds and so are largely

overlooked. According to S£lim Ali, flowerpeckers

are absent in Kachchh and there is no record of them

in Saurashtra. D. agile , however, is not uncommon

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

371

in Saurashtra among large trees, and undoubtedly

also intrudes into Kachchh. D. erythrorynchos

however is indeed restricted to areas south of

Vadodara where “as elsewhere, inseparable from

clumps of the Loranthus plant parasite infesting

mango and other trees.” S&lim Ali mentions the

possibility of a third species, the Plaincoloured

Flowerpecker D. concolor , occurring in the Dangs.

Any takers? All three are tiny and nondescript.

The Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica is an

exuberant presence throughout Gujarat from flowering

Capparis aphylla overhanging the saline expanses of

the Ranns, sand dune islands in the Gulf of Kachchh

overgrown by Salvadora persica , to the moist

evergreen forests of the Dangs. The Rajpipla forests

are the northernmost limits of the Yellowbacked

Sunbird Aethopyga siparaja which Silim Ali found

“common in the Surat Dangs”. It is in the Dangs that a

look out needs to be kept for the two Western Ghats

sunbirds — the Small Sunbird Nectarinia minima and

the Loten’s Sunbird — N. lotenia. S&lim Ali has only

“a single unconfirmed sight record” of the

Purplerumped Sunbird N. zeylonica, though resident

birdwatchers of Vadodara and Surat may well come

across a good many more. I have always found this

otherwise brightly plumaged sunbird quite easy to

overlook as it flits atop tall trees and I suspect I have

actually been watching this bird casually in the fine

foliage trees of Sayaji Baug, of Vadodara.

The White-eye Zosterops palpebrosa is

common all over Gujarat and Saurashtra among all

types of trees. I am sure it is also present in Kachchh

where Salim Ali did not come across it, since it is

drawn to Salvadora trees in flower and fruit right

out on to islands in the Gulf of Kachchh and inhabits

mangroves as well. Rocks of white-eyes are very

mobile and the bird spreads about over the entire

region in the nonbreeding season. Nesting, however,

is in more restricted, better wooded parts of the State.

We need actual nesting records.

Family Ploceidae: Weaverbirds and Sparrows

Family Fringillidae: Buntings and Finches

The House Sparrow Passer domesticus

continues to be “ubiquitous” in cultivation and

around human habitation, whether in densely

populated urban settings or around isolated shelters

of shepherds in seeming wilderness. Birds, especially

in urban areas, assemble in huge flocks to roost in

favoured trees, often drawing a Shikra which benefits

by picking off a sparrow from among the melee.

S&lim Ali graphically writes about these concourses

thus “When shooting down into the thickets, or flying

out on alarm the whir of their thousand wings was

like surf breaking in the distance.” Such huge

numbers of seed eaters, it would appear, are an

unmitigated disaster to farmers, yet P domesticus ,

like its ubiquitous cousin the Baya Ploceus

philippinus , rear their young on green caterpillars

and other insects which would wreak incalculable

damage on young monsoon crops. Salim Ali has a

very valuable observation which I quote since it bears

emphasizing that birds are invaluable pest controllers

and there is no need to systematically poison the

countryside by spraying insecticides. He writes thus:

“In the town of Bhuj the young were fed very largely

on a green defoliating caterpillar which was

swarming on googar ( Balsamodendron mukul ) and

other bushes, denuding them completely of the newly

sprouting leaves.”

Both the Blackthroated Weaver P.

benghalensis and the Streaked Weaver P. manyar

need to be carefully recorded for their nesting. Salim

Ali had not recorded the latter and had collected five

of the former in Kheda District south of Ahmed ah ad.

He suggests that the sexes segregate into male and

female flocks outside the breeding season which

coincides, as it does in case of the Baya Weaver P

philippinus , with the southwest monsoon, when

insects are at their maximum. In non-breeding

plumage the three species of weavers are difficult to

tell apart. P. philippinus continues to be ubiquitous

and nesting colonies are to be seen everywhere. They

have taken to nesting, often singly, in suburban

gardens!

The Yellowthroated Sparrow Petronia

xanthocollis is perhaps less “common and abundant”

than a couple of decades ago for it is a bird of light

jungle interspersed by cultivation. It was found all

over the State in Kachchh and Saurashtra, as well as

372

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

in the better wooded South. Interestingly, this

sparrow prefers holes and cracks in trees for nesting

in and is less partial to such accommodation available

in buildings; habitat degradation and the spread of

the very competitive House Sparrow should be

seen as reasons for the apparent decline of P.

xanthocollis.

Among the munias, the pretty Red Munia

Estrilda amadava is rather locally distributed in

Gujarat, affecting reedbeds where it nests. Stray

occurrences have been reported from various

locations in Saurashtra. There is need for more

detailed information. The attractive green Munia E.

formosa is to be looked for in grass jungles of the

eastern hills from near Palanpur in the north to

Rajpipla and the Dangs in the south. For this Central

Indian species, Gujarat would appear to be on the

western edge of its range, we have no authentic

records. The Whitethroated Munia Lonchura

rnalabarica is the most widespread of the munias,

happily occurring in habitats from near desert to

cultivation bordering on forest in the South. Its

southward spread appears to be in consonance with

the habitat degradation in former forest areas and

the incursion of grasslands and cultivation. On the

other hand, the Whitebacked muniaL. striata appears

to be restricted to the Dangs. The spotted Munia L.

punctulata is more widespread in Gujarat south of

Vadodara, though I have seen them in the Gir forest

in Saurashtra.

Our resident buntings are the Striolated

Bunting j Ember iza striolata and the Crested Bunting

Melophus lathami. The former is locally found in

Kachchh, Saurashtra and north Gujarat, very partial

to rocky hillocks; at Nir on the edge of the Great

Rann, numbers collect to drink at watering places

for cattle, along with Little Brown Doves and

Redvented Bulbuls. S£lim Ali also makes special

mention of this. M. lathami is a bird of grass and dry

scrub of the type in the Panch Mahal and Rajpipla

along degraded riverain country. Gujarat’s eastern

hill borders appear to be the western limit of this

bunting’s continental range. The other three common

buntings — the Greynecked Bunting Emberiza

buchanani , Blackheaded Bunting E. melanocephala

and the Redheaded Bunting E. brunniceps — are

winter visitors in fairly large numbers, the former

favouring drier, open rocky country of Kachchh and

Saurashtra, while the latter two assemble in huge

flocks in agriculture. Formerly, they were well spread

out in monsoon crops of millets and sorghum, but

with groundnut becoming the major rainy season

crop in Saurashtra these buntings have moved away.

Central Gujarat remains the main area for these two

buntings, though on passage in autumn and spring

they may be plentiful in Kachchh and Saurashtra.

S£lim Ali makes no mention of other wintering

Emberiza , however, I have seen a fine specimen of

the Whitecapped Bunting E. stewarti near

Hingolgadh, while Shivrajkumar and I identified a

pair of Little Bunting E. pusilla near Jasdan and we

mistnetted several Ortolan Buntings E. hortulana at

Hingolgadh. These last, should be recorded in

BNHS’s birdbanding database.

Among the Fringillinae, the Common

Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus is a fairly common

winter visitor, generally distributed over the entire

area with largest concentrations in the agricultural

champaign of central Gujarat from Mehsana south

to Baroda, where it mixes freely with the

Blackheaded Bunting E. melanocephala. The scarlet

males are surprisingly unobtrusive, and attention is

drawn to the birds only when a flock flies up and

settles along electric wires crossing fields when their

generally dark colouring, thick bills and distinctly

forked tails are observed. Birdwatchers in Kachchh,

have recently reported sighting the Trumpeter

Bullfinch Carpodacus githagineus in Kachchh,

which brings me to the end of this overview of the

birds of the Gujarat region.

Conclusion

As I went over Salim Ali’s two part paper

published in the early 1950s, I was struck by the man’s

diligence on the one hand, yet realised how limiting

such time-based collection surveys can be. The

importance of regular birdwatching through the years

and ofcourse meticulous recording of observations

cannot be over emphasized, as I realise to my own

chagrin. When I look for dates of my own records, I

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT: A CENTENARY OVERVIEW

373

cannot lay my hands on any: I do not have careful

notes of the half century of bird watching which got

me to know such outstanding ornithologists like

General Harold Williams, Horace Alexander,

Dharmakumarsinhji, Humayun Abdulali and of course

S&lim Ali. If younger birdwatchers today feel I

encourage them without hesitation, it is because of my

own vivid memories of how much these giants of

yesteryear encouraged me, and if at times I dampen

youthful excuberances for recording rare sightings, it

is because I remember S£lim Ali, cajoling me to be

cautious and extremely methodical. I am saddened to

find that just when awareness for the environment has

grown, amateur birdwatchers are playing a less

meaningful role. While birdwatching fiestas like the

annual waterfowl censuses and anniversary bird counts

are to be welcomed, it is the day to day observations,

the simple act of putting out food on bird tables, or

hanging birdboxes that are needed to generate a

populace-wise concern for the decline in birds as a

whole.

I am aghast at how the giants, for all their field

expertise, failed to highlight strongly the importance

of indigenous vegetation for native birds this perhaps

is a pointer to the fact that the tendancy to plant

exotics, almost to the exclusion of native species had

not been as prevalent then as during the intervening

decades. Though S£lim Ali’s paper does have an

underscoring of ecological imperatives and there is

a continual reference to Prosopis as a bird tree,

irresponsible, or at best ignorant, promoters of

Prosopis chilensis across the Gujarat countryside

may use this as a justification for their actions,

claiming for the intrusive alien the highest of

biological significance quoting no less an authority

than S£lim Ali it must be pointed out that S£lim Ali’s

Prosopis is the fine desert treeP. spicigera variously

known as “Khijado,” “Khijadi,” “Sami” or “Khandi,”

indigenous of the desert tracts of Kachchh,

Saurashtra, north and central Gujarat and the desert

regions of Marwar in Rajasthan. Significantly S£lim

Ali does not mention P. chilensis the “Gando Bawal”

of Saurashtra and “Hadkayo Bawal” of Kachchh so

dear to the heart of professional foresters. Today this

tree dominates extensive areas and the ecological

fallouts have yet to be evaluated. Conservation of

birds, whether it be through improving grassland

management for the Great Indian Bustard and the

Lesser Florican, the care of wetlands for safeguarding

nesting sites for the Sarus Crane, the cleaning up of

sewage and industrial wastes from rivers to

rehabilitate the Pied Kingfisher or the protection of

tall timber forests to help the Black Woodpecker to

survive, the needs of the birds are the needs of the

people and herein lies the necessity of shedding any

apologetic attitudes towards our concern for birds.

Any action taken will merely enrich the human

environment.

TWENTIETH CENTURY CHANGES IN THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

T.J. Roberts1

Invited by a former colleague of Dr. Salim Ali

and eminent member of our Society to contribute

such an article, I do so with some hesitation. Any

attempt to comment on the changes in population

levels or status of birds during the past ninety years

or so, must remain largely on a speculative and

anecdotal level, rather than through a scientific

approach. It must be limited by the paucity of base-

line data, and further weakened by the lack of any

recent population studies in Pakistan, with the single

exception of water fowl counts during midwinter,

conducted on most of the major wetlands (Scott

1989). Nevertheless, whether we consider ourselves

as ‘just nature lovers’, or seriously concerned about

conservation, there is an urgent need to recognise

biodiversity ‘hot spots’, and changes in bird

populations as valuable ecological indicators, both

of the more vulnerable ecosystems as well as areas

where man’s exploitation of natural resources is

causing undue long term damage. We are all aware

of the growing detrimental effect upon former

relatively stable undisturbed habitats, whether it be

reclamation of former desert through massive new

irrigation projects, the effects of more intensive

agricultural practices with more complete jungle

clearance and greatly increased use of agro-

chemicals, or deforestation in the catchment areas

of the north, to meet ever growing fuel wood needs.

The Indus river and its surrounding plains are the

very backbone and nerve centre of Pakistan’s

economy, and responsible for 90% of her food

production. Miracles have been achieved as has also

been the case in India, but we have yet to evaluate

the long term costs. The whole hydrological system

of this mighty river and its tributaries has been

profoundly changed. Many of the five rivers of the

Punjab and the lower reaches of the Indus itself are

practically dry during the midwinter months due to

‘“Cae Gors’\ Rhoscefnhir, Anglesey, Gwaynedd, LL75 8YU,

U.K.

offtake from thirteen irrigation barrages, and one of

the biggest and most complex irrigation systems in

the world. Even after the monsoon rains, many

former areas of seasonal inundation no longer receive

sufficient flood water to remain even as swamps. As

a result, vast tracts of former riverain forest have

dried out or been cut down, and salinity levels in the

Indus mouth and surrounding Arabian sea have been

significantly raised, with detrimental effects upon

an important fish spawning and nursery area.

All these twentieth century changes have had

a varying effect on wild birds, and before considering

such changes a few statistical pointers will reinforce

the above generalities. Human population pressure,

with its ever growing demands for exploitation of

natural resources, is known to be the direct cause of

the disappearance of many of our larger and more

spectacular birds. When the author first came out to

India in 1946, 1 recall the anxiety expressed in the

local press in 1947 with the great influx of human

refugees, when the population of West Pakistan, as

it was then called, was estimated to have swollen to

45 million. Latest estimates by Washington based

research groups. World watch and the World Bank,

put the present population at not less than 121

million. A total increase of 2.66% in a period which

demographers would categorise as spanning only two

generations (25 years being taken as one generation).

Turning to the agricultural revolution, comparable

figures are difficult to obtain, but the Sind Gazetteer

(Sorley, Edit. 1968), for example, recorded the total

area under cultivation in that province in the years

1900-1901 as 27,130 hectares. By 1956 (the latest

figures published) this had risen to 59,797 hectares.

The total national area under cultivation increased

from 14.69 million hectares in 1947-48 to 20.73

million hectares in 1989-90 (Environment & Urban

Affairs Div., Govt. Pakistan, 1992). Similarly, the

total area under irrigated cultivation in 1950-51 was

9.25 million hectares which had risen to 15.68

million hectares by 1989-90 (Environment & Urban

CHANGES IN THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

375

Affairs Div., op.cit.). In 1947, canals were reported

as taking up 65 million acre feet of water from the

rivers. This rose to 95 million acre feet by 1976

(Pakistan Fact Sheet. Water. 1989). There are

conflicting figures given for the total area in Pakistan

under natural and plantation forest, with a low of

only 3.6% of her total area (Jalal et al. 1977), up to

4.3 million hectares (Biswas 1987). Fuelwood needs

are estimated at 16.6 million (cu. m.) of timber

annually, whilst the Pakistan Forest Institute

estimated the total annual increment or growth of

wood at 11.3 million cu. m., which means that annual

growth only provides 62% of annual offtake from

the forests. Sadly, 90% of this timber is used for fuel

rather than for construction.

I have derived the basis for evaluating changes

in bird fauna from written observations from

Baluchistan (Meinertzhagen 1920), from Sind

(Ticehurst 1922-24), from Punjab (Whistler, for

Jhang area 1922, and Rawalpindi district 1930); from

the Murree Hills (Whistler 1 930 and Magrath 1 909),

and for the Punjab Salt Range (Waite 1948). All these

writers, it must be remembered, were summarising

observations over earlier periods than the publication

dates reveal. Added to these published commentaries

on the status of certain species are my own

observations from 1947 up to 1984 when I retired to

Britain, with frequent shorter visits to Pakistan in

every subsequent year until 1995.

Any bird species population has three essential

requirements for maintenance levels. Firstly, it

requires sufficient natural shelter to hide or escape

from predators and to be able to forage or hunt.

Secondly, there must be adequate amounts of suitable

food available. Thirdly, freedom from physical

disturbance or harassment by predators in order to

breed. In my experience, nearly every instance where

a population is declining can be attributed to some

extent to loss of suitable habitat. If sport hunters or

hunters who persecute a species for commercial gain

can be considered as merely another element in the

predator / prey relationship, then there is evidence

that this becomes the major factor only when a

species is considered on cultural grounds as a highly

desirable target, but this must be coupled with a

relatively small existing population (which usually

makes the target all the more desirable). The

following survey will show how important this factor

has been on larger, more spectacular, species.

Wherever detailed ecological studies have been

conducted upon a wide range of bird species in the

Subcontinent, shortage of food has never been

recorded as a restraint on population levels.

A more or less random survey follows,

categorising birds in the older conventional

taxonomic order (Voous 1977, not Sibley and

Monroe 1990).

Procellariformes, Pelecaniformes - Petrels,

Shearwaters, Boobies, Cormorants and Pelicans:

Despite clear indications of over fishing in Pakistan’s

coastal waters, there is no evidence of decline in sea

bird levels along the Arabian sea coast. This is

because birds hunt visually, whether by diving or

under water swimming, and this is a more efficient

method of catching single marine prey species than

the large scale netting by fishermen, even when using

sophisticated sonar detection aids and excessively

long mono-filament nets. There is evidence that

Boobies ( Sula spp.) in the Indian Ocean as a whole

have declined seriously in numbers, and this is

thought to be due to predation by human egg

harvesting in remote breeding islands outside our

territory.

Anseriformes - Ducks and Geese: Ticehurst

(1922-24) reported that “without doubt the Gad wall

was the commonest duck” as a winter visitor to Sind.

Similarly, Whistler (1922) reported that it was by

far the commonest duck in Jhang district in the

winter. Waite (1948) writing his observations in the

1930s wrote that Mallard ‘were to be met with in

small numbers’, and Ticehurst (op.cit.) wrote that

the Mallard ‘was to be met with in variable numbers,

being strangely absent in many suitable lakes’. This

author’s own observations, corroborated by recent

wildfowl counts conducted under the auspices of the

IWRB, confirm that the Gadwall is today

comparatively rare all over the Indus basin as a winter

visitor, whereas the Mallard is today by far the most

abundant migrant species. The Cotton Teal (Nettapus

coromandelianus ) was considered ‘rather local and

376

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

rare’ (Ticehurst, op.cit.). Waite (op.cit.) and Whistler

(1930) do not record the Cotton Teal at all as having

occurred in northern Punjab, whereas I have found

it resident in the seepage zone around the Islam

Headworks on the Indus in the Salt Range. It is also

widespread and resident in Sind today, though only

occurring in small numbers outside of the southern

part of that province. Evidently this Oriental species

has spread westwards, perhaps favoured by creation

of well vegetated seepage zones upstream of every

major irrigation barrage.

Greylag geese and Barheaded geese have

declined dramatically in numbers. Ticehurst, who

lived in Sind during the World War I years, described

both species as ‘common enough, with huge flocks

to be met with on the larger Sind lakes’. Today,

wildfowl censuses of every major wetland in

Pakistan (Scott 1989) usually reveal a midwinter

national total of barely 20 to 30 Greylags, mostly

with only three or four individuals at one place.

Barheaded geese have undoubtedly suffered from

disturbance by domestic stock grazing in their

northern breeding lakes, with increased exploitation

of such upland steppes by grazing co-operatives in

Tibet. Recent wildfowl censuses have only revealed

small numbers wintering on the Indus river by Taunsa

barrage in south central Punjab, and below Guddu

barrage in northern Sind. Perhaps these depressing

census figures will emphasise the great value and

importance of Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur)

as a winter refuge for these two species.

Galliformes - Pheasants, Francolins, and

Quail: In the 1930s Whistler reported that the Cheer

pheasant ( Catreus wallichi) still survived in the Galis

of Hazara district, and it was hunted by Ainsworth

Harrison (pers. comm, and photos) in the Margalla

hills (now a National Park adjacent to Islamabad)

during the 1950s. Recent surveys in several widely

separated areas (Mirza 1977 and 1978) have

indicated that this pheasant is probably extinct in

the wild in Pakistan, though there has been a captive

bred re-introduction project. When I acquired a

summer cottage in Dunga Gali in 1960 in the Galis,

a local villager, hoping to please me, offered to take

me shooting Monal ( Lophophorus impejanus) on

Mukshpuri mountain nearby and indeed they did

survive there in small numbers. Today they are

extinct throughout the Murree hill range. Whistler

also described the White Crested Kalij ( Lophura

leucomelana hamiltonii) as fairly common in the

Murree foothills. By the late 1960s it was very rare

in any of the foothill regions and indeed extinct from

some of its former haunts (Mirza, WWF Pakistan

Surveys, 1977). Happily the creation of Islamabad

as a new capital and the relocation of settlers from

the Margalla hills, which was later declared as a

National Park, has in this one locality enabled the

Kalij to make a remarkable recovery, and there are

good numbers surviving within this small area.

Down in the plains, the Black Francolin ( Francolinus

francolinus) has become a rare bird, confined to a

few pockets where there are man-made irrigated

plantations or in the few remaining riverain forest

tracts. When the author first came out to the

Subcontinent in 1946, this species literally swarmed

over large tracts of lower Sind where we had farming

interests, and it was relatively common even in

cultivated areas of the Punjab, whereas today it is

totally absent from most cultivated tracts. The more

desert adaptable Grey Francolin ( F. pondicerianus )

has fortunately fared much better.

Ciconiiformes - Storks, Ibises, Bitterns and

Egrets: Whereas the White Stork ( Ciconia ciconia )

in Asia is everywhere much rarer than at the

beginning of this century, such indigenous species

as the Painted Stork ( Mycteria leucocephala ) and

the Blacknecked Stork (. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus )

have become virtually extinct in Pakistan. Whistler,

writing about Jhang in the Punjab, described the

Blacknecked Stork as reasonably common, and in

the 1960s there was always a pair or two to be seen

(author obs.) on Lai Sohanran Lake in Bahawalpur

district, whence they have long since disappeared.

Trapping of young Painted Storks, plus hunting for

food of adults by local fishermen in Sind, has wiped

out the breeding population of this species which

has become extremely rare. Ticehurst in Sind

reported the Black Ibis ( Pseudibis papillosa ) as very

common, the White Ibis ( Threskiornis

melanocephalus) as fairly common, the Glossy Ibis

CHANGES IN THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

377

(Plegadis falcinellus) as very common, and the

Openbill Stork (. Anastomus oscitans) as common,

though he considered the Blacknecked Stork as ‘not

common’. Today, the Black Ibis is a rare summer

visitor to border areas of lower Sind only, the

breeding White Ibises in the Indus delta have been

all but wiped out by animal trappers for the zoo trade,

as was the fate of the Painted Stork. There is no

evidence that Openbilled Stork have bred in Pakistan

since the turn of the century, though small numbers

have been reported (Koning and Walmsley 1973)

wintering on remote wetlands on the India-Pakistan

border in the Rann of Kutch. By contrast Lesser,

Medium and Great White Egrets have all become

more plentiful, judging by Ticehurst’s writings, and

these species seem to be more tolerant of human

proximity and also able to exploit smaller areas of

inundation. Certainly Ticehurst described the Great

White Egret ( Egretta alba) as rare in Sind, whereas

today it is common to see scores feeding in close

proximity on all the larger lakes.

Charadriformes - Snipe, waders, plovers,

gulls and terns: Regimental Game books provide a

valuable record of shooting bags in the early part of

this century, and the Kurram valley is an important

migration route over the Himalaya for snipe and

cranes. Shooting bags of Common Snipe ( Gallinago

gallinago ) from this area record up to 200 birds from

as few as five guns in one afternoon in the 1930s,

whilst today it would be difficult to flush more than

a few dozen in a frill day’s walk through rice stubbles

in this valley. The Sociable Plover ( Chettusia

gregaria ) was described by Ticehurst as a fairly

common winter visitor in Sind, and by Whistler in

Jhang as an abundant winter visitor. Undoubtedly,

changes in agricultural practices in its former central

Asian breeding grounds have pushed this species to

a very limited breeding area of wormwood

(. Artemisia sp.) steppe in northern Kazakhstan

(Knystautas 1987), so that it is one of Pakistan’s

rarest winter visitors. In 34 years I only obtained

one record from the Thar desert. The Great Stone

Plover ( Esacus recurvirostris) was described by

Whistler in Jhang as a common summer breeder

along the Chenab river, and in Sind Ticehurst wrote

that it occurred all down the Indus. Due to decreased

flow of water in the rivers enabling seasonal

cultivation right in the riverain beds and as far as

main channel banks, there is very little undisturbed

breeding habitat for this species which has become

comparatively rare. The same has happened to the

numbers of fresh water terns, with colonies of

Gullbilled Terns ( Gelochelidon nilotica ) which both

Waite and Whistler recorded on the Jhelum and

Chenab rivers in summer having virtually

disappeared, and very few Blackbellied Terns ( Sterna

acuticauda) or Indian River Terns ( S . aurantia) are

able to breed successfully due to disturbance of their

nesting grounds. Gullbilled Terns, however, do not

appear to have decreased in numbers around

Pakistan’s coastal areas. I have no evidence of any

species of Laridae having declined noticeably.

Accipitriformes - Hawks, eagles, falcons,

and vultures: The most dramatic decline within this

order is amongst the falcons which have become the

target of every local bird trapper because of the high

prices paid by those ‘oil wealthy’ countries whose

passion is falconry. The species which have declined

most dramatically are the Saker ( Falco cherrug ), and

Peregrine (F. peregrinus), with surprisingly the

Lag gar (F. jugger) and the Red Headed Merlin ( F.

chicquera ), since these smaller falcons are often

used, after being trapped, to lure their larger

predatory cousins. Snares, set with feral pigeons as

decoys, trap all these species indiscriminately and

even less valuable species are not released back into

the wild. Only the Kestrel (F. tinnunculus) seems

common, if not increasing in numbers, being present

all over the Indus plains in winter and breeding

throughout the northern areas right up to the border

with China. Two species of vulture appear to have

declined also. Ticehurst described the Egyptian

Vulture C Neophron percnopterus) as excessively

common in all the larger towns of Sind. Today,

though not rare, it is by no means common and totally

absent from many of the larger towns. Both Waite in

the Salt Range, and Whistler in Jhang described the

Black or King Vulture ( Sarcogyps calvus ) as a

breeding resident, though in small numbers, and

Ticehurst recorded it as fairly common throughout

378

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Sind. In 34 years I only came across stray individuals

both in Sind and Punjab on less than six occasions,

and believe that a resident population no longer exists

in Pakistan, though these birds may wander widely

in winter and some may still breed in Tharparkar

border areas.

Gruiformes - Cranes, bustards, and rails:

Salim Ali in the first volume of his handbook series

(1968) and Stuart Baker in the fauna of india series

(1929) quote Phillips describing a migrating flock

of Demoiselle cranes ( Anthropoides virgo) in 1929

in Punjab as comprising a dense flock of 50 m wide

and 38 km long, totalling hundreds of thousands.

Today, few skeins of more than 50 to 80 birds are

ever seen together on migration anywhere throughout

Pakistan. Indeed most of the population wintering

in the Rann of Kutch in India migrates to the west

through Baluchistan, not crossing Punjab at all.

Intolerant of disturbance from humans and requiring

vast wilderness areas for safe nesting, all the crane

species have declined dramatically, especially those

wintering in the Subcontinent. The story of the

Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata ) is even

sadder due to the high level of hunting which

continues every year by visiting Arab dignitaries at

the invitation of the Pakistan Government. Though

hunted by the ancient art of falconry, modern

sophisticated methods of detection and vast financial

resources employed in scouring their main spring

migration routes through Baluchistan have taken a

heavy toll on the population. Due to restrictions

placed on the Provincial Wildlife Departments on

any attempts at monitoring the hunting camps and

conducting population surveys, there is no concrete

evidence of surviving numbers, but their population

is reported by Russian experts (Alekseev 1980) to

have declined alarmingly from their main breeding

grounds in the Kuzil Kum desert. Another problem

affecting the Common Crane ( Grus grus), which

migrates through the Kurram valley, is the increasing

fashion amongst the Frontier tribes to snare them

with skilful throwing of weighted ‘bolero’ cords,

using captive birds staked out as decoys. The NWFP

Govt, has enacted legislation to both limit and

regulate such hunting and the International Crane

Foundation has helped with a vigorous campaign of

education about their declining numbers, but the

people of that region have always been proud of their

independence and show a disdain for too much

Government regulation.

Pteroclidiformes - Sandgrouse: In the 1950s

there were still many small desert tracts in the Punjab

around Vehari, Jhang and Lodhran where I recall

sandgrouse were common. All these tracts have now

been brought under cultivation, largely through the

sinking of tubewells in areas which could not be

commanded by canal irrigation. Except for small

numbers in parts of the Thai and the Salt Range, no

sandgrouse occur now in the Punjab. In Sind some

of their traditional watering places where they

congregated in thousands, according to Ticehursf s

accounts, are deserted today because of constant

disturbance and use by domestic animal flocks. As a

generalisation, sandgrouse — like the desert itself

in Pakistan — have both retreated further into the

border areas.

Coraciiformes - Rollers, kingfishers and

hornbills: The Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris) was

not listed by Whistler as occurring around Jhang,

though Currie (1916) wrote that it was relatively

uncommon around Lahore, but since his day due to

increased tree plantation following canal

development, it has spread gradually eastwards and

southwards into Punjab, from its original confines

around the Lahore and the foothill zone. During my

28 years residence at Khanewal in south Punjab, I

only began to see stray hornbill visitors from the

late 1980s, and they breed from Sialkot down to

Renala Khurd. There do not appear to be any

significant changes in the population of Pakistan’s 4

kingfisher species, nor rollers, and indeed rural

telephone lines, seepage from borrow pits following

irrigation, and increased area under plough are all

factors favouring food and hunting by these families.

Psittaciformes - Long tail parakeets: In

Whistler’s day, the Plum-headed Parakeet (Psittacula

cyanocephala) was believed to be a rare winter

visitor, but today it is not uncommon as a breeding

resident in the Margalla and Murree foothills.

Perhaps this restricted zone is more thoroughly

CHANGES IN THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

379

watched by ornithologists since the creation of

Islamabad as the nearby capital. Rose-ringed

Parakeets ( P : krameri ) are considered pests in

Pakistan, helped no doubt by the great increase in

citrus orchard plantations, and growing of such

oilseed crops as sunflower (Roberts 1991).

Piciformes - Woodpeckers and barbels:

Again Whistler considered the Bluethroated Barbet

( Megalaima asiatica) as a rare visitor to the Murree

foothills. Today, its calls can often be heard within

the city limits of Islamabad and it is a breeding

resident up to 1 800 m in the Murree hills. By contrast,

some of the lower altitude woodpeckers, dependent

upon deciduous tree species, have virtually

disappeared from the lower hill ranges. I regularly

encountered Picoides macei in the foothills and

Dendrocopus hyperythrus in Kao forest in the Galis

during the 1960s, but have not been able to confirm

sightings by these species by anyone in the last few

decades. Local villagers selectively lop deciduous

trees in spring for cattle and buffalo forage,

maintaining traditional rights which were only

sustainable when the human population was much

smaller, and this is clearly converting many of these

forests into mainly coniferous stands. Without being

able to give any explanation, I must state that the

Grey headed Woodpecker ( Picus canus ) was

relatively common in both Whistler’s (1930) and

Magrath’s (1909) time in the Murree hills. Today it

appears to be very rare or has perhaps entirely

disappeared from its former haunts.

Passeriformes - Warblers, chats, wheatears,

redstarts and finches, etc: To prevent this account

from becoming tediously long, I will select only a

few random but interesting examples from among

this highly varied and species - abundant order.

Focusing first on the Murree hills which were

so well documented at the turn of the century, birds

not recorded or described as comparatively scarce,

such as the Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbler

(. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ), the Blackchinned

Babbler ( Stachyris pyrrhops ) and Bluethroated

Flycatcher (. Muscicapa rubeculoides), all seem to be

well distributed in the foothill zone or their limited

range has been more closely surveyed. All these

species appear to survive and indeed flourish within

a limited altitudinal zone. By contrast the

Yellowcheeked Tit ( Parus xanthogenys ), quite

common around Murree as a breeding bird (and with

a good series of specimens thence in Museum

collection) during Magrath’s and Whistler’s day,

appears to be extinct within Pakistan except as a rare

winter visitor (only one published record by

Mallalieu 1988) during the last thirty years. Another

species apparently extinct for Pakistan is the

Whitethroated Laughing thrush ( Garrulax

albogularis). In the 1960s there was a resident band

of this gregarious species in Kao forest in the Galis,

and at the turn of the century it extended eastwards

to Murree (Cock and Marshall 1873). There have

been no sightings of this noisy and conspicuous

babbler since my records in the 1960s. Some of the

higher altitude species, which from all early records

were always rare in the western part of their range

just extending into Pakistan, are today still surviving

in small numbers, as documented by recent

ornithological surveys (WPA Annual reports) by

teams of expert young ornithologists funded to

carry out Western Tragopan surveys. Examples are

the Black-browed Flycatcher Warbler ( Seicercus

burkii), the Green Shrike-babbler ( Pteruthius

xanthochloris ) and the Whitethroated Tit ( Aegithalos

niveogularis).

Turning to the threatened habitats in the plains,

the indigenous species of the riverain tract have had

varying fortunes. The Sind Jungle Sparrow ( Passer

pyrrhonotus), rare in Ticehurst’s day along the lower

Indus and virtually absent from the Punjab, has

adapted well to tree-lined major canals, as indeed

has the Yellow-bellied Wren Warbler ( Prinia

flaviventris ), exploiting seepage areas. Both are

common and apparently spreading. But Jerdon’s

Babbler ( Chrysomma altirostris ), probably one of

the Subcontinent’s rarest endemics, remains confined

to a few isolated pockets, and appears to be suffering

from inter-specific competition with its close relative,

the Yellow-eyed Babbler (C. sinensis). The

Whitetailed Bushchat ( Saxicola leucura ) though

never as rare as the former, appears to be dwindling

because of the shrinkage of its habitat, Saccharum

380

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

grass thickets along the major river banks. Major

irrigation schemes have increased both road and

canal side tree plantation, which has favoured species

more dependent on arboreal foraging. The Red vented

Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer ) has spread and increased

everywhere, driving out the less aggressive

Whitecheeked Bulbul (P. leucogenys). This applies

equally to the hill species (Oriental Bird Club

checklist) or sub-species, P. leucogenys leucogenys,

which now competes with the Redvented up to 1800

m.

These changes are borne out by accounts of

their former status by Whistler, Waite and Ticehurst.

Species which benefit from man’s activities or food

can be divided into two ecological categories —

commensal such as Passer dome sticus, Acridotheres

tristis, and Corvus splendens, and synanthropic such

as Ploceus philippinus and P manyar The latter two

weavers have undoubtedly increased as a result of

more widespread rice cultivation. In remote rural

villages, the House Sparrow has become a major pest

of ripening cereal crops (Roberts 1992).

What are the lessons or conclusions, if any,

which can be drawn from the above review?

We do not want our descendants to live in a

world populated only by Mynas, House Sparrows

and House Crows, and we have already lost forever

some of the ornithological spectacles such as mass

migrations or huge gregarious nesting colonies,

which earlier writers thrilled to relate. The pressures

for growing more food and exploiting our forest

resources will increase inevitably in the future and

in Pakistan one can expect riverain tracts, seasonal

wetlands, and even desert to be under threat. Perhaps

the only safeguard is to persuade our political leaders

to value such preserved areas or wildlife sanctuaries

more than they have done recently, to give such areas

greater protection and to try to establish peripheral

buffer zones, and help rural communities to gain real

benefit from ecotourism. Policies which are already

being advocated and successfully put into practice

in other countries, are thankfully being tried in

several pilot projects in Pakistan. No matter how

discouraging the signs, it is surely the duty of all of

us BNHS supporters to help create more responsible

attitudes and awareness of the sometimes hidden

value of such remnant wilderness areas wherever

they may occur.

References

Alekseev, A.F. (1980): Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis

undulata) in the North West Kyzyl Kum (in Russian).

Zool. Zhurnal. 59 (8): 1263-66.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1968): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan, Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Biswas, A.K. (1987): Environmental Concerns in Pakistan,

with Special Reference to Water and Forests.

Environmental Conservation, Switzerland.

Cock & C.H.T. Marshall (1873): Notes on a Collection of

Eggs made at Murree. Stray Feathers 1: 348-358.

Currie, A.J. (1916): The Birds of Lahore and the Vicinity. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24 (3): 561-577.

Jalal, H., A. Merriam, A. Qayyum & T. Stacey (Eds). (1977):

Pakistan Past and Present. Stacey International, London.

pp. 288.

Knystautas, A. (1987): The Natural History of the USSR.

Century Hutchinson Ltd., London, pp. 224.

Koning, F.J. & J.G. Walmsley (1973): IWRB Mission to West

Pakistan. I.W.R.B. bulletin No. 35: 64-73.

Magrath, H.A.F. (1909): Bird Notes from Murree and the

Galis. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19 (1): 142-156.

Mallalieu, M (1988): Birds in Islamabad, Pakistan, 1985-

87. Privately published.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1920): Notes on the Birds of Quetta. Ibis:

132-195.

Mirza, Z.B. (1977): Report on a Pheasant Survey in Pakistan.

WWF Pakistan, Lahore.

Mirza, Z.B. (1978): Pheasant Surveys in Pakistan. American

Pheasant and Waterfowl Society Magazine 78 (1).

Pakistan Fact Sheet. Water (1989): National Management

Consultants/I.U.C.N. , Journalists’ Resource Centre for the

Environment-IUCN Pakistan.

Roberts, T.J. (1991-92): The Birds of Pakistan, 2 Vols.,

Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Scott, D.A. (Edit.) (1989): A Directory of Asian Wetlands.

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K., pp.

1181.

Sibley, C.G. & B.L. Monroe, Jr. (1990): Distribution and

Taxonomy of Birds of the World. Yale University Press,

pp. 1111.

Sorley, H.T. (Edit.) (1968): The Gazetteer of West Pakistan

(Sind). Govt, of Pakistan, Karachi, pp. 811.

CHANGES IN THE AVIFAUNA OF PAKISTAN

381

Stuart Baker, E.C. (1929): The Fauna of British India, Birds.

Second Ed. Vol. 6.

Ticehurst, C.B. (1922-24): The Birds of Sind (in 8 parts).

Ibis, Vol. 4 : 526-572, 605-662; 5: 1-43, 235-275 438-474

6: 110-46,495-518.

Voous, K.H. (1973 & 1977): Recent list of Holarctic Bird

Species’. Ibis, part 1., 115: 612-38; part 2, 119 : 223-250;

part 3, 376-406.

Watte, H.W. (1948): The Birds of the Punjab Salt Range

(Pakistan). J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 48(1): 92-117.

Whistler, H. (1922): The Birds of Jhang District, S.W. Punjab.

Ibis 4: 259-309.

Whistler, H. (1930): The Birds of the Rawalpindi District,

N.W. India. Ibis Vol. 6: 67-119: 247-279.

NEW BIRD RECORDS IN SRI LANKA

AND SOME CONNECTED MATTERS

Thilo W. Hoffmann1

Introduction

I am very happy to be able to contribute this

paper to the Salim Ali Centenary issue of the JBNHS.

I had corresponded with Dr. S£lim Ali over a period

of years and met him on several occasions, notably

during the BNHS Centenary celebrations in Bombay

and the 50th Anniversary Seminar of the Periyar

Tiger Reserve in 1985. I used to address him as

Dr. Ali or Dr. Salim Ali, with the emphasis on the

“A”, in contrast to “Salimalee” (emphasis on last

syllable) as then pronounced by many Indians. On

one occasion at Periyar, he said to a group of students

and admirers who surrounded him: “Listen how

Mr. Hoffmann, a Swiss from Sri Lanka, pronounces

my name. This is the proper way”. I invited him to

Sri Lanka but he declined, saying that he could not

yet forget the hostile and humiliating treatment meted

out to him and Dillon Ripley on their last visit to the

island. On that occasion in the mid-1970s the two

eminent ornithologists were virtually chased out of

Sri Lanka due to inept handling by the US Embassy

of their scientific expedition which included

collecting, and the chauvinist zeal of a few Lankan

conservationists. The Ceylon Bird Club had not been

informed of the visit, was indeed unaware of it, and

thus unable to help. Salim Ali never returned to Sri

Lanka, undoubtedly a setback for the scientific study

of the island’s birds.

Nearly 10 years ago, I prepared an update on

Sri Lankan Birds (to the end of 1986) and notes on

changes in status and distribution compared with

Ripley’s synopsis (1982) and Ali and Ripley’s

handbook (1968 - 1974); the paper was published

in the Journal 1986 (1) : 7 - 16. Strangely, there

were a number of inexplicable printing errors, e.g.

the word vagrant was replaced by migrant in several

‘Ceylon Bird Club, P.O. Box No. 11, Colombo 1, Sri Lanka.

instances. This was followed by another paper in the

same JBNHS [88 (3) : 381 - 383] giving additional

details of the 16 accepted sight records whidh were

included in the first contribution. The present paper

continues the process up to the end of 1 995 in respect

of new species and races discovered in the interim.

The Ceylon Bird Club (CBC) which was

founded in January 1944, has a unique collection of

data on Sri Lankan birds in the form of its monthly

Bird Club Notes (CBCN). These notes were

extensively used by Ali and Ripley in their works

mentioned above. I have been the Honorary Editor

of the CBCN since 1970 to date. Ten years ago, the

CBC appointed a Rarities Committee which

scrutinized and assessed all doubtful records at that

time, and since then reviews and judges carefully

and objectively all claims which come to its notice.

As pointed out earlier (Hoffmann 1991) it would be

unreasonable and unrealistic not to accept good sight

records in a country where the collection of

specimens is now practically impossible; stragglers

and vagrants form the majority of new records

wherefore serious bird-watchers would have to

permanently carry a gun ! Acceptance of well

documented sight records is thus in keeping with

reality and the trends of the time, but requires very

careful observation and note-taking in the field, as

well as subsequent scrutiny of all relevant data. To

some extent it also is a matter of trust, and

controversies cannot be excluded. All of the 22 new

records listed in this paper are sight records. For

taxonomic reasons specimens will always be required

but not for mere recording. Selective collecting by

responsible ornithologists cannot be objected to or

replaced by other methods such as mist netting

(which may in fact be more stressful and damaging

to bird populations).

The number of new species and races recorded

in recent years in Sri Lanka is quite impressive.

NEW BIRD RECORDS IN SRI LANKA

383

During the first half of the century this number was

almost static, then increased very slowly at long

intervals, but since the 1980s, new records average

over two per year. Practically all pertain to migrants,

of course. Henry (1955) describes 403 species and

subspecies, Phillips (1978) lists 427 and Wijesinghe

(1994) 463 (plus 14 doubtful). Three more have since

been accepted, bringing the total number of forms

to 466 at the end of 1 995. The recent spate may partly

be due to changes in migrating patterns and of

environmental factors in neighbouring India, but are

mainly the result of wider interest in birds, with more

bird-watchers in Sri Lanka and the frequent presence

in the country of foreign bird-watching groups and

individuals. The groups are usually led by very

experienced bird specialists and reputed

ornithologists from abroad who guarantee intensive

bird-watching of a high calibre. The few local

specialist guides greatly profit from such tours and

become our most reliable recorders.

Literature

Bird-watchers in Sri Lanka often find it

difficult to procure appropriate literature. During

the last 40 years G. M. Henry’s splendidly written

and illustrated Guide to the Birds of Ceylon (1955)

has been the only comprehensive source of

information but has often been unavailable. The book

is again out of print but a completely revised and

updated edition will come out in 1997. This classic

together with W. W. A. Phillips’ Annotated Checklist

of the Birds of Ceylon (1978) and D.P Wijesinghe’s

Checklist of the Birds of Sri Lanka (1994) forms

the basis of all current knowledge of Sri Lankan

birds. W. Vincent Legge’s fine History of the Birds

of Ceylon (1880) has long been out of print, and

even the four volume reprint (1983) is neither

affordable nor really useful to the modern field

ornithologist. Long out of print have been the more

popular works by W.E. Wait (1925), Cicely

Lushington (1949) and the four small volumes by

W.W.A. Phillips (1949 - 1961). Ali and Ripley’s

handbook depends mostly on Henry and Phillips’

Checklist (with Wait and Legge) for information

about Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Ripley’s synopsis on

Phillips’ Checklist.

New Records 1986 - 1995

The following list of new species recorded and

accepted in Sri Lanka from 1986 - 1995 relies on

D. P. Wijesinghe (1994) in regard to nomenclature.

Numbers in brackets are those used in the handbook

and in the synopsis; birds not listed in either are

marked thus (-).

1 . Barau’s Petrel, Pterodroma baraui (-)

First sighted in 1991 (CBCN May 1993 : 48,

49).

A rare though possibly regular visitor to Sri

Lankan coastal waters.

2. Bulwer’s Petrel, Bulweria bulwerii (13b)

Seen 1994 off Colombo (CBCN April 1995 :

32).

3. Audubon’s Shearwater, Puffinus Iherminieri

(11)

First sight record in 1982 and another in 1994

(CBCN July 1994:86).

4. Chinese Pond Heron, A rdeola bacchus (43)

First seen and photographed in unmistakable

breeding plumage, April 1995 near

Tissamaharama (CBCN April 1995 : 33 and

May 1995:40).

5. Lesser Kestrel, Falco naumanni (221 )

First seen 1995 at Palatupana (Yala) (CBCN

April 1995 : 35), possibly overlooked.

6. Small Button Quail, Tumix sylvatica (313)

One sight record from Yala National Park

1978 (CBCN February 1978 : 7), possibly

escapee (thus not mentioned in Hoffmann,

1989).

7. Oriental Plover, Charadrius veredus (377)

Sight record 1994 south-east coast (CBCN

January 1994: 7).

The handbook and Ripley treat the Oriental

Plover as a subspecies ( veredus ) of the Sand

Plover, Charadrius asiaticus.

8. Nordmann’s Greenshank, Tritiga guttifer (399)

One 1991 sight record from Hevativu, south

384

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

of Palavi (Puttalam), in need of confirmation

C Loris 1992 : 195, 196).

9. Sooty Gull, Larus hemprichii (449)

First sight record January 1993 at Mutwal

(Colombo) (CBCN January 1993 : 16 - 17),

and 2 birds seen at Chilaw, also in January 1 993 .

10. Yellow-legged Gull Larus cachinnans (450,

451)

There is much confusion in the world literature

about the taxonomy of the two large gulls,

Larus fuscus and Larus argentatus , and their

numerous geographical races. Individuals of

L. cachinnans (subspecies : L.c. cachinnans

andLc.mongolicus), formerly treated as a

subspecies of L. argentatus , occur in winter

along the N-W coast of Sri Lanka, sometimes

amongst flocks of Larus fuscus heuglini. As

the colour of the legs is not a reliable

diagnostic feature, a better name would be

White-headed Gull, because even in w i n t er

the overall appearance of the head is white.

L.f heuglini is nowadays increasingly treated

as a full species, Larus heuglini , Heuglin's

Gull.

11. Black-naped Tern, Sterna sumatrana (468,

469)

Sight record 1994 some miles off western

coast (CBCN April 1995 : 32). Subspecies

unknown.

1 2 . B lack Tern, Chlidonias niger (459a)

Three recent sight records 1992, 1993 (Loris

1992 : 204 - 205) and 1995 (CBCN April 1995

: 38). The handbook mentions only one old

sight record in respect of the entire Indian

Sub-continent. In the meantime the Black Tern

has been repeatedly noted and ringed at Point

Calimere (JBNHS 1994 : 317).

13. Black Noddy, Anous minutus (-)

A specimen misidentified as the Lesser Noddy

in 1978 (Loris 1993 : 44 - 48). Occasional

visitor to coasts mainly during S-W Mon-

soon.

14. European Bee-eater, Merops apiaster (746)

First seen in 1993 at Yala (CBCN February

1993 : 23) and subsequently every winter.

Rare so far in the south-east of the island but

likely to become regular winter visitor.

15. Dusky Crag Martin, Ptyonoprogne concolor

(914)

First seen 1993 near Colombo (CBCN January

1993 : 14).

1 6 . Eye-browed Thrush, Turdus obscurus ( 1 762)

Seen at Nuwara Eliya January to March 1994

(CBCN June 1994: 73-75).

17. Lanceolated Warbler, Locustella locustella

(1544)

Only one sight record (CBCN December 1991 :

72), but may be overlooked.

18. Common Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella

naevia (1545)

First noted 1993 near Colombo, and annually

thereafter (CBCN December 1993 : 107).

19. Grey-headed Mynah, Sturnus malabaricus

(988)

Flock seen at Anuradhapura 1984 to 1986

(CBCN January 1984:1). A straggler from S-

W India, possibly breeding resident (juveniles

in flock 1986). Subspecies not known.

New subspecies recorded and accepted during

THE SAME PERIOD :

20. Large Crested Tern, Sterna bergii thalassina

(478)

This smallest, palest race was observed during

the early months of 1990 at Colombo (CBCN

March 1990 : 25a and Loris 1991 : 26).

21. Tytler’s Swallow, Hirundo rustica tytleri

(918)

First seen 1989 and annually thereafter in small

numbers (CBCN December 1989 : 71).

22. White Wagtail, Motacilla alba leucopsis

(1888)

First seen 1995 at Kalametiya (CBCN April

1995 : 32).

The status of the Red faced Malkoha

A note regarding the status of the Red-faced

Malkoha Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus , as a Sri

NEW BIRD RECORDS IN SRI LANKA

385

Lankan endemic may not be out of place here. I cite

from the handbook, Vol. 3 (2nd edition 1981), p.

238: “Resident in Ceylon and South India; rare and

local. Was long regarded as peculiar to the island,

and reports of its occurrence (and breeding) in

Travancore by J. Stewart (in Baker, 1932 -1934)

were discredited. However, since then the species

has been reliably observed at the foot of High

Wavy Mountains in the adjoining Tamil Nadu

District of Madurai (C. H. Biddulph, 1956, JBNHS

53 : 697 - 8) therefore previous doubts probably

unjustified”,

Ripley in his synopsis (1982) simply states :

“Resident Southern Kerala, Southern Travancore

(JBNHS 53 : 697 - 8) and Sri Lanka”.

A critical look at Biddulph’s belated note

(1956) on an observation by him in 1931 shows,

however, that previous doubts remain more than

justified. Paras 5, 6 and 7 read as follows :

“It remained on the tree for a sufficient period

of time for me to observe it closely and I made the

most of the opportunity, as it was the first occasion

on which I had seen a live bird of this species in its

natural habitat.

It changed its position on the tree while I

watched and made its harsh call three or four times.

This call or note has been correctly described by

Legge and it was its loud call which first attracted

my attention.

The crimson cheek patches were unmistakable

and very prominent. I noted its approximate size and

shape, colouration, shape of beak and length of the

tail in relation to the body”.

This is all Biddulph writes about the

appearance and habits of the bird he saw, a meagre

description which would not pass scrutiny in any

rarities committee today. The only specific

characteristic he mentiones is “the crimson cheek

patches”. The crimson-red face of this Malkoha can

certainly not be described as “cheek patches”.

According to W.V. Legge (1878 - 80) the crimson

area covers the “whole face as far back as the ears

passing over the eye and across the base of the upper

mandible”.

The handbook (1981) says : “Its most

diagnostic features are the bare red face and heavy

apple-green bill”.

Thus, whilst Biddulph’s description of the face

of the bird he saw does not tally with that of the

Red-faced Malkoha, the rest is so cursory as to be

meaningless.

Biddulph is also wrong with regard to the call

of the Red-faced Malkoha. He describes it as harsh

and loud. All authorities are agreed that it is soft and

low, though not often heard, as the bird is usually

silent. W.V. Legge* who in the last century had

extensive experience of the Red-faced Malkoha

which was then plentiful in Sri Lanka says :

“As a rule it is a silent bird, the only note with

which I am acquainted being a rather low

monosyllable like call like kaa, which it utters when

flying about”.1

Henry (1955) states :

“Owing to the short, rounded wings, its flight

is feeble, slow and direct and, if it has any distance

to cover, it commonly prefers to hop from branch to

branch until it reaches the top of a tree, and then to

flutter and volplane from that vantage-point; in flight,

the wings produce a musical hum. It is usually silent,

but I have heard it utter short, single-note, yelping

whistles; a note like kok - imitated by a sucking

action of the tongue; and a low, petulant-sounding

kra”.

Henry’s rendering of the calls is cited in the

HANDBOOK.

Current observers familiar with the Red-faced

Malkoha characterize the call as a soft, low “krrr”.

Thus the only two significant features which

Biddulph mentions in his paper (red cheek patches

and call) cannot be accepted as belonging to the Red-

faced Malkoha. He has failed to note other typical

features such as the heavy apple-green bill, the long,

broad graduated tail, the white lower breast, belly

and vent, all of which are easily seen, if a good view

is had of the bird; even the white flecks on the black

nape and crown should have been visible through

‘Legge was familiar with the bird to the extent of having eaten it;

he says the flesh “is tender and not unpleasantly flavoured”.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93 (1996)

binoculars at 10 - 13 m distance. If Biddulph did not

have visual aids, his identification becomes even

more doubtful. The musical hum produced by the

wings in flight (Henry) is also noteworthy, as is the

mode of movement and flight (Henry).

It is astonishing that Biddulph’s sketchy note

about an observation he made 25 years earlier and

his confident identification should have been so

uncritically accepted not only in India but also by

some in Sri Lanka (only after the handbook had

become available there; Biddulph’s paper had

apparently escaped notice till then).

About 65 years have passed since Biddulph

sat on a machan at the foot of the High Wavy

Mountains in the Madurai District of Tamil Nadu

and thought he heard and saw a Red-faced Malkoha.

To my knowledge, no further records of this species

from India have been forthcoming, although in the

meantime interest in Indian birds has grown like in

Sri Lanka, with hundreds if not thousands of bird-

watchers and ornithologists, both Indian and foreign,

visiting the relevant forests (where still in existence).

It would be a tempting goal to confirm the presence

of the Red-faced Malkoha there. But the likeli-

hood that C. H. Biddulph’s opinion about the

existence “in the favourable localities” of Southern

Kerala and Tamil Nadu of the Red-faced Malkoha

would be confirmed or authenticated appears most

remote.

In the last century the Red-faced Malkoha was

present in forests all over the Low-country (except

in the northern Dry Zone) and common in the eastern

and south-eastern jungle and foothills of Sri Lanka.

Today it is confined to the few remaining Wet Zone

ram forests such as Sinharaja, Dellawa, Kitulgala.

Isolated populations exist in the Dry Zone in dense

forests mainly along rivers, e.g. in Wasgomuwa

National Park, along the Heen Ganga, Kumbukkan

Oya, Menik Ganga and at Lahugala.

It has always been the position of the Ceylon

Bird Club that the Red-faced Malkoha must remain

a Sri Lankan endemic as long as indisputable

evidence about its existence in Southern Kerala is

lacking, notably a specimen, of course. Thus the

latest authoritative Checklist (Wijesinghe 1994)

retains the Red-faced Malkoha as an endemic of Sri

Lanka, together with the other 20 species recognised

in the handbook and the synopsis, and also the

following five clearly distinct forms, making now a

total of 26 :

The Ceylon Grey Hornbill

Ocyceros gingalensis

The Chestnut-backed Owlet

Glaucidium castanonotum

The Ceylon Small Barbet

Megalaima rubricapilla

The Black-capped Bulbul

Pycnonotus melanicterus

The Ceylon Hill Munia

Lonchura kelaarti

Conservation in Sri Lanka

The protection and conservation of birds and

their habitats receives little attention in Sri Lanka,

though on paper all birds, except 6 species considered

to be pests, are strictly protected and cannot be killed

or taken anywhere in the island. Good habitat

protection could be achieved through the Fauna and

Flora Protection Ordinance under which an

impressive number of National Parks and Sanctuaries

has been declared over the years. However, the

implementation and enforcement of this and other

conservation laws leaves much to be desired.

Shooting, trapping and other destruction of birds is

unchecked since the late 1950’s and the degradation

and even elimination of bird habitats continues.

Though a few sanctuaries have been specifically

created for birds, bird habitat protection is purely

incidental in the larger national parks. Sanctuaries

in general are neglected and unprotected. Vast tracts

of valuable habitats have been lost in recent years

not only to felling and clearing but to aquaculture

farms which proliferate without control in wetlands

along the coasts. Some hope for improvement may

lie in the Dutch funded and managed Wetland

Conservation Project (WCP), which so far, however,

has merely gathered data and made recommendations

which remain un implemented. The highly important

NEW BIRD RECORDS IN SRI LANKA

387

wet zone forests which harbour most of our endemics

have dwindled to almost negligible proportions,

except for the Sinharaja forest, now a World Heritage

Site and well protected by the Forest Department.

But despite lip service by decision makers and fairly

widespread public awareness, the outlook for

practical conservation in general, of wildlife and

birds in particular, is bleak, as both the Government

and the Administration lack the will to act.

Unenforced laws are worse than no laws, inviting

general contempt. In the matter of conservation there

is no coordination between Government agencies;

an example is the dry Hambantota area where close

to and in the Bundala National Park, Sri Lanka’s only

Ramsar Site, a massive international oil refinery and

power plant, a wind-power farm, salt-based

industries and a 1000 acre prawn farm are being

planned!

Because of neglect some important specific

bird Sanctuaries have suffered severe degradation,

for instance the small Galways Land Sanctuary at

Nuwara Eliya, the Tangamalai Sanctuary above

Haputale and the Kalametiya wetland Sanctuary, also

the new Bundala National Park. The most important

of ail, the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, with the

greatest number of endemic forms, has never

received the attention it deserves; we have repeatedly

proposed that it should be enlarged to include the

lower elevations near Kitulgala from 70 m a. s. 1.

upward (to over 2200 m) and be joined to the Horton

Refer

Ali, S., S. Dillon Ripley (1968 - 74): Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh,

Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, 10 Vols. (also

Revised Edition Vols. 1 - 5). Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Biddulph, B.H. (1956): Occurrence of the Red-faced Malkoha

( Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus ) Pennant in Madurai

District : Madras presidency. J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc.

53(1) : 697 - 8.

Ceylon Bird Club Notes (CBCN): Monthly since 1994. Ceylon

Bird Club, Colombo.

Hoffmann, T.W. (1989): Notes on the Status and Distribution

of some Birds in Sri Lanka as listed in S.D. Ripley (1982).

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with

Plains National Park. But even in National Parks,

habitat protection is very unsatisfactory. All

conservation areas north of a line from Puttalam in

the west to Valaichchenai in the east and further

south along the east coast are abandoned and suffer

actual and grave depredation due to military activities

and exploitation, notably Wilpattu, Sri Lanka’s

formerly most attractive National Park, as well as

the Yala East National Park. The presence in the

country (Colombo !) of handfuls of foreign experts,

NGOs, International organisations and even

Government Agencies, all trying hard to influence

policies, has not helped. On the contrary, it has

alienated and displaced local NGOs and the much

vaunted “people’s” participation does not even

extend to these any more. In a strange alliance of

self-interest and convenience with local bureaucrats,

it is mainly these foreigners who have successfully

argued against effective law enforcement, the easy

way out for all concerned. The mandatory EIAs, of

great importance in the conservation of habitats, have

degenerated to a farce with mushrooming

consultancy firms depending solely on the developers

for the jobs and their profits. The outlook remains

indeed bleak.

Acknowledgement

I thank Deepal Warakagoda for help with the

collection of data on new records and Mr. J.C. Daniel

for assistance with literature.

NCES

those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. J.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (1): 7 -16.

Hoffmann, T.W. (1991): Notes on Accepted Sight Records of Birds

in Sri Lanka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3): 381 - 83.

Legge, W.V. (1878 - 80): A History of the Birds of Ceylon.

London.

Lushington, Cicely (1949): Bird Life in Ceylon. The Times of

Ceylon Ltd., Colombo.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1949): Birds of Ceylon - Book 1. Ceylon Daily

News Press, Lake House, Colombo.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1952): Birds of Ceylon - Book 2, Birds of

our Swamps and Tanks. Ceylon Daily News Press, Lake

House, Colombo.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1955): Birds of Ceylon - Book 3, Birds of

388

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

our Highlands. Ceylon Daily News Press, Lake House,

Colombo.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1961): Birds of Ceylon - Book 4, Birds of

the Ruhunu National Park. Ceylon Daily News Press, Lake

House, Colombo.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1978): Annotated Checklist of the Birds of

Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Wildlife & Nature Protection Society

of Sri Lanka and Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh

& Sri Lanka. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

pp. 653.

Wait, W.E. (1925): Birds of Ceylon. Times of Ceylon Co. Ltd.,

Colombo.

Wuesinghe, D.P. (1994): Checklist of the Birds of Sri Lanka.

Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo.

THE RECENT DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND DISJUNCT BIRDS IN KERALA

STATE: PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF AN ONGOING SURVEY

Anthony J. Gaston1 and VJ. Zacharias2

{With fifteen maps )

Introduction

The Western Ghats of South India support

many species of endemic birds. In addition, the

avifauna includes many species of “disjuncts”,

populations that are isolated from other conspecifics

elsewhere in India; usually in the Eastern Ghats or

in the Himalayas. Disjunct species are of special

interest because they may represent relict outliers of

formerly continuous populations interconnected

during the Pleistocene (Ali 1949, 1969). All of the

species involved are resident. The Western Ghats are

considered an internationally important area for avian

species diversity and support 14 species of birds

considered to be “near-threatened” globally (Collar

etal. 1994).

Much of the natural forest remaining in the

southern Western Ghats is located in the State of

Kerala, where surveys were carried out in 1933-35

by Dr. S£lim Ali (1969). Since 1973, we have been

carrying out surveys of birds in the state to assess

their recent status and the effects of changes in land-

use. Our primary goal has been to assess the current

distribution of rare, endemic and disjunct species to

provide a background for prioritizing conservation

action. Although our surveys are not yet complete,

we present some preliminary results, concentrating

on trends and distribution patterns that can be

unambiguously determined on the basis of results to

date.

Natural forests of the Western Ghats in Kerala

range from dry deciduous to moist evergreen

(Champion and Seth 1968). The highest forests

consist of characteristic evergreen associations

known as “ sholas ”, often bordered by dense thickets

‘Canadian Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Research Centre,

100 Gamelin Blvd., Hull, Quebec, Canada K1A 0H3.

2Research Officer, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady,

Kerala 685 436.

of Strobilanthes shrubs. The summits of the ranges

are mainly grassland maintained by periodic burning,

probably an ancient landscape feature.

All of the forests of Kerala have been much

degraded by human activities in recent decades, with

forests changing from moist evergreen towards

deciduous as they are opened up. As a result of recent

encroachments by agriculturists and the opening up

of forests through widespread timber felling, few

forest blocks are now unmixed. Probably all areas

include patches of both evergreen and moist

deciduous forest. In addition, large areas of high

altitude grasslands have been taken over for

eucalyptus plantations. Some of these plantations

coexist with natural grasses, creating semi-wooded

grasslands. Pure natural ecosystems, untouched by

felling, grazing or planting, are relatively rare, even

within protected areas.

Methods

Surveys were carried out by either or both the

authors, sometimes in company with others, in 20

forest areas of Kerala. All species seen or heard were

recorded and numbers of less common species were

noted. Each survey consisted of a visit of minimum

three days duration, covering as large a range of

forest types as we could find in the area. We also

visited plantations and areas of reafforestation, where

these were adjacent to natural forests. However, we

did not visit large blocks of plantations. Some areas

have been surveyed repeatedly over several years,

especially the Thekkady area. Results from Wynaad

have already been published (Zacharias and Gaston

1993).

Our plan calls for surveys in all seasons

(winter, December-January; hot season, February-

May; monsoon, June-September; and post-monsoon,

October-November), but this has not been achieved

390

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND DISJUNCT BIRDS IN KERALA

391

for all areas. Map 1 shows the amount of cover

achieved by our surveys to date. Complete cover

means that visits have been carried out in all seasons.

Numerical abundance is estimated on the following

scale: abundant, seen in double figures daily;

common, seen daily; uncommon, seen on more than

30% of days, but not daily; rare, seen on less than

30% of days. Altitudes are classified as low (<500

m), middle (500-1000 m) or high (>1000 m).

Historical data is taken from the literature. Additional

forest areas will be surveyed over the next two years,

to give more complete coverage.

Distributions

Sample distribution maps are given for 14

species (maps 2-15), comprising one hornbill, one

roller, one parakeet, one nightjar, one pigeon, two

raptors, and 7 passerines. The most widespread

species on our surveys was the Bluewinged or

Malabar Parakeet Psittacula columboides , recorded

at every locality visited. The least was the Ceylon

Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger, recorded in

only three areas.

Disjunct species: The species considered

disjunct, based on the ranges given by Ali and Ripley

(1987) are listed in Appendix 1. We found many to

be widespread (seen at more than 50% of localities)

and common, especially at low altitudes (Large

Brownthroated Spinetail Swift Chaetura gigantea,

Indian Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpeckef

Dinopium javanense, Pigmy Woodpecker Picoides

nanus , Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus, Fairy

Bluebird Irena puella). Some of these species have

accommodated to forest fragmentation by occupying

small forest patches and plantations. However,

disjunct raptors and nightjars were generally patchily

distributed (Black-crested Baza Aviceda leuphotes,

map 7; Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni, Rufous-

bellied Eagle Hieraeetus kienerii, map 8; Great Eared

Nightjar Eurostopodus macrotis , map 5; Ceylon

Frogmouth) and may be more dependent on large

areas of continuous forest. Great Eared Nightjars

were not recorded in two areas where they had been

previously reported. The Lesser Coucal Centropus

toulou, reported by Ali as “not uncommon”, is now

uncommon, with a patchy distribution. The

Broadbilled Roller Eury stomus oriental! y was found

only in moist deciduous forest and in only three areas

on our surveys. Numbers seen in all areas were small

(single figures). As a hole-nester, it may be affected

by the removal of old trees. The disjunct species

occurring exclusively at high altitudes, Smallbilled

Mountain Thrush Zoothera dauma and Eurasian

Blackbird Turdus merula, were uncommon and both

were found in only a few localities. These species

may have originated from migrant visitors, rather

than dispersing from the Himalayas through

continuous habitat.

Endemics: A high proportion of these (8/19

spp.) were found only or predominantly at middle

and high altitudes (compared to 3/21 disjuncts). High

altitude species include those confined to grasslands

(Broad -tailed Grass Warbler Schoenicola platyura,

map 12; Nilgiri Pipit Anthus nilghiriensis, map 15),

and to sholas (Whitebellied Shortwing Brachypteryx

major albiventris , map 10; Black-and-orange

Flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa , map 11; Nilgiri

Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudata ; White-breasted

Laughing Thrush Garrulax jerdoni, map 14).

Although found at only a few localities (all recorded

at <50% of localities), probably because of their

restricted altitude range, several species were

common or abundant (Nilgiri Pipit, Nilgiri

Flycatcher, White-breasted Laughing Thrush).

Grasslands and sholas have probably been affected

less by disturbance and degradation than the forests

found at lower altitudes. However, the species

involved are all confined to the southern part of

the Western Ghats and hence have very restricted

ranges.

Some endemic species have adapted to

plantations and agricultural landscapes (Crimson-

fronted BarbetMegalaima rubricapilla, Bluewinged

Malabar Parakeet, Yellowbrowed Bulbul Iole indica,

Rufous Babbler Turdoides subrufus, Small Sunbird

Nectarinia minima, Rufous-bellied Munia Lonchura

kelaarti ) and consequently all are common or

abundant. Species most affected by habitat alteration

are probably the low and middle altitude forest birds

392

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DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND DISJUNCT BIRDS IN KERALA

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DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND DISJUNCT BIRDS IN KERALA

399

(Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis, map 1; Malabar

Pied Hornbill Anthroceros coronatus, Malabar Grey

Hornbill Ocyceros griseus, Threetoed Kingfisher

Ceyx erithacus, Malabar Whistling Thrush

Myiophoneus horsfieldii, Southern Treepie

Dendrocitta leucogastra , White-bellied Blue

Flycatcher Cyornis pallipes). In addition, in

comparison with the comments made by Ali (1969),

the ranges of Great Hornbill and Nilgiri Wood Pigeon

Columba elphinstoni seem to have contracted

towards higher altitudes.

Status: Although our surveys have not been

designed to determine population sizes, we can make

some comments on the likely status of those species

regarded as rare. We deal specifically with those

species occurring in forests and high altitude

grasslands in Kerala that are recorded as “near

threatened” by Collar et al. (1994). None of those

occurring in the Western Ghats are believed to be

vulnerable to extinction under the latest IUCN

guidelines (Mace and Stuart 1994).

Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonnerati. Recorded

at every locality, and also in coastal areas of

Cannanore District, but otherwise rare at low

altitudes. Suffers from egg collecting and hunting

even in protected areas and is probably adversely

affected by the removal of forest understory, but still

common in some areas.

Nilgiri Wood Pigeon Columbia elphinstonii.

This species was recorded at nine localities on our

surveys, being uncommon to common everywhere

it was found.

Ceylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus

moniliger. Recorded breeding at Tirunelli, in Wynaad

and at Parambikulam. It may be overlooked because

of its nocturnal and rather silent behaviour, but

apparently is uncommon.

Malabar Grey Hornbill Tockus griseus .

Recorded in all localities and most common at

low and middle elevations, hence apparently

rather resistant to the effects of forest degrada-

tion.

Malabar Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros

coronatus. Recorded on our surveys only in Wynaad

and Nilambur, but also observed near Cannanore and

Calicut outside forest areas and feeding on isolated

figs. The species is most widely distributed at low

altitudes and hence is probably under great pressure

from habitat destruction.

White-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major

albiventris. We found this species at four localities

scattered throughout the State and there are previous

records from a fifth locality. It was rare everywhere,

but its shy disposition and adherence to dense

undergrowth make it very hard to find. It may be

commoner than it appears, but on the basis of our

surveys probably warrants its “near-threatened”

designation.

Wynaad Laughing Thrush Garrulax

delesserti. Recorded in 11 areas on our surveys, in

evergreen or semi-evergreen forest, mostly about 500

m. Uncommon to common throughout.

White-breasted Laughing Thrush Garrulax

jerdoni. Recorded in 4 areas, with previous re-

cords from two more areas. Confined to s kolas,

but common where found and abundant in some

areas.

Broad-tailed Grass Warbler Schoenicola

platyyura. Recorded in five areas and previously

reported from one other: rare or uncommon, but

usually skulking, so probably overlooked.

Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa

muttui. Present at most localities in evergreen or

semi-evergreen forest, usually uncommon or

common.

Black-and-orange Flycatcher Muscicapa

nigrorufa. Recorded at five localities, with previous

records at three more areas, in two of which we were

unable to find it. Uncommon to common, but not

abundant. The “near-threatened” designation appears

appropriate for this species.

Nilgiri Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudata.

Recorded in 10 localities, mainly in shola forests,

and often common.

White-bellied Blue Flycatcher Muscicapa

pallipes. Recorded in all localities, but not found in

high sholas ; generally uncommon.

Southern Treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra.

Recorded at 19 localities and uncommon to common.

Absent from the highest sholas.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Conclusions

Current trends in forest clearance for agriculture

and plantations and encroachment by settlers,

threatened especially the birds of low and middle

altitude forests. The present status of such birds as

Malabar Pied Hombill, Malabar Grey Hombill, Great

Eared Nightjar, Southern Treepie and White-bellied

Blue Flycatcher seems to be markedly worse than that

described by Salim Ali (1969) for the 1930s. These

species, especially Broadbilled Roller and Black-

crested Baza, are patchily distributed at low densities

and may be vulnerable to extirpation from local areas.

Higher altitude habitats, where many endemics occur,

cover smaller areas, but are less threatened. However,

some species occurring at low densities (Rufous-bellied

Eagle, White-bellied Shortwing, Broad-tailed Grass

Warbler) may be vulnerable to extirpation in the long

term.

Kerala has a large network of protected areas

(National Parks and Sanctuaries). Effective

protection of those areas should be sufficient to

maintain most species, although the coverage of low

altitude forest is poor, so the remaining fragments

should be carefully protected. There is continuous

pressure on all habitats and bird populations will need

to be carefully monitored in future if Kerala’s

endemic and disjunct populations are to be

maintained.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks to the drafting unit of Environment

Canada for the production of the maps and to

Mr J.C. Daniel for the invitation to make this

contribution. V.J. Zacharias would like to thank his

students over the years for their assistance with the

field surveys.

References

Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Rbpley (1987): Compact Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of

Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, 2nd edn.

Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the

forest types of India. Government of India, New Delhi.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Staitersfield (1994): Birds

to watch 2. The world list of threatened birds. Birdlife

Conservation Series No. 4. Birdlife International,

Cambridge, U.K.

Mace, G. & S. Stuart (1994): Draft IUCN Red List

categories. Species 21-22: 13-24.

Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of Wynaad,

southern India. Forktail 8: 11-23.

Appendix 1

DISJUNCT SPECIES FOUND IN KERALA FORESTS, BASED ON DISTRIBUTIONS GIVEN

BY ALI AND RIPLEY (1987)

Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus

Black-crested Baza Aviceda leuphotes

Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni

Rufous-bellied Eagle Hieraeetus kienerii

Great Hombill Buceros bicomis

Indian Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker Dinopium javanense

Pigmy Woodpecker Picoides nanus

Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus

Broadbilled Roller Eurystomus orient alis

Lesser Coucal Centropus toulou

Large Brown Throated Spinetailed Swift Chaetura gigantea

Ceylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger

Great Eared Nightjar Eurostopodus mac rods

Fairy Bluebird Irena puella

Large Woodshrike Tephrodomis gularis

Smallbilled Mountain Thrush Zoothera dauma**

Eurasian Blackbird Turdus merula**

Hill Myna Gracula religiosa

Fantail Warbler Cisticola exilis

Wynaad Laughing Thrush Garrulax delesserti**

Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostris

** Found predominantly at higher elevations.

AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FLORICAN

R. Sankaran1

(With four text-figures)

The aerial display of the lesser florican, an endangered bustard endemic to the Indian subcontinent is

described. The changes in display patterns, an increase in site specificity of display, has been correlated to

height of grass and increased rates of display. The preference for males to display in cloudy and cool conditions

has been quantified.

Introduction

Aerial displays have been described in several

species of birds (e.g. Storor 1940, Van Tyne and Berger

1959, Sutton 1981). Courtship displays in the bustard

group include aerial displays which are performed by

the smaller members, and are of two kinds. One of

these is a display leap or jump and is present in the

smallest members of the group, the little bustard Tetrax

tetrax (Shulz 1985) and the lesser florican Sypheotides

indica (Dharmakumarsinhji 1950, Ridley etal. 1985).

The other is a display flight and is seen in small African

bustards such as the black bellied Eupodotis

melanogaster, buff crested Eupodotis ruficrista, and

black Eupodotis afra (Johnsgard 1991), and in the

Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis (Narayan

and Rosalind 1988).

The lesser florican is an endangered endemic

bustard of the Indian subcontinent. Its breeding

system has been defined as the dispersed lek

(Sankaran, in press), and it breeds during the

southwest monsoon (Jerdon 1864,

Dharmakumarsinhji 1950, Ali and Ripley 1969).

During this period, the species exhibits a nomadic

movement into Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan, and

western Madhya Pradesh, where it congregates in

areas of good rainfall. The primary breeding habitat

is grasslands, almost devoid of trees which are

generally of the Sehima nervosum - Chrysopogon

fulvus type.

An important component in the understanding

of a species breeding behaviour, is a knowledge of

‘Bombay Natural History Society, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Present Address: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural

History, Kalampalayam P.O., Coimbatore 641 010.

the displays that are performed in connection with

breeding. Considerable literature is available on the

general behaviour of the lesser florican as it was a

popular game bird (e.g. Jerdon 1864, Baker 1921),

its displays have been described (Dharmakumarsinhji

1950), and quantified (Ridley et al. 1985). Two

displays related to breeding have been described in

the male lesser florican ((Dharmakumarsinhji 1950).

Aerial (jumping) displays are performed irrespective

of the presence or absence of females or rival males,

and probably serve both functions of attracting

females and signalling territory possession. The

second display is a pre-copulatory one, and is

directed towards and performed only in the presence

of females. In this paper, I quantitatively describe

and discuss the aerial displays in the lesser florican

with respect to temporal variations in aerial display

patterns in the breeding season and the influence of

weather on display rates.

Study area

I studied the lesser florican at three main

grassland sites. The majority of the data was collected

at the Naulakha grassland within the Sailana

Kh armor Sanctuary in Ratlam district, Madhya

Pradesh. Livestock are grazed in the Naulakha

grassland for the first few weeks of the monsoon

after which grazing is stopped. In 1988, the lesser

florican was studied at the Rampura-Movalia-

Kalitalai grasslands near Dohad in Panchmahal

district, Gujarat. No grazing is permitted in the

Rampura grassland.

Methods

The study extended over 400 days between

July 16 and October 6, 1985; June 22 and October

402

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

10, 1986; June 16 and October 1, 1987; June 24 and

October 6, 1988. This study is based on direct

observations of unmarked male lesser florican.

Behavioural observations conformed to the focal

animal sampling method (Altmann 1974). There

were two principal methods of data collection. In

1985 and 1 986, a lesser florican was located at dawn,

and continuously observed until noon. The following

day, a male was located at noon (if territorial, the

same territory as on the previous day) and observed

until dusk. Changes in activity to the nearest minute,

and the total number of jumps in a five minute

period were noted. This was modified in 1988, and

observations were made from dawn to 12 noon and

from 1400 hours to dusk. Males were observed for

20 continuous minutes, followed by a 10 minute

interval. During the observation period, the time of

every jump and change in activity was recorded to

the nearest second. This method was found superior

as the lesser florican is very active and can

perform display leaps as rapidly, as once every 25

seconds.

Weather data recorded during observations

included temperature recorded in the shade every

half hour at the observation point. Cloud cover was

ranked as 0-25, 26-50, 51-75 and 75-100% of the

sky. Similarly, rainfall was ranked as light drizzle,

moderate drizzle and rain, and wind into light,

medium and strong. Every change in the weather

condition was noted to the nearest second.

Mean weekly grass height was calculated from

sites at a minimum of 30 randomly selected points

where maximum grass length was measured. Each

study area had about five such sampling sites.

Additionally, grass height at lesser florican ‘jumping

spots’ was measured at 0, 1, 5, 10 and 25 m along

North, South, East and West axis, with the jumping

spot being the point of their bisection.

Statistical analyses were done on computer

using Lotus 123 and Systat following guidelines laid

down by Fowler and Cohen (1986).

Results

Description of the Aerial Display: The aerial

display of the lesser florican is a vertical ‘jump’

(Fig. 1). The display is preceded by the bird standing,

with its neck and head craned up, shuffling or

stamping its feet. The white feathers of the throat

and chin are erected and appear in some large males

as a sort of white ‘bib’ and the neck feathers may be

slightly fluffed up. The male abruptly faces the wind,

retracts its head, crouches and leaps into the air by

flexing its legs. Take off is followed by about 10 or

more very rapid wing beats, which enables the male

to reach a height of about 1 .5 - 2 m, vertically above

the spot of take off, the height being determined by

the surrounding vegetation. During the ascent, the

head is arched back, the neck feathers are slightly

fluffed, and the auricular plumes are partly thrown

forward. On reaching the peak of the ascent, the male

drops back to the ground with its wings held partly

closed and kept away from the body, and the legs

are paddled a few times for balance. The bird

crouches on landing, and then gradually raises itself

up until fully erect, scanning the grassland around

before performing the next display leap. All display

leaps are performed into the wind, and on the few

occasions when a male displayed at an angle to the

wind it was invariably pushed off balance.

Each display jump lasts on average one second

(min. = 0.8 s, max. = 1.1 s). During the peak of the

breeding season, a male may spend 70 - 80% of the

day in performing aerial display and related

activities. The mean inter display leap duration is

40.23 seconds (SD = 40.06 s, max. = 613 s, min. = 4

s, n = 2396). Time lag between displays varies to

some extent, depending on the degree of spot

specificity and the weather conditions. The period

in between display leaps is spent either in walking

or foraging or standing and looking around.

Auditory signals of the Display Leap: The

display jump is accompanied by a loud rattling or

clapping auditory signal. This sound lasts about 0.4

to 0.5 seconds and is produced only during the ascent

of the display flight. The sound consists of 7 or 8

individual sounds all similar in pitch and intensity

(from sonograms; not presented here). This auditory

signal of the display leap is made by the wings and

is not a vocalization or produced by the clicking of

the tongue as has been suggested by others

AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FID RICAN

403

(Dharmakumarsinhji 1950, Osborne et al. 1984,

Ridley er al 1985). To produce this sound, the wings

of the males have specialized pointed primaries

which are not present in the female (Table 1). The

exact mechanism by which this auditory signal is

produced from the pointed primaries is not known.

(The pointed primaries are present in non-breeding

and sub-adult males, and are the final diagnostic

difference between males and females).

Towards the peak of the breeding season, when

males fly into their territories, they often land in the

typical display flight pattern, with arched neck and

head. When flushed, males often take to flight as in

the display leap, before easing into regular flight. In

both cases the auditory signal may be emitted.

Display Patterns: The breeding season of the

lesser florican can be broadly classified into pre-

territorial and territorial periods. The territorial period

occupies most of the breeding season (1985: 42 of 71

days; 1986: 66 of 101 days) and can be classified into

early, peak and end territorial periods. Within the

territorial period, there are two patterns in display leaps.

Spot specific display was when birds displayed

continuously from a single spot without moving

between jumps. Non-spot specific display was when

the bird moved between jumps and when consecutive

jumps were not performed from the same spot.

After arrival and until the establishment of

territories (pre-territorial period), males are not site

specific and spend most of the day foraging (Fig. 2).

Males display occasionally but inconsistently.

Towards the end of the pre-territorial phase, display

becomes consistent with some degree of site

specificity. Initially, after the establishment of

territories, the major diurnal activity is ‘Non-spot

specific display’(NSS). The males spend most of their

time foraging, constantly interrupting their foraging

with display leaps. ‘Spot specific display’ (SSD) is

relatively low during this period (Fig. 2). As the

season progresses, NSS becomes less and SSD soon

becomes the major diurnal activity.

This pattern varied between grassland sites,

and between years, due to the effects of varying

rainfall and grazing pressures. For instance, at the

ungrazed Rampura grassland, the pre-territorial

Fig. 1. Aerial display of the lesser florican.

404

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 1

PRIMARY FEATHERS ON THE WINGS OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

* Notch not distinctive.

(Data from one skin each of male and female from the BNHS collection For description of the pointed primaries in males see

Jerdon 1864, Baker 1921, Ali and Ripley 1969).

period was brief and NSS phase was very brief.

At the Naulakha grassland, however, the entire

display patterns, i.e. the pre-territorial period,

changing NSS and SSD were prominent and

extended as a result of staggered grass growth due

to livestock grazing.

Throughout the early and peak territorial

periods, male lesser floricans display throughout

the day, but more so in the mornings and evenings.

This is especially true during cloudy days, when

males display with very brief breaks throughout

the day. Towards the end of the breeding season,

due to an increase in day temperatures and a waning

of display intensities, males display almost

exclusively in the mornings or evenings. How-

ever, even during the waning of the breeding season

males tend to display for brief periods in the

afternoon.

Change in Display Patterns with Grass

Height: When the frequency of spot specific display

was regressed against grass height a significant

increase in spot specificity was seen with an increase

in grass height (r = 0.889, df = 6, p<0.01; Fig. 3a

and 3b). At Naulakha grassland, early grazing

resulted in lower grass growth rates and net grass

heights than in Rampura which was not grazed

during the monsoon. Percentage of spot specificity

in relation to non-specific display was higher at

Rampura than at Naulakha for the same time scale

(Fig. 3a and 3b).

When rainfall is below normal, less dense

vegetation may result in greater time spent in non-

spot specific jumping than spot specificity. Similarly,

those males which display from or close to the edge

of crop fields are less prone to be spot specific and

tend to display from various locations within their

territories.

Time lag between jumps: The time lag

between two consecutive jumps was signifi-

cantly shorter when males displayed from a specific

AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FLORICAN

405

% Activity

Weeks of the breeding season

Foraging Resting HHl SSD

NSS

SSD - Spot specific display

NSS - Non-spot specific display

Fig. 2. Changes in display patterns between pre - and peak territorial periods in the lesser florican.

% Display, cm

Spot specific (SSD) — +— Not specific (NSS) Grass height

Fig. 3a. Variation in spot specific display with grass height in a grassland grazed in the early monsoon (Naulakha),

406

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

spot than when displaying from different spots (T-

Test t = 7.100, p < 0.0001; mean SSD = 36.20

seconds, SD = 28.63; mean NSS = 58.13, SD =

62.62).

Jumping Spots: Males increasingly begin

using a few locations from which they display.

Usually at peak breeding period a male may have

two to five such spots. These ‘jumping spots’ are

one to two metres in diameter, with the earth

trampled bare of all vegetation. Jumping spots may

shift from time to time due to disturbances or

excessive growth of vegetation. In areas of long

grass, jumping spots are established in patches of

shorter grass. In areas of short grass, jumping spots

are close to a patch of long grass. In undulating

terrain, jumping spots are located at the top of ridges

and the ground immediately around is flat.

Fig. 4a and 4b (see pp. 408, 409) represent

grass height at 1, 5, 10 and 25 metres along the north,

south, east and west axis at four different jumping

spots. The jumping spots are centrally located in a

‘saucer’ where grass height increases from the centre

to the periphery.

Influence of Weather on Display Rates:

Display rates were the highest under cloudy or

overcast conditions. Lower rates of display occur

under sunny or partly cloudy conditions (Tables 2

& 3). Under rainy conditions males displayed at

highest rates during light drizzles, while strong

drizzles and rainy weather caused males to reduce

significantly the display rates or to cease display-

ing totally (Tables 2 & 3). Display rates were the

same under all wind speed conditions (Tables 2 &

3). When display rates were correlated against

temperature, a significant decrease in the rate of

display was seen as temperature increased (r = -0.52,

df = 24, p<0.02).

Discussion

Display patterns in the Breeding Season:

The onset of territoriality and display in the lesser

florican is phased. In the pre-territorial period aerial

display in males is an inconsistent activity. The onset

of territorial behaviour is characterised by sustained

aerial display. Once the males become territorial, the

time spent in display does not appear to vary

% Display, cm

Non specific (NSS) ~ Spot specific (SSD) — Grass height

Fig. 3b. Variation in spot specific display with grass height in a grassland not grazed during the monsoon (Rampura).

AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FLO RICAN

407

Table 2

BASIC STATISTICS FOR DISPLAY RATES (LEAPS/MINUTE) UNDER DIFFERENT WEATHER CONDITIONS

Key for Tables 4.2. a to 4.4. b

W1 = 0-25% cloud cover; W2 = 25-50% cloud cover; W3 = 50-75% cloud cover;

W 4 = 75-100% cloud cover. B1 = breeze; B2 = moderate wind; B3 = strong wind;

R 1 = light drizzle; R2 = strong drizzle; R3 = rain; R4 = No rain or drizzle.

significantly between days. Males spend 70% or

more of the day in display activities for most of the

territorial phase. Variations in the time spent in

display, can be attributed to fluctuations in daily

weather conditions. On a predominantly rainy or a

hot sunny day, males display less, irrespective of

whether they are in the early or peak display phase.

What does vary over the territorial phase is

the nature of the display leap, i.e. whether the male

moves between leaps or displays from a fixed spot.

During the early territorial phase, males move

constantly between display leaps. A decrease in such

movement between leaps is simultaneous to an

increase in spot specific display, until most displays

are performed from a few ‘jumping spots’. This

change can be attributed to different reasons, and

the degree of influence of each is yet to be

determined.

First, the period of lowest spot specificity

coincides with lower availability of food resources.

In this period males have to spend more time in

foraging over a wider area to fulfil nutritional needs

and perhaps to build up a certain amount of energy

reserves as well. Dharmakumarsinhji (1950) opined

that ‘when the birds have newly arrived, when they

are in lean condition, they feed at all times of the

day.’ As the season progresses, insect life becomes

considerably more abundant, and individuals would

have to spend less and less time to fulfil nutritional

requirements.

408

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93 (1996)

Grass height in cm

< — Distance in mts — >

East West

0 ■ jumping spot

Fig. 4a. Grass height at jumping spots in the lesser florican

The second possibility, the only one which has

been directly substantiated, deals with grass height.

A strong positive correlation is seen between spot

specific display and increasing grass height. This

correlation can have three explanations: (a) On

arrival of the floricans, the grassland is bare of

vegetation. Sustained display at fixed sites, in the

absence of sufficient cover, could greatly increase

predation risks. Thus with increasing grass cover,

males can display with relatively greater safety from

fixed sites for longer durations; (b) As insect

abundance is directly related to increasing grass

height, spot specific display can be concomitant to

that of nutritional demands; (c) Non-spot specific

display occurs at a time when the grass height is short

and free movement is possible. Once the grass grows

tall, arbitrary choice of jumping spots will be

hampered by the grass. Males may then return to

fixed spots as these are trampled bare of vegetation,

and are also set in patches of shorter grass. In

grasslands where grass grows rapidly taller, as in

Rampura, males spend far more time in spot specific

display than in grasslands that have shorter net grass

heights (Naulakha). In years of lower rainfall and

shorter grasses, males tend to spend more time in

non-spot specific display, than in years of greater

grass heights.

Thirdly, if fitness of a male is advertised by

frequency of display and thus enhances mating

success, then as the breeding season progresses

males should attempt to display at maximum

frequencies. (The time lag between leaps was

significantly lower in spot specific display than

that of non-spot specific display). Thus a peak in

display rates should be evident in early to mid-

August when females become receptive. Males

may achieve this, not by increasing time spent in

display but by reducing movement between display

which results in an increase in frequency of

jumps.

AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FLO RICAN

409

Grass height in cm

<~~ Distance in mts --->

North South

0 ■ jumping spot

Fig. 4b. Grass height at jumping spots in the lesser florican

Effect of Weather on Display Rates: Several

species of birds display mainly at dawn and dusk or

at night and include among others the Sage Grouse

(Gibson and Bradbury 1987) and the Great Snipe

(Avery and Sherwood 1982, Hoglund and Robertson

1990). Other species of birds have been specifically

associated with particular types of weather. For

instance, the Mistle Thrush and the Red Flanked Blue

Tail are both persistent songsters in rain and windy

weather, and damp cloudy days with drizzle have

been typically associated with the ‘reeling’ of the

Grasshopper Warbler and the drumming display of

the snipe. Elkins (1983) suggests that the rather

unique sounds of those species associated with

inclement weather may carry further under cloudy

or overcast conditions.

The display leap of the lesser florican

communicates both acoustic and visual signals over

longer distances and should logically be performed

most frequently during weather conditions that

maximize the range of such signals. For instance,

audibility is high when an inversion is present and

may account for the high levels of bird song on clear

calm mornings (Elkins 1983). Similarly, visibility

is higher on clear days, and sunshine would better

contrast the black and white plumage of the male

lesser florican during its display leap. Yet males

display at higher rates under overcast conditions

when presumably both auditory and visual ranges

are reduced. Then again, turbulence during strong

winds reduces the audibility of acoustic signals

(Elkins 1983), yet there is no significant difference

in display rates under different wind speeds. That

the leaps of the lesser florican are performed

maximally during weather conditions that do not

maximize the range over which these signals are

communicated is of particular interest.

The frequency of bird song, rather than the

audible range, is possibly of greater biological

significance (Elkins 1983). For instance, in the Sage

410

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Grouse, ‘males that mated attended the lek more

often, displayed at higher rates and scored higher on

an acoustic component than those that did not mate

(Gibson and Bradbury 1985). If display rates are

associated with mating success, then males should

display for as long a duration and at as high a rate as

possible to maximize success.

If display rate is of greater significance in the

lesser florican, then males should display at higher

rates in those environmental conditions that require

the least expenditure of energy, or more important,

cause least stress to the individual. A high display

rate in hot sunshine should cause thermo-regulatory

stress on the individual. This is also indicated by the

inverse correlation between display rates and

temperature. Hence males display at higher rates in

cloudy conditions, when heat stress must be least,

than in sunny conditions when heat stress should be

most (see also Ridley et al. 1985).

Refe

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:

sampling methods. Behavior 48: 227-265.

Avery, M. & G. Sherwood (1982): The lekking behaviour of

the Great Snipe. Ornis Scandinavica 13: 72-78.

Baker, E.C.S. (1921): The Game Birds of India, Burmah and

Ceylon. Vol. 2. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (1980): (Chief eds.): Handbook

of the Birds of Europe, Middle East and North Africa.

Vol II. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press,

London.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1950): The Lesser Florican

[Sypheotides indica (Miller)]: Its courtship display,

behaviour and habits. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 201-

216.

Elkins, N. (1983): Weather and bird behaviour. T & AD

Poyser, Calton.

Fowler, J. & L. Cohen (1986): Statistics for Ornithologists.

BTO Guide 22. U.K.

Gibson, R.M. & J.W. Bradbury (1987): Lek organization in

Sage Grouse: Variations on a territorial theme. Auk 104:

77-84.

Hoglund, J. & J.G.M. Robertson (1990): Female preferences,

male decision rules and the evolution of ldcs in the great

Under strong windy conditions, a male

displaying as close as 50 m or less down wind is

often inaudible to the human observer. Conversely,

a bird displaying in strong up wind can be heard as

much as 500 m away or more. Perhaps such

compensation in open country result in the absence

of a significant variation in display rates under

different wind speeds.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the US Fish &

Wildlife Service and was sponsored by the Ministry

of Environment, Govt, of India. I wish to thank P.A.

Azeez, the Gujarat Forest Department, J.C. Daniel,

Goutam Narayan, Kheema, the Madhya Pradesh

Forest Department, Mehboob Alam, A.R. Rahmani,

N.K. Ramachandran, and Vibhu Prakash for their

support and guidance.

EN CES

snipe Gallinago media. Anim. Behav. 40: 15-22

Jerdon, T.C. (1864): Birds of India. Vol. 2. Publ. by author,

Calcutta.

Johnsgard, P.A. (1991): Bustards, hemipodes and sandgrouse.

Birds of dry places. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Narayan, G. & L. Rosalind (1988): Ecology of Bengal

Florican in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary. Pp. 5-42. In: The

Bengal Florican. Status and conservation. Annual Report

3. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Osborne, P., N. Collar & P.D. Goriup (1984): Bustards.

Dubai Wildlife Research Centre. Dubai, U.A.E

Ridley, M.W., R.D. Magrath & J.C.Z. Woinarski (1985):

Display leap of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 271-277.

Sankaran, R. (In press): Some aspects of the territorial

behaviour in the lesser florican. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc.

Schulz, H. (1985): Grundlagenforschund Zur Biologie Der

Zwergtrappe Tetrax tetrax. Braunschweig.

Storor, C.R. (1940): Courtship and display among birds.

County Life Ltd., London.

Sutton, G.M. (1981): On aerial and ground displays of the

World’s snipes. Wilson Bull. 93: 457-609.

Van Tyne, J. & A.J. Berger (1959): Fundamentals of

Ornithology, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON PALAEARCTIC WARBLERS OVER WINTERING IN INDIA

Madhusudan Katti and Trevor Price1

(With eleven text-figures )

Human activities threaten many species with extinction worldwide. Migrant birds in Europe and North

America include a number of well-studied examples of species undergoing contemporary population decline. In

many cases, it is difficult to understand causes of the decline. We present results from a long-term population

study of migrant warblers in India. We studied the Green Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus nitidus in Kalakad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, south India over four winters (1992-96), and found significant effects of rainfall

variation on population density and individual body condition. Winter rainfall affected both primary (leaf) and

secondary (Arthropod) production, thereby affecting prey availability for the insectivorous warblers. These, in

turn, were associated with differences in over-wintering persistence, body weight, and population density of the

warblers. These effects were quite rapid, affecting densities within the first three months of the winter season.

Records of long-term variation in rainfall suggest that warbler populations may fluctuate widely, even without

overt changes to winter habitat. Such fluctuations make it difficult to detect declines due to other reasons, and

also increase the risk of populations going extinct. Since most winter habitat appears to be saturated, we predict

that any further loss of habitat will decrease the total population of the species.

Species extinction provides the most

compelling evidence for the adverse environmental

impact of humans. The evidence that many recent

extinctions are indeed human driven comes from

numerous case studies, which document the

importance of introduced predators, parasites and

competitors (e.g. Harris 1973, Hamann 1984,

Savidge 1987, Pimm et al. 1955a, Steadman 1995),

human hunting (e.g. the famous Passenger Pigeon,

Blockstein and Tordoff 1985; many island species,

Steadman 1995), and habitat loss through clearing

for agriculture and timber (e.g. Terborgh 1989,

Reichel^r 0/. 1992, Rappole 1995, Steadman 1995).

Such studies are augmented by estimates of the

background rate of extinction, as obtained from the

fossil record (Jablonski 1995). They show that we

can expect an extinction spasm in the next century

larger than any since the Cretaceous (c. 65 million

years ago, Jablonski 1995, Pimm et al 1995b). For

birds, the rate of extinction is certainly higher now

than it has ever been. Steadman (1995) presents

zooarcheological evidence suggesting that as many

as 2000 bird species — about 15% of the number of

‘Department of Biology, 0116, University of California at San

Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116, U.S.A.

species present today (Sibley and Monroe 1990) —

have gone extinct in the islands of the tropical Pacific,

since humans first colonized the islands. The only

plausible explanation for the increased rates of

extinction is the presence of humans.

While case studies of extinction provide an

important focus for conservation science, they are

also a little frustrating for the conservationist, whose

main aim is to preserve extant species. On the other

hand, studies of declining populations, while

providing information about the impact of a changing

environment, also allow us the luxury of trying to

reverse the decline.

A serious difficulty in the study of population

declines is that, unlike the case of extinctions, we

have no good estimates of natural population

fluctuations before human intervention. It is clear

that climate fluctuations can have a large impact, e.g.

droughts causing heavy mortality (Gibbs and Grant

1987, Baillie and Peach 1992, Blake et al 1992).

There have been major changes in the geographical

range for many species in Britain this century

attributable to relatively minor climatic changes

(Burton 1995). Over the past 2 million years, ice

ages have caused extreme climatic changes which

412

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Voi 93 (1996)

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Blackcap

Whitethroat

Willow War

Sedge Warbler

Old World (U.K.)

Blackthroated

Blue Warbler

Magnolia

Warbler

bier

Prairie Warbler

Cerulean

Warbler

New World (U.S.A)

Fig. 1. Average annual changes (%) in several warbler species in Europe and North America in recent decades. Data

for U.K. are from Baillie and Peach (1992), using British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) data for 1964-1989, while

those for U.S.A. are from James et al. (1996), using Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data for 1966-1992.

must have had an enormous impact on population

sizes.

In this paper we evaluate the impact of climate

— specifically winter rainfall — on population sizes

of over-wintering migrant Palaearctic warblers in

India, as a means by which to evaluate the non-

human factors that can cause population fluctuations.

We chose to focus on warblers because they have

been well studied in Europe and North America, and

have become a classic example of species in decline

(Terborgh 1989, Hagan and Johnston 1992, Rappole

1995). Habitat loss has been implicated as a cause

of decline for some specific case studies (Rappole

1995), but some outstanding questions remain.

Firstly, not all species are declining (Fig. 1, Baillie

and Peach 1992, James et al. 1996). Secondly, even

for those species which are declining it can be

difficult to detect a root cause, which may be on the

breeding grounds, on the wintering grounds, or

during migration (Bohning-Gaese 1992, Sherry and

Holmes 1992, 1996, Bohning-Gaese et al. 1993).

Third, a role for habitat loss has been difficult to

demonstrate (Rappole and McDonald 1994, Rappole

1995, Sherry and Holmes 1996). These questions

make it imperative to understand the impact of

climate on population sizes.

We report results of a four-year study on the

Green Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus, on its

wintering grounds. This species over-winters in south

India, and breeds in the Caucasus (> 5000 km away.

Cramp 1992). We studied the population over-

wintering on Mundanthurai plateau in the Kalakad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the southern Western

Ghats from December 1992 to January 1996. The

prime purpose of this paper is to demonstrate a

connection between rainfall and over-winter

PALAEARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

413

Fig. 2. Location of study area in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu

414

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

abundances, and discuss the significance of our

results for conservation, both in India and globally.

P. nitidus is entirely insectivorous. Following

the suggested outline of Grant and Boag (1980), we

use a comparative study over four years to measure

the strength of the causal links between rainfall and

its effects on birds according to the scheme: Rainfall

-> Primary production -> Arthropod abundance ->

Warblers. We show the effect of rainfall on both

warbler abundance and individual condition, and use

these results and long-term rainfall records to infer

a large effect of climate on population size.

Study Area and Methods

Location: The Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve (c. 830 sq. km, 8° 40 'N, 77° 20 ’E) lies at

the southern end of the Western Ghats mountain

range of peninsular India (Fig. 2). We conducted this

study on Mundanthurai plateau (c. 60 sq. km),

located within the reserve (180-200 m above msl).

The plateau, being in the rain shadow of the

Southwest monsoon (June-August), receives most

of its rainfall during the Northeast monsoon

(October-Dec ember, Joshua and Johnsingh 1988).

Two distinct vegetation types occur: evergreen

riverain forests along the plateau’s two perennial

rivers, and dry deciduous forests elsewhere. In the

1960s parts of the dry forest were clear-cut for

commercial plantations which were subsequently

abandoned. As a result, the plateau now has a mosaic

of primary and secondary vegetation. We established

a 50 ha study area at the confluence of the

Thambiraparani and Servalar rivers (Fig. 2) and

focused mainly in this area for each of the four years

(Table 1). Fifteen hectares of this study area was

denoted the core and every tree was numbered,

catalogued and mapped.

Climate, Plants and Insects: A daily record

of rainfall and temperature was maintained at the

site. We also obtained long-term rainfall data from

the Tamil Nadti Electricity Board’s weather station

at Lower Papanasam Dam, c. 3 km from our study

area (Fig, 2). One of us (M. Katti) also recorded plant

phenology by estimating tree cover at 200 points

along standard transects (Mueller-Dombois and

Ellenberg 1974): at each point, we recorded

vegetation if it blocked the vertical line of sight by

looking straight up. We use the proportion of points

with foliage (reported as a percentage) as a simple

index of the amount of foliage in the canopy, and

therefore, of primary production by the trees. We

did this every year in January or February.

Table 1

PERIODS OF STUDY AND NETTING EFFORT AT

MUNDANTHURAI DURING EACH OF FOUR WINTER

SEASONS (1992-96)

To estimate Arthropod abundance we

periodically sampled 35 of the most common trees

and large shrub species in the study area in the

following manner: we covered a small branch, up to

4 m high, with a large ( c . 200 litres) polythene bag,

broke off the branch, and dropped in a small piece

of cotton soaked with chloroform. All Arthropods

were carefully sorted a few hours later, and collected

in alcohol for measurement and identification in the

lab. They were subsequently classified into three size

categories based on total body length: small 0-2 mm,

medium 2-6 mm, large > 6 mm. These size categories

correspond to the estimated sizes of prey observed

being eaten by the warblers (see below; Price 1991 ).

We collected 50 samples each year in January.

Warbler Captures: Between 10-50 mist-nets

(7' x 42', 1.25” mesh size) were opened from dawn

to dusk on 255 days over the four winter seasons.

Nets were raised into the canopy, at 2-10 m above

the ground, at a series of standard locations. At any

particular location, a net was operated for a maximum

of four days. In the core plot, we captured nearly all

individuals (> 90% of those present). Individuals

were ringed using a unique combination of one

numbered aluminium ring from the Bombay Natural

History Society and up to two colour rings. We

PALAE ARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

415

Fig. 3. The weekly frequency of singing Green Leaf Warblers, P. nitidus encountered on census walks at

Mundanthurai, illustrating the three main life-history phases during winter. Data are from the 1994-95 season, for

which we have complete coverage (see Table 1 for study dates)

weighed each individual and classified it into one of

the two age categories - First Winter (FW) and After

First Winter (AFW) - based on the extent of skull

pneumatization (Svensson 1984, Ralph ef al. 1993).

We also recorded the status and extent of primary

moult by ranking each of the primaries on each wing

according to stage of development: 0 - old; 1 -

missing or pin; 2 - grown to less than a third length;

3 - between a third and two-thirds grown; 4 - more

than two-thirds grown; 5-full grown new (Ginn and

Melville 1983). The individual scores for all the

primaries were then added to get a single primary

moult score for each bird.

Warbler Censusing: At least once every two

weeks, in a three-hour period at dawn, we walked

along marked trails through various parts of the study

area to count warblers. The study area was split into

four zones (two within the 15 ha core area marked

and two outside) with each census walk covering

one zone. During both census walks and many casual

observations, every time a P. nitidus was heard

calling, we attempted to locate and identify the

individual (if it was colour-ringed), note its activity

and mark its location on a map. We made a particular

effort to locate instances of singing since that

indicates territorial interaction (Price 1981). For each

sighting we recorded the location, plant species in

which the individual was seen, height above ground

and activity of the individual. From this, we obtained

territory maps of colour-ringed individuals. We used

the number of territories per hectare as our estimate

of population density.

Our estimate of bird survival within each

winter season is based on resightings of colour-

ringed individuals. We define persistence as the

probability of an individual remaining present on the

study plot through the winter. We measure it as the

observed proportion of birds marked before moult

(January) that remained on the plot till the start of

return migration (March). We have this data only

for two years - 1993-94 and 1994-95.

Warbler Behaviour: We recorded foraging

and other behaviour in two ways. Individuals were

observed until they made the first feeding movement:

416

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Month

Fig. 4. Winter rainfall (mm) in Mundanthurai over the past four winters (1992-1996).

the type of movement, its location, and an estimate

of prey size were recorded, following Price (1991).

This method ensures independence of each

observation. We use it to estimate the distribution of

prey sizes eaten. Price (1991) showed a high

correlation across species between this measure and

prey size as measured from the faeces. In addition,

we followed focal individuals for as long as possible

(up to 30 minutes), recording all foraging attempts

and other behaviour into a hand held tape recorder.

This provided data on foraging rates.

Results

Natural History: P nitidus first arrives in

northern India during August (Gaston 1981), and

takes over a month to reach southern India. At

Mundanthurai, arrival usually begins near the end

of September, and continues through early December

(Fig. 3). Individuals are solitary and territorial in the

winter, with both sexes holding independent

territories throughout the winter. In Mundanthurai,

settlement usually begins along the riverain gallery

forest, which is more evergreen, and has considerably

more foliage in September (at the end of a long dry

season, see below). Birds arriving later occupy areas

of deciduous forest away from the river. All birds

which return from previous years retain their old

territories in both habitats (see also Price 1981). This

suggests strong site fidelity as well as consistency

in timing, for previous territory holders in the

deciduous forests arrived later than those in the

riverain forest.

In Mundanthurai, the P. nitidus population

exhibits three distinct phases (illustrated in Fig. 3):

The first phase, settlement, runs from late September

to December, and comprises arrival, habitat selection

and territory establishment. About 30% of birds

caught during arrival underwent a partial moult of

their primary coverts and some body feathers either

during migration or immediately upon arrival. It is

characterized by frequent interactions among

PALAEARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

417

2 20

0

1996

❖

1993

1994 ♦

❖

1995

♦

Rainfall (mm)

0

Fig. 5. The relationship between January canopy cover and October- December rainfall at Mundanthurai over four

winters (1992-1996). Pearson’s r = 0.993, P <0.05.

individuals while territory boundaries are negotiated

(Fig. 3). Territorial behaviour ranges from simple

calling through intense face-to-face contests lasting

several hours (apart from breaks during foraging

bouts), and sometimes continuing over many weeks.

During such interactions, birds chase each other, flick

their wings and often sing continuously. Singing is

seldom heard outside of such contests, and both sexes

sing. Many individuals disappear (permanently)

during this period, after failing to obtain territories.

The second phase, which we call the renewal

phase, lasts from January to mid-March, when the

birds undergo a complete moult. This is socially the

quietest part of the season, with very little interaction

among individuals, and rates of calling are at the

lowest (Fig. 3). A moult of all feathers starts near

the end of the Northeast monsoon in January and

lasts through February, often extending into late

March. During moult, most individuals drop most

of their flight feathers at once and become virtually

flightless for up to two weeks.

The final phase, migration, begins soon after

the end of moult, by mid-March, and lasts until late

April when all the birds disappear. During this phase

foraging rates increase as individuals start

accumulating fat in preparation for the return

migration. Some migrating birds, presumably from

more southern areas, pass through Mundanthurai,

mainly along the rivers, and there is an increase in

the rates of vocalization and interaction.

While the population conforms to the above

pattern of life-history during each winter, we found

considerable year-to-year variation in measures of

individual condition, and in population parameters.

Much of this variation appears to be driven by

fluctuations in winter rainfall, and associated changes

418

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Fig. 6. The relationship between January arthropod abundance (x ± S.E.) and October-December rainfall at

Mundanthurai over four winters, Pearson’s r = 0.986, P <0.05.

in tree canopy cover and Arthropod prey abundance.

We describe the trends in each of these variables

below and look at their relationship to warbler

abundance and individual condition.

Rainfall: During the study, Mundanthurai

experienced three-fold variation in winter (October-

February) rainfall, with high rainfall in the first

two winters, to near-drought in 1995-1996 (Fig. 4).

The fluctuation is similar to that in the past

(1960-1985, Fig. 11), though the first two years

(1992 and 1993) were wetter than any between 1960-

1985.

Plant Phenology: Mundanthurai, which is in

the rain shadow for the Southwest monsoon,

experiences a long dry season between March and

September, when most of the plateau’s forest is

leafless, except some evergreen species along the

rivers. The main leaf flush, and season of primary

productivity, starts with the Northeast monsoon,

arriving usually in November. Our estimate of tree

canopy cover in Jan ./Feb. (at the end of the monsoon

growing season) should therefore be an estimate of

leaf cover at its peak. The estimate varied

considerably across years (Coefficient of Variation

= 20.5%, N = 4) and showed a strong positive

correlation with October-December rainfall (Fig. 5,

Pearson’s r = 0.99, P < 0.05, N = 4).

Arthropods: Arthropod abundance follows

the first leaf flush in late November (M. Katti and T.

Price, unpublished data). Our estimate of total

Arthropod abundance, also measured in January, near

the end of the growing season, was strongly

positively correlated with October-December rainfall

(Fig. 6, Pearson’s r = 0.99, P < 0.05, N = 4), and

with canopy cover (Pearson’s r = 0.96, P < 0.05, N =

4). In the driest year, total Arthropod abundance was

28% of that in the wettest year. Similarly, large prey

in the driest year was 29% of that in the wettest year

comparison, and Arthropod abundance showed a

parallel trend in all three size categories (Fig. 7).

Warbler Density: As described earlier, the

early arriving warblers of October occupy the semi-

PALAEARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

419

Fig. 7. Arthropod abundance in different size categories across four winters (in January) at Mundanthurai. Histogram

shows mean ± S.E. Small items: < 2 mm; Medium items: 2-6 mm; Large items: > 6 mm.

evergreen riparian forests, while the additional

arrivals almost coincide with the onset of the

monsoon. The Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus

dumetorum, which is known to stop in north India

for a complete moult (Gaston 1976), also arrives in

Mundanthurai with the Northeast monsoon. Gaston

(1981) reported that some Greenish Warblers, P.

trochiloides, lingered in his study area in Delhi for a

few days during passage, before disappearing. We

speculate that individuals arriving late in

Mundanthurai stop at other locations enroute,

possibly tracking local resource abundances (like

some African wintering species, Marchant 1992,

Hedenstrom et al. 1 993). Arrivals peak during early

December and densities stabilize by the end of

December, once territories have been established.

The number of territories on the core plot during

our study differed between the four years (Table 2).

Density in January 1996 (1.9 birds/ha) was about

60% of that in January 1993 (3.2 birds/ha). A similar

trend is apparent in a comparison of mist-net capture

rates for P nitidus over four years (Fig. 8) - note that

there is considerable variation in capture rate within

each season; the appropriate comparison is for each

month between years, which shows the declining

trend.

Persistence: Persistence was studied to assess

the trends in disappearances during the settlement

phase. We were able to cover the entire winter season,

from settlement through spring migration, and

estimate persistence, for only two years (1993-94

and 1994-95). Comparing the fate of birds captured

during October 15-December 31 in these two years,

we found an almost two-fold difference in persistence

(Fig. 9, X2 test, P < 0.01). The trend is the same as

that in density - the drier year (1994-95) had lower

persistence than the wetter year (1993-94),

Effects on Individuals: We have shown a

correlation between environment and population

density. Such environmental influences may also

affect the fitness of surviving individuals, since body

condition at the end of winter is likely to influence

the ability to migrate and breed successfully. Price

(1981) found that during the dry season in the Eastern

Ghats (which is in the middle of the winter there)

mean body weight of Greenish Warblers, P.

trochiloides , decreased. This was also the time when

birds with small territories disappeared (which was

equated with death, Price 1981). We compared

morphological and behavioural traits of persisting

420

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

birds during December-! anuary over four winters to

assess effects of the different climatic conditions at

individual level. We found significant variation in

several of them (Table 2).

The mean body weight of the Mundanthurai

population during December- January (just prior to

moult) varied significantly over four winters (Table

2), and showed a positive correlation with October-

December rainfall (Pearson’s r = 0.92, P <0.05),

canopy cover (Pearson’s r = 0.96, P < 0.05) and

Arthropod abundance (Pearson’s r = 0.87, P < 0.05).

To better understand this change in body

weight in terms of individual behaviour, we looked

at foraging behaviour. Mean prey capture rate in

December-January did not differ between the years.

The proportion of small prey captured, however,

showed a non-significant increase. An increase in

the proportion of small items might be expected with

a decrease in the availability of food (Fig. 7), and if

real, suggests a lower Arthropod biomass intake in

the drier years.

While food availability in January might affect

the immediate probability of survival, its apparent

effects on body condition could also have

repercussions on migrating ability and breeding

success. This is illustrated through our comparative

study of primary moult over four years. We found

that the onset of primary moult — estimated as the

x-intercept of the regression of primary moult on date

— was delayed during years of low rainfall (Fig.

10). Since studies in the breeding season have found

late-arriving birds to have lower breeding success

(Price et al. 1988, Price and Jamdar 1990), we predict

lower breeding success in the summers following

the drier winters.

We can now hypothesize causal links between

rainfall, canopy cover, arthropod abundance and

warbler abundance. All of these variables are

strongly and significantly, correlated (Table 3). The

hypothetical causal pathway underlying these

correlations may be illustrated as follows (with the

correlation values shown above each path):

r = 0.993 r = 0.962 r = 0.97

Rainfall ►Canopy ►Arthropod ► Warbler

Cover Abundance Density

Such strong correlations suggest that variation

in rainfall over a longer term than this study should

have a strong effect on population trends in the

warblers. To assess this we examine available long-

term rainfall data from recent decades.

Long-term Patterns in Rainfall: According

to rainfall records over 26 years (1960-1985; Fig.

11), winter rainfall fluctuated substantially, between

26.9 and 1025 mm (x = 512.1 ± 326.3 S.D.). By

comparison, higher rainfall was recorded in 1992

(1195 mm) and 1993 (1338 mm) than in any previous

year, but the drier years of 1994-95 were well above

the minimum experienced. A 75% decrease in

rainfall during our study was accompanied by a 40%

decline in warbler density. Extrapolating this to the

long-term rainfall variation, we predict that bird

density also fluctuates in response to winter rainfall.

Climatic factors such as rainfall variation are

likely to have general effects on all bird species in

Table 2

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREEN LEAF

WARBLER Phylloscopus nitidus ON MUNDANTHURAI

PLATEAU OVER FOUR WINTERS

1. x ± s.e., n = 12 (1992-93), 20 (1993-94), 17 (1994-95), 11

(1995-96), ANOVA, F-ratio = 3.9, P < 0.05.

2. Onset of moult is estimated from iegression of primary

moult score on date.

3. x ± s.e., n (minutes) = 35 (1992-93); 41 (1993-94); 50

(1994-95); 38 (1995-96).

4. From point observations of foraging; n = 56 (1992-93);

100 (1993-94); 112 (1994-95); 86 (1995-96).

5. From territories mapped on 15 ha core plot.

PALAEARCT1C WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

421

10

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w 3

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” 2

CD

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Jan Feb

1993

CX

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Nov Dec Jan Feb

1993-94

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Fig. 8. Monthly capture rates (birds per 1000 net-hours) for Green Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus and Blyth’s

Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum at Mundanthurai during four winters (1992-1996).

Table 3

MATRIX OF CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RAINFALL,

CANOPY COVER, ARTHROPOD ABUNDANCE AND

WARBLER DENSITY OF MUNDANTHURAI, USING

DATA FROM FOUR YEARS (1992-96). ALL VALUES

ARE PEARSON’S r’

Rainfall Canopy Cover Arthropod

October-December (%) Abundance

an area. Having elaborated on one species in detail,

we now look at our (less intensive) data on other

migrant warblers wintering in Mundanthurai, and

find parallel trends.

Other species: P nitidus dominates the guild

of foliage-gleaning insectivores in the forest canopy,

and is perhaps the only one to maintain an entirely

insectivorous diet through the winter. Other resident

sympatric canopy foliage-gleaners include the Iora,

Aegithina tiphia, which also feeds on fruit and nectar,

Sunbirds (two species of Nectarinia ) and

Flowerpeckers (two species of Dicaeum ) which are

partial nectar-feeders and Minivets (two species of

Pericrocotus) which are not very common. We did

not measure the abundance of these species. The most

common insectivore in the forest understory is

another Palearctic migrant Sylviid warbler, the

Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum,

which also overlaps with# nitidus in their breeding

range. A third common migrant warbler is the

Himalayan breeding Large-billed Leaf Warbler

422

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Fig. 9. Comparison of within-season persistence of

colour-ringed Green Leaf Warblers, P. nitidus , in

Mundanthurai between 1993-94 and 1994-95.

X2 test, P< 0.01.

Phylloscopus magnirostris, which occupies riparian

and more evergreen forests and also forages mostly

in the understory.

We monitored both these migrant warblers (in

addition to P. nitidus ) during the census walks as well

as during mist-netting. P. magnirostris, of which we

mapped territories also, shows similar trends as P.

nitidus in density; the riverain stretches of the study

plot (< 2 ha) had 5 territories in 1992-93 and 1993-94,

3 territories in 1994-95 and 2 territories in 1995-96. A.

dumetorum is harder to observe due to its preference

for foraging in the interior of dense bushes, so we were

not able to identify individuals for accurate territory

mapping. The mist-netting data, however, show an

interesting trend (Fig. 8): A. dumetorum capture rates

tend to be negatively correlated with P. nitidus c apture

rates (r = 0.47, N = 4, not significant), and more A.

dumetorumwere caught in the driest year than in other

years. Since the nets are placed up in the canopy, mostly

above the foraging range of A. dumetorum, these

capture rate data may be interpreted as an index of the

relative frequency of canopy foraging by A.

dumetorum. Thus we do not attribute the change in

capture rate to change in densities, but rather to change

in foraging in response to low food availability (see

also Price 1981).

Discussion

A striking result of this study is that changes

in rainfall and prey abundance affect warbler density

and condition within a relatively short period, just

over two months after the initial arrival of warblers

in each season. The settlement period from October

to December is thus most critical for winter

population dynamics, if these months are relatively

dry, the resulting low prey abundance reduces mean

body weight and causes more birds to disappear, even

before the onset of moult.

While some birds undoubtedly move to other

areas, we believe that the differences over different

years is attributable to mortality for the following

three reasons. First, winter habitat is saturated and

probably the main factor limiting populations

because of intense competition for territories during

the settlement phase (Price 1981, this study, R.

Kannan, pers. comm). By contrast, there are very

low densities (< 1 bird per sq. km) in some northern

breeding areas, such as Siberia, where apparently

suitable patches of forest are often empty (T. Price,

pers. observation). Second, Mundanthurai is close

to the species’ southern range limit within peninsular

India, and arrival here is also fairly late (more than

two months after birds start leaving the breeding area:

Cramp 1992). Birds failing to obtain territories here

do not have much space, time, or energy reserves

(arriving birds have virtually no visible subcutaneous

fat left; M. Katti, unpublished data) to explore other

areas. Finally, rainfall across the eastern half of

peninsular India is largely under the influence of the

Northeast monsoon currents and a lower amount of

winter rainfall in Mundanthurai represents general

failure of the monsoon. Any dispersing warblers are

thus unlikely to find conditions different from

Mundanthurai elsewhere during dry years.

We have shown that the reduction in prey

abundance in dry years correlates with lower

densities and also with lower body weight by

January, indicating that surviving birds are in poorer

physiological condition. An immediate consequence

of this is on the timing of moult. It is known that

moult — particularly of flight feathers — is

PALAEARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

423

3

o

Date

Fig. 10. The relationship between primary moult score and date for the Green Leaf Warbler, P. nitidus, at

Mundanthurai, 1994-1996. Only one bird was captured during moult in 1996. Regression, P < 0.05 for all three years

1993, 1994, 1995; ANCOVA, Moult vs. Date, Year: whole model, F-ratio = 16.42, P < 0.01; date(*) year interaction,

F-ratio = 3.95, P < 0.05.

physiologically stressful and increases the risk of

predation as birds lose their flight efficiency (Bensch

etal 1991, Gosler 1991, Lindstrom etal 1993). At

the same time, every bird must complete its moult

in order to be able to fly back to the breeding grounds.

An individual that does not have sufficient resources

for moult may not be able to return to the breeding

grounds at all. Individuals appear to be also under a

time constrain, since early breeding individuals

typically fledge more young than later ones in many

species (Price and Jamdar 1 990). Delayed moult can

thus directly result in reduced breeding opportunity.

Our results imply that population, size in

January can be perfectly predicted from rainfall over

the preceding three months. This means that the

population is entirely regulated during the winter

season, and that breeding and migration have no

influence. Limited data on other species shows that

their densities ( Phylloscopus magnirostris) and

behaviour (. Acrocephalus dumetorum ) are also

affected by dry years, and the influence of climate

on population size is likely to be generally strong.

Conclusions need to be tempered by the short

duration of this study (4 years), and it is possible

that in other years breeding and migration success

have more influence. In addition, we have not

observed the full range of climatic extremes which

have been recorded in the winter season (Fig. 11),

and the relationship between climate and population

size may not be as strong when very dry years are

424

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Fig. 11. Winter rainfall (October-December totals) on Mundanthurai plateau during 1960-1985 (data from Tamil

Nadu Electricity Board, Lower Papanasam Dam) and 1992-96 (this study, Mundanthurai).

included (although we have no reason to believe that

it is not).

Even if there is strong population regulation

in the winter, there can be effects of breeding success

on local populations. If breeding habitat is

unsaturated, then breeding failure in any one locality

may result in fewer birds returning to that locality

the following year, with possible compensatory

increase elsewhere. Several studies in North America

(e.g. Holmes et al. 1991, Holmes and Sherry 1992)

have shown that breeding success does affect

recruitment to the populations of the migrant

warblers they studied, but possible compensatory

effects on populations elsewhere have not been

assessed. A second explanation for studies which find

an importance of breeding success for migrant

species in America and Europe (Bohning-Gaese

1992, Bohning-Gaese et al. 1993) is that winter

regulation of populations in the Americas and Africa

may be less strong than it appears to be in India,

because the area of habitat available for over-

wintering warblers is probably much less in India.

This is especially plausible when viewed in terms of

the spatial extent of the breeding areas which are

supplying winter migrants. India accommodates

many warbler species which breed from the

Himalayas north throughout central Siberia and west

to Europe.

The Americas and the Europe/Africa migration

systems may be different from Asia because of

differences in geography, but it is from those systems

that most of the data on migrants come (e.g. Fig. 1).

The data show both declines and increases of

populations at average rates of up to 7% annually,

over periods of more than 20 years. Populations have

thus changed as much as five-fold over the duration

of these studies. We have detected a population

decrease of 40% due to climatic change in our four

year study, but have not studied very dry years. Thus,

it is at least possible that some of the changes in

PALAEARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

425

population size of other species are attributable to

climate changes, and climate needs to be factored in

before more direct human influences on population

size are addressed. Our results point to potentially

major effects of human-induced climatic changes,

such as global warming, on population sizes of

different species. They are consistent with the

findings of Burton (1995) who has attributed many

changes in geographical distribution to recent climate

change.

Our study measures the extent to which

populations within a single locality are changing,

and does not produce an estimate of change in the

total numbers of this species. If the inference that

habitats are saturated in the winter is correct, then

the population size of the species as a whole is likely

to be affected by habitat destruction in the wintering

range. Few studies have addressed the extent to

which population sizes are declining. Perhaps the

closest are the breeding bird surveys in North

America, which have taken place along the same

prescribed routes over many years (e.g. James et al

1996), and show both declines and increases over

the past 20-30 years (Fig. 1).

In general, changes in population size depend

on the time-scale studied: 10,000 years ago, during

the last major ice age, breeding habitat may have

been limiting and perhaps the global population was

low. We expect the population to have increased since

then. The first waves of human-induced habitat

change in India occurred a few thousand years ago

(Gadgil and Guha 1992), with deforestation

accelerating over the past several hundred years

(Gadgil 1990, Gadgil and Guha 1992). The

subsequent loss of winter habitat may have led to

declines over the past few millennia. Habitat

destruction has become rampant in recent decades

(Rodgers and Panwar 1988, Gadgil 1990, Gadgil and

Guha 1992), and its effect on local bird abundance

and diversity has been reported (Daniels et al 1990,

Price 1990, ICBP 1992).

Extrapolating our four-year study to longer

periods based on climate records entails making

many assumptions, but can be used to provide a first

approximation of the way in which populations have

fluctuated in the recent past. We suggest that drought

years (especially between 1975 and 1980) must have

had dramatic effects on population size. If habitat is

further reduced, we may be lulled into a false sense

of security by the finding of within -habitat densities,

for a single dry year may dramatically alter the

picture, and drive populations close to extinction.

While this may be a long way off for R nitidus, which

is one of the commonest birds in India and a good

disperser between patches, the general principles are

the same for those less common, poorly dispersing

species which are more at risk.

In his later years S&lim Ali became

increasingly concerned about habitat conservation.

This differed from most other conservation

biologists, who then focused mainly on charismatic

endangered species, mostly large mammals. In this,

as in many other ways, he was ahead of his time, for

we now see conservation organizations throughout

the world emphasizing environments and not species.

In 1979, S£lim Ali discussed the important role

insectivorous birds play in the ecosystem, based on

studies of the Arthropod pests they consume (Ali

1979). We suspect he was ahead of his time here as

well, and suggest that population studies of the

commoner elements of India’s fauna and flora will

play a growing role in habitat conservation. They

will provide the litmus test monitoring the state of

the environment. We think this is one of many areas

of research Salim Ali would have been actively

encouraging, and probably still doing himself, as he

entered his second century.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. Promode Kant, the Field

Director of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,

and his staff, for logistical support; the Chief Wildlife

Warden of Tamil Nadu for permitting us to conduct

this research; Tamil Nadu Electricity Board for

rainfall data from the Papanasam Project; and Albert

Rajendran for the map of the Reserve. We thank Mr.

J.C. Daniel for inviting us to contribute a paper to

this volume and for all his encouragement over the

years. The field work was initiated with the assistance

426

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

of grants from the Smithsonian Institution, National

Geographic Society, National Science Foundation,

Oriental Bird Club, Sigma Xi Society, and Wildlife

Conservation Society; and is currently funded as a

long-term monitoring project by the Wildlife

Conservation Society. Ms. Kaberi Kar Gupta and Mr.

C. Sankaran provided valuable assistance during

field work. Dr. Fred Dyer, Dr. James Moore, Mr.

Andrew Suarez and Ms. Sukamol Srikwan provided

critical comments on the manuscript.

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INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD-DISPERSED

PLANTS IN THE TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

OF POINT CALIMERE, SOUTH INDIA

P. B ALASUBRAM ANXAN1

(With three text-figures)

This paper examines interactions between 64 fleshy-fruited plants and 20 fruit-eating birds in a tropical dry

evergreen forest at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, India. Seasonal patterns of frugi vore availability, fruiting phenology,

fruit colour, fruit size and gape width of frugi vorous birds were studied and compared. The timing of fruiting and

frugivore abundance were significantly correlated. There was a peak in the number of plants in ripe fruits during post-

monsoon when there was a peak in the frugi vorous bird population. Fruiting decreased during summer and pre-monsoon

and the frugivorous bird abundance was low in this period. Species such as Walsura trifolia , Azadirachta indica, Lannea

coromandelica, Crateva adansonii that fruited during summer were found to be keystone food resources for fruit-

eating birds. Most bird-dispersed fruits appear red or black (to human eyes). Yellow, blue, white, green and orange are

the other bird-fruit colours, but are uncommon. The colour spectra of bird-dispersed fruits at Point Calimere correlated

with other regions of the tropics. The gape width of birds and the number of fruit species eaten by frugivorous birds

were not correlated. Birds ate fruits irrespective of their sizes. For those plants which possess fruits with smaller seeds,

birds are suitable dispersers. In the case of large-seeded fruits, birds ate only the pulp and seeds were dropped. For these

plant species, mammals (e.g. Cynopterus sphinx and Canis aureus) are the suitable dispersers.

Introduction

The study of relationships between bird-

dispersed plants and fruit-eating birds in tropical

region has received considerable attention ( Ali 1931,

Howe and Estabrook 1977, Frost 1980, Beehler 1983,

Wheelwright et al. 1984, Gautier-Hion et al 1985,

Lambert 1989, Dowsett-Lemaire 1988, Green 1993).

While certain studies were focused on the interactions

between the timing of fruiting of bird-dispersed plants

and the abundance of fruit-eating birds (e.g. Smythe

1970, Wheelwright 1985a, Leighton and Leighton

1983 and Levey 1988), other studies were focused on

the fruit colour spectra of fleshy-fruited plants

consumed by birds (e.g. Turcek 1963, Jan son 1983,

Willson and Thompson 1982, and Wheelwright and

Janson 1985) and the relationship between the fruit

size and gape width of fruit-eating birds (e.g. Pratt and

Stiles 1985, Wheelwright 1985b, Willson al 1989).

The relationship between the timing of fruiting

‘Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali

Chowk, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

Present address: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History, Kalampalayam-PO, Coimbatore-641 010.

of bird-dispersed plants and fruit-eating bird

abundance is basic to understanding the tropical bird-

fruit dispersal syndromes. Temporal variation in

tropical fruit-eating bird abundance is usually

ascribed to changes in fruit abundance (Skutch

1967, Morton 1973, 1977; Konetal. 1982).

As fruit production fluctuates in many tropical

forests, certain species fruiting during periods of fruit

scarcity might assume importance as “ Keystone

resources” (Terborgh 1986). Information on animal

responses to resource availability and identifying

certain species which play a dominant role in

mutualistic interactions in the community are

important in the conservation and management of

natural habitats.

In bird-dispersed plants, fruit colour is one of

the many factors determining fruit choice by birds

in the wild (Wheelwright and Janson 1985). Ridley

(1936) noted that fruit colours are a form of long

distance advertisement to fruit foragers. He observed

that red and\or black are the most common colours

of bird-dispersed fruits. Subsequent surveys by

various authors have supported his generalization

for particular floras.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD-DISPERSED PLANTS

429

In fleshy-fruited plants, fruit size helps and

constrains seed dispersal by animals. In tropical

communities, it has been observed that small fruits

attract a wider array of dispersal agents than larger

ones. Plant species with small fruits are often visited

by more species of dispersal agents (Snow 1971,

Martin 1985, Howe and Westley 1988 and Dowsett-

Lemaire 1988).

With this background, a study on the

interrelationships between fleshy-fruited plants and

their vertebrate consumers was conducted from May

1986 to December 1988 in the dry evergreen forest

in Point Calimere, South India from where similar

studies have not been carried out so far. The

objectives of the study were: 1. to find out the

relationship between the timing of fruiting of bird-

dispersed plants and fruit-eating bird abundance, 2.

colour spectra of fleshy fruits eaten by birds and 3.

relationship between fruit size and gape width size

of frugivorous birds.

Study Area and Methods

The study area, Point Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary (10°18' N, 79° 51' E) is situated at a low

promontory on the Coromandel Coast in the Tamil

Nadu state of India. The Sanctuary spreads out in an

area of 2401 .38 hectares. The Jaffna peninsula of Sri

Lanka is about 50 km away across the Palk Strait.

The elevation of the area is 4 metres above mean sea

level at the highest point of the sanctuary.

The average rainfall of Point Calimere ranges

from 1000-1500 mm (Meher-Homji 1984). The

temperature ranges from 21.5°C (absolute minimum)

during the least warm month, January to 35°C

(absolute maximum) during the warmer months,

April, May and June. The calendar year of this

tropical region of southern India is divisible into the

following four seasons based on rainfall. 1. Post-

monsoon - January, February, March. 2. Summer-

April, May, June. 3. Pre-monsoon-July, August,

September. 4. Monsoon-October, November,

December. The flora and the vegetation of the

Sanctuary has been studied by Sebastine and Ellis

(1967), and Blasco and Legris (1973).

Balasubramanian (in press) gives a detailed account

of the flora of this region. Champion and Seth (1968)

classified the vegetation of this sanctuary under

“Tropical dry evergreen forest” type. Wooded portion

of the sanctuary is only 50% of the area; the rest is

covered by shallow swamp and open grazing lands.

About 140 species of passerine birds and 18 mammal

species have been reported from Point Calimere

(Rajan et al in press).

The Plants: Phenological records were noted

for tagged individuals along a four kilometre transect

in the study area. Ten individuals of each species

were selected. Phenological data were collected for

64 plant species that include 27 trees, 23 shrubs and

14 climbers. A total of 555 individuals were marked

for the study. The phenological data on fruiting were

collected once a fortnight from January 1987 to

December 1988. The plants were observed through

a pair of binoculars and the abundance of fruiting

was noted. Three categories, namely ‘none’, ‘few’

and ‘many’ were employed to indicate abundance

of ripe fruits. The details of methods followed are

given elsewhere (Balasubramanian and Bole

1993b). Ten ripe fruits from five individuals of each

of the bird-dispersed plant species were collected.

The colour of the ripe fruits against their natural

background was noted. The fruit colours were

assigned into one of eight broad colour categories

commonly employed by other researchers (Turcek

1963, Willson and Thompson 1982, Wheelwright

and Janson 1985), namely black, blue, brown, red,

green, yellow, orange and white. Fresh fruits were

weighed and mean mass of each species was

calculated. Fruit diameter was measured with Vernier

calipers. The number of seeds in each fruit was

counted. The length of each seed was measured.

The Birds: The abundance of the avian

frugivores was estimated by a census from January

1987 to December 1988. Once in a fortnight a

census walk was made along a four kilometre

transect, where the plants for phenology studies had

been marked. Birds seen and heard 50 metres on

either side of the transect were recorded (Emlen

1971). The gape width (the distance between the

commissural points) was measured with Vernier

430

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

calipers from the specimens of Bombay Natural

History Society’s collection. Avian nomenclature

follows Ali and Ripley (1983).

Fruit-eating birds were identified by extended

watches on fruit-bearing plants. The methods

followed for recording bird visitation to fruiting

plants are after Howe and Steven 1979, Frost 1980,

Cruz 1981, Kantak 1981, Beehler 1983.

Observations were made between 0600 and 0900 In-

in the morning, usually for a continuous duration of

three hours. The fruit utilisation by various birds was

documented by identifying birds making feeding

visits on fruiting plants. The number of visits made

by each bird species was recorded for every five

minutes during the three hour observation.

Results

Species Composition of Fleshy-fruited

Plants: Out of 317 species of flowering plants in

Point Calimere, 88 species have fleshy-fruits.

Among these, 64 species that were eaten by birds

were selected for the study. The remaining 24 species

were not included in the study because (i) 10 plants

were dispersed only by mammals; (ii) seven species

were dispersed by water and (iii) the remaining

seven species, though dispersed by birds occur either

rarely in the study area or were annual climbers.

The 64 species are in 53 genera belonging to 34

families. Families represented by most native

genera with fleshy-fruits eaten by birds are

Rubiaceae (4), Euphorbiaceae (4) and Cordiaceae

(3).

Fruiting Phenology of Bird-dispersed

plants: Fruiting at Point Calimere is seasonal; with

a peak in winter (post-monsoon) and a trough in

summer. Number of species with ripe fruits was

lowest during June (summer) in both the years-1987,

1988 (Table 1). The number of species with fruits

started to increase from October (monsoon) in the

first year and in September (late pre-monsoon) in

the second year. The peak in fruiting was attained

during February (post-monsoon) in the first year

(1987), during March (post- monsoon) in the second

year (1988). There was no significant difference in

the number of species in fruit between 1987 and 1988

(Wilcoxon’s signed rank test, p > 0.10).

Salvador a persica produced sterile fruits,

without seeds during February, March and April.

During May, September and October it produced

fertile fruits with seeds. The sterile fruit was a thin-

skinned berry measuring 5 mm diameter. The fertile

fruit measured 6.2 mm diameter with a seed of 3.5

mm diameter. Most of the individuals had red fruits,

while a few had white fruits. A detailed account of

the fruiting phenology of fleshy-fruited plants in

Point Calimere is described elsewhere

(Balasubramanian and Bole 1993b).

The Fruits: Table 2 summarizes the various

classes of bird-fruits in Point Calimere. Red (25)

and Black (17) are the principal colours, which

constituted 65.6% of the total bird-fruit species in

Point Calimere. Yellow, blue, white, green and

orange are other colours among bird-fruits. Fruit size

ranged from 3.9 mm to 69 mm. The majority of bird-

dispersed fruits had a mean diameter of less than

10 mm (42 out of 64). A total of 42 fruit species had

1-2 seeds per fruit, out of which 35 species (55%)

had only a single seed. A total of 55 fruit species

had seeds measuring less than 10 mm length.

Remaining nine species measured more than 10 mm

in length.

The Birds: A total of 20 bird species of 14

genera from 10 families were observed to eat fruits

at Point Calimere (Table 3). None of the families

were represented by more than two genera. Families

represented by more than two species were Stumidae

(4), Corvidae (3) and Columbidae (3). Based on the

census data, the status of frugivorous birds were put

into three classes, namely i. Residents (R); (birds

that are seen throughout the year), ii. Seasonal

migrants (SM); birds that are seen most part of the

year and are absent for a short period (2-4 months)

and iii. Migrants (M); birds that are seen for a short

period, especially during winter.

The major avian seed dispersers are two

bulbuls ( Pycnonotus luteolus , P cafer), three mynas

(, Sturnus malabaricus, S. pagodarum, Acridotkeres

tristis ), Rosy pastor ( Sturnus roseus ), Golden oriole

( Oriolus oriolus ), Koel ( Eudynamys scolopacea ),

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD-DISPERSED PLANTS

431

Table 1

FRUITING PHENOLOGY OF BIRD-DISPERSED PLANTS IN POINT CALI MERE

two crows ( Corvus macrorhynchos, C. splendens ),

Indian tree pie ( Dendrocitta vagabunda ), Jungle

babbler ( Turdoides striatus) and Tickell’s flowerpec-

ker ( Dicaeum erythrorhyncho s) . Two doves

Streptopelia chinensis, S. decaocto) and Rose-

ringed parakeet ( Psittacula krameri) were seed

predators. P. krameri visited the fruiting trees

mainly for eating the seeds. The fruits of Sapotaceae

(e.g., Manilkara hexandra , Mimusops elengi and

Madhuca longifolia) were largely attacked by this

bird. S. chinensis and S. decaocto visit the fruiting

trees mainly to eat the fruits, but while doing so they

damage the seeds, and are hence included in this

class. Though pigeons and doves are generally

considered as seed predators (Ridley 1936), Treron

bicincta was found to disperse seeds of a few plant

species. The analysis of faeces collected from

roosting sites showed a large number of uninjured

seeds of Manilkara hexandra and Zizyphus oenoplia.

Two sunbirds ( Nectarinia zeylonica and//, asiatica )

visited the plants such as Lepisanthes tetraphylla and

Salvadora persica, bearing juicy fruits, to sip the

Table 2

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF 64 FRUIT SPECIES BASED ON DIFFERENT PARAMETERS

432

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 3

AVIAN FRUGIVORES AND THEIR GAPE SIZE OBSERVED AT POINT CALIMERE

sweet juice. While doing so, the seeds are neither

damaged nor ingested and hence the birds are called

as fruit thieves. Blyth’s reed warbler ( Acrocephalus

dumetorum ) was neither a legitimate seed disperser

nor a seed predator. It visited only one plant

(Salvadora persica) to eat the seedless fruits which

were ingested whole.

The various plant species whose fruits were

eaten by birds at Point Cali mere are given in Table

4. Pycnonotus luteolus visited the maximum number

of plants (63) followed by Pycnonotus cafer (51),

Eudynamys scolopacea (32) and Acridotheres tristis

(27). Three plant species were visited by more than

10 bird species. The tree species with the largest

number of bird species visit was Salvadora persica

(15) followed by Manilkara hexandra (12) and Ficus

infectoria (11). The percentages of visits made by

various fruit eating birds to 22 fleshy-fruited plants

are given in Table 5.

Seasonal Fluctuations of Frugivorous Birds:

Fluctuation in the number of species as well as

individuals of frugivorous birds was noticed during

different seasons in both the years of study. The

highest number of frugivorous bird species occurred

during November (monsoon) in 1987 (17) and in

December (monsoon), February and March (post-

monsoon) in 1988 (19) (Fig. 1). There was a

significant difference in the number of species that

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD -DISPERSED PLANTS

433

N

O

o

f

r

d

s

N

o

0

f

s

p

e

c

1

e

s

~~m~ inti SvSdie&ia -j- Speclet

Fig. 1. Number of frugivorous bird species and individuals observed along census route.

occurred in 1987 and 1988 (Wilcoxon’s signed rank

test, p < 0.05). The number of frugivorous bird

species was low during summer and pre-monsoon

and the lowest number (12) occurred during June

(summer) in 1987, and during June and July (summer

and pre-monsoon) in 1988.

The lowest number of individuals of

frugivorous birds (141) occurred during April

(summer) in 1987, (180) in June (summer), in 1988

(Fig. 1). The number of individuals of frugivorous

birds was generally low during summer and pre-

monsoon in both the years. The highest number (364)

of individuals of frugivorous birds occurred during

February (post-monsoon) in 1987. In 1988, the

highest number (764) was noticed in December

(monsoon). In 1988 a small fruiting peak was noticed

in September which was due to the influx of

Acridotheres tristis from the neighbouring villages

to Syzygium cumini trees, which were in mass

fruiting. During summer and pre-monsoon (between

June and August) resident birds were found in low

numbers. During these seasons, species such as

Pycnonotus luteolus, P.cafer, Acridotheres tristis,

Streptopelia chinensis and S. decaocto made local

migrations to the neighbouring villages in search of

food.

Gape Width Size: The mean gape width of

fruit-eating birds ranged from 4.7 mm to 22.8 mm.

However, if sunbirds and Blyth’s reed warbler which

are non seed dispersers and TickelFs flowerpecker

which is specialized in dispersing the seeds of

mistletoes are excluded, the mean gape width

diameter ranges from 7.9 to 22.8 mm.

Discussion

In Point Caiimere, a significant correlation was

noticed between the number of plant species in ripe

434

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 4

FRUIT SPECIES EATEN BY VARIOUS BIRDS AT POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY*

* for bird species code see Table 3

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD -DISPERSED PLANTS

435

Table 4 ( continued )

d = Seed disperser; p = Seed predator; t = Fruit thief; + = Unknown

For bird species names see Code in Table 3.

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

TableS

PERCENTAGES OF VISITS MADE AND FRUITS CONSUMED BY THE FRUGIVOROUS BIRDS FROM VARIOUS

BIRD-DISPERSED PLANTS

TOT = Number of species recorded during observation period. For each species the given data represents the percentage of visits

made by species,and (below, in parenthesis) the percentage of fruits removed by that species. * = Mean number of visits/hr and

(below, in parenthesis) mean number of fruits consumed/hr.

For bird species names see Code in Table 3.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD -DISPERSED PI ANTS

437

fruits and the number of fruit-eating bird species as

well as individuals (Spearman rank correlation, p <

0.05). The migratory season (October-March) of

birds corresponds with the availability of more fruit-

bearing plant species. As the number of plant species

that fruited during summer and pre-monsoon was

very low, resident fruit-eating birds, namely

Pycnonotus luteolus, P.cafer, Streptopelia chinensis ,

and S. decaocto showed local migration. These birds

emigrated to neighbouring villages , six kilometre

away from the sanctuary (Alagar Rajan, pers,

comm.). Hence, bird-dispersed tree species such as

Walsura trifolia , Azadirachta indica , Lannea

coromandelica , Crateva adansonii and Cordia

obliqua, whose fruiting was confined to the lean

period and supports a large population of resident

fruit-eating birds, become the keystone food

resources in the community. All studies of tropical

fruiting phenologies report seasonality, ranging from

the extreme in forests with a distinct wet and dry

season to minor in forests with heavy rainfall

throughout the year (Howe and Smallwood 1982).

In the forests with distinct wet and dry seasons, food

may be more limiting in some seasons than in

others. Consequently, trees which fruit during the

lean season will play a greater role in maintaining

entire communities of fruit-eating animals (Howe

1984).

A fine coordination between the frugivore

abundance and fruit availability was noticed in the

Bornean rain forest. Emigration of fruit-eating birds

such as hornbills ( Rhyticeros ), pigeons (Ducula,

Ptilinopus ), the hill mynah ( Gracula ) and green

broadbill ( Calyptomena ) during low fruit availa-

bility was noticed in the Bornean rain forest

(Leighton and Leighton 1983). Foster (1982)

described starvation of frugivores following

climatically induced fruit crop failures on Barro

Colorado Island, Panama, in 1970. Seasonal shift in

fruit abundance was correlated with the fluctuating

availability of fruit-eating birds at La Selva (Levey

1988).

Salvadora persica produced seedless fruits

during February to April during which about 15 bird

species visited it to eat the fruits. Flocks of Stumus

roseus visited the fruiting plants. Very large numbers

of S. roseus were noticed only during these months.

The birds fed voraciously on the fruits. The migrant

bird, Acwcephalus dumetorum , which is chiefly

insectivorous, was also found to feed on the fruits of

Salvadora. The population of A. dumetorum was

high during these months.

In South Africa, warblers Sylvia , bulbuls

Pycnonotus spp., weavers Ploceus spp., sparrows

Passer spp., Bluenaped Mousebirds Colius

macro urns, and Yellow-Fronted Tinkers Pogomulus

chrysoconus visiting Salvadora persica trees to feed

on the sterile fruits were reported by Fry et ai (1970).

They found that S. persica fruits are lipid free and

sugar-rich and readily assimilable by birds. From

the retrapped birds, during that season, they recorded

the weight variation in those bird species and

concluded that migratory birds lay down fat before

the return migration and also that the insectivorous

birds could change their diet from the protein rich

insects to sugar-rich pulpy fruits.

From the observations made at Point Calimere

on the visitation of Acrocephalus dumetorum, an

insectivorous bird, to Salvadora persica for feeding

on the sterile fruits and the seasonal abundance and

large scale visitation of Stumus roseus to Salvadora

persica , it can be presumed that these two bird

species eat Salvadora persica fruits mainly to lay

down their fat reserves, before starting on the return

migration. The seedless fruiting by Salvadora

persica during this season readily helps these two

bird species in this purpose.

Fruit Colour Spectra of Bird-dispersed

Plants: Published data for fruit colour spectra of the

bird-dispersed plants of certain other geographic

regions can be compared with those of Point

Calimere. Wheelwright and Janson (1985) found no

differences in fruit colour spectra in Costa Rica, Peru

and Florida, where black-fruited species were the

most common (34-41%). In European flora, red

fruited species are more common (Turcek 1963).

Bird- fruits from other regions were red (see Gautier-

Hion et al. 1985 for Gabon; Knight and Siegfried

1983 for South Africa, and Beehler 1983 for New

Guinea). In Point Calimere red followed by black

438

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

width ~~f~~Frult diameter

Fig. 2. Frequency distributions of mean diameter of fruits and gape width of ffugivorous birds

are the principal colours among bird-fruits, which

corresponds with the other regions.

At Point Calimere there was an association

between small size and black and red colours of

fruits. A total of 16 fruits out of 17 black and 14 out

of 25 red had fruits measuring less than 10 mm

diameter. Thus, the black and red fruits being smaller-

sized, are easily consumed by birds, and contribute

a significant share in the food plants of frugivorous

birds of Point Calimere.

Fruit Size and Number of Seeds: The

majority of bird- fruits in Point Calimere have a mean

diameter of 4-20 mm. In the lower montane rain

forests of Costa Rica, the majority of plant species

(69.1%) had fruits with a diameter of 5-12 mm.

About 48.9% of the species had single-seeded fruits.

Only 23.8% of fruits had more than 10 seeds

(Wheelwright 1985b). In Eastern North America, the

size of the bird-fruits ranges from < 5 to 10 mm. In

east-central Illinois, the mean diameter of many bird-

fruit species is about 7-8 mm. The average number

of seeds per fruit varies from 1-36 in 21 species, out

of which 14 species average only one or two seeds

per unit (Johnson et al 1 985). In Papua New Guinea,

the fruit diameter of figs ranges from 6-28 mm,

berries and drupes 6-20 mm (Beehler 1983). The

Point Calimere figures correspond with those of the

bird-dispersed fruit characters reported for the study

areas such as New Guinea (Beehler 1983), Illinois

(Johnson et al 1985) and Costa Rica (Wheelwright

1985b).

Fruit Size and Gape Width: The fruit

diameters of bird-dispersed plants at Point Calimere

ranged from 3.9-69.0 mm. The gape width of the

frugivorous bird species ranged from 4.7-22.8 mm.

The distribution of gape width sizes of fruit-eating

birds at Point Calimere did not match fruit diameters

(Fig. 2).

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FRUIT-EATING BIRDS AND BIRD-DISPERSED PLANTS

439

N

0

f

s

p

e

c

1

e

s

e

a

t

e

n

Fig. 3. Gape widths of birds vs number of fruit species eaten

Irrespective of their gape width, birds ate fruits

of various sizes. In the case of larger fruits, birds

with large gape width swallowed the whole fruit,

whereas the birds with smaller gape width ate the

pulp only. Seeds which could not be swallowed were

dropped. Birds with relatively small or large gape

width visited fewer plant species while birds of

medium-sized gape width visited the largest number

of plant species (Fig. 3). However, there was no

significant correlation between gape width size and

the number of fruit species eaten (r = 0.2153; p =

0. 362).

According to Terborgh and Diamond (1970),

small-fruited plant species attract more bird species

than large-fruited ones. In Mexico, intermediate-

sized fruits draw the largest number of bird species

(Kantak 1979). Wheelwright (1985b) concludes that

1 . small-fruited plant species draw significantly more

species of birds than large-fruited ones, 2. large-

gaped birds feed commonly on small fruits; and 3. a

correlation exists between the gape width size and

the number of lauraceous fruits eaten by those birds.

The results of this study agree with the first two of

these points of Wheelwright (1985b) and disagree

with the third point, the reason being that

Wheelwright’s observations were on one guild

(lauraceous) of plants and frugivorous birds and the

present study is on plants in a whole community and

fruit-eating birds.

In addition to birds, the Short-nosed Fruit bat

(Cynopterus sphinx ) Jackal ( Canis aureus ), small

Indian civet ( Viverricula indie a) and the Bonnet

Monkey (Macaca radiata ) also dispersed the seeds

of fleshy- fruited plants. Out of 64 bird-dispersed

plants, 30 species were dispersed by Cynopterus

sphinx , 20 by V. indica and 18 by C. aureus. Fruit

species that were not eaten by birds (e.g., Atalantia

monophylla, Gmelina asiatica, Achras sapota and

440

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Madhuca longifolia) are dispersed by C. sphinx

(Balasubramanian and Bole 1993a).

Even though nearly 50% of the fleshy-fruited

species in Point Calimere are eaten by mammals, only

10% of the species are solely dispersed by mammals.

For the remaining species, birds were the main dispersal

agents. Therefore, most seed dissemination in this

forest must be attributed to birds.

Acknowledgements

I record my deep gratitude to Prof. P. V. Bole,

Ex-President, Bombay Natural History Society

(BNHS) whose constant interest, attention, criticism,

advice and encouragement have been invaluable. My

sincere thanks are due to Mr. J. C. Daniel, former

Director, BNHS for going through this manuscript.

I am grateful to Prof. Henry F. Howe, University of

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STRATEGIES FOR LONG TERM CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS IN INDIA

Asad R. Rahmani1

(With two plates and a text-figure )

The Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps is one of the rarest birds of the Indian subcontinent, with an

estimated population of 1500 to 2000 in the 1980s. It is now found only in six states of India. All these states have taken

some conservation measures by declaring protected areas such as Karera Bustard Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh and Jawahar Lai Nehru Bustard Sanctuary (Nannaj) in Maharashtra. However,

due to ineffective habitat protection in most of these areas and extensive poaching in the Thar desert, the bustard

population has declined by almost half, and now perhaps less than 1000 are left in the whole country. Strategies for the

long-term conservation of bustard and its grassland habitats are given in this paper. It is also strongly urged to start a

centrally-sponsored ‘Project Bustard’ on the pattern of Project Tiger and Project Elephant to save all the species of

bustards and other denizens of the Indian grasslands.

Introduction

The Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps

is one of the rarest birds of India (Ali 1970, Goriup

and Vardhan 1980, Rahmani 1987, 1989a) and one

of the rarest bustards of the world (Johnsgard 1991,

Collar et al. 1994). In the mid 1980s, bustard

population was estimated to be between 1500 to

2000, with half of the surviving birds in Rajasthan

(Rahmani and Manakadan 1990). This big variation

in the estimate was mainly because Rajasthan could

not be surveyed properly and the bustard survived

in a vast area of nearly 2,00,000 sq km of the Thar

desert (and two areas in eastern Rajasthan) (Rahmani

1986, 1989a). Recent studies and surveys reveal that

bustard numbers have almost halved in ten years in

the Thar desert (Rahmani 1994a).

The Great Indian Bustard is still surviving in

six states but its status is precarious in Madhya

Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka. The Rajasthan state,

where more than half of India’s bustards survive,

has not taken effective measures. It is seen in many

areas in the Thar Desert but conservation measures

are inadequate to face the increasing pressure of

livestock and human populations (Rahmani 1994a).

Even the Desert National Park in Jaisalmer and

‘Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh 202 002, India.

Banner districts of Rajasthan is facing threats of

habitat alteration by construction of a tributary of

the Indira Gandhi Canal, earlier known as the

Rajasthan Canal (Rahmani 1989b, 1994). The

tributary of the Canal will bifurcate the Park.

Presently the human population is very low (less than

10/sq. km) but once the tributary is completed,

outsiders will settle in the area and a large part of

the Park will be colonized by man.

Over-grazing, human disturbance, increase in

Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra numbers resulting in

resentment by villagers, poaching and

mismanagement of habitat are some of the common

problems faced by bustard sanctuaries. But, each

sanctuary has its own specific problems also, which

cannot be discussed here due to lack of space. At the

end of this paper, management of a typical bustard

sanctuary is described in detail, which can solve most

of the general problems faced by bustard sanctuaries.

Surveys

This paper is based on almost 15 years of study

on the Great Indian Bustard. Between 1981 and 1988,

studies were conducted under the Endangered

Species Project under the guidance of Dr S£lim Ali

and Mr. J. C. Daniel, and from 1991 to 1996,

monitoring of bustard populations and surveys of

some states were done under the Grassland Ecology

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93 Plate 1

A.R. Rahmani: Great Indian Bustard

1 A. During the hotter part of the day, especially in summer, the bustard rests in the shade of a small tree

or bush.

IB. Although it is a facultative drinker, an artificial waterhole in a core area can attract many bustards.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93

A.R. Rahmani: Great Indian Bustard

Plate 2

2A. The Great Indian Bustard prefers short grassy, plains, with scattered bushes and trees of a height

below its level. This is a female foraging at Karera Bustard Sanctuary.

2B. For courtship display, an adult male bustard selects an open area with a panoramic view. Strong site

fidelity is noticed and one display site is being occupied every year since 1980.

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

443

Table 1

GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SIGHTINGS IN THE 1980s AND IN 1993-94

Project. In 1993 and 1994, four major surveys were

done in the Thar desert through projects funded by

the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-India) and

Oriental Bird Club (U.K.). Brief surveys of Madhya

Pradesh and Gujarat were done from time to time.

Only Karnataka state could not be surveyed in recent

years. However, data about bustard in Karnataka

were collected from the Forest Department and other

sources.

As the bustard is patchily distributed, attempts

were made to do total counts in those months when

the bustard concentrate for breeding. Wherever I

could not see the bustard, an intelligent guess was

made based on interviews of local people and many

other independent sources. Data supplied by one

source was cross-checked with other source(s). Local

444

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

naturalists and ornithologists were contacted

frequently, and officials of the Forest Department

were interviewed/contacted.

Here I first discuss the comparative status of

bustard in the 1980s and 1990s, then make specific

recommendations for some bustard sanctuaries, and

then discuss long-term management of bustard

sanctuaries, and finally the need for a centrally-

funded Project Bustard, on the lines of Project Tiger

and Project Elephant.

Bustard Sanctuaries in India

Presently there are nine protected areas

specifically developed for the conservation of the

Great Indian Bustard (Thble 1).

State wise Status of the Bustard

Following is a brief state-wise status report of

the Great Indian Bustard in 1994:

1 . Madhya Pradesh : In Madhya Pradesh there

were four known bustard areas: Karera and Pohri

(Shivpuri district), Ghatigaon (Gwalior), and

Gunnaur (Panna). Ironically, the greatest decrease

in bustard numbers is seen in Karera and Ghatigaon

bustard sanctuaries which were specially established

in 1980 for the protection of this species. In the mid

1980s, the total bustard population in these four areas

was estimated to be around 50, with Karera and

Ghatigaon having 30-35 birds (Rahmani &

Manakadan 1990) but since the late 1980s there has

been a progressive decrease of bustards in these

sanctuaries, and now not more than 5-10 birds are

left (Rahmani 1994a). A few bustards still survive

in Pohri and Panna. The total population in Madhya

Pradesh is estimated to be between 10-15 birds.

2. Gujarat : By the 1980s, the bustard had

become extremely rare in Gujarat and survived only

in two districts : Bhatia in Jamnagar, and Kutch

(Rahmani 1985). There was a stray record from

Surendranagar district (Rahmani and Manakadan

1990). The total population in the whole of Gujarat

was estimated to be between 20 and 30 birds. During

the last ten years, there appears to be almost a 50%

drop in numbers. In 1990, a small bustard sanctuary

of 200 ha was established near Lala village where

breeding was also noted. In July 1994, nine bustards

were seen in this area (Ravi Sankaran, pers. comm.).

In the Bhatia area of Jamnagar district, the

Gujarat government is planning a bustard sanctuary

where 4-5 birds are still present. In 1983 we had

seen five birds, including an immature male which

shows successful breeding. During our visit in

August 1993 we could not see any bird but found

evidence that less than five may still survive. It is

doubtful if the population can recover from such a

low number. The total population of bustard in

Gujarat could be as low as 15.

3. Maharashtra : Nannaj area in Solapur

district has shown the most satisfactory increase in

bustard numbers, mainly because the Forest

Department took good measures to protect its

grassland habitat. In 1981, the maximum number

seen by us was only eight. In August 1993, we

counted up to 37 bustards, and our estimate is that

there are about 45 birds in Nannaj and surrounding

areas (Rahmani and Kumar, in press). This increase

is due to successful breeding and immigration of

birds from surrounding areas. Beside Nannaj, bustard

is still seen in Karmala, Kamuni, Chapedgaon,

Mirajgaon and many other DPAP protected plots.

In Maharashtra, the bustard is seen in Solapur,

Ahmednagar, Pune, Aurangabad, Nagpur and

sometimes in Osman abad districts, and the minimum

population could be 60 birds.

4. Andhra Pradesh : Rollapadu Bustard

Sanctuary in Kurnool district has also shown positive

results, thanks to effective protection of the bustard

and its grassland habitat (Manakadan and Rahmani

1989), especially during the initial stages of

establishment of the sanctuary. Successful breeding

was seen every year. However, there appears to be

some laxity in protection when the birds wander

outside the sanctuary, hence the increase in the

numbers is not as much as projected (Manakadan

and Rahmani 1993). We have unconfirmed reports

of bustard shooting by rich vehicle-borne poachers

from Hyderabad. This could be one of the reasons

why the population has not increased further. During

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

445

1987-88, we estimated around 50 bustards in the

Rollapadu grasslands. Our present estimate (in 1995)

is also the same. The total population in the whole

state could be between 60 to 80.

5. Karnataka : In Karnataka, bustards are

chiefly seen around Rannibennur Blackbuck

Sanctuary and Guttal plantation in Bharwad district

(Rahmani and Manakadan 1990). However, as the

sanctuary itself is not very suitable for bustards due

to excessive growth of eucalyptus, the birds are seen

outside the sanctuary in grazing land which suffer

from over-exploitation (Neginha! 1980). Probably,

10 bustards are left in the whole state.

6. Rajasthan : During our studies on bustards

in the 1980s, we estimated that more than half of

the bustards in India are present in Rajasthan, mainly

in the Thar desert (Rahmani and Manakadan 1990).

The populations appeared to be secure, and a sort of

complacency had developed. In my recent four

surveys in 1993 and 1994, 1 found that all over the

Thar desert, the bustard population has drastically

declined. My estimate in 1994 is that probably 500

bustards are left in the whole of Rajasthan (Rahmani

1994b).

Present Conservation Measures

The Great Indian Bustard is protected under

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Presently there are nine bustard sanctuaries and a

few more protected areas where bustards are seen.

Some of these sanctuaries were established in the

early 1980s.

Strategies for bustard conservation In

Rajasthan: The Rajasthan Government has declared

the Great Indian Bustard as the State Bird. The State

Forest Department has also given attention to the

protection of this endangered bird by declaring some

‘Closed Areas for Shooting’, such as Sonkhaliya,

Sorsan, and Diyatra. But except for posting of one

or two disinterested guards, without any vehicle to

patrol their vast and inhospitable areas, further steps

have not been taken to protect the Closed Areas.

The bustard population has declined, which proves

that the protection measures are inadequate and

much more has to be done if we want to save this

species.

As Rajasthan State has more than half of the

bustards of India, it has to play a major role in its

conservation. Urgent steps should be taken to protect

its habitat and to control poaching.

The following are some of the important

measures which can help in reversing the decline of

the Great Indian Bustard in Rajasthan:

A, Wildlife Wing

1. The Wildlife Wing of the Forest Department

should become more active by having offices/

branches in Nagaur, Phalodi, Pokhran,

Ramgarh and Diyatra.

2. Dual charge of the ACF/DFO should be

stopped, and the ACF/DFO should solely look

after wildlife protection. (Presently both the

ACFs at Bikaner and Jodhpur are also in charge

of local zoos, so they do not get time to look

after wildlife.)

3. Petrol-driven vehicles should be provided to

officers.

4. The Anti-Poaching Unit should be

strengthened, with proper vehicles and staff

to patrol the vast areas.

5. The Forest Department should develop a

network of informers, preferably from the

Vishnoi community, who can help in

apprehending poachers.

6. Honorary Wildlife Wardens should be

appointed in each tehsil/village, who should

preferably be selected from the Vishnoi

community.

B. Wildlife staff

1. Better facilities to the staff of the Desert

National Park. Presently, some do not have

even a uniform, torch, transport and medical

facilities, and have to live in remote areas in

deplorable conditions.

2. Increase in the staff of the DNP to patrol the

whole Park.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 2

EXISTING AND PROPOSED GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD SANCTUARIES

3. Special desert allowance to the staff.

C. Protected Areas

1. Large grassland sanctuaries should be

established in Ramgarh and Sultana

grasslands, where only traditional grazing

should be allowed and no surface water source

should be developed.

2. Special emphasis should be given to develop

grassland/pasture plots in the command area

of the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP)

where cultivation is not possible due to

underlying rocks or other edaphic factors.

3. The Satellite Conservation Units of the Desert

National Park should be strengthened and

expanded. Staff should be provided desert

allowance, proper uniforms and housing.

4. Enclosures of Satellite Conservation Units of

the DNP should be developed near Diyatra,

Tokla, Bajju, Dantur, Bap, Khara, Undu,

Khinya-Mandha, Sultana, Ramgarh and other

places.

D. Publicity

1. Signboards informing that hunting is

prohibited in the whole state should be put up

at regular intervals at strategic points outside

cities and towns.

2. Extensive publicity about wildlife protection

should be started in schools, colleges, and

among police and army officials.

3 . Every year at the beginning of winter, publicity

should be done in all sorts of media that

hunting of Great Indian Bustard and other

wildlife is totally prohibited.

4 . Any poacher caught should be given quick and

exemplary punishment and this should be

publicized to deter other poachers.

E. Research

1 . Research should be started to study the ecology

and movement of the Great Indian Bustard by

using telemetry.

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

447

Table 3

SPECIFIC DISTURBANCES TO BUSTARD AREAS IN THE THAR DESERT

* General disturbance to the whole Park

448

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

2. Studies on the impact of the IGMP on the

distribution of the Great Indian Bustard,

Houbara Chlamydotis undulata , Imperial

Sandgrouse Pterocles orientalis and other

species should be conducted.

3. A general Environmental Impact Analysis of

the IGNP on the common flora and fauna

should be done.

Strategies for bustard conservation in

Maharashtra: Theoretically the 8,496 sq. km

Bustard Sanctuary of Maharashtra is the largest

sanctuary in India! However, more than 90% of the

land is under human occupation, with numerous

villages, towns and crop fields. Only about 400 sq.

km of the sanctuary area is under the Forest

Department, not as a compact block but in various

fragmented plots.

During the last fifteen years, except for the

excellent protection to the bustard and other wildlife

at Nannaj, not much work has been done to manage

the huge Bustard Sanctuary. The Sanctuary falls

under two districts, which creates administrative

problems. Till now, even the crop protection guns

which can be used for poaching have not been

withdrawn from the sanctuary area. There is no

control on grazing (nor is it possible), except in the

Forest Department plots. These plots are scattered

and the staff has not been given proper vehicles to

visit them regularly. There are no long-term habitat

protection plans for the sanctuary, except Nannaj

which is now well known. Lesser known bustard

areas like Karmala, Gangiawadi, Dahiwadi,

Mirajgaon, Kamuni and Chapedgaon also need

administrative attention because they are as

important as Nannaj. With the increase and

expansion of the bustard population, these areas will

have to play an increasing role in bustard

conservation.

The population of Blackbuck Antilope

cervicapra has increased since the Bustard Sanctuary

was declared in 1979. Crop damage by Blackbuck

is a growing concern not only at Nannaj or Rehkuri,

but in many parts of India. It should be studied in

more detail before any long term action is taken. In

bustard areas, no action should be taken which is

detrimental to the welfare of the bustard. However,

if nothing is done to minimize crop damage, the

growing resentment among agriculturists may itself

prove the biggest hindrance in the conservation

movement.

Recommendations

1. The DPAP grassland plots of above 50 ha

should be taken over by the Wildlife Wing of

the Forest Department. More grassland plots

of above 100 ha should be developed as core

areas.

2. Livestock grazing and unnecessary movement

of people should not be allowed inside the

plots.

3. Special protection should be accorded to the

plots during the breeding season i.e. June-

November.

4. All plots should be encircled by trench-cum-

mound walls.

5. The plots should be maintained as grasslands

and tree planting should be avoided.

6. The plot should preferably form a catchment

area of a percolation tank. This fact will give

additional incentive to protect the vegetation

of the plot. The percolation tank will provide

water facilities to the fauna.

7 . Each plot should have a watchman (preferably

a local person).

8. A daily record of the sighting of bustards in

each plot should be maintained. An annual

census to know the trend of the bustard

population, and an annual assessment of each

plot should be made and necessary

conservation and administrative changes

should be done.

9. Tourist activity should be strictly controlled

during the breeding season.

10. Proper staff, headed by a Conservator of

Forest, should be appointed in the sanctuary.

11. Fresh assessment of the boundary of the

sanctuary should be undertaken. Heavily

populated areas should be excluded and some

excellent bustard areas in Beed, Aurangabad

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

449

Fig. 1. Map showing bustard protected areas of India.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

and Osman abad should be included.

12. Research staff should be appointed and bustard

movement studied by colour-banding and

radio-telemetry.

13. Population of Blackbuck should be strictly

controlled, either by translocation or

sterilization or shooting.

Strategies for conservation in Andhra

Pradesh:

Protected since 1982, with official status of

wildlife sanctuary given in 1989, Rollapadu Wildlife

Sanctuary (RWS) is the most important area for the

Great Indian Bustard in Andhra Pradesh. It has a

total area of 614 ha, most of which is made up of

three grazing and disturbance free grassland plots

of 420 ha (Enclosure I), 120 ha (Enclosure II) and

40 ha (Enclosure III). However, due to complaints

from villagers of loss of grazing lands for their

livestock, both Enclosure II and III are more or less

(unofficially) open to grazing. Hence, most of the

wildlife is concentrated in Enclosure I (see

Manakadan and Rah man i 1989 for more details).

Recommendations

The following recommendations are offered

for the better management of the Sanctuary, and for

bustards in particular:

A. Control of Blackbuck numbers

Crop damage by Blackbuck is the major

problem facing the Sanctuary. The Blackbuck which

numbered 17 heads in 1985, and 38 in 1988, are now

in the range of 250 -300 heads. Crop damage is a

severe problem now, especially to crop fields in the

vicinity of the Enclosure I. The support that the

villagers of Rollapadu gave for the protection of the

bustard and the Sanctuary is eroding due to

depredations by the Blackbuck.

A combination of three measures could solve

the problem.

1) Regular culling of the Blackbuck to maintain

the population to below 100 - the population

size at which there were very few complaints

of crop damage by Blackbuck.

2) A compensation scheme for crop damage by

Blackbuck.

3 ) Deepening and broadening of the trench-cum-

mound (TCM) walls at the northern and

southern boundaries of Enclosure I. Since, rain

can silt up the trenches, an extra barrier of a

hedge of Gliricidia maculata can be grown

along the borders of the TCM walls. These

physical barriers will reduce/stop crop damage

at the northern and southern areas of Enclosure

I, which are intensively cultivated. Since

Blackbuck largely move out of the enclosure

into the surrounding grazing lands after

February, fencing of the eastern and western

parts is not advised. Farmers in these areas

may be offered G. maculata saplings to grow

and fence off their crop fields from Blackbuck.

G. maculata is recommended since it is

observed to be very successful in such soil

types (as seen from our studies at Nannaj). It

is a legume and hence beneficial to crops. In

addition, leaves of the same plant are used as

fertilizer by farmers.

B. Strict control on poaching

During our studies at RWS totalling about

seven years, we recorded only one instance of

attempted poaching of bustards at RWS. However,

some information was received that bustards were

still being trapped by tribal shikaris around

waterholes and crop fields outside the Sanctuary,

especially when the bustards move out of the

Sanctuary during the non-breeding season. Poaching

outside the Sanctuary probably explains why the

bustard population has not increased at RWS, inspite

of good protection and high breeding success.

Therefore, the Forest Department should not confine

their activites to the Sanctuary area alone, but

monitor outside areas known to be frequented by

the bustards. A regular check should also be kept

on the local shikaris who live in Nandikotkur.

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

451

C. Habitat management

The Great Indian Bustard is a bird of open

grasslands, and avoids dense and tall vegetation.

Dense growth of scrub will only result in habitat loss

for the bustard, besides making the habitat suitable

for predators like the Jungle cat Felis chaus and Wolf

Canis lupus to hunt the bustard. Our studies show

that there has been an increase in shrub and tree

cover, especially along the streams of Enclosure I.

This has made many areas unsuitable for the bustard.

Thinning of the vegetation, especially along streams,

is recommended. Shrub or tree species, which serve

no purpose to the bustard in terms of shade or food

(fruits) and which are recommended for thinning out

or total removal are Phoenix sylvestris ,

Dolichandrone falcata , Eucalyptus sp. and Leucanea

leucocephala, the latter two being exotic species.

D. Location of Administrative Headquarters

The administrative headquarters of the

Sanctuary is situated at Srisailam, 165 km away.

There have been plans to shift the headquarters nearer

to Kurnool (50 km) . However, whatever the

outcome, it is felt that there is a need to have a Range

Forest Office at Nandikotkur (18 km) for the better

management of the Sanctuary. Presence of a

dedicated Range Forest Officer at Nandikotkur (with

a vehicle) will result in better patrolling of the area,

besides overall development of the Sanctuary.

E. Research

There should be regular monitoring of Bustard,

Blackbuck, Lesser Florican and Wolf populations.

Long-term research on bustard should be encouraged,

using the latest telemetry methods to study the

movement of bustards outside the Sanctuary.

Bustard conservation in Gujarat: The Lala

Bustard Sanctuary (250 ha) in Naliya taluka of Kutch

district is perhaps the most important bustard habitat

left in Gujarat. All around Lala, vast grasslands still

survive for atleast 20 km. Therefore, this area has

long-term chances of survival, if proper steps are

taken now. We recommend the following

conservation steps:

(1) Further plantation of Mesquite Prosopis

chilensis in the Sanctuary should be stopped.

The existing Mesquite plants should be

removed, especially during their non-fruiting

season, and grassland should be restored.

(2) The grasslands adjacent to Lala Bustard

Sanctuary such as Bara, Bitta, Tera, Prajau,

Sindrodi, Pingleshwar, Vanku and Kothara are

equally important for the conservation of the

Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican,

Houbara and endangered mammals like

Chinkara Gazella bennetti and Wolf.

(3) Control on poaching: It is reported that due to

the presence of an Air Force Station, poaching

pressure in this area is high. The Air force

officials poach wild animals using highly

sophisticated weapons. Poaching is also done

by landlords in the Tera and Prajau areas.

(4) The Gujarat Energy Development Agency

encourages plantation of Mesquite and

Eucalyptus in the grassland. Such exotic

forests are named as Energy Plantations. An

example of such a forest destroying the

grassland can be seen near Sindrodi village,

adjacent to Lala Bustard Sanctuary. Such plans

should be discouraged in the bustard habitat.

(5) The Lala grasslands should be given the status

of a Bustard Sanctuary. The area of the

Sanctuary should be increased to include many

unprotected grasslands in Bitta, Prajau, Bara,

Tera, Sindrodi, Vanku and Kothara range.

These areas are well known for healthy

populations of Chinkara and Wolves. The

coastal areas of Pingleshwar (about 15 km

away from the proposed Lala Bustard

Sanctuary) are very important for the nesting

of the migratory and globally threatened Olive

Ridley Turtles Lepidochelys olivacea which

visit these coastal areas in thousands every year

after the monsoon. If the Pingleshwar Turtle

nesting areas are included in the Lala Bustard

Sanctuary, it will enhance the value of the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

sanctuary.

Management of a typical Bustard Sanctuary

All the bustard sanctuaries of India have some

basic problems such as (i) expansion of agriculture

and change in the land-use practices (ii) overgraz-

ing by livestock and (iii) general disturbance to

the bustard and its habitat by human activity.

These problems are too well known to need any

elaboration.

The following are some of the reasons why it

is difficult to establish a large inviolable bustard

sanctuary where human activity is not allowed.

a) Owing to the tremendous hunger for land in

our rapidly growing population, it is

impossible to develop a large bustard sanctuary

of a few hundred square kilometre area

exclusively for the bird. We simply do not have

that much land to ‘block’ it from rational/

traditional human use. Most of the bustard

area is already occupied by man and it will be

impossible to evict the local people. Moreover,

even if we are able to develop a large bustard

sanctuary in some remote corner of Kutch or

Jaisalmer district where agriculture and

grazing are totally eliminated, only a very

small percentage of the total bustard population

of the country can live in that sanctuary.

b) Secondly, the semi -nomadic nature of the

bustard makes it difficult to confine the bird

to a sanctuary. Bustards of Nannaj and

Rollapadu are mainly seen in the grassland

plots during the breeding season and during

the rest of the year they roam around in a large

area. In the absence of ringing and telemetry

data their post-breeding movement is not

known.

c) The bustard can survive in marginally

cultivated areas; moreover limited or

traditional cultivation provides it with an

additional food source during certain months.

Traditional agricultural practices in semi-arid

regions create a mosaic of habitats which are

used by the bustard. The bustard’s survival in

these areas can be further ensured by effective

protection during its breeding season.

Taking into consideration the above factors, a

typical bustard sanctuary should have two major

components: (1) A very large buffer zone of a few

hundred sq. km. where traditional agriculture and

grazing should be allowed, and (2) small core areas

of 100-500 hectares, protected from all interferences

during the breeding season.

1. BUFFER ZONE

The buffer zone or size of the bustard sanctuary

will depend on the suitability of the habitat.

As all areas having bustards cannot be declared

sanctuaries, localities with the following optimum

features should be given preference :

a) Low human and livestock populations; b)

Less chances of future development and

urbanization; c) Continuity of traditional cultivation

in future; d) Reasonably good bustard population;

e) Contiguity of the area with other bustard areas;

f) Effective administrative, political and local

support.

2. CORE AREA

The core areas should be the backbone of any

bustard sanctuary. Success of Nannaj, Rollapadu, and

Desert National Park have shown that development

of core areas is extremely important for the

successful breeding of the bustard. The main danger

to the bustard in the breeding season is from human

disturbance resulting in breeding failure. Thus the

primary aim of the core area should be to provide

disturbance-free sites to the bustards.

The core area should have the following

features and functions:

i) Size: It should not be less than 100 hectares

- the bigger the better.

ii) Layout: It should be as compact as possible

in order to minimize disturbances at the periphery.

The greater the boundary, the greater would be the

chance of human/livestock disturbance to the

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

453

bustard.

iii) Site Selection: The bustards show some

site- fidelity with regard to their breeding and display

grounds, hence the first objective should be to obtain

information regarding areas where nests are generally

found, and also the traditional display spots. Such

sites should be preferably developed as the core

areas.

iv) Number and distribution: The number

of core areas will depend on (i) the total area of the

sanctuary, (ii) availability of land, (iii) the number

of bustards, (iv) sizes of different core areas, and (v)

budget of the sanctuary.

Instead of having one large core area it would

be better to have a number of smaller core areas

dotted all over the sanctuary. For example, if 1000

ha is to be developed as a core area, then it is

preferable to develop five plots of 200 ha each. The

core areas should not be clumped together but they

should be widely distributed in the sanctuary. This

will have the following advantages: a) Create and

protect more habitat types; b) Provide territories to

more adult males; c) Create more nesting sites; d) In

case of unavoidable habitat change/development near

some core areas, atleast a few will remain unaffected.

v) Fencing: If the core area is between 100

and 200 hectares, it should be enclosed by Trench -

cum-Mound (TCM).

The TCM should be as inconspicuous as

possible and some bushes and grass should be planted

on the mound. The trench should be about 1 m deep

and 1 .5 m wide to prevent entry of cattle. If the core

area is more than 500 ha, as in the DNP, permanent

chain-link fencing may be used. The fence should

be 1 to 1.5 m tall.

vi) Transition zone: If the core area is small

(c. 200 ha) then there should be a transition zone

between the core area and the buffer zone. In the

transition zone, only marginal cultivation should

be allowed.

Functions of the Core Area: The main

functions of the core areas are to provide undisturbed

displaying, nesting, chick rearing and forag-

ing facilities to the bustard. The following points

will have to be considered in selection of the core

area.

1. Nesting requirements: Well drained,

slightly stony ground is ideal for nesting.

2. Chick rearing: Though bustard nests are

generally found in comparatively open areas, once

the chick hatches, it is taken to more vegetated parts

of the habitat (Rahmani 1989a). Therefore, the core

area should be maintained in such a way that one

quarter or half is under tall grass (50-70 cm) and

the remaining under low grass (20 cm).

3. Display: As reported earlier, preference

should be given to develop core areas around

traditional display spots. However, if it is not

possible, then while demarcating a new core area,

slightly undulating terrain should be selected which

can provide a few elevated spots for the cock to

display. If the terrain is uniformly flat then one or

two artificial mounds, with very gentle gradient,

should be created in the open patch of the core area.

To avoid disturbance to the displaying bird, the

mound should be atleast 200 m inside the boundary

of the core area. The mound should be developed

away from thickly vegetated areas because the

bustard displays in areas from which it can have an

unhindered view of its territory.

4. Resting requirements: Though the bustard

prefers wide open areas for display, foraging and

roosting, for resting it needs some shade (Rahmani

1989a). The core area should have some natural

bushes (e.g Acacia, Carissa , Euphorbia Zizyphus)

or tall grass (e.g. Sehima nervosum,

Cymbopogon sp.) for the birds to rest in during the

hotter part of the day.

5 . Roosting requirements: A typical bustard

habitat generally has many open, bare patches which

are used by the birds for night roosting. These are

generally overgrazed areas. If such a micro-habitat

is not present in the core area then artificial roosting

spots should be provided by clearing away some

vegetation. The roosting spots should be away from

thickly vegetated areas to minimize chances of

ambush by nocturnal predators. Atleast two or three

roosting spots should be developed in every core

area. One roosting spot should be developed near

the display area.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

6. Foraging requirements: If the core area

is properly selected, developed and maintained, then

the whole plot will be used for foraging. Quantity

and quality of food in the core area will depend on

the type of vegetation, degree of protection to the

core area and the crop pattern of the region.

7. Dust bathing requirements: The bustard

is very fond of dust bathing, especially during the

breeding season (Rahmani 1989a). One or two spots

can be maintained with loose soil. One dust bathing

spot should be near the main breeding area.

Protection and Maintenance of Core Area:

The success of any bustard sanctuary will depend

on the protection and maintenance of the buffer zone

and core areas. This involves (i) good administration

and (ii) scientific habitat management.

Administration

1 . Every sanctuary should have a Superintendent

of the rank of Assistant Conservator of

Forests.

2. The Superintendent should have a few rangers,

assistant rangers, forest guards and watchmen.

Forest guards and watchmen should be local

personnel.

3 . Proper vehicle and accommodation should be

provided to all the staff members.

4. Forest guards and watchmen should not live

in a colony but their houses/checkposts should

be located in all the strategic corners of the

sanctuary. This will be easy if they are

recruited from different villages in the area.

5. Forest checkposts should be present at all the

important entry points of the sanctuary.

Regular checking of all the vehicles entering

and leaving the area should be strictly

enforced.

6. Licences for the so-called crop protection guns

should be cancelled in and around the

sanctuary.

7 . From time to time, local leaders, village elders,

religious heads and other important people of

the area should be involved in reviewing steps

for the protection of bustards. A few interested

local people should be nominated as honorary

wardens of the sanctuary. Special importance

should be given to maintaining good public

relations with the local people and the

administration.

8. A certain percentage of the budget of the

sanctuary should be set aside for the welfare

of villagers such as construction of a Panchayat

Bhawan (community hall) or a dispensary, free

distribution of saplings of fruiting trees or

construction of a bus shelter.

9 . If the necessity arises to cut grass from the core

area (see below), then this grass should be

given free or at a nominal charge to the local

people.

10. Proper compensation should be given to the

affected parties if crops are damaged by wild

herbivores. Population of wild herbivores

should be kept under control either by shooting

(in case of non-protected species like Wild boar

Sus scrofa) or by trapping and translocation

(in case of protected species such as

Blackbuck).

11. In a suitable place in the sanctuary, a nature

interpretation centre should be established,

dealing with the ecology of the local flora and

fauna. There should also be some visitor

management within the sanctuary including

the provision of simple hides for viewing.

However, movement of visitors and their

vehicles should be strictly regulated. The

Andhra Pradesh Forest Department has

developed an excellent nature interpretation

centre in Rollapadu. Such centres should be

present in all bustard sanctuaries.

Scientific Management: Once the core areas

have been selected, protected and proper staff

appointed, maintenance and management of the core

area should be given top priority. Habitat

management and monitoring the bustard population

should be done regularly.

Habitat Management: As has been

repeatedly emphasised, the bustard prefers treeless,

open areas with short grass and a few scattered bushes

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

455

(Ali & Ripley 1983, Dharmakumarsmhji 1957,

Rahmani 1989a). Therefore, the core areas should

be maintained as a grassland. As the grasslands in

India are at the pre-climax stage (Champion & Seth

1968), grazing, fire or cutting is necesary to maintain

them. With complete protection, the grassland soon

turns into dense scaibland and finally into forests.

Therefore, to maintain the grassland, the following

steps should be taken in the core areas.

1 . No tree planting : No trees should be planted

in the core area. Only natural growth of local trees

should be allowed but if the growth becomes dense

or some trees become tall (above 3 m) they should

be trimmed.

However, owing to earlier over-use if there is

no bush or shrub left in the core area, then some

species like Acacia leucophloea, Salvadora,

Zizyphus rotundifolia and Carissa sp. may be planted

in the low-lying parts of the core area. These species

should not be planted on ridges or near the display

and roost sites. Before deciding to introduce any

species in the core area, a time lapse of 2-3 years

should be given to see whether bushes or trees come

up naturally. Only when the natural regeneration is

slow can some bushes or trees be introduced. Care

should be taken that no exotic or commercial species

like Eucalyptus , Casuarina, Prosopis or Leucaena

leucocephala is introduced in the core area.

It should be remembered that it is better to have

fewer trees and bushes in the core area than to have

too many.

2. Maintenance of grassland: As the

precipitation in most of the bustard areas is low, the

grass generally does not grow very tall. However, at

places like Karera and Ghatigaon, due to edaphic

factors sometimes the grasses grow dense and tall

(about 1 m) which is not preferred by the bustard.

Similarly, in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh areas,

with the complete stoppage of grazing, tall grasses like

Sehirna nervosumcome up. Though Sehima nervosum

is useful in the protection of the chick, it hinders

foraging and display activities. In the Desert National

Park Sewan grass ( Lasiurus sindicus) has covered

many core areas. In such cases, thinning, cutting or

limited grazing would be useful to maintain the

grassland at the optimum suitability for the bustard.

a) Grass cutting: Limited grass cutting by local

inhabitants at nominal charge should be allowed only

if the grass has become tall (above 1 m) and dense.

Grass cutting should be carried out strictly under

supervision and between 1000 hr to 1600 hr to

minimize disturbance to the bustard. In those places

where the bustard is not resident, grass cutting (or

grazing) should be allowed only when the birds have

left the area. Cutting (or grazing) should start only

after one month of the breeding season.

b ) Limited grazing: Grazing should be strictly

limited and only local people should be allowed to

graze their livestock. Preference should be given to

those people who have land or fields adjacent to the

core area. Once they are benefited, they will develop

an interest in protecting the core area. Non-resident

graziers should never be allowed in the core area.

Like grass cutting, limited grazing should also

be allowed only after the breeding season. As a

policy, only cattle should be allowed inside the plot

and not the herdsmen as the bustard is not much

disturbed by unmanned livestock. Sheep and goats

should never be allowed inside the core area.

c) Time of grazing: The time of grazing should

be between ten to four and not during early mornings

and evenings when the bustard is most active. Only

a limited area (c. 25%) of the plot should be opened

for grazing at a time to leave some undisturbed areas

for the birds.

d) Dung collection: In order to enrich the soil,

dung picking should not be allowed inside the core

area.

e) Cooperation of local people: Both grass

cutting and grazing should not be allowed at the

same time. Local people should be consulted before

starting grazing or grass cutting.

f) Non-commercial harvest of grass: It should

be kept in mind that the main purposes of allowing

limited grazing or grass cutting is to make the habitat

suitable for the bustard and to help the local people.

It should not become a commercial activity of the

Forest Department under any circumstances.

There should be strict adherence to the duration

of grass cutting/grazing. In the present Indian

456

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

conditions, it is very difficult to control the number

of livestock as it involves daily checking and a very

high degree of integrity of watchmen. Therefore, it

is easier to limit the duration of grazing/grass cutting

time to two or three months. This will depend upon

the grass growth, grass type, size of the core area,

livestock pressure, cooperation of the local people,

and most importantly, on the managerial skill of the

custodians of the sanctuary.

Population Monitoring: A yearly census of

the bustard in all the core areas and the buffer zones

of the sanctuary should be done. As the bustard has

a tendency to flock during rains, the census should

be done during the peak rainy season. Days with

overcast sky or with a slight drizzle are best for

census. Early mornings or evenings would the best

time and all the plots should be surveyed

simultaneously.

• The maximum number of bustards sighted in

any given area should be noted every year. This will

indicate the population trend as well as the rate of

colonization of a particular core area. Preferably, the

same date or week should be selected every year for

census.

The number of cocks, hens, and if possible

juveniles should be noted separately. The number of

displaying (territorial) males should also be noted.

Basic data such as nest sites, number of eggs located

every year and number of chicks hatched should be

noted.

Precautions: (1) The duties of a forest guard

or watchman should be to protect the core area. Not

much emphasis should be given to searching a nest

and protecting individual nests. If the habitat is

undisturbed, the bustard will successfully breed and

raise the chick. They existed for millions of years

without our ‘help’ and they can do so for many more

years if we do not disturb them and their habitat.

However, if a nest is found in a private field or in an

unprotected area, the watchman should see that the

egg is not trampled by livestock or picked up by

villagers.

2) If an egg is found presumably unattended,

it should never be collected for artificial incubation

or for showing it to the superiors in the department.

The bustard rarely abandons the nest and if the hen

is not seen, it does not mean that she has deserted

the nest. She will come back as soon as the intruder

leaves.

(3) Visitors, irrespective of their status, should

not be shown nests nor their locations. There is

nothing special about a bustard egg except that if

allowed to be incubated, it adds one more individual

to the population of this rare species.

Project Bustard

Four species of bustards are found in India:

Great Indian Bustard, Houbara Bustard, Lesser

Florican Sypheotides indica and Bengal Florican

Houbaropsis bengalensis. They all live in grasslands

or arid open areas. The Houbara bustard is a winter

migrant, mainly seen in the Thar desert from

November to March. The three resident species of

bustards are highly endangered, with none of them

having a population of more than 3,000. Attempts

have been made to conserve these endangered birds

but there is no coordinated effort among different

states. It is now necessary to start a nationally-

coordinated project, on the lines of Project Tiger and

Project Elephant, to protect the Great Indian Bustard,

the two floricans (Lesser and Bengal), Houbara

bustard and other inhabitants of Indian grasslands.

There are many reasons to have a nationally

coordinated conservation project for Indian bustards

and their habitats. Important reasons are given below:

1. Need for cooperation: Each state is taking

its own course of action to conserve bustards and

floricans without knowing what the other states are

doing. There is no cooperation among the states even

though the bustards and floricans move from one

state to another. In some cases, officials of one state

do not even know that the same bustard species is

found in other states also!

2. Need for better management of

sanctuaries: After the initial enthusiasm to protect

bustards in the early 1980s, with most attention on

the Great Indian Bustard, in many cases sanctuaries

have been neglected as a result of which bustard

populations have declined. Establishment and

CONSERVATION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

457

maintenance of some of the bustard and florican

sanctuaries were mainly due to active interest taken

by some individuals such as Ranjitsinh, I. J. Dutta,

P. M. Lad, Pushp Kumar, Kailash Sankhala to

mention a few. Once such people retired or were

shifted to other departments, conservation of bustards

and floricans received a setback [e.g. Karera,

Ghatigaon, Sailana (for Lesser florican), Sonkhaliya

are now neglected].

3. Research asid implementation of findings:

Little work has been done on the ecology and

behaviour of the bustards, except for the work done

under the Endangered Species Project of the Bombay

Natural History Society. Bustard and florican

populations need constant monitoring. Moreover,

conditions in some sanctuaries are changing so

fast that by the time the results are published, the

situation is completely different. Worse, there is no

authority or mechanism at present to supervise the

follow-up action on the recommendations of

scientific studies.

4. Long-term plan: There is no proper long-

term planning to protect bustard habitats (except

perhaps in the Bengal florican areas, but that is done

for other reasons). As the Great Indian Bustard lives

in marginally agricultural areas and Lesser Florican

is seen in many private grasslands, a greater

administrative and scientific input is required to keep

the habitat suitable for bustards and floricans.

5. Protection to associate species of

bustards: By starting Project Bustard, grassland

habitats and their associated species such as Indian

Wolf, Jackal Canis aureus , Indian Fox Vulpes

bengalensis , Desert Fox Vulpes vulpes , Chinkara,

Blackbuck, Swamp deer Cervus duvauceli , Swamp

Francolin Franco linus gular is, raptors, coursers, etc,

will greatly benefit.

Taking into consideration all these factors, the

Government of India should start ‘Project Bustard’

with the following objectives:

1 . To conserve all the four species of bustards

in India; 2. To conserve the habitat types of Indian

bustards and their associate species; 3. To establish,

more bustard sanctuaries with the cooperation of state

governments; 4. To upgrade the existing closed areas

to wildlife sanctuaries; 5. To supervise and

coordinate management of bustard sanctuaries; 6. To

coordinate long-term studies on bustards and their

habitats in different areas; 7. To integrate grassland

(bustard habitat) conservation with national grazing

policy.

Acknowledgements

Studies on the Great Indian Bustard and

Floricans were done under the Endangered Species

Project (Great Indian Bustard) from 1981 to 1988,

in Florican Project from 1985 to 1989, and in the

Grassland Ecology Project from 1990 to 1996. All

these projects were funded by the US Fish & Wildlife

Service, through the Ministry of Environment. I am

grateful to them, particularly to Mr. David Ferguson.

Dr. S&lim Ali was the Principal Investigator of the

Endangered Species and the Florican projects, and

Mr. J. C. Daniel was the Co-Investigator and then PI

of these projects. I am indebted to them for their

guidance and encouragement.

Extensive surveys of the Thar desert in 1993-

1994 were funded by the Oriental Bird Club, U.K.,

and World Wide Fund for Nature, New Delhi. My

thanks to them.

I thank the State Forest Departments of

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,

Gujarat, Karnataka and Rajasthan. I also want to

thank my colleagues Ranjit Manakadan, Bharat

Bhushan, Goutam Narayan, Ravi Sankaran, Lima

Rosalind, and many others who worked in these

projects. Lastly I want to thank my driver Mehboob

Alam who accompanied me during surveys, and

Zafarul Islam who typed and retyped the manuscript.

References

Ali, S. (1970): The Great Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps

(Vigors). IUCN Eleventh Technical Meeting. Vol. 11,

No. 18: 58-62, 1989.

Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Champion, H. G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India. Govt, of India Publication,

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

New Delhi.

Collar, N. J., M. J. Crosby, & A. J. Stattersfield (1994):

Birds to Watch-2. Bird Life International, U. K.

Dharmakumarsinhii, K, S. (1957): Ecological Study of the

Great Indian Bust&rdArdeotis nigriceps (Vigors) (Aves:

Otididae) in Kathiawar Peninsula, Western India. 7.

Zool. Soc. India 9: 140-152.

Goriup, P. D. & H. Vardhan (eds.) (1980): Bustards in

decline. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur.

Johnsgard, P. A. (1991): Bustards, Hemipodes, and

Sandgrouse: Bird of Dry Places. Oxford University

Press, New York.

Manakadan, R. & A. R. Rahmani(1989): Rollapadu Wildlife

Sanctuary, with special reference to the Great Indian

Bustard. 7. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 86: 368-380.

Manakadan, R. & A. R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of

Conservation of the Great Indian Bustard at Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary, pp 1-3. In: Bird Conservation:

Strategies for the Nineties and Beyond. Eds. Verghese,

A., S.Sridhar& A. K. Chakravarthy. Ornithological

Society of India.

Neginhal, S. G. (1980): Status and distribution of the Great

Indian Bustard in Karnataka. In: Bustards in decline

(Eds. P. D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 76-80. Tourism

and Wildlife Society of India.

Rahmani, A. R. (1985): The Great Indian Bustard in Gujarat.

Technical Report No. 7, pp. 26. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Rahmani, A. R. (1986): Status of the Great Indian Bustard in

Rajasthan. Part 1. Technical Report 11, pp. 34. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rahmani, A. R. (1987): Protection to the Great Indian

Bustard. Oryx 21 (3): 174-179.

Rahmani, A. R. (1988): Conservation of the Great Indian

Bustard in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary. Biol. Conserv

46: 135-144.

Rahmani, A. R. (1989a): The Great Indian Bustard: Final

Report, pp. 234. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Rahmani, A. R. (1989b): Uncertain future of the Desert

National Park. Environ. Conserv. 16: 237-244.

Rahmani, A. R. (1993): Project Bustard: Last chance to save

the Great Indian Bustard, pp 73-75. Bird Conservation:

Strategies for the Nineties and Beyond. Eds. Verghese,

A., S. Sridhar & A. K. Chakravarthy. Ornithological

Society of India.

Rahmani, A. R. (1994a): Status of the Great Indian Bustard

in Madhya Pradesh, pp. 10. Mimeographed report.

Bombay Natural History Society and Centre of Wildlife

& Ornithology.

Rahmani, A. R. (1994b): Wildlife Situation in the Thar. pp.

125. Mimeographed report to the WWF-India.

Rahmani, A. R. & R. Manakadan (1990): Past and present

distribution of the Great Indian Bustard. 7. Bombay not.

Hist. Soc. 87(2) 175-194.

Rahmani, A. R. & S. Kumar (in press): Fifteen years of

Bustard Conservation in Maharashtra. Proceedings

Salim Ali Centenary Seminar, February 1996, Bombay.

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

S. SUBRAMANYA1

(With four-text figures )

The current state of knowledge on the colonial waterbird nesting sites (heronries) in India is presented.

The information gathered on over 533 nesting sites of 26 species of Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoraddae, Ardeidae,

Ciconiidae and Threskiomithidae indicate a distinct concentration of 360 existing sites in southern India, western

and north central India and Assam in the Northeast. Of the species considered. Little Cormorant, Night Heron,

Pond Heron, Cattle Egret and Little Egret were the most common nesting species in the heronries. Available

information showed the existence of variation in the number and type of species nesting in different states of

India. Analysis of the habitats in which the nest sites occur indicated that nearly 53% of the existing sites were

found within or close to human habitation. While only a few sites have been in existence from well over a

century, a number of sites were found to have come into existence in the last five decades. Over the last century,

about 173 sites have been lost for several reasons. Only a small proportion of the existing heronries were found

in protected areas. Several large heronries in India have been identified and the study has enabled us to understand

how heronries come into existence. The existing sites are prone to a number of threats and disturbances and the

influence of natural calamities. The current status and future options for conservation of heronries in India are

discussed.

Introduction

The habit of nesting colonially is an important

feature among a majority of the members of

Pelecani formes and Ciconiiformes (Ali and Ripley

1987, Burger 1981, Krebs 1978). A majority of

species representing these two groups in India are

known to nest colonially (Ali and Ripley 1987). The

nesting colonies of these birds that represent spatial

and temporal clumping of nests are popularly

referred to as heronries. The information available

on such heronries in India pertains mainly to a few

regional studies (e.g. Mahabal 1990, Nagulu and Rao

1983, Naik et al. 1991, Naik and Parasharya 1987,

Parasharya and Naik 1990, Santharam and Menon

1991, Sharatchandra 1980, Singh and Sodhi 1986),

several site specific studies (e.g. Chaudhari and

Chakrabarti 1973, Datta and Pal 1990, 1993; Gee

1960, Nagulu 1983, Neelakantan 1949, Neginhal

1983, Paulraj 1984, Ragunatha 1993, Ragunatha et

al 1992, Sanjay 1993, Subramanya et al. 1991,

Subramanya and Manu 1996, Urfi 1989c, 1990,

’PHT Scheme T Block, G.K.V.K. Campus, University of

Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 560 065, India.

1992, 1993a, 1993b; Vijayan 1991) and a number of

site records (e.g. Abdulali 1962, Ali 1960, Baker

1935, Barnes 1886, 1891; Barooah 1991, Bates and

Lowther 1952, Badshah 1963, Betham 1904,

Bingham 1876, Bhat et al. 1991, Bolster 1923,

Chhaya 1980, Daniel 1980, Ganguli 1975, Hume

1881, Jamgaonkar et al. 1994, Naik 1987,

Neelakantan and Elamon 1984, Packard 1903,

Subramanya 1993, Urfi 1992, Uttaman 1990, Webb-

Peploe 1945, Wilkinson 1961). Despite the

availability of such an information base on heronries

in India, no concerted effort has been made so far to

determine their distribution, status and conservation

needs. Even an earlier attempt by Betts (1937) in

this direction was not fruitful. This paper is an effort

towards bridging this gap in Indian ornithology and

presents an overview of the information gathered as

part of a much larger project (Subramanya,

unpublished).

Methods

Between 1993-95, questionnaires requesting

information on heronries were sent to over 700

birdwatchers, ornithologists and naturalists in

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

different parts of India (Subramanya 1993). Details

on location, breeding season, status, nesting site,

colony size, species breeding at the site and the

available published information on heronries were

collected from contributors. Habitually solitary

nesting species (Black Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa and

Whitenecked (Woolly-necked) Stork, Ciconia

episcopus) found nesting in heronries were also

included in the study. Thus, 26 species (Table 1) were

considered in the survey. Details on some active sites

and those that once existed within Indian limits were

obtained through published literature.

The available data on the number of heronries

in which each of the 26 nesting species were nesting

and the abundance of heronries in different Indian

states were subjected to cluster analysis (Ludwig and

Renolds 1988), to group species with similar

dispersal patterns.

The nomenclature follows Ali and Ripley

(1987) and Sonobe and Usui (1993). All the

abbreviations of species mentioned in the tables are

as per Table 1. The details of some of the heronries

are presented in Appendix I.

Results and Discussion

Abundance of Nesting Species: The

questionnaire survey and review of literature yielded

information on 360 active sites. The number of sites

in which each of the 26 species nesting in heronries

have been recorded, is presented in Fig 1 . Of the 26

species considered, Little Cormorant, Night Heron,

Pond Heron, Cattle Egret and Little Egret were the

most abundant nesting species in Indian heronries

and were found nesting in over K)0 sites. The most

common nesting species in Indian heronries was the

Little Egret which nests in about 150 sites. The

Spotbilled Pelican, Lesser Adjutant, Greater

Adjutant and the Glossy Ibis were found to nest in

less than 20 heronries (Fig. 1).

Among the 26 species considered, the Little

Cormorant, Night Heron, Pond Heron, Cattle Egret

and the Little Egret were the most abundant nesting

species in Indian heronries (Fig. 1). Glossy Ibis

which was known to breed in Lucknow (Oude),

Table 1

DETAILS OF SPECIES CONSIDERED IN THE HERONRY

SURVEY

Orissa, and Assam (Baker 1935), was found nesting

only at the Luna village, Banni grassland in the Kutch

region (Tiwari 1993 and pers. comm.) and at the

Panidihing Heronry in Assam (D. Barooah, P Kumar

Saikia & Anwaruddin Choudhury, pers. comm.).

Baker (1935) recorded colonies of Chinese Egrets

at North and South Lakhimpur, Tmsukia Railway

Station and Dhimaji town. The present survey has

DISTRIBUTION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

461

only revealed suspected nesting of the species at the

Panidihing Heronry (Diptimanta Barooah, pers.

comm.). But for nesting prior to 1930s (Hume and

Oates 1890, Baker 1935), no recent information on

the nesting colonies of the Eastern Reef Egret is

available. Similarly, information could not be

obtained on the present status of the nesting colony

of Great White Pelican visited by Ali (1960) and

Shivrajkumar et al. (1961).

An analysis of the frequency and distribution

of bird species currently nesting in heronries across

different states revealed four distinct groups (Fig.

2). While the Little Cormorant, Pond and Night

Herons, Cattle, Little, Smaller and Great Egrets were

the most widespread nesting species in India, the

group with highly restricted distribution of species

included Spotbilled Pelican, Greater and Lesser

Adjutant Storks, Whitenecked (Woolly-necked)

Stork, Glossy Ibis and the Western Reef Egret. The

group with partly restricted distribution included the

Gl’eat Cormorant, Purple Heron, Indian Shag,

Oriental Darter and the Black Ibis. The rest of the

species were part of the less widespread group (Fig.

2).

Distribution of Heronries: Mapping of the

heronries in India indicated a distinct concentration

of sites in southern India, western and north central

India and Assam in the North-east (Fig. 3). Also,

the distribution of heronries within India indicated a

clear concentration along the coasts and coastal

plains, arid and semi-arid regions, Brahmaputra

floodplain (with the exception of Ganges floodplain)

and Western Ghats. Central India, south of the

Himalayas, eastern India including interior Orissa

and West Bengal appears to be impoverished of these

nesting sites. The notable absence of heronries in

462

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Spot-billed Pelican

Lesser Adjutant .

Greater Adjutant

Wooly-necked Stork

Glossy Ibis

Western Reef Egret — -1

Great Cormorant

Purple Heron '

Indian Shag

Oriental Darter 1

Black Ibis

Grey Heron .

Painted Stork . |

Black-headed Ibis '

Open-billed Stork 1

White Spoonbill — — >

Little Cormorant

Pond Heron l~

Night Heron .

Cattle Egret — j

Little Egret — — -> _______ — __

Smaller Egret —

Great Egret - — — — — — —

Fig. 2. Grouping of different bird species based on their nesting distributions in different parts of India.

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

463

these regions, especially in the G angelic plain, is

quite surprising. It is also possible that efforts have

not been made to look for heronries in this region

despite their existence. Only a concerted search for

nesting sites will reveal the true status. In fact,

intensive searches have revealed the occurrence of a

large number of heronries in a given region . The 14

heronries seen at the Raigad district, Maharashtra

(Mahabal 1990), and the 44 nesting sites of Cattle

and Little Egrets found in the Kharar tehsil of Ropar

district in Punjab (Singh and Sodhi 1985) indicate

that often, in intensely cultivated areas, the density

of heronries can be appreciably high. On the other

hand, these areas may be truly impoverished. In

Bihar, for example, it is very difficult to find nesting

sites of colonial waterbirds or for an active site to

exist for long, as most of them are destroyed by local

people out to secure easy meat and eggs (S.A.

Hussain, pers. comm.).

The occurrence of heronries in a particular

region is dependent on the availability of suitable

feeding conditions for waterbirds (Bancroft et al

1988, Carrascal etal 1993, Gibbs etal. 1987). Thus,

a comparison of the distribution of wetlands censused

during the Asian Midwinter Waterfowl Census

(Perennou et al 1994) and the distribution of

heronries indicate that the occurrence of heronries

closely follows the distribution of wetlands where

they feed. When one considers the types of wetlands

that occur in different parts of India (Perennou and

Mundkur 1991, 1992; Perennou, Rose and Poole

1990, Scott and Rose 1989, van der Ven 1987,

Hussain and Roy 1993), it appears that in central

and eastern Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan and in the

whole of Deccan Plateau, excluding the coastal

regions, the heronries are mainly dependent on man-

made waterbodies like tanks and large reservoirs. In

the Deccan Plateau, a large number of man-made

inland irrigation tanks play an important role in

providing ideal feeding conditions to waterbirds

(Subramanya 1990, Sampat 1993) and also in

supporting a number of heronries (Table 2).

There is a dense concentration of heronries

along the east and west coasts of India. Coastal

wetlands like lagoons, backwaters, estuaries.

Table 2

SITES PREFERRED BY COLONIAL NESTING

WATERBIRDS IN INDIA*

*N = 354 sites

mangroves, mud flats, etc. occurring within about

35 km from the coasts seem to have a strong influence

on the distribution of nesting sites along the coasts.

Similarly, in the Southern Gulf of Kutch coastal

wetlands (Naik et al. 1991) and in Assam, the

Brahmaputra floodplain, with its associated heels,

provides important feeding areas for the colonial

nesting waterbirds (Baker 1935).

Nesting Habitats: The nesting sites of the 26

species of colonially nesting waterbirds have been

recorded to occur in as many as 13 different habitat

types. The frequency distribution of such nesting

sites is presented in Table 2. Nearly 53 % of the

observed nesting sites were found either within or

close to human habitations. Only about 31 per cent

of the sites were found to occur within or close to

fresh water bodies. Around 7% of the sites were

found in coastal areas and coastal islands: Reed-beds

were one of the preferred nesting substrate once, as

at Brahmaputra Valley (Baker 1935, Hume and Oates

1890) and Kashmir (Bates 1929). Only a few such

reed-bed nesting sites have been reported. In about

eight per cent of the sites, heronries were located

within or close to wooded areas, as at Raiganj in the

West Dinapur district of West Bengal (Datta and Pal

1990, 1993; Shahi 1983).

Several nesting colonies of the Great

464

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 3

DETAILS OF HERONRIES FOUND INSIDE LARGE RESERVOIRS

* Names refer to information obtained through personal communications

Cormorant and Darter are found on dead tree trunks

partially submerged in water in the backwaters of

large reservoirs (Table 3). The partially submerged

tree trunks became available to the birds, subsequent

to the submergence of forest in river valleys. The

most unusual record was at the Kota Dam in

Rajasthan, where Night Herons which usually prefer

the seclusion of a dense tree canopy for breeding

(Baker 1935, Ali and Ripley 1987), were nesting

openly on exposed tree trunks (Soni 1992).

Site Tenacity: Affinity to nest at a site or close

to a site where they previously nested appears to be

very strong among colonial waterbirds. At sites

where they have enjoyed long years of protection,

birds exhibit intense site tenacity. However, their

continued nesting at the site even after a disaster

appears to depend on the extent of damage to the

nesting substrate and the availability of alternate

nesting substrate at the site. When flash floods

ravaged Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary during 1991,

over 1500 nests were swept away by the surging

waters, but the birds started re-nesting once the floods

abated (Subramanyaef a/. 1991). When the preferred

nesting tree was cut down by villagers at Mathikere

Heronry in Karnataka, the birds nested on nearby

trees which had not been used. Similarly, when the

Neem tree on which Openbill Storks were nesting at

Tsunduru Village in Andhra Pradesh was affected

by a cyclone in 1990, the birds successfully shifted

over to nest on Polyalthia longifolia(K. Mruthunjaya

Rao, pers. comm.).

Since the availability of a suitable feeding site

is an important consideration for the choice of a

specific site, the intense site tenacity showed by

nesting species is an indication that their feeding

habitats in the surrounding area are intact. Birds do

not appear to shift to a new locality or abandon the

site unless alternate nesting substrate is available. In

such situations, total destruction or uprooting of all

the available nesting substrates at the site forces the

nesting population to shift to an alternate site close

by as seen at Jagrugumilli Village Heronry in

Prakasham district, Andhra Pradesh. After a

devastating cyclone in 1979, the birds nesting at

• •

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

465

Fig. 3. Distribution of heronries in India.

466

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Fig. 4. Number of existing and lost heronries in different states of India. Hatched histogram indicates the number of

sites known to exist in Orissa.

Jagrugumilli Village Heronry shifted to Patchava

Village about 8 km away, when alternate nesting

substrates were not available. Similarly, a

thunderstorm destroyed the crown of an Acacia

nilotica tree in Cuddapah city during 1989 and the

Pond Heron, Cattle Egret and Little Egrets which

were nesting on the tree regularly, abandoned the

site (Riazuddin, pers. comm.).

Existing Sites: Details of the number of

heronries recorded in 18 Indian states and one union

territory is presented in Fig. 4. Though the figure

pertains to the information that was sent by

contributors, there could still be a large number of

heronries which have not yet been located by

birdwatchers or heronries on which information was

not shared. For example, with the assured feeding

opportunity available at Chilka Lake in Orissa, every

village located around the lake is known to have a

small to medium sized heronry (Sudhakar Kar, pers.

comm.). Similarly, within Mysore District,

Karnataka, every tank supporting a dense patch of

bulrush reeds (Typha sp.) is known to invariably

contain one or two nests of Purple Heron (K. Manu,

pers. comm.). However, with the available

information, it was found that Gujarat supports the

largest number of heronries in India (68 known sites)

followed closely by Assam and Karnataka (around

50 sites) and Kerala with 38 sites. Less than ten

heronries were recorded in Arunachal Pradesh,

Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu

and Kashmir, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West

Bengal (Fig. 3).

All the Adjutant Stork colonies are located in

Assam (Changkakati and Das 1991, Choudhury

1993, Raj 1990, Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1990a, b).

Though the Lesser Adjutant was once known to nest

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

467

in Kerala (Travancore) and parts of Malabar coast

in the south-west, east coast, Orissa and Assam

(Baker 1935), the nesting of Lesser Adjutant at the

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary is the only recent

record of the species nesting outside north-eastern

India (Pandey 1993). The recent reported nesting of

the Black Stork Ciconia nigra (Datta 1996) is the

first ever record of the species nesting within Indian

limits.

The bulk of the nesting colonies of Western

Reef Egrets are found in Gujarat where they nest in

coastal area, coastal cities and coastal islands (Ali

1945, 1954; Naik 1991, Naik et al. 1991, Naik and

Parasharya 1987, Parasharya and Naik 1990,

Ranjitsinh 1985, Taej Mundkur and Lavkumar

Khacher, pers. comm.). Hitherto, the colony near

Nellore (Kirkpatrick 1961) was the only known

nesting site of the species on the east coast. This site

is no longer active. The present survey has brought

to light two unknown nesting sites of the species on

the east coast in Andhra Pradesh located at the

Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (Ashok Kumar; V.

Vasudeva Rao and V. Nagulu, pers. comm.) and the

Lankivanidibba of Repalle range of Krishna estuary

(Narendra Prasad, pers. comm., Prasad 1992). It is

quite possible that more of these sites may exist on

the east coast and on the west coast, south of Gujarat.

Only a determined effort to locate additional nesting

sites may reveal their existence.

The present survey has revealed that the

Spotbilled Pelican breeds in about 15 sites distributed

over Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka and Tamil

Nadu (Subramanya, unpublished). Considering this,

the report of the presence of only four colonies of

the species in India in 1982 (Crivelli and Schreiber

1984) is incorrect as at least ten of the present nesting

sites have been active for well over two decades

(Subramanya, unpublished).

Of the existing heronries, some of the colonies

are known to be active since several decades or even

centuries (Table 4). However, very few such sites

exist today and the main reason for their survival is

the quality of protection they have enjoyed in the

locality, either by State Forest Departments or

through the sentiments of the local people. The list

of some of these active sites shown in Table 4 is by

no means complete and needs updating.

Reference to heronries prior to re-organisation

of Indian states abounds in Indian ornithological

literature. However, it is difficult to confirm their

present day locations. For example, the large heronry

with thousands of nesting birds located half-way

between a place known as Tangalle and Mathura

(Matura) referred to by Hume and Oates (1890),

could well be the present day Keoladeo National

Park. There appears to be little doubt that the

pelicanry visited by Jerdon (1864) in Karnataka

(Carnatic) is the present day Kokkare Bellur

Pelicanry, where Spotbilled Pelicans nest in

association with Painted Storks on trees in the middle

of a village (Nagulu and Rao 1983, Neginhal 1976,

1993; Sanjay 1993).

Searching for some of the old heronries could

be a tedious task. Nevertheless, given time and effort,

the present day status of these sites can be known.

Baker (1935) had visited an extremely large Great

Cormorant colony of over 3000 pairs located on the

rocky banks of Subansiri River several kilometres

before it debouches into the plains. Recent searches

have revealed that the colony exists even today, but

only a small number of birds nest at the site

(Anwaruddin Choudhury, pers. comm.).

Large heronries in India: The number of

birds nesting in heronries varies greatly and only a

few sites qualify to be considered as large heronries.

Table 5 lists the top ten heronries in India where over

5,000 pairs or nests have been recorded. However,

this list is far from complete and needs updating.

Traditional nesting sites: Heronries where

birds return each year to bredd regularly become

traditional nesting sites. As the availability of suitable

feeding conditions in the surrounding area and safe

nesting sites in the locality are the two factors

governing the occurrence of heronries (Bancroft et

al 1988, Carrascal et al 1993, Gibbs et al 1987,

Parasharya and Naik 1990), continued survival of

these nesting sites is an indirect indication that the

feeding areas of nesting birds are in a healthy state.

As a consequence, birds return to such sites year after

year. Table 6 lists some of the traditional nesting sites

468

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 93 (1996)

Table 4

SOME OF THE OLDEST INDIAN HERONRIES STILL ACTIVE IN INDIA

* Names refer to information obtained through personal communications.

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

469

Table 5

TOP 10 HERONRIES IN INDIA

* Names refer to information obtained through personal communications.

in India. Only about 7% of the heronries are

traditional nesting sites and some of these heronries

have been in existence for well over a century. The

Kokkare Bellur Pelicanry, Vedanthangal Bird

Sanctuary and Koonthakulam Pelicanry in Tamil

Nadu are fine examples of this. Though published

records indicate that this pelicanry was in existence

in 1864 (Jerdon 1864), enquiries with local people

indicate that the colony may well be over 500 years

old (pers. obs.).

At these sites birds exhibit a strong site tenacity

as observed at Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary after

the devastating 1991 floods (Subramanya et al

1991). Similar re-nesting following disturbance has

been observed in Spotbilled Pelicans at Kokkare

Bellur Pelicanry (pers. obs.). Such a strong

attachment to the nesting site should convince the

concerned authorities of the importance of these sites

for birds, and efforts should be directed to implement

long term conservation plans.

Lost sites: The information on sites where

birds once nested is scattered through the literature.

The majority of these sites referred to in literature

(e.g. All 1945, 1955, 1960; Ann an dale 1921, Baker

1935, Barnes 1886, Bates and Lowther 1952, Betham

1904, Bingham 1876, Burnett 1959, Campbell 1902,

Guttikar 1979, Ferguson and Bourdillon 1904,

Forbes 1967, Hume and Oates 1890, Law 1926) no

longer exist. While no information is available on

147 former sites, 26 nesting sites have disappeared

due to various reasons (Table 7). The present status

of most of the sites that were known to be active

until recently (e.g. Singh and Sodhi 1986, Mahabal

1990) is not known.

470

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 6

SOME OF THE TRADITIONAL NESTING SITES IN INDIA

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

471

Table 6 (Continued)

* Names refer to information obtained through personal communications.

The vast swamps of the Brahmaputra

floodplain and its associated beels once supported a

large number of heronries (Baker 1935, Hume and

Oates 1890), but little information is now available

on the existence of these old heronries. The nesting

sites that were once found within or close to Barpeta

Beel, Dhemaji Beel, Dhemaji Village, around

Dibrugarh, Goalpara Swamp, Lakhimpur Swamp,

Tinsukia, within the floodplain of Brahmaputra river

(Baker 1935) do not seem to exist any more. One of

the reasons for this may be the changes in land use

pattern in the area (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1993).

Some of the important sites that have been lost

over the century include one of the first nesting

colonies of Spotbilled Pelican discovered in India

by Campbell (1902); the nesting colony of Great

White (Rosy) Pelican (Ali 1960, Shivrajkumaref al.

1960); a large heronry consisting of Pelicans,

Cormorants, Night Herons, Little Egrets, other

herons, ibises and Spoonbills at Tangalle and

Mathura (Hume and Oates 1890); a large colony of

Little Cormorant, Darter, Pond Herons, egrets. Great

Egrets, Openbill Storks, Spoonbills nesting in a

village in south Mainpuri district (Hume and Oates

1890). Similarly, a large colony of Painted Storks in

Deeg town close to Bharatpur, Rajasthan, which had

birds nesting on Acacia nilotica growing around the

fort and market place in the city, is not known

(Chatterjee, pers. comm.). Also, the heronries located

on the islands of Chilka Lake (Annandale 1921,

Forbes 1967) no longer exist (Sudhakar Kar and K.

Mohapatra, pers. comm.).

Protected Heronries: The heronry survey has

revealed that only a small proportion of the nesting

sites receive protection (Table 8). In addition to those

protected by Forest Departments, several traditional

nesting sites are protected by the local people; a few

nesting sites enjoy protection due to their occurrence

in religious places (Table 5). By virtue of their

location in government office premises or on private

properties, some of the heronries are fortunately

inaccessible to people who can harm them. Birds at

these sites are least disturbed and the threat to nesting

birds is minimised. As a consequence, they continue

to nest at these sites regularly.

Threats, disturbances and loss of heronries:

Continued survival of heronries is threatened by

several factors. Table 9 lists factors that threaten and

disturb nesting sites. While some of the factors are

common to many heronries, a few are specific to

individual heronries. Available information shows

that nearly 50 sites are threatened by human induced

factors; 21 sites are threatened with natural factors

(Table 9). Some of the important factors are discussed

below:

Destruction of nesting substrate: Felling of

472

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 7

SOME OF THE IMPORTANT HERONRIES THAT ONCE EXISTED

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

473

Table 7 (Continued)

* Names refer to information obtained through personal communications.

nesting trees in heronries is a serious factor that

contributes to the loss of nesting space. A property

dispute over a large F. benghalensis tree that used to

support about 100 nests led to its felling (Sridhar

1992) and the author’s personal observation

corroborates the same. Similarly, felling of a F.

religiosa tree near Mathikere Heronry led to the

shifting of the colony to a nearby F. benghalensis

tree (pers. obs.). The heronries at Ulloor, Vattapara

in Trivandrum are lost due to the loss of nest substrate

(C. Susanthakumar, pers. comm.).

Destruction of nesting substrate is a major

factor contributing to the loss of heronries. As a part

of the social forestry program, the foreshore stands

of A. nilotica were harvested to distribute benefits

to the people (Wilson 1986). Heronries at several

tanks (Table 10) were destroyed when the A. nilotica

stand was clear felled (S. Vasuki, pers. comm.).

Similarly, at a tank located about 30 km from

Coimbatore on the road to Satyamangala, the A.

nilotica stand which supported a large colony of

Little Cormorants and Little Egrets was gradually

cut down in 1982 (S.T. Bhaskaran, pers. comm.).

The heronry at Rathanpur Jheel close to Ahmedabad

was destroyed similarly (Satkopan, pers. comm.). At

Kandla Creek, in the Gulf of Kutch, over-exploitation

of mangroves has resulted in the disappearance of

the heronry that once existed (Ali 1945, Parasharya,

pers. comm.). The loss of heronries at several tanks

(Abraham 1973) may have been due to the same

reason.

The nesting of waterbirds in large colonies is

often associated with the offensive smell due to

defecation and rotting of fish scraps fallen from the

nests. The resulting stench is offensive to people

living close by. At Ulloor Heronry in Trivandrum,

the nesting tree was cut down by its owner to escape

the stench of nesting birds during the monsoon (C.

Susanthakumar, pers. comm.). For the same reason,

the Vattapara Heronry in Trivandrum was destroyed

(C. Susanthakumar, pers. comm.) and the KTC Bus

Stop Heronry in Palakkad is threatened.

Developmental activities are often not in

favour of nesting birds. A number of heronries have

disappeared due to removal of nesting substrate or

disturbance consequent to developmental activities.

474

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 8

STATUS OF PROTECTED HERONRIES IN INDIA

Heronries in different parts of Madras (Krishnan

1979) seem to have disappeared due to development

of the city (Santharam, pers. comm.). Similarly, the

Salt Lake Colony of Purple Herons in Calcutta (Saha

1969) seems to have disappeared due to

developmental activities.

In Assam, a recent search for the nesting

colony of egrets which Burnette (1958)

photographed in Sibsagar district revealed that over

the years, the growth of residential colonies around

the site led to the dwindling of the bamboo grove. In

1993, a search for the site yielded only a few culms

of bamboo at the site which was once a vast grove

that supported a colony of over 200 nests of Cattle

and Little Egrets. The birds had abandoned the

nesting site nearly 20 years ago owing to clear cutting

of bamboo (Deeptimanta Barooah, pers. comm.).

Table 9

THREATS AND DISTURBANCES TO HERONRIES

AtMoondradaipu, several roadside trees being

used by Spotbilled Pelican, Little Cormorants and

Painted Storks (Ganguli 1964) were cut down over

the years. Subsequently, the nesting site was

abandoned by birds in 1989 after a chemical factory

was built close by. Following this, the remaining trees

were also cut down (Rajaram, pers. comm.).

The Night Heron appears to be very sensitive

to disturbance in and around its nesting colony. A

large nesting colony of the species at Malleswaram,

Bangalore, was abandoned during the early 1970s,

following the construction of buildings close by.

Such colonies are rarely permanent and in Bangalore

the birds have been observed to shift their nesting

colonies within a locality. Some of the sites are

occupied for a single nesting season.

Damage to nesting substrates: Local fuel and

fodder requirement may result in the exploitation of

trees used for nesting by birds in heronries. At some

of the heronries in the Southern Gulf of Kutch

(Bhaider, Nora, Chank, Ghandhiya Kodo and

Kalubhar island heronries), fishermen living close

to some of the islands frequently lop the nesting

substrates for fuel (Naik et al. 1991). At Kokkare

Bellur, some of the trees utilised by birds are lopped

regularly by the local people to provide fodder for

their goats. As a consequence, the crowns of these

trees get severely deformed, thus reducing the

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

475

available nest space to birds. This results in the falling

out and subsequent loss of nestlings from their nests

(Subramanya and Manu 1996). Also, damage to

nesting substrates occurs due to developmental

activities. At Morvi Town Heronry, the branches of

most of the trees used for nesting were pruned in

1987 for the construction of a water tank, leading to

the loss of nesting substrate (Taej Mundkur, pers.

comm.) and at Gandhiya Baug heronry where

bamboo clumps used for nesting by birds were

chopped down by the Surat town municipality in

1993 (Sneha Patel, pers. comm.).

Disturbance to nest site: Disturbances to the

nesting colony either by human activity or other

factors could lead to the abandonding of the nesting

site. For example, the Little and Cattle Egrets were

nesting on a huge F. mysorensis tree found on the

island in the middle of the crocodile pond at Jodhpur

Zoo. The birds abandoned the site a few years back,

after the construction of a bridge linking the island

with the mainland, for easy movement of caretakers.

As a consequence, semi-feral cats started predating

on the nestlings. In addition, the slaughter of animals

to feed the carnivores at the zoo started attracting

crows and pariah kites which also predated on the

contents of unattended nests. All these factors led to

the abandoning of the nesting site (Indra Kumar

Sharma, pers. comm.). Till 1979, Pond Herons were

nesting on shrubs growing on the island in Lalbagh

Tank at Bangalore. Clearing of these natural dense

shrubs and construction of a land bridge led to the

disappearance of the nesting colony (pers. obs.).

Poaching: Poaching of eggs, nestlings and

even the nesting birds is a serious threat to the

survival of heronries. At Gudvi Bird Sanctuary,

poaching of eggs and nestlings was rampant and the

size of the nesting colony dwindled till the site

received official protection (Raghunatha etal. 1992).

Nagulu (1993) indicates that poaching was one of

the factors that led to abandoning of Kolleru

Pelicanry. At Panidihing Heronry, hunting parties

regularly raid the nesting colony and steal eggs.

Effect of natural calamities: Natural

calamities like floods and cyclones damage heronries

to different degrees, and droughts lead to failure of

nesting at the site. Floods can be devastating to

heronries located amidst rivers or in the floodplains

(Neginhal 1980). For example, at Ranganathittu Bird

Sanctuary, where birds nest on tree-studded islands

midstream of a swift flowing river, flash floods

during 1991 raised the water level at the sanctuary

by 5 m. The surging waters submerged or washed

away ten of the eleven islets, along with the nests

built within the five metre level, while the vegetation

on some islets was uprooted. A few islets overgrown

with screwpine ( Pandanus sp.) were devegetated.

Whatever vegetation withstood the fury of flood was

deposited with debris, choking the available nest-

space.

Cyclonic storms are often very destructive to

heronries. At Ethirapattu Heronry, a huge tamarind

tree was uprooted and the side branches of most of

the trees were broken (K.Mruthunjaya Rao).

Ramakrishna (1990) reports that the side branches

of most of the trees were broken in addition to

uprooting a huge tamarind tree. When a Neem tree

on which Openbill Storks were nesting at Tsunduru

Village Heronry was affected by a cyclone in 1990,

the birds successfully shifted over to nest on

Polyalthia longifolia found close by (K. Mruthunjaya

Rao, pers. comm.). However, when Jagrugumilli

Village Heronry in Prakasham district was hit by a

cyclone in 1979, the nesting birds shifted to Patchava

Village (K. Mruthunjaya Rao, pers. comm.).

A thunderstorm destroyed the crown of an

Acacia nilotica tree in Cuddapah city during 1989

and the Pond Herons, Cattle Egrets and Little Egrets

which had been nesting on it abandoned the site

(Riazuddin, pers. comm.). When the Reef Heron

colony at the New Port of Bhavnagar was severely

hit during the cyclonic storm in November 1982, a

large number of herons were stunned by shock and

cold (Naik and Parasharya 1987). The cyclone of

1984 that swept through Neelapattu Sanctuary

uprooted a number of nesting trees and resulted in

the mortality of a large number of birds (Tehar 1985).

Droughts prevent breeding at traditional

colonies in very dry years (e.g. Keoladeo National

Park: Ali 1979, Breeden and Breeden 1982, Verghese

etal. 1982; Vedanthangal: Paulraj 1984, Santharam,

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

pers. comm,; Mainpuri: Hume and Oates 1890). The

nesting of birds at Rozi Island and Khijadia Bird

Sanctuary is totally dependent on the adequate

rainfall received during monsoon (Naik etal. 1991).

The level of water and the time span during which

the water collects in the pond harbouring the nesting

tree, is crucial for the nesting of birds. During 1988

and 1989, the monsoon was very good and breeding

progressed smoothly. However, due to the failure of

monsoon during 1990, the ponds dried up early and

the birds did not nest at the site (Naik et al. 1991).

Some threats could be peculiar to certain

specific sites. At Hebbal in Bangalore, a colony of

Night Herons, which had started nesting on F.

religiosa abandoned the site when the tree shed its

leaves during February (pers. obs.). In Kokkare

Bellur Pelicanry, a few adult and nestlings of

Spotbilled Pelican and Painted Storks die each year

after colliding with a 10,000 volt electricity cable

that passes through the village where birds nest (pers.

obs.). In another situation at the Mathikere Heronry,

colonies of Rock Bee Apis dorsata share the large

trees used by nesting birds. On several occasions,

clambering fledglings of birds have bumped into the

hives, enraging the bees. In 1993, the villagers of

Mathikere observed about 30 very young nestlings

of Little Cormorants, Night Heron and Grey Herons

being stung to death by enraged bees. The bees stung

the bare parts of the nestlings which were unable to

fly. Nestlings which were severely stung died after

their fall from the canopy.

Conservation of heronries: While a number

of heronries are lost (Fig. 4) due to various reasons,

only a small percentage of the existing nesting sites

are protected. While protecting heronries should be

an important conservation issue, the problem is not

as simple as protecting a specific heronry. It appears

that selection of a specific nesting habitat by these

birds is more complex than merely occupying what

is usually termed as ‘a safe nesting site ’ . The choice

of a specific nesting site appears to be based mostly

on the availability of suitable feeding conditions at

a chosen site (Bancroft et al. 1988, Carrascal et al.

1993, Gibbs et al. 1987, Venkataraman and

Muthukrishnan 1993) and also the availability of

suitable nesting conditions in a specific locality that

has the feeding conditions. These two factors appear

to be inseparable (Ali and Ripley 1987, Naik et al.

1991 ). The survival of a heronry depends, in addition

to the availability of safe nesting sites, on the

continued availability of suitable feeding conditions.

Thus, at each site chosen for protection, important

feeding sites where the nesting birds forage need to

be identified and efforts should be directed at

protecting them. Observations at Kokkare Bellur

Pelicanry have shown that the nesting pelicans and

Painted Storks travel as far as 60 km to forage (Sanjay

1993, Subramanya and Manu 1996). The feeding

sites comprise of over 150 tanks of varying sizes

ranging from less than 10 ha. to more than 100 ha.

in area. These tanks, in effect seem to form a feeding

habitat complex which supports the nesting

population of birds at Bellur.

On the other hand, providing protection to a

greater number of heronries against disturbance and

habitat destruction, clearing or felling of nest-

substrates should be an important strategy to ensure

continued survival of heronries. By taking into

consideration the types of threats and disturbances

affecting heronries (Table 9), several conservation

options can be considered. Some of the important

options are discussed below:

Bringing more Heronries under State

Protection: At present only a few heronries enjoy

state protection. Any conservation strategy thus

should aim to increase the number of sites coming

under state protection. For this, there is an urgent

need to identify all promising nesting sites, officially

declare them as protected and initiate conservation

activities.

Total protection from every form of threat

or disturbance: As discussed earlier, one of the

major causes for the loss of the nesting sites is the

loss of favoured nesting substrate through habitat

destruction. Failure to replace the substrate with

similar features worsens the situation. Even in

protected sites, very little effort is being made to

correct the situation. The existing nesting substrate

within such sites should be protected from

destruction and loss, and concrete steps taken to

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

All

ensure the adequate future availability of nesting

substrate.

Often, the loss of nesting substrate at heronries

is tied to local timber, fuel and fodder requirements.

An alternate strategy, backed by a strong social

forestry programme, should be formulated to meet

these local requirements (Subramanya and Manu

1996).

Protection of Roost Sites of large

Waterbirds: In many instances, former roost sites

have eventually developed into nesting sites. Safety

appears to be a key factor promoting the nesting at a

former roost site. The occurrence of both roost and

nesting sites appears to be governed by two major

Table 10

HERONRIES THAT COMMENCED AS ROOST SITES

factors, namely safe sites providing suitable roosting

or nesting substrates and the availability of suitable

feeding habitat conditions. Prolonged safety from

disturbances at a given roost site appears to tempt

birds to utilise the same site for nesting. In fact,

several heronries have begun as roost sites (Table

10). For example, the banyan tree on which the birds

nest at Basaveswarnagar Heronry is located in an

isolated corner of an enclosed government office

property, where even the employees seldom wander.

The site is totally free from disturbance. Birds nesting

in heronries seem to have recognized this (pers. obs.).

Similarly, the Simpson Estate Heronry in

Madras started as a roost site of night herons in the

early 1960s. When this roost site received total

protection from any form of threat the birds started

nesting there. Nearly 11 species making up a

population of over 10,000 birds roost at the site and

nearly 2,000 nesting birds comprising six species

nest at the site today (V.Gurusamy, pers. comm.).

Thus, identifying large roost sites of colonial

waterbirds and according to them official protection

may help nesting in the long run.

Increasing Nesting Substrate Availability:

Tree nesting is an important feature among the birds

nesting in heronries (Table 2) and in nearly 96 per

cent of the sites, trees form the nesting substrates.

Loss of trees, as discussed earlier, may be a potential

threat resulting in the loss of nesting substrate. As

both natural and human influenced factors may affect

the availability of trees, it is worthwhile, in addition

to protecting existing trees at the site, to ensure future

availability of trees for nesting. To achieve this,

regular planting of preferred tree saplings is

necessary in and around the heronries. These saplings

have to be protected from damage till they attain

sufficient height. The A. nilotica trees planted

following the 1984 cyclone at Neelapattu Bird

Sanctuary have compensated some of the lost nesting

substrate (Nagulu, pers. comm.).

Creation of heronries: Understanding the

factors leading to the formation of heronries is useful

in deciding on the ways and means of making

conditions conducive to nesting at a particular site.

Table 1 1 lists the number of situations where several

factors have favoured the starting of a new colony.

Though heronries have to commence at some

point of time, the process of selection of nesting site

appears to be operating at two levels. To begin with,

the area that affords good and suitable feeding

conditions is selected and then within this area, a

478

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 1 1

FACTORS FAVOURING THE COMMENCEMENT OF

HERONRIES

No.

Favouring factors/mode of sites

Foreshore afforestation of tanks 14

Tree trunks in the backwaters of dams 6

Protection of roost sites 10

Suitable conditions in an aviary 3

Afforestation 1

Ideal feeding conditions 2

suitable site that affords sufficient safe nesting

substrate is selected (Fasola and Alieri 1992, Fredrick

1989, Gee 1964, Gibbs 1991, Hafner and Fasola

1992, Kushlan 1976). For example, at Kokkare

Bellur Pelicanry, studies revealed that birds frequent

medium to large tanks located within about 60 km

around the nesting site (Sanjay 1993, Subramanya

and Manu 1996). Observations indicated that the

village was one of the few that had a high tree density.

Within the village nesting birds utilize over 100 trees

out of nearly 220 trees found within the village (pers.

obs.). The nesting birds were safe within the village

as they were protected by the sentiments of local

people (Neginhal 1993).

While the availability of suitable sites for

nesting and feeding are essential to establish

heronries, several factors contribute towards meeting

the nest site requirements. Though it is not always

possible to identify these contributing factors, there

are certain situations where it is possible to identify

several factors that have favoured the

commencement of nesting (Table 12).The influence

of some of these factors is discussed below:

Foreshore Afforestation of Tanks: Tamil

Nadu Factor: The popular view on the existence of

heronries is that these sites are traditional breeding

grounds for the birds which have been nesting since

a long time. This is true, when one considers sites

like Vedanthangal, Koonthakulam, Telineelapuram,

Kokkare Bellur, where birds are known to be nesting

for a long time (Table 4). However, the

Table 12

* Those marked (L) no longer exist.

commencement of heronries in Ramanathapuram and

Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu in mid 1960s

(Table 12) indicate that man can help in the creation

and establishment of these heronries. In 1960, the

Social Forestry Programme, Tamil Nadu Forest

Department started foreshore afforestation of a large

number of tanks withA. nilotica( Wilson 1979). Once

the Acacia saplings grew to form a dense stand of

trees that invariably became partially submerged

after monsoon inundation, it provided safe and ideal

conditions for the nesting of colonial water birds.

The heronries at Vettangudi, Chitrangudi,

Kanjeerakulam, Koonthakulam and Vedamugam-

Vellode Tank commenced after foreshore

afforestation. At Pandoli Tank also, birds started

nesting subsequent to the creation of congenial

conditions by planting of A. nilotica in the foreshore

region (R.B. Balar, L.M. Ruol and PS. Thakker, pers.

comm.).

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

479

Effect of partially submerged nesting

substrates: The creation of large irrigation projects

has helped the nesting of large waterbirds (Table 5).

Their creation in forested river valleys is often

associated with the submergence of a considerable

extent of forest in the foreshore region, resulting in

dead tree trunks standing partially submerged in

water. As water acts as an insulating factor around

nesting trees against ground predators (Gee 1 964),

such sites have attracted Darters and Large

Cormorants for nesting (Nair and Nair 1973,

Nair 1996). In Karnataka, a colony of nearly 500

pairs of Great Cormorants and a few Darters are

known to nest on bare tree trunks standing in the

backwaters of Kabini Reservoir (Ullas Karan th, pers.

comm.).

Partially submerged trees in a large waterbody

appear to have been the most preferred nest-

ing substrate for colonial nesting waterbirds. In

Gujarat, for example, every reservoir providing such

nesting substrates (e.g. Aji-II, Aji-III, Sardhar

Reservoir, Mithikhari Reservoir, Nayri Reservoir and

Kalaghoga Reservoir), invariably seem to support a

heronry. Thus, trees growing either close by or

partially submerged, in the shallower regions

of the reservoir should be able to attract water-

birds for nesting, (e.g. Nair and Nair 1973, Nair

1996).

Effect of large waterbodies: Creation of large

waterbodies seems to have been crucial in the

commencement of heronries in the surrounding

areas. All the major heronries in inland Kerala are

located close to major reservoirs and undoubtedly

they appear to have come into existence after the

construction of these waterbodies that provide them

with crucial feeding habitats. Once the conditions

amenable for nesting (feeding and nest-site) are

created, one can expect birds to start nesting close

by soon.

Attraction of tree covered islands for

nesting waterbirds: Dense vegetation covered

islands in the midst of flowing rivers or large

waterbodies have a considerable attraction to nesting

birds. The best examples for such heronries are the

Ranganathittu, the islands in the Southern Gulf of

Kutch, Jodhpur Zoo and Hemisar Tank Heronry.

Construction of tree studded islands (mounds planted

with A. nilotica amidst the wetland) at Keoladeo

National Park, has indeed proven that birds readily

colonise them (Sankhala 1990). At Kukkralli Tank

Heronry in Mysore Pelicans, Darters, Painted Storks

and Spoonbills colonised a tree covered island in

the middle of the tank, when drought affected their

nesting habitat at Karanji Tank about 5 km away (K.

Manu, pers. comm.).

Considering the influence of the above factors

in the commencement of heronries, efforts should

be made wherever possible to create conditions, as

discussed above, suitable for the nesting of large

waterbirds.

Establishing nesting colonies in Aviaries: By

providing suitable nesting substrates and an assured

food supply, it is possible to induce large waterbirds

to breed within the confines of large aviaries. In the

Bannerghatta National Park Aviary near Bangalore,

it has been possible to establish nesting colonies of

Spotbilled Pelican, Little Cormorant, White Ibis and

Spoonbill (Venkatesh et al. 1996). Birds have been

observed to breed in similar situations at Vandalur

Zoo in Tamil Nadu, Nehru Zoological Park in

Hyderabad and Baroda Zoo (Santharam, Aasheesh

Pittie and Geeta Padati, pers. comm.)

Involvement of local people: Available

information on heronries in India reveals that

nearly 80% of the heronries are located within or

close to human habitation and in rural settings.

To protect these sites, it is important to involve

local people living close to nesting sites. Efforts

have to be directed at educating and convincing

them of the need to protect the nesting sites.

Programmes have to be started to actively involve

them in conservation activities. In fact, such an

exercise has led to the formation of a “ Hejjarle

Balaga ”, the Village Pelican Conservation Group

at Kokkare Bellur Pelicanry in Karnataka

(Subramanya and Manu 1996). Efforts should also

be made to encourage local non-governmental

organisations to identify heronries and work towards

protecting them in association with the concerned

government departments.

480

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Conclusion

Available information shows that much can be

done to identify and protect potential heronries in

different parts of India as the future of heronries

depend much on protecting existing sites and on the

quality of protection given to them. Concerted efforts

in this direction through regional cooperation of

agencies and concerned individuals in different parts

of India can help in establishing a network of

heronries. Towards this end, there is a need to

develop a more detailed inventory of heronries at

the district or state level by concerned individuals

or by government and non-governmental

organisations. This should be followed by bringing

more sites under protection.

A comparison of Tables 4, 5 and 6 shows that

the age and size of the heronry and the number of

species nesting in a colony appears to be related. In

other words, the colony size and its species

composition grows with time. Thus, it becomes

evident that long term protection of nesting sites

against every form of threat and disturbance (Table

9) coupled with an increased availability of nesting

substrates over the years would go a long way in

conserving heronries. It should be kept in mind that

man can indeed help in the establishment of heronries

by creating conditions facilitating the nesting of

waterbirds in select situations.

Further, much can be achieved by creating

awareness among the public regarding the

importance of these sites and the need to protect

them. Especially in instances where the nesting sites

are located in private properties, the owners have to

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Kutch. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 59: 655-658,

Abraham, S. (1973): The Kanjirankulam breeding bird

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be convinced of the importance of such sites and

encouraged to protect them through their active

participation.

Acknowledgements

This study is one of those few which have been

made possible by the whole hearted support of many

bird enthusiasts, especially due to their willingness

to share information. This task of compiling

information on heronries would not have been

possible but for the co-operation of a large number

of birdwatchers, ornithologists and naturalists who

responded to my information request. I feel much

obliged by their patience in answering my queries.

Space does not permit me to mention all their names

and I thank each and everyone of them. Special

mention must be made of Lavkumar Khacher, Asad

Rahmani, Taej Mundkur, RS. Thakker, Dhilas Jeffri,

A. Rajaram, V. Santharam, Lalitha Vijayan, R.G.

Soni, B.M. Parasharya, Abdul J. Urfi, Christian

Perennou, Anwaruddin Chouhdury, PC.

Bhattacharjee, Prasanth K. Saikia, Diptimanta

Barooah, Shanthilal Varu, Jugal Kishor Tiwari, K.

Mruthunjaya Rao, K. Manu, V. Nagulu, V. Gurusami,

Debojit Phukan, Kulajyothi Lahkar, Bhupen Das,

Soumyadeep Datta, C. Susanthakumar, K. Rafeek

and J. Praveen for their help and cooperation. This

study was partly supported by the Small

Conservation Grant from the Oriental Bird Club,

U.K. Lastly, this study would not have been possible

without the support of my wife, Meena, especially

for having put up with all my idiosyncrasies during

this study.

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APPENDIX

DETAILS OF THE HERONRIES REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

485

APPENDIX ( Continued )

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APPENDIX ( Continued )

* Names refer to information obtained through personal communications.

A REVIEW OF THE BIRDS OF THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

R.Sugathan and Aby P. Varghese1

Introduction

In the 19th Century when the British started

various types of plantations, the Kannan Devan Hills

(now known as Munnar) was one of their main targets

for tea plantations in Kerala. To facilitate transport

a road was constructed connecting Kannan Devan

Hills with Cochin through the western slopes of

the Western Ghats. The actual Ghat section of the

road started from the right bank of the Periyar river,

the second largest river in Kerala. Along the road

many travellers’ bungalows were constructed,

Thattakad being first on the right bank of the river.

The British also started the first large scale rubber

plantations at ‘Palamattam’, close to Thattakad. In

the early 1930s when S£lim Ali was on his way to

the high ranges of the Western Ghats during the

Ornithological Survey of Travancore and Cochin,

he came through the Old Munnar road. Thattakad

being the starting place of the Ghat, Salim Ali

selected it as one of his bird collection centres.

Salim Ali noted the avifaunal diversity of

Thattakad as one among the richest in his survey

report. Unfortunately, the area had been exploited

for cultivation, first, by the British and later by the

locals. After independence some of these

unauthorised encroachments were taken over by the

Government and vast areas were planted with teak.

In the 1980s the Kerala Government proposed to

establish a bird sanctuary and asked Dr. S&lim Ali

for advice. He immediately suggested that Thattakad

should be the first Bird Sanctuary of Kerala. As a

result during 1983 an area of 25.16 Sq.Km was

declared as a Bird Sanctuary.

An intensive study on the flora and fauna of

Thattakad Bird Sanctuary in Kerala was started in

March 1994. The project is being funded by the

‘Salim Ali Wild Wings Trust, Zoological Research Station,

Thattakad Bird Sanctuary, Njayapitty, Kerala.

Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife) with a view to

study the biodiversity of the area and population size

of the various components for the preparation of a

scientific management plan. Some of the data

furnished below were obtained during the project

work.

Study Area

Thattakad Bird Sanctuary (10° 10’ N, 76° 40’-

76° 45' E) has an area of 25.16 Sq.Km and is bordered

by the Periyar and Kuttampuzha rivers on two sides

and Kolombathodu and Orulamthanni on the other

two sides. It is almost at the foot of the western

slopes of the Western Ghats and the altitude ranges

from 50-250 m above msl. The highest point in the

Western Ghats, the Anamudi Peak (2695 m), is

directly uphill of Thattakad. The terrain is

undulating and includes two high peaks called

Thoppimudi and Njayapillimudi. The river bank has

been submerged for about 6 to 10 m by the water

body created by an irrigation project, the

Bhoothathankettu barrage on the main stream of

Periyar river. This has destroyed almost all the

luxuriant riverain forest which existed along the

banks. About 1/3 of the total Sanctuary area is under

monoculture, mainly of teak and mahogany. The

remaining forest consists of partly disturbed

evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous Eeta

( Ochlandra travancorica ) forests, and grassland with

rock outcrops or even land holdings ranging from 5

0.02 hectares to 4.05 to 6.07 hectares or even more

along the fringes of the Sanctuary. However, there

are no settlements inside the Sanctuary . Since the

declaration of the area as a Sanctuary in 1983, there

has been no regular forestry extraction and plantation

activities inside the Sanctuary area. As a result, there

is fairly thick forest undergrowth everywhere,

including in the plantations.

The area was under Malayatoor forest division

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

before the declaration of the Sanctuary but is now

under Idukki Wildlife division. The climate is hot

and humid. The mean annual temperature varies

from 18°C to 37°C. Rainfall is received both during

Southwest and Northeast monsoon seasons.

However, nearly 75% of the precipitation occurs

during the Southwest monsoon, from June to mid

September. January and February are generally dry

months. The average rainfall is 3000 mm. Strong

winds with a speed of over 60 km per hour are

common during the monsoon. The controversial

Pooyamkutty Hydroelectric project area is very close

to Thattakad Bird Sanctuary.

Avifauna

Thattakad was described as the ‘richest bird

habitat in peninsular India’ by the late S£lim Ali.

He reported 163 species of birds from Thattakad

alone during the 1930s survey. These were mostly

Tropical forest species.

Salim Ali (1936) in his report JBNHS 37 (4):

835-836 states “The forest which is principally

confined to the right bank of the river, consists in

patches of both deciduous and tropical evergreen

with frequently a mixture of the two. On the right

bank of the river also, there is a series of plantations

of the Forest Department: Teak, Rubber and Bombax.

The first is about 6 years old, mostly devoid of

undergrowth and poor in bird life. The rubber is

about 25 years old, but owing to default of the

contractor the weeding has not been done for some

years with the result that Lantana, ‘ Incha ’ and a host

of other species have overrun the place in

impenetrable denseness. This area is the best of the

three as regards birds. The Bombax plantations (0.25

hectare) is only one year old and little more than a

forest clearing so far. When line trees are old enough

to flower, this place will become a paradise for the

birdwatcher.

“Along the banks of Periyar River, and those

of the many small streams that flow into it, are dense

clumps of Eetai.t.Ochlandra travancorica and they

are likewise often lined with ‘Ome’ trees Trema

orientalis whose berries are a great attraction to all

frugivorous birds.

“No waterbirds were seen except Kingfishers,

Ardeola grayii, Anhinga melanogaster and Motacilla

maderaspatensis which were usually present in small

numbers. The country hereabouts is stiff with wild

elephants and bird collection often provided

unexpected thrills”.

Comparing this with the present status of these

areas, we find that most of the natural types have

degraded due to constant human interference and

cattle grazing. Rubber and Bombax plantations are

completely replaced with teak plantations. Lantana

undergrowth is absent inside the sanctuary. Bombax

plants are very few in number and there is no natural

regeneration of this species inside the sanctuary.

Eeta has almost vanished from the riverside

due to formation of the lake. Even though it exists

inside the sanctuary in some isolated patches, it is

much thinned out due to over-extraction for

commercial purposes and from forest fires. ‘Ome’

( Trema orientalis ) has also become uncommon due

to the regular management practices for the

protection of teak plantations.

After the creation of the lake, a considerable

increase in water bird population was noticed. Over

30 species of water birds alone have been recorded

from Thattakad now. Their population shows an

increasing trend now.

The elephant which was common during S£lim

Ali’s survey was totally absent from the area for a

long time, but has now started reappearing during a

certain season. During his survey there was no water

bird habitat in Thattakad except for the two rivers.

Since the 1960s conditions have changed entirely.

There is a large water body constituted by the

Booth an kettu Dam. The depth of the water varies

from 1.82 m to 35 m. Water vegetation has

established itself over a substantial area providing

facilities for water birds to feed and breed, thereby

increasing the total population of the avifauna of

Thattakad by at least 10 to 15%.

Presently, there are about 270 species of birds

reported from Thattakad. About 40% of the total

species are migratory, while the others are resident

or local migrants. Some are very rare, with only

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

489

one or two sight records while others are very

common. There are also species which were

recorded as common by Sctlim Ali during 1930’s

which have become very rare or totally absent. The

Great Indian Hornbill, Malabar Pied Hornbill,

Laughing Thrush, etc. were recorded as common

during the thirties, but have now completely

vanished from the study area. There is a fairly good

population of birds like Malabar Trogon, Shama,

Frog mouth. The peninsular Bay owl which has only

been recorded from Parambikulam so far was

noticed in Thattakad also. The Black Crested Baza

is a breeding resident of this area. Water birds like

the Little Cormorant, Large Cormorant, Darter,

Shag, Dabchick, Whistling Teal, Bluewinged Teal,

Pintail duck, etc. were not recorded by S£lim Ali

but have now become very common birds in the

water spread area. The Openbill Stork and Purple

Heron have made their appearance only two years

ago. The Pheasant-tailed and the Bronzewinged

Jacanas have started breeding in the water bodies in

large numbers. In recent years, there is a seasonal

influx of Terns such as the Common Tem, River Tern

and the Whiskered Tem, with a population of over a

thousand birds during winter migration. The Grey

Jungle fowl and the Red Spur fowl population in

the sanctuary is fairly good, whereas the quail

population is low, even though more than one

species are met with.

The large hole nesting birds have either

vanished or are very few in numbers, indicating a

lack of suitable nesting site. As for their food, it is

abundant throughout the year. The frogmouth

population was rare, as reported by Sugathan (1981)

who conducted a frogmouth population survey

during 1979 in the Western Ghats. After 1984, when

the area came under the Wildlife Protection Act

bamboo and Eeta cutting was completely stopped.

The vegetation has now become re-established,

enabling frogmouth to increase in numbers. Small

sunbirds are one of the altitudinal migrants to the

sanctuary in large numbers during November-

December every year. Similarly, the Blossomheaded

and Roseringed parakeets make their appearance in

Thattakad only during August-September in large

numbers.

Among the long distance migrants, warblers

and flycatchers arrive first. We also get a transit

population of flycatchers. A large population of

warblers stay back for a long duration. Wagtails like

forest wagtails, grey wagtails, etc. are some of the

migratory species which stay for a long time.

Kingfishers and bee-eaters nest on the loose

sand deposits along the river bed in fairly good

numbers. Drongos are common except for the

Haircrested Drongo. Owls are many and most of

them are breeding residents of the area. Among the

swifts and swallows the Eastern Swallow is worth

mentioning. They come in thousands during certain

days and roost on telegraph and electric wires around

the sanctuary. The sanctuary has a small breeding

population of the Crested Tree Swift. The recent

appearance of Bluewinged teals and Pintail ducks

are interesting additions to the fauna. Larger

populations of these species have been recorded from

Vembanad lake for many years, which lies at a

distance of about 35 km as the crow flies from the

sanctuary. This year’s trend indicates that their

population at Thattakad will increase during the

coming years,

A detailed study on the population, habitat

preference and reasons for disappearances and

appearances of certain other species is in progress

under the ‘Ecology of Thattakad Project’.

Bird Fauna of Thattakad

1. Little Grebe ( Tachybaptus ruficollis )

Not very common. Their presence was only

recently noticed in the shallow water bodies of the

dam catchment in the sanctuary area. Breeding was

recorded but the birds totally disappeared during

July, August and September when the dam is opened.

Not recorded by SA.

2. Little Cormorant (, Phalacrocorax niger )

Common. Recorded only after the construction

of the dam. Feeds in the catchment and paddy fields.

Breeding not recorded from the sanctuary but seen

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

breeding about a kilometre away from the sanctuary.

Not recorded by SA.

3. Indian Shag ( Phalacrocorax fuscicollis)

Only two records within the last 3 years. They

are not regular visitors. Seen in the catchment areas.

Not recorded by SA.

4. Cormorant (. Phalacrocorax carbo)

Only two records within the last 3 years. They

are not regular visitors. Seen in the catchment areas.

Not recorded by SA.

5. Darter or Snake Bird ( Anhinga rufo )

Not uncommon in the water bodies. There is

a constant increase in their population, but breeding

not recorded around the sanctuary. During certain

months their population fluctuates, going down to a

minimum in July, August, September and thereafter

slowly increasing to reach a maximum in February

and March. Not recorded by SA.

6. Grey Heron (. Ardea cine re a)

Very few and irregular, only 3 or 4 records

from the sanctuary area. Breeding not recorded,

affects the water edges with marshy vegetation. Not

recorded by SA.

7. Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea)

Not uncommon. Few individuals are regularly

recorded from the low water areas of the catchment.

This year an increase in population was noticed. Not

seen breeding inside the sanctuary.

8. Little Green Heron (. Ardeola striatus)

Very rare visitor to the sanctuary water

body. Seen only for a few days. Not recorded by

SA.

9. Pond Heron or Paddy Bird (. Ardeola grayii)

Common all along the water edges and even

along small streams inside the sanctuary. Breeding

colony recorded not from within the sanctuary but

about a kilometre away. Shares the nesting trees with

little cormorants. Nests mainly on Tamarind trees.

10. Cattle Egret ( Bubulcus ibis)

Commonly seen but totally absent during the

breeding season. Seen deep into the forest, in the

company of cattle and sometimes even with wild

elephants.

11. Large Egret ( Ardea alba)

Not uncommon during the season along the

shallow water bodies. Totally absent from June to

September. No breeding records from and around

the sanctuary area.

12. Smaller Egret ( Egretta intermedia)

Rarely recorded in the company of other egrets

in the water body. Seen only from October to

February.

13. Little Egret ( Egretta garzetta)

Somewhat common during the season October

to February every year in the company of other egrets

in the shallow water areas. Totally absent from June

to September. Not recorded by SA. No breeding

record within the sanctuary limits.

14. Night Heron {Nycticorax nycticorax)

Not very common. A few birds exist within

the sanctuary limit around pandanus plants near

the water body. Even though breeding was not

recorded from the sanctuary area, subadult birds are

seen every year with the adults. Not recorded by

SA.

15. Chestnut Bittern ( Ixobrychus cinnamomeus)

Even though their population is fairly good

outside the sanctuary, they are rare within.

Mostly seen among vegetation along the water’s

ddge No records of breeding of this species from

the sanctuary, though they are seen throughout the

year.

16. Malay or Tiger Bittern

( Gorsachius melanolophus)

Rare. Only two sight records from the sanctuary

area. Can be a seasonal migrant. Not recorded by

SA.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

491

17. Yellow Bittern ( Ixobrychus sinensis )

Very few, only 3 records from the Lake’s bank.

18. Black Bittern ( Ixobrychus flavicollis )

Their population is larger than that of the other

bitterns. Seen along the banks of the Lake and even

along stream banks of the sanctuary.

19. Openbill Stork ( Anastomus oscitans )

Only recorded during the last two years from

Thattakad, as many as 61 birds were observed along

the low water areas, feeding on Pila. It was noticed

that they collect Pila from water, keep a few of them

at one place and feed on the contents. Clumps of

empty shells were also seen along the water’s edge.

They were not seen breeding within the sanctuary

limits but subadult birds have been recorded along

with the adult. The number fluctuates during certain

months. Not recorded by S A.

20. Whiteeecked Stork ( Ciconia episcopus)

Rare, only 3 records from the sanctuary. Not

breeding. Not recorded by S A.

21. Pintail Deck (Anas acuta)

Migratory. Not recorded from this area till

two years ago. Last year about 60+ were seen flying

over and later about 20+ seen in one of the water

bodies of the sanctuary. Over 3000 birds were seen

in the catchment of Edamalayar dam which was

constructed only a few years back and is only about

15 km away from the sanctuary area. The species

was not recorded by S A.

22. Spotbill Duck (Anas poecilorhynchd)

Seasonal visitor along with the pintails. Only

5 to 10 birds were seen feeding in the inland water

bodies of the catchment in the sanctuary area. No

breeding records. Not recorded by SA.

23. Garganey (Anas querquedula )

Migratory. Only about 5 birds were recorded

from the water body in the sanctuary for two days in

January in the company of other ducks and teals.

Not recorded by SA.

24. Blackwinged Kite (Elanus caeruleus vociferus)

Not uncommon, in the open patches of the

sanctuary. About 8 have been recorded constantly,

of which two pairs were seen breeding within the

sanctuary limit on trees along the edges of forest

clearings.

25. Black Crested Baza (Aviceda leuphotes )

Not uncommon, in the evergreen patches of

the sanctuary. About six have been recorded

constantly, of which two pairs were seen breeding

within the sanctuary limit on tall trees. They move

in flocks of 5 to 6 during the non-breeding season.

26. Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptllorhyncus)

Only two records from the forest area inside

the sanctuary. Not regular. No records of breeding

within the sanctuary limit.

27. Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans govinda)

Not common, but seen along the river course

especially when the water is low in the reservoir.

Even though they are not recorded breeding inside

the sanctuary the nests are seen on trees at the nearest

town which is about 10 km from the sanctuary.

28. Brahminy Kite (Haliastur Indus)

Not uncommon inside the sanctuary as well

as along the catchment and habitation along the

boundary of the sanctuary. Breeding recorded along

the sanctuary’s edge.

29. Shikra (Accipiter badius butleri)

Resident, not uncommon in the light wooded

areas of the sanctuary. Breeding recorded inside the

sanctuary.

30. Crested Goshawk (Accipiter trivirgatus)

Uncommon. Resident in the deciduous and

evergreen forest areas, but not seen breeding within

the sanctuary.

31. Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus)

Winter visitor, not common. Seen in the well

wooded forest areas of the sanctuary.

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32. Besra Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter virgatus )

Rare in the moist deciduous and evergreen

forest areas. Resident but nesting not confirmed

from the sanctuary.

33. Crested Hawk-Eagle ( Spizaetus cirrhatus )

Rare, resident. One pair nested in the sanctuary

in 1984 in semi-evergreen forest.

34. Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus)

Rare. Only 3 records from the sanctuary.

Though resident, breeding not yet recorded within

the sanctuary. They are confined to well wooded

areas.

35. Booted Hawk-Eagle C Hieraaetus pennatus)

Rare. Only one record, perhaps a winter visitor

to the semi-evergreen forest area of the sanctuary.

36. Black Eagle ( Ictinaetus malayensis)

Casual visitor to the open rocky hills of the

sanctuary. Always seen in gliding flight. There are

few records during recent years from the sanctuary

area.

37. Grey Headed Fishing Eagle

(. Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus )

Common. Resident and breeding in the

sanctuary. Roosts on dead tree stumps very close to

the water body.

38. Scavenger Vulture ( Neophron percnopterus)

Very rare, seen only three or four times in the

sanctuary, possibly a straggler. Always seen soaring

alone high up in the sky.

39. Pale-Harrier ( Circus macrourus )

Rare. Winter visitor to the grass-covered

hillsides and open water body.

40. Montagu’s Harrier ( Circus pygargus )

Not rare during winter. A few birds are seen

flying over open water bodies of the sanctuary and

sometimes seen perched on isolated poles on the

water’s edge. Migratory. Not recorded by SA.

41. Pied Harrier

(Circus melanoleucos )

Rare. Only two or three records. Possibly a

passage migrant. Seen around the lake habitat.

Winter visitor. Not recorded by SA.

42. Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus )

Winter visitor. Only two records, seen in an

open grassland encircled by water.

43. Short-Toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus)

Rare. Resident eagle, recorded from the

cultivated area close to the sanctuary. Breeding not

recorded. Not met with by S A.

44. Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela )

Resident. Perhaps the commonest among the

eagles of Thattakad. Couple of nests with young

and eggs were recorded both from the natural forest

as well as from the Teak plantations. Affects forest

and plantation areas.

45. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus)

Winter visitor. Rare. Recorded during

migratory season from the open water bodies of the

sanctuary. Not recorded by S A.

46. Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus)

Rare. Winter visitor. Only 5 or 6 records from

the open water body and grassland surrounded by

water in the sanctuary area.

47. Redheaded Merlin (Falco chicquera)

Only one record of this species from Thattakad

near the top of a hill encircled by forest, possibly a

straggler. Not recorded by S A.

48. Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus )

Winter visitor. Not uncommon in the lowland

forest, plantation and grassland with scrub.

49. Indian Kestrel

(Falco tinnunculus objurgatus )

Possibly a local migrant seen during certain

months gliding along the hill tops.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATFAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

493

50. Travancore Med Spurfowl

(Galloperdix spadicea stewarti)

Common, resident. Affects scrub jungle and

deep forest, often feeds along with domestic hens of

nearby habitations.

51. Grey Jungle Fowl ( Gallus sonneratii)

Resident, common. Forest as well as plantations

and the forested habitat near human settlements close

to the sanctuary. Breeds in large numbers.

52. Banded Crake ( Rallina eurizonoides)

Rare, status unknown. Recorded during

migratory season from the water’s edge close to

forest areas. Breeding not yet recorded.

53. Reddy Crake (Porzana fusca)

Rare. Only two records. Seen in inland marshy

area. Breeding not recorded.

54. Baillon’s Crake ( Porzana pusilla)

Rare, winter visitor. Only two records from

the sanctuary among the Ochlandra undergrowth

near the water body.

55. Whitebreasted Waterhen

C Amauwrnis phoenicurus)

Common, resident. Breeding in the scrub

jungle and lightly wooded forest, even close to

habitations and near the stream bed.

56. Kora or Water Cock ( Gallicrex cinered)

Rare, seasonal migrant to the marshes of the

sanctuary. Breeding not recorded.

57. Pheasant-tailed Jacana ( Hydrophasianus

chirurgus)

A rare resident. Though it had been seen earlier

outside the sanctuary, this year it bred inside the

sanctuary. Seen on water vegetation in the water

bodies of the sanctuary. Not recorded by S A.

58. Bronze winged Jacana (Metopidius indicus)

More common than the previous species.

Resident along the floating vegetation in the water

body. Breeds in fairly good numbers. The

abundance has been noticed only during the last two

years. Not recorded by SA.

59. Painted Snipe (. Rostratula benghalensis )

Rare. Local migrant, only a few records from

the sanctuary. Affects reedy marshes along inland

water body.

60. Blackwinged Stilt ( Himantopus himantopus )

Fairly common, winter visitor. Large influx

in flocks along shallow water bodies are noticed

during May and June. This species has not been

recorded till recent years and was not seen by SA.

61. Small Indian Pratincole ( Glareola l act e a)

Uncommon. Status unknown. It was recorded

as common when a large sand bank was available

along the river course before the construction of the

dam. It was also recorded breeding during that time.

62. Red wattled Lapwing ( Vanellus indicus )

Common, resident, affects the grassland area

along the shores of the water body. Breeds in fairly

good numbers. Feeds along the water’s edge and

grassland in the sanctuary.

63. Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius dubius)

Rare, seasonal, subspecies not yet confirmed.

Seen in the marshy places of the sanctuary only

during winter migration. Not recorded by SA.

64. Green Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus )

Winter visitor in small numbers along the

water’s edge where there is marshy vegetation. Not

recorded by SA.

65. Wood Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola )

Fairly common during winter migration in

marshy areas and water’s edge. Not recorded by SA.

66. Common Sandpiper ( Tringa hypoleucos)

Winter visitor, fairly common as isolated birds

feeding along the water’s edge and stream bed and

roosting on mudflats or projecting rocks near water.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

67. River Tern ( Sterna aurantia)

Common during winter migration. All of them

disappear by April end or May and start reappearing

by October-November. Some larger unidentified

terns were also noticed in flight. These birds are a

recent introduction to this area and their numbers

are increasing year after year. Not recorded by S A.

«

68. Greyfronted Green Pigeon ( Treron pompadora)

A resident, common breeding bird of the

evergreen and moist deciduous forests of the

sanctuary. Large influx was noticed during the

fruiting of Bridelia squamosa , Aporosa lindleyana,

Ficus sp. etc. Local movements were also noticed

according to the availability of certain fruits.

69. Orangebreasted Green Pigeon

(Treron bicincta )

Resident, subject to local movements related

to fruiting seasons. Common during February-

March in the evergreen and moist-deciduous forest

areas of the sanctuary.

70. Imperial Green Pigeon (Ducula aenea )

Resident, not uncommon and subject to local

movements in the disturbed, evergreen and moist-

deciduous forest areas.

71. Blue Rock Pigeon (Columba livia )

Resident, common outside the sanctuary. In

flight occasionally they cross over the sanctuary.

Other than this they do not belong in the sanctuary.

72. Nilgiri Wood Pigeon

( Columba elphinstonii)

Not uncommon, resident with local

movements between the moist evergreen forest and

plantations with secondary forest.

73. Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis)

Not very common inside the sanctuary but 25

to 30 recorded feeding in the cultivated area after

harvest along the fringes of the sanctuary. Resident,

a few nests seen along the degraded forest close to

the boundary line.

74. Emerald Dove ( Chalcophaps indica )

Outside the sanctuary in the teak plantation

towards Punnekkad they are seen in fairly good

numbers. Breeding inside the sanctuary is not

recorded. Resident in the evergreen and deciduous

forest areas.

75. Large Indian Parakeet

(Psittacula eupatria )

A very rare, resident. Only two sightings

inside the sanctuary. This bird was one of the very

common species in the 1930s. Large scale capture

during the 1950s and before, can be the reason for

their reduction in numbers.

76. Roseringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri)

A common resident almost all over the

sanctuary. They go out of the sanctuary for feeding.

Many nests were recorded within the sanctuary

limits.

77. Blossomheaded Parakeet

(Psittacula cyanocephala )

Resident, common. Large influx was noticed

during harvesting seasons August-September,

January-February. Breeding has been recorded.

78. Blue winged Parakeet (Psittacula columboides)

Common during August-September, not

recorded breeding inside the sanctuary. They could

be altitudinal migrants from the higher eleva-

tions of the Western Ghats where they are recorded

breeding.

79. Malabar Lorikeet (Loriculus vemalis)

A common, resident breeding inside the

sanctuary. Moves locally according to the flowering

of silk cotton, Erythrina , etc. and fruiting of

fig species. Affects evergreen moist-deciduous

and secondary undergrowth of the Teak plantations.

80. Red winged Crested Cuckoo

(Clamator coromandus)

Rare; migratory. Only a few records from the

teak plantations of the sanctuary.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

495

81. Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus)

Not common. Does not seem to be a resident

of the sanctuary. Only seen during December to

March in the deciduous forest and teak plantations.

82. Common Hawk-Cuckoo ( Cuculus varius)

Common, resident with population fluctuation

during June-September season.

83. Indian Cuckoo ( Cuculus micropterus)

Common during certain seasons. Breeding

not yet recorded inside the sanctuary.

84. Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus )

Rare, migratory, seen in the forest as well as

in plantations inside the sanctuary.

85. Indian Banded Bay Cuckoo

(Cacomantis sonneratii)

Rare, status unknown in the forest areas as well

as plantations of the sanctuary.

86. Indian Plaintive Cuckoo

(Cacomantis passerinus)

Not common, status uncertain. Seen in the

open forest areas. During the migratory season.

87. Rufousbellied Plaintive Cuckoo

(Cacomantis merulinus )

Not common. Status uncertain. Not recorded

breeding. Seen in the plantations and deciduous

forests.

88. Drongo Cuckoo (Sumiculus lugubris)

Only two records from the teak plantations

of the Sanctuary.

89. KoeS (Eudynamys scolopacea )

Common, resident, breeding mostly outside

the sanctuary area. Population fluctuation noticed

indicating local movements.

90. Crow Pheasant (Centropus sinensis )

A common, resident, breeding inside the

sanctuary .

91. Lesser Coucal (Centropus toulou)

Rare, only 4 records from the scrub jungle

and tall grass inside the sanctuary.

92. Barn Owl (Tyto alba )

Rare inside the sanctuary but recorded

breeding atop a church building close to the

sanctuary.

93. Grass Owl (Tyto capensis)

Not common. Resident in forest area near open

grassland in the sanctuary. Breeding not yet recorded

inside the sanctuary.

94. Peninsular Bay Owl

(Phodilus badius ripleyi )

Very rare. Only a single specimen collected

from the boundary of the sanctuary, while it was

being attacked by crows. This is the second

specimen so far collected from Kerala. Not recorded

by SA.

95. Collared Scops Owl

(Otus bakkamoena )

A fairly common, breeding resident inside the

sanctuary, both in the forest as well as in the

plantations.

96. Eagle Owl or Great Horned Owl

(Bubo bubo )

Rare. Status unknown. Only one record from

the sanctuary area.

97. Forest Eagle Owl (Bubo nipalensis)

Not uncommon, breeding resident in the

evergreen and moist deciduous forest.

98. Brown Fish Owl

(Bubo zeylonensis)

Common resident breeding inside the

sanctuary. Affects well wooded forest area close to

open water bodies.

99. Jungle Owlet (Glaucidium radiatum )

A common, breeding resident. Affects moist

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

deciduous forest, secondary jungle, plantations, etc.

100. Brown Hawk-Owl ( Ninox scutulata hirsuta)

Rare, resident in the forested area near water

bodies.

101. Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus)

Rare, winter visitor, affects open grassy

patches of the catchment. Not recorded by S A.

102. Ceylon Frogmouth

(Batrachostomus moniliger )

Rare. Breeding resident in the evergreen and

Ochlandra areas of the sanctuary.

103. Greateared Nightjar

( Eurostopodus macrotis)

Rare, resident, breeding on the grass covered

hilltop, close to the evergreen and moist deciduous

forest.

104. Indian Jungle Nightjar ( Caprimulgus indicus )

Rare. A single specimen was collected from

Thattakad in December 1984. Possibly a winter

visitor.

105. Common Indian Nightjar

( Caprimulgus asiaticus )

Rare, migratory, only one recorded during

1984 bird survey.

106. Franklin’s Nightjar ( Caprimulgus affinis )

Perhaps the commonest among nightjars in the

sanctuary. Resident on hilltops with deciduous forest

and grassland.

107. Longtailed Nightjar

(Caprimulgus macrurus)

Rare, resident, on the hillsides with moist

deciduous forest.

108. Large Brownthroated Spinetai! Swift

(Chaetura gigantea )

A rare resident. Affects rocky grass covered

hilltop with very steep rocky cliffs.

109. Whiterumped Spinetai! Swift

(Chaetura sylvatica)

A rare resident, of the open grassy hilltop.

110. Alpine Swift (Apus me lb a)

Rare. Status unknown, open hilltops with steep

rocky cliffs.

111. House Swift (Apus affinis )

Status unknown, seen in small numbers with

other swifts during November-March .

112. Palm Swift (Cypsiurus parvus)

A common swift, not resident inside the

sanctuary but frequently seen in the open areas

outside.

113. Crested Tree Swift

(Hemiprocne longipennis)

Not uncommon. Resident, breeds inside the

sanctuary area. Frequents openings close to well

wooded forest areas. Favourite roosts are isolated

dead trees in between the open areas in the wooded

forest. As many as 16 to 20 birds were seen roosting

on such trees. They also nest on dead tree branches.

114. Malabar Trogon ( Harpactesfasciatus )

A not uncommon, breeding resident. Affects

evergreen and moist deciduous forest and also

plantations like Mahogany. Sometimes seen in

groups of about five birds.

115. Lesser Pied Kingfisher

(Ceryle rudis travancoreensis)

Not uncommon along the lake side. Breeding

resident. Regular nesting area is the loose sand banks

along the river. Feeds in the water body and along

the main stream.

116. Common Kingfisher

(Alcedo atthis taprobana )

A common, resident seen almost all over the

water spread areas along the water’s edge. Breeding

inside the sanctuary area.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

497

117. Threetoed Kingfisher

(Ceyx erithacus erithacus )

Rare, only two records from the streams along

forests of the sanctuary. Resident but breeding not

recorded.

118. Storkbilled Kingfisher

(. Pelargopsis capensis capensis)

Somewhat common along the river bed and

waterspread areas of the sanctuary. Breeding also

recorded. They are resident and become vocal during

the breeding season.

119. Whitebreasted Kingfisher

(. Halcyon smymensis Juscus )

Commonest among the kingfishers. Breeding

resident. Seen all over the sanctuary.

120. Chestnutheaded Bee-eater

( Merops leschenaulti )

Common during October-December indicating

local movements. They are resident, breeding within

the area in small numbers. Prefer open area around

the lake.

121. Bluetailed Bee-eater {Merops philippinus )

A rare migrant but sometimes large numbers

are met with. Stays only for a few days. Possibly a

passage migrant. Prefers open areas.

122. Green Bee-eater {Merops orientalis )

A common, resident. Large roosts of over

100 to 200 birds are seen in the sanctuary during

December-January.

123. Bluehearded Bee-eater {Nyctyomis athertoni )

Only a few birds are seen in the well wooded

drier areas of the sanctuary. Resident, but nest not

yet discovered inside the sanctuary.

124. Indian Roller {Coracias henghalensis )

Not very common inside the sanctuary.

Resident with local movement. Outside the

sanctuary limit, in the catchment, seen nesting

regularly on some of the dead coconut trees. Very

vocal during the breeding season.

125. Broadbilled Roller {Eurystomus orientalis)

Not uncommon, breeding resident. Affects the

evergreen and semi -evergreen, forest and also the well

wooded areas on the fringes of the water bodies.

126. Hoopoe {Upupa epops)

Rare, resident. Breeding not recorded inside

the sanctuary but fairly common in the teak

plantations and rocky openings near Punnekad, 2 km

from the sanctuary.

127. Common Grey Horabill {Tockus birostris)

Rare. Status uncertain. Very few records from

the sanctuary.

128. Malabar Grey Horabill {Tockus griseus)

Common, resident, breeding in the sanctuary.

Prefers evergreen and moist deciduous forests. It

also comes to habitations to feed on some cultivated

fruits and seeds.

129. Malabar Pled Horabill

{Anthracoceros coronatus )

A very rare resident. S A recorded this species

as somewhat common in the 1930s. Only a few

sightings from the sanctuary in 1984.

130. Great Pied Horabill {Buceros bicornis )

This species is also very rare in the sanctuary

now. A breeding resident. Outside the sanctuary area

it is somewhat common. In the 1930s SA recorded it

as one of the common species of Hombill in Thattakad.

131. Large Green Barbel

{Megalaima zeylanica inornata)

Rare. No recent record but during 1 984 one bird

was seen inside the sanctuary area. Status unknown.

132. Small Green Barbel {Megalaima viridis)

A common, breeding resident. Affects

evergreen, moist-deciduous forests, plantations and

also gardens and groves close to the sanctuary.

498

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

133. Crimsonthroated Barbet

( Megalaima rubricapilla )

Common, but seems to be rare due to its shy

nature. Not evident except for its calls. A breeding

resident. As many as 30 birds were seen on a small

ficus tree during the fruiting season.

134. Wryneck (Jynx torquilla )

Rare. Status unknown. Seen in the scrub

jungle and open deciduous forest.

135. Speckled Piculet ( Picumnus innominatus)

Resident, and not uncommon. Breeding in the

semi -evergreen and mixed bamboo forests. Dead

teak trees are one of their favourite places for both

feeding and nesting.

136. Rufous Woodpecker

( Micropternus brachyurus)

Rare, resident, affects teak plantations,

deciduous forest and bamboo areas.

137. Little Scalybellied Green Woodpecker

(. Picus myrmecophoneus)

Rare, resident, breeding in the semi-evergreen

and moist deciduous forest.

138. Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker

( Dinopium benghalense)

Resident, not uncommon and breeding.

Affects semi -evergreen, deciduous forests, teak and

other plantations.

139. Indian Goldenbacked Threetoed

Woodpecker ( Dinopium javanense malabaricwri)

Common all over the sanctuary including

plantations. A breeding resident.

140. Great Black Woodpecker

t Dryocopus javensis)

A rare breeding resident. Affects the

evergreen and moist deciduous forests.

141. Pigmy Woodpecker ( Picoides nanus )

Not uncommon. Resident. Affects secon-

dary forest in the plantations and bamboo forest

areas.

142. Heartspotted Woodpecker

( Hemicircus canente )

Not uncommon, breeding resident. Affects

secondary evergreen and moist deciduous forest and

plantations with bamboo.

143. Large Goldenbacked Woodpecker

( Chrysocolaptes lucidus )

Common. Resident all along the forest areas

including teak plantations and cultivation around the

sanctuary.

144. Indian Pitta ( Pitta brachyura)

Common, and migratory. Abundant during the

migratory (November-March) season all along the

forest, plantation and scrub jungle near habitations.

A large influx was noticed during certain days in

November and March, lasting only for a few days.

145. Bush Lark ( Mirafra assamica )

Resident but not common. Affects scrub

jungle and short grasslands.

146. Rufoustailed Finch-Lark

( Ammomanes phoenicurus)

Rare. One specimen was collected from a

grassy area of Thattakad sanctuary during 1984 . Not

recorded by SA.

147. Malabar Crested Lark (Galerida malabarica )

Not uncommon, resident, seen on the stone

covered grassy hilltops and also around cultivation.

148. Eastern Skylark (. Alauda gulgula )

Rare, resident near cultivated open areas close

to the sanctuary. Nesting recorded from the

cultivated area outside the sanctuary.

149. Crag Martin ( Hirundo rupestris )

Possibly a winter visitor. Rare, seen in the

company of swifts and swallows in the open rocky

hilltop area of the sanctuary.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

499

150. Dusky Crag Martin ( Hirundo concolor )

Rare and possibly a resident, but breeding not

recorded within the sanctuary. Seen around

Thattakad ferry in the company of swallows.

151 . Eastern Swallow ( Hirundo rustica gutturalis )

Common during migratory season. Winter

visitor. Large congregations during certain days of

November-December were observed in the open

areas of the sanctuary and for a short duration. Large

numbers roost on electric and telephone wires outside

the sanctuary, and were also seen feeding in the paddy

fields after harvest and at the time of ploughing.

152. House Swallow {Hirundo tahiti)

Not uncommon, resident but breeding not

recorded. Prefers grassy hill slopes and steep rocky

area close to settlements.

153. Wiretailed Swallow {Hirundo smithii)

Rare, possibly a winter visitor. Seen on the

hilltop close to steep ridges of rocky outcrops.

154. Indian Cliff Swallow {Hirundo fluvicola )

Very rare, only one or two sight records from

the open hilltops of the sanctuary.

155. Redrumped Swallow {Hirundo daurica )

Somewhat common during November-

February possibly a migrant. Breeding not recorded.

156. House Martin {Delichon urhica )

Occasional visitor to this area. A rare migrant.

Open hilltop area.

157. Grey Shrike {Lanius excubitor)

Very rare. Only two records within the

sanctuary, both from the scrub jungle around open

water body. No breeding records. Possibly a local

migrant.

158. Baybacked Shrike {Lanius vittatus )

Rare. Status uncertain. No breeding records.

Prefers open scrub and deciduous forest.

159. Rufousbacked Shrike {Lanius schach )

Only a single record from the sanctuary

recently. Possibly a winter visitor. Seen in teak

plantation.

160. Brown Shrike {Lanius cristatus )

Very rare, winter visitor to the sanctuary.

Prefers open scrub and dry teak plantations towards

the end of the winter season.

161. Golden Oriole {Oriolus oriolus )

Winter visitor. Common during migratory

season. Affects evergreen, semi-evergreen forests,

plantations and trees in urban areas close to the

sanctuary.

162. Blacknaped Oriole {Oriolus chinensis)

Winter visitor. Rare. Scattered population

occurs in the evergreen, deciduous forests and teak

plantations.

163. Blackheaded Oriole {Oriolus xanthomus)

Common, resident, breeding in almost all the

habitats inside the sanctuary. Found in evergreen,

deciduous forests, plantations and in urban areas

inside and outside the sanctuary.

164. Black Drongo {Dicrurus adsimilis)

Common, resident. Breeding inside the

sanctuary. Affects deciduous forest and plantations.

165. Grey or Ashy Drongo {Dicrurus leucophaeus)

Winter visitor, common during the migratory

season. Affects deciduous, semi-evergreen forest and

plantations.

166. Whitebellied Drongo {Dicrurus caerulescens )

Rare, resident. Breeding not yet confirmed

inside the sanctuary. Affects deciduous forest and

teak plantations.

167. Bronzed Drongo {Dicrurus aeneus )

Not uncommon. Resident in evergreen and

deciduous forest. Rare in teak plantations.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

168. Haircrested Drongo ( Dicrurus hottentottus )

Resident, subject to local movements mainly

in connection with the flowering of silk cotton and

Erythrina. Rare inside the sanctuary but common

in Edamalayar area. Found in evergreen, deciduous

forests.

169. Greater Racket-Tailed Drongo

( Dicrurus paradiseus )

Common, resident, breeding in the sanctuary.

Affects evergreen, deciduous forests and plantations.

170. Ashy Swallow-Shrike ( Artamus fuscus )

Common, resident. Seen all along the edges

of forest openings and water spread areas. Favourite

nesting sites are dead coconut palms in the inundated

areas around the sanctuary.

171. Greyheaded Myna

(Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus)

Local migrant. Common during migratory

season. Seen in the semievergreen, deciduous forests

and teak plantations. Large flocks of over 100 birds

seen flying around and suddenly settling on certain

tree species such as teak and silk cotton during

February-March.

172. Blyth’s Myna ( Sturms malabaricus blythi )

Local migrant. Common during migration.

Affects all types of forest, moves in flocks.

173. Rosy Pastor ( Sturnus roseus)

Winter visitor. Not regular. In certain years,

a few flocks pass through the sanctuary. Not seen

staying in the sanctuary.

174. Common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis )

Common, resident along the fringes of the

sanctuary and also in some of the openings inside

the sanctuary in association with cattle and some wild

animals, like elephants.

175. Jungle Myna ( Acridotheres fuscus )

Resident. Common in the open grasslands and

inside light wooded forest areas. Sometimes seen

feeding in mixed flocks with common myna in the

company of grazing cattle and wild animals.

176. Grackle or Hill Myna ( Gracula religiosa )

Common, resident, breeding in large numbers

in the sanctuary. Prefers evergreen, semi-evergreen,

deciduous forests and also teak plantations.

177. Common Tree Pie ( Dendrocitta vagabunda)

Common, breeding resident in the deciduous,

semi-evergreen forests and plantations.

178. Southern or Whitebellied Tree Pie

( Dendrocitta leucogastra)

Common in the forest. Resident and breeds

in the sanctuary. Inhabits evergreen, moist deciduous

forests and teak plantations.

179. House Crow ( Corvus splendens)

Common resident. Though seen inside the

forest it prefers areas around habitation.

180. Jungle Crow ( Corvus macrorhynchos)

Common, resident in small numbers in

company with the house crow. Met with even in

deep jungle.

181. Pied Flycatcher Shrike ( Hemipus picatus)

Common resident. Breeds in the deciduous

forest and teak plantations.

182. Malabar Wood Shrike

(Tephrodomis pondicerianus)

Not uncommon, resident. Affects secondary

jungle and teak plantations.

183. Large Cuckoo-Shrike

(Coracina novae ho llandiae)

Common, resident in the mixed forest and teak

plantations.

184. Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike

( Coracina melanoptera)

Common, resident. Affects mixed forest,

secondary jungle and teak plantations.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

501

185. Scarlet Minivet ( [Pericrocotus flammeus)

Resident but not very common. Met with in

flocks of 10 to 15 in the evergreen and deciduous

forest and plantations.

186. Small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus)

Rare. Resident in the deciduous forest and teak

plantations.

187. Common Iora ( Aegithina tiphia)

Common resident, breeds in the sanctuary.

Almost all habitats but only few seen in the evergreen

forest.

188. Goldfronted Ckloropsis

(Chloropsis aurifrons)

Resident, not uncommon. Inhabits almost all

types of forest.

189. Jerdon’s or Goldmantled Chloropsis

(Chloropsis cochinchinensis)

Rare. Resident in the dry areas of the sanctuary.

190. Fairy Bluebird (Irena puella)

Common. Status unknown, nesting not

recorded from the sanctuary. Start appearing during

the onset of the SW monsoon and disappear during

October, when the regular migration starts. Becomes

vocal during April-June.

191. Greyheaded Bulbul

(Pycnonotus priocephalus)

Resident. Not uncommon in the evergreen

forest areas of the sanctuary. Breeds in the sanc-

tuary.

192. Rubythroated Bulbul

(Pycnonotus melanicterus gularis)

Common, resident, frequents evergreen

deciduous and secondary jungle. Breeds in the

sanctuary .

193. Redwhiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus )

Common, resident in scrub jungle and also

near habitations.

194. Redvented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer )

Common, resident in the light deciduous forest

and scrub jungle near habitations.

195. Yellowbrowed Bulbul (Hypsipetes indicus)

Not uncommon, resident of evergreen and

deciduous forest areas. It is also seen in the

secondary jungle in old teak plantations.

196. Spotted Babbler (Pelorneum ruficeps)

Resident, not common. Breeding recorded.

Frequents evergreen and deciduous forest, eeta and

bamboo areas.

197. Blackheaded Babbler

(Rhopocichla atriceps)

Resident, common in the evergreen forest, eeta

and bamboo areas and even in the thick undergrowth

of old teak plantations.

198. Rufous Babbler (Turdoides subrufus)

Not uncommon, breeding resident. Affects

dense scrub with tall grass, along stream sides in

the evergreen to deciduous forest with eeta and

bamboo brakes.

199. Jungle Babbler (Turdoides striatus)

A common breeding resident, of the disturbed

and deciduous jungle and teak plantations. Also in

scrub jungle near habitation.

200. Wynaad Laughing Thrush

(Garrulax delesserti delesserti )

Rare, resident, very rarely seen nowadays.

Sllim Ali’s survey described it as one of the

commonest birds in Thattakad. Inhabits humid rain

forest with dense undergrowth.

201. Quaker Babbler (Alcippe poioicephala )

Resident, rare. Frequents mixed bamboo and

eeta jungle, cane brakes in evergreen forest.

202. Brown Flycatcher (Muscicapa latirostris)

Rare. A small population is seen in the sanctuary

throughout the year. During the migratory season an

502

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

increase in population was noticed, indicating an influx

of migrants. Seen in the evergreen, deciduous forests

and plantations with low density of vegetation.

203. Brownbreasted Flycatcher

( Muscicapa muttui)

Rare. Winter visitor to the evergreen and semi-

evergreen forests and bamboo areas.

204. Rufoustailed Flycatcher

( Muscicapa ruficauda)

Rare winter visitor to the evergreen and teak

plantations with secondary vegetation.

205. Redbreasted Flycatcher ( Muscicapa parva )

Rare winter visitor to the plantations and

deciduous forest.

206. Whitebellied Blue Flycatcher

( Muscicapa pallipes)

Rare winter visitor (?) to the evergreen forests.

207. Bluethroated Flycatcher

(. Muscicapa rubeculoides)

Rare winter visitor to the secondary forest,

bamboo jungle and plantations.

208. Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher

(. Muscicapa tickelliae )

Not uncommon, winter visitor. Frequents

evergreen and deciduous forest with open

undergrowth, bamboo jungle and plantations.

209. Verditer Flycatcher ( Muscicapa thalassina)

Not uncommon, winter visitor in the forest

clearings, secondary jungle and to plantations.

210. Nilgiri Flycatcher ( Muscicapa albicaudata)

Not common, but resident in the evergreen,

semi-evergreen forest, and teak plantations with thick

undergrowth.

211. Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher

(. Rhipidura aureola )

Rare, resident, occurs in deciduous forests and

plantations close to habitation.

212. Paradise Flycatcher

( Terpsiphone parodist leucogaster)

Common. Mostly migratory. All over the

forest and plantation areas, even close to the water’s

edge and habitations.

213. Blacknaped Flycatcher

(Hypotkymis azurea styani)

Rare, winter visitor to the secondary jungle,

bamboo forest and teak plantations.

214. Streaked Fantail Warbler

(Cisticola juncidis)

Rare resident, prefers reed beds, tall grass

and cultivated areas along the fringes of the

sanctuary.

215. Franklin’s Wren Warbler

( Prinia hodgsonii )

Resident, subject to local movements,

frequents scrub jungle with coarse grass and

secondary vegetation along the water’s edge.

216. Jungle Wren- Warbler ( Prinia sylvatica )

Rare, resident in isolated grassy patches in the

lower areas of the sanctuary.

217. Tailor Bird ( Orthotomus sutorius )

Common, resident in scrub jungle and

disturbed forest, and near habitation, etc. Breeding

recorded.

218. Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler

( Locustella certhiola)

Rare winter visitor to scrub jungle and

grasslands around water bodies.

219. Grasshopper Warbler ( Locustella naevia )

Rare winter visitor. Affects edge vegetation

of reservoirs and grassy hill slopes.

220. Broadtailed Grass Warbler

(i Schoenicola platyura)

Resident but not common. Affects grass and

scrub covered hillsides.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

503

221. Thickbilled Warbler ( Acrocephalus aedon )

Winter visitor, not uncommon during migration.

Frequents undergrowth in light forest, tall grasses and

among vegetation along the water’s edge.

222. Indian Great Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus

stentoreus )

Rare winter visitor to the reeds and scrub of

damp areas.

223. Blyth’s Reed Warbler

( Acrocephalus dumelorum )

Winter visitor. Common during migration.

Affects bushes, secondary forest, undergrowth of

plantations and deciduous forest, bamboo and eeta

clumps, etc.

224. Paddyfield Warbler ( Acrocephalus agricola)

Rare, winter visitor to the grasslands close to

water body reed-beds, bamboo forest close to water

bodies,

225. Booted Warbler (Hippo lais caligata)

Rare, winter visitor found in the deciduous

scrub jungle in the sanctuary.

226. Lesser Whltethroat (, Sylvia curruca)

Winter visitor, very few, but considerably large

influx was noticed as passage migrants during certain

days in the month of November in the scrub jungle

and undergrowth of plantations and deciduous forest.

227. Ty tier’s Leaf Warbler (Phyllo scopus tytleri )

Very rare, only one record from the

undergrowth of teak plantations in the sanctuary.

228. Tickell’s Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus affinis)

Winter visitor. Very rare. Only two records

from scrub jungle close to the reservoir from

Thattakad.

229. Largebilled Leaf Warbler

(Phylloscopus magnirostris )

Not uncommon winter visitor. Seen in the

evergreen, deciduous forest and plantations.

230. Greenish Leaf Warbler

(Phylloscopus trochiloides)

Fairly common winter visitor. Seen in the

evergreen, deciduous forest and plantations.

231. Blue Chat (Erithacus hrunneus )

Winter visitor. Fairly common during

migration. Seen in the eeta and bamboo forests.

Evergreen forest and thick undergrowth of teak

plantations.

232. Magpie-Robin (Copsychus saularis )

Common resident in the neighbourhood of

human habitation, secondary jungle, and plantations.

233. Shama (Copsychus malaharicus)

Resident, not uncommon. Affects deciduous

forest, bamboo patches and dense secondary

undergrowth.

234. Indian Robin

(. Saxicoloidesfulicata )

Rare, resident. Seen on the rocky hilltops and

isolated stony patches in the plantations along the

fringes of the sanctuary.

235. Blueheaded Rock Thrush

(Monticola cinclorhynchus )

Winter visitor, not very common. Affects

secondary evergreen jungle and the thick

undergrowth in teak forest.

236. Malabar Whistling Thrush

(Myiophonus horsfieldii)

Resident, not uncommon, seen along the forest

streams with eeta undergrowth and in the ever-

green forest areas. Becomes vocal only during

June-Septemeber when it is easy to locate the

bird,

237. Pied Ground Thrush

(Zoothera wardii )

Rare, passage migrants, seen only for a short

duration. Affects somewhat open forest ground with

shrubs in the evergreen and plantation areas.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

238. Orangeheaded Groundthrush

( Zoothera citrina citrina)

Migratory, fairly common during season in the

thick undergrowth of the wet forest floor and bamboo

areas.

239. Whitethroated Ground Thrush

(Zoothera citrina cyanotus )

Resident, rare. Though breeding inside the

sanctuary area is not recorded, birds are seen almost

throughout the year. They prefer secondary dense

jungle, bamboo, eeta and shady ravines.

240. Grey Tit (Parus major)

Resident, not uncommon. Breeds in the

sanctuary. Found in deciduous forest and teak

plantations.

241. Velvetfronted Nuthatch (Sitta frontalis)

Resident, not common. Seen in the evergreen,

deciduous forests and teak plantations.

242. Kerala Rock Pipit

(Anthus similis travancoriensis)

Rare, resident in the grass covered rocky

openings on the hill tops.

243. Paddyfield Pipit

(Anthus novae see landiae)

Rare, resident, seen on the bare rock covered

hill slopes.

244. Forest Wagtail (Motacilla indica)

Fairly common during migration. During

November -February every year large influx was

noticed. A few scattered populations exist

throughout the migratory season on the floor of the

forest areas.

245. Greyheaded Yellow Wagtail

(Motacilla flava thunbergi)

Common during migratory season. Winter

visitor to the sanctuary including water’s edge and

undergrowth of plantations.

246. Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail

(Motacilla flava beema)

Rare, migrant; seen in the company of

Greyheaded Wagtail.

247. Yello whacked Wagtail (Motacilla flava lutea)

Rare, winter visitor, possibly a passage

migrant.

248. Western Yellowheaded Wagtail

(Motacilla citreola)

Rare, winter visitor, possibly a passage

migrant.

249. Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea)

Common, winter visitor seen along stream

beds and rocky river banks.

250. White Wagtail (Motacilla alba)

Rare, winter visitor along the water courses of

reservoir among scrub undergrowth.

251. Large Pied Wagtail

(Motacilla maderaspatensis)

Common, resident. Breeds in holes in buildings.

Lives close to human habitation and also water bodies.

252. TickelPs Flowerpecker

(Dicaeum erythrorhynchos)

Common resident seen in the deciduous forest

and teak plantations with Loranthus sp.

253. Purplerumped Sunbird (Nectarinia zeylonica)

Common resident in light secondary jungle

and plantations. Also near habitations.

254. Small Sunbird (Nectarinia minima)

Common. Local migrant. Large influx was

noticed during winter (Dec. -Jan.). Confirmed

records of altitudinal migration from Munnar to

lower country available during winter.

255. Loten’s Sunbird (Nectarinia lotenia)

Rare, breeding resident. Prefers well wooded

open country and moist deciduous forest areas.

THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

505

256. Purple Sunbird (Nectar inia asiatica )

Common, resident in the deciduous forest,

plantations and cultivated gardens.

257. Yellowbacked Sunbird

( Aethopyga siparaja )

Very rare. Possibly resident. Only 2 records

during 1976 and 1984.

258. Little Spiderhunter

( Arachnothera longirostris )

Common, resident in the evergreen, moist

deciduous forest and teak plantations with secondary

undergrowth.

259. House Sparrow

(. Passer domesticus )

Rare, resident in the nearby inhabited areas

where it is common. Rarely met with in the open

patches along the fringes of the forest.

260. Yellowthroated Sparrow

(. Petronia xanthocollis )

Resident, not uncommon in the deciduous

forest and teak plantations often seen on the electric

and telegraph lines along the roadside close to the

sanctuary.

261. Travancore Baya

( Ploceus philippinus )

Rare, only seen crossing over the sanctuary.

Resident outside the sanctuary. Very common in the

paddy fields and coconut gardens around the

sanctuary about 10 to 15 years back. There is a steep

decline in their population during recent years around

this area.

262. Streaked Weaver Bird

( Ploceus tnanyar)

Except for 2 seen (RS) during 1976, there is

no record of this species from the sanctuary.

263. Red Munia (. Estrilda amandava )

Rare, resident. Frequents reeds and tall grass

near water body.

264. Green Munia

(Estrilda formosa)

Rare, status unknown. Not breeding in the

sanctuary.

265. Whitethroated Munia

(Lonchura malabarica )

Rare, seems to be non resident, seen in flocks

of 10 to 15 during December in the grassland,

bamboo forest and light secondary jungle.

266. White Backed Munia (Lonchura striata )

Common, resident. Flocks of 10 to 30 feed in

the open grassland. Affects bamboo jungle, light

secondary and deciduous forest where they are

breeding.

267. Rufousbellied Munia (Lonchura kelaarti)

Rare, resident in the scrub jungle and bamboo

clumps in and around waterbodies. Feeds in the

grassland and cultivated fields near settlements.

268. Spotted Munia

(Lonchura punctulata)

Not uncommon, resident. Affects open forest

patches with secondary jungle and grassland. Also

comes to cultivation for feeding.

269. Blackheaded Munia (Lonchura Malacca)

Perhaps the commonest resident munia. Seen

among vegetation all along the water’s edge,

even nesting on plants in water. Feeds in grassy

patches.

270. Common Rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus )

Rare, winter visitor to wooded country as well

as scrub and bamboo forest in the sanctuary. Possibly

a passage migrant to high altitudes where they are

common.

Acknowledgements

This paper is a part of the study on the ecology

of Thattakad Bird Sanctuary sanctioned and fun-

ded by the Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife

506

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Wing). Our sincere thanks to the Chief Conserva-

tors Mr. Surendranathan Achari, IFS and

Mr. T.M. Manoharan, IFS for sanctioning the project

and providing necessary permits to work at

Thattakad. Thanks are also due to the Wildlife

Warden Mr. T.A. Sadiq Khan and Asst. Wildlife

Refer

Ali, S. (1964): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Ali, S. & H. Whistler (1936): The Ornithology of Travancore

and Cochin. Part 1.7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37 (4): 814-

843.

Ali, S. & S. Dbllon Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.

Ferguson, H.S & T.F. Bourdillon (1903): The Birds of

Travancore, with notes on their Nidifi cation. Part 1.

7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15 (2): 249-264.

Ferguson, H.S & T. F. Bourdillon (1904): The Birds of

Travancore, with notes on their Nidification. Part 2. 7.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15 (3 ): 455-474.

Ferguson, H.S & T. F. Bourdillon (1904): The Birds of

Warden Mr. K.C. Jacob for their kind co-opera-

tion during the study. We also wish to thank

our biologists, field assistants and Forest Depart-

ment Personnel for helping us in data collec-

tion. We are grateful to Mr J.C. Daniel

for his critical comments and encouragement.

NCES

Travancore, with notes on their Nidification. Part 3. 7.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15 (3): 654-673.

Ripley, S. Dillon (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Sugathan, R. (1981): A survey of the Ceylon frogmouth

( Batrachostomus moniliger) habitat in the Western Ghats

of India. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2): 309-316

Sugathan, R. (1995): Ecology of Thattakad Bird Sanctuary.

Annual Report. Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife).

Sugathan, R. (1996): Ecology of Thattakad Bird Sanctuary.

Annual Report. Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife).

Sugathan, R. (1996); Checklist of Birds of 9 Sanctuaries and

National Parks of Kerala. Kerala Forest Department

(Wildlife).

BREEDING SEASON AND CONSERVATION OF THE TERNS STERNA FUSCATA AND

ANGUS STOLIDUS IN THE LAKSHADWEEP

D.N. Mathew1, George Mathew1 and Tara Gandhi2

{With two text-figures )

The Lakshadweep or Laccadive island (Lat.

6°-12° 30' N, Long. 71°-74° E) consist of twenty six

uninhabited and ten inhabited islands, situated at

distances of 155-248 km from Cochin on the Western

coast of India. The climate is warm and humid and

the annual rainfall recorded in an inhabited island

was 1500-1650 mm. The islands rise only 1-2 m

above sea level and have no rivers. The human

population rose from 13,861 in 1901 to 51,681 in

1990. Coconut trees and fishes are important natural

resources, while low grade phosphates derived from

bird droppings and calcium carbonate sands are

important mineral resources of the islands.

Pitti, a 1.2 hectare barren and uninhabited

island has supported breeding colonies of thousands

of the terns, Anous stolidus (Noddy) and Sterna

fuscata (Sooty). Several observers have visited Pitti

and recorded the conditions of nesting terns and made

crude estimates of the number of birds present

between 1963 and 1995. We visited Pitti more

frequently between 1 990 and 1995. The exact timings

and length of the breeding season of terns could not

be determined so far due to the high winds which

make landing and staying for a long time on Pitti

extremely risky.

The following is a consolidated summary of

the recent observations of the tern breeding colony

of Pitti. In this paper we are examining the scanty

data available so far on the terns of Pitti, to see if it

is possible to suggest any pattern in the timing of

breeding of the birds on this island.

The breeding season: The islanders who

collect tern eggs regularly from Pitti, believe that

‘Zoology Department, Calicut University,

Calicut, Kerala-673635.

KJo. Madras Naturalists’ Society (Regd.), 36, Fourth Main Road,

Raja Annamalaipuram, Madras.

collection of eggs will not endanger the survival, of

terns in Pitti as the birds either breed throughout the

year or have a sufficiently long breeding season.

They believe that collection of eggs early in the

breeding season will be compensated by laying again

later. However, we do not share that view for the

following reasons:

1 . Pitti is only 1 .2 hectare in area and it cannot

hold much more than 1 lakh breeding birds and no

observer has estimated the tern population to be over

20-30 thousand birds. If the colony had been

expanding there should have been more than a lakh

of terns in Pitti.

2. Much larger breeding colonies of sooty terns

holding millions of birds have disappeared during

the last 50 years from the Western parts of tropical

Indian Ocean (Feare 1984).

3. No ornithologist has visited Pitti between

June and August. It is impossible to say at present

whether the terns continue to breed during these

monsoon months or have a break and resume

breeding in September.

How do the terns survive In Pitti? With the

limitation due to lack of information on the activities

of terns from June to August, we can point out the

following as the options available to the terns nesting

in Pitti:

1. By a normal long breeding season starting

from April and ending in December during which

sufficiently large numbers of chicks survive.

2. By acyclic breeding in which breeding takes

place at a cycle of 9-10 months instead of 12 months.

Which of the options do the terns use? 1 . If

the tems were breeding during the months of fair

weather only, it is doubtful if even fifty percent of

the eggs would be productive as egg collection is

508

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 93 (1996)

Table 1

easier at this time. Pitti can be approached safely

from three inhabited islands up to the middle of May.

Our experience has been that the eggs laid till early

May, chicks and even some adult birds are collected.

Chances of survival are perhaps better from

September to December as human predation will be

less severe, weather conditions being unpredictable

during this period. During severe storms, eggs and

chicks are said to be swept away and destroyed.

Crabs and Turn-stones also take a heavy toll of the

eggs during the breeding season.

2. The climatic conditions in recent years are

so unpredictable that it will be harmful to the terns

to have fixed and normal annual breeding cycle. If

the breeding season was exactly cyclic, one would

always find the same breeding chronology year after

year, which is not the case. Again Lakshadweep seas

have many areas of upwelling (Naim al. 1986) and

there does not appear to be any shortage of prey

animals for birds. So availability of food may not be

an important factor influencing nesting success in

Pitti, so much so that there is no particular advantage

in breeding annually.

3. Non-annual cycles: Ashmole (1971) in

Perrins (1983) pointed out how a small number of

seabirds like the bridled terns on Cousin Island and

BREEDING SEASON AND CONSERVATION OF TERNS IN THE LAKSHADWEEP

509

436-8

H nesting activity

O no nesting activity

Fig. 1. The nesting cycle of terns breeding on Pitti.

sooty terns on Ascension Island have non-annual

breeding cycles. The bridled tern breeds every eight

months and the sooty tern every 9.6 months.

In the statement above, the months on which

terns were noted nesting in Pitti during the last four

decades are presented, with some details of nesting

(Table 1).

From Table 1 it is certain that the terns of Pitti

do not breed during the same months, year after year.

It seems highly probable that they have a non annual

cycle of 9-10 months like the Sooty Terns of

Ascension Island. Such a cycle will have the added

advantage of breeding four times every three years

(Fig. 1)

Status of birds in Pirn

Is the composition of birds of Pitti changing

frequently due to emigration and immigration? In

1963, Mathew and Ambedkar ringed over thirty

juvenile terns in Pitti. None of these were ever

reported. So far we have never received reports of

recaptured terns ringed in other oceanic islands in

the Lakshadweep. In Seychelles a sooty tern ringed

as a chick in New Zealand in 1961 was recovered

(Feare, pers. comm.) in 1995. This points to the

migratory habits and longevity of these terns.

Fig. 2. Phosphate content of the soil samples collected

from different islands.

Are the persons receiving ringed birds in

Lakshadweep not revealing the fact due to fear of

punishment? This is also possible as the birds are

protected by law. It appears highly likely that the

terns of Pitti are more mobile than they appear to be

now. This has to be determined by ringing birds in

Pitti.

Large Crested Terns breeding on the Pitti:

In October 1993, D.N. Mathew and G Mathew found

Large Crested terns incubating eggs between rows

of Sooty terns. There was no conflict between these

two species but sooty terns and noddy terns always

nested in distant areas of Pitti.

Brownwinged Terns: The last record of the

brownwinged tern nesting in the Lakshadweep

Islands was that of Mathew and Ambedkar (1963)

at Cherbaniani. Deepakumar who visited the island

in 1986 could not find any brownwinged terns.

The role of terns in the island’s economy:

The tern colony is valuable to the island’s ecology

and economy in several ways. The birds feed on the

small fish spratelloides which is a favourite food of

5 iO

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Tuna fish and the islanders use flocks of terns feeding

in the sea as tuna indicators. Feeding on the fish of

the ocean and resting on the islands, the terns play a

significant role in nutrient cycling, particularly of

phosphorus. Soil samples taken from Pitti were rich

in phosphates (Fig. 2).

Summary and Recommend aitons

1. The length and pattern of breeding season

of the terns of Pitti still remain unresolved due to

the absence of data during the monsoon months.

2. Information collected so far suggests that

the Sooty and Noddy terns breed acyclically on Pitti.

The Large Crested tern appears to have a more

restricted breeding season.

3. From the crude estimates obtained so far it

would appear that the population of the terns of Pitti

is not showing any appreciable increase in number,

inspite of a long breeding season and declaration of

Pitti as a sanctuary.

4. At present there is no information from

recovery of marked birds to determine the exact

status of the terns found on Pitti. It is suggested

that a scheme for ringing birds should be started

here.

5. Analysis of the soil samples collected from

Pitti and other islands showed a very high value of

Phosphate content in the samples from Pitti,

revealing the role of terns in nutrient recycling.

6. It is very clear that the tern populations of

Lakshadweep plays very vital roles in certain spheres

of the ecology and economy of the islands. The

Government of Lakshadweep has very wisely

declared Pitti as a sanctuary and the collection of

terns and their products as illegal.

Yet these laws are very difficult to enforce

because of the distance of Pitti from inhabited

islands. Added efforts must be made to educate the

public through all possible media about the need to

give complete protection to the breeding colony at

Pitti.

Acknowledgements

We are deeply grateful to the Director, Shri

C.M. Ahmed, Deputy Director, Dr. Syed Ismail

Koya, Department of Science and Technology and

Shri Shamsuddin, Director of Agriculture,

Government of the Union Territory of Laksha-

dweep, for their wholehearted co-operation and

support.

We are indebted to the Vice Chancellor, Pro-

Vice Chancellor and Head of the Department of

Zoology, Calicut University for giving us the

necessary leave and laboratory facilities.

We record our thanks to Mr. Abdul Raheem

and Mr. Muhammadali, Environmental Wardens,

Science and Technology, Kavarathi for helping us

in our work.

References

Deepakumar Kurup (1991): Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the

University of Calicut, Calicut.

Feare, C.J. (1984): Human exploitation. I.C.B.P. Technical

Pub. No. 2: 691-699.

Hume, A.O. (1876): The Laccadive and the West Coast. Stray

Feathers 4: 413-483.

Mathew, D.N. & V.C. Ambedkar (1964): A bird study trip

to the Laccadive Islands. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 61(1):

185-190.

Mathew, D.N., Tara Gandhi, V. Santharam et al. (1991):

Pitti island, Lakshadweep: An ornithological study.

Madras Naturalists’ Society, Madras pp. 11-14.

Nair, P.V.R.. A.V.S. Murthy, C.P. Ramamtthran, D.S. Rao

& U.K. P'OLLAI (1986): Environmental features of the sea

around Lakshadweep. Mar. Fi:h. Infor. Serv. CMFRI. No.

68: 10-13.

Perrins, Birkhead (1983): Avian Ecology. Blackie & Sons

Ltd,, Glasgow, U.K.

KYASANUR FOREST DISEASE AND THE BIRD MIGRATION STUDY OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

A.N.D. Nanavati1

In the mid 1 950s a new disease was reported in

the Kyasanur Forest area of Karnataka State, causing

high fever and other symptoms among infected

persons. In addition, there were reports of dead

monkeys found in the forest. These reports

set off an alarm reaction from Public Health authorities.

Monkey deaths in the forests of Africa often

preface an outbreak of Yellow Fever. There is no

Yellow fever in India but we have all the ingredients

necessary for it to flourish. The insect vector, the

Aedes aegypti mosquito is common; climatic and

environmental conditions similar to those in Central

Africa are found in many parts of India. Yet we have

not had any outbreaks. There is a possibility that we

have some factor or factors which inhibit the spread

of Yellow Fever Virus, but until such factor or factors

are recognized it behoves the Indian health

authorities to be always on guard.

Accordingly, the Virus Research Centre in

Pune, specialized in insect or arthropod borne virus

diseases, was asked to investigate the outbreak.

It was soon established that this was not Yellow

Fever, but was caused by a hitherto unknown virus

which was named Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus.

This KFD virus was found to be closely allied to the

virus of Russian Spring Summer Encephalitis

(RSSE) which occurs in Siberia and regions around

Lake Baikal. Every year thousands of birds from

arctic and subarctic regions migrate south to winter

in warmer areas where food and shelter are available.

Many of those from Siberian regions come and

winter in India. Could it be that migrating birds

carried the virus from Siberia to India?

To resolve this question the World Health

Organisation planned a study of migratory birds

coming to India, and of their insect parasites, if any,

which could transmit the disease to new hosts.

Salim Ali, the leading ornithologist of India,

'5, Sundervan Rats, Mitha Khali, Rasala Marg,

Ahmedabad-380 006.

who had been interested in the migration of birds,

was requested to undertake the study for the WHO,

and the Virus Research Centre was entrusted with

the study of insect parasites and viruses, if any,

carried by them. A five year study was planned and

a grant for this was made to the BNHS with S£lim

Ali as chief investigator. A series of trapping stations

were set up at various places favoured by migrating

birds. The birds were trapped in mist nets, carefully

removed, identified and measured. Insects attached

to them were removed by combing. These were

appropriately labelled and carried to the Vims

Research Centre for further study and detection of

viruses. The birds were then tagged with a

lightweight aluminium ring bearing an identifying

number (entered against the bird’s details in the

record), and was then released.

The BNHS exercised its usual care and economy

for these studies so that when the five year period ended

there was enough money left to continue for a further

three years. The WHO meanwhile had lost interest.

Since no virus infected birds or insects were found

among the thousands trapped every year it was

concluded that if at all such transfer of infection

occurred, it must be a rare and aberrant phenomenon,

not justifying the effort of continuous monitoring. The

Virus Research Centre also, having identified the new

virus and established that it was transmitted by a tick

usually found in the forest undergrowth, which in turn

infected animals in the forest and sometimes humans,

lost interest in migrating birds. The rest of the study

was therefore confined to the study of bird migration.

Results

Migration: About 1,50,000 birds of various

species were trapped and studied during this period.

The routes taken by different species could be

studied. Most of them travelled either by the Eastern

route via Assam, Bangladesh and down the East

512

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Coast or by the Western route over Afghanistan,

Pakistan, Saurashtra and the West Coast. During

winter there was a large conglomeration of all these

birds in and around several water bodies in South

India and Sri Lanka where enough food and roost-

ing place was available. Information was obtained

on the migrating routes of different species. Reco-

very of a ringed bird or of its ring from distant

places gave further confirmation, and in some

instances gave an indication of the life span of

the bird. The food sources and preferred roosting

places, the associated climatic and environ-

mental conditions were all recorded and a large

amount of data accumulated for future analysis and

study.

The initial camps were supervised by S£lim

Ali himself, with the assistance of the BNHS staff.

As work expanded and more camps were set up,

some of these were run by the now well trained staff.

Several research workers and interested volunteers

also joined the camps. In this process, the assistants

learned not only the techniques of bird trapping and

banding, but also received a thorough grounding in

the techniques of careful and meticulous field

research. Some of S£lim Ali’s early assistants have

gone on to become leaders in natural history field

research within the country. Reports on these

studies have been published in the Journal of the

BNHS.

The virus problem: The virus of KFD was

identified and found to be similar but not identical

with that of RSSE. The trapped birds did not show

the presence of infection, and when tested for

evidence of past infection, as shown by antibodies

in the blood, the results were negative or equivocal.

Reports of their findings are given in the published

papers and the annual reports of the Virus Research

Centre (now renamed the National Institute of

Virology), Pune.

Discussion

The question of the origin of KFD virus

remains. Two facts should be considered.

1. A Serological survey conducted all over

India revealed a few samples from mature human

individuals in an area of Saurashtra having antibodies

to RSSE/KFD for which there appeared no

explanation.

2. The insect vector for RSSE is a mite,

whereas for KFD the vector is a tick.

It may be postulated that at some time in the

past a bird or birds infected with RSSE landed in

Saurashtra and shed infected mites, which in turn

infected some humans in the adjoining village. The

mites died out, unable to develop in the new

surroundings, leaving as their only trace a few

humans with antibodies to the disease.

What has happened once can happen again,

the new scene being the Kyasanur Forest area. Here,

though the mites died, the infection was taken up by

ticks, possibly through the blood of an infected bird

which lay dying on the forest floor. An arthropod

borne virus is suited to one species of tick through

which it is transmitted. If it enters the body of another

species it either dies out or it undergoes some change

or modification which enables it to propagate itself

within the body of the new host. It may be assumed

that the virus of RSSE entering the body of the tick

underwent such a modification to form the closely

allied virus of KFD. All this is speculation, but it

appears to be the most plausible explanation which

can fit the facts.

It is unfortunate that this sequence of events

resulted in a new disease. At the same time, it is

exciting to realize that we are privileged spectators

of a small facet of the process of adaptation and

natural selection which forms the basis of evolution

of life on the earth.

CONSERVATION NOTES

EVOLVING A RATIONAL STRATEGY FOR AN INTEGRATED PROTECTED AREA

SYSTEM IN MAHARASHTRA

E.K. Bharucha1

(With two text figures )

Introduction

An Integrated Protected Area System (IPAS)

for biodiversity and natural resource conservation

should form part of a rational land-use strategy for

any region. This must take into account ecological

aspects for the management of wilderness

ecosystems, as well as the needs of local people

who depend on natural resources for their

subsistence. The relative importance of each

Protected Area (PA) within the IPAS is related to

their specific objectives. A Protected Area (a

National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary) may support

several important objectives or may have a limited

role in the conservation strategy of the region.

Primarily a PA is expected to preserve biodiversity

and perpetuate the existence of all species within

its communities. Those PA’s that enhance these

values are of greater importance than others that

support objectives of secondary importance. A

National Park with a large undisturbed core area

would thus generally be of greater conservation

significance than a small Wildlife Sanctuary with

a limited goal such as supporting wildlife tourism

or protecting a few large, conspicuous mammals.

The design and management of an IPAS

requires :

a) ’ Assessing the conservation status of its existing

PAs.

b) Identifying specific objectives of each of the

PAs.

c) Quantifying the level of sustainable resource-

use by local inhabitants.

d) Providing rational criteria for the disbursement

of funds, manpower and expertise based on the

relative importance of each PA within the IPAS.

e) Using biogeographical criteria for selection of

potential sites to be notified as additional PAs.

“Saken’, Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park,

Pune-411001, Maharashtra.

To develop a conservation strategy for an

area, there is a need to design a system with clearly

defined objectives for each PA. Protected Area

management must consider their size, shape,

zonation and most importantly their relative

conservation status within the IPAS. The

management plans of each PA must provide a

strategy to support the resource needs of local people

living within and around the PA’s. It is also

essential to select the biologically most appropriate

sites to notify new areas as PAs for inclusion in the

IPAS.

Aims and objectives

This paper attempts to formulate guidelines

for designing an IPAS for Maharashtra State, which

has 29 Protected Areas. These have been established

over the years without considering the conservation

status of the area or assigning specific objectives

for their management. No attempt has been made to

develop them into a network of Protected Areas

based on objective criteria. This paper thus focuses

on establishing:

i) the biological values and the conservation

potential of existing PAs ;

ii) the socio-economic milieu within these PAs,

with a view to assess the levels of utilization

of resources as against the conservation goals

of the area ;

iii) Assessing the level of people-wildlife con-

flict.

This paper describes a rapid method to

evaluate and compare the PAs and to assign a

relative position for them in the present network. It

takes into account their specific objectives as well

as the present conservation status of each Protected

Area. This would help to rationalize the distribution

of funds and manpower for each PA in relation to

its rating in the IPAS.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Part A of the paper thus states the possible

range of objectives of each PA. It describes the

number and size of existing PAs in different

biogeographical areas of the State. It provides

guidelines for rationalizing the allocation of land

necessary to establish an IPAS that gives due

weightage to the proportion of distinctive ecological

systems in Maharashtra. The impact of resource

use on PAs is analyzed and the pattern of conflict

between conservation and utilization of resources

in the PA is discussed.

Part B is aimed at ascribing ‘notional values’

for assessing the relative importance of each of die

PAs within the IPAS. This gives due consideration

to :

a) Bio- geographical and other biological values ;

b) The possibility of enhancing resource-use for

local people through eco-development

schemes; and,

c) An assessment of conflict between conservation

and utilization.

These three parameters are graded for each

PA to provide basic guidelines for their

management. The management options that are

suggested are related to the specific objectives of

each of the PAs in the IPAS.

Method

A review of the conservation status of the 29

PAs in the State of Maharashtra has been made. A

random field study of sixteen of the Protected Areas

was done to evaluate their present status and rank the

relative importance of each PA. Data have been

collected from the 29 Protected Area Managers

through several questionnaires (See Annexure 1 and

2 for examples). The major and minor perceived

objectives of each PA have been identified. The area

included in the PAs have been related to the proportion

of the different biogeographic landscapes and their

ecosystems found in the state of Maharashtra. The

size, shape, conservation status, and ecological

categories of each PA and the presence of corridors

have been evaluated. The pattern and intensity of local

resource use, and the potential to reduce this pressure

through ecodevelopment has been considered. Further

the level and nature of conflict in each PA has been

studied. These parameters have been used to grade

PAs on a comparative scale using notional values for

each parameter. The paper thus uses a method to

gradually increase the sensitivity of notional values

through gradual steps that take into account easily

quantifiable parameters, which is then integrated into

more complex concerns where quantification is less

evident. Thus notional values of earlier tables in Part

A have been used to improve the objectivity of the

notional values used in Part B.

Discussion

Part A

Protected Areas are essentially established as

a part of developing a rational land-use strategy to

preserve biological diversity. To maximize this

output for any area it is essential to devise an

Integrated Protected Area System or a network of

representative areas of different forms of wilderness

found in a region.

Long-term planning for conservation

requires a national or regional overview of residual

wilderness, and remoteness and naturalness

referred to as ‘primitiveness’ are the two

environmental attributes that determine wilderness

quality (Lessli zetal 1988). The estimation of total

wilderness quality by summing together four

wilderness indicator values is used. They, however,

stress that this rests on the assumption that the

indicators themselves contribute equally to total

wilderness quality, and that ‘a unit of measurement

or rating class for one indicator has equivalence

with that for another. This paper also uses a similar

system which has a greater degree of discrimination

in placing values on different criteria. The specific

conditions in India (and for this a case study for

Maharashtra), which has great variations in

biogeographic patterns, necessitates a finer grading

for assessing the overall rating of PAs. This paper

presents a more rational and sensitive method of

evaluation. Lesslie et al. (op. cit.) also stress that

there should be a weightage provided for ‘perceived

CONSERVATION NOTES

w

Q

2

X

o

x

PROTECTED AREAS OF MAHARASHTRA

516

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

importance’ . A similar parameter has also been used

in the present paper and is referred to as the

‘potential value’ of a PA. This, however, cannot be

used in isolation as its actual value is a combination

of its potential with issues such as effectiveness of

management and the level of conflict due to

resource use.

‘Hot Spots’ of biodiversity at global and

national levels have been identified for inclusion

into PA systems. An important feature even at

regional level is to include locally identified ‘hot

spots’ as PAs. Using Myers’ (1988) classification

of a ‘Hot Spot’ at the regional level, one should

include those areas that are: ‘(a) Characterized by

exceptional concentrations of species with high

levels of endemism and (b) are experiencing

unusually rapid rates of depletion.’

Myers’ (op. cit.) statement that “This would

help concentrate attention where needs are greatest

and where the pay-off from safeguard measures

would also be greatest” can thus be applied to

provide a rule of thumb for identification and

prioritization of conservation efforts in a group of

PAs. Myers (op. cit.) stresses that the use of

“working estimates” acts as a sound support to

prioritize or select areas as “hot spots”, in the

absence of statistical information. Thus some data

if gathered fairly objectively on a comparative scale

is better than waiting till field studies and quantified

estimates, that take a long time, are made. In critical

situations this may amount to a delay by which

time several species become extinct. According to

Myers’ (op. cit.) ‘its cause tends to go by default.’

He also claims that the “islanding effect” makes it

possible for a park to safeguard only 50% of its

original species complement, which must constitute

10% of the original expanse of habitat. It is also

claimed that due to “ecological equilibration” there

is a delayed fallout of species. This indicates that

for most of our biogeographical landscape forms,

the prospect of maintaining or holding the level of

biodiversity in Maharashtra is poor. At the present

rate of degradation biological values are bound to

deteriorate, unless management is significantly

improved.

As pointed out by McNeely (1994), for

maintaining biodiversity there should be “a well

managed system of PAs established in each country,

including representative ecosystems and the widest

possible range of a country’s biodiversity.” This is

of equal importance at the regional level, i.e. in

the individual states of India.

Wilderness can be classified in several ways,

which facilitate the inclusion of representative

landscape elements in the PA network. As stated by

Presley and Logan (1994) “ Land classes such as

vegetation types, ecoregions, or environmental

domains can be defined in many ways and at many

scales.” Providing a Classification is complex, as it

is related to the multiplicity of elements present in

a particular landscape pattern, especially as there is

an added element in the mosaic produced by

different levels of biotic pressure. It has been stated

that “ Reserve Coverage (the percentage of land

classes represented in reserve systems) usually

changed as the classes were defined more finely.”

Presley and Logan (1994) thus devised a system to

ensure the inclusion of all important forms and their

components. They have suggested a variety of

caveats on the uses of land classes for judging

reserve adequacy. This variable is expected to rely

on more complex deliberations than measurement

of coverage. They state that “...threshold areas for

calling land classes ‘reserved’ are essentially

arbitrary and indicate nothing about the viability of

reserved populations (Leader- Williams et al. 1 990),

the status of source and sink areas (Pulliam 1988),

landscape context and disturbance regimes (Moss

1987, Baurgeron 1988)...” Many regions have a

mosaic of landscape forms with several sub-types.

All land classes are said to be heterogeneous, both

physically and biologically, they must also be

accompanied by information on rare or patchily

distributed taxa (Scott in Presley and Logan 1988).

The different land classes are not equally important

reservation sites as “those most at risk by extractive

uses are most urgent candidates for the strictest

protection.” This is extremely relevant to our local

conditions where most PAs support the biomass

needs and fodder supplies of local people. They

CONSERVATION NOTES

517

conclude that “assessments of reserve coverage

should therefore place much more emphasis on

which land classes, rather than how many are to be

preserved. Otherwise a high percentage of land

classes represented could mark the frequent bias in

reserve systems toward environments with low

potential for major commercial use” (Presley and

Logan 1988).

Several authors stress the importance of

including rare species or relict ecosystems. The

abundance and rarity factor depends on the size of

a region under review. Hunter et al (1994) have

stated that “range size and local abundance are not

independent. Local abundance is very variable.

Therefore rarity must be examined in the context of

the entire spatial distribution of abundance within

the range carried away by local rarity.” These

authors also focus attention on the fact that it is

incorrect to allocate relatively large sums to species

that are only rare locally, while species threatened

with global extinction receive far less funding

(Hunter and Hutchinson 1994).

The other major aspect of developing an IPAS

is the use of a graded evaluation scale for individual

PAs which is based on a set of objective criteria.

The conservation status of a PA is related to its

relative importance within the group of PAs of an

area. As the most important objective of

conservation is the preservation of biodiversity it is

essential to define the parameters that should be used

for biodiversity assessment. The ‘value’ of

biological diversity must include not only the variety

of species found in an area but also the range of

landscapes, natural communities, ecosystem types,

the extent of endemism and the number of rare or

threatened species.

In a situation in which there has already been

an ad hoc selection of PAs, as in Maharashtra,

identifying new PAs must be done with relevance

to the existing network, to maximize biodiversity

(Margules, Nicholls and Pressey 1988). They must

include not only all possible species but all possible

ecosystems or biogeographically unique areas.

According to them this must include diversity, rarity,

naturalness, size and representativeness. Including

those areas that have rare species is of great concern.

They also suggest that species poor systems are

likely to have less unique species. It, however, also

provides examples to demonstrate that size alone is

not a satisfactory (or should not be the only) criteria

by which PAs can be evaluated. The authors

recognize that many of these discussions are based

on pragmatic rather than on scientific grounds.

To allocate manpower and funds for

management for PAs it is imperative to grade each

PA on as objective a scale as possible. Wright

(1977), reviewed several such scales. Workers such

as Scott et al (1987) argue that though PAs may

have been initially selected to preserve large

mammals or a few publicized bird species, they have

inadvertently protected habitats and all their

component species through better (although

inadvertent ) protection of the landscape.

Scott et al. (1987) state that the framework

for the preservation of species ought to be fought at

fi ve levels in the landscape (Noss 1983): ecosystem,

community, species, population and individual.

Their paper stresses that “costly attempts at

preserving much publicized individual endangered

species may have a lower impact on the preservation

of biological diversity than efforts to develop a

rational management for groups of PAs within an

area by managing ecosystems”. Information on

biological values of PAs coupled with data on trends

in surrounding land-use patterns and management

practices are all essential for developing a viable

IPAS (Scott etal 1987). These authors suggest that

“there is less expense and more chance of success if

extinction is fought by maintaining self-perpetuating

populations of more common species. Species must

be prevented from becoming endangered rather than

to try to revert the process of endangerment.” The

present analyses suggest that prevention of

ecosystem degradation is better than attempts at

cure. It suggests that a multi-parameter assessment

of individual PAs, and thus a successful management

strategy of an IPAS alone will prevent extinctions

in the long term.

Wilson (1992) eloquently expresses that if

we went long enough to collect large quantums of

518

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

BOX 1

PROTECTED AREA OBJECTIVES

Each PA has several interlinked objectives which may be considered to be of primary, secondary or tertiary importance in

achieving the goals of the IPAS.

Note: Without achieving the secondary goals, the PA's ability to reach its primary objectives is frequently doubtful. Their importance is

thus not appreciably lower than those of the primary objectives. Tertiary objectives usually contribute in a limited way towards global

environmental conditions or may benefit only a small specific section of society.

data it may be too late to preserve biodiversity, as

there is only “one planet, one experiment”. Thus

rapid evaluation and immediate actions are of crucial

importance.

The range of species, their population density,

vegetation types, etc. forms the baseline data for

selection of new sites, for modification of

boundaries, for the application of management

criteria, and to disburse funds for PAs. Those PAs

that contain a larger proportion of rarer species or

communities must undoubtedly be provided with a

greater level of protection. There is little data to

show the proportion of each vegetation type as

classified by Champion and Seth within existing PAs

of Maharashtra. Vertebrate species richness is said

to be a good indicator of overall natural diversity.

Vertebrate niches are shaped by a complex of biotic.

abiotic, and cultural factors, such as the complexity

of the community food web, total available biomass,

and vegetation structure and productivity. There is

evidence to show that there is a high correlation

between vertebrate species-richness and overall

natural diversity (Scott et al. 1987). This paper

utilizes vegetation patterns as indicators of

threatened systems and the known species richness

of major vertebrates, as indicators of the value of

each PA in Maharashtra.

Status of PAs in Maharashtra

For the locale specific issues related to Indian

conditions, as for most other developing countries

of the South, the conservation importance of a

PA can be judged on three separate scales, each

consisting of different parameters. These are :

CONSERVATION NOTES

519

(I) Based on their specific objectives;

(II) Based on landscape types; and

(III) Based on interactions between biotic

pressures and management patterns.

I. PA OBJECTIVES

The ‘perceived’ objectives for establishing

PAs such as the preservation of wildlife and nature,

and to encourage wildlife tourism, are well known.

However, a clearer perspective of the specific

conservation objectives of each PA must be

identified. Each PA has a group of more important,

i.e. primary objectives and other objectives that can

be considered of secondary or tertiary importance

(See Box 1). A Protected Area’s management

should be aimed at achieving all its potential goals.

Success in meeting perceived objectives, how-

ever, varies in relation to management and conflict

levels.

PROTECTED AREA OBJECTIVES

The conservation objectives must include the

protection of biodiversity, preservation of life

support systems and the sustainable use of renewable

resources within the regeneration capacity of its

ecosystem. One of the objectives of Protected Areas

is to develop a strategy to conserve the earth’s

“vitality and diversity” (Caring for the Earth.

IUCN-UNEP-WWF- 1991, p. 9). The buffer area

of a PA should form a model for ‘sustainable use’

of resources, which can be replicated in areas outside

PAs.

The PAs have global, national, regional (state)

or sub-regional goals for conservation of biological

diversity, and a variety of other natural resources

and ecosystem services. The most important

objective of PA management must be aimed at

maintaining or enhancing its conservation prospects

for preserving biological diversity. This is

categorized as a primary objective. Preserving

fragile ecosystems and / or preventing extinction of

a specific species may constitute the other primary

objectives of a PA.

Utilitarian objectives of National Parks

or Wildlife Sanctuaries have a wide spectrum

ranging from those that are beneficial to society at

a global or national level, to the utilization of

resources for restricted groups of society living

within or adjacent to the PA. These are frequently

secondary goals.

At a global level the forest PAs are said to

contribute towards modifying climate,

photosynthesis, or pollution. Another wide ranging

benefit that has major implications for society at

large, is to provide opportunities for research and

education that broadens the scope of bio-sciences

and gives new insights into the value of preserving

Nature.

At a National level, PAs protect economically

valuable ‘gene pools’ of animals and plants essential

for genetic engineering. This is the potential raw

material for the breeding of domestic animals and

for the development of new cultivars. This financial

implication for preserving biodiversity has now

become one of the most important reasons for

conserving genes, species and ecosystems in situ .

Identifying new drugs and industrial products from

the wilderness will indeed become a major national

incentive to maintain PAs.

At the local level the PA’s objectives may also

be aimed at benefiting people living some distance

away from it as well as those who live in and around

it. The watershed protection afforded by a forest

PA decreases peak runoff in the monsoon and

prolongs the flow of water in summer. This supports

urban and rural agricultural settlements downstream

(Gadgil 1987). Wetland PAs act as flood buffers for

surrounding areas. Grassland PAs can produce

fodder for stall feeding domestic stock around the

PA. The objectives of the PAs thus necessarily

include supporting the needs of the local people.

Its ‘social’ buffer should be capable of producing

directly utilisable renewable resources such as fuel-

wood, fodder, M.F.P. and marketable products on a

sustainable basis. If this objective is not achieved,

the PA cannot be expected to have a long term

viability. Functions such as wildlife tourism serve

the needs of a more limited segment of society, i.e.

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those who visit it for recreational purposes (McNeely

1988, p. 21).

In Maharashtra, Forest PA’s, such as

Bhimashankar and Radhanagari in the Western

Ghats are believed to harbour a high level of species

diversity of plants and animals. The specific

objectives of these important PAs thus place a great

stress on maintenance of their gene pools (India:

Conservation of Biodiversity WCMC).

An important objective of PAs such as

Nagzira, Tadoba or Sanjay Gandhi National Park,

that have large accessible populations of major

mammals and forests which are visited by a large

numbers of people, is wildlife/ecotourism. These

PAs are thus potential sites for nature educa-

tion through Interpretation Centers and Nature

Trails.

The prevention of siltation of lakes due to

erosion in the catchments of Koyna, Tansa, Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, and Pench is an important

objective of these PAs as this aspect has great

economic implications.

A less frequently discussed objective of the

wetland PA’s of Nandur and Jayakwadi is their

ability to be managed as “Multiple Use Areas”. This

function is linked to the survival of these PAs as

carefully selected human activities do not negate

their specific conservation objective of managing

wetlands for conservation of waterfowl (Bharucha

and Gogate 1990). This last group of spatially

oriented objectives is related to the geographical and

ecological conditions in which the PA is located.

The important criteria for rating PAs can thus

be based on the relative importance of their

perceived objectives. However, PAs may have

different levels of success in meeting their

objectives. Several management related issues must

be taken into account to assess the potential of a PA

in achieving its predetermined objective. PAs in

which management is successful in meeting

objectives would thus have to be given a higher

rating in the IPAS. This must take into account not

only the potential of a PA to act as a biological ‘gene

bank’ at present, but its capacity through successful

management to retain its wealth in the long term.

This is related to the competence with which it is

managed and the level of pressure on its resources.

The species diversity found in some of these PAs

should be carefully inventoried and quantified, as

they are potentially valuable national and even

globally important ‘Hot Spots’ of biological

diversity. This is of great importance in the

biologically rich PAs of the Western Ghats such as

Bhimashankar, Koyna and Radhanagari.

II. LANDSCAPE TYPES

The PAs can be categorized into different

landscape types, each of which have a set of specific

characteristics. These are related to biogeographical

features and differential levels of biotic influences.

A landscape ‘type’ is also a reflection of the biotic

province, the ecosystem, the size of the ‘island’ of

wilderness notified in the PA, its shape and corridors

connecting it to neighboring PAs.

Biogeographical Features

a) Area included in the PAs of Maharashtra :

Table I shows that of the 3,07,690 sq. km of

Maharashtra, 15,384 sq. km are at present within

the PAs, i.e. 4.9% (Rodgers and Panwar 1988).

However 8,496 sq. km of the area within PAs

constitutes a single PA - the “Great Indian Bustard

Sanctuary”. This consists of predominantly

agricultural land and includes the city of Solapur

within its boundaries! As only about 400 sq. km of

this PA is of significance for the protection of the

Great Indian Bustard, the 8,096 sq. km of its

agricultural area should not be considered to be of

conservation significance for the PA network of

the State. This leaves 7,288 sq. km within the viable

existing network and constitutes only 2.3% of the

landmass of Maharashtra.

b) Ecological categories:

An IPAS must reflect the proportion of

distinctive biogeographic areas within the State. The

CONSERVATION NOTES

521

Table I

AREA WITHIN BIOTIC PROVINCES AND IN THE PA NETWORK

* Not used in calculation as this is included in the terrestrial system

GIB - Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary; N & N.E. Forests - (Central Highlands) - North and North East Forests.

PAs can be divided into those that are established

to protect terrestrial and aquatic systems. The

terrestrial ecosystems constitute forests of different

types (evergreen, moist deciduous, deciduous and

thorn forests) as well as other ecosystems such as

grasslands and scrubland in semi arid areas. The

3000 sq. km of wetlands in Maharashtra are

associated with different terrestrial ecosystems in

the State (Conservation of Wetlands in India - June

1989) . In the PA network 600 sq. km of wetland is

notified as PAs in the backwaters of two Irrigation

Projects. The small but biologically valuable

residual patches of mangrove found along the coast

have not been included in the present PA network.

(Conservation of Mangroves in India - August

1990) . In most cases, they are not under the

jurisdiction of the Forest Department and have even

been classified as ‘wasteland’! Only one marine

system has been included in the PA network.

The PAs of Maharashtra have been grouped

at a National level into three distinctive zones and

four provinces ( Rodgers and Pan war 1988). This

includes : i) the deciduous hill forests of the North

and North East region ( which are called the Central

Highlands of India); ii) the forests of the Western

Ghats; iii) the grasslands of the semiarid Deccan;

iv) the Konkan and coastal belt and v) the wetlands.

Table I shows the relative proportion of

each region in the total landmass of Maharashtra -

(A) (Rodgers and Pan war 1988). The area at present

in the PA network in each biotic province and the

percentage represented in the network - (B) and

the percentage if the GIB sanctuary is reduced to

400 sq. km - (C) which is only 2.3%. Thus, within

the network, a major proportion is represented in

the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary. However, if it

were to be reduced in size, the residual PA network

would be only 7,288 sq.km (Fig. 2.).

Though the percentage of area in the PA

network - (B) appears to be representative of the

State’s biogeographic regions, it is effectively as

shown in - (C), i.e. with a reduced GIB, which

represents the viable area in the conservation

network. The gross disparity in the proportion of

land between the area in each Biotic Province as

seen in - (A) & (C), i.e. if the GIB were to be

reduced in size, is evident. The 69.2% of land in

the State which is in the grasslands of the Deccan

and that which is represented at present in the PAs

is 55.9%. However, if the agricultural land in the

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GIB sanctuary is excluded the total percentage of

grassland within the IPAS would be only 6.9%

which is thus a gross under representation. Whereas

the N and NE region constitutes 10% of the total

landmass of Maharashtra, it is over represented at

present, constituting 26.5% of the PA network and

would cover as much as 56.06% of the IPAS if the

GIB sanctuary is reduced to a manageable size. This

would make this forest system highly over

represented. The highly fragile and species rich

Western Ghats has a small proportion - 10% in the

landmass of the state. This has a special conservation

significance as a ‘Hot Spot’ of biodiversity. At

present, it has 12.9% in the PA network, which

would be 27.3% if the GIB Sanctuary is reduced in

size. However it may be essential to include larger

areas of the Western Ghats to protect this ecosystem

and establish corridors between these PAs as they

are Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Reducing the GIB

Sanctuary in size would decrease the percentage of

land in the IPAS from 4.9% to a meager 2.3%. This

WITH FULL GIB

would have to be increased by including newly

identified biologically appropriate areas.

In Table II, Columns B minus A, and C

minus A provide an index of the extent of spatial

over/under representation in relation to the relative

proportion of the biotic provinces in the State. C

minus A shows the degree of imbalance in the

representation with an over representation of PAs

in the forests of the North and North East (C-A =

43.16) and an under representation in the semiarid

Deccan plateau (C-A = -62.21). Here it may be

stressed that the biogeographic classification of

India suggested by Rodgers and Panwar (1988)

places this semiarid biotic province in a specific

category which is restricted to Maharashtra. It thus

has a national significance. These semiarid tracts

had a variety of wildlife such as the Blackbuck,

Chinkara, Wolf, Great Indian Bustard, Raptors, etc.

which are now disappearing. This ecosystem has

been converted through irrigation into an extensive

farmland mainly for sugarcane, and the residual

WITH REDUCED GIB

Fig. 2. Representation of Biotic Provinces in Maharashtra and in the PA network.

A - Western Ghats; B - North & NE Forests; C - Deccan Plateau; D - Konkan Plain & Coast; E - Wetlands.

CONSERVATION NOTES

523

Table II

PROPORTION OF BIOTIC PROVINCES IN THE STATE AND IN THE PA NETWORK

*Based on size only. No values provided for conservation importance.

grasslands are over-grazed by the growing cattle

population. This short grass system which in its

undisturbed form, supported a large diversity of

grasses and forbs is now being rapidly degraded.

Those areas that still resemble the ‘natural’ grassland

ecosystem require urgent protection by including

them in the IPAS as new PAs. In evaluating the

importance of a PA this can be used to provide a

higher notional value for those systems that are

underrepresented and have a ‘minus’ representation,

and a lower notional value for ‘plus’ representations.

Though the amount of land in each biotic

province constitutes a rationale for the percentage

to be protected in each ecosystem within the IPAS,

due importance must be given to a variety of other

factors. An ecosystem approach is essential to

provide a greater degree of protection for the

preservation of distinctive landscapes or habitats and

their component biotic communities (Table III,

Fig. 2). A relatively larger representation in the IPAS

must be provided for areas of national and

international significance, i.e. for their uniqueness,

or for those which are being rapidly degraded or

converted to other uses. (IUCN: Conserving the

World’s Biological Diversity, 1990). In Maharashtra

the fragile forest ecosystems of the Western Ghats

fulfill these criteria (Rodgers and Panwar 1988, p.

199). To ensure their long-term viability, the PAs

in the Western Ghats must be increased in Size and

be provided with a National Park status instead of

being classified as Wildlife Sanctuaries. A change

to National Park status for selected high value PAs

would give them a higher level of protection. These

should, wherever possible, be linked to each other

through Reserved Forest or PA corridors. If these

PAs are managed so as to constitute an

interconnected chain, the needs of evolutionary

processes are more likely to remain intact for a

variety of endangered flora and fauna. Several

Reserved Forest patches have been identified to

provide such a continuous linkage. Deorais (Temple

Groves) could form ‘cluster’ PAs of great

conservation significance for endangered and

endemic plants. These have patches of ‘old growth’

forest with high species richness. These have been

maintained as intact plant communities which have

been preserved due to local sentiments.

In the Konkan, the seashore, the mangroves,

as well as the vegetation of the plain has been poorly

represented (Rodgers and Panwar 1988, Vol.I,

p. 204). New PAs for this region must be notified

as early as possible as residual natural areas are

being increasingly converted to other types of land

use.

The various forest types and ecosystems in

the PAs is given in Table III This shows that there

are only three PAs with evergreen vegetation, ten

have semi-evergreen forests, fourteen have moist-

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Table III

PA s IN MAHARASHTRA - TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

WLS = Wildlife Sanctuary (24) NP = National Park (5) 1

WG - Western Ghats (8 PAs) N & NE = North & North East Forests (12 PAs)

DP = Deccan Plateau (4 PAs) W = Wetland (2 PAs) C = Coast (1 PA)

M = Marine (1 PA).

CONSERVATION NOTES

525

deciduous forests and eleven have deciduous forests.

However, the area within most of the forest systems

consists of large tracts of dry deciduous forests with

a smaller representation of moist-deciduous

vegetation and semi -evergreen components. The

extent of evergreen patches is extremely limited and

should be provided with an especially important

status in the network.

The three PAs that have evergreen, semi-

evergreen and moist deciduous forests include only

865 sq.km. Semi -evergreen and moist deciduous

forests in 7 PAs cover 1333 sq. km. Moist and dry

deciduous include 2369 sq. km. in 4 PAs. Purely

dry deciduous forests cover 1585 sq. km in 7 PAs.

One PA has thorn forest, 4 have grassland or scrub

with 8595 sq. km, two are wetlands and one is

marine. Table III.

c) Conservation Status :

Of the 29 PAs in Maharashtra, only one is fully

notified. (Management of National Parks and

Sanctuaries in India, 1989, p. 9). The absence of

full notifications have serious implications in terms

of management.

Out of the 29 PAs, only 5(17%) have National

Park status. The remaining 24 (83%) are Wildlife

Sanctuaries and have a lower conservation status

Table IV. Their status as NPs and WLSs, however,

does not reflect their relative conservation

importance among the Protected Areas. The

functions of these NPs and WLS’s do not conform

with existing IUCN norms which would consider

most of them as “Multiple Use Areas” (Ledec and

Goodland 1988, p. 166-171). Settlements are found

in 28 of the PAs and resources are used by the people

both legally and illegally. This impact is unlikely to

be reduced without a participatory approach to

management where local people are involved and

benefit from the PA.

In the past PAs were established on an ad hoc

basis with a view to protect their major mammal

species. The need to protect ecosystems, critically

endangered habitats, visually insignificant species

that are threatened by extinction, or areas of unique

national or international significance, has only been

appreciated in the recent past. Criteria for selection

of new areas and for modification of the boundaries

of existing PAs are essential to develop a long-term

conservation strategy for Maharashtra.

(d) Size of PAs:

The potential to preserve a larger diversity of

plant and animal species is generally greater in PAs

of a large size. (Wilson 1992). As human population

is expanding at a rapid rate, it is not feasible to

allocate new areas for conservation. The size

distribution of PAs in Maharashtra shows that 11

are between 250 and 1000 sq. km; 6 are between

100 and 250 sq. km while 10 are small, being below

100 sq. km in size (Table IV). Several of these PAs

must be increased in size especially in the more

fragile ecosystems which have a high species

diversity to achieve important conservation goals.

The relict forests of the crest line of the Western

Ghats which are found in only a few residual patches

must all be protected by large surrounding areas of

forest on either side of the crest line. This would

reduce the impact of surrounding human pressures

on them.

The extremely large “paper” GIB sanctuary,

however, could be effectively reduced to about 400

sq. km. Changes in the boundaries of some PAs are

essential either to include adjacent forest or to

exclude highly degraded areas of little conservation

value. The size of a PA is closely related to its

objectives. Protected Areas for conserving a rare

plant could be perfectly adequate even if it covers

only a few square kilometres. For conserving a

species such as the tiger, a 250 sq. km sanctuary

may be too small. Thus the intention to denotify a

large part of Melghat, even though it includes several

villages, is a highly damaging action for the

conservation of the tiger and its shrinking habitat in

the State. Providing notional values purely on the

basis of size shows that thirteen PAs are over 250

sq.km in size and have a value of ‘3’, six PAs are

between 100 to 250 sq.km and are given a value of

‘2’ ; while ten PAs are less than 100 sq.km and have

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been given a value of ‘T .

The debate on whether to have several small

reserves or a few large ones is difficult to resolve

and has been called the SLOSS problem (single large

or several small). This needs to be appreciated on a

case to case basis (Wilson 1992).

Table IV

SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF PA s IN

MAHARASHTRA

N.B. WLS = Wildlife Sanctuary; NP = National Park.

(e) Shape of PAs :

Ideally, a PA should have as regular a

perimeter as possible. In most of the PAs in

Maharashtra the borders appear to have been

delineated so that the PA can be easily administered.

Frequently, little thought seems to be given to the

inclusion of complete ecosystems or a complete

mosaic of important components of the ‘landscape

type’. Inclusion of buffer areas for the PAs has also

been neglected. There are PAs with several villages

within them, while areas of vitally important

neighbouring forest have been left out of the

notification. A re-demarcation of the boundaries

of some of the PAs is essential. A contentious issue

is whether to include or exclude settlements lying

geographically within a PA during notification. It

is becoming increasingly apparent that re-location

of these settlements is impossible due to paucity of

land. Thus it may be administratively more

appropriate to notify the area along with the villages

and to ensure that eco-development becomes a part

of the management of the PA. The ratio of the

circumference to the size of the PA is an index of its

regularity. The smaller the perimeter, the more

compact and manageable the PA. Reliable data on

the perimeter of each PA is not available.

(f) Corridors for PAs :

To improve the ability of PAs to support

genetic and evolutionary processes, they should be

linked to each other, if possible, through corridors.

This is especially important in the species rich

Western Ghats. Notifying existing Reserved Forest

patches in this area as Wildlife Sanctuaries should

be attempted between Bhimashankar and Koyna and

could extend further south to link Chandoli and

Radhanagari. The notification of the proposed Fr.

Santapau Sanctuary would have great conservation

importance for the state. Grassland fauna such as

Blackbuck that now live in small hyper-dense,

isolated populations would also benefit if corridors

could be developed between PAs. However, in this

ecotype corridoring is less feasible, due to extensive

CONSERVATION NOTES

527

agricultural tracts in the Deccan Plateau.

III. Biotic pressures and management patterns

Interactions between the biotic pressures and

the past and present management practices of the

PA produce a spectrum of changes on the naturally

occurring landscape types. Thus ‘natural* patterns

may undergo varying degrees of degradation.

Plantation especially of exotic species, undermines

the ‘naturalness’ of the vegetation.

Protected Areas can have multiple uses.

However this is frequently a carefully adjusted

compromise. (Whitmore 1990).

The PAs and Resource Use

PAs have several tangible and intangible

economic benefits. Some resources, such as, food,

fuelwood and fodder, which are collected from

the forest are easily quantifiable. This aspect has

led to the establishment of what have come to be

known as ‘Extractive Reserves’. Other benefits,

even if obvious, cannot be easily quantified in

financial terms. For instance, the value ascribed to

protecting soil and water is difficult to quantify.

Forest PAs in hilly regions are more effective

mechanisms for soil and water conservation than

those in the plains.

In a forest system the most obviously

quantifiable economic return is from timber; in a

wetland, the economic potential of fish is most

evident, while in a grassland, the biomass available

as fodder form tangible economic indicators.

However, since a PA is primarily intended to protect

‘ natural ecosystems’, the uncontrolled use of these

major resources would damage the conservation

status of the PA. Such use may have to be restricted

or in some cases prevented altogether. Resources

must therefore be substituted through alternate

means such as an ecodevelopment programme.

There is evidence to show that the timber

value of a forest may in fact be less than the value

obtained from Minor Forest Produce (MFP) that can

be collected and sold on a sustainable basis. “Though

this varies according to the site, it may well be as

high as 75% if a detailed financial analysis is made”.

(Callish, Fight and Teeguarden 1978). The value of

MFP is said to be ‘higher than timber’ and is more

capable of being exploited sustainably (Peters,

Gentry and Mendelson 1989). In many PAs, a

sustainable amount of non wood products be

collected without a major negative impact on its

conservation values. This may add to the ‘social

value’ of the PA which increases its local

acceptability. Similarly, the value of harvestable

resources such as fish from a wetland PA, which

also gives protection to water fowl may be

considerable (Bharucha and Gogate 1990). Fodder

yields can be increased from grassland Protected

Areas through good rangeland management. This

could support both wildlife and a regulated number

of livestock.

If natural resources such as fuel, fodder and

MFP are used from PAs, it is important to quantify

the extent to which this can be done without

affecting its primary conservation objectives

(Annexure II). Since the carrying capacity of the

PA must consider the population of wild herbivores

as well as a permissible number of cattle, it is

essential to estimate their total fodder requirement.

In most of. our PAs the cattle outnumber wild

herbivores.

If fuelwood and fodder collection is found to

degrade a forest PA, it must be substituted from

alternate sources. This is one of the major objectives

of “ecodevelopment” for PA settlements. Buffer

management must provide for these resources. A

Participatory Rural Appraisal forms an objective

basis to decide on how much land must be made

available to develop such resources.

A tangible and easily quantifiable economic

potential of PAs is through sustainable levels of

wildlife tourism. Several authors have assessed

the positive and negative impacts on conservation

due to wildlife and ecotourism. (Phillips,

Ademowicz and Boxall). The problem is that these

financial benefits do not reach the ‘local’ people,

who are adversely affected by the rise in prices of

essential commodities around the PA. The revenue

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earned from tourism in the PA is not transferred to

the PA for its better manage-ment for a variety of

administrative reasons.

It is important to assess if tourism is causing

a detrimental effect on the less robust habitats or

threatened wild species. It is also essential to predict

if it is likely to affect conservation values in future.

Some PAs have very little tourism, due to the low

accessibility of major glamour species, inadequate

facilities, or a lack of available information about

the PA. The ability of controlled tourism to enhance

nature awareness among the public is a benefit to

conservation itself. PAs can be considered an

educational asset if an Interpretation Centre is

developed. Managers of the PAs have stated that

the number of visitors in different PAs is highly

variable, most being day visitors. Koyna, Chandoli,

and GIB had up to 5 thousand visitors per year,

Andhari and Rehakuri between 5-10000 per year;

Melghat and Radhanagari between 10-20 per year;

S. Gandhi, Andhari, Pench, Yawal, Nagzira,

Navegaon, Tadoba and Sagareshwar had over 20000

tourists per year. Most of the tourists are only

casually interested in wildlife or use the PA as a

holiday resort. Most PAs do not have an

Interpretation Centre to orient them towards eco-

tounsm. Some tourists are attracted by the scenery,

climate, or a venerated shrine.

IV. Conflict

The interaction between conservation goals

and resource use leads to the “not in my backyard”

phenomenon. This is the most contentious issue that

confronts several PA managers. Compensation for

loss of life or property damaged by wildlife is a

major problem. An indication of the level of conflict

in the form of cattle lifting by predators showed

that Melghat had to pay a very high rate of

compensation. Kalsubai, Chandoli and Bhima-

shankar also reported a large number of cattle kills.

Attacks on humans were recorded from S. Gandhi

and Nagzira. Serious crop damage was reported

from Navegaon, Bhimashankar, GIB and Rehakuri;

and moderate damage from Koyna, Radhanagari and

Katepurna.

Crop damage due to Wildboar, Nilgai or

Sambhar was reported from nearly every forest PA.

Blackbuck was mainly responsible for crop damage

in the GIB, Rehakuri and Katepurna Sanctuaries.

Impression

A scale to rate each of these PAs on the basis

of its objectives and the three key parameters could

help managers decide on conservation priorities for

Maharashtra. This could also be used to modify and

provide a pattern of management for the different

PAs in the IPAS.

Part B

An Evaluation Scale for Grading Protected

Areas

Among the most complex issues that must be

considered while developing management plans for

PAs are the difficulties in evaluating individual PAs

and giving them relative ratings within the IPAS.

This is however essential to allocate funds and

manpower in a logical proportion for each PA.

The ‘value’ of biological diversity of an area

must be assessed on parameters such as the level of

biodiversity and its relative ‘uniqueness’. At the

species level, this includes the number of plant and

animal species, the extent of endemism and the

number of rare and threatened species. It must also

take into account the systems level, i.e. the type and

variety of landscapes, which represent various

ecosystem types and the variety of plant and animal

communities present in an intact form. Each

landscape form is overlaid by the level of pressure

on the ‘natural’ system due to which they display

variable degradation forms. This results in a loss of

their component species and an invasion of those

that are colonizers in secondary vegetation. This is

also related to the level of management which

attempts to reverse or arrest deterioration. In some

CONSERVATION NOTES

529

situations management may be incapable of

mitigating existing levels of conflict between the

people’s needs and the conservation of biodiversity,

resulting in a gradual degradation into less valuable

biological communities. The number of species

within an ecosystem can, however, be used as a fair

indicator of the value of an area for prioritization in

the IPAS, if ecosystem specificity is also given

adequate weightage.

Though a variety of grading methods have

been evolved by several authors, especially for

Australia, USA and South America, they are not

directly applicable to the scenario found in India.

This paper presents a rating for the PAs of

Maharashtra on a uniform evaluation scale based

on a standardized scoring system. The system

considers.

I) The objectives,

II) The key parameters, and

III) The potential values of PAs which include:

A) The conservation potential;

B) The utilitarian potential, and

C) The conflict level resulting from

interactions between protection and

resource-use.

A similar grouping has been attempted by

Wright (1977), on reviewing several grading

schemes. It is suggested that there should be four

groups of parameters that must be considered:

Group I : Scientific criteria (Biological and

Physical characteristics);

Group II : Use values;

Group HI.: Degree of threat;

Group IV : Availability.

The above grouping has certain parallels with

the grading scale evolved for Maharashtra.

Several authors caution that providing

numerical scores should not disguise the use of

subjective value judgments that were used for

scoring. This is indeed a relevant argument. It is

essential to describe clearly the subjective criteria

on which the notional values have been ascribed.

This paper provides a carefully specified set of

criteria, as a safety measure against such a situation.

Wright (1977) stresses the importance of including

an appraisal of management in judging the

conservation potential of an area. The data for their

paper has been made on standardized cards similar

to the questionnaires used to collect data in this

paper.

Dony and Denholm (1985), stress the

importance of a ‘rarity’ score. They state that the

most popular criteria are diversity (richness), size,

rarity, threat of human disturbance and naturalness,

the first three being quantifiable. Their paper also

differentiates species richness and diversity. The

diversity values can be affected by variations in area,

homogeneity or maturity. They claim that rare

species are generally most vulnerable to human

pressure and indicate unusual ecological conditions.

In several ‘tropical’ and monsoonal forest systems

the number of trees that account for 50% of the

sample invariably include less than 10% of the

species. Field studies in the Western Ghats being

carried out by the present author shows that it is the

rare species of trees that are progressively lost as

intact forest systems are converted to degraded

forests and finally into scrubland. However, all the

sites which need to be protected may not have rare

species and still need to be preserved in an IPAS

Dony and Denholm (1985) also mention the

problem of scale, i.e. rarity must be assessed at local,

regional or national levels to be meaningfully used

to develop management strategies.

The vegetation patterns of PAs can be classified

into different ecosystems and different forest types Puri

et al. 1983). The conservation status of a PA is a

reflection of the various grades of biotic pressure of a

variety of types that affect the ecosystem. Important

parameters for judging its status are its biological

values, such as the ‘naturalness’ of the vegetation and

the presence or absence of ‘glamour’ wildlife species

for tourism. Using these parameters, the conservation

potential can be divided into four grades.

PAs must also support local people with

resource-needs such as timber, fuel-wood, and

fodder as well as support adequate tourist facilities.

This aspect has been allotted four grades.

A third aspect is the grading of the level of

‘conflict’ between the needs of people and

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

conservation goals, due to the proximity of the PA

and its wildlife to human habitation.

These multiple factors and their interactions

produce a variety of situations that affect the

conservation of biodiversity in each of the PAs that

constitute the IPAS (Ledec and Goodland 1988,

McNeely 1988, Peters et al, 1989, Phillips et al).

This grading scale has been established on

the basis of ‘notional values’ that ascribe a relative

score for each of these clearly discernible parameters

in each PA. While some parameters are easily

quantifiable, others are relatively intangible.

The scoring system forms a useful management

tool For example it can be argued that areas with

higher than average conservation importance and

higher levels of conflict should be provided more funds

and more intensive management. On the other hand,

if nothing is done to maintain PAs of a lower

conservation status they will be degraded further,

perhaps irretrievably. Adequately supported, these

latter could become viable conservation sites. It would

be, however, illogical to provide unnecessarily large

funds for a PA of little conservation consequence, if

high priority areas are left short of funds. An

assessment based on the pattern evolved in this study,

would help prioritize these issues.

The grading can also be used for selecting an

appropriate strategy, from a set of broad

management options, for each PA. This implies

selecting a primary strategy from one of three

management options - restoration, rehabilitation,

and substitution of resources (Box 3). At times

appropriate combinations of these in the form of

primary and secondary management options may

have to be used for different zones in the PA. The

basic strategy may thus be supplemented by

supportive measures in relation to the needs of the

area. The management plan for the PAs must zone

the area and the surrounding landscape types into

different categories so that appropriate conservation

actions can be initiated. This must take into account

the utilization of the habitat by key wildlife and the

conflict levels due to human activity. For example,

Blackbuck {Antilope cervicapra ) change their

behavioural patterns in modified habitats.

Elephants change their feeding behaviour in

response to changes in the size of their habitat

(Bharucha and Asher 1993).

This grading scale, using a selection of the

most important and obvious parameters, is

essentially aimed at formulating a model that can

be extended to include a larger set of parameters

based on detailed quantified field studies. It can also

be used to select specific management strategies for

individual PAs taking into account their relative

status within the IPAS. The strategy would aim to

develop an ecorestorative effort to bring about a high

degree of ‘naturalness’. It would also develop a

parallel ecodevelopment plan to reduce biotic

pressures on the PA (Gadgil 1987).

I. Rating PAs by their Objectives

The scoring system designed to rate an

individual PA by its perceived objectives has been

provided in (Table V).This has been used to evaluate

each of the PAs and to provide a relative score.

Table V

NOTIONAL VALUES FOR RATINGS OF PA

OBJECTIVES

Insert A : Specific Parameters

1 B Preservation of high levels of Biodiversity (+

indicates highest estimated value)

2 E Protection of Endangered species or Endemic

fauna

3 P Conservation of important Plant values

4 R Preservation of Relict or threatened ecosystems

5 MU A Multiple Use Area - fishing, fodder, etc.

6 S Sustainable resource-use possibilities

7 L Lake siltation prevention

8 W Water regime protection from hill slopes

9 T Used for Tourism:

Over 20,000 per year - Primary objective

1 0.000 - 20,000 per year - Secondary objective

5.000 - 10,000 per year - Tertiary objective

CONSERVATION NOTES

531

Table VI

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Insert B:

**Note : These parameters represent perceived objectives that

can be laid down for these PAs. Most of these are either being

implemented or are being attempted. Those that can also be

attempted by broadening the scope of the PAs objectives have

been put into brackets and not used for the rating.

Primary objectives :

4 parameters = High grade

3 parameters = Moderate grade

2 parameters = Low grade

Secondary objectives :

3 parameters = High grade

2 parameters = Moderate grade

1 parameter = Low grade

Tertiary objectives :

2 parameters = High grade

1 parameter = Moderate grade

0 parameter = Low grade

RATING ON THE BASIS OF PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND

TERTIARY OBJECTIVES

For an easily manageable scoring system, the

primary objectives are limited to a maximum of four,

secondary objectives to three and tertiary to two.

Accordingly the relative scoring by the number of

primary, secondary and tertiary objectives can be

used to provide a grade and an index of the PAs

rating by objectives (Table V).

The ‘objectives’ of an established PA play a

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

major role in influencing its evaluation. The aim of

rational land use planning includes PAs as a vital

component primarily to conserve biodiversity, and

secondarily to sustainably manage renewable resources

for the region. If a PA has a high probability of

achieving several of these goals it is given a higher

rating (Table VI). A lower rating is ascribed if it has

only a few parameters. This is a reflection that the PA

has a disturbed ecosystem or supports only a few

species in an unnatural habitat. Areas such as Rehakuri,

GIB Sanctuary, Sagreshwar and the man-made wetland

PAs of Nandur and Jayakwadi thus have lower ratings

based on objectives.

Grading for four important primary objectives

gives a PA a greater value. Secondary or tertiary

objectives, such as to provide economic benefits for

surrounding people, or the availability of resources

for human use, or its tourist potential, or the ability

to enhance global environmental conditions, have

been given a relatively lower importance. Each

parameter has been separately evaluated and

included to rate the PA’s utilitarian functions at local

or global levels.

Based on their perceived objectives, PAs such

as Radhanagari, Melghat and Tadoba have the

highest ratings. This group of very important PAs is

followed by Bhimashankar, Nagzira, Andhari and

Navegaon. PAs such as Koyna, Chandoli, Tansa,

Sanjay Gandhi, Phansad, Chaprala, Pench,

Painganga and Malvan are of the moderate group,

while the rest are rated low for their objectives.

Certain parameters are relatively fixed due to a PAs

location, ecosystem type, size, etc. This can be said

to give it a biogeographically fixed rating.

II. Rating PAs on Key Parameters

Biogeographical Rating

On the basis of biogeographical criteria PAs

can be provided with a baseline rating in the IPAS,

as follows :

(A) According to the proportion of land in

PAs in different biotic provinces;

(B) The representation in different

ecosystems; and

(C) Their relative sizes.

This is used to define their individual

biogeographical rating in the network. These values

are not affected by the level of management inputs

and are thus relatively fixed.

A. The representation of the biotic provinces

within the IPAS is used to provide a notional value

of 3 for the areas where the representation is below

the requirement of the IPAS, a lower value of 2 for

those which have adequate representation and 1 for

those that are over represented. This has been

established in Table III and included in Table VIII

(Column A).

B. The representation of different ecosystems

in the 29 PAs is shown in Table III (Puri et al. 1983

p. 285). The number of PAs that protect different

ecosystems is given in Table VII. The poorly

represented ecosystems are given a higher notional

Table VII

NUMBER OF PAs THAT PROTECT DIFFERENT

ECOSYSTEMS

Note:- The total is over 29 as more than one system is

represented in several PAs.

value. These should be intensively protected. If

the ecosystem is represented in less than 5 PAs the

notional value given is 3; between 6 and 10 PAs,

the value is 2; and in 11 or more, a value of 1. This

score has been used to assess the rating for each PA

(Table VII, Column B).

C. The relative importance in relation to

size is shown in Table IV. The three categories are

rated as follows:

Category I - Over 250 sq. km has a rating of 3;

Category II - 100 to 250 sq. km has a rating of 2;

CONSERVATION NOTES

533

Table VIII

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL RATING

A - Representation requirement in biotic province; B -

Ecosystem representation; C - Size; D - Total; E - Average ( to

nearest whole number).

Higher values are given if Biotic province or ecosystem is

relatively under represented.

* This rating considers the fact that most of the area is largely

agricultural.

Category ID - less than 100 sq. km with a rating of 1 .

This is in accordance with the norms required

for staffing of PAs laid down by the Government of

India. However, these Categories could be further

divided into IA, above 1000 sq. km. Category IB,

500 to 1000 sq. km. Category IIIA, 25 to 100 sq.

km and IIIB - 1 to 25 sq. km. These subdivisions

are essential for rating Protected Areas hi relation

to size. The values given for each PA for rating by

size is given in Table VIII, Column C.

D. These 3 quantifiable values have been

aggregated to rate the basic biogeographical value

of each PA within the IPAS in Table VIII, Column

D. The average rating for Conservation Potential

for these three parameters has been rounded off to

the nearest unit for each PA and is given in Table

VHI, Column E.

Scoring criteria for three key issues based on

specific parameters and management inputs

Assessing the degree to which each PA has

achieved its objectives is difficult to quantify. An

estimate in terms of its perceived objectives as

against partially achieved or satisfactorily achieved

targets is however possible. The success or failure

of management requires a much greater degree of

quantification and must be repeated periodically and

as such has been only attempted here, during a brief

period of three years. However, it has temporal

implications over a much longer duration. It is

possible that with good management these perceived

objectives of a PA could be partially or eventually

totally achieved, thus improving a PAs relative

rating in the IPAS. If however, there is a progressive

escalation of pressures, or poor management, the

rating may be brought down on the evaluation scale.

The evaluation of the conservation and

utilization potentials, as well as local conflict levels,

in each PA, was strengthened by providing a score

for these parameters under the three major heads as

follows:

Protected Areas could have objectives that

give them a conservation potential that ranges from

a high to a low rating in the IPAS. A Protected

Area could have few management problems, or have

serious difficulties for its adequate management

which could jeopardize its conservation status. Thus

each PA may be placed in a matrix depending on

the importance of its objectives and the level of

management problems (See Box 2).

A matrix of possible combinations of

parameters based on objectives and management

problems which operate in a PA is shown in Table

IX. It is evident that the preliminary scoring on

objectives alone is inadequate for an objective

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Box 2

evaluation of a PA within the IPAS. Though the

grading should be related to the relative importance

of the objectives of a PA, its potential to achieve

these goals is related to three key issues : (a)

Conservation Potential; (b) Utilitarian Potential; and

(c) Level of Conflict.

a) A large number of factors that cannot be

easily quantified, must be considered for evaluating

its Conservation Potential, such as its overall

biological importance in terms of fragility and rarity

of the ecosystem, the level of species richness and

the presence of endangered or endemic animals and

plants. Another factor that must be considered is

the ‘naturalness’ of the ecosystem. Undisturbed

natural forest must be rated higher than plantations.

Fragmented or degraded PAs or those with high

disturbance levels are given relatively lower ratings.

Grasslands with a large number of grass species

would be rated higher than those with high levels

of pressure and few species in the ground cover.

b) The other factor for evaluating a PA is

related to its ability to sustain human life. Their

functions such as retaining soil, maintaining

moisture regimes and providing for the daily needs

of local people must be taken into account to grade

the PAs. This needs a separate evaluation.

c) Finally, the interaction between the needs

of conservation and the use of the area and its

resources leads to different levels of conflict. The

degree of these conflicts is related to the long term

survival of the PA.

The guidelines used to give a score for these

three key issues is given in Table IX. Using these

graded criteria each PA has been given a score for

Conservation, Utilization and Conflict Level, Table

X. These values are reflected in Table XI for

individual PAs.

in. Potential of PAs for Conservation, Utilization

and the Conflict Level.

a) Conservation Potential: The conservation

potential i.e. the Biological importance,

‘naturalness’ of vegetation and major wildlife

values are given four grades, with values of 0 to

3, for each parameter (Table IX).

In the Conservation Potential a high rating is

given to biological values such as the uniqueness

of the ecosystem (Table III); the relative size of the

PA (Table IV). The score in terms of biological

value is reduced if similar ecotypes have been

protected in other PAs (Table VII). An estimate of

generally known species diversity; the presence of

endangered species; and optimal habitat conditions

to maintain wildlife populations provides a fair

degree of the level of importance of a PA (Table

XIa). The parameters used are thus Biogeographic

importance. Naturalness of vegetation. Wildlife

values which together provide a score from 0 to 9.

The value is progressively reduced if the area is

fragmented by other land-use patterns such as

agriculture, plantations, etc.

b) Utilitarian Potential: The level of

utilization of resources and the ecodevelopment

possibilities in terms of providing timber,

fuelwood, fodder and MFP as well as tourist

facilities are given 4 grades (Table IXb). This

provides scoring values of 0 to 3 for each

parameter (Table Xb).

The values are influenced by the number of

settlements within and on the borders of the PA and

the pressure due to human and cattle populations. It

also takes into account the existing management and

the presence of interested Forest Department

personnel and active NGOs who can collaborate in

an ecodevelopment program.

CONSERVATION NOTES

535

Table IX

SCORING “VALUES” FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE POTENTIAL GOALS OF CONSERVATION/UTILIZATION/

CONFLICT LEVELS

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table IX contd.

* Grade I provides the maximum ‘value’ while grade IV the minimum. An area would be graded in the format Conservation = X,

Utilization = Y, Conflict level = Z.

The ‘values’ can be compared with other areas to place an area as: Highly desirable for conservation, significant, insignificant, or

worthless.

Table X

SCORE VALUES FOR GRADES IN EACH PARAMETER

Note : For Conflict levels the highest score is 9 for Grade I

which indicates minimal conflict, and lowest is 0 for Grade IV

indicating maximal conflict.

The utilitarian potential is an indicator of the

financial and infrastructural input that would be

required for site specific ecodevelopment schemes

that may help conserve biodiversity (McNeely 1988,

p. 57). Baseline data on land and resource-use

parameters were obtained from PA managers and

through site visits (Annexure I, II). These are used

for scoring Utilitarian Potential for each PA. A close

interaction with local people to identify these

baseline parameters is essential for evaluating the

ecodevelopment potential of each PA. A

Participatory Rural Appraisal is an essential

interactive process before implementation of an

ecodevelopment program. The human and cattle

population density per hectare in a PA has been used

as one index of the level of biotic pressure. Overall

notional value for Utilitarian potential ranging from

0 to 9 is given for the PAs, (this data provided by

PA managers provides an index of local management

problems). The high pressure PAs with a human

population of over 0.5 per hectare were given values

as follows: Painganga - 1, Gautala - 1, GIB - 2 and

Nandur - 5. Between 0. 1 to 0.5 per hectare the values

CONSERVATION NOTES

537

Table XI

SCORING STATUS OF 29 PAs

Note:- Biogeo. imp.- Biogeographical importance Nat. veg.- Naturalness of vegetation; Wild, val.- Wildlife values; S. Gandhi -

Sanjay Gandhi; Nandur Mad.- Nandur Madhmeshwar.

given were: Yawal - 3, Bhimashankar - 4, Aner - 3.

PAs with less than 0.1 per hectare were given the

following values: Melghat - 7, Andhari - 6, Pench -

5, Nagzlra - 5, Navegaon - 5, S. Gandhi - 5 and

Katepurna - 2. In several PAs precise figures were

not available and population pressure was estimated

by questioning people or by looking at PA maps and

the number of settlements.

In response to questionnaires, PA managers

also opined on the feasibility of establishing

ecodevelopment programs. Some indicate a paucity

of funds or expertise. The ability to produce

adequate quantities of fuel and fodder is at best a

guestimate and is related to factors such as the

availability of land to develop the resource and the

willingness of people to participate in joint

management of PA resources.

It is obvious that in a PA only a very limited

amount of timber extraction can be done so this must

essentially provide an overall low rating. If a similar

rating were to be used for a non-PA situation this

would become an important index. Cattle grazing

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table XII

RANKING FOR DIFFERENT PA POTENTIALS

Note:- Rank (A) - Rank Achieved; Rank (B) - Rank on Perceived Objective (Table VI).

S. Gandhi - Sanjay Gandhi National Park; Nandur - Nandur Madhmeshwar; GIB - Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary; B'shankar -

Bhimashankar.

also has a negative impact in most of the PAs. The

sustainable collection of MFP is given a higher

rating as it may not affect the PA adversely.

Sustainable ecotourism is a potential source of

income for local people and is thus included in the

utilization aspect of the PA functions. The Utilitarian

Potential with scoring for the 3 utilitarian parameters

is given in Table XIB.

c) Conflict levels : The level of conflict

between conservation goals and peoples’

resource needs are given four grades. The

minimum conflict level is given the highest rating

and serious conflict the lowest.

Conflict levels are the most difficult to rate

in the absence of detailed impact studies of the PA

on the lifestyles of local people. Crop damage, cattle

lifting, man kills, restrictions on the use of natural

resources, access to markets, transport, water, etc.

have been taken into account from the PA managers’

responses to questionnaires. However, this would

CONSERVATION NOTES

539

need detailed PRAs for increasing the accuracy of

evaluations. It may be noted that in the absence of

a detailed PRA of all the settlements in and around

a PA, ratings can be biased.

Each of the PAs have been given scores for

different parameters (Table XI). Though it can be

argued that the value selected in a certain parameter

is subjective, this does not detract from its ability to

help provide a comparison between different

Protected Areas. It has been stated that

“ Quantifying conservation values is a complex and

often subjective assessment” (Smith 1990).

However a PRA can help to reduce the bias by

conversing with a large number of people, both from

the management personnel as well as local people

andNGOs.

Note : The biogeographic ratings for PAs are

given out of a total of 9 (Table VIII). This is averaged

to the nearest whole number as the scores for

biogeographical importance and included in Table

XI which is rated from 0 to 3. The biological

importance not only takes into account the

biogeographical rating but considers a variety of

other factors. These are ‘distinctiveness’ of the

ecosystem; guestimates of the level of biodiversity

and the known number of endemic or endangered

species. The utilitarian values are also built up

through a variety of separately quantifiable values

to develop an overall score for each PA. The Conflict

Levels are a reflection of the interaction between

the management established for a PA and the needs

of local people. All three have been aggregated into

an overall score in Table XII.

Table XI shows the values given in each

parameter to the PAs, and the score for their

Conservation Potential, Utilization Potential and

Conflict Levels. Whereas some PAs have better

aggregate scores for their conservation potential

others have greater utilitarian value with the ability

to support people through ecodevelopment

programs. Still others have lower levels of conflict

with proportionately higher ratings in this vital

component.

Table XII shows the rating for each aspect of

a PA’s function in order of merit. This shows that

ranking varies considerably in each data set. The

median value for conservation potential is 5, for

utilitarian potential 4, and for conflict level 5.

For example - the highest ratings for the

Conservation Potential is for Radhanagari - 9;

Tadoba -7; Nagzira - 7 and Malwan -7. In terms of

their ability to support their Utilitarian Potential for

different functions and an ecodevelopment program

the highest scores are found in Melghat - 7;

Radhanagari - 7; and Tansa - 7. The Conflict Level

is minimum in Tadoba - 9; as there are no settlements

within its boundaries.

Adding these together to provide a total

overall score for the status of the PAs shows that

Radhanagari has 22, and Tadoba - 21; followed by

Melghat - 20; and Nagzira - 18. This however gives

little indication of the status of a PA. Aggregating

the individual scores of Conservation, Utilization

and Conflict Levels do not give a clear picture of

the different aspects necessary to evaluate the

success level achieved for a specific PA in the IPAS.

An unusually low scoring is ascribed to the

GIB sanctuary with a Conservation Potential score

of 2, a Wilderness Utilization Potential of 2, and its

Conflict Level with a score of 1. The overall score

is 5 showing that though this PA is created for the

highly endangered Great Indian Bustard, in its

present form it is not of much significance. If

however, the rating of only Nanaj and a few other

pockets having this endangered bird is considered ,

i.e. 400 sq. km out of the present 8,496 sq. km, the

rating would be different. The Conservation

Potential would be 6, the Utilization Potential 6 and

the Conflict Level 6, i.e. an overall aggregate score

of 18. This would place it among the more valued

PAs. The example of the GIB sanctuary illustrates

how scoring on a conservation evaluation scale can

influence management of PAs and help redefine

boundaries if necessary.

An important observation is the change in the

rating of individual PAs observed in Table V, which

provides a score for perceived objectives and that

actually achieved in Table XII. The shift can be

related to a variety of issues due to which perceived

objectives of the Bhimashanker Sanctuary gave it a

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table XIII

SCORES OF CONSERVATION, UTILISATION AND CONFLICT LEVELS AND PA SIGNATURES

Note: +: Above median, ** Low conflict levels have high notional values.

0: Median, High conflict levels have low notional values.

Below median.

rating as the 4th in the IPAS. However the

aggregated score for conservation, utilization and

the conflict level patented gives it the 4th rank (Table

XII, column A), it falls to 14th and 19th place in the

Utilitarian Potential and the high conflict level. Thus

the perceived objectives appear to be biased by its

high biological value. The disparity between

perceived objectives (Table V) and the achieved

ranking (Table XII) can be evaluated for each PA in

Table XII.

Overall Score and Individual Rating

Table XII shows that the PAs can be divided

into 3 major groups. Those having scores for

conservation, utilization and conflict levels above

the median value, those of a median value and those

that have ratings below the median value.

In Table XIII, those with a score above the

median value are given a V sign, the median value

is given a ‘0’ sign, while those below the median

value are given sign, for each data set.

Accordingly, the combinations possible are 3 3 and

a PA could have one of 27 different combinations

(Table XIV, Column A). Of these the PAs fall into

11 categories, i.e., the existing signatures (Table

XIV, Column B).

Thus each PA has its own ‘Signature’

depending on its relative status in the IPAS. This

CONSERVATION NOTES

541

Table XIV

SIGNATURE OF PAs IN THREE GROUPS

* (A) - Possible Signatures

(B) - Existing Signatures

method of rating can be used to indicate the best

management options for individual PAs, and is a

better indicator for selecting management options

than the overall score. Table XIV shows the

‘signatures’ of each PA.

In the 3 3 , i.e. of 27 possible combinations

that form a ‘signature’, there are three major groups:

Group I has either 3(+); or combinations of

2(+), with 1(0); or 2(+) with l(-);

Group II has combinations of 1(+), with either

2(0); or 1(+), with 1(0) and l(-); or 3(0)s.

Group III has combinations of 2(-) with 1(+)

or 1(0), and 3(-)s (Table XIV).

Thus there are 8 PAs in Group I; 8 in Group

II; and 13 in Group III. This gives a clear indication

of the status of the PAs within the IPAS.

Interpretation

(a) Conservation Potential

In the signature, a (0) for conservation would

indicate an average placement in the IPAS. If a (+)

sign is given for conservation this would necessitate

a policy towards establishing an area with the

highest level of protection and to ‘restore’ it to a

level of being considered as a ‘Strict Nature

Reserve’ by IUCN standards. A (-) sign would

indicate a low conservation status. Here hard

decisions must be made, as it may become essential

to write off some of the least significant areas. No

large financial outlays should be made for such areas

under normal conditions. An exception would be

the presence of an endangered species not found

elsewhere, or some other specific objective that the

PA is intended to protect or preserve.

(b) Utilitarian Potential

If for utilization a (0) is ascribed, these PAs

would require an average outlay of the budget

towards ecodevelopment which could be expected

to maintain the ecosystem in its present state. A (+)

sign indicates that pressures are low ana if the

financial input is adequate one can expect an

improvement in the state of the ecosystem. Here

the management must aim towards balancing

conservation and utilization to provide a

“rehabilitation” program to achieve a desired level

of ‘naturalness’. A (-) sign for utilization indicates

a high resource pressure. Here the major thrust

should be to “substitute” resources developed in

external buffers. This also may need high economic

support if the conservation potential shows a (+)

sign. Several of these areas, however, may have to

be managed as “Multiple Use Areas” as defined by

KJCN.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

(c) Conflict Levels

Finally, if the conflict sign is (0,) this is

indicative of the average level of man-animal

conflict, or between the needs of conservation of

biodiversity, with natural resource use by local

people in the PA. A (+) sign indicates lower than

average levels and signifies good long-term

possibilities for conservation. These are the areas

where the local acceptance of the PA is likely to be

most easily achieved. A (-) indicates a serious issue

that would require a larger financial outlay towards

compensating for losses (due to crop damage, cattle

lifting, etc.). A major thrust of management in this

situation must aim at reducing the conflict both

within and on PA boundaries.

The ‘Signature’ and Management Issues

The signature is an aid for selecting

management options and designing management

plans for PAs. Of the 27 options available, the PAs

fall into 11 patterns. These form three distinct groups

see Table XIV. The issues that are to be taken into

account relate to the preservation of biodiversity at

species and landscape level and their relationship

to specific local factors (Box 5).

1. (+++): Of the 29 PAs six have a (+++)

signature (ie. 20.69%). The signature pattern (+++)

indicates above average scoring for all three major

criteria. In this group the possibility of restoration

appears most feasible. The aim of management

should be to create as large a core as possible with

ecodevelopment inputs for conserving the buffer on

a sustainable basis. The low conflict level is a

distinct advantage, making restoration an attainable

target. This strategy must thus be used to evolve

management plans for Radhanagari, Melghat,

Tadoba, Koyna, Phansad and Nagzira. Tadoba is the

only National Park in this group. Thus Radhanagari,

Melghat, Koyna, Phansad and Nagzira Wildlife

Sanctuaries should be upgraded to NP status, to

provide inviolate cores and better management. This

would ensure their preservation on a long term basis.

Melghat is of great conservation significance due

to its large size, especially as tigers need large areas.

2. (0++): There are two PAs in this group

(6.9%). The (0++) signature is given for PAs that

may not have a very large conservation significance.

However, with their relatively good ecodevelopment

potential and low conflict levels, they may retain

their present conservation status. These are Andhari

and Gugamal.

3. (++-): In the 29 PAs only one had this

signature (3.4%). In the signature pattern of (++-)

though the conservation and utilization potentials

are above average, the high conflict level may make

restoration an unattainable and unpopular goal. Here

the individual cause of conflict in each case would

have to be addressed as a primary concern of

management planning. Navegaon has a Naxalite

problem with an otherwise high potential for long-

term conservation.

4. (+00): Chandoli is the only PA in this

group. This PA has a high conservation potential

with average ecodevelopment possibilities and

moderate levels of conflict. Chandoli in the Western

Ghats is an important ecotype.

5. (+0-): This category has two PAs (6.9%).

Malwan has a great conservation significance, being

the only marine PA (3.4%). However, conflict with

local fishing rights is a major issue. Bhimashankar

has a very high biological significance as it is

situated in a ‘hot spot’ of biodiversity. Local conflict

issues which have been triggered off by local

politically active NGO groups is a significant

conflict triggering factor. This appears to have

escalated problems instead of eliciting cooperative

joint PA management with local people.

6. (0+-): There are three PAs in this group

(10.3%). A (0+-) signature signifies a PA of average

importance where ecodevelopment is feasible but

conflict levels are unduly high. The management

must thus focus on primarily reducing conflict.

S. Gandhi NP is a problem PA due to the leopards

which have been known to attack people living in

the nearby slum.

7. (+— ):This group has only one PA (3.4%).

In the(+— ) group Chaprala, though of considerable

conservation significance has problems both due to

CONSERVATION NOTES

543

human activity and resource pressure, as weli as

serious conflict. Management must thus attempt to

preserve its high conservation value by providing

alternate resources through ecodevelopment and

minimizing conflict.

8. (-+-): In the 29 PAs 1 (3.4%) is in this

group. The signature (-+-) indicates that the

conservation potential is below average, the

utilitarian potential is high and conflict is a serious

issue. Here, restoration would in fact be unnecessary

and may require inordinately high inputs if it were

to be attempted. A more objective rehabilitation

program might be a better management option.

Nandur could thus form an ideal MUA as

recommended for the proposed PA at Ujjaini

(Bharucha and Gogate 1990).

9. (-0-): There is only one PA in this group

(3.4%). Jayakwadi is a man-modified wetland

system of low conservation value as a landscape

type, however, it supports a large number of

wildfowl.

10. (—0): There are six PAs in this group

(20.69%). Those PAs which have a signature (—0)

have a low conservation potential with low

utilization potential and moderate levels of conflict.

Management planning must focus on a good

substitution program for resources and identify those

that have specific conservation objectives. Bor,

Aner, Yawal, Kalsubai, Katepurna and Karnala are

included in this group.

11. (---): This group has 5 PAs (17.24%).

The signature ( — ) has low conservation as well as

utilization potentials and serious conflict levels.

Included in this group are Painganga, Gautala,

Sagreshwar, Rehakuri and GIB. These are problem

areas which would require rehabilitation and a large

substitution complement. The high conflict level

would probably negate all efforts at conservation

unless rapidly defused. These PAs require careful

management if they are to play any role in the

conservation of biodiversity in the State. Some may

require a modification of their size, or a re-

demarcation of boundaries. In others, serious people

- wildlife issues may have to be solved. At present

most of these can at best be looked upon as MU As.

The GIB Sanctuary is too large to manage and is

primarily not a wilderness area and thus cannot be

rehabilitated or restored. Rehakuri is too small

for long-term viability, especially due to serious

conflict due to crop damage by Blackbuck.

Sagreshwar, though in a forest type not found in

any other PA in Maharashtra, is of little conservation

significance. In future some of the PAs in this group

may have to be redesigned or their objectives

lowered, so that their proposed objectives can be

achieved.

Implications of Scoring on Management of

PAs

The ratings provided for PAs on the basis of

their objectives alone do not necessarily coincide

with the ratings based on the three parameters

identified as the most important criteria for assessing

PAs, namely the Conservation Potential, Utilitarian

Potential and the degree of Conflict. This indicates

the need for specific management to achieve these

goals, or to modify objectives where the probability

of achieving them is not feasible.

The basic policy for management of PAs must

consider their specific objectives. In important PAs

management must attempt to recreate a relatively

‘natural’ state of the ecosystem in its ‘climax’

vegetation form. This process of restoration may

not be an achievable target in all cases. In certain

situations it may not even be a desirable objective

as it may be detrimental to certain important species

found in non-climax communities. However, this

must be attempted in the core areas of most NPs

and the more important Wildlife sanctuaries (Box 3

and 4).

A PA’s management may only be able to bring

about rehabilitation of its ecosystem to achieve a

desired level of naturalness. Here its conservation

goals and utilization capability are to be balanced

judiciously (Box 3 and 4). This option attempts to

provide a sustainable use of local resources while

maintaining the wilderness in as optimal a state as

possible. The process of ecodevelopment and spatial

zoning of the PA for resource-use are important

management strategies for this option.

544

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Box 3

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

RESTORE

core to optimal state

by upgrading

management for

achieving conservation

objectives

/K

REHABILITATE

buffer to

desired ecological

state by balancing

conservation and

utilization

through ecodevelopment

Present

Ecological )

Status

SUBSTITUTE

resources in buffer

from man-modified high

yielding systems

developed elsewhere

OVER UTILIZATION

of resources which will

degrade PA to an

unproductive and unnatural

system

In PAs where restoration or rehabilitation,

along with sustainable resource utilization, is

beyond the carrying capacity of the PA, or if it is

likely to erode its resources if over exploited for

subsistence needs of local people, these resources

must be developed elsewhere arid met through

substitution. Providing these additional resources

is the price that society must pay for the preservation

of PAs. This is frequently neglected and it is

invariably the poor wilderness dweller who pays

the price of conservation. This must be rectified by

adequate financial inputs into the IPAS to support

people whose resource-use has been restricted to

achieve conservation gains. However, this should

not be provided in a monetary form but by creating

opportunities for achieving a higher socio-economic

stability, based on activities that do not place further

pressures on the ecosystem.

A combination of basic and supportive

management options may be necessary to achieve

conservation goals. Different objectives of

management must also be specified for core and

CONSERVATION NOTES

545

buffer zones (Box 3 and 4). This has a bearing on

the financial outlay for adequate management for

restorative and ecodevelopment activities (Box 4).

In terms of management for PAs that have a

relatively High Score for their Conservation

Potential the ideal method would be to attempt to

restore at least a part of the area - the core - to near

‘natural’ conditions. However, this would depend

on the capability of its buffer to have an adequate

Utilization Potential so that resource needs can be

provided for local people. This could be achieved

by rehabilitation of the buffer area. All PAs of a

NP status should be able to fulfill this function.

If the PA’s ability to support the peoples’ basic

needs has a relatively Low Score it would be

essential to substitute resources from outside the PA.

PAs with more serious conflicts require increased

financial outlay, larger resource substitutions and

more sensitive management. Management strategy

must counteract the polarization of the needs of

wildlife conservation and those of local people.

The graded system of ascribing scores to PAs

provides an important indiactor of the relative status

of each PA. This in turn can be used to help select

basic management criteria for the individual PAs

within the IPAS.

A more detailed and accurate grading could

be achieved if several other parameters are

quantified and included in the grading scale. In

Conservation Potential, apart from factors such as

size, biogeographic and ecosystem representation,

other factors such as shape, habitat quality,

statistically quantified faunal populations and the

degree to which species are locally endangered,

could all be studied and given a proportionately

justifiable weightage. In the Utilization Potential the

scoring has taken into consideration parameters such

as number of settlements/sq. km and human

population density. It should also consider their

spatial distribution, the amount of ‘malki’ land,

number of free ranging cattle, the extent of

dependence on minor forest produce, etc. which

must be graded during a detailed Participatory Rural

Appraisal. The type and pattern of tourist pressure

must be studied to see if it is within the tourist

carrying capacity of the PA. Providing smaller

individual units for Conflict levels such as the

estimated value of the crop damage, lifting of

livestock, and the loss of life and livelihood must

be included. However, these issues are difficult to

quantify, especially when attempting to put a value

on human life. An important objective of a more

detailed analysis would be to decide which areas

can be included in the Scientific Reserve/Strict

Nature Reserve category as per the IUCN, and which

areas require a change from Wildlife Sanctuary to

National Park status. Other categories such as

‘Resource Reserves’ or ‘Multiple Use Areas’ could

Box 4

Most valued PA

Least valued PA

COMBINED MODES OF MANAGEMENT

+++ : High financial inputs on ecorestoration.

++ : Moderate financial inputs on ecorestoration.

+ : Low financial inputs on ecorestoration

(+++) : High financial inputs on ecodevelopment

(++) : Moderate financial inputs on ecodevelopment

(+) : Low financial inputs on ecodevelopment

Box 5

BIODIVERSITY PRESERVATION

^ Waterfowl breeding areas (Ujjaini)

Species level ^ Preservation ^ Wolf, endemic fish (mahseer), Giant squirrel

y Western Ghats flora

y Major Predators (Tiger, Leopard)

y Western Ghats Amphibia

\ Medicinal Plants

Landscape Level

_y Semi - arid grasslands

(After reduction of GIB)

Western Ghats forests

‘Unique’ areas;

^ Notify other grasslands

a) Semi-arid

b) Coastal

^ New PAs: Mahableshwar, Fr. Santapau

Corridoring existing PAs

Coral reef, mangrove, coastal grasslands, marshes

Bird breeding colonies, marine flora and fauna

LOCAL FACTORS

GIB — > Extremely large unviable PA — > Reduce in size ^ Local requests for MIDC

All Western Ghat PAs — ^ Fragmentation — ^ Establish Corridors (Convert RF to PA status)

High Biodiversity No timber value in ESAs

Wetland PAs ^ Conflict with Fishing

All Forest PAs

~ ^ Crop Damage by Wild Boar and Deer

y Conflict due to free grazing by scrub cattle

Melghat ^ Proposal for reduction in size~^ Inadvisable 5 Largest viable Protected Area

Tigers need large home ranges

Malwan ^ Severe conflicts with fishermen^ Specific ecodevelopment

Only known coral reef

Phansad ^ Small size ^ Increase size

Only Protected Area with primarily a coastal forest, etc.

Bhimashankar — ^ Devarais ! ^ Triggered Conflict

RadhanagarH ^ Threatened by Mining

Koyna — ^ Relocation of Settlements

Sanjay Gandhi > Human Encounters with Leopards

Rehekuri, GIB ^ Crop Damage by Blackbuck

Navegaon ^ Naxalite Problem

IMPRESSIONS

EVOLUTION OF THE NOTIONAL VALUES

Table

III

Ecosystems

PA

Status

Size

Biotic Province

(Table II)

Ecotype

Number of PAs

Table

IV

Size

(Table II)

Notional Value

1-3

Table

V

Specific Objectives (Perceived)

Score based on 12 parameters

0-3 : High Grade

4-6 : Moderate Grade

7-9 : Low Grade

Table

VI

Value for Objectives - Grading Method

Table

VII

Number of PAs of Different Ecosystems

(Table III)

Notional Value based on common/rare types

1-3

Table

IX

Scoring Values - 7 Parameters

Conservation Potential

(3 parameters: 0-3)

Utilization Potential

(3 parameters: 0-3)

Conflict Level

(Opportunistic parameters: 0-3)

Table

X

Score Values for 4 grades for each Potential

0-9

Table

XI

Scoring Status

Conservation Potential

Biogeographic Importance (Table VIII)

Natural Vegetation/Wildlife

(Subjective estimates)

Utilization Potential

Timber (Questionnaire)

FFF (Human/Cattle Population)

Tourism (No. per year)

Conflict Level

Human/Cattle kills, Crop damage, etc.

(Questionnaire)

Table

XIII

Conservation

(Table XII)

Utilization

(Table XII)

Conflict

(Table XII)

Signature

Table

XIV

Signature Grouping

Grade I: Good

Grade II: Average

Grade III: Poor

548

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

EVOLUTION OF THE RATABILITY OF PAs BY SCORING

(Information transfer through Tables to achieve a high degree of rating sensitivity

Biogeographic Representation * l-> II

VIII

Ecosystem Representation *

■>111

> VII— > VIII

Size *-

Perceived Objectives

for PAs °

7K

> III — > IV

> VIII

Averaged for

Conservation

Potential *

> V-> VI

Scoring on 7 parameters for four Grades

r— a) Conservation Potential * — 3 parameters!

Perceived

Objectives _

compared to

Achieved Score

S — b) Utilitarian Potential * 0 3 parameters

c) Conflict Level

1 parameter

Achieved scale

and

Median Values

-» ix-» x-» (xTj-

■> XII

Signature

Signature Grouping

>XIV

* - Information based on hard data

0 - Information based on Questionnaires and Opportunistic Observations

CONSERVATION NOTES

549

also emerge from a more detailed study and help to

formulate a graded management strategy for the PAs

in relation to the needs of the IPAS.

This study indicates that a rational,

progressively developed scaling system of

assessment could be a valuable management tool if

evolved further along the lines suggested. Scoring

systems cannot be perfect, as some of the parameters

must be based on subjective impressions. This

limitation is inherent to such an exercise. The only

possible method of reducing this bias is by

consciously avoiding a personal evaluation of the

overall rating of a PA. A consensus of views from

different experts and multiple quantified parameters

would make it more objective.

A more detailed field survey system could be

evolved, that would assess the conservation

potentials, utilitarian potentials and the conflict

levels in as short a period as possible. Evolving such

‘Rapid Assessment Techniques’ (R.A.T.) for both

conservation status and socioeconomic conditions

has been attempted in a pilot study of the

Bhimashankar sanctuary (Bharucha 1991).

The complexity of using a larger number of

parameters for evaluating large numbers of PAs is

that it would require a computer model designed

specifically for this purpose. The exercise would

be invaluable in rating PAs in the IPAS and in

Annexure I

HUMAN AND CATTLE POPULATION INSIDE PROTECTED AREAS

Responses from PA managers to assess human population pressure and cattle grazing.

Note:- Protected Areas and Wildlife Conservation in Maharashtra, E.Bharucha - A Report for the World Bank, 1991.

The data is incomplete. As in some cases settlements which are located within the PA have been excluded from the notification.

(S ource Protected Areas and Wildlife Conservation in Maharashtra E.Bharucha - A Report for the World Bank, 1991)

550

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Annexure II

FUEL AND FODDER

RESPONSES FROM PA MANAGERS TO ASSESS FUEL

AND FODDER NEEDS OF SETTLEMENTS

Note:- Protected Areas and Wildlife Conservation in

Maharashtra, E.Bharucha - A Report for the World Bank, 1991.

providing the basis for rational management and

financial disbursement to the component PAs.

This study which has been based on 29 PAs

of Maharashtra, thus could form a model for a larger

analysis. Similar studies could thus be undertaken

for the more than 500 PAs now notified in India, to

provide an overall picture of the status and position

of each PA in the country.

Conclusion

An IPAS designed for Maharashtra must have

an implementable strategy (Annexure III). Apart

from preserving biological diversity and natural

ecosystems, it must protect soil and water regimes,

provide for the needs of the surrounding local people

and thus gain acceptance as a necessary part of

good land use planning (Conserving the Worlds

Biological Diversity, 1990; Caring for the Earth,

1991). It must also consider the financial

implications of setting aside land for conservation

(Smith 1990, Phillips et al. , Dixon and Sherman

1990, Calish et al. 1978). The possible changes

that must be considered are indicated in Annexure

IV.

As shown in Part A, the selection of existing

PAs is not based on objective criteria. They do not

constitute a rationally designed IPAS for

Maharashtra. The status and size of some PAs

should be redefined according to the set of principles

enumerated above. Size alterations are also

indicated. Besides this, several new PAs need to be

notified and their specific objectives clearly defined

(Rodgers and Pan war 1988). The PAs must fit into

the overall IPAS and funds be allocated in

accordance with their relative merits and importance

(Kothari et al. 1989).

Part B of this paper shows that the components

of the IPAS, i.e. the existing PAs require to be based

on a rational set of management options. This

would indicate the amount of manpower and

financial support necessary for achieving their

perceived objectives. At present the distribution of

both appears to be on an ad hoc basis, with no

relevance to the needs of individual PAs.

Identification of the relative position and status of a

PA, based on its rating in the IPAS, provides rational

guidelines to select the policy most relevant to its

management. Financial resources can be more

rationally utilized according to these priorities. At

present the only guidelines from the Government

of India are based on the size of the PA which is

seen to be irrelevant. If this were to be followed,

50% of the Wildlife Wing staff would have to be

CONSERVATION NOTES

551

deployed to guard agricultural crops in the Great

Indian Bustard Sanctuary, as this constitutes 50%

of the IPAS ! They would be looking after about a

dozen highly localized and seasonal bustards, while

the rest of the 28 PAs would be left to fend for

themselves!

Since nearly all the existing PAs have a large

number of local people who are highly dependent

on their resources for their daily needs, especially

for fuel wood and fodder, this requires a totally new

management approach. This is even more relevant

in Maharashtra due to the absence of alternate land

for resettlement of PA villages. Though there is

little scope for relocating them outside PAs,

providing alternate locations within the PA is

however a possible option. This is especially

relevant in situations in which people are themselves

keen to move to a more suitable location. Reducing

the human impact on the PA must become a prime

issue for successful implementation of the IPAS.

This needs comprehensive, site specific,

ecodevelopment programs that must be integrated

into the Management Plan of each PA. It is essential

to identify the quantum of resources required, and

to allocate land to develop them by joint

management between the people and the Forest

Department. Just as a habitat evaluation and wildlife

census is essential to study the biological aspects of

each PA, a study of the effects of biotic pressures is

essential to provide data on the impact of the PA on

these communities through a Participatory Rural

Appraisal (P.R. A.).

The level of conflict is an important issue and

a variety of site and issue specific measures, to

mitigate conflict, must be identified if the PAs are

to be given long-term prospects of survival.

Though based on some subjective and other

quantified parameters, the evaluation scale designed

in this paper provides a set of rational guidelines

for assessing PAs. These can be refined and the

number of parameters increased and quantified by

detailed field studies to improve accuracy. There is

however, a great need to standardize methods that

can be widely used under different situations. This

would permit a more objective analysis of

conservation assets at the global and national levels.

As stated by Stewart and Sullivan (1994), “an

important area for continued research and dialogue

is the development of a global system for landscape

classification by habitat type which is needed to

underpin priority site selection...” According to their

paper, it is important in future for organizations such

as the IUCN to identify, “valid methods of selecting

priority sites using objective, scientifically based

criteria.”

An important need is to establish ‘special

objective PAs’, to act as model management areas.

For example to (a) manage ‘Multiple Use Areas’ as

suggested for the proposed Ujjaini Bird Sanctuary

where aquatic avifauna and fishing can co-exist

(Bharucha and Gogate 1990); (b) to protect an

endangered species, such as the endemic Mahseer

fish at Lonavala, the Giant Squirrel in the Western

Ghats and for the several endemic plants of the

Sahyadris in the Deorais in a “cluster PA” (Bharucha

1991); (c) increase public awareness for

conservation, for instance at the Mula-Mutha Bird

Sanctuary - Pune; and the Sanjay Gandhi National

Park, Pench and other PAs which have a large

number of visitors and d) to identify corridors for

existing PAs in the Western Ghats. The last is of

great importance to species whose gap crossing

ability is relatively low (Dale et al 1994).

Several areas of conservation value have

been recently identified as potential sites to be

included in the PA network. Still others require

careful selection to create a balanced bio-

geographical representation in the IPAS. New areas

must be selected to protect areas having high

levels of biodiversity, or which have relict

ecosystems, or those that harbor endangered species

outside the present IPAS. (Bharucha 1991, Rodgers

and Panwar 1958; Conservation of Mangroves in

India 1990; Conservation of Wetlands in India

1989).

Some PAs need to be given a higher

conservation status by upgrading them from Wildlife

Sanctuaries to National Parks. Others require an

addition to their existing size, or a redemarcation

of their boundaries (Annexure IV).

552

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

A rational IPAS established and supported by

Government and people is an essential requirement

to preserve the valuable biological resources of the

State of Maharashtra. This is as important as the

development of agriculture and industry. Notifying

land as Protected Areas creates an asset that has

immense long-term economic implications which

have not been fully appreciated. An IPAS for

Maharashtra is a basic requirement of good land-

use planning for the future well-being of the

State.

Annexure in

IMPLEMENTATION OF AN IPAS

1 . 1 Selection of PAs based on biogeographic and

conservation values.

1.2 Management planning for component PAs

based on site specific objectives.

1 .3 Notification of new PAs on a biogeographical

basis.

1.4 Strengthening of the Wildlife Wing of the

Forest Department.

2.1 Integrating ecodevelopment activities for

dependent settlements into PA management

plans.

2.2 Mitigating people-wildlife conflict.

3.1 Completing legal processes of notification of

PAs.

4.1 Upgrade research and training facilities for

wildlife preservation and PA management.

5.1 Reorganizing wildlife tourism.

6.1 Increasing public support through a compre-

hensive conservation awareness programme

using target specific mass media programmes.

6.2 Integrating conservation biology and resource

management into school and college curricula

and establishing Nature Awareness Areas at

Taluka level.

7.1 Improving conservation oriented inputs in

Multiple Use Areas outside the IPAS.

8.1 Providing financial support and expertise for

ex-situ conservation and re-introduction of

threatened or vulnerable plant and animal

species.

9.1 Integrating the IPAS into an overall land-use

strategy for the state.

Annexure IV

RECOMMENDED CHANGES TO RATIONALIZE AN

IPAS IN MAHARASHTRA

I. New PAs*: To balance representation on

biogeographical basis.

a) Forests: Rev. Fr. Santapau - Lonavala;

Western Ghat Deorais - cluster PA;

Mahabaleshwar; Bhamragarh; Darekasa;

Sironcha potential Jerdon’s courser

habitat); Tipagarh - Ghadchiroli.

b) Grass-Scrubland: Mahadeo range - Satara

(wolf sanctuary); Sonurli - Chandrapur

(wolf sanctuary); Lonar crater;

Nandgaon; Gnanganga; Akola; Kolhapur;

Wadali; Lading- Dhulia; Ramlingghat -

Osmanabad.

c) Wetlands: Ujjaini (Bhigwan); Mula-

Mutha - Pune; Itiadoh - Rajoli; Tipeshwar;

Mayeni.

d) Coastal: Roha; Vikhroli; Dasgaon; Akhra;

Turtle beaches; Arabian Sea Islands.

* Some of these would require NP status.

II. Proposed changes in size or redemarcation

of present PA boundaries:

a) Increase size: Andhari and Tadoba;

Navegaon; Nagzira; S. Gandhi, Phansad

and Karnala.

b) Reduce size: Great Indian Bustard

Sanctuary.

c) Redefine boundaries: This is necessary for

a large number of PAs to include vital

corridors or adjacent wilderness. Or to

exclude valueless degraded areas. This

may or may not involve a change in

size.

ID Proposed changes in status of present PAs:

a) Upgrade (W-L Sanctuary to NP):

Melghat, Koyna, Radhanagari.

b) Downgrade : None at present.

CONSERVATION NOTES

553

Acknowledgements

This concept for evaluating PAs was initially

developed to present concerns on People and

Wildlife for a Symposium at the Wildlife Institute

of India. Its application to Maharashtra was first

attempted during a World Bank Consultancy

undertaken by me to study conservation issues

related to its proposed Forestry Sector Project for

this State. To all the members of the World Bank

Bharucha, E. (1991): ‘Protected Areas and Wildlife

Conservation in Maharashtra - A Report for the World

Bank’.

Bharucha E. & K. Asher (1993): ‘Behavior Patterns of the

Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra under Suboptimal Habitat

Conditions’, 7. Bombay not. Hist. Soc 90(3): 371.

Bharucha, E. & P. Gog ate (1990): ‘An Avian Profile of a

Man modified Aquatic Ecosystem in the Backwaters of

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Calish S. , R. Fight, D. Teegu arden (1978): How do non timber

values effect Douglas-fir rotation. Journal of Forestry, p.

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Dale Virginia, H. , M. Pearson Scott, Holly L. Offerman &

Robert V. O ’Neill ( 1 994): Relating Patterns of Land-Use

Change to Faunal Biodiversity in the Central Amazon.

Conservation Biology 8(4): 1027-1036.

Dixon, J. & P. Sherman ( 1 990) : Economics of Protected Areas.

East- West Center, Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Dony, J.& G. Denholm (1985): Some Quantitative Methods

of Assessing the Conservation Value of Ecologically

Similar Sites. ’ Journal of Applied Ecology 22: 229-238.

Gadgil, M. (1987): ‘An Operational Research Programme for

Integrated Development of Microcatchments in Uttara

Kannada District’. Indian Institute of Sciences - Center for

Ecological Sciences, Bangalore.

Hunter, Malcolm L. & Alan Hutchinson (1994): ‘The Virtues

and Shortcomings of Parochialism: Conserving Species that

are locally rare but globally common’. Conservation

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IUCN , UNEP, WWF, (1991): ‘Caring for the Earth, A Strategy

for Sustainable Living’ p. 9.

IUCN. WRI, Cl, WWF - USA, and the World Bank (1990):

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team who took part in the meetings and gave

valuable suggestions, I am indeed grateful. I

specifically wish to thank W.A. Rodgers, Collin

Rees, Arvind Raddi and Shekar Singh whose

comments, suggestions and help have been of

immense value. The paper in its present form was

read at the Statistical Ecology Workshop organized

by the Dept, of Statistics, Poona University. I wish

to thank S. Chaudhuri and S. Kadapatti for having

typed the manuscript and provided valuable inputs.

NCES

Ledec, G. & R. Goodland (1988): ‘Wildlands: Their

Protection and Management in Economic Development’,

World Bank, Washington D.C.

Lesslie, Robert G.. Brendan G. Mackey , Kathryn M. Preece

(1988): ‘A computer-based Method of Wilderness

Evaluation’, Environmental Conservation, Vol. 15,

Autumn 1988, The Foundation for Environmental

Conservation, Switzerland.

Mackey, etal. (1988): ‘Assessing representativeness of places

for conservation, reservation and heritage listing’.

Environment Management 12: 501-514.

Margules, C.R., A. O. Nicholls & R.L. Pressey (1988):

‘Selecting Networks of Reserves to Maximize Biological

Diversity’. Biological Conservation, 0006-3 207/88/S03

50 (C) Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England.

McNeely, J.A., (1988): ‘Economics and Biological

Diversity’, IUCN p.57.

McNeely, J.A. (1994): ‘Critical Issues in the Implementation

of the Convention on Biodiversity’. Widening

Perspectives on Biodiversity IUCN Chapter 1.2, pp 9.

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India, ‘Conservation of Mangroves in India’. August

1990.

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India (1989): ‘Conservation of Wetlands in India’. June

1989.

Myers, Norman (1988): ‘Threatened Biotas : “Hot Spots”

in Tropical Forests’. The Environmentalist (3): 187 - 208.

Peters, C., A. Gentry & R. Mendelson (1989): ‘Valuation

of an Amazon rain forest’. Nature. 339: 655.

Phillips, W., W. Ademowicz & P Boxall: ‘Under the

demand curve: Economic issues in outdoor recreation’.

Recreation Alberta Vol 8/3: 13.

Presley, R.L. & V.S. Logan (1994): ‘Level of Geographical

Subdivision and its effects on assessments of Reserve

Coverage : A review of Regional Studies’. Conservation

Biology. 1037 - 1046.

Puri, G., V. Meherhomji, R. Gupta & S. Puri ( 1983): ‘Forest

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Ecology’, Vol. I, Second Edition, Oxford and IBH

Publishing Company.

Rodgers, W. & H. Panwar (1988): Planning a Wild-

life Protected Area Network in India’, Volume I and II,

Wildlife Institute of India, New Forests. Dehradun.

Scott, J.Michael , Blair Csuti, James D. Jacobi & John E.

Estes (1987): ‘Species Richness : A geographic approach

to protecting future biological diversity’. BioScience,

37(11).

Smith, K., (1990): ‘Can we measure the economic value of

environmental amenities ? ’ , Southern Economic Journal,

56(4).

Stewart, Simon N., Timothy A. Sullivan (1994): ‘How

Biologists can assist the Convention on Biological

Diversity: Lists Revisited.’ Widening Perspectives on

Biodiversity, IUCN, Chapter 4.1, pp. 201.

Whitmore, T.C. (1990): An Introduction to Tropical Rain

Forests’ Clarendon Press, Oxford p. 188.

Wilson, Edward O., (1992): ‘The Diversity Of Life’. W.W.

Norton and Co.

World Conservation Monitoring Center, ‘India:

Conservation of Biological Diversity’. Cambridge.

Wright, D.F. (1977): ‘A Site Evaluation Scheme for use in

the Assessment of Potential Nature Reserves.’ Biological

Conservation, (11) (C) Applied Science Publishers Ltd.,

England.

CONSERVATION PRIORITIES FOR THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

Priya Davidar1

A survey was conducted in the Andaman Islands to look at the distributional patterns of forest birds and butterflies.

These two tax a were used as indicators to see what type of reserves would best conserve the biodiversity. This study

showed that forests on large islands and undisturbed evergreen forests are important reservoirs of biodiversity in the

Andaman islands.

Introduction

The Andaman and Nicobar chain of islands

lying in the Bay of Bengal between 6° 45' N and

13° 41’ N latitude have a rich and varied biota, both

terrestrial and marine. These unique ecosystems are

under increasing pressure from human activities (see

Saldanha 1989, Whitaker 1985), and unless

protected, will be decimated rapidly. More than a

hundred protected areas, namely Sanctuaries and

National Parks have been earmarked in the Andaman

and Nicobar islands (Pande et al. 1991). Although

this sounds impressive, their importance for the

conservation of biodiversity needs to be examined

(Davidar et al. 1995).

In order to see where and what type of reserves

are needed to protect the terrestrial biota, a rapid

assessment was conducted in the Andaman group of

islands using two taxa, forest birds and butterflies. Forty

seven species of forest birds were selected using Ali

and Ripley (1987) and from field observations. These

were surveyed on 45 islands and butterflies on 25

islands. This was not meant to be precise or exhaustive,

but to give a quick and approximate estimate of species

and their distributional patterns. Most of the results of

this study have been published or are under publication

(Davidar et al. 1995, Davidar et al. in press, Devy et

al in press). In addition to this, general information

gleaned from many field trips gave a good

grasp of what should be the focus of conservation

efforts.

Study Site

The Andaman chain of islands, about 6000 km2

lSalim Ali School of Ecology and Environmental Sciences

Pondicherry University, Kalzpet, Pondicherry 605 014, India.

in area, are considered to be a continuation of the

Arakan Yoma chain of Myanmar. It is separated from

the Nicobar group of islands by the 10 degree

channel. These islands are considered to be truly

oceanic as they were never completely separated

from the continent during the Pleistocene glaciation

(Ripley and Beehler 1989). Most of the land mass is

made up of large continuous islands such as North,

Middle, Baratang, South and Rutland islands. The

Little Andamans, another large island lies about 67

km south. This large island mass is surrounded by

smaller islands and archipelagos. Human

colonisation of the Andamans has been limited by

water. The climate is tropical and oceanic with

rainfall from both the SW and NE monsoon winds.

There is a climatic gradient from the North to the

Little Andamans with the north having a drier and

more seasonal climate. Thus the North Andamans

have predominantly drier forests whereas the South

Andamans have more evergreen forests, (Davidar et

al 1995).

Methods

The surveys were carried out in the dry seasons

of 1992, 1993 and 1994. A total of 45 islands were

surveyed for forest birds and 25 for butterflies. The

survey covered the North Andaman islands and

islands surrounding it, Baratang Island, Ritchie’s

archipelago and other islands off the Middle

Andamans. The South Andamans and Labrinyth

archipelago, Rutland and the Little Andaman Island.

Different sites and vegetation types were selected

on the large islands whereas the smaller islands were

completely surveyed. Transects were selected in a

site on an island. The vegetation types were noted.

Forest birds seen or heard along the transect were

556

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93(1996)

recorded between 0700 h and 1000 h. Transects were

walked separately for butterflies and species seen 5

m on either side of the transect were recorded. For

more detailed methodology see Davidar et al 1995.

The sampling was repeated in each site for several

days until no new species were recorded.

Results and Discussion

Importance of Forests on large islands: This

survey clearly showed that forests on large islands

are very important in the conservation of

biodiversity. All the 47 species of forest birds and

57 species of butterflies (out of a total of 65 species

recorded in this survey) were recorded on islands

larger than 30 km2 in area. Islands smaller than 1

km2 had records of 36 species of forest birds and 39

species of butterflies. Oni islands less than 0.1 km2

in area, only 20 species of forest birds and 21 species

of butterflies were recorded.

Of the forest birds recorded, Coracina striata,

Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus, Oriolus xanthornus

and Terpsiphone paradisi were not recorded on

islands smaller than 30 km2 (Davidar et al 1995).

This non random distribution of forest birds suggests

that small islands, however numerous, are not

equivalent to large islands for the conservation of

biodiversity.

However, 58 of the reserves in the protected

area network are smaller than 1 km2 and of these 13

are less than 0.1 km2 in area (Pande et al. 1991).

Only 4 of the reserves are larger than 30 km2. As

forests on large islands are not adequately

represented in the current protected area network, it

is important that remaining patches of primary

forests on large islands are protected on a priority

basis. These patches should be large enough to

include the vegetational and habitat diversity and

adequate numbers of the rarer species.

Importance of wet evergreen forests: The

study shows that many of the butterfly species

recorded, for which adequate data exists, were

recorded only in evergreen forests (Devy et al. in

press). Of the 65 species of butterflies recorded, 25

appear to be habitat specialists, and of these 10 were

evergreen forest specialists. The presence of

evergreen forests on an island significantly increa-

ses its butterfly diversity (Devy et al. in press).

Islands off the main North Andaman island which

have deciduous forests have fewer species of

butterflies than islands of equivalent sizes off the

South Andaman island with evergreen forest. While

this could be a seasonal phenomenon, it is well

known that many tropical butterfly species are

habitat specialists and many are adapted to

tropical wet forests and the loss of these forests

will result in the extinction of many species (see

Devy et al. in press). The primary wet ever-

green forests of the Andaman islands are being

destroyed and degraded at an alarming rate by

forestry operations and encroachments. These

forests should be protected on a priority

basis.

Unique species: Species such as the

Narcondam Hombill (Aceros narcondami) which are

found only on Narcondam island, and the Andaman

teal (Anas gibberifrons) which depend on transient

water bodies deserve particular attention. The

Narcondam Hombill enjoys protection, and the

ecological requirements of the teal need to be studied

and certain areas set aside for its protection. Likewise

too for unique species of plants, invertebrates,

reptiles, amphibians, etc.

Management Issues: As there is a north-south

vegetational gradient, reserves should ideally be

located along this gradient. Reserves should also be

of sufficient size to include the habitat and

vegetational mosaic.

The North Andamans has the Saddle Peak

National Park which has stunted evergreen forest.

However, this Park is poorly managed, with intense

grazing pressure from domestic animals and

encroachments. The Kalpong Hydel project in the

North Andamans will further reduce the extent of

evergreen forest by submersion (Ellis 1989). The

Jarawa tribal reserve which covers a fairly large area

in the Middle and South Andamans acts as a de facto

protected area. However, the survival of the forests

and the tribals are increasingly under threat

from illegal logging and encroachments. This area

CONSERVATION NOTES

557

should be strictly protected from external

threats.

There are no protected areas on Ritchie’s

archipelago, where primary forests are found in

inaccessible areas of Havelock and on small islands

such as Wilson. Forests on the other large islands

such as Peel, John Lawrence and Henry Lawrence

are mostly degraded. Therefore, the primary

evergreen forests still remaining in the Ritchie’s

archipelago should be protected.

Evergreen forests in the South Andamans are

protected in Mt. Harriet and the Wandoor Marine

National Park, which has many forested islands.

Rutland is heavily deforested, but areas of forest still

remain which can be protected.

The Little Andamans is a large and isolated

island. Its geographic isolation accelerates specia-

tion processes and also makes the species more

vulnerable to extinction. A large area of primary

forest can be declared a National Park and in

this Centenary year of Dr. S£lim Ali, can be named

after him. It will be a fitting tribute to him. Protect-

ing large areas of forest on the large islands will be

adequate to conserve the vegetational mosaic and

species diversity. The other problem is the

management and protection of these reserves

under difficult field conditions. Even profes-

sional ecologists often find it difficult to do exten-

sive field work, and one cannot expect the less moti-

vated forest staff to work miracles. While small,

isolated islands are naturally protected, it will be

difficult to protect forests on the large islands.

Infrastructural facilities, staff and equipment are

needed to protect these reserves. Imaginative and

well regulated ecotourism could be a potential

source of revenue and tribals such as the Onges

Refi

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Compact Edition, Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.

Davidar, P, S. Devy, T.R.K. Yoganand & T. Ganesh (1995):

Reserve size and the implications for the conservation

of biodiversity in the Andaman islands. In: eds. T.J.B.

Boyle and B. Boontawee, Measuring and monitoring

biodiversity in tropical and temperate forests. CIFOR,

could play an important role in reserve manage-

ment.

Acknowledgements

While preparing this manuscript for the Sdlim

Ali Centenary issue of the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society, I found a letter from Dr. SSlim

Ali from which this excerpt is taken. It was with regard

to participation in a symposium held in November

1977. It summarises his expectations of his students

and the high standards he set for them.

‘Yes, I do expect you to have something

ready for the Symposium that does not let you

or me down. All who are or have been my students,

or whose interest in birds has been influenced in

any degree by my work, are expected to partici-

pate actively. I shall be disappointed if you do not

present something, and am rash enough to

believe that what you do present will be worth-

while.’

This paper is dedicated to the memory of

Dr. S£lim Ali, teacher and guide. His dedication and

professionalism, kindliness and humour will never

be forgotten.

This study was made possible through

numerous field trips sponsored by Pondicherry

University. The Ministry of Environment, France,

funded the survey. I am grateful to the Forest

Department, Andaman and Nicobar Islands for

permission to conduct this study and for help at all

times. I am deeply indebted to my students, Soubadra

Devy, T. Ganesh, T.R.K. Yoganand and N. Joshi for

carrying out the survey under difficult field

conditions. Dr. J.M. Thiollay contributed greatly to

developing this project and to data collection in the

field.

NCES

Jakarta.

Davidar, P., T.R.K. Yoganand, T. Ganesh & N. Josm (In

press): An assessment of common and rare forest birds

species of the Andaman islands. Forktail.

Ellis, J.L. (1989): Project document of North Andaman

Biosphere Reserve in Andamans. Botanical Survey of

India, Port Blair.

Devy, M.S., T. Ganesh & P. Davidar (In press): Patterns of

558

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

butterfly distribution in the Andaman islands:

Implications for conservation. Acta Oecoiogia.

Pande, R, A. Kothari & S. Singh (Eds.) (1991): Directory

of National Parks and Sanctuaries in Andaman and

Nicobar Islands. New Delhi DPA.

Ripley, S.D. & B.M. Beehler (1989): Omithography affinities

of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J. Biogeogr. 16

(4): 323-332

Saldanha, C.J. (1989): Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

Oxford and IBH, New Delhi.

Whitaker, R. (1985): Endangered Andamans. Environmental

Services Group, World Wildlife Fund-India and MAB

India. Department of Environment, New Delhi.

IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE RANGING BEHAVIOUR OF ELEPHANTS IN

THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTH INDIA

Ajay A. Desai and N. B as karan1

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

Today we find that many animal species

throughout the world are threatened with extinction

or are becoming increasingly endangered. The

situation is even more severe in the developing

countries, where the limited resources available for

conservation and growing populations with their

demand for new land make conservation a truly

challenging task. The primary reason for this

deplorable situation has been man. Humans have

reduced most natural habitats into islands surrounded

by land developed for human use. Today, we are

faced with a situation where, even if the killing of

threatened animals is stopped, there may not be

adequate habitat left for them to live in.

An added problem is that of human-animal

interactions at the interface of these remaining natural

habitats and their surrounding human use areas. As

no hard boundaries demarcate the two, there tends

to be a diffuse border which results in some animals

intruding into the human use areas and causing

problems. At the same time humans intruding into

the surrounding natural habitat and exploiting its

resources results in the degrading of the natural

habitat.

The problem caused by animals has been

studied in great detail. Taking into consideration only

Asian elephants (. Elephas maximus ), studies have

been done by Blair et al. (1979), Balasubramanian

et al (1995); Datye and Bhagwat (1995); Desai et

al. (1995); Desai and Krishnamurthy (1992);

Fernando (1990); McKay (1973); Mishra (1971);

Olivier (1978); Ramesh and Desai (1992); Ramesh

‘Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Mumbai-400 023.

and Sathyanarayana (1995); Seidensticker (1984)

and Sukumar (1985, 1989 and 1990). They range in

scope from reporting the problem to quantifying the

damage, and discussions on causes for the conflict.

The present study does not deal with this issue but

looks at how elephants react to human presence and

activity within their range.

Studies on the impact of human activities on

the adjoining natural habitat have been mostly

restricted to the study of human dependence on

forests and the consequent degradation of natural

habitats (Daniel et al 1987, Johnsingh, Prasad and

Goyal 1990, Silori and Mishra 1995, Wesley, Mishra

and Johnsingh 1995, Ramesh 1995). While these

studies have looked at resource depletion and

disturbance, and attempted to relate these factors to

the use of the affected areas by elephants, all have

failed to take into account the behaviour of elephants.

What is lacking in all the earlier research is the study

of how elephants actually react to human activities

within their ecosystem, while taking into account

the social organization and ranging behaviour of

elephants.

Social organization and ranging behaviour:

In the study area females live in clans while adult

males (henceforth referred to as bulls) are mainly

solitary. These sub-units (clans and bulls) have

different strategies for habitat utilization with well

defined home ranges; with seasonal ranges within

home ranges and regular routes or migration paths

between these seasonal ranges. Thus human impact

should affect different sub-units (clans or bulls)

differently, depending on the location of their home

ranges, seasonal ranges, migration routes, and the

degree and type of use of the interface area by

individual sub-units and not uniformly by the

population as a whole.

560

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Fig. 1. Study area of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

CONSERVATION NOTES

561

The present study highlights the impact of

human settlements and activity on the ranging

behaviour (range use) of elephants while taking into

account the social organisation and ranging

behaviour of the elephants. The findings of this study

are not only applicable to the present study area but

also to other elephant habitats where elephant

ranging still remains normal (not modified by man).

Objective

The main objective was to determine how

human activities influence the ranging behaviour of

elephants, while taking into consideration that

elephant populations have well defined sub-units

(clans and bulls) and also that these sub-units have

well defined home ranges, seasonal ranges and

migration routes within them. We wanted to test the

following hypothesis.

Hypothesis : “Clans and bulls use areas with

and without human disturbances equally”.

Study Area

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve lies at the

tri-junction of three southern states (Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and covers an area of 5520

sq. km. This area is one of the best elephant

ranges for conservation of Asian elephants in

Asia (Desai 1991). The study covered the eastern

part of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS) in

Tamil Nadu. In addition, the study also covered the

adjoining Reserve Forest and Revenue Forest

which were used extensively by the study

animals.

Mudumalai and the surrounding reserve/

revenue/private forests have a rainfall gradient from

600 to 2000 mm with the western part getting the

highest rainfall. The vegetation follows a similar

gradient changing from Southern Tropical Thorn

Forest in the east to Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest

in the west and in between lie the Tropical Dry

Deciduous Forests (for details of the study area refer

Daniel etal 1987, Sivaganesan 1991).

In the study area there are human settlements

within and outside (abutting) the elephant range.

These areas vary in size from a few houses to large

villages, with a human population of several

thousands.

Methods

Study animal: This study was based on the

ranging behaviour of two clans (clan 525 and clan

462) and two bulls (bull 450 and bull 464) in the

study area. These two clans and two bulls had been

radio collared in 1991 along with a third clan (clan

522). Data on various aspects of ranging and

behaviour have been collected since 1991 on all these

radio collared elephants (Balasubramanian, et al.

1995, Baskaran, et al 1995 and Desai et al 1995).

The main reason for including only four radio

collared animals in the present study was because of

their normal ranging behaviour. The fifth animal,

Clan 522, had shifted its range (Desai et al. 1995)

and we felt that it was best not to include it in the

present analysis. The two clans represented the

ranging behaviour of the females, while the two

males, though of different ages, were adults and

represented adult male behaviour to a large extent.

Selection of study site: As all the four collared

elephants have different (to a certain degree) patterns

of ranging, we felt that it would be best to compare

their ranging in an area where it had the greatest

similarity. In addition, the study site would also have

to be an area where human presence (settlements)

and human impact on surrounding habitat was most

pronounced, so that the elephants’ reaction to such

areas could be studied easily.

The present study area covered the eastern end

of the home range of all four study animals. The cut

off point to the west was 76°32' E longitude and

extended up to the eastern end of the study animals’

home range as defined by minimum convex polygon

method (Dalke 1938, Mohr 1947). This included the

eastern part of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Sigur,

Singara and Northern Hay Reserve Forests, some

Revenue Forests and private forests (Singara estate).

Here all the ranges overlap to a large degree and the

562

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

influence of habitat and human presence (impact)

would be the most common or similar (to a large

degree) for all the study animals.

Desai (1991) and Baskaran et al. (1995) have

shown the importance of home ranges and corridors

that facilitate movement of clans and bulls between

seasonal ranges. These studies have also highlighted

the critical corridors in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

(NBR), especially the ones in the northern part of

NBR in the Moyar-Masinagudi-Singara area, the

same area covered by the present study. This area is

a mosaic of human settlements and forests, and over

time human activities have spread deeper into the

elephant habitat and also increased in intensity. This

area provides adequate opportunity for elephants to

encounter and react to human settlements and

activity.

Analysis: We took into consideration two

important variables. First we considered water which

is known to play a major role in their distribution

(Viljoen 1989, Western 1975 and Williamson, 1975),

and as such, water would have a great influence on

the way in which clans and bulls used their home

range. The second variable was the presence of

human settlements (villages) and by extension,

human activity and impact on the elephant habitat

surrounding these settlements. This would show how

the presence of human settlements in an area

influenced the elephant’s use of the habitat in their

vicinity.

Taking these two variables into account, we

divided the study site into four areas as follows:

1 . Areas < 2 km from a main water source and

> 1 km from a village;

2. Areas < 1 km from a village and > 2 km

from a water source;

3. Areas < 2 km from a water source and < 1

km from a village;

4. Areas > 2 km from a water source and > 1

km from a village.

These areas are henceforth referred to as “water

area”, “village area”, “water+village area” and “other

forest area” respectively.

We considered that the proximity (< 2 km) of

a water source or a village (< 1 km) would have

maximum influence on the ranging and habitat

utilization behaviour of elephants. The influence of

both these important factors will certainly extend

beyond the distance taken into consideration for the

present study but we feel that it would be most

apparent and measurable within the distances

selected.

The use of these areas was tested for preference

and avoidance using the method described by Neu

et al. (1974) and Byers et al. (1984). All four areas

were tested together first and then the influence of

water and villages were tested separately to study

their individual influence on ranging behaviour. All

these variables were tested for individual clans and

bulls separately.

Study period: The study was carried out from

October 1994 to March 1995 (six months) but data

from the earlier radio-telemetry study (February

1991 to September 1994) were also used for the

analysis.

Results

A total of 47 1 and 436 locations for Clans 525

and 462 respectively were used for the analysis. For

the bulls 464 and 450, a total of 236 and 5 1 locations

respectively were used for the analysis. This data

represents only those locations when the study

animals were within the present study site and not

the entire data set of their ranging within their

complete home range.

Of the different areas, “water+village area”

(20.8%) and “village area” (4%) together constituted

24.8% of the study site. Human dependence on water

is clearly highlighted by the fact that nearly 86% of

the village area (area <1 km from a village) lies

within 2 km from a water source. Thus nearly a

quarter of the study area was within 1 km of a village

and therefore exposed to high levels of human

activity and subject to severe human impact on the

habitat. Of the remaining 75.2% of the study area,

“water area” constituted nearly 39.6% while 35.6%

was “other forest area”. All clans and bulls had access

to all these areas, bull 450 did not use the easternmost

area of the study site, but (unpublished) data collected

CONSERVATION NOTES

563

Table 1

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO DIFFERENT AREAS BY CLAN 525.

‘EPU = Expected proportion of use. 2LCL = Lower Confidence Limit. 3UCL = Upper Confidence Limit 4S = Significant at P<0.05

564

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Table 5

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO “WATER” AND “WATER+VILLAGE” AREAS BY CLAN 525

EPU = Expected proportion of use. 2LCL = Lower Confidence Limit. 3UCL = Upper Confidence Limit 4S = Significant at P<0.05.

Table 6

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO “WATER” AND “WATER+VILLAGE” AREAS BY CLAN 462

EPU = Expected proportion of use. 2LCL = Lower Confidence Limit 3UCL = Upper Confidence Limit 4S = Significant at P<0.05.

Table 7

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO “WATER” AND “WATER+VILLAGE” AREAS BY BULL 464

EPU = Expected proportion of use. 2LCL = Lower Confidence Limit. 3UCL = Upper Confidence Limit. 4S = Significant at P<0.05-

on it by one of us (AAD) in the years prior to radio

collaring indicated that it did use this area earlier

before radio collaring.

Tables 1 to 4 give the results of the test to

determine the preference and avoidance shown by

the study animals to the four different areas, namely

water, water+village, village and other forest areas.

We tested to see the impact of human

settlements on area within 2 km of water (an

important resource for elephants) by testing just two

classes, those areas < 2 km from water and > 1 km

from a village, and those areas < 2 km water but < 1

km from a village i.e. “water” and “water+village”

areas. This was necessary as villages are often in

close proximity to water, which attracts elephants to

the vicinity of such villages, and this leading to a

bias in the results. Tables 5 to 8 give the results

showing the preference and avoidance shown to areas

under these two categories.

We also examined the impact of human

settlement by testing the preference and avoidance

shown to areas <1 km from human settlements and

other areas > 1 km from human settlements

irrespective of the presence of water in both the

areas. Tables 9 to 12 give results of the four study

animals.

CONSERVATION NOTES

565

Table 9

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO AREAS <1KM AND > 1KM FROM VILLAGE

(HUMAN HABITATION) BY CLAN 525

JEPU = Expected proportion of use. 2LCL = Lower Confidence Limit. 3UCL = Upper Confidence Limit. 4S = Significant at P<0.05

Table 1 1

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO AREAS <1KM AND > 1KM FROM VILLAGE

(HUMAN HABITATION) BY BULL 464

‘EPU = Expected proportion of use. 2LCL = Lower Confidence Limit. 3UCL = Upper Confidence Limit 4S = Significant at P<0.05.

Table 12

AVOIDANCE AND PREFERENCE SHOWN TO AREAS <1KM AND > 1KM FROM VILLAGE

(HUMAN HABITATION) BY BULL 450

Discussion

The habitat in the study site can be divided

into two main areas based on the criteria selected

for this study, namely areas close to water (areas with

water < 2 km away) and areas away from water (areas

with water > 2 km away). Assuming that the

vegetation in the two areas remains similar to a

reasonable degree, we can expect variations in the

area-use to be influenced by the availability of water.

Within these two areas a second variable,

human settlements can be introduced. Here we

566

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

assume that human impact will be most pronounced

on the surrounding natural habitat within a distance

of 1 km from the boundary of the settlement. This

creates two additional areas from the original two,

i.e. areas with water < 2 km and < or > 1 km from

villages (i.e. “water” and “water+village” areas) and

forest areas > 2 km from water and < or > 1 km from

villages (i.e. “village” and “other forest areas”). It is

important to note that most of the villages are located

close to water sources as human beings are also very

dependent on water. This creates a situation where

the influence of human settlements are mostly present

close to water, only 16% of the area within 1 km of

a village was > 2 km from water while 84% was < 2

km from water, therefore human settlements affect

areas closer to water more than they do areas away

from water.

The importance of water for clans is evident

from Tables 1 and 2, both the clans show significant

preference to “water” areas while avoiding “other

forest areas”. This indicates the importance of water

for clans. This is similar to the findings of several

studies on African elephant ( Loxodonta africana)

which have shown that ranging is strongly influenced

by water availability (Viljoen 1989, Western 1975,

Williamson 1975). Most of these studies were carried

out in semi-arid areas where water is fairly scarce.

Though the importance of water and its influence

on the ranging behaviour of the Asian elephant has

been suggested by some authors it has not been

substantiated by data. Given the abundant and closely

spaced water sources in Asia, as compared to those

of the African studies, it was important to determine

the influence water has on the ranging behaviour of

Asian elephants, especially in view of the importance

of water for humans also and their tendency to locate

their settlements close to water.

If elephants are significantly dependent on

water then the management implication would be to

look at the water distribution in conservation areas

with a view to provide or facilitate the uniform

distribution of water resources in the area. In the

NBR which is dominated by deciduous forests water

is patchily distributed and if the management

objective is to maintain high elephant numbers it

would be better to facilitate more uniform use of the

available habitat rather than patchy use, with

concentrations in patches and the resultant elephant

impact on these patches. We would like to emphasize

that increasing elephant numbers cannot be

indefinitely supported by limited habitat irrespective

of uniform or patchy use of habitat. We are only

suggesting that higher numbers can be maintained

with less impact on habitat if their use of the habitat

is more uniform than patchy, by virtue of patchy

water distribution.

In the case of bulls, bull 450 showed significant

preference for “water” areas but used “other forest

areas” in the expected proportion, showing neither

avoidance nor preference (Table 4). But bull 464

showed significant avoidance to both “water” and

“other forest areas” (Table 3). This does not show

an overall avoidance to water as it showed strong

preference for “water+village” areas (Table 3)

indicating that water does play an important role in

its range use strategy.

Considering the proximity of villages to water

and the importance of water to elephants we can

expect elephants to use some areas close to villages

as they need water. This is seen in clan 525 which

shows use of “water- village” areas at the expected

proportion (Table 1 ) while bull 464 shows preference

for such areas (Table 3). Clan 462 and bull 450

significantly avoided “water+village” areas (Tables

2 and 5 respectively). We further tested “water” and

“water+village” areas separately to see if the study

animals avoided them. Both the clans 525 and 462,

and bull 450 significantly preferred “water” areas

while avoiding “water+village” areas (Tables 5, 6

and 8 respectively), indicating that the presence of a

village near water significantly reduced the use of

that area. Bull 464 was just the opposite and

significantly preferred to use “water+village” while

avoiding “water” areas (Table 7). This bull was a

chronic crop raider and was always present in the

vicinity of villages. Whether the presence of

the bull in this area was a result of its crop raiding

habit or because its core home range inciden-

tally happened to be located in that area is open to

debate.

CONSERVATION NOTES

567

Since the presence of villages has a significant

impact on the ranging behaviour of elephants, we

tested to see if villages were avoided irrespective of

the presence or absence of water in the habitat. As

already mentioned villages are closely linked to

water and this would, to some degree, bias the results

in favour of elephants using areas around villages

more than areas further away from water. Only 16%

of the area around (< 1 km) villages was > 2 km

from water while 47.3% of the area > 1 km from

villages was > 2 km from water. Despite this bias

we find that clans 525 and 462, and

bull 450 used areas away from villages (> 1 km away)

significantly more than areas close to villages

(< 1 km away), indicating that areas around

villages are avoided by elephants (Tables 9, 10 and

12).

Earlier studies (Balasubramanian et al. 1995)

have shown that these two clans and bull 450 do not

raid crops and that their home ranges are to a large

extent intact. We can, therefore, reasonably conclude

that clans and bulls whose home ranges have not

been disrupted significantly and whose ranging and

behaviour remains normal will avoid using areas

around human settlements. Human settlements and

activity within the elephants’ habitat has a

detrimental impact on elephants directly by rendering

the surrounding habitat unusable to elephants.

Considering that the area of human influence (< 1

km from a village) in the present study site is 24.8%

of the area, it represents a significantly large part of

the habitat being unavailable to normally ranging

elephants. This loss is even more significant if we

consider that nearly 84% of this area is < 2 km from

water, an area highly preferred by elephants. So

human settlements not only deny the use of

significantly large areas they also deny the use of

significantly important (preferred) areas for

elephants.

Only bull 464 showed a significant preference

to areas < 1 km from villages while avoiding areas >

1 km from villages. As already mentioned, this bull

was a regular crop raider and whether its use of such

areas was a function of its core home range being in

such areas or because of its raiding behaviour is

debatable. To say the least, this bull came into regular

conflict with humans and was shot at, as are most

chronic crop raiders and frequently injured, resulting

in the bull not coming into musth in the two years of

study. This would translate into loss of reproductive

success at a time when the bull was supposed to be

in its prime breeding phase of life.

The results do not support the hypothesis

“Clans and bull use areas with and without human

disturbances equally”. Overall two clans and one bull

avoided areas < 1 km from human settlement even

when such areas were within 2 km from a water

source, an area preferred by all study animals. Only

bull 464 showed a preference to areas close to human

settlement, but whether its use of such areas was a

function of it core home range being in such areas or

because of its raiding behaviour is debatable.

Conclusions and recommendations

1. The availability of water is a major factor

in the elephants’ strategy of range use. Clans and

bulls with normal (not man modified) home ranges

significantly prefer areas closer to water than away

from water. This can be interpreted as, water governs

elephant distribution and range utilization.

Water, especially in the deciduous forests is

patchily available and this results in patchy use of

habitat by elephants. The elephants impact on

vegetation is therefore uneven over the protected

area. If elephant populations in protected areas are

to be maintained at high levels then it is better to

ensure that the elephants’ utilization of the habitat

(and resultant impact) is more uniform. One

watefhole in a forage rich, water deficient, low use

area is more useful than ten waterholes in an existing

high use area (Desai 1995).

2. Human settlements have a dual impact on

elephant habitat. The directly visible and measurable

one is that of habitat loss through conversion of

elephant habitat for human use. The second which

is equally, if not more, harmful but rarely visible is

that of area denial. Human influence and impact on

elephant habitat extends well beyond the boundary

of human use areas (village and agriculture) into the

568

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

surrounding elephant habitat. Normally ranging clans

and bulls significantly avoided areas close to human

settlements, resulting in vast areas being denied to

the elephants

In addition, human settlements are almost

always in close proximity to water sources as humans

are also dependent on water. As already mentioned

areas close to water are the preferred areas for

elephants, loss of such areas has much more serious

impact on elephants than areas away from water.

Thus human settlements not only deprive the

elephants of the use of significantly large areas of

habitat but also deprive them of significantly

preferred habitat.

Managers should try and ensure that new

settlements are not allowed within or adjoining

protected areas as the actual detrimental impact of

the settlement extends well beyond the settlement’s

boundary. If new settlements are a must (tribal

resettlement, etc.) then these should be attached to

existing human use areas rather than creating new

enclaves which would have the problem of larger

perimeters and therefore area of influence, and at

the same time create problems in new areas. It should

also be remembered that the growing human

population and development of existing settlements

will also result in the expansion of the area of

influence of these settlements, as human impact will

extend from the settlement with increasing demand

for resources from the natural habitat.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Forest Department and

Government of Tamil Nadu, without whose help

and support this project would not have been

possible. We are particularly thankful to Conservator

Mr. G. Kumaravelu IFS, Wildlife Warden Mr. S.K.

Srivasthava IFS for their support during the present

study. We also thank all the Range officers and staff

of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and Sigur Range

for their support during the study. We would like to

specially thank Mr. Devdas (Range Officer,

Mudumalai Range) for his support and help during

the project. We thank M/s Essar Industries for

funding the project from October 1994 to March

1995.

We thank the Smithsonian Institution for

providing computer hardware for data analysis. We

thank Mr. John Carey for supplying the computer

program “SEAS” and training one of us (AAD) in

its use, without it most of the data analysis would

have been extremely difficult. We also wish to thank

Mr. J.C. Daniel for his support during the study.

We thank M. Balasubramanian and S. Swaminathan

who assisted in data collection.

Most of all we want to thank our trackers

Chenna, B. Bomma, K. Krishan, Kattan, “Kardi”

Madhan, Mara, “Special Watcher” Bomma and our

drivers P. Siril and Gdpal for literally sticking with

us through thick and thin.

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1-19.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF PUERARIA DC. (FAB ACEAE) FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA,

U.P., INDIA1

( With fifteen text -figures)

L.R. Dangwal and D.S. Rawat2

During the course of botanical explorations in

the remote localities of the Garhwal Himalaya we

came across some interesting specimens of the genus

Pueraria DC. The specimens were matched with

Pueraria ferruginea Kurz. However, thorough

perusal of literature and examination of the

specimens at the Botanical Survey of India, Northern

Circle (BSD) and Forest Research Institute (DD),

Dehradun, indicated that it is a distinct species, and

is described as a new species.

Pueraria garhwalensis sp. nov.

Haec species Pueraria ferrugineae Kurz

affinis, sed differt plantae habitu annuo, foliis

glandulari-pubescentibus, in superficiebus ambabus,

stipulis majoribus, calycis lobis inaequalibus, quam

tubo brevioribus, corollae ala carinaque

membranacea, staminibus diadelphis, stamine uno

vexillari connato ad basin columnae, antheris

inaequalibus; leguminibus adpresse glandulari-

pubescentibus, cum bracteis persistentibus.

Herbae volubiles, ca 1 m altae, cum pilis

adpressis glandularibus, rami orientes ex axillis

foliorum. Folia pinnatim trifoliata, ca 13 cm longa

(petiolo incluso), foliola 3 - 6 x 1.6 - 5.2 cm, foliola

terminalia late ovata, aequilateralia, acuminata,

chartacea, utrimque glandulari-pubescentia; nervi

alterni, in 2-3 paribus; stipulae magnae, lanceolatae,

7 mm longae. Inflorescentiae racemosae, axillares

vel terminates, fasciculatae, binatae vel ternatae.

Flores emergentes cum foliis. Flores ca 7 mm longi

cum bracteis persistentibus; bracteae lanceolatae, ca

6 mm longae, utrimque glandulari-pilosae. Pedicellus

‘Accepted June, 1996.

2Herbarium and Plant Systematic^ Laboratory,

P.O. Box No. 86, Dept, of Botany,

H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal)-246174

ca 4 mm longus. Calyx campanulatus, ca 5 mm

longus, tubus dentibus longior, dentes 5-lobati,

inaequales, 2 breviores, 3 longi ores. Corolla cyaneo-

purpurea; vexillum obovatum, 7 mm longum, alae

breviter angustae, membranaceae, ca 7 mm longae;

carina breviter membranacea, ca 1 mm longa.

Stamina diadelpha (9+1), stamen uno vexillare

connatum ad basin columnae; antherae* inaequales.

Carpellum ca 7 mm longum; ovarium minute pilosum,

stipitatum, stylus brevis, curvatus, stigma capitatum.

Legumina linearia, adpresse glandulari-pilosa, ca 3.0

x 0.3 cm, cum bracteis persistentibus et staminis.

Semina 1 - 4 in legumine, ca 2 mm longa lataque.

Typus : Agunda, Tehri District, Garhwal

Himalayas, Uttar Pradesh, 1300 m, 25.9.1993, L.R.

Dangwal, 12,363 A, (Holotypus - GUH); Ibid. L.R.

Dangwal, 12,363 B (Isotypus-GUH).

Pueraria garhwalensis sp. nov.

(Fig. A - J2)

The new species is closely allied to Pueraria

ferruginea Kurz from which it differs in the

following characters.

This taxon is allied to Pueraria ferruginea

Kurz, however, it differs by its annual habit, leaves

having glandular pubescence on both the surfaces;

stipules large; calyx lobes unequal, shorter than tube;

corolla wing and keel feathery; stamens diadelphous,

vexillary one fused at the base of column; anthers

unequal; pods glandular-adpressed hairy, with

persistent bracts.

Annual, twining herbs, elm tall, with glandular

adpressed hairs, branches arising from the axils of the

leaves. Leaves pinnately trifoliate, c 13 cm long

(including petiole); leaflets 3 - 6 x 1 .6 - 5.2 cm, the

terminal leaflets broadly ovate, equal sided, acuminate,*

chartaceous, furnished with glandular hairs on both

the sides; nerves alternate, 2-3 pairs; stipules large,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

571

O ,o

mm ^2 A cm

Figs A - J2 Pueraria garhwcdensis sp. nov.: A. Flowering and fruiting branch; B. Flower; C. Calyx; - Dr Bracts;

Ej - E2 - E3. Corolla; F. Stamens; G. Carpel; H. Pod with persistent bracts and stamens; I,- Seeds;

J, - J2. Stipules.

572

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

as broad.

Flowering and Fruiting: August - November.

Ecology: In moist and shady places along

roadsides on slopes, associated with Carrisa opaca ,

Berberis and Rubus species.

Etymology: The species is named after the

locality of Garhwal Himalaya, in Uttar Pradesh, India.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. N.C. Majumdar, Ex-Scientist

‘SE’ Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for the latin

diagnosis of the taxon and the authorities of Botanical

Survey of India, Northern Circle (BSD), and Forest

Research Institute (DD) Dehra Dun for permitting

us to consult their herbaria.

lanceolate, 7 mm long. Inflorescence axillary or

terminal, fasciculate, 2- 3 nate, racemes. Rowers

emerge with leaves; flowers c 7 mm long, with

persistent bracts; bracts lanceolate, c 6 mm long,

glandular hairy on both the sides. Pedicel c 4 mm long.

Calyx campanulate, c 5 mm long, tube longer than

teeth; teeth 5-lobed, unequal, 2 smaller, 3 larger. Corolla

bluish-purple; vexillum ovate, 7 mm long; wing shortly

narrow, feathery, c 1 mm long; keel shortly feathery, c

7 mm long. Stamens diadelphous (9+1 ), vexillary one

fused at the base of column; anthers unequal. Carpel c

7 mm long; ovary minutely hairy, stipitate; style short,

curved; stigma capitate. Pods linear, adpressed

glandular hairy, ca 3.0 x 0.3 cm, with persistent bracts

and stamens. Seeds 1 - 4 in a pod, c 2 mm long as well

2. GARRA SURENDRANATHAN11 - A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM THE SOUTHERN

WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1

C.P. Shaji, L.K. Arun and P.S. Easa2

(With one text-figure)

Introduction

Nineteen species of Garra have been described

from the Indian subcontinent. Of these, five are

distributed in the state of Kerala. These are Garra

mullya (Sykes), G. gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon),

G. mcClellandi (Jerdon), G. hughi Silas and G.

menoni Remadevi and Indra (Jayaram, 1981; Tal war

and Jhingran, 1991). G. menoni (Remadevi and

Accepted October, 1996.

2Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi-680 653, Kerala.

Indra, 1 986) described from the Kunthi river of Silent

Valley, Kerala was later synonymised with G. mullya

by Talwar and Jhingran (1991) without any

discussion. ButMenon (pers. comm.) considers it as

a valid species. A new species of Garra, collected

recently from three river systems of Kerala

originating from Western Ghats is described

Study Areas

(i) Chalakkudy river flows through the central

portion of Kerala. The collection location of the

stream (76° 41' E and 10° 22' N) is narrow (15m),

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

573

MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF Garra surendranathanii SP. NOV.

shallow (20cm) and slow flowing, at an altitude of

483 m above msl. The major substrates were pebbles

and boulders. The stream is surrounded by moist

deciduous forests.

(ii) Periyar is one of the major river systems

in Kerala. The collection was made from a site in a

regulated stream between two dam reaches

(Mullaperiyar and Idukki) at Ayyppankovil (77° 02’

E and 9° 43' N) at an altitude of 720 m above msl.

The stream is a slow flowing perennial system and

has large boulders and bedrocks. The area is highly

disturbed by human activities and agricultural

plantations.

(iii) Pamba river at Mookkampetty is a

relatively fast flowing tributary in Azhutha (76° 56'

E and 9° 26' N), at 160 m above msl. The substrates

were mainly bedrock and sand.

Description: D = 2/8; P = 1/11-12; V=l/6;

A=2/5; L = 35-36.

The morphometric measurements are

presented in Table 1.

The body is very elongated and depth of the

body at dorsal origin is 12.5-16.23% in SL (mean =

15.87). Head with moderate length and is 18.25-

21.95% in SL (mean=20.03). Snout about 50% in

HL and with many tubercles. No deep transverse

groove at the tip of the snout as in G. mcClellandi

(Jerdon) (Fig. 1). Inter orbital region flat. Barbels

574

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

d

Fig. 1. a. Garra s urendranathini i - A view of the head region; b. A spinate tubercle - enlarged;

c. Garra mcClellandi - A view of the head region; d. Rosette-shaped tubercle

two pairs, rostral and maxiliaries. Rostral longer than

the maxiliaries, the latter being placed in the labial

groove and not so conspicuous. Mental disc well

developed and its width 6.28-7.14% in SL (mean =

6.94). Dorsal fin inserted nearer to the tip of the snout

than the base of the caudal fin and anterior to the

pelvic fin. The branched rays of the dorsal fin have

a series of dark spots which are not easily

distinguishable. Vent situated nearer to anal fin

origin, the distance from vent to anal fin is 43.93-

46.06% (mean = 45.33) in the interdistance between

ventral fin and anal fin origin. The anterior portion

of the breast is devoid of scales; belly with cutaneous

scales.

The new species has the majority of tubercles

with smooth surface and a few with a horn-shaped

spine (Fig. 1 a & b). The other species of Garra (G.

gotyla stenorhynchus and G. mullya ), have horn-

shaped spines. In G. mcClellandi , the spines are

rosette-shaped (Fig. 1 c & d). G. hughi has not been

examined for nature of tubercles for want of

specimens. G. rnenoni, though synonymised with

G. mullya , is reported to have no tubercles.

Coloration: Dorsum brownish-black and belly

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

575

white. The scales have black edges. Due to this, the

body appears to have many bands along the lateral

side. Head with many black dots and reticulations.

Fins are purple in colour at their bases with tips

marked orange. A black dot is present on the upper

angle of the gill opening.

Etymology: It is the latinised form of the name

Shri. P.K. Surendranathan Asari, Chief Conservator

of Forests, Kerala Forest Department, who has been

a constant source of encouragement to Wildlife

research activities in the state.

Holotype: F/124/KFRI. 147.00 mm SL

collected from Orukomban, tributary of Chalakkudy

river on 12-03-1996 by the authors. The specimen

is presently deposited in Western Ghat Regional

Station of the Zoological Survey of India at Calicut

(No. WGRS/ZSI/9390).

Paratypes: F/122/KFRI, F/123/KFRI, F/145/

KFRI (95.5 - 161.0 mm SL) collected from

Orukomban, Chalakkudy river by the authors on

12.iii.96. The specimen, F/123/KFRI is also

deposited in Western Ghat Regional Station in the

same lot (WGRS/ZSI/9390).

F/269/KFRI 132.0 mm SL was collected from

Refe

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka: A Handbook.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 475 pp + xiii plates.

Menon, A.G.K. (1964): Monograph of the Cyprinid fishes of

the genus Garra Hamilton. Mem. Ind. Mus. 14(4): 173-

260.

Ayyppankovil in Periyar river on 21.iii.96 by us.

F/270/KFRI 152.5 mm SL was collected at

Mookkampetty of Azhutha tributary of Pamba river

on 22.iii.96 by us.

Remarks: The new species comes under the

Yunnanensis complex (Menon, 1964) and shows

great resemblance to G. mcClellandi (Jerdon) in body

form, position of the dorsal fin and number of lateral

line scales. But it can be distinguished by the nature

of the spine in the tubercles and the absence of the

deep transverse groove in the snout. It differs from

G. kempi Hora by large scales, position of the dorsal

fin and less number of lateral line scales. G. mullya

(Sykes) and G. rmnoni (Remadevi and Indra) differ

from it by the number of lateral line scales and G.

gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon) by absence of

proboscis. G. hughi (Silas) lacks scales in the mid-

dorsal region.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. A.G.K. Menon for

reviewing the paper. The study was supported by

the Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife wing).

NCES

Remadevi, K. & T.J. Indra (1986): Garra menoni , a new

cyprinid fish from Silent Valley, Kerala, South India. Bull,

zool. Surv. India . 5: 121-122.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India

and adjacent countries. Vol. I & II. Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. 1158 pp.

576

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

THE GENUS MACRO CHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA: MACROCHELIDAE) IN INDIA. A

NEW SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH DUNG BEETLE (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE)

FROM MADHYA PRADESH1

Ranjit Kumar Roy2

(With four text-figures )

A new species of Macrocheles (Latreille) namely bucephali, associated with Heliocopris bucephalus (F.)

is described from Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.

Introduction

Through the courtesy of Dr. Y.N. Gupta,

Central Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Jabalpur, a number of Heliocopris bucephalus

(F.), all collected in Jabalpur, were received during

an investigation on the systematics of macrochelid

mites. Four females, lodged deep into the coxae, were

recovered from one of the beetles. The material

recovered proved to be females of a new species of

the genus Macrocheles Latr. This is the first report

of the genus from Madhya Pradesh.

Types have been deposited in the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. Measurements given in

the text are in micrometres.

Macrocheles bucephali sp. nov.

female (Figs. 1-4): Dorsal shield (Fig. 1) 727-

780 long, 379-424 wide, granulated and bearing 28

pairs of setae. Setae f and j4 plumose distally,

remainder simple and pointed.

Sternal shield as broad as long and ornamented

with punctate liniae, l.m.t . distinct, other liniae as

illustrated (Fig. 2); sternal setae simple and pointed.

Genital shield truncated posteriorly and ornamented

with punctures; genital setae simple and pointed.

Ventrianal shield 227-242 long, 227-242 wide,

ornamented with punctate lines; ventrianal setae

simple.

Gnathosoma with six rows of deutosternal

denticles. Tectum not discernible. Movable digit of

‘Accepted February 1 996.

This is the eighth paper in the series — “Studies on Indian

Macrocheles.”

department of Zoology, Dibrugarh Hanumanbox Surajmal Kanoi

College, Dibrugarh-786 001, Assam, India.

chelicera (Fig. 3) unidentate; fixed digit tridentate;

cheliceral dorsal seta thickened and serrated; cheli-

ceral brush more than half the length of movable

digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): 1-400; 11-333; HI-303; IV-394. Tarsus I (60)

longer than Tibia I (45). Tarsus II (Fig. 4) 90, Tibia

II (75). Chaetotaxy of legs and palpi normal, genu

of leg IV with six simple setae.

male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype: female, India:

Madhya Pradesh: Jabalpur, ex Heliocopris

bucephalus (F.), 6. iv. 1985, YN. Gupta coll.;

Paratypes: 3 females, same data as for holotype.

Remarks: M. bucephali sp. nov. seems to be

related to M. uroxysKimXz. The ornamentation of the

sternal shield (disposition of Imt. and l. arc.) in both

the species is similar. But the former can be easily

separated from the latter in the nature of dorsal

chaetotaxy. Dorsal setae simple in bucephali except j}

and j4 with distal plumosity, while most of the dorsal

setae are plumose in uroxys. Interestingly uroxys is

also a phoretic member of Macrocheles described by

Krantz (1983) found on sloth (Bradypus tridactylus

L.) associated scarab beetles (Uroxys besti Ratcliffe)

from Brazil. According to Ratcliffe (1980), sloth

(arboreal edentates) - associated scarabs utilise the

sloth for shelter and dispersal, and feeding on sloth

dung.

Acknowledgement

The kind courtesy of Dr. Y.N. Gupta, Central

Regional Station, ZSI, Jabalpur in providing me

with the coleopteran material is gratefully

acknowledged.

Fig. 1-4. Dorsal shield; 2. Venter; 3. Chelicera; 4. Tarsus II

References

Krantz, G.W. (1983): Three new species of Macrocheles

(Acari: Gamasida: Macrochelidae) associated with

3-toed sloths, Bradypus spp. (Edentata:

Bradypodidae), in Brazil and Surinam. Acarologia,

24(1): 3-12.

*Ratcliffe, B.C. (1980): New species of Coprini

(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) taken from

the pelage of three-toed sloths (Bradypus tridactylus

L.) (Edentata: Bradypodidae) in Central Amazonia

with a brief commentary on Scarab-sloth relationship.

Coleop. Bull., 34(4): 337-350.

* not seen in original.

REVIEWS

1. FENCING THE FOREST. By Mahesh Rangarajan. pp. xii + 245

(21.5 x 14 cm), with three maps. New Delhi, 1996. Oxford University

Press. Price Rs. 395/-

In “Fencing the Forest” Mahesh Rangarajan

takes an even handed look at the history of the State's

involvement in the protection or to express it more

precisely the management of forests. His case study

area is the former Central Provinces, presently

Madhya Pradesh, which State perhaps still has the

largest area under forest cover in the country.

Who should look after the forests is the

question and as Rangarajan says “There is little to

suggest that there was an ecological equilibrium in

pre-British India” and in one of the oldest agrarian

civilisations in the world only the sacred groves

showed some restraint on the customary use of trees

and the consequent degradation. However, even at

the beginning of British interest in forests there was

a school of thought as advocated by Thomas Munro

of the Madras establishment who argued for a

minimal role for government in forest management

and had faith in the ability of peasants and

landowners to act in their own long-term interest.

But as in the present day, greed had no restraint and

the habit of selling their birthright to the traders,

which is so evident presently in the state of Arunachal

Pradesh, was equally conspicuous in the past and

State restraint had to be reimposed to protect the teak

forests of Malabar from complete denudation.

Even at that point of time conservation was a

subject for debate, the scientists of the East India

Company pointed to the connection between

deforestation and drought and particularly to the

disastrous effects of Kumri or shifting cultivation in

the Western Ghats. However, where imperial

interests were concerned, forests were destroyed

without compunction as, for example, the forests of

Punjab and Shikargarh forest of Sind. Imperial

interests were the main reason for the early

intervention in forest management. A mile of rail

track for instance required 1800 to 2000 sleepers,

and in Betul district alone 200,000 logs were felled

for the railways, 100,000 trees were felled for the

Jabalpur section and 400,000 sleepers were provided

for the Satpura railways.

In the first three chapters, Rangarajan looks at

the historic background of forest in relation to man

in his study area in the historic context. The

compulsion to clear fell was not only for settled

agriculture and therefore a peaceful community, but

also to prevent the providing of shelter to the landless

and the forest dwellers who were a constant menace

to the settled agricultural community. To the British

the forests were an exploitable and sustainable wealth

and therefore to be protected. The forest act of 1878

brought 20% of the forests of the Central Provinces

under government control as reserve forest. In the

process, the tribals, the Gonds and the Baigas were

the losers particularly the Baigas, to whom bewar

cultivation, where land was clear felled, burned and

then sowed was a way of life and central to their

identity. To use the plough on mother earth was a

sacrilege and among the tribals, the Baigas were the

main losers in the suppression of slash and burn

cultivation.

The fourth chapter looks at shikar and the Raj.

The British came with a tradition of extermination

of the larger and dangerous predator species. They

had exterminated the wolf in Britain and to them

tigers were the equivalent of thugs and dacoits from

the ravages that man-eaters caused. In three years

between 1866-69 bounty was paid on over 1500

tigers. But this early interest in wiping out the

predator fauna gave way to a more rational approach

when it was realised that killing off a predator

increased herbivore damage to cultivation. Another

factor which moderated this pressure on predators

was the concept of sport hunting available only to

the elite in Britain which became open to all in India.

Clubs exclusive to Europeans transferred the

exclusiveness to India and made it available to those

who were not acceptable in their own country. In

turn Indians and Indian methods of hunting were

REVIEWS

579

looked down upon and discouraged and the reserve

forest became the closed hunting grounds of the

British with the forest officials becoming somewhat

recalcitrant game keepers. The Maharajas in their

turn aped the British and retained forests for their

shikar and in turn denied access to all except at their

own will and pleasure.

Rangarajan concludes that the “Fencing of the

forest” by the Forest Department caused a major

revolution in styles of land management and the

remaking of the forest was even extended to the

natural world, with systematic combine of

extermination and “the pattern of settlement and

agricultural production and the distribution of

fauna all changed in new ways in a very short span

of time.”

A very readable account of the ecological,

social and economic changes that were effected

by the organisation of a monolithic forest department

with a limited vision of commercial production.

J.C. DANIEL

2. CHANGING PERSPECTIVE OF BIODIVERSITY STATUS IN THE

HIMALAYA, pp. 1-187, Plates in colour. British Council Division, New Delhi.

Price Rs. 4007-

In this book sponsored by the British Council

and edited by G. S. Gujral and V. Sharma, several

authors look at the biodiversity of the Himalayas

from their own perspective.

Biodiversity has now become the conservation

catchword as ecology was some years ago. Biodiversity

can be looked at from different perspectives and in

this book the authors present their case for the

preservation of the biodiversity of the Himalayas from

their point of view. The book has been organised into

six sections, the last section being exclusively confined

to photographs of the Himalayas.

An executive introduction by the editors

introduces the subject and focuses on the objective

which is to review the status of biodiversity in the

Himalayas,

The introductory chapter precisely states what

ails biodiversity in the Himalayas and elsewhere in

the Indian sub-continent when it states that the human

population “has increased manifold from 18 million

in 1951 to 33 million in 1981” an 81% increase in

30 years and the resulting demand on natural

resources makes one wonder whether there is any

possibility of sustainable use of natural resources as

has been advocated in this book and elsewhere. The

available resources cannot accept the pressure on

them from the increased human population.

The chapter on current status of Biodiversity

in the Himalayas, discusses the status of flora, fauna,

wetlands, crops, livestock and includes a case study

on Bamboo. About 40% of the Himalayan flora is

endemic, and the flora generally is rich. The

Himalaya is a centre of floral diversity but biotic

interference has taken its toll and several species have

either disappeared or have become dangerously

threatened. The case study on the bamboo, for

instance, establishes that the high altitude alpine

bamboos, an important source of food for wildlife,

and equally important for erosion prevention of a

fragile environment are under heavy grazing

pressure. The Himalayan fauna which has both

palaearctic and a rich Indomalayan component with

many species adapted for life at high altitudes

presents an equally gloomy picture. In the listing of

species there seems to be some confusion on the

limits of distribution of the Himalayan fauna as some

typically plain species are included. About 160

species of crop plants are reported to have originated

in the Himalayas and efforts are being made to save

the germplasm by Indian Institutions but the need

seems to be in situ conservation which requires

“Conservation farms” for long-term conservation and

protection of germplasm in the field. Himalayan

wetlands, especially those of the arid highlands of

Ladakh and the wetlands of the Kashmir valley, are

of high biodiversity interest and call for attention.

580

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Can there be sustainable development

considering the enormous population pressure on

existing resources and the stress on indigenous

cultures from the inroads towards uniformity in

living standards introduced by better

communications towards a one world standard. The

authors in the section on economic concepts believe

so but their arguments are not very convincing. Take

for instance the jhuming cycle which has come down

through population pressure to less than 5 years,

leading in some cases to annual cropping.

Biodiversity is hardly likely to survive under such

conditions. The sacred groves, repositories of

biodiversity, are either being degraded or

disappearing. Degraded ecosystems make up 20%

of the total geographical area of the Himalayas and

water management remains a key to ecosystem

rehabilitation. The case studies presented in this

chapter are a record of the losing battle against

disappearance of life styles and the regional

biodiversity which supported them.

The chapter concludes with methods of

biodiversity conservation, what has been done and

what needs to be done. There is an urgency for

protection which continues to be smothered in apathy

and inaction.

The final section of text considers policy and

management issues and how to prevent the nation’s

natural wealth from being sold down the river. The

manner in which the biodiversity wealth of the

Himalaya can be monitored and managed are

discussed. The methods of monitoring are concisely

described. Also how best to protect Himalayan

Biodiversity, particularly medicinal plants, from the

multinational pirates on the prowl. The answer seems

to be, in these days of GATT and patent laws, to

cover the nation’s biodiversity wealth with a

legislative blanket of laws enforcing national

sovereignty.

The British Council, the editors, and the

authors are to be congratulated on producing a

thought provoking volume.

J.C. DANIEL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. GREY MUSK SHREW (, SUNCUS MURINUS) FEEDING ON TOAD

In December, during a visit to the Lonar crater,

near Mehekar in Buldana district, Maharashtra, I

heard the familiar squeak of the Grey Musk Shrew

( Suncus murinus ) at night. I located it and to my

amazement, saw it had caught a big live toad ( Bufo

sp.) and was dragging it towards a hole. It finally

managed to drag the toad into the hole.

About 15-20 days later, in Pune, I started

finding live helpless Common Toads in my house.

Their thigh muscles had been eaten up, and the bones

exposed. The toads were, however, still alive. I was

desperately trying to find out what was going on,

and one night I did. It was again a Grey Musk Shrew.

I actually saw it chasing a toad, which it grabbed

with its sharp teeth, and completely chewed and ate

the flesh of the thighs upto the bones and then left

the toad which was still alive.

Are the parotoid glands ineffective as a defence

against shrews? And why did the shrews leave the

toads without eating them completely? I have not

seen this occurrence since that day.

January 13, 1996 KRUSHNAMEGH J. KUNTE

Life Research Foundation,

10, Pranav Society, 1000/6-C, Navi Path,

Pune 411 030 , Maharashtra.

2. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN TREE SHREW {ANATHANA ELLIOTT) IN

THE GARHWA FOREST, BIHAR

In the summer of 1994 during an inspection

of forests of Ranka range, in Garhwa forest, in south-

west Bihar, I saw an animal, which was almost like

a squirrel but without the stripes.

The area where this animal was found lies in

the newly created Garhwa district, carved out of the

old Palamau district. The southeastern part of the

Garhwa district forms a part of the Palamau Tiger

Reserve. The forests of Garhwa where the animal

was seen is of Type II, Group 5D/SI or Northern

dry tropical forests according to Champion and

Seth’s classification.

The villages, where I have spotted this animal

are Serasham, Hurdag, in Ranka block and village

Ramgarh in Chainpur Block. After the winter of

1994, when vegetation in Ranka Range forest started

getting dry, I could sight this animal a number of

times. Some villagers also confirmed the description

of the animal, and said that they called it “Ban rukhi”

which means “Wild Squirrel.”

One specimen was caught in April 1995. By

appearance it resembled a five-striped ground

squirrel, except for its uniform brown (rat like)

colour. Its dentition was also quite different, which

distinguished it from the rodent. It was identified as

the tree shrew.

The specimen caught measured 20 cm. in body

length, and tail was 18 cm.

Brander (1923) states that the Madras Tree

shrew ( Tupaia ellioti ) was found throughout the

Central Province (presently parts of Madhya Pradesh

and Maharashtra) that included Surguja district, in

Madhya Pradesh that adjoins Garhwa.

There is no mention of this species in the

working plan (1974-2004) of Garhwa South Forest

Division. The working plan of 1964-74 mentions the

grey musk shrew ( Suncus murinus). However,

D.G.E. Sunders’ final report on the survey and

settlement of the Palamau in 1898 reported an animal

similar to the Madras Tree Shrew.

The discovery of Anathana ellioti confirms the

occurrence of this species in south-west Bihar.

June 10, 1996 H.S. GUPTA

Divisional Forest Officer,

Garhwa South Division, Garhwa, Bihar-822 114.

582

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

References

Brander, D.A.A. (1923): Other jungle Animals, Wild animals

in Central India, Natraj Publishers, Dehradun pp

279.

Duplak, N. & N. Simon (1983): Tree shrews. World guide to

Mammals, Greenwich House, Crown Publishers, New

York pp 54.

Sterndale, R.A. (1984): Mammalia of India. Himalayan

Books. New Delhi pp 99-104.

Sunders, D.G.E. (1898): Final report on the Survey and

settlement of the Palamau.

3. SIGHTING OF RATEL (MELLIVORA CAPENSIS) IN SIDHI DIST. OF

MADHYA PRADESH

The occurrence of the Ratel ( Mellivora

capensis ) in Morena District in north Madhya

Pradesh have been mentioned in the Journal (Rajiv

Saxena, JBNHS 92 (3): 410).

Way back in the early eighties, three animals

were seen by me during an evening drive in the

Barnawapara Sanctuary of Raipur District. On 5

April, 1993 while returning from Shahdol to

Sidhi, around 2040 hours, a Ratel was seen on

the edge of a culvert, on a small nallah of the river

Banas. The location was hardly 100 m from the

river. The Ratel was searching for food around

the culvert and on the approach of our jeep, it

turned and dashed away towards the forest adja-

cent to the river. The location of the sighting is

the northeastern part of Madhya Pradesh

and confirms its occurrence in that part of the

State.

August 7, 1996 A.M.K. BHAROS

27 -MIG Indravati Colony,

Raipur, M.P. 492 001.

4. SIGHTING OF TWO CAT SPECIES (FEUS SP.) FROM THE WESTERN GHATS,

SOUTH INDIA

Two species of cats, the Leopard Cat ( Felis

bengalensis Kerr) and the Rustyspotted Cat ( Felis

rubiginosa Geoffroy), were recently collected from

the Western Ghats in South India. The Leopard Cat

was obtained from the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary

in the southwest end of the Western Ghats in

Trivandrum District, Kerala (76° 40’ N-77° 17' N

and 8° 7’ E-8° 53' E; altitude 197 m to 1,373 m). The

vegetation consists of moist deciduous, semi-

evergreen and evergreen forests.

During studies on crop damage by wild

animals in the Kani tribal settlements, a specimen of

the Leopard Cat was brought to us on 1st July, 1994.

The cat was killed with a spear made of bamboo.

The body measurements were; total length 85 cm;

length from neck to tail 37 cm; length of tail 30 cm;

snout to neck 18 cm; length of fore limb 26 cm, length

of hind limb 30 cm. Weight was about 2.82 kg.

Another leopard cat was shot dead by the Kani tribals

on 9th Dec. 1994, but we could not collect the

specimen.

Rustyspotted Cat (Felis rubiginosa Geoffroy)

was obtained from Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

in Tamil Nadu State 77° 17-77° 90’ N and 10° 20’ -

10° 40' E). This cat was run over by a vehicle on the

Udumelpet-Chinnar road near the Amaravathy

reservoir. The skin of the cat was subsequently

identified as the Rustyspotted Cat by J.C. Daniel of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

We are reporting the site specific location of

these two cats because the sighting of these nocturnal

cats has become very rare in the Western Ghats.

November 27, 1 995 E. A. JAYSON

G. CHRISTOPHER

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653, India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

583

5. THE MARBLED CAT FELIS MARMORATA MARTIN IN ASSAM - SOME RECENT

RECORDS

( With one text -figure)

The Marbled cat Felis marmorata (Martin) is

a rare small felid known to occur in northeastern

India extending westwards up to Nepal within the

limits of the Indian Subcontinent (Prater, 1948). Its

sighting and specific locality records are few and

far between. I describe here three localities of

confirmed reporting.

On 2 November, 1990, while on a field trip to

Subansiri Reserve Forest (RF) in Dhemaji district, I

obtained a skin in Dirpai village, a settlement of the

Adi ( Abor) tribe within the reserve forest. It was shot

by a local shikari in the last week of October, 1990,

while it was sitting on the ground at dawn. The site

was not far from the village and was within the

Map of Assam showing study areas.

584

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

reserve forest. While I was examining the skin,

another local Adi came to me and reported that he

had also killed a similar cat about a year back from

the same reserve forest.

The Subansiri RF is mostly hilly being at the

foot of the Eastern or Arunachal Himalaya and the

habitat type is of tropical wet evergreen (now

degraded at the lower reaches). Elevation in the forest

ranges from 150 to above 1000 m. The cats seemed

to have been shot at lower elevations.

On 10 August, 1991, 1 came across a skin in

Muolzol Kuki village near Baghmari, south-west of

Diphu town in Karbi Anglong District. It was killed

by a local Karbi (Mikir) tribal hunter from the nearby

Dhansiri RF in June-July, 1991.

One more skin was collected from a Karbi

hamlet near Langcholiet on 3 May, 1 992. It was also

killed in the Dhansiri RF with the help of a dao on

27 April, 1992. Two local hunters (without gun)

accompanied by trained dogs noticed the cat

following latter’s barking at a place c 9-10 km east

of Langcholiet. It was on a tree-branch at about 6-7

m height.

The same hunters again saw a Marbled cat on

13 May, 1992, in the upper reaches of Karli Langso,

c 6 km south-east of Langcholiet inside the Dhansiri

RF.

The elevation of Dhansiri RF, where the cats

have been recorded is about 200 m above msl. The

habitat type is tropical semi-evergreen with a fairly

good number of deciduous species. In comparison

to Subansiri RF, this area is rather dry (rainfall less

than 1000 mm a year while in Subansiri, it is around

3000 mm).

The specimen from Subansiri RF is the largest

known in the world with a head-and-body length of

65 cm. The Baghmari specimen is 48 cm (only body),

while that of Langcholiet specimen is 49 cm (head-

and-body) and 49 cm (tail).

Both the areas are new localities for the species.

November 27, 1 995 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium ,

Islampur Road,

Guwahati 781 007.

6. GOAT PREDATION BY CLOUDED LEOPARD (NEOFELIS NEBULOSA) IN KAKOI

RESERVE FOREST OF ASSAM

Kakoi Reserve Forest is about 19 km north of

North Lakhimpur Town of Assam. In 1989 I was

surveying the Kakoi and two other adjoining Reserve

Forests, (the Ranga Reserve Forests and Dullong

Reserve Forests) which are more or less contiguous

along the foothills of Arunachal Pradesh.

On the morning of 3rd February, I was walking

along a jungle track accompanied by a local wood

cutter. Two km inside Kakoi R.F., our attention was

attracted by a movement on the branches of a tree

about 30 m to the left of the track. We could see two

ravens hopping along the bough of a Hilikha tree

and close to them was a black object perched in a

fork of the main trunk. On moving closer to the tree

we found the object to be a dead goat placed about

4 m above the ground.

On looking around we found three small

pugmarks on a patch of a damp anthill. These

pugmarks were a little smaller than those of a leopard.

Since I had never seen a leopard taking its prey up

on a tree, and had only heard of it, my curiosity was

roused. I decided to enquire in the nearby hamlets,

the residents of which had some goats.

An old Santhal (tribal) woman from a nearby

hamlet in Johing, informed me that one of her goats

had been killed the previous evening while they were

browsing on the bank of Dejoo river, on the edge of

the jungle, about 70 m away from her. Since it was

late in the evening, the old woman could only see a

leopard - like animal attacking one of her goats.

According to her, the animal was smaller than a

common leopard and its skin was “patchy”.

Next morning at about 0600 hr. accompanied

by the wood cutter, I proceeded towards the spot

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

585

where the dead goat had been found. When we were

about 22 m from the tree on which the dead goat

was perched, I saw a leopard like animal lying on

another horizontal bough close to the dead goat, and

licking its right fore paw. Since we were facing the

sun we could not get a clear view of the animal

against the sun. We moved a little till we had an

uninterrupted view of the animal. It was smaller than

the common leopard, with large dull coloured patches

all over the body.

We observed the animal for about 15-20

minutes, and from its size and colour pattern

concluded that it was a clouded leopard.

We had been watching it for 15-20 minutes

when the wood cutter brushed against a sapling,

which made the leopard look in our direction and

see us. It stood up on the bough and saw us more

clearly. The wood cutter happened to remark that

the leopard had seen us. On hearing the voice, the

leopard rushed along the horizontal bough, and

jumped down and vanished among the undergrowth.

November 27, 1995 ASMF AHMED HAZARIKA

C/o S.A. Hazarika,

District SMS (Agriculture),

Seujpur, Dibrugarh-786 001, Assam .

7. SIGHTING OF TAKIN (. BUDORCAS TAXICOLOR)

IN THE MEHAO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH

During my field work to study the vegetation

and bird diversity of Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary,

Dibang Valley, Arunachal Pradesh, I had the chance

of sighting takin (. Budorcas taxicolor). Takin is one

of the rare and endangered rupicaprid (goat-

antelope). It combines the features of the ox, goat

and antelope. Its most striking feature is its convex

‘face’, heavy mouth, and thick neck. I was 150 m

away from the animal, which was standing alone.

There is a salt lick at this spot frequented by several

ungulate species. The takin was grazing near the salt

lick and did not move from the spot for nearly 20

minutes. Later, as we moved closer, the animal was

disturbed and went down the steep valley. Since the

terrain was very steep I could not get close in order

to identify its sex, age and other features. A takin

was reared by the Forest Department in an enclosure

near the Mayodia guest house, which I used to

observe closely whenever I was there. I was thus

familiar with this animal and so there was no chance

of misidentification. According to Prater (1971) the

takin is found in the Bhutan Himalayas, the Mishmi

Hills and in the mountains of the Salween-Irrawaddy

divide. It was reported by Manjrekar et al. (1990)

that only indirect evidence of takin was found in the

Mehao Sanctuary, during the survey of the species.

Later, on enquiry, I was told by the locals that

while other ungulates such as serow and sambar

were sighted by them frequently at the salt lick,

the takin was a rare sighting for them also. This

sighting confirms the presence of takin in the

Sanctuary. The habitat in that particular area is

still comparatively undisturbed, due to which

the ungulate sightings are more frequent. The hunt-

ing pressure is also comparatively low in this part of

the Sanctuary due to the tough, inaccessible

terrain.

November 27, 1995 S. AREENDRAN

Wildlife Institute of India,

Post Box 18, Chandrabani,

Dehradun-248001 .

References

Manjrekar, et al. (1990): A report on wildlife survey of Prater, S.H. (1971): The book of Indian animals. Bombay

Arunachal Pradesh with reference to takin. Wildlife Natural History Society. Bombay.

Institute of India.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

8. A WHITE COOT AT KANEWAL, GUJARAT

We saw a white Coot Fulica atra amongst a

total of 9100 black Coots feeding in the water on

December 29, 1994 at Kanewal reservoir (22° 30'

N, 72° 32' E) Kheda district, Gujarat. There were a

few black splashes on the upper neck, wing coverts

and tail region. A black line extended behind the

eye on both the sides. The beak appeared light yellow

as against pinkish white of normal black Coots. This

white Coot was a member of a small group/flock of

normal black Coots. There was no conspicuous

difference in the feeding behaviour of the white

individual nor did the normal individuals react

differently to it. Earlier, we had seen one white Coot

on January 13, 1988 at Pariej (22° 33’ N, 72° 38' E)

Kheda district, Gujarat.

June 1 2, 1 995 B M PARASH ARYA

R B CHAUHAN

A G SUKHADIA

A1NP on Agricultural Ornithology ;

Gujarat Agricultural University ,

Anand 388 119 , Gujarat.

9. AN ALBINO RED VENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER

As a part of the survey of potential sites for

reintroduction of the Asiatic lion, during May 1994

I visited Darrah Wildlife Sanctuary near Kota in

Rajasthan. The sanctuary is only 3-5 km wide and

about 80 km long. Close to the Arampur rest house,

the Forest Department has constructed a hide

overlooking two cemented water holes. Everyday

after our field work, I used to sit inside the hide and

watch the birds coming to the water hole. I recorded

21 species. The Red vented Bulbuls ( Pycnonotus

cafer ) were the most abundant. On the second day

of our stay, soon after we had returned from field at

about 1330 hrs, I was attracted by a white bird which

flew past the rest house and landed near the water

hole. Immediately, I ran with my binoculars to the

hide and saw a white bulbul. Its head was pale brown

in colour, with rest of the body white and vent red. It

was an albino Red vented bulbul. It bathed along

with other redvented bulbuls and spotted doves

(Streptopelia chinensis). I took a photograph. It flew

and sat on a bamboo clump nearby due to the

disturbance caused by the clicking of the camera.

After 7 minutes it flew and disappeared into the

Anogeissus pendula mixed forest. The next day also

I saw the albino bulbul at 1340 hrs. at the water

hole. During my five days at Darrah I saw this bird

twice.

August 17, 1 995 JUSTUS JOSHUA

Post Box 18,

Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehra Dun-248 001 .

10. ATTEMPTS OF FEMALE MAGPIE ROBIN TO CATCH A FISH

On 24 January, 1995 at about 1100 hrs, I was

returning from the Kamalnath Reserve forest of

Jhadol Range in Udaipur district. At the foothills, I

observed a female Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis

trying to catch a small fish in the shallow water of a

hillstream. After a few attempts, it succeeded in

picking it up in its bill but the fish quickly escaped

and slipped into the water. The Robin again tried to

catch it. While it was busy with the fish, a stray dog

appeared and disturbed the Magpie robin which flew

away.

April 4, 1995 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA,

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F), Dist. Udaipur, Pin-313702.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

587

11. A NOTE ON THE ENDEMIC BROADTAILED GRASS WARBLER

On a brief visit to Upper Kodayar, Ashambu

Hills, Tamilnadu, in September 1992, 1 had the good

fortune of encountering one of the rarely seen

endemic birds of the Western Ghats - the Broadtailed

Grass Warbler ( Schoenicola platyura). This bird is

found in the grassy areas in the hills of Western Ghats

south of Belgaum (Karnataka state) between 900 m

to 2000 m (handbook Vol 8. pg 93-94). The only

encounter I had earlier had with this bird was at the

Poochippara area in the Silent Valley National Park

in Kerala, in December 1990, in a grassy area.

The altitude at Upper Kodayar is over 1500 m

and the habitat is mainly grassland-shola forest type.

On 10th September, I saw a single bird on a Lantana

bush opposite the Staff Quarters, close to the

reservoir, where the habitat is greatly disturbed. The

bird appeared to have a tail moult and we could see

the fine markings on the tail. When it called, we could

make out the pinkish mouth.

On the next day, we visited the Seventh Saddle

area, en route to Muthukuzhi. Here, from among the

tall grass and low bushes, we could hear single noted

“pink” calls. We stopped to take a closer look and

we saw atleast three individuals of the Broadtailed

Grass Warbler. The birds were calling the single-

noted calls as well as a series of warbling notes that

sounded like those of a lark. A few mimicking notes

were also heard. The calls were uttered while perched

as well as in flight. The birds took off from their

perches at angles of 45° to about 15 m in the air,

singing for brief periods and then diving back into

cover. Though they were shy, we managed to get

good views of the bird and we could see the dark

mouths of the singing birds, a feature also seen by

R. Kannan at Grass Hills, Annamalai, Tamilnadu

(pers. comm).

The breeding season of this bird has been

described in the handbook (Ali & Ripley, 1987) as

March-May and July -September. The presence of

singing and displaying birds in mid-September

indicates that the nesting season may well extend

further. More observations are needed to determine

this.

I am grateful to my colleague and good friend

T. Ganesh for hosting me during my stay at Kodayar

and accompanying me to the field.

August 17, 1995 V. SANTHARAM

68, 1st Floor, Santhome High Road,

Madras 600 028.

Present address: SACON, Kalampayalam,

Coimbatore 641 010.

Reference

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

12. WHITEBROWED BLUE FLYCATCHER (MUSCICAPA SUPERCILIARIS)

DELINEATION OF ITS WINTERING RANGE IN WEST INDIA

This attractive little flycatcher is a summer

breeding bird of the middle elevations of the entire

Himalayan range. It winters over a wide area of the

Indian peninsula rather vaguely indicated in the

handbook and the synopsis thus: “In Central India

from Delhi south to Northern Maharashtra,

Southeastern Karnataka, Northwestern Andhra,

Orissa, Bengal and Bihar. Recorded from

Bahawalpur in Pakistan (no date).”

One supposes that it is absent from the Western

Ghats and the plateau country of Marathwada,

Andhra and Karnataka. Presumably Abu and the hills

of eastern Gujarat are in the range though the species

does not figure in the Gujarat list. It therefore seems

worth recording two sightings from Gujarat.

Shri Lalsinhbhai Raol, a highly competent

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

birdwatcher spoke to me about a drawing given to

him by Dr. Bakul Trivedi who made it during a

WWF-I outing to the lessor Hills just south of Mt.

Abu. The prominent white eyebrow, blue upperparts

and white underparts with a prominent greyish band

broken by white on the chest were shown.

Lalsinhbhai and Dr. Trivedi went out birding

to Himmatnagar on 5th February and in a grove of

trees edging the river at Shareneshwar temple, Dr.

Trivedi pointed out his puzzle bird. Lalsinhbhai has

seen the Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher in the

Himalaya. Lalsinhbhai mentions Redbreasted

Flycatchers also being around. The two species are

the same size, have very similar calls and

demonstrate common mannerisms, and though the

males are distinctive, the females resemble each

other. These facts suggest why the Blue may have

been given a go by.

Shareneshwar is between the towns of Idar and

Vijaynagar in Sabar Kantha (Himmatnagar) District

northeast of Ahmedabad.

April 6, 1995 LAVKUMAR KHACHER

646 , Vastunirman,

Gandhinagar,

Gujarat-382 022.

References

Ali, S & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India Ripley, S.D. II (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

and Pakistan. Compact Edition, Oxford University Press, Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society.

New Delhi.

13. NOTES ON GREEN MUNIA

Seven species of munia are found in the Indian

subcontinent (Ali & Ripley 1987). Of these, the

Green munia ( Estrilda formosa ) is listed as

threatened in India (Collar, Crossby and Stattersfield

1994).

The green munia is an endemic species, very

locally and unevenly distributed. It is found mainly

in central India from Mt. Abu, Gwalior, Jhansi and

Surguja south to Mahabaleshwar, district Adilabad

and upto the Vishakhapatnam Ghats. It is also

recorded from Lucknow and Lahore and from Bihar

(Ali & Ripley 1983). In recent years nothing has

been reported on the species, although it is a popular

cage bird.

I conducted a short survey between 5-7 June,

1994, on the species around Jhansi in Uttar Pradesh.

According to the information gathered from local

bird trappers, the species has been largely wiped out

from near Jhansi although a few populations do exist

near Tikamgarh. An extensive two day search on

the Chatarpur road resulted in locating a small

population in a nearby village, (name of the village

is not given for obvious reasons). An isolated

population of about 60 to 70 birds was seen in a stony,

arid wasteland. They appear to move around in a

limited area of about 1 sq. km.

The survey was done in the non-breeding

season. The maximum flock size was seven. The first

bird was sighted at 0545 hrs and I could observe

them almost throughout the day. Bimodal activity

pattern of feeding was noticed. Most of the long-

duration sightings were in the afternoon when the

birds used to gather and rest in Ipomea shrubs. The

birds were seen reaching the resting site from 0900

hrs where they remained till 1500 hrs. The resting

site was comparatively cool due to water and

presence of vegetation. The day resting site was

shaded by tall, dense Ficus trees.

It was seen that the Green Munia mostly keep

to themselves while resting and foraging. It was also

observed that they never roosted communally with

the Red munia ( Estrilda amandava) or other species

in congregation in the sugarcane field. This is also

confirmed by trappers who catch many species of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

589

munias (Red or Spotted) in large numbers in

sugarcane fields, but never get the Green Muni a in

these flocks.

Other birds seen in the vicinity of the Green

munia sharing the same resources were the Red

munia ( Estrilda amandava ), Spotted munia

(. Lonchura punctulata ), Whitethroated munia (L.

malabarica), Blackheaded munia (L. malacca ), Baya

( Ploceus philippinus). Black-throated baya (P.

benghalensis) and Streaked weaver (P. manyar).

The Green munia is not a shy bird; it could be

approached as close as 8-10 m and was found near

human habitations. When approached they used to

fly to nearby bushes, and while doing so the green

colour on their back perfectly camouflaged them with

the surroundings. Often it was seen that two birds,

most likely a pair, would sit on a branch and when

excited would flatten their tail, pointing towards each

other while uttering a high pitched note.

According to a TRAFFIC-India report on live

birds (Ahmed and Menon, 1995), it seems that

trapping is a threat to its population which is true to

a very large extent. Previous visits to Lucknow, and

information from Mt. Abu have also confirmed that

most isolated populations near these places and in

many areas of Madhya Pradesh have been wiped out

by bird trappers as this bird can be easily caught with

baiting and decoy birds, and trappers can catch most

of the individuals of an area.

There is a need for a full fledged project on the

Green Munia to study the various aspects of

its biology and also the impact of trapping the

species.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. Asad R. Rahman i for his

suggestion on this article and also to Zafar-ul Islam

for assisting in its preparation.

March 31, 1995 RAJAT BHARGAVA

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,

A.M. U. Aligarh-202002,

India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of Birds of India

and Pakistan. Together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal,

Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Compact Edition. Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Ahmed, A. and V. Menon (1995): Bird Trade in India -

Mimeographed report by TRAFFIC-India.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crossby and A.J. Stahersfield (1993):

Birds to Watch 2: The World list of Threatened Birds

Birdlife International, UK.

14. COMMENTS ON SOME NEW BIRD RECORDS FROM TAMILNADU

In a recent issue of the Journal, S.

Balachandran has reported a few new records in

certain bird species in Tamilnadu ( JBNHS : 91(2):

314; 317-318; 322-323; 1994). These include

breeding records of Coot and occurrences of the

Indian Courser, Black Redstart and Small Minivet. I

have a few comments to make on these notes.

The breeding of Coot ( Fulica atra ) in

Coimbatore (Tamilnadu) in 1983 was earlier reported

by PS. Sivaprasad ( Blackbuck , 2(2): 17-19, 1986).

These birds continue to breed in the same area and

even recently, in 1995, young birds were seen

(Sivaprasad, pers. comm.). Breeding of Coots has

also been reported recently in Kerala by C. Sushanth

Kumar (Newsletter for Birdwatchers, 33: 55, 1993).

Although the Indian Courser ( Cursorius

coromandelicus ) is not a common bird, it is certainly

not as rare as suggested by Balachandran. It occurs

mostly in dry, stony, open areas, dried-up lake

margins etc., and I have seen birds in suitable habitats

around Madras in small numbers. These include open

areas near Vendanthangal, Velacherry (outskirts of

Madras city), near Thirupporur (off the old

Mahabalipuram Road) and along the road from

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Gummudipoondi to Sathyavedu (north of Madras

city) and at Kaliveli. I am sure the bird occurs in

appropriate habitats elsewhere in the state.

The Black Redstart ( Phoenicurus ochruros ) is

an uncommon winter visitor around Madras and has

been recorded in different years at the Guindy

National Park and the environs of the

Chembarambakkam Lake. Both male and female

birds have been seen in the winter months. It has

also been recorded recently in Kerala (Neelakantan

et al. A. Book of Kerala Birds ( Part I) WWF-Kerala,

pp 88-89, 1993).

The Small minivet ( Pericrocotus cinna-

momeus) is a fairly common bird in the coastal areas

of Madras and is seen in Guindy National Park,

Theosophical Society Campus, and Madras Christian

College Campus, besides other fairly wooded village

environs and scrub jungles. I am surprised that this

species has not been recorded at Pt. Calimere earlier.

March 31, 1995 V. SANTHARAM

Research Associate,

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History,

Kalampalayam,

Coimbatore 641010.

15. NEW LOCALITIES FOR BROWN HILL TORTOISE MANOUR1A EMYS

(SCHLECAGEL AND MULLER) FROM KARBI ANGLONG, ASSAM

The Brown hill tortoise ( Manouria emys) is

also called the Asian brown tortoise, Burmese brown

tortoise and Eastern hill tortoise. It is the largest land

tortoise of Asia. The colour of the carapace is

brownish to brownish-black. The species attains a

length of upto 60 cm.

In India, this tortoise has been recorded in

Nagaland (Anderson, 1872), Nongkhyllem Reserved

Forest in Meghalaya (Das, 1991: Colour Guide),

Langting-Mupa Reserved Forest and some other

localities of North Cachar Hills in south-central

Assam (Anderson, 1871, 1872). Outside, it extends

upto Sumatra.

In March, 1992, 1 examined a partly damaged

carapace in Kaliyani Reserved Forest of northern part

of Karbi Anglong district in central Assam (26° 25'

N; 93° 35' E). Only the straight carapace width could

be measured (37 cm). In October, 1995, a live tortoise

was caught by some local tribals in Tarapung area

(26° 30' N; 93° 30' E) of the same district and brought

to Bokakhat market near Kaziranga National Park

for sale. It was then rescued by the civil officials

and sent to the Assam State Zoo at Guwahati.

It measured (in cm), Straight line carapace

length: 53; Curved carapace length: 62; Straight line

carapace width: 36; Curved carapace width: 56;

Plastron (greatest length): 56; Plastron length (notch

to notch): 52; Shell height: 21. It weighed 21 kg.

September 17, 1996 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gale No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road,

Guwahati 781 007 (Assam).

References

Das, I (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the

Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Ltd. Portished.

Anderson, J. (1871): A list of the reptilian accession to the

Indian Museum, Calcutta, from 1865 to 1870, with a

description of some new species. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal

40 ([art 2): 12-39.

Anderson, J. (1872): On Manouria and Scapia, two genera

of land tortoises. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 26: 132-144.

16. THE KEELED BOX TURTLE PYXIDEA MOUHOTII GRAY - A NEW RECORD FOR

MANIPUR

The keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii Gray, in the north-east of India, i.e.. North Cachar Hills

1862, has been recorded from only a few localities (Das, 1991) and Karbi Anglong (Choudhury, 1993;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

591

JBNHS 90:517) of Assam, Khasi and Garo Hills of

Meghalaya, Namdapha National Park (Das, 1991),

Mehao Sanctuary (Bhupathy and Choudhury, 1992)

and Drupong Reserved Forest (Choudhury, 1996;

JBNHS 93:97) of Arunachal Pradesh. All the records

except the last one were from the south bank areas

of the Brahmaputra river.

On 20 January, 1 996, while driving from Imphal

in Manipur to Hailakandi in southern Assam, I obtained

a carapace of a Keeled box turtle from a road labourer’s

camp, located between the Barak and Makru rivers (c.

6 km road distance from Barak bridge), at an elevation

c. 200 m above msl, in Tamenglong district of Manipur.

The turtle was caught by a labourer from a nearby

forested hill-slope.

The carapace (AUC 45) measured (in cm):

Straight line carapace length 14.1; Curved carapace

length 15.9; Straight line carapace width 11.0; Curved

carapace width 15.6 and Carapace height 4.9

September 17, 1996 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No . 1 of Nehru Statdium,

Islampur Road , Guwahti-781 007.

References

Bhupathy, S & B.C. Choudhury (1992): Turtle fauna of Das, I (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises

Assam Preliminary report. Wildlife Institute of India, of the Indian subcontinent. R & A Publ. Ltd, Por-

Dehradun. tished.

17. OCCURRENCE OF INDIAN PEACOCK SHELL TURTLE IN GAUHATI

UNIVERSITY CAMPUS

The Gauhati University Campus was built in

low marshy areas where a small fragmented wetland

(not more than 2.5 ha.) still provides good habitat

for wetland fauna.

On 12th August, 1995 a local villager from

nearby caught a soft shell turtle on his hook in the

Gauhati University campus. The carapace length

and width were 26 cm and 22 cm respectively. Length

of head plus neck was 20 cm. The clearly reticulate

carapace was dark green in colour with four easily

distinguished round spots with lighter boundary.

The snout was light green with dark spots. Three

nails were present in each limb whereas another two

nails were covered by skin and formed a pad - like

structure. After consulting various books the turtle

was identified as the Indian Peacock soft shell

Turtle Aspideretes hurum. The habitat where it was

caught is low marshy land with paddy cultivation on

its edge line and was situated behind the Department

of Zoology, with an area of about 1 .5 ha. The person

who caught the turtle refused to sell it to me.

June 4, 1996 RATHIN BARMAN

Animal Ecology and Wildlife Biology Lab,

Department of Zoology,

Gauhati University 781 014, Assam.

18. A RECORD CLUTCH SIZE OF RAT SNAKE

The normal clutch size of Rat Snake ( Coluber

mucosus) is reported to consist of 6-14 eggs (Smith

1943 & Daniel 1983). Recently we came across a

clutch of Rat snake’s eggs from Mannuthy, Kerala

on 28th September, 1995, from a heap of soil near a

house. There were 32 eggs in the clutch. A few eggs

could have been lost as evident from the remains of

shells. The eggs had an average size of 46.8 x 31.5

mm and weighed 19.35 gm. The eggs were leathery,

both sides equally domed and were stuck together.

Young ones were also found at the site and measured

about 40 cm. The clutch size is a record for Rat snake.

June 4, 1996 P.S. E AS A

JOSEPH THOMAS

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi-680 653,

Kerala.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

References

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The book of Indian reptiles. Bombay ding Ceylon and Burma. Reptiles and Amphibians.

Natural History Society, Bombay, page 76. Vol. 3, Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India inclu- p.422.

19. BREEDING SEASON OF HORSE-SHOE PIT VIPER ( TRIMERESURUS STRIGATUS) IN

NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

The Western Ghats is one of the well known

areas of biodiversity and endemism. It is reported

that 89 of 117 amphibian species (Daniels 1992) and

48 of 1 12 species of reptiles are endemic. Six species

of pit vipers have been reported from the Western

Ghats (Smith 1943). They are Hump nosed ( Hypnale

hypnale), Largescaled ( Trimeresurus macro lep is),

Malabar ( T. malabaricus). Horse-shoe ( T. strigatus).

Bamboo ( T. graminius) and Hutton’s ( T. huttoni) pit

vipers (Smith 1943 & 1949). Indian vipers are ovo-

viviparous. The present report is based on an

observation from Mukkuruthi National Park, Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve (NBR). Mukkuruthi National

park is a part of the higher hills (1800-2500 m above

msl) of NBR. The dominant vegetation type of this

area is Montane Shola Grassland.

On 21 September 1995, while conducting a

lizard survey in the Western catchment of this

National Park, we located a viper which was

identified as Horse-shoe pit viper ( Trimeresurus

strigatus) based on the description by Smith (1943).

The snake was basking on a barren rock surrounded

by boulders. The ambient temperature was less than

12° C (10.00 AM). The area was wet as there was a

stream close by. This species is reported to be

distributed in Nilgiri, Annamalai, Sevaroy, Palani

and Tirunelveli hills (Smith 1943).

The viper measured 365 mm in snout-vent

length and 55 mm in tail length. Five developing

eggs were felt by palpation. Breeding season of this

species has not been recorded so far (Smith 1943,

Murthy 1990). Based on the present observation, it

appears that the Horse-shoe pit viper breeds in the

post monsoon season. In the same general locality

i.e. Western Catchment of Mukkuruthi National Park,

other reptile species such as the whip snake

(Ahaetulla perroteti) and Nilgiri Salea ( Salea

horsfieldi) are common.

We record our sincere thanks to the World

Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) India for financial

assistance and Tamil Nadu Forest Department for

permission to work in Mukkuruthi National Park.

Sept. 17, 1996 P. KANNAN & S. BHUPATHY

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology &

Natural History, Kalampalayam,

Coimbatore 641 010.

References

Daniels, R.J.R. (1992): Geographical distribution pattern of

amphibians in the Western Ghats, India J. Biogeography

19(5): 521-531.

Murthy, T.S.N. (1990): Illustrated guide to the snakes of

Western Ghats. Occasional paper. Rec. Zool Surv. India.

114: 60-61.

Smith, M.A. (1943): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and

Amphibia. Vol III. Serpentes. Taylor & Francis,

London.

Smith, M.A. (1949): A new species of pit viper from South

India: Trimeresurus huttoni. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 48

(3): 596.

20. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF S1LURUS WYNAADENSIS DAY

(PISCES: SILURIFORMES: SILURIDAE)

During the course of a faunistic survey in the survey team of Z.S.I. collected two specimens of

hill ranges of the Kasaragod district of Kerala, the the Siluroid fish, Silurus wynaadensis Day, 1873,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

593

from a hill stream at Ranipuram, a forest locality

situated at an elevation of about 760 m above m.s.l.

on the southeastern part of the district. All the

streams originating in the hill ranges of the district

empty into the west flowing rivers in the district.

The hill stream wherein Silurus wynaadensis Day

was found is spring- fed and forms the headwaters

of the river Chandragiri, one of the major west

flowing rivers in the district.

Silurus wynaadensis Day is distinguished from

other species in the genus by having the vomerine

band of teeth interrupted, the premaxillary teeth in a

continuous narrow band, four mandibular barbels,

anal with 58-62 rays and pectoral with 10 branched

rays.

The occurrence of Silurus wynaadensis Day

in a west flowing river in Kasaragod is an extension

of its range in Kerala. Out of the three species of the

genus Silurus Linn, found in India (Haig 1950),

Silurus wynaadensis Day is so far known to occur

in the east flowing rivers of the Western Ghats, from

Wynaad in Kerala (Day, 1873, 1878) and from the

Jaggar valley in Karnataka (Bhimachar and Rau,

1941) associated with the drainage systems of the

rivers Cauvery and Tungabhadra respectively. Later

Rajan (1955) reported this species from the

headwaters of Bhavani river which is also a tributary

of Cauvery.

The present record of this species is the first in

Kerala in a west flowing river.

The material examined (2 specimens 60-61.5

mm. SL, Ranipuram, 10 September, 1993) is

deposited in the W.G.F.R.S. (Calicut), Zoological

Survey of India.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta and the Officer-in-Charge, Western

Ghat Field Research Station, Z.S.I., Calicut for

providing facilities and encouragement.

July 11, 1996 K.C.GOPI

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghat Field Research Station ,

Kamala Bldg, ( 1st Floor),

13/7 87 A, Annie Hall Road,

Calicut-673002.

References

Day, F. (1873): On some new or imperfectly known

fishes of India and Burma. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p.

237.

Day, F. ( 1 878): The fishes of India - William Dawson, London.

XX -778 pp. 198 pis.

Bhimachar, B.S. & A.S. Rau (1941): The fishes of Mysore

State. 1 -Fishes of Kadur district. J. Univ. Mysore ( B)1 ;

141-153.

Haig, J. (1950): Studies on the classification of the catfishes

of the Oriental and Palaearctic family Siluridae. Rec.

Indian Mus. 48: 59-116.

Rajan, S. (1955): On a collection of fish from the head waters

of the Bhavani river, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53 (1): 44-48.

21. MYSTUS TENGARA (HAMILTON) (SILURIFORMES: BAGRIDAE) - AN ADDITION

TO THE ICHTHYOFAUNA OF JAMMU (TAWI), INDIA.

Bagrid catfishes of the genus Mystus Scopoli

are primary freshwater catfishes which are widely

distributed in southeast Asia, the Indo- Australian

islands and Africa, being found in Syria in west Asia

through India, Nepal, Pakistan to Sri Lanka in the

south, through Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Indo-

China, Malaysia to East Indies, and China in the east.

A few species enter the seas and estuaries. Mystus

Scopoli and Rita Bleeker are known as fossils from

the Pliocene of the Siwaliks (Lydekkar 1886). The

African genus Porcus is considered the ancestor of

Mystus, indicating the African origin of the latter

genus (Jayaram 1966, 1974).

In the ichthyofauna of Jammu Province of

Jammu and Kashmir State, catfishes of the genus

Mystus are represented by two species, M. bleekeri

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

(Day) and M. vittatus (Bloch), along with one species

of an allied genus Aorichthys Wu, namely, A.

seenghala (Sykes). All these species are slow-current

dwelling forms and occur in meandering portions of

the Tawi (Nath 1989).

During recent investigations on the fish fauna

of the River Tawi (a tributary of the Chenab drainage

system), a large number of specimens of Mystus

tengara (Hamilton) was obtained from the river at

Jammu during April and May, 1995. M. tengara is

widely distributed throughout northern India as well

as Bangladesh and Pakistan (Jayaram 1981). As there

is no previous record of the occurrence of this species

of Mystus from Jammu (Tawi) to date, the present

report is a new record for Jammu and Kashmir State

(Nath 1992, 1994).

Discussion

When we compare the ichthyofauna of Jammu

Province with that of Kashmir Province as well as

Ladakh region, the complete absence of Bagrid

catfishes from Kashmir and Ladakh is quite significant.

The nearly complete isolation of Kashmir region from

Jammu Province by the Pir Panjal range mountain-

barrier has excluded many of the fish species of

Kashmir region from Jammu region and vice versa.

The total absence of the representatives of the families

Bagridae, Schilbeidae, Heteropneustidae, Ambly-

cipitidae, Mastacembelidae, Belonidae, Gobiidae,

Belontidae, Channidae and Chandidae of Jammu

region from the Kashmir Valley suggests that the high

Pir Panjal range was already established when these

fishes of the Indian region migrated towards the

north, but were prevented from entering Kashmir

by the formidable Pir Panjal mountain range. The

origin of fishes of Jammu Province is from the Indo-

Gangetic region (together with a few species from

Kashmir region), to which region there was migration

from east to west from southeast Asia. Evidence

exists that the fishes of Jammu region have probably

migrated to their present habitat only in the late

Pleistocene (Das 1966; Das and Nath 1971; Nath

1986).

February 23, 1996 SURENDRA NATH

Department of Zoology,

Govt. Camp College for Kashmir Migrants,

G.G.M. Science College Campus,

Jammu (Tawi) - J &K, India.

References

Das, S.M. (1966): Palaearctic elements in the fauna of

Kashmir. Nature 212: 1-1.

Das, S.M. & Nath, Surendra (1971): A revision of fishes

from Jammu Province, India. Kashmir Sci. J. 8: 1-22.

Jayaram, K.C. (1966a): Contributions to the study of the

Bagrid fishes (Siluroidea: Bagridae). I. A systematic

account of the genera Rita Sleeker, Rama Bleeker,

Mystus Scopoli and Horabagrus Jayaram. Int. Revue,

ges Hydrobiol. 51: 433-450.

Jayaram, K.C. (1966b): Contributions to the study of the fishes

of the family Bagridae. 2. A systematic account of the

African genera with a new classification of the family.

Bull. Inst. Fond. Afr. Noire, 28: 1064-1139.

Jayaram, K.C. (1974): Ecology and distribution of freshwater

fishes, amphibia and reptiles. In: Mani, M.S. (Ed.) 1974.

Ecology and Biogeography in India. Dr. W. Junk, The

Hague 517-584.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): A Handbook of the Freshwater Fishes

of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.

Zool. Surv. India. Calcutta.

Lydekkar, R. (1886): Indian Tertiary and post-Tertiary

Vertebrata. Tertiary fishes. Palaeont. Indica3: 241-264.

Nath, Surendra (1986a): Observations on the general ecology

of fishes of Poonch Valley (Jammu and Kashmir State),

India. Livestock Adv. 11 (XII): 31-36.

Nath, Surendra (1986b): A checklist of fishes of Jammu and

Kashmir State (India) with remarks on the

ichthyogeography of the State. J. Zool. Soc. India 38:

83-98.

Nath, Surendra (1989): Studies on Systematics,

Ichthyogeography and Bioecology of Fishes of Jammu

Province (Jammu and Kashmir State) India. Ph. D.

Thesis, Kanpur University Kanpur.

Nath, Surendra (1992a): Ichthyofauna of Jammu and

Kashmir State (India) with remarks on the

ichthyogeography of the region. Rec. Adv. Fish Ecol.

Limn. Eco-conserv. II: 1-32.

Naih, Surendra (1992b): Studies on the bioecology of Fishes

of Jammu Province (Jammu and Kashmir State) India,

Part 1 : Habitat Ecology and Body Shape. Rec. Adv. Fish

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

595

Ecol. Limn. Eco-conserv. II: 87-106.

Nath, Surendra (1994): The ichthyogeography of Jammu

Province (Jammu and Kashmir State) India. Rec. Adv.

Fish Ecol. Limn. Eco-conserv. Ill: 103-120.

22. NEOCONOCEPHALUS SPP. A LONG HORNED GRASSHOPPER (TETTIGONIIDAE:

ORTHOPTERA) FEED ON SMALL BLACK ANT

On 1st, September 1995 I was in the garden

collecting insect pests of a bean vegetable. It was

around 4.30 p.m., that I found a long horned

grasshopper Neoconocephalus spp., family

Tettigoniidae, descriptive and pictographic

identification from Imms (1965), lifting one hind leg,

on whose tarsus a black ant was biting. The reason

for the biting could not be known. The hopper jerked

its leg up and down due to the pain of the bite, tried

to free itself from the ant, but could not. Suddenly it

brought the tarsal portion of the hind leg on which

the ant was biting, below its body to the mouth. The

hopper caught the ant with its mandibles and ate it

up completely within a moment.

M.S. Mani (1982) states that Tettigoniids are

mostly diurnal forms that are usually herbivorous.

And hence the above mentioned feeding behaviour

is unusual.

During my study on insect pests of bean,

predatory behaviour of the the long horned

grasshopper on ants has not been observed. However,

the above observation indicates that under compelling

circumstances, a long horned grasshopper can feed

on small black ants. This behaviour needs further

observation.

October 1 2, 1 995 DAYAN AND HARIT

Head, Department of Zoology,

Government ofKolasib College,

Post Box No. 16,

Kolasib-796 081,

Mizoram, India .

References

Imms. A.D. (1965): A General Text Book of Entomology, The Mani, M.S. (1982): General Entomology. Oxford and

English Language Book Society and Chapman Hall ibh Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 3rd rev.

Ltd. Repr. 1973. 1990.

23. ARE ANTS SECONDARY DISPERSERS OF FIG SEEDS IN INDIAN FORESTS?

Apart from vertebrates, which are major

dispersers of seeds, several invertebrates are also

known to assist in the dispersal. Beetles, earthworms,

snails and ants are known to disperse seeds which

may even lead to the rearrangement of the seed

shadow (Beattie and Culver 1982, Roberts and

Heithaus 1986). Studies have shown that fig seeds

are regularly subjected to secondary dispersal by ants

which harvest the lipid-containing exocarp (elai-

some) of the small fig seeds (Roberts and Heithaus

1986, Kaufmann et al. 1991). Despite the richness

of Ficus species in the Indian subcontinent,

information on this aspect of its seed dispersal is

lacking.

While studying several aspects of fig ecology

(Athreya 1993) in Kan an Shola National Park, Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, I came

across several indications that the secondary dispersal

of Ficus seeds by ants may occur even in Indian

forests. The vegetation of this area is dominated by

the west-coast tropical evergreen forest type of

Champion and Seth (1968) with Hopea parviflora

and Messua ferrea being the characteristic tree

species. Ficus trees are quite common within the

National Park, especially in relatively open areas

(unpubl. data).

I came across armies of ants carrying away fig

seeds from fallen fruits and droppings of frugivores

596

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

from under trees of F. micro carpa and F. drupacea

(both strangler figs). This was also noticed for the

fig seeds which formed a major fraction of the

copious droppings of Great Pied Hornbills ( Buceros

bicornis ) below their nest-holes.

I also split open some ripe figs of F. exasperata

(free-living Ficus) and F. drupacea and placed them

at my camp site. The same evening I saw ants

carrying away the seeds from all the figs, although

the seeds of F. exasperata seemed to be less popular.

However, both species of figs were devoid of seeds

by the next morning.

It has been said elsewhere that the lipid-

containing exocarp is not affected by the passage

through the vertebrate gut and is still harvested by

the ants (Kaufmann et al 1991). Ants are known to

Refi

Athreya, V.R. (1993): Fruiting strangler figs (genus Ficus,

subgenus Urostigma ) and temporal variation in

visitation of their avian frugivores in a tropical

evergreen forest in the Western Ghats, India. M.S.

thesis, Salim Ali School of Ecology, Pondicherry

University, Pondicherry, India.

Beattie, A.J. & D.C. Culver (1982): Inhumation: how ants

and other invertebrates help seeds. Nature. 297: 627.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): Forest Types of India.

Govt, of India, Delhi.

be responsible for Ficus seedlings taking root in

crevices in vertical surfaces (Kaufmann et al. 1991).

This system of secondary dispersal of fig seeds

by ants has not been studied in any Indian forest.

Although this note is of a qualitative nature, a

detailed study of this aspect may throw some light

on the importance of the role played by invertebrates

in affecting the seed shadow of figs, especially

strangler figs, which require specific microhabitats

for successful germination (Putz and Holbrook

1986).

June 4, 1 996 VEDYA R. ATHREYA

NCRA , Post Bag 3,

Ganesh Khind,

Pune 411 007.

ENCES

Kaufmann, S., D.B. Mckey, M. Hossaert-Mckey, & C.C.

Horvitz (1991): Adaptations for a two-phase seed

dispersal system involving vertebrates and ants in a

hemiepiphytic fig (. Ficus microcarpa: Moraceae). Am.

J. ofBot. 78: 971-977.

Putz, F.E. & N.M. Holbrook (1986): Notes on the natural

history of hemiepiphytes. Selby ana 9: 61-69.

Roberts, J.T. & E.R. Hetihaus (1986): Ants rearrange the

vertebrate-generated seed shadow of a neotropical fig

tree. Ecology. 67: 1046-1051.

24. THE SPOT PUFFIN BUTTERFLY APPIAS LALAGE LALAGE DOUBLEDAY

(PIERIDAE) - A RARE RECORD FOR SOUTH INDIA

The butterfly Appias lalage lalage has been

recorded in the United Provinces, Mussooree to

Burma, Tavoy (Talbot 1939). Its range is also

mentioned from Simla to Burma and Assam by

Wynter-Blyth (1957). D’Abrera (1982) states its

range as Assam to upper Burma and An tram (1924)

noted it as a rare species recorded from the

Himalayas, Sikkim, Bhutan and Assam. The only

record found from South India was at the Netterikkal

region of the Kalakkad forest, Tiruneveli District,

Tamil Nadu (Satyamurti 1966).

A single male specimen of the wet season form

with a wingspan of 76mm was taken in Gudampara

Estate, Santhanpara panchayat, Idukki District, Kerala

at an elevation of 1200 m above msl on December, 3,

1995. The butterfly was mudpuddling at noon near a

small stream flowing through a coffee plantation.

It appears to be one of the few records of the

Spot Puffin from South India and may be the first

record from Kerala. This shows that this butterfly

though rare, does exist in the Western Ghats apart

from its known range. The specimen is now in the

Gudampara Biopark Project collection.

April 4, 1996 NALINI. S

BORIS LOMOV

Gudampara Biopark Project ,

Puthady P.O. , Idukki Dist. 685 619, Kerala.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

597

References

Antram, C.B. (1924): Butterflies of India. Calcutta & Simla.

D’Abrera, B. (1982): Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Part

I, Hill House, Australia, pp. 160.

Satyamurti. S.T. (1966): Descriptive Catalogue of the

Butterflies in the Collection of the Madras

Government Museum. Commissioner of Museums,

Govt, of Tamil Nadu, p. 43.

Talbot, G. (1939): The Fauna of British India, Butterflies.

Vol. I. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 389.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

p. 426.

25. NEW RECORDS OF PLANTS FOR INDIA

During the course of studies on Flora of

Sikkim, six interesting collections were recorded,

which were compared with the type specimens

housed in CAL, BM & K herbaria, and identified.

They turned out to be new records for the Flora of

India. Brief taxonomic accounts are provided to

facilitate their identification in the field.

1. Berberis tsarica Ahrendt in J. Bot. Lond.

Ixxix, suppl. 48.1941. (Berberidaceae). Deciduous

shrubs, upto 1m tall. Stems angular, densely spiny,

spines mostly 5 -fid, intemodes ca 7 mm. Leaves

oblanceolate, 7-15 x 2.5 - 4.5 mm, obtuse mucronate

at apices, margins entire or with a few spinose teeth.

Flowers solitary; pedicels 3-10 mm long. Sepals

elliptic, 4-5 x 3 mm. Petals obovate, ca 4 x 2.5 mm,

apices emarginate. Stamens 2.5 - 3 mm long. Berries

broadly ellipsoid, 8-10 x 5-7 mm, red.

FI. & Fr.: Aug.-Sept.

Specimens examined: Sikkim, s.l.. Cave 530

(E?): Momay-Samdong, 15000 ft. Cave 40/47

(E!).

2. Carex montis-everestii Kuekenth. in Kew

Bull. 1934:261.1934.

(Cyperaceae). Perennial rhizomatous herbs.

Culms upto 15 cm high, subterete. Leaf-sheaths

reddish-brown at base, persistent. Leaves basal, upto

7 x 0.15 cm, erect. Inflorescence consists of 2-3

spikes; terminal spike male or gynaandrous, narrowly

ellipsoid, borne on suberect, 0.5 - cm long peduncles;

lower spikes female, broadly cylindric, ca 1.2 x 0.8

cm, produced on pendant, filiform peduncles, Lowest

bracts filiform, shorter than inflorescence. Utricles

elliptic, ca 4.5 x 1 mm, glabrous, shining, reddish-

chestnut above, pale beneath, minutely notched at

the orifice; beakless. Stigmas 3. Female glumes

oblanceolate, up to 5.5 x 2 mm, acute, dark reddish-

brown. Male glumes upto 6 x 1.2 mm.

FI. & Fr.: July- Aug.

Specimens examined: Llhonak, 15000 ft.

Smith & Cave 1879, 2155 (CAL!).

3. Carex pseudofoetida Kuekenth. ssp.

afghanica Kukkonen in Ann. Bot. Fennici

21 :384.1984. (Cyperaceae). Perennial herbs up to 2.5

m high, rather gracile. Rhizomes stoloniferous.

Culms obtusely trigonous, 1-1.8 mm in diam.,

smooth or occasionally scabrid above. Leaves folded

or involute, rarely flat, 1.5-3 mm wide. Inflorescence

a rather compact head, 10-15 x 7-12 mm; bracts

shorter than apices; glumes 2. 8 - 4.1 x 1.5 - 2 mm,

scabrous. Utricles 3-4 x 1.2 - 1.8 mm, beaked, more

or less inflated, obscurely nerved.

FI. & Fr.: July- Aug.

Specimens examined: Sikkim, s.l., Raju etal.

8060, 8063 (BSHC!); Above Llohank, 4780 m,

KEKEdt. 1989 (E!).

4. Xanthosoma brasiliense Engl., Pflanzenr.

Arac. - Cococas. 58.1920.

(Araceae). Stemless herbs. Leaf-blades hastate,

up to 48 x 15 cm, veins of basal lobes exposed for ca

1 cm; intramarginal veins conspicuous; petioles up

to 40 cm long. Spadix with appendix. Ovary 2-4

locules, with numerous ovules; stylar discs coherent

between adjacent female flowers.

FI. & Fr.: Sept.-Oct.

Specimen examined: Gangtok, ca 11 km m

north on Gangtok - Kabri road, ca 1700 m, ESIK

s.n. (BSHC!. E!).

Notes: A native of tropical America; now

almost naturalised in Sikkim upto 1700 m to Peshok

and Mungpo areas of Darjeeling district of West

598

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 93 (1996)

Bengal.

5 . Soroseris hookeriana (Clarke) Stebbins in

Mem. Torr. Bot. Club. 19, 3: 45.1940 Crepis

hookeriana Clarke, Comp. Ind. 255.1876.

(Asteraceae). Dwarf perennial herbs. Leaves

oblong to lanceolate, shallowly lobed, toothed or

entire. Flowering stems 3-10 cm high. Inflorescence

compact, almost stalkless, of many yellow flowered-

heads and a rosette of narrow leaves. Ray-florets 4,

oblong, 1-1.7 cm, conspicuously 5-toothed at apex;

involucre bracts linear, blunt, woolly at base, almost

glabrous towards apex.

FI. & Fr.: July-Sept.

Specimens examined: Katao,ca 4800m, R.C.

Srivastava, s.n. dt. Sept. 1989 (BSHC).

Notes: Rao et al. (1988) recognised the

occurrence of only one species viz. Soroseris deasyi

(S. Moore) Stebbins in India. However, the identity

of the present collection was confirmed by Dr. C.

Jeffrey, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

6. Zephyranthes Candida Herb, in Bot. Mag.t.

2607.1826.

Herbs. Bulbs ca 2.5 cm in diam., with

prominent neck. Leaves linear, upto 30 cm long,

present during flowering. Flowers white, perianth

ca 5 cm long, without tube, segments obtuse or short

acute, upto 1 .2 cm wide. Stamens much shorter than

the segments; styles somewhat exceeding stamens;

stigma slightly 3-notched.

FI. & Fr.: Aug.

Specimen examined: Gangtok, ca 1750 m,

R.C. Srivastava, s.n. dt. July 1992 (BSHC!).

Notes: Probably an escape but now almost

naturalised. Not known so far from India ( cf Karthik.

etal. 1989).

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, BSI and Regius

Keepers, Royal Botanic Gardens, KEW and RBG,

Edinburgh for facilities; to INSA, New Delhi and

The Royal Soc., London for grant of fellowship to

visit British Herbaria; and to Drs. P. Cribb and D.A.

Simpson, RBG, Kew and Mr. H.J. Noltie of RBG,

Edinburgh for their help during the visit to their

herbaria.

September 8, 1 995 R.C. SRIVASTAVA

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad-211002.

References

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa (1989): Rao, R.R., H.J. Chowdhury, P.K. Hajra, S. Kumar, P.C. Pant,

Florae Indie ae Enumeratio : Monocotyledonae, B.D. Naithani, B.P. Uniyal, R. Mathur & S.K. Mamgain

Calcutta. (1988) Florae Indicae Enumeratio : Asteraceae , Calcutta.

26. A NEW RECORD FOR FLORA OF INDIA FROM SIKKIM

During the course of studies on Flora of

Sikkim, we came across an interesting collection

which was later identified as Berberis everestiana

Ahrendt var. ventosa Ahrendt. This taxon has not

been recorded from India so far. Hence, a brief

description with data on distribution, flowering/

fruiting period etc. is provided.

Berberis everestiana Ahrendt var. ventosa

Ahrendt, J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 57:117.1961.

Small shrubs. Stems very sulcate; shoots

reddish; pale yellow with age. Internodes 5-12 mm.

Spines 3(-5)-fid, 5-12 mm. Leaves obovate, 5-15 x

3-8 mm, entire or with margins with 2-3 spinose

serrations. Flowers solitary. Pedicels 5-8 mm long.

Outer sepals ovate- elliptic, ca 6x3 mm, subacute;

inner sepals obovate, 7.5 x 4.5 mm. Petals ca 6x3

mm, subacute; inner sepals obovate 7.5 x 4.5 mm.

Petals az 6 x 3 mm. Stamens ca 4 mm, produced,

apiculate. Berries oblong-ovoid, ca 7 x 4 mm.

FI. & Fr.: June-Sept.

Distrib.: Nepal, India (Sikkim)

Specimens examined: North Sikkim district:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

599

Muguthang, Army camp area, S.K. Rai 9490

(BSBC!).

Note: This variety is distinguishable from var.

everestiana by the following main characters:

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF TWO

VARIETIES OF Berberis everstiana AHRENDT

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Director, BSI for

facilities provided.

September 7, 1995 R. R. RAO

R. C. SRIVASTAVA

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad-211 002.

T. HUSAIN

National Botanical Research Institute,

Lucknow -226001.

References

Sharma, B.D.; N.R Balakrjshnan; R.R. Rao & P.K. Hajra (1993) Flora of India, Vol. I, BSI, Calcutta.

27. STUDIES OF VIVIPAROUS GERMINATION IN ARTOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS LAM

Vivipary is the germination of seeds in the

fruit while the fruit still remains attached to the

plant; it is particularly common in mangrove plants.

There are relatively few certain records of viviparous

germination in mesophytes lik zPennisetum (Reddy

and Chatterjee, 1916),Livistona chinensis (Kulkarni

and Pandey, 1976), Allium cepa (Foja et al., 1967),

Citrullus vulgaris (Singh and Sharma, 1972),

Sechium edule (Katiyar, 1976), etc. The present case

is a new addition to the list.

200 mature fruits of Artocarpus heterophyllus

were collected from different regions of

Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, India and from

markets to study the presence of viviparous

germination in them. Germinated seeds in the fruits

were collected from the ripe fruits by cutting them

with a sharp knife. Of the 200 fruits studied, 23 fruits

had germinated seeds in them. 573 germinated seeds

were collected from the 23 fruits. Length of shoot

and root of each of the seedlings were measured using

a metre scale. The maximum height of the shoot was

9.8 cm, and of the root was 10.2 cm. The average

height of the shoots was 6.3 cm, and of the roots

was 7.6 cm. Then 300 dormant seeds were collected

from fruits that did not have germinated seeds and

sowed in the garden soil to raise seedlings. The seeds

took four days for germination under normal

conditions. After germination, 25 seedlings were

uprooted from the nursery every day without

damaging their roots and the average height of shoots

and roots were measured as usual. The height of the

shoot reached 6.3 cm on the 6th day after

germination, and of the roots reached 7.6 cm on the

7th day after germination. The seedlings took 9 days

for producing shoots of 9.8 cm height. The shoots of

viviparous seedlings were pale yellow in colour with

soft stem. They became green within two days when

they were exposed to sunlight. The growth was

somewhat rapid in roots as compared to shoot growth.

But in artificial germination the shoot growth was

higher than the root growth. This shows that the

internal environment of such fruits is more suitable

for seed germination than the soil.

The ripe ovaries around the germinated as well

as dormant seeds were collected from viviparous and

non-viviparous fruits respectively, and their moisture

content was measured using weighing method. The

moisture percentage was the same (89.3%). This

was also done in ovaries whose seeds were at the

stage of sprouting. The moisture percentage of

ovaries containing sprouting seeds was 79.1% and

that of ovaries containing non-viviparous seeds was

600

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 93 (1996)

found to be 71.72%. The high moisture content in

viviparous fruits before ripening might be the reason

for the viviparous germination.

Kulkarni and Pandey (1976) pointed out that

humidity was the main reason for viviparous

germination in Livistona chinensis. In the present

case also, the moisture content was higher in ovaries

of viviparous fruits than in ovaries of fruits whose

seeds were dormant. The increase in moisture content

before ripening might be the reason for viviparous

germination in Artocarpus heterophyllus. The roots

of viviparous seedlings produced a thick dense mat

of rootlets in fleshy ovary around the seed and made

it useless for consumption because of its bitter taste.

Refe

Katiyar, R.B. (1976): Induced Vivipary in long melon. Sci.

Cul. 44-233.

Kulkarni & S.B. Pandey (1976): Vivipary in Livistona

chinensis R. Br. Curr. Sci. 45-344.

Reddy, B.M. & A.K. Chatterjee (1976): Vivipary in

The frequency of viviparous germination was

high (19/100 fruits) in fruits harvested after

ripening, and was low (4/100 fruits) in fruits

harvested before ripening. So early harvesting of

fruits before ripening can reduce the damage of fruits

by viviparous germination of their seeds.

I thank Prof. R. Bothi, Head of the Department

of Botany, Vivekananda College, Agasteeswaram for

references and suggestions.

June 1 5, 1 996 V. KUMARES AN

Dept, of Botany,

Vivekananda College,

Agasteeswaram, Tamil Nadu-629 701.

NCES

Pennisetum Sci. Cul. 42-199.

Singh, O.S. & V.K. Sharma (1972): On the Occurrence of

Vivipary and its Mechanism in Water melon Citrullus

vulgaris Schrad, Curr. Sci.

28. CEROPEG1A BULBOSA VAR. LUSH1I (GRAH.) HOOK. F.: A NEW FOOD PLANT FOR

PLAIN TIGER BUTTERFLY DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS (LINN.)

While carrying out the survey of genus

Ceropegia (Linn.) Family Asclepiadaceae on 15th

September, 1995, at Appachi Wadi near Kolhapur

in Maharashtra, we found an egg of a butterfly on

the undersurface of the leaf of a Ceropegia bulbosa

var. lushii (Grah.) Hook.f. We collected the egg and

brought it to Mumbai along with the food plant. The

larva hatched out on 17th September, 1995. It fed

upon the leaves of C. bulbosa var. lushii It \ted

on 26.ix.95 and on 4.X.95, an adult of the Plain tiger

Danaus chrysippus (Linn.) emerged from the pupa.

C. bulbosa var. lushii is a xerophytic plant.

The leaves are long, linear, thick and fleshy. D.

chrysippus is mainly found in open country and is

less common in damp, forested hilly regions

(Wynter-Blyth, 1982). Earlier, Pennington (1978)

had recorded Ceropegia sp. as one of the food plants

of D. chrysippus in Ackery and Vane-Wright

(1984).

We acknowledge our sincere thanks to Dr. S.R.

Yadav, Shivaji University, Kolhapur who helped us

in spotting the plant.

December 21, 1995 NEELAM PATIL

M R ALMEIDA

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

S.B. Marg, Bombay-400 023.

References

Ackery, P.R. & R.I. Vane-Wright (1984): Milkweed butterflies

- their cladistics and biology, Dept, of Entomology, British

Museum. U.K. p. 210.

Pennington, K.M. (1978): Butterflies of Southern Africa,

670 pp., 1 map, Johannesburg.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1982): Butterflies of the Indian region.

Reprinted ed. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers,

New Delhi 523 p. 69.

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DR. SALIM ALLS CONTRIBUTION TO KUTCH ORNITHOLOGY

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By Lady Peng McNeice . viii

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STATE: PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF AN ONGOING SURVEY (With fifteen maps )

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AERIAL DISPLAY IN THE LESSER FLORICAN (With four text-figures)

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EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON PALAE ARCTIC WARBLERS OVER-WINTERING IN INDIA

(With eleven text -figures )

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IN THE TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST OF POINT CALIMERE, SOUTH

INDIA (With three text -figures)

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ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS IN INDIA (With two plates and a text -figure)

By Asad R. Rahmani 442

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF INDIAN HERONRIES

( With four text -figures )

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A REVIEW OF THE BIRDS OF THE THATTAKAD BIRD SANCTUARY, KERALA

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ANOUS STOLIDUS IN THE LAKSHADWEEP (With two text-figures)

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KYASANUR FOREST DISEASE AND THE BIRD MIGRATION STUDY OF THE

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CONSERVATION NOTES 513

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 570

REVIEWS 578

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