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HARVARD

UNIVERSITY

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

APRIL 2010 VOL. 107(1)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

Aasheesh Pittie, B Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala. Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 107(1): APRIL 2010

CONTENTS

HARVAnn

editorial . UNtVETn 1

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE

RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

N. Baskaran, M. Balasubramanian, S. Swaminathan and Ajay A. Desai . 3

AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CHECKLIST OF THE OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH,

GUJARAT, INDIA, WITH 21 NEW RECORDS FOR GUJARAT AND 13 NEW RECORDS FROM INDIA: PART 1

Deepak Apte, Vishal Bhave and Dishant Parasharya . 14

FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIALAND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR, DATIA,

MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

R.K. Garg, R.J. Rao and D.N. Saksena . 24

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THREE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA

V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan and N. Baskaran . 30

GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE PROSOPIS JUUFLORA SEEDS PASSED THROUGH GUT OF THE INDIAN

WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR IN SALT DESERT OF INDIA

Bitapi C. Sinha, S.P. Goyal and P.R. Krausman . 38

LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS L. (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE) ON LITSEA MONOPETALA JUSS.

IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

B.N. Sarkar, B.C. Chutia, J. Ghose and A. Barah . 42

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

RECORD OF THE GENUS SCHIZOPRYMNUS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA,

WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES

Zubair Ahmad and Zaheer Ahmed . 45

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. A note on distribution range of Hanuman Langur

Semnopithecus entellus (Dufresne) and Rhesus Macaque

Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) in Rajasthan

Satish Kumar Sharma . 48

2. Sight record of the Indian Wolf Canis lupus pallipes in the

river Gandak floodplains

Sushant Dey, Viveksheel Sagar, Subhasis Dey and

Sunil K. Choudhary . 51

3. Wildlife mortality from vehicular traffic in Sriharikota Island,

southern India

S. Sivakumar and Ranjit Manakadan . 53

BIRDS

4. Factors causing nest losses in the Painted Stork Mycterla

leucocephala: a review of some Indian studies

Abdul Jamil Urfi . 55

5. Partial albinism in Black Ibis Pseudibls papillosa

Rajesh C. Senma and Chirag A. Acharya . 58

6. First record: selection of an electric pole as a roosting

site by Black Ibis in North Gujarat region

Rajesh C. Senma and Chirag A. Acharya . 59

7. Occurrence of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps

in Bikaner region of the Thar Desert

Partap Singh, D.R. Saharan, Jitendar Solanki and

S.P. Mehra . 59

8. Addition to the avifauna of the Indian subcontinent -

“White-faced” Plover Charadrius dealbatusUom Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, India

Nikhil Bhopale . 60

9. First record of the Hume's Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus

humel from Kachchh, Gujarat, India

Nikhil Bhopale . 61

FISH

10. An observational note on Gangetic Latia Crossocheilus

latius latius in Khoh river, Uttarakhand, India

Vidyadhar Atkore . 62

INSECTS

11. A new record of larval host plant of Tawny Coster Acraea

violae (Fabricius)

Rudra Prasad Das, Arjan Basu Roy, Radhanath Polley

and Goutam Saha . 63

12. A checklist of ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad, Kerala

K.A. Karmaly, S. Sumesh, T.P. Rabeesh and

Lambert Kishore . 64

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

1 3. First report on the occurrence of an economically important

Spiral nematode Helicotylenchus multicinctus Cobb,

from Goa

I.K. Pai and H.S. Gaur . 68

14. Scolopendra hardwickei (Newport, 1844) feeding on

Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) in the scrub jungles

of Pondicherry, southern India

Utpal Smart, Prakash Patel and Pradeep Pattanayak ...

15. Architecture of abutting surfaces of the shells of acorn

barnacles

A. A. Karande and M. Udhayakumar .

BOTANY

1 6. Andrachne telephioides L. (Phyllanthaceae) - an addition

to the flora of peninsular India

68 M.M. Sardesai and S.Y. Chavan .

Cover Photograph: Tiger

Panthera tigris

70 By Sachin Rai

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

73

11

Editorial

Are we saving tigers for Chinese consumers?

Tiger is perhaps the most famous animal in the world.

Everything about the tiger is written in superlative

terms - its beauty, grace, aura, grandeur, strength,

ecological role, iconic role, and even aphrodisiac potency

of its body parts. Nothing is mundane about the tiger.

Even some tiger conservationists consider themselves

above all other conservationists. Earlier every tiger shot

was a life-long memory of a hunter, now every tiger

sighting by a tourist is a conversation topic among family

and friends. Poaching of tigers makes the front-page in

daily newspapers. There are more books on tiger than

any other Indian animal. There are tourist agencies that

survive solely on tiger tourism. Such is the aura of this

grand animal, and rightly so. For me, the tiger is a spirit,

literally and figuratively, of Indian conservation

movement - a flagship species. It is the animal which

inspires many of us to save our wilderness.

India has come a long way from the bad old days of

tiger shooting as ‘sport’ to tiger tourism as a growing

business. We even have a school of art based solely on

tiger paintings. Instead of an ugly rug of a tiger skin or a

decaying ‘trophy’ of a tiger head in some decrepit house

of an aging former rajah or nawab, tiger paintings now

proudly adore art galleries and board rooms of

corporates. Visiting a tiger reserve is a fashion statement.

India has 39 tiger reserves scattered all over the tiger’s

range, covering about 40,000 sq. km of forest.

Unfortunately, almost 50 per cent are in very bad shape,

but they can be recovered with proper management.

According to tiger experts, a male tiger requires about

100-160 sq. km territory and a tigress requires about

40-60 sq. km, which means we should have about

400 adult tigers and about 800 adult tigresses only in the

tiger reserves. We also have about 100,000 sq. km forest,

which can support tigers, may be in lower densities. In

well-protected areas, such as the Corbett National Park,

there are 20 adult and subadult tigers of both sexes per

100 sq. km. Similarly, in Kaziranga National Park the

density is 26 tigers per 100 sq. km. Therefore, ideally

India should have 2,400 to 3,000 tigers, perhaps more, as

in good protected areas (e.g. Corbett, Kaziranga,

Bandhavgarh, Ranthambore) tigers can live in much

higher densities. We have less than 50 per cent of the rough

estimated figures. Thanks to mismanagement, lack of

funds and administrative support, and extensive poaching

we have vast empty forests where the tiger and its prey

have almost gone. Besides, our forests face constant threats

of livestock overgrazing, encroachment, and mining.

While mining, livestock grazing and encroachments

can be stopped by strong administrative and legal

measures, the invidious threat of poaching is much more

difficult to control, particularly when the tiger moves

out of the protective cover of a tiger reserve or a national

park. As long as there is demand in China for tiger parts,

tigers will be poached. With 60 per cent of world’s tigers

in India, we have become the biggest supplier of tiger

parts to the growing Chinese market.

BINGOS (big international NGOs), donors and tiger

conservationists frequently go through the ritual meetings

and conferences where the issue of protecting tiger through

training of staff, giving them more guns and boots (!),

getting stakeholders support etc. are discussed on the well-

trodden lines, but not many are willing to take up China.

As long as we have demand of tiger parts in China, all

wild tigers of the world will be under constant threat.

We may have a million children writing to the Prime

Minister of India to save the tiger, a retinue of celebrities

endorsing tiger protection, large hoardings appealing to

save our national animal, but a poacher is not going to

listen to this; for him a dead tiger is money. The

higher-up you are in illegal tiger trade, the more money

you make. And as long as there are people willing to

give any amount of money to have tiger-penis soup for

purportedly aphrodisiac properties, as long as there are

people willing to wear a tiger nail around their neck for

good omen, and as long as there are people who consider

tiger meat, fat and bones as cure-all, tiger poaching will

continue.

Before tiger hunting was banned in 1969, we used to

have about 30 shikar companies exclusively for the

so-called sport hunting of tiger in India. As one of India’s

greatest living conservationists. Dr. M.K. Ranjitsinh tells

that in his younger days, when one saw a tiger, it was

shot, what else would one do? Now, when we see a tiger,

we still shoot, but with a camera. When we Indians can

change our way of living in one generation, from tiger

hunters to tiger lovers, why can’t the Chinese stop using

tiger parts? When they have death penalty for killing a

Giant Panda - their conservation symbol - why can't

they protect the tiger in their own country and stop

smuggling of tiger parts from other tiger-range countries?

1 remember the old slogan of WildAid, “When the

Buying Stops, the Killing Can Too”. This is the basic

issue of tiger conservation. When the main problem lies

in China, the solution also lies there. We have to see that

consumption of tiger parts is stopped in China and other

countries through strong legislative and administrative

actions and national and international pressure -

otherwise we will continue breeding tigers in India,

spending crores of rupees and with great sacrifice by

the local people (e.g. shifting villages), for the Chinese

market. 'Guns and boots’ and well-intentioned petitions

cannot save tiger as a free-ranging wild animal in

India.

Asad R. Rahmani

2

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

3-13

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS

IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

N. Baskaran12, M. Balasubramanian13, S. Swaminathan4 and Ajay A. Desai15

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

2Present address: Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Innovation Centre, First Floor, Indian Institute of Science,

Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

^Present address: The Periyar Foundation, Thekkady 685 536, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

4No. 5, Perumal Kovil Street. Porayar 609 307, Tamil Nadu, India.

584 BC Camp, Belgaum 590 001, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

We studied the activity patterns and feeding ecology of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus in deciduous and dry thorn

forests of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, southern India. Over 20,000 instantaneous scan samplings on elephants

revealed that 60% of the daylight hours were devoted to feeding. Feeding patterns were strongly bimodal, with peaks

in the morning and evening. Elephants spent less time feeding during the dry season than in the wet season, both in dry

deciduous and dry thorn forests. Feeding decreased with increasing ambient temperature and its influence is more

pronounced during the dry season in all the habitats. The time spent on feeding was less in dry thorn (53%) than in dry

deciduous forests (68%), attributed to higher ambient temperatures coupled with poor shade availability and higher

human disturbances in dry thorn forest. The diet of elephants constituted more species of browse (59) than grass (29),

but grass formed the bulk of the annual diet (84.6%) than browse (15.4%). Elephants fed on more diverse food plants

during the dry than the two wet seasons, and in the dry thorn than dry deciduous forests, which is discussed in the light

of availability of grass biomass. The proportion of browsing was significantly more during the dry season in dry thorn

forest, coinciding with poor availability of grass. These observations indicate that grass forms the principal diet of

elephants in this area.

Key words: Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, activity, feeding, seasonal variation, temperature, browse, grass biomass

INTRODUCTION

Both living species of proboscideans, the Asian

Elephant Elephas maximus and African Elephant Loxodonta

africana, are well adapted to living in diverse habitats by

exploiting a wide spectrum of plant species. Their

physiological adaptations, like the large prehensile trunk,

dentition and digestive system, which help to collect and

process vast quantities of diverse plant food required to

compensate for an extremely poor digestive ability and the

nutritional demands of the elephant’s large body mass, are

undoubtedly critical to the survival of the species (Sukumar

2003). However, such physiological adaptations alone are

unlikely to be sufficient, especially in tropical ecosystems,

which show large spatio-temporal variance in climate, and food

quality and quantity. Additional behavioural adaptations may

also be necessary for both the species to efficiently exploit the

highly changing heterogeneous tropical environments.

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) in southern India,

along with its adjoining contiguous areas in the Western and

Eastern Ghats, supports the largest elephant population in

Asia (Daniel el al. 1995). The Reserve encompasses a wide

range of habitats ranging from semi-evergreen to tropical dry

thorn forests and shows distinct seasonality - dry versus wet

- making it an ideal system to study the effects of the spatial

and environmental factors on the activity and feeding

behaviour of the Asian Elephant. This paper documents the

seasonal influences of ambient temperature and the

availability of grass on the activity pattern and feeding

behaviour of elephants in the tropical deciduous and dry thorn

forests of NBR. Though the study was carried out over a

decade back ( 1992-95), the findings are still important as there

exist no detailed published data on the feeding ecology of

elephants from optimal habitats (like Mudumalai, Bandipur,

Nagarahole and Wayanad) of NBR. which support the major

population of elephants in southern India. Additionally, it

would provide baseline data to know the impact of the recent

changes taking place on the vegetation physiognomy of

elephant habitats due to proliferation of exotic weeds like

Lantana camara and Eupatorium odoratum and the reported

decline of preferred food plant species (Sivaganesan and

Sathyanarayana 1995), and their impact on elephant feeding.

STUDY AREA

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve ( 12° 15'- 10" 45' N;76°0'-77°

15' E), spread over an area of 5,520 sq. km is situated at the

junction of three southern states — Tamil Nadu, Karnataka

and Kerala. It has an undulating terrain with an average

elevation of 1 ,000 m above msl. Rivers such as Nugu. Moyar

and Bhavani, and most of their tributaries, are perennial and

drain the area. The Reserve has a diverse climate due to its

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

varied reliefs and topography. The temperature ranges from

7°C in December to 37°C in April, and receives rainfall both

from the Southwest (May to August) and Northeast

(September to December) monsoons. The mean annual

rainfall varies from 600 (in the eastern side) to 2,000 mm (in

the western side). The dry season is from January to April.

Corresponding to the gradient in rainfall, the vegetation varies

from southern tropical dry thorn forest in the east to moist

deciduous forest in the west with dry deciduous forest in

between the two forest types (Champion and Seth 1 968). NBR

along with its adjoining natural habitats has remarkable faunal

diversity and is well-known for supporting the largest

population of Asian elephants with an estimated population

of 5,750 individuals (Project Elephant 2007). Overgrazing

by domestic cattle and firewood collection are serious

problems in the eastern fringes of NBR (Baskaran etal. 2004).

METHODS

Grass biomass

The abundance of grass, in terms of biomass, was

estimated twice in a season for three seasons from stratified

transects of one to two kilometres in dry deciduous (7 transects

of total length of 10 km) and dry thorn forest (6 transects of

total length of 10 km). The grass biomass could not be assessed

in moist deciduous forest due to inadequate manpower. At

200 m intervals along these transects, two 1 sq. m quadrats

were placed at a 5 m distance on either side of the transect.

All the grass species were clipped at the ground level from

each quadrat and weighed to estimate the grass biomass (wet

weight). The biomass estimates using dry weight is more

appropriate than wet weight method, due to varied water

content in plant samples in different season. However, given

the manpower and infrastructure facilities, dry weight method

could not be used. Mean grass biomass for grazed and un¬

grazed (by domestic cattle) areas for each habitat was also

estimated, as there were remarkable differences in grazing

pressure across habitats. All transect were restricted to areas

where direct observations on feeding of elephants was carried

out.

Activity and feeding behaviour

Observations were made on elephant clans and bulls

using instantaneous scan sampling method (Altmann 1974).

Using radio-collared elephant clans and bull, a minimum of

two clans and a bull were observed for a period of 2 days/

month. Non-collared elephant clans and bulls were also

observed, especially during months when radio-collared

elephants were not recorded within a habitat. Daylight hours

from 06:00 to 18:00 hrs were divided into 1 2 one-hour blocks

for sampling and an attempt was made to sample each one-

hour block at least once a month. Scan sampling was made at

15-minute intervals (four scans per hour) presuming that this

interval would rule out over-sampling of any particular

behaviour. Observations were made on foot (ground) or from

a tree, depending on the topography, wind direction and

visibility. Care was taken to ensure that the target animal or

target group did not detect the observer’s presence. During

the sampling, animals were systematically scanned and

information such as age, sex and activity (feeding, resting,

moving and others) were recorded. If the animal was feeding,

data on plant species eaten was also recorded. Additionally,

the ambient temperature was recorded at every 30-minute

intervals using digital thermometer at the observation site.

Data analyses

The frequency of activities and plant species eaten was

estimated season-wise for each habitat. The data blocks in

the morning (06:00-08:00 hrs) and evening ( 16:00-18:00 hrs)

were less compared to other sample blocks primarily due to

delay in radio-locating the animals because of weather

conditions (mist, rain, etc.) and the remoteness of certain areas.

Since the activity of elephants changes according to daylight

hours (McKay 1973), any bias in observation at particular

hours of the day would result in over- or under-estimation of

a particular activity. To standardize such bias, the percentages

of various activities/hour was derived from observed hourly-

pooled data, and from this percentage, the mean time spent

on various activities (weighted average) was calculated for

the season. Data on activity pattern and grass, and browse

ratio collected from the radio-collared tuskless bull, a habitual

crop raider, were not included into the analysis, as its activities

and feeding habits were skewed due to crop raiding behaviour.

However, its data on food species eaten were included into the

analysis mainly to capture the wide spectrum of food species

eaten by elephants in this area. All the data were analyzed using

non-parametric statistical tests and analyses were done using

'Statistical Package for Social Studies’ (Norusis 1990). Kruskal-

Wallis’ one-way ANOVA and the Man-Whitney U tests were

used to test the differences in activity pattern. Chi-square

analysis was used to test the differences in the selected browsing

and grazing plant species. The relationship between ambient

temperature and activities (feeding and resting) was tested using

Spearman Rank Correlation.

RESULTS

Overall time activity pattern

Overall, during daylight hours, elephants showed two

peaks in feeding, one in the morning (06:00-09:00 hrs) and

4

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

another in the evening ( 1 5:00- 1 7:00 hrs) (Fig. 1 a). Time spent

on resting was more around midday than in mornings and

evenings. Elephants frequently engaged in other activities

such as mud-bath, sand-bath, salt-licking and play during

14:00-16:00 hrs. As the temperature increased from morning

with a peak between 12:00 and 13:00 hrs, resting became

more common. However, comparisons of feeding and resting

with ambient temperature, with pooled data over habitats and

seasons, showed no significant correlation. Overall, the

activity budget revealed that elephants spent 60% of the

daylight hours (06:00-18:00 hrs) on feeding and 20% on

resting. Time spent on moving was 14% and 6% on other

activities

Seasonal difference in time activity in different habitats

Dry deciduous forest: During the dry season, elephants

showed a bimodal feeding activity with a peak each at

07:00 hrs and 18:00 hrs in dry deciduous forests (Fig. lb).

Elephants mainly rested during midday between 1 1 :00 and

14:00 hrs. Feeding decreased significantly with increasing

ambient temperature (r = - 0.7671, df= 12, P = 0.01), while

resting increased positively (r = 0.8581, df = 12, P = 0.01 ).

Movement was mostly restricted to the mornings and

evenings. Unlike the dry season, elephants spent a minimum

of 50% of time on feeding in all the hours of day during the

first wet season, and resting being considerably less (Fig. 1 c).

Feeding and resting showed no significant correlation with

temperature during the first wet season, as the ambient

Table 1 : Time spent (%) in various activities by elephants

in the different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

temperature during this season was relatively lower than the

dry season. During the second wet season, the pattern of

elephant activities observed was similar to the first wet season

(Fig. Id), but resting positively increased with temperature

(r = 0.5874, df - 12, P = 0.04), as ambient temperature

increased gradually in this season unlike the first wet season.

Activity budget data show that in dry deciduous forest,

elephants spent a major part (68%) of the annual daylight

hours feeding (Table 1 ). However, time spent on feeding and

resting varied among the three seasons. During the dry season,

elephants fed for significantly less time than the first

(M-W U = 14475, P = 0.01 ) and the second (M-WU= 14503,

P = 0.01) wet seasons. Time spent on resting was significantly

more during the dry season than the first (M-W U = 15402,

P = 0.01) and second (M-W U=14864.5, P = 0.01) wet

seasons.

Moist deciduous forest: In moist deciduous forest, the

activity pattern shown (Fig. le) for the first wet season was

based on a small number of observations (n = 221) collected

over a short period of three days in a disturbed area around

human settlements, and may therefore not accurately represent

a picture for the entire season. Similarly, as the observations

made on elephants were limited during dry season ( n = 35)

and nil during second wet season, the time activity pattern of

elephants could not be constructed.

Dry thorn forest: The pattern of elephant feeding and

resting observed in thorn forest during the dry season was

similar to the pattern observed in dry deciduous forest

(Fig. lf-h), but there was a sharp rise in time spent on

movement between 11:00 and 12:00 hrs. The peak

temperature recorded during midday hours coincided with

peak resting time. Resting increased positively with

temperature (r= 0.7273, df = 11, P = 0.01), while feeding

decreased (r = - 0.7091, df = 11, P = 0.01). During the first

and second wet seasons, the activities observed among

elephants were similar, except for an unusually longer

time (>55%) spent in resting in the morning hours (06:00-

07:00 hrs) observed during second wet season (November

and December), which is similar to that observed in the early

dry season (January). No significant correlation was observed

between ambient temperature and feeding, and resting during

first and second wet seasons.

Data on activity budget showed that annually, elephants

in thorn forest devoted significantly less time for feeding and

more time for resting compared to dry deciduous forest

(Table 1 ). On a seasonal basis, elephants in thorn forest also

spent significantly less time on feeding (M-W U = 3838,

P = 0.03) and more on resting during the dry season than the

first wet season (M-W U = 2936, P = 0.01). The time spent

on various activities did not vary much between the dry and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

5

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

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Fig. 1 : Season-wise diurnal activity pattern of elephants in different habitats of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

6

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

second wet seasons, but there were significant variations

in resting (M-W U = 4581, P = 0.01) and moving

(M-W U = 5500, P = 0.01 ) between the wet seasons.

Grass biomass

In dry deciduous forest, mean grass biomass varied

significantly across the three seasons (K-W-/2 = 32.1122,

P = 0.0001 ) (Table 2). The biomass was significantly higher

during the second wet season (921 gm/m2) as compared to

the dry (573.9 gm/m2, M-W U = 1 838.5, P = 0.000 1 ) and the

first wet (618.1 gm/m2, M-W U = 3033, f’ = 0.0014) seasons,

and in the first wet season as compared to the dry season

(M-W U=2039. 5, P- 0.0002). Similarly, in thorn forest, grass

biomass varied significantly across the three seasons (K-W-

X2 = 1 02.46, P = 0.000 1 ), and was significantly higher during

the second wet season (524.1 gm/m2) than the dry

( 1 56.9 gm/m2. M-WU = 781.5,/> = 0.000 1 ) and the first wet

(405 gm/m2. M-W U = 2263.5. P = 0.003) seasons. The grass

biomass in the first wet season was also significantly more

than in the dry season (M-W U= 1088, P = 0.0001 ). Sampling

was not carried out in moist deciduous forest due to manpower

constraints as mentioned under methods. The observed

variation in biomass between dry and wet seasons could

marginally be due to variation in water content in grass

samples.

The areas under cattle grazing had significantly lower

grass biomass in the dry deciduous forest during the dry

season (un-grazed = 725 gm/m2 and grazed =188 gm/m2,

M-W U = 220, P - 0.0002) and in second wet season

(ungrazed = 1019 gm/m2 and grazed = 520 gm/m2,

M-W U = 388.5, P = 0.0016). However, the influence of

grazing was statistically insignificant in dry deciduous during

the first wet season (un-grazed = 677gm/nr and grazed

= 600 gm/m2, M-W U = 51 1 , P - 0.10), and in all the seasons

in dry thorn forest (dry season ungrazed = 190 gm/m2 and

grazed = 152 gm/m2, M-W U = 318.5, P = 0.23; first

wet: ungrazed = 420 gm/m2 and grazed = 390 gm/m2,

M-W U = 426.5, P = 0.34; second wet season ungrazed

= 528 gm/m2 and grazed = 480 gm/m2, M-W U = 238.5,

P = 0.69).

Browse and grass ratio in the diet

Out of 10,743 feeding observations (viz., 7,003 in dry

deciduous, 153 in moist deciduous and 3,587 in dry thorn

forest), grazing and browsing constituted 84.6% and 15.4%,

respectively. Grass dominated the diet of elephants during

all the seasons in dry deciduous and dry thorn forests,

indicating the importance of grass in the diet of elephants in

this region. Browsing was more during the dry season in dry

deciduous (15.1%) and dry thorn (47. 1%) forests than during

the wet seasons (Table 2). The percentage of grazing and

browsing varied significantly across seasons in dry deciduous

(X2 = 148.64, df - 2, P - 0.00001) and dry thorn forests

(yf- 554.24, df= 2, P = 0.00001). Elephants fed significantly

more on grass and less on browse in dry deciduous than in

dry thorn forest in all the seasons (dry season - X2 - 459.43,

df = 1, P = 0.00001; first wet season - %2 = 6.37, df - 1,

P = 0.01 and second wet season - %2 = 65.71, df - 1,

P = 0.00001), indicating the importance of grass in dry

deciduous forest.

Species composition in the diet

Overall, 83 plant species eaten by elephants were

recorded from 11,186 feeding scans. Feeding scan

observations (n = 443) made on the habitual crop raiding

bull were also included in this analysis to know the diversity

of food plants eaten by elephants. Of the 83 plant species,

59 were browse species (trees, shrubs, herbs and bamboo),

and the rest (24) were grass species (Appendix 1). Among

the 24 grass species, six constituted more than 75% of the

total diet ( Themeda cyrnbaria 39.5%, Heteropogon contortus

13.4%, Themeda triandra 10.9%, Bothriochloa sp. 7.3%,

Aristida adscensionis 2.4% and Cymbopogon flexuosus

2.3%). Among the 59 browse species, Acacia intsia , bamboo

spp. and Kydia calycina were the most important, and

contributed 5.4, 4.4 and 1 .8%, respectively to the total diet.

Table 2: Grass biomass (gm/sq. m) and grass: browse ratio in the diet of elephants in dry deciduous and dry thorn forests

of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (grass biomass not assessed in moist deciduous forest due to inadequate manpower)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

7

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

In dry deciduous forest, 36 species of food plants were

recorded from 7,003 feeding observations (Appendix 1 ). The

number of grass species eaten (13) was less than browse

species (23). The tall grass T. cyrnbaria alone contributed

62.8% of the diet and T. triandra 17.1%, other grass species

formed <5%. Bamboo (4.4%) and K. calycina (2.9%) were

the two major browse species (Table 3). Seasonal use of these

food plants varied considerably, but the tall grass T. cyrnbaria

was always the principal diet during all the seasons (Table 3).

The proportion of the top four species (T. cyrnbaria,

T. Triandra, bamboo and C. flexuosus) and the rest of the

browse and grass species (pooled separately as other browse

Table 3: Major food species eaten (%) by elephants in different

habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

and other grass spp.) utilised varied significantly among

seasons (*2 = 1 1 18.87, df = 10, P = 0.01).

In moist deciduous forest, 22 species of food plants

were recorded from 369 feeding observations. The diet of

elephants was dominated by browse species both in terms of

number of species (15) and bulk (67.8%) (Appendix 1).

Bamboo (32.2%), Curcuma sp. (14.3%), Helicteres isora

(9.75%) and Dioscorea sp. (2.16%) were the major browse

plants of elephants in this habitat (Table 3). Short grass,

Cyrtococcurn patens, contributed a major part (11.6%)

followed by T. cyrnbaria (6.5) and C. flexuosus (5.14%). Other

grass and browse species contributed very little to the total

diet. Seasonal use of these food plants varied significantly

between the first and the second wet seasons (X2= 83.57,

df - 1,P = 0.01 ).

In dry thorn forest, 56 species of food plants were

recorded from 3,814 feeding observations (Appendix 1).

Elephants fed on more number of browse species (41) over

grass (15) in this habitat. However, in terms of bulk, browse

constituted only 27.9% of the overall diet, while grass species

contributed 72.1% (Table 3). Among the grass species,

H. contortus (36.9%) and Bothriochloa sp. (21.3%) were

important. Elephants ate the thorny shrub A. intsia more

(15.9%) among the 41 browse species in this habitat. The

percent composition of each species in the diet of elephants

varied among the seasons (%2= 1525.33, df = 16. P = 0.01).

Elephants ate more diverse food species during the dry season

in dry deciduous (19 species) and dry thorn (42 species) forests

than during the wet seasons (first wet: 17 and 9 spp. and

second wet: 18 and 25 spp. respectively in dry deciduous and

dry thorn forests). The number of species eaten was also

greater in the dry thorn forest (56 spp.) than in the dry

deciduous (36 spp.).

DISCUSSION

Overall, elephants showed bimodal feeding peaks, one

in the morning and another in the evening, while at midday

almost equal time was devoted for feeding and resting, which

is similar to the pattern observed on African elephants (Wyatt

and Eltringham 1974; Guy 1976; Kalemera 1987) and Asian

elephants (McKay 1973; Vancuylenburg 1977; Easa 1989).

Ambient temperature influences feeding activity significantly

in dry deciduous and thorn forests more in the dry season

than wet seasons. This is reflected in the bimodal feeding

pattern and the significant negative correlation obtained

between feeding and temperature during the dry season.

Ambient temperature influences the body temperature of both

the Asian and African elephants (Elder and Rodgers 1975;

Weissenbock 2006). The most likely reason for the afternoon

8

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

inactivity is heat avoidance rather than sleep due to the poor

thermoregulatory capacity of the large body mass (low

surface-to-volume ratio) and the absence of sufficient sweat

glands in their skin (Wyatt and Eltringham 1974;Hiley 1975).

The overall feeding time (60%) estimated in this study

is comparable to 65% reported in Asian elephants in

Parambikulam (Easa 1989), but low compared to 74%

reported in Mudumalai (Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995),

and Idukki (Vinod and Cheeran 1997) wildlife sanctuaries in

India and >75% in Sri Lanka (McKay 1973; Vancuylenberg

1977). The variation in feeding time, in NBR between

Sivaganesan and Johnsingh (1995) and the present study is

likely due to differences in sampling area (habitat) and time

of observation, as elephants spent more time feeding in dry

and moist deciduous forests than in dry thorn forest (as

recorded in this study). In most secondary forests, direct

observation on elephants is difficult especially during midday

resting, which mostly take place in dense undergrowth and

thick canopied shady areas like riverine and stream beds.

Inadequate observations during such midday resting hours

and pooling of such data without standardization would result

in bias towards feeding activity. Thus, the observed difference

in feeding time estimated by Sivaganesan and Johnsingh

(1995) and this study could be due to any or a combination

of the above-mentioned reasons. The same reasons could also

be attributed for the higher feeding time (>75%) estimated

by McKay (1973), Vancuylenberg (1977), and Vinod and

Cheeran 1997 (Idukki).

Elephants spent significantly less time feeding during

the dry season compared to the first and second wet seasons

in dry deciduous forest, and the first wet season in dry thorn

forest. These may be attributed to higher ambient temperatures

and poor shade availability as shown by studies on savannah

elephants in Africa (Guy 1976; Barnes 1979) and the Asian

Elephant (McKay 1973; Vancuylenberg 1977). Elephants in

dry thorn forest spent significantly less time on feeding during

the second wet season than the first wet season, even though

climatic conditions were ideal in thorn forest during the

second wet season with lower ambient temperatures than in

the first wet and dry seasons. A possible reason could be the

higher availability of grass (the principal food of elephants -

discussed further on) during the second wet season than in

the other seasons as shown by grass biomass results. With an

increase in food abundance, elephants could reduce overall

feeding time through higher intake rate as reported elsewhere

in African elephants (Guy 1975). Conversely, the lower time

spent on feeding in the dry thorn forest, despite less biomass

of food in this habitat (than in the dry deciduous forest), could

be a result of exposure to higher ambient temperature, coupled

with poor shade availability and greater human disturbance.

Barnes (1983) states that the time spent on feeding may

depend not only on the quality of food, but also upon the cost

(e.g., heat stress, disturbance) imposed in its acquisition. Thus,

feeding time seems to vary between areas, influenced by

factors such as food availability, ambient temperature and

human disturbance.

Browse and grass ratio in the diet

Extensive variation in the proportion of grass and

browse consumption by elephants in different areas has raised

questions as to whether the Asian Elephant is primarily a

grazer or browser. Given that Asian elephants inhabit a wide

range of habitats from rainforest (a predominantly browse-

dominated habitat), to savanna (a predominantly grass

dominated habitat), there is bound to be a significant variation

in the grass and browse ratio in the elephant diet. Browse

dominates the diet of elephants in rainforests of Malaysia

(Olivier 1978), northeastern India (Sukumar et al. 2003) and

in Bihar, central India (Daniel et al. 1995), and also in

relatively low rainfall degraded areas in the Eastern Ghats of

southern India (Sukumar 1990; Rameshkumar 1994; Daniel

et al. 2006, 2008). On the other hand, grass dominates the

diet of elephants in grass-dominated habitats of Sri Lanka

(McKay 1973), deciduous forests of Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary (Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995) and mixed

forests (evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist and grasslands) of

Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary (Vinod and Cheeran 1997).

Similarly, African elephants also showed wide variations in

grass and browse consumption (Buss 1961; Field 1971;

Beekman and Prins 1989; Kalemera 1989; Viljoen 1989;

White et al. 1993) according to the habitats they occupy. In

this study in NRB, the diet of elephants was found dominated

by grass (84.6%), consistent with the observations of

Sivaganesan and Johnsingh (1995) for the same area.

Seasonal variations in grazing and browsing by

elephants have been related to changes in the chemical

composition of food plants (Field 1971; Olivier 1978;

Sukumar 1989; Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995). Increased

browsing during the dry season and grazing during the wet

seasons have been related to higher level of crude protein.

Since an elephant’s daily requirement is 0.3 gm of digestible

protein/kg of body weight (McCullagh 1969), a marginal

increase in browse consumption would be sufficient to meet

this requirement. Excessive protein intake is also undesirable,

as nitrogen excretion requires more water, which may be in

short supply (Sukumar 1990). Grass contains more

carbohydrates (53%) than browse (49%) (Field 1971), and is

also more accessible to all the age classes of elephants.

Therefore, elephants need not selectively feed on protein-

rich browse during the dry season, but a marginal increase in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

9

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

browsing would perhaps be sufficient to compensate for the

lower intake of protein from the consumption of low-protein

grass during the dry season. This means that when browse

and grass are equally available, elephants could predominantly

feed on grass with a marginal increase in browse during the

dry season to meet the optimum requirements as recorded in

dry deciduous forest in this study.

In this study, an almost equal consumption of browse

(47%) and grass (53%) by elephants in dry thorn forest during

the dry season coincided with the significantly lower grass

biomass. For example, from the second wet season to the dry

season, the grass biomass dropped from 524 gm/m2 to

157 gm/m2. Elephants were seen scraping the short grass with

their forefoot toenails in this season as grass height was too

short (<10 cm) to be grasped by the trunk. Very low

consumption of grass by elephants despite high crude protein

during the first wet season in ‘short grass browse dominated

habitat’ of Sathyamangalam Forest Division was also

attributed to poor grass growth (Sukumar 1989). Therefore,

the increase in browse consumption by elephants in dry thorn

forest during the dry season could not be taken only as browse

preference due to high protein content, but as an alternative

to inadequate grass resources. In the dry deciduous forest,

the browsing rate doubled during the dry season but its

percentage was still much less than that of grass, supporting

the earlier hypothesis. Similarly, the reason for the

consumption of more diverse food plants during the dry season

than in the wet season, and likewise, in the dry thorn than in

the dry deciduous forests could be due to lower availability

of grass. The larger number of food species consumption by

elephants reported from the high rainfall browse dominated

habitats of Asia (Olivier 1978; Chen et al. 2006;

Himmelsbach et al. 2006; Roy et al. 2006; Canrpos-Arceiz

et al. 2008) and Africa (White et al. 1993) further suggests

the above reasoning that elephants in the absence of sufficient

grass availability would go for more diverse food species.

This could be the effect of secondary compounds from browse

plants as reported (Clauss et al. 2003).

Although studies on stable carbon isotope ratios in the

bone collagen of Asian elephants state that browse is more

important than grass for elephants (Sukumar et al. 1987;

Sukumar and Ramesh 1992, 1995), browse was not preferred

by elephants over grass in the study area. Cerling etal. (1999),

through isotopic analysis from modern and fossil

proboscideans, showed that extinct elephants (those that

survived from Pliocene or Miocene up to almost 1 million

years ago) were predominantly grazers, and the modern

elephants are predominantly browsers, but with grazing

dominating the diet of elephants in some regions in Africa

and Asia. This study (Cerling et al. 1999) for the modern

Asian species used the findings from Sukumar and Ramesh

(1992. 1995). Although the bone samples for the analysis by

Sukumar and Ramesh ( 1992, 1995) were collected from the

dead elephants in the Nilgiri-Eastern Ghats region, details

such as where these elephants predominantly ranged and what

proportion of the samples came from the elephants that ranged

in the grass or browse dominated habitats are unknown.

A more detailed stable carbon isotope study with sufficient

samples from individuals with known ranging history would

shed better light on these aspects of elephant ecology.

However, Olivier (1978) argued that the trend in body size

and dental features suggest that elephants are highly adapted

to grass feeding and thus can cope up with an abrasive,

nutritionally poor diet of high fiber and low protein. Because

of seasonal variations in grass availability, he believed that

they must be able to switch over alternatively to browsing.

Such a trend indicates that elephants may be basically grazers,

but their ability to survive in rain forests and deserts indicate

that they are highly adapted, being also able to exploit browse

in the absence or insufficient grass supply. Overall, our

findings support Olivier (1978) and show that grass forms

the principal diet of elephants in this part of Nilgiri Biosphere

Reserve.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank US Fish and Wildlife Service for funding the

study and the State Forest Departments of Tamil Nadu,

Karnataka and Kerala, for permitting us to undertake the study

in their states. We extend our sincere thanks to

Mr. J.C. Daniel the Principal Investigator of the Project and

former Director of Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai,

for his consistent support. We thank R.F.W. Barnes, visiting

scholar Division of Biological Sciences, University of

California and Dr. Guha Dharmarajan, Perdue University,

Indiana, USA, for their valuable comments on the manuscript.

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Ecological Science, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,

December 2003.

Vancuylenberg, B.W.B. (1977): Feeding behaviour of the Asiatic

elephants in the South-east Sri Lanka in relation to conservation.

Biol. Conserv. 12: 33-53.

Viljoen, P.J. (1989): Habitat selection and preferred food plants of a

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

11

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

desert-dwelling elephant population in the northern Namib desert.

South West Africa/Namibia. Afr. J. Ecol. 27: 227-240.

Vinod, T.R. & J.V. Cheeran (1997): Activity time budget of Asian

elephants (Elephas maxmimus L.) in Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kerala, South India. Indian Forester 123: 948-951.

Weissenbock, N.M. (2006): How do elephants deal with various climate

conditions? Previous results, recent data and new hypotheses.

Pp. 217-224. In: Proceeding of International Elephant

Conservation and Research symposium. October 21-22, 2006,

Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark.

White, L.J.T., E.G.C. Tutin & M. Fernandez (1993): Group composition

and diet of elephants Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900,

in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Afr J. Ecol. 31: 181-199.

Wyatt, J.R. & S.K. Eltringham (1974): The daily activity of elephants

in Rwenzori National Park, Uganda. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12:

273-289.

Appendix 1: Food plants (%) in diet of elephants in different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

12

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Appendix 1: Food plants (%) in diet of elephants in different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (contd.)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

13

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

14-23

AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CHECKLIST OF

THE OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA

WITH 21 NEW RECORDS FOR GUJARAT AND 13 NEW RECORDS FOR INDIA: PART 1

Deepak Apte1'2, Vishal Bhave1,3 and Dishant Parasharya1-4

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk. S B. Singh Road. Mumbai 400 001. Maharashtra, India.

2Email: [email protected]

-Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

The Opisthobranch fauna of Gujarat is among the least studied molluscs. Field surveys were undertaken along the Gulf

of Kutch over a period of four months under the All India Co-ordinated Project on Taxonomy ( AICOPTAX - Mollusca)

funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, and supported by the Gujarat State Forest

Department and Marine National Park authorities. 33 species belonging to 19 families were recorded, of which 21 are

new records to Gujarat and 13 are new records to Indian coast.

Key words: Opisthobranch, Gulf of Kutch, AICOPTAX, Dorididae

INTRODUCTION

Opisthobranchs are among the least studied molluscs

in India. The work done on opisthobranch fauna is sparse

and patchy. The earliest work dates back to the 1 880s by Alder

and Hancock (1 864), Kelaart( 1858a, b; 1859a.b,c.d; 1883), and

Bergh ( 1 877). Studies on the opisthobranch fauna of Gulf of

Kutch are limited to a few publications by Burn (1970),

Narayanan ( 1970), Eliot ( 1909a.b). Gideon etal. (1957). Menon

etal. (1970), Narayanan ( 1969, 1970, 1 97 1 a.b). Rudman (1980)

and Deomurari (2006). The most comprehensive work on the

opisthobranchs of the Gulf of Kutch was that by Narayanan

(1969. 1970. 1971 a,b).

Other notable works on Indian Opisthobranchia are by

Eliot (1906a.b.c, 1909a,b. 1910a.b. 1916), Farran (1905), HomeU

( 1909a,b, 1949, 1951 ), O' Donoghue ( 1932), Rao (1936, 1952,

1 96 1 ), Rao mid Alagarswami ( 1960), Rao and Rao (1980), Rao et

al. ( 1974), Satyamurthi ( 1952), Bum ( 1970), Valdes etal. (1999),

and Fontana et al. (2001). Indo- Pacific opisthobranchs were

studied by Gosliner and Willan (1991). Gosliner ( 1992, 1994,

1995), Gosliner mid Behrens ( 1 998). Gosliner mid Johnson ( 1 999),

Jensen (1992), Rudman (1980, 1984. 1986. 1990). Yonow (1984a,b,

1986. 1988. 1989. 1990, 1992, 1994, 1996. 2000. 2001. 2008a.b),

Yonow and Hayward (1991), Fahey and Gosliner (2003) and

Apte (2009). Brunckhorst (1993) reviewed the Phyllidiidae in

Indo-Pacific region, and Yonow (1996) reviewed 11 species

from the Indian Ocean. More recently Dayrat (2010) reviewed

basal Discodorids of the world.

The present study was carried out along the Gulf of

Kutch. Gujarat, India. The Gulf of Kutch is a large inlet of the

Arabian Sea, c. 60 km wide at its broadest and tapering north¬

eastwards for 1 70 km. It includes 735,000 ha under the Marine

National Park and Marine Sanctuary which are situated along

the southern side of the Gulf from Okha (22° 30' N; 69° 00' E)

and eastward to the vicinity of Khijadia (22° 30' N; 70° 05' E).

A vast area of intertidal mudflats, salt marshes and seasonally

inundated coastal flats extend north-east along the

Wagardhrai creek to about 23° 15' N and 70° 40' E. The

National Park and Marine Sanctuary include 42 islands and a

complex of fringing reefs backed by mudflats and sandflats,

coastal salt marsh, and mangrove forest. Field collection was

carried out from December 2008 to March 2009.

METHODOLOGY

Direct search during low tides was used to collect the

specimens. Specimens were stored in 100% ethyl alcohol after

studying the morphological characters. Digital images of live

specimens of each species were taken to record true colours.

Notes on egg cases were made wherever possible. Specimens

were relaxed before preserving in MgCl,.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the study a total of 33 species belonging to

19 families were recorded. Of these 33 species, 21 are new

records to Gujarat and 13 are new records to the Indian coast.

This clearly indicates that the opisthobranch fauna in India,

particularly in Gujarat, is not well-studied. A comprehensive

assessment is necessary to reveal the true diversity. Table 1

summarizes the findings of this study.

The Gulf of Kutch also hosts a very high density

population of Hypselodoris infucata, Peltodoris murrea,

Atagema cf. rugosa, and Dendrodoris fumata. We are

presently in the process of determining the population

structure of these species.

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCFi: PART 1

Table 1 : Opisthobranch fauna of Gulf of Kutch

Family: Hydatinidae

Hydatina zonata (Lightfoot, 1786) (Fig. la)

India: Widely distributed both on the east and west

coast of India.

Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific region.

Size: 10-30 mm.

Description: This is a benthic species. Shell very light

and semi-transparent. Body whorl in the centre bears one

distinct pair of dark brown band. A single band present near

the spire and at the base of body whorl.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Bullinidae

Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. lb)

India: Widely distributed both on the east and west

coast of India.

Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific region.

Size: 8-20 mm.

Description: Seasonal congregation of this species is

common. Mostly occurs on sand flats. Shells are solid with a

large body whorl, white with profuse dark to light brown

mottling.

Status: Common.

Family: Haminaeidae

Haminoea ovalis Pease, 1868 (Fig. lc)

India: Gulf of Kutch. This is the first record of this

species for India.

Wider Distribution: Australia. Samoa, Japan. Guam.

Size: 12 mm.

Description: It resembles H. cymbalum. Shell is fragile

and transparent. Animal is brilliantly coloured. Light green

ground colour is profusely spotted with orange spots which

are encircled by light green. Surface also bears deep blue

spots on mantle and foot. Foot is short, and spotted orange

and blue.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Aplysiidae

Aplysia dactylomela Rang, 1828 (Fig. Id)

India: Widely distributed in India.

Wider Distribution: Red Sea, Africa. Hawaii, South

Pacific, Australia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Caribbean.

Size: 100-180 mm.

Description: A large animal usually seen in large

congregations in shallow waters from December to February.

The shell is considerably reduced in these animals and is

present inside the body. They show remarkable colour

variations. In Lakshadweep it is dotted dull brown with black

and white spots; mantle is bordered pink. Specimens from

Gulf of Kutch are usually dull green with black spots. Pink

lining of mantle flap is also absent. The animals release a

purple dye when disturbed.

Status: Common.

Family: Pleurobranchidae

Berthellina citrina (Ruppell and Leuckart, 1828) (Fig. le)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep.

Wider Distribution: South Africa to Arabian Sea,

Red Sea, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Seychelles,

Japan, Norfolk Island (South Pacific), French Polynesia,

Maldives.

Size: 20-40 mm.

Description: A small sea slug occurring on reef sand.

Body colour deep orange with light orange foot; Rhinophores

light orange.

Status: Common.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

15

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1

Fig. 1 : a. Hydatina zonata, b. Bulla ampulla, c. Haminoea ovalis, d. Aplysia dactylomela, e. Berthellina citrina,

f. Berthellina cf. citrina, g. Berthella stellata, h. Elysia tomentosa, i. Elysia thompsoni,

j. Elysia obtusa, k. Plocamopherus ceylonicus, I. Gymnodoris alba, m. Gymnodoris sp.,

n. Carminodoris cf. grandiflora, o. Chromodoris bombayana, p. Hypselodoris infucata

Berthellina cf. citrina (Ruppell and Leuckart, 1828)

(spotted form) (Fig. If)

India: GulfofKutch.

Wider distribution: Unknown.

Description: A small sea slug occurring on reef sand or

below the rocks. Body colour deep orange with light orange

foot; Rhinophores light orange. This form is heavily spotted

with white.

Status: Common.

Berthella stellata (Risso, 1826) (Fig. lg)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Red Sea, Australia, Mexico, South

Africa, Indo-west Pacific.

Size: 5-15 mm.

Description: A small slug, it prefers sandy substrate.

Colour light yellow-orange; Rhinophores and oral tentacles

transparent and light yellow. Some specimens have a star¬

shaped opaque white pattern on the dorsa.

Status: Rare.

Family: Elysiidae

Elysia tomentosa Jensen, 1997 (Fig. lh)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep.

Wider Distribution: South Africa, Red Sea, Indo-West

Pacific.

Size: 18-40 mm.

Description: A large Elysia seen on coral sand. It is

deep green yellow in colour. The parapodia are lined by black

and pink bands. Rhinophores are reddish brown. They usually

occur among Caulerpa racemose.

Status: Abundant.

16

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1

Elysia thompsoni Jensen, 1993 (Fig. li)

India: Gulf of Kutch. It is the first record outside

Western Australia

Wider Distribution: Western Australia.

Size: 20 mm (Single specimen).

Description: These small sea slugs are herbivorous. They

feed by sucking sap from green algae Caulerpa sp. and C odium

sp. The animal is usually translucent greyish white with violet

parapodial margin. Tips of rhinophores are purple violet. Body

and parapodia covered with numerous black spots.

Status: Rare.

Elysia obtusa Baba, 1938 (Fig. lj)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Australia, Hong Kong, Japan,

Korea, Hawaii.

Size: 5-12 mm.

Description: A small, herbivorous sea slug, it is

translucent yellow with fine white spots. All specimens were

identical, except that in the specimens found in Ratnagiri, broken

white line on the parapodia is clearly seen, but in Gujarat

specimens, the parapodial white line is not clearly visible.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Polyceridae

Plocamopherus ceylonicus (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. Ik)

India: South Gujarat, Alibaug (Maharashtra), Gulf of

Mannar (Tamil Nadu).

Wider Distribution: Australia, Singapore, Philippines,

Indonesia, Marshall Island.

Size: 20-45 mm.

Description: These nocturnal slugs are found under

rocks. The gills are surrounded by four papillae having pink

rounded knobs that emit light when disturbed (pers. obs.).

Foot and mantle bear bright orange yellow spots. Foot is

extended to form tapering tail which is used to swim actively

when disturbed (pers. obs.).

Status: Rare.

Family: Gymnodorididae

Gymnodoris alba (Bergh, 1877) (Fig. 11)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep.

Wider Distribution: Japan, China, Indonesia, Australia,

Hawaii, Singapore, Philippines, Southern Africa.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: A small sea slug mostly found on sandy

substrate. The light orange or cream coloured body profusely

spotted with bright orange spots. Rhinophores are white or

pale orange. Gills are white.

Status: Uncommon.

Gymnodoris sp. (Fig. lm)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Australia, South Pacific.

Size: 28 mm.

Description: Uncommon, it is found on sandy

substrate. Light cream coloured body is profusely spotted

with light orange spots. Mantle bears fine papillae with yellow

tips. Rhinophores and gills are pale yellow. Foot has an

orange tip.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Dorididae

Carminodoris cf. grandijlora (Pease, 1860) (Fig. In)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Not known.

Size: 60-75 mm.

Description: It mostly remains attached to the lower

side of rocks. Its perfectly camouflaged body makes it

impossible to locate it. Surface bears rounded tubercles which

are smaller and densely packed at the peripheral margins of

the mantle. Brown tubercles are surrounded by a white ring

at the base. Ground colour is light brown and heavily mottled.

Gill leaves are feathery, light brown.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Chromodorididae

Chromodoris bombayana (Winkworth, 1946) (Fig. lo)

India: Mumbai, Ratnagiri.

Wider Distribution: Known only from India.

Size: 4-16 mm.

Description: It is a tiny sea slug from rocky reefs. Base

colour of the body is white with highly decorated surface.

Margin is deep orange lined by a row of deep purple spots.

Dorsal surface is profusely spotted with silver spots.

Rhinophores and gills have silver spots. Foot is short and

white in colour.

Status: Uncommon.

Hypselodoris infucata (Riippell and Leuckart, 1828)

(Fig. Ip)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep.

Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: India, Red Sea,

Indonesia, Vietnam, New Caledonia, Israel, South Africa,

Philippines.

Size: 2-45 mm.

Description: Colour is light purple grey and profusely

spotted with black and yellow spots. Rhinophores are red

and finely ribbed. Gills are white with red margin. Mating

pairs are commonly seen from November to April.

Status: Abundant.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

17

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1

Family: Discodorididae

Peltodoris murrea (Abraham, 1877) (Fig. 2a)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Maldives, Mauritius, Reunion, to

New Caledonia and Japan.

Size: 10-45 mm.

Description: A small discodorid usually seen in shallow

pools and under rocks. It prefers reef substrate with large silt

contents. Colour is white with dark orange or black spots.

Rhinophores are yellow.

Status: Abundant.

Tayuva lilacina (Gould, 1852) (Fig. 2b)

India: Malvan (Maharashtra), Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of

Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Waltair (Andhra Pradesh).

Wider Distribution: Indian Ocean, Australia,

Philippines, Red Sea, Japan, South Africa, Thailand, Hawaii.

New Caledonia.

Size: 30-150 mm.

Description: A large sea slug, usually seen in shallow

pools and under rocks. It prefers rocky substrate. Brown

mottling on the foot, gills highly frilled. This species is usually

confused with Sebadoris fragalis (earlier I). fragalis). The

mantle of T. lilacina does not break off while that of D.fragilis

breaks off if disturbed. DNA sequencing will help solve the

mystery of these species. We have collected samples from

Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) where mantle of the individuals does

break off as described while as specimens from Gulf of Kutch

does not autotomize the mantle.

Status: Common.

Atagema ci.rugosa Pruvot-Fol, 1951 (Fig. 2c)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Australia.

Size: 12-25 mm.

Description: A small discodorid usually seen in shallow

pools and under rocks. It prefers muddy reefs. Mantle is white

and tuberculate.

Status: Common.

Atagema spongiosa (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 2d)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Waltair.

Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Australia,

South Korea. Philippines, Christmas Island, Singapore, Red

Sea.

Size: 90-130 mm.

Description: It has sponge-like external appearance.

Mantle is deeply pitted and brown in colour with few green

and pale red patches. Foot and underside is dark purplish.

Status: Common.

Family: Platydorididae

Sclerodoris cf. tuberculata Eliot, 1904 (Fig. 2e)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Size: 15-70 mm.

Description: It is a small Sclerodoris. Rhinophores are

deep red. Gill leaves are feathery and red. It is always found

under rocks with red coloured encrusting sponge. Ventral

surface orange.

Status: Common.

Family: Kentrodorididae

Jorunna funebris (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 2D

India: Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar, Gulf of

Mannar, Lakshadweep.

Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea,

Oman, Maldives, Australia to Japan, Papua New Guinea,

Hong Kong, Singapore.

Size: 90 mm.

Description: A common slug in Indian waters. The

surface of this sea slug has a rough texture, a character typical

of the genus. Black rings present on the white body are rough

to touch. Rhinophores are black and lamellate with a white

base. Gills are black. Some areas of the Gulf of Kutch have

very high density populations of this species. The size is also

very large compared to other areas.

Status: Abundant.

Family: Dendrodorididae

Dendrodoris fumata (Riippell and Leuckart, 1831 ) (Fig. 2g)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Ratnagiri.

Wider Distribution: Red Sea. Western Australia,

Korea, New Caledonia, Seychelles, Reunion, Singapore, Japan.

Size: 10-60 mm.

Description: It is found mostly in shallow pools and

under rocks on muddy reef. This species resembles some

forms of D. nigra except that it has 5-6 bushy and branching

gills which expand to larger than the body width. Rhinophores

have white tips. Species shows colour variation from light

brown to red.

Status: Common.

Remarks: We have D. nigra but from Lakshadweep

and Andaman Islands. Based on our work, we believe that

D. fumata and D. nigra have distinct site separation , fumata

prefer muddy reefs while nigra prefer high quality reef. Species

identified by Narayanan ( 1968) from Gujarat as D. nigra in

fact are most likely D. fumata as this is the most abundant

species in this locality. We have not found a single specimen

of nigra in the last 10 years from this locality. D. fumata is

seen all along Maharashtra and Gujarat coast, western coast

India, which have muddy reefs. Also for D. nigra, juveniles

18

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1

Fig. 2: a. Peltodoris murrea, b. Tayuva lilacina, c. Atagema cf. rugosa, d. Atagema spongiosa, e. Sclerodoris cf. tuberculata,

f. Jorunna funebris, g. Dendrodoris fumata , h. Doriopsilla sp., i. Doriopsilla cf. miniata, j. Bornella stellifer,

k. Dermatobranchus fortunata, i. Flabellina bicolor, m. Phestilla lugubris ; n. Cuthona yamasui, o. Phidiana militaris,

p. Pteraeolidia ianthina, q. Sakuraeolis gujaratica

have red band on foot margin while as D. fumata juveniles are

light orange and lack red band.

Doriopsilla sp. (Fig. 2h)

India: Gujarat.

Wider Distribution: Unknown.

Size: 10-20 mm.

Description: It is a small sea slug found on muddy

substrate. The entire animal including rhinophores and gills

are yellow. Surface bears numerous outgrowths. Egg case is

also yellow.

Status: Common.

Doriopsilla cf. miniata (Alder and Hancock, 1864)

(Fig. 2i)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: South Africa and Gulf of Aden.

Size: 30-40 mm.

Description: It is a large Doriopsilla. Rhinophores and

gills are light yellow orange. In some specimen gills are deep

orange red. Body is mottled with network of white lines.

Colour of the egg case matches the specimen, i.e., the dark

orange form lays dark orange egg case, while the light yellow

form lays light yellow egg case. It differs from miniata in

that the white lines, instead of meandering all over the dorsum,

are concentrated on the tubercles.

Status: Rare.

Family: Bornellidae

Bornella stellifer (Adams and Reeve, 1848) (Fig. 2j)

India: Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat), Ratnagiri and Revdanda

(Maharashtra), Gulf of Mannar.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

19

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1

Wider Distribution: Australia, Singapore, Malaysia,

Indonesia, Taiwan, American Samoa, South Africa.

Size: 30 mm (Single specimen).

Description: A small sea slug found on rocky reefs.

Oral tentacles paired and finger-like. Gills placed at the base

of each cerata. Rhinophores present on long stalks and

surrounded by long papillae. It feeds on the hydroids. Colour,

deep reddish brown with white patches. Tips of cerata and

papillae with apical red band.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Arminidae

Dermatobranchus fortunata (Bergh, 1888) (Fig. 2k)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Australia, Philippines.

Size: 10-25 mm.

Description: This small sea slug is found under rocks

on muddy reefs. When disturbed, animal secretes large

quantity of slime. Rhinophores are bulbous at the tip and have

orange and black apical bands. Oral flap has orange border.

Egg mass is yellow, spiral conical ribbon-like.

Status: Seasonally common.

Family: Flabellinidae

Flabellina bicolor (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 21)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. This is the first

record of this species from Gujarat.

Wider Distribution: Widely distributed in Indo-

Pacific, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Hong Kong, Maldives,

South Africa to Hawaii, Red Sea.

Size: 10-20 mm.

Description: A small sea slug usually seen under rocks

or among dead coral branches. It has a long and narrow body

with numerous cerata which are in pairs, and have a distinct

orange coloured band near the tip. However, specimens from

Gulf of Kutch are always with yellow coloured bands. Besides

cerata, the head also bears orange banded oral and propodial

tentacles. Rhinophores are bulbous and brown in colour.

Status: Uncommon in the Gulf of Kutch, common in

Lakshadweep.

Family: Tergipedidae

Phestilla lugubris (Bergh, 1870) (Fig. 2m)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. This is the first

record of this species from Gujarat.

Wider Distribution: Tanzania, Red Sea, Indonesia,

Australia, Hawaii, Japan, Vietnam, Hong Kong.

Size: 40-45 mm.

Description: These sea slugs are closely associated with

Porites sp. They feed on the polyps of this species (pers. obs.).

Body colour is light brown. Body surface bears numerous

cerata. Each cera is bulbous in nature with distinct white bands

and ringed nodes.

Status: Uncommon in the Gulf of Kutch. Common in

Lakshadweep.

Cuthona yamasui Hamatani, 1993 (Fig. 2n)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Tropical Indo-West Pacific.

Size: 30-35 mm.

Description: This species seems to show colour

variation, particularly of head, rhinophores and oral tentacles

appear to range in colour from translucent orange to dark

blue-black. Body colour is somewhat translucent light orange-

brown. There is a prominent white band between the

rhinophores. The tips of the oral tentacles and rhinophores

are whitish. Cerata are elongated. The tips of the cerata are

black followed by a yellow and turquoise blue band. Rest of

the cerata is greyish-white in appearance. It is found feeding

on the stinging hydroid Aglaophenia sp. (pers. obs.).

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Facelinidae

Phidiana militaris (Alder and Hancock, 1864) (Fig. 2o)

India: South Gujarat, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra).

Wider Distribution: Malaysia, Papua New Guinea.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: A beautiful nocturnal sea slug, it is closely

associated with Goniopora corals. Cerata are transparent and

digestive gland is bright violet and orange. Oral tentacles and

rhinophores bear distinct orange lines. They are seasonally

common and seen in small groups among Goniopora polyps.

Status: Seasonally common.

Pteraeolidia ianthina (Angas, 1864) (Fig. 2p)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Wider Distribution: Australia, Singapore, China,

Vanuatu, Fiji, Japan, Hawaii, Madagascar, Seychelles, Maldives.

Size: 50 mm.

Description: It is a large aeolid. Body covered with

numerous cerata. Tentacles have distinct purple coloured

bands. It occurs on coral sand. No data available about this

species in India.

Status: Very rare.

Sakuraeolis gujaratica Rudman, 1978 (Fig. 2q)

India: Endemic to the Gulf of Kutch. This is the second

record of this species from its type locality after it was described

in 1971.

Size: 20 mm.

20

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1

Description: Body is elongated. The oral tentacles are

long and slender. Five sets of cerata are distinct on the body.

The body is pale orange. Tips of rhinophores and cerata deep

orange. Digestive gland inside cerata is deep violet, oral

tentacles are orange.

Status: Rare.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is a result of field work conducted during

the “All India Co-ordinated Project on Taxonomy - Mollusca”

funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India.

We are grateful to the Department of Environment

and Forests, Government of Gujarat, Mr. Pradeep Khanna,

IFS, PCCF (Wildlife), for providing necessary permits

to visit the marine National Park and Sanctuary areas.

We are thankful to Mr. D.S. Narve, IFS Conservator of

Forests, Marine National Park, Mr. PH. Sata DCF, Mr. Radadia

ACF, Mr. B.H. Dave RFO Sikka and Mr. Dipak Pandya RFO,

Dwarka for their help in field work. Mr. Vinod Gajjar,

Mr. Vishwas Shinde, Mr. Sudhir Sapre, and Ms. Swapna

Prabhu also assisted during the field work.

Dr. Bill Rudman, Dr. T. Gosliner and Dr. N. Yonow

helped to validate some species.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

24-29

FISH DIVERSITY. PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR. DATIA. MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

R.K. Garg', R.J. Rao2and D.N. Saksena3

'Centre of Excellence in Biotechnology, M.P. Council of Science and Technology (MPCST), Vigyan Bhawan, Nehru Nagar,

Bhopal 462 003, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

Conservation Biology Unit, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 Oil, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

^Aquatic Biology Laboratory, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 Oil, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

This contribution focuses on the fish diversity, production dynamics and commercial fisheries of Ramsagar reservoir.

Ramsagar is a small (140 ha) man-made reservoir in Datia district, Madhya Pradesh, India, constructed over Nichroli

nallah in the Sindh river basin. A total of 42 species of fishes belonging to 28 genera, 15 families and 6 orders were

recorded. Order Cypriniformes with 21 species showed maximum species diversity; minimum species diversity was

shown by orders Beloniformes, Osteoglossiformes and Synbranchiformes with one species each. Out of 42 species,

15 species were identified as commercially important. According to their economic importance these fishes are

categorized into three groups. They are major carps ( Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala ), local major

( Wallago attu , Heteropneustes fossil is), and local minor (Puntius conchonius, P. sarana. P. sophore, P. ticto , Xenentodon

cancila, Notopterus notopterus , Mastacembelus armatus, Channa marulius , C. striata and C. punctatus). The fish

production data of the last five years of the reservoir revealed that maximum fish yield (45.62 kg/ha/yr) was recorded

in 2000-01, which is lower than the average fish yield of Indian reservoirs. Fish yield rate upto 100, 75, 50 kg/ha/year

in respect of small, medium and large Indian reservoirs.

Keywords: Fish diversity, commercially important fishes, fish yield. Ramsagar reservoir

INTRODUCTION

India is one of the mega biodiversity hotspots

contributing to the world’s biological resources. Central India,

including the three states: Madhya Pradesh. Chattisgarh and

Rajasthan, has diverse water resources such as streams, rivers,

reservoirs, sub-terrain aquatic systems, traditional lakes and

domestic ponds that harbour a wide variety of freshwater

fishes (Sarkar and Lakra 2007). Fisheries resources occupy

a prominent place in the economy of any country. The main

benefits that can be derived from fishery development and

its associated growth can be categorized as (a) nutritional

and food supply (b) income (c) employment (d) infrastructure

and (e) rescue and defence services.

Out of the total fish production of c. 5.66 million tonnes

during 1999-2000. about 3.84 million tonnes came from

marine sources and the rest are from inland waters. The Inland

fish diversity of India is vast and varied, and one of the richest

in the world (Tamang et al. 2007). Inland aquaculture

contributes to 70% of total global fish production (Simoes et

al. 2008). It includes the great river systems and extensive

network of irrigation canals, man-made reservoirs, lakes,

ponds, tanks, etc. The capture, culture and culture-cum capture

fisheries have different settings and require different inputs,

infrastructure and developmental strategy (Verma 1969).

Development of inland fisheries mainly depends on the

intensity of stocking cultivable waters with quick growing

fishes, namely major carps and exotic varieties. This in turn

depends on the production of large quantities of cultivable

fish seed, including fish fry and fingerlings in state fish farms

and nurseries. In the context of a chronically protein deficient

diet of majority of the people in India, especially in Madhya

Pradesh, the production of protein food, like fish need special

attention. Therefore, fisheries and its development should form

an important aspect of planning, so as to provide cheap protein

food. Besides providing direct employment, the industry is

also an important income generator as it supports canneries,

processing establishments, gear and equipment manufacturers,

boat yards, refrigeration and ice-making plants, and transport

services in addition to those working in State Fisheries

Department. Fisheries Corporation, and other government

fisheries based institutions. In view of the above, a study of

fish diversity, production potential and yield of fish has been

undertaken in the present communication.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study site: Ramsagar is a small man-made reservoir with

a spread of c. 140 ha constructed on Nichroli nallah. a tributary

of Sindh river. The reservoir is located c. 80 km south of

Gwalior and 8 km north-west of Datia city, Madhya Pradesh

(Fig. 1 ). Geographically, it lies between 25° 40.48' N and 78°

23.88' E at an altitude of 229 m above msl. The Reservoir is

used for different purposes, like drinking water supply.

FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR

Fig. 1 : Text figure of Ramsagar reservoir showing sampling stations

irrigation, fisheries, etc. It is totally rain fed through various

drains that bring water from the surrounding hilly catchment

areas, except the side having ‘pucka (concrete)’ and ‘Kachcha

(earthen)’ embankments.

Methods: The fish specimens were collected twice

every season using dragnets, gill nets and cast net (Ghagaria

Jaal) with the help of local fishermen. Smaller specimens were

preserved in 8% formalin, while large specimens were

dissected for visceral preservation and later preserved in

Table 1: Fish species richness in Ramsagar Reservoir

formalin. The specimens were identified to species level using

keys provided by Srivastava (1980), Talwar and Jhingran

( 1 99 1 ) and J ay aram (1999).

Fishing activity in the reservoir is directly under the

control of Assistant Director, M.P. Government Fisheries

Department, Datia, whose office is located near Lala Ka Tal

in Datia city. The data on fish production of the reservoir

were collected from this office.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The ichthyofauna of a reservoir represents the faunal

diversity of the parent river system. Studies conducted so far

indicate that large reservoirs harbour around 60 species of fishes,

of which at least 40 contribute to commercial fisheries. The fast

growing Indo-Gangetic carps, popularly known as Indian major

carps, occupy a prominent place among commercially important

fishes. More recently, a number of exotic species have also

contributed substantially to commercial fisheries. A database

on fisheries resources of the reservoir ecosystem seems to be

an essential prerequisite for a meaningful management of the

aquatic resources.

Fish Diversity: The fish species obtained during the

survey under the present study were found to belonged to

42 species under 28 genera, 15 families and 6 orders

(see Appendix 1). The maximum numbers of fish species

(21) belong to Family Cyprinidae (50%). Families

Notopteridae, Balitoridae, Sisoridae, Clariidae,

Heteropneustidae, Belonidae. Mastacembelidae, Chandidae,

Nandidae, and Gobiidae are represented by only one species

(2.38%); families Siluridae and Schilbeidae are represented

by two species (4.76%), Family Channidae is represented

by three species (7.14%), and Family Bagridae is represented

by four species (9.52%) (Table 1). Order-wise, maximum

fish species (52.38%) is represented by Cypriniformes

(Fig. 2). Dubey and Verma (1965), while studying the fish

fauna of Madhya Pradesh, reported 104 species, of which

50% belong to Family Cyprinidae. Bhat (2003) studied the

diversity and composition of freshwater fishes in river

systems of Western Ghats and recorded 92 species, with

Cyprinidae being the dominant group. Agarwal and Saksena

(1977) studied the fish fauna of Madhya Pradesh and reported

48 species, of which 39.58% belong to Family Cyprinidae.

Dubey et al. (1980) recorded 70 fish species, including

exotic species from Chambal division, of which Family

Cyprinidae contributed 45.71%. Rao et al. (1988) studied

Gandhisagar reservoir and reported 41 species, of which

Family Cyprinidae contributed 53.65%. Saxena and

Shrivastava (1989) studied fishes of Kunwari river, north

Madhya Pradesh, and recorded 46 species with 47.82% of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

25

FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR

Osteo g lo s s ifo rraes

Perciformes 2.38%

Fig. 2: Percentage contribution of different orders of fish

species in the Ramsagar reservoir

Family Cyprinidae. If a comparison of fish fauna of Ramsagar

reservoir is made with other reservoirs and water bodies, it

becomes quite apparent that, the Ramsagar reservoir has rich

fish diversity with maximum contribution of Family

Cyprinidae. Saksena and Verma (1993) have reported 3

species of genus Tor and 7 species of genus Puntius from

Madhya Pradesh. In the present study, only Tor tor has been

reported. Shukla et al. (2003) have described 39 species of

fishes with family Cyprinidae contributing more than 51%.

Sarkar et al. (2007) studied Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, Uttar

Pradesh, and recorded 46 fish species belonging to 7 orders,

19 families and 33 genera. Saksena (2007) has revised the

list of fishes from north Madhya Pradesh and reported a total

of 73 species, including 7 species of exotic fishes.

Fish Production Potential: In the developed world,

fisheries of inland lakes and reservoirs largely cater to

recreational needs, whereas in a highly populous developing

country like India, these resources can play a vital role in

augmenting food production for human consumption and

mitigating protein deficiency. The national fish production

rate of Indian reservoirs is estimated as 20.13 kg/ha/yr

(Sugunan 1997: Ahirrao and Mane 2000) with a modest

increase in fish yield rate up to 100, 75, and 50 kg/ha/yr with

respect to small, medium and large Indian reservoirs (Sugunan

1997). The present low level of fish production in Indian

reservoirs can be attributed to inadequate management as

many of them have high propensities of production from a

limno-chemical point of view (Khedkar 2005). In many of

the reservoirs, the high rate of primary and secondary

productivity is not being channelized to fish production

(Khanna and Bhutiani 2005). Insufficient understanding of

the reservoir ecosystem often comes in the way for adopting

effective management measures (Paik and Chakraborty 2003).

The productivity from the reservoirs can be increased through

a number of approaches like better management measures,

higher value for fish catch through improvement in processing

and marketing and through more equitable distribution of

benefits (Sultan et al. 2005). Fish yield of 74.80 kg/ha/yr has

been recorded in Markonahalli reservoir, Karnataka

( Ramakrishnaih et al. 1 998 ) whereas, Jhingran and Sugunan

(1990) have recorded fish productivity as 100 kg/ha/yr in

Gulariya reservoir. Khan et al. (1990) observed fish

productivity of 139.60 kg/ha/yr in Bachhara reservoir.

Murugesan and Manoharan (2000) recorded fish productivity

of 224.80 kg/ha/yr in privately managed Palar-Poranthian

reservoir. A fish productivity of 133.50 kg/ha/yr was found

in Naktara reservoir, Madhya Pradesh ( Dwi vedi et al. 2000).

The fish productivity in Ramsagar reservoir was recorded

for five years and it is observed that maximum fish

productivity (45.62 kg/ha/yr) occurred in 2000-2001, while

minimum fish productivity (8.96 kg/ha/yr) was seen in 2002-

2003. If we compare fish productivity of Ramsagar reservoir

with other reservoirs, we notice that, productivity of Ramsagar

reservoir is very low. This could be primarily due to escape

of fishes from sluice gates at the time of discharge of water

for irrigation and drinking supply to Datia city, disturbing

the balance of fish production in the reservoir. Diminished

natural breeding ultimately reduces the fish production in

Ramsagar reservoir. The Reservoir is primarily meant for

irrigation, flood control and drinking purposes. Fisheries have

been recognized as a secondary activity. Hence, fish

production management practices are constrained and have

limited scope for adoption of modem practices. The inflow

Table 2: Royalty charges of Fisheries Department and fish price in Datia and Gwalior market

S. No. Species Fisheries Department Market rates of Fish/kg

charges (royalty) /kg

1 . Major Carps: Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala 14.00 Rs/kg 60-65 Rs/kg

2. Local Major: Wallago attu, Heteropneustes fossilis 10.00 Rs/kg 50-60 Rs/kg

3. Local Minor: Puntius conchonius , P. sarana, P. sophore , P. ticto, 8.00 Rs/kg 20-25 Rs/Kg

Xenentodon cancila , Notopterus notopterus , Mastacembalus arm at us,

Channa marulius, C. striata, C. punctatus

26

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR

Table 3: Year-wise fish production of Ramsagar Reservoir

*Fish seed (fingerlings) 100-105 mm in size

and outflow of water and highly fluctuating water levels are

main reasons for low fish productivity of Ramsagar reservoir

affecting the same adversely.

Commercial Fisheries of Ramsagar Reservoir: Out

of 42 fish species, 1 5 species were identified as commercially

important fetching good market price. According to their

economic importance these fishes are categorized into three

groups (Table 2): major carps ( Catla catla, Labeo rohita and

Cirrhinus mrigala), local major (Wallago attu,

Heteropneustes fossilis), local minor ( Puntius conchonius,

P. sarana , P. sophore, P. ticto, Xenentodon cancila,

Notopterus notopterus , Mastacembelus armatus, Channel

marulius, C. striata , and C. punctatus). The fish caught from

the reservoir are marketed locally in Datia fish market and

are seldom transported to other places. The fish marketing

surveys conducted in Datia and Gwalior city revealed that

there was one wholesale fish market each in Datia and

Gwalior, and five retail markets in Datia and Badoni town

and six in Gwalior city. All fishes sold are fresh. There was

no major fish drying process at the reservoir, however, a

small quantity of dried fish are dispatched to Gorakhpur.

The data collected for the last five years on fisheries resources

of Ramsagar reservoir show that maximum fish were caught

from February to April and these were procured by the

Fishermen Co-operative Societies. The payments to the

society are made on weekly basis. The Co-operative Societies

dispatch the fishes by Jeep from Ramsagar reservoir to

wholesale markets at Datia and Ladheri in Gwalior city. The

fishes are sold at the rate of Rs. 50-70/kg during different

months in different markets. It is alarming that there is much

lower fish production rate in Ramsagar as compared to other

Indian reservoirs (Sugunan 1997; Khedkar 2005). Kharat et

al. (2003) have suggested various strategies for conservation

of fish including halting of siltation, promoting controlled

harvest, imposing checks on exotic species, introduction of

carp fingerlings, controlling water pollution and construction

of fish ladders on dams.

It has been observed that illegal fishing practices also

reduce the annual yield of fish. The vast area of the Ramsagar

reservoir invites poachers for illegal fishing. The reservoir

should be suitably protected against unauthorized and illegal

fishing to safe guard the stock. Because of non-availability

of patrolling crafts, the security staff is quite handicapped in

performing their duties. It was proposed to strengthen the

staff and also to provide them with mechanized boats for

patrolling the reservoir, so that the fishing wealth of the

Ramsagar reservoir is suitably protected, especially during

the breeding season. The Fisheries Department of the

Government of Madhya Pradesh has started implementing

some measures for stock replenishment of major carps by

introducing fingerlings, for the last few years (Table 3). This

would yield good results in years to come.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

27

FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thankfully acknowledge the University

Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial assistance

(SAP-II, No. F-03.07.2002). We are also thankful to

Mr. P.K. Bali, Assistant Director (Fisheries), Datia, Madhya

Pradesh, for providing valuable information on fishes of the

reservoir, then Head School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji

University, Gwalior and the Coordinator, SAP-DRS Phase-I

(UGC) for providing necessary laboratory facilities.

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28

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FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR

Appendix 1 : Systematic list of fish

Order: Osteoglossiformes

Family: Notopteridae

Genus: Notopterus Lacepede

1. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

Order: Cypriniformes

Family: Cyprinidae

Subfamily: Danioninae

Genus: Salmostoma Swainson

2. Salmostoma bacaila (Hamilton-Buchanan)

3. Salmostoma clupeoides (Bloch)

Genus: Barilius Hamilton-Buchanan

4. Barilius barila (Hamilton-Buchanan)

5. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton-Buchanan)

6. Barilius bola (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Rasbora Bleeker

7. Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Danio Hamilton-Buchanan

8. Danio devario (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Subfamily: Cyprininae

Genus: Tor Gray

9. Tor tor (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Puntius Hamilton-Buchanan

1 0. Puntius conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

1 1 . Puntius sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan)

1 2. Puntius sophore (Hamilton-Buchanan)

1 3. Puntius ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Osteobrama Heckel

1 4. Osteobrama cotio cotio (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Catla Vallenciennes

1 5. Catla catla (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Cirrhinus Oken

1 6. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton-Buchanan)

1 7. Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Labeo Cuvier

18. Labeo bata (Hamilton-Buchanan)

1 9. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton-Buchanan)

20. Labeo gonius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

21 . Labeo rohita (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Subfamily: Garrinae

Genus: Garra Hamilton-Buchanan

22. Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray)

Family: Balitoridae

Subfamily: Nemacheilinae

Genus: Acanthocobitis Peters

23. Acanthocobitis botia (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Order: Siluriformes

Family: Bagridae

Subfamily: Bagrinae

Genus: Mystus Scopoli

24. Mystus bleekeri (Day)

25. Mystus tengara (Hamilton-Buchanan)

species recorded in the Ramsagar Reservoir

Genus: Sperata Holly

26. Sperata aor (Hamilton-Buchanan)

27. Sperata seenghala (Sykes)

Family: Siluridae

Genus: Ompok Lacepede

28. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

Genus: Wallago Bleeker

29. Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider)

Family: Schilbeidae

Subfamily: Schilbeinae

Genus: Eutropiichthys Bleeker

30. Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Silonia Swainson

31 . Silonia silondia (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Family: Sisoridae

Genus: Bagarius Bleeker

32. Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Family: Clariidae

Genus: Clarias Scopoli

33. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

Family: Heteropneustidae

Genus: Heteropneustes Muller

34. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Order: Beloniformes

Family: Belonidae

Genus: Xenentodon Regan

35. Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Order: Synbranchiformes

Family: Mastacembelidae

Subfamily: Mastacembelinae

Genus: Mastacembelus Scopoli

36. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)

Order: Perciformes

Family: Chandidae (Ambassidae)

Genus: Chanda Hamilton-Buchanan

37. Chanda nama (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Family: Nandidae

Subfamily: Nandinae

Genus: Nandus Vallenciennes

38. Nandus nandus (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Family: Gobiidae

Subfamily: Gobiinae

Genus: Glossogobius Gill

39. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Family: Channidae

Genus: Channa Scopoli

40. Channa marulius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

41 . Channa striata (Bloch)

42. Channa punctatus (Bloch)

• No exotic fish was caught from Ramsagar reservoir.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

29

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

30-37

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS

IN THREE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA

V. Vanitha12, K. Thiyagesan1-3 and N. Baskaran4

'Department of Zoology, A.V.C. College, Mannampandal 609 305, Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu, India.

-Current Address: D.GG. Arts College (Women), Mayiladuthurai 609 001, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

’Email: kthiyagesanl @rediffmail.com

4 Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Innovation Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

Captive Asian elephants Elephas maximus are managed in three systems in Tamil Nadu namely, private, Hindu temples

and forest department. We studied the population size and structure, natality and mortality during 2003-05 in the three

systems to assess their long-term viability. The population in the three systems totalled 133 individuals in 2005 with

adult class constituting over 75% of the population. Sex ratio of the population was biased towards females in private

establishments (male to female 1:10) and temples (1:21), but male biased in the forest department ( 1:0.5) with adult

males constituting 50% of the total population. There was no breeding in private and temple populations. In the forest

department population, fecundity has dropped (0.065/adult female/year) over the past 10 years (1996-2005) compared

to an earlier ( 1969-1989) estimate (0.155/adult female/year). Mean mortality estimated together for the three systems

is higher (3.9%) than reported earlier (1.9%). Given the aging population trends and with no breeding and fewer

chances of additions from the forest department due to ban on elephant sale, captive populations in private establishments

and temples may not survive in the long run. Sustainability appears rather remote for population of the forest department

system with a male bias, increase in mortality and a decrease in fecundity.

Key words: Asian elephant, Elephas maximus , captive elephants, population, natality, mortality

INTRODUCTION

The Asian Elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus, listed

as an ‘endangered’ species by the IUCN (International Union

for Conservation of Nature Red List 2008), presently exists

as fragmented population in southern and south-eastern Asia.

Currently, wild Asian elephants are estimated to be 36,000-

52,000 individuals distributed across 13 Asian countries

(Sukumar and Santiapillai 2006). The Asian elephant is

considered an integral part of the culture and mythology of

India, and elsewhere in Asia; the people of Indus Valley

civilization first captured it probably about 4,000 years ago

(Carrington 1959). There were about 19,500 captive Asian

elephants in 1997 w ith Myanmar holding the largest captive

population (6,000-7,000) followed by Thailand (3,800-4,000)

and India (2,800-4,000) (Lair 1997). The IUCN Asian

Elephant Specialist Group estimates the captive Asian

elephant numbers within the range countries at 16,365 and

less than 2.000 in non-range countries, including about 1 ,000

in North America and Australia, and 296 in Europe (Hedges

2006).

In India, captive elephants are distributed across almost

all states (including numerous non-range states), as this animal

is an integral part of the country’s cultural and religious

landscape. According to Project Elephant (MoEF 2004), about

3.400-3.600 captive elephants are distributed across 23 states

and union territories, including the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. A majority of these are found in the north-eastern

(55%) and southern (25%) states. In Tamil Nadu, southern

India, elephants are managed in captivity by the State Forest

Department, religious institutions and individual owners for

various purposes. The Government of Tamil Nadu has

categorized these elephants into three captive systems: forest

department captive elephants (managed at timber camps and

zoos), temple elephants (managed at Hindu temples), and

private elephants (managed by trusts, charities, mosques and

individual owners).

Several studies have been made in the past on captive

elephant management in Tamil Nadu, but these have been

sporadic, isolated, short term, and/or have not been

comprehensive (Sukumar et al. 1988; Gokula 1993;

Krishnamurthy 1995; Krishnamurthy and Wemmer 1995;

Sukumar etal. 1997). Additionally, little long-term quantitative

data are available on their numbers; a comparative analysis of

different captive management systems and their influence on

elephants' natural behaviour has not been attempted. Further,

most of the data available on captive elephants in India pertain

to timber camp elephants managed by the state forest

department and hardly any information exists on those

managed by private owners and Hindu temples, which

constitute over 50% of the captive population in southern India

(Lair 1997).

Lair (1997) in his global comprehensive review on

captive Asian elephants states that India, the birthplace of

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

elephant captivity, has very little published data on captive

elephant numbers. Further, he concludes that captive elephant

numbers estimated in India are clearly an underestimation,

and highlights the need for a detailed survey to fulfil the basic

information . A recent report by Project Elephant ( MoEF 2004 )

puts the maximum number of captive elephants in India at

3,600, and recommends a detailed survey and assessment for

their welfare. In addition, the available data on the population

and demographic status of captive elephants in India are

scarce. The data on the number of individuals alone are

inadequate to predict future trends of any population. The

age structure, age specific fecundity, and mortality, age at

first conception, and last calving, and mean-calving interval

are important parameters to understand population dynamics

and predict future trends (Laws and Parker 1968; Corfield

1973; Caughley 1977; Laws 1981; Lindeque 1991; Steams

1992), are lacking for most of the captive populations. In this

paper, we present the data on population demography of

captive Asian elephants in Tamil Nadu, India, collected

between 2003 and 2005, as part of a long-term comparative

study on the status and management of captive Asian elephants

in Tamil Nadu.

METHODS

Data on population size and structure, natality and

mortality were collected from: (1) the Tamil Nadu forest

department - captive elephants managed at the timber elephant

camps at Mudumalai and Anamalai wildlife sanctuaries, and

Arignar Anna Zoological Park (AAZP), Chennai, (2) Hindu

temples, and (3) private owners in Tamil Nadu.

Population Size and Structure

A comprehensive list of captive elephants maintained

under the three different management regimes, with special

emphasis on temple and private collections (as data on these

two systems was lacking), was first prepared. The list was

compiled by examining governmental records and from

enquiries with veterinarians and elephant researchers. This

was later found to comprise of c. 90% of the temple and

c. 80% of the private elephants in the State. The presence and

information on the remaining elephants were obtained during

intensive surveys carried out through enquiries with temple

authorities, mahouts (elephant keepers) and private owners.

Altogether, data was collected on 34 facilities in the private

system, 4 1 in temple systems, and 3 (namely, the elephant camps

at Anamalai and Mudumalai, and the Arignar Anna Zoological

Park, i.e., two camps and one zoo) in the forest department

system. During the survey, data was collected on the age and

sex of all the elephants through enquiries with the mahouts

and by verifying with studbooks/registers (where available).

Age was estimated by the shoulder height method (Sukumar

et al. 1988) if proper age records were not available. Data

were additionally collected from temple and private elephants

at the one month long annual rejuvenation camps conducted

jointly by the Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Endowment

Charity (HR & CE) and Tamil Nadu Forest Department at

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary during 2003-2005.

Natality and Mortality

Data on natality and mortality of elephants in the three

systems of captive management was collected from register

of records and through monitoring during the study period.

Natality generally refers to the addition of newborn

individuals into the population, but in this study, it also

includes the addition of individuals through purchase/transfer/

confiscation/rescues, as these additions add to the captive

population size. Fecundity was calculated by dividing the

total number of calves that were born during the study

period by the total number of sexually mature female elephant-

years following Sukumar et al. (1997). Elephant-years refer

to the summation of all individual elephants multiplied by

their number of year(s) representation/ survival in a given

system for a particular period. For example, out of 25 different

elephants managed in a given system over a two-year period,

20 of them represented for 2 years and the remaining

five only for a one-year period, which translates to

45 elephant-years (i.e. 20*2 + 5*1 = 45). Age-specific

mortality was computed by dividing the total number of

individuals that died within a given age class by the total

number of elephant-years lived in that age class (Sukumar et

al. 1997) during 2003-2005 in the three systems. Data

available on the number of elephants managed and that died

as per the Forest Department records for the period 1996-

2002 was also used to have a larger sample size in the

mortality rate analysis.

Data analysis

The elephants were categorized broadly into four major

age classes; calf (<l-year old; 90-120 cm height), juvenile

(1-5 years; 121-180 cm), subadult (5-15 years; 181-210 cm

for female and 181-240 for male), and adult

(15 years and above; >210 cm for female and >240 cm for

male) based on shoulder height (Sukumar et al. 1988). The

trend in population size of elephants in the forest department

system from 1996 to 2005 was tested using linear regression.

Year- wise differences in the age-sex composition of elephants

during the study period (2003-05) within each system and

among the three systems were analyzed using likelihood-ratio

chi-squared statistics (G2) (Agresti 1996).

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

31

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

RESULTS

Population Size

The total population size of captive elephants in the

three management systems in Tamil Nadu was c. 132-135

elephants between 2003 and 2005 (Table 1 ). The total number

of elephants at the end of the year was the same in 2003 and

2004 (135 elephants), but dropped to 133 in 2005. Within a

given system, the number of elephants at the beginning and

at the end of each year of the study varied due to addition of

individuals (births, capture, transfer from other systems and

purchase) and reduction due to mortality, sale and transfers.

Although the overall number of individuals was almost the

same, there was little turnover within the three-year period.

The districts of Madurai (n = 9) and Tiruchirapalli

(n = 8) had more private elephants, and Thanjavur (n = 7)

and Madurai (n = 6) had the most number of temple elephants.

All the elephants in the private and temple systems were

purchased either from the forest department (mostly before

1982 when the ban on capture of elephants for sale came into

force) or recently from other state private systems, except for

one from birth in the private facility. The source of origin

(captive bom and wild-caught) for many of these elephants

was not available due to improper maintenance of register

records. Among the 53 elephants managed between 2003 and

2005 in the forest department, 24 were captured from the

wild. 16 were captive born, 9 were wild ‘orphans’, and 1 was

confiscated from a private owner in 2003. The origin of the

remaining three (including one transferred back in 2004 from

a temple due to difficulty in handling) could not be ascertained

due to absence of records. Long-term data from 1996 to 2005

on the population size of captive elephants managed by the

forest department (Fig. 1 ) indicate a significantly declining

trend ( linear regression of population against time R 2 = 0.6679,

P < 0.01, n = 10) over the past ten years.

Population Structure

Age structure data revealed an aging population trend

with the adult class forming more than two-thirds of the total

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Fig. 1 : Number of captive elephants with the Tamil Nadu Forest

Department between 1996 and 2005

population size in all the captive systems (Table 2). Among

the three captive systems, the proportion of adult class was

the highest in the private system (87%) followed by the forest

department system (75%). The subadult class was the highest

in the temple (30%) followed by forest department system

( 16%). Juveniles and calves were mostly found in the forest

department system (Table 2).

The age-sex composition of elephants did not vary

during the three-year study period (2003-05) within each

system (private: G 2 = 5.68, df - 10, P = 0.84; temple:

G 1 - 6.4 1 , df = 6, P = 0.42 and forest department: G 2 - 6.96,

df= 14, P = 0.94), but it was statistically different among the

systems within each year (2003: G2 = 63.17, df = 12,

P = 0.0000; 2004: G 2 = 67.06, df= 10, P = 0.0000 and 2005:

G: = 64.51, df - 12, P - 0.0000). The age-sex composition

data reveal that the captive elephant populations were female-

biased (male: female ratio = 1 : 2.4) across the three systems

(Table 2). However, while females formed the major

proportion (>90%) of the population with adult class having

a significant share in private and temple systems, males (66%)

outnumbered females (34%) across all the age classes in the

forest department system.

Natality

Natality was the highest in the forest department system

(n =12) compared to private (n = 4) and temple (n = 2) systems

Table 1: Population size of elephants managed in the three captive systems in Tamil Nadu during 2003-2005

Initial and final refer to population size in the beginning (January) and end (December) of the year.

32

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

(Fig. 2). There were 4 births front the 14 sexually mature

females in the age class of 15-60 years in forest department.

This works out to 39 sexually mature female-elephant years

over the last three years. Only one birth was observed in the

private system (with 93 sexually mature female-elephant

years) and none in the temples (with 81 sexually mature

female-elephant years) during the study period. All the new

additions to the temples were by purchase from other states.

There was one transfer from a temple to the forest department.

The only female in the private system that gave birth to a calf

was purchased from a timber camp on the Andaman Islands -

the gestation period indicating that the cow had conceived in

the timber camp (which has bulls). There were no other

records of captive birth in private and temple systems during

the study period, and purchase was the only mode of addition

in these systems. Three elephants were added to the private

system and two to the temple management through purchases

from other states, mostly from the north-eastern states of

Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The forest department system,

which mostly manages its captive elephants in semi-natural

condition at the timber camps of Anamalai and Mudumalai,

had the highest addition by capture (n = 7), mostly ‘orphans’

from the wild. The birth of 4 calves during 2003-05 among

the 39 sexually mature female-elephant years in the forest

department works out to a fecundity rate of 0.10 calf/adult

Table 2: Age structure, age-sex composition and sex ratio of the elephants managed in the three captive systems

in Tamil Nadu during 2003-2005

Mean age-sex composition (2003-2005)

‘ SD = Standard Deviation: Calculated based on variation in % composition of each age-sex class during 2003-05.

12

10

‘S 6

Private

Temple Forest Department

Management systems

S Captive birth □ Puchase S Wild capture/rescue ■ Transfer

Fig. 2: Recruitment of elephants in the three management

systems in Tamil Nadu between 2003 and 2005

female/year. Long-term data (1996-2005) from the forest

department showed that the fecundity rate had declined

considerably (0.065 calf/adult female/year; Vanitha 2007)

compared to an earlier estimate of 0. 1 55 calf/adult female/year;

Sukumar et al. 1997) for the period between 1969 and 1989.

Mortality

Totally, there were 149 individual elephants (44 in

private, 43 in temples and 62 in forest department) during

2003-05. This works out to 419 elephant-years over the three-

year period. Sixteen elephants died during 2003-05:

2 elephants each in the private and temple systems (all in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

33

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

2005) and 12 elephants in forest department system (4 each

in 2003, 2004 and 2005), which works out to a mean annual

mortality of 3.8% for the three systems. Of the 16 deaths,

adult mortality accounted for 9 individuals (3%), followed

by 4 for calves (4.4%), 2 for subadults (2.6%) and I juvenile

(7.7%). Overall, males experienced a higher proportion of

mortality (5.7%; 9/158 elephants) than female (2.8%; 7/246

elephants) segments. The mortality rate was much higher in

the forest department system (7.6%) than private ( 1 .5%) and

temple (1.5%) management systems. Five (42%) out of

1 2 cases of deaths occurring in the forest department were of

calves (4) and juveniles ( 1 ) indicating a higher mortality of

younger elephants. There have been reports of increase in

mortality (three cases during the past 3-4 years) among

younger age classes due to Herpes virus in the forest

department system, especially at the timber camps (Forest

Department Register Records 1996-2005). A few elephants

m the timber camps were suspected for tuberculosis (Forest

Department records), a widespread disease among the global

captive populations. A year-wise analysis of mortality across

the three systems indicated that 50% of the 16 mortalities

occurred during 2005 and the rest were spread equally during

2003 (25%) and 2004 (25%). Age-specific mortality, worked

out incorporating additional data from the forest department

for the period 1996-2002, showed a mean mortality rate of

3.9% based on 784 elephant-years (Table 3).

DISCUSSION

The population size of captive elephants in Tamil Nadu

varied between 132 and 135 during the study period (2003-

2005), which tails within the figures of the Project Elephant

Report (MoEF 2004) between 127 and 145. The population

size remained more or less the same in all the three captive

systems, at 42-44 for private, 41-44 for temple and 48-50

for forest department. However, available long-term data over

a 10-year period (1996-2005) from the forest department

system revealed a significantly declining trend. The reasons

for the decline (in spite of gradual increase in the number of

orphaned calves rescued from the wild) over the ten-year

period ( 1995-2005) compared to an earlier ten-year period

( 1 985- 1 995 ) could be due to a reproductive decline (as shown

by fecundity data) and increase in mortality. The absence of

long-term data from temple and private systems did not

permit the study to predict trends in these populations; but

this is demographically not important, as there is no breeding

in these systems.

Adults were the predominant age class in all the three

systems of management comprising 87, 68 and 75% of the

population in private, temple and forest department systems

respectively. Private and temple captive populations consisted

mostly of older animals due to absence of breeding and lack

of recruitment of young elephants (especially from the state

forest department due to the ban on elephant sale in recent

years) and also due to the long lifespan of elephants. With no

breeding, the elephant populations in the private and temple

systems were female-biased (90%), as most of the facilities

in these systems prefer to manage females due to the difficulty

in maintaining bulls in captivity especially during musth

(Krishnamurthy 1998; Sukumar 2003). In the forest

department system, where breeding occurs, the overall sex

ratio is skewed towards males with half the population being

adult males. The system with low proportion of females in

adult (25%, mostly above 40 years old) and subadult (7%)

classes, does not promise self-sustainability in future. The

reason for the aged population, and with male biased sex ratio

Table 3: Age-specific mortality of captive elephants managed in Tamil Nadu (pooled data from forest department records

from 1996 to 2005, and of the private and temple elephants from 2003 to 2005)

Vi refers to the number of individuals at risk (of death), expressed as the number of elephant-years over the age-class interval.

34

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

in the forest department system, eould be due to selective

disposal of young females in the past to Hindu temples, which

mostly replenished their stock from the forest department

system (Sukumar et al. 1997; Krishnamurthy 1998; Vanitha

2007). There is a female-biased population in the temple

system and a female-biased elephant disposal (sale/gift) in

the forest department system. Twenty of the 28 elephants sold

between 1959 and 2004 to Hindu temples by the forest

department were females and the majority were <10 years

old (Vanitha 2007). The two peaks in disposal, first during

1971-72 (6 elephants) and second during 1995-96

(7 elephants), with the majority being females (8 elephants,

<10 years old), resulted in the loss of prime reproductive age

class (30-35 years) and younger adult class (15-20 years) that

would have started breeding from 1 995 and 2005 respectively

in the forest department system. A remarkable decline in

calving rate from 2.8 calves/year between 1971 and 1995

(69 calvings in 25 years) to just 0.9 calves/year between 1996

and 2005 (9 calvings in 10 years) (Vanitha 2007) also supports

the hypothesis that the loss of prime reproductive age class is

due to selective disposal of young female elephants in the

past (1959-1996). Therefore, the fecundity dropped

considerably from 0. 1 55 (estimated for the period 1 969- 1 989;

Sukumar et al. 1997) to 0.065 during 1996-2005 (Vanitha

2007).

Being a polygynous species, elephant populations are

naturally female biased. The elephants at the timber camps

of the forest department are the only breeders in captivity in

Tamil Nadu. With larger number of calves of the camp

elephants sired by bulls from the wild, a female-biased

population would not have been a problem for a sustainable

growth rate in the captive population. Nevertheless, the

prevalence of male-biased population in the forest department

system and the non-breeding female-biased populations in

the other two systems are not conducive for self-sustainability

in the future.

The higher mortality observed in the forest department

system (7.6%) compared to private ( 1 .5%) and temple ( 1 .5%)

systems could be attributed, to some extent, to the higher

mortality of calves and juveniles than the other age classes as

reported earlier for captive (Sukumar et al. 1997; Mar 2001)

and wild (Sukumar 2003) populations. The absence or poor

representation of such age classes in the private and temple

systems may be the reason for lower mortality rate in these

two systems. Nevertheless, excluding juveniles and calves,

the mortality rate still work out to 5% (7 deaths out of 141

elephant years between 2003 and 2005) in the forest

department system. Similarly, a higher age-specific mortality

has been reported in all the age classes of the forest department

elephants over the past 10 years from 1996 to 2005 (Vanitha

2007) compared to the earlier report for the same population

using a larger database from 1925 to 1989 (Sukumar et al.

1997). The higher mortality is alarming and threatens the long¬

term survival of the forest department captive elephants. The

rise in calf mortality (3 1 .3%) in the recent 1 0 years compared

to the earlier report (19%) could possibly be due to more

arrivals of ‘orphans’ from the wild in the recent years and

their higher susceptibility to mortality. Exclusion of orphans

reduced the recorded levels of calf mortality to 14.3%, which

is less than 1 9% reported by Sukumar et al. ( 1 997 ). The mean

mortality estimated for the three captive systems together

based on 784 elephant-years was 3.9%, including orphans

and 3.5% excluding orphans. This is higher than that (1.9%

estimated from detailed age-class mortality figures) reported

earlier for the captive population (based on 5,560 elephant-

years, Sukumar et al. 1 997) and for the wild population (3%,

Daniel et al. 1987) in southern India. Even though, the

present estimate of mortality is from a smaller sample size

(<50 elephant-years) in age class categories such as 0- 1 , I -2,

2-5 and 60-80 years, the remaining age classes where the

sample size is reasonable (>50 elephant-years) also

experienced mortality higher than reported earlier (Sukumar

et al. 1997). Therefore, the present mortality rate should be a

cause for concern. Diseases such as herpes and tuberculosis

(Forest Department records and personal communication from

Forest Department veterinarians) could also be contributing

to the increased mortality besides higher susceptibility of the

aging population.

The Asian Elephant in spite of its long history of

captivity has not been bred sustainably in captivity (Kurt and

Mar 2003). There are hardly any records of captive elephant

births or breeding in Indian temples (Krishnamurthy 1998) -

temples consider reproduction in the temple premises to be

inauspicious. Private owners do not encourage breeding as

maintenance of pregnant/ lactating cows is expensive

(Krishnamurthy 1998). However, there are a number of cases

of privately owned elephants breeding in captivity in the

north-eastern states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (Bist et

al. 2002; Sarma 2004), since they are managed in close

quarters to forested areas, wherein cows have contact with

wild bulls. However, there has been a declining interest among

these owners to manage elephants due to loss of demand in

forestry operations owing to the ban on logging (Bist et al.

2002). Thus, the future scope of captive breeding among

private systems in the north-eastern states could virtually stop.

The intensively managed captive populations of Asian

elephants in the western zoos (Wiese 2000; Brown et al. 2006)

and the extensively managed large population in Myanmar

(Leimgruber et al. 2008) are also in a reproductive decline.

Thus, it is only the extensively managed captive elephant

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

35

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

populations of forest department in the timber camps of India

and the Pinnewala Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka, where

the captive elephant populations breed at a sustainable level

(Sukumar et al. 1997; Kurt and Mar 2003), that remain the

last hope against the extinction of the species in captivity.

To ameliorate the negative trends in population structure

and sex ratio and to retain the long history of forest department

timber camp elephants, inputs from the wild, especially

females of young adult and subadult classes, should be given

priority. Capturing and transferring of problem elephants,

especially herds ranging in isolated habitats with no sign of

breeding and or long-term survival, to forest department

timber camps could be considered as a solution for

restructuring the captive population, which will also reduce

human-elephant conflict in the natural habitats. The captive

populations in the private and temple systems may not survive

in the long run given that the (i) aged population structures

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October 16, 2008.

Krishnamurthy, V. (1995): Reproductive pattern in captive elephants

in the Tamil Nadu Forest Department: India. Pp. 450-455.

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and (iii) lesser chances of additions from the state forest

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this situation, the private and temple systems need to consider

common elephant housing that would bring in opportunities

for captive breeding apart from socialization with conspecifics.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Hindu

Religious and Charitable Endowment Board, Government of

Tamil Nadu and private elephant owners of Tamil Nadu for

permitting this study. We acknowledge the critical comments

and inputs by Leimgruber P., Conservation Ecology Centre,

National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

DC, USA, and Dharmarajan, G, Purdue University, Indiana,

USA, that shaped this manuscript significantly.

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Proc. International Seminar. BNHS and Oxford University Press,

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Asian elephants and the possible role of the IUCN/SSC Asian

Elephant Specialist Group. Gajah 22: 30-42.

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Asian elephant in domesticity. Food and Agriculture Organization

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Pp. 1-18. In: Fowler, C.W. & T.D. Smith (Eds): Dynamics of

large mammal populations. Wiley & Sons, New York.

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populations in East Africa. Symposium of the Zoological Society

of London 21: 319-359.

Leimgruber, P., B. Senior, Uga, Myint Aung, M.A. Songer, T. Mulle,

C. Wemmer & J.D. Ballou (2008): Modeling population viability

of captive elephants in Myanmar (Burma): implications for wild

population. Anim. Conserv. 11(3): 198-205.

Lindeque, M. (1991): Age structure of the elephant population in the

Etosha National Park, Namibia. J. Madoqua. 18: 27-32.

Mar. K.U. (2001): The studbook of timber elephants of Myanmar with

special reference to survivorship analysis. Pp. 195-211. In: Giant

in our hands. Proc. International workshop on the domesticated

Asian elephants. Bangkok, Thailand, February 2001.

MoEF (2004): Project Elephant Report. Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.

Sarma, K.K. (2004): The traditional keeping of elephants in captivity

by three ethnic tribes of Assam: A uniquely subaltern culture.

In: Jayewardene, Jayantha (Ed.): Endangered Elephants: Past,

Present and Future. Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust.

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Asian elephants. Proc. Indian Acad. Science. Anim. Sci. 97(6):

561-571.

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36

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Demography of Captive Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) in

Southern India. Zoo. Biol. 16: 263-272.

Sukumar, R. & C. Santiapillai (2006): Planning for Asian elephant

conservation. Gajah. 25: 9-20.

Vanitha, V. (2007): Studies on the status and management of captive

Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) at Tamil Nadu in Southern

India, Ph.D. thesis, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli,

India.

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America. Zoo. Biol. 19: 299-309.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

37

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

38-41

GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE PROSOPIS JULIFLORA SEEDS PASSED THROUGH GUT

OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR IN SALT DESERT OF INDIA

Bitapi C. Sinha1-3, S.P. Goyal'-4 and P.R. Krausman2

'Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

2Wildlife Biology, Boone and Crockett Program in Wildlife Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA.

Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

Understanding the importance of seeds passed through the gut of ungulates and subsequent germination has been a

major focus in habitat restoration programmes, Mesquite Prosopis juliflora is a dominant shrub species in the habitat

of the Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur in the Salt Desert. India. Information on germination rates of mesquite in

this ecosystem is important for its control. However, germination may be related to salinity, soil pH. and ruminant

digestibility. We collected seeds from mesquite pods and fecal matter of Indian Wild Ass to determine rates of germination

when treated with 98% H,S04 for different durations, pH, and NaCl concentrations. Seeds scarified in concentrated

sulphuric acid before germination for 5 to 30 minutes had a coefficient of germination (CRG) ranging from 27 to 44.

There was an inverse relationship between CRG and NaCl concentrations. Higher germination of scarified seeds

occurred when pH = 3 (CRG = 15-32) more than other pH values (CRG range = 0-14). Unscarified seeds had lower

rates of germination (CRG < 15.6) at different pH media than scarified seeds. Seeds that passed through the gut

without a pericarp had higher germination rates than seeds that passed through the gut with a pericarp or the ones that

were collected from pods.

Key words: Indian Wild Ass. Prosopis juliflora , seed germination

INTRODUCTION

Concern about deforestation, desertification, and fuel

wood shortages in the 1970s and 1980s promoted research

resulting in translocation of mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora ) and

other hardy tree species to new environments across the world

(Mwangi and Swallow 2005). Although some exotic plant

introductions were accidental, many were intentional for

wildlife and habitat improvement, ornamental purposes, wood

or fibre production, or other crop uses (Harrod 2001).

Mesquite was introduced to meet fuel wood requirements of

local people in arid and semi-arid areas, e.g., large areas

around the Little Rann of Kutch ( LRK) in Western India were

open grasslands, where it was introduced by the ruler of

Radhanpur during 1899-1900. Since 1953, regular plantations

of mesquite is undertaken on the fringes of LRK to control

soil salinization and for fuel wood; it has now spread

throughout India (Patel 1977).

Mesquite pods are rich in protein (12-13%) and sugar,

and are good forage for livestock. However, horses and cattle

can develop digestive complications and even die from heavy

consumption of mesquite pods (Dahl 1982). Besides livestock,

the endangered Indian Wild Ass (locally; khur, Equus

hemionus khur) also consumes mesquite pods during critical

periods (May-June) when food reserves are scarce. The dry

pericarp of mesquite contains phytotoxins that inhibits seed

germination (Warrag 1994); this difficulty is bypassed by

using animals as agents for seed dissemination, as in seeds of

Acacia spp. (Lamprey 1967). The spread of mesquite in and

around LRK is a major threat for the long term maintenance

of the habitat of the khur (Goyal etal. 1999; Sinha and Goyal

1999). Our objectives were to determine seed germination

viability of mesquite in relation to salinity, pH, and ruminant

digestibility.

METHODS

We collected mesquite seeds from dried pods (n = 900)

and khur faecal matter (n = 1,800) from the LRK and stored

them at room temperature before germination trials. We

separated seeds in the faecal matter into groups with and

without a pericarp so that we could evaluate the effect of the

digestion process in the gut on seed germination associated

with the pericarp.

We scarified seeds collected from the faecal matter and

the pods in 98% H,S04for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes,

and then washed them thoroughly under tap water before

germination. Seeds were germinated in NaCl solutions with

concentrations of 0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, and 10.0 gm litre'1 at

pH 7.0 and pH media of 1, 3, 5, 9 and 1 1. We prepared pH

media by adding NaOH for pH 9 and 11, and concentrated

H,S04 for pH 1,3, 5. We placed 2 replicates of healthy seeds

on moistened Whatman No. 1 filter paper with distilled water

in 8.5 cm diameter plastic petri dishes and allowed them to

GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE SEEDS

germinate at room temperature (29 °C to 31 °C) for 15 days.

We considered seeds to have germinated when the radicle

protruded from the seed.

We calculated the rate of seed germination as

coefficients of germination (CRG) described by Maguire

(1962):

n

CRG = X (gn - g(n-l) /n),

1=1

where, gn is the accumulated germination on a given day,

g(n-l) is the germination percentage on the previous day,

n is the number of days incubated, and

I is individual data from 1

Larger the CRG, greater the aggregate rate of

germination. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS

Version 8.0 software (SPSS Inc. 1998).

RESULTS

The propagation of mesquite is exclusively by seeds.

Manual extraction of seeds is difficult and time consuming.

Table 1 : Coefficient rate of germination (CRG) of mesquite

seeds, Salt Desert, India

due to the indehiscent spongy wall of the seed pod (Warrag

1994). Mesquite seeds are covered with a hard coat that

inhibits germination. Seedling establishment in the arid and

semi-arid regions largely depends on the climatic and edaphic

conditions. The optimum time required for scarifying

mesquite seeds in 98% H,S04 to give maximum germination

in 15 days was 15 to 30 min. Scarified seeds germinated in

distilled water showed a higher rate of germination in all

categories: seeds passed from the gut of the animal without

pericarp (CRG = 30.00-44.43), seeds passed through gut with

pericarp (CRG = 31.10-35.27), and seeds extracted from

mesquite pods (CRG = 27.38-41 .57) compared to seeds that

were unscarified and germinated at different pH and salinity

levels (Table 1 ). The CRG values did not differ significantly

across categories (i.e., seeds passed through the guts without

pericarp, seeds passed through the gut with pericarp, and from

pods and treatments: seeds scarified in 98% H,S04 for

different times ranging from 5 to 30 min) (Table 2).

Rate of germination of scarified seeds in 98% H,S04

for 20 minutes showed an inverse relationship w'ith NaCl

concentrations (Fig. 1). Two-way ANOVA indicates that the

rate of seed germination did not differ significantly among

seeds passed through the gut with and without a pericarp,

however, values differed significantly (P < 0.00 1 ) across NaCl

concentrations (Table 3). Seed germination tolerated NaCl

concentration up to 6.0 gm litre1; the mean CRG value (34.3)

did not differ significantly from the mean value (34.8) for

the seeds germinated in distilled water at this concentration

of NaCl.

Scarified and untreated seeds germinated more at pH 3

and 1 1 with no germination at pH 1, except in seeds passed

through the gut without a pericarp (Table 1 ). Low germination

was recorded at pH 5 and 9. Seeds scarified in H,S04 for 5 to

30 minutes showed a coefficient CRG between 30 and 44

(Table 1), whereas the highest CRG (44) was in seeds that

passed through the gut without a pericarp.

Table 2: Two way ANOVA of coefficient rate of germination of

mesquite seeds from the Salt Desert, India, between treatment

with sulphuric acid for different time periods and categories

'Seeds scarified in 98% concentration of sulphuric acid for 5, 1 0,

15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes.

2Seeds passed through the guts with pericarp and without pericarp

and from pods.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

39

GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE SEEDS

Fig. 1 : Coefficient rate of germination of mesquite seeds in

relation to NaCI concentrations, in Salt Desert, India.

(-) Linear regression; (....) 95% confidence interval

DISCUSSION

Seeds with hard coats that were scarified in 98% H,SO(

germinated more than the unscarified seeds in other studies

(Everitt 1983; Kissock and Hafferkamp 1983). Seed

germination was significantly reduced by NaCI in Blackbrush

Acacia angustifolia, Guajillo A. berlandieri, Guaycan

Porlieria angustifolia (Everitt 1983), and in Kadad

Dichrostachys cinerea (Hashim 1990). Seeds of Kadad

germinated between pH 3 and 11, but no germination was

recorded for seeds at pH 1 and 13 (Hashim 1990). There

was also significant reduction in seed germination at pH 2

and pH 12 in blackbrush, guajillo, and guaycan (Everitt

1983). Mesquite seeds can tolerate salinity up to 6.0gm/litre.

Pods of various mesquite species are consumed by

domestic and wild herbivores. In the Rajasthan desert, India,

the pods of mesquite P. cineraria are consumed by the Indian

Gazelle Gazella gazella and Indian Antelope Antilope

cervicapra (Goyal et al. 1988). Untreated seeds with and

without a pericarp collected from the faeces of khur indicated

higher CRG (7.8-15.6) at pH 3 and 11 than seeds collected

from pods (4. 9-6. 6) as the seed coat is softened by the

intestinal chemicals in the gut of the animal. Lamprey ( 1967)

reported an increase in germination of Acacia Acacia tortillas

seeds that passed through wild ungulates. Janzen (1981)

reported that digestive fluids of large mammals in general

are not adequate to scarify the seeds though there is an

REFE

Dahl, B.E. (1982): Mesquite as a rangeland plant. In: Proceedings of

the symposium. Pub. College of Agricultural Sciences, Texas

Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA.

Everitt, J.H. (1983): Seed germination characteristics of three woody

plant species from the south Texas. Journal of Range

Table 3: Two way ANOVA for coefficient rate of germination

between mesquite seed types and NaCI concentrations,

Salt Desert, India

'Different NaCI concentrations.

2Seeds passed through the guts with pericarp and without pericarp

and from pods.

increase in seed germination rate over unscarified seeds.

Contrary to this, reduction in germination has been observed

in seeds of kadad and honey mesquite Prosopis spp. passed

through goat gut (Hashim 1990), and Coyote Canis latrans

digestive systems (Meinzer et al. 1975).

The dry pericarp of mesquite seeds contain water

soluble phytotoxin that could inhibit seed germination

(Warrag 1994). This might be an extension of the vivipary -

avoidance process and a safeguard against potential

intraspecific competition (Warrag 1994). As a result, seeds

dispersed by animals in faecal matter are likely to germinate.

The LRK has varying degrees of soil salinity and pH (Sinha

and Goyal 1999) and CRG of scarified seeds decreases with

the increase in NaCI concentrations. This increased

germination rate of mesquite seeds would dominate the

landscape and lead to a decrease in the overall availability

of grasslands. A reduction in grasslands due to exotic

mesquite would have long term conservation consequences

for faunal communities in the ecosystem. Additional studies

would help the management of protected areas for khur by

developing nursery techniques for the successful

establishment of mesquite grown in the saline desert outside

the sanctuary for meeting the fuel wood requirements of local

people.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director and Dean of the Wildlife

Institute of India (WII) for his continuous encouragement

and the Gujarat Forest Department for their kind support

during this study. The study was funded by WII.

NCES

Management 36: 411-414.

Goyal, S.R, H.C. Bohra, P.K. Ghosh & I. Prakash (1988): Role of

Prosopis cineraria in the diet of two Indian desert antelopes.

Journal of Arid Environments 14: 285-290.

Goyal, S.P.. B. Sinha, N. Shah & H.S. Panwar ( 1999): Sardar Sarovar

40

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE SEEDS

Project-A Conservation Threat to the Indian wild ass Equus

hemionus khur. Biological Conservation 88: 277-284.

Harrod, R.J. (2001): The effect of invasive and noxious plants on land

management in eastern Oregon and Washington. Northwest

Science 75: 85-90.

Hashim, I.M. (1990): Germination of Kadad (Dichrostachys cinerea)

seed following pod digestion by goats and various chemical

treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 38: 105-1 10.

Janzen, D.H. (1981): Differential seed survival and passage rate in cows,

horses, surrogate pliestocene dispersal agents. Oikos 38: ISO-

156.

Kissock, D.C. & M.R. Hafferkamp (1983): Presowing seed treatment

and temperature effect on germination of Engelmannia

pinnatifida and Indigofera miniata var leptosepala. Journal of

Range Management 36: 94-96.

Lamprey, H.F. (1967): Notes on the dispersal and germination of some

tree seeds through the agency of mammals and birds. East African

Wildlife Journal 12: 81-85.

Maguire, J.D. (1962): Speed of germination - aid in selection and

evaluation of seedling emergence and vigor. Crop Science 2:

126-129.

Meinzer, W.P., D.N. Uckert & J.T. Flinders (1975): Food niche of

coyotes in the rolling plains of Texas. Journal of Range

Management 28: 35-38.

Mwangi, E. & B. Swallow (2005): Invasion of Prosopis juliflora and

local livelihoods: Case study from the lake Baringo area of

Kenya. ICRAF Working paper - no. 3. Nairobi: World

Agroforestry Centre.

Patel, GD. (1977): Gujarat State Gazetteers: Surendranagar district.

Govt. Publication Dept. Ahmedabad, India.

Sinha, B. & S.P. Goyal (1999): An exotic mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora )

a threat for conserving habitat of endangered flagship species

(Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur) of salt desert ecosystem

in western India. VI International Rangeland Congress,

Townsveille, Australia.

SPSS Inc. (1998): SPSS Base 8.0 for Windows User’s Guide. SPSS

Inc., Chicago. IL., USA.

Warrag, M.O.A. (1994): Autotoxicity of mesquite Prosopis juliflora

pericarps on seed germination and seedling growth. Journal of

Arid Environments 27: 79-84.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

41

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

42-44

LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS L. (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE)

ON LITSEA MONOPETALA JUSS. IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

B.N. Sarkar'-3, B.C. Chutia2, J. Ghose1-4 and A. Barah15

'Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board, Lahdoigarh 785 700, Jorhat, Assam, India.

-Department of Zoology, Nowgong College, Nagaon 782 001, Assam, India. Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: jghosecsb@ yahoo. co.in

5Email: [email protected]

Attacus atlas L., the source of ‘Fagara Silk’, is a wild silk moth of north-east India. The detailed life history, bionomics

and rearing performance of A. atlas in relation to a newly reported food plant Litsaea monopetala Juss, which is the

major food plant of Muga silkworm Antheraea assamensis Heifer, has been described in the present study. Life cycle

of Attacus atlas silkworm has five larval instars. Each larval instar exhibits distinguishing colour variation and tubercular

arrangement. The first instar larva measured 1.12 ±0.28 cm, 0.19 ±0.07 cm and 0.017 ±0.02 gm in length, breadth, and

weight, respectively, while the fifth instar larva measured 12.06 ±0.82 cm, 2.08 ±0.11 cm and 37.08 ±1.22 gm in

length, breadth and weight. Wing span of 19.1-25.5 cm in male, and 20.9-27.4 cm in female moths was recorded. The

embryonic period and total larval duration were 10.8 ±0.82 days and 41 ±2.94 days, respectively, while pupal period

of 20.4 ±1.14 days in male, and 21.6 ±1.14 days in female was recorded. The cocoon weight, shell weight and shell

ratio were measured as 12.98 ±0.89 gm, 1.698 ±0.10gmand 13.06% in male and 15.65 ±0.66 gm, 1 .790 ±0.08 gm and

1 1 .45% in female. Silk filament of Attacus cocoon is not reelable, but can be spun. The percentage of degumming loss,

yam yield and spinning waste were recorded to be 15.72, 30.41 and 53.87% respectively.

Key words: Attacus atlas, Litsea monopetala, life history

INTRODUCTION

Attacus atlas L. is a wild silk moth of north-east India

and popularly known as ‘Atlas moth’ or ‘Deo-muga’ or

‘Kotkari muga’ in Assamese. It is widely distributed in South

Eastern Asia, and abundantly found in India and the Indian

Ocean Archipelago (Larnpe 1984; Peigler 1989). The genus

Attacus comprises of 15 known species (Peigler 1989) all

over the world. Out of these, only one species, namely Attacus

atlas is known to occur in India (Arora and Gupta 1979); the

silk produced by A. atlas is called ‘Fagara silk’. It is the

largest silkmoth in the world. Fairly good numbers of records

are available about the host plant diversity and distribution

of A. atlas (Jolly et al. 1979; Chowdhury 1981; Larnpe 1984;

Peigler 1989; Thangavelu 1991; Bhattacharya et al. 2004;

Singh and Suryanarayan 2005; Singh and Chakravorty 2006;

Sahu and Bindroo 2007). The larvae of Attacus are highly

polyphagous, feeding on a wide range of food plants. Arora

and Gupta (1979) reported about 19 species of food plants

from India alone. Chutia et al. (2009) recently reported three

more species of host plants of Attacus from Nagaland, India.

Saikia and Handique (2000) reported Meyna laxiflora

(Kutkura) as the most preferred host plant of the Attacus

silkworm and carried out detailed study on the biology and

its commercial characteristics. Attacus atlas was hitherto not

recorded feeding on Litsea monopetala Juss (locally known

as Soalu ); therefore its life history and rearing performance

on this food plant is not known. Hence, a detailed study was

conducted on the life history of A. atlas on L. monopetala

Juss at Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute,

Central Silk Board, Lahdoigarh, Assam, to evaluate the

commercial aspects of this lesser known silk moth.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Initially, two late instar larvae of Attacus atlas were

collected from Litsea monopetala in its natural habitat. The

collected larvae were maintained on the food plant until

pupation at Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute.

After pupation the cocoons were brought to the grainage house

for seed production. After 22 days, the pupae metamorphosed

into female moths. In absence of a male, a female moth was

tied in the open at night for natural coupling with wild males

successfully. The gravid female laid eggs up to 4 days. The

eggs were incubated at room temperature. After 10 days of

incubation period, the newly hatched larvae were released

on the selected bushes of L. monopetala. Rearing was

conducted under strict vigilance inside nylon net cover till

the larvae matured. On maturity, the larvae were put in dry

leaf for cocoon-making. 26 cocoons were harvested after 7-8

days of spinning. Of which, 16 cocoons were assigned for

seed production and 10 cocoons were used for preliminary

spinning trial. The cocoons were boiled in one litre of 10%

sodium carbonate solution for 30 minutes for degumming.

LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS ON LITSEA MONOPETALA IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

The degummed cocoons were washed thoroughly in plain

water to remove traces of alkali and then squeezed and dried

to form a lump. Spinning was done in a CSTR1 motorized

spinning machine. The entire process was conducted during

May-July 2008, and the data pertaining to morphometric

parameters, cocoon and yam characteristics, physiological

and production parameters were recorded simultaneously. In

the immediate next generation, from August-October 2008,

the above data was recorded again to confirm.

All data were recorded and five replications were

conducted for each treatment. The mean values and standard

deviations were calculated from computed values.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Morphometric parameters

Egg: The eggs are oval, slightly flattened dorso-

ventrally, pinkish grey with a brownish strip and polygonal

punctuations. The eggs measure 0.26 ±0.009 cm and 0.24

±0.007 cm in length and breadth, respectively, and weigh

0.0078 gm. The embryonic period is 10.8 ±0.84 days.

1st Instar: Head is smooth and black. Body is pinkish

grey with brownish stripes. Black irregular markings can be

seen on the inter-segmental region. Tubercles are whitish with

black setae. The larvae measure 1.12 ±0.28 cm and

0.19 ±0.07 cm in length and breadth, respectively, and weigh

0.017 ±0.02 gm. The first instar larval duration is 4.8 ±0.84

days.

2nd Instar: The larva is dull white with black irregular

markings and whitish tubercles. Deep orange elongated

markings appear on anterior and posterior lateral region of

the body. Prothoracic hood is soft, transparent and whitish in

colour. The larvae measure 1 .96 ±0.40 cm and 0.72 ±0.29 cm

in length and breadth, respectively, and weigh 0.323 ±0. 1 0 gm.

This stage lasts for 4.6 ±0.55 days.

3rd Instar: The body is icy white to greenish with or

without white fleshy tubercles. The length, breadth and

weight of the larvae are 3.82 ±1.14 cm, 1.2 ±0.22 cm and

3.612 ±0.98 gm, respectively. The instar duration is 6.6 ±0.55

days.

4th Instar: The larva is greenish, and the whole body is

covered with lime-like powder. The length, breadth and

weight of the larvae are 6.38 ±0.69 cm, 1 .8 ±0.28 cm and 1 .8

±0.28 gm, respectively. This instar lasts for 10.4 ±0.55 days.

5th Instar: The larval body is greenish, but covered with

a lime-like sticky powder. The dorsal tubercles are whitish,

whereas lateral tubercles are blue with black tips. The thoracic

legs are conical and carry sharp distal claws. Each abdominal

segment from 6th to 9th bears a pair of abdominal legs, which

are fleshy and flat at the end. Terminal end looks like a disc

with a series of inwardly curved hooks arranged in a semi¬

circle. While dorsal tubercles project backward, the lateral

tubercles project forward. Hampson ( 1 892) first reported the

characteristic tubercular arrangement in Attacus atlas L. The

larva is about 12.06 ±0.82 cm, 2.08 ±0.11 cm, 37.08 ±1.22 gm

in length, breadth and weight, and instar duration is 14.2 ±0.84

days.

Pupa: The pupa is dark brown in colour. It is 3.44

±0.48 cm in length, 1.96 ±0.28 cm in breadth and 11.29

±0.79 gm in weight in case of male, while it is 5.12

±0.3 1 cm, 2.56 ±0. 1 5 cm, 1 3.86 ±0.65 gm in length, breadth

and weight in female.

Moth: The ground colour of the moth is red orange to

tomato red. The basal area of the forewing has brown edges

with red and pale black lines and middle area is red brown.

A large transparent hyaline spot is present at the end of the

cell with black edge. Apical area has yellow to pink shade.

A yellow brown marginal band with a highly wavy black

line is present in both the fore and hind wings. The wing

span of the male and female moths is 19.1-25.5 cm and

20.9- 27.4 cm, respectively.

The forewing and hind wing length of a male is about

9.5- 1 1.9 cm and 7.6-8. 1 cm, respectively. The hyaline area

of forewing and hind wing is about 119 to 144 sq. mm and

135 to 176 sq. mm, respectively. The orange brown antenna

is about 2. 1 to 2.2 cm in length and 0.9 to 1 . 1 cm in breadth.

The forewing and hind wing length of a female is about

10.5- 13.5 cm and 9.8-10.3 cm, respectively. Forewing and

hind wing hyaline area is about 375-493 sq. mm and

368-475 sq. mm, respectively. The orange brown antenna is

1 .9- 2.0 cm in length and 0. 3-0.4 cm in breadth.

Cocoon and yarn characteristics

Cocoon: Cocoon characters like shell weight, shell

ratio, and yam characteristics like yam colour, degumming

loss and yam yield percentage are of commercial importance

as they reflect on silk quality. Attacus atlas cocoons are coarse

and deep grey in colour with a prominent peduncle. The

length, breadth and weight of cocoons are 8.2 ±1.02 cm,

2.8 ±0.22 cm and 12.98 ±0.89 gm in males, and 9.24

±1.18 cm, 3.46 ±0.32 cm and 15.65 ±0.66 gm in females,

respectively. The shell weight and shell ratio of cocoons are

1.698 ±0.10 gm and 13.06 ±0.53% in male, and 1.790

±0.08 gm and 1 1 .45 ±0.65% in female.

Silk yarn: 'Fagara silk' produced by A. atlas is grayish

in colour. Degumming loss of Attacus cocoons is recorded to

be 15.72% in sodium carbonate degumming (5 gm/1). From

100 gm of cocoon shell, 30.41 gm of hand spun yam and

53.87 gm spinning waste were produced in the trial study.

Preliminary studies register 30.41% spun silk recovery of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

43

LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS OH LITSEA MONOPETALA IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

coarser count. Although yam yield or, silk recovery percentage

in Attacus atlas cocoons is less, there is possibility to enhance

yam yield by adopting improved softening device(s) to make

it more economic and useful.

Physiological parameters

Metamorphosis: A. atlas is holometabolous in nature.

It undergoes complete metamorphosis and passes through four

stages, namely egg, larva, pupa (cocoon) and adult (moth)

during its life cycle.

Moultinism: The larva moults five times. When

moulting, anterior part of the body remains suspended,

prothoracic hood becomes stretched and protruding head is

bent ventrally inward.

Voltinism: A. atlas is bi-voltine in habit in the climatic

condition of north-eastern region of India. It completes two

life cycles, one during May-June and other during August-

September.

Diapause period: A. atlas is in pupal diapause from

November to April during extreme cold weather.

Production parameters

Oviposition: Average oviposition per female in Attacus

atlas silkworm was recorded to be 197.6 ±9.79.

ERR: Effective Rate of Rearing (EER) of Attacus atlas,

i.e., the survival rate, was calculated to be 42.2 ±6.30%, which

was calculated as number of cocoons harvested/ number of

worms reared x 100.

Cocoon yield: 26.4 ±3.85 number of cocoons were

harvested from one batch, i.e., eggs laid by a single female moth.

REFERENCES

Arora, G.S. & I.J. Gupta (1979): Taxonomic studies of some of the

Indian non-mulberry silk moths (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae).

Memoirs Zoological Survey, India 16: 1-63.

Bhattacharya, A., B.K. Singh & PK. Das (2004): Biodiversity of wild

silk moths in Assam (North-East India). Annals of Forestry 12(2):

208-216.

Chowdhury, S.N. (1981): Muga Silk Industry In: Muga Silk Industry.

Directorate of Sericulture (Ed.), Govt, of Assam. Guwahati,

Assam. Pp. 1-177.

Chutia. B.C.. L.N. Kakati & K.C. Singh (2009): Biodiversity of wild

silk moths in Nagaland. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(1):

112-117.

Jolly, M.S., S.K. Sen, T.N. Sonwalkar & G.K. Prashad (1979): Non-

Mulberry Sericulture. In: Manual of Sericulture. Published by

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nation and reprint

by Central Silk Board ( 1987) Rome, FAO. 4(29): 1-119.

Lampe, R.E.J. (1984): Die Saturniiden der Cameron-und Genting-

Highlands in West Malaysia (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Neue

Entomologische Nachrichten 11: 16. 8 col. pis.

Peigler, R.S. (1989): A revision of the Indo-Australian genus Attacus.

Lepidoptera Research Foundation, Inc. Beverly Hills, California,

U.S.A. Pp. 1-169.

Sahu. A.K. & B.B. Bindroo (2007): Wild silk moth Biodiversity in the

North-Eastern Region of India: Need for Conservation. Indian

Silk( June): 16-19.

Saikia, B. & R. Handique (2000): Biology of a wild silk moth, Attacus

atlas L. International Journal of Wild Silk Moths and Silk 5:

345-347.

Singh, K.C. & R. Chakravorty (2006): Seri-biodiversity of North-

Eastern India - an update. Pp. 8-19. In: Handique, J.P. &

M.C. Kalita (Eds): Biodiversity Conservation and Future

Concern. Gauhati University, Guwahati.

Singh, K.C. & N. Suryanarayana (2005): Wild silk moth wealth of

India. Pp. 419-421. In: Dandin. S B.. R.K. Misra, V.P. Gupta

& Y.S. Reddy (Eds): Advances in Tropical Sericulture. Central

Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Mysore.

Thangavelu, K. (1991): Wild sericigenous insect of India - a need for

conservation. J. Wild Silk moths 91: 71-77.

44

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

45-47

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

RECORD OF THE GENUS SCHIZOPRYMNUS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)

FROM INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES

Zubair Ahmad1'2 and Zaheer Ahmed'

‘Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

“Email: [email protected]

The genus Schizoprymnus Foerster of the subfamily Brachistinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is recorded for the first

time from India. Two new species, namely Schizoprymnus indicus sp. nov. and Schizoprymnus transiens sp. nov., are

described and illustrated. The diagnostic characters of these two species have been provided.

Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Brachistinae, Schizoprymnus, new record, new species, India

INTRODUCTION

The genus Schizoprymnus Foerster belongs to the

subfamily Brachistinae. It is mainly characterized by presence

of anterior three metasomal tergites immovably fused to form

a metasomal carapace and absence of two transverse sutures

on the carapace. However, some species of Schizoprymnus

have the carapace with the first suture almost entirely and the

second one at least laterally developed (Papp 1984, 1991,

1993; Belokobylskij 1994, 1998). The members of this genus

are endoparasitoids of larval Coleoptera (Shaw and

Huddleston 1991 ).

The Indo-Australian species of Schizoprymnus were

revised by Papp (1984, 1991, 1993). Currently, it is

represented by 35 species from the Indo-Australian region

(Papp 1993). In the present work, the genus is recorded for

the first time from India and two species are described as

new. Sharkey and Wharton (1997) have been followed for

terminologies

The following abbreviations are used in the text: OOL

- ocello-ocular line (distance from the outer edge of a lateral

ocellus to the compound eye); POL - post-ocellar line

(distance between the inner edges of the two lateral ocelli);

AOL- anterior-ocellar line (distance between the inner edges

of anterior and lateral ocellus); OD - diameter of an ocellus;

ZD AMU- Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim University.

Schizoprymnus indicus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-4)

Female: Body length, 1 .9 mm; forewing length, 1 .5 mm.

Head: Dorsally 1.7x as wide as long;

OOL:POL:AOL:OD = 4:5:10:2; eyes in dorsal view 2x as

long as temple; temple punctuate, rounded behind eyes; face

punctuate 2.8x as wide as high medially; malar space about

2.5x basal width of mandible; antennae 23 segmented, shorter

than the body length.

Mesosoma: Length of mesosoma 1 ,4x its height;

mesoscutum smooth; notauli deep and crenulate, posteriorly

merging with a few large foveae; scutellum smooth and

polished; mesopleuron smooth medially, punctuate to foveolate

posteriorly; propodeum reticulate rugose; fore wing 1.1 5x as

long as body length; pterostigma 2.6x as long as wide, issuing

vein r slightly distally from its middle; radial cell rather short,

proximal section of metacarp 0.3x as long as pterostigma; distal

section of metacarp as long as proximal section; length of hind

femur 3.5x as long as broad, hind tibia about as long as tarsi;

tibial spur about 0.3x as long as basitarsus.

Metasoma: Carapace reticulate rugose, 1 ,8x as long as

wide in dorsal view; suture between first and second tergites

distinct while absent between second and third tergites; apical

rim of carapace semicircularly excised with a pair of denticles;

ovipositor sheaths in lateral view distinctly shorter than

carapace.

Colour: Black; mandible, tegulae, legs light yellowish

brown; antennae, ovipositor sheaths and wing venation

blackish brown.

Male: Similar to female, except body size and genital

organs.

Holotype: 9, India: Jammu and Kashmir, Rajouri,

l.iv.2000. Coll. Zaheer Ahmed (ZDAMU); Paratypes: 1 9,

1 <?, data same as holotype (ZDAMU)

Host: Unknown.

Distribution: india: Jammu and Kashmir.

Remarks: Schizoprymnus indicus sp. nov. closely

resembles Schizoprymnus tortilis Papp, but differs in having:

antennae 23 segmented (antennae 17-19 segmented in tortilis );

carapace 1 .8x as long as wide (carapace about as long as wide

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-4: Schizoprymnus indicus sp. nov.

1. Forewing: 2. Metasoma, lateral view;

3. Metasoma, dorsal view; 4. Metasoma, view from behind

in tortilis), distal section of metacarp 0.3x as long as proximal

section (distal section of metacarp 0.5x as long as proximal

section in tortilis).

Etymology: The new species is named after its type

locality.

Schizoprymnus transiens sp. nov.

(Figs 5-8)

Female: Body length, 2.1 mm; forewing length.

1 .6 mm.

Head: Transverse. 2. Ox as wide as long dorsally;

OOL:POL:AOL:OD = 5:8:9:3; eyes in dorsal view about as

long as temple; temple rounded behind eyes; vertex smooth

except few indistinct punctures; face finely punctuate, 3.2x

as wide as high medially; clypeus finely punctuate. 2. lx as

w ide as high: malar space about 1 ,2x basal w idth of mandible;

antennae broken beyond 21 segments.

Mesosoma: Stout. 1.6x as long as high laterally; middle

lobe of mesoscutum indistinctly punctuate, lateral lobe

smooth; notauli deep and crenulate, posteriorly merging with

few large foveae; scutellum smooth medially punctuate to

foveolate elsewhere; propodeum reticulate rugose, notched

antero-medially; forewing 0.8x as long as body length;

Figs 5-8: Schizoprymnus transiens sp. nov.

5. Forewing; 6. Metasoma, lateral view; 7. Metasoma, dorsal view

8. Metasoma, view from behind

pterostigma 2.3x as long as wide, issuing vein r from its

middle; radial cell rather short, proximal section of metacarp

as long as pterostigma; distal section of metacarp 0.3x as long

as proximal section; length of hind femur 3.5x as long as

broad; hind tibia 1 . 1 x as long as tarsi; hind tibial spur about

0.28x as long as basitarsus.

Metasoma: Carapace longitudinally rugose. 1.4x as

long as wide in dorsal view; suture between first second and

third tergites distinct only laterally; apical rim of carapace

semicircularly excised with a pair of dentacles; ovipositor

sheaths in lateral view distinctly shorter than carapace.

Colour: Black; mandible, tegulae, legs clypeus antennae

up to fifth segments honey yellow; antennae beyond fifth

segments, ovipositor sheaths and wing venation blackish brown.

Male: Unknown.

Holotvpe: 9, india: Uttar Pradesh, Bulandshahr.

l.iv.2000. Coll. Zubair Ahmad (ZDAMU). Paratype: 1 9,

same data as holotype (ZDAMU).

Host: Unknown.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh.

Remarks: Schizoprymnus transiens sp. nov. also

resembles Schizoprymnus tortilis Papp, but differs in having:

mesosoma stout (mesosoma moderate in tortilis)', carapace

46

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1.4x as long as wide (carapace about as long as wide in

tortilis), ovipositor sheaths in lateral view distinctly shorter

than carapace (ovipositor sheaths in lateral view as long as

carapace in tortilis ); ocelli large (ocelli small in tortilis).

Etymology: The new species is named after its inter¬

mediate form between S. indicus sp. nov. and S. tortilis Papp.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. M. Hayat and Dr. Shujauddin for

reviewing the manuscript and offering useful suggestions.

The authors are also thankful to the Chairman, Department

of Zoology for laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

Belokobylsku, S.A. (1994): To the knowledge of the braconid fauna of

the Russian Far East ( Hymenoptera, Braconidae): new species of

the subfamily Brachistinae. Russian Entomol. J. 3: 81-108.

Belokobylskij. S.A. (1998): Subfam. Brachistinae (Calyptinae).

Pp. 440-489. In: Lehr, P.A. (Ed.): OpredeliteF nasekomykh

Dal’nego Vostoka Rossii. Setchatokryloobraznye, skorpionnitzy,

pereponchatokrylye [Keys to Insects of the Russian Far East.

Neuropteroidea. Mecoptera, Hymenoptera], Vol. 4, Dal'nauka,

Vladivostok. (In Russian.).

Papp, J. (1984): First survey of the Triaspidini species of the Indo-

Australian region (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Calyptinae) I. The

genus Triaspis Haliday. Acta Zool. Hung. 30(1-2 ): 137-158.

Papp, J. (1991): First survey of the Triaspidini species of the Indo-

Australian Region (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Calyptinae). D. The

genus Schizoprymnus Foerster, 1. Acta Zool. Hung. 37: 75-99.

Papp, J. (1993): First survey of the Triaspidini species of the Indo-

Australian region (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Calyptinae) III. The

genus Schizoprymnus Foerstei. Acta Zool. Hung. 39(1-2 ): 129-173.

Sharkey, M.J. & R.A. Wharton (1997): Morphology and Terminology.

Pp. 19-37. In: Wharton. R.A.. P.M. Marsh & M.J. Sharkey (Eds):

Manual of the New World Genera of the Family Braconidae

(Hymenoptera). The International Society of Hymnenopterists:

Washington D.C.

Shaw, M.R. & T. Huddleston (1991): Classification and biology of

braconid wasps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Handbook for the

identification of British Insects 7: 3-126.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

47

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010

48-74

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. A NOTE ON DISTRIBUTION RANGE OF HANUMAN LANGUR

SEMNOPITHECUS ENTELLUS (DUFRESNE) AND RHESUS MACAQUE

MACACA MULATTA (ZIMMERMANN) IN RAJASTHAN

Satish Kumar Sharma1

‘Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

Many workers namely, Agoramoorthy (1992),

Bhargava (1984), Bhati and Srivastava (1988), Chhangani

(2002), Mathur (1994), Mathur and Manohar (1986, 1987,

1993, 1994), Manohar and Mathur (1992), Mohnot (1984),

Roonwal (1984), Roonwal etal. (1984), Sharma (1995, 1999,

2001a,b, 2002, 2004, 2007), Sharma et al. (2000), Sharma et

al. (2006), Sivsubramanian (1986), Tehsin (2006) and Wada

(1984) have studied various aspects of two primate species

of Rajasthan, namely Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus

entellus (Dufresne) and Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatto

(Zimmermann). The extent of distribution range of both the

primates in Rajasthan is an important aspect of primate

biology, which is neglected. Sporadic information about the

distribution range of S. entellus in Rajasthan is available in

Bhati and Srivastava (1988), Mohnot (1984). and Roonwal

(1984), but nothing is known about the distribution range of

M. mulatto in the State.

To fill this gap and to learn the exact distribution range

of both these primates in the wild in Rajasthan, 1 screened

my field notes from 1980 to 2007. During this period.

I had travelled the entire state widely. All the habitats

were visited frequently. Many forest areas, cities, towns,

temples and markets were studied to record the presence

of primates. Findings of this study are presented in Table 1 .

It is evident from Table 1 that S. entellus has a greater

distribution range than M. mulatto in Rajasthan (Fig. 1).

S. entellus is present in Aravallis, and east and west of

Aravallis up to Jodhpur district. Wild population of S. entellus

is present in 28 districts, namely Kota, Baran, Bundi,

Jhalawar. Karauli, Sawai Madhopur, Dholpur, Bharatpur,

Alwar, Dausa, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Sikar (eastern part), Nagaur

(eastern part), Ajmer, Bhilwara, Tonk, Chittorgarh,

Banswara, Dungarpur, Udaipur, Rajsamand, Pali, Sirohi,

Jalore (northern part). Banner (eastern part), Churu (eastern

part) and Jodhpur (eastern part). Wild population of

S. entellus is absent in the extreme western and northern

part of the state. This species is absent in wild in Ganganagar

and Hanumangarh districts but sometimes solitary animals

(probably released /introduced) are seen inside Ganganagar

and Hanumangarh city area.

Index

Sight record of langur

Sight record of Macaque

Distribution range of langur

Distribution range of Macaque

Fig. 1 : Text figure of distribution range of Hanuman Langur and Rhesus Macaque in Rajasthan

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Distribution of S. entellus and M. mulatta in Rajasthan

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

49

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The Jodhpur population of S. entellus represents the

extreme western geographical limit of the species beyond

which the Hanuman Langur is not found in the Thar desert

(Mohnot 1984; Roonwal 1984). Rhesus Macaque has a more

restricted distribution range in Rajasthan than Langur. The

Macaque is present in the wild in 1 8 districts of north-eastern

and south-eastern part of the state, namely Jhunjhunu, Sikar

(eastern part), Nagaur (eastern part), Churn (eastern part),

Jaipur, Dausa, Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Sawai

Madhopur, Kota, Bundi, Baran, Jhalawar, Chittorgarh

(eastern part), Tonk and Ajmer. Langur and Macaque are

sympatric in distribution in 18 districts in northern and

central Aravallis, as well as in the eastern plains and Hadoti

zone of south-eastern Rajasthan. Wild population of macaque

is absent in southern Aravallis and major part of the Thar

desert. As far as desert areas are concerned, macaque is

present in four desert districts, namely Churu, Jhunjhunu,

Sikar (eastern part) and Nagaur (eastern part) and lives

sympatrically with the Langur. S. entellus is allopatric in

distribution in 10 districts, namely Bhilwara, Banswara,

Dungarpur, Udaipur, Rajsamand, Sirohi (all southern

Aravalli districts); Pali, Jalore, Banner and Jodhpur

(all Thar desert districts). It is evident from Table 1

that macaque is absent from deeper zones of the Thar

desert and southern hilly forest tracts of the state. This species

does not extend beyond the eastern fringe of the Thar

desert.

Sometimes single individuals or group of twos, threes

and even more of langurs and macaques are seen in distant

cities and towns out of their known distribution range. Where

they come from is not known. After residing for a few days or

months they disappear (Bhargava 1984). Sometimes these

nomadic primates create panic in urban areas and people

demand their removal. In such a situation, the free ranging

primates are captured either by municipal authorities or

officials of the Forest Department, and they are released in

remote areas.

The presence of the Indira Gandhi Canal in the

Thar desert has increased the availability of water and

greenery in the western part of the State. New plantations in

the canal area are providing potential habitat for the

primates. Many bird species earlier not seen in the region

are now observed here (Sharma 2001). In the near future,

primates are also likely to appear in newer areas of the

Thar desert.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge late Dr. I. Prakash,

Prof. S.S. Katewa, Dr. Chhaya Bhatnagar, Prof. S.M. Mohnot,

Dr. Anil Chhangani, and Dr. Pratap Singh for discussions and

guidance. I sincerely thank the Forest Department of

Rajasthan for their kind cooperation and logistic support

during the present study.

REFERENCES

Agoramoorthy, G. (1992): Reproductive biology of the Hanuman

Langur Presbytis entellus in Jodhpur, western India. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 84-93.

Bhargava, R.N. (1984): Primates in the Indian Desert (The Hanuman

Langur, Presbytis entellus , and the Rhesus macaque, Macaca

mulatto). Pp. 41-45. In: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot &

N.S. Rathore (Eds): Current Primate Researches. Department of

Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur (India).

Bhati, U.S. & A. Srivastava (1988): Habitat sharing by Hanuman

Langurs and Indian Flying Fox. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3):

608-609.

Chhangani, A.K. (2002): Group composition and sex ratio in Hanuman

Langurs ( Semnopithacus entellus) in Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan

India. Zoos' Print Journal 17(8): 848-852.

Manohar, R.R. & R. Mathur (1992): Interspecific play behaviour

between Hanuman Langur Presbytis entellus and Rhesus

Macaque Macaca mulatto. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1):

114-115.

Mathur, R. ( 1994): Parturition in feral Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatto:

A case report. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 132-133.

Mathur, R. & B.R. Manohar (1986): A note on the interaction of

Common Langur ( Presbytis entellus) and Wolf ( Canis lupus).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 653.

Mathur, R. & B.R. Manohar (1987): Group number and composition

of Hanuman Langur ( Presbytis entellus) in Jaipur, India. J.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 193-199.

Mathur, R. & B .R. Manohar (1993): Home range of Hanuman Langur

( Presbytis entellus) in four habitats in Jaipur, India. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 90(3): 494-495.

Mathur, R. & B.R. Manohar (1994): Number and size of groups of

Presbytis entellus in four different habitats in and around Jaipur,

Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 275-281.

Mohnot, S.M. (1984): Research potential of Jodhpur Langurs

(. Presbytis entellus). Pp. 47-55. In: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot

& N.S. Rathore (Eds): Current Primate Researches. Department

of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur (India).

Roonwal, M.L. (1984): Tail form and carriage in Asian and other

primates, and their behavioral and evolutionary significance.

Pp. 93-151. In: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot & N.S. Rathore

(Eds): Current Primate Researches. Department of Zoology,

University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur (India).

Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot & N.S. Rathore (1984): Current primate

researches. Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur (India).

Sharma, S.K. (1995): Destruction of Cuscuta reflexsa Roxb. by the

Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatto (Zimmerman) J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 92(2): 290.

Sharma, S.K. (1999): Mammalian fauna of Rajasthan. Bionature 19(1):

7-13.

Sharma, S.K. (2001a): Food habits of Hanuman Langur (Semnopitheus

entellus) during dr)' season at Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary. Zoos ’

Print Journal 16(12): 669.

50

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sharma, S.K. (2001b): Impact of Indira Gandhi Canal on the

desert avifauna of Rajasthan. Pp. 1-459. (A study report submitted

to Govt, of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests,

New Delhi.)

Sharma, S.K. (2002): High tension electric poles used as night

roost by troops of Hanuman Langur Presbytis entellus at

Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

99(1): 103.

Sharma, S.K. (2004): Electric pylons used as night roost by troops

of Rhesus Macaque Macacca mulatta at Sariska Tiger

Reserve, Alwar district, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

101(3): 439.

Sharma, S.K. (2007): Study of biodiversity and ethnobiology of

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur (Rajasthan). Ph.D. Thesis.

MLS University Udaipur (Rajasthan).

Sharma, S., S.K. Sharma & S. Sharma (2000): Notes of mammalian

fauna of Rajasthan. Zoos' Print Journal 18(4): 1085-1088.

Sharma, V., K. Jani, C. Bhatnagar & S.K. Sharma (2006): Biodiversity

of mammals in Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur. Wildlife

Division Udaipur: An attempt to study the habitat preference of

some. Bull. Bio. Sci. 4(1): 39-44.

S rvsuBRAMANiAN, C. (1986): A note on the Rhesus Macaque Macaca

mulatta feeding on Calotes. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

83 (Supp.): 197.

Tehsin, R.H. (2006): Effect of Neem Azadirachta indica leaves on

wounded Common Langur ( Semnopithecus entellus ) (Dufrense).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 95.

Wada, K. (1984): Rhesus Monkey distribution in the lower Himalayas

and secondary forest succession. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2):

355-363.

2. SIGHT RECORD OF THE INDIAN WOLF CANIS LUPUS PALLIPES

IN THE RIVER GANDAK FLOODPLAINS

SUSHANT DeY13, V IVEKSHEEL SaGAR2, SUBHASIS DeY1'4 AND SUNIL K. CHOUDHARY1-5

'Vikramshila Biodiversity Research & Education Center, Department of Botany, T.M. Bhagalpur University. Bhagalpur 812 007,

Bihar, India.

2Freshwater & Wetlands Programme, World Wide Fund for Nature-India, 172-B, Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110 003, India.

Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]. in

The Indian Wolf Canis lupus pallipes is categorized as

Endangered by the IUCN (an assessment by the Canid

Specialist Group of IUCN) and is a Schedule I animal in the

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 of India. It had once one of

the largest natural range of any land mammal (Sheldon 1992).

The Indian Wolf is widely distributed over peninsular India

(Jhala 2003). Before division, Bihar was amongst the range

states of the Indian wolf distribution. Presence of Indian Wolf

has been recorded in Chhotanagpur plateau region of south

Bihar, presently Jharkhand, since the British times, where it

had gained the notoriety of being a child-lifter and even a

man-eater (Pocock 1939; Shahi 1982). There are no records

of the Indian Wolf being present in the geographic region

north of the Ganges river in Bihar. Another subspecies of the

wolf found in the Indian subcontinent, Canis lupus chanco

commonly called the Tibetan wolf, has a trans-Himalayan

distribution up to east Nepal and the range extends into Tibet,

China, Manchuria and Mongolia (Jhala 2003). There is no

record of its presence in the Terai region of India and Nepal.

The Gandak is a mountain-fed river known as the

Krishna-Gandaki in its upper reaches. It rises in the high

region of Tibet and Nepal, where it drains a large region,

before emerging on the plains of the West Champaran district

of northern Bihar. It enters India at Valmikinagar (27° 26'

192" N; 83° 54' 429" E) in West Champaran from where it

traverses c. 331 km before meeting the Ganges at Hazipur

near Patna (25° 39' 935" N; 85° 10' 643" E). The Gandak

river is braided throughout its course between the point where

it emerges in the plains to its confluence with the Ganga.

A barrage is constructed across Gandak river at the Indo-

Nepal border at Valmikinagar to divert the water for irrigation

and power generation. The water discharge below the barrage

is very low during the summer and winter months making

the river extremely shallow downstream of the barrage. From

the point of entry, it flows along the Valmikinagar Tiger

Reserve in Bihar on the left bank, and Nepal on the right

bank, then after entry into Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh

along the Soahagi Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary on the right bank

in Uttar Pradesh and again enters West Champaran district in

Bihar. Extensive farming is done on the floodplains along

both the banks where sugarcane cultivation is dominant.

Cultivated fields are spread between with large patches and

extensive tracts of grasslands dominated by Poaceae species.

These grasslands provide ideal habitat for different species

of ungulates, namely Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus , Indian

Wild Boar Sus Scrofa , the Hog Deer Axis porcinus, and the

Indian Hare Lepus nigricollis. This indicates that the wolf

has in fact a wide variety of prey available in this area. This

feature is predominant till c. 220 km downstream, after which

extensive cucurbit cultivation is practiced till the confluence

point in the floodplains and on every available mid-channel

island. The Indian Wolf prefers to live in scrublands,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

51

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

grasslands and semi-arid pastoral/ agricultural landscape

(Jhala 2003). They do not prefer heavy forest cover. They are

not present in the Valmikinagar Tiger Reserve (pers. comm,

with S. Sinha of Wildlife Trust of India, 2010).

We conducted a survey of river Gandak (in India,

c. 33 1 km) from the Indo-Nepal border at Valmikinagar (just

after barrage) in West Champaran district in the north, to its

confluence with river Ganga at Hazipur in Vaishali district in

the south from January 6-23, 20 1 0. The main objective of the

river Gandak survey was to record aquatic mega fauna mainly

the Gharials Gavialis gangeticus and the dolphins Platanista

gangetica gangetica present in the river. The survey was

conducted everyday from 10:00 to 16:00 hrs. Hence, there

was ample time (after the completion of the primary survey)

to interact with villagers and for surveying the surrounding

grasslands for wildlife. The information regarding the

presence of different species of wildlife present in the

grasslands was gathered opportunistically from local villagers

encountered on the riverside, and from the direct and indirect

sightings (of pellets, pugmarks, hoof prints) by the survey

team members. Local villagers were asked open-ended

questions regarding different species without suggesting the

profile of the animals. They were later shown field guides

and species identification pamphlets and were asked to

identify animals they had recently encountered or seen in the

vicinity. The field guide was in English and villagers (mostly

illiterate) could not read them so their information was based

on their experience, hence, unbiased. GPS coordinates of the

animals, detected by direct as well as indirect sightings, were

recorded and marked in the Occupancy Survey datasheet.

On the morning of the January 20, 2010, at around 08:00

hours, a pair of Indian wolf was seen running in the middle

of a patch of wheat cultivation about 15 m from the camp site

(26° 06' 945" N; 84° 56’ 469" E) at a place called Singhgahi

Dhaala, 264 km downstream from the starting point of the

survey. This area was semi-isolated and was characterized

by patch wheat farming within grassland tract. The nearest

human settlement was c. 2 km and metal road about 3.5 km

away from the camp site. One large male was seen leading

followed by a smaller female about 10 m behind. They ran

across the camp site in a relaxed manner, where 10 members

of the survey crew and an equal number of villagers were

talking, without arousing much curiosity from the villagers

or from the wolves. They ran into the grassland thicket and

emerged about 1 00 m north of the campsite, the male scent-

marked on the trunk of a Jamun tree and again went inside

the grassland thicket. The pair of wolf was circling a herd of

Nilgai cows with calves. The survey team had pitched their

tents on the elevated river bank at the edge of the river. The

wolves were about 30 m from the river waterline. About

30 Nilgais, comprising bulls, cows and calves were seen

grazing in the wheat fields, scattered in a radius of 150 m

from the campsite and totally impervious to our presence.

Two Indian Hares were also seen running across a tractor

track in between the grasslands. Previous night, a group of

five jackals had sneaked into the campsite in search of morsels

and started howling and making a ruckus, and had to be

shooed away. About 50 m from the camp site at the waterline

of the river, hoof prints of a small sounder of Wild Boar were

also seen. Other than Ratwal (91 km downstream, 26° 58’

603" N; 84° 10' 611" E) and Sakmahi Tola (180 km

downstream, 26° 29’ 424" N; 84° 32' 845" E) along the Gandak

river, Singhgahi Dhaala was the third place where villagers

were able to describe the Hog Deer and confirm its presence

in the grassland of the area.

Public attitude is very tolerant to predators in India

(Boitani 1992; Promberger and Schroder 1993; Thiel 1993).

During interactions with local villagers, we could come to

know that they never harm 'Nilgais’ despite the fact that they

are destructive to their standing crops. Villagers believe that

the ‘Nilgais’ symbolically represent the Goddess Laxmi (the

goddess of wealth and prosperity in Hindu religion) and if

they are harmed, their fields will turn barren as a curse. This

statement was confirmation of their attitude with an incident

observed at Ratwal earlier, when at night a herd of Nilgais

raided wheat cultivation, villagers keeping the night vigil

started burning big bales of dried grass. Taking cue from the

first fire, the neighbouring villagers did the same and so did

others. There was no shouting, no beating of drums, no

chasing, no bursting of crackers, just burning of the bales of

grass. When asked about the incident, the villagers said “Like

us, they (Nilgais) also need to survive, so why harm them”.

Unregulated exploitation of grassland is the main threat

to the wolves as it will have a negative conservation impact.

Indian wolf and its prey need grassland for survival. All along

the river Gandak, grassland is exploited for local consumption

as well as for economic gain and is totally unmonitored and

unregulated. The only regulation in place is natural

inaccessibility of the place. Bales of grass are transported by

bullock carts, tractors and also by large motorized boats for

local consumption. The shallow depth of the River Gandak

prevents motorized boat from reaching upstream hence

preventing large-scale exploitation of the grasslands. The first

motorized boat encountered loading grass was at 257 km

downstream from the start. This feature has probably

prevented the grassland from being totally destroyed.

Discussion

The sighting of Indian Wolf in the wet-grassland habitat

of river Gandak floodplains might have two explanations:

52

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . This new sight record of Indian Wolf in the river Gandak

floodplains might be the extension of the known eastern

distribution range of Indian Wolf from the

Chhotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand to include the

region north of the river Ganges. The presence of a

variety of ungulates, cover, and access to large source

of water represents an ideal habitat suitable for the

survival of the Indian Wolf (Jhala 2003). To this, adds

the fact that people here seem not to have forgotten the

art of coexistence with predators as in other parts of

India (Jhala and Sharma 1997).

2. The Indian Wolf Canis lupus pallipes and the Tibetan

Wolf Canis lupus chanco are considered subspecies of

the Gray Wolf Canis lupus. Recent DNA studies have

shown that there is another wolf that is very genetically

different from these two subspecies, so much so that

researchers are calling it a new species Canis

himalayensis with population less than 350 and

assessed as critically endangered. It reportedly ranges

from north-west Jammu through Himachal to eastern

Nepal. Our sighting north of the Ganga, south of Nepal

could be that of the Himalayan Wolf. There is no way

to substantiate it. At the best, we can only say that the

wolf sighted by us in the river Gandak floodplains

might be either Canis lupus pallipes or Canis

pallipes himalayensis. Moreover, the encounter with

the Indian Wolf in Singhgahi Dhaala reveals three

unique facts for the area, namely

REFE

Boitani, L. (1992): Wolf management in intensively used areas of Italy.

Pp. 158-171. In: Harrington, F.H. & P.L. Paquet (Eds): Wolves of

the World. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge. New Jersey. 474 pp.

Jhala. Y. V. ( 2003 ): Status, Ecology and conservation of Indian Wolf Canis

lupus pallipes Sykes. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100(2&3): 293-307.

Jhala, Y.V. & D.K. Sharma (1997): Child lifting by wolves in eastern

Uttar Pradesh. India J. Wildl. Res. 2(2): 94-101.

Pocock, R. (1939): Fauna of British India. Mammalia Vol. 1, London:

446 pp.

i) That the immediate behavioural response of the

villagers and the wolf show us that this is a

common feature in the region, and hence, the

wolf is well-established in that area and not new

colonization.

ii) The close and casual approach of the

wolves to a sizeable human congregation

(20 individuals) in close proximity in broad

daylight and no reports of persecution of

human beings by the wolves, reveal that there

is very little or no man-animal conflict in the

area.

iii) Strong religious sentiments and beliefs of

the local community may have helped conserve

the wildlife in general and the prey base

of the Indian wolf in particular which

needs immediate and thorough investigation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was done during the river Gandak Gharial

Survey 2010. The authors are thankful to Dr. P. Gautam of

WWF-India, Mr. Vivek Menon of Wildlife Trust of India,

and Mr. Samir Whitaker of Gharial Conservation Alliance

for organizing fund for this survey. We are also grateful to

Mr. B.A. Khan, Chief Wildlife Warden, Bihar, and

Mr. J.P. Gupta, Director- Valmiki Tiger Reserve, for their

help during the survey.

Promberger, C. & W. Schroder (1993): Wolves in Europe: Status and

perspectives. Munich Wildl. Soc., Ettal, Germany.

Shahi, S.P. (1982): Status of the grey wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes ) in

India: A preliminary survey. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3):

493-502.

Sheldon, J.W. (1992): Wild dogs: The natural history of non-domestic

Canidae. Academic Press, Inc., New York. 248 pp.

Thiel, R.P. (1993): The Timber Wolf in Wisconsin. University of

Wisconsin Press, Madison.

3. WILDLIFE MORTALITY FROM VEHICULAR TRAFFIC IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND,

SOUTHERN INDIA

S. SlVAKUMAR1'2 AND RaNJIT MaNAKADAN1'3

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

"Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Increasing road networks severely affect wild fauna and

flora, as is well-documented in many studies around the world

(e.g., Mader 1984; Fahrig etal. 1995; Reed etal. 1996; Gibbs

1998). There have been a few studies on the impacts of

vehicular traffic on wildlife in India (Gokula 1997;

Vijayakumar et al. 2001; Chhangani 2004). This note

discusses the wildlife casualties due to vehicular traffic in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

53

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sriharikota Island from observations carried out from January

2002 to December 2003.

Study area

Sriharikota is a spindle-shaped island (181 sq. km)

situated in Nellore and Tiruvallur districts of Andhra Pradesh

and Tamil Nadu respectively. The island is bordered to the

east by the Bay of Bengal and to the north, south and west by

the Pulicat Lake. The Island comprises of low ridges of sand,

marine and aeolian in origin, rising 4. 5-6.0 m above msl and

sloping from west to east. The water table is at a depth of

Table 1 : Records of the road kills of three faunal groups during

2002-2003

Total no. of

Kills

Mammals

Indian Gerbille Tatera indica 24

Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum 1 3

Golden Jackal Canis aureus 3

Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus 3

Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica 1

Black-naped Hare Lepus nigricollis 1

Common Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi 1

Birds

Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis 5

Indian Little Nightjar Caprimuigus asiaticus 3

Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius 3

Spotted Owlet Athene brama 1

Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus 1

Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis 1

Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsychus saularis 1

Indian Jungle Crow Corvus [macrorhynchos] culminatus 1

Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cater 1

Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus 1

Reptiles

Saw-scaled Viper Echis carinata 26

Green Whip Snake Ahaetulla nasuta 1 9

Variegated Kukri Snake Oligodon taeniolata 12

Russell’s Viper Daboia russelii 1 1

Common Indian Bronzeback Dendrelaphis tristis 9

Buff-striped Keelback Amphiesma stolata 6

Common Cat Snake Boiga trigonata 6

Spectacled Cobra Naja naja 3

Olivaceous Keelback Atretium schistosum 2

Common Rat Snake Ptyas mucosus 1

Red Sand Boa Eryx johnii 1

Checkered Keelback Xenochrophis piscator 1

Common Indian Krait Bungarus caeruleus 1

Common Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor 28

Indian Chameleon Chamaeleo zeylanicus 5

Indian Pond Terrapin Melanochelys trijuga 4

Common Indian Monitor Varanus bengalensis 4

c. 2-5 m. Sriharikota has one of the last remaining, largest,

and best-preserved tracts of Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

in India. Beside the natural forest, the island has plantations

of eucalyptus, casuarina and cashew. The Island is a high

security area and under the control of the Indian Space

Research Organisation (ISRO) being its satellite launching

establishment. There is a network of roads in the forest areas,

mostly in the central part of the Island, some of which are

subject to regular vehicular traffic during office hours, and

less frequently at night during certain periods.

Methods

Data on road-kills was based on incidental records

obtained during field trips from January 2002 to December

2003 during a 3-year project on the faunal diversity of the

Island. The data collected on road kills pertained to the species

killed, its numbers and the habitat characteristics around the

site. Most of the field visits were from 07:00-12:00 hrs and

to a lesser degree from 15:30-1 8:30 hrs and 19:30-22:30 hrs.

The data discussed is based on 571 field trips carried out

during a year.

Discussion

The Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus

palmarum and Indian Gerbil Tatera indica constituted the

majority (80.4%) of the road kills among the seven species

of mammals recorded in road kills. Both the species are also

among the most abundant mammals of the Island (Manakadan

et al. 2004a). Three records of the road kills of Slender Loris

Loris lydekkerianus , a Schedule I species under the Wildlife

Protection Act (1972) were obtained. The Slender Loris is an

arboreal species and is known to move from one forest patch

to another by moving on land in open areas, but this makes

them highly vulnerable to predators (Singh et al. 1999). and

as seen in Sriharikota also road kills.

Ten species of birds were recorded in road kills. The

Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis constituted 28% of the

road kills, followed by Indian Little Nightjar Caprimuigus

asiaticus ( 17% ) and Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius

( 1 7%). The Greater Coucal is more prone to road kills as it is

a weak flier and frequents roads to feed on the road kills of

amphibians and reptiles. The Indian Little Nightjar tends to

rest on roads at night, and thus gets killed after being dazed

by the light of approaching speeding vehicles.

Fifty percent of the 34 recorded reptilian species of

the Island was recorded in road kills. Snakes were the most

affected group, species (76.5%) and abundance (70.5%) wise.

Males of the Common Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor tend

to get killed more as they engage in courtship/territorial

display on roads. Kills of frog species, especially after they

54

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

emerged from the water bodies along road on attaining

adulthood were common, but is not discussed in this paper.

Overall, more kills occurred during July, comprising

mostly of snakes. The kills of snakes occurred after the first

showers after the long spell of the dry season. Snakes are

more active during this period due to various reasons

(Whitaker 1978). Other than accidental kills, we recorded

intentional killing of snakes and also birds, such as Grey

Junglefowl Gallus sonneratti and Greater Coucal Centropus

sinensis by drivers. Snakes are killed due to the hatred for

snakes, while the two bird species are collected for food or

killed for fun.

The forest and wildlife of Snharikota are well protected

due to the Island’s high security status. However, the wildlife

does face problems (Manakadan et al. 2004b), one of which

REFE

Chhangani. A.K. (2004): Mortality of wild animals in road accidents in

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary. Rajasthan. India. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(1): 151-154.

Fahrig. L.. J.H. Pedlar. S.E. Pope, P.D. Taylor & J.F. Wegner (1995): Effect

of road traffic on amphibian density . Biol. Conserv. 73: 177-182.

Gibbs, J.P. (1998): Amphibian movements in response to forest edges,

roads, and streambeds in southern New England. J. Wildl.

Manage. 62(2): 584-589.

Gokula, V. (1997): Impact of vehicular traffic on snakes in Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary. Cobra 27: 26.

Mader, H.J. (1984): Animal habitat isolation by roads and agricultural

fields. Biol. Conserv. 29: 81-96.

Manakadan. R„ S. Sivakumar & A.R. Rahmani (2004a): An ecological

account of the faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island and its

environs. Final Report: Part I - Birds and Mammals. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai.

is the threat of road kills. Measures are needed to reduce the

incidences of road kills through awareness programmes, check

on speed limits of vehicles, creation of speed breakers, culverts

and installing sign boards at road kill prone areas. Decrease

in the extent of the road network (where possible) could also

be explored. All these recommendations have been

communicated to the authorities of the spaceport in our

report.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Indian Space Research Organisation for

financial support and the authorities in the SDSC-SHAR.

Sriharikota, for support and co-operation. We thank J. Patrick

David for perusal and comments on the draft.

NCES

Manakadan, R., S. Sivakumar & A.R. Rahmani (2004b): An ecological

account of faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island and its environs.

Final Report: Part V- Conservation Issues. Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai.

Reed, A.R., J.J. Barnard & J.W. Baker (1996): Contribution of roads

to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conserv. Biol.

10(4): 1098-1106.

Singh, M., D.G Lindburg, A. Udhayan, M.A. Kumar & H.N. Kumara

(1999): Status survey of Slender Loris Loris tardigradus

lydekkerianus in Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India. Oryx

33(1): 31-37.

Vuayakumar, S.P., K. Vasudevan & N.M. Ishwar (2001 ): Herpetofaunal

mortality on roads in the Anamalai hills, southern Western Ghats.

Hamadryad 26(2): 253-260.

Whitaker, R. ( 1978): Common Indian Snakes. Macmillan India Limited,

Madras.

4. FACTORS CAUSING NEST LOSSES IN THE PAINTED STORK

MYCTERIA LEUCOCEPHALA: A REVIEW OF SOME INDIAN STUDIES

Abdul Jamil Urfi1

'Department of Environmental Biology, University of Delhi. New Delhi 1 10 007. India. Email: [email protected]

Losses at egg and nestling stages significantly impact

fitness in birds and so their assessment becomes critical in

developing conservation strategies for endangered species.

The near threatened Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala

with a stronghold in India is a flagship of wetlands and

heronries (BirdLife International 2001). Although recent

researches have explored several aspects of its biology,

including sexual size dimorphism (Urfi and Kalarn 2006),

foraging behaviour (Kalam and Urfi 2008), resource

partitioning (Istiaq et al. 2010), nesting (Urfi et al. 2007;

Meganathan and Urfi 2009) and habitat ecology (Sundar

2006), a broad based overview of the various biotic and abiotic

factors responsible for nest losses in this species is warranted.

The present study aims to address this shortcoming.

Biotic factors

Predation on Eggs and Nestlings

Nest predation is the single most important ecological

factor influencing reproductive success in birds. Ensuring

safety from ground predators, chiefly mammals, has been a

strong selective force in the evolution of coloniality in birds

(Brown and Brown 2001). Most Painted Stork colonies are

either located on islands or on large trees on land and so the

impacts of direct predation by land animals is minimized.

However, mammalian predators can sometimes reach island

colonies by swimming when the water is shallow or a bridge

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

55

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

is formed due to a sudden drop in water level. Pande (2006)

records an instance at Bhadalwadi Tank of stray dogs,

Common Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi. Jackal Canis

aureus and Wolf Canis lupus being able to gain access to

Painted Stork nests when the water level surrounding the

colony dropped unexpectedly. Although, cases of mammalian

predators reaching nesting colonies located on islands in the

sea by swimming are probably rare, at Man Marodi island in

the Gulf of Kutch, where Painted Stork build nests on

Salvadora , quite close to ground level, jackals have been

reported to prey upon nestlings (Urfi 2003). Reportedly, they

arrive on the island by swimming at low tide, from nearby

mainland areas. At Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary, troops of

Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata were recorded to swim

across the river to the bird colonies on islets and plunder the

eggs in the nests (Neginhal 1982). Village heronries such as

Kokre Bellur (Neginhal 1977; Nagulu and Rao 1983) or

heronries on large trees in city parks, such as gardens in

Bhavnagar (Parasharya and Naik 1990) are good examples

of safety from ground predators being ensured due to location

of nests at a height. The only way in which ground predators

can have access to nestlings is when they accidentally

fall off from their nests. While the predators in village

heronries are mostly feral dogs (Subramanya and Manu 1996)

in island colonies they may be the Mugger Crocodile

( Crocodylus palustris), as in the case of Ranganthittu

(Neginhal 1982).

Since most observations on nest losses are based on

observations made during the day, the impact of night time

predation remains largely unaccounted for. However, some

scattered reports confirm its occurrence. For instance,

Common Indian Monitor Varanus bengalensis climbing on

trees and devouring the eggs of Painted Stork in evenings at

the Delhi Zoo is one recorded case (Meganathan and

Urfi 2009). At Bharatpur, most kills of fledgling Painted

Stork by Aquila were recorded on moonlit nights (Naoroji

1990).

The main predation pressure is of course exerted by

raptors against which there is often no protection. Several

points are of interest here. Firstly, in north India at least the

period when nests have fledglings is the same time when the

influx of migratory raptors begins (Naoroji 1990). Secondly,

recent studies at Delhi Zoo and Sultanpur (Urfi el al. 2007;

Meganathan and Urfi 2009 ) have hinted of a broad correlation

between the body sizes of predator and prey. For instance,

while Crow Corvus splendens attack small nestlings

(<15 days old), Black Kite Milvus migrans showed a

preference for older nestlings (> 15 days). Thirdly, there are

differences in predator species at colonies located in urban

areas and those in the country, as would be expected. While

at Delhi Zoo, which is located in a large city, omnivorous,

birds like crows and kites account for most of the egg and

nestling losses, at natural areas like Sultanpur and Keoladeo,

those raptors which are partial to undisturbed areas in the

country such as Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga. Steppe

Eagle Aquila nipalensis. Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca and

Pallas's Fishing Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus are the main

predatory agents (Naoroji 1990; Urfi et al. 2007). This

therefore leads to the question, since at urban sites predation

pressure is lower, compared to colonies in the countryside,

could this be an additional inducement for the formation of

colonies in urban premises, besides conditions of safety and

availability of suitable nesting substrates?

Detailed observations on the mode of attack by Aquila

spp. are known largely through the observations of Naoroji

(1990) at Bharatpur. For instance, only nestlings were taken

and adults were seldom attacked. The hunting method of

raptors was opportunistic and cases of their trying to bully

adults, mostly unsuccessfully, to leave nests were also

recorded. Kleptoparasitism among the raptors and often

involving crows (Corvus splendens and C. [macrohynchos]

culminatus) was common. An examination of nestlings

attacked revealed that a number of individuals had sustained

head and neck injuries, suggesting that most attacks were

directed towards the head. Earlier, Lowther ( 1949) recorded

a breast portion of Painted Stork eaten and rest discarded.

Interestingly, while at the Keoladeo, nests in isolated patches

were observed to be preyed upon as frequently as nests in

groups, spatial variations in predation rates were observed at

Delhi Zoo (Meganathan and Urfi 2009).

Infertile Eggs

Eggs lying in nests, generally untouched by predators

and hence assumed to be infertile, have been recorded at Delhi

Zoo and Sultanpur (Desai et al. 1977; Urfi et al. 2007;

Meganathan and Urfi 2009).

Starx’ation

Starvation is often attributed to be a major cause of

nestling loss in birds, especially in the first two weeks post

hatching. At the Delhi Zoo the figure of yearly starvation

deaths was estimated at around 38% (Desai et al. 1977).

Although the deceased nestlings were not examined to study

body condition and to verify the cause of death, the study

noted that competition between the siblings, in which older

nestlings monopolized all the food regurgitated by the parents

on the nest floor, resulted in the younger siblings losing

condition and eventually dying. In some years, notably 1966,

1967 and 1971, the number of nestling deaths, assumed to

have been caused due to starvation, was recorded to be 44%,

56

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

50% and 55% respectively. Compared to 1968-1970 when

such mortalities were below 33%, this is a high number and

could be due to shortage of food. However, the authors do

not mention if these years were also years of bad monsoon,

when food production in the natural wetlands, which is rain

dependent, would be expected to be low.

Abiotic factors

Weather

Although the Painted Stork exhibits a wing spread

behaviour at nest, typical of genus Mycteria ( Hancock et al.

1992), to shield nestlings from the sun and also regurgitate

water to bring down nest temperatures on hot days, no cases

of nestling mortalities due to over heating are on record.

However, fluctuations in environmental temperatures

leading to nestling mortalities in White Stork Ciconia ciconia

have been reported (Jovani and Telia 2004). It would be

expected that for warm tropical environments like India,

hypothermia related mortalities would be rare. However,

in Delhi, where environmental temperatures in December

and January can drop to c. 7°C in the night (WWIS 2010)

some nestling mortalities can be expected. Indeed, bodies

of juveniles and adults (n<5) were observed on days

immediately succeeding very cold days during 1988-1992

at the Delhi Zoo (Urfi unpubl. obs). However, since the

corpses observed to be strewn on branches of trees close

to the nests, were not recovered for a post mortem

examination, it could not be ascertained if these deaths were

indeed due to hypothermia. Dead nestlings and adults were

also observed during the study in 2005-06 (Meganathan and

Urfi 2009).

Human factors

Though storks and other heronry birds build colonies

in urban premises, they are quite sensitive to human

disturbance (Urfi 1990; Datta and Pal 1993; Gadhvi

2002). While many cases of nest losses due to human factors

are on record some interesting ones are enumerated below.

In Udupuria, nestlings and juveniles were attacked by (honey)

bees when a hive on one of the nesting trees was accidentally

disturbed by villagers. Twelve nestlings and 23 subadults were

found dead, up to 200 m from the colony (Nair 2006). At

Bhavnagar, many subadults making their initial flights were

recorded to get entangled in the kite strings and get killed.

Unfortunately, the timing of kite flying festival in the city

coincides with the time when the young are big enough to

make the first local flights (Parasharya and Naik 1990). In

addition to these, disturbance leading to nest abandonment,

either due to the presence of large number of people near the

colony or bursting firecrackers ( Vashishtha 200 1 ) and putting

up scare crows are also on record. At Ranganthittu, if the

tourist boats go very near the breeding birds they get

frightened and fly away leaving their nests unprotected. The

crows anticipating this situation follow the boats and pillage

the eggs and even take away the nestlings from the unguarded

nests (Neginhal 1982).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the University of Delhi for providing funds

under its scheme - ‘Strengthen R & D Doctoral Research

Programme by providing funds to university faculty’ which

enabled me to complete this paper.

REFERENCES

BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened birds of Asia: The BirdLife

International Red Data Book. BirdLife International: Cambridge,

U.K.

Brown, C.R. & M.B. Brown (2001): Avian coloniality, progress and

problems. In: Nolan, Jr., V. & C.F. Thompson (Eds): Current

Ornithology. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: New York.

Datta, T. & B.C. Pal (1993): The effect of human interference on the

nesting of the Openbill Stork ( Anastomus oscitans) at the Raiganj

Wildlife Sanctuary. India. Biological Conservation 64: 149-154.

Desai, J.H.. G.H. Menon & R.V. Shah (1977): Studies on the

Reproductive pattern of the Painted Stork, Ibis leucocephalus

Pennant. Pavo 15: 1-32.

Gandhvi, I. (2002): Painted Storks abandon nesting colony at Bhavnagar,

Gujarat. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 42: 12.

Hancock, J.A., J.A. Kushlan & M.P Kahl (1992): Storks, Ibises and

Spoonbills of the World. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 385.

Ishtiaq, F., S. Javed, M.C. Coulter & A.R. Rahmani (2010): Resource

partitioning in three sympatric species of storks in Keoladeo

National park, India. Waterbirds 33: 41-49.

Jovani, R. & J.L. Tella (2004): Age-related environmental sensitivity

and weather mediated nestling mortality in White Storks ( Ciconia

ciconia). Ecography 27: 611-618.

Lowther, E.H.N. (1949): A Bird Photographer in India. Oxford

University Press, London. Pp. xii, 150.

Kalam, A. & A.J. Urfi (2008): Foraging behaviour and prey size of

the Painted Stork ( Mycteria leucocephala). J. Zoology. 274:

198-204.

Meganathan, T. & A.J. Urfi (2009): Inter-colony variations in nesting

ecology of Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala ) in the Delhi

Zoo (North India) Waterbirds 32: 352-356.

Nagulu, V. & J.V.R. Rao (1983): Survey of South Indian Pelicanries.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 141-143.

Nair, A.K. (2006): Udpuria - A Stork Paradise. Hornbill 2: 32-33.

Naoroji, R. (1990): Predation by Aquila Eagle on nestling storks and

herons in Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharatpur. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 37-46.

Neginhal, S.G. (1977): Discovery of a pelicanry in Karnataka. /. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 169-170.

Neginhal, S.G. (1982): The birds of Ranganathittu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 79: 581-593.

Pande. S. (2006): Bhadalwadi Tank. A refuge for Painted Storks. Hornbill

2: 11-15.

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Parasharya, B.M. & R.M. Naik (1990): Ciconiiform birds breeding in

Bhavnagar city, Gujarat. A study of their nesting and a plea for

conservation. Pp. 429-445. In: Daniel, J.C. & J.S. Serrao (Eds):

Conservation in Developing Countries. Problems and Prospects.

Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Sundar, K.S.G. (2006): Flock size, density and habitat selection of four

large waterbirds species in an agricultural landscape in Uttar

Pradesh, India: implications for management. Waterbirds 29:

365-374.

Subramanya, S. & K. Manu (1996): Saving the Spot-billed Pelican.

A successful experiment. Hornbill 2: 2-6.

Urfi, A.J. (1990): Mysterious disappearance of Painted Stork from Delhi

Zoo heronries and abrupt termination of their breeding.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 30: 3-5.

Urfi, A.J. (2003): Record of a nesting colony of Painted Stork Mycteria

leucocephala at Man-Marodi Island in the Gulf of Kutch.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100: 109-110.

Urfi, A.J. & A. Kalam (2006): Sexual size dimorphism and mating

pattern in the Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) Waterbirds

29: 489-496.

Urfi, A.J.. T. Meganathan & A. Kalam (2007): Nesting ecology of the

Painted Stork ( Mycteria leucocephala) at Sultanpur National

Park. Haryana, India. Forktail 23: 150-153.

Vashishtha, S.C. (2001 ): Painted Storks abandon colony after bursting

of crackers at Pandad, Gujarat. Newsletter for Birdwatchers

41: 13

WWIS (World Weather Information Service) (2010): India, Weather

information for New Delhi, http://www.worldweather.org/066/

c00224.htm. accessed on March 5, 2010.

5. PARTIAL ALBINISM IN BLACK IBIS PSEUDIBIS PAPILLOSA

Rajesh C. Senma1,2 and Chirag A. Acharya1-3

'Department of Zoology, M.N. College, Visnagar 384 315, Gujarat, India.

2Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

Albinism is the absence of the pigment melanin in

organisms. Albinism in birds has been classified into four

groups (Pettingill 1956). Total albinism is complete absence

of melanin; incomplete albinism is lack of pigment either in

the plumage, eyes or unfeathered parts, but never all three. In

Imperfect albinism melanin is reduced either in the plumage,

eyes, or unfeathered parts. Partial albinism is total absence

of melanin from only a few feathers; the pigment-free areas

may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

On August 18, 2009, at 1 1:00 hrs, during our 3-year

study at Kharodo between Miyasana and Nandali village, situated

in Mehsana district, north Gujarat (23° 55' N; 72° 38’ E), 5 km

far from Kheralu. we observed asymmetrical partial albinism

in a Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa feeding in a small flock.

This is the first record of asymmetrical partial albinism in

Black Ibis from this area (Fig. 1 ).

Albinism in birds has been reported in the past: Great-

tail Grackle (Phillips 1954). House Wren and Carolina Wren

(Ross 1963), Carolina Wren (Seneca 1985), Hooded Crow

(Slagsvold et al. 1987), Black Drongo (Prasad 2000), and

Red-vented Bulbul (Patel 2009).

Total albinism is caused due to complete lack of

tyrosinase activity in the organism. Mechanisms leading to

partial loss of tyrosinase activity in birds has not been

elucidated, but presumably involve mutations or other known

mechanisms of gene inactivation.

W

Fig. 1 : Asymmetrical partial albinism observed

in a small flock of Black Ibis

The observation that some families of birds are more

prone to albinism than others is interesting, but the biological

causes underlying these observations remain unclear.

Hopefully, continued documentation of aberrant plumages

in all families of birds will eventually lead to generation of

testable hypotheses to explain these fascinating and striking

plumage patterns.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Financial support from UGC, New Delhi, through a

RGNJRF scheme for SC/ST candidates is gratefully

acknowledged. We are thankful to Prin. Dr. M.I. Patel for his

valuable suggestions. We also thank Prof. R.M. Gohel, Paras

Desai and Chirag Patel for their help in field.

REFERENCES

Patel, P. (2009): Albinism in birds. Vihang: Pool among bird watchers Pettingill, S. Jr. (1956): Alaboratory and field manual of Ornithology.

(Gujarati) 3: 56-57. 3rd Ed. Burgess Publ. Co., Minneapolis.

58

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Phillips, A.P. (1954): The cause of partial albinism in a Great-tailed

Grackle. Wilson Bull. 66: 66.

Prasad, G. (2000): The Black Drongo’s ( Dicrurus macrocercus

(Bechstein)) white crown. Zoos’ Print Journal 15(10):

349.

Ross, C.C. (1963): Albinism among North American birds. Cassinia

47: 2-21.

Seneca, J.J. (1985): A record of extreme leucism in the Carolina Wren.

Wilson Bull. 97: 222.

Slagsvold, T„ G. Rofstad & J. Sandvik (2009): Partial albinism and

natural selection in the hooded crow Corvus corone comix. Journal

ofZoolgy24(l): 157-166.

6. FIRST RECORD: SELECTION OF AN ELECTRIC POLE AS A ROOSTING SITE BY BLACK IBIS

IN NORTH GUJARAT REGION

Rajesh C. Senma1-2 and Chirac A. Acharya1-3

'Department of Biology, M.N. College. Visanagar 384 315, Gujarat. India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

We observed 72 Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa

on a giant electric pole on the roadside, and 42 on another

electric pole off the road at Vasaniya Mahadev (23° 19' N;

72° 38' E, 89 m above msl). Gujarat, when we were returning

from Gandhinagar on December 25, 2009, at 18:05 hrs. We

stopped our car and waited for sunset, after sunset we could

hear the Indian Black Ibis call. We waited for two hours to

confirm if this was a roosting site of the Indian Black Ibis.

We also asked the local people who confirmed that Indian

Black Ibis gathered to roost on electric poles. On earlier

occasions (three to four times) we have noted similar

behaviour on the outskirts of Visnagar (23°42' N; 71°34' E,

127 m above msl), Gujarat; where five to seven Black Ibis

were observed roosting on an electric pole (Eds: photographic

evidence provided). This, however, is the first record of a

flock of Black Ibis roosting on electric poles.

During a three-year period we had observed Indian

Black Ibis usually roosting on tall trees like Nilgiri

Eucalyptus globulus , Neem Azadirachta indica, Mango

REFEI

Chavda, P.B. (1988): Behavioural and Ecological study of Indian Black

Ibis Pseudibis papillosa at Junagadh. M. Phil, dissertation.

Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Chavda, P.B. (1997): Studies on some ecological aspects of the Indian

Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck), at Junagadh and its

surrounding area. Ph D. Thesis, Saurashtra University. Rajkot.

Mangifera indica, Polyalthia Polyalthia longifolia and

species of Ficus. Several authors (Chavda 1988; Vyas 1992;

Chavda 1997; Soni 2008) have noted that Black Ibis use tall

trees like Cocos nucifera, Borassus flabellifer, Roystonea

regia , Millingtonia hortensis, Polyalthia cerasoides. Ficus

amplissima, Tamarindus indica, Sterculia foetida, Ficus

religiosa , Prosopis cineraria, Albizia lebbeck for roosting.

They are part of a single or multi species communal roost.

Usually the birds select the largest trees in the vicinity,

probably because such trees are safer than the shorter trees.

But selection of a giant electric pole for roosting might be

an adaptive response of the birds to its abnormal height.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank UGC (Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship

Scheme for SC/ST students) for providing financial

assistance. We are also grateful to Dr. M.I. Patel, Principal,

M.N. College, Visnagar for providing facilities.

4CES

Soni, K.C. (2008): Study on population, foraging, roosting and breeding

activities of the Black Ibis / Red napped Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa )

inhabiting the arid zone of Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis, Maharshi

Dayanand Saraswati University, Ajmer.

Vyas, S. (1992): Ecological and Behavioral Study of the Indian Black

Ibis. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS

IN BIKANER REGION OF THE THAR DESERT

Partap Singh14, D.R. Saharan1, Jitendar Solanki2and S.P Mehra3

'5-C-137, JNV Colony, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India.

2Vinayaka Guest House, Old Ginani. Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

’Kesar Bhawan, 16/747, P. No. 90. B/d Saraswati Hosp., Ganeshnagar, Pahada, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]

Great Indian Bustard (hereafter, GIB) Ardeotis nigriceps

is an endangered bird species of India (Islam and Rahmani

2002) and is the state bird of Rajasthan. According to an

estimate of Rahmani and Manakadan (1990) the total number

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

59

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of GIBs in India is between 1,500-2,000, and that too if the

species does not migrate from Rajasthan to Andhra Pradesh

(two states with maximum number of GIBs). This number

seems to be exaggerated as other species of genus Ardeotis

are known for migrating long distances (Ziembicki and

Woinarski in press) and species nigriceps might also be

travelling long distances. Dharamkumarsinhji’s survey

conducted on behalf of WWF (World Wildlife Fund Project

453, 1970-78), estimated total population of A. nigriceps

throughout its range in India as no more than 1,260 in 1969

and 745 in 1978 (Roberts 1991 ). The species can no longer

be seen in Haryana, Punjab (Grimmett et al. 1998) and Uttar

Pradesh (Allen 1918). Soon many more states may join this

list of its former range of distribution. Ali and Ripley ( 1983)

opined that not only is the distribution constricting, but also

the number is dwindling due to human pressure.

We recently observed a single male Ardeotis nigriceps

in the grasslands of Nokh Daiya, a small village about 30 km

from Bikaner City. We were monitoring the wildlife census

parties of Bikaner, and while moving from Nokh Daiya to

Gajner Blackbuck Sanctuary we spotted GIB in the

uninhabited outskirts of the villages “Rohi”. This is the first

authentic record of occurrence of GIB near Bikaner in the

last 20 years. Earlier records of its distribution indicate that

the species was quite abundant in Bikaner region. Hume

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. 1-737 + 104

Plates.

Allen, G.O. (1918): The great Indian Bustard in Mirzapur district,

U.P ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1-2): 673.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 1-888.

Hume, A. O. (1890): The Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. 3 Vols., 2nd

Edn. R.H. Porter. London.

Islam, M.Z. & A.R. Rahmani (2002): Threatened Birds of India.

Buceros Vol. 7 (1 -2). Compiled from Threatened Birds of Asia.

(1890) reported a collection of more than 100 bustard eggs

from Bikaner region. Survey of BNHS in early 1 980s reported

the occurrence of this bustard species near Gajner, though

they could not sight it (Rahmani and Manakadan 1990).

Sighting of this endemic bird is welcome news for naturalists

of the region. One pair of GIBs has also been reported to

occur in the Tal Chhapar Blackbuck Sanctuary (Punia pers.

comm.). The pair was first sighted in July and stayed in the

Sanctuary for about two and half months.

The biggest threat to avian diversity of Gajner, Nokh

Daiya, and its vicinity are the Plaster of Paris (POP) factories.

About 150 factories in the area use wood to heat up the

furnaces to prepare POP. One factory consumes one truck

load of wood in five to six days, a huge pressure on the native

flora. The factory owners claim to import the wood from

Gujarat but the declining tree numbers in the region seem to

tell another story. Some factories also use cow dung cakes

(cow dung mixed with hay) instead of wood. The other big

threat to the native birds is the construction of big water

reservoirs, which will store IG canal water and after filtration

this will be supplied for human use. The large grasslands on

the outskirts of Gajner Sanctuary can provide ideal refuge to

this endangered species of India. If anthropogenic

interferences are reduced, there is no reason this species should

not roost and breed here.

Birdlife International Red Data Book (2001). Cambridge,

U. K.: Birdlife International.

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1990): The past and present

distribution of the great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps

(Vigors) in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 175-191.

Roberts. T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford University

Press, Karachi. Pp. 1-598.

Ziembicki, M. & J. Woinarski (in press): Monitoring continental

movement patterns of the Australian Bustard through

community-based surveys and remote sensing. Pacific

Conservation Biology.

8. ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT -

"WHITE-FACED" PLOVER CHARADRIUS DEALBATUS

FROM ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA

Nikhil Bhopale1

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim All Chowk. S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

The “White-faced" Plover Charadriits dealbatus breeds

in the south coast of China, including Hainan. It winters

locally along the coast from southern Vietnam, through the

Gulf of Thailand and south along the west coast of the Malay

Peninsula to Singapore, and the east coast of Sumatra,

Indonesia (Kennerley et al. 2008).

During a BNHS camp in the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, I spotted a wader, which at first glance looked like the

60

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus, on the sand bar of

Smith and Ross Islands (13° 18' 15" N; 93° 04’ 21" E) in North

Andamans on March 18, 2010. I was not sure about its

identification so I clicked a few photographs. On further

observations through a 10x5 binocular, the face looked much

whiter compared to that of a Kentish Plover, and the legs were

orangish with longer tarsus, more white on wings (in flight).

Literature survey (Grimmett et al. 1999; Kazmierczak 2000;

Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) could not help in identification.

After coming back I searched www.orientalbirdimages.org,

unsuccessfully, for different races of Kentish Plover. I refined

my web-search, and looked for the term “White-faced”

Plover (after its characteristics) without knowing of the

existence of such a bird. My search ended at a published paper

on a bird called “White-faced” Plover by Peter Kennerley.

The bird spotted at Andaman and Nicobar Islands matched

the descriptions and photographs of the “White-faced” Plover

Charadrius dealbatus in Kennerley et al. (2008). After

confirming the identification I visited the BNHS collection

where I found six specimens of ‘ dealbatus ’ , but all from south¬

east Asia. Therefore, this is the first record of Charadrius

dealbatus for the Indian subcontinent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. Peter Kennerley for confirming the

identification of the bird. I thank Mr. Vithoba Hegde, Senior

Field Assistant, BNHS, for showing the specimens in the

BNHS Collection.

REFERENCES

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives, Om Book

Service. Pp. 114.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Pp. 126.

Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The

Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions.

Pp. 116.

Kennerley, R, D. Bakewell & P. Round (2008): Rediscovery of a long-

lost Charadrius plover from South-East Asia. Forktail 24: 63-79.

9. FIRST RECORD OF THE HUME’S LEAF- WARBLER PHYLLOSCOPUS HUMEl

FROM KACHCHH, GUJARAT, INDIA

Nikhil Bhopale1

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

Hume’s Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus humei breeds from

Central Asia to West Mongolia. It winters in gardens, orchards,

and dry-deciduous forests in the Indian subcontinent from

c. 1,400 m downwards to the plains of northern Pakistan and

peninsular India south to Belgaum, Hyderabad and

Anantagiri, east to lower hills of Sikkim; Nepal, Bhutan and

Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley 1987; Grimmett et al. 1999;

Kazmierczak 2000; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

In Gujarat, specimens of the Hume’s Leaf-warbler were

collected from Bodeli and Dabka, Baroda district, and from

Mheskatri, Surat Dangs (Ali 1955). The species is not listed

in the birds of kutch (Ali 1945). Jugal Tiwari (pers. comm.),

a former scientist of the BNHS, who has been birding in the

Kachchh area since the 1990s has had no sighting of the

species in the area.

During a BNHS birding camp in Kachchh, I spotted a

Leaf-warbler at around 4-5 m height in the canopy of a tree

on December 24, 2009, at 17:00 hrs in the Chadwa Private

Reserve (23° 09' N; 69° 28' E) near Pragsar lake, 1 5 km south¬

west of Bhuj. On further observations through 10x5

binoculars, I noted it to have two white wing-bars and, a dark

bill and legs, suggestive of Hume’s Leaf-warbler. We observed

the bird for 15 minutes, it gave a short tze-weet call, further

confirming its identity, and record of occurrence in Kachchh.

The similar Yellow-browed Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus

inomatus has yellowish wing-bars and ear-coverts, pale lower

mandible, paler legs and has a different call (Kazmierczak

2000).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Mr. Jugal Tiwari for providing

valuable information on the species. I am grateful to Dr. Ranjit

Manakadan for his expert comments on the note.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch, Oxford University Press, 175 pp. 52(4): 759.

Ali, S. (1955): The Birds of Gujarat, Part II. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

61

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and Pakistan, Compact Edition, Oxford University Press.

Pp. 549.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Pp. 294.

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives. Om Book

Service. Pp. 258.

Rasmussen. PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The

Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions.

Pp. 308.

10. AN OBSERVATIONAL NOTE ON GANGETIC LATIA CROSSOCHEILUS LATIUS LATIUS

IN KHOH RIVER, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA

VlDYADHAR ATKORE1

'Wildlife Institute of India. P.O.Box. 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

Current Address: Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment (ATREE), Jakkur Post, Srirampura. Bengaluru 560 064,

Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

The taxonomic description of many freshwater fishes

has been illustrated earlier by taxonomists in the country. The

information on general behaviour, including their migration,

reproduction, feeding habits of many freshwater fishes are

poorly known.

During my M.Sc. dissertation study from November

2004 to April 2005 on the conservation status of freshwater

fishes in the tributaries of River Ramganga in Uttarakhand, I

made an interesting observation on Crossocheilus latius in

the Khoh river (Atkore 2005). It is a specialized hill stream

fish widely distributed in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi

rivers and upper catchment of Krishna river basin in the

Western Ghats (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The species can

grow up to 16.5 cm and prefers boulders, gravel bottom and

swift flowing section of the channel unit.

It was originally described as Cyprinus latius in 1822

by Hamilton Buchanan in his ‘gangetic fishes from the tista’

from the base of Darjeeling Himalayas. He classified this fish

as Cyprinus garra due to certain similar morphological

features and habits that the fish has in common with some

species of Garra (Mukerji 1934).

On March 12,2004, I was surveying fish in the Khoh

river along with my field assistant Bahadur. The shrubby

vegetation along the bank and big boulders made it difficult

for the fish to move upstream. A deep pool had formed at the

bottom of the boulders, but some species, especially Snow

Trout Schizothorax richardsonii , were jumping over boulders

to move upstream. One species caught my attention, it was

Crossocheilus latius. Three individuals of this species were

attached to a boulder and slowly moving upstream. Unlike

the other species, these were crawling and not jumping over

the boulders. While doing so, they lost contact with water

for sometime. I observed their movement for ten minutes

16:20 hrs to 16:30 hrs from a close distance. The height of

the boulder above the water column was 2.2 m and the

width was 0.6 m. The boulder was moist due to intermittent

water contact. The lower part of the boulder had algal growth.

It seems that this species showed local migratory movement.

I did not find any feeding marks by this species on the

exposed boulders in this observation. Buchanan (1822)

believed that Crossocheilus latius was an ancestor of Garra.

Hora (1921) confirmed that Crossocheilus species resemble

Garra in its structure of air-bladder and the skeleton of the

mouthparts.

Available literature on the ecology of species was

limited. However, Hora and Mukerji (1936) noted that Garra

gotyla and Crossocheilus latius may compete for food (algae)

in the same habitat but they did not provide any data to

support their observation. Previous study showed that, Garra

gotyla was relatively dominant (13.55%) than Crossocheilus

latius latius (0.44%) in Khoh river (Atkore 2005). Again,

with this data it may be difficult to conclude that these two

species compete with each other for the same food resource.

However, this needs further close observation on feeding

behaviour or data on gut content of both these species from

the same habitat in order to prove this.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This observation was a part of Masters Dissertation

from Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, supported by

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

I sincerely thank Patrick David, Chandrima Home and

anonymous referees for their valuable comments. I also thank

my field assistants including Bahadur, without whom this

work could not have been accomplished.

REFERENCES

Atkore, V.M. (2005): The conservation status of freshwater fishes in Mahseer (Tor putitora) Uttarakhand, India. A master’s thesis copy

the tributaries of Ramganga with special reference to Golden submitted to Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat. 76 pp.

62

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hora, S.L. ( 192 1 ): Indian Cyprinoids Fishes of the genus Garra with notes

on related species from other countries. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22: 633-687.

Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukerji ( 1936): Fish of the Eastern Doons, United

Province. Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 133-145.

Mukerji, D.D. (1934): Report on Burmese fishes collected by Lt. Col.

R.W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali Hka River of

the Myitkyina district (Upper Burma). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

37(1): 38-80.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of Indian

and adjacent countries. Pvt. Ltd. I & II, New Delhi. 1158 pp.

1 1. A NEW RECORD OF LARVAL HOST PLANT OF TAWNY COSTER

ACRAEA VIOLAE (FABRICIUS)

Rudra Prasad Das13, Arjan Basu Roy2,4, Radhanath Polley2 and Goutam Saha1-5

’Entomology & Wildlife Biology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road,

Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal. India.

2Nature Mates-Nature Club, 4/1 0A Bijoygarh, Kolkata 700 032, West Bengal, India.

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

Tawny Coster Acraea violae (Fabricius) belonging to

Family Nymphalidae can be easily identified by its slow

fluttering flight (Wynter-Blyth 1957) and is fairly common

at lower Bengal plains (Kehimkar 2008). On September 07,

2009, on a sunny morning, while walking through an

abandoned rail track near a small village - Belun, Burdwan

district (location: 23° 41. 568' N; 88° 04.459' E); altitude: 12 m

above msl) West Bengal, India, dozens of Tawny Coster larvae

of different instars were spotted creeping on the railway tracks.

After close observation they were found feeding on a small

herb called ‘Spade Flower’ or 'Pink Ladies Slipper’

Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell ( =Ionidium

suffruticosum Ging) of Family Violaceae (Paria 2005). The

herb grows up to a height of 60 cm and has pink-purple spade¬

shaped solitary flowers. The plant is well-distributed

throughout India. Common Hindi and Bengali names of this

plant are ‘ Ratanpurush' and ‘ Nunbora respectively. The

known larval host plants of Tawny Coster are Passiflora

foetida, P. edulis, P. subpeltata, Adenia hondala (Family

Passifloraceae), and Aposora lindleyana (Family

Euphorbiaceae) (Kunte 2000; Robinson et al. 200 1 ; Kehimkar

2008), which are mostly climbers. But record of Hybanthus

enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell as larval host plant for this

butterfly has not been documented earlier. It indicates the

diversification of known larval host plant for Tawny Coster.

Kehimkar, I. (2008): The Book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai. 497 pp.

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India (India: A Lifescape

Fascicle 1 ). Universities Press (Hyderabad) and Indian Academy

of Sciences (Bangalore). 254 pp.

Paria, N.D. (2005): Medicinal Plant Resources of South West

Bengal. Directorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal,

Fig 1 : Caterpillar of Acraea violae (Fabricius) feeding on the

leaves of Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell

This new source of food for the larva will help to strengthen

the chance of survival of this species in the wild. It may also

lead to a record of range extension of this butterfly, where

these plants are found in abundance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Mr. Tamoy Ghosh (President, iREBEL) for

his support during our visit to Belun village.

Kolkata. 198 pp.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni &

L.M. Hernandez (2001): Hostplants of the Moth and Butterfly

Caterpillars of the Oriental Region. Natural History Museum,

London. 722 pp.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. 523 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

63

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

12. A CHECKLIST OF ANTS OF THIRUNELLI IN WAYANAD, KERALA

K.A. Karmaly13, S. Sumesh1,4, T.P. Rabeesh' ^and Lambert Kishore2

'Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s College for Women Aluva, Kerala 683 101, India.

department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College, Calicut, Kerala 673 100, India. Email: [email protected]

’Email ID: [email protected]

4Email ID: [email protected]

’Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction

Wayanad is in the north-east of Kerala, India. Study sites

are located at Thirunelli ( 1 1°27'-15°58' N; 75°47'-70°27' E) in

Wayanad region, southern part of Western Ghats.

Biogeographically, Wayanad region of Western Ghats is a

transitional zone between the moist-deciduous and dry-

deciduous forests, harbouring many restricted habitats,

endemic species, as well as disjunctive populations of species

that are found in moist deciduous, evergreen and dry-

deciduous forests (WWF 2001).

Thirunelli forests spread over an area of 20.55 sq. km

and occur at an elevation of c. 900 m and above. The distance

from the mean sea level and forest cover creates a salubrious

climate in the region. Generally the year is divided into four

seasons; cold ( 10 °C), and hot (35 °C) weather, South-West

and North-East monsoon. The average rainfall is 2,200 mm

per year. Climate of Wayanad are characteristic of the Western

Ghats and the flora and fauna are showing very rich

biodiversity.

The present study attempts to record the ant fauna in

deciduous and shola forests at Thirunelli in Wayanad. The

ants collected from different parts of Thirunelli were identified

using taxonomic keys.

Methodology

The collection of ants is made by random sampling

methods with sweep net, brush method and all out search

method. The collected specimens were processed, preserved

in 70% ethanol and prepared in the laboratory for systematic

studies. The specimens were mounted on a rectangular card

of 20 mm x 10 mm and pinned with Asta insect pins of

38 mm x 0.53 mm of No. 3. Observations were made using

High-performance, Modular Stereozoom microscope with a

40x magnification. Ants were identified using identification

key by Bolton (Bolton 1994) and Fauna of British India

(Bingham 1903).

Observation and Result

Considering the study of distribution of ants in

Thirunelli-Wayanad area, 39 ants were found (Table 1 )

belonging to six subfamiles (Bolton 1994).

In Dolichoderinae, five species were found: Tapinoma

melanocephalum melanocephalum (Fabricius), Tapinoma

indicum indicum (Forel), which are common in these areas

and present in the litter floor of all forest vegetation of

Thirunelli-Wayanad region, Technomyrmex albipes albipes

(Smith) was commonly found in all vegetation, and

Technomyrmex bicolor bicolor Emery and Technomyrmex

elatior Forel were rare.

Subfamilies Aenictinae and Dorylinae with three

species was the least dominant: in Aenictinae, Aenictus

ambiguus Shuck, Aenictus westwoodi Forel, were mostly

found in western India and in Dorylinae, Dorylus orientalis

Westwood, common in southern India.

Thirteen species of ant belong to Subfamily

Formicinae, the dominant family in Thirunelli. Anoplolepis

gracilipes (Smith), found throughout the region, Oecophylla

smaragdina (Fabricius), Camponotus angusticollis

angusticollis (Jerdon), Camponotus compressus (Fabricius),

Camponotus parius Emery, Camponotus sericeus sericeus

(Fabricius) were common in this area, Camponotus misturus

fornaronis Forel and Camponotus radiatus Forel were rare

in this region, Polyrhachis illaudata illudata Walker and

Polyrhachis punctillata punctillata Roger are the first

report from Wayanad region, and Polyrhachis convexa

Roger is the first report from the Indian subcontinent; Roger

(1863 a) reported this species from Sri Lanka. Lepisiota

opaca opaca a less dominant group was also found from

this region.

Subfamily Myrmicinae showed 14 ant species.

Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders, Solenopsis geminata

(Fabricius) were common in the study area. The other non¬

endemic species - Cardiocondyla parvinoda Forel,

Cardiocondyla wroughtoni Forel, Crematogaster ebenina

Forel, Monomorium wroughtoni Forel, Pheidole spathifera

Forel, Pheidologeton affinis affinis (Jerdon), Tetramorium

smithi (Mayr), and Tetramorium wroughtoni (Forel);

Leptothorax rothneyi Forel, Myrmicaria Saunders sp.,

Strumigenys smythiesi Forel, and Carebara wroughtonii

(Forel) - were the rare species found from this area.

Five species of subfamily Ponerinae were collected,

Cryptopone sp. is the first report for Wayanad region.

Diacamma rugosum sculptum (Jerdon), Diacamma

scalpratum (Smith), Leptogenys ocellifera (Roger), and

Odontomachus haematodes (Linnaeus) were commonly

encountered in the study area.

64

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Checklist of Ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad

Subfamily: Dolichoderinae

Genus species Synonym Habitat

Tapinoma melanocephalum melanocephalum (Fab., 1793) Tapinoma australe Santschi, 1928 Moist grass

Tapinoma australis Santschi, F. 1928

Tapinoma familaris Smith, F. 1860

Tapinoma nana Jerdon, 1851

Tapinoma pellucida Smith, F. 1857

Distribution in Kerala: Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Kannur (Aralam farm), Thrissur (Peechi KFRI, Kottapuram), Kottayam, Wayanad

(Muthenga, Thirunelli), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus, Mampad College Campus), Ernakulam (Bolghaty, Tripunithura,

Edappally), Calicut (Madappally, Devagiri), Idukki (Marayoor, Mathikettan Shola), Kasaragod (KAU Campus Padannakad).

Tapinoma indicum indicum (Forel, 1895) - Moist grass

Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Neyyar), Palakkad (Parambikulam), Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Idukki (Meenuli, Thekkady),

Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Kannur (Aralam farm), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus).

Technomyrmex albipes albipes (Smith, 1861) Technomyrmex albitarse (Mots., 1 863) Moist grass

Technomyrmex nigrum (Mayr, 1 862)

Technomyrmex rufescens Santschi 1 928

Technomyrmex vitiensis Mann, 1921

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Kollam (Thenmala), Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Ernakulam (Aluva), Thrissur

(Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary).

Technomyrmex bicolor bicolor Emery, 1893 - Moist grass

Distribution in Kerala: Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Ernakulam (Aluva), Calicut (Anakampoyil, Madappally), Malappuram (Calicut University

Campus), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli).

Technomyrmex elatior Forel, 1902 - Moist grass

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Subfamily: Aenictinae

Aenictus ambiguus Shuck, 1 840 - Subterranean

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Kottayam (Pala).

Aenictus westwoodi Forel, 1901 - Subterranean

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Subfamily: Dorylinae

Dorylus orientalis Westwood, 1835 Dorylus curtisii (Shuckard, 1840) Subterranean

Dorylus longicornis Shuckard, 1840

Dorylus obertheri (Emery, 1 881 )

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli, Muthenga), Idukki (Kuttikanam), Palakkad (Nelliyampathy).

Subfamily: Formicinae

Anoplolepis gracilipes (Smith, 1857) Anoplolepis longipes (Jerdon, 1851) Everywhere

Anoplolepis trifaciata (Smith, 1858)

Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura, Peppara), Kollam (Thenmala), Pathanamthitta, Kottayam, Thrissur (Chimmnoy

Wildlife Sanctuary), Ernakulam, Calicut, Idukki (Thekkady), Kannur (Aralam), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus), Kasaragod

(Cherkala), Palakad, Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli).

Camponotus angusticollis angusticollis (Jerdon, 1851) Camponotus ardens (Smith, 1 858) Leaves/Soil

Camponotus impetuosa (Smith, 1858)

Camponotus prismaticus Mayr, 1 862

Distribution in Kerala: Ernakulam, Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary), Palakkad (Silent Valley, Aalathur), Malappuram (Calicut

University Campus, Kohinoor, Manjeri, Nilambur), Calicut (Anakampoyil), Wayanad (Thirunelli).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

65

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Peppara, Neyyar, Karyavattom, CTCRI Campus), Kollam, Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife

Sanctuary), Palakkad (Parambikulam), Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Idukki (Meenuli, Thekkady), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Kannur

(Aralam farm), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus).

Camponotus misturus fornaronis Forel 1 892 - Everywhere

Distribution in Kerala: Idukki (Thekkady), Ernakulam (Kochi, Edappally, Aluva), Malapuram (Calicut University Campus, Madappally,

Kohinoor), Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli, Muthenga), Thrissur (Vellanikara).

Camponotus parius Emery, 1 889 - Everywhere

Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura, Peppara), Kollam (Thenmala), Idukki, Kottayam, Ernakulam (Kalamassery,

Aluva), Thrissur (Manalikkad, Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary), Palakkad (Kottekkad), Malapuram, Calicut, Kannur, Kasaragod (Cherkala),

Malabar, Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Camponotus sericeus sericeus (Fabricius, 1798) Camponotus aurulent ( Latreille, 1802) Grassy field

Camponotus obtusa (Smith, 1858)

Camponotus pyrrhocephala (Mots., 1863)

Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura, CTCRI Campus, Peppara), Kollam (Thenmala), Kottayam (Bharanaganam),

Idukki, Allepey, Ernakulam (Aluva), Thrissur (Vellanikara, Kodungallor), Palakkad, Malapuram (Kohinoor, Calicut University Campus),

Calicut (Anakampoil), Kannur, Kasaragod (Cherkala), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli).

Camponotus radiatus Forel, 1892 - Leaves

Distribution in Kerala: Malappuram (Kohinoor), Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Lepisiota opaca opaca (Forel, 1892) - Leaves

Distribution in Kerala: Ernakulam (Aluva), Malappuram (Kohinoor, Calicut University Campus), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli).

Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius, 1775) Oecophylla macra ( Guerin, 1831) Trees

Oecophylla virescens (Fabricius, 1775

Oecophylla viridis (Kirby, 1819)

Oecophylla zonata (Guerin, 1838)

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), throughout Kerala.

Polyrhachls convexa Roger, 1 863 - Leaves

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli).

Polyrhachis illaudata Illudata Walker, 1859 Polyrhachis duodentata Donisthorpe, 1942 Leaves

Polyrhachis mayri Roger, 1 863

Polyrhachis latispinosa Donisthorpe, 1942

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli, Vythiri).

Polyrhachis punctillata punctillata Roger, 1 863 - Leaves

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura), Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary).

Subfamily: Myrmicinae

Cardiocondyla parvinoda Forel, 1902 - Soil

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Cardiocondyla wroughtonii (Forel, 1890) Cardiocondyla bimaculata Wheeler, 1 929 Soil

Cardiocondyla emeryi chlorotica Menozzi, 1930

Cardiocondyla hawaiensis Forel, 1899

Cardiocondyla longispina Karavaiev, 1 935

Cardiocondyla quadraticeps Forel, 1912

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Palakkad (Silent Valley National Park).

Crematogaster ebenina Forel, 1902 - Trees

Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli).

66

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

67

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Checklist of Ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad ( contd .)

Genus species Synonym Habitat

Diacamma rugosum sculptum (Jerdon, 1851) - Soil

Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary, KAU Campus), Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Diacamma scalpratum (Smith, 1858) Diacamma compressum Mayr, 1 879 Soil

Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli).

Leptogenys ocellifera (Roger, 1861) - Soil

Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Wayanad (Thirunelli), Malappuram (Madappally).

Odontomachus haematodes (Linnaeus, 1758) Odontomachus hirsutiusculus Smith, 1858 Soil

Odontomachus maxillosa (De Geer, 1 773)

Odontomachus pallipes Crawley, 1916

Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Malappuram (Madappally), Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Department of Science

and Technology, Goverment of India for financial

assistance. We are grateful to Dr. T.C. Narendran, Emeritus

Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala, for critically examining this manuscript and

also express our thanks to the Principal Sr. T.F. Pauly,

St. Xavier’s College for Women, Aluva, for extending her

support.

REFERENCES

Bingham, C.T. (1903): Ants and Cuckoo Wasps. The Fauna of British

India, including Ceylon and Burma: Hymenoptera 2. 506 pp.

London.

Bolton, B. (1994): Identification Guide to the Ant Genera of the

World. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, London.

Pp. 222.

Roger, J. (1863a): Die neu aufgefiihrten Gattungen und Arten meines

Formiciden-Verzeichnisses nebst Erganzung einiger friiher

gegebenen Beschreibungen, Bert. Entomol. Z. 7: 131-214.

Roger, J. (1863b): Verzeichniss der Formiciden-Gattungen und Arten,

Bert. Entomol. Z. 7(B) Beilage: 1- 65.

WWF (2001): Wild World. WWF full report. South Western Ghats

montane rain forests (IM0151). http://www.worldwildlife.org/

wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/imOl 5 l_full.html.

13. FIRST REPORT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AN ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT SPIRAL

NEMATODE HELICOTYLENCHUS MULT1C1NCTUS COBB. FROM GOA

I.K. Pai1 and H.S. Gaur2

'Department of Zoology, Goa University, Goa 403 206, India. Email: [email protected]

•Division of Nematology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India. Email: [email protected]

Nematodes constitute the largest and diverse group

of metazoans on earth. Four of every five metazoans

are nematodes. Of the estimated 5,00,000 species of

nematodes, only c. 25,000 are known till date (Walia

and Bajaj 2003). They may feed on bacteria, algae,

fungi and may also be parasitic on plants and

animals.

Among nematodes, spiral nematode Helicotylenchus

multicinctus Cobb, is a well-known plant parasitic nematode

causing severe damage to banana plantation. There are reports

on the role of H. multicinctus on banana by Baghel and

Edwards (1977) and Rajendran et al. (1979). Goa produces

a large quantity of bananas; however, H. multicinctus has

not been recorded so far.

Soil samples were collected at a depth of 15-30 cm

from a banana plantation in Canacona, Goa. Nematodes were

extracted using Cobb’s decanting and sieving technique

(Cobb 1904, 1913). Based on the studies of morphological

characters, the nematode was identified as Helicotylenchus

multicinctus.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We sincerely thank Indian National Science Academy

( INSA), New Delhi, for providing Visiting Fellowship to one

of the authors (IKP).

68

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Baghel, P.P.S. & J.C. Edwards (1977): Helicotylenchus multicinctus

on Banana. The Allahabad Farmer 48: 285-289

Cobb, N. A. (1904): Free living and freshwater New Zealand nematodes.

Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 12: 363-374.

Cobb, N.A. (1913): New nematode genera found inhabiting freshwater

and non-brackish soils. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 3: 434-444.

Rajendran, G., T.G. Naganathan & V. Shivagami (1979): Studies on

banana nematodes. Indian J. Nematol. 9: 54.

Walia, R.K. & H.K. Bajaj (2003): Textbook on Introductory Plant

Nematology. ICAR, New Delhi.

14. SCOLOPENDRA HARDWICKEI (NEWPORT, 1844) FEEDING

ON OLIGODON TAENIOLATUS (JERDON, 1853) IN THE SCRUB JUNGLES

OF PONDICHERRY, SOUTHERN INDIA

Utpal Smart1, Prakash Patel23 and Pradeep Pattanayak2

'Amphibian and Reptile Diversity Research Centre, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, TX 76019-049.

Email: [email protected]

2Project Ecolake, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry 605 002, Pondicherry, India.

’Email: [email protected]

Apart from feeding on three different species of bats

(Molinari et al. 2005), centipedes of the genus Scolopendra

(Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) have also been reported to

prey upon reptiles by Lawrence in 1953, Butler in 1970 and

in 1975 by Easterla (Carpenter and Gillingham 1984). These

include frogs, toads, small lizards, and serpents (Molinari et

al. 2005).

Individuals of three North American snake species,

namely Central Texas Whipsnake Masticophis taeniatus

girandi (Stejneger and Barbour 1917), Texas Brown Snake

Storeria dekayi texana (Trapido 1944), and Lined Snake

Tropidoclonion lineatum have been recorded as the prey of the

Giant Desert Centipede Scolopendra herns (Girard 1 853), when

kept in the same vivarium as the centipede. All the snakes were

killed by incisions to the ventral neck and fed upon by the

centipede on successive nights (Cates pers. comm.). Easterla

(1975) describes a scolopendrid feeding on the Long-nose

Snake ( Rhinocheilus sp.) (Ford et al. 2007). All of the above

records refer to North, Central and South American species of

Scolopendra, some of which are known for their large sizes.

India harbours 95 species of Scolopendrids,

Scolopendra hardwickei (Newport 1844) being the largest

(Khanna 2009). There have been observations of Indian

Scolopendrids feeding on toads and frogs (Daniels pers.

comm.), and a gecko in the wild (Whitaker pers. comm.).

This paper reports the first record of predation on Oligodon

taeniolatus (Serpentes: Colubridae) by S. hardwickei, and one

of the few published accounts of a Scolopendrid feeding on

an Indian snake (for another record see Mirza and Ahmed

2009) under natural conditions, in a private reforestation site

of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram near Pondicherry.

Oligodon taeniolatus is a Kukri snake which is active

by day and night, and may be seen predating on amphibian

and reptile eggs. It is an opisthoglyphous (rear-fanged) snake

and possesses a functional venom gland and is known to feed

on lizards in captivity (Whitaker and Captain 2004)

The observation was made by one of the authors

(Pattanayak) on the dark night of July 06, 2009, around

21:00 hrs. The observer’s attention was first drawn to the

scene of predation by the sound of pebbles rubbing against

one another. Upon investigation the source of the sound was

identified as a struggling Oligodon taeniolatus, c. 36 cm long,

trying to escape under a layer of pebbles while a large

centipede, c. 25 cm long, fiercely held on to the area

immediately behind the snake’s cloacae.

The maxillipeds (the first 4 to 5 pairs) of the centipede

had clearly pierced the Kukri’s flesh; blood was oozing from

the gaping lesion along with some viscera of the yet living

reptile. The mandibles of the centipede were thrust into this

wound and the arthropod seemed to be actively ingesting the

snake’s fluids.

Despite fiercely trying, the snake was unable to free

itself from the clutches of the centipede, which then began to

move up the length of the snake. While doing so it curved its

appendages around the snake.

Forty-five minutes after the struggle began the

centipede had moved its entire body upon the snake’s dorsal

surface and inflicted yet another deep wound near the throat.

The snake seemed to be giving in but still put up some

resistance as the predator and prey coiled into contorted

postures.

Unfortunately, the centipede abandoned its prey when

the observer got too close; the arthropod vanished swiftly

into the immediate undergrowth while the snake crawled on

limply. A closer inspection of the wounds revealed a

protruding bone, demonstrating the depth and extent of the

laceration the scolopendrid had inflicted on it. The snake was

left alone and, judging by its conditions, probably died in the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

69

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hours that followed. The bite of a scolopendrid is painful to

adult humans, and can be fatal to infants (Khanna 2009).

With the exception of the Long-nose Snake (Easterla

1975) the centipede was always longer than its prey and may

have outweighed it as well (Carpenter and Gillingham 1984).

In this case, though the centipede seemed heavier, the snake

was clearly longer, but this did not seem to increase the odds

of its survival; strangely enough, all through its ordeal, the

snake made no attempts to bite back at the centipede.

Do scolopendrids regularly feed on snakes or was this a

display of opportunistic behaviour, and hence a rare event?

And to what limit does this fierce centipede go to get a meal,

e.g., does it feed on other larger/venomous snake species as

well ? These are a few questions which when answered could

REFE

Butler, W.H. (1970): A record of an invertebrate preying on vertebrate.

West. Aust. Nat. 11: 146.

Carpenter, C.C. & J.C. Gillingham (1984): Giant Centipede

(Scolopendra altemans) attacks Marine Toad (Bufo marinus),

Carib. J. Sci. 20(1-2 ): 71.

Easterla, D.A. (1975): Giant desert centipede preys upon snake.

Southwest. Nat. 20: 411.

Forti, L.R., H.Z. Fischer & L.C. Encarnacao (2007): Treefrog

Dendropsophus elegans (Wied Neuwied, 1824) (Anura: Hylidae)

as a meal to Otostigmus tibialis Brolemann, (Chilopoda:

Scolopendridae) in the Tropical Rainforest in southeastern Brazil.

Braz. J- Biol. 67(3). Sao Carlos.

Khanna, V. (2009): Identifying Myriapods, http://www.authorstream.com/

Presentation/ Vinodkhanna-9 1 275-soil-fauna-human-welfare -

lead to a whole new understanding of little known trophic links,

e.g., arthropods preying on vertebrates, the complexity and

significance of which probably has not been evaluated enough.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Jerry Cates, EntomoBiotics

Inc. (Texas, U.S.A.) and Romulus Whitaker (Chengalpattu,

India) for their prompt and informative correspondence.

We are furthermore grateful to Dr. Vinod Khanna of the Z.S.I.

(Dehradun, India) for his help with identification of the

centipede. Dr. R.J. Ranjit Daniels, Director, Care Earth Trust

(Chennai, India) is also cordially thanked not only for sharing

information but also for reviewing the manuscript.

SICES

identifyingmyriapoda-trainings-etc-entertainment-ppt-

powerpoint/

Lawrence, R.F. (1953): The biology of the cryptic fauna of forests.

Cape Town, South Africa. 406 pp.

Mirza, Z.A. & J.J. Ahmed (2009): Note on predation of Calliophis

melanurus Shaw, 1802 (Serpents: Elapidae) by Scolopendra sp.

Hamadryad 34( 1 ): 1 66.

Molinari, J., E.E. Gutierrez, Antonio, A. de Ascenscensao,

J.M. Nassar, A. Arends & R.J. Marrquez (2005): Predation by

Giant Centipedes, Scolopendra gigantea , on Three Species of

Bats in a Venezuelan Cave. Caribbean Journal of Science 41(2):

340-346.

Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2004): Snakes of India, the Field Guide.

Draco Books, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu. Pp. 140-144.

15. ARCHITECTURE OF ABUTTING SURFACES OF THE SHELLS OF ACORN BARNACLES

A. A. Karande1 and M. Udhayakumar2

‘303, A, Victory House, Chhotani Road - 2, Mahim, Mumbai 400 016, Maharashtra, India.

Naval Materials Research Laboratory, Shil-Badlapur Road, Ambemath 421 506, Maharashtra, India.

Introduction

In recent years, several reports on the structure and

architecture of the shells of acorn barnacles (Cirripedia,

Crustacea) have been published (Karande and Palekar 1963;

Klepal and Barnes 1975; Murdock and Currey 1978; Otway

and Anderson 1985; Bourget 1997). By and large these reports

deal with the adhesive and compressive strengths of various

species settled on a variety of natural marine substrates and

on man-made structures (Costlow 1956).

In the macrostructure study of barnacles, some of the

shell structures considered are radial margins of parietes, alar

margins of parietes, parietal canals, radial canals in basal plate,

parietal sheath and interlamellar primary and secondary septae

(Bourget 1997). All these structures which contribute to the

strength of the shells are in the forms of ridges, teeth or

lamellar ribs, and are sculptured more or less elaborately in

different cirripede species. In the present study, abutting

sculpturings of ten Indian species and eleven species endemic

to the American coast were examined.

In this study, individual adult barnacles of various

dimensions were used. The local barnacles examined were

Euraphia withersi (Pilsbry), Chthamalus malayensis

(Pilsbry), Chirona amaryllis (Broch), Balanus amphitrite

(Darwin), B. variegatus (Darwin), B. kodakovi (Tarasov and

Zevina), Megabalanus tintinnabulum (Linnaeus), Tetraclita

purpurascens (Wood) and Tetraclitella karandei (Ross).

It also became possible to examine macrostructures of

acorn barnacles sent to us by Dr. Arnold Ross of the American

Museum of Natural History, San Diego. These species

collected along the US coast were Chthamalus dalli

(Pilsbury), Chthamalus fissus (Darwin), Balanus

( Semibalanus ) cariosus (Pallas), B. crenatus (Bruguiere),

B. glandula (Darwin), B. balanus (Linnaeus), B. rostratus

(Hock), Tetraclita squamosa rubescens (Darwin),

70

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Acorn barnacle parietal plate (semidiagrammatic);

types of sculpturings on radial margin (rm); stripe (i to iv);

lamellar (v to viii); dish-shape (ix to x); pp, pt, ol (see Fig. 2)

T. rubescens elegans (Darwin), T. stalactifera (Lamark) and

Megabalcinus tintinnabulum californicus (Pilsbry).

All tropical species, except Balanus kondakovi, are

collected at Mumbai. Of the US species, B. crenatus,

B. rostratus and T. stalactifera are collected at Friday Harbour,

Alaska and Puetro Refugio respectively. The rest of the species

are collected from the Californian coast.

The nomenclature used for description of various shell

components is the same as given by Bourget (1997). The semi-

diagramatic illustrations of the shell components are given

in Figs 1 and 2.

Radial margin of parietes: The radial margin which

abuts against margin of an adjoining plate is variously

sculptured in different species. In its simplest form as is seen

in E. withersi , it shows parallely placed stripes that provide

anchoring surface for the parietal plates (Fig. li). In Chirona

amaryllis each of such stripes is moderately built and has a

series of smooth teeth (Fig lii). In the three tropical balanids.

Fig. 2: Acorn barnacle shell (semidiagrammatic); a cross section

of shell at the junction of the parietal plates and the basal plate;

il: inner lamina; ol: outer lamina; pp: pinnate process; ps: parietal

septum; pt: parietal tube; rc: radial canal; res: radial septum

namely, Balanus amphitrite , B. variegatus and B. kondakovi ,

each of the simple stripes becomes pectinated (Fig. liii).

A pectinated surface is also noted in a recently collected

balanid from Karwar coast, which is identified as

B. reticulates. In M. tintinnabulum each stripe shows bipinnate

pattern. Here each tooth is a sharp and pointed structure unlike

rounded ones observed in balanids (Fig. liv).

In species like B. glandula, B. crenatus and B. balanus,

all from the American coast, the sculpturing begins to lose its

well-defined pectinated pattern observed in tropical balanids.

The pectinated stripes assume lamellar forms which in turn

branch and rebranch into ribbon-like or a water-spill like

processes (Fig. 1 v, vi, vii). An elaborately developed lamellar

anchoring surface is thus observed in B. rostratus where

pectinated pattern is completely lost (Fig. lviii). It is, however,

amply clear that this pattern has its origin in the basic stripe

like geometric design.

In C. malayensis , an orderly arrangement of anchoring

design is completely lost though there is some evidence of

serially arranged stripes on the radial margin. The surface

has irregularly placed short, round pits which interface with

the elevations present on the adjoining plates. Here, generally

the surface can be described as rough and devoid of any

definite pattern (Fig. lix). In the temperate species

Chthamalus fissus and Ch. dalli, unlike Ch. malayensis, an

organized pattern of stripes is retained. These stripes, however,

are not well demarcated from one another.

In tetraclitellan Tetraclitella karandei an anchoring

pattern is distinctive. Here the abutting surface is not a solid

plate. The surface is traversed by randomly placed holes,

which in reality are the openings of the parietal canals. These

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

71

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

openings have flanged-like margins (Fig. lx), which anchor

on corresponding depressions on adjoining parietal plates.

In T. purpurascens, an anchoring surface is restricted

to a very narrow area along the length of radial margin. Here

the sculpturing is in the form of one row of deep pits. However,

in both the Californian species, namely Tetraclita squamosa

rubescens and Tetraclita stalactifera, the anchoring surfaces,

unlike that of Tetraclita purpurascens, are elaborately lamellar

as is also seen in some balanids. In Tetraclita squamosa

rubescens particularly, the lamellar processes are heavily built.

Table 1 gives types of sculptural patterns of radial margins

of parietes of the tropical and the temperate barnacle species.

Parietal canals: In E. withersi, Chirona amaryllis and

in two chthamalids, the parietes are solid plates. In all the

balanid species examined here, the plates are traversed by a

single row of canals (Fig. 2). In T. squamosa rubescens,

T. stalactifera, T. purpurascens and T. karandei parietes have

several rows of canals. It is notable that B. (semi) cariosus of

the family Archaebalanide shows several canals. These canals,

however, are differently organized and are not homologous

with those of balanids (Prof. William Newman pers. comm.).

Basal plate radial canals: The radial canals (Fig. 2rc)

are present in all solid base species of chironid, balanid and

megabalanid. These canals are, however, absent in temperate

species, namely B. balanus and B. crenatus.

Interlamellar septae: The interlamellar septae

emerging from the outer laminae of parietes (Fig. 2ol)

terminate into wedge-shaped pinnate processes (Fig. 2pp).

These help to strengthen the joints between the parietes and

the base of a shell. Two types of wedge-shaped pinnate

processes are reorganized. The more heavily built septal

processes rest in the hollows of the radial canals located

around the periphery of the basal plate. It is noted that in

temperate balanids in B. balanus and B. rostratus, the

secondary septal processes, unlike in tropical balanids, emerge

from the inner walls of the parietes.

The sculpturings of radial margins of the parietes of

the shell in acorn barnacles can be broadly divided into three

patterns. The first pattern shows a series of simple stripes

placed parallely to one another along the length of the margin.

Each of these stripes may further assume a pectinated form.

In the second pattern, the stripe may branch and rebranch to

create an elaborate lamellar network. In a further modification,

a lamellar form assumes moderately built sheet-like surface.

The third pattern of sculpturing is notably different from the

first two patterns. Here the abutting surface shows several

interfacing shallow pits and domes, a stripe-like geometric

pattern being totally absent.

A pattern of stripes, simple or pectinated, seems to be a

basic form of abutting surface. A majority of the tropical

Table 1 : Acorn barnacles; sculpturing patterns of radial margins of shell pariete of tropical and temperate species

72

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

barnacles, including E. withersi as well as balanids show this

simple striped pattern. In balanids, particularly, a simple stripe

may assume pectinated form and in megabalanid it may

become multi-pectinated.

In tropical balanids like B. amphitrite , B. kondakovi and

B. variegates the abutting surfaces show a series of pectinated

stripes, whereas in temperate balanids, it shows an elaborately

sculptured lamellar pattern. In tropical chthamalid

C. malayensis, the parietes show pits and domes on the abutting

surfaces. The temperate chthamalids on the other hand show

simple stripes. Differing sculptural patterns are also observed

amongst tetraclitilid species. The two tropical species, namely

Tetraclita purpurascens and Tetraclitella karandei show pits

and dome type of sculpturing whereas one Tetraclita sp.,

possibly an Indo-Pacific species, collected at Port Blair,

(Andaman) shows simple stripped pattern. Each of the three

temperate tetraclitilids, namely, Tetraclita squamosa rubescens,

T. rubescens elegence and T. stalactifera shows lamellar pattern

of sculpturing. Thus, amongst the members of each of three

genera, namely balanids, chthamalids and tetraclitilids,

separated from each other geographically, distinct variations

in abutting surfaces are observed.

One observation that stands out boldly is that, as a rule,

none of the tropical species examined show a lamellar pattern

of abutting surface (Fig. 1 v to viii). On the other hand, among

the American species, belonging to the three widely separated

genera, the most prevalent sculpturing pattern is the lamellar

one. Even B. (semi) cariosus, an archaebalanid, displays a

lamellar pattern.

The differences in sculpturings observed even amongst

the members of a single genus, as well as between the tropical

and the temperate species, do not seem to have resulted

REFE

Bourget, E. (1997): Shell structure in sessile barnacles. Nat. Can. 104(4):

281-323.

Costlow, J.D. (1956): Shell development in Balanus improvisus Darwin.

J. Morphol. 99: 359-400.

Karande, A. A. & V.C. Palekar (1963): On a Shore barnacle Chthamalus

malayensis Pilsbry from Bombay, (India). Annals and Mag. of Nat.

Hist. 13(4): 231-234.

Klepal, W. & H. Barnes (1975): The structure of wall plate in Chthamalus

because of varying ecological conditions. What little

orderliness in abutting surfaces complexity is observed,

suggests that this surface is not an unstable or a transient

character. It is, therefore, unlikely to be influenced by varying

ecological conditions. A total absence of a lamellar pattern in

tropical barnacles, after all, cannot be due to any ecological

factor. Furthermore, varying ecological conditions can prevail

even within a restricted geographical area, and this situation

can lead to alteration of surfaces even among individual

members of a single species, as is evident in the opercular

valves of Chthamalus malayensis (Karande and Palekar

1 963). However, no such differences in the abutting surfaces

of parietes of individuals of different sizes inhabiting varying

environments are noticeable.

The tropical acorn barnacles: Euraphia, Megabalanus

and Balanus show, in that order, an increasing elaboration of

stripe pattern of the sculpturing (Table 1, Fig. 1). The

temperate species of Chthamalaus, Megabalanus and Balanus

also show an increasing complexity of this surface. It would,

therefore, be worthwhile to investigate, using a larger

representative species, if there exists any relation between

this shell character and the cirripede phylogeny as suggested

by Prof. William Newman (pers. comm.). The present authors

found themselves ill-equipped to examine the likelihood of

such relation. Hence this note.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. Arnold Ross for gift of variety of

temperate barnacles in adequate numbers which motivated

us to carry out this work. Thanks are also due to Prof. William

Newman for his observations recorded in this paper.

NCES

depressus (Poli). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 20: 265-285.

Murdock, GR. & J.D. Currey (1978): Strength and design of shells of the

two ecologically distinct barnacles, Balanus balanus and Semibalanus

( Balanus ) balanoides (Cirripedia). Biol. Bull. Mar Biol. Lab., Woods

Hole. 155: 169-192.

Otway, N.M. & D.T. Anderson (1985): Variability of shell growth and

morphology of the wall plate junctions of the intertidal barnacle

Tesseropora rosea (Cirripedia: Tetraclitidae). Mar. Biol. 85: 171-183.

16. ANDRACHNE TELEPHIOIDES L. (PHYLLANTHACEAE) - AN ADDITION

TO THE FLORA OF PENINSULAR INDIA

M.M. Sardesai1 and S.Y. Chavan2

‘Department of Botany, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad 431 004, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction Pakistan, Afghanistan, and westwards along Mediterranean

Andrachne telephioides L. is distributed in India, areas to Spain. In India, this sole representative of the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

73

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

genus Andrachne L. is so far known from Jammu &

Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and

Madhya Pradesh (Balakrishnan and Chakrabarty 2007).

However, the occurrence of an undetermined species

of the genus is recorded for Maharashtra (Naik 1998;

Almeida 2003).

The present investigation reveals the occurrence

of A. telephioides in Maharashtra as well as Andhra

Pradesh, being additions to the flora of these States.

Hence, a short account of the species is presented here.

Andrachne telephiodes L.. Sp. PI. 1014. 1753; Hook.f.,

FI. Brit. India 5: 284. 1887; N.P. Balakr. & Chakrab., Fam.

Euphorb. India 338. 2007. A. naikii M.R. Almeida, FI.

Maharashtra IVB: 287. 2003, nom. illeg.

Lectotype: "Habitat in Italia, Graecia, Media”

(Radcliffe-Smith in Meikle, FI. Cyprus 2: 1488. 1985): Herb.

Linn. No. 1155.1 (Linn).

Glaucous, erect or diffuse monoecious herb;

branches 7-15 cm long. Leaves oblong-obovate,

3-5 x 1-3 mm, obtuse at apex, entire, cuneate at base,

penninerved, membranous, glabrous; petioles 1.0-2. 5 mm

long; stipules subpeltate, 1. 5-2.0 mm long, irregularly

incised. Inflorescence axillary, solitary or males often

2-3 together. Male flowers: pedicels 0.8- 1 .0 mm long; sepals

5-6, imbricate, connate at base, obovate, c. 1.5 x 0.5 mm;

petals 5 or 6, linear-oblong, deeply notched at apex., c. 0.5 x

0.2 mm; disc glands 5 or 6, 0.15-0.18 mm long, 5-lobed;

stamens 5 or 6, 0.4-0. 6 mm long; filaments free or partially

connate; anthers 4-lobed, c. 0.15 x 0.2 mm, elliptic-oblong;

pistillode present. Female flowers: pedicels c. 2 mm long;

sepals larger than in male flowers; petals minute; disc

glands as in male; ovary 3-loculed; style short, bifid to

base. Capsules depressed globose, 2-3 mm in diam.,

glabrous, consisting of three, 2-valved cocci; endocarp

thinly woody. Seeds 2 per locule, triquetrous, with a

convex, punctulate back, curved, rugose, sculptured,

estrophiolate.

Flowering and Fruiting: December-February.

Habitat: Occasional, in open grounds, harvested fields

and dry mud.

Distribution: Pakistan, Afghanistan, westwards along

Mediterranean areas to Spain, india: New record to Andhra

Pradesh, Nijamabad district. Mirzapur, 7.iii. 1 98 1 , Madhukar

6348 (BMAU). Maharashtra, Parbhani district, Parbhani

town, 23. i. 1981 . Madhukar 6169 (BAMU).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the authorities of Botanical

Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune, for confirming the

identity. We thank Dr. V.N. Naik for valuable guidance in

preparation of manuscript and Head, Department of Botany,

Dr. B.A.M. University, Aurangabad, for providing herbarium

facilities and constant encouragement. We thank the Linnaean

Society of London for providing the image of the type

specimen.

REFERENCES

Almeida, M.R. (2003): Flora of Maharashtra (Family Euphorbiaceae)

- IVB. Blatter Herbarium. St. Xavier’s College. Mumbai.

Pp. 279-355.

Balakrishnan, N.P. & T. Chakrabarty (2007): The Family

Euphorbiaceae in India. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehradun. 500 pp.

Naik, V.N. ( 1998): Flora of Marathwada (Family Euphorbiaceae) - II.

Amrut Prakashan, Aurangabad. Pp. 771-806.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL . . . 1

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THE NILGIRI

BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

N. Baskaran, M. Balasubramanian, S. Swaminathan and Ajay A. Desai . 3

AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CHECKLIST OF THE OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH,

GUJARAT, INDIA, WITH 21 NEW RECORDS FOR GUJARAT AND 13 NEW RECORDS FROM INDIA:

PARTI

Deepak Apte, Vishal Bhave and Dishant Parasharya . 14

FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIALAND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR,

DATIA, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

R.K. Garg, R.J. Rao and D.N. Saksena . 24

DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THREE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA

V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan and N. Baskaran . . 30

GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE PPOSOPIS JUUFLORA SEEDS PASSED THROUGH GUT OF THE

INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR IN SALT DESERT OF INDIA

Bitapi C. Sinha, S.P. Goyal and P.R. Krausman . 38

LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS L. (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE) ON LITSEA MONOPETALA JUSS.

IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

B.N. Sarkar, B.C. Chutia, J. Ghose and A. Barah . 42

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

RECORD OF THE GENUS SCHIZOPRYMNUS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA,

WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES

Zubair Ahmad and Zaheer Ahmed . 45

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 48

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001.

website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2010 VOL 107 (2)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Eduor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

C.R. Babu. Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das. D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green. Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 107(2): AUGUST 2010

.tocz

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL . 75

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF THE TIGER AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OFTHE

NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

A.J.T. Johnsingh, R. Raghunath, Rajeev Pillay and M.D. Madhusudan . 77

TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATUS IN PAKKE

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

G.S. Solanki and Awadhesh Kumar . 86

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON TROPICAL FOREST BIRD COMMUNITIES AND MIXED-

SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Swati Sidhu, T.R. Shankar Raman and Eben Goodale . 91

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW HIRUNDO DOMICOLA IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

P. Balakrishnan . 109

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

Anantanarayanan Raman . 116

STUDY OF JUVENILE AND ADULT GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECtLOCERUS

PICTUS (FABRICIUS) FEEDING ON CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Madhavi V. Swant, Shiney Peter, K.R. Kharat and B.P Hardikar . 122

VARIABILITIES IN DIFFERENT BODY MEASUREMENTS OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB, CARCINOSCORPIUS

ROTUNDICAUDA (LATREILLE) COLLECTED FROM SETIU AND GELANG PATAH HABITATS IN

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

T.C. Srijaya, PJ. Pradeep, S. Mithun, Anuar Hassan, Faizah Shaharom and Anil Chatterji . 130

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMIC PROFILE OF THE VEGETATION OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK

BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

K.P. Singh, Achuta Nand Shukla and J.S. Singh . 135

IMPACT OF LANDUSE CHANGES ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY OF NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE,

MEGHALAYA, INDIA

S.D. Prabhu, S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey and R.S. Tripathi . 146

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ON THE GENUS KANAKARAJIELLA SUNDARARAJ & DAVID (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH DESCRIPTION

OF ANEW SPECIES

R. Sundararaj and R. Pushpa . 159

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HOMOPORUS THOMSON (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM NORTH¬

EASTERN INDIA, WITH A KEY TO ORIENTAL SPECIES

T.C. Narendran and F.R. Khan . 162

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Further note on some behavioural aspects of the Northern

Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina

Anwaruddin Choudhury . 165

2. Effect of Aila storm on Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus

giganteus (Brunnich)

S. Mallick and S.K. Raut . 167

3. First record of Lesser False Vampire Bat ( Megaderma

spasma Linnaeus, 1758) in Gir National Park & Sanctuary

Md. Shamshad Alam . 167

4. Recent records of Gaur Bos gaurus Smith in Bangladesh

Anwaruddin Choudhury . 168

5. A conservation plea for saving wildlife in the landscape

bound by Gola, Ladhiya and Sharada rivers, north India

A.J.T. Johnsingh, Bivash Pandav and

Dhananjai Mohan . 170

AVES

6. Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus in Phulwari-

ki-Naal Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur district, Rajasthan

Harkirat Singh Sangha and Dhirendra Devarshi . 173

REPTILE

7. Additional distribution records of Assam Roofed Turtle

Pangshura sylhetensis (Jerdon 1870) from different

localities of western Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India

Rakesh Soud and Lohit Gogoi . 174

FISH

8. A note on the occurrence of non-stygobitic fishes in a cave

in Andhra Pradesh, Peninsular India

Y. Ranga Reddy and S.V. Sharma . 175

9. A new record of Reef Fish Istigobius diadema (Steindachner

1 876), from Andaman island

Kamla Devi and V. Madhan Chakkaravarthy . 179

INSECT

10. A report on the migration of the butterfly Phalanta alcippe

(Nymphalidae) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Muhamed Jafer Palot .

Cover Photograph: Indian Giant Squirrel

Ratufa indica

By N.A. Naseer

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

180

II

Editorial

Are we reaching the Eremozoic Era?

Professor E.O. Wilson is one of the most famous conservation biologists and naturalists of the world. His

basic work is on the ecology of ants but he has become strong proponent of biodiversity conservation. He is

famous for coining the word ‘sociobiology’. He is author and editor of several books, one of them is biodiversity

that was first published in 1988 and has been reprinted many times. It makes fascinating, although sad, reading

about the status of biodiversity in the world.

Wilson has come up with the phrase Eremozoic Era -the Age of Loneliness in his book the creation (2006).

His worry is that unless we stop the biodiversity loss that is happening at a frightening speed, we may be headed

to an age where humans will survive the climate change and all other disturbances, and may even flourish in

megacities, but it will be a lonely age in a biodiversity-depauperate world.

In the 5.4 billion years of Earth's life, there have been five major cataclysmic extinctions. Each of these

extinctions resulted in more than 70-80% species going extinct. All these extinctions were the results of geological

and other natural factors. It is calculated that almost 95 to 99% of the species that ever lived on this Earth are

extinct. It is not a very reassuring statistic unless we look at it through the evolutionary perspective. Each natural

extinction, whether it was due to basalt eruption or asteroid/comet hitting the Earth, resulted in mass extinction of

the existing taxa and evolution of new taxa or groups. For example, the geological event that ended the Permian Era,

25 1 million years ago, and started the Triassic Era resulted in the extinction of nearly 96% of all marine species and

70% of all land species. After the Permian Era ended, new life forms evolved during the Triassic Era. We have to

remember that these mass extinction took thousands of years if not millions, giving enough time for the Earth to

settle down and evolutionary processes to take place, resulting in new taxa. Even the last mass extinction 65 million

years ago which ended the Dinosaur Era, resulted in the Age of Mammals of what we see today.

The type of extinction that we are seeing today is totally unnatural and very fast. Owing to man-induced

reasons, species are dying at a much faster rate, some say 100 to 1,000 times faster than the natural evolutionary

process. For example, during the last 500 years, we have exterminated 450 bird species, and at present nearly 12%

of the 10,000 bird species of the world are in danger of extinction. Mammals and amphibians are in a much worse

condition. During the past 500 years, at least 80 mammal species have gone extinct out of the total of about 5,570

species known to science. The average extinction rate for mammals is less than two extinctions every million years,

far lower than the current extinction rate for mammals.

Human encroachment, deforestation and habitat loss, climate change, spread of new diseases, poaching for

meat, over-fishing and illegal wildlife trade are making survival difficult for most wild species. Hunting for bushmeat

in Africa has emptied many forests. Closer home, we have vast tract of forests with very little wildlife. We have our

own empty and silent forests. Tiger crises is always in the news, but how many people know that less than

10 individuals are left of the peninsular Wild Buffalo (including only one known breeding female) and less than

200 Hangul or Kashmir Stags are left. The Kondana Rat MiUardia kondana is reported only from a small Sinhagadh

plateau (less than 1 sq. km) near Pune, Maharashtra. Out of the 1,225 bird species recorded in India, about 155 are

under threat of extinction: 14 are Critically Endangered, 16 are Endangered, 58 are Vulnerable, and the rest Near

Threatened. There has been 97 to 99% decline in the Gyps vulture population since the spread of the killer-drug

diclofenac from early 1990s. The Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps is slipping away as its last remaining

habitat is taken over by man. Soon its booming display call will become silent. We now have empty skies and silent

dunes.

Thanks to the unrestricted use of chemical pesticides, insect populations have crashed, cascading the

decline of so-called common birds. The chirpy call of the House Sparrow is no more heard in most houses as it

cannot find soft-bodied insects for its chicks in cities and even in intensive agriculture areas. There has been 50-

80% decline in the bee population in the world, so much so that in some parts of China, workers are employed in

orchards to manually pollinate flowers.

Due to land hunger, thriving ‘living’ forests are being replaced by monoculture plantations, pastures or

agriculture fields. For example, from 1990 to 2005, more than 70 million hectares of original forests was cleared, much

of it in South America, for pastures. Deforestation, sometimes encouraged by governments, has reached alarming

situation in much of South-east Asia, mainly for oil palm plantations.

Invasive species are a major threat to numerous taxa on islands, particularly to birds. Introduced cats, rats,

mongoose, dogs have exterminated more bird species during the last 500 years than all other factors combined.

Many small remote oceanic islands where sea birds used to breed are empty, thanks to invasive species.

In our housing societies where planting trees has become a fashion, mainly exotic fast-growing trees are

planted which do not attract native birds and insects. We may have some greenery, but no bird sings in it.

Nearly 50 years ago, Rachel Carson wrote the famous book silent spring that brought into focus the horrors

of pesticides to the general public. It resulted in official ban of the DDT in most countries and restriction on many

pesticides. As far as biodiversity is concerned, since Rachel’s book, we are sliding down to reach the Eremozoic Era

- the Age of Silence.

Unless we reverse the extinction crises, soon the forest of the Kashmir Vale will not hear the loud bugle call

of the Hangul, the forest of central India will not hear the spine-chilling roar of the tiger, and the dunes of the Thar

desert will not hear the far-carrying booming call of the Great Indian Bustard. Even our neighbouring Magpie Robin

will not delight us with its melodious song. Will we be happy in this silent world?

Asad R. Rahmani

76

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

77-85

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF THE TIGER AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS

IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE,

SOUTHERN INDIA

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH1’2, R. Raghunath1,3, Rajeev Pillay1,4 and M.D. Madhusudan1-5

'Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, 4th Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: raghu@ conservation. in

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, at the tri-junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, constitutes arguably one of

the finest conservation landscapes in the global range of the tiger. We surveyed the southern part of this region, as well

as the adjoining areas, to assess the status of large mammals both within and outside protected areas. Our field assessments

suggest that large mammals are almost exclusively confined to protected areas with the few remaining populations

outside under severe threat from habitat degradation and poaching. However, large stretches of contiguous forests still

remain. We suggest the extension of the recently notified Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu such that connectivity

is retained and strengthened with Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary of Karnataka to the north-east and

with Silent Valley National Park of Kerala to the south. We also provide suggestions on strengthening conservation in

this landscape. The involvement of local communities in the establishment of the Siruvani Conservation Reserve in

Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and Nilambur Conservation Reserve in Kerala, will bolster the conservation of large mammals

in this landscape. With the suggested extension, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve has the potential of becoming arguably the

finest habitat for tigers across Asia, given the variations in altitude, topography and climate which produce a diversity

of vegetation types and consequently, provide the tiger with an assortment of prey ranging from Nilgiri Tahr in the

high altitude montane grasslands to Blackbuck in the low-lying dry deciduous and thorn scrub forests.

Key words: connectivity, corridor, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Nilambur Conservation Reserve, protected area, Siruvani

Conservation Reserve, wildlife

INTRODUCTION

Tigers Panthera tigris are in decline throughout their

range and the global population of around 3,500 individuals

(Karanth 2001), of which 50% survive in India (Jhala et al.

2008), is severely threatened by anthropogenic pressures.

Consequently, despite international conservation efforts the

range of the tiger has declined by 40% in the last decade

(Dinerstein etal. 2007; Sanderson et al. 2006). India has made

a commendable effort towards tiger conservation by

establishing as many as 39 tiger reserves and notifying several

more for establishment in the near future. However, the mere

demarcation of protected areas as tiger reserves has not

succeeded in maintaining populations of this endangered felid

in these reserves, as evident from the disappearance of tigers

from Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan in 2004 and from

Panna Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh in 2009. Again, the

low density tiger populations in as many as 16 reserves and

the ineffectiveness of management due to insurgency in

reserves such as Palamau in Jharkhand, Simlipal in Orissa,

Nagarjunasagar in Andhra Pradesh, Indravati in Chattisgarh,

Valmiki in Bihar, Dampa in Mizoram and Namdapha in

Arunachal Pradesh (Jhala et al. 2008) are major concerns for

the future of the Tiger in India. It is therefore vital to strengthen

tiger conservation in parts of India where law and order issues

do not pose a problem, such that the continued survival of

tiger can be ensured in at least some parts of its range. In this

paper, we focus on the southern portion of the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve, where we assess the status of the tiger

and other large mammals. We recommend the extension of

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, which was notified in 2007, as

well as the creation of Siruvani and Nilambur Conservation

Reserves. We underline the conservation measures that need

urgent implementation, such that the southern part of the

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve reaches its full potential in

maintaining populations of the tiger, as well as an assemblage

of sympatric predators and prey species.

STUDY AREA

One of the finest conservation landscapes in possibly

the entire range of the tiger lies in the Nilgiri Hills and adjoining

areas of southern India (Fig. 1). The intact tiger habitat here is

nearly 8,000 sq. km, part of which falls under the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve. Major protected areas in this region are

Pushpagiri, Brahmagiri, Talacauvery, Biligiri Rangaswamy

Temple, Cauvery, Sathyamangalam, Aralam and Wayanad

Wildlife Sanctuaries, Bandipur, Nagarahole and Mudumalai

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Tiger Reserves, and Silent Valley and Mukurthi National Parks.

These protected areas are surrounded by reserve forests in the

Forest Divisions of Palakkad, Mannarkad. Coimbatore, Nilgiris

South, Nilambur South and North, Kozhikode (Thamarassery

Range), Wayanad South, Hosur, Dharmapuri and Kollegal.

Apart from the Tiger, other charismatic large mammals

occurring in this tract are the Leopard Panthera pardus , Dhole

Cuon alpinus. Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena , Sloth Bear

Melursus ursinus , Asian Elephant Elephas maximus , Gaur Bos

gaurus, Nilgiri Tahr Nilgiritragus hylocrius , Sambar Rasa

unicolor , Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra. Four-horned

Antelope or Chowsingha Tetracerus quadricomis. Lion-tailed

Macaque Macaca site nus and Nilgiri Langur Trachypithecus

johnii. In the past, the forests between Biligiri Rangaswamy

Temple Wildlife Sanctuary and Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

possibly harboured the Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, Wolf Canis

lupus. Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus and Chinkara Gazella

bennettii (Nicholson 1887; Pythian-Adams 1951).

METHODS

We carried out field surveys between November 2007

and July 2009 aimed at understanding habitat quality and

documenting habitat use by large mammals in the southern

part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and adjoining areas.

We recorded the geographic locations of sightings and signs

of large mammals we encountered. We also compiled a

description of the dominant vegetation cover and land use

along survey routes. The survey data was mapped in a

Geographical Information System (GIS) along with remotely-

sensed data. A forest cover layer was prepared for the area to

examine connectivity and a description was compiled on the

location and contiguity of natural habitat across the landscape.

On the basis of large mammal occurrence, vegetation-land

cover maps, discussions with local communities and Forest

Department personnel and our own observations, passages

of least resistance for the movement of large mammals were

identified.

With regard to the extension of Mudumalai Tiger

Reserve, we surveyed Mukurthi National Park, Gudalur and

Bitharkadu ranges in Gudalur Forest Division, Singara, Sigur

and Nilgiris Eastern Slope ranges in Nilgiris North Forest

Division, Bhavanisagar. Sathyamangalam, T.N. Palayam,

78

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Fig. 2: The suggested extension of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

Hasanur and Talavadi ranges in Sathyamangalam Forest

Division in Tamil Nadu, and Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple

Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka. The total survey effort was

1,400 km by vehicle and 145 km on foot.

With regard to the establishment of Nilambur and

Siruvani Conservation Reserves, we surveyed areas to the

east and south of Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks

comprising Palakkad, Mannarkad, Coimbatore, Nilgiris

South, Nilambur South and Nilambur North Forest Divisions,

Thamarassey range in Kozhikode Forest Division and

Meppady range in Wayanad South Forest Division. The total

survey effort here was 840 km by vehicle and 24 km on foot.

RESULTS

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve and adjacent areas

The sighting of a Tiger and the presence of its feral

buffalo kill near Thengumarahada village together with

several sightings of Blackbuck, Chital Axis axis and Gaur in

the recently established Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary

indicate the richness of large mammal fauna in this area.

Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary is connected with

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary to the east and Biligiri

Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary to the north. The

flat topography (mean altitude 200 m above msl), and dry

deciduous and thorn scrub habitat of Sathyamangalam

Wildlife Sanctuary makes it a fairly suitable habitat for

Blackbuck. However, proliferation of Opuntia dillenii and

Prosopis juliflora, both exotics from the new world, is

gradually beginning to make the habitat too dense for

Blackbuck and Chital which are species of open grassland

habitats. This area is also well-connected to the montane

grassland and shola habitats of Mukurthi National Park

(average altitude 2,400 m above msl) through Sigur range,

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, and Singara and Naduvattam

ranges (Fig. 2). Therefore, these forests on the eastern side of

the Western Ghats form a contiguous stretch from Mukurthi

National Park to Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife

Sanctuary. On the west, the connectivity of Mukurthi National

Park with Silent Valley National Park is intact.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

79

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

We obtained direct sightings as well as indirect

evidences for the Tiger, Leopard, Dhole, Elephant, Gaur, Wild

Pig Sus scrofa and Sambar throughout the stretch from

Mukurthi National Park to Sathyamangalam Wildlife

Sanctuary. In the lower reaches of the eastern slopes, we

observed species such as Chital, Chowsingha, Blackbuck,

feral buffalo. Southern Plains Grey Langur Semnopithecus

dussumieri and Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata. This

diversity of mammals highlights the unique nature of the

habitat with its wide altitudinal range and diverse vegetation

types where tigers possibly prey on an assortment of ungulates

ranging from the Blackbuck, Chital, Wild Pig, Sambar, Gaur

and feral buffalo in the lower elevations to the Nilgiri Tahr in

the high altitudes.

However, we identified a number of threats to

conservation in this area which include heavy traffic along

the Dimbum - Sathyamangalam road and the depletion of

the fish resources of the Moyar river, which harbours a

population of around 100 mugger or freshwater crocodiles

Crocodylus palustris , due to the pressure exerted by the

Special Task Force camp. There are proposals to build a rail

link between Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu and

Chamarajanagar in Karnataka and a highway between

Sathyamangalam and Sirur connecting Ooty/Gudalur, while

resorts are proliferating in the Masinagudi area adjoining

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. The proliferation of Lantana

camara and the lack of regeneration of palatable species for

wild ungulates is a serious concern. Nearly 1 ,600 people live

in 30 tiny enclaves in Mudumalai and Nelakottai ranges, and

have not been relocated despite their willingness to do so.

The growing firewood needs of Gudalur township poses a

threat to the Mukurthi-Mudumalai corridor. Burgeoning

tourism in the area could be inimical to conservation and there

has been a delay in the extension of the Mukurthi National

Park (78.46 sq. km) by another 33 sq. km.

Siruvani Hills and adjacent areas

We obtained direct sightings and indirect evidences of

the Golden Jackal Canis aureus. Elephant, Gaur, Wild Pig,

Sambar, Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Langur, Southern Plains Grey

Langur, Bonnet Macaque and Indian Giant Squirrel Ratufa

indica. The moist deciduous forests here afford connectivity

to Walayar and Agali ranges in Palakkad and Mannarkad Forest

Divisions respectively (Fig. 3). We obtained several indirect

signs of Elephant, Gaur and Sambar on a survey of the upper

reaches of Agali range to assess connectivity between Siruvani

Hills and Silent Valley National Park. We also sighted a tusker,

a gaur bull, three Sambar and a Nilgiri Langur in Agali range.

However, poaching is reportedly rampant here with many

villagers and tribals possessing illegal firearms. We surveyed

Attappady range in Mannarkad Forest Division where the

valley is completely under human occupation while the

southern hilly areas are forested. No signs of herbivores like

Chital and Sambar were found during a drive of 60 km within

Karamadai range in Coimbatore Forest Division and up to Pillur

reservoir in Mettupalayam range which supplies water to about

50% of the population in Coimbatore city, the other half

obtaining water from the Siruvani reservoir. Even though the

habitat appears suitable, rampant hunting in the past when the

reservoir was under construction and possible poaching at

present may be the reason for the near absence of large

mammals around the reservoir. Several tribal settlements were

observed within Karamadai range each with a sizeable

population of dogs. The possibility of tribals using dogs for

poaching cannot be ruled out.

We observed a tusker at mid-day on the infrequently

used Parali-Coonoor road, which suggests that less disturbed

roads may serve as conduits for large mammals. The drive

(about 50 km) from Karamadai range to Manjoor in Kundha

range, Nilgiris South Forest Division yielded only one indirect

evidence each of Sloth Bear, Elephant, Gaur and Sambar

indicating that large mammal use of this hilly area is sporadic

possibly as a result of speeding vehicles and steep terrain on

either side of the road. However, we sighted a group of

19 Gaur at the edge of a shola and a tea plantation located

between Chamaraj Tea Estate and Kundha Reservoir. The

Gaur were unmindful of the people using the road and working

in the surrounding tea gardens, which suggests that this bovid,

if not hunted and if allowed sufficient habitat, can survive in

the proximity of people.

Nilambur Hills and adjacent areas

This zone (Fig. 3) comprises the forest ranges of Karulai

in Nilambur South Forest Division, Vazhikadavu, Nilambur

and Edavanna in Nilambur North Forest Division,

Thamrassery in Kozhikode Forest Division and Meppady in

Wayanad South Forest Division. Our survey yielded sightings

and indirect evidence of Elephant, Chital. Southern Plains

Grey Langur and Indian Giant Squirrel.

The habitat in Karulai range (265 sq. km), which adjoins

Mukurthi National Park in the east and is populated by just

four sholanaickan tribal settlements with a population of

c. 600 people, appears to be of good quality. The habitat is

devoid of exotic weeds such as Lantana camara, Parthenium

hysterophorus and Eupatorium odoratum while the

abundance of species such as Dendrocalamus strictus,

Bambusa arundinacea, Terminalia belerica, T. tomentosa,

Caryea arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia and Zizyphus xylopyrus

is suitable for large herbivores such as Gaur, Sambar and

Chital. However, widespread poaching in the past as also in

80

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Socv 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Mudumalai TR

Iherambal

Bitherkadu

Gudalur

Meppat

Pandalur

Thamrassery

Ud hagai North

Pykara

Kattabettu

Kothagii

Nilambur

Calicut FD

Kallar - Jakkanari r

^namanZ vazhikadavu

Parson's

Valley /

Nllambur/North FD >

‘ Coonoor<

iCoonoor

Nilambur ‘

Conservation

Reserve

Udhagai

* South J

Edavanna

Karulai

torav : a

f Estate^

Korakundh;

Ipalayam

Karamadai

Kalikavu

Siruvani Attappady

Conservation

Reserve f~~\ J

Periyanaickenpalayai

Kallamj

Ma^darr.^tty

.KuaiWiBnKur

Nilambur South FD

Mannarkad

Ottapalam

Olavakkode

Walayar

Palakkad FD

The suggested Nilambur and Siruvani Conservation Reserves

Calicut

Nilgiris

Eastern

Slope

To Calicut

Protected Area

Forest Drvtson

Forest Range

Forest Cover

Railway

State Highway

National Highway

# City / Town

# Place

# Encroachment

I Suggested Conservation Reserve

Fig. 3: The suggested Nilambur and Siruvani Conservation Reserves

the present may have resulted in the near elimination of the

prey base in Karulai range. Our drive of 38 km and walk of

4 km yielded only a sighting of one elephant herd and a few

groups of Southern Plains Grey Langur. We only heard a few

Chital alarm calls during a night spent in Vattikallu anti¬

poaching camp. To the north lies Vazhikadavu range which

has a large patch of rainforest habitat with a population of

Lion-tailed macaques. Reliable anecdotal evidence suggests

that elephants, sambar and wild pig cross the Gudalur-Nilambur

road in the area of the rainforest. The landscape north of

Nilambur North Forest Division is predominantly tea and

reports of the occurrence of species such as the Elephant,

Sambar, Wild Pig and Leopard in the tea estates adjacent to the

Gudalur-Cherambadi road suggests the possibility that the

patches of forests between Bitharkadu range and the road

serve as stepping stones for wildlife movement (Bennett

2003). Efforts should be made to identify such stepping stones

and protect them. North-west of Thamrassery and Meppady

ranges, forest connectivity is broken by the busy Sultan

Bathery - Kozhikode National Highway.

Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks and Wyanad

Wildlife Sanctuary

We also surveyed Mukurthi and Silent Valley National

Parks and Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary to document the status

of large mammals within these protected areas and compared

the areas with similar habitats outside. Table 1 summarizes

the survey effort and large mammal encounter rates within

each range of Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley -

Mukurthi National Parks.

Abundance of Lantcma camara, Eupatorium odoratum

and profuse regeneration of Cassia fistula , whose leaves are

unpalatable to ungulates, were observed on both sides of the

survey route in Tholpetty range of Wyanad Wildlife

Sanctuary, which is connected to Nagarahole Tiger Reserve

in the north and Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary to the west.

Drives inside Muthanga (connected to Bandipur TR to the

north-east and Benne range of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in

the east), Sultan Bathery (connected to Bandipur Tiger

Reserve in the east) and Kurchiad ranges (connected to Begur

and Gundre ranges of Bandipur Tiger Reserve) in Wyanad

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

81

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Wildlife Sanctuary yielded many sightings of large

herbivores and many indirect evidences of large carnivores

such as the Tiger and Dhole. The highest large mammal

encounter rates were in Sultan Bathery range (Table 1).

However, the absence of speed-breakers on the six kilometre

stretch of the Sultan Bathery - Mysore road which passes

through Muthanga range is a recipe for road kills. Since the

ban on night traffic through Bandipur Tiger Reserve in mid-

2009, vehicles from Kerala line up at the Muthanga gate

causing further disturbance to the movement of wildlife. We

recommend the shifting of this gate from its present location

at the inter-state border to six kilometres within Kerala where

the forests begin.

DISCUSSION

Establishment of large, contiguous protected areas and

community participation in the protection and management

of wildlife are crucial to ensure the long-term survival of

wildlife. The aim of setting up conservation reserves is to

provide a flexible and effective management system for

wildlife conservation without compromising the needs of local

communities. Involvement of the local communities would

go a long way in promoting and sustaining programs such as

regeneration of native species in exotic plantations and

strengthening anti-poaching measures. We specify the

extension of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve and identify two areas

within the southern and south-western Nilgiri Biosphere

Reserve where prey and predator recovery should be

facilitated with the specific objective of enabling the tigers

to reside and breed.

Suggested extension to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

We suggest the inclusion of Mukurthi National Park,

parts of Naduvattam range in Nilgiris South Forest Division,

Sigur, Singara, Nilgiris Eastern Slope Ranges in Nilgiris North

Forest Division and the newly established Sathyamangalam

Wildlife Sanctuary within Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Fig.

2). Bitharkadu (67 sq. km) and Gudalur ( 1 18 sq. km) ranges

(Gudalur FD) may not be included within the Tiger Reserve

but special management attention in the form of conservation

education should be directed at the people of these two ranges,

to enlist their support for conservation as poachers from these

areas are often reported to operate in the nearby forests. Sigur

and Naduvattam ranges are crucial for connecting Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary with Mukurthi National Park. There exist

historical records of the occurrence of Nilgai Boselaphus

tragocamelus and Chinkara Gazella bennettii in the

Sathyamangalam region (Pythian- Adams 1951). Blackbuck

is still common in Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sigur

range and the adjacent Moyar range of Bandipur Tiger

Reserve. We believe that the Four-homed Antelope, which

occurs in the adjacent Sigur range, may also be occurring in

Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary. If Chinkara and Nilgai

are reintroduced in this fairly well-protected stretch of habitat,

where the factors responsible for their original extirpation

may no longer operate, the uniqueness of this landscape will

be further enhanced. If this were to be realized, nowhere else

in the global range of the Tiger would one find such an

assemblage of large mammal prey, ranging from four species

of peninsular antelopes, three species of forest deer, a species

each of wild cattle, wild pig and mountain ungulate and four

primate species.

Table 1 : Survey effort and large mammal encounter rates within each range of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

and Silent Valley - Mukurthi National Parks

82

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Our sighting of a tiger and its feral buffalo kill occurred

near Thengumarahada village, which is situated on the right

bank of Moyar river in Nilgiris Eastern Slope Range. The

land in the village was originally given to a few families of

the badaga community on a lease of 100 years. However,

they sub-leased their property to outsiders and relocated to

cities. After 30 years or so, the Government may have to

decide on whether to renew the lease or allow forests and

wildlife to take over the village area again. The existence of

this village, which is likely to grow into a small town, poses

several potential problems to this tiger landscape.

We suggest the regulation of traffic along the Dimbam-

Sathyamangalam road by constructing functional speed

breakers along the six kilometers between the base of the

mountain (Balari Amman temple) and the edge of the forest

boundary, the relocation of the Special Task Force camp to

control poaching around Kollegal and Coimbatore Forest

Divisions and the use of the existing camp by anti-poaching

personnel of the Forest Department and trainees of

Mettupalayam Forestry College. We strongly urge the

scrapping of the proposal to build a railway track between

Sathyamangalam and Chamarajanagar and an all weather road

between Sathyamangalam and Sirur connecting Ooty/Gudalur

as they will forever destroy the last bit of wilderness in the

lower Nilgiri Plateau. The problem of lack of regeneration

of palatable species such as Bauhinia racemosa, Gmelina

arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia, Lannea coromandelica,

Terminalia belerica, Zizyphus mauritiana and

Z. xylocarpus should be addressed by growing thousands of

these species in nurseries for several years and planting them

along with the onset of the monsoon using Lantana thickets

as a biofence. Incentive-driven voluntary resettlement of the

people living in Mudumalai and Nelakottai ranges should be

carried out at the earliest so as to create disturbance-free prey

rich areas for the tiger. Connectivity between Mukurthi

National Park and Mudumalai forests (Sigur Plateau) can be

strengthened by not allowing major tourism development

between Gudalur and Naduvattam, by acquiring failed tea

estates in this corridor area and by stopping firewood

extraction by people from Gudalur. In this context, the

possibility of growing firewood species in existing

agricultural and waste lands in Gudalur FD needs to be

explored so as to meet the growing firewood needs of Gudalur

township. It is also important to acquire farms at the junction

of Masinagudi, Kargudi and Gudalur ranges, which are not

under cultivation, to prevent them from being used as hideouts

for poachers. The final notification of the extension of

Mukurthi National Park needs to be passed at the earliest.

This will include part of Nilgiri Peak, Pothimund and Kundah

Reserved Forests.

Establishment of Conservation Reserves

Siruvani Conservation Reserve

The forests of the Siruvani hills (Fig. 3), to the south¬

east of Mukurthi National Park and to the east of Silent Valley

National Park, are important not just to biodiversity

conservation, but are also catchments of the Siruvani reservoir,

which provides water to hundreds and thousands of people

in Coimbatore city. Nilgiri Tahr is reported from a number of

locations such as Muthukulam and Vellingirimala within this

landscape. Securing these wildlife habitats for conservation

would not only ensure connectivity in a west-east direction

between Silent Valley National Park and the forests of

Coimbatore Forest Division, but also connectivity to

extensive forest areas to the north of the Nilgiri Plateau.

Around 1,400 sq. km of forested area in Mannarkad, Agali

and Attappady ranges in Mannarkad Forest Division,

Olavakkode and Walayar ranges in Palakkad Forest Division,

parts of Bolampatty, Periyanaickenpalayam, Karamadai and

Mettupalayam ranges in Coimbatore Forest Division and

Kundha, Korakundha and Udhagai South ranges in Nilgiris

South Forest Division could be included under the suggested

Siruvani Conservation Reserve. There are two potential routes

for the movement of animals from the Siruvani Hills to the

adjoining forest areas.

Corridor 1: The connectivity to the east and north¬

east of Korakundha towards the Eastern Ghats is through the

forested areas of Kundha, Attappady, Karamadai and

Mettupalayam ranges. The Kallar-Jakkanari corridor in

Mettupalayam range (Fig. 3) seems to be the only transit route

for large mammals to move between the forests south of the

Mettupalayam-Ooty highway (Coimbatore Forest Division,

Mannarkad and Palakkad Forest Divisions) and rail track

towards Sirumugai range in Coimbatore Forest Division,

Nilgiris Eastern Slopes, Sigur range in Nilgiris North Forest

Division and Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary. The

existing connectivity is highly threatened by intense human

land use impeding the movement of wildlife such as Gaur

and Elephant. Tiger use of this corridor is extremely rare.

The heavy traffic on the Mettupalayam-Ooty and Kothagiri

highways is another major problem in this corridor. There

are plans by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department to acquire

some agricultural lands south of the corridor but an 800 m

long flyover at the base of the hills for vehicles on both the

highways is a must.

Corridor 2: Siruvani Hills to Silent Valley National

Park through Agali and Mannarkad ranges of Mannarkad

Forest Division is much shorter (less than 10 km) and it passes

mostly through the evergreen forests and across grasslands.

The habitat connectivity appears intact but there are

disturbances in the form of encroachments in the intervening

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

83

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

areas such as Mandampatty and Kurukkankundu settlements

which are presently preventing the free movement of large

mammals between Siruvani Hills and Silent Valley National

Park. This route may be ideal and crucial for the movement

of large mammals between Siruvani Hills and Silent Valley

National Park but for the encroachments and poachers living

within. As a result, large mammal use of this corridor is

exceedingly rare. The removal of these encroachments is

therefore of vital importance for large mammals to commence

using this corridor. On a two kilometre walk to

Kurukkankundu hill top through forest and grasslands where

bamboo and other species such as silver oak have been

planted, we could only see indirect evidence of Elephant and

Sambar. Several other encroached areas such as Puliyarai,

Kuruvanpadi, Thumbappara and Kallamala in Agali range

which presently act as barriers for large mammal movement

across this landscape have also been identified during our

surveys.

Nilamhur Conservation Reserve

Nilambur South and North Forest Divisions occupy the

lowlands immediately west of Mukurthi National Park, and

to the north-west of Silent Valley National Park. We suggest

the demarcation of around 900 sq. km of forested area as the

Nilambur Conservation Reserve which includes Karulai range

in Nilambur South Forest Division and parts of Vazhikadavu,

Nilambur and Edavanna ranges in Nilambur North Forest

Division as well as narrow stretches of forests in Meppady

and Thamaraserry forest ranges in Wyanad South and

Kozhikode Forest Divisions respectively. The major reason

for the near absence of large mammals in this tract is primarily

due to poaching which needs to be addressed on a priority

basis.

CONCLUSION

Wildlife areas in the southern parts of the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve are linked to the forests to the north

(Mudumalai Tiger Reserve) in terms of continuous forest

cover; yet a few critical links are extremely narrow and

continue to be highly threatened by anthropogenic factors.

Establishment of the Siruvani and Nilambur Conservation

Reserves on the suggested model will help consolidate the

narrow links of forest and revive wildlife populations which

are now mainly restricted to Mukurthi and Silent Valley

National Parks. This will also facilitate the dispersal of wildlife

between protected areas. If well-protected, these two reserves

can easily support a minimum of 50 tigers which can add to

the existing population of around 250 adult tigers north of

the suggested Conservation Reserves (Jhala et al. 2008).

Recent developments regarding conservation in this

landscape have been very encouraging as in the decision of

the Ministry of Environment and Forests to deny clearance

to the establishment of the Indian Neutrino Observatory

Project in Singara. The proposed site was in the buffer zone

of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve which in conjunction with

Bandipur and Nagarahole Tiger Reserves forms one of the

key tiger landscapes. This conservation victory is the result

of efforts by local non-governmental organizations backed

by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department. The recent verdict by

the Madras High Court to ban construction activities and

demolish illegal commercial and private establishments along

the Singara Elephant Corridor is also a significant boost for

conservation in the area. NGOs such as WWF-lndia, Nilgiri

Wildlife, and Environmental Association and Wildlife Trust

of India were responsible for this verdict in favour of wildlife.

We hope that the Tamil Nadu Government will be able to

establish the corridor as directed by the High Court.

The establishment of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve along

the suggested lines will require coordinated efforts of officials

from the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, the Government of

Tamil Nadu, the National Tiger Conservation Authority, local

non-governmental organizations as well as the support of the

local people and their elected representatives. An immediate

priority is to establish the Mudumalai Foundation, as required

by the recently amended Wildlife (Protection) Act, which

could provide the legal basis to collect and utilize tourism

revenues and other funds allotted for management. Such an

independent body can also take care of the welfare of the

tribals, local villagers, staff, mahouts and tribal anti-poaching

watchers. If correctly established, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

will be peerless in the country for the diversity of its habitat,

flora, fauna and ethnic communities. It can easily support a

minimum population of 70 adult tigers along with various

other endangered species such as the Orange-finned Mahseer

Tor moyarensis. Mugger Crocociylus palustris. King Cobra

Ophiophagus hannah and Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis.

The long-term goal for the inter-state tiger landscape where

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve is located, should be to have a

minimum population of 300 adult tigers along with a thriving

population of mega-herbivores, such as the Asian Elephant

and Gaur.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India, for financial support and

encouragement, and to the State Forest Departments of Kerala

and Tamil Nadu for permission, support and cooperation

during field surveys. We thank N. Mohanraj and A. Desai for

84

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

assistance in planning survey routes and providing

information about the landscape. We also thank V.K. Uniyal,

W.S. Suiting, R. Srivastava, S. Ramasubramanian,

K. Soundarapandian, M. Banerjee, N. Sathish, S. Sivadas,

B.R Varghese, C. Rajendran, K. Ummer, M. Sreedharan Nair,

K.K. Sunil Kumar, A.R. Sasikumar, I. Anwardeen, J. Mathew,

B.N. Nagarajan, Vimal and N. Dilip for all help and support

rendered in the field.

REFERENCES

Bennett, A.F. (2003): Linkages in the landscape: The role of corridors

and connectivity in wildlife conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland

and Cambridge, U.K.

Dinerstein, E., C. Loucks, E. Wikramanayake, J. Ginsberg, E. Sanderson,

J. Seidensticker, J. Forrest, G Bryja, A. Heydlauff& S. Klenzendorf

(2007): The fate of wild tigers. Bioscience 57: 508-514.

Jhala, Y.V., R. Gopal & Q. Qureshi (2008): Status of tigers, co-predators

and prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority,

Government of India, New Delhi and Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun.

Karanth, K.U. (2001): The Way of the Tiger. Natural history and

conservation of the endangered big cat. Voyageur Press MN, U.S. A.

and Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore.

Nicholson, F.A. (1887): Madras District Manuals. Vol. 2. Ed: H.A.

Stuart, Coimbatore, Madras Presidency.

Pythian-Adams, E.G. (1951): Jungle memories. Part IX - antelope and

deer. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 1-12.

Sanderson, E., J. Forrest, C. Loucks, J. Eisenberg, E. Dinerstein,

J. Seidensticker, P. Leimgruber, M. Songer, A. Heydlauff &

T. O’Brien (2006): Setting priorities for the conservation and

recovery of wild tigers: 2005-2015. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian and

NFWF-STF, New York.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

85

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

86-90

TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS TRACHYPITHECUS

PILEATUS IN PAKKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH. INDIA

G.S. SOLANKI1 AND AWADHESH KUMAR2

'Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Tanhril Campus, Aizawl 796 009, Mizoram, India. Email:

[email protected]

^Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology, Nirjuli 791 109. Arunachal Pradesh.

India. Email: [email protected]

Time allocation for activities in langurs are endorsed by environmental and habitat conditions. We studied time allocation

for various activities by Capped Langurs Trachypithecus pileatus on daily, monthly, seasonal, and annual basis over one-

year period in the Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India. 90% of annual time budget was spent feeding and

resting; the time devoted to resting was significantly higher (P<0.01) than that devoted to feeding. Seasonal variations

(P<0.05) were found in both feeding and resting times; the maximum time devoted to feeding was 39% in the winter; the

maximum time devoted to resting was 59% in the monsoon. The amount of time devoted to major activities in different

months was significantly (PcO.OOl ) different. Feeding time was maximum (43%) in December and minimum (33%) in

May; the variations were found to be significant (P < 0.01). The only month with maximum time (43%) devoted to

feeding was in December, maximum resting (63%) time was in August, and maximum travelling (8%) time was in

February in comparison to other months and remaining time was distributed to other activities. The diurnal activity

budget of capped langurs indicated a bimodal feeding pattern. The evening feeding regime was significantly higher

(P<0.05) than the morning one. It was 42% in morning hours and 51% in the evening.

Key words: Time budgets, daily activity patterns, capped langurs, Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary

INTRODUCTION

The Colobines are a diverse group of primates of

different body size, w hich occur in a wide range of habitats

and behave differently in order to maintain time-energy

balances (Clutton-Brock 1974; Marsh 1978, 1981; Li 1992;

Li and Rogers 2004; Malik 1986; Kurup and Kumar 1993;

Watanuki and Nakayama 1993; Menon and Poirier 1996).

The Capped Langur Trachypithecus pileatus is an endangered

colobine species, indigenous to the north-eastern part of India

(Choudhury 1989; Srivastava 1999). Its global distribution

is restricted to Bangladesh, north-western Myanmar, Bhutan

and southern China (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977; Zhang et

al. 1981; Khan and Ahsan 1986; Stanford 1991;Ahsan 1994;

Srivastava 1999).

The manner in which an animal allocates its time to

various essential activities provides a useful window to its

overall ecological strategy. In particular, the optimum

utilization of resources in the habitat is paramount for an

animal’s survival and reproduction. Day length is a limiting

factor in natural populations and influences all aspects of

behaviour in social animals, especially anthropoids - day

active primates, which have to meet and maintain their

physiological and social needs (Altmann 1980; Dunbar 1988.

1992; Janson 1992). This constraint exerts pressure on the

animal for budgeting its available time in the most efficient

manner (Pyke etal. 1977; Altmann 1980). The Colobines living

in a diverse array of habitats, the biology and behaviour of

this monkey species has not been studied except by Stanford

( 1991 ) in Bangladesh, and a short study by Gupta (1994) and

Alfred et al. (1998) in Tripura. India. Here we present data

from a one year study of daily activities of Capped langurs in

Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary. We analyzed the time allotment for

various activities on a daily, monthly, and seasonal basis for

one group of Capped langurs. We also correlate the height

on a tree at which langurs spent active time during feeding

and other activities. The baseline data presented here will be

useful for the strategic planning in terms of habitat evaluation

and conservation of the species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study Area

We conducted this study at the Pakke Wildlife

Sanctuary, located between 26°55'-27° 15' N and 92°35'- 93°

09' E in India. This Sanctuary covers a geographical area of

861.95 sq. km in the East Kameng district of Arunachal

Pradesh. The Sanctuary is surrounded by rivers on three sides

and its fourth side shares a common boundary with the Nameri

National Park, in the state of Assam. This area receives an

average annual rainfall of 2,545 mm. The mean annual

maximum temperature is 28°C and the minimum is 19°C.

Average relative humidity is 84%. The altitudinal variation

ranges from 1 00 m to 2,040 m above sea level. The Sanctuary

harbours different types of vegetation namely, tropical

evergreen forests, tropical semi-evergreen forests and

TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS

subtropical forests (Champion and Seth 1968). 234 woody

species of flowering plants have been recorded from lowland

areas of the Sanctuary. Several rare and endangered species

of flora and fauna inhabit the Sanctuary. Four species of

primates ( Macaca mulatta, M. assamensis, Trachypithecus

pileatus and Nycticebus bengalensis) are found in the

Sanctuary.

Study Group

We identified two groups of Capped Langurs

Trachypithecus pileatus in the study area. We chose the one

male-multi-female group to collect data on the allotment of

time to different activities in their natural habitat. The study

ranged from October 01, 2001 to September 15, 2002. The

composition of the study group was 1 adult male, 5 adult

females, 1 sub-adult, and 1 infant. The group was habituated

to human observers.

We adopted an ad libitum focal animal sampling

technique as per Altmann ( 1 974). One of the authors followed

the group from 06:00 hrs to 1 7:00 hrs each day, for a period

of 14 days per month. Thus, the hours for direct contact with

langurs were 1 ,680. The observations were recorded into two

sessions namely, forenoon (06:00-11:30 hrs) and afternoon

(11:30-17:00 hrs) on different focal animal in each session

(Bartlett 1999). Samples were taken at five-minute intervals.

Thus, twelve entries of the focal animal were recorded in an

hour. The focal animal was selected among all adult members

of the group to ensure a balanced representation of each adult

individual. On two occasions during study the focal animal

was out of view for >15 minutes; hence we selected another

focal animal of similar age to continue the observations.

Animals were identified on the basis of morphology and marks

on their body. We divided the observation period into three

seasons: winter (November-February), summer (March-May)

and monsoon (June-October).

The activities of Capped Langurs were categorized into

five major classes: feeding, resting, travelling, grooming, and

miscellaneous activity such as aggression and social play.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare daily,

monthly, and seasonal variations in the time spent on different

activities, and Student's t-test for comparison of highest and

lowest feeding during days and months (Simpson etal. 1960).

RESULTS

Annual time budget and activity pattern

The average annual time spent by a group in feeding

was 36.16% (±2.45), in rest 53.41% (±7.27), in travelling

5.34% (±2.29), grooming 3.84% (±2.06), and in other

activities it was 1.24% (±0.49). Resting and Feeding were

the major activities; langurs spent 90% of their active time

on them. However, at 54%, resting took up more time than

feeding (t =3.892, d.f. =5, P <0.01). The time utilized for

travelling, grooming and miscellaneous activities was small.

Monthly time budget and activity pattern

Monthly variation in the amount of time the langurs

spent on different activities (Fig. 1 ) was significant (F = 3.996,

d.f. =11, P < 0.001). Time spent for resting was more

compared to that of other activities across months. Maximum

resting time (63%) was in August and minimum was (42%)

in December; the variations were significant (t = 7.653, d.f.

= 27, P<0.001). Time spent on feeding was maximum (42.7%)

in December and minimum (32.6%) in May; the variations

were found to be significant (t = 4.032, d.f. = 27, P < 0.01).

Langurs spent a far lower percentage of activity time travelling

than feeding and resting. The travel time across months varied

(F = 17.563, d.f. =11, P < 0.001), it was highest (8.3%) in

February and lowest (1.87%) in August. Animals devoted

very little time to grooming, but it varied significantly (F =

14.563, d.f. =11, P < 0.001) between different months.

Miscellaneous activities like aggression and social play took

up very little time, and monthly variations in both activities

were insignificant.

100,

90 j

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

ONDJ FMAMJ

Months

E

8

o

Months

100

90

5.5

5.0

P

TO

2“

2.1

i:§

0.5

0.0

ONDJ FMAMJ JAS

Months

Fig. 1: Monthly variations in time (%) for different activities

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

87

TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS

Fig. 2: Diurnal variation in time (%) for different activities

including feeding; it was 64% between 10:00-1 1:00 hrs that

gradually decreased until the end of day (Fig. 2). Time spent

travelling was nearly constant across the day. The maximum

travelling (6.5%) occurred between 09:00-10:00 hrs (Fig. 2).

Grooming time also varied throughout the day (Fig. 2). It

was highest between 12:00- 1 3:00 hrs. Insignificant time was

spent on miscellaneous activities during day too (Fig. 2).

Diurnal variation in the hourly time spent on different

activities was significant (F = 9.561, d.f.= 10, P< 0.001) for

feeding, resting, (F = 5.220, d.f. = 10, P<0.001), grooming

( F = 2.243, d.f. = 1 0, P<0.0 1 ), and for miscellaneous activities

(F= 1.878, d.f. = 10, P< 0.05). Daily variations in time devoted

travelling were insignificant.

Seasonal time budget and activity pattern

Time allotment for the different activities in different

seasons is presented in Fig. 3. Feeding and resting were major

activities in all three seasons and the variations between them

were significant (feeding: F = 3.950, d.f. = 2, P< 0.05, resting:

F = 14.929, d.f. = 2, P< 0.001 , travelling: F = 1 3.464, d.f. = 2,

P< 0.01, grooming: F = 13.889, d.f. = 2, P< 0.01). Langur

spent maximum time feeding (39%), travelling (7.88%), and

grooming (6.21%) in winter. The season with the highest

resting time was monsoon (58.66%).

Diurnal time budget and activity pattern

The time allocation for activity classes during study

period on an hourly basis is given in Fig. 2. Two major feeding

peaks were recorded, the first occurred at early morning

(06:00-07:00 his) and the second at evening (16:00- 1 7:00 hrs).

Time spent feeding during the evening peak was higher (51

±13.4%) than that in morning (42±5.76 %). These two feeding

peaks were significantly distinct (t = 2.225, d.f. = 23, P <0.05).

The morning feeding peak gradually declines and reaches its

minimum between 10:00 to 11:00 hrs; thereafter, it gradually

increases until the end of feeding activity of the day (Fig. 2).

Langurs spent more time resting than in other activities.

Fig. 3: Seasonal variation in time (%) for different activities

DISCUSSION

In general, langurs spent by far the highest percentage

of each day feeding (Kumar 2005). However, similar to many

other folivorous primates (Fleagle 1988), the study animals

spent more time resting than feeding or travelling. Optimal

foraging theory predicts that animals should organize their

feeding activities such that they can balance with energy

expenditure (Mac Arthur and Planka 1966; Pyke etal. 1977).

Capped Langurs rested for 54% of days surveyed (Fig. 1 ) and

leaves accounted for 68% of their annual diet (Kumar 2005;

Solanki etal. 2008), reflect their folivore nature. Da Silva (1992,

1994) reported that folivores with diets of unusually low

nutritional quality should spend more time resting than those

with higher quality diets. She related the feeding time with

condition of the habitat. The time spent on feeding (36%) in

this study was similar to that reported for the same langur

species by Gupta (1994) in Tripura, another part of north¬

east India, and by Stanford ( 1 99 1 ) in Bangladesh, but the time

spent on resting was higher in this study.

Biological, physical and climatic factors also influence

the time budget pattern of capped langurs. The availability of

dietary resources appears to influence the monkey’s daily and

seasonal activity budgets. In a study conducted by Solanki et

al. (2008) it was found that 68% of the langur diet consisted

of leaves and 61% of the total leaves ingested were young

88

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS

leaves. Young leaves on analysis were found to be rich in

protein by Kumar and Solanki (2004); leaves and flowers

were the major food items of Capped Langurs at our site

(Kumar 2005; Solanki et al 2008). Results of the study

conducted by Gupta and Kumar (1994) on Trachypithecus

phayrei and that of Alfred et al. (1998) on Capped Langur

also support our results. The young leaves, the protein-rich

food item in the habitat, become an important factor for

budgeting feeding pattern. Vegetation in the area is

predominantly evergreen to semi-evergreen type, hence young

leaves remain available throughout the year in different

quantities but in February. March and April young leaves

come in flushes (Solanki et al. 2008). In our study, the group

of Capped Langurs showed two feeding peaks (Fig. 2),

whereas a study on Presbytis thomasi elsewhere showed three

feeding peaks (Kunkun 1986). The less feeding, more resting

and two feeding peaks reflect the good habitat condition and

food resource availability.

Other than habitat condition, the animals’ biological

activities also affect the allotment of time. Time in winter

allotted for feeding, grooming and travel was more than in

monsoon. In a study conducted by Solanki et al. (2007), it

was found that langurs exhibit two mating seasons namely,

winter and summer. Winter is the longer mating season, during

this period langurs undergo socialization or pairing, and

mating activities; the energy demand increases, hence

grooming, travel and feeding is more than in the other two

seasons (Fig. 3). During monsoon, uninterrupted rains for

days together reduce the availability of time for travelling,

grooming and feeding; animals confined themselves to rest.

Capped langurs prefer trees of 20-25 m height for

resting and sleeping at night (Choudhury 1990). Capped

langurs at our study site preferred 10-15 m feeding height

from forest stratum for the three major activities (feeding,

resting and travelling); a preferred height of 9-11 m as

reported for a Capped Langur study conducted in forests in

Tripura, India (Das Gupta 2006). Vertical structure of plant

community provides a physical framework for which many

fonns of animal life are adapted. Increase in vertical structure

means more resources and living space (Smith and Smith

2000). Terminal branches between 10-15 m height provide

more food material than other regions of the tree. It was

assessed by Solanki et al. (2008) in a study where they

recorded that langur spent 44% of the feeding time in thicker

terminal canopy. Studies on different species of primate in

different part of the north-eastern region in India indicate

that the primates prefer different activity/feeding height:

Golden Langur feeds at an average tree height of 1 5 to 2 1 m

(Mukherjee and Saha 1974), Pig-tailed Macaques at 8-10 m

height, and Western Hoolock at 6-8 m height (Das Gupta

2006). The different feeding height in primates may be

attributed to the tree size, and distribution of food items.

This aspect was not studied here but needs to be addressed

in detail. The available information on this aspect indicates

that time budget activity is dependent on habitat condition,

food availability, and feeding height on the food trees. These

findings are important piece of information on the behavioural

patterns of this Langur species and expand our information

on its ecology. Such findings can aid in designing the

management action plans for habitat and for better survival

and conservation of the species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Government of India, for providing

financial support for the study. The Director, North Eastern

Regional Institute of Science & Technology (NERIST) and

the Head, Department of Forestry, are also acknowledged for

providing all the facilities required for the study. We also

thank the Principal Chief Conservator of Forest, Government

of Arunachal Pradesh, for granting permission to work and

the DFO, Forest Rangers, forest guards, and special thanks

to Mr. Narayan Mogar, Field attendant, in the project along

with the official staff of the Sanctuary for cooperation during

the period of study. Sincere thanks are also extended to various

reviewers for their positive suggestions to shape the

manuscript.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

91-108

EFFECTS OF PFANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS

ON TROPICAL FOREST BIRD COMMUNITIES AND

MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Swati Sid HU13, T.R. Shankar Raman1-4 and Eben Goodale2

‘Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, 4Ih Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.

2Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka, Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Current address:

Section of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego,

La Jolla CA 92093, USA. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Conservation scientists and policy makers are increasingly aware of the role countryside habitats play in supporting

tropical fauna in modem landscapes. We studied the value of different land-uses by examining composition of tropical

bird communities and mixed-species bird flocks in human-altered landscapes of Thattekad and the Anamalai Hills,

situated in two different altitudes, in the southern Western Ghats. Sixteen line transects distributed across tropical

rainforests, shade plantations of coffee and cardamom, timber monocultures of teak, tea plantations, and home-gardens

were surveyed for bird flocks, vegetation structure, foliage profile, and canopy attributes. Results indicate that tea

plantations were extremely altered habitats, supporting few rainforest species and were devoid of mixed-species bird

flocks. Teak monocultures had high species density but were less conducive for rainforest species that require a well-

developed and structurally more complex habitat. While bird species richness varied little across land-uses, there was

significant variation in community composition, with some sensitive bird species absent from all altered habitats.

Coffee plantations with surviving rainforest fragments and cardamom plantations with more native shade trees that

mimicked a forest habitat supported more rainforest bird species both in communities and flocks. Maintenance of

these shade plantations and restoration of forest fragments is recommended, while their conversion into a poor, more

open habitat (tea, teak) is strongly discouraged for bird conservation in fragmented landscapes.

Key words: land-use changes, countryside habitat. Rainforest bird community, mixed-species bird flocks, southern

Western Ghats

INTRODUCTION

Globally, deforestation continues to threaten tropical

rainforests (Wright and Muller-Landau 2006) that are believed

to contain two-thirds of the world’s plant and animal species

(Raven 1988). Current threats to the rainforests include habitat

loss and degradation due to developmental activities, logging,

conversion to agriculture and various monoculture plantations

(DeFries et al. 2005), which leads to fragmentation and

isolation of the remnant forest tracts (Laurance and

Bierregaard 1997). In addition, land-use pressures in the

tropics are impinged upon by high population growth rates

and poverty in these regions (Bhagwat et al. 2008). Such

threats are believed to disrupt ecological processes by way

of affecting native forest communities (Koh et al. 2004; Sodhi

et al. 2008).

For high population regions of the world, huge patches

of primary forests cannot always be conserved as protected

areas (Thiollay 1995). The role and protection of human-

modified landscapes becomes extremely important in such

cases. Countryside habitats, as they are called, include

managed plantations, agricultural land, home-gardens,

fallows, and forest remnants (Daily et al. 2001). A land-use

providing sufficient shade tree cover, habitat connectivity,

and supplementary native food resources surrounding a

protected forest can increase the conservation potential of

remnant forest habitats by supporting larger populations of

animal species (Laurance et al. 2002; DeFries et al. 2005;

Raman 2006; Sekercioglu et al. 2006; Bhagwat et al. 2008).

Effects of habitat fragmentation or degradation on bird

communities are well-researched. Studies have shown species

richness and abundance to decrease with more intensive

management of agroforests (Thiollay 1995; Scales and

Marsden 2008) with higher extinction rates of forest

dependent avifauna as a consequence of deforestation (Brooks

et al. 1997; Castelletta et al. 2000). Deforestation affects

occupancy dynamics of bird species by forest area reduction

and isolation of remaining patches (Ferraz et al. 2007). Waltert

et al. (2005) stressed the importance of over-storey tree

density in tropical land-use systems for maintenance of

resident forest bird populations and found natural forests to

be important for bird conservation more than any other form

of forest exploitation. Studies also show a great proportion

of native forest species to survive in the countryside with

potential for species movement between forest habitats, thus

emphasizing the importance of such habitats (Greenberg et

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

al. 1997; Hughes et al. 2002; Bhagwat et al. 2008;

Ranganathan et al. 2008).

Along with studying bird communities of agrosystems,

social interactions between species such as ‘mixed-species

bird flocks’ ( Buskirk 1 976; Morse 1 977), referred to as flocks

hereafter, must also be considered. The influence of forest

degradation on social interactions among birds such as flocks,

although well-studied in Neotropics (Stouffer and Bierregaard

1995; Maldonado-Coelho and Marini 2004), remains poorly

understood in the tropical rainforests of Asia (but see Lee et

al. 2005; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). Flocks are known to have

high species participation, hold territories and exist year-

round, which makes them vulnerable to disturbances caused

by fragmentation (Munn and Terborgh 1979; Thiollay 1994).

It is important to assess the ability of different land-uses to

support native bird communities and flocks to determine the

relative conservation potential of various land-uses. This is

needed to plan habitat and landscape management that strives

for a balance between economic and ecological needs.

The Western Ghats hill range of India is among the

global biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000) and is also

recognised as an Endemic Bird Area (Stattersfield et al. 1 998).

This region has been severely modified by humans

historically, with the middle and higher elevations altered into

a mosaic of disturbance regimes containing forest fragments

of varying size, habitat-quality, and degree of isolation,

interspersed among monoculture plantations of timber trees

such as alien Eucalyptus sp. or native teak ( Tectona grandis),

plantations of coffee ( Coffea arabica , C. canephora) and

cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum) with shade trees, and tea

plantations with hardly any shade left (Congreve 1942; Nair

1991 ; Mudappa and Raman 2007).

Studies from the Western Ghats have demonstrated how

bird communities vary in different types of plantations in

relation to characteristics such as habitat structure, distance

from forest, and proportion of native or alien tree species

(Pramod et al. 1997; Bhagwat et al. 2005; Raman 2006;

Bhagwat etal. 2008; Ranganathan et al. 2008). In the southern

Western Ghats, earlier studies looking at the effects of habitat

fragmentation in this region focused on differences in bird

community structure and flock composition among fragments

of varying sizes and isolation (Raman 2001; Sridhar and

Sankar 2008). However, survival of bird species in fragments

also depends on quality of the land-use matrix around these

fragments (Gascon et al. 1999; Stouffer et al. 2006; Raman

2006), and therefore, it is important to study this matrix’s

effectiveness to support forest bird species.

We studied changes in bird communities and flocks of

the southern Western Ghats along a habitat gradient from

relatively undisturbed forests to plantations with varying

agricultural intensities situated at two altitude zones in the

southern Western Ghats. In order to understand changes in

bird community structure and flock composition, size, and

density along a gradient of land-use types, we formulated the

following key questions

1. How is the habitat structure different in different

land-uses?

2. Does bird community structure and composition

change in relation to land-use and habitat structure?

3. Does flock encounter rate, size, and composition

change in relation to land-use and habitat structure?

We use the results to assess the relative impact of

various land-use types on bird conservation and management

in the southern Western Ghats.

STUDY AREA

This study was carried out at two sites, namely

Thattekad and Anamalai Hills, in the southern Western Ghats.

The southern Western Ghats is the region south of the Palghat

Gap at 1 1 0 N in the Western Ghats, a 1 ,600 km long hill chain

running parallel to India’s west coast from 8° N to 21° N

(Mani 1974; Pascal 1988).

The Thattekad site ( 1 0° 1 O'- 1 0° 1 5' N, 76° 65’-76° 78' E)

is comprised of Thattekad Bird Sanctuary and Malayatoor

Reserved Forest. The 25.16 sq. km bird sanctuary spans an

altitudinal range of 50-250 m and is bordered by Periyar and

Kuttampuzha rivers on two sides. Two-thirds of its area is

under teak and mahogany plantations, with the rest containing

disturbed tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, and moist

deciduous forests, Ochlandra travancorica reed brakes,

grasslands with rock outcrops, and human-settlements

(Sugathan and Vargheese 1996). The Reserved Forest in

Malayatoor has disturbed tropical semi-evergreen forest and

teak plantations. The mean annual rainfall is around

3,000 mm, three-fourths of which falls during south-west

monsoon (Sugathan and Vargheese 1996).

The Anamalai Hills are a major conservation area in

the southern Western Ghats (Raman 2006). The study sites

here were concentrated on the Valparai plateau and Vazhachal

Forest division (10° 27'- 10° 35' N, 76° 82’-76° 90’ E),

adjoining the Anamalai Tiger Reserve and Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary. The altitude varies between 800 m and

1 , 1 00 m above sea level. The natural vegetation of this region,

classified as tropical wet evergreen forest of the Cullenia

exarillata - Mesua ferrea - Palaquium ellipticum type

receives a mean annual rainfall of around 3,500 mm,

particularly during south-west monsoon between June and

September (Pascal 1988). The Valparai plateau contains 220

sq. km of tea, coffee, and cardamom plantations surrounded

92

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

by protected areas and reserved forests (Mudappa and Raman

2007). Vazhachal is a Reserved Forest adjoining the Valparai

plateau with intervening tribal settlement, coffee and tea

plantations, and an inter-state road passing through.

METHODOLOGY

Transects and stratification

Tropical bird communities are difficult to Sample and

in order to maximize our effort on the time spent sampling

we used line transects (Karr 1981; Whitman et al. 1997;

Thiollay 1999). The line transect method was also chosen so

as to obtain a reasonable sample of flocks along with data on

bird communities. Eight transects were laid in each study

site (see description of transects in Table 1) and were identified

based on preliminary surveys in 2007. All transects were around

2 km long (except TFC, 1.5 km length) and were >250 m from

one another. Transects were grouped under three broad strata:

Table 1: Description of all transects in study sites

Site Strata Code / Location

Description

Thattekad Forest TFA, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

TFB, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

TFC, Malayatoor Reserved Forest

Buffer TBA, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

(Teak Plantation)

TBB, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

(Teak Plantation)

TBC, Malayatoor Reserved Forest

(Teak Plantation)

Village TVA, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

(Home-garden)

TVB, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

(Home-garden)

Anamalai Hills Forest VFA, Vazhachal Reserved Forest

VFB, Vazhachal Reserved Forest

VFC, Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary

Buffer VBA, Vazhachal

(Malakkiparai Coffee Plantation)

VBB, Valparai

(Uralikkal Coffee Plantation)

VBC, Valparai

(Surulimalai Cardamom Plantation)

Village VVA, Valparai

(Malakkiparai Tea Plantation)

VVB, Valparai

(Uralikkal Tea Plantation)

A, B, C represent replicates in particular strata

Transect on tar-road with low elevation evergreen forest on either

side; disturbed due to firewood collection.

Transect along a footpath and forest trail; forest encompasses rocky

outcrops and bamboo clumps; disturbed due to firewood and bamboo

collection.

Transect on a forest trail; runs very close to a river on one side for at

least one-third the length.

Transect on a dirt road passing through teak plantation, evergreen

forest with proximity to a river.

Transect on dirt road passing through teak plantation with proximity

to a water body. Some native vegetation present but heavily disturbed;

understorey is dense shrubby to open.

Transect on a tar-road with much vehicular movement; teak buffer

with some riverine vegetation in certain places and other trees, mostly

Bombax sp.; a small stream cutting through the transect; abuts the

Reserved Forest having disturbed evergreen vegetation and bamboo

clumps.

Transect on tar-road with heavy traffic; human habitation with mostly

home gardens having jackfruit, coconut, cocoa, coffee, and rubber

(Hevea sp.) plantations.

Transect on tar-road and on footpath; tribal village with home gardens

having rubber, pineapple, jackfruit, coconut, AHanthus malabaricus ,

and Areca nut plantations.

Transect on tar-road; around 400 x 50 sq. m of forest cut for power

line along road; firewood collection but mature rainforest vegetation;

a reservoir 200 m away and parallel to the transect line.

Transect on tar-road; mature rainforest vegetation; wider openings

for power line than VFA with clearings along road sides.

Transect on tar-road; forest relatively undisturbed; 200 x 50 sq. m of

forest with bamboo and canopy openings.

Transect on tar-road; coffee plantation with mix of exotic and native

shade trees; has interspersed rainforest fragments.

850 m of transect line passing through dirt road and rest on tar-road;

coffee plantation with mostly exotic shade trees; has interspersed

rainforest fragments and a Eucalyptus plantation.

Transect on dirt road; cardamom plantation with native shade trees;

also has 250 x 50 sq. m of coffee plantation under native shade

trees.

Transect line on a footpath; tea plantation with very sparse shade of

alien tree, Silver Oak Grevillea robusta.

Transect line on a footpath; tea plantation with very sparse shade

alien tree, Silver Oak Grevillea robusta.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

93

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

Fig. 1(a-f): Pictures representing the land-use surveyed during this study (clockwise from top left):

a. relatively undisturbed rainforest, b. cardamom plantation, c. coffee plantation, d. teak monoculture,

e. home-garden, f. tea plantation

i. forest: relatively undisturbed or moderately disturbed

mature native forest vegetation in Thattekad and the Anamalai

Hills.

ii. buffer: land-use of relatively moderate intensity

represented by plantations with substantial tree cover such

as teak monocultures in Thattekad and shade-coffee, and

shade-cardamom plantations in the Anamalai Hills.

iii. village: intensive agricultural areas with human-

habitations having little or highly altered tree cover as

represented by home gardens in Thattekad and tea plantations

in the Anamalai Hills (Table 1, Fig. 1).

Many transects were on tar-roads, seldom more than

3 m wide; few had occasional clearings along roadsides. The

effects of roads on bird abundance vary with bird species,

road type, season, and distance from the road (Develey and

Stouffer 2001). The results reported, therefore, can be

considered as a conservative measure of actual bird richness

or abundance.

Vegetation sampling

Point-centred quarter method (PCQ, Krebs 1989) was

used for collecting data on basal area and density of trees

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

greater than 30 cm girth at breast height (GBH) with

15-20 points sampled per transect. The points were distributed

at 100 m intervals along each transect line and located 10-15

m away from the line with consecutive samples placed

alternating on the left and right side. As it was not possible to

obtain PCQ data on one transect TVA, because it entailed

entering houses and private property; we counted trees in

quadrats visually estimated from the line to be 5 m x 5 m at

every 100 m. The GBH of these trees could not be recorded.

Shrub density was measured by counting all shrubs taller

than 30 cm in height inside a 2 m x 2 m quadrat at every

PCQ point. Other vegetation parameters measured were

canopy height, canopy cover, canopy overlap, and vertical

stratification (Raman etal. 1998; Raman and Sukumar 2002).

These were collected at 40 points, located 50 m apart (37 m

apart for TFC) along the transect line, with 20 points ( 1 5 for

TFC) being away from the transect corresponding to

PCQ plots and the rest on edge of the transect line so as to

include effect of clearings of canopy along roads and

footpaths. Canopy height estimation was practiced using a

broken branch of known length and flipping it visually in air

factoring the visual effect of distance away from the observer.

Canopy cover was measured using a spherical densiometer.

Canopy overlap above the transect was ranked from 0 to 3; 0

for no canopy directly overhead; 1 when there were branches

or foliage overhead but they did not meet; 2 when the branches

or foliage met but the sky was still visible through them; and

3 when the sky was no longer visible through the overhead

foliage. Vertical stratification (distribution of foliage at

different vertical levels) was assessed by recording presence

of foliage in height classes (in metres) of 0-1, 1-2, 2-4, 4-8,

8-16, 16-24, 24-32, and >32 m in an imaginary vertical

cylinder of 0.5 m radius around the observer.

Bird and flock sampling

SS spent five weeks to familiarize with bird

identification, calls, songs, and distance estimation prior to

onset of data collection. Data on bird communities and flocks

were gathered from January to May 2008, spanning winter

and breeding season when both migrants and residents were

present in the study area. All transects were walked four times

except VFA which was walked five times. Effort was made

to walk the line transects at a consistent steady pace and to

finish it more or less in two hours time. All birds seen or

heard were recorded with an estimated distance of the bird

from the observer in different distance classes in metres:

0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-30, 30-50, 50-100, 100-150, and

>150 m; size of the class becoming bigger as distance

increases from the observer. Birds flying overhead or detected

on the transect line were grouped under distance category 0.

Birds were observed using 8 x 42 Nikon binoculars with a

6.3° field of vision and identified using Grimmett et al. 1 998.

All birds were noted under the distance category where they

were first detected.

A flock was defined as an association of individuals of

a minimum two bird species moving together for more than

5 minutes. We do not include bird aggregations such as those

formed on fruiting trees. Whenever a mixed-species flock

was encountered, it was observed for as long as it was visible

up to a maximum of 30 minutes, after which transect survey

continued at usual pace. All birds seen or heard in a flock

were recorded within the same distance category as estimated

for the first bird seen or identified. Transect were surveyed

between 06:30 hrs and 1 1:30 hrs, but were usually finished

within two hours of the starting time. Time spent on transects

varied, with the average time spent per transect being

103 minutes. Surveying village transects took less time due

to paucity of birds, whereas sites took longer to survey when

more flocks or a large flock were encountered.

Data analysis

We used the ecological software KREBSWIN (Krebs

1989) to estimate mean tree density and basal area from PCQ

data and corresponding standard errors for each transect. For

each point on a transect the number of vertical classes (0-8)

with foliage were added up to calculate vertical stratification.

This number was averaged for all 40 points to produce an

index of vertical stratification for a transect. The coefficient

of variation of this index was used to represent habitat

heterogeneity (Raman et al. 1998).

To calculate distribution of foliage in a specific vertical

class along an entire transect, the presence-absence data on

foliage in that vertical class was pooled for the transect across

all 40 sampled points to yield a percentage value, and these

percentages were arcsine transformed before statistical

analysis. Means and standard errors of canopy cover, canopy

overlap, and canopy height were estimated from replicate

measurements in each transect.

To look for statistically significant differences in

vegetation among sites (Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) and

strata (forest, buffer, and village) we conducted a 2-factor

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with site and strata as fixed

factors. Due to correlations among eight vegetation variables

considered, the vegetation data were summarized using

Principal Components Analysis (PC A) into two uncorrelated

factors. The analysis was performed using SPSS/PC+ software

version 14.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago (Bryman and Cramer 1997).

The factor matrix was rotated using Varimax method to aid

in interpretation. The composition of trees on TVA was very

similar to that on TVB and therefore for analysis we used the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

95

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

same basal area estimates of TVB for TVA in the PCA (see

section 2.3).

All recorded bird species were classified into rainforest

and open-forest species (Ali and Ripley 1983; Grimmett et

at. 1998; Raman 2006). Rainforest birds were those that

occurred naturally in undisturbed rainforests, whereas open-

forest species were those that occurred in drier, more open

habitats along the Western Ghats. Water birds were excluded

from analysis. Bird community variables of interest were:

bird species richness and bird species abundance estimated

separately for all, rainforest species, and open-forest species.

Individual-based rarefaction analysis was performed for

overall bird species richness for standardized number of

individuals using program ECOSIM (Gotelli and Colwell

2001). We also estimated bird species density (following

terminology of Gotelli and Colwell 2001) as the average

number of bird species per transect and bird species abundance

as the number of individuals per transect (both separately for

all, rainforest species, and open-forest species). Differences

in bird species density and abundance (values averaged across

repeat surveys) were assessed by 2-factor analysis of variance

with site and strata as factors (Zar 1999).

To measure variation in bird community composition

among various transects, we used Program PRIMER (version

5.2.2, Primer-E. Plymouth, UK; Clarke and Gorley 2001) to

compute a pair-wise matrix of Bray-Curtis dissimilarity. This

was used for non-metric Multi-dimensional Scaling (MDS)

ordination to represent bird community compositional

variation among transects. Significance of variation in

community composition was assessed using Analysis of

Similarities (ANOSIM) with a 2-factor crossed layout of sites

and strata (Clarke and Warwick 1994).

Flocks were categorized as complete flocks (with total

count of all participant species and individuals) and

incomplete flocks (all individuals were not visible or could

not be counted before the flock moved away or was lost).

Flock variables of interest were: number of species and

individuals participating in flocks of all, rainforest, and open-

forest species. Only data from complete flocks were used for

analyses. Differences in the number of species and individuals

in complete flocks (values averaged across replicate flocks)

were assessed by 2-factor analysis of variance with site and

strata as factors (Zar 1999). Tea plantations were devoid of

Hocks during the survey period, and only two incomplete

flocks were encountered in home-gardens. Therefore, we do

not include village transects for analysis. We also calculated

flock encounter rate as the number of flocks encountered per

transect for all transects surveyed.

The effects of habitat structure on bird community and

flock structure was assessed using multiple regression with

PCA factor scores taken as independent variables representing

habitat structure in the analyses. Dependent variables used

were (for all, rainforest, and open forest species, separately)

the number of bird species per transect, number of individuals

per transect, species per complete flock, and individuals per

complete flock. All analyses were performed using SPSS

software with a backward stepwise procedure for selection

of statistically significant effects (Zar 1999).

RESULTS

Variation in habitat structure of different land-uses

Distribution of foliage in different vertical categories

differed markedly with land-use type. In the Thattekad site,

two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed

statistically significant differences across the three habitat

strata (E, 40 = 34.07, P< 0.001), as well as eight vertical layers

(F?40 = 37.95, P < 0.001), with a statistically significant

interaction between the two factors (E|44(| = 2.60. P < 0.01 ).

The percentage foliage distribution in different vertical

categories in teak plantations and village transects was mostly

lower when compared with forest transects. There was hardly

any foliage above 32 m in teak plantation and above 24 m in

village home gardens. In the Anamalai Hills, similarly, there

were statistically significant differences across the three strata

(F2. 40 = 159.2. P<0 .001), as well as eight vertical layers

(F1 40 = 28.9, P < 0.001), with a statistically significant

interaction between the two factors (F 4n = 7.87, P < 0.001).

The coffee and cardamom plantations in Valparai had poor

foliage distribution between 1-2 m, 2-4 m, 4-8 m and 8-16 m

when compared with forest transects here. These transects,

especially cardamom, had comparable foliage to forests in

higher canopy above 16 m. Tea plantations almost always

had some foliage on ground and some foliage in 16-24 m

category. There was hardly any foliage in-between these two

categories or above 24 m.

Other vegetation features also differed in relation to

site and land-use (2-factor ANOVA, Table 2). All variables

showed statistically significant differences across strata,

whereas tree density, canopy cover, canopy overlap, and shrub

density showed statistically significant differences across sites

as well. Besides canopy height, shrub density, and habitat

heterogeneity, other variables also showed a statistically

significant interaction between site and strata (Table 2). In

Thattekad, tree density in teak plantations was comparable

with that in forest transects, however, basal area, canopy

height, canopy cover, and canopy overlap were all lower than

in forest transects. Home gardens, on the other hand, had

much higher tree density but lower basal area when compared

to buffer or forest transects. They also had high habitat

96

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

heterogeneity and less canopy height, canopy cover, canopy

overlap, and shrub density. In the Anamalai Hills, tea and

buffer transects had lower values than forest transects for all

variables except habitat heterogeneity.

Principal components analysis of eight vegetation

variables extracted two components, PCI and PC2, which

together explained 83.6% of cumulative variance in the

dataset with PCI alone accounting for 69.67 % of variance.

PCI had large positive weightings for basal area (0.858),

canopy height (0.942), canopy cover (0.972), canopy overlap

(0.971), vertical stratification (0.970), and shrub density

(0.630) and a large negative weighting for habitat

heterogeneity (-0.819). PC2had large positive weighting only

for tree density (0.963). Eigen values for PCI and PC2 were

Table 2: Comparison of habitat structure in different transects.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

97

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

t

WA

VVB

TpA%TBA

TBC TBB

□

VBfcvBA

VBC

□

45

40

O 35

a?

W 30

«

2= 25

i 20

CB 15

a.

to io

5

o

(a)

* All ■ Rainforest □ Open forest

PCI

Basal area, canopy height, vertical stratification, canopy cover, canopy overlap

shrub density - ►

-« - Habitat heterogeneity

Fig. 2: Ordination of transects on principal component factor

axes based on vegetation variables.

Forest, buffer, and village transects are represented by

dark-squares, open-squares, and open-triangles, respectively

5.573 and 1.112, respectively. The ordination of transects

representing different strata on these two factor scores

confirms the above-mentioned trends; the village strata (home

gardens in Thattekad and tea plantation transects in Anamalai

Hills) lie separated from the rest of the transects representing

poor development of foliage, canopy closure, and woody plant

density in spite of having highest number of stems per hectare

in the case of the Thattekad home gardens (Fig. 2). The forest

transects in both sites (with the exception of TFA) have higher

scores on PCI than the buffer transects that occupy

intermediate positions between village and forest transects

(Fig. 2).

Bird species richness and density in different land-uses

A total of 145 bird species and 6,247 individuals were

recorded on transects (Appendix). In Thattekad. 122 bird

species and 3,210 individuals were recorded with rainforest

species constituting 56.6% (69) of all species and 63.4%

(2034) of all individuals. In the Anamalai hills, 103 bird

species and 3,037 individuals with rainforest species

constituting 64.1% (66) of all species and 78.8% (2,394) of

all individuals. Rarefaction analysis for Thattekad transects

do not show a clear pattern of difference in relation to land-

use type for species richness per 200 individuals at confidence

interval (Cl) of 95%: forest = 49.23 (37-64); buffer = 47.97

(38-60), village = 42.98 (36-51). In the Anamalai Hills, tea

transects were poorest in species richness for a comparable

sample of 200 individuals at 95% Cl: forest = 42.28 (35-50),

buffer = 44.74 (35-54), village = 29.38 (27-31).

Bird species density (number of all, rainforest and open-

forest species per transect), varied statistically significantly

* All ■ Rainlorest a Open forest

Fig. 3: Species density (a) and abundance (b) of all, rainforest,

and open forest bird species, in Thattekad and Anamalai Hills.

across the three habitat strata mainly because forest and buffer

transects had higher values than village transects (Fig. 3, Table

3). The average species density of all birds and open forest

birds was higher in Thattekad than the Anamalai Hills,

especially in buffer habitats, contributing to statistically

significant site effect (Table 3). Interestingly, rainforest bird

Table 3: Results of 2-factor analysis of variance of the average

bird community structure variables across transects

* P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 , *** P < 0.001 , NS - non significant

98

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

species density did not differ statistically significantly between

sites, but showed a statistically significant interaction between

site and strata: it decreased across the habitat gradient from

forest to buffer and then village in Thattekad but did not differ

substantially between forest and buffer habitats in the

Anamalai Hills, although still being lowest in the village

transects (Fig. 3a).

Bird species abundance of all, rainforest and open-forest

species showed a similar trend as bird species densities

(Fig. 3b). Open-forest species showed statistically significant

interaction between strata and site. In the Anamalai Hills,

open-forest bird abundance was similar in forests and buffers,

and higher in village transects, whereas Thattekad had

similarly high open-forest bird abundance in buffer and village

transects compared to forests. The cardamom transect in the

Anamalai Hills (VBC) had higher proportion of rainforest

species, as well as individuals in its bird community. In

general, forest transects had a greater proportion of rainforest

species while open forest species were represented more in

buffer and village, especially tea plantation transects.

Bird species composition in relation to land-use

The MDS ordination in Fig. 4 graphically depicts

similarity in bird community composition among sites.

Compositional variation appears related to altitude/site

(separation between Thattekad transects from Anamalai Hills

transects) as well as land-use (village transects occupied

extreme, while buffer occupied intermediate positions relative

to forest transects in each site). The Anamalai Hills tea

plantation transects differed substantially in bird species

composition from all the other transects and were similar only

to each other. Results of ANOSIM showed statistically

significant differences in bird community composition

between sites (Global R = 0.919, P = 0.003) as well as among

land-use types (Global R = 0.918, P = 0.001). Pair-wise

comparisons between each pair of habitat strata indicated

statistically significant variation between forests and buffer

(R = 0.889, P = 0.01), buffer and village (R = 0.917, P =

0.01), and forest and village (R = 1, P = 0.01).

Changes in flock size, composition, and encounter rate in

different land-uses

A total of 101 flocks were recorded (58 complete and

43 incomplete flocks). Of the total 145 species, 82 species

(56.6%) participated in flocks at least once. On average,

complete flocks contained 9 (±0.56 SE) species and

23.2 (±1.67 SE) individuals, overall. In Thattekad, a mean

number of 8.6 (±0.80 SE) species and 22.9 (±2.37 ) individuals

participated in the 29 complete flocks recorded, whereas in

the Anamalai Hills, the mean participation was 9.4 (±0.79)

Fig. 4: Variation in bird community composition across

transects illustrated by non-metric multidimensional scaling

(MDS) ordination. The closer two transects are, the more

similar they are in their bird communities

species and 23.5 (±2.39) individuals in the 29 complete flocks

recorded. Out of 48 rainforest species participating in the

flocks, 35 were residents, 7 were endemic residents, and

6 were migrants. In Thattekad, 43 of 63 (68.3%), and in the

Anamalai Hills, 45 of 66 (68.2%) rainforest bird species

recorded, participated in flocks. Flock encounter rate was

higher in the Anamalai Hills (forest = 1 .95 flocks/transect;

buffer = 2.67 flocks/transect) when compared to Thattekad

(forest = 1 .59 flocks/transect; buffer = 1 .66 flocks/transect).

Buffer transects in both sites had higher flock encounter rate

than forest transects.

Figure 5 depicts variation in flock size variables across

forest and buffer transects in Thattekad and the Anamalai

Hills. Rainforest species always contributed more to flock

composition than open-forest species in higher altitude site

of the Anamalai Hills; but the trend reversed in case of teak

plantations in Thattekad showing higher participation of open-

forest species and individuals, with TBA being an exception

to this. The number of rainforest species in flocks showed

statistically significant variation between sites and land-use

types (Table 4) with rainforest species participation being

higher in forest as compared to buffer transects. Site variation

appears primarily due to low representation of rainforest

species in flocks in Thattekad buffer transects when compared

to Anamalai Hills (Fig. 4). The number of open forest species

and individuals in flocks showed primarily a site variation,

being higher in Thattekad than Anamalai Hills in comparable

land-use types (Table 4, Fig. 5).

Relationships with vegetation structure

A backward stepwise multiple-regression analysis

indicated (Table 5) a statistically significant positive

relationship between bird species density (all birds and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

99

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

(a)

* Al ■ Rainforest a Open forest

0.003) related to PCI, while abundanee of open-forest species

was significantly negatively correlated to PCI (P = 0.044,

Table 5).

Number of rainforest bird species per complete flock

showed a highly statistically significant positive relationship

with PC 1 and a negative relationship with PC2 (P < 0.037).

Number of individuals of rainforest birds per complete flock

was also found to be statistically significantly related to PCI

(P < 0.005). Number of open-forest species and individuals

per complete flock showed no statistically significant

relationship with either PCI or PC2 (Table 5).

(b)

i i

. AJI ■ Rainforest ° Open forest

1 t

Fig. 5: Number of all, rainforest, and open forest bird species

(a) and individuals (b) per complete flock, in Thattekad and

Anamalai Hills

rainforest birds) per transect and PCI which represented

canopy variables, vertical foliage structure, basal area, and

habitat heterogeneity (negative). Open-forest bird species

density showed no statistically significant relationship with

either principal component. Abundance of all and rainforest

bird species was statistically significantly positively (P =

Table 4: Results of 2-factor analysis of variance of the average

flock structure variables across transects in the study sites

DISCUSSION

In view of continued threat to bird species from

deforestation ( Brash 1987; Collar el al. 1994; Balmford 1996),

many studies have focused on understanding survival of these

forest species in human-modified landscapes and the influence

of quality of habitat matrix that exists around remaining forest

patches (Askins and Philbrick 1987; Stoufferand Bierregaard

1995; Luck and Daily 2003). Similar to earlier studies from

tropical forests, the present study found notable changes in

bird community structure and composition across different

land uses. Flock composition is also known to be affected as

a result of changes in habitat, microclimate, and in local bird

community (Johns 1986; Thiollay 1995; Stouffer and

Bierregaard 1995; Mason 1996; Marsden 1998; Lee et al.

2005; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). This is also broadly

evidenced in the present study where complex and more

developed habitat structure of forests and plantations such as

cardamom and coffee with more native shade trees support

more rainforest species in bird communities and flocks.

Habitat structure differences in land-uses

Habitat complexity in terms of vertical foliage profile

and structural development was higher in forests when

compared with other land-uses. This is supported by other

studies where intensification of land-use accompanies

structural simplification (Michon and Mary 1990; Garcia-

Fernandez and Casado 2005) especially in canopy and

understory layers (Greenberg etal. 2008), followed by habitat

homogeneity (Thiollay 1 995; Scales and Marsden 2008 ). This

study finds lower foliage in mid-storey and canopy layers of

teak, coffee, and cardamom plantations which show a foliage

profile intermediate to forests and villages (tea plantations

and home-gardens). Also, cardamom and coffee plantations

had lower shrub density as under-storey vegetation was

cleared to plant the cash crops (Raman 2006). In general,

forests had higher canopy connectivity, tree density, basal

area, and shrub density. In non-forest habitats studied.

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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

cardamom plantations under native rainforest shade trees

provided a habitat structure more similar to rainforests, as

reported earlier from studies in the Western Ghats (Raman

and Sukumar 2002; Raman 2006). Similarly, coffee

plantations under native shade tree species in tropics are

known to resemble neighbouring forest structure (Bhagwat

et al. 2008), and this structural property has potential for

biodiversity conservation (Anand et al. 2008). Among more

intensive forms of land-use, home gardens had more

developed habitat structure and vertical distribution of foliage

than tea plantations. Home-gardens were mosaics of arecanut

palm, coconut palm, jackfruit trees or other crop tree species

forming a canopy over densely-planted woody understory

(cocoa, coffee), and usually adjoined monocultures of rubber

or Ailanthus malabaricus with closely planted thin stems (thus

accounting for the high tree density but low basal area).

Ranganathan et al. (2008) studied agricultural systems in

Western Ghats of Karnataka similar to home-gardens surveyed

in the present study and found arecanut plantations with

woody understory to have similar vertical complexity of

habitat as managed forests.

Although previous studies examining avian diversity

in different land-uses in the Western Ghats have looked at

teak, arecanut, cocoa, coffee, and cardamom plantations

(Beehler et al. 1987; Bhagwat et al. 2005; Raman 2006;

Anand et al. 2008; Ranganathan et al. 2008), there are no

published reports on habitat structure and avian conservation

values of tea plantations. Tea plantations are a major form of

land-use in the Western Ghats accounting for over 1 1 9,000 ha.

having increased by 6,200 ha (5.5%) in the period 2000-2006

(Mudappa and Raman 2007; Tea Board Statistics, http://

www.teaboard.gov.in). These plantations are dense

monocultures of tea bushes with sparse canopy of a single

alien tree species planted in rows (silver oak Grevillea robusta ,

native to Australia) at 12 m spacing. The higher habitat

heterogeneity of tea plantations can be attributed to the

variability induced by large tracts of tea shrubs maintained at

a uniform height of about a metre and with no foliage at all in

higher vertical classes alternating with points with more

foliage directly below silver oak trees. Tea plantations are

intensively managed year-round with cycles of agro-chemical

application, pruning, and harvest of leaves. In relation to other

plantations studied thus far in the Western Ghats, the results

of this study indicate that tea plantations are the most extreme

in terms of alteration of habitat relative to rainforests.

Changes in bird community and composition

We found more bird species and individuals in the lower

altitude site of Thattekad than in the higher altitude site of

the Anamalai Hills. Thattekad teak buffers supported more

open-forest species and individuals, leading to statistically

significant differences between sites. When we looked at

similarity of bird community composition across strata in both

altitudes, we found bird communities to be more similar within

a given site/altitude than across. The effect of habitat

modification was apparent as bird community differed

between land-use types at both the sites.

Looking at bird community composition represented

Table 5: Relationships between bird community and flock variables with habitat components (PCI and PC2)

taken as independent variables in backward stepwise multiple regression analysis

Standardized regression

coefficient, Beta (P)

Dependent variable PCI PC2 FF F df P

Total bird species per transect

Open-forest individuals per flock

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

101

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

by rainforest bird species versus open-forest bird species, the

number of rainforest species and individuals decreased along

the habitat gradient from forest to buffer and then villages.

Teak plantations of Thattekad, in general, had more open-

forest species and thus seem to support fewer rainforest

species when compared to coffee and cardamom plantations

of the Anamalai Hills. Among the non-forest habitats,

cardamom plantation appears to be the best kind of land-use

in its ability to support rainforest species and discouraging

open-forest species.

The overall species richness and abundance did not vary

much between forests and buffers but the composition of bird

community was different as species characteristic of primary

and mature forests get replaced by species of disturbed or

open-forests (Daniels etal. 1 990; Estrada et al. 1997; Lawton

et al. 1998; Raman 2001; Lindell et al. 2004; Waltert et al.

2005; Harvey and Villalobos 2007). Bhagwat et al. (2008),

in a literature review, compared agrosystems (such as coffee,

cocoa, forest rubber, and banana plantations) with forest and

found high species richness (92%) compared to forests while

lower similarity (52%, Jaccard index) with forest community.

Raman (2006) in an earlier study in the southern Western

Ghats found that only 59-67% of species present in shade

coffee plantations were rainforest species, the balance being

species of more open habitats. In another study from the

Western Ghats, Ranganathan et al. (2008) found arecanut

plantations to retain 90% of bird species that were also found

associated with regional forests.

Individual bird species may show varying responses to

different land-use systems. In Thattekad, open-forest species

such as Southern Coucal Centropus [sinensis] parroti.

Oriental Magpie-robin Copsychus saularis , Red-whiskered

Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus. and Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta

vagabunda were found to be more abundant in teak buffers

and home-gardens than in forests. The Jungle Babbler

Turdoides striata, another open-forest species, was found only

in teak plantations. Rainforest species such as Malabar Barbet

Megalaima malabarica , Flame-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus

gularis, and Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica decreased in

abundance from forest to buffer and than villages. The Grey¬

headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus, a rainforest species

endemic to Western Ghats, and the Malabar Trogon Harpactes

fasciatus was found only in forests. Lesser Hill Myna Gracula

indica, Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus,

and White-cheeked Barbet Megalaima viridis were the

rainforest species found to be common throughout,

irrespective of the land-use type. In the Anamalai Hills, Red-

whiskered Bulbul. Oriental Magpie-Robin, Common

Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius, Indian Jungle Crow Corvus

[macrorhynchos] culminatus, Rufous-backed Long-tailed

Shrike Lanius schach erythronotus, and Chestnut-headed Bee-

eater Merops leschenaulti, along with an open-forest migrant

Blyth's Reed-warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum, were found

to be more common in tea plantations. They were less frequent

or absent in buffer habitats and forests. Rainforest species

such as Asian Fairy Bluebird Irena puella. Brown-cheeked

Fulvetta Alcippe poioicephala, and Yellow-browed Bulbul

along with two rainforest migrants. Large-billed Leaf-warbler

Phylloscopus magnirostris, and Rusty-tailed Flycatcher

Muscicapa ruficauda, decreased in abundance from forest to

buffer and were never found in tea plantations. One rainforest

species, Indian Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus [ schisticeps]

horsfieldii, was found to be more common in tea plantations

than in coffee, cardamom or forests. Small Sunbird Leptocoma

minima, a Western Ghats endemic, preferred forests and

buffers over tea plantations.

Differences in flock size, composition, and encounter rate

Participation of species in flocks was observed to be

lower than that found in an earlier study in the southern

Western Ghats where 87 out of 109 species participated in

flocks (Sridhar and Sankar 2008). The previous study

compared forest fragments of different sizes, whereas we

sampled on more open roads or dirt tracks leading to more

open-forest species and a greater number of species recorded

outside of flocks. Flock size overall did not seem to be affected

considerably by land-use although other studies suggest that

overall species participation in flocks decreases with habitat

degradation and changes in bird community (Bierregaard and

Lovejoy 1989; Maldonado-Coelho and Marini 2004; Lee et

al. 2005; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). The number of rainforest

species that participated in flocks, however, did vary

significantly by land-use in our study. Rainforest species, in

general, contributed more to the flocks than open-forest

species, which could explain the near absence of flocks from

heavily-modified habitats such as tea and home-gardens,

which support very low number of rainforest species and a

higher proportion of open-forest species in their bird

community. As flocks are species-rich (and, in some

Neotropical areas, even hold interspecific territories), they

may be vulnerable to changes in habitat structure,

microclimate, and bird community (Munn and Terborgh 1979;

Bierregaard and Lovejoy 1989; Thiollay 1992; Hutto 1994;

Jullien and Thiollay 1998; Stratford and Stouffer 1999).

Flocks can therefore be used as indicators of disturbance

(Maldonado-Coelho and Marini 2004) with the number of

rainforest versus open-forest species taken as a measure of

the ability of particular land-use type to support the complex

interactions that lead to formation of flocks.

Flock encounter rate was found to be much higher in

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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

the higher altitude site. Buffer transects in both altitudes

showed higher flock encounter rate than the forests. This may

possibly be due to better visibility in the buffer plantations

that had more open habitat relative to forest (particularly in

mid-storey layers). Another reason for this could be the higher

visibility for predators (e.g., raptors) as well and therefore an

increased tendency of bird species to occur in flocks (Thiollay

1999). A flock was usually sighted shortly before or soon

after hearing or sighting a raptor species (S. Sidhu,

unpublished data).

Effect of habitat modification on bird community and flocks

Bird community and flock composition were observed

to differ with land-use and seem to be affected by habitat

alterations. Among different land-uses, tea plantations turned

out to be the poorest in habitat structural complexity, which

was reflected in their highly altered bird community

composition and complete absence of flocks. The home-

gardens surveyed in the present study also had poorer habitat

complexity. When compared to TVA, the other home garden

(TVB) was found to support more rainforest species and two

incomplete flocks were observed. This difference in bird

composition between similar land-uses could be due to the

latter site being located in a small tribal village surrounded

on all sides by forest.

Structural complexity and similarity with forest habitat

were seen to positively influence rainforest birds in the

community and flocks. Cardamom, coffee, and teak

plantations seem to hold more species than severely modified

land-use represented by tea plantations and home gardens.

When comparing among different buffer habitats, cardamom

and coffee fared better than teak in supporting a greater

proportion of the respective rainforest species at that altitude.

This is supported by studies showing that more forest species

can be supported by a mix of cultivated and native shade

trees (Taylor et al. 1993; Thiollay 1995; Greenberg etal. 1997;

Powell and Bjork 2004; Sekercioglu et al. 2006). Beehler et

al. (1987) in an earlier study in Eastern Ghats, India, found

teak monoculture to be a poor habitat for birds. TBA was the

only teak buffer showing higher rainforest bird species in

flocks. It had patches of relatively undisturbed rainforests

interrupting the plantation. These forest patches are necessary

as they act as refuges for species that are sensitive to changes

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Pp. 737.

Anand, M.O., J. Krishnaswamy & A. Das (2008): Proximity to forests

drives bird conservation value of coffee plantations: Implications

for certification. Ecol. Appl. 18: 1754-1763.

in land-use (Sekercioglu et al. 2006). In a study by Faria et

al. (2000) from Brazil that compared bird communities in a

landscape dominated by natural forest (<6% under cocoa

plantation) with a landscape dominated by cocoa plantations,

bird communities were found to be richer in the former

landscape indicating the landscape-level influence of forest

cover and proximity.

Many studies have reported the importance of natural

shade trees in coffee and cardamom as they support greater

number of forest bird species (Estrada et al. 1997; Mudappa

and Raman 2007; Sodhi et al. 2008). Beehler et al. (1987)

also observed that coffee plantations with companion tracts

of remnant forest maintain healthy population of birds.

Similarly, the coffee plantations we sampled had interspersed

forest fragments and native shade trees along with exotic ones

and this supports more rainforest species which then

participate in flocks. Anand et al. (2008) observed bird species

richness and abundance in coffee plantations to increase with

increase in basal area of native tree species and decline with

increasing distance from contiguous forest. Thus, at landscape

level, plantations with native shade trees and forest fragments

are extremely important to retain as they act as a support

system for sensitive species and provide better connectivity

between different land-uses. Planting more native tree species

in these plantations and restoring the degraded forest

fragments will add to value of the habitat. Habitat

managements must discourage further conversion of these

into monocultures or their extreme modification into tea

plantations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to American Institute of India Studies,

Ford Foundation, and Nadathur Conservation Trust for support

that enabled this study. We thank Tamil Nadu and Kerala Forest

Departments and officers, especially Messrs Sukhdev, V.S.

Varughese, K. Varadharajan, Nirmal John, G. Sivamani for

research permits and support in Anamalai Tiger Reserve and

Thattekad Bird Sanctuary. Our thanks to Dinesh and Moorthy

for field assistance. We are also extremely grateful to M. Ananda

Kumar, Divya Mudappa, and P Jeganathan for their help and

suggestions in various stages of the project and K.V. Eldhose,

and R. Sugathan for help at Thattekad.

Askins, R.A. & M.J. Philbrjck (1987): Effect of changes in regional

forest abundance on the decline and recovery of a forest bird

community. Wilson Bull. 99: 7-21.

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Appendix 1 : List of bird species, codes, and average relative abundance (abundance of a species / abundance of all species,

represented as percentage for a transect) in the three main habitat strata across the two study sites

(Thattekad and Anamalai Hills)

106

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

Appendix 1 : List of bird species, codes, and average relative abundance (abundance of a species / abundance of all species,

represented as percentage for a transect) in the three main habitat strata across the two study sites

(Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) ( contd .)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

107

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS

Appendix 1 : List of bird species, codes, and average relative abundance (abundance of a species / abundance of all species,

represented as percentage for a transect) in the three main habitat strata across the two study sites

(Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) ( contd .)

* Flocking species

Codes: OF=Open-forest species, RF=Rainforest species, WB=Water-birds, R=Resident, E=Endemic, M=Migrant

108

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

109-115

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW HIRUNDO DOM1COLA

IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

P. Balakrishnan1

'Division of Conservation Ecology, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty, Coimbatore 641 108,

Tamil Nadu, India. Present Address: Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust, c/o Anupallavi, Chungathara, Nilambur 679 334,

Malappuram, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

The breeding biology of Hill Swallow Hirundo domicola - which has been previously considered as a subspecies of

Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica - was studied from 2002 to 2005 in Silent Valley National Park and Muthikkulam

Reserve Forests, Western Ghats, India. Nesting of the species was observed from November to April with peak egg-

laying during February-March. Nests were placed in the walls of tunnels/culverts and on the roofs of buildings. The

clutch size averaged 2.44 eggs, and was found to be low in nests placed in buildings (2.07 eggs) compared to those in

tunnels/culverts (2.71 eggs). Average incubation period was 15.78 days and nestling period was 19.1 days. Nest

attentiveness and duration of the on- and off-bouts increased with the progress of incubation. Nesting success rate was

higher than the average of tropical species but lower than the temperate hirundines. The main known causes of nest

failure were predation and nest falling. In general, many life history traits (including clutch size, developmental

periods and parental care) of H. domicola varied from its conspecific House Swallow H. tahitica , and thus support the

recent separation of it as a distinct species.

Keywords: breeding biology, Hirundinidae, Hirundo domicola, Hirundo tahitica, life history, parental care, tropics

INTRODUCTION

The Family Hirundinidae includes c. 84 species of

passerines widely distributed in both temperate and tropical

habitats (Turner and Rose 1989; Turner 2004). These birds

are highly aerial and exclusive insectivores (Turner 2004).

Little is known of the biology and ecology of many

hirundines, especially tropical species. But several temperate

species like Bam Swallow Hirundo rustica , Cliff Swallow

Petrochelidon pyrrhonota and Tree Swallow Tachycineta

bicolor are well-known and used as models in a large number

of ecological studies (see reviews in Turner 2004). Available

information on the reproductive traits of hirundines that breed

in the tropics shows significant variation from the typical

traits of tropical birds (Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987;

Turner 2004). Many of them have large a clutch size and

longer developmental periods compared to that of temperate

birds (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004).

Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica (Ali and Ripley 1987;

Grimmett et al. 1999) is one of the 17 hirundines occurring

in South Asia (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) and constitute

two disjunctly distributed subspecies ( Hirundo tahitica

javanica and Hirundo tahitica domicola). Based on the

morphological, vocal and ecological differences, these

subspecies were recently recognised (Rasmussen and

Anderton 2005) as two distinct species, namely House

Swallow Hirundo tahitica and Hill Swallow Hirundo

domicola. The House Swallow is a common bird known from

Andamans, Myanmar, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (Ali

and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). Hill Swallows are sedentary

residents distributed in the grassy slopes around plantations

and human habitation in southern Western Ghats (from south

Karnataka through Nilgiris and Kerala) and Sri Lanka from

700-2,400 m (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004; Rasmussen

and Anderton 2005). Jathar and Rahmani (2006) also listed

Hill Swallow as one of the birds endemic to the South Asian

mainland and Sri Lanka. The breeding biology of House

Swallow has been well-studied in Malaysia (Hails 1984).

However, relatively little is known about Hill Swallows except

for the descriptions of breeding seasonality, nests and clutch

size (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004).

This paper describes the breeding biology and life

history of Hill Swallow and compares this information with

the available data for House Swallow and other hirundines.

Aspects considered include timing of breeding, nest-site

characteristics, nest measurements, clutch size, developmental

periods, growth rates, parental care strategies, nesting success

and causes of nest failures.

STUDY AREA

Data were collected from two study areas: in Silent

Valley National Park (11° 00'- 11° 15' N; 76° 15'-76° 35’ E;

area: 89.52 sq. km, hereafter: Silent Valley) during January

2003 to May 2005, and Muthikkulam Reserve Forest

(10° 56'- 10° 59' N; 76° 41'-76° 45' E; area: 63.83 sq. km,

hereafter: Muthikkulam) during September 2002 to April

2004. Both the sites are located in the south-western comer

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS

of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in the Western Ghats of India.

In both the areas, the terrain is undulating and hilly, with

elevation ranging from 658 to 2,383 m above msl at Silent

Valley, and 610 to 2,065 m above msl at Muthikkulam. Both

sites are similar in vegetation types, dominated by the west

coast tropical evergreen forest followed by the southern

montane wet temperate forest, and grasslands restricted

mainly to the higher slopes and hill tops (Nair and

Balasubramanyan 1985; Basha 1999; Balakrishnan 2007).

Both sites experience similar and typical tropical climate, with

mean annual temperature below 27°C and mean annual

rainfall above 4,500 mm. However, the north-east monsoon

is slightly heavier in Muthikkulam compared to that of Silent

Valley. In Silent Valley, the breeding sites were found in the

remnants of the abandoned hydro-electric project (tunnels

and buildings) at Sairandhri. The study site at Muthikkulam

included the surroundings (about 5 sq. km) of the Siruvani

dam with several abandoned and partially occupied (by

officials of forest and irrigation departments) buildings,

tunnels and culverts.

METHODS

Nests were located by following the activities of adult

birds (regular to and fro movement to probable breeding sites,

carrying food or nest materials, etc.) or by searching

potentially suitable habitats (building, culverts, tunnels, etc.).

Once found, contents of the nests were checked using a mirror

and torch on a pole. Nests were inspected every 1-2 days or

everyday during the transition of nesting stages with the help

of field assistants to determine the breeding phenology and

nest fate. Clutch initiation dates were determined either by

direct observation of egg laying or by calculations made using

known hatching dates and mean developmental periods.

Clutch size was measured as the final number of eggs laid

and duration of developmental period was calculated based

on visual inspection of nests. Seven chicks from three nests

were weighed on alternate days (from day 1 to 19) using

Pesola spring balances to determine the growth rates. After

nest success or failure, height of the nest above ground, nest

measurements such as nest diameter, cup diameter, outer nest

depth and cup depth were recorded, and nest thickness based

on standard methods was calculated (Soler et al. 1998).

To assess parental care patterns and nest attentiveness,

the birds’ incubation behaviour during early (1-8 days) and

late incubation (9-16 days) period by hourly watches at nests

following standard methods (Nolan 1978; Halupka 1994;

Norment 1995) was measured. Day-light hours (6:00 to 18:00

hrs) were divided into four sections (06:00-09:00, 09:00-

12:00, 12:00-15:00 and 15:00-18:00 hrs) and observations

were made in each section to control for variation in

incubation behaviour during the day (Nolan 1978; Smith and

Montgomerie 1992; Conway and Martin 2000a). The

parameters measured or calculated were nest attentiveness

(per cent time spent on the nest incubating eggs), on-bout

duration (mean incubation bout duration in minutes) and off-

bout duration (mean time spent away between two incubation

visits in minutes) based on standard methods (Kendeigh 1952;

Conway and Martin 2000a). Similarly, provisioning rates

(number of feeding visits/hr) during early (1-6 days), mid (7-

13days) and late (14-19 days) nestling periods were also

recorded by hourly watches at nests. The total observation

period was 133 hrs, which include 1 14 hrs during incubation

and 19 hrs during nestling period. As the birds were not colour-

marked or sexed, data presented are combined parental

investment of both males and females.

Nests that produced at least one fledgling were

considered as successful nests. Hatching, nestling and

breeding success were defined as: the probability that eggs

laid would hatch, the probability that hatchlings would fledge,

and the probability that eggs laid would survive from laying

to fledging, respectively. Daily nest survival and nest success

rates were calculated based on Mayfield method (Mayfield

1975). Daily nest survival and nest success rates were

calculated separately for the reproductive phases, study sites

and substrate types. Standard errors for survival rates were

calculated based on the methods described in Johnson (1979).

All tests were two tailed, and differences were considered

significant at p < 0.05. Mean ±SD values are reported

throughout. All statistical analyses were performed by using

SPSS 10.0 (SPSS Inc.).

RESULTS

Timing of breeding

A total of 36 Hill Swallow nests during 2002 to 2005

were located and monitored; 21 nests in Silent Valley and

15 nests in Muthikkulam. In Muthikkulam, the earliest first

egg-laying date was November 23 (November 23 and February

06 for 2002-03 and 2003-04 breeding seasons, respectively),

while it was February 09 (February 12, February 18, and

February 09 for 2003, 2004 and 2005 breeding seasons,

respectively) in Silent Valley. Except for three nests observed

at Muthikkulam during November-December 2002, all the

nesting attempts were during February-April and peak egg-

laying occurred during February-March at both sites

(Fig. 1).

Nests and nest sites

All the breeding sites were located within an elevation

110

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS

14

12 □ Silent Valley NP

■ Muthikkulam RF

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr

Fig. 1 : Timing of monthly clutch initiation (n = 36)

from early November to late May 2002-2005,

for Hill Swallows at Silent Valley National Park and

Muthikkulam Reserve Forest

-C

CT>

Q)

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

I l

- 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 I I

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

Age (days)

Fig. 2: Growth rate (mass) of Hill Swallow nestlings

as a function of age

range of 800 to 1 ,200 m above msl. Of the 36 nests examined

in this study, 17 were built on rock surfaces (under overhangs)

in man-made tunnels, four on the wall of culverts and 15 on

roofs of abandoned buildings. All the nests placed on buildings

were single nests, but the nest sites in tunnels and culverts

also comprised of small colonies of 3-5 nests. All the nests

were cup-shaped (nest diameter: 11.43 ±0.72 cm, cup

diameter: 8.59 ±0.71 cm, outer nest depth: 7.84

±0.71 cm, cup depth: 5.2 ±0.72 cm, nest thickness: 1.42

±0.32 cm) made with mud pellets as major structural

constituent. Dried grasses, moss, pteridophyte roots and

lichens were also used in the structural layer, mostly in nests

placed in tunnel/culvert sites. The amount of these materials

was considerably minimal in the nests placed in buildings.

However, in the building sites, the mud cups were supported

by a mud foundation built in the lower portion of the ceiling

beams. These foundations were made with powdery mud

(different from the material of the cup) which has terracotta¬

like hardness upon drying. Feathers were used as the inner

lining layer in all nests. Addition of feather was also observed

during the early incubation stage. Both sexes participated in

the nest construction and birds often reused old nest sites

with certain amount of repair. Time required for nest

construction was not estimated because majority of the nests

were found during the late construction period or other

reproductive stages. We observed a pair take seven days to

repair an old nest at a building site.

Nest morphometry significantly varied between the

nesting substrates (building vs. tunnel/culvert nests) and

between nests with different clutch sizes (Table 1 ). The nests

were placed 2.06 ±0.39 m above ground (range: 1.58-2.7 m).

Nest heights significantly varied between the building sites

(2.49 ±0.20 m, range: 1.9-2. 7 m, n = 15) and tunnel/culvert

sites (1.76 ±0.09 m, range: 1.58-1.9 m, n = 21) (t = -14.64, p <

0.001). All the nest sites were in the vicinity of water (<15 m).

Clutch size, developmental periods and growth rates

The mean clutch size was 2.52 ±0.51 in Silent Valley

(n = 21) and 2.33 ±0.49 in Muthikkulam (n = 15), while for

all clutches together it was 2.44 ±0.5 (20 nests with 2 eggs

and 16 nests with 3 eggs). Clutch size was significantly

smaller in building nests (2.07 ±0.26 eggs, n = 15) than in

tunnel/culvert nests (2.71 ±0.46 eggs, n = 21; t = 4.89,

p< 0.001).

Table 1: Measurements of Hill Swallow nests

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

111

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS

Table 2: Breeding parameters of Hill Swallows at Silent Valley

National Park and Muthikkulam Reserve Forest

Values in parentheses are number of nests

The average length of incubation period from laying

the last egg to hatching was 15.78 ±0.97 days (range: 14-17

days, n = 9 nests). The mean duration of on- and off-bouts in

early incubation (1-8 days) was 1 1.89 ±5.88 min (range: 2-

28 min, n = 60 hrs) and 16.89 ±7.95 min (range: 2-41, n = 60

hrs), and during late incubation (9-16 days) was 18.46 ±7.74

min (range: 5-43 min, n = 54 hrs) and 21.07 ±9.32 min (range:

2-58 min, n = 54 hrs), respectively. Nest attentiveness

averaged 39.64% (n = 60 hrs) on early incubation and 55.77%

(n = 54 hrs) during late incubation.

Hatching was synchronous in all nests monitored. The

number of nestlings in a brood averaged 2.3 ±0.47 (n = 23

nests) and they reached a peak mass of 16.79 ±0.57 gm (n =

7 nestlings) on day 19 (Fig. 2). The average nestling period

from the hatching to first leaving of the fledglings from the

nest was 19.1 ±0.88 days (range: 18-21 days, n = 10 nests).

Both male and female birds fed the young ones simultaneously.

Provisioning rates during early (1-6 days), mid (7-13 days)

and late (14-19 days) nestling days were 7.67 ±2.73 (n = 6

hrs), 14.33 ±2. 16 (n = 6 hrs), 20. 19 ±2.87 (n = 7 hrs) trips/hr,

respectively. The total nesting period (incubation and nestling

periods together) was 34.75 ±1.67 days (range: 33-38, n = 8

nests). The juveniles returned to the nests with parents for

roosting for about 6.5 ±1.29 days (range: 5-8 days, n = 4

nestlings) after first leaving of the nest.

Nesting success and causes of mortality

Of the 36 nests monitored during this study, 16

(44.44%) successfully fledged young, on average, 2.44 ±0.5 1

young per successful nest. Hatching (% eggs hatched),

fledging (% hatched chicks fledging) and breeding success

(% eggs fledged) for all nests monitored were 60.23%,

73.58% and 44.32%, respectively. Hatching and fledging

success rates considerably varied between study sites

(Table 2). Daily survival rates significantly varied between

the different reproductive stages and between the nesting

sites (Table 3). Chick survival rates were slightly higher than

the egg survival rates (Table 3). and breeding failures during

chick-rearing occurred when the chick was, on average, 4.33

±1 .86 days old (range: 3-8 days). The overall Mayfield nest

success rate for all nests monitored was 26.07%. There

was not much variation in the Mayfield nest success rates

between study sites: 27.66% in the Silent Valley and

24.05% in the Muthikkulam. However, Mayfield success

rates varied significantly between nesting sites: from 18.7%

in the tunnel/culvert nests to 37.42% in the building nests

(Table 3).

Fourteen (70%) of the 20 nest failures were due to the

predation of eggs (10 nests) and nestlings (4 nests). The

identity of predators could be recognized in only one nest, in

which the Indian Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor consumed

the entire contents of the nest during incubation stage. Four

nests failed due to the nest falling during the early incubation

stage. Nestlings of two nests were also lost due to the attack

of red ants. No infanticide, egg or nestling desertion,

starvation, partial egg or brood loss and brood parasitism were

observed during the study.

Table 3: Daily nest survival rates and nest success of Hill Swallows for different reproductive phases,

study locations and nesting sites in Western Ghats

112

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS

DISCUSSION

Hirundines show significant geographic variation in the

timing of breeding. In subtropics and tropics nesting is limited

to the wet season when insects are most abundant or can occur

almost throughout the year, sometimes with peaks during rains

(Turner 2004). Majority of the species in India breed chiefly

during March-July (Ali and Ripley 1987). In Silent Valley,

breeding of Hill Swallows is restricted to the dry season

(February-April ) which is consistent with the records (March-

May) of Ali and Ripley (1987) from southern India. In

Muthikkulam, a few nests were recorded in November-

December and this indicates the start of early breeding in this

site as reported (December-June) for Sri Lanka (Ali and

Ripley 1987). It is not clear whether the heavy north-east

monsoon in Muthikkulam compared to Silent Valley is

associated with the early breeding of Hill Swallows at this

site. Due to the preference of elusive sites for nest placement,

it is likely that a few nests went undiscovered during this

study. However, no recently used nests were found in the

tunnels/culverts or buildings examined. Significant regional

variation in the timing of breeding was also reported for

conspecific H. tahitica (Andamans: May-June, Myanmar:

March-May, Malaysia: January-August, Philippines: July-

October) (Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004).

Thus, further studies are required to understand the factors

(including abundance of insects, rainfall, etc.) resulting in

the geographic variation in the timing of breeding of Hill

Swallows.

Most species of swallows are known to use artificial

structures for roosting and nesting, and this feature has given

new opportunities for population expansion and range

expansion in many species (Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987;

Oatley 2002; Jackson and Spottiswoode 2004; Turner 2004).

Hill Swallows are also known to attach their nests to a variety

of structures including wall or rock-face, under road culverts

or in tunnels, and most commonly under eaves or against

ceiling beams and rafters in houses (Ali and Ripley 1987).

All the nests recorded during this study were also placed in

man-made structures (tunnels, culverts and buildings). Nest

structure of Hill Swallows is typical to that of other species

(see Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). The nests

built in tunnels/culverts are often larger than the nests in

buildings and these nests had larger clutch size compared to

the latter. However, this advantage was not reflected in the

breeding productivity (Table 3).

Hirundines in the temperate habitats normally lay

3-6 eggs and sometimes up to 8 eggs (Turner 2004), however,

the normal clutch size in the tropics is 2-5 eggs (Ali and Ripley

1987; Turner and Rose 1989; Turner 2004). The average

clutch size (2.44 ±0.5, mode = 2 eggs) of Hill Swallow is the

smallest reported for the swallows breeding in mainland India

(. Hirundo rustica : 4-6 eggs, H. smithii : 3-5 eggs, H.flavicola :

3-4 eggs, H. daurica: 3-5 eggs, H. striolata : 3-5 eggs; Ali

and Ripley 1987). The mean clutch size of Hill Swallows is

also significantly lower than that of the conspecific House

Swallow Hirundo tahitica in Malaysia (mean = 2.98

±80 eggs, mode = 3 eggs, range = 2-5 eggs; Hails 1984) and

the median clutch size (3.5 eggs) reported for the passerines

in India (Ali and Ripley 1987; Pramod and Yom-Tov 2000).

In many hirundines seasonal decline of clutch size is reported

(Hails 1984; Sakraoui et al. 2005; Turner 2004), however,

this could be attributed to the late breeding of young

inexperienced birds which normally lay small clutches (Turner

2004). Although such seasonal declines are not identified,

variation in the clutch sizes between the nesting substrates

(tunnel/culverts v/s buildings) is prominent in Hill Swallows.

Estimates of incubation (15.78 ±0.97 days) and nestling

periods (19.1 ±0.88 days) obtained in this study are slightly

lower than that of H. tahitica (Hails 1984), but within the

range of general patterns reported for hirundines (Turner

2004). Hirundines are known to grow slowly compared to

other passerines (Turner 2004). The growth rate of

H. domicola was similar to that of H. tahitica (Hails 1984)

and typical of other hirundines (Turner 2004).

There are some conspicuous differences in the parental

care between H. domicola and conspecific H. tahitica. In the

case of latter, only female incubated the eggs (Hails 1984),

whereas both sexes of H. domicola actively participated in

all the breeding activities including nest construction,

incubation and feeding young (see also Ali and Ripley 1987).

Nest attentiveness (per cent time spent on the nest incubating

eggs) was also significantly higher in H. domicola (39.64%

and 55.77% for early and late incubation periods, respectively)

compared to that of H. tahitica (36.9%, Hails 1984). High

nest attentiveness and male’s participation in the incubation

could be due the low ambient temperature at the study sites

(<27 °C) compared to that of H. tahitica nest sites (>30 °C).

The length of on- and off-bouts increased by the progress of

incubation, which indicates that, the nest trips decreased in

the late incubation stage and the longer on-bouts were

preceded by long off-bouts and vice-versa. For the entire

incubation period, on- and off-bout durations ranged between

2-43 min and 2-58 min, respectively. Similar intra- and inter¬

specific variations in parental effort are reported for several

species (Conway and Martin 2000a) which is attributed by a

number of factors such as temperature needs of the developing

embryos, nutritional requirements of parents and predation

pressure (Conway and Martin 2000a, b; Deeming 2002;

Fontaine and Martin 2006). However, it is difficult to decipher

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

113

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS

the reasons for these variations in Hill Swallow due to low

sample sizes, failure to control for the clutch sizes and lack

of data on the temporal variations in micro-climate.

As reported for the conspecific H. tahitica (Hails 1984),

the hatching and fledgling success rates were significantly

higher in H. domicola compared to other tropical birds

(Stutchbury and Morton 2001). However, high hatching

(90% or more) and fledgling success (38-80%) rates are

commonly reported for most species of hirundines (Turner

2004) and the species build nests in caves and man-made

structures (Lack 1954). The overall nesting success (Table 3)

calculated based on the Mayfield method was also slightly

higher than the average success rates (<23%) reported for

tropical species but lower than the temperate (27-60%) species

(Robinson et al. 2000; Stutchbury and Morton 2001). Nests

placed in tunnel/culvert sites experienced more failures

compared to the nests in building and this may be due to the

apparently high inaccessibility of the nests placed in latter.

Predation at the nests was reported minimal in majority

of the hirundine species studied (Earle 1989; Jackson and

Spottiswoode 2004; Turner 2004). However, fourteen of the

20 nest failures of Hill Swallows were characterised by the

disappearance of eggs or nestlings. Eggs disappeared from

10 nests (in one instance the broken eggs were found on

ground below the nest) and nestling from four nests. The only

predation event observed was by the Garden Lizard Calotes

versicolor , which consumed the eggs from nest placed in a

building site. In two nests, the nestlings were found dead due

to the attack of red ants. Other potential predators/destructors

observed at the breeding sites include snakes (e.g., Indian

Rat Snake Ptyas mucosa), owls (unidentified species) and

several species of bats. Bats (Indian False Vampire Bat

Megaderma lyra) and lizards ( Gekko gecko or Gekko stentor)

are reported as important predators of H. tahitica (see Hails

1984). However, further intensive studies using advanced

methods (e.g., video surveillance monitoring) are required to

identify the nest predators of H. domicola. Another major

REFE

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact ed. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Balakrishnan, P. (2007): Status, distribution and ecology of the Grey¬

headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocepluilus in the Western Ghats,

India. Ph.D. thesis, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.

Basha, S.C. (1999): Forest types of Silent Valley. Pp. 109-116.

In: Manoharan, T.M., S.D. Biju. T.S. Nayar & PS. Easa (Eds):

Silent Valley Whispers of Reason. Kerala Forest Department,

Thiruvananthapuram.

Conway, C.J. & T.E. Martin (2000a): Effects of ambient temperature

on avian incubation behaviour. Behavioral Ecology 11: 178-188.

Conway, C.J. & T.E. Martin (2000b): Evolution of passerine incubation

behaviour: influence of food, temperature, and nest predation.

Evolution 54: 670-685.

cause of nest failure was the nest falling during incubation,

which is commonly reported for several species of hirundines

(Hails 1984; Oatley 2002; Jackson and Spottiswoode 2004).

Oatley (2002) also noted that the durability of the nests may

depend on the quality and composition of the mud used for

nest construction. This indicates that the availability of

suitable wet mud may be an important factor determining the

outcome of breeding in hirundines.

In conclusion, the results of the present study provide

further evidence that members of the Family Hirundinidae

show substantial variation in the reproductive traits which

are apparently atypical of tropical birds (e.g., longer

developmental periods). However, the clutch size recorded

in this study is the lowest record for the genus. The many

differences in the life history traits (clutch size, developmental

periods and parental care) enumerated herein also support

the recent erection (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) of

H. domicola as a distinct species from H. tahitica.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late

Dr. Ravi Sankaran, whose encyclopedic knowledge of cave¬

dwelling birds and his passion for avian conservation were

so generously shared. For helpful discussions, support and

comments, I would like to thank V.S. Vijayan, L. Vijayan,

RA. Azeez, P. Pramod, K.S. A. Das, D. Mukherjee, S. Manchi,

T.V. Sajeev, A.P. Zaibin andT.N. Bindu. I am greatly indebted

to Krushnamegh Kunte and C. Spottiswoode for help with

literature and Karuppusamy, Jose, Mohandas, Sainudheen,

Krishnan and Mari for their assistance in the field. I thank

Kerala Forest Department for permissions and logistic support

during this study. Data for this paper was collected as a part

of a project funded by the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India. Critical comments by T.N.

Bindu and the anonymous referees were helpful in improving

the manuscript.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

116-121

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OP THE COROMANDEL

Anantanarayanan Raman1

'Charles Sturt University & E. H. Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation. PO Box 883, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia.

Email: [email protected]

Russell’s Viper Daboia russelii occurs almost in all South Asian countries and is a major cause of human fatality. The

biological name of this reptile celebrates Patrick Russell (1726-1805), a Scottish surgeon and naturalist, who worked

in the Madras Presidency. He initiated the formal study of snakes of India. Patrick Russell accompanied his younger

brother Claud Russell, from Edinburgh to Visakapatnam on the Coromandel Coast, when Claud was offered the post

of Administrator of Visakapatnam in 1781. From Visakapatnam, Patrick travelled south to meet Johann Gerhard Konig

at Tarangampadi in June 1781. On Konig’s death in June 1785, the Governor of Madras offered the post of Botanist-

Naturalist to Patrick till then held by Konig. Russell accepted the position in November 1785 and worked in the

Coromandel until 1789. On acceptance of the job, Russell’s first dictates were to catalogue the economically useful

plants of Madras and to publish Konig’s scientific notes. Snakes were a problem in the Madras Presidency, especially

in rural areas. To enable people to distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous. Russell developed and distributed

an advisory notice that included illustrations of the mouth parts of common snakes and descriptions as to whether they

were poisonous or not. During his stay in the Madras Presidency, Russell as a medical practitioner, supported Tanjore

pills, a locally made, purported remedy for snake bites, although he rejected its validity later, after his return to

London. He presented the bamboo pith material ( tabashir ), an established source of silica, at the Royal Society meeting

in 1790. While in the Coromandel, Russell gathered information about the habits and reputations of several snakes and

their local names. He tested their venomous nature. He used Linnean criterion referring to the presence (or absence) of

abdominal and sub-caudal scuta to separate his first collection of 43 snake taxa. He determined three genera: Boa ,

Coluber , and Anguis. Russell established Katuka-rekula-poda (Telugu) as a venomous snake, next in toxicity only to

the spectacled Indian Cobra Naja naja. Testing the clinical features of bites of venomous snakes in dogs and chicken,

he described the neurotoxic and haemorrhagic manifestations of viper venoms. He donated his collection of snake

skins to the British Museum (Natural History), London. He published the first volume of his book an account of

Indian serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel in 1796; the first and second parts of the second volume

appeared in 1801 and 1802. The third and fourth parts of second volume were published, after his death, in 1807 and

1809. Edward Nicholson (Surgeon, Madras Medical Establishment, Bangalore (now Bengaluru)), who wrote a major

treatise on Indian snakes (1874), values Russell as a pioneer in Indian Zoology.

Key words: Alexander Russell, Claud Russell, Coromandel, Daboia russelii, Johann Gerhard Konig, Katuka-rekula-

poda, Madras Presidency, Patrick Russell, Russell’s Viper, tabashir, Tanjore pills, Vipera russelii, Visakapatnam,

William Roxburgh

INTRODUCTION

The Russell’s Viper Daboia russelii (Shaw et Nodder)

(previously Vipera russelii) (Adler et al. 2000) occurs almost

in all southern and south-eastern Asian countries and is a

major cause of human fatality. Russell’s Viper and Common

Cobra bites account for 75% of deaths in Sri Lankan farms

(Goldfrank et al. 2002). The venom of D. russelii has evoked

considerable interest in medicine. Its precoagulant activity

has been thoroughly studied to understand the mechanism of

blood clotting in humans. Up to 70% of the protein venom is

phospholipase. Clinical effects of phospholipase are

haemolysis, rhabdomyolysis, pre-synaptic neurotoxicity,

vasodilatation, and shock. Russell’s Viper venom induces

renal failure. The venom composition varies depending on

the geography of distribution of the reptile, indicating

subspecific variation in the taxon (Jayanthi and Gowda 1988;

Tsai et al. 1996). Based on multivariate morphometric and

mitochondrial-DNA data, the Thailand taxon, D. russelii

siamensis, is now recommended to be treated as a separate

species: Daboia siamensis (Thorpe et al. 2007). The other

recognized subspecies are D. russelii fonnosensis (Taiwan),

D. russelii limitis (Indonesia), D. russelii pulchella (Sri

Lanka), D. russelii nordicus (northern India) (Mallow et al.

2003). Such variations also reflect the way in which pain and

suffering manifest in humans; in Myanmar when bitten by

Russell’s Viper conjunctival oedema occurs, those in southern

India suffer acute pituitary infarction, and those in Sri Lanka

and southern India suffer rhabdomyolysis. neurotoxicity, and

even ischemic strokes. Death occurs mainly due to shock,

pituitary and intracranial haemorrhage, gastrointestinal

haemorrhage and renal necrosis (Warrell 1989).

The biological name of this reptile celebrates Patrick

Russell, a Scottish surgeon and naturalist, who worked in the

Madras Presidency in the 18th century (Anonymous 1811).

He pioneered the formal study of Indian snakes.

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

BIOGRAPHY

Patrick Russell (Fig. 1) was born in Edinburgh on

February 06, 1726; he completed his schooling and university

education in Edinburgh, and graduated with an MD like his

elder-half brother Alexander Russell. Alexander was a medical

officer in an English factory in Aleppo (36° 10' N, 37° 15' E;

the Ottoman Empire; now in Syria). On Alexander’s return

to UK, Patrick succeeded him in 1750. He endeared himself

so well with the locals that the Badshah of Aleppo honoured

that he could wear a turban — a rare privilege accorded to a

non-Turk (Hawgood 1994). Alexander Russell was gathering

information for a book on the natural history of Aleppo in

1756 and he sought Patrick to pursue the subject further.

Driven by the affection for his brother, Patrick documented

the natural history of Aleppo and transmitted information

regularly to Alexander settled in Britain. For instance, Patrick

meticulously recorded the details and consequences of a series

of earthquakes that rocked Aleppo in 1759. His letters to

Alexander describing seismology of Aleppo earthquakes are

published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society (‘Of the late earthquakes in Syria’, 1760, 9: 437).

Between 1760 and 1762, Aleppo experienced severe bouts

of plague. When other British medical officers avoided

treating the sick, Patrick voluntarily treated them, although

his employment was only with the English factory. He treated

so many of the afflicted that he got to know the etiology of

the disease well. He recorded his observations meticulously.

In 1767, he sent a note on ‘inoculation for smallpox’ as

practiced by the Arabs, which was read in the meeting of the

Royal Society of London on May 05, 1768 (‘On the

inoculation in Arabia’, 1768, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 12 : 529).

He returned to Edinburgh in 1772, travelling leisurely through

Italy and France. He planned to settle in Edinburgh and set

up medical practice, when his and Alexander’s friend-and-

colleague John Fothergill suggested that Patrick should

practice medicine in London. Patrick practiced medicine in

London for nearly a decade. During this period he was elected

a Fellow of the Royal Society. A nomination was filed with

the Royal Society (Steams 1954; p. 85), stating:

‘Patrick Russell of Buckingham Street York Buildings,

Doctor of Physic, being desirous of the honour of becoming

a Fellow of the Royal Society, we whose Names are

underwritten do recommend him from our personal

knowledge as very likely to become a useful and valuable

member, being well-skilled in many branches of Natural

knowledge.’

C. Morton, Jos Banks, James Stuart, John R. Forster,

A. Dalrymple, S. Fleming, Dan Solander, James Welsh, Matt

Roper, William Hunter, S. Horsley, Will Russell, Robert

Fig. 1 : Patrick Russell

Melvill, Robert Mylne, N. Maskelyne, Thos Dickson, George

Forster, J. Lloyd, and Ph. Duval. — Dated April 04, 1777.

Russell was elected to the Royal Society Fellowship

on November 27, 1777.

Patrick Russell accompanied his sick younger brother

Claud Russell (Note: spelt ‘Claud’ and ‘Claude’ by different

authors), who was offered the post of Administrator of

Visakapatnam in Madras Presidency, ruled by the English

East-India Company (EEIC) in 1781. While in Visakapatnam,

Patrick travelled south, along the Coromandel, to meet Johann

Gerhard Konig at Tarangampadi (Tranquebar) in June 1781.

On Konig’s death in Jegrenatpuram near Tarangampadi in

June 1785, the Governor of Madras offered the post of

Botanist-Naturalist to Patrick held by Konig. On Claud’s

insistence Patrick accepted the post in November 1785,

worked in the Coromandel until 1791 . On return to London,

he spent his time writing his scientific findings for professional

journals (e.g., Russell 1800; Russell and Home 1804). Russell

died after brief illness in London on July 02, 1805. He was

never married. In his will, he solicited that his property be

administered by Sir Hugh Inglis, Josiah Porcher, and his

brother Claud. Fulfilling his desire, he was buried in

Marylebone burial site in a modest manner on July 08, 1805.

A eulogy in the European magazine and London Review

( Anonymous 1811) speaks highly of the character of Patrick

Russell (‘Rusself. hereafter).

CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE IN THE

COROMANDEL: FACTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY

REMARKS

On accepting the Botanist-Naturalist post in Madras

Presidency, Russell’s first task was to catalogue the

economically useful plants of Madras. He drew a proposal to

achieve it. A principal dictate to Russell on his Coromandel

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

117

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

Fig. 2: An illustration from 'An Account of Indian Serpents

Collected on the Coast of Coromandel, Containing

Descriptions and Drawings of each Species, Together with

Experiments and Remarks on their Several Poisons’, 1796

employment was to publish Konig’s scientific notes. Joseph

Banks (1743-1820), British Botanist and founder of the

‘Society of Dilettanti’ (the predecessor of the Royal Society

of London), was nominated to supervise the publication

project. That the budget needed to publish Konig’s scientific

notes, Patrick insisted, was to be provided by Banks. By the

time the budget proposal arrived in Madras from Banks and

approved by EEIC, it was 1789 and Russell had resigned.

William Roxburgh was appointed to that position. Russell

seems to have been well disposed towards Roxburgh, which

is evident in the generously worded preface (foreword-?) he

wrote in Roxburgh's an account of the plants of the coast

of Coromandel (Roxburgh 1795-1820). Most vitally, Russell

played a significant role in convincing British botanists,

Joseph Banks in particular, that a network of naturalists

reporting to Kew should be established in India.

Snakes were a problem in Madras Presidency, especially

in rural areas. To enable people to distinguish the poisonous

from the non-poisonous. Russell developed an advisory notice

that included descriptions and illustrations of the mouth parts

of common snakes. In this context, Russell developed a

strategy to use the ICS (Indian Civil Service) machinery to

obtain information and previously collected data on India’s

natural history. In high likelihood this strategy inspired

Edward Green Balfour to obtain climate data and details on

the loss of forest cover in southern India nearly 50 years later

(Balfour 1849; Grove 1996; Raman 2009). In 1787, Russell

impressed on the Directors of Madras Council to distribute

Fig. 3: An illustration from ‘Descriptions and Figures of

Two Hundred Fishes; Collected at Visakapatnam on the Coast

of the Coromandel’, 1803

questionnaires seeking information on snakes. The results

were summarized, synthesized, and developed into the notice,

which was printed and distributed throughout the Presidency

by the Government.

In the late 18,h century southern India, vaidya (local

medical practitioners) used Tanjore Pills to treat snake

poisoning. Government chemists tested and found that this

pill included mercury, arsenic, black pepper, and a few other

unidentifiable materials (see Nair 2005). Russell, for some

reason, developed faith in these pills, although his friend and

colleague William Duffin, a surgeon practicing in Vellore,

disputed the usefulness and validity of these pillsA. Russell

argued ‘efficacy was a matter of difficult discussions’ and

remained favourably disposed towards it; he also argued that

further tests should confirm its usefulness (see Appendix).

Russell worked on the plague manuscript, which he had

drafted while in Aleppo, and sent the finalized version to his

associates William Robertson, Adam Ferguson, and Adam

Smith in UK in 1787, possibly seeking their review and

remarks. This manuscript was published as a treatise of the

plague by G.G. & J. Robinson in London in 1791, after his

return to London. In addition to vital medical details, this

volumeA includes other useful information such as quarantine

regulations and weather in the context of the disease.

118

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

By 1789 Patrick had accumulated a significant

collection of fishes and plants, which he deposited with the

East-India Company’s Museum. On March 11, 1790, he

presented at the Royal Society ‘An account of the tabasheer,

a medicine in high repute in many parts of the East’ . Tobashir ,

the soft pith material from bamboo culms, was considered of

extraordinary value in India. This presentation, later published

in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in

1790(76: 653), was first submitted as a letter to Joseph Banks,

President of the Royal Society. Russell orally presented the

details of tabashir and displayed specimens of pith material

of Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. (Poaceae) from which

tabashir was obtained. Worthwhile it would be here to refer

to the study of tabashir by Jacques Louis Macie (who changed

his name to James Smithson in 1802) published in the

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1721,

which determined tabashir as the near-pure form of silex (pure

form of silica). Tabashir occurs in the nodes of the female

trees of B. arundinacea and includes silica at about 90%; it

also includes iron (as peroxide), calcium, alumina (aluminium

oxide), choline (a species of B-complex vitamins), and betaine

(a neutral compound with positively charged cationic

functional group). Traditional medical practice of India values

tabashir as an expectorant, tonic, stimulant, aphrodisiac, and

uses it in treatment of blood-borne tuberculosis, bronchitis,

and asthma (Puri 1970). Blended minerals render tabashir as

an effective remineralizing agent useful in treatments of

osteoarthritis and osteoporosis (Kamick 1975).

Patrick Russell’s favourite brother Alexander died in

the UK in 1768 leaving his notes on the natural history of

Aleppo unfinished and the proposed volume unpublished.

Patrick Russell completed the task and published natural

history of aleppo as two volumes with G.G. & J. Robinson in

London in 1794: the first volume carried Alexander Russell’s

name as the author (although Patrick Russell did much work

on this volume, he has preferred to refer himself as the

‘editor’), whereas the second carried his name as the author.

While in the Coromandel, Russell was concerned with the

lack of any systematic knowledge of snakes and the effects

of snakebites. He gathered information about the habits and

reputations of several snakes and their local names. He tested

their venomous nature. He used the Linnean criteria of the

presence or absence of abdominal and of sub-caudal scuta to

separate his first collection of 43 snake taxa. He determined

three genera in this collection, namely Boa (Squamata:

Boideae), Coluber (Squamata: Colubridae), and Anguis

(Squamata: Anguidae). He also came across a poisonous

snake, referred in Telugu as Katuka-rekula-poda*

(Vijayaraghavan 1998). He included an illustration of this

reptile in his book, which was later described as Coluber

russelli by George Shaw and Fredrick Nodder (British

Museum, Natural History, London) in naturalists miscellany

(1797), subsequently revised as Vipera russelli in 1890 (see

David and Dubois 2001 ). The current valid binomial is Daboia

russelii. This came to be known as Russell’s viper.

Russell established that Katuka-rekula-poda is a

venomous snake, next in toxicity only to the spectacled cobra

(Naja naja). Testing the clinical features of bites of venomous

snakes in dogs and chicken, he described the neurotoxic and

haemorrhagic manifestations of viper venoms. On return to

UK, he donated his collection of snake skins to the British

Museum (Natural History), London. He published the first

volume of his book an account of Indian serpents collected

on the coast of Coromandel in 1796; the first and second

parts of the second volume appeared in 1801 and 1802

(Appendix). The third and fourth parts of second volume were

published after his death in 1807 and 1809. On December

22, 1796, a copy of Patrick Russell’s an account of Indian

SERPENTS COLLECTED ON THE COAST OF COROMANDEL (Fig. 2) Was

presented to the Royal Society along with the first of two

volumes an account of the plants of the coast of

Coromandel written by William Roxburgh, which included

an introduction by Russell. Russell’s last book descriptions

AND FIGURES OF TWO HUNDRED FISHES; COLLECTED AT VIZAGAPATAM

AThis version is available in Anonymous (1811). Chakrabarti (2006) provides a different version: In September 1788, William Duffin - a surgeon in Vellore

and a few other local western-medical practitioners wrote a rejoinder to the Madras Hospital Board, relaying the following message ‘although the results of

tests conducted by Government Chemists on Tanjore Pills were convincing, some of the materials contained in them were to be reconsidered for a general

recommendation for public use’. Duffin et al. sought the government to publish details of ingredients of Tanjore pills. James Anderson submitted a report

to the Government on Tanjore Pills listing its ingredients in November 1788; his report referred to arsenic as a major component. Because of arsenic,

Anderson did not recommend use of these pills. Anderson’s recommendation was disputed by William Duffin, now the Head Surgeon in Madras Hospital

(date unavailable). Duffin argued that despite arsenic, he found the pills beneficial in a majority of patients he had treated, and added that he had earlier

transmitted his findings to Patrick Russell, Physician-Botanist to the English East-India Company, who, in turn, had transmitted details of the Tanjore pills

to the Royal Society in London. Duffin further argued that he was conducting experiments with the pills to establish its use. However, Russell in his volume

on Indian snakes published in London in 1796 revised his stand on these pills describing that his experiments with these pills were inconclusive, and the pills

were ineffective.

BThe name Katuka-rekula-poda (Telugu) of the reptile what came to be known later as Daboia russelii raises the question of the knowledge of snakes in

general and that of Russell’s viper in particular in India of pre-English days. Long passages on snakes exist in the Suurutasamhita s Kalpasthana (Meulenbeld

1999): chapter 4 refers to a classification system, nature of poisons, and symptoms of poisoning (pp. 292-294); chapter 5 refers to treating venomous snake

bites (pp. 294-295).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

119

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

on the coast of the Coromandel (Fig. 3) was published by

G & W Nicol in London in 1803.

CONCLUSION

Russell employed an Indian (name unavailable) from

Visakapatnam to illustrate snakes and fishes for his books.

He has the following to say about the skill of the artist: “A

native painter whom I retained in my employment has made

progressive improvement in this line. Endured by nature with

a quick eye, patient and docile, he quickly learned in a short

time to delineate so accurately the parts pointed out to him

that his figures howsoever deficient in art and grace, may in

general be relied on in respect to fidelity in representation.”

(Chaitanya 1994; p. 105).

Albert C.L.G. Gunther’s the reptiles of British india

( 1 864) is the first, systematically organized, fauna volume on

Indian snakes. Edward Nicholson (1874) (Surgeon, Army

Adler, K., H.M. Smith, S.H. Prince, P. David & D. Chizar (2000):

Russell's viper: Daboia russelii not Daboia russelli , due to classical

Latin rules. Hamadryad (The Centre for Herpetology, Madras

Crocodile Bank Trust) 25: 83-85.

Anonymous (1811): Memoirs of the life and writings of Patrick Russell,

M.D., F.R.S. The European Magazine and London Review 59-60:

3-8.

Balfour, E.G. (1849): Notes on the influence exercised by trees in

inducing rain and preserving moisture. Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci. 25:

402-448.

Chaitanya, K. (1994): A history of Indian painting: modem period.

Abhinav Publications, New Delhi.

Chakrabarti, P. (2006): “Neither of meate nor drinke, but what the

Doctor alloweth”: medicine amidst war and commerce in

eighteenth-century Madras. Bull. Hist. Med. 80: 1-36.

David, P. & A. Dubois (2001) A herpetological analysis of Shaw and

Nodder’s Vivarium Naturae or The Naturalist’s Miscellany (1789-

1813), a 24-volume series on natural history. Newsl. Bull. Intemat.

Soc. Hist. Bibliog. Herpet. 2: 5-39.

Goldfrank, L.R., N.E. Flomenbaum, N.A. Lewin, M.A. Howland, R.S.

Hoffman & L.S. Nelson (2002): Goldfrank's toxicologic

emergencies (7th Edition). McGraw-Hill, Sydney.

Grove, R.H. (1996): Green imperialism: colonial expansion, tropical

island Edens and the origins of environmentalism, 1600-1860.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hawgood, B.J. (1994): The life and viper of Dr. Patrick Russell M.D.,

F.R.S. (1727-1805): physician and naturalist. To.xicon 32: 1295-

1304.

Jayanthi, G.P. & T.V. Gowda (1988): Geographical variation in India in

the composition and lethal potency of Russell’s viper (Vipera

russelli) venom. Toxicon 26: 257-264.

Karnick, C.R. (1975): On comparative values of Indian and Chinese

medicinal plants. Pharmaceut. Biol. 15: 2028-2046.

Mallow, D., D. Ludwig & G Nilson (2003): True vipers: natural history

and toxicology of Old World vipers. Krieger Publishing Company,

Malabar. Florida. 359 pp.

Meulenbeld, GJ. (1999): A history of Indian medical Literature. Volume

Medical Department, Madras Presidency, Bangalore) says the

following in the preface of his volume Indian snakes: an

ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON INDIAN OPHIOLOGY WITH A DESCRIPTIVE

CATALOGUE OF THE SNAKES FOUND IN INDIA AND THE ADJOINING

countries dated April 1874: “I cannot omit to mention

Russell’s account of Indian serpents, 1 796; however antique

and unfitted for the guidance of the student, it will always be

of interest as the work of a pioneer in Indian zoology.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

D. Wujastyk (Institut fur SUdasien-, Tibet- und

Buddhismuskunde, Universitat Wien, A- 1090 Vienna, Austria)

and B. Vijayaraghavan (£ennai Snake Park Trust, Madras,

India) helpfully supplied different published papers.

D. Wujastyk, B. Vijayaraghavan, and T.N. Ananthakrishnan

( Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA) read the final draft and offered

useful remarks. I am grateful to them for their kindness.

XV: la and lb. Groningen Oriental Studies-III, Egbert Forsten,

Groningen.

Nair, S.P. (2005): Native collecting and natural knowledge (1798-1832):

Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore as a ‘Centre of Calculation’. Jour. Roy.

Asiat. Soc. Gt Brit, and Irel. (Third Series). 15: 279-302.

Puri, H.S. (1970): Indian medicinal plants used in elixirs and tonics.

Pharmaceut. Biol. 10: 1555-1566.

Raman, A. (2009): Climate-change studies and reforestation efforts in

the eighteenth and nineteenth century peninsular India. Intemat.

Jour. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 35: 281-287.

Roxburgh, W. (1795-1820): Plants of the coast of Coromandel. Three

volumes. Bulmer & Co., London [Reprinted by: Bishen Singh

Mahendra Pal Singh, 1981, Dehradun],

Russell, P. (1800): An account of two cases, showing the existence of

the small-pox and the measles in the same person at the same

time; and an Account of a case of ague in a child in utero. Trans.

Med. Chirurg. 2: 90.

Russell, P. & E. Home (1804): Observations on the orifices found in

certain poisonous snakes, situated between the nostril and the eye,

with some remarks on the structure of those orifices; and the

description of a bag connected with the eye, met with in the same

snakes. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 94: 70-76.

Stearns, R.P. (1954): Fellows of the Royal Society in North Africa and

the Levant, 1662-1800. Notes and Rec. Roy. Soc. Land. 11: 75-90.

Thorpe. R.S., C.E. Poor & A. Malhotra (2007): Phylogeography of

the Russell’s viper ( Daboia russelii) complex in relation to

variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming.

Herpet. Jour. 17: 209-218.

Tsai, I.H., PJ. Lu& J.C. Su(1996): Two types of Russell’s viper revealed

by variation in phospholipases A2 from venom of the subspecies.

Toxicon 34: 99-109.

Vijayaraghavan, B. (1998): A brief history of Indian Ophiology. Snake

Studies: India — CSPT Occasional Paper # 1 , (Tennai Snake Park

Trust (CSPT), Rajbhavan Post, Madras.

Warrell, D.A. (1989): Snake venoms in science and clinical medicine

1. Russell's viper: biology, venom and treatment of bites. Trans.

Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 83: 732-740.

120

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

Appendix

Notes on Patrick Russell’s volumes on snakes and fishes

An Account of Indian Serpents Collected on the Coast of

Coromandel, containing descriptions and drawings of each

species, together with experiments and remarks on their several

poisons. Volume 1. George Nicol, London, 1796. 90 pages,

46 plates (44 colour) [Presented to the Hon. The Court of

Directors of the East-lndia Company, and published by their

Order, under the Superintendence of the Author. Imperial Folio.

31. 13s. 6d. Boards]

A continuation of an Account of Indian Serpents Collected on

the Coast of Coromandel. Volume 2. George Nicol, London,

1801.

In Volume 1 , Russell describes 43 species of snakes belonging

to the Boa, Coluber, and Anguis. He also describes the anatomy

of the mouth and the poison fangs, the experiments he

conducted to estimate the role of snake bites, and details of

various remedies. He describes 43 species belonging to the

three Linnean genera of Boa, Coluber, and Anguis plus

information on their poison apparatus, wherever applicable. At

that point of time, his volume of immense use for the people of

Madras presidency (and India) in recognizing the poisonous

ones from the non-poisonous. Out of the 43 described only

seven were poisonous, He comments: “ . . . nor does the venom

of any appears to be nearly as active as that of the rattle-snake.

The general effects of the progress of the poison appear to be

pain and subsequent contraction of the part wounded, paralysis,

stupor, vomiting, convulsions, and death. These symptoms,

however, are subject to occasional variations, according to the

strength and other circumstances of the bitten animal, and

appear to be considerably retarded by violent, exercise after

being bitten.” He trialled on chicken, rabbits, and dogs, and he

found that larger the animal, the greater length of time occurred

before its death: in one or two instances, dogs recovered; a

bitten horse and pig survived. One of his key findings is that the

artificial insertion of poison is much less dangerous than when

the wound is inflicted by the snake itself. Chicken wounded by

poisoned lancets generally died: but the dogs that were

subjected to artificial-insertion experiment recovered, some

without any symptoms, and the rest with slight symptoms. The

most celebrated remedy in India for the bite of a serpent is the

Tanjore pill, the principal active ingredient in which is white

arsenic; of which each pill, of six grains, contains about three-

fourths of a grain. This was given to several dogs and chickens

after having been bitten, but of these the greater number died;

and in the few that recovered, the action of the medicine was

so very equivocal as to destroy all confidence in it: the same

may be said of the application of the actual cautery, and of

alkaline and acid caustics. A few cases are given of the effects

of the bite of serpents on the human species. The symptoms

appear to have been very severe, and occasionally to have

terminated fatally; in those that ended successfully, the Tanjore

pill, Madeira wine, and eau de luce were administered separately

or united, with seemingly good effects.

Descriptions and figures of two hundred fishes; collected at

Vlzagapatam on the coast of the Coromandel. 2 volumes,

George & W Nicol, London, 1803.

A pioneering work illustrated by a native artist. Russell was

stimulated by Banks to study the fishes of the Coast of

Coromandel north of Madras: “Sir Joseph Banks, who honoured

me with his correspondence, suggested how defective the

history of Indian Fishes was in Europe at that time, and

encouraged me to proceed” (Preface). The drawings of this

Collection ( sic ‘in this volume’), as before mentioned, were

executed by a native of India; and by the advice of artists at

home have undergone only a few slight corrections’ (Preface).

The engravings are by Heath, others by Neele and 2 or 3 by

Skelton, but for the greater part by Reeve. Due to environmental

conditions Russell was unable to have the plates coloured, which

was his original intention, like he had done with his previously

published work on the snakes of India. ‘In a hot climate, the

colours of fish are more rapidly fugitive after death than in

serpents. They escape while the painter is adjusting his palette...’

(Preface).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

121

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

122-129

STUDY OF JUVENILE AND ADULT GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOURAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS (FABRICIUS) FEEDING

ON CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Madhavi V. Sawant1 2, Shiney Peter13, K.R. Kharat1 4 and B.P. Hardikar1-5

'Department of Zoology, KET’s V.G. Vaze College, Mulund (E), Mumbai 400 08 1 , Maharashtra, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

Insects are reared to study various aspects of their life cycle, behaviour and metabolism and for experimentation with

insecticides. In the present investigation, the newly hatched nymphs of Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius) feeding on

Calotropis gigantea were reared to adulthood in a laboratory to evaluate the developmental and behavioural

characteristics. On the basis of the experimental observations, it was concluded that under constant laboratory conditions

they could be grown and maintained for a longer period of time with maximum growth in length and weight. Under

optimum laboratory conditions, a strong correlation was observed between length and weight, in addition to extended

longevity and shortened nymphal periods.

Key words: Poecilocerus pictus, longevity, feeding, aggressiveness, nymphal periods, correlation coefficient

INTRODUCTION

Many industries need insects for research projects as

they develop insecticides, or insect resistant plant varieties

for organic farming and similar needs. A few species of

grasshopper sometimes occur in large numbers and cause

serious damage to vegetable crops and landscape ornamentals.

One species most commonly causing damage is the Painted

Grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius, 1775)

(Orthoptera: Acridoidea: Pyrgomorphidae), distributed in

South East Asia; it is a large grasshopper. The most noticeable

feature of this grasshopper is its long jumping hind legs, which

enable it to leap more than 20 times its body length. It mainly

feeds on the shrubby plants of Family Asclepiadaceae -

Calotropis procera and Calotropis gigantea. By the time the

insects reach adulthood the Calotropis sp. is completely

denuded, and the grasshopper migrates to adjacent

supplementary host plants. P pictus is an economic pest in

Pakistan and India where it is reported to damage a number

of food plants, including aubergine, citrus, cucurbits, potatoes

and tomatoes (Garod 2009). Sayed et al. (1994) studied the

effects of different food plants on the rate of consumption,

development and survival of Poecilocerus pictus under

laboratory conditions. The results indicated that the rate of

development of P pictus was faster on Calotropis sp. followed

by cotton, nerium, champa, pomegranate, maize, jamun,

tomato, rose sesame, shoeflower, sugarcane, and lemon.

Incidental observations indicate that P pictus are not easy to

kill with insecticides, once they become large. One has to

ensure that the insecticide is sprayed directly on the insects

as the insecticide residue remaining on sprayed plants is not

adequate to kill the grasshoppers.

Poecilocerus pictus sequesters and stores secondary

metabolites - cardenolides - obtained from Calotropis sp.,

its food plant, in the secretion of the defensive glands and

other parts of the body. Cardenolide content in different tissues

of gravid females has been analysed, and statistically

significant differences in its levels have been detected in the

metathoracic scent gland, ovary and egg, which were found to

sequester higher concentrations of cardenolides (Pugalenthi

and Livingstone 1995). The cardenolides are not toxic to the

grasshoppers, but they make them unpalatable to predators,

and become an important part of a grasshopper’s defence

system.

To study plant-insect relation and tolerance of the insect

to the toxins in the evolutionary path and its regulation to

avoid serious damage to crop and ornamental plants, it is

important to rear insects under laboratory conditions for a

longer period, as their availability in the wild/natural habitat

is restricted from late July to early November. In the present

investigation, we reared the Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius)

in the laboratory to maintain a year round supply and to get a

disease-free population. Information on the life cycle of

P. pictus are important parameters to rear the insects in

laboratory. While rearing this species in laboratory significant

parameters within its life cycle, such as oviposition,

developmental biology of immature stages, adult longevity,

behaviour and growth in terms of length and weight were

evaluated against their growth and behaviour in natural

habitat.

GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Collection and rearing

Adult P. pictus and their nymphs were collected during

August-October (2006-2009) from an area located on the

outskirts of Mumbai from an infested Calotropis gigantea.

The adults and nymphs were separated and kept in separate

cages. Adult insects collected directly from their natural

habitat were labelled as ‘Group I’, and the nymphs reared to

adulthood in the laboratory as ‘Group II'.

Sexes were identified and their growth parameters

(length and weight) were noted. Newly emerged nymphs were

caged over moist soil in the laboratory. A standard system

was developed for routine maintenance of P. pictus.

Sufficiently ventilated plastic baskets (45x30x45 cm)

with a fine mesh structure, offering protection and excellent

light transmission, were used as growth chambers. Two

wooden rods were placed horizontally inside these chambers

to support the moulting stage of the insects. Chambers were

provided with 8 to 10 cm of soil bed (mixture of moist soil or

clay and sand), which provided moisture as well as

surfaces on which to rest and oviposit. There was an opening

(45 x 30 cm) covered with polyvinyl sheath for introducing

food. Temperature fluctuations and relative humidity within

rearing chambers were measured every day throughout the

period of growth using a thermometer and thermo-hydrograph

respectively. The nymphs were exposed to photoperiod of

12 to 14 hours per day by keeping these chambers in maximum

daylight.

Nymphs were fed on fresh leaves of C. gigantea. The

amount and time of feeding was standardized by trial

and error method, after observing their feeding behaviour;

7-9 gm (wet weight) of fresh and thoroughly washed leaves

per chamber, thrice a day, after an interval of 8 hrs. Leaves

were kept away from direct sunlight to avoid drying.

To study the developmental stages, 8 sets of 5 to 6 newly

hatched first instar nymphs were placed in the growth chamber.

As sexual dimorphism was not obvious in nymphal stages, they

were tagged with whitener (as 1, 2, 3...). The sexes were

identified only after maturation. These nymphs were left

undisturbed to feed, moult, and eventually metamorphose into

adults. After every moult the instar was renumbered. All the

stages were observed daily till maturation and further till death

to determine longevity. Exuviae were removed as they appeared

and the duration of each instar with total number of instars and

nymphal periods in days were recorded.

Within 24 hrs of the last moult, adults were separated.

Batches of 5 to 6 males and 3 females were placed separately

in well-ventilated 5 rearing chambers having similar

conditions maintained as in growth chambers. Pre-

oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods in adult

females, and courtship and mating behaviour in males were

studied. Preliminary observations of mating and egg-laying

behaviour were carried out by observing the individual until

the end of the desired behaviour (Ganehiarachchi and

Fernando 2006) and duration of time for the behaviour was

recorded (n = 15).

Morphology and Morphometry

Morphological features of the eggs, nymphs and adults

were examined under magnifying lens. Length and breadth

of each egg pod, egg, and nymph from group T and adults

from both the groups were measured using dividers and

millimeter scale (Ganehiarachchi and Fernando 2006). Weight

of fully-grown adults from both the groups was also recorded;

they were placed in closed pre- weighed Petri-plates, to restrict

their movements while weighing. Weights were recorded

using a digital analytical balance calibrated with IDEMI

certified weights.

Perception of odour by human volunteers

P. pictus has a noxious odour as well as bright

yellow bands on its body which probably act as repellent

for predators. P. pictus odour is more noxious than that of

Calotropis sp. The degree of noxiousness of the odour

was evaluated as described elsewhere (Idowu and Idowu

1999). Ten insects at different developmental stages were

placed in different conical flasks covered with foil. The flasks

were numbered 1-3 corresponding to ( 1 ) instar 2, (2) instar

5, and (3) adult stages. The flasks were thoroughly shaken

before presentation. The order of presentation of flasks was

changed for each volunteer. A time gap of 30 minutes was

allowed between presentations of samples. The perception

of odour by 38 human volunteers was recorded as

follows:

1) Very Strong: immediate response

2) Strong: within 5-15 seconds

3) Weak: within 20 - 25 seconds

4) No effect: The volunteer did not perceive the odour

The intensity of the odour was allotted 3, 2, 1 and 0

scores respectively.

Statistical analysis

Results obtained were statistically analyzed using

student’s t-test and expressed as Mean ±SD of the

experimental observations.

For all comparisons, significance was determined at

P<0.05. Linear regression (Curxpt software) and Correlation

coefficient between length and weight of grasshoppers in

Group I and II were analysed.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

123

GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS

Fig. 1: Nymph Poecilocerus pictus

RESULTS

A. Behaviour patterns

1. Defensive Behaviour

Both nymphs and adults showed defensive behaviour.

Their aposematic coloration informs potential predators that

they are poisonous or unpalatable. The immature grasshopper

differs in appearance from the adults. Nymphs (Fig. 1)

typically are completely bright yellow with black and red

spots all over the body, whereas adults (Fig. 2) have bright

yellow and blue stripes alternately on whole body, including

antennae and legs. Hind wings of adult grasshoppers are bright

scarlet-red to orange, in sharp contrast to the often drab brown

with blackish blue mosaic pattern of the forewings. When

disturbed, they take to the air, diverting attention to the

brightly coloured and flashy hind wing, and disappear from

sight by folding their wings, landing, and cryptically blending

into the background. Nymphs (as they cannot fly), and

sometimes adults, hide behind leaves and rod placed inside

the chamber or hop and drop themselves from whatever they

are holding and hop away from the site. Nymphs forcibly

eject a secretion stored in the salivary system, closely

associated with the crop and midgut, several times, over

30 cm, in the direction of the disturbance. The Nymphs

Table 1 : Perception of the odour of the body of P. pictus by

human volunteers

Sample Percentage of respondents stating how they

perceive the odour of P. pictus n=38 (100%)

Very strong Strong Weak No smell

2nd instar 13.16* 31.58* 52.63* 2.63*

5th instar 21.05** 47.37** 31.58* 0.00 (NS)

Adult 31.58** 65.79** 2.63* 0.00 (NS)

*: Statistically Significant, **: Highly Significant, NS: Statistically

not significant

Fig. 2: Adult Poecilocerus pictus

simultaneously contract the abdomen to force air out of the

spiracles accompanied with a peculiar sound. In case of adults,

the secretion flows down the sides of the body along lateral

grooves into the spiracles of the second abdominal segment

where it mixes with air to form a repellent froth.

Perception of odour of P. pictus by human

volunteers: The odour of the secretion was instantly recognized

by human volunteers as strong and repulsive. The response of

the volunteers indicated that a significantly different odour (t-

test, P>0.005, Table 1 ) is produced by P. pictus which is low in

2nd instar, intermediate in 5th, and high in the adult. Incidental

observation also showed that the secretion led to allergic

reactions, such as redness and rash on skin, at times swelling

and eye irritation (data not shown).

2. Feeding

Nymphs of P. pictus were successfully reared on

Calotropis gigantea in the laboratory. Wet and fresh leaves

were preferred by nymphs over dry and stored leaves, as fresh

leaves were juicy with latex. Positive reaction towards odour

of food and light was also observed. Average food

consumption of male and female in nymphal period was

2 gm and 4.45 gm per individual per day respectively. Feeding

rate increased during day time (between 10:00 and 12:00 hrs).

Feeding rate was highest during the second instar in both

sexes, males: 2.88 gm and females: 5.15 gm per day per

individual.

3. Moulting

Temperature of 29°C ±3 and 40-50% of relative

humidity was noted. All embryos of a single pod of P. pictus

wriggled out one after another within several minutes. After

shedding the membrane the young grasshoppers stood upright

and were able to jump away. P. pictus was reared in captivity

from Is' instar to adult: the moulting time was noted. During

each moult it held firmly to the wooden stick placed in the

chamber and then wriggled out of the skin. The process lasted

for 4-7 hours. The nymphs were more susceptible to

124

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GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS

infestation during moulting a variety of flies and ants. Red

mites were often seen as external parasites on P. pictus.

Wing pads of first to third instar hoppers were borne

saddle-like over the thorax. Wing pads of fourth and fifth

instar hoppers were pointed backward over the abdomen and

differed only in size. In the fourth instar, wing pads were

relatively small and extended only to the first abdominal

segment, while in the fifth instar they were large and extended

past the second abdominal segment. During the final moult,

when nymphs moult to an adult, the freshly formed wings

looked pinkish red, delicate, and shorter than the actual wings

of the adult. Within 2-2Vi hours they appeared as long as in

complete adult stage, showing the blue, green, yellow mosaic

pattern with a brown end, and stronger (strong enough to fly)

than the imago.

The new adult had fully functional wings but was not

immediately ready to reproduce. The female had a pre-

oviposition period of 15-30 days during which she increased

in weight till the first batch of eggs matured.

Individual variation in the duration of instars within

Group II was not statistically significant (P=0.05). The

variation in period of each instar, total nymphal periods and

number of instars between males and females of Group II

was statistically significant (P=0.05).

The entire nymphal period averaged 25 days for males

and 34 days for females. Each instar took four to five days to

complete development except for the last instar, which

took seven to ten days. Adult longevity of males averaged

266 days, and that of females 273 days (Table 2).

4. Mating and Oviposition

Caged females of P. pictus usually became receptive to

courting males 2-5 days after their final moult, or even sooner

when crowded with 6 males in a growth chamber. The males

can copulate 5- 1 0 days after the final ecdysis. Males attracted

females both visually and acoustically, by short flights,

Table 2: Moulting periods of P. pictus in Group II, reared at a

temperature of 78.8 -89.6 °F (26-32 °C) and 30-40% relative

humidity, and fed on diet of fresh green leaves of C. gigantea

flashing their brightly coloured wings, snapping them

together, or both, producing a distinct sound (crepitation).

Males also attracted females by stridulation (scraping the hind

femur against the forewing). Female body coloration faded

after copulation. Table 3 includes number of clasping males

(1-5 individuals), number of copulations of females before

oviposition (2-17), and average mating time (3-14 hrs).

Abdominal ends of gravid females bend in an angle

and at that stage they were more lethargic. Oviposition started

15-30 days after the final moult and 13-25 days post¬

copulation for all 15 females, and was stimulated by wetting

the sand.

Female had two pairs of valves (triangle shapes) at end

of abdomen to dig in sand during egg laying. Each female

laid one or. rarely, two egg pods, with an average of 1 26 eggs

per egg pod. The egg pods were laid 2-3 inches deep in the

soil bed that the female deposited from her abdomen. The

egg-pod of P. pictus was elongated, soft, fragile and bent near

the base. A stout pod forms from frothy glue and soil

surrounding the eggs; froth was lacking between the eggs.

The frothy material probably protected the eggs from

parasites, desiccation and mechanical hazards.

Eggs (Fig. 3) varied in size, colour, and shell

sculpturing. Eggs were cylindrical, elongated and some were

Table 3: Copulation behaviour in P. pictus of Group II (n=15),

which includes number of clasping males/mating,

number of times female copulates before oviposition

and average copulation/mating in hours

Mean± SD 2.87±1.187 9±4.123 9.2±2.883

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

125

GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS

Fig. 3: P. pictus eggs separated from egg pod

slightly bent. They were yellow to dark brown in colour. The

egg-wall showed a mosaic hexagonal pattern.

Maximum egg pod length was 7.89 cm; mean egg

breadth and length was 7.59 mm and 0.9 mm respectively.

After oviposition. the blue-green coloration of the body stripes

of the female changed to light green.

S = 0 15085104

r = 0 81944287

Length of grasshopper (cm)

Fig. 4: Regression graph for Group I ‘Male’

S = 0 24496044

r = 0 83244693

Length of grasshopper (cm)

Fig. 5: Regression graph for Group II ‘Male’

B. Growth parameters

Lengths and weights

Using linear measurements of the body, linear

relationships have been demonstrated graphically in P. pictus

between the body weight and length (Figs 4-7).

Male and female grew to a maximum adult size of 7.55

±0.83 cm and 1 1.23 ±1.41 cm in length, and 3.19 ±0.41 gm

and 6.73 ±0.51 gm of wet weight, respectively, under

laboratory conditions. Whereas, males and females collected

from natural habitat (Group I) had a maximum size of 6.17

±0.76 cm, 8.32 ±0.96 cm in length, and 2.23 ±0.24 gm, 4.73

±0.47gm of wet weight, respectively.

The variation in weight as well as length of female

grasshoppers in Groups I and II was statistically significant

(Table 4, P<0.05), whereas the variation in mean length of

the male grasshoppers between both the groups was not

significant. The variation in the mean weight of males in both

the habitats is statistically significant (Table 4, P<0.05).

Females in both the groups were larger than males. Lengths

as well as weights of adult females were greater, statistically,

than those of the adult males (Table 4) at P<0.05. Fig. 8 shows

S = 0 26973644

r = 0 85953802

Length of grasshopper (cm)

Fig. 6: Regression graph for Group I ‘Female’

S = 0 14388725

r = 0 96294931

Fig. 7: Regression graph for Group II ‘Female’

126

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Male Female

* Lengths of G -I (cm) = Weights ofG-l (gm)

in Lengths of G-ll (cm) a Weights of G-ll (gm )

Fig. 8: Variation in mean length (cm) and weight (gm)

with SD for Groups I and II

variations in mean length and weight with standard deviation

of all groups (Group I and II).

In any organism body length and weight are partially

correlated with each other. In the present study, there

was perfect positive correlation in Group II ‘females’

(r= 0.962949), and partial positive correlation (r= 0.859538,

0.832446, 0.81944 respectively) in Group II ‘males’, and

Group I ‘males and females’ (Table 5).

DISCUSSION

In the present investigation, behavioural study, growth

pattern with the length and weight correlations are studied

together. The biology and behaviour of P. pictus were

described by some entomologists and zoologists in various

parts of India and Pakistan (Delvi and Pandian 1972a; Sayed

et al. 1994; Singhal 1976; Parihar 1971; Butani 1975).

However, many of these studies are limited either to

reproduction or food consumption and assimilation rates.

We observed that laboratory fed adult males P. pictus

were more active than their counterparts in natural conditions.

This is probably because adults in natural habitat stick to the

stems of host plant sucking the latex (as nymphs have

Table 4: Lengths and weights of P. pictus in Groups I and II

*: Statistically Significant, **: Highly Significant, NS: Statistically

not significant

voraciously defoliated the leaves), and the laboratory reared

P pictus were fed only on fresh leaves and the stems were

not available for them to hold onto. Further observation was

that nymphs eject the secretion forcibly several times in the

direction of a disturbance, whereas in adults the secretion

flows down the sides of the body along lateral grooves into

the spiracles of the second abdominal segment where it mixes

with air to form a repellent froth which was in accordance

with the observations reported by Qureshi and Ahmad (1970).

Perception of the odour of P. pictus by human volunteers was

studied for the first time. The study showed that the odour of

P. pictus was offensive and unpleasant. A similar description

was used for the odour of related grasshoppers by Whitman

( 1 990). The study has also shown that the production of odour

was maximum in adults. Gupta (1978) has reported that sex

pheromones are secreted in metathoracic and first 2 segments

of the abdomen by female P. pictus. Gillott (2003) reported

that secretions of accessory glands in male grasshopper

include noxious chemicals and various bio-molecules. Adult

P. pictus also produces appreciable volume of defensive

secretion (Qureshi and Wahid 1969). Production of

pheromones and defensive secretion might have contributed

to the volume of odour. We have noted repellent and irritant

responses of the defensive secretion of P. pictus on human

beings with rashes and allergic reaction on skin. Qureshi and

Wahid (1969) have described repellent, irritant and lethal

effects of the defensive secretion of Poecilocerus pictus in

laboratory experiments on fish, reptiles, birds and mammals,

but not on human beings.

It was clearly evident from our results that feeding rate

of the second instar nymphs in both the sexes was highest

(2.88 gm/day in males and 5.15 gm/day in female); female

nymphs were observed to consume twice the amount of food

than male nymphs. During the period of investigation average

food consumption of adult male and female was 2 gm and

4.45 gm/day/individual respectively. Contradicting our

results, Delvi and Pandian (1972b) reported that adult males

consume more food than adult females, i.e., 904 mg/gmbody

weight per day in males and. 662 mg/gm body weight per

day in females. Sayed et al. (1994) reported that P. pictus

(feeding on Calotropis sp.) adult female consumes 9.37 gm

Table 5: Correlation Coefficient between mean lengths and

weights in Groups I and II

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

127

GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS

food plant per day. Singhal (1976) studied consumption and

assimilation rates and reported higher consumption and

assimilation rates in males than females. However,

consumption rates are higher in females than in males in our

observation, probably because they have to prepare themselves

for oviposition. Photopositive responses and positive reaction

towards the odour of food is evident in our results and is in

agreement with that reported by Abdullah and Siddiqui (1971).

We observed no cannibalism in laboratory reared P. pictus

which was reported by Parihar ( 1974).

According to Delvi and Pandian (1972a) and Butani

(1975) hatching occurs during March- April, by August the

insects undergo six moults to become adult; oviposition occurs

during September-October, and death by early December. In

our study, hatching extended till August, there were six

nymphal stages for females and only five were noted in males

at a temperature of 29 ±3°C. The adults survived in healthy

conditions till March. Parihar (1971) mentioned six nymphal

stages at 30-35 °C, and six or seven stages at 25°C.

The nymphal period in laboratory condition was

25.1 days for males and 33.6 days for females, whereas as

mentioned by Butani ( 1975) the adults appear 4-6 weeks later,

i.e., within 28-42 days. The decrease in nymphal periods under

laboratory conditions may be probably due to adequate food,

temperature and humidity. Muthukrishnan and Delvi ( 1974)

had reported that reduced supplies of Ccilotropis gigantea

produce a number of negative effects on Poecilocerus pictus,

such as heavy mortality (42% at 25% ration of Ccilotropis

gigantea against 1 1% at 100% ration of Calotropis gigantea),

extension of larval period (from 75 days to 1 13 days), and an

increase in the number of instars (from 6 to 7).

Copulation and oviposition in Poecilocerus pictus took

place more or less in similar pattern with very few variations

as reported by Sheri (1976), Raziuddin et al. (1977) and

Parihar ( 1974, 1984). There was a slight degree of variation

in number of days in which the males and females become

ready for copulation after their emergence as adults, number

of clasping males, number of copulations of females before

oviposition, average mating time and number as well as

structure of egg-pods and egg. In addition, the phenomenon

of males attracting females in their reproductive stages by

visual and acoustic stimuli was also observed.

The growth efficiency, in our experiments was higher

in females as their weights are higher than males in both

laboratory conditions and natural habitat. Singhal (1976)

worked on growth efficiency ratios, which were higher in

females than in males. A female and male grew to a maximum

size of 5. 1 ±2.3 and 2.7 ± 1 .8 gm wet weight on the 236lh and

218th day of life respectively. Males are correlated with the

maximum weight attained (2.6 gm); females attain 5.0 gm in

a similar life span (about 265 days at 26 °C) Delvi and Pandian

(1972b). Weight gain was higher in laboratory conditions

(average 3. 19 gm for males and 6.73 gm for females).

The behaviour pattern and life cycle of laboratory reared

P. pictus was found to be more or less similar to already cited

reports. The noteworthy observations in the present study were

of longevity of adults and shortening of nymphal periods to

25.1-33.6 days, with the body achieving maximum length

and weight resulting in a perfect positive correlation of these

parameters.

REFERENCES

Abdullah, M. & S. Siddiqui (1971): The discovery of geotaxis in

Poecilocerus pictus (F.) (Orthoptera: Acrididae,

Pyrogomorphinae). Dtsch. Entomol. Z. 18: 199-205.

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Delvi, M.R. & T.J. Pandian (1972a): Ecological energetics of a

population of the grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus. Abstr. 14th

lnt. Congr. Ent. Canberra 1972. 196 pp.

Delvi, M.R. &T.J. Pandian (1972b): Rates of feeding and assimilation in

the grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus. J. Ins. Phys. 18: 1829-1843.

Ganehiarachchi, GA.S.M. & I.V.S. Fernando (2006): Biology of Pyrilla

perpusilla Walker (Homoptera: Lophopidae), A pest of sugarcane

in the west zone of Sri Lanka. J. Entomol. 3(1): 26-33.

Garod, S. (2009): Continent-hopper flies into UK uninvited, http://

www.inthenews.co.uk /news/uk/continent-hopper-flies-into-uk-

uninvited $ 1336268.htm or www.inthenews.co.uk.

Gillott, C. (2003): Male Accessory Gland Secretions: Modulators of

Female Reproductive Physiology and Behavior. Annu. Rev. Ento.

48: 163-184.

Gupta, B.D. (1978): Sex pheromone of Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricus)

(Acridoidea: Pyrogomorphidae): I. Experimental identification

and external morphology of the female sex pheromone gland.

Biochem Exp Biol. 14(2): 143-148.

Idowu, A.B. & O.A. Idowu (1999): Pharmacological properties of the

repellent secretion of Zonocerus variegates (L.) (Orthoptera:

Pyrgomorphidae). Rev. Biol. Prop. 47(4): 1015-1020.

Muthukrishnan, J. & M.R. Delvi (1974): Effect of ration levels on

food utilisation in the grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus. Oecologia

16(3): 227-236.

Parihar, D.R. (1971): Effect of constant temperature on development

of eggs and hoppers of the Aak grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus

(Fabricius) (Acridoidea: Pyrgomorphidae). Proc. Zool. Soc. 24:

61-76.

Parihar, D.R. (1974): Some observations on the life-history of aak

grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus (Acridodea [sic]:

Pyrgomorphidae) at Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India. J. Zool. Soc. India

26: 99-129.

Parihar, D.R. (1984): Structure of egg-pods and eggs in a grasshopper

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Morphol. Physiol. 31: 79-88.

Pugalenthi, P. & D. Livingstone (1995): Cardenolides (heart poisons)

in the painted grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus F. (Orthoptera:

Pyrgomorphidae) feeding on the milkweed Calotropis gigantea

L. (Asclepiadaceae). J. New York Entomol. Soc. 103(2): 191-196.

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Qureshi, S.A. & I. Ahmad (1970): Studies on the functional anatomy

and histology of the repellent gland of Poecilocerus pictus (F.)

(Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae). Proc. Royal Soc. Lon. (A) 45:

149-155.

Qureshi, S.A. & M.A. Wahid (1969): Pharmacology, chemistry and

behaviour of the repellent fluid of poisonous grasshopper,

Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (Pyrgomorphidae; Acridoidea

Orthoptera). Pakist. J. Biochem. 2: 50-54.

Raziuddin, M., T.R. Khan & S.B. Singh (1977): Observations on the

sexual behaviour and oviposition in the female grasshopper.

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Anz. 198: 63-67.

Sayed, T.S., M.S. Awan & G.H. Abro (1994): Effect of food

plant on the biology of Poecilocerus pictus Fab. food

consumption and rate of development. Pakist. J. Zool. 26(2):

105-108.

Sheri, A.N. (1976): Reproduction of a common grasshopper

Poikilocerus pictus Fabricius. Pakist. ./. agric. Sci. 13: 37-40.

Singhal, R.N., L.K. Vats & J.S. Singh (1976): Food-energy budget

for the aak grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus (Fabr.) (Acrididae:

Orthoptera). Indian J. Ecol. 3: 1 19-124.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

129

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

130-134

VARIABILITIES IN DIFFERENT BODY MEASUREMENTS

OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB. CARCINOSCORPIUS ROTUNDICAUDA (LATREILLE) COLLECTED

FROM SETIU AND GELANG PATAH HABITATS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

T.C. Srijaya13, PJ. Pradeep2, S. Mithun1-4, Anuar Hassan1-5, Faizah Shaharom1-6 and Anil Chatterji1-7

'Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu, 21030, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia.

department of Oral Pathology & Oral Medicine and Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry Building, University of Malaya, 50603

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]

3Entail : sreej ay amol @ yahoo.com

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]. my

6Email: [email protected]. my

’Email: [email protected]

Compansons of the body weight of two populations of Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Latreille) showed that the

body weight of the crabs collected from Setiu was greater (males=145+ 18.06 gm; females=250+ 13.79 gm) than the

crabs collected from Gelang Patah (males= 126+ 18.25 gm; females=170+21.79 gm). Regression coefficients (b-value)

differed significantly among groups and ranged from 0.41 (females of Setiu) to 2.93 (males of Gelang Patah). Length-

weight relationship did not follow isometric growth except the total length and body weight relationship of males of

Gelang Patah population. Maximum growth in weight was recorded for males from Setiu population where the increment

in weight was found to be double as compared to the increment in total length (b=2. 12). Maximum regression coefficient

values were recorded in males of Gelang Patah population (b=2.93) which showed that the increment in body weight

was greater than increment in carapace width confirming a significant relationship. Relationships between total lengths

and carapace length and width with body weight for females from Setiu population showed isometric growth.

Key words: Variabilities, body measurements, horseshoi

INTRODUCTION

Marine organisms in more stable environments show

isometric growth which helps these organisms to adapt to a

functional equilibrium of their body parts (Bas 1964).

Geographically widespread marine organisms can experience

variation in both environmental and anthropogenic impacts

across their ranges that can differentially influence the

expression of life history traits and population dynamics in

different populations (Chatterji 1994). Several reports show

that the size of an individual of the same species significantly

changes with change in the environmental conditions where

osmotic stress conditions play an important role on the normal

physiology of the animals (Tarnowska etal. 2009). The study

of morphological variations of marine organisms inhabiting

different areas of their ranges is one of the directions of

investigation for taxonomic diagnostic criteria.

Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Latreille), a eurytopic

species, is adapted to extreme environmental conditions, like

the low salinity or the extremely high summer temperatures

of the sea. They belong to the benthic community and prefer

calm sea or an estuary with muddy sand bottom (Grant 1984;

Kelsey and Hassall 1989). Most of the biogenic activities of

the horseshoe crab occur in the open ocean. The Asian species

of horseshoe crab migrate towards the shore throughout the

year to breed (Chatterji 1 994). Although detailed information

crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Peninsular Malaysia

on the complete life cycle of the animal is not yet known, it is

generally believed that the animal inhabits the littoral zone

of the sea, for most part of its life. Among four extant species

of horseshoe crab, C. rotundicauda has been reported to thrive

well in low saline areas and as such considered to be a

mangrove species (Mikkelsen 1988; Chatterji 1994).

Although ample data regarding the morphometric

characteristics of C. rotundicauda have been published

(Chatterji et al. 1988), there is no information available in

literature regarding the hypothesis of environment-mediated

morphometric changes in populations of this species collected

from different habitats. The objective of this study was

to analyze possible morphometric variations, including

length and weight relationships, among populations of the

horseshoe crab, C. rotundicauda (Latreille) collected from two

different environments, namely Setiu (Terengganu) and Gelang

Patah (Johor) in Peninsular Malaysia, to demonstrate the effects

of different ecological habitats on the growth of the animal.

MATERIAL. AND METHODS

Live horseshoe crabs, C. rotundicauda (Latreille) were

collected along the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia at

Setiu (Terengganu) (5° 42’ 60" N; 102° 42' 0" E) and western

coast at Gelang Patah (Johor) (1° 21' 4" N; 103° 32' 33" E)

during November 2008 and June 2009 (Fig. 1 ). The salinity

VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB

100 102 104

Fig. 1 : Locations of the sampling sites: (1 ) Setiu

and (2) Gelang Patah, Johor

of Setiu was within a range of 20-25 ppt, whereas that of

Gelang Patah is 31-33 ppt during November to June (Zaleha

et al. 2006). Samples were collected with the help of local

fishermen using gill nets 25 m long and 6 m wide, with 10 mm

mesh size. All collected crabs were brought to

the laboratory and kept in two separate fibreglass tanks of

5,000 litre capacity provided with continuous circulation of

seawater. Total length (tip of the carapace to tip of the telson),

carapace length, carapace width and telson length of each

specimen were recorded to the nearest millimetre using

Vernier Callipers. Weights of the specimens were determined

to 0. 1 gm on a monopan balance (electronic). Horseshoe crabs

were then grouped according to sex and sample location.

Length and weight data were analysed according to the

method of LeCren (1951) and Chatterji (1976), log

transformed and the regression of log length to weight

calculated by least square method. The equation /»W = Ina +

b InL was calculated separately for each group and a straight

line was fitted to scatter diagram using SPSS 1 1 .5 version

software. Covariance Analysis (Chatterji 1976) was used to

describe differences, if any, in the regression of In weight on

In total length, In carapace length, In carapace width and In

telson length of the two populations of the horseshoe crab.

After logarithmic transformation of the data, slopes of

the regression lines between body weight (BW) on total

length, carapace length, carapace width and telson length

Table 1 : Mean of different body measurements of the

horseshoe crab collected from two different habitats

taken as an independent variable and expressed as /nW = In a

+ b InL. The comparison between slopes was carried out by

means of ANOVA (P < 0.05). Two tests among the samples

of each period were made: (1) slope comparisons between

different morphometric relationships with weight to identify

possible differences in time, and (2) test of allometry to

observe the type of allometry and the changes that could have

taken place in two populations. The significance of all

regressions was tested by ANOVA, being significant for

P < 0.05 (Sokal and Rohlf 1979).

RESULTS

Total sample size of the horseshoe crab was 308 from

Setiu, ranging from 270 to 333 mm in total length and 112-

178 gm in weight for males (N= 1 33), and 241 to 389 mm in

length and 225-356 gm in weight for females (N= 175). Total

sample size was 3 1 8 crabs from Gelang Patah ranging from

229 to 323 mm in length and 83-200 gm in weight for males

(N=140), and 280 to 352 mm in length and 137-222 gm in

weight for females (N= 1 78).

In the Setiu crab population mean body weights were

greater in males (145 ±18.06 gm) and females (250

±13.79 gm) than crabs collected from Gelang Patah

(males=126 ±18.25 gm; females=170 ±21.79 gm) (Fig. 2).

Other measurements like total length, carapace length,

carapace width and telson length in both sexes of Setiu

population also showed relatively higher values as compared

to crabs of Gelang Patah (Table 1 ).

A summary of the regression analysis between the body

weights with different body measurements along with their

test of significances of Setiu and Gelang Patah populations

are presented in Table 2. Regression coefficients (b-values)

differed significantly among groups and ranged from 0.41

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

131

VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB

Comparision of the body weights DISCUSSION

Length-weight relationships are one of the most

important tools in fisheries research. They help in converting

growth-in-length equations to growth-in-weight for use in

stock assessment models, estimating of biomass from length

observations, estimating the condition of the fish, and

comparing the life histories of species from different regions

(Froese and Pauly 1998; Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2000).

The length-weight relationship also has numerous practical

applications in fishery biology and equation derived from

such relationship helped in converting one parameter into

another which is often required during monitoring of field

measurements. The length-weight relationships are also

helpful in getting valuable information on general well-being

of the fish, their physiological changes, variation in growth

in relation to environmental factors, and also their breeding

biology (Chatterji et al. 1994).

The length-weight relationships observed between total

lengths with body weight have been statistically significant

(p<0.05) in the male and female Horseshoe crab Tachypleus

gigns (Muller) collected from the north-east coast of India.

In females, an increase in weight was isometric (Vijayakumar

et al. 2000). The body weight - total length relationship in

T. gigas was observed to be linear where the increase in the

body weight was of higher magnitude than that of total length

of the animals (Vijayakumar et al. 2000). In T. gigas, the

body weight increased very sharply within the length range

of 300-400 mm. The body weight - carapace length

relationship shows a sharp increase in body weight, whereas

the carapace length increases marginally in the specimens

within the size from 100-200 mm with a linear relationship

(Vijayakumar et al. 2000). Vijayakumar et al. (2000) further

reported that the body weight - carapace width relationship

in T. gigas was same as in the case of body weight and

Table 2: Regression analysis of different relationships along with their test of significance

TL=Total Length; CL=Carapace Length; CW=Carapace Width; Tel=Telson Length; BW=Body Weight

300

25D

Ok

— 200

-S=

a

<■> ISO

5

~ 100

o

ffi

50

0

LI Setiu

0 Gelang

patah

Male Female

Eig. 2; A comparison of the body weights of the two populations

collected from Setiu and Gelang Patah (Johor)

(females of Setiu) to 1 .84 (females of Gelang Patah). b-values

calculated for each group separately indicated deviance from

isometric growth except for the total length and body weight

relationships of males of Gelang Patah (r=0.90) (Table 2).

Logarithmic transformation of these data presented in

Table 2 yielded a straight line and represented the calculated

regression line. Maximum growth in weight was recorded

in females of Setiu population where the increment in body

weight was double as compared to the increment in total

length (b=2.12) (Table 2). Maximum value of ‘b’ (2.93)

recorded for the body weight-carapace width relationship in

males of Gelang Patah population which showed that the

increment in body weight was more than the increment in

carapace width with high significance level. Regression

analysis for other relationships showed that the growth in

body weight with remaining parameters were isometric. In

all crabs collected from Gelang Patah, the b-values were

higher except for the body weight and telson length

relationship of males of Setiu (Table 2) that showed that in

Gelang Patah population the growth of all body measurements

were relatively of lower magnitude.

132

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB

carapace length. In T. gigcis, the increase in body weight has

been directly related with carapace length and carapace width

with equal degree of correlation (Vijayakumar et al. 2000).

In general, the rate of increase of body weight in the

present study was more or less of equal magnitude as that of

the total length. Females in the Setiu population showed a

relatively higher increase in weight (250 ±13.79 gm) within

the size range of 241-3 89 mm, whereas in Gelang Patah it

was lower (170 ±21.79 gm) within 280-352 mm of total

length. Similarly, males from Setiu (size range: 270-333 mm)

also showed higher weight gain ( 145 ±1 8.06 gm) as compared

to males of Gelang Patah (126 ±18.25 gm) ranging in size

from 229 to 323 mm.

In all species of the horseshoe crab females are

reported to be heavier than males (Chatterji et al. 1994). In

the present study, males of both populations had shown

exponential growth as relationships between total length -

body weight, carapace length - body weight and carapace

width-body weight yielded smooth curves. Similarly,

females of both the populations exhibited linear growth

which could probably be due to increase in soft tissue

specially ovaries where most of the energy was diverted

for building up these organs resulting in slow growth of

other body parts (Chatterji 1976).

Chatterji et al. (1988) reported that the weight of

females C. rotundicauda collected from the Sunderbans area

of West Bengal (India) showed relatively a lower weight

gain as compared to males up to the size of 130 mm. It was

higher in females after the size range of 1 30 mm as compared

to males. The length-weight relationship data of females of

T. gigas show that the weight of females increases gradually

more than the cube of the carapace length whereas in males,

the relationship did not follow the cube law (Chatterji et al.

1988). In juveniles of Tachypleus tridentatus and

C. rotundicauda, prosomal width and wet weight were

measured at weekly intervals to obtain growth data (Lee and

Morton 2005). A positive allometric growth (b = 2.97) was

estimated, which indicated that body weights gained by T.

tridentatus and C. rotundicauda, were faster than the growth

of prosomal width after each ecdysis.

Bas, C. (1964): Aspectos del crecimiento relativo en peces del

Mediterraneo occidental. Investigacion Pesquera, Barcelona 27:

13-19.

Chatterji, A. (1976): Studies on the Biology of Some Carps. Ph.D.

Thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 122 pp.

Chatterji, A. (1994): The Indian Horseshoe Crab - A Living Fossil.

A Project Swarajya Publication, 157 pp.

Chatterji, A., J.K. Mishra, R. Vuaykumar & A.H. Parulekar (1994):

Length-weight relationship of the Indian horseshoe crab,

The use of non-linear least-squares regression

techniques for allometric modelling has been strongly

supported by Zar ( 1 968), and Hayes and Shonkwiler ( 1 996).

However, Xiao and Ramm (1994) concluded that the use of

log-transformed data is appropriate for describing length-

weight relationships in aquatic animals. In this study, the

small sample sizes associated with several species are

potentially problematic with respect to asymptotic variance

properties of non-linear regression. Our choice of an

allometric model was practiced as linear regression using

log transformed data facilitated statistical comparisons of

gender and habitat relationships, and allowed a single method

to be applied to all specimens collected for the present study

regardless of the sample size.

Fishing activities in Setiu has been increased

dramatically in the last few years as compared to Gelang

Patah. As a consequence of increase in the number of trawlers

as well as gear size, and improvements in accompanying

technology, the spawning grounds are continuously

disturbed. This could be one of the reasons for shifting to an

alternate breeding ground that might not be conducive to

the species as such affecting the slower growth rate among

new recruiting population of Gelang Patah.

There could be substantial physiological differences

among the two populations of C. rotundicauda owing to

individual acclimatization of the species or genetically fixed

adaptations. As far as morphometric and physiological

analyses are concerned, seasonal sampling appears to be

insufficient for understanding the physiological performance

of C. rotundicauda under different environmental conditions

since there are probably also some short-term variations in

these parameters. Therefore, monthly sampling to collect more

information would be recommended in future studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors (MS & PPJ) are thankful to University

Malaysia Terengganu for providing research assistantships

whereas (AC) is grateful to University for the award of a

Principal Research Fellowship.

Tachypleus gigas (Muller). Indian Journal of Fisheries 41(2):

58-60.

Chatterji, A., R. Viyayakumar & A.H. Parulekar (1988): Growth and

morphometric characteristics of the horseshoe crab,

Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Latreille) from Canning (West

Bengal), India. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial

Research 31(5): 352-353.

Grant, J. (1984): Sediment microtopography and shorebird foraging.

Marine Ecological Progress Series 19: 293-296.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

133

VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB

Hayes, J.R & J.S. Shonkwiler (1996): Analyzing mass-independent

data. Physiological Zoology 69: 974-980.

Froese, R. & D. Pauly (1998): Concepts, Design and Data Sources.

Fishbase, ICLARM. Manila. Pp. 90-96.

Kelsey, M.G. & M. Hassall (1989): Patch selection by dunluin on a

heterogenous mudflat. Ornis Scandinavica 20: 250-254.

LeCren, E.D. (1951): The length-weight relationship and seasonal

cycle in gonad conditions and weight in perch, Perea fluviatalis.

Journal of Animal Ecology 20: 210-219.

Lee, C.N. & B. Morton (2005): Experimentally derived estimates of

growth by juvenile Tachypleus tridentatus and Carcinoscorpius

rotundicauda (Xiphosura) from nursery beaches in Hong Kong.

Journal of Experimen tal Marine Biology and Ecology 318 (1):

39-49.

Mikkelsen, T. (1988): The Secret in the Blue Blood. Science Press

Beijing, China. 124 pp.

Moutopoulos, D.K. & K.I. Stergiou (2000): Length-weight and

length-length relationships of fish species from the Aegean Sea

(Greece). Journal of Applied Ichthyology 18: 200-203.

Sokal, R.R. & F.J. Rohlf (1979): Biometry. Principles and statistical

methods of biological research. H. Blume. Madrid. 832 pp.

Tarnowska, K„ M. Wolowicz, A. Chenuil & F. Jean-Pierre (2009):

Comparative studies on the morphometry and physiology of

European populations of the lagoon specialist, Cerastoderma

glaucum (Bivalvia). Oceanologia 51(3): 437-458.

Vijayakumar, R., S. Das, A. Chatterji & A.H. Parulekar (2000):

Morphometric characteristics in the horseshoe crab, Tachypleus

gigas (Arthropoda: Merostomata). Indian Journal of Marine

Science 29: 333-335.

Xiao. Y. & D.C. Ramm (1994): A simple generalized model of

allometry, with examples of length and weight relationships

for 14 species of ground fish. Fisheries Bulletin 92: 664-670.

Washington D.C.

Zaleha, K., B.M. Sathiya & N. Iwasaki (2006): Zooplankton in east

coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Sustainability Science

and Management 1(2): 87-96.

Zar, J.H. ( 1968): Calculation and miscalculation of the allometric equation

as a model in biological data. BioScience 18: 1118-1120.

134

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

135-145

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMIC PROFILE OF THE VEGETATION

OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

K.P. Singh13, Achuta Nand Shukla1’4 and J.S. Singh2’5

'Botanical Survey of India, Central Regional Centre, 10 Chatham Lines, Allahabad 21 1 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

"Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India.

'Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

Vegetation of the Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve ( AABR) represents tropical mixed deciduous, tropical

moist deciduous, and dry scrub and thorn forest, ravines, grasslands and aquatic types. The collections from the area

and their subsequent critical study have resulted in the documentation of 1,011 species, distributed under 571 genera

and 134 families of flowering plants. Out of these, 755 species under 432 genera and 104 families belong to dicots and

the remaining 256 species under 139 genera and 30 families to monocots. Further analysis of data indicated that

Family Poaceae is the most diverse and is represented by 112 species, followed by Fabaceae with 76 spp., Asteraceae

with 72 spp., Cyperaceae with 40 spp., Acanthaceae with 36 spp. etc. At generic level, the genus Cyperus comprised

maximum number of 15 species, followed by Ficus with 12 spp., Crotalaria with 12 spp., Ipomoea with 11 spp..

Cassia with 1 1 spp., etc. A large number of species growing in this area are of medicinal and economic value and used

by local inhabitants. The floristic diversity of the AABR has been analysed for the first time. A brief account of area,

climatic conditions, vegetation types, medicinal and economic plants, analysis of flora and causes of threat to the flora

are discussed.

Key words: Floristic diversity, vegetation types, Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India

INTRODUCTION

Central India with diverse and luxuriant floristic wealth

has been considered as one of the prominent biogeographic

provinces in the country. For conservation of the rich

biological diversity of the region, Achanakmar-Amarkantak

Biosphere Reserve (AABR) was established on March 30.

2005 (Sahu and Singh 2008), with a total area of 3,835.5 1 sq.

km. Out of this, Achanakmar-Amarkantak Wildlife Sanctuary

with an area of 551.15 sq. km comprises of the core zone

(Shukla and Singh 2007 ) and remaining 3,284.36 sq. km buffer

zone of the reserve. It is located between 22°15'-22°58' N and

81°25'-82° 5' E in Anuppur and Dindory districts of Madhya

Pradesh and Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh. The Biosphere

Reserve area includes Maikal hill ranges, the junction of

Vindhyan and Satpura hill ranges. The area experiences

typical monsoon climate with three distinct seasons: summer

from March to June, rainy from June to October and winter

from November to February. The mean annual temperature

ranges between 21°C and 31°C. Due to altitudinal and

latitudinal locations, the climate of the reserve is

comparatively cooler than the other districts of central India.

December and January are the coldest months when minimum

temperature reaches up to 1°C while the hottest months are

May and June. The mean temperature in January is about

21°C and in May temperature rises between 31°C and 33°C.

The area experiences pre-monsoon showers at the end of

May and monsoon from July to August which diminishes by

October. The average annual rainfall is about 1 ,900 mm which

is received largely from South-West monsoon. Sporadic

winter rains are common in December and January while dew

fall continues up to March. The altitude varies from 450 to

1 ,102.27 m above msl with the highest point being Damgarh

(1,102.27 m). Due to high annual rainfall coupled with high

relative humidity and suitable temperatures, the reserve

harbours diverse and luxuriant growth of flora. The soils of

the area are generally lateritic, alluvial and black cotton types,

derived from granite, gneisses and basalts. Black cotton soil

occurs in the environs of Dindori-Pendra road and also along

Narmada river. In parts of Amarkantak, laterite occurs mainly

as capping above the Deccan trap. Loosely packed and gritty

red soil is also found on hill tops. Alluvial soils are found

along the major drainage channels and rivers. Alluvial soils

and black cotton soils are the most fertile for agriculture in

the area.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Vegetation of the AABR shows great diversity due to

varied topographic, climatic, and edaphic conditions. Sal

forest is predominant in the area (Misra 1953) and shows

compositional variability in response to anthropogenic

disturbances (Sahu et al. 2008). Sal forests are found on

laterite trap and crystalline rocks in most hilly part which

covers the southern central as well as south-western part in

Lamm and Achanakmar ranges of Wildlife Sanctuary in

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

Bilaspur forest division, Karanjia range in Dindori forest

division and Pendra range of North-Bilaspur division. This

area is therefore known as Sal valley. However, on plateaus

and slopes, the vegetation composition invariably changes

and mixed forests are formed.

Intensive plant explorations and in-depth surveys of the

reserve were made from 2004 to 2008. Specimens were collected

from different localities of the reserve, namely Kapildhara,

Kabirchabutra, Mai-ki-Bagia, Sonemuda, Durgadhara, Lamni,

Acahanakmar, Kota, Karanjia, Jagatpur, Antaria, Chaparwa, etc.

The specimens have been deposited in the herbarium of Botanical

Survey of India, Allahabad ( BSA).

Major Habitats

The survey of the area indicated the following major

habitats; a brief description of these and their vegetation is

given below:

I . Tropical mixed deciduous forest: These forests

occur on the gentle slopes of hills and valleys and are

predominant in localities like Laxmandhara, Gumaghati,

Kabir. Karanjia, Chaparwa and Lamni. The forest has three

layers, namely trees, shrubs and herbs intermingled with

climbers. The dominant tree species include Acacia catechu,

A. leucoph!oea,A. nilotica subsp. indica, Ailanthus excelsa,

Anogeissus latifolia , Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia purpurea,

Bombax ceiba, Bridelia retusa, Buchanania lanzan , Butea

monosperma, Careya arborea. Cassia fistula, Cassine glauca,

Cordia dichotoma, Dalbergia paniculata, Diospyros

malabarica, Emblica officinalis. Ficus arnottiana,

F. benghalensis , F. racemosa, F. religiosa, Flacourtia indica,

Garuga pinnata, Grewia spp., Haldinia cordifolia,

Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lannea coromandelica, Leucanea

leucocephala , Madhuca longifolia subsp. latifolia, Mangifera

indica, Mimusops elengi, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Pongamia

pinnata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Schleichera oleosa, Shorea

robusta, Sterculia urens, Terminalia alata, T. arjuna, T.

bellerica, T. chebula, Zizyphus oenoplia, Z. xylopyrus, etc.

The shrub layer is usually formed by species like

Cassia auriculata, Carissa opaca, Lantana camara, Ixora

pavetta, Flacourtia indica, Helicteres isora, Prosopis

juliflora, Woodfordia fruticosa, Vitex negundo, Euphorbia

nivulia, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, etc.

The common climber species found on trees and shrubs

or sometimes spreading on the ground include Abrus

precatorius, Ampelocissus latifolia, A. tomentosa,

Aristolochia bracteata, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Cocculus

hirsutus, Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta, Cuscuta reflexa,

Cayratia trifolia, Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus,

Mucuna pruriens, Pergularia daemia, Tinospora cordifolia,

etc.

Herbs and grasses are abundant in open forest pockets

or on forest margins, and include Anisomelos indica. Cassia

torn, Heteropogon contortus, Hyptis suaveolens, Iseilema

laxum, Leonotis nepetaefolia, Tephrosia purpurea, Themeda

quadrivalvis , etc.

On dry ridges, tree species like Boswellia serrata.

Euphorbia nivulia, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Sterculia urens,

etc. are found.

Dendrocalamus strictus, a common bamboo, often

occurs in patches in the forest. Similarly, Tectona grandis

also occurs in small patches. Alangium salvifolium, Diospyros

melanoxylon. Ficus racemosa, F. religiosa, F. virens,

Terminalia alata, T. arjuna are commonly found along the

perennial streams and moist ravines.

2. Tropical moist deciduous forest: This type of

vegetation is found usually in Amarkantak, Jaleshwar,

Kapildhara, Rajendragram and Antaria areas. These forests

are dominated by pure stands of Sal Shorea robusta. In open

areas, mixed forests of semi-deciduous nature occur.

Important constituents of these forests are Aegle marmelos,

Anogeissus latifolia. Bambusa arundinacea, Bauhinia

purpurea, B. vahlii, Bridelia retusa, Butea monosperma ,

Careya arborea, Dillenia pentagyna , Ficus spp., Gardenia

gummifera, Gmelina arborea, Haldinia cordifolia, Imperata

cylindrica, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia parviflora,

Mallotus philippensis, Mangifera indica, Phoenix acaulis,

Pongamia pinnata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Schleichera

oleosa, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia alata, Wendlandia

tinctoria, Woodfordia fruticosa, etc.

3. Scrub and thorn forests: This type of vegetation is

found in Achanakmar, Jalda, Chaparwa, Kuba, Kota,

Bokrakachar areas. These forests occur on exposed steep hill

slopes and ridges, where drier conditions prevail. The biotic

interferences and excessive grazing pressure has resulted in

sparse tree layers and discontinuous vegetation, while shrubs

become comparatively dense. These are characterized by

stunted growth and many stemmed trees and shrubs with small

thorny bushes. The common species recorded in this area are

Acacia spp., Balanites aegyptiaca, Butea monosperma,

Calotropis gigantea, Calotropis procera, Carissa opaca.

Euphorbia neriifolia, Mimosa himalayana, Woodfordia

fruticosa, etc.

4. Ravinous vegetation: The banks of Narmada and

Son rivers are extremely undulated, and are characterized by

innumerable ravines merging into the river bank and

extending all along the course. The banks of these ravines

and steeps contain some common species like Butea

monosperma, Tribulus terrestris, etc. The flat river bank areas

are used for cultivation and the common tree species found

here are Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Bauhinia racemosa.

136

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

Carissa opaca. Euphorbia neriifolia, Flacourtia indica,

Mallotus philippensis. Mimosa himalayana, Prosopis

juliflora, Vitex negundo, Zizyphus mauritiana, etc. Climbers

and twines are represented by Bauhinia vahlii, Caesalpinia

bonduc, Cayratia trifolia , Celastrus paniculata, Cissampelos

pareira var. hirsuta, Combretum nanum , Gymnemma

sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus, Icnocarpus frutescens, and

many species of families Cucurbitaceae and Convolvulaceae.

The herbaceous species are also common in the area and are

represented by Acanthospermum hispidum, Blainvillea

acmella , Dicoma tomentosa, Echinops echinatus , Pulicaria

angustifolia, Rungia repens , Tribulus terrestris, Withania

somnifera, Zornia gibbosa, etc. The grass cover consists of

Alloteropsis cimicina, Andropogon pumilus, Apluda mutica,

Digitaria spp., Aristida spp., Heteropogon contortus,

Themeda quadrivalvis, etc.

5. Grasslands: Grasslands are found in places where

forest has been cleared or in the plain areas. Grass vegetation

is found usually in Gadasarai, Pendra, Karanjia, Jagatpur,

Gorakhpur and Kota areas. Some common species found in

these places are Alloteropsis cimicina, Apluda mutica,

Bothriochloa pertusa, Brachiaria ramosa, Cenchrus ciliaris,

Chloris dolichostachya, Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium

annulatum, Rottboellia exaltata, Saccharum spontaneum,

Setaria glauca. Sorghum halepense, Sporobolus diander,

Themeda quadrivalvis, Vetiveria zizanioides, Digitaria spp.,

Echinochloa spp., Eragrostis spp., Panicum spp., etc.

6. Aquatic vegetation: AABR is not rich in aquatic-

vegetation which occurs only in artificial places developed

due to stagnant water of River Narmada at Amarkantak,

Johilla at Jaleshwar, Son at Sonemuda, and small ditches.

The aquatic vegetation comprises Azolla pinnata and Lemna

perpusilla as free floating hydrophytes; Ceratophyllum aurea

and C. demersum as submerged; Hydrilla verticillata,

Potamogeton nodosus, P. octandrus and Vallisneria spiralis

with floating shoots and Aponogeton natans, Marsilea

minuta, Monochoria vaginalis, Nelumbo nucifera, Nymphaea

nouchali, N. pubescens with floating leaves. Several other

species like Aeschynomene indica, Alternanthera sessilis,

Ammonia baccifera, A. multiflora, Bacopa monnieri, Coix

gigantea, C. lacryma-jobi, Cyperus distans, C. nutans,

C. pangorei, Echinochloa colona, Eleocharis dulcis,

E. geniculata, Eriocaulon cinereum, Fimbristylis tetragona,

Hoppea dichotoma, Hygrophila auriculata, Ischaemum

rugosum, Ludwigia octovalvis, Panicum paludosum,

Phragmites vallitoria. Phyla nodiflora, Polygonum

barbatum, P. glabrum. Ranunculus scleratus, Rotcda indica,

R. rotundifolia, Schoenoplectus articulatus, Schoenoplectus

mucronatus and Typha angustifolia are found in marshy

places.

Floristic Diversity

Saxena (1970) recorded 602 species of angiosperms

from Amarkantak area to which Lai and Kumar ( 1 999) added 6

species. Based on our own collections as well as earlier records

(Mishra 1990; Verma etal. 1993; Mudgal etal. 1997; Singh et

al. 200 1 ; Khanna et al. 200 1 ) the flora of the reserve presently

comprises 1,011 species of flowering plants, distributed in

571 genera and 134 families. In addition, 2 species of

gymnosperms, 35 species of pteridophytes, 28 species of

bryophytes, 43 species of fungi and 120 species of lichens

have also been recorded from the reserve. The present status

of different groups of plants found in the biosphere reserve is

given in Table 1 .

Table 1 : Status of different groups of plants in AABR

An analysis of vascular flora indicates that out of a

total of 134 families in the Biosphere Reserve, 104 families

(77.61%) belong to dicotyledons while 30 families (22.38%)

belong to monocotyledons. Out of the total 571 genera,

432 genera are of dicotyledons (75.65 %), while 139 are of

monocotyledons (24.34 %). Likewise, out of a total of

1,011 species, 755 (74.67%) are dicotyledons, while 256

(25.32%) are monocotyledons. A conspectus of families of

flowering plants in AABR with number of genera and species

is presented in Table 2.

Analysis of families in Table 2 reveals interesting

information pertaining to the diversity of species and genera

in the biosphere reserve as shown below.

(i) Species diversity under families:

Families with 1 species = 43

Families with 2 species = 26

Families with 3 species = 10

Families with 4-10 species = 31

Families with 1 1-20 species = 12

Families with 2 1 -30 species = 6

Families with 3 1 -50 species = 3

Families with 51-112 species = 3

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

137

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

138

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

Table 2: Families are arranged according Table 2: Families are arranged according

to the number of species (contd.) to the number of species ( contd .)

(ii) Generic diversity under families:

Families with 1 genus = 61

Families with 2 genera = 2 1

Families with 3 genera = 9

Families with 4-5 genera = 19

Families with 6- 1 0 genera = 1 3

Families with 1 1 -20 genera = 8

Families with 21-40 genera = 1

Families with 41-65 genera = 2

Most families had 1, 2 or 4-10 species, each; only

6 families had more than 30 species each. Only 1 1 families had

more than 1 0 genera each, while most families had 1 , 2, 4-5 or

6-10 genera, each.

Analysis of species diversity within genera is also

interesting as shown below.

(iii) Species diversity under genera:

Genera with 1 species = 372

Genera with 2 species = 103

Genera with 3 species = 37

Genera with 4 species = 16

Genera with 5- 1 0 species = 33

Genera with 11-15 species = 5

The majority of genera had 10 species, each. The above

analysis of families and genera indicates a marked amount of

higher-order diversity. In other words, disappearance of a few

species may substantially impact at the level of genera/families.

In order of dominance, the grass family Poaceae ranks

first with 1 12 species belonging to 65 genera. It is followed

by Fabaceae with 76 species, Asteraceae with 72 species,

Cyperaceae with 40 species, Acanthaceae with 36 species,

Lamiaceae with 3 1 species, etc. as shown in Table 2.

Within Poaceae, Ercigrostis is the dominant genus and

was represented by 9 species followed by Panicum with

6 species, Setaria, Sporobolus, and Digitaria with 5 species

each, Pennisetum and Bothriochloa with 4 species each.

Within Fabaceae, Crotalaria is the dominant genus with

12 species, followed by Indigofera with 7 species, Alysicarpus,

Desmodium with 6 species each, Vigna with 5 species and

Flemingia with 4 species.

Blumea is the dominant genus, within Asteraceae, with

8 species, followed by Conyza with 5 species, Sonchus with

4 species, Gnaphalium with 3 species. Acanthospermum,

Adenostemma, Blainvillea, Blumeopsis, Caesulia, Centipeda,

Cosmos, Crassocephalum, Cythocline, Eclipta , Elephantopus,

Erigeron are known by a single species each.

Within Cyperaceae, Cyperus is the dominant genus with

15 species, followed by Eimbristylis with 5 species, Carex

with 4 species, Eleocharis, Pycreus with 3 species each.

The species diversity at generic level is also equally

interesting. The sedge genus Cyperus is the largest and is

represented by 15 species, followed by Ficus with 12 species,

Crotalaria with 12 species, Ipomoea and Cassia with

1 1 species each, etc. as shown in Table 3.

Diversity of the Biosphere Reserve is also enriched by

the presence of 17 monotypic genera. They are Schleichera,

Limonia, Haldina, Blumeopsis, Ougeinia , Pongamia,

Woodfordia, Caesulia, Hemidesmus, Nicandra, Oroxylum,

Colebrookea, Tamarindus, Ricinus, Gloriosa, Apluda and

Thysanolaena. Besides, some genera represented in India by

a single species are also found in the reserve. They are

Cissampelos, Aegle, Dodonaea, Diplocyclos, Centella,

Blainvillea, Centipeda, Eclipta, Lagascea, Siegesbeckia,

Tridax, Holarrhena, Rotula, Petalidium, Duranta, Tectona,

Costus and Floscopa.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

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FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

In addition, many families are represented by single genus

and species in the reserve. These are Nymphaeaceae,

Papaveraceae, Violaceae, Bixaceae, Elatinaceae,

Dipterocarpaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Geraniaceae,

Tropaeolaceae, Balsaminaceae, Simaroubaceae, Moringaceae,

Crassulaceae, Haloragidaceae, Lecythidaceae, Punicaceae,

Trapaceae, Turneraceae, Passifloraceae, Caricaceae,

Begoniaceae, Alangiaceae, Stylidaceae, Lobeliaceae,

Plumbaginaceae, Orobanchaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Piperaceae,

Proteaceae, Casuarinaceae, Salicaceae, Burmaniaceae,

Costaceae, Iridaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Taccaceae,

Pontederiaceae, Pandanaceae, Typhaceae, Alismataceae,

Limnocharitaceae, Aponogetonaceae and Zannichelliaceae.

It is interesting to note that Leeaceae, Moringaceae,

Begoniaceae, Ebenaceae, Menyanthaceae, Cannaceae and

Eriocaulaceae which are represented by a single genus in India

also occur in the biosphere reserve.

Gymnosperms: The wild Gymnosperms are not found

in the area. Only species of Pinus and Thuja are cultivated

by the state forest department in small patches in the reserve.

Pteridophytes: Pteridophytes are fairly well-

represented in the Biosphere Reserve and grow in moist places

usually as epiphytes or on land. At present, 35 species

belonging to 25 genera and 17 families are recorded. Many

species of pteridophytes like Adiantum philippense , Lygodium

flexuosum, Ophioglossum reticulation, etc. are used as

medicinal plants by the local inhabitants and thus, becoming

rare in the reserve due to over exploitation. The Family

Thelypteridaceae comprises 5 species, followed by

Selaginellaceae and Polypodiaceae with 4 species each,

Pteridaceae with 3 species and Equisetaceae, Cheilanthaceae,

Adiantaceae and Athyriaceae with 2 species each. Similarly

dominant genera of the reserve are Selaginella with 4 species,

followed by Pteris with 3 species, Equisetum, Cheilanthus,

Adiantum. Christella and Dryopteris with 2 species each.

Bryophytes: Like lichens, Bryophytic vegetation is not

so rich. The bryophytes grow usually in moist places on

Table 3: Ten dominant genera of the AABR

stones, tree trunks and ground in moist and shady places,

particularly near streams and banks of rivers. Nath etal. (2007)

studied the mosses from the area and recorded 28 species

under 21 genera. The Family Hypnaceae comprises maximum

number of 6 species, followed by Thuidiaceae with 4 species

and Bryaceae with 3 species. Similarly, genera Thuidium and

Entodontopsis contain 3 species each, followed by Entodon

and Fissidens with 2 species each. Besides, Hepaticae and

Hornworts are represented by 23 species under 18 genera

from the area (Nath pers. comm.). Most of the Bryophytes

belong to epiphytic forms and mosses are more predominant

in Kapildhara locality.

Fungi and lichens: Fungi are not well worked out in

the reserve. So far, only 43 species of macrofungi under

36 genera and 16 families are recorded from the area. Lichen

flora of the area is also not rich as it is confined usually on Sal

trees and boulders found in mixed or Sal forests in shady or

moist places. The lichens also occur on stones present near

streams, nullhas, waterfalls and river course. It is interesting

to note that 45 species of lichens recorded were growing on

Sal trees. This shows that Shorea rohusta (Sal ) is an excellent

host tree for lichen growth in the reserve and justifies the

observations made by Satya etal. (2005). Upreti etal. (2005)

and Nayaka et al. (2007) recorded 1 20 species under 42 genera

and 22 families from the reserve. The dominant Family was

Physciaceae with 28 species, followed by Collemataceae and

Pertusariaceae with 15 species each, Parmeliaceae with

1 4 species, Lecnoraceae with 1 2 species and Bacidiaceae with

5 species. Genera-wise analysis indicated that Pertusaria

was represented by 14 species, followed by Lecnora with

12 species, Leptogium with 10 species, Parmotrema,

Heterodermia and Pyxine with 6 species each, Bacidia,

Collema and Buellia with 5 species each. Species like

Heterodermia diademata, Parmotrema praesorediosum.

Parmotrema tinctorum. etc. are used as spices and sold in the

market by local Gond, Murea and Oraon tribes to earn their

livelihood.

Invasive Alien Species

Invasive alien species are non-native organisms that

cause or have the potential to cause harm to the environment,

economies, or human health. The establishment and spread

of these species threaten ecosystems, habitats, or species with

economic/environmental harm. They are the second largest

threat to plant diversity after habitat destruction. Total

106 invasive alien species belonging to 77 genera, distributed

in 36 families were documented (Shukla etal. 2009). Majority

of invasive alien species have been contributed by Tropical

America (including South America) and Tropical Africa.

Habit-wise analysis shows that the herbs were represented

140

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

by 80 species, shrubs by 12 species, twines by 7 species,

climbers by 5 species, and trees by 2 species. In the alien

flora of the reserve, Asteraceae is the most dominant family

with 25 species, followed by Caesalpiniaceae with 7 species,

Amaranthaceae with 7 species, etc. Maximum invasive

species are found in wastelands (45 species), followed by

cultivated land (17 species), river and pond banks ( 16 species),

forests (13 species), road sides (9 species), aquatic habitats

(4 species), and as parasites (2 species). Lantana camara ,

Parthenium hysterophorus and Prosopis juliflora in open dry

places in the forest are the dominant invasive species of the

reserve found growing luxuriantly in localities like Chaparwa,

Kabirchabutra, Jaleswar, etc. Some parts of Achanakmar

Wildlife Sanctuary, namely Jalda, Kuba and Kota are also

infested by this species. The plain areas of the reserve like

Karanjia, Jagatpur, Gadasari, etc. are highly infested by

Parthenium hysterophorus, Argemone mexicana, Xanthium

indicum and Ageratum conyzoides.

Economic Plants

Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (AABR)

has a rich wealth of plants having economic potential as crop,

timber, medicinal, ornamental and in ethnobotany (Bondya

et al. 2006; Shukla et al. 2007). The sustainable utilization of

these species may lead to the social and economic growth of

the rural folks living in the area. Many wild plants occurring

in the area are useful in different aspects of life of the common

people. A variety of plant species found in the Biosphere

Reserve are being used for various other purposes. They along

with their uses are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Some economically important plants

Species

Agricultural Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible

implement

Abelmoschus manihot

Abrus precatorius

Abutilon indicum

Acacia catechu ■ +

Acacia nilotica subsp. indica

Achyranthes aspera

Adhatoda zeylanica

Aegle marmelos

Agave cantula

Albizia lebbeck

Albizia odoratissima

Albizia procera +

Alternanthera sessilis

Amaranthus viridis

Ampelocissus latifolia

Anacardium occidentate

Andrographis paniculata

Anogeissus latifolia

Annona squamosa

Ardisia soianacea

Artocarpus heterophyllus

Artocarpus lakoocha

Asparagus racemosus

Azadirachta indica

Baliospermum solanifolium

Barleria prionitis

Bauhinia malabarica

Bauhinia racemosa

Bauhinia vahlli

Bauhinia variegata

Bidens biternata

Blumea lacera

Boehmeria platyphylla

Bombax ceiba

Boswellia serrata

+

+ +

+

+ - + +

+

+ +

■ + + ■ + +

+

+ - - - + +

+ - +

+

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

141

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

Table 4: Some economically important plants (contd.)

Species

Agricultural Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible

implement

Broussonesia papyrifera

Buchanania tanzan

Butea monosperma

Calotropis gigantea

Careya arborea

Carissa congesta

Cassia fistula

Cassia siamea

Celosia argentea

Centella asiatica

Chenopodium album

Cissampelos pareira

Cleome viscose

Cierodendrum serratum

Cocculus laurifolius

Colocasia esculenta

Corchorus aestuans

Corchorus capsularis

Cordia dichotoma

Crotalaria albida

C. tetragonal

Curcuma angustifolia

Cymbopogon martinii

Cyperus rotundus

Dalbergia latifolia

Daibergia panicuiata

Dalbergia sissoo

Datura innoxia

Delonix regia

Dendrocaiamus strictus

Dillenia pentagyna

Dioscorea bulbifera

Dioscorea pentaphylla

Diospyros melanoxylon

Dodonaea angustifolia

Elephantopus scaber

Emblica officinalis

Eryngium foetidum

Eucalyptus maculata

Eucalyptus umbellata

Euphorbia neriifolia

Euphorbia pulcherrima

Evolvulus alsinoides

Ficus auriculata

Ficus benghalensis

Ficus carica

Ficus glomerata

Ficus hispida

Ficus microcarpa

Ficus palmata

Ficus racemosa

Ficus semicordata

Ficus tinctoria

Ficus virens

Flacourtia indica

+

+ +

+

+ + +

+

142

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

Table 4: Some economically important plants ( contd .)

Species

Agricultural Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible

implement

Gardenia latifolia

Gloriosa superba

Gmelina arborea

Grevillea robusta

Grewia flavescens

Grewia hirsuta

Grewia rothii

Grewia serrulata

Gymnema sylvestre

Hardwickia binata

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus sabdariffa

Helicteres isora

Hemidesmus indicus

Hiptage benghalensis

Holarrhena pubescens

Ipomoea aquatica

Ixora pavetta

Kydia calycina

Lannea coromandelica

Leucas cephaiotes

Limonia acidissima

Litsea glutinosa

Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia

Mallotus philippensis

Mangifera indica

Melia azedarach

Mitragyna parvifolia

Momordica dioica

Momordica charantia

Moringa oleifera

Morus alba

Murraya koenigii

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

Nymphoides indica

Oroxylum indicum

Ougeinia oojeinensis

Oxalis corniculata

Parkinsonia aculeata

Phoenix acaulis

Phoenix sylvestris

Phragmites vallitoria

Phyllanthus emblica

Pinus roxburghii

Plumbago zeylanica

Pongamia pinnata

Portulaca oleracea

Punica granatum

Radermachera xylocarpa

Ricinus communis

Saccharum spontaneum

Salix tetrasperma

Schleichera oleosa

Semecarpus anacardlum

Shorea robusta

+

+ +

+

+ +

+

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

143

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

Table 4: Some economically important plants (contd.)

Rare and Threatened Species

Conservation of plant resources and its sustainable

use is essential for human survival and is the prime objective

of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As such our

knowledge on the rare and threatened plants is indeed poor.

It is already mentioned that the area is rich in medicinal plants.

Many species are collected on a large scale by the local

communities and supplied to medicine men and traders in

order to earn their livelihood. As a result, many species have

become rare or threatened in the area. We do not have much

quantitative data on rare and threatened species. However,

Dubey et al. (2007) have listed many plant species under

these categories. Some of these are provided here as ready

reference for future workers to work on this. These are Acorus

calamus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolinus, Arisaema

griffithii, Cordia macleodii, Didymocarpus pygmaea,

Dioscorea pentaphylla, Drosera bunnanni, Hymenodictyon

orixense, Oroxylum indicum, Pandanus odoratissimus,

Radermachera xylocarpa, etc.

DISCUSSION

The present study revealed the occurrence of

1,01 1 species, distributed under 571 genera and 134 families

of flowering plants. Two species of Gymnosperms, Pinus and

Thuja, are found in the area. Pteridophytes are fairly well-

144

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

represented in the biosphere reserve and grow in moist places

usually as epiphytes or terrestrial; at present 35 species

belonging to 25 genera and 17 families are recorded.

Bryophytic vegetation is not so rich only 28 species under

21 genera were recorded from the reserve. Fungi are not well

worked out in the reserve so far, only 43 species of macrofungi

under 36 genera are recorded from the area. Lichen flora of

the area is also not rich as it is confined usually on Sal trees

and boulders found in mixed or Sal forests in shady or moist

places; total 120 species under 42 genera and 22 families

were recorded from the reserve.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of

India, Kolkata, for encouragement and facilities. One of the

authors (A.N. Shukla) is also thankful to the Ministry

of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, for financial

assistance under Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere

Reserve project.

REFERENCES

Bondya, S.L., K.K. Khanna & K.R Singh (2006): Ethnomedicinal

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Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (Madhya Pradesh and

Chhattisgarh). Ethnobotany 18: 145-148.

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Threat assessment of plant diversity in Amarkantak area.

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for Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve.

Khanna, K.K., A. Kumar, R.D. Dixit & N.P. Singh (2001):

Supplement to the Flora of Madhya Pradesh, Botanical Survey

of India. Calcutta.

Lal, J. & A. Kumar (1999): Notes on some rare plants from

Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 23(3):

739-741.

Mishra, O.P. (1990): Addition to the flora of Amarkantak (M.P.).

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Misra, R. (1953): The vegetation of Amarkantak. Bull. Bot. Soc.

(Jniv. Sagar. 8: 1-2.

Mudgal, V., K.K. Khanna & P.K. Hajra (1997): Flora of Madhya

Pradesh, Vol. 2, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 681 pp.

Nath, V., A.K. Asthana & R. Kapoor (2007): Enumeration of the

mosses in Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh), India - I. Taiwania.

52(2): 168-176.

Nayaka, S., Satya & D.K. Upreti (2007): Lichen diversity in

Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary core area of proposed Amarkantak

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133-142.

Sahu, P.K. & J.S. Singh (2008): Structural attributes of lantana-invaded

forest plots in Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve,

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Sahu, P.K., R. Sagar & J.S. Singh (2008): Tropical forest structure

and diversity in relation to altitude and disturbance in a Biosphere

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470.

Satya, D.K. Upreti & S. Nayaka (2005): Shorea robusta - an excellent

host tree for lichen growth in India. Curr. Sci. 89(4): 594-595.

Saxena, H.O. (1970): The flora of Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh.

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Shukla, A.N. & K.P Singh (2007): Diversity of woody plants in

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Shukla, A.N., K.P. Singh & J.S. Singh (2009): Invasive Alien species

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

146-158

IMPACT OF LANDUSE CHANGES ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY

OF NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, MEGHALAYA, INDIA

S.D. Prabhu1, S.K. Barik23, H.N. Pandey2-4 and R.S. Tripathi2-5

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001 , Maharashtra,

India. Email: [email protected]

North Eastern Hill University, Umshing Mawkynroh Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India.

'Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

The impact of land use changes driven by various anthropogenic disturbances on the taxonomic diversity of Nokrek

Biosphere Reserve (NBR) in north-east India has been studied. Twelve ecosystems representing natural, semi-natural,

man-managed and man-damaged ecosystems were identified. In total, 710 vascular plant species belonging to

465 genera and 140 families were recorded from these communities. The flora of the NBR exhibits saturation of

eastern Asiatic elements. Although the elements from 1 1 biogeographical regions of the world were found in the flora

ot the undisturbed ecosystems of the NBR, Indo-Malayan, Himalayan and Indo-Burman elements dominated the flora

constituting about 86% of the total species content. Ninety-nine threatened categories of species, including 43 endemics,

were recorded from the NBR. The presence of a large number of rare taxa with small populations and habitat-specificity

indicates the vulnerability of threatened category of species.

The taxonomic diversity of the secondary forest communities on mining areas and other man-made ecosystems has

been drastically reduced. The pace of recovery' in species diversity in the communities on the jhum fields was slow, as

only 67% of the total species content could recover after 12 years of vegetation development.

Key words: Floristic elements. Taxonomic diversity. Endemic and threatened species. Rarity

INTRODUCTION

The impact of human activities on species diversity has

attracted the interest of ecologists from both theoretical as

well as applied perspectives (Stapanian etal. 1997). Clements

(1936) viewed disturbance as a negative force that destroys

climax assemblages and brings instability in the system, while

Paine (1966), Huston (1979) and Lubchenco (1978)

considered it as a positive force that might increase species

diversity in the community by preventing competitive

exclusion. The species richness has been correlated with

natural disturbance by several workers (Grubb 1977; Connell

1978; Grime 1979; Huston 1979; Armesto and Pickett 1985).

Connell (1978) proposed that the tree diversity in the rain

forests would be greatest where disturbances are moderate in

intensity and frequency. Similarly, Collins et al. (1995) and

Molino and Sabatier (200 1 ) argued that species richness should

be highest at intermediate disturbance level when conditions

favour the competitive species as well as disturbance-tolerant

species. However, the impact of disturbances on diversity at

landscape level is poorly understood.

The north-eastern region of India being situated in the

transitional zone of Indian. Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese

biogeographical zones has been a focal point of botanical

attention since nineteenth century due to their floristic richness

and high endemism. Under the in situ biodiversity

conservation initiative, a large network of protected areas

including 11 National Parks, 41 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 4

Biosphere reserves have been constituted in the region.

Although a number of floristic studies have been carried out

in the region ( Hooker 1872-1897; Kanjilal et al. 1934-1940;

Rao and Panigrahi 1961; Rao 1969a, b; Balakrishnan 1981-

1983; Haridasan and Rao 1985-87), only a few studies have

focused on protected areas (Kumar 1984; Tiwari et al. 1998;

Jamir and Pandey 2003; Upadhaya et al. 2003). A detailed

analysis of the impact of anthropogenic stresses on taxonomic

and community diversity at landscape level has been hardly

attempted (see Rao et al. 1990).

Nokrek, which was identified as a reservoir of a large

variety of wild relatives of Citrus species cultivated throughout

north-eastern India, was designated as National Park (NP) in

1986. The Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (NBR) was constituted

by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India, in 1988. The Nokrek National Park was designated as

the core zone and the surrounding community forests were

treated as the buffer zone of NBR. This multipurpose buffer

zone of the biosphere reserve provided an excellent site to assess

the impact of human activities on species and ecosystem

diversity at the landscape level. The present paper aims to

examine how shifting cultivation and other human activities

are influencing the ecosystem and taxonomic diversity of a

tropical biosphere reserve at landscape level.

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

- , -

90” 15’ E

- 1 -

90°30' E

NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE

[jPl Core /.one

• Limestone mine site

Fig. 1 : Map of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve: core and buffer zone

Study site

The Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (NBR) is spread over

an area of 820 sq. km covering parts of East Garo Hills, West

Garo Hills and South Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya in

north-east India. It lies between 90° 13'-90° 35' E and 25° 20'-

25° 29' N (Fig. 1 ). It is situated on mountainous terrain of

Tura ranges with altitude ranging from 149 m to 1,415 m

above msl. The highest point of this ridge - the Nokrek Peak

(1,415 m above msl) - lies within the core zone of the

biosphere reserve, which is spread in east-west direction

covering an area of 47.48 sq. km. The hill slopes in the

northern aspect of the core zone are gentle compared to the

southern flank where hills are very steep. The major rivers of

the Garo Hills, namely Simsang, Dedari, Dareng and Ganol

originate from the NBR. The buffer zone covering an area of

772.52 sq. km surrounds the core zone.

A total of 39,432 individuals belonging to the Garo

tribe spread over 129 villages in the buffer zone depend

heavily on the NBR for their sustenance as well as higher

income generation. Various human activities that influence

the vegetation of the BR are shifting cultivation, coal and

limestone mining, and permanent agricultural and

horticultural practices, such as settled paddy cultivation and

planting of orchards, and tea gardens.

Climate

The area enjoys tropical monsoon climate with three

seasons, namely summer, rainy and winter clearly

distinguishable in a year. The summer season corresponds

from March to April, rainy season from May to October and

winter from November to February. Monsoon rains are

received during April to October with occasional rainfall

during November to March. The area receives an average

annual rainfall of 3,012 mm.

The temperature varies from place to place depending

on the aspect and altitude. The southern pail of the BR is

warmer than the northern part. The northern aspect of the

NBR is the coldest area of the Garo Hills. The average daily

temperature during the study period (2000-2003) ranged from

33.4 °C to 14.8 °C. The highest temperature 39 °C was

recorded in April and the lowest was 10 °C in January and

February. The mean minimum and mean maximum relative

humidity for the same period was 23% and 98%, respectively.

Soil

The soil is sandy to loamy sand in texture and red,

brown to dark brown in colour. It is acidic in nature throughout

the core zone. Within the buffer zone, the lowest pH (4.02)

was recorded in the coal mine areas and the highest pH (8.08)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

147

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

in the limestone mining areas. The core zone soils are rich in

organic matter and nutrients (N. P. K), compared to the buffer

zone soils (Ralte et al. 2005).

METHODOLOGY

Identification of various ecosystems and selection

of sampling sites

The landscape of the biosphere reserve is characterized

by mountain peaks and plateaux, gentle to steep slopes,

valleys and river basins, which supports diverse plant

communities ranging from sub-tropical to tropical forests.

The landscape in the buffer zone has been modified due to

various anthropogenic activities such as shifting cultivation,

mining, farming of horticultural crops and settled agriculture.

Based on the physiography, vegetation characteristics, and

nature and intensity of human activities, twelve terrestrial

ecosystems were identified within the landscape of the NBR.

These could be grouped into the following two major types

based on the extent of human impact as a broad criterion.

Each major type was further divided on the basis of

vegetation characteristics and degree of human interference.

A. Undisturbed landscape

1 . Sub-tropical evergreen forests

2. Tropical evergreen forests

3. Tropical semi-evergreen forests

4. Tropical moist deciduous forests

5. Riverain forests

B. Human-impacted landscape

a. Secondary communities

6. Communities on shifting cultivation areas

7. Bamboo groves

b. Man-managed communities

8. Orchards

9. Paddy fields

10. Teagardens

c. Communities on degraded areas

1 1 . Coal mining areas

12. Limestone mining areas

The vegetation map of the BR (Roy et al. 2003) was

used to depict different forest ecosystem types (Fig. 2) and

the land use map was used to depict human impacted

ecosystems within the BR (Fig. 3). The area under each of

the major ecosystem types was determined (Table 1). Eight

ecosystem types, namely tropical evergreen, sub-tropical

evergreen and riverain forests, jhum fallows, bamboo groves,

orchards, coal mining and limestone mining areas were

studied in detail. The sampling sites were selected in the

northern and the southern sides of the BR (Fig. 4). The two

sites selected for the sub-tropical evergreen forest were located

in the north-western side of the BR, close to the Nokrek peak

in the core zone. The two sites of the tropical evergreen forest

selected in the buffer zone of the BR were located on the

southern side. The two sites selected for riverain forests were

located on the bank of the two major rivers, namely Simsang

and Dedari in the northern side of the BR. The shifting

cultivation fallows of different ages, which were common in

the northern side of the buffer zone, were grouped into four

age groups: 10-12 year old, 6-8 year old, 3-4 year old

and 1 year old fallows. Each of these four groups was studied

by selecting two sites each. Two sites each w'ere selected for

orchards and bamboo groves in the northern side of the BR.

The two coal mining sites and one limestone mining

Table 1 : Ecosystem types in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

148

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

90°1 2' E ' ' ' 90°36' E

Fig. 2: Vegetation types of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

site were located in the southern side of the BR. The altitude

of these 21 sites ranged between 149 m and 1,415 m above

msl (Table 2). The two replicate sites under each ecosystem

type had similar elevation.

Collection and Identification of plant species

The voucher specimens were collected from the selected

sites during the field surveys conducted over a period of three

years from 2001. The collected specimens were identified

with the help of local florae (Kanjilal etal. 1 934-40; Haridasan

and Rao 1985-87; Balakrishnan 198 1-83) and were confirmed

by matching the specimens with the herbaria of Botanical

Survey of India, North-Eastern Circle, Shillong, Department

of Botany, North-Eastern Hill University. Shillong and Central

National Herbarium, Howrah.

Enumeration of endemic, rare and threatened taxa

of the BR

The endangered, rare and endemic plant species were

identified by consulting the available literature (Deb 1958;

Balakrishnan 1981-83; Rao and Haridasan 1983; Das and

Deori 1983; Haridasan and Rao 1985-1987; Kumar 1991;

Kataki 1983; Chauhan 1983; Khan et al. 1997; Nayar and

Table 2: Ecosystems and sites selected for detailed study

in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

149

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

Fig. 3: Areas affected by various human activities within Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

Sastry 1990; Nayar 1996). The identified species were

categorized into different forms of rarity following

Rabinowitz ( 198 1 ) and Rabinowitz etal. (1986). The species

were classified according to the geographic range (wide vs.

narrow), habitat specificity (broad vs. restricted), and

population size (large vs. small), using the primary as well as

available secondary data.

RESULTS

Taxonomic diversity

In total, 710 vascular plant species belonging to

465 genera and 140 families were recorded from the studied

communities of the NBR. These included 678 angiosperms,

3 gymnosperms and 29 pteridophytes. The number of species,

genera and families declined significantly from undisturbed

climax communities to secondary communities with the

lowest number of taxa on the mine spoils (Fig. 5). The total

number of species in the undisturbed communities was 590

in contrast to 488 in the secondary communities on human

impacted sites. The dominance of families also varied

significantly among different communities. Though

Rubiaceae was dominant in all the communities, Lauraceae,

Orchidaceae and Rutaceae were better represented in the

undisturbed communities, while Poaceae, Asteraceae,

Fabaceae and Apiaceae dominated the human-impacted

communities.

Among ecosystems studied, the three undisturbed

tropical evergreen, sub-tropical evergreen and riverain forest

communities together had the highest vascular plant species

richness with 558 angiosperms, 29 pteridophytes and

3 gymnosperms. A total of 390 genera were recorded from

these three forests, which included 366 angiosperms,

3 gymnosperms and 21 pteridophytes. At least 129 of these

genera, i.e., c. 33% of the total genera recorded, were with

congeneric species and 261 genera were represented by only

one species. Ficus had the highest number of 12 species,

followed by Syzygium with 10 species, Litsea with 7 species

and Castanopsis and Garcinia with 5 species each. The total

number of families recorded was 1 34, of which Rubiaceae

(with 43 species and 30 genera), Poaceae (37 species,

29 genera), Euphorbiaceae (32 species, 2 1 genera), Lauraceae

(28 species, 9 genera), Asteraceae (22 species, 16 genera),

Orchidaceae (20 species, 16 genera) and Fabaceae ( 19 species,

14 genera) were the dominant families. There were

47 families that were represented by only a single species.

150

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

NORTHERN SOUTHERN

Fig. 4: Map showing the locations of the study sites in the northern and southern sides of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve. (SFa b-

subtropical evergreen forests, RFa b- riverain forests, TFa b- tropical evergreen forests, J12a b - Jhum fallows (12-yr. old), J6a b -

Jhum fallows (6-yr. old), J3a b - Jhum fallows (3-yr. old), J1a b - Jhum fallows (1 -yr. old), Ba b - Bamboo groves, Oa b - Orchards,

CMa b - Coalmining areas, LM - Limestone mining areas)

The three forest communities had 88 families in common,

12 families were recorded exclusively from the subtropical

evergreen forests, 5 from the tropical evergreen forests, and

4 families from the riverain forests. The three communities

were also rich in primitive taxa. Some of these are

Actinodaphnae angustifolia , A. obovata , Beilschmiedia

assamica, B. roxburghiana, Betula alnoides, Dillenia

scabrella, Fissistigma verrucosum , Goniothalamus simonsii ,

Helicia excelsa , Helicia nilagirica , Holboellia latifolia,

Houttuynia cordata, Knema angustifolia, Michelia oblonga,

Myrica esculenta , Paramichelia baillonii, Polyalthia

cerrasoides, Sarcandra glabra, and Talauma hodgsonii.

Flora and floristic elements

The original flora of the NBR was confined to the

undisturbed tropical evergreen, sub-tropical evergreen and

riverain forests. The tropical elements were mainly present

in tropical evergreen and riverain forests, whereas the

subtropical evergreen forest had several tropical as well as

temperate elements. The important tropical species were

Ardisia grifftthii, Boehmeria macrophylla, Cinnamomum spp.,

Dysoxylum gobara, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Macropanax

dispermus, Mesua ferrea, Pothos scandens, Raphidophora

spp., Sarcosperma griffithii, Schefflera venulosa, Syzygium

tetragonum , Toddalia asiatica and Xerospermum glabratum.

The temperate species abundant in the subtropical forests were

Acer oblongum, Aralia thomsonii, Betula alnoides,

Castanopsis indica, Euonymus lawsonii. Ilex spp., Prunus

cerrasoides, Rubus spp., Viburnum coriaceum and Viola

sikkimensis.

Most species found in NBR are eastern Asiatic elements

from Sino-Himalayan, and Burma-Malayan regions.

Bruinsmia, Bulbophyllum, Camellia, Cymbidium and

Kadsura are Chinese and Himalayan genera, while

Balanophora, Cinnamomum, Engelhardtia, Litsea ,

Goniothalamus sesquipedalis, Miliusa , Pittosporum, Rubus

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

151

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

and Talauma are the Burma-Malayan taxa. Presence of

Bischoffia javanica, Carallia bractiata, Firmiana colorata,

Hedychium coccinium, Lithocarpus elegans, Spondias

axillaris , Talauma hodgsonii, Travesia palmata and Vernonia

volkamerifolia in the flora of NBR indicates its affinity with

Southeast Asian - Malaysian flora. A few Sino-Japanese

elements, such as Eurya accuminata and Pericampylos

glaucus were also present. In addition, it has several taxa

from peninsular India such as Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna.

Ficus nervosa, Helicia nilagirica , Mastixia arborea,

Munronia pinnata, Murraya koenigii and Syzygium cumini.

The species of the undisturbed forests represented

elements of 1 1 phytogeographical regions; 272 species

belonged to Indo-Malayan region, 145 species to Himalayan

region and 90 species to Indo-Burman region. These three

elements together constituted about 86% of the total species

content of the undisturbed forest communities. The remaining

8 phytogeographical regions were poorly represented

(African 13, American 5, Andaman and Nicobar island 8,

Australian 7. Brazilian 2, Indo-China 30, Sri Lanka 2 and

Western Ghats 16), constituting only 14% of the total species.

Endemic species

The species endemic to north-east India, including the

eastern Himalayas, are listed in Table 3. Out of the 43 endemic

species recorded, 13 species are endemic only to the state of

Meghalaya, 1 1 species are rare and 2 species, namely Acer

cappadocicum and Mastixia arborea are considered as very

rare species (Haridasan and Rao 1985-1987). Besides these,

Citrus latipes (rare), Fissistigma verrucosum (rare),

Elaeocarpus acuminatus (rare) and Adinandra griffithii

(vulnerable) are listed in the Red Data Book of the Indian

Plants (Nayar and Sastry 1990). Out of the total 1 7 endemics,

40% were trees, 8 species were shrubs, 3 species each were

scandent shrubs, herbs, climbers and lianas, and 6 species

were epiphytes.

Threatened species

Fifty-five species in the NBR belong to one or the other

category of the threatened species (Table 3). Beutia minor

(endangered), Clerodendrum serration (vulnerable),

Hedychium coronarium (endangered), Paramichelia baillonii

(rare), Rouwolfia serpentina (endangered), Syzygium grandis

(rare) are threatened in India, while other 44 species are rare

and threatened in north-east India.

Rarity

Ninety-nine rare species were recorded from the NBR

(Table 3). Majority (80) of these were in the undisturbed

subtropical evergreen forest followed by riverain forests (54).

450

SF TF RF J12 J6 J3 J1 BO LM CM

Landscape types

Fig. 5: Taxonomic diversity in different ecosystems of Nokrek

Biosphere Reserve. SF - subtropical evergreen forests, RF -

riverain forests, TF - tropical evergreen forests, J12- Jhum

fallows (12-yr old), J6- Jhum fallows (6-yr old), J3- Jhum

fallows (3-yr old), J,- Jhum fallows (1-yr old), B - Bamboo

groves, O - Orchards, CM - Coal mining areas,

LM - Limestone mining areas

Trees contributed 41% to the rare flora followed by herbs

(30%), shrubs (19%), climbers (6%) and lianas (4%). The

most important form of rarity was the restricted habitat

specificity (65 species) followed by small population size

(63 species) and narrow geographic range (43 species). Two

types of rarity, namely (i) narrow geographical range

(endemics) - restricted habitat specificity - small populations,

and (ii) wide geographical range (non-endemics) - restricted

habitat - small populations, together constituted 41% of the

rare flora of NBR (Fig. 6). The rare taxa with small

populations outnumbered those with the large, dominant

Fig. 6: Different forms of rarity in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

152

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

Table 3: The status of endemic, rare and threatened plant species in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

(SF - subtropical evergreen forests, TF - tropical evergreen forests, RF - riverain forests, J12- Jhum fallows (12-yr old), J6- Jhum fallows (6-yr old), J3- Jhum fallows

(3-yr old), J,- Jhum fallows (1-yr old), B - Bamboo groves, O - Orchards, CM - Coalmining areas, LM - Limestone mining areas)

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Table 3: The status of endemic, rare and threatened plant species in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (contd.)

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LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

155

I - Habitat specificity: R-restricted, B-broad;

1 - Population size: S-small, L-large;

Status in India (Nayar and Sastry 1990)

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

populations. The least form of rarity was the species with

narrow geographical range - broad habitat specificity - small

populations.

DISCUSSION

Forest and shifting cultivation are the two most

important land uses in NBR, accounting for more than 95%

of the total geographical area. Leaving aside the core zone,

the entire buffer zone is affected by the shifting cultivation,

accounting for 38% of the total area. After one- or two-year

of cropping in a shifting cultivation cycle, the vegetation on

abandoned fallows recovers and remains dominated by shorter

life-forms till the 6th year of fallow. Beyond this period, trees

dominate the community giving rise to secondary forests. As

per the existing practice, once the forest attains the age of

12 years, the plot is felled for shifting cultivation and the

cycle continues. The impact of mining on the vegetation

though much more severe than any other human activity, is

confined to a relatively small area. The impact of other factors

responsible for forest degradation such as establishing

orchards and tea gardening was inconspicuous due to their

limited spread. All these activities have led to destruction of

natural forests giving rise to a large number of plant

communities with varying physiognomy, species and growth

form composition, and structural organization. These

differences in the community characteristics were related to

their age, soil conditions and intensity, and frequency of

disturbance under which they have developed.

Of the total 710 species recorded from the NBR,

368 species were common both to the disturbed and

undisturbed communities, 222 species were confined only to

the undisturbed communities and only 120 species were found

exclusively in the disturbed communities in the buffer zone.

Therefore, disturbance contributed 16.9% increase in the total

species content of the NBR. On the other hand, 222 species

(31.3% of the total species content) that were present in the

undisturbed communities disappeared from the human

impacted sites.

The total number of species recorded from the BR is

very high, when compared to the earlier studies carried out

in other parts of the state. For instance, Haridasan and Rao

(1985-87) described 1,151 dicotyledonous species from

the entire state of Meghalaya, Tiwari et al. (1998) reported

514 species from 56 sacred forests of the state, Jamir (2003)

reported 395 species of vascular plants from three sacred

groves of Jaintia Hills and Upadhaya et al. (2003) reported

437 vascular species from two other sacred groves of Jaintia

hills. In a floristic survey of Balphakram Wildlife Sanctuary

of Garo Hills, Kumar (1984) listed 770 plant species. One of

the important causes of high species richness in the NBR is

the high ecosystem diversity, created due to the combination

of a host of anthropogenic as well as natural factors. Among

the natural factors, geomorphic diversity of the landscape

characterized by different slope angles and aspects, drainage

patterns, and diverse physiographic features (Sarma 2002),

geographical location and variations in the climatic condition

due to a wide elevation gradient are important factors

contributing to the species richness of the NBR. The presence

of distinct strata in the undisturbed tropical and subtropical

forests and complexity of the micro-environmental conditions

in the communities (Barik et al. 1992), might have also

contributed towards increase in species richness in the NBR.

Besides site characteristics and landscape histories, the

availability of species in an ecosystem is the product of the

biogeographical influences and evolutionary process (Meher-

Homji 1989). The presence of different floral elements from

as many as 1 1 biogeographical regions of the world in the

flora of NBR due to its location at the confluence of the three

major biogeographical regions has substantially contributed

towards its species richness. The patterns of dominance

exhibited by the members of Rubiaceae, Lauraceae,

Orchidaceae. Rutaceae, Poaceae. Asteraceae, Fabaceae and

Apiaceae in different communities were similar to that of the

findings of Puri ( 1 960), who worked on the dominant families

of India. The high concentration of primitive taxa in the NBR

is in conformity with the findings of Takhtajan (1969), who

concluded that eastern Himalaya, Assam and upper Burma

(now Myanmar) show high concentration of primitive

angiosperms.

The endemic and threatened categories of species

usually have specific and narrow ecological niches. Their

restricted edaphic- and habitat-specificity makes them more

vulnerable to extinction. The findings of the present study

suggest that disturbance led to significant decrease in the

number of rare species in the NBR, since only 3 rare species

out of the total 99 were recorded from the disturbed

communities. The presence of a large number of rare taxa

with small populations and habitat-specificity indicates the

vulnerability of the threatened categories of species in the

NBR, and unless adequate protection measures are taken,

these taxa could face extinction. Absence of species having

narrow range, broad habitat and small populations in the flora

confirms the conclusion of Rabinowitz et al. (1986), who

stated that such condition of rarity was biologically unlikely.

Anthropogenic disturbances in the NBR have played

an important role in converting the entire landscape of the

buffer zone into a mosaic of heterogeneous patches of

degraded communities at different stages of their

development. Though the species diversity at mining sites

156

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY

and other man impacted areas has been drastically reduced,

the overall species richness in the NBR has increased.

However, existence of the habitat-specialist species as well

as species with small populations is highly threatened by these

activities. On the jhum fields, although there was an increase

in species richness in the communities during secondary

succession, only 67% of the total species could recover after

12 years, depicting slow rate of natural recovery process.

Therefore, the NBR may not be able to withstand the current

level of anthropogenic pressure and in course of time, it may

be converted into a landscape dominated by fragments of

degraded forest patches.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India, for the financial support

under the Biosphere Reserve Programme (Sanction No.F. 10/

41/97-CS/BR dated 15.02. 1999). Thanks are due to the Forest

Department, Government of Meghalaya, for granting

permission to undertake field study in the Biosphere Reserve.

We thank the Forest Officers attached to the BR and villagers

inhabiting the buffer zone of the BR for their help and

cooperation. Thanks are also due to Dr. V. Ralte for her help

in the field studies, and soil sampling and analysis.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

159-161

NEW DESCRIPTION

ON THE GENUS KANAKARAJIELLA SUNDARARAJ & DAVID

(HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES

R. SUNDARARAJ1'2 AND R. PUSHPA13

'Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Malleshwaram, Bengaluru 560 003, Karnataka, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

The Whitefly genus Kanakarajiella Sundararaj & David is reviewed and is considered as a valid genus. A new species

Kanakarajiella rotunda breeding on Syzygium sp. in Kumarapuram, Tamil Nadu, India, is described and illustrated. A

key to the species of the genus Kanakarajiella is also given

Key words: Whiteflies, Hemiptera, Kanakarajiella

INTRODUCTION

David and Sundararaj (1993) established the genus

Kanakarajiella with Dialeurodes vulgaris Singh as the type

species and included three known species of Dialeurodes,

namely D. bassiae David & Subramaniam, D. cardamomi

David & Subramaniam and D. pallida Singh under this genus.

Jensen (1999) analyzed the phylogenetic relationships within

a large sample of the world’s diversity of Dialeurodes

Cockerell, including K. vulgaris and concluded that only the

type species should remain under Kanakarajiella and placed

the remaining three species under the genus Singhiella

Sampson. Meganathan and David (1994) described one new

species under the genus Kanakarajiella. Martin and Mound

(2007) in their catalogue placed all the species of

Dialeuronomada, Gigaleurodes, Lankaleurodes,

Kanakarajiella, Rabdostigma, Shanthiniae under Dialeurodes

with the note that future studies may reveal some or all of

these to be valid genera. A study of the two species, so far,

described under Kanakarajiella and description of a new

species here justified the need to reinstate the generic status

of Kanakarajiella as they differ distinctly from the species

of Dialeurodes Cockerell by the absence of stipples or

granules on the thoracic and the caudal tracheal folds, absence

of teeth or fimbriae in the thoracic and caudal tracheal pores,

and by the absence of comb of teeth in vasiform orifice.

Genus Kanakarajiella David & Sundararaj, 1993 Stat.

Rev.

Type species: Dialeurodes vulgaris Singh. 1931. Mem.

Rep. Dept. Agric. India, Ent. Ser., 12(1): 33-34; by original

designation.

Diagnosis: Puparium white to light brown; elliptical

to oval; margin smooth or crenulate; submargin not separated

from dorsal disc; subdorsum/submargin with row of setae;

pores well-defined without teeth or fimbriae; folds indicated

without stipples; furrows distinct; longitudinal moulting

suture reaching margin and transverse moulting suture

reaching submargin. Vasiform orifice subcordate to circular,

without comb of teeth; operculum large filling orifice,

obscuring lingula.

Remarks: This genus differs from that of Dialeurodes

Cockerell by the absence of stipples or granules on the thoracic

and the caudal tracheal folds, absence of teeth or fimbriae in

the thoracic and caudal tracheal pores and by the absence of

comb of teeth in vasiform orifice.

1. Kanakarajiella rotunda sp. nov. (Figs 1-3)

Description

Puparium: White, without secretion of wax;

Figs 1-3: Kanakarajiella rotunda sp. nov.

1 . Puparium, 2. Margin at thoracic tracheal pore region,

3. Vasiform orifice

NEW DESCRIPTION

subcircular, broadest at transverse moulting suture, 1 .90- 1 .96

mm long, 1.64-1.66 mm wide. Margin regularly crenulate,

15-17 crenulations in 0. 1 mm; thoracic tracheal pores distinct

without inner teeth and caudal tracheal pore indicated by a

slight depression. Anterior marginal setae 16 pm and posterior

marginal setae 20 pm long.

Dorsum: Submargin striated. Subdorsum with dense

microtubercles of varying size and shape, geminate pores

disposed throughout dorsum. Median area with small broken

transverse ridges. Pockets well-developed on all segmental

sutures, lateral depressions on all segments. Longitudinal

moulting suture reaching margin, transverse moulting suture

reaching submedian. Three pairs of submedian tubercles -

two pairs on cephalothorax (one pair each on pro- and

mesothorax) and one pair on I abdominal segment. Thoracic

and caudal tracheal furrows distinct, without ornamentation

or sculpturing or stipples. Pores and porettes not discernible.

Chaetotaxy: Three pairs of setae - cephalic setae 5 pm

long, eighth abdominal setae cephalolaterad of vasiform orifice,

10 pm long and caudal setae 8 pm long. First abdominal setae

absent. A row of ten pairs of capitate setae - five pairs each on

cephalothorax and abdomen, each 5 pm long.

Vasiform orifice: Subcircular, wider than long, 46 pm

long, 50 pm wide; operculum subcordate, 24-26 pm long,

40-42 pm wide, filling orifice and obscuring lingula.

Venter: A pair of ventral abdominal setae 20 pm long,

60 pm apart. Thoracic and caudal tracheal folds distinct

without stipples. Antennae reaching base of prothoracic legs.

A pair of setae at the base of meso- and metathoracic legs,

10 pm long.

Host: Syzygium sp.

Material Examined: Holotype: One puparium, on slide

from Syzygium sp.. Coll. R. Pushpa, 24.V.2007, deposited in

the collections of National Forest Insect Collection, Forest

Research Institute, Dehradun. India (NFIC-FRI #21871).

Paratvpes: 2 puparia, data as for holotype, one each

deposited in National Pusa Collection, Division of

Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi, India (IARI), and in Institute of Wood Science &

Technology, Bangalore, India (IWST).

Type locality: India: Tamil Nadu: Kumarapuram.

Remarks: The puparia were found in groups on the

undersurface of leaves. This species resembles Kancikarajiella

vulgaris (Singh) in having striated margin, distinct pores

without inner teeth and thoracic and caudal tracheal folds

without stipples, but differs from it in the puparium shape,

having three pairs of submedian tubercles, ten pairs of

subdorsal capitate setae and by the absence of the first

abdominal setae and median tubercles on abdominal

segments.

Etymology: The species name alludes to the circular

body shape of the species.

2. Kanakarajiella turpiniae Meganathan & David Stat. Rev.

Kanakarajiella turpiniae Meganathan and David, 1994.

FI P PAT Entomology Series, 5: 40.

Dialeurodes turpiniae : Martin and Mound, 2007.

Zootaxa, 1492: 31.

Material Examined: Holotype: puparium, india:

Kerala: Valiyamullumala (Silent Valley), on Turpinia

malabarica, 2.ii. 199 1 , Meganathan.

Host: Turpinia malabarica (Meganathan and David,

1994).

Distribution: india: Kerala: Valiyamullumala

(Meganathan and David 1994).

Remarks: This species is rather distinct from the other

species of Kanakarajiella by the absence of submarginal/

subdorsal setae and tubercles on dorsum and caudal furrow

with sculptures.

3. Kanakarajiella vulgaris (Singh) Stat. Rev.

Dialeurodes vulgaris Singh, 1931. Mem. Rep. Dept.

Agric. India, Ent. Ser., 12: 33-34. Martin and Mound, 2007.

Zootaxa, 1492: 31.

Kanakarajiella vulgaris (Singh) David and Sundararaj,

1993.7. ent. Res., 17: 233.

Material Examined: india: Kerala: Kottayam,

9 puparia, on Solanum seaforthianum, 12.vii.2006, R. Pushpa;

Karadipara (Nelliyampathy), 1 puparium, on Euonymus

indicus, 23.x. 2006, R. Sundararaj; Tamil Nadu:

Kumarapuram, 1 puparium, on Phyllanthus reticulatus,

24.V.2007, R. Pushpa; Mondaikadu, 2 puparia on Randia

malabarica, 5. viii. 1 987, R. Sundararaj.

Hosts: Jasminum sambac, Syzygium cumini (Singh

1931); Bidens pilosa, Erythrina lithosperms, Syzygium jambos

(Venkataramaiah 1971); Canthium dicoccum, Coffea arabica,

C. excel sa, C. robusta, Coffea sp., Randia malabarica (David

and Sundararaj 1993); Litsea floribunda, Mappia foetida

(Meganathan and David 1994); Tabemaemontana heyneyana,

Jasminum sp., Litsea sp., (Dubey and Ko 2008); Euonymus

indicus, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Solanum seaforthianum (new

host records).

Distribution: india: Bihar (Pusa) (Singh 1931);

Karnataka: Chikmagalur; Kerala: Silent valley (Meganathan

and David 1994); Tamil Nadu: Munchirai, Mondaikadu

(David and Sundararaj 1993); Karnataka: Honnawar,

Kumargiri; Kerala: Waynad Wildlife Sanctuary (Dubey

2003).

160

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

NEW DESCRIPTION

Remarks: The puparium of this species is characterised

by the presence of about 10 pairs of pointed submarginal setae

and abdominal segments with median tubercles and by the

absence of submedian tubercles.

Key to the Indian species of Kanakarajiella

1 . Submarginal/subdorsal setae present; dorsum with tubercles;

caudal furrow without sculptures . 2

— Submarginal/subdorsal setae absent; dorsum without

tubercles; caudal furrow with sculptures .

. turpiniae Meganathan & David

2. Cephalothorax with two pairs and I abdominal segment with

a pair of submedian tubercles; abdominal segments without

median tubercles; subdorsum with ten pairs of capitate setae;

first abdominal setae absent . rotunda sp. nov.

— Cephalothorax and I abdominal segment without submedian

tubercles; abdominal segments with median tubercles;

submargin with a row of about 10 pairs of pointed

setae; first abdominal setae present .

. vulgaris (Singh)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director and Group Coordinator

(Research), IWST, Bengaluru, for the facilities provided.

Thanks are due to Prof. B.V. David, President, Sun Agro

Biotech Research Centre, Porur, Chennai, for loaning the type

specimen of K. turpiniae and for his valuable comments on

the manuscript.

REFERENCES

David, B.V. & R. Sundararaj (1993): Studies on Dialeurodini

(Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) of India: Kanakarajiella gen. nov.

J. ent. Res. 17(4): 289-295.

Dubey, A.K. (2003): Biosystematics of the aleyrodids (Aleyrodidae:

Homoptera: Insecta) of south Western Ghats, India. Thesis

submitted to the FRI University, Dehradun. India. 282 pp.

Dubey, A.K. & C.C. Ko (2008): Whitefly (Aleyrodidae) host plants list

from India. Oriental Ins. 42: 49-102.

Jensen, A. (1999): Cladistics of sampling of the worlds diversity of

whiteflies of the genus Dialeurodes (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae).

Annl. Ent. Soc. America 92(3): 359-369.

Martin, J.H & L A. Mound (2007): An annotated check list of the

world’s whiteflies (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Zootaxa

1492: 1-84.

Meganathan, P. & B.V. David (1994): Aleyrodidae fauna (Aleyrodidae:

Homoptera) of Silent Valley, A tropical evergreen rain-forest, in

Kerala, India. FIPPAT Entomology Series, 5: 1-66.

Singh, K. (1931): A contribution towards our knowledge of the

Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) of India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India.

Entomol. Ser. 12: 1-98.

Venkataramaiah, GH. (1 97 1 ): A note on Dialeurodes vulgarison coffee.

J. Coffee Res. 1: 13-14.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

161

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

162-164

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HOMOPORUS THOMSON

(HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM NORTH-EASTERN INDIA,

WITH A KEY TO ORIENTAL SPECIES

T.C. Narendran1 and ER. Khan2

'Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635, India. Email: [email protected]

^Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Unversity, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: insectqhl 1 @gmail.com

Homoporus neodestructor sp. nov. is described from material collected from Meghalaya. A key to Oriental species of

Homoporus is provided.

Key words: New species, Homoporus, Pteromalidae, Key, India

INTRODUCTION

Thomson (1878) erected the genus Homoporus based

on the type species Pteromalus fulviventris Walker (Graham

1969). The species of Homoporus are distributed in the

Oriental, Australian, Afrotropical, Palaearctic, Nearctic and

Neotropical regions (Graham 1969; Boucek 1988; Xiao et

al. 2004; Sureshan and Narendran 2000, 2001 ; Noyes 2003).

Noyes (2003) listed 63 known species in the world and

Narendran and Kumar (2009) added another species from

India. In this paper, one more species new to science is

described from India. In the Oriental region eight species are

known among which four are from India (including the new

species described here under). The holotype and paratype of

the new species described in this paper are retained in the

Department of Zoology, University of Calicut (DZCU), but

eventually will be deposited respectively in the National Pusa

Collection of Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi, India, (NPC) and the Insect

Collections. Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh (ZD AMU).

Abbreviations used: FI to F6= Funicular segments 1

to 6; MV= Marginal vein; OOL= Ocellocular line; PMV=

Postmarginal vein; POL= Postocellar line; SMV=

Submarginal vein; STV= Stigmal vein; Tl = Gasteral tergitel .

Key to species or Homoporus of Oriental Region

1 . First anellus longer than broad . 2

— First anellus broader than long or not longer than broad.. 3

2. Lower clypeal margin distinctly notched in the middle; F3

to F6 quadrate; POL 1.6x OOL: MV 1.6x STV; forewing

with brown infuscation near STV .

. *H. japonicus Ashmead

Anterior lower clypeal margin broadly truncate, without

sharp tooth; each funicular segment longer than broad;

POL 1-1.1 lx OOL: MV 2.3x STV; forewing without

infuscation; gaster brown, slightly yellow centrally .

. *H. sinensis Xiao et al.

3. Both mandibles quadridentate . 4

— At least one mandible tridentate . 8

4. Gaster black with green or blue refringence or gaster black

with reddish or rusty colour at base . 5

— Gaster yellow (sometimes with brown areas on sides) .... 7

5. Gaster at least 2x as long as broad; F6 as long as wide; MV

2x or a little more than 2x-STV; pronotum in front of collar

not descending vertically with respect to plane of

mesoscutum; pronotal neck at least partly visible in dorsal

view . 6

— Gaster shorter than 1.8x its width; F6 1.5x longer than wide;

MV shorter than 2x STV; pronotum in front of collar

descending vertically with respect to plane of mesoscutum;

pronotal neck not visible in dorsal view (pronotal collar not

margined) . * destructor (Say) (Extralimital)

6. Pronotal collar not margined; scape 3x as long as pedicel;

FI shorter than pedicel, as long as its width; clava (excluding

spicule) 2.5x as long as F6 . neodestructor sp. nov.

— Pronotal collar margined medially; scape longer than 4-5x

as long as pedicel; FI as long as pedicel, distinctly longer

than wide (5:3); clava 2x as long as F6 .

. *subniger Walker (in part)

7. Fifth tarsal segment especially of mid and hind legs swollen;

scape reaching beyond level of vertex; funicular segments

distinctly longer than wide; MV 3x STV .

. maharashtriensis Narendran & Kumar

— Fifth tarsal segment not swollen; scape not reaching anterior

ocellus, hence not at all reaching level of vertex; funicular

segments gradually widening towards tip; MV 2. lx as long

as STV . acuminatus Sureshan & Narendran

8 . Gaster pale brownish-yellow with 2 dark lines dorso-laterally

on either side, tips also dark brown; legs with last tarsal

segments swollen (prominent on mid and hind legs); clypeus

anteriorly with deep notch in middle; scape reaching beyond

NEW DESCRIPTION

Figs 1-5: Homoporus neodestructor sp. nov.

Female: 1. Body profile; 2. Head anterior view; 3. Antenna;

4. Head dorsal view; 5. Propodeum

anterior ocellus . gladiatus Sureshan & Narendran

— Gaster black with metallic green or blue refringence; other

characters partly or completely different . 9

9. Pronotum highly inclined vertically in front of collar;

pronotal collar not margined; forewing with more or less a

dark spot below base of MV . *luniger (Nees)

— Pronotum not declining vertically; collar margined; forewing

without dark spot or infuscation . (in part)

. *subniger (Walker)

* Names with an asterisk indicate no material of the species

was examined and the differential features provided are taken

from previous descriptions.

Homoporus neodestructor sp. nov. (Figs 1-5)

Holotype: Female: Length 3 mm. Dark metallic green

except the following: antenna pale yellow with pedicel and

scape black with slight metallic green refringence; mandibles

brown; eye brown, with anterior marginal area pale; ocelli

pale reflecting yellow; tegulae pale yellow; all coxae

concolorous with mesosoma; femora black with bases and

apices pale yellow; trochanters, tibiae and tarsi pale yellow;

pretarsi black; wings hyaline, veins pale brownish yellow.

Head: engraved-reticulate with sparse short white

pubescence; clypeus finely striate- reticulate; striae not

reaching gena; anterior margin of clypeus straight; head width

in dorsal view 1.2 lx width of mesoscutum, 2.73x its length;

width in front view 1.5x its height; vertex raised reticulate;

temple length shorter than half length of eye; POL 1 ,6x OOL;

malar sulcus faintly indicated, distance between eye and base

of mandible 0.4x eye height in profile; eye separated by 1 .6x

eye height in front view; in dorsal view eye separated by a

distance 3x POL; both mandibles with 4 teeth each. Antennae

inserted below middle of face, a little above level of ventral

margin of eyes; scape not quite reaching anterior ocellus;

length 0.74x eye height in profile; pedicel plus flagellum 0.7x

head width; funicular segments gradually widening towards

tip; tip acuminate with a sharp terminal stylus or specula;

relative L: W of antennal segments: scape= 45: 6; pedicel=

15: 10; F 1 = 10: 10; F2= 11: 11; F3= 12: 11; F4= 11: 11; F5=

11: 11; F6= 12: 12;clava=32: 15.

Mesosoma: slightly arched in profde, with very sparse

white pubescence; pronotum with raised reticulation, not

margined not descending vertically in front of collar with

respect to the plane of mesoscutum; pronotal neck visible;

lateral panel of pronotum sunken; mesoscutum raised

reticulate, 2.17x as wide as long; scutellum medially l.lx as

long as mesoscutum, similar sculptured as mesoscutum.

Propodeum medially 0.4x as long as scutellum, raised

reticulate, with two deep fovea with a pit on either side; nucha

relatively small, a little raised and transverse between fork of

median carina; spiracle elongately oval; callus with thin long

pubescence, not dense; mesepisternum and lower

mesepimeron densely reticulate; upper mesepimeron smooth

and shiny; prepectus and lateral panel of pronotum densely

reticulate. Forewing 2.5x as long as broad, with basal part

almost bare; parastigmal vein indicated; CC with a row of

ventral setae; upper side of CC without pubescence; speculum

open behind (with 1 or 2 setae almost behind); relative length

of SMV= 35; MV= 25; PMV= 20; STV= 12.

Metasoma: Ovate, mostly smooth, dorsally collapsing;

gaster sessile, 1.5x length of mesosoma, a little longer than

head plus mesosoma combined; hind margin of T1 straight

not medially produced).

Male: Unknown.

Host: Unknown.

Variation: Length varies from 2.53-3.0 mm; black

colour of femora reduced in paratype and body colour more

bluish than greenish in paratype.

Material Examined: Holotype: Female, india:

Meghalaya, Shillong, Ladmawphlong 23.x. 2008, F.R. Khan

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

163

NEW DESCRIPTION

(DZCU). Paratype: Female, Meghalaya, Jowai, Thaldskin,

22.x. 2008, F.R. Khan (DZCU).

Etymology: The species is named after Homoprus

destructor (Say) with which it resembles.

Remarks: This new species comes near Homoporus

destructor (Say) (Say 1817) in general appearance but differs

from it in having: 1) Gaster 2.2x as long as broad (in H.

destructor 1 .4- 1 ,6x as long as broad); 2) F6 as long as wide

(in H. destructor F6 almost 1.5x longer than wide according

to Dzhanokmen, 1987); 3) MV 2x or a little more than 2x

STV (in H. destructor MV distinctly shorter than 2x STV)

and 4) Pronotum in front of collar not descending vertically

(in H. destructor pronotum in front of collar descending

vertically).

This new species also resembles Homoporus subniger

(Walker) (Walker 1835) very closely but differs from it in

having: 1) scape 3x as long as pedicel (scape longer than 4-

5x length of pedicel); 2) FI shorter than pedicel (in H.

subniger FI as long as pedicel), 3) clava 2.5x as long as F6

(in H. subniger clava 2x as long as F6) and 4) Pronotal collar

not margined (in H. subniger pronotal collar margined

medially).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

One of us (TCN) is grateful to Prof. N. Ramani, Head

of the Department, Department of Zoology, University of

Calicut, for permitting me to work in the Department. He is

grateful to Dr. M. Nasser of the same Department for all

support and encouragement. TCN thanks Prof. M. Hayat.

Department of Zoology. Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh,

for the loan of specimens.

REFERENCES

BouCek, Z. (1988): Australacian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) C.A.B

International, Wallingford, U K. Pp. 1-831.

Graham, M.W.R. de V. (1969): The Pteromalidae of Northwestern

Europe (Hymenopera: Chalcidoidea). Bulletin of the British

Museum (Natural History) ( Entomology ) Supplement 16: 908

pp. 686 figs.

Narendran, T.C. & P.G Kumar (2009): On three new species of

Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Maharashtra,

India. Journal of Experimental Zoology 12(1): 29-34.

Noyes, J.S. (2003): (accessed 2010). Universal Chalcidoidea data base.

http:Avww.nhm.uk/jdsml/research-curation/research projects/

chalcidoids/

Say, T. (1817): Some account of the insect known by the name of the

hessian fly and a parasitic insect that feeds on it. Journal of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1: 45-48.

Sureshan, P.M. & T.C. Narendran (2000): Pteromalidae (Chalcidoidea:

Hymenoptera) from India with the description of a new species

Entomon 25(2): 117-128.

Sureshan, P.M. & T.C. Narendran (2001): Another Indian species of

Homoporus Thompson (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea:

Pteromalidae) Zoos' Print Journal 16(1): 391- 394.

Walker, F. (1835): Monographia Chalciditum. Entomological Magazine

2(5): 476- 502:3(7): 94- 97.

Xiao. H.. Y.Z. Zhang, D.W. Huang & A. Polaszek (2004): A revision

of Homoporus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) of China. Raffles

Bulletin 52(1): 59- 65.

164

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010

165-181

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. FURTHER NOTE ON SOME BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF

THE NORTHERN PIG-TAILED MACAQUE MACACA NEMESTRINA LEONINA

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

A detailed work on the ecology and behaviour of the

northern Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina

Linnaeus 1766, was published recently (Choudhury 2008).

Additional recent information on the behavioural aspects of

this relatively poorly documented primate is found in

Choudhury (2009, 2010). Useful information on leonina,

although relatively scanty, is found in Pocock (1931, 1939,

1941), McCann (1933), Fooden (1975), Choudhury (1988.

1989, 1993, 1997, 2003), and Feeroz et al. (1994). Groves

(2001) had proposed full specific treatment for leonina. In

this note, observations on some other aspects of behaviour

observed during field works between February 1986 and May

2006, and which were not analysed before, have been

presented.

The observations were carried out in Bherjan-Borajan-

Podumoni Wildlife Sanctuary (27°25'-32' N; 95°19'-23' E)

in Tinsukia district of eastern Assam, and Garampani and

Nambor Wildlife Sanctuaries (26°23' N; 93°52' E) in Karbi

Anglong district of central Assam. Bherjan-Borajan-

Podumoni Wildlife Sanctuary is located on fiat terrain (HO¬

BO m above msl) and has three disjunct blocks covered by

partially degraded tropical wet evergreen or rainforest and

deciduous plantations. Garampani and Nambor Wildlife

Sanctuaries are located on low undulating terrain ( 1 70-280 m

above msl) and are covered by partially degraded tropical

wet semi-evergreen rainforest.

General: The northern Pig-tailed Macaque is among

the most arboreal of the macaques found in north-east India.

They come down to the ground for crossing clearings and

also for foraging, especially in degraded areas. Of the total

133 hours of observation in Bherjan, the macaques were

observed for only 120 min on the ground, that too the lone

males (only once a female with infant, and two immatures).

The group may not come to the ground at all on many

days while in forests with relatively good canopy cover

(e.g., Bherjan). However, in the nearby Borajan, where the

canopy was broken, the macaques were frequently observed

on the ground, crossing roads and clear-felled patches. During

the season of crop raid, especially after the harvest of paddy

is over (in January), the macaques of Borajan were observed

to spend 38% of their diurnal time on the ground. In Nambor

and Garampani, where canopy cover was almost closed, the

macaques normally came down to cross over the National

Highway that passes through the forest and feed on sugarcane

left-over by wild elephants (Choudhury 1993, 2010). In

Garampani, as much as 20% of their diurnal time was spent

on the ground in February and March 1992.

Crop raiding reports are rare, however, in smaller

pockets such as Borajan macaques raid paddy fields (usually

after the harvest is over) and also in jhum (y7;//m=slash and

burn shifting cultivation) pockets inside forests in Garo and

Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, to supplement their diet.

The macaques occupy the top storey (12 to 35 m in

Bombax, Dipteroearpus, etc.) for roosting, basking and feeding.

The understorey, especially the middle layer (2-10 m in

Bauhinia, Lagerstroemia, Albizzia, bamboo, etc.) is used for

feeding, resting and travelling. The lower branches of trees

and lower shrubs were used for feeding. Activities on the

forest floor included crossing of clearings, a little feeding

but may be prolonged also in case of crop raiding, occasional

drinking and play.

As a rule, the Pig-tailed Macaque is not very shy,

however, in areas where it is hunted for food, it was extremely

so (e.g., Nagaland) (Choudhury 2008).

Roosting: For roosting, in Bherjan and Podumoni

forests, they preferred the higher branches of tall trees (>20 m;

down to 16 m in partially degraded forest). The macaques

arrive to roost fairly early (not just before dusk), 30-45 min

before dusk, singly or in twos and threes, and take up their

final roosting positions around sunset. While roosting, the

macaques held the branches tightly, and remained in their

positions throughout the night. They did not sleep in a tight

cluster, but loosely dispersed in adjacent trees. The maximum

distance observed between two extreme individuals of a

roosting pig-tailed macaque group was about 1 00 m in Bheijan

and Podumoni forests.

Vocalisation, communication and facial expressions:

A variety of barks and calls are uttered by Pig-tailed macaques.

The most frequent was medium to low-pitched pno-pno or

po-po. This was uttered by almost all the individuals, one

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

after another or simultaneously when travelling from one

location to another along trees, and sometimes during foraging

and when any human being was seen nearby. During

locomotion on the ground; however, they were more or less

silent. The alpha male’s alarm call was a harsh bark hrr-hrr,

argh when the foraging members dispersed too far or when

the female in estrous went out of sight. It also growls. The

subadult and female alarm calls were wheek, wheek.

Quarrels and mock fights with grunts, especially

among the sub-adults and juveniles, were not uncommon.

Usually the adult male interfere uttering louder grunts to

bring back silence. Overall, pig-tailed macaques are not silent

animals and their presence can be easily detected due to a

large group size and various vocalizations, and the sound of

branch movements and twig-breaking when they travel.

The males also uttered khek-khek or ghek-ghek or agh-

agh or kheh-kheh after dismounting from a copulation bout.

The females either remain silent or make a low scream. Older

females usually remain silent.

Pig-tailed macaques are very shy where they are hunted

and utter a very distinctive hoa, hooa, ho-a, or hua, hua or

arr-huah, huah and vanish immediately. Females and

immatures made various “squeals’, ‘screech’, and ‘screams’.

Apart from vocalisations, pig-tailed macaques communicate

by means of gestures (facial expressions), including look-

threat, look away, grin, posture during locomotion, mounting

gesture, presenting, freezing, touching with limbs, and

possible tail expression.

Despite so many vocalizations, sometimes the groups

could maintain effective silence such that their presence

cannot be detected, especially when they were resting (not

always as the young ones move about), or after fleeing owing

to disturbance caused by humans. Immature males, adult

females and juveniles grimaced with teeth visible when this

researcher went within 3-5 m.

Sun basking: Such behaviour is mainly observed

during cool winter months. They exposed their ventrum and

sides of body to the sun in a sitting posture on tree branches

at 20+ m height. The duration of sun basking observed ranged

from 14 to 35 min. In summer, there may not be any sun

basking on some days. On summer mornings when sun

basking was observed, the duration ranged from less than a

minute to seven minutes. During basking the most common

behaviour was sitting still, self-manipulation, grooming and

play between the young ones.

Fall: Accidental falls were also often observed. On

August 04, 1992, an alpha male fell from more than 20 m

height when the branch he was sitting on gave away. A few

seconds after the fall, he uttered ‘ aargh ’ and then vanished

along the ground. On other occasions, a macaque jumped

down 18-20 m while fleeing in Upper Dihing (west block)

Reserved Forest, and two immatures fell from 20 m in Bherjan

forests.

During rain: During drizzle, the adults mostly

remained indifferent; however, on heavy rain, adults

were seen sitting on branches with thick foliage, but the

immature were observed playing and jumping from branch

to branch.

This is probably the first time that these behavioural

aspects of northern pig-tailed macaques have been published.

The elusiveness of the macaque and poor visibility had its

sway by wasting invaluable time in the field. Earlier observers

who had studied form nemestrina also have similar comments

(Bernstein 1967; Caldecott 1986). Although a dweller of dense

forest, wherever degradation took place the macaque could

adapt itself to the changed environment (e.g., Podumoni

forests).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Nur Husain and Dilip for accompanying me in

the field.

REFERENCES

Bernstein, I.S. (1967): A field study of the pigtail monkey. Primates 8:

217-228.

Caldecott, J.O. (1986): An ecological and behavioural study of the

pig-tailed macaque. In: Szalay, F.S. (Ed.): Contributions to

primatology, Vol. 21. Basel (Switzerland): Karger. 259 pp.

Choudhury, A.U. (1988): Priority ratings for conservation of Indian

primates. Oryx 22: 89-94.

Choudhury. A.U. (1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution, habitat

and status. Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati University, Guwahati. 300 pp.

+ maps.

Choudhury. A.U. (1993): A naturalist in Karbi Anglong. Gibbon Books,

Guwahati.

Choudhury, A.U. (1997): Checklist of the mammals of Assam. 2nd edn.

Gibbon Books & ASTEC, Guwahati.

Choudhury, A.U. (2003): The pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina in

India - status and conservation. Primate Conservation 19: 91-94.

Choudhury, A.U. (2008): Ecology and behaviour of the pig-tailed

macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina in some forests of Assam

in north-east India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105(3): 279-291.

Choudhury, A.U. (2009): Interaction of the Pig-tailed macaque Macaca

nemestrina leonina with other primates in some forests of Assam

in north-east India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(2): 202-203.

Choudhury. A.U. (2010): Notes on behaviour of Pig-tailed Macaque

Macaca nemestrina leonina towards Sparrow-Hawk, Crows,

Drongo and Elephants. Zoo’s Print 25(7): 23-25.

Feeroz, M„ M. Islam & M. Kabir (1994): Food and feeding behaviour

of hoolock gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock ), capped langur (Presbytis

pileata ), and pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) of

166

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Lawachara. Bangladesh J. Zool. 22(2): 123-132.

Fooden. J. (1975): Taxonomy and evolution of liontail and pigtail

macaques (Primates: Cercopithecidae). Fieldiana Zoology 67:

1-169.

Groves, C.P. (2001): Primate taxonomy. Smithsonian Inst. Press.

Washington DC. 350 pp.

McCann, C. (1933): Notes on some Indian macaques. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 36: 796-810.

Pocock, R.I. (1931): The pig-tailed macaques ( Macaco nemestrina).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 297-31 1 .

Pocock, R.I. (1939): The fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma: Mammalia Primates and Carnivora. 2nd edition. Taylor

& Francis, London. 503 pp.

Pocock, R.I. (1941): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma: Mammalia II. Primates and Carnivora. Taylor & Francis,

London. 503 pp.

2. EFFECT OF AILA STORM ON FLYING FOX PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS G1GANTEUS (BRUNNICH)

S. Mallick1'2 and S.K. Raut13

'Ecology and Ethology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, B.C. Road, Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal,

India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

During the course of studies on the bio-ecology of

Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich) at

Joteghanashyam area of Paschim Medinipur district of West

Bengal, India, we took the opportunity to note the impact of

Aila storm on a bat population occurring in the area. Our

study programme was stimulated by a news broadcast on

the radio and television announcing the approaching Aila

storm. The senior author (SM) reached the site - a Silk Flower

tree ( Albizia lebbeck) - which was inhabited about 800

P.g. giganteus individuals, at 08:00 hrs on May 25, 2009.

The Silk Flower tree was 42 m tall with a canopy of 12 m

diameter with well-developed branching system. The tree

was situated on a hill inside a village. The weather was cloudy

and it began drizzling at around 09:35 hrs. SM continued

observing the bats from the ground. The ground below the

tree canopy was clean. Aila appeared suddenly at 10:46 hrs.

The wind speed was very high (110 km/hr, as per local

Meteorological Station); unable to stand under the Silk

Flower tree SM took shelter in a nearby house. The wind

speed remained at about 110 km/hr for the first 10 minutes.

Thereafter, it decreased gradually and by 11:56 hrs the

weather condition permitted SM to step out and visit the bat

colony.

SM noticed a big and three small branches of the Silk

Flower tree and 47 dead bats lying on the ground. Almost all

the bats had blood oozing from the mouth. Forty-four bats

were collected by the locals for feasting, while three were

carried away by a mongoose ( Herpestes sp.) into its burrow.

The bats hanging from the tree had a blank look; in fact

none of them left the tree to forage that night. However, the

next evening (on May 26) they left the tree to forage.

In this case, 47 bats could not survive the severity of

Aila storm. But it is not clear whether the speed of the wind

or an attempt to seek a safe shelter dislodged them from the

tree. Whatever the reason it is likely that once dislodged

from the branch they failed to sustain themselves in the air

because of the high speed of the wind, and therefore, fell to

the ground. Thus, it is apparent that such natural calamities

not only kill individuals but also create panic in the surviving

individuals of P.g. giganteus for atleast 24 hours.

3. FIRST RECORD OF LESSER FALSE VAMPIRE BAT (MEGADERMA SPASMA LINNAEUS, 1758)

IN GIR NATIONAL PARK & SANCTUARY

Md. Shamshad Alam1

'Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

On May 1 0, 2008, during my research on Striped Hyena

Hyaena hyaena in Gir National Park and Sanctuary, I and my

field assistant were in the Chodawadi range of the Park. We

were approaching Dungarphadi a permanent water body at

Ardak river for searching active dens and other evidence of

Striped Hyena. There was no road or trail to Dungarphadi; it

was a savannah type forest. After some time we started

walking along a dry stream. After a few hundred metres walk,

I located a sandy den (21° 08' 02.5" N; 70° 51' 08.7" E) and

entered it cautiously. The den was an abandoned Indian

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

167

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Crested Porcupine Hystrix indica den. While I was observing

the den, a bat suddenly flew out, and settled on a tree nearby.

I photographed the bat so that I could identify it later.

I compared photographs of the bat with the ones

recorded from Gir and also with descriptions from Bates and

Harrison ( 1997), Menon (2003) and Prater (2005). According

to the Gir Management Plan, only two species of bats have

been reported from Gir (Singh and Kamboj 1996), namely

Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus and Short-nosed Fruit Bat

Cynopterus sphinx. To confirm the identity of the bat I sent

the photographs to Dr. Paul Bates, a bat specialist. Dr. Asad

R. Rahmani (Director, BNHS), and Dr. Sandeep Kumar

(Deputy Conservator of Forests, Wildlife Division. Sasan-

Gir). The bat was identified as a Lesser False Vampire Bat

Megadenna spasma. This is the first documentation of the

Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma from the Gir

National Park and Sanctuary, Gujarat.

False vampire bats are tailless bats belonging to an

ancient and carnivorous family Megadermatidae, which

include five species in four genera (Bates and Harrison 1997;

Macdonald 1999). There are two species of false vampire

bats found in India: Greater False Vampire Bat Megadenna

lyra and Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma. These

Bates, P.J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997): Bats of Indian Subcontinent.

Harrison Zoological Museum Publications. 258 pp.

Macdonald, D. (1999): The Encyclopaedia of Mammals. Greenwich

Editions, London.

Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Published by

Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Limited with association with

bats have long oval ears that have a distinct smaller "inner

ear" or tragus. The easier way to differentiate them is by the

shape of their noseleaf. Lesser False Vampire Bat has short,

broad and heart-shaped noseleaf base, while Greater False

Vampire Bat has a much elongated noseleaf (Bates and

Harrison 1997).

Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma is known

from India, Sri Lanka. Myanmar, South-East Asia to Java,

Philippines and Molucca Islands (Bates and Harrison 1997).

In India, it is distributed in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam,

Mizoram and Andaman Islands (Bates and Harrison 1997;

Menon 2003).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. Jamal A. Khan for giving me an opportunity

to work in Gir National Park and Sanctuary. I thank the

Ministry of Environment and Forests (Govt, of India) for

funding the Gir Hyena Ecology Project. I thank Gujarat

Forest Department and Department of Wildlife Sciences,

Aligarh, Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing logistic

support.

Penguin Book (India) Pvt. Limited. 200 pp.

Prater, S.H. (2005): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society, Oxford University Press. 324 pp.

Singh, H.S. & R.D. Kamboj ( 1996): Biodiversity Conservation Plan for

Gir. A Management Plan for Gir Sanctuary & National Park.

Forest Department, Gujarat State. 242 pp.

4. RECENT RECORDS OF GAUR BOS GAURUS SMITH IN BANGLADESH

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd.. Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

The range of Gaur Bos gaums Smith 1 827 extends from

southern India to Vietnam (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

1951; Choudhury 2002). It used to be common in the northern,

north-eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh (Khan 1985;

Asmat 2001 ; Choudhury 2002; Khan 2008). In the north and

north-east, the Gaur used to occur along the foot of Garo,

Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills in undivided Mymensingh and

Sylhet districts. In the south-east, they used to occur in

undivided Chittagong Hill Tracts and Chittagong districts.

Khan (1985) surmised that there is possibly no resident

population in Bangladesh. He recorded a case in 1980 where

a Gaur strayed from Garo Hills, Meghalaya, to Durgapur of

undivided Mymensingh (now in Netrakona district) was killed

and its meat taken by villagers. Khan ( 1985) and Asmat (2001 )

also stated that the last gaurs in herds were probably

eliminated during the war of liberation in 1971.

I here report of some recent occurrence in Comilla and

Feni (part of erstwhile undivided Noakhali district) districts,

which were otherwise unrecorded cases and no publication

of that country such as Khan (2008) also mentioned of these.

These records were obtained during field visits in the fringe

villages of Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary in Tripura, north-east

India, in January 2008.

In 2004, a Gaur from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary strayed

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to Feni area of Bangladesh through Siddhinagar. What

happened to it subsequently is not known. Feni is in erstwhile

undivided Noakhali district (now Feni district).

In March-April 2007, three Gaurs, a bull and two cows,

(one was pregnant) strayed from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary

through Garjania to ‘Suorbazar’ area of Bangladesh. Their

fate also went unrecorded.

In the first week of November 2007, a bull from Trishna

Wildlife Sanctuary strayed into Kuderpathar through Rajnagar

area and was killed for meat.

In areas near India-Bangladesh border, Trishna Wildlife

Sanctuary in Tripura and Dampa Tiger Reserve in Mizoram

are the closest having Gaur populations. Balpakram National

Park in Meghalaya, an important Gaur habitat, is a little

distance away but straying of Gaur is possible owing to their

habit of doing so (Choudhury 2002). In Khasi and Jaintia

Hills sectors of Meghalaya, the Gaur is either extinct or stray

individuals survive with lesser chances of straying into that

country. In southern Assam (Karimganj district) and northern

and western Tripura also the Gaur has vanished from forest

areas nearer to the border. However, there could still be some

stray movement between forests near Gumti Wildlife

Sanctuary of Tripura and Mizoram areas with the forests in

Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Khan (2008) included Gaur in the list of lost species

but mentioned of possible vagrant animals in north-east

(undivided Sylhet area) and south-east (Chittagong Hill

Tracts) but did not mention of any recent specific cases and

also not the areas mentioned in this note, which are actually

in eastern Bangladesh.

Such frequent straying from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary

had ensured Bangladesh’s name in the range countries of the

Gaur. However, such straying is going to be stopped

completely owing to border fencing. While such fencing has

proved to be harmful for Asian Elephants Elephas maximus

at different sectors (Choudhury 2007 ), for the gaurs of Trishna

Wildlife Sanctuary it is going to be a boon as it will stop

straying into Bangladesh as well as getting killed as there is

no habitat in that sector across the border and the animals

land up in densely inhabited villages only to get killed and

Fig. 1 : Map of Bangladesh showing some of the areas/places

mentioned in the text

eaten. With complete halt of movement from Trishna Wildlife

Sanctuary, the only movement will remain in Dampa sector,

Mizoram-Chittagong Hill Tracts, but fencing is also going to

be erected here very soon. After closing of the Dampa border

with Chittagong Hill Tracts the gaur can be listed as extinct

in Bangladesh!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Kamal Banik and other members of Dishari

NGO. and Forest officials and staff. Special thanks to

Gauranga Chandra Debbarman and Gaursadan Jamatia, both

Head Forest Guards, for corroborating these reports, which

are also known to many of the fringe villagers.

REFERENCES

Asmat, G.S.M. (2001): Bagladesher bilupto bannyaprani [in Bengali],

Bangla Academy, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 184 pp.

Choudhury, A.U. (2002): Distribution and conservation of the Gaur

Bos gaurus in the Indian Subcontinent. Mammal Review 32(3):

199-226.

Choudhury, A.U. (2007): Impact of border fence along India -

Bangladesh border on elephant movement. Gajah 26:

27-30.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison- Scott (1951): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1758 to 1946 (2nd edn, 1966).

British Museum (Natural History), London.

Khan, M.A.R. (1985): Mammals of Bangladesh. N. Reza, Dhaka,

Bangladesh. 92 pp.

Khan, M.M.H. (2008): Protected areas of Bangladesh - a guide to

wildlife. Nishorgo Programme, Forest Department, Dhaka,

Bangladesh.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

169

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. A CONSERVATION PLEA FOR SAVING WILDLIFE IN THE LANDSCAPE BOUND

BY GOLA, LADHIYA AND SHARADA RIVERS, NORTH INDIA

A.J.T.Johnsingh', Bivash Pandav2 and Dhananjai Mohan1

‘Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore and WWF-India. Email: [email protected]

“Tiger and other Asian Big Cats, WWF International C/o - WWF Nepal, P.O. Box # 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Email: [email protected]

’Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, PO Box 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

One of the scenic, neglected but promising landscapes

for large mammals in India is in the eastern part of

Uttarakhand. This landscape spreading over an area of nearly

1,200 sq. km includes the entire Haldwani Forest Division

(FD) comprising of Nandhour, Danda, North Jaulasal,

Chhakata and Sharada forest ranges; the Dogari and Boom

forest ranges of Champawat FD and Kishanpur, Ransali,

Jaulasal south and Kilpura ranges of Terai East FD (Fig. 1 ).

Abutting ranges of Champawat FD (Bhingrada and

Champawat) and Bharon range of Nainital FD, just north

of Ladhiya and Gola rivers, are not included in this

conservation planning though they are contiguous to the

landscape. Those who have trekked here would concur with

us that the mountainous parts of this landscape (Haldwani

and Champawat FDs) are the most beautiful locales in the

entire outer Himalayan range. Corbett (1944, 1954) has

written about this hilly region in his accounts on Chowgarh

tigers, Talla-Des, Chuka and Thak man-eaters. We had the

pleasure of walking 130 km across this landscape: 60 km

from Manch to Thuligad via Chuka and Thak in December

2005 and 70 km from Dalkania (Chowgarh tigers were shot

here) to Chorgalia and Kalonia in January 2006. This

landscape was once part of a much wider continuous

landscape that existed all along the foot-hills of Himalaya

(Toovey 1 987). Isolation of this landscape was as a result of

uncontrolled boulder mining in Gola river, townships,

encroachments and other developments in the terai part of

the landscape.

Based on these walks, plus the earlier Terai tiger

surveys carried out by the Wildlife Institute of India in this

landscape (Johnsingh et al. 2004), and the information we

gathered from the forest staff during our treks, we conclude

that the status of three endangered species - Golden Mahseer

Tor putitora, Elephant Elephas maximus and Tiger Panthera

tigris - is extremely critical here. During our 130 km trek,

although we saw eight leopard P. pardus and six sloth

bear Melursus ursinus tracks, we did not see a single tiger

sign.

During the Terai tiger survey, covering the entire area

of all the three divisions (c. 1,800 sq. km) we had walked

147 km along river beds, covering almost all potential tiger

forest ranges, looking for tiger, leopard and prey signs. The

number of different tiger pug marks seen was 34 and leopard

49, which gives an encounter rate of 0.23 tiger pug marks/

km and 0.33 leopard pug marks/km. respectively. In

comparison, 18.8 km walk in the four river beds in the

southern part of Corbett Tiger Reserve (TR) yielded 21 tiger

pug marks (1.1 pug marks/km) and two leopard pug marks

(0.01/km; Johnsingh et al. 2004).

Poaching of ungulate prey by the Nepalese and the

people of this landscape, as well as outsiders, particularly

by the Rai Sikhs (who come from the terai, the fertile

landscape south of the foot-hills, and hereafter called the

Terai Poachers), is the major reason for the rarity of tiger

in this landscape of enormous potential. While poaching

by the local people and the Terai Poachers still continues,

the illegal activities by the Nepalese have been contained

to a great extent since 2003, after the deployment of Special

Security Bureau forces along Sharada river with the specific

purpose of curtailing incursions by the Maoists from Nepal.

Related to tiger conservation, poaching by the Terai

Poachers is extremely detrimental as they selectively kill

Sambar Cervus unicolor, the most vital prey for tiger in

the Asian forests, by using dogs and spears. Terai Poachers

also indulge in other unlawful activities such as brewing

and selling liquor in the forests, and occasionally waylaying

villagers who transit through the forests carrying provisions.

It is also reported that the Terai Poachers are responsible

for the killing of most of the elephant tuskers in the area.

Exploits of the Terai Poachers are largely for adventure

and not driven by poverty. Presently, the status of the 40 or

so elephants mostly confined to the south-eastern part of

this landscape is extremely critical and it is one of the most

precariously endangered sub-populations in the country.

Other problems seen in this landscape are the widespread

presence of cattle camps, use of destructive fishing methods

(dynamites, gill nets and bleaching powder) in the Sharada,

Nandhour and Ladhiya rivers, smuggling of timber and

fire wood cutting along the southern portion of the

landscape.

Yet the potential for the conservation of tiger and

mahseer is extremely high, as the landscape has nearly

170

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : The landscape bound by Gola, Ladhiya and Sharada rivers

1,000 sq. km intact Sambar-Tiger habitat. The Nandhour river

flows for 30 km through a valley with no permanent human

settlements, the final 20 km of Ladhiya between Chalti and

its confluence with Sharada is sparsely populated and

Sharada, beyond Chuka, flows for 20 km with only one cattle

camp on the Indian side (opposite of the cattle camp on the

Nepal side there is Parigaon village of 300-500 families).

The area (Chakata range of Haldwani FD) has a weak

connectivity with Ramnagar FD (Fatehpur range) and

Nainital FD (Ranibagh range) which are connected with

Corbett TR on the west. Sadly, the connectivity with Corbett

TR across Terai Central. Ramnagar and Terai West FDs,

which was seriously threatened by boulder mining in the

past, seems to be totally broken now as a result of new

developments such as the construction of Indian Oil

Corporation Depo, Railway Sleeper Factory and allotment

of 50 ha land to Indo-Tibetan Border Police for their campus

development. There is still connectivity with the forests in

Nepal across Sharada, and it appears that the continuity along

the foot-hills beyond Sharada exists for about 20 km as

Brahmadev corridor till the eastern part of Shuklaphanta

Wildlife Reserve (Fig. 1). Surveys and immediate

conservation initiatives to protect the forests here are urgently

needed. The conservation measures suggested for the

landscape would also immensely benefit the elephants

pocketed in this landscape, particularly the tuskers would

be able to live longer and contribute to breeding. Thus, this

landscape has immense value in securing the future of tiger

and associated species in the terai- bhabar landscape which

in India and Nepal sprawls over an area of c. 40,000 sq. km.

We present this report to urge the stakeholders to start

working towards the following objectives:

■ Establish c. 1.000 sq. km Nandhour-Ladhiya

Conservation Reserve, which would encompass the Danda,

Nandhour and Jaulasal (north) ranges of Haldwani FD.

Dogari and Boom ranges of Champawat FD, Jaulasal (south)

and Kilpura ranges of Terai East FD and other potential

adjacent forest blocks (Fig. 2).

■ Notify c. 400 sq. km as Nandhour Valley National

Park including areas of Danda, Nandhour and Jaulasal

(north), ranges of Haldwani FD as the core of the

Conservation Reserve (which may be elevated to the level

of a National Park or a Wildlife Sanctuary). Danda has human

habitations only along its western and northern boundary.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

171

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16 Kilometers

Water

□ Proposed National Park Boundary

I I Buffer Zone (Range Boundary)

Fig. 2: Suggested Nandhour- Ladhiya Conservation Reserve with a core

and Nandhour only in the south. It is reported that Jaulasal

does not have permanent settlements (Fig. 2).

■ Facilitate the only family living in Thak to settle down

in Chuka and vacate the cattle camp on the bank

of Sharada so that minimum 50 sq. km of Boom range becomes

free of human habitation. This area marked by

the Purnagiri temple in the south, Chuka in the north,

Sharada river in the east and Kotkendri in the west, can become

a satellite mini-core of the suggested Park/WLS. Endangered

Serow Capricornis sumatraensis is reported to occur

here.

■ Station a 50-person strong anti-poaching force

of forest and police personnel along the southern boundary

of the suggested Conservation Reserve, to patrol the

forests, kill the dogs used in poaching, arrest the poachers

and liquidate the liquor trade within the jungle. This

protection force may have to continue for several

years.

■ Initiate a dialogue with the elders of the villages all

along the southern boundary, from where the Terai Poachers

are reported to come, so that the men from the villages would

stop their illegal activities inside the forests. We should also

recruit, motivate and train 12-15 Terai Poachers from these

villages as part of the anti-poaching force. They can also be

trained as ecotourism guides to take adventure tourists to trek

in this landscape. The villagers have a stake in protecting this

landscape as water for their prosperous agriculture comes only

from these mountains.

Spread the message of conservation in all the villages

within and along the boundary of the Conservation Reserve

(this should include villages in the immediate vicinity

of Ladhiya on its north bank) about the need to give up

poaching, and give sufficient financial incentives to grow fuel

wood and fodder species on their lands so that pressures on the

forests will be minimal. May be 500- 1 ,000 m width of reserve

forest all around the village, depending upon the

size of the village, can be set aside for growing firewood and

fodder.

■ Conduct a socio-economic survey of all the villages

in this landscape at the earliest, so that appropriate

conservation programmes for every village could be initiated

following a participatory approach.

■ Conduct another absence/presence/abundance

survey of tiger, leopard and wild ungulate signs in January-

February, as done by Wildlife Institute of India between

October 2002 and June 2003 (Johnsingh et al. 2004), and

initiate a study to assess the population, range and habitat

use of elephants in the landscape.

■ While allowing people to catch fish for their use

with line and hook, nooses (a widely used method in

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Uttarakand) and cast nets, ban destructive methods of fishing

in Nandhour, Ladhiya and Sharada rivers to enable Mahseer

to stage a come back.

■ Secure the support of Government of India, which

has the responsibility to save the tiger through its National

Tiger Conservation Authority, to establish Conservation

Reserve and the National Park, which eventually, with some

reintroduction, can support 30-50 tigers. As seen from the

studies in the western part of Uttarakhand, in a similar habitat,

the potential of this habitat to support high densities of wild

ungulate prey is enormous (Harihar et al. 2008).

■ Long term plan for this promising landscape should

include re-establishment of viable connectivity with Corbett

TR and Suklaphanta Reserve.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Mr. PR. Sinha, Director, Wildlife Institute of India,

Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Mr. Ravi Singh,

Secretary General & CEO, WWF-India, Mr. Param Jit Singh,

Conservator of Forests, Uttarakhand, Mr. Ashok Mehar,

Divisional Forest Officer, Nainital FD, Mr. Kapil Lai,

Divisional Forest Officer, Haldwani FD and Mr. Rajmani

Pandey, Divisional Forest Officer, Champawat FD

and Ravikiran Govekar, Maharashtra Forest Department

facilitated the survey. Drs. S.P. Goyal and Nima Manjrekar

read through the manuscript. Dr. K. Ramesh, Mr. Panna Lai,

and Mr. PK. Tomar, Wildlife Institute of India, prepared the

figures. We thank them all.

REFERENCES

Corbett, J. (1944): Man-Eaters of Kumaon. Oxford University Press,

London.

Corbett, J. (1954): The Temple Tiger and More Man-Eaters of Kumaon.

Oxford Universities Press, London

Harihar, A., B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2008): Responses of tiger

( Panthera tigris ) and their prey to removal of anthropogenic

influences in Rajaji National Park. India. European Journal of

Wildlife Research 55: 97-105.

Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Ramesh, Q. Qureshi, A. David, S.P. Goyal,

GS. Rawat, K. Rajapandian & S. Prasad (2004): Conservation

status of tiger and associated species in the Terai Arc

Landscape, India. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Pp. viii +110.

Toovey, J. (ed.) (1987): Tigers of the Raj. Pages from the Shikar Diaries

- 1894 to 1949 of Colonel Burton, Sportsman and

Conservationist, Alan Sutton.

6. LARGE-TAILED NIGHTJAR CAPRIMULGUS MACRURUS IN PHULWARI-KI-NAAL

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, UDAIPUR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

Harkirat Singh Sangha1 and Dhirendra Devarshi2

‘B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

2C-8, Prithviraj Road. Jaipur 302 001, Rajasthan, India.

While we were birding in Asawara area of Mamer in

Phulwari-ki-Naal Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur district,

Rajasthan on March 29, 2004, a Large-tailed Nightjar

Caprimulgus macrurus started calling chaun...

chaunk...chaunk... at 18:44 hrs soon after sunset. Being

familiar with the distinct knocking and resonant call of the

species we had no difficulty in identifying the species.

Soon after we heard another bird calling some distance

away from the first one; the birds stopped calling when we

tried to find them. Possibly they were disturbed by the

noise created by trampling of dry leaves lying on the ground.

Later in the evening one bird was briefly heard at 20:30 hrs

and another flying close to the forest rest house at

Mamer.

With an average annual precipitation of c. 650 mm,

Phulwari-ki-Naal harbours dry deciduous forest and some

patches of moist deciduous biotopes. There is preponderance

of stunted Teak Tectona grandis and Mahua Madhuca indica

trees in some parts of the Sanctuary. When we visited the

area the trees had shed their leaves and ground was covered

with a thick carpet of dry leaves. The habitat at Asawara

seemed suitable for the species to breed as the species is

known to breed from March to June “among dry leaves,

often in rather open conditions” (Rasmussen and Anderton

2005).

Although apparently resident or a local migrant in

much of its range, it is “only a summer visitor in some areas

such as the Punjab Salt range (Rattray 1899: 342)” (Ali and

Ripley 1983; Holyoak 2001).

The movements and distribution of the species “on

western side south of sub-Himalayan Punjab (N. Maharashtra

etc.)” are uncertainly known (Ali and Ripley 1983). It is

sedentary and partially migratory, perhaps subject to some

local movements (Cleere 1998). The species is known to be

a summer breeding visitor in dry subtropical deciduous forest,

but is confined to the Murree Hills eastwards to Kahuta

(Grimmett et al. 2008).

Although it is difficult to comment about the status of

the species in Phulwari-ki-Naal, it is certainly a new record

for the area. We are not aware of any other sighting in

Rajasthan except at Bharatpur (Kazmierczak and van Perlo

2000). Two new records of the species are from the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

173

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

neighbouring Gujarat state, not very far from Phulwari-ki-

Naal. The species was recorded on March 03 and 17, 2000,

from Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary. However, no visual

observations were made (Trivedi and Soni 2006). Another

record is from Phot Mahadev, Kachchh, Gujarat where eight

individuals were photographed (Mishra and Singh 2010).

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Second edition. Vol. 4. Delhi. Oxford University

Press.

Cleere, N. (1998): Nightjars - A guide to Nightjars and Related Birds.

Mountfield East Sussex. Pica Press. Pp. 247-250.

Grimmett, R., T. Roberts & T. Inskipp (2008): Birds of Pakistan. London.

Christopher Helm. Pp. 80.

Holyoak, D.T. (2001 ): Nightjars and their Allies The Caprimulgiformes.

Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp. 528-541.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of

Indian Subcontinent. Pp. 152.

Mishra, V.V. & R. Singh (2010): Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus

macrurus sightings in Kachchh, Gujarat, India. Indian Birds 5(5):

148.

Rasmussen. PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The

Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Washington D.C. and Barcelona.

Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions.

Trivedi, P. & V.C. Soni (2006): Significant bird records and local

extinctions in Puma and Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuaries,

Gujarat, India. Forktail 22: 39-49.

7. ADDITIONAL DISTRIBUTION RECORDS OF ASSAM ROOFED TURTLE

PANGSHURA SYLHETENSIS (JERDON 1870) FROM DIFFERENT LOCALITIES

OF WESTERN ASSAM AND ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

Rakesh Soud1 and Lohit gogoi2

'Department of HSS. Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati. Amingaon, North Guwahati 39, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

2Westem Arunachal Landscape Programme. Arunachal Pradesh Field Office, World Wide Fund for Nature-India. Dirang,

West Kameng Distt 790 101, Arunachal Pradesh. India.

The Chelonian fauna of north-eastern states of India

comprises of at least 2 1 species, belonging to 3 families. Much

of the existing knowledge on the distribution of the group in

the region is based on collections that are decades old,

scattered in several museums. Literature concerning the

region's turtles and tortoises is scanty (Das 1990). The present

note describes some additional distributional record of the

Pangshura sylhetensis from different localities of Western

Assam and Arunachal Pradesh of the Indian territory.

Pangshura sylhetensis was previously recorded from

Manas Tiger Reserve, and Kolathua village of Sivasagar

district (Das 1990), Cachar districts of Assam and Cherrapunji

(Khasi hills) and Garo hills of Meghalaya. It is also recorded

from Sylhet district of Bangladesh (Moll 1987). Recently, it

was recorded from Kaziranga National Park, Manas National

Park, Nameri National Park, NarayanpurTea Estate, Sivasagar

district, Sonapur, Cachar district, Lakhimpur district. North

Cachar districts of Assam (Sarma 2007). We had a direct

sighting record of the species from the Samukha river near

Ultapani forest village and also a secondary record confirmed

by village fishermen from the Zamduwar area of Chirang-

Ripu reserve forest (26° 40’ N; 89° 53' E), Bodoland Territorial

Council, Assam. This extends the distribution of the species

up to 90 km west from Manas Tiger Reserve.

There is scanty distributional record of the species

in the bordering areas of Assam. We also recorded the species

from Tenga valley (27° 12' 25.81" N; 92° 30' 49.17" E) of

West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh at an elevation

of 1 ,205 m. This specimen was rescued from a local fisherman

who caught it from a local hill stream. This record also

extends the northern distribution of the species up to Tenga

valley, at least 1 50 km from Manas National Park and 70 km

from Nameri National Park. Probably, this is the highest

elevation record of the species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Conservation worker

Mr. N.K. Dey and members of Ultapani Biodiversity

Conservation Society and Green Forest Conservation for their

kind hospitality during different field trips at Chirang-Ripu

R.F. and WWF officials of WAL programme for their

encouragement in Arunachal Pradesh part. We also thank

Dr. Saibal Sengupta for his different advice and consultation

regarding the species in different visits to his herpetological

lab at Arya College, Guwahati.

174

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Das, I. (1990): Additional records for Chelonians from Northern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1): 91-97.

Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84( 1): 7-25.

Sarma, P.K. (2007): Habitat ecology, population status and distribution of Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon) in certain districts of Assam. (Ph.D.

Thesis) Gauhati University. 137 pp.

8. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF NON-STYGOBITIC FISHES IN A CAVE

IN ANDHRA PRADESH, PENINSULAR INDIA

Y. Ranga Reddy1-2 and S.V. Sharma1-3

'Department of Zoology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjunanagar 522 510, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

What with its vast territory, ancient and varied

geomorphology, hydrology, and climate, the Indian

subterranean domain has given rise to numerous natural caves

and cavities of varied shapes and sizes. A small tract such as

the Tungabhadra River Valley in Andhra Pradesh alone has

more than one hundred caves (Prasad 1996). Generally

characterized by perpetual darkness, low energy input and

remarkable constancy of temperature and humidity, caves are

inhabited by highly diversified organisms, ranging from

protozoans to mammals besides bacteria and fungi. The

typical cave/groundwater dwellers have originated from their

extinct/extant epigean ancestors of marine, freshwater or

terrestrial habitats at different times and in different ways.

Hence, the subterranean realm (stygon) has come to be

regarded as a promising place to look for insights into

biological adaptation and speciation (Rouch 1986). That the

Indian caves harbour rich biodiversity can be gauged by the

fact that a recent preliminary study of just a single collection

from the sandy bottom of a cave (Kotumsar Cave) has led to

the discovery of three new taxonomically and

biogeographically significant stygobitic crustacean taxa,

together with a new amphipod family (Ranga Reddy 2006;

Messouli et al. 2007; Ranga Reddy and Defaye 2009).

Nevertheless, groundwater biology as a whole has received

scant attention in India (Ranga Reddy 2002, 2004).

Based on their degree of adaptation to groundwater life,

the hypogean aquatic fauna are generally classified into three

broad ecological groups: stygobites or stygobionts,

stygophiles, and stygoxenes. Stygobites are obligatorily

confined to caves or other subterranean passages and exhibit

a suite of stygomorphic characters such as the loss of eyes

and melanin pigment (regressive features), and elaboration

of other sensory structures like the lateral organs in fishes

and antennae in insects and crustaceans (progressive features)

(Proudlove 2006). While stygophiles can live, feed and

reproduce in both epigean and hypogean habitats and show

some degree of stygomorphic/behavioural adaptations,

stygoxenes cannot complete their life in hypogean habitats

and are not much different from their epigean counterparts.

As for the Indian subterranean fish fauna, only five

stygobitic fish species are known till date, comprising two

clariid catfishes ( Horaglanis krishnai Menon 1950 and H.

alikunhii Babu & Nayar 2004) and three synbranchid eels

(. Monopterus eapeni Talwar 1991, M . roseni Bailey & Gans

1998, and M. digressus Gopi 2002), all from the State of Kerala.

Hora (1924) recorded eight non-stygobitic fishes for the first

time from an Indian cave (Siju Cave, Assam), which included

five cyprinids, namely Neolissochilus hexastichus (McClelland

1 839) (= Barbus hexastichus ), Bari lias bama (Hamilton 1 822),

Bari lius bendelisis (Hamilton 1807), Devario aequipinnatus

(McClelland 1 839) (= Danio aequipinnatus) and Psilorhynchus

sucatio (Hamilton 1 822), an unidentified species of the balitorid

genus Nemacheilus, an ambassid, Chanda nama (Hamilton

1 822), and the walking snakehead, Channa orientalis Bloch &

Schneider 1 807 ( Ophiocephalus gachua in source). Since then,

only four non-stygobitic species are known from the Indian

caves: three loaches, namely Schistura sijuensis (Menon 1987)

from Siju cave, Indoreonectes evezardi (Day 1872) from

Kotumsar cave, Chhatisgarh and Schisturia papulifera Kottelat,

Harries & Proudlove 2007 from a cave of Synrang Pamiang

system, Meghalaya, and a lone specimen of an unidentified

schizothoracine fish from a cave near Udaipur, Rajasthan

(Tehsin et al. 1988). On the other hand, the world tally of the

described subterranean fish species, as of 2003, is 125

(Proudlove 2006).

This note is meant to report on a fortuitous collection

of seven non-stygobitic fish species from Nelabilum cave

(15° 00’ 05" N; 78° 03' 20" E), which is located south-east of

Ankireddipalle village in Kumool district of Andhra Pradesh

in peninsular India. According to Gebauer (2003), the cave is

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

175

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

a ‘partly explored and partly mapped’ natural cave and

perennial spring in Precambrian (Algonkian) Naiji limestone

(Low. Kurnool). The natural subvertical fissure of the cave

has been modified by man into a sort of a stepwell, giving

access to groundwater. A 60 m long passage, including two

flights of steps, leads to ‘what looks like a penetrable sump'

with clear water (depth 10 m). The existence of the cave is

threatened by increasing industrial activity in the area by way

of limestone quarrying for slabs and cement. As in the case

of most Indian caves, practically nothing is known about the

biology of the cave.

All the specimens reported herein were collected at the

cave entrance on three dates by one of the authors (YRR)

and/or his field assistants, using plankton net and/or baited

hooks, and preserved in formalin. Counts and measurements

follow Kottelat (2001) while nomenclature and ecology are

based on Froese and Pauly (2009). Morphometric data are

presented as percentages of standard length, with averages in

parentheses. On October 3, 2005, water temperature of the

cave was 27°C, air temperature 27°C and pH 6.5.

Specimens are deposited in the Department of Zoology,

Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjunanagar 522 510,

pending transfer to the National Collections of Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata.

Puntius sarana (Hamilton 1822)

Material examined: 23 specimens, 49-160 mm SL;

3.x. 2005.

D iii 8, P i 14, V i 7-8. A iii 5, L.l. 28-32. Head length

26.25-30.0 (28.38). body depth 26.66-33. 1 2 (3 1 .27), predorsal

distance 42.85-53.33 (47.08), preventral distance 46.66-55.0

(5 1 .92), preanal distance 60.00-7 1 .86 (68.99), base of dorsal

fin 1 5.62- 1 8.33 ( 1 8.68), base of anal fin 22.00-26.66 (2 1 .96),

length of pectoral fin 18.33-20.62 (20.49). least height of

caudal peduncle 13.33-15.60 (14.13), eye diameter 8.3-10.2

(9.2), snout length 9.37-11.2 (10.10), interorbital distance

10.2-11.8 (11.2).

Body oblong, compressed and deep; head with 2 pairs

of barbels, rostral and maxillary, maxillary barbels longer,

extending beyond hind margin of orbit; third unbranched ray

of dorsal fin osseous, strong with minute serrations along

posterior margin, basal region of dorsal and anal fins each

covered with row of scales, auxiliary scale occurring at axle

of ventral; dorsum uniformly olive, flanks silvery; in juveniles,

5-6 pigment bands present above lateral line and a dark vertical

band covered by opercular membrane; an oval diffused dark

spot on 26* to 28* lateral line scales. Body coloration, barbels,

and eye diameter are as in the epigean forms.

This is a widely distributed Asiatic species. It is

reportedly benthopelagic and potamodromous, occurring in

freshwaters, but tolerant to brackish conditions.

Puntius ticto (Hamilton, 1822)

Material examined: 1 specimen, 29 mm SL. 3.x. 2005.

D iii 8. P i 1 3, V i 6, A ii 5, L.l. 23. Head length 28.57,

body depth 39.28, predorsal distance 53.57, preventral

distance 57.14. preanal distance 67.85, base of dorsal 17.85,

base of anal 14.28, length of pectoral 21.42, least height of

caudal peduncle 17.85. eye diameter 8.5, snout length 10.6

and interorbital distance 10.7.

Body compressed, deep, barbels absent, lower jaw

protruding beyond upper jaw, mouth upturned, third

unbranched ray of dorsal with fine serrations along posterior

border, a blotch on 3rd to 5* scales and a large distinct circular

spot on the 17th to 19* lateral scales above anal. The present

specimen agrees with its epigean counterparts in body

coloration.

This species is known to inhabit still, shallow, marginal

waters of rivers and tanks, subtropical in distribution and

benthopelagic in habits, feeding on the organisms present on

muddy bottom.

Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton, 1822)

Material examined: 5 specimens; 62-68 mm. SL.

3.x. 2005.

D ii 7, Pi 13-14, V i 9, Aii 5, L. 1. 30-31. Head length

26.47 - 27.42 (26.94 ), body depth 16. 12-7.64 (16.88), predorsal

distance 5 1 .47- 54.83 (53.15), preventral distance 45. 16-48.52

(46.34), preanal distance 64.51-78.72 (68.28 ), base of dorsal

1 1.29-17.02 (13.73), base of anal 11.29-12.76 (11.52), length

of pectoral 20.96-23.40 (21.23), least height of caudal peduncle

9.67-11.76 (10.71), eye diameter 6.4-7. 3 (7.1), snout length

5. 8-6.4 (6.1), interorbital distance 7.1-8.82 (7.66 ).

Body compressed, lower jaw projecting beyond upper

jaw, symphysial knob on lower jaw, mouth small, upturned,

caudal fin forked. Lateral line parallel to the ventral body

contour, a grayish band occurring mid-laterally and extending

from behind orbit to caudal fin. The narrow stripe generally

seen above the base of anal fin in the epigean forms is not

discernible in the present specimens.

This species is predominantly freshwater, inhabiting

slow-flowing sandy streams and rivers. It is benthopelagic

and potamodromous.

Garra gotyla stenorhynchus Jerdon, 1849

Material examined: 1 specimen; 47 mm SL. 3.x. 2005.

176

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

D iii 5. P i 14, V i 14, A iii 5. L. 1. 32. Head length

25.53, body depth 23.40, predorsal distance 48.93, preventral

distance 57.44, preanal distance 78.72, base of dorsal 17.02,

base of anal 12.76. length of pectoral 23.40, least height of

caudal peduncle 12.76; eye diameter 8.5, snout length 10.6.

interorbital distance 14.8.

Body subcylindrical, snout with a well-formed median

proboscis and a transverse lobe at its tip. mouth arched, a

mental adhesive disc associated with the lower jaw, 2 pairs

of barbels, anterior ones longer, origin of dorsal fin nearer

the snout, a black spot is present at the upper angle of the gill

opening. In the preset specimen, an elliptical spot close to

caudal fin is noticed, which has not hitherto been reported

for this species.

A hillstream inhabitant, this species is endemic to

peninsular India. It is benthopelagic.

Mystus cavasius (Hamilton 1822)

Material examined: 3 specimens, 88-102 mm SL.

30.x. 2005.

D I 7, P I 8, V i 5, A iv 7-9. Head length 22.5, body

depth 20.0, predorsal distance 35.0. preventral distance 48.75,

preanal distance 66.25, base of adipose dorsal 40.0, base of

anal 10.0, length of pectoral 15.0, least height of caudal

peduncle 8.75. eye diameter 6.25-7.6 (7.5). snout length 8.6-

8.9 (8.7), interorbital distance 7. 2-7. 9 (7.6).

Body elongate, occipital process narrow reaching the

basal bone of rayed dorsal, median fontanelle long, extending

to the base of occipital process, 4 pairs of barbels, maxillary

barbels long, reaching base of caudal fin; rayed dorsal fin

high and pointed, its spine weak, first dorsal ray long, base

of adipose dorsal fin long, its origin closely behind rayed

dorsal; pectoral spine strong with denticulations on inner

margin, origin of ventral vertically below last ray of dorsal

fin; a dark spot at the basal bone of rayed dorsal, a humeral

spot and a band on upper flanks, belly white. The present

specimens are not different from the epigean forms in body

coloration and eye diameter.

This species is tropical, demersal, amphidromous, living

in fresh- and brackish waters.

Mystus bleekeri (Day, 1877)

Material examined: one specimen. 95 mm SL.

30.x. 2005.

D I 7, P I 9, V i 5. A iii 7. Head length 23.52, body

depth 24.50, predorsal distance 32.35, preventral distance

45.09, preanal distance 64.70, base of adipose dorsal 36.27,

base of anal 1 1.76, length of pectoral 16.66. least height of

caudal peduncle 6.86, eye diameter 7.8, snout length 8.8,

interorbital distance 8.2.

Body elongate, occipital process reaching basal bone

of rayed dorsal, 4 pairs of barbels, maxillary pair extending

up to anal fin, adipose dorsal long, originating closely behind

rayed dorsal, ventral originating vertically below adipose

dorsal, upper part of body grayish, grayish band occurring

on either side of lateral line, lower band reaching ventral fin,

a dark blotch behind opercle. rayed dorsal and caudal fins

dark in colour. The present specimens accord well with the

epigean forms in body coloration.

This is a demersal, potamodromous, widely distributed

Asian species, inhabiting lakes, tanks, canals and rivers.

Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider 1801

Material examined: 2 specimens, 110-125 mm SL.

9. iii. 2008.

D 35, P 15, V 6, A 22, L.l. 45. Head length 28.12-

32.32 (30.22), body depth 20.33-22.22 (21.27). predorsal

distance 32.22-36.36 (34.28), prepectoral distance 28.81-

32.32 (30.56), preanal distance 46.52-52.6 1 (49.5 1 ), base of

dorsal fin 40.10-49.10 (45.60), base of anal 36.36-37.28

(36.82), length of pectoral fin 22.03-22.22 (22.12). length

of ventral 10.31-12.52 (1 1.41), eye diameter 4.9-5.21 (5.11),

snout length 7.89-8.23 (8.11), interorbital distance 8. 1 1-8.20

(8.15).

Body elongate, eyes moderate, lower jaw longer than

upper, with 12 caniniform teeth, 5 scales between orbit and

preopercular angle, 1 2 predorsal scales, 45 lateral line scales,

lateral line bending at 12th scale, pectoral fin reaching anal

fin, ventral smaller than pectoral, caudal fin round in shape;

body dark green dorsally, a row of dark oblique bands on

the flanks above and below lateral line, a dark band extending

anteriorly from opercle to snout and passing onto orbit,

ventral body pale in colour, pectoral fin with vertical black

bands, caudal fin with vertical stripes, dorsal and anal with

narrow white outer margin, ocellus occurring on lower part

of last 5 dorsal fin rays. Body coloration is same as in epigean

forms.

This species is benthopelagic, potamodromous,

inhabiting fresh- and brackish waters and widely distributed

in Asia.

CONCLUSION

None of the species reported herein is as yet known

from any cave habitat. All are benthopelagic and

potamodromous except for Mystus spp., which are demersal.

Particularly, the occurrence in the Nelabilum cave of

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

177

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Garra gotyla stenorhynchus is puzzling, given its general

preference for swift-flowing mountain streams. On the whole,

all these species appear to be accidental stygoxenes in the

cave.

It is noteworthy that all the five blind and/or

depigmented fishes from India are known to occur only in

Kerala State, where the lateritic soil formation with its network

of crevicuiar hypogean habitats seems to favour the evolution

of stygobitic fishes. Lateritic soils cover an area of 100,000

sq. km along the west coast of India in the States of Kerala,

Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa (Venkata Reddy 1997),

besides the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam. Further faunistic

surveys in these States are likely to bring to light several more

significant finds of stygobitic fishes.

While precious little is know about the biodiversity of

the Indian caves, caves themselves are now endangered, inter

aila, by increasing industrial and agricultural activities

(Biswas 2009). Hence, the governmental and non¬

governmental organisations need to play proactive role in

preserving the fragile cave ecosystems and encourage research

in this vital area of basic science.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

One of us (YRR) is grateful to the Department of

Science & Technology, Ministry of Science & Technology,

Government of India, for funding support under a Major

Research Project (SR/SO/AS/25/2007) and also to the

authorities of Acharya Nagarjuna University for necessary

facilities. Thanks are also due Mr. D. Ambedkar (Acharya

Nagarjuna University) for assisting in the field. Dr. H.D.

Gebauer (Germany) for providing information on the caves

of Andhra Pradesh, Dr. A. Subrahmanyam (Hindu College,

Guntur) for arranging local hospitality, and Dr. P.V. Nageswara

Rao, Mr. Patibandla Venkata Subba Rao and Dr. Kodela

Venkata Rao (Acharya Nagarjuna University) and Dr. K.

Subhash Babu (Cochin University of Science & Technology,

Cochin) for supplying the necessary literature.

REFERENCES

Babu, K.K.S. & C.K.G Nayar (2004): A new species of the blind fish

Horaglanis Menon (Siluroidea: Clariidae) from Parappukara

(Trichur District) and a new report of Horaglanis krishnai Menon

from Ettumanur (Kottayam District), Kerala. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 101: 296-298.

Bailey, R.M. & C. Gans (1998): Two new synbranchid fishes,

Monopterus roseni from peninsular India and M. desilvai from

Sri Lanka. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology of the

University of Michigan No. 726: 1-18.

Biswas, J. (2009): The biodiversity Krent Mawkhyrdop of Meghalaya,

India, on the verge of extinction. Curt: Sci. 96: 904-910.

Day, F. (1872): Monograph of Indian Cyprinidae, Part 2. J. Asiat. Soc.

Beng. 41: 1-29, 171-198, and 318-327.

Froese, R. & D. Pauly (Eds.) (2009): FishBase World Wide Web

electronic publication www.fishbase.org, version (02/2009).

Gebauer, L. (2003): South Asia cave registry. Gebauer, Schwabisch

Gmiind, Germany.

Gopi, K.C. (2002): A new synbranchid fish, Monopterus digressus

from Kerala, peninsular India. Rec. zool. Surv. India 100:

137-143.

Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the

river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London, vii + 405

pp. + 39 pis.

Hora. S.L. (1924): Fishes of the Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec.

Indian Mus. 26:27-31.

Kottelat, M. (2001): Fishes of Laos. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Cambodia.

198 pp.

Kottelat, M., D.R. Harries & GS. Proudlove (2007): Schistura

papulifera, a new species of cave loach from Meghalaya, India

(Teleostei: Balitoridae). Zootaxa 1393: 35-44.

Messouli, M., J.R. Holsinger & Y. Ranga Reddy (2007): Kotumsaridae,

a new family of subterranean amphipod crustaceans from India,

with description of Kotumsaria bastarensis, new genus, new

species. Zootaxa 1589: 33-46.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1950): On a remarkable blind siluroid fish of the family

Clariidae from Kerala, India. Rec. lnd. Mus. 48: 59-66.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): Noemacheilus sijuesis sp. nov. The fauna of

India and adjacent countries. Pisces, Zoological Survey of

India. IV, Teleostei-Cobitidae, Part 1, Homolopteidea: 175.

Prasad, K.N. (1996): Pleistocene cave fauna from peninsular India.

J. Caves & Karst Stud. 58: 30-34.

Proudlove, G.S. (2006): Subterranean fishes of the world. An account

of the subterranean (hypogean) fishes described up to 2003

with a bibliography 1541-2004. International Society for

Subterranean Biology, Moulis, xviii + 304 pp.

Ranga Reddy, Y. (2002): Why neglect groundwater biology? Curt:

Sci. 83: 931-932.

Ranga Reddy, Y. (2004): Little known biodiversity of subterranean

freshwater habitats in India, with special reference to crustacean

fauna. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101: 186-189.

Ranga Reddy, Y. (2006): First Asian report of the genus

Chilibathynella Noodt. 1963 (Bathynellacea, Syncarida), with

the description and biogeographic significance of a new species

from Kotumsar Cave, India. Zootaxa 1370: 23-37 .

Ranga Reddy, Y. & D. Defaye (2009): Two new Parastenocarididae

(Copepoda, Harpacticoida) from India: Parastenocaris

muvattupuzha n. sp. from a river and P. kotumsarensis n. sp.

from a cave. Zootaxa 2077: 31-55.

Rough, R. (1986): Sur Pecologie des eaux souterraines dans le karst.

Stygologia 2: 352-399.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi, 1 185 pp.

Tehsin, R., V.S. Durve & M. Kulshreshtha (1988): Occurrence of a

schizothoracine fish (snow trout) in a subterranean cave near

Udaipur. Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 211- 212.

Venkata Reddy, D. (1997): Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers.

Oxford IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.. New Delhi. 390 pp.

178

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. A NEW RECORD OF REEF FISH ISTIGOBIUS DIADEMA (STEINDACHNER 1876),

FROM ANDAMAN ISLAND

Kamla Devi1 and V. Madhan Chakkaravarthy2

‘Zoological Survey of India, National Coral Reef Research Institute (NCRI), Andaman & Nicobar Regional Centre, Haddo,

Port Blair 744 102, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India. Email: [email protected]

2Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The Gobiidae is the largest family of marine fishes in

the world because of their small size and bamboozling

behaviour. Gobioid species reported from Andaman and

Nicobar Islands have been a source of continuous interest

since the time of Blyth (1846, 1863), Day (1875, 1889) and

Hora (1934). As per the recent checklist of fishes by Rao

(2009), 29 species of gobioid fishes are known to occur in

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

A field survey was conducted in January 2008 in the

coral reef area of the west coast of Inglis Island (12° 08'- 12°

09’ N; 93° 07-93° 08' E), South Andaman. Three specimens of

Gobioid fishes were collected by using cast net. The

morphometric measurements and meristematic counts of the

species were calculated (Bohlke and Robins 1968). All counts

and measurements were taken with dial calipers, and meristic

counts were determined with the aid of a dissection microscope.

The collected specimens are preserved in 4% formaldehyde

and deposited in the National Zoological Collection (Reg. No.

4305) of Zoological Survey of India at Port Blair. A detailed

scrutiny of fish specimens collected from coral reef ecosystem

of Inglis Island, Ritchie’s Archipelago, South Andaman, led to

the diagnosis of a new record, Istigobius diadema (Steindachner

1876) (Family: Gobidae) (Fig. 1).

Systematic Account

Order : Perciformes

Family Gobiidae

Genus : Istigobius diadema (Steindachner, 1876)

Type Locality : Indo-West Pacific

Description: Body moderately elongate, compressed

posteriorly. Its depth from 1.8 to 2.0 cm and length 10.5 to

12.0 cm; head slightly depressed; snout and upper jaw was

projecting beyond lower jaw; diameter of eye 0.4-0. 5 cm;

gill opening not extending anteriorly to a vertical through

pre-opercular margin. Pelvic fins united medially its length

ranging from 1.8 to 2.0 cm; Pectoral fin slightly longer than

pelvic fin 2. 1 to 2.2 cm; interdorsal space 2.0 to 2.2 cm; scales

ctenoid excepting operculum, occipital region, breast and

10.5 - 12 cm

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of Istigobius diadema (Steindachner, 1876)

1. Bold-black line extending from eye to pectoral-fin base; 2. 1st dorsal fin rays (VI); 3. 2S| dorsal fin rays (1/10);

4. Transverse line scales (10 - 11); 5. Lateral line scales (31 - 34); 6. Caudal fin rays (19); 7. Operculum; 8. Pelvic fin rays (1/5)

9. Pectoral fin rays (18 - 19); 10. Anal fin rays (10)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

179

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

pectoral fin base with cycloid scales, other part of head naked.

Sensory canals and pores present on head; longitudinal

pattern of sensory-papillae rows on cheek; a pair of short

sensory papillae just behind chin. Head and body pale grayish

brown, very bold dark line proceeding from posterior portion

of eyes along sensory pore path to first dorsal origin and a

dark stripe connecting both the eyes anteriorly.

Ecology: Found on coral rubble areas at the depth of 2 m.

Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean and Indonesia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata, for facilities and funds provided to carry the

faunistic survey and Dr. C. Raghunathan, Officer-in-

Charge, Zoological Survey of India, National Coral Reef

Research Institute, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre,

Port Blair for the facilities and encouragement to conduct

this work. Thanks are also due to Chief Wildlife Warden,

Port Blair and District Forest Officer, ACF and Range

Officer, Havelock, for their permission and help in

surveying this protected area. The valuable help and

excellent co-operation extended by G. Ponnuswamy,

Photographer, and A. Polycap, Collection Tender, are also

gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to Dr. O. Murdey,

Programme Manager, Division of International Programme,

National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., who

assisted by sharing his knowledge.

REFERENCES

Blyth, E. (1846): Notes on the fauna of Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat. Soc.

Ben: 367-379.

Blyth, E. (1863): The Zoology of Andaman Islands. Appendix to

Moutat’s Adventure and Researches among the Andaman Island.

Pp. 345-367.

Bohlke, J.E. & C.R Robins (1968): Western Atlantic seven-spined

gobies, with descriptions of ten new species and a new genus, and

comments on Pacific relatives. Proceedings of the Academy of

Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 120: 45-174.

Day, F. (1875): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon & Burma,

Taylor and Francis. London. Text and atlas in 4 parts. London

xx+778 pp., 195 pis.

Day, F. ( 1 889): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma,

Fishes. I. 548, pp., D, 509 pp. Taylor and Francis, London.

Hora, S.L. (1934): The systematic position of Hamilton’s species of

gobioid fishes from the Ganges. Rec. Indian Mus. 13(3): 205-329.

Rao, D.V. (2009): Checklist of fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Environment & Ecology 27(1 A): 334-353.

10. A REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF THE BUTTERFLY PHALANTA ALCIPPE

( NYMPH ALIDAE) IN THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

Muhamed Jafer Palot1

'Western Ghat Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Kozhikode 673 006, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

The butterfly fauna of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands

has not received much attention. Although more than 150

species of butterflies have been recorded in the Andaman

groups of islands (Ferrar 1951; Khatri 1989; Soubadra Devy

et al. 1 994), nothing is known about their status, distribution

and ecology. While conducting a study on the animal resource

base available to the Jarawas of the Andaman Islands, on May

1 0, 2002, at around 1 0:20 hrs, I came across a swarm of tawny

brown butterflies crossing the busy road of Port Blair in the

south-north direction. 1 counted about 37 individuals per

minute from a vantage point. The same swarm was observed

near the Netaji Stadium, Port Blair, and near the Secretariat,

all proceeding towards north. Later, I identified the species

as the Small Leopard Phalanta alcippe Cramer.

Williams (1938) had listed 66 migrant species from

India. He did not list the Small Leopard in his list, although

he reported the Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha

(Drury) as a common migratory species of India and Sri

Lanka. Wynter-Blyth ( 1957) had also not included the Small

Leopard among migratory species.

Apparently, the onset of the south-west monsoon in

the southern Andamans could be the main reason for the

initiation of this migratory behaviour, on May 11-12, 2002.

Even during a drizzle, this species moved with ease in small

aggregations comprising two or three individuals flying at a

height of 1-2 m above the ground level.

The Small Leopard is a locally common butterfly

mostly found in the forested tracts of the southern Andamans.

During my stay in September-October 2001 and April-

May 2002 the population of the Small Leopard butterfly

in the Jarawa Reserve was fairly good and evenly

distributed.

180

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata, for giving me an opportunity to

study the fauna of the Andamans. I am also thankful to

Dr. C. Radhakrishnan, Officer-in-Charge, ZSI. Kozhikode and

Dr. T.K. Pal, Scientist-E and leader of the Expedition, for

facilities and encouragement.

REFERENCES

Ferrar, M.L. (1951): On the butterflies of the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 47(3): 470-491.

Khatri, T.C. (1989): A revised list of butterflies (Rhopalocera:

Lepidoptera) from Bay islands. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 5(1):

57-61.

Soubadra Devy, M., T. Ganesh & P. Davidar (1994): Butterfly

distribution on the Andaman Islands. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc.

10(1 & 2): 50-56.

Williams, C.B. (1938): The migration of Butterflies in India. / Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 439-457.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society. Mumbai.

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on May 06, 2011

by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010

181

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL . 75

ENSURING THE FUTURE OF THE TIGER AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS IN THE SOUTHERN

PORTION OF THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

A.J.T. Johnsingh, R. Raghunath, Rajeev Pillay and M.D. Madhusudan . 77

TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATUS IN

PAKKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

GS. Solanki and Awadhesh Kumar . 86

EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON TROPICAL FOREST BIRD COMMUNITIES

AND MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Swati Sidhu, T.R. Shankar Raman and Eben Goodale . 91

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW HIRUNDO DOMICOLA IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

P. Balakrishnan . 109

PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL

Anantanarayanan Raman . 116

STUDY OF JUVENILE AND ADULT GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

POECILOCERUS PICTUS (FABRICIUS) FEEDING ON CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA UNDER

LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Madhavi V. Swant, Shiney Peter, K.R. Kharat and B.P. Hardikar . 122

VARIABILITIES IN DIFFERENT BODY MEASUREMENTS OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB,

CARCINOSCORPIUS ROTUNDICAUDA (LATREILLE) COLLECTED FROM SETIU AND GELANG

PATAH HABITATS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

T.C. Srijaya, P.J. Pradeep, S. Mithun, Anuar Hassan, Faizah Shaharom and Anil Chatterji . 130

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMIC PROFILE OF THE VEGETATION OF ACHANAKMAR-

AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA

K.P. Singh, Achuta Nand Shukla and J.S. Singh . 135

IMPACT OF LANDUSE CHANGES ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY OF NOKREK BIOSPHERE

RESERVE, MEGHALAYA, INDIA

S. D. Prabhu, S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey and R.S. Tripathi . 146

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ON THE GENUS KANAKARAJIELLA SUNDARARAJ & DAVID (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES

R. Sundararaj and R. Pushpa . . . 159

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HOMOPORUS THOMSON (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM

NORTH-EASTERN INDIA, WITH A KEY TO ORIENTAL SPECIES

T. C. Narendran and F.R. Khan . 162

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 165

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for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001.

website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]

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DECEMBER 2010 VOL 107 (3)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

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Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

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Editorial Board

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National Centre for Biological Sciences,

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Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

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of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

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Indraneil Das. D. Phil.

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Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

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Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

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Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

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Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

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VOLUME 107(3): DECEMBER 2010

MCZ

IQDAO

CONTENTS

UNIVERSITY

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS (ELLIOT) IN SITAMATA

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Chhaya Bhatnagar, Vijay Kumar Koli and Satish Kumar Sharma . 183

CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE,

EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA

Shivaji Chaudhry, Gopi Govindhan Veeraswami, Kripaljyoti Mazumdar and Prasanna Kumar Samal . 189

AN ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES

(CAV.) BOISS. — A THREATENED PLANT OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN, INDIA

R.K. Gehlotand Vinod Kumari . 198

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA: PORCELLANIDAE)

Alexandra Hiller, Sadanand Harkantra and Bernd Werding . 201

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM DISTRICT, ORISSA, INDIA

D. Sahu and M.K. Misra . 213

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW CYPRINID FISHES UNDER THE GENUS GARRA (HAMILTON) FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA

B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan .

FISHES OF THE GENUS HOMALOPTERA VAN HASSELT, 1823 IN KERALA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW

SPECIES HOMALOPTERA SILASI

B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan .

TOR REMADEVII, A NEW SPECIES OF TOR (GRAY) FROM CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PAMBAR RIVER,

KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA

B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan .

CHANNA MELANOSTIGMA, A NEW SPECIES OF FRESHWATER SNAKEHEAD FROM NORTH-EAST INDIA

(TELEOSTEI: CHANNIDAE)

Khangjrakpam Geetakumari and Waikhom Vishwanath .

REVIEWS

1 . CONSERVATION BIOLOGY: A PRIMER FOR SOUTH ASIA

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . 236

2. THE VANISHING HERDS: THE WILD WATER BUFFALO

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . 236

220

224

227

231

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. First record of the Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus

Cabrera 1908, in Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India

Tara Gandhi, Sai Archana Para and Amrita Sivakumar .. 238

2. A note on the diet of Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus and

Dhole Cuon alpinus Pallas in a Montane Shola Forest,

Western Ghats, India

Tharmalingam Ramesh and Riddhika Kalle . 240

3. The second locality record of Taphozous longimanus

Hardwicke, 1825 (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae) from Nepal

S.B. Thapa, M.J. Pearch and G. Csorba . 241

4. High day temperature and sleep out behaviour of Elliot’s

Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis (Elliot) in

Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India

Chhaya Bhatnagar, Satish Kumar Sharma and

Vijay Kumar Koli .

5. First record of albino Sambar Rusa unicolor (Kerr) from

Corbett National Park, India

Anant Pande, Debmalya Roychowdhury, Devlin

Leishangthem, Sudeep Banerjee, Pushkal Bagchie, Neha

Awasthi, Rubi Kumari Sharma, Priyanka Runwal and

Shikha Bisht . 246

6. Conservation status of Rajaji-Corbett corridor for Tiger

and Elephant movement

A.J.T. Johnsingh, Bivash Pandav, K. Ramesh and

Qamar Qureshi . 246

AVES

7. Sighting of a rare dark morph of Grey Francolin

Francolinus pondicerianus Gmelin 1789 near

Surendranagar, Gujarat, India

Aditya Roy

245

249

8. Recent occurrence of the Brown-headed Barbet

Megalaima zeylanica Gmelin 1788 and other dry country

species in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, southern India —

are these related to ecological change?

V.J. Zacharias and Richard T. Holmes . 250

9. An albino crow at Satna, Madhya Pradesh, India

Archana Shukla . 252

REPTILES

10. First authentic record of Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth,

1854) from Mizoram, north-east India

Daya Nand Harit . 252

11. New distribution record for Hemidactylus prashadi Smith,

1935 (Family: Gekkonidae) from the Kudremukh Forest

Complex, Karnataka, India

Rohit Naniwadekar and V. Deepak . 253

FISH

12. Occurrence of Flying Fish, Cheilopogon abei Parin, 1996

from nearshore waters of the north-west coast of India

Sujit Sundaram . 254

INSECTS

1 3. Bee pasturage plants of Apis florea in Khammam revenue

division, Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh, India

A. Vijaya Bhasker Reddy and P. Ramachandra Reddy . 256

14. A note on an additional locality for Acanthaspis

quinquespinosa Fabricius 1781 (Insecta: Hemiptera:

Reduviidae)

Rahul Khot and Vithoba Hegde .

15. Bauhinia phoenicea: a new larval host plant for the

butterfly, Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii (Godart

1819) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

C. Susanth, K.A. Kishore and K. Baiju . 260

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

1 6. Record of Hexabranchus sanguineus (Ruppell & Leuckart,

1828) from Lakshadweep Archipelago, India

Deepak Apte and V.K. Salahuddin . 261

BOTANY

1 7. An amplified description of hitherto little known threatened

species, Primula glomerata Pax (Primulaceae)

S. Panda . 262

18. New additions to the sedge flora of Andaman & Nicobar

Islands

K. Karthigeyan, J. Jayanthi, R. Sumathi and

PG. Diwakar . 264

1 9. Additions to the flora of Maharashtra

Madhukar Bachulkar . 266

20. Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.): a new

variety of species Clitoria annua Graham (Family:

Fabaceae) from Maharashtra, India

Santosh L. Yadav and Pramod B. Dhanke . 267

Cover Photograph: Hard-ground Barasingha

Cervus duvaucelii branded

By Anant Zanjale

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

WE ARE GRATEFUL TO THE MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

11

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

183-188

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS (ELLIOT)

IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Chhaya Bhatnagar1'3, Vijay Kumar Koli14 and Satish Kumar Sharma2

‘Aquatic Toxicology and Wildlife Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur 313 001,

Rajasthan, India.

2Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Summer feeding habit of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis was studied from March 2009 to

June 2009 in Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary. These squirrels are arboreal and entirely depend on plant material. Of 2,157

feeding records, 13 plant species from 10 families were identified in their feeding behaviour. Used food items were

piths (58.59%), twigs (16.87%), leaves (5.09%), bark (2.64%), flowers (5.23%), buds (4.82%), fruits (6.44%) and

seeds (0.27%). Mahuwa Madhuca longifolia was a predominant species in their feeding. They are early rising and use

their early active time in feeding after which their activity lowers during night.

Key words: Petaurista philippensis, arboreal, feeding behaviour, Madhuca longifolia

INTRODUCTION

Food is one of the most important resources for growth,

reproduction and survival of animals. Consequently, animals

that are generally herbivores, respond to spatial and temporal

variability of food availability by selecting specific feeding

habitats (McNaughton 1990; Wilmshurst et al. 1999; Ball et

al. 2000) and diet (Hanley 1997; Dumont et al. 2002). Dietary

variation occurs in response to plant phenology and changes

in availability of resources (Poulsen et al. 2001). Impact of

plant phenology on primary consumers has gained much

attention in recent years (Van Schaik etal. 1993; White 1998;

Curran and Leighton 2000).

Flying squirrels (Rodentia: Sciuridae: Petauristainae)

are nocturnal gliding mammals, comprising of 12 genera and

43 species (Eisenberg 1981). Only one species of flying

squirrel is found in Europe and north Asia, and two species

in North America. Species richness peaks in the South-east

Asian countries (Lee and Liao 1998; Nandini 2001). Eleven

species are found in India, most of which are concentrated in

the Himalayan, the North-east regions and the Western Ghats

(Nandini 2001).

Petaurista philippensis has a wide distribution and

occurs in most forests of peninsular India (Prater 1971;

Agarwal and Chakraborty 1979; Wilson and Reeder 1993).

Southern Rajasthan is a distinct patch for the occurrence of

P. philippensis. Tehsin (1980) and Chundawat et al. (2002)

reported the presence of Large Brown Flying Squirrel in

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.

Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary is also a prominent area of

distribution of P. philippensis in southern Rajasthan.

In Rajasthan, climate ranges from arid to semiarid and

the rainfall is very low and erratic. During summer, the sun

shines directly upon Tropic of Cancer, which increases the

temperature (32°C to 40°C) in southern Rajasthan; the

subtropical forest replaces the tropical deciduous forest, and

water and food availability becomes low. Summer, therefore,

is a very critical time for Petaurista philippensis for survival.

This study was carried out to understand how P. philippensis

copes with unfavourable situations and was confined to its

food availability, food preference and diet during summer.

STUDY AREA

The study was carried out in the Sitamata Wildlife

Sanctuary (Fig. 1), which is situated between 24° 04'-24° 23' N

and 74° 25'-74° 40' E. The Sanctuary covers an area of 422.95

sq. km. It is situated in the south-eastern region of Rajasthan

where three very ancient mountain ranges of India meet

forming a teak forest. The configuration of land is hilly and

rugged with altitude varying from 280 to 600 m. The general

slope of the land is from North-West to South-East. Forest

with subtropical feature is characterized by distinct winter,

summer and rainy seasons. Average rainfall is 756 mm and

the temperature ranges between 6°C in winter and 45°C

in summer. The Sanctuary harbours nearly 50 species of

mammals, 275 species of birds, 40 species of reptiles,

9 species of amphibians, 30 species of fishes and more than

800 species of plants (Kartikeya 2005).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The present study was carried out during summer

between March and June 2009. Four flying squirrel sites,

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

which they inhabited permanently, were identified and marked

(Table 1). Identification of sites where squirrels were present

was done using two procedures. Initially the area was

thoroughly explored to locate the squirrel inhabited trees and

sites. These were later continued by the forest personnel and

by exploring the area at regular time intervals. The sites were

visited fortnightly with a minimum of five days stay in the

field during each visit in fifteen days and eight nights in one

month. Being nocturnal and arboreal, the flying squirrel is

hard to locate during night. They were detected by eyeshine

and calls, and occasionally by their movement on or between

trees. Every night around dusk, vigilant move was carried

along a trail, which meandered through the study area.

Binocular and spotlight (NS-8300DX) with a Swiss handle

and stand were used to observe the flying squirrel.

Behaviour of individual flying squirrel was recorded

using Focal Animal Sampling Method (Altmann 1974). In

this method occurrence of specified actions (feeding) of an

individual were recorded during each sample period. A record

was made of the length of each period and for each focal

individual. The amount of time during the sample was actually

in view. Once chosen, a focal individual was followed to

whatever extent possible during each of the sample periods.

The data was recorded at five second intervals from the time

the squirrel started feeding,

Phenological data were also collected monthly during

the study period. The data was taken to assess the association

between abundance of plant parts and composition of the diet

of the flying squirrel. Phenology of plant species was

categorized into two phases: vegetative phase and

reproductive phase. Vegetative phase was further sub¬

categorized into piths, twigs, leaves and bark, while

reproductive phase was sub-categorized into buds, flowers,

fruits and seeds.

RESULTS

A total of 2,153 feeding records were collected

during 304 hrs of field observation with a mean (± SE)

of 538 ±97.94 records/month (Range = 0-467). The flying

squirrel consumed 8 plant parts from 13 species belonging

to 10 families (Table 2). Most feeding records were

from Sapotaceae (33.14%), Combretaceae (33.14%),

Anacardiaceae (8.71%), Moraceae (7.27%), Ebenaceae

(7.09%), whereas other families contributed a smaller amount.

Three families, namely Moraceae, Combretaceae and

Anacardiaceae include two species each, while other families

had one species each.

Six species of trees including Mangifera indica ,

Mitragyna par\>iflora , Alvizia odoratissima , Cordia myxa,

Tectona grandis and Sarcopetalum tomentosa contributed

< 5% (range 0.27-3.29%) and 2 species of trees including

Madhuca longifolia and Terminalia bellirica contributed

>20% (range 510-715 of the 2,157 feeding records).

Remaining species contributed between 5 to 10% of feeding

records. Madhuca longifolia was a predominant species for

Table 1 : Location of Flying squirrel sites in Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary

184

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Plant part

Fig. 2: Percentage observation of plant parts in the diet

of the Flying squirrel during summer season

feeding and it contributed 33.14% of feeding records and

Tectona grandis contributed only 0.27% and ranked 13 in

the list. Both Madhuca longifolia and Terminalia bellirica

species contributed more than half of the feeding records.

Fig. 3: Monthly diet composition of the flying squirrel

Eight food items were consumed by the flying squirrel

iring the study period. Pith was most frequently (58.59%)

consumed, followed by twigs (16.87%), fruits (6.44%),

flowers (5.23%), leaves (5.09%),buds (4.82%). bark (2.64%)

and seeds (0.27%) (Fig. 2). Pith was obtained from 10 plant

species, twigs from 7 plant species, leaves and fruits from

2 plant species, bark, flowers and buds were obtained from

only Madhuca longifolia. Seeds were least preferred and

obtained from Tectona grandis (Table 2).

Table 2: Plant species and part consumed by Petaurista philippensis

at Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary (Rajasthan) during summer in 2009

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

185

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

§ 52

5 o o

*7 ^

O O

O m

Timing of feeding

Fig. 4: Feeding time of the Flying squirrel during their active

period (7.30 pm-5.00 am)

It was also observed that in March only 5 food parts

were used in 508 feeding records. The most preferred feeding

plant part was twigs, which comprised 27.95% of the monthly

feeding records. This was followed by leaves (2 1 .65%), buds

(20.47%) and pith ( 1 8.70%) (Fig. 3, Table 3). In April, 4 food

items were used in 8 1 7 feeding records and the percentage of

pith increased and reached 50.30% which was followed by

twigs (19.95%), fruits (15.91%) and flowers ( 13.83%). Use

of pith further increased in May reaching 80.60% with

361 feeding records. Except pith other food parts were twigs

( 15.78%), fruits ( 1 .93%) and seeds ( 1 .66%). In lune, the only

feeding part was pith which comprised 100% of the monthly

feeding records.

The feeding time of the flying squirrel is shown in

Fig. 4. The most active time of feeding was when flying

squirrels emerged from their holes. After emerging, they

started feeding. Feeding became less around 00:30 hrs.

Between 00:30 hrs and 02:00 hrs, the feeding activity ceased.

Feeding resumed after 02:00 hrs, but the frequency was low.

Thus, the peak time of feeding was 19:30 to 21:30 hrs while

24:00 to 02:00 hrs was resting time.

DISCUSSION

The flying squirrel fed primarily on pith in summer

besides twigs, leaves, bark, flowers, buds, fruits and seeds.

Other studies on the diet of the flying squirrel also show that

they are largelyfolivorous (Lee etal. 1986; Kawamichi 1997;

Kuo and Lee 2003; Nandini and Parthasarathy 2008). The

flying squirrel is a selective forager and only 1 3 plant species

and 8 plant parts were consumed in their summer diet. Besides

they consumed the part only from a few plant species in each

month. Some species of plants were used more whereas others

were used sporadically emphasizing its preference. Kuo and

Lee (2003) showed that the flying squirrel consumed at least

79 species-specific parts of plants belonging to 30 families,

and Nandini and Parthasarathy (2008) reported that

25 different plant parts of 10 tree species were recorded in

the feeding of the flying squirrel. lapanese Giant Flying

Squirrels P leucogenys were also found to be highly selective

feeders (Ando et al. 1985; Kawamichi 1997). ianzen (1978)

and Kuo and Lee (2003) stated that, relative to terrestrial

animals, arboreal species are unable to store large amounts

of fat, which would restrict their movements and increase the

risk of falling. Furthermore, because arboreal folivores rely

on relatively poor quality food, they may be constrained by

their ability to convert energy (Eisenberg 1978; Kuo and Lee

2003).

In this study, the flying squirrel preferred to feed on

pith, as it comprised 58.59% of its diet. Pith is the central

part of stem or twig which is rich in water content and

nutrition. This content fulfils the requirement of water for

flying squirrel in summer. Immature leaves were used during

March. Coley ( 1983) showed that young and mature leaves

of pioneer species contain fewer digestion reducers such as

cellulose, tannins, and lignin and are relatively palatable to

herbivores.

Table 3: Data on different plant parts consumed each month and their monthly percentages

186

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Nandini and Parthasarathy (2008) revealed that fruit

was most usable plant part for the flying squirrel, in the

Western Ghats, which constituted 48.42% of all plant parts.

The difference in feeding parts of plants may be because,

the habitat of the flying squirrel in the Western Ghats has

more humid area and the squirrel does not require to conserve

water. In the present study, water conservation by the animal

is much required as the forest is of dry deciduous type. Thus,

the flying squirrel consumed a wide variety of plant parts.

The diet of the flying squirrel changed in relation to plant

phenology. This habit is related to availability of food and

composition of forest. For example, reproductive phase of

Madhuca longifolia is fixed in annual time period, so, flying

squirrel used their phase parts (bud, flower and fruit) in

March and April; bark was used in March. Thin bark is often

removed to the depth of the cambium, but thicker bark may

not be (MacKinnon 1978). Some seeds or fruits are produced

relatively early in summer, which may contribute to the food

available for young squirrels (Thompson and Thompson

1980). Giant flying squirrels also shifted to other food items,

even when a previously known food item was still available.

This was usually because a newly available food item was

more preferable; in particular, a rapid shift from mature leaves

to swelling buds (in March), and a successive change

from one species of oak to another in search of new leaves

or acorns due to their slightly different periods of leaf out

and seed production (Kawamichi 1997). No significant

relationship was found between availability of parts of

plants and feeding frequency, implying that Indian Giant

Flying squirrels did not select food on the basis of total

availability. Similar observations were reported by Kuo and

Lee (2003). During the present study, no occasion was

witnessed when the flying squirrel fed on food of animal

origin. Similar observations were also noted by Kawamichi

(1997), Nandini and Parthasarathy (2008) and Kuo and Lee

(2003).

According to Nandini (2001), flying squirrels begin

feeding around 1 8:30 hrs, while in this case both feeding and

calling began around 19:00 hrs. Feeding dropped around

22:00 hrs. At 22:00 hrs most individuals were noticed either

calling or sitting. The present study also showed that most

active feeding time was from 19:30 to 21 :30 hrs that reduced

till 24:00 hrs, while after 02:00 hrs some feeding was

observed.

Thus, from the present study it can be inferred

that Mahuwa Madhuca longifolia is the most preferred

plant with respect to feeding and pith is the preferred

plant part.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

189-197

CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED

TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE, EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA

Shivaji Chaudhry13, Gopi Govindhan Veeraswami2, Kripaljyoti Mazumdar1-4 and Prasanna Kumar Samal1 5

‘G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, North East Unit, Vivek Vihar. Itanagar 791 113, Arunachal Pradesh.

India.

2Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani. Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

Along with the Greater Himalaya, in the eastern Himalayan region there has been increased efforts to bring more areas

under the Protected Area Network. Protected areas including conservation areas in Arunachal Pradesh are mostly

located in the low and mid-elevation forest areas. To address the need of having a protected area in the higher altitudes

of the State, of late a biosphere reserve has been proposed in the western Arunachal Pradesh. This paper aims to

document the existing human-wildlife conflict and prioritize the conflicts, in an effort to promote conservation in the

Tsangyang Gyatso Biosphere Reserve. The paper also attempts to understand the complexity of land transfer and

regulations of community, particularly pasture lands in the Biosphere reserve. This study was carried out between

September 2007 and July 2008 in the proposed biosphere reserve. A total of 13 species were recorded to be in direct

conflict with humans, and based on the conflict intensity mapping nine were screened as high to moderate conflicting

species. Conflict intensity as per the local perceptions was recorded high for 38% species and 31% species showed

moderate intensity of conflict with humans. As per the local perception, causes for human-wildlife conflict in order of

importance were: increased population, non-timber forest products (NTFP) collection, road construction and increased

predators. Local people perceived four major factors, namely compensatory schemes, reducing prey hunt, reducing

pressure on forest and increasing vigil to safeguard crops and livestock to mitigate the existing conflicts.

INTRODUCTION

During the 5lh World Park Congress organized by the

IUCN, human-wildlife conflict (HWC) was identified to be

a key challenge facing Protected Area management and

conservation (IUCN 2003). A major source of conflict

between park authorities and local communities in the

Subcontinent revolves around livestock and crop damage

within Protected Areas (PAs) of their buffer zone (Kharel

1997; Mishra 1997; Hussain 2003). Today, the PAs are a

pervasive land use covering 14.36% of earth's surface

(www.tradingeconomics.com/world/terrestrial-protected-

areas-percent-of-total-surface-area-wb-data.html ). There are

indications that the PAs will continue to grow as individual

countries have made ambitious commitments to establish new

PAs; however the relative rate of growth of PAs is not

significantly different between countries with different

number of unprotected species (Pyke 2007). Most of the areas

under PAs network, historically productive in terms of their

economic value (Scott et al. 2001), have decentralised land

management regimes and multifaceted land protection

measures that hinder the optimal use of the land resource

(Theobald and Hobbs 2002). Many international NGOs have

strongly advocated the use of setting map-based geographical

priorities while not affecting the established social and

economic drivers in the region (Olson and Dinerstein 1998;

Myers et al. 1999). Inspite of all these efforts there seems to

be lack of political will to formulate a conservation policy,

which is clearly evident from existing gaps between the

conservation policies and conservation practice in general

(Chhatre and Saberwal 2005). Prioritization of areas for

biodiversity representation is essential for conservation

planning, particularly in megadiverse countries where high

deforestation threatens biodiversity (Sanchez-Cordero et al.

2005). In general, two methods of prioritization have been

used, (i) sets of place based on expert advice (Dinerstein et

al. 2000) and (ii) using algorithmic data containing the vital

conservation information (Margules et al. 1998). We hereby

discuss the former in the western part of Arunachal Pradesh,

which forms a major part of the biological hotspot - Eastern

Himalaya (Myers et al. 1999).

Approximately 10% of the world’s population lives in

mountain areas and livestock is the major source of their

economy (Pun and Mares 2000; Mishra et al. 2006). India

has a high human population and boasts of having the largest

cattle population in the world (449 million; WRI 1996).

Habitat loss in the Himalayan region is a serious concern as

the region supports very fragile ecosystems. There have been

attempts to link the fauna with its habitat or native flora

globally (Siemann et al. 1998; Knops et al. 1999). It is

estimated that the Himalayan region has lost 70% of its native

habitat (Anonymous 2006). Therefore, in most of the Indian

Himalayan region biodiversity conservation measures are

usually taken care of by declaring PAs (Bagchi et al. 2004).

CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Loss of human life due to wildlife is often immediately

discussed, but the loss of crops or livestock which are means

to subsistence seldom get attention of administrators ( Rao et

al. 2002). More than often loss of subsistence causes much

displeasure to locals in the conservation priority areas ( Parry

and Campbell 1992; Newmark etal. 1993; Maikhuri and Rao

1998). In Manas National Park human-elephant conflict is

on the rise, the intensity of conflict was higher in fields and

nearby parks; elephant bulls were reported to be more violent

than the females (Nath et al. 2009). A seasonal study of the

crop raiding patterns of elephant in Zimbabwe suggest that

the point at which the quality of wild grasses declines to the

quality of crop species correspond to the movement of bull

elephant out of PAs and into fields (Osborn 2004). In Garo

hills, India, the analysis of elephant movement using

participatory monitoring suggested that elephant visits to

fields peaked at the time of harvest of crop (Datta-Roy etal.

2009).

Crop raiding by primates are reported throughout the

globe, especially in the tropical and subtropical regions. In

Indonesia, Macaca fascicularis and Presbytis thomasi are

most destructive primates in the region (Marchal and Hill

2009). Crop raiding by Semnopithecus entellus in and around

Aravalli region of India is very high as these primate species

can feed upon 184 types of food items and incur crop losses

worth $1,800-2,400 annually (Chhangani and Mohnot 2004).

Squirrels like Funambulus palmarum in addition to their

natural diet also take significant portion of cardamom in the

Western Ghats of India (Chakravarthy et al. 2008).

Livestock depredation by wild animals is also the cause

of resentment among traditional herders and pastoral people.

Livestock depredation is increasingly becoming a contentious

issue in the Himalayan region (Jackson and Wangchuk 2004).

In Nepalese Himalaya, conflict with rural communities due

to livestock predation by large carnivores like the Snow

Leopard, Leopard, Wolf and Wild Dog has risen sharply in

recent years (Jackson 1996). Therefore, the present paper

attempts to understand the man-animal conflict and possible

mitigatory measures to foster a pro-people biosphere reserve

management.

The state of Arunachal Pradesh has been of great interest

to biologists with recent discoveries of primate species —

Arunachal Macaque Macaca munzala (Sinha et al. 2005), a

new species to science, and range extension of the Tibetan

Macaque Macaca thibetana (Kumar et al. 2005) in India; a

new bird species to science — Bugun Liocichla Liocichla

bugunorum has recently being described (Athreya 2006).

Three other large mammals previously unknown from India:

two species of deer - Leaf Deer Muntiacus putaoensis ( Datta

et al. 2003), and the Black Barking Deer Muntiacus crinifrons

Bhutan

Scale : 1:2,50.000

AREA (Approx.)

Core zone -1190sqkm.

Buffer znoe -2192sqkm.

Transition zone- 2465 sqkm.

Total area - 5848 sqkm *

Bomdila

Fig. 1 : The proposed Tsangyang Gyatso biosphere reserve

showing study sites

- and the Chinese Goral Nemorhaedus caudatus , a primitive

mountain goat (Mishra etal. 2006), have also been discovered

in Arunachal Pradesh recently. There have been confirmed

sightings of Black Musk Deer Moschus fuscus (Kumar and

Nair 2007) and of fishes like Amblyceps arunachalensis ,

Psilorhynchoides arunachalensis, Erethistoides senkhiensis

(Nath and Dey 1989; Nebeshwar et al. 2007; Tamang et al.

2008) and probably many more that await description. To

conserve this biodiversity, the state and the central government

have initiated steps by bringing this area under the existing

national/state PA network by proposing it for a biosphere

reserve status. The region harbours significant altitudinal

variation (100-7.090 m above msl), which creates myriads of

habitat for different types of flora and fauna (Chaudhry et al.

2006). Arunachal Pradesh is located at the junction of

Palearctic and Indo-Malayan realms, which enriches its

biodiversity (Mani 1974). The state is known to have

50% angiosperms and avifauna of India ( Rao and Hajra 1 986:

Singh 1994; Chowdhury 1998: Procter et al. 1998).

STUDY AREA

The survey was carried out in the Tsangyang Gyatso

Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 1) in Western Arunachal Pradesh

from September 2007 to July 2008. Tawang district spans

over 2,172 sq. km with a human population density (16 per

sq. km) marginally exceeding the average for Arunachal

(13 per sq. km). The region is drained by the Tawang Chu,

Nyamjang Chu (both of which meet and drain into Bhutan)

190

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

and their tributaries, and comprises five administrative circles

(Tawang, Mukto, Thingbu, Lumla, and Zemithang). The

Buddhist Monpa tribe is the predominant community

inhabiting Tawang. There is a considerable presence of the

Indian Army in the district, given that it shares international

boundaries with Bhutan and China. The larger (7,422 sq. km)

West Kameng district has a lower human density

(10 per sq. km), w ith the people belonging to 5 tribes: Monpa,

Sherdukpen, Khowa, Aka, and Miji. The region is drained by

the Kameng or Bhareli and its tributaries (eventually joining

the Brahmaputra), and is divided into six administrative circles

(Bomdila, Dirang, Kalaktang, Bhalukpong, Nafra, and

Thrizino).

METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in the Western Arunachal

Pradesh in the districts of the West Kameng and Tawang,

eastern range of the Himalaya. The study villages were

selected based on reports of human-animal conflicts. An

informal questionnaire was used to assess the response of the

villagers (Table 1). A total of 149 individuals were interviewed

comprising 109 males and 40 females. The secondary

information regarding the study area was also collected from

six villages. The targeted people belonged to different groups,

such as the village headman, school teachers, servicemen,

farmers and hunters.

Survey was conducted in the Chander, Lubrang and

Senge villages under Dirang circle of West Kameng district

and Jang, Mago of Thingbu circle and Zemithang of

Zemithang circle, Tawang district. This study was carried

out between September 2007 and July 2008 in the proposed

biosphere reserve (BR). An informal discussion, with the

help of visual identification aid, was used to enlist number

of species in the proposed biosphere reserve, which were

confirmed by either sighting them or by trophies in

possession of villagers. The identification of mammals was

Table 1 : Questionnaire used in the study of conflict mitigation

1 . How many different species you see in your locality?

2. Could you identify them with these colour plates?

3. Do some of them raid your crops?

4. Do some of them predate on your livestock?

5. What time do they attack your crops/livestock (day/night)?

6. What is the extent of the damage (high/moderate/low)?

7. Do you kill them in grudge when they damage the crop (yes/

no)?

8. What are the causes due to which their attacks have become

frequent?

9. What do you think could be done to reduce the damage or

stop killing wild animals?

carried out with locals using the book a field guide to Indian

mammals by Vivek Menon (2003) and photographic plates

developed by us. IUCN Red Data book was referred to

ascertain the threat status of the species enlisted in the

survey.

RESULTS

Vegetation types

The vegetation type in the two study districts - West

Kameng and Tawang - can be classified into the following

five types (Dutta Choudhury 1996; Anonymous 2003) —

Tropical evergreen. Subtropical evergreen. Temperate forest.

Sub-alpine fir vegetation and Alpine vegetation (Table 2).

The total forest cover of the two districts reports about

5,809.91 sq. km area, which accounts for 60.5% coverage as

compared to the total area of both the districts, with 56.6%

for Tawang district and 61.7 % in case of West Kameng

district (Table 2) respectively. The tropical evergreen forests

are found along the foothills of southern West Kameng district

up to an altitudinal range of 900 m. Out of the two districts,

tropical evergreen forests are found only in the West

Kameng district covering an area of 494.5 sq. km. The

subtropical evergreen forest or mixed forest covers an area

of 1,714.85 sq. km of both the districts and are found at an

altitudinal range of 900-1,800 m, largely in the Kalaktang

and Rupa valley area of West Kameng district. The temperate

forests are confined to elevation ranging from 1,800 to

3,500 m and are found mainly in Bomdila, Dirang (West

Kameng district), Senge, Jang and Tawang valley (Tawang

district) covering an area of 3,031.3 sq. km. The sub-alpine

fir vegetation covers an area of 465.8 sq. km in both the

districts and are found in Lower Sela area, hill slopes above

Tawang valley, Mago area and Jung valley (of Tawang

district) at an altitudinal range of 3,500 to 4,500 m. Alpine

vegetation dominated by herbaceous species like Rheum,

Arenaria, Saussurea, etc. along with Rhododendron spp. are

vegetation

Fig. 2: Vegetation and forest types of the studied districts

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

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CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

found within an altitudinal range of 4,500 to 5,500 m.

Covering an area of 1 1 1 .4 sq. km in both the districts, alpine

vegetations are found only in the hill slopes around Bumla,

Pangchen, Chuna andTawang (Tawang district). Fig. 2 shows

the relative areas covered by these five types of vegetation.

Demographic profile

The total population of the Tawang district is 38,924

and that of West Kameng is 74,599. There are five major

tribes in the West Kameng district while Tawang district has

only one. Aka , Miji and Bugun are the three tribes, who are

predominantly shifting cultivators, while Sherdukpen and

Monpas are purely settled cultivators. The Aka, Miji and

Bugun live at low elevations (200-2,200 nt) in the tropical to

subtropical zones, while the Monpas and Sherdukpen live in

temperate to alpine zones. Agriculture, horticulture, NTFP

collection and livestock rearing are the major source of income

for the local people. Monpas living in the higher reaches,

beyond 3,000 m, practice transhumance type of pastoralism

with barter links, with the people at the lower elevation

(Chaudhry et al. 2006; Dollo et al. 2006). In recent times,

there has been increased thrust for developmental activities

like installment of brewery, pine extraction unit and hydel

projects at the lower reaches, while at the higher elevations

road construction, army settlements, pasture expansion are

cause of habitat destruction (pers. obs.).

Altogether 6 villages were selected for the study in the

2 districts of the state. Senge was the largest having 1 52 houses

followed by Jang 1 19, while the lowest was Chander having

only 20 houses. Similar trends were recorded in terms of

population with Senge having 35%, Jang 27.4%, Zemithang

14.5%, Mago 13. 1 %, Lubrang 5.3% and Chander 4.6%. Mago

and Chander were pure pastoral villages. Jang had maximum

of the agricultural workforce 58%, Senge 37.9%, Zemithang

3.7% and Lubrang had the lowest with 0.4%. Most of the people

worked in the primary sector (mainly labour work). Senge had

the largest chunk with 73% of workers followed by Jang 1 3.6%,

Zemithang 3.8%, Mago 6.8%, Lubrang 0.6% and Chander

2.1%. Non-workers chiefly comprising of kids and elderly

also accounted for a significant number, while workers are

those who had worked for the major part of the reference

period (i.e., 6 months or more). Average land holding was

found at the higher elevation villages, which may be attributed

to lack of infrastructure like road, the trends reversed in areas

having road connectivity like Zemithang, Senge and Jang

(Table 3).

Six villages were identified in the reconnaissance

survey as the flashpoints of man-animal conflict. These

villages broadly fall in three ecological zones, i.e., subtropical,

temperate, sub-alpine and alpine zones covering two districts

of the state. Vegetation is subtropical broad-leaved forest in

Zemithang, broad-leaved temperate forest in Chander, sub-

alpine coniferous forest in Senge and alpine pasture in Mago.

In Jang, the vegetation is temperate broad-leaved mixed forest

while Lubrang is a pastoral village with grasses like Poa

alpina , Juncus thomsonii etc and surrounded by temperate

broad-leaved forest. A total of 1 2 animal species, including

domestic dog, were identified to be in direct conflict with

human interests in these sites, which can be conveniently

divided into two categories: livestock depredators and crop

raiders. Jang, Zemithang and Chander had 3 conflicting species

followed by 2 each in the remaining villages (Table 4).

Faunal diversity

According to our initial study and literature review there

are 40 species of mammals belonging to 34 genera in the

proposed biosphere reserve; altogether 1 8 families belonging

to 8 orders. 22 (55%) species of the animals were recorded in

the low risk category (LR), 5 ( 12.5%) species were recorded

in the endangered list (EN), 7 ( 17.5%) were found to be in

Table 2: Vegetation types with dominant species in the study area (in sq. km)

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CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

the vulnerable list ( VU), 3 (7.5%) in the least concerned (LC),

1(2.5%) species was near threatened, 2 (5%) species were,

however, not found in the IUCN listings. As far as mammalian

families are concerned, there were 18 families, Bovidae and

Felidae were the largest comprising 15% representation each,

followed by Scuiridae having 12.5%, Cercopithecidae and

Mustelidae 10% each, Muridae and Cervidae had 5% each,

while rest of the families had 5% each of the species

representation. Carnivora 35% was largest order, followed

by Atriodactyla 25%, Rodentia 20%, Primate 12.5%,

Lagomorpha, Perissodactyla and Pholidata contributed 2.5%

each. Hence, from the enumeration it can be concluded that

carnivore diversity was maximum followed by herbivore, and

therefore livestock depredation would be a concern in the

immediate future. As per the villagers, the numbers of Tiger

Panthera tigris and Kiang Equus kiang are very low and often

their sightings are seasonal.

Conflicting species

There were altogether 13 animal species which were

in direct conflict with humans. Out of which two Greater

Bandicoot Rat Bandicota indica and Domestic Dog Canis

famdiaris live in close association with humans, while the

other 1 1 species were found in the wild. Crop raiders and

livestock depredators had equal share of representation,

i.e., 54%. Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus had the

unique distinction of having the ability to raid crops and kill

livestock. Conflict intensity as per the local perception was

recorded high for 38% species, while 31% species show

moderate intensity of conflict with humans and therefore need

proper attention before they become a threat. Rest 31%

showed low intensity of conflict, which may be partly

attributed to their behavioural patterns and partly due to

availability of alternate feeding materials. Snow Leopard

Uncia uncia. Wild Dog Cuon alpinus were blamed for

maximum livestock depredation and were subject to

retaliatory persecution. However, according to the villagers,

their sightings have gradually diminished in recent times. Wild

Boar Sus scrofa and Arunachal Macaque Macaca munzala

have been cause of grave concern for their crop raiding

behaviour (Table 5).

Based on the conflict intensity mapping, nine potential

species were screened as high to moderate conflicting species

out of total thirteen. Omnivores lead the tally with 44%

representation, primates (33%) constituted the herbivore

group, while carnivores had 22% representation. 56% showed

diurnal activity while remaining 44% were nocturnal. All the

herbivores had affinity towards feeding young leaves while

Malayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyura subcristata was

reported to be feeding more on bulbs and tubers, it may be

noted that the species is also known to cause debarking of

trees and their subsequent death. Domestic Dog Canis

famdiaris is a known human ally since time immemorial and

only recently it has been on the list due to its predating activity,

especially on young calves. The other omnivores were found

to be feeding much on the fruits, grains, berries and on small

mammals. Pure carnivores like Snow Leopard Uncia uncia

and Wild Dog Cuon alpinus , however, were dependent on

gorals, deer and small animals (Table 5).

Factors inducing conflicts and prioritization of conflicts

Five causes for conflict, namely deforestation, road

construction, NTFP collection, increased number of livestock

predators and increased population for man-animal conflict

were identified, in all the six study sites. According to the

villagers, deforestation was reported to be the major cause of

human-animal conflict, causing 18% of the incidents. The

village-wise break-up of the deforestation as a cause of

conflict was highest in Senge 29%, Chander 22%,

Lubrang 18%, Mago, Jang 1 1% and least in Zemithang 7%.

Table 3: Occupational structure and demographic profile of study sites

(Source: Census 2001, Govt, of India)

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CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

predators as a cause of conflict shows that 33% of people

from Chander, 2 1 % Jang, 1 7% Lubrang, 1 2% Zemithang and

8% each, Mago and Senge supported this view. The major

cause according to the respondents was increased population

(27%). Mago had highest number of people having this view

(25%) followed by 20% in Senge (which has an army built

up in the area), Jang, Zemithang and Lubrang 15% each and

lastly Chander (10%) (Fig. 3).

Therefore, according to people's perception causes for

human-wildlife conflict in order of importance were increased

population > NTFP collection > road construction > increased

predators. All these factors are related to each other as well

as with economics. Subsequent ban on timber logging by

Supreme Court in 1996 has resulted in greater reliance on

NTFPs, and livestock and animal husbandry. Road

construction and development impetus in the area increased

after the 1962 Sino-Indian Conflict, resulting in habitat loss

of wild animals. These factors have resulted in increased man-

animal conflict. The analysis was further extended to identify

adequate measures to reduce the man-animal conflict in the

biosphere reserve. Four factors were enlisted by the local

people as compensatory schemes, reducing prey hunt,

reducing pressure on forest and increasing vigil to safeguard

crops and livestock. Compensatory schemes were demanded

by the local people and this constituted an overall of 32%

demand in the region, Chander had highest 20%, Mago

and Zemithang 19% each, Jang 17%, Senge 15% and

Lubrang 10%. Most of the compensation demanding villages

are pastoral village and have limited access to roads. The

Table 4: Study areas under maximum incidences of human-wildlife conflict

Fig. 3: Percentage of people (Y-axis) in study area (X-axis)

citing cause of conflict

17% of the people in the study area thought that road

construction has led to increased conflict. The break-up

showed that Jang 40% had highest incidence of man-animal

conflict following road construction followed by Zemithang

24%, Senge 16%, Chander 12% and Lubrang 8%. 22% of

the people had identified indiscriminate NTFP collection as

a cause of this conflict; the village wise break-up showed

that Mago and Zemithang 21%, Jang and Chander 18%,

Lubrang 12% and last Senge 9% shared similar views on

NTFP collection as a cause of conflict. On an average, 16%

of the people believed that conflicts are more prevalent

nowadays due to increase in the number of crop raiders and

livestock depredators, which according to them is true in case

of Primates and Dholes. Village-wise break-up of increased

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CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

other three villages that have road connectivity had less

demand for compensation (10-17%). Reducing the hunting

of prey such as deer, small mammals and birds to balance the

prey-predator relation was agreed upon by 20% people. Jang

and Zemithang had 20% each followed by Chander and

Zemithang 17% each and lastly by remaining two villages

13% each. 27.5% people agreed to increase the vigil to reduce

the crop and livestock loss to the wild animals, Jang had the

highest with 24%, Lubrang 19%,Senge 17%, 15% each from

Mago and Chander, followed by 10% of people in Zemithang.

Similar views were shared about reducing pressure on the

forest with 20% people from Chander, Lubrang, Senge and

Jang. 17% people in Zemithang, 13% in Lubrang and least

with Mago 10% (Table 6).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

It seems from the foregoing result that human-animal

conflict in the proposed biosphere reserve is a serious issue.

In the state, most of the studies related to mammals were

restricted to taxonomical descriptions, but as a matter of fact

their role in human-animal conflict has not been taken up

adequately (Mishra et al. 2006). This arises primarily due to

two counts, one there is lack of acclimatization with the people

and second, the people distrust government agents either for

taxes or for land acquisition. Apart from these two, the recent

religious ban on the hunting of animals inside forest by the

Tawang monastery can also be accounted for the reluctance

of the people to respond (pers. comm.). There are three direct

stakeholders in the state department, i.e., agriculture,

horticulture and forest departments, but none are keeping data

on human-animal conflicts (pers. obs.). Most of the land is

under forest cover and hence it is the dominant land use and

in recent times it has been put to pressure owing to

developmental activities (Dollo et al. 2006). The region has

most of the forest under the category of unclassed state forest

which are strictly under community control, and therefore

they are governed by the customary laws of the community

(Singh and Sundriyal 2006).

Community lands governed by traditional institutions

are broadly divided into two groups - land tenureship and

ownership. However, in recent times the traditional systems

are under transition and are gradually taken up by the

Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) having village headman

(Gaonburha) who may have greater political mileage along

with a handful of his subordinates which at times creates

inequitable pattern of resource utilization affecting

sustainability in long run (Chaudhry et al. 2006). As evident

from Table 6 four factors are driving the man-animal conflict

in the region (i) population (ii) loss of vegetation (iii) NTFP

Table 5: List of the animal species reported to have conflicts with humans

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

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CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Table 6: Remedial conservation measures as suggested by the villagers for reducing the conflicts

Figures in parenthesis indicate number of persons interviewed

collection and (iv) less vigil, all these factors are related to

one another when the main need becomes quick money (Saha

et al. 2006).

The government lacks data and outreach to the far flung

areas and therefore there is lack of support for the rural and

pastoral highlanders. Our data show that the respondents

support compensatory schemes for crops or livestock lost to

wildlife (Table 4). Most of forest related operations (timber,

fuel, NTFPs, hunting) with the rising population were

responsible for rise in the recent conflicts (Fig. 2). This is

especially true when developmental thrust received a shot

in arm after 1962 Sino-Indian conflict (Saha et al. 2006).

There were number of roads constructed and rapid expansion

of army settlements and urbanization process. Other

developmental activities like horticulture areas expansion,

pasture expansion have already aggravated forest status and

hence the present day man-animal conflict has raised to

alarming proportions. Therefore, the need of the hour is to

document the best practices in the traditional institutions for

resource utilization, management and conservation, the region

is known for its Buddhism related values and traditional

modes of conflict resolution and compensation hold good

for the future. An ideal situation will be to complement the

traditional knowledge with that of formal conservation

science.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the grants received from the Ministry

of Environment and Forests, Government of India. We also

acknowledge the research facility provided by the Director,

G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and

Development. We thank Mr. Mihin Dollo for the study

area map. We would like to thank the Director, Wildlife

Institute of India for his support. Thanks are also due to

the help rendered by Mr. Tsering Dargey of Mon Pastoral

and Development Society and also the friendly Monpa

people.

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development in North East India. Oxford and IBH Publishing

Co. Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 357-370.

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Place prioritization for biodiversity representation using species

ecological niche modelling. Biodiversity Informatics 2: 11-23.

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& R.L. Pressey (2001): Representation for natural vegetation in

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India. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 317-342.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

198-200

AN ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION

OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES (CAV.) BOISS. — A THREATENED PLANT

OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN, INDIA

R.K. Gehlot1’3 and Vinod Kumarj1-2

'Department of Botany, Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Government Dungar College. Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India.

2 Address for Correspondence: L-15 Green Park Colony, Near Sophia School, Bikaner 334 001. Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

Monsonia heliotropioides (Mayur Shikha) is a rare herbaceous fodder plant of north-west Rajasthan whose population

has been continuously decreasing. It was observed only from a few localities having calcarious cankar land with a

very scanty population. Protection of habitat may be an effective control measure for the conservation of this species.

From the leaves 23.77% crude proteins, 58.79% carbohydrates, 5.36% crude fat and only 5.89% crude fibres were

estimated. All plant parts had an appreciable amount of minerals. Tannins were present in all the parts with a maximum

concentration in leaves, whereas alkaloids and saponins were not detected. Seed germination was observed only under

mechanical scarification. Besides poor germination percentage other reason observed for rarity, were specific habitat

and its disappearance, easy grazing of whole umbellate inflorescence consequently low seed production and dispersal

mechanism of fruit.

Key words: Monsonia heliotropioides, threatened plant, nutritive value, rarity, germination, habitat, conservation

INTRODUCTION

Existence of a plant species may be necessary for

maintenance and balance of the ecosystem. So, throughout

the globe, conservation of biodiversity is one of the most

urgent needs. The primary tool for biodiversity conservation

is derived from the analysis of basic taxonomic and

phytogeographic data, which defines the centres of endemism

and species diversity (Kiran Raj 2010). North-west Rajasthan

forms an important part of the Great Indian Desert. In the

recent past, many areas of this region were subjected to

considerable ecological changes, which has modified the

pattern and abundance of many species, consequently a

number of plant species have become threatened. Only a few

attempts have been made to study the plants of this region

(Sahni 1970; Pandey et al. 1983; Harsh andTiwari 1998).

The threatened status of a plant species can be assessed

from its population distribution, regeneration capacity and

present trends of exploitation pressure on such species (Lucas

and Synge 1978; Jain and Sastry 1980; Nayar and Sastry 1987,

1 988, 1 990; Ali 2010). Monsonia heliotropioides (Cav.) Boiss.

is an annual herb with woody root stock and radical leaves; it

belongs to the Family Geraniaceae (Bhandari 1990). A rare

plant of north-west Rajasthan, it is reported from a very few

localities, having calcarious canker land. It is a good fodder

plant and also used as a valuable remedy in acute and chronic

dysentery, especially of use in ulceration of the lower part of

the intestine (Leyel 1981). Desert plants are generally rich in

nutritive contents, especially proteins (Mathurand Karwasra

1967; Purohit 1987; Singh and Singh 2011). Efforts for

conserving plants can be improved if the species selected are

thoroughly investigated for their use, since multiple uses of

any plant can motivate people for its conservation. Therefore,

during the present investigation besides studying the causes

of rarity and conservation measures, the fodder value of plant

was also assessed.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Field trips were regularly made to different localities

in the study area to study the distribution, habitat, phenology

since 1998 and information was also sought from locals

regarding utility, low population, rarity and present trends of

exploitation pressure on the species. Various aspects of threat

were studied on the basis of criterion given by Perring and

Farwell (1977).

For the estimation of nutritive content, methods of

AOAC (1990) were used. Mineral content was estimated by

the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (A AS) method.

The qualitative estimation of alkaloids, saponins and tannins

were made by the method of Amar Singham et al. (1964) and

Arthur and Chan ( 1962).

Seed germination study was performed in earthen pots

fdled with soil collected from the habitat the plant grew, under

controlled conditions and various treatments.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Monsonia heliotropioides is regarded as a good fodder

plant for cattle in the area due to palatability and nutritive

ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES

Fig. 1: Monsonia heliotropioides (Cav.) Boiss

A: Habit; B: Fruit, C. Dehiscing fruit; D: Mericarp with bristle;

E: sepal; F. Petal

value. The distributional range of this species was found to

be very restricted with scanty population. The main causes

of depletion of this species observed during the study were

shrinkage of grazing lands, uncontrolled grazing and

destruction of habitat by locals for collecting calcarious

cankers used mainly for construction purpose. Prosopis

juliflora, which regenerates faster and grows aggressively, is

seriously threatening the survival of indigenous species

in north-west Rajasthan (Singh and Singh 2011). Britto et al.

(2002) observed that habitat degradation was the main

cause of threat for Ceropegia sp. and suggested that they

have genetically depleted and are scarcely available.

M. heliotropioides in its vegetative stage has

prostrate radical leaves. During the reproductive period it

bears inflorescence on long erect peduncle; the length of

peduncle is about twice during fruit formation. The fruits are

easily grazed as they are long beaked and umbellate, like the

crown of a peacock (hence the local name Mayur Shikha).

The fruit dehisces into small mericarps with long hairy

bristles, which enables it to disperse widely by wind through

long distances and habitats where the conditions may not be

suitable for its seed germination and consequently growth,

as a result of which a large number of seeds are destroyed.

This is the main reason for its rare occurrence and small

population.

Analysis of the plant parts showed that Monsonia

heliotropioides contains high crude proteins, which are

maximum in leaves (23.77%) and minimum in roots (9.58%)

(Table 1). Adequate amount of nitrogen supply help to

maintain normal metabolism under water and heat stress, one

of the major factor for all plants in arid regions (Hellmuth

1968). Crude fibres were higher in root and fruit than leaves.

The high percentage of crude fibres in fruits may be due to

the presence of long beak in fruits and bristles in mericarps.

Total ash content was comparatively very low in fruits. Total

carbohydrate was estimated to be lower in leaves (58.79%)

than roots (76.5%) and fruits (79.4%). All the plant parts

showed a good amount of mineral nutrients, especially

phosphorus, manganese and zinc. High fodder value of this

plant is clearly evident from the present biochemical analysis

particularly of high proteins and mineral contents. High

concentration of mineral elements in medicinal plants act not

only as curative, but also as preventive agents for many

diseases (Pandey et al. 2006). Qualitative test for alkaloids,

tannins and saponins revealed that tannins were present in all

the parts with comparatively dense precipitation in leaf

extract. Tannins have astringent properties, which hastens the

healing of wounds and inflamed mucous membrane (Okwu

and Okwu 2004). High amount of tannins in leaves reported

Table 1 : Nutritive content in different parts of

Monsonia heliotropioides (on % dry matter basis)

values are mean ±S.D. of five samples

* mg/100 gdw

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

199

ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES

in present study justify its medicinal value in dysentery and

ulceration of intestine. Alkaloids and saponins were not

observed. These substances play an important role in ecology

and physiology of adaptations, but may sometimes cause

negative effect on grazing animals in case of higher

concentration. High concentration of saponins in fodder plants

may cause foaming in intestinal tract of grazing animals,

which lead to bloating in cattle.

Germination of seeds was observed only under the

treatment of mechanical scarification, which was very poor

(30%). There was no effect of acid scarification. Indole Acetic

acid and Gibbrellic acid on germination of seeds. Seed

germination was epigeal although the seed coat remains inside

the soil due to the attachment at the lower part of hypocotyl.

It has been concluded that hard seed coat is impermeable for

water and gases, and requires partial decomposition before

germination.

Protection of habitat, control on grazing, introduction

in area of similar habitat and ecological condition and

maintenance of its seeds in seed banks, replacing them with

fresh collection every year, as seeds gradually lose viability

under storage, may be important conservation measures for

this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The second author thanks UGC for financial support

for this work.

REFERENCES

AO AC (1990): Method of Chemical Analysis. Association of Official

Agricultural Chemists. Virginia, USA.

Ali, M.A. (2010): Ethno-medicinal use of a threatened cucurbit from

Bihar. Curr. Sci. 99(9): 1164.

AmarSingham, R.D.. N.G Bisset, A.M. Millard & M.C. Woods (1964):

A phytochemical survey of Malaya, part III alkaloids and

saponins. Econ. Bot. 18(3): 270-280.

Arthur, H R. & R.RK. Chan (1962): A survey of Hong Kong plants

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Bhandari, M.M. (1990): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS. Repros.

Jodhpur. 435 pp.

Britto, S J., E. Nataruan & D.I. Arockiasamy (2002): In vitro flowering

and shoot multiplication from nodal explants of Ceropegia

bulbosa Roxb. var. bulbosa. Taiwania 48(2): 106-111.

Harsh, L.N. & J.C. Twari (1998): Biodiversity of vegetational complex

in arid regions of India. In: Bawa. R. & P.K. Khosla (Eds):

Biodiversity of forest species. Bishen Singh Mahender Pal Singh,

Dehradun.

Hellmuth, E.O. (1968): Eco-physiological studies on plants in arid and

semi-arid region in western Australia I. Autecology of Rhagodia

baccata (Labill). Moq. J. Ecol. 56: 319-344.

Jain, S.K. & A.R.K. Sastry (1980): Threatened Plants of India - A

State of Art Report. B.S.I., Hawrah. pp. 48.

Kiran Raj, M.S. (2010): Global biodiversity crisis and priorities in Indian

plant systematics. Curr. Sci. 99(11): 1491.

Leyel, C.F. (1981): A Modern Herbal. Dower Publication, Inc.

New York. 902 pp.

Lucas, G.L. & H. Synge (1978): The IUCN Plant Red Data Book.

Morges, Switzerland. 540 pp.

Mathur, C.S. & R.S. Karwasra (1967): Some nutritional aspects of

Chamghas (Corchorus anticharis Reeusch.). The Ind. Vet. J. 44:

525-527.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry ( 1987): Red Data Book of Indian Plants.

Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

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Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry ( 1 990): Red Data Book of Indian Plants.

Vol. III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Okwu, D.E. & M.E. Okwu (2004): Chemical Composition of Spondias

mombin Linn, plant parts. J. Sustain. Agric. Environ.

Pp. 140-147.

Pandey. R.P. B V. Shetty & S.K. Melhotra (1983): A preliminary

census of rare and threatened plants of Rajasthan. Pp. 55-62.

In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (Eds): An Assessment of

Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India,

Hawrah.

Pandey. H.K., S. Vir & S.C. Das (2006): Macro and Micro elements in

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Sahni, K.C. (1970): Protection of Rare and Endangered Plants in the

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10(1): 146-155.

200

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

201-212

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

(CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA: PORCELLANIDAE)

Alexandra Hiller13, Sadanand Harkantra2 and Bernd Werding3

'Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 843-03092, Panama, Republic of Panama. Email: [email protected]

’Biological Oceanography Division, National Institute of Oceanography (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi),

Dona-Paula 403 004, Goa, India. Email: [email protected]

’Department of Animal Ecology, Justus-Liebig-University, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen. Germany.

Email: [email protected]

We report here 10 species of Porcellanidae sampled along the coast of Goa, India, each of which is described and

figured. Polyonyx splendidus is registered for the first time outside the type region, and Petrolisthes coccineus is

registered for the first time for the Arabian Sea. Accordingly, the porcellanid fauna of the western coast of the Indian

subcontinent now consists of 16 species, including two endemics. Polyonyx hendersoni and P. splendidus. For the

Indian Ocean, 9 species are here reported as endemic. We provide a key for the identification of all species so far

reported for the western coast of the Indian subcontinent.

Key words: Crustacea, Anomura, Porcellanidae, Goa, Arabian Sea, taxonomy, biogeography

INTRODUCTION

The Porcellanid fauna of the coast of Goa remains

unknown despite earlier studies conducted at different

locations of the East Arabian Sea, e.g. Ratnagiri (Sankolli

1963a,b, 1966), along the west coast of India and coast of

Pakistan (Tirmizi et al. 1982, 1989). Towards the goal of

studying the occurrence, habitat and distribution of the species

on the coast of Goa, we conducted fieldwork in the rocky

region of Bogmolo in the vicinity of Marmugoa harbour,

including St. George Island, and of Anjuna for ten days in

December 2006.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Crabs were collected during low tide by snorkelling

and scuba diving up to 12 m depth, and preserved in 75%

ethanol. Collected specimens were brought to the National

Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Biological Oceanography

Division, Dona-Paula, Goa, for identification. For each

species we included: (1) the taxonomic history including a

list of synonyms, (2) number and sex of specimens collected,

(3) habitat characteristics and distribution, and (4) a scientific

drawing of habitus (using a camera lucida). This information

is followed by a taxonomic key to the species of the western

coast of the Indian subcontinent.

RESULTS

Systematic account

Ancylocheles gravelei (Sankolli, 1963) (Fig. 1)

Pachycheles sp.: Gravely, 1927: 140, pi. 20, fig. 9.

Porcellana gravelei : Sankolli, 1963a: 280, fig. 1 ;

Sankolli, 1966: 304, fig.5; Haig, 1965: 108: Haig, 1972: 447

Ancylocheles gravelei: Haig, 1978: 777; Haig, 1981:

275; Tirmizi, etal., 1982: 4 (key), fig. 1 1; Tirmizi etal., 1989:

35, fig. 22; Morgan, 1990: 28

Material examined: 4cT, 5 9, Bogmolo Beach,

St. George Island, under rocks, mid-tide, 0.5 m.

Description: Carapace about as long as broad,

subquadrate. Dorsal surface smooth, laterally slightly rugose,

anterior regions well-marked. No epibranchial spine. Front

broad, sinuously transversal or evenly rounded. Orbits

moderately deep, inner orbital angle produced into rounded

edge, outer orbital angle produced into small tooth.

Fig. 1: Ancylocheles gravelei (Sankolli, 1963), male, Goa,

Bogmolo, St. George Island

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

Eyes moderately large. Movable segments of antennae

granulous without larger projections.

Chelipeds subequal; merus with a large, denticulate lobe

at antero-proximal edge, carpus about \Vi times as long as

broad, anterior margin with two large teeth on proximal half;

dorsal surface granular with two longitudinal crests, outer

border strongly convex; palm granular with a broad

longitudinal ridge, extending onto pollex, outer border convex

or distally nearly straight.

Walking legs slender, moderately granular with

scattered, simple setae, dactylus with four movable spinules

on inner border.

Habitat: The species is abundant in the lower intertidal

area, and inhabits interstices of stones and rubble overgrown

by sponges and other fouling organisms.

Distribution: A. gravelei shows a disjunctive

distribution in the Indian Ocean, and is known from Pakistan,

the western Indian coast and West Australia.

Enosteoides ornatus (Stimpson, 1858) (Fig. 2)

Porcellana ornata: Stimpson, 1858: 242; Stimpson,

1907: 188; Gordon, 1931: 526, 529, fig.l; Miyake, 1943:

118, figs.42, 43; Sankolli. 1966: 302, fig. 4; Kim & Choe,

1968: 1, pl.l, fig.l. fig.l; Morton & Morton. 1983: 272, 274,

299, figs. 12.9: 4, 12.20: 3

Porcellana corallicola: Haswell. 1882: 759; Johnson,

1970: 32, figs.3q, r

Petrolisthes corallicola: Miers, 1884: 271, pi. 29, fig.c

Enosteoides ornatus: Haig, 1978: 709; Haig. 1981: 271;

Markham, 1982: 329; Tirmizi et al., 1982: 4; Tirmizi et al .,

1989: 37, fig.23; Haig. 1992: 305. fig.2; Yang & Sun, 1992:

209, fig. 15: Yang & Naiyanetr, 1997: 9. fig. 5: Hsieh et al.,

1998: 335, figs.32b. 33; Komai, 2000: 361

Fig. 2: Enosteoides ornatus (Stimpson, 1858), female,

Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa

Material examined: ld\2?,AnjunaBeach, 1.0- 1.5 m,

under rocks; 8d\ 10?, Bogmolo Beach, St. George Island,

5 m, under rocks.

Description: Carapace as long as broad, ovate,

epibranchial edges slightly pronounced, rounded. Dorsal

surface uneven, granular; regions well-defined. Front

projecting beyond eyes, triangular in dorsal view, denticulate.

Orbits moderately deep, outer orbital angle weakly

pronounced. Side walls covered with long, plumose setation.

Eyes small. First and second movable segments of antenna

short, granulate, third one simple.

Chelipeds robust, subequal in size; merus with

prominent, denticulate lobe at antero-proximal edge; carpus

about 2 times as long as broad, anterior border denticulate,

proximally forming irregular sharp tooth; dorsal surface with

three longitudinal crests, outer margin with a row of sharp

teeth, the distal one forming a spine-tipped prominent edge;

surface of palms with longitudinal crest, outer margin

spinulated. with a fringe of long feathered setae.

Walking legs slender, covered with scattered, long,

feathered setae; carpus of leg 1 with antero-distal spine;

dactylus with five movable spines.

Habitat: Haig (1981) reported the species from the

intertidal area under stones, and on coral heads to 54 m depth.

We found the species sporadically on the coast of Goa from

the lower intertidal to 8 m depth.

Distribution: The species is known from Pakistan and

the western Indian coast, eastward through the Bay of Bengal,

and from West Australia. In the western Pacific, the species

has been reported from the Gulf of Thailand through the South

China Sea, Taiwan Strait and southern Japan, and from eastern

Australia.

Pachycheles natalensis (Krauss, 1843) (Fig. 3)

Porcellana natalensis: Krauss, 1843: 58. pi. 4, figs.l,

la-c; Stimpson 1858: 228

Pisosoma natalensis: Paul'son, 1875: 88, pi. 11, fig. 5;

(English translation, 1961: 94, pl.l 1, fig. 5)

Pachycheles sculptus: Ortmann, 1894: 29; Nobili,

1906a: 136; Nobili. 1906b: 67

Pachycheles natalensis: Stimpson, 1907: 186; Riddell,

1911: 263: Balss, 1915: 8; Ramadan. 1936: 25: Barnard, 1950:

472, figs. 87a-f: Barnard. 1955: 4; Haig, 1964: 371: Haig,

1966a: 286 (key), 289; Haig, 1966b: 43; Haig, 1966c: 53;

Sankolli, 1966: 300. fig. 3; Lewinsohn. 1969: 150, fig. 33;

Fewinsohn, 1979: 50; Tirmizi etal., 1982: 2 (key), fig.l. pi. 1;

Tirmizi et al., 1989: 4, figs.l, 2; Werding & Hiller, 2007: 4,

fig-3

Pisosoma sculpta: Gravely, 1927: 124, pi. 20, fig. 8

Material examined: 3 6 , 4 9 . Anjuna Beach, 1 .0- 1 .5 m.

202

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

Fig. 3: Pachycheles natalensis (Krauss, 1843), male,

Red Sea, Egypt (from Werding & Hiller, 2007)

mid-low tide, under rocks; 6d , 6 9 , Bogmolo Beach, low tide,

under rocks.

Description: Carapace generally somewhat broader

than long, subovate, convex. Dorsal surface smooth, regions

poorly defined. Front inclined, rounded from above or

moderately trilobate. Orbits well-defined, outer orbital angle

forming a blunt tooth. Lateral walls formed by anterior

trapezoid plate covering two thirds of wall, another large,

subquadrate plate covering posterior area.

Eyes medium-sized. First movable segment of antenna

with conical tubercle; second and third somewhat granulated;

flagellum IV2 as long as carapace, sparsely setose.

Chelipeds large, robust, different in size, surface of

carpus and manus nearly smooth or covered with large

granules arranged in three longitudinal crests in carpus, and

forming two similar crests along outer margin of chela; carpus

about as long as broad or barely longer, anterior border with

three or four teeth decreasing in size distally ; outer margin of

palm convex, fingers gaping in major cheliped, usually with

tuft of setae in gape of larger chela, meeting for entire length

in minor cheliped. Walking legs stubby, moderately granulated

and with scattered, simple setae; dactylus with three movable

spines.

Telson five-plated; males with a pair of pleopods.

Habitat: The species was found regularly in the deeper

intertidal zone inhabiting interstices of stones and rubble held

together by sponges.

Distribution: P. natalensis is restricted to the western

Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea, along the coast of the

Arabian Sea. On the African coast it is distributed southward

to Mozambique including Madagascar.

Petrolisthes boscii (Audouin, 1826) (Fig. 4)

Porcellana boscii : Audouin, 1826: 89; Heller, 1861a:

24; Heller, 1861b: 256

Petrolisthes boscii: Stimpson, 1858: 227; Paul’son,

1875: 87, 88; Henderson, 1893: 427; Ortmann, 1897: 284;

McCulloch, 1913: 353, fig.53; Balss, 1913: 29, pl.l, fig.4;

Balss, 19 15: 7; Gravely, 1927: 140; Hale, 1929: 68; Ramadan,

1936: 24; Miyake, 1937: 211, fig. 1, pi. 12, fig.2; Miyake,

1943: 90, figs. 23, 24; Vatova, 1943: 15; Haig, 1964: 360;

Haig, 1965: 99; Sankolli, 1966: 296, fig.l; Haig, 1966c: 51;

Sarojini & Nagabhushanam, 1968: 153, pl.l, fig. 3;

Lewinsohn. 1969: 132, figs.27a-e; Johnson, 1970: 13;

Nakasone & Miyake, 1971: 8; Mustaquim, 1972: 154, fig.2;

Ahmed & Mustaquim, 1974: 174; Hogarth, 1988: 1101;

Tirmizi et al., 1982: 2, fig. 3; Tirmizi et al., 1989: 10,

figs. 5a-h; Haig, 1992: 312, figs. 8a-c; Yang & Sun. 1992: 197,

figs.2a-c, 3a-e; Yang & Naiyanetr, 1997: 5; Komai, 2000:

364; Werding & Hiller, 2007: 7, 8, fig.5

Petrolisthes amakusensis: Miyake & Nakasone, 1943:

173, figs. 1-3

Petrolisthes rugosus: Miers, 1884: 270

Porcellana (Petrolisthes) boscii: de Man, 1888: 217

Material examined: 12 d, 15 9, Bogmolo Beach, under

rocks, low-tide; lc?, 19, Bogmolo Beach, St. George Island,

5 m, under rocks; 2d, 2 9 , Anjuna Beach (North), under rocks,

1.0- 1.5 m, low tide.

Description: Carapace slightly longer than broad,

inversely cordate, evenly rounded along branchial margins;

surface with inconspicuous, interrupted transverse, plications;

one epibranchial spine present. Front sinuously triangular with

longitudinal depression; orbitae shallow, without supraocular

spine, postorbital angle rectangular, without tooth. Eyes

Fig. 4: Petrolisthes boscii (Audouin, 1826), male, Bogmolo,

St. George Island, Goa

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

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PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

moderately large. Basal segments of antennulae with some

transverse rugae, anterior margin with teeth. First movable

segment of antennae with serrated, spine-tipped lamellar lobe:

second and third segments slightly rugose.

Chelipeds subequal, surface with piliferous striations,

merus rugose with serrated lobe on anterior margin; carpus

two times as long as broad, armed on anterior margin w'ith

two or three broad, serrated teeth proximally, the first one

spine-tipped; posterior margin slightly convex, armed distally

with a strong spine, followed by two smaller ones. Chelae

broad, with transverse striations, outer margin evenly rounded,

spineless.

Walking legs rugose; all segments with irregularly

wide-set, feathered and simple setae; Merus spineless with

an exception of a small posterodistal spine on legs 1 and 2,

carpus spineless; propodus with terminal triplet of movable

spines on ventral border and an additional one at mid level;

dactylus large with three movable spinules on inner border.

Habitat: Lewinsohn (1969) reported P. boscii from

shallow water to 18.3 m depth, from rocks, boulders and

corals. We found it among boulders in the deeper intertidal

and the subtidal, where it appears to be the most abundant

porcellanid species.

Distribution: West Indian Ocean, including the

Red Sea, and along the coast of the Arabian Sea through the

Bay of Bengal. In the Pacific from the Gulf of Thailand,

Indonesia and Japan. Also in tropical Australia.

Petrolisthes coccineus (Richardson et al., 1839) (Fig. 5)

Porcellana coccinea: Richardson etal., 1839; 87, pi. 26,

figs. 1. 2; Dana, 1852-53: 423

Petrolisthes coccineus: Laurie, 1926: 14; Miyake, 1943:

59. figs. 3, 4; Haig, 1966b: 46, (key); Kensley, 1970: 114,

Fig. 5: Petrolisthes coccineus ( Richardson et al., 1839), male,

Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa

fig. 8; Haig, 1983: 280; Haig, 1992: 313, fig.9; Hsieh etal.,

1998: 303, fig. 16; Yang & Sun, 1990: 3, pl.3

Petrolisthes barbatus : de Man, 1893: 296, pi. 7, figs.4,

4a; Ortmann, 1894: 28; Ward, 1942: 63

Petrolisthes pubescens: Balss, 1913: 30, pl.l fig. 2

Petrolisthes nipponensis: Miyake, 1937: 213, fig. 22,

pi. 12 fig. 1

Material examined: 3d1, 2 juv. Bogmolo Beach, under

rocks, low tide.

Description: Carapace slightly longer than broad,

evenly rounded along branchial margins, inversely cordate.

Surface with faint, transverse plications on cardiac region

and along posterior lateral margins; one epibranchial spine

present. Front narrow, sinuously triangular with longitudinal

depression; orbitae shallow, supraocular spine strong,

postorbital angle blunt. Eyes large. Basal segment of

antennulae with some transverse rugae, anterior margin with

teeth. First movable segment of antennae with serrated, spine-

tipped, lamellar lobe; second produced forwardly, forming a

serrated, edged tooth; third segment slightly rugose.

Chelipeds subequal, merus rugose with spine-tipped

projection on anterior margin; distal border with a pair of

spines, a third one upon surface; carpus about two-and-a-

half times as long as broad; surface with two rows of scale¬

like, flattened granules, one forming a shallow longitudinal

crest along midline, the second along posterior margin;

anterior margin with three serrated spine-tipped teeth;

posterior margin slightly concave, distal edge armed with a

pair of strong spines, followed by two weaker ones. Chelae

flat, surface with a row of granules forming a longitudinal

ridge; area towards outer margin with scattered granules and

scattered, feathered setae. Outer border with a row of strong,

spine-tipped teeth.

Walking legs rugose, with scattered, simple, feathered

setae; anterior margin of merus with a row of strong spines; a

pair of large posterodistal spines on merus of legs 1 and 2, a

smaller one on leg 3; carpus of leg 1 with anterodistal spine;

propodus with terminal triplet of movable spines on ventral

border, with one or two, additional ones; dactylus large with

three movable spinules on inner border.

Habitat: Haig (1983) reported the species from shallow

water to 1.2 m in the Seychelles. According to Miyake ( 1943),

the species occurs between tide marks under rocks. We found

few specimens in two locations under large boulders.

Distribution: P. coccineus shows an extremely large

distributional range from the coast of Mozambique through

scattered locations in the Indian Ocean, and the western

Pacific to the Easter Island. Its occurrence on small and distant

oceanic islands is remarkable. In the Indian Ocean, it is

reported from the Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago and Nicobar

204

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

Islands; in the Pacific from Ogasawara, the Mariana Islands,

Hawaii, the Tuamotu Archipelago and Easter Island.

Additionally, it has been reported from Indonesia and Taiwan.

The finding from India is the first record from continental Asia.

Petrolisthes lamarckii (Leach, 1820) (Fig. 6)

Pisidia lamarckii: Leach, 1820: 54

Petrolisthes lamarckii: Stimpson, 1858: 227; Miers,

1884: 557; Stimpson, 1907, pi. 22 fig. 2; Ortmann, 1894: 26;

Borradaile, 1898: 464; Miyake, 1942: 342, figs. 7, 8: Miyake,

1943: 98, fig.29; Barnard, 1950: 477 figs.89 a-d; Haig, 1964:

362; Haig, 1966b: 47; Mustaquim, 1972: 154, fig. 3; Haig,

1979: 124; Haig, 1983: 283; Kropp, 1983: 100; Yang, 1983:

3, pl.4; Tirmizi et al., 1982: 10, fig.4; Hogarth, 1988: 1101;

Tirmizi et al, 1989: 12, figs.7, 8; Haig, 1992: 315, fig.ll;

Hsieh et al., 1998: 326, fig. 28

Petrolisthes lamarcki: Doflein & Balss, 1913: 162

Petrolisthes lamarcki: Laurie, 1926: 140; Taylor, 1968:

170

Porcellana dentate: H. Milne Edwards, 1837: 252

Porcellana pulchripes: White, 1847: 129

Porcellana speciosa: Dana, 1852-53: 417; Dana, 1855:

pi. 26, fig. 8; Balss, 1913: 30 Petrolisthes dentatus: Rathbun,

1910: 314

Porcellana bellis: Heller, 1865: 76.

Material examined: 4<?, 3 9 Anjuna Beach, intertidal;

Fig. 6: Petrolisthes lamarckii (Leach, 1820, male, Indian

Ocean, Kenya (from Werding & Hiller, 2007)

2$, Anjuna Beach, intertidal; 14c?, 20?, Bogmolo Beach,

under rocks, intertidal 1 m.

Description: Carapace about as long as broad, ovate,

weakly convex front to back and transversely, lateral margins

evenly rounded. Dorsal surface slightly rugose, regions

moderately marked. A single epibranchial spine present,

sometimes obsolescent, especially in larger specimens. Front

moderately broad, sinuously triangular, with a longitudinal

depression. Orbits shallow, no supraocular spine, outer orbital

angle not produced. Lateral walls complete, with some

longitudinal ridges.

Eyes moderately large. First movable segment of

antennae with serrated, lamellar lobe: second with large

tubercle, third nearly smooth.

Chelipeds subequal, robust, surface rugose or granulate;

merus rugose with serrated lobe on anterior margin; carpus

two times as long as broad, covered with granules, anterior

margin armed with three low, wide-set teeth, decreasing in

size distally, posterior margin armed with a row of large,

flattened granules, the distal two produced into spines; palm

broad, covered with scattered granules, outer margin

moderately convex.

Walking legs rugose, anterior margin fringed with

feathered setae; anterior margin of merus spineless; a

posterodistal spine on merus of legs 1 and 2; dactylus with

three movable spinules on inner border.

Habitat: P. lamarckii occurs in the uppermost level of

the intertidal, frequently under large, steady boulders.

Distribution: The species shows a large distributional

range in the Indo-West Pacific, and has been recently reported

from the Red Sea, with two females found by Werding and

Hiller (2007) in an old collection by C.B. Klunzinger in 1 877.

While the specimens of Klunzinger were from El Quseir, we

recently found several individuals near Dahab in the Gulf of

Aquaba (Werding and Hahn, unpublished). However, a

reliable distributional picture of the species cannot be

confirmed before the P. lamarckii - complex is critically

reviewed (see discussion below).

Discussion: When Kropp (1983) reviewed the

P. lamarckii complex he created P. borradailei to receive

specimens morphologically close to P. lamarckii , but

distinguishable by the absence of epibranchial spines. This

author described the presence of a “distinctive line of

irregularly spaced, pale orange dots” in all P borradailei

specimens. We observed such an arrangement of orange dots

in numerous specimens from the Red Sea (unpublished data),

all showing well-formed epibranchial spines, thus clearly

belonging to P. lamarckii. On the other hand, some specimens

from Goa exhibit a row of irregular whitish or pale yellow

dots, and in several individuals the epibranchial spines are

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

205

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

poorly defined or lacking. Thus, the presence or absence of

epibranchial spines seems to be a variable character among

populations or even within a local population. Consequently,

the differences between P. borradailei and P lamarckii are

not clear and P. borradailei might be a junior synonym of

P. lamarckii.

Pisidia dehaanii (Krauss, 1843) (Fig. 7)

Porcellana dehaanii : Krauss, 1843: 59, pi. 4 figs. 2, 2a-c;

Barnard, 1947: 378; Barnard, 1950: 467, figs. 88 e-h; McNae

& Kalk, 1958: 83. 126; Kensley, 1969: 153; Kensley, 1970:

105

Pisidia dehaanii: Haig, 1960: 209; Sankolli, 1965: 3;

Sankolli, 1966: 305, fig. 6; Haig, 1966c: 48; Sarojini &

Nagabhushanan, 1968: 161, pi. II. fig. 6; Mustaquim, 1972:

1 53, fig. 1; Haig, 1978: 707; Lewinsohn, 1979: 52; Haig, 1981 :

276; Tirmizi & Yaqoob, 1982: 15, fig. 9, 27, pl.9; Hogarth.

1988: 1 102; Tirmizi & Yaqoob, 1989: 27, figs. 17, 18

Material examined: Id1, 2? (ov.), Bogmolo Beach,

under rocks, 0.5- 1.0 m, low tide.

Description: Carapace about as long as broad, ovate.

Dorsal surface rough, regions well-marked, with a pair of

tufts formed by feathered setae on protogastric ridges,

epibranchial edges pronounced, rounded, no epibranchial

spine; two spines on branchial margin. Front with three

prominent, rounded lobes, separated by deep clefts, median

lobe considerably longer than lateral ones. Orbits shallow,

outer orbital angle acuminate. Basal segment of antennulae

with forwardly-directed, spine-tipped lobes; first and second

movable segments of antennae finely granular, bearing one

Fig. 7: Pisidia dehaanii (Kraus, 1843), male

Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa

or two small spines, flagellum about IV2 times as long as

carapace.

Chelipeds different in size; merus with anterodistal,

flattened trapezoid lobe; carpus about 2 times as long as broad,

slightly rugose, anterior and posterior margin convex, dorsal

surface with a shallow, longitudinal crest, larger chela broad,

slightly rugose, outer margin convex; smaller cheliped similar

with slightly concave outer margin.

Walking legs moderately long, slender, slightly rugose,

with scattered setae; dactylus with three movable spinules

on inner border.

Habitat: Haig (1981) referred to the ecology of the

species as “intertidally among rocks and weeds”. On the coast

of Goa we only found scattered small specimens in interstices

of stones and rubble agglomerated by sponges in the lower

intertidal.

Distribution: Pisidia dehaanii is an endemic to the

Indian Ocean, and was reported from the South African coast

as far south as 32° S, northward from the Persian Gulf, and

from both coasts of India.

Pisidia gordoni (Johnson, 1970) (Fig. 8)

Porcellana (allied to serratifrons ): Miers, 1884: 277

Porcellana serratifrons: Henderson. 1888: 110 (part);

Grant & McCulloch, 1906: 39, 40; Nobili, 1906b: 75;

Sankarankutty, 1963: 278, fig. 3; McNeill, 1968: 34

Porcellana spinulifrons: Gordon, 1931: 530, figs.4C, 5

Pisidia cf spinulifrons: Haig, 1965: 105, 106

Pisidia spinulifrons: Sankolli, 1966: 307, fig. 7

Porcellana ( Pisidia ) gordoni: Johnson, 1970: 29, fig. 3

Fig. 8: Pisidia gordoni (Johnson, 1970), male

Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa

206

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

Pisidia gordoni : Haig, 1973: 283; Haig, 1978: 707;

Haig, 1981: 277; Tirmizi et al., 1989: 34, fig. 21; Morgan,

1990: 32; Yang & Sun, 1990: 4, figs.5, 6; Haig, 1992: 318,

fig. 14; Komai, 2000: 366; Siddiqui & Kazmi, 2003: 88

Material examined: 6c?, 8?, Bogmolo Beach,

St. George Island, under rocks, 5 m, mid-low tide.

Description: Carapace slightly longer than broad,

subovate. Dorsal surface rough, regions well-marked;

epibranchial edges rounded, fringed with some smaller

spinules; no prominent epibranchial spine. Front with three

lobes, median lobe considerably broader than lateral ones,

lateral lobes spine-tipped. Eyes large, orbits well-defined,

outer orbital angle produced into a sharp spine, followed by

another one of the same size. First and second movable

segments of antennae finely granular, flagellum about 2 times

as long as carapace.

Chelipeds slender, different in size, merus with spiny

anterodistal projection, carpus more than two times as long

as broad, slightly rugose, anterior margin convex, with

irregular acute tooth; chelae with three longitudinal crest with

rows of acute tubercles, except in larger cheliped of large

animals.

Walking legs long and slender, slightly rugose, with

scattered setae; dactylus with four movable spinules on inner

border.

Habitat: Small specimens were found scattered in the

lower intertidal, and large adults occurred regularly under

stones in depths between 6-10 m. Haig (1966c) reported it at

50 m depth.

Distribution: The species is an endemic to the Indian

Ocean and has been reported from Delagoa Bay, Mozambique,

Madagascar and Pakistan. The findings from Goa are the first

record from the Indian coast and represent a considerable

range extension.

Polyonyx hendersoni Southwell, 1909 (Fig. 9)

Polyonyx hendersoni : Southwell, 1909: 117, figs. 6-9;

Gravely, 1927: 141, pl.20 fig.ll; Johnson, 1958: 98, 112;

Haig, 1964: 380; Sankolli, 1966: 309, fig. 8; Tirmizi et al.,

1982: 3, fig. 8, pi. VIII; Tirmizi et al., 1989: 25, figs. 15, 16

Material examined: 3 c? , 2 9 , Bogmolo Beach, 0.5- 1 .0 m,

low tide, inside white sponge; ld\ 19, Bogmolo Beach,

St. George Island. 6 m, inside white sponge.

Description: Carapace rounded, nearly as broad as

long, longitudinally convex. Dorsal surface smooth, except

for some fine plications on branchial regions; epibranchial

angles not produced, regions not defined. Front broad

inclined, nearly straight from above. Orbits shallow, outer

orbital angles insignificant. Lateral walls complete.

Eyes small, barely visible from above. First movable

Fig. 9: Polyonyx hendersoni Southwell, 1909, male

Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa

segment of antenna subcylindric, short, second more than

twice as long as broad, smooth, third smooth; flagellum ll/2

times as long as carapace. Basal segment of antennules

without prominence.

Chelipeds large, robust, different in size, irregularly

covered with rounded, large granules; merus granulated, with

some transverse ridges, anterodistal edge produced into large,

rounded lobe; carpus W2 times as long as broad, anterior

border produced with three to five irregular tooth; fingers of

manus of larger cheliped in large specimens gaping, fingers

bent upwards, meeting for entire length in minor cheliped.

Outer border of larger chela concave.

Walking legs smooth with long feathered setae on

carpus, propodus and dactylus; dactylus with three strong,

fixed spines.

Habitat: P. hendersoni seems to inhabit exclusively

the water ducts of Demospongiae, inside which we found the

species, from the intertidal to a depth of 6 m.

Distribution: The species has been reported from

Pakistan, the western Indian coast to the south tip, eastward

to the Gulf of Mannar, and from Sri Lanka.

Remarks: Polyonyx hendersoni belongs to a

morphological group within the genus that is different from

the P. sinensis - group (Johnson 1958), with species generally

found within tubes of polychaete worms. Johnson (1958)

stated that P. hendersoni did not seem to be closely related

to any other species. He ascribed this species to the

P. biunguiculatus group, highlighting that “its nearest

affinities are apparently to P. obesulus” . However, he

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

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PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

mentioned some differences between P. hendersoni and other

species of P. biunguiculatus group, emphasizing on the

different form of the meral lobe of the chelipeds, the armature

of the chelipeds, the setation of the smaller cheliped, and the

different form of the dactyli of the walking legs. P. hendersoni

forms a clade together with P. splendidus Sankolli (see below),

which also inhabits sponges.

Polyonyx splendidus Sankolli, 1963 (Fig. 10)

Polyonyx splendidus: Sankolli, 1963b: 79, figs.la-i;

Sankolli, 1966: 311, fig. 9

Material examined: 1 d\ Bogmolo Beach, 0 m, low

tide, in yellow sponge.

Description: Carapace rounded, nearly as broad as

long, longitudinally convex. Dorsal surface with some

granulation and plications more accentuated in branchial

regions; epibranchial angles faintly produced, regions

moderately marked. Front broad, somewhat produced beyond

eyes, inclined, nearly straight from above or weakly trilobate.

Orbits distinct, outer orbital angles insignificant. Lateral

walls complete.

Eyes moderately large, visible from above. First

movable segment of antenna subcylindric, short, second

twice as long as broad, smooth, third smooth; flagellum IVi

times as long as carapace. Basal segment of antennules

without protuberance.

Chelipeds large, robust, different in size, covered

with scale-like granules, partly arranged in longitudinal

ridges on carpus of larger chela; merus granulated, with some

transverse ridges, anterodistal edge produced into a

large, rounded lobe, spine tipped in some cases; carpus

IV2 to 2 times as long as broad, anterior border produced.

Fig. 10: Polyonyx splendidus Sankolli, 1963, male

St. George Island, Goa,

with two or three spine-tipped teeth; fingers of manus

in both chelipeds meeting in entire length, fingers

bent upwards; outer border of larger chela straight or

slightly concave; outer border and parts of upper surface

of carpus and manus covered with dense, feathered

setation.

Walking legs slender, smooth, with long-feathered

setae on carpus, propodus and dactylus; dactylus with three

strong, fixed spines.

Habitat: This species has been found by Sankolli

(1966) in similar conditions as P. hendersoni, and was found

by us inside a sponge. Despite intensive efforts to sample

this species along the coast in the regions of Anjuna and

Bogmolo, we found only one specimen in the duct of a

sponge.

Distribution: The species is known only from the

original description by Sankolli ( 1963b) and a later mention

by the same author (Sankolli 1966). The former findings are

from the coast near Ratnagiri (Maharashtra State), and the

present finding extends its distribution southward to Bogmolo

Beach, Goa.

Remarks: As mentioned above, P. hendersoni and

P. splendidus seem to form a distinct clade within Polyonyx ,

which probably deserve their own generic status. The present

findings of the two species living in sponges confirms our

view that the body form and the form of the dactyli of the

walking legs constitute adaptations to living in the water

ducts of sponges (see discussion in Werding and Hiller 2004).

The distribution of the two species seems to be restricted to

the Indian subcontinent.

Key to the species of the western coast of the Indian

SUBCONTINENT

1 Chelipeds markedly different in size (heterochaely) . 2

— Chelipeds (sub) equal (isochaely) . 8

2 Front tridentate, lateral margins of carapace with spinules

posterior to epibranchial angle . 3

— Front rounded, lateral margins of carapace spineless . 4

3 Median frontal lobe narrow, chelipeds stout, without acute

spines on merus and carpus . Pisidia dehaanii

— Median frontal lobe broad, chelipeds slender, with acute spines

on anterodistal edge of merus and anterior margin of carpus

Pisidia gordoni

4 Side walls of carapace divided in two parts . 5

— Side walls of carapace entire . 6

5 Carapace and chelipeds bare of setae .

. Pachycheles natalensis

— Carapace with dense setation on frontal region, chelipeds

densely setose . Pachycheles tomentosus

6 Carapace subquadrate, broader than long, anterior margin of

208

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

carpus of chelipeds entirely convex . Polyonyx loimicola

— Carapace subquadrate to subovate, as long as broad, carpus

of chelipeds denticulated on anterior margin . 7

7 Both chelipeds covered with dense, feathered setation,

anterior margin of carpus of chelipeds with 2-3 spine-tipped

tooth . Polyonyx splendidus

— Chelipeds at most with short setation, anterior margin of

carpus of chelipeds with blunt tooth .. Polyonyx hendersoni

8 Carpus of chelipeds with longitudinal crests on upper surface

separated by deep grooves . 9

— Carpus of chelipeds without longitudinal crests and grooves

(but sometimes with granules arranged in longitudinal rows)

. 10

9 Lateral borders of carapace with a series of sharp spines ...

. Enosteoides ornatus

— Lateral borders of carapace without spines .

. Ancylocheles gravelei

10 Surface of carapace and extremities with irregular, rounded

granules, front trilobate, carpus of chelipeds with a blunt tooth

on antero-proximal edge . Petrolisthes ornatus

— Surface of carapace and chelipeds smooth to rough or with

piliferous striations, front sinuously triangular . 1 1

1 1 Manus of chelipeds with a longitudinal crest, walking legs

with a row of spines on anterior margin of merus .

. Petrolisthes coccineus

— Manus of chelipeds evenly rounded, walking legs without

spines on anterior margin of merus . 12

12 Carapace and chelipeds with piliferous striations on upper

surface . Petrolisthes hoscii

— Carapace and chelipeds without piliferous striations on upper

surface . 13

13 Carapace with epibranchial spines ... Petrolisthes lamarckii

— Carapace without epibranchial spines . 14

14 Chelipeds massive, with three to four shallow tooth on

anterior margin of carpus . Petrolisthes rufescens

— Chelipeds slender, with one proximal tooth on anterior margin

of carpus, a second one present on half distance .

. Petrolisthes leptocheles

DISCUSSION

The porcellanid fauna of the western coast of the

Indian subcontinent currently consists of 16 species

(Table 1), 10 of which were sampled in the present study.

A total of 9 species are endemic to the Indian Ocean,

and 2 species. Polyonyx hendersoni and P. splendidus , seem

to be endemic to the eastern Arabian Sea. Of special

interest is an assemblage of 4 Indian Ocean endemics

present on the coast of Pakistan, Pachycheles tomentosus,

Petrolisthes leptocheles, Petrolisthes ornatus and

Petrolisthes rufescens (the latter two also present on

the coast of Kutch), which marks a faunistic break and the

Table 1: Porcellanid species reported from the western coast of the Indian subcontinent in the present study

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

209

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA

eastern-most limit of these species. This break could

be explained by the water quality of the upper

water layer, which is strongly influenced by the monsoon

rains on the south coast of Mumbai. Changes in salinity

resulting from strong rainfall can particularly

affect intertidal species with low tolerance to low

salinities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. Satish Shetye. Director, NIO. Goa, (CS1R.

New Delhi), for his cooperation. This study is a part of the

NIO Ballast Water Management Programme of Directorate

of General of Shipping, Ministry of Shipping, New Delhi.

This is NIO contribution No. 4922.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

213-219

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM DISTRICT, ORISSA, INDIA

D. Sahu1'2 and M.K. Misra1,3

'Ecology & Floristic Laboratory, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Bhanja Bihar 760 007, Orissa, India.

"Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

This paper deals with the systematic account of plants from the sandy coast of Ganjam district of Orissa, and reports

175 species of angiosperms under 134 genera belonging to 61 families. The specimens were deposited in the Herbarium

of the P.G. Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur (BOTB). Poaceae was the dominant family

followed by Euphorbiaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae and Asteraceae. Families were arranged according to the modified

Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification. The native species are represented by 155 species (89%), whereas the

exotic species are represented by 20 species (11%), of which 16 species (9% of the total) are naturalized in the area.

Ceropegia candelabrum - a species hitherto reported from inland is now reported from the coastal area. Bulbostylis

subspinescens and Micrococca mercurialis are reported after 85 years of their first collection from the coast.

Key words: strand flora, angiosperms, native and exotic species, Ganjam district, Orissa, sandy coast

INTRODUCTION

Orissa has a coastline of 481 km and is rich in strand

flora and forests. Coastal Orissa harbours littoral and tidal

forests (Champion and Seth 1968). However, these forests

have been degraded to a large extent due to various biotic

interferences. Ganjam, one of the six coastal districts of Orissa,

bordering Andhra Pradesh on the south, is represented by

sandy coasts and devoid of tidal forests. The strand flora of

Ganjam coast has not been studied in detail even though some

sporadic reports on it are available (Rao 1971 ; Brahmam and

Saxena 1980; Subudhi et al. 2002). The flora of the

presidency of madras (Gamble 1915-1 936) refers to the plants

of the district, but Haines ( 1921-1925) and Mooney (1950)

did not include the plants of the district in their floras.

Brahmam and Saxena (1980) mentioned some sand dune

plants of Ganjam coast in their Ganjam flora. The present

paper covers the sandy coastal flora of Ganjam district in

Orissa.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Ganjam district lies between 18° 58' to 20° 17' N and

84° 06’ to 85° IT E. The coast of Ganjam is bounded by

Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh on the south and Puri

district of Orissa on the north; the coast line runs over 64 km

long along the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 1 ). The Chilika lake, the

largest brackish water lagoon of Asia is located on the extreme

north-east of the district. Rushikulya, the biggest river of

Ganjam, discharges its waters into the Bay of Bengal and the

estuarine zone is famous for the annual visit of thousands of

Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea turtles to the shore for

nesting. The district experiences a climate when near the sea

with an active south-west monsoon and the average annual

rainfall at Gopalpur is 1,296 mm. Relative humidity is high

(64-86%) throughout the year.

Ganjam coast is famous for the Kewda Pandanus

fciscicularis used in perfume industry. There are about

1 20 distillation units ( bhatties ) in the coastal area that extract

kewda essence from the male flowers (Sahu and Misra 2007).

Moreover, Indian Rare Earth (IRE) Limited and Gopalpur

port are situated in the Ganjam coast.

An extensive floristic survey of the sandy coast of

Ganjam district was conducted during 2007-2009. The plants

were collected from different localities along the coast during

different seasons. Specimens collected were dried and

preserved with saturated mercuric chloride solution in ethyl

alcohol (Jain and Rao 1977). The specimens were identified

with the help of the local floras (Haines 1921-1925; Gamble

1915-1936; Saxena and Brahmam 1994-1996) and the

voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of the

Department of Botany, Berhampur University (BOTB),

Orissa, India. The field number cited after the scientific names

of the plants are of M.K. Misra, D. Sahu and R.C. Sahoo.

The specimens collected are arranged in a tabular form

indicating the family, flowering period and growth form. The

families are arranged according to modified Bentham and

Hooker’s system (1862-1883) of classification and undereach

family the species are arranged alphabetically.

RESULTS

The present study reports a total number of 175 species

of angiosperms from the sandy coast of Ganjam district, Orissa

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GAN JAM

Table 1: Plant species found in the strand flora of Ganjam district, Orissa, India

214

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM

Table 1: Plant species found in the strand flora of Ganjam district, Orissa, India ( contd .)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

215

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM

Table 1: Plant species found in the strand flora of Ganjam district, Orissa, India ( contd .)

216

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM

Table 1: Plant species found in the strand flora of Ganjam district, Orissa, India ( contd .)

G-Grass, H-Herb, L- Liana, S-Shrub, T-Tree, ?-Not observed

(Table 1 ). These taxa belong to 1 34 genera distributed among

61 Angiospemi families. The monocots constitute 24% of

the total species (Table 2).

The 10 dominant families of the coastal flora were

represented by 96 species (55% of the total species ). The most

dominant family was Poaceae (18 species) followed by

Euphorbiaceae (16 species), Cyperaceae (15 species),

Fabaceae ( 1 1 species). Asteraceae (9 species) and Rubiaceae

(8 species).

The floristic components are classified into five growth

forms ( i ) grasses and sedges, (ii) herbs, (iii) shrubs, (iv) woody

climbers (lianas) and (v) trees. The highest number of species

(49%) was grouped under herbs; grasses and sedge were

represented by 18% of the species. Trees and shrubs were

represented by 13% and 12% of species, respectively. The

woody climbers constituted 8% of species.

The part of the beach that lies between the ordinary

low and high tide is included under foreshore. All the species

observed in this region are native. The foreshore consists of

stabilized and unstabilized sand dunes. The heights of the

stabilized sand dunes ranged between 10 to 15 m and harbour

Cyperus arenarius , Spinifex littoreus , Ipomoea pes-caprae

and Launaea sarmentosa. The unstabilized sand dunes are

mostly covered with dense patches of Hydrophylax maritima ,

Sesuvium portulacastrum and Digitaria longiflorci.

Table 2: Floristic analysis of strand flora of Ganjam district,

The foreshore ranges from 0.5 to 1 .0 km from the water

line along the coast. The width of the backshore ranges

between 0.5 and 1.0 km from foreshore towards interior.

Backshore flora consists of a mixture of native, naturalized,

exotic and some cultivated native species. Exotic species such

as Anacardium occidentale, Casuarina equisetifolia and

Cocos nucifera are planted in the backshore area. Pandanus

fascicularis is also often cultivated in the area. Annona

squamosa, Cleome viscosa. Cassia torn , Opuntia strictci,

Chromolaena odorata, Parthenium hysterophorus , Lantana

camara var. aculeata, Hyptis suaveolens, Croton

bonplandianus, Jatropha gossypifolia , Jatropha curcas are

some of the examples of naturalized ahen species that invaded

the coast.

DISCUSSION

Rao (1971) has divided internal distribution pattern of

the Indian maritime strand flora into three types - one type

includes those plants showing complete fidelity to inner

strand, the second type encompasses plants of mid/outer strand

under the maritime influence, and the third type consists of

plants from strand to inland extension. Out of the first type

only the sand strand flora is observed in the district and rock

strand is absent. The interesting elements of this strand flora

are Cyperus arenarius, Ipomoea pes-caprae, Hydrophylax

maritima, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Spinifex littoreus

(Table 1).

Rao (1971) while reporting strand flora of India cited

75 species of angiosperms for Orissa coast. Most of these

species mentioned by Rao are from the northern part of Orissa

and 2 1 species reported in the paper have also been included

in Rao’s list of 75 species. The taxa reported by Subudhi et

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

217

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM

al. (2002) for Orissa coast does not cover Ganjam coast.

Ceropegia candelabrum , a climber reported many years

ago from the interior part of the state (Khurda and Dhani

area of Khurda district) by Haines and Mooney, is now

recorded from the vicinity of Casuarina equisetifolia

plantations of the sandy coast of Ganjam district.

Bulbostylis subspinescens and Micrococca mercurialis

were reported from Puri and Konark sandy coast by Haines

(1921-1925) and are new records for Ganjam sandy coast.

These species have been considered as threatened taxa by

Saxena and Brahmam (1994-1996), but on the coast of

Ganjam these species are common.

The coastal flora is an admixture of native as well as

exotic species. Out of the total 175 species, 155 species (89%)

are native including 3 (2%) species which are planted. The

exotic species in the area are represented by 20 species (11%)

of which 16 species (9% of the total) have already been

naturalized in the area (Table 1).

Although the exotic species are very few in number,

they have invaded the coastal areas to an extent that they

have now become a threat to the growth of native species.

Antigonon leptopus , Chromolaena odorata, Hyptis suaveolens

and Parthenium hysterophorus are the most notorious invasive

aliens. The loss of native flora in the coast may be due to

habitation and privatization of common property resources

of the coastal villages (Sahoo and Misra 1994) and

industrialization. The industries such as Indian Rare Earth

Limited, hatcheries, Gopalpur port and such other activities

in the Ganjam coast pose a threat for the very survival of

strand flora.

The aged beefwood ( Casuarina equisetifolia)

plantations in the coast provides a congenial environment

for the growth of many species such as Aristolochia indica,

Asystasia gangetica, Ceropegia candelabrum, Coccinia

grandis, Emilia sonchifolia, Hybanthus enneaspermus,

Micrococca mercurialis, Pergularia daemia, Sida cordifolia.

Solatium trilobatum and Tylophora indica. Azadirachta

indica, Lannea coromandelica and Morinda pubescens are

also common within the beefwood plantation and seeds of

these species are usually dispersed by birds.

The plant resources of the coast of Ganjam district are

Bentham, G & J.D. Hooker ( 1 862- 1883): Genera Plantamm. 3 vols, London.

Brahmam, M. & H.O. Saxena ( 1 980): Flora of Ganjam, Orissa (India).

J. Econ. Tax. Bat. 1 : 119-125.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): Revised Survey of Forest Types

of India. Publication Division, Government of India, New Delhi.

Gamble, J.S. (1915-1936): Flora of Madras Presidency. London.

Reprinted 1967, Calcutta. 1389 pp.

Haines. H.H. (1921-1925): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. London.

Fig. 1 : Map showing the coastal Ganjam district, Orissa, India

ecologically and economically very important. Different

components of Screw pine Pandanus fascicularis, a semi¬

natural plant, are used by the local people (Panda et al. 2000-

2001) for various purposes. The male flowers of the kewda

plant yield perfume (kewda scent, kewda oil and kewda

water), worth millions of rupees (Sahu 2004; Sahu and Misra

2007). Coconut Cocos nucifera and Cashew nut Anacardium

occidentale are important economic resources of the area.

The creeping stem of Cyperus arenarius, a native species on

the sands, is utilized to prepare traditional rope. Stem, leaf

and branches of many of the species, such as Calotropis

gigantea, Cassia occidentalis, Chromolaena odorata ,

Lantana camara var. aculeata, and Screw pine Pandanus

fascicularis and Palmyra palm Borassus flabelifer are used

as fuel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government

of India for financial assistance and the Head, PG Department

of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur for laboratory

facilities.

Reprinted 1961, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 1372 pp.

Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (1977): A Hand Book of Field and Herbarium

Methods. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers,

New Delhi. Pp. 157.

Mooney, H. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa.

International Book Distributors and Publishers, Reprinted 1986,

Dehradun. Pp. 294.

Panda. K.K.. S. Mahapatra, L.N. Das, M.K. Misra & B.B. Panda (2000-

218

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM

2001): Optimal utilization of kewda, Pandanus fascicularis

to ameliorate economy and ecology of coastal India. J. Medicinal

& Aromatic Plant Science. 22 & 23: 679-682.

Rao, T.A. (1971 ): Distributional resume of the maritime strand flora of

India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India. 13: 192-202.

Sahoo, H.R & M.K. Misra (1994): Village ecocomplex functioning

with common property resources: a case study on coastal Orissa.

Env. Cons. 21: 57-61.

Sahu, D. (2004): Ecology, energetic and economics of kewda {Pandanus

fascicularis Lam.) industries in Ganjam district, Orissa. M. Phil.

Thesis, Berhampur University. Pp. 67.

Sahu, D. & M.K. Misra (2007): Ecology and traditional technology of

screw pine perfume industry in coastal Orissa. Indian

J. Traditional Knowledge 6(2): 253-261.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1994-96): The Flora of Orissa. Vols. 4.

Regional Research Laboratory and Orissa Forest Development

Corporation Ltd., Bhubaneswar, Orissa. 2918 pp.

Subudhi, FI.N.. B.P. Choudhury & B.C. Achary (2002): Systematic

enumeration of plants from Orissa coast. J. Eon. Tax. Bot. 26( 1):

185-192.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

219

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

220-223

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW CYPRINID FISHES UNDER THE GENUS GARRA (HAMILTON)

FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA

B. Madhusoodana Kurup1-3 and K.V. Radhakrishnan'-2

'Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi 682 506, Kerala. India,

:Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment Science in Guangdong Higher Education, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for

Healthy and Safe Aquaculture, College of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510 631, China.

Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Two new Cyprinid fishes under the genus Garni (Hamilton) have been described from river Periyar, Kerala. The

morphometric and meristic characters of the two species varied from the species hitherto described. Garni emarginata

sp. nov. is named after its emarginated caudal fin, while Garra mlapparaensis sp. nov. is named after its type locality.

A key to the species under the genus Garra , repotted so far from Kerala, is also provided.

Key words: Garra emarginata sp. nov., Pooyamkutty, Garra mlapparaensis sp. nov., Mlappara, Periyar river

INTRODUCTION

The genus Garra (Hamilton) is represented by

24 species in the Indian subcontinent (Jayaram 1999), of

which 19 are distributed in India. Rema Devi and India (1984)

described Garra menoni from Silent Valley, Kerala, India.

Garra kalakadensis was subsequently described by Rema

Devi ( 1 992) from Kalakkad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.

Shaji et al. (1996) described Garra surendranathani from

Chalakkudy, Periyar, Pamba and Achenkovil rivers of Kerala.

Recently, Garra periyarensis was described by Gopi (2001)

from the Periyar lake. The other species known from Kerala,

so far, include Garra gotyla stenorhynchus, G. mullya ,

G. hughi and G. mcclellandi (Jayaram 1999). Barring Garra

menoni , the other species were described from the streams of

the Periyar river system (Arun et al. 1996; Zacharias et al.

1996). Recently. Radhakrishnan and Kurup (2007) reported

Garra ceylonensis from Periyar river, which is the first record

of this species from Indian waters. Thus, the total number of

species recorded under genus Garra in Kerala is raised to

eight While investigating the fish fauna of Periyar river as a

part of the NAT-ICAR Project on Germplasm Inventory,

Evaluation and Gene Banking of freshwater fishes, we came

across specimens of two species with morphomeristics and

coloration different from those of hitherto known species.

These two species are reported as new additions to science.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens were collected with a cast net of 1 2 mm

mesh size from two locations along Periyar river -

Pooyamkutty and Mlappara. Morphometric measurements

were recorded using a dial calliper, with an accuracy of

0. 1 mm. Data are presented as percentages, with the range

followed by the mean in parentheses. Meristic counts follow

Talwar and Jhingran ( 1991 ).

Garra emarginata sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )

Diagnosis; An elongate, slender species with an

emarginated caudal fin, eyes small, interorbital region

flattened, dorsal fin with 8 branched rays, lateral line complete

w ith 35 scales, body with minute black spots arranged in series

on either side of lateral line, distance between vent and anal

fin 2. 7-3.4 times that between anterior origin of anal and

ventral fins.

Description: Based on 4 specimens collected from

Pooyamkutty, Periyar river, ranging from 77.2 - 89.54 mm

SL.

D.II, 8; P.I, 13; V I, 7; A.I, 5; C. 19.

Body elongate and slender. Depth of body

1 5.86- 1 8.39% (17.19%) in SL, length of head 2 1 .85-24.07%

di3.40%) of SL, Mental disc well-developed, length of

51sc 70.35-74.19% (72.27%) in width of disc and the latter

Fig. 1 : Lateral view of Garra emarginata sp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

51.38-65.12% (58.35%) in the width of head. Snout round

and smooth. Two pairs of barbels; rostral barbels equal to or

slightly greater than eye forming 102-112.69% (108.23%)

of the eye diameter. Eyes small, not visible from ventral side

of the head, diameter 17.08-18.83% ( 19.75%) of head length,

36.0-44.85% (38.28%) in the interorbital distance. Interorbital

region flattened and 46.89-52.41% (49.2%) in the length of

the head. Abdomen slightly rounded. Distance of the vent

from anal fin origin 29.77-32.22% (30.33%) in the distance

between anterior origins of ventral fin and anal fin. Caudal

peduncle 10.91-12.48% in SL (11.25%). 44.44 -50.92% in

HL and least depth 89.38-99.63% (92.46%) its own length.

Squamation: Thirty-five scales along the lateral line,

4.5 from the origin of dorsal to lateral line, 2.5 between the

lateral line and pelvic fin origin, predorsal scales 11-12,

preventral scales 13, preanal scales 26, circumpeduncular

scales 12.

Fins: Dorsal fin inserted closer to snout than to caudal.

It is shorter than head length, base 62.44-86.48% (75.63%)

of the height. Pectorals larger than head and forms 106.88-

1 30. 1 3% ( 1 1 9.53%) in head length. Ventral fins almost equal

or slightly larger than head and forms 89.37-106.02%

(100.29%) in head length and 79.45-92.68% (86.25%) in

pectoral fin length. Distance between pectoral and ventral

fins 33.19-35.54% (34.46%) in SL. Distance between ventral

and anal fins 26.62-32. 1 6% (29. 1 6%) in SL. Preanal distance

80.91%-87.4% (83.61%) in SL and predorsal distance 48.22-

51.68% (49.08%) in SL. Preventral distance 52.06-55.39%

(52.69) in SL and prepectoral distance 18.42-21.88%

(20.42%) in SL. Caudal emarginate.

Holotype: Deposited at ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No. V/F

13033, 11 5.26 mm TL, Pooyamkutty, Periyar river. 23.V.2003,

Coll. Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan.

Paratvpes: 3exs. 107.4 mm, 102.3 mm and 97.5 mm

TL, Pooyamkutty, Periyar river, 23. v. 2003, Coll.

Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan. (Deposited at School of Industrial

Fisheries Museum, Cochin University of Science and

Technology, Regn No. 1, 62a, 62b, 63c)

Coloration: In life, the ground colour is greyish green

with the ventral side pale white. Minute dark spots arranged

on either side of the lateral line in a series. Fins generally

pale, orange red, dorsal rays have blackish tips. In formalin,

the ground colour turns brown.

Distribution: india: Kerala, Pooyamkutty on Periyar

river.

Etymology: Named after the emarginated nature of the

caudal fin that differentiates the species from other related

species.

Remarks: The species, Garra emarginata, is different

from its closely related species G. hughi, G. surendranathani

and G. periyarensis in many respects. Unlike Garra hughi ,

the new species has prominent scales on the predorsal, breast

and belly regions and presence of lesser number of lateral

line scales. The species differs from Garra periyarensis in

absence of a deep cut and knob-like protuberance in the snout

and presence of scales on the breast and belly region. Garra

emarginata lacks the characteristic black blotches of Garra

surendranathani. It differs from Garra mullya in having more

lateral line scales, broad and round head and snout, more

flattened and wide interorbital region and smaller eyes when

compared to head length. The new species can be

differentiated easily from Garra menoni in the presence of

more lateral line scales, presence of scales in the breast and

belly regions, wide interorbital distance and in colour pattern,

namely the new species possess minute dark spots arranged

on either sides of the lateral line in a series. The emarginated

nature of caudal fin differentiates the species under the Genus

Garra inhabiting the Western Ghats region, however this

character is shared with G. manipurensis recorded from

Manipur. Nevertheless, G. emarginata can be differentiated

from G. manipurensis by the morphometric characters such

as presence of scales on the chest region, width of mental

disc in relation to width of head and difference in lateral line

scale counts, shape of head, colour pattern.

Garra mlapparaensis sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Diagnosis: A species of Garra having an elongated and

slender body, with dorsal fin having 7 branched rays, lateral

line complete with 36 scales, scales on the lateral sides have

blackish posterior ends, distance between vent and anal fin

3.15 times that of the distance between anterior origin of anal

and ventral fins.

Description: Based on a single specimen 94.58 mm

SL, collected from Mlappara, Periyar Tiger Reserve in Periyar

river.

D.I-II, 7; PI. 12; V.I, 7; A. I, 5; C.19.

Body elongate and slender, depth of body 18.64% in

SL, length of the head 22.08% of SL, mental disc well

developed, width of the disc 73.22% in the width of head.

Snout rounded with fine tubercles. Barbels two pairs; rostral

barbels slightly greater than diameter of eye and forming

Fig. 2: Lateral view of Garra mlapparaensis sp. nov.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

221

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

106.21% of the eye. Eyes moderate and not visible from

ventral side of the head, diameter 21.20% of head length,

43.86% in the interorbital width. Interorbital distance 48.34%

in the length of the head. Abdomen slightly rounded. Distance

of the vent from anal fin origin 31.70% in that between

anterior origin of ventral fin to anal fin. Caudal peduncle

length 14.92 % in SL, 65.34% in head length and its least

depth 77.49 % in its own length.

Squamation: 35 scales along the lateral line, 4.5 from

the origin of dorsal to lateral line, 3.5 between lateral line

and pelvic fin origin, predorsal scales 12, preventral scales

13 and preanal scales 24, circumpeduncular scales 12.

Fins: Dorsal fin inserted closer to snout than to caudal,

longer than head length, base 26.45 % of height. Pectorals almost

equal to head length and form 98.70% in the latter. Pelvic fins

smaller than head and form 89.26% in head length and 90.44%

in pectoral fin length. Distance between pectoral and ventral

fins 31.58% in SL. Distance between ventral and anal fins

24.40% in SL. Preanal distance 77.55% in SL and predorsal

distance 45.39% in SL. Preventral distance 50.72% in SL and

prepectoral distance forms 19.34% in SL. Caudal forked.

Coloration: In life, the ground colour is greenish-

brown with the ventral side pale white. The posterior edges

of the scales on the lateral sides are blackish. Lins generally

orange red and the dorsal rays have blackish tips. In formalin,

the ground colour turns brown.

Holotvpe: Deposited in ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No. V/L

13032 94.58 mm TL, Mlappara, Periyar, 1 8. ii. 2002.

Paratypes: None.

Distribution: india: Kerala, Mlappara, upstream of

Periyar river.

Etymology: Named after the locality from where the

specimen was collected.

Remarks: Garni mlapparaensis is closely related to

Garni hughi in the number of lateral line scales, wide and

well developed sucking disc, however, it differs from the latter

in the presence of larger eyes and also in the position of

insertion of dorsal fin, which is closer to the snout than to the

caudal fin; the dorsal fin is equidistant from the snout and

caudal fin in Garni hughi. It can be differentiated from Garra

periyarensis in the absence of a deep cut at the snout, presence

of scales on the breast and belly regions and placement of the

vent, which is almost midway between the anterior origins

of anal fin and ventral fins in the latter.

Key to species of genus Garra in Kerala

1 . Head with a single proboscis .

. Garra gotyla stenorhynchus

Proboscis absent . 2

2. Lateral line scales 34 or fewer, scales uniformly present on

body . 3

— Lateral line scales 35 or more, scales uniformly present on

body or absent on ventral side . 4

3. Interorbital distance more than 2 times in head length .

. Garra ceylonensis

— Interorbital distance less than or about two times in head

length . Garra mullya

4. Snout with a deep transverse groove, vent placed almost

midway between origins of anal fin and ventral fin . 5

— No transverse groove present: if present, not deep. Vent not

placed midway between origins of anal fin and ventral fins

. 6

5. Breast and belly scale less . Garra periyarensis

— Scales present uniformly on body . Garra mcclellandi

6. Lateral line scales 35-38, scales absent on a part of the body

. 7

— Scales present almost uniformly along the body . 8

7. Lateral line scales 35-36, head less depressed, eyes 4. 2-4. 6

times in head length, depth of caudal peduncle form 1-1.2

times in its length and scales absent on breast and belly ....

. Garra menoni

— Lateral line scales 36-38, head more depressed, eyes 5.8-6

times in head length, caudal peduncle less deep, forming 1.2-

1.4 times in its length, scales usually absent on mid-dorsal

region . Garra hughi

8. Body brownish-green, scales on the lateral sides have dark

posterior edges . Garra mlapparaensis sp. nov.

— Body with back blotches or minute spots arranged in a series

. 9

9. Body with black blotches and dots, head with minute

tubercles, eyes larger, caudal forked .

. Garra surendranathani

— Body with minute dark dots arranged on either sides of the

lateral line, eyes small, caudal emarginated .

. Garra emarginata sp. nov.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely thank the Officer-in-charge, Zoological

Survey of India, and scientists for help to identify

the new species. Special thanks are due to Dr. K. Rema Devi

for her sincere effort in separating the two new species from

our collection of fishes. The financial support given by the

NAT-ICAR Project for the present study is thankfully

acknowledged. We also thank Prof. (Dr.) Ramakrishnan

Korakandy, Director, School of Industrial Fisheries, Cochin

University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India for facilities

for carrying out this study. The assistance of M.D. Mahesan

during the survey is acknowledged.

222

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

REFERENCES

Arun, L.K., C.P. Shaji & P.S. Easa (1996): Record of new fishes

from Periyar Tiger Reserve. ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1):

103-104.

Gopi, K.C. (2001 ): Garra periyarensis, a new cyprinid fish from Periyar

Tiger Reserve, Kerala, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1):

80-83.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.

Radhakrishnan, K.V. & B.M. Kurup (2007): On the record of Garra

ceylonensis , Bleeker 1863, a Sri Lankan cyprinid fish from India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 104(3): 357-358.

Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra ( 1 984): Garra menoni , a new Cyprinid fish

from Kerala, South India. Bull. Zool. Surv. India. 5(2 &3):

121-122.

Rema Devi, K. (1992): Garra kalakadensis , a new Cyprinid fish from

Kalakkad Wildlife Sanctuary. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 91(2):

239-245.

Shaji, C.P, L.K. Arun & P.S. Easa (1996): Garra surendranathani -A

new cyprinid fish from the Southern Western Ghats. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 572-575.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent

countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Zacharias, V.J., A.K. Bhardwaj & PC. Jacob (1996): Fish fauna of

Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 39-43.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

223

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

224-226

FISHES OF THE GENUS HOMALOPTERA VAN HASSELT, 1823 IN KERALA,

WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES HOMALOPTERA SILASI

B. Madhusoodana Kurup1-3 and K.V. Radhakrishnan1-2

'Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi 682 506, Kerala, India.

:Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment Science in Guangdong Higher Education. Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for

Healthy and Safe Aquaculture, College of Life Science. South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510 631, China.

Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

A new Homalopterid fish, Homaloptera silasi is described based on five specimens collected from Kattamadithode, a

small stream connecting with Periyar river in Periyar Tiger Reserve at Chokkanpetty. The morphomeristic characters

of the species were found varied when compared to all other known species of the Genus Homaloptera and is described

here as a new species.

Key words: Homaloptera silasi sp. nov., Kattamadithode. Periyar Tiger Reserve. Chokkanpetty. Periyar river, Kerala

Homalopterine loaches inhabit fast flowing water of

hill streams, and are characterized by a flattened head and

body, horizontally oriented, enlarged, paired fins bearing

adhesive pads covered with unculi on the ventral surface,

that helps them to live in mountain streams and rivulets

(Kottelat 1989). The genus Homaloptera van Hasselt is

represented by four species in the Indian subcontinent, namely

Homaloptera bilineata Blyth. H. modesta (Vinciguerra),

H. rupicola (Prashad & Mukerji), which are distributed in

Burma (=Myanmar). and Homaloptera montana Herre. found

in Silent Valley and New Amarambalam area of Western Ghats

(Menon 1987). Indra and Rerna Devi (1981 ) described a new

species, Homaloptera pillaii from Silent Valley, while Shaji

and Easa (1995) described Homaloptera menoni from

Siruvani area of Bhavani river. Arunkumar (1999) described

a new species from Manipur. Homaloptera manipurensis.

Recently, Arunachalam et al. (2002) added a new species,

Homaloptera santhamparaiensis from the Panniyar tributary

of Periyar river at Santhamparai. The present discovery of a

new species of the genus Homaloptera is from

Kattamadithode, a small stream joining Periyar river at

Chokkanpetty area of Periyar Tiger Reserve.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Morphometric measurements were recorded with a dial

calliper to the nearest millimetre and expressed as percent of

standard length. Meristics were counted following Talwar and

Jhingran (1991).

Homaloptera silasi sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Holotype: Deposited in ZSI. Calicut, no. ZSIAVGRS/

CLT/V/F 13118. 67.92 mm TL, Chokkanpetty, Periyar Tiger

Reserve, 12.ii.2004. Coll. Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan.

Paratypes: 2 exs. Deposited in ZSI, Calicut, no. ZSI/

WGRS/CLT/V/F 13118a & b, 49.70 mm. 51.26 mm TL.

Chokkanpetty, Periyar Tiger Reserve, 12.ii.2004, Coll.

Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan.

Diagnosis: An elongate fish with a sub-cylindrical body.

Head depressed, eyes small, narrowly elongated snout, dorsal

fin inserted close to the base of caudal fin than the tip of

snout, small pectoral fins, height less than length of head and

not reaching pelvic fins, pelvic fins small, not reaching vent

or anal fin. 89 to 93 lateral line scales, caudal peduncle short

and stout, and its least depth less than two times its length.

Description: Based on 5 specimens collected from

Kattamadithode. Chokkanpetty, Periyar Tiger Reserve,

ranging from 40.18 to 67.92 mm SL (Mean value in

parentheses).

Fig. 1: Homaloptera silasi sp. nov.

(a) lateral, (b) dorsal, (c) ventral view

NEW DESCRIPTION

Table 1 : Comparison of Homaloptera silasi sp.nov. with closely related species

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

225

NEW DESCRIPTION

1 9.58-22. 1 6% (2 1 .37%) in SL and 1 06.7 1 - 11 8.97% ( Ill .75%)

in height of dorsal fin. It forms 80.03-92.55% (86.81%) in

HL. Pelvic fins short and not reaching the vent or anal fin.

Length of ventral fins 77.14-85.57% (81.25%) in the length

of pectoral fin and 64.40-79.19% (70.55%) of head length.

Anal fins shorter than pectoral and pelvic fins and 42.54-

68.63% (56.29%) in head length and 1 1 .70-16.47% (13.87%)

in standard length. Vent situated close to the origin of anal fin.

The distance from vent to anal fin 12. 14-17.90% (15.17%) in

the distance between the origin of pelvic fin and anal fin.

Caudal peduncle short and stout and its length 13.72-17.53%

(15.56%) in standard length and 58.70-71.54% (63.12%) in

head length. Its least height 54.58-70.63% (63.48%) in its

length.

Coloration: Ground colour pale yellowish-green,

dorsal with irregular brown blotches. Area below the lateral

line and a small region on the ventral surface has blackish

brown patches. Head is mottled with irregular brown blotches,

which sometimes coalesce to form a uniform brown patch. A

dark longitudinal stripe passes from behind the opercle to the

caudal peduncle. Fins are generally dusky with blackish

patches. Bases of the paired and unpaired fins are marked by

darkish brown spot or band, which in the case of caudal fin

have a well-defined deep brown to black transverse band at

caudal base.

Distribution: india: Kerala, Chokkanpetty in Periyar

Tiger Reserve.

Etymology: Named after Dr. E.G. Silas, a renowned

fishery scientist who has made outstanding contributions to

the taxonomy of freshwater fishes of Western Ghats.

Other material examined: Homaloptera pillaii ZSI/

SRS F462, Holotype, 69 mm. Silent Valley, river Kunthi,

Kerala; ZSI/SRS F 463, Paratypes, 2 examples, 49-57 mm SL,

Sayvala, New Amarambalam, Kerala; H. santhamparaiensis:

ZSI/SRS F 5322, Holotype, 6.1 mm SL, Santhamparai,

Panniyar stream of Periyar, Kerala; ZSI/SRS 5323, Paratype,

45 mm SL, Santhamparai, Panniyar stream of Periyar, Kerala.

Remarks: The new species, Homaloptera silasi, can

be differentiated from other closely related species such as

H. montana, H. pillaii , H. menoni and H. manipurensis by an

array of characters such as position of insertion of dorsal fin,

small eyes, small pectoral and pelvic fins and characteristic

colour pattern. The new species show some similarity with

H. santhamparaiensis in the lateral line scale counts and also

in the smaller eyes, but disagrees in the shape of head and

snout and pectoral fin counts. The new species described is

compared with the closely related species and the results are

summarized in Table 1 .

Key to thf. species of Homaloptera van Hasselt

REPORTED FROM KERALA

I . Origin of dorsal fin equidistant or nearer snout than caudal

. 2

— Origin of dorsal fin towards the caudal than the snout tip

. 3

2. Origin of dorsal fin close to snout H. menoni

— Origin of dorsal fin equidistant between snout and caudal

fin . 4

3. Body with a distinct dark lateral band along lateral line,

unbranched pectoral fin rays 5 . H. silasi sp. nov.

— Body without any lateral bands along lateral line, unbranched

pectoral fin rays 4 . H. santhamparaiensis

4. Lateral line scales 70-72 . H. montana

— Lateral line scales 83-93 . H. pillaii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Officer-in-charge, ZSI, and Drs K. Rema

Devi and T.J. Indra for help in identifying the new species.

The financial support given by the NAT-ICAR Project for

the present study is thankfully acknowledged. We also thank

Prof. (Dr.) Ramakrishnan Korakandy, Director, School of

Industrial Fisheries, Cochin University of Science and

Technology, Kerala, India for providing necessary facilities

for carrying out this study.

REFERENCES

Arunachalam, M„ J.A. Johnson & K. Rema Devi (2002): Homaloptera

santhamparaiensis, a new species of Balitorid fish (Teleostei:

Balitoridae) from a Western Ghat stream of Kerala, India. Acta

Zool. Taiwan. 13(1): 31-37.

Arunkumar, L. ( 1999): Homaloptera manipurensis, a new Homalopterid

fish from Manipur, India. Uttar Pradesh. J. Zool. 19(3):

201-205.

Indra, T.J. & K. Rema Devi (1981): A new species of the genus

Homaloptera from Silent valley, Kerala, South India. Bull. zool.

Surv. India 4( 1 ): 67-7 1

Kottelat, M. (1989): Zoogeography of the fishes from the IndoChinese

Island waters with an annotated checklist. Bull. zool. Mus.

Amsterdam 12(1): 1-56.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The fauna of India and adjacent countries. Rec.

Zool. Sur\>. India. 259 pp.

Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1995): Homaloptera menoni - A new

Homalopterid (Pisces: Homalopteridae) from Kerala. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 395-397

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

226

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

227-230

TOR REMADEVII, A NEW SPECIES OF TOR (GRAY) FROM CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

PAMBAR RIVER, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA

B. Madhusoodana Kurup'-3and K.V. Radhakrishnan1-2

‘Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi 682 506, Kerala, India.

:Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment Science in Guangdong Higher Education, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for

Healthy and Safe Aquaculture, College of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510 631, China.

Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

A new cyprinid fish is described under the genus Tor based on 19 specimens collected from Chambakkad and Koottar

regions of river Pambar in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. Morphometric and meristic characters of the new species

varied from the species hitherto described.

Key words: Tor remadevii , Chinnar river, Chinnar WLS, Pambar river

INTRODUCTION

Genus Tor (Gray 1834), well-known as Mahseer, is

widely distributed in the freshwaters of Asia, Africa and Indo-

Australian Archipelago (Tilak and Sharma 1982). The Tor

species so far reported from Indian region include Tor

khudree (Sykes), T. mosal (Hamilton-Buchanan),

T. mussullah (Sykes), T. neilli (Day), T. putitora (Hamilton-

Buchanan) and T. progenius (McClelland). Mahseer shows

different pattern of distribution from the Himalaya to

Peninsular region in the Indian subcontinent (Jayaram 1999).

T. kulkarnii described by Menon ( 1992) from Deolali hills

of Maharashtra is not included as a valid species of the Indian

region (Jayaram 1999). Among the various species, Tor

khudree , T. mussullah and T. tor are hitherto known from

southern India (Kulkami and Ogale 1979; Kulkarni 1980;

Sen and Jayaram 1994; Menon 1999; Ajithkumar et al. 2000;

Kurup et al. 2001; Shaji and Easa 2001). Tor khudree

malabaricus (Kulkami 1980) reported from Malabar, Kerala,

was subsequently treated as a synonym of T. khudree by

Menon (1999). During the survey of NAT-ICAR project on

Germplasm Inventory Evaluation and Genebanking of

Freshwater Fishes of Kerala, we came across 19 specimens

of a Tor species from the river Pambar, whose morphometric

and meristic characters totally varied from the species

hitherto described under this genus, and therefore erected as

a new species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Nineteen specimens were collected using cast net,

having 5 mm and 8 mm mesh sizes and gill nets having

32 and 78 mm mesh sizes from the Chambakkad and Koottar

localities of river Pambar in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kerala. Morphometric measurements were recorded

using a dial reading calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm.

Morphometry of the new species are presented as

percentages, with the range followed by the mean

in parentheses. Meristic counts were done following

Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Taxonomy of Mahseer fishes

under the Genus Tor by Menon (1992) was also

consulted.

Tor remadevii sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )

Holotvpe: Deposited in ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No. V/F

1 3 1 1 9a. 33 1 .82 mm TL, Chambakkad, Pambar river, Chinnar

Wildlife Sanctuary, 18.V.2004, Coll. Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan.

Paratype: 2 exs. Deposited in ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No.

V/F 131 19b, 160.84 mm and 1 13.64 mm TL, Chambakkad,

Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, 18.V.2004,

Coll. Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan (16 remaining paratypes

ranging from 1 14.23 mm to 228.16 mm TL are kept at the

museum of School of Industrial Fisheries, Cochin University

of Science and Technology., Reg. No. SIF/Mus/F/212A to

SIF/Mus/F/212B).

Fig. 1: Lateral view of Tor remadevii sp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTION

Diagnosis: An elongate species with the dorsal fin

equal to depth of the body and with a strong osseous spine,

head straight, snout pointed and with a terminal or slightly

upturned mouth, lips fleshy and the mentum small (fleshy in

younger specimens), head length more than body depth, a

deep hump at the occipit, lateral line scales 27-29. Body

colour greenish to metallic silvery along back and fins reddish

with blackish patches.

Description: Based on 19 specimens ranging in size

from 1 1 3.64 mm to 33 1 .82 mm TL.

D.IV. 10; P.1, 15; V.I. 8; A.I, 5; C.19; L.l. 27-29.

Body: Body elongate. Head length 31.48-33.68%

(32.45%) in SL. Depth of the body 84.43-90.10% (83.55%)

in head length and 25.60-28.37% (27.09%) in SL. Width of

head 39.19-44.89% (41.02%) in head length. Snout elongated

and its length 30.45-48.17% (34.33%) in head length and

9.29-16.09% (11.15%) in SL. Eyes lie at the posterior half

and superiorly, its diameter is 13.21-23.55% (18.49%) in head

length. Dorsal profile has a moderate to prominent hump after

the head region, before the insertion of dorsal fin. Two pairs

of barbels are present, maxillary more elongated than rostral

barbels.

Fins: Origin of dorsal lies opposite to that of pelvics

and midway between tip of snout and base of caudal fin. Dorsal

spine osseous, strong and smooth, equal to depth of body,

forming 96.28-101.24% (99.02%) in the latter, 27.91-30.87%

(29.60%) in SL and 88.12-96.04% (91.22%) in head length.

Pectoral fins form 60.13-74.73% (67.10%) in height of

dorsal fin. Ventral fins are 91.18-99.34% (92.51%) in height

of pectoral fins. Caudal fin is deeply forked. Caudal length

form 25.87-29.49% (27.54%) in SL. The length of caudal

peduncle is 14.42-17.23% ( 15.60%) in head length. The least

depth of caudal peduncle is 68.29-88.67% (74.46%) in its

length.

Squamation: 27-29 scales along the lateral line,

4.5 from the origin of dorsal to lateral line, 2.5-3 between the

lateral line and pelvic fin origin, predorsal scales 9-11,

preventral scales 8 and preanal scales 17-18. Scales between

pectoral and ventral fins 8, pelvic and anal fins 9-10.

Circumpeduncular scales 14-16.

Coloration: Dorsal side of the body is greenish to

metallic black with the sides silvery, ventral side is white.

Head is silvery white, while the eyes are dark bluish. Fins are

eventually reddish with blackish patches. Body uniformly

silvery in colour in younger specimens, belly white and fins

red orange.

Distribution: india: Kerala, Chinnar Wildlife

Sanctuary, Chambakkad and Koottar localities of river

Pambar.

Etymology: Named after the renowned freshwater fish

taxonomist. Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey

of India, Chennai.

Key to the species of Tor reported from the Indian region

1 . Length of head considerably greater than body depth . 2

— Length of head shorter or more or less equal to body depth

. 4

2. Dorsal fin inserted midway between tip of snout and caudal

fin base, dorsal spine length equal to body depth below it

. 3

— Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than caudal base, dorsal

spine length shorter than body depth below it ... Tor khudree

3. A characteristic hump over occiput, head and snout straight,

mouth slightly upturned, body bluish dark with fins red orange

Tor remadevii sp. nov.

— No hump over occiput. Head and snout normal, mouth slightly

subterminal, colour silvery with the fins yellowish .

. Tor putitora

4. Body deep, 4.5 rows of scales between base of dorsal fin and

lateral line, a distinct hump over occiput .

. Tor mussullah

— 3 to 3.5 rows of scales between dorsal fin base and lateral line.

No such hump over occiput . 5

5. Dorsal spine weak, articulated . Tor neilli

— Dorsal spine strong . 6

6. Lips hypertrophied. A fan-shaped rounded structure behind

upper lip present . Tor progenius

— No such fan-shaped structure behind upper lip . 7

7. Pre-dorsal scales 6. Dorsal fin inserted midway between tip of

snout and caudal fin base. Ventral profile more arched than

dorsal (N. India) . Tor tor

— Pre-dorsal scales 8. Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than

caudal fin base. Dorsal profile more arched than ventral

. Tor mo sal

Other material examined: Tor putitora : NBFGR.

1 ex. 186 mm TL.

Remarks: The new species shows remarkable variation

from Tor khudree and Tor mussullah, which are reported from

Western Ghats due to the presence of a strong and osseous

spine in the dorsal fin and the length of the head, which is

more than body depth, a most valid identification character

widely used for differentiating various species coming

under the genus Tor. Also, the dorsal fin is high with its

length more or less equal to body depth, a character

which differentiates it from that of Tor tor. The species,

however, shows close similarity with the Himalayan

Yellow Fin Mahseer, Tor putitora in possessing an elongated

head and strong dorsal fin, in contrast, it strongly

228

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

Table 1 : Comparison of morpho-meristic characters of the new species with the closely related species under the genus, Tor in India

NEW DESCRIPTION

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

229

NEW DESCRIPTION

differs from the latter due to the presence of a characteristic

hump at the occiput, presence of straight head and snout,

and possession of a terminal or slightly upturned mouth

in the new species. Conversely in Tor putitora, the mouth

is subterminal in position and the head profile is also

bending downwards. The new species also differ from Tor

mosal and Tor kulkarni (Menon 1992) in a number of

characters such as head length in relation to body length,

body depth and height of dorsal fin in relation to body

depth, and eye diameter and snout length in relation to head

length.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The financial support given by the NAT-ICAR Project

for the present study is thankfully acknowledged. Thanks are

also due to scientists of ZSI (WGRS) Kozhikkode

for help in identifying the new species. We also thank Prof.

(Dr.) Ramakrishnan Korakandy, Director, School of Industrial

Fisheries, Cochin University of Science and Technology,

Kerala, India for providing necessary facilities for carrying

out this study. The assistance of M.D. Mahesan and C.P Sunil

Kumar during the field survey is also acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Ajithkumar, C.R., C.R. Buu & K. Raju Thomas (2000): Ecology of hill

streams of Western Ghats with special reference to fish community.

BNHS Final Report, Bombay Natural History Society. 312 pp.

Gray, J.E. ( 1 834): The Illustrations of Indian Zoology, chiefly selected

from the collection of General Hardwick. 96 pp.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. 551+xvii.

Kulkarni, C.V. & S.N. Ogale (1979): The present status of Mahseer

(Fish) and artificial propagation of Tor khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 651-660.

Kulkarni, C.V. (1980): Eggs and early development of Tor mahseer

Fish. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 70-75.

Kurup, B.M., T.G. Manojkumar & K.V. Radhakrishnan (2001):

Germplasm Inventory, Evaluation and Gene banking of freshwater

fishes. NAT-ICAR Research Report. Cochin University of Science

and Technology, Cochin, Kerala. 364 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. (1992): Taxonomy of Mahseer fishes of the Genus Tor

Gray with description of a new species from Deccan. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 211-228.

Menon. A.G.K. (1999): Checklist of freshwater fishes of India. Rec.

zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper No. 175: 366.

Sen, T.K. & K.C. Jayaram (1994): The Mahseer Fishes of India - A

Review. Rec. Zool. surv. India, Occ. Paper No. 39: 38.

Shaji, C.P. & PS. Easa(2001): Freshwater Fishes of the Western Ghats.

KFRI-NBFGR Publication. 108 pp.

Talwar, PK. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent Countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd.,

New Delhi. 1 158+xix.

Tilak, R. & V. Sharma (1982): Game Fishes of India and Angling.

International Book Distributors, Dehradun. 304 pp.

230

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

231-235

CHANNA MELANOSTIGMA , A NEW SPECIES OF FRESHWATER SNAKEHEAD

FROM NORTH-EAST INDIA (TELEOSTEI: CHANNIDAE)

Khangjrakpam Geetakumari1’2 and Waikhom Vishwanath13

'Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal 795 003, Manipur, India.

2Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Channa melanostigma, a new channid fish species is described from north-east India. The species is distinguished

from all its congeners by a combination of the following characters: 14-15 black zig-zag transverse bars at irregular

intervals on caudal fin (when stretched), the interspaces being 2/3rd of the bars; dorsal fin inserted after 3-4 scales

vertically above the pectoral fin origin, V2I-V2 8 scales below the lateral line, 5 cheek scales, 27-28 circumpeduncular

scales, 50-51 vertebrae, 7 branchial tooth plates, 36-37 branched dorsal fin rays and last dorsal fin inserted in between

41 and 43 vertebrae.

Key words: Channid fish, new species, Arunachal Pradesh

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater snake-headed fishes of the Family

Channidae is represented by 31 species, of which 28 are of

Asian genus Channa Scopoli and three of African

genus Parachanna Li etal. (2005). All species in this genus

have cavities in the head which act as a primitive lung

enabling them to live for long time out of water (Shaw and

Shebbeare 1937).

North-east India having many derelict swamps is rich

in channid fauna. Hamilton (1822) described Ophiocephalus

barca from Brahmaputra river, Assam; O. gachua from ponds

and ditches of Bengal and O. marulius from Gangetic

provinces, India. McClelland (1845) described O. amphibeus

from the vicinity of Chel river. North Bengal. Playfair

(1867), Vierke (1991) and Musikasinthorn (2000)

respectively described O. stewartii , Channa bleheri and

C. aurantimaculata from Assam. Shaw and Shebbeare ( 1937)

and Menon (1954), listed O. striatus and O. punctatus

respectively from North Bengal and Manipur. All the above

species are now in Channa. The works of Sen ( 1999), Nath

and Dey (2000) and Sen (2006) on the fishes of Arunachal

Pradesh did not include any additional species of Channa.

Vishwanath and Geetakumari (2009) provided diagnostic

characters of nine species of Channa from North-east India

and studied their inter-relationships. Recently, Bagra et al.

(2009) included an unidentified species, Channa sp. 1, in

their checklist of fishes of Arunachal Pradesh, which was

also collected from the type locality of the new species under

description.

Collections from Lohit river (Brahmaputra basin),

Arunachal Pradesh, in 2007, included an unnamed species

of Channa which is herein described as Channa

melanostigma , a new species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Measurements were made point to point with dial

calipers to the nearest 0.1 mm. Counts and measurements

were made on the left side of specimens under a PC-based

binocular stereozoom microscope with transmitted light.

Counts and measurements followed Musikasinthorn (1998).

Clearing and staining of specimens for osteology followed

Hollister (1934). Identification and nomenclature of bones

and vertebral counts followed Greenwood (1976). As the gill

rakers in the genus are modified to form toothplate, we use

the term 'branchial toothplate count" instead of gill raker count

following Greenwood (1976). The count was taken on the

first gill arch starting from hypobranchial to epibranchial on

the left side of the specimens. Measurements of head length

and body parts are expressed as proportions of standard length

(SL) while subunits of the head, as proportions of head length

(HL). Material examined in this study is deposited in Manipur

University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).

Channa melanostigma sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )

Material examined: Holotype: MUMF-Per 39,

1 34.8 mm SL; India: Arunachal Pradesh: Lohit district, Lohit

river, Brahmaputra drainage: Tezu, 27° 54r 41" N, 96° 10'

23" E; K. Nebeshwar Sharma, 29.iii.2007.

Paratypes: 7 specimens. MUMF-Per 40-46, 6,

82.1-143.0 mm SL; same data as for holotype, MUMF-Per

45 and 46 dissected, cleared and stained for osteology.

Diagnosis: Channa melanostigma is distinguished from

its nearest congener C. stewartii in having distinct 14-15 black

zigzag transverse bars at irregular intervals (when stretched),

the interspaces being 2/3rd of the bars on the caudal fin

(Fig. 2a) vs. no black zigzag bars in the caudal fin (Fig. 2b);

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 : Side view of Channa melanostigma sp. nov., paratype, MUMF-Per 40, 112.5 mm SL

dorsal fin origin after 3-4 scales vertically above the pectoral

fin origin vs. vertically above the pectoral origin, vertebra

50-5 1 vs. 44, branchial toothplate count 7 vs. 3 and more

number of scales below the lateral line V2I-V2 8 vs. V25. It is

also distinguished from C. gachua in having more number of

vertebra (50-51 vs. 43), toothplate count (7 vs. 9), last dorsal

fin ray inserted in between 41s1 and 43rd vertebrae (vs. 35th

and 36th). In case of C. gachua the juveniles have a very

distinct ocellus at the posterior end of the dorsal fin base

but the ocellus is completely absent in case of the

C. melanostigma. It differs from C. aurantimaculata in having

less number of dorsal fin rays (36-37 vs. 45-47), last dorsal

finray inserted between 41st and 43rd vertebrae (vs. 46th

and 47th), cheek scales 5 vs. 10 and less number of

circumpeduncular scales (28 vs. 34).

Description: Morphometric data are in Table 1 . Dorsal

fin 36-37 simple rays. Anal fin 24-25 simple rays, pectoral

fin one simple and 14-15 branched rays, pelvic fin 5 simple

rays, caudal fin 14 branched rays, predorsal scales 13-14,

lateral line scales dropping one row following 1 5- 1 7th anterior-

most scales. Two large cycloid scales on each side of lower

jaw, transverse scales 1/23-'/24/l/1/27-1/28, caudal fin with

14-15 black zigzag bars, black spots throughout the flank,

1 2-14 alternate black and whitish transverse bars on the body,

cheek scales 5-6, circumpeduncular scales 27-28, scales below

the lateral line V2I-V2 8, total vertebrae 50-5 1 ; last ray of dorsal

fin in between 41-43 vertebrae, precaudal + caudal vertebrae

= 44-45+6, toothplate count 7. Cephalic sensory pores single,

without satellite openings. Body elongated, cross-section

almost circular in anterior portion and somewhat compressed

posteriorly. Body depth greatest at ventral fins origin. Body

widest at pectoral fin origin. Dorsal and anal fin bases long

(56.9-62.6% SL and 37.7-44.3% SL, respectively). Head

depth 11.7-14.6% HL. head width 15.9-20.9% HL. body depth

14.4-15.3% SL, caudal peduncle depth 9.7-10.75% SL, pelvic

fin length 7.4- 9.2% SL.

Outer margins of pectoral and caudal fins rounded.

Dorsal fin origin after 3-4 scales vertically above the pectoral

fin origin. Head elongated 26.9-3 1 .3% SL, concave in lateral

view. Snout narrow, dorsal profile of snout somewhat convex.

Fig. 2: Comparison of caudal fins: a. Channa melanostigma sp. nov. (paratype, MUMF-Per 40, 112.5 mm SL) stretched,

b. C. stewartii (MUMF-Per 21 , 109.7 mm SL)

232

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1: Biometric data of Channa melanostigma sp. nov. and C. stewartii except SL and HL in mm

C. melanostigma sp. nov. C. stewartii

Interorbital region almost flat. Orbit not reaching dorsal

contour of head in lateral view. Mouth large, maxilla and

premaxillary process extending to vertical level of the

posterior end of the orbit.

Dentition: Many small conical teeth embedded in

premaxilla, prevomer, and palatine, the prevomer being with

10 more additional large canine-like teeth. Dentary is also

with many small teeth on outer region, plus 9 large canine¬

like teeth medially on each side (Fig. 3).

Colour: In alcohol, dorsal side of body brown or

darkish brown, ventral side whitish, 12-14 alternate dark and

whitish transverse bars on the sides. Black spots scattered

throughout the body 4-5 rows of spots on dorsal fin, caudal

fin with distinct 14-15 zigzag cross bars at irregular intervals

where the interspace between two bars is 2/3rd of the zigzag

bar. Pectoral fin with 5-6 black bars. Edges of dorsal and

anal fins white.

Distribution: Presently known from Lohit river at Tezu,

Lohit district, Arunachal Pradesh (Brahmaputra drainage),

India (Fig. 4).

Etymology: Named after the melanophores present on

each scale on flanks.

Discussion: Channa melanostigma is similar to

C. stewartii in overall body appearance, head shape, i.e.,

generally rounded in lateral view and coloration, numerous

small black spots scattered on body, narrow and pointed snout,

lateral line scales 46-47, scale rows between preopercular

angle and posterior border of orbit 4-6, predorsal scales 13,

maxilla and premaxillary process extending to vertical level

of the posterior end of the orbit, pectoral fin rays 14-15, caudal

fin rays 13-14, and scales above the lateral line 31/2. However,

C. melanostigma is distinct particularly in having the caudal

bars, more number of branchial toothplates, vertebra and

scales below lateral line.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

233

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 3: Dentition of Channa melanostigma sp. nov.

(MUMF-Per 46)

The new species is also similar to C. gachua in having

white coloration at the edge of dorsal and anal fins, lateral

line 46-47, and presence of 5-6 black bars on the pectoral fin.

However, C. melanostigma is distinguished from both the

species as in diagnosis above. But it is distinguished from

the latter in its more number of vertebrae and more posteriorly

inserted dorsal fin.

Channa melanostigma is distinguished from

C. aurantimaculata in having less number of dorsal fin rays

(36-37 vs. 45-47), last dorsal fin ray inserted between 41st

and 43rd vertebrae (vs. 46lh and 47th), cheek scales 5 vs.

10 and less number of circumpeduncular scales (28 vs. 34),

from C. punctatus in having 50-51 vertebrae (vs. 35); from

C. amphibeus, in its less numbers of lateral line pierced scales

(46-47 vs. 80-8 1 ); from C. barca, in having continuous black

bars in the pectoral fin (vs. dotted bars); from C. bleheri in

having pelvic fin (vs. absence); from C. harcourtbutleri in

Fig. 4: Collection sites of Channa melanostigma sp. nov.

from NE India

having 10 scales below the lateral line (vs. V2I- V28) and from

C. marulius and C. striata by the presence of two large cycloid

scales on each side of the undersurface of lower jaw

(vs. absence).

The new species is easily distinguished from Channa

nox of China and C. orientalis of Sri Lanka in presence of

pelvic fin (vs. absence); C. panaw of Myanmar in having

27-28 circumpeduncular scales (vs. 21-24); C. omatipinnis

of Myanmar in absence of three dorsal fin blotches

(vs. presence); and C. pulchra of Myanmar in absence of one

anterior dorsal fin blotch (vs. presence). The species is also

distinguished from C. argus of China, C. baramensis of

Malaysia; C. bankanensis, C. lucius, C. cyanospilos,

C. melanopterus, C. melasoma, C. micropeltes, and

C. pleurophthalmus of Indonesia by the presence of two large

cycloid scales on each side of the undersurface of lower jaw

(vs. absence).

Hora and Mukerji (1934) synonymised Channa

harcourtbutleri with C. gachua. However, Ng et al. (1999)

resurrected the species from synonymy and reported it to be

endemic in Inle lake of Myanmar. Menon (1954) listed

C. harcourtbutleri from Manipur without any collection data.

This was probably a misidentification of C. gachua.

Vishwanath and Geetakumari (2009) recognized two

groups of Channa in north-east India, namely 'gachua-group',

with large cycloid scales on each side of the undersurface of

lower jaw which included C. amphibeus , C. aurantimaculata,

234

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

C. barca , C. bleheri. C. gachua , C. punctata , C. stewartii

and ‘marulius-group'without the scales as in the above which

included C. striata and C. marulius. The new species under

description belong to the ‘gachua-group’ as its has large

cycloid scales.

General inventory and phylogenetic study of the diverse

species of Channa in north-east India and adjoining areas is

awaited.

Comparative Material: Channa amphibeus : ZSI

11435, 1, neotype, 184.6mm SL: India: Northern Bengal.

Channa aurantimaculata : MUMF-Per 01.2, 175-182.0 mm

SL; India: Arunachal Pradesh. Lohit district, Teju river.

GUBM (Guwahati University Biodiversity Museum uncat.,

1 ex, 345 mm SL; India; Assam, Guijan. Channa barca : ZSI

1387, 1 ex, 260.7 mm SL; india: Calcutta. GUBM uncat.,

1 ex, 447.7 mm SL, india: Assam, Guwahati, Marigoan

Market; MUMF-Per 44 (2), 295-298 mm SL, india: Assam,

fringe area of Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Morigaon. Channa

bleheri: MUMF-Per 03, 2, 148.4-149.1 mm SL, india:

Arunachal Pradesh, Dikrong river, Doymukh; BMGU uncat.,

1 ex, 121.0 mm SL, india: Assam, Tinsukia district. Channa

gachua : ZSI F 2705, 1 ex, 246.0 mm SL, Bangladesh:

Bulagunj, Sylhet; MLIMF-Per/0004 (6), 1 12.8-1 12.9 mm SL.

india: Manipur, Nambul River, Singda. Channa

harcourtbutleri: ZSI F 9439, 1 ex, 189.0 mm SL. myanmar:

Inle Lake. S. Shan states. Channa marulius-. MUMF uncat.,

1 ex, 488.0 mm SL, india: Manipur, Barak river,

Vanchengphai, Tamenglong district; MUMF-Per 25, 7, 97.8-

151.6 mm SL, Chindwin Basin, Moreh, India. Channa

punctata : ZSIF 7688, 1 ex, 144.6 mm SL, india: Bihar,

Bhagmati River, Pumea, Champaran district; MUMF-Per 13,

6, 95.6-105.9 mm SL, india: Manipur, Nambul River, Singda.

Channa stewartii: ZSI 10024, 1. 170.0 mm SL, india:

Meghalaya, Shillong; MUMF-Per 21, 2, 109.7-155.2 mm SL,

india: Arunachal Pradesh, Deopani river, Rowing, Lower

Devang Valley district: BMGU uncat., 1 ex, 260.0 mm SL,

india: Assam, Guijan. Channa striata: ZSI F 12922, 1 ex,

247.6 mm SL, india: Andhra Pradesh, Cheyyeru river, near

Razampeta; MUMF-Per 31,8, 164.8-187.0 mm SL, india:

Manipur, streams near Imphal valley.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Prof. M.M. Goswami, Guwahati

University, for donating Channa barca from his collection

and also for permitting to examine his collections in GUBM.

We thank Dr. K. Nebeshwar Sharma for collecting Channa

specimens from Arunachal Pradesh. The first author is grateful

to Manipur University for the award of UGC research

scholarship. The second author is grateful to the Ministry of

Environment & Forests, Government of India for financial

assistance (Project No. 14/1 1/2006-ERS/RE).

REFERENCES

Bagra, K., K. Kadu, K.N. Sharma, B.A. Laskar, U.K. Sarkar &

D.N. Das (2009): Ichthyological survey and review of the

checklist of fish fauna of Arunachal Pradesh. India. Checklist

5(2): 330-350.

Greenwood, P.H. (1976): Areview of the family Centropomidae (Pisces:

Perciformes). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)

29(1): 1-81.

Hamilton, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes found in the River Ganges

and its branches. Archibald Constable and Company, London.

405 pp.. 39 pis.

Hollister, G ( 1934): Clearing and dyeing fish for bone study. Zoologica

12: 89-101.

Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukerji (1934): Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum. XXIL On a collection of fish from the S. Shan states

and the Pegu Yomas. Burma. Record of Indian Museum 36:

125-138.

Li, X.. P. Musikasinthorn & Y. Kumazawa (2005): Molecular

phylogenetic analysis of snakeheads (Perciformes: Channidae)

using mitochondria] DNA sequences. Ichthyological Research

53: 148-159.

McClelland. J. (1845): Description of four species of fishes from the

rivers at the foot of Boutan Mountains. Journal of Natural

History , Calcutta 5(18): 274-282.

Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish fauna of the

Manipur State. Records of Indian Museum 52(1): 21-26.

Musikasinthorn, P. (1998): Channa panaw, a new channid fish from

the Irrawaddy and Sittang River basins. Myanmar. Ichthyological

Research 45: 355-362.

Musikasinthorn, P. (2000): Channa aurantimaculata, a new Channid

fish from Assam (Brahmaputra River basin), India, with

designation of a neotype for C. amphibeus (McClelland, 1845).

Ichthyological Research. 47: 27-37 .

Nath. P. & S.C. Dey (2000): Fish and Fisheries of north-eastern India

(Arunachal Pradesh) Narendra Publishing house, Delhi.

Pp. 1-217.

Ng. H.H., P.K.L. Ng & R. Britz (1999): Channa harcourtbutleri

(Annandale, 1918): a valid species of snakehead (Perciformes:

Channidae) from Myanmar. Journal of South Asian Natural

History 4(1): 57-63.

Playfair, R.L. (1867): On the fishes of Cachar. Proceedings of

Zoological Society. London (Pt. 1): 14-17, pi. 3.

Sen, N. (1999): Notes on a collection of fishes from Lohit, Tirap and

Changlang districts of Arunachal Pradesh: India. Records of

zoological survey of India, 97 ( Part 2): 189-204.

Sen, T.K. (2006): Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh. State Fauna Series,

Zoological Survey of India, 13 (Part 1): 317-396.

Shaw, G.E. & E.O. Shebbeare (1937): The fishes of Northern Bengal.

Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Science: 137, 6 pis.

Vierke, J. (1991): Ein farbenfroher neuer Schlangenkopffisch aus Assam

Channa bleheri spec. nov. Das Aquarium. 259: 20-24.

Vishwanath, W. & Kh. Geetakumari (2009): Diagnosis and inter¬

relationships of fishes of the genus Channa Scopoli (Teleostei:

Channidae) of northeastern India. Journal of threatened taxa

1(2): 97-105.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

235

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

236-237

REVIEWS

1. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY: A PRIMER FOR SOUTH ASIA by Kamaljit S. Bawa.

Richard B. Primack and Meera Anna Ooramen (201 1). Universities Press, Hyderabad. 589 pp.

Size: 24.2 cm x 14.6 cm. Paperback. Price: Rs. 595/-.

This book was first published by Sinauer Associates,

Inc. in 2004 as a primer of conservation biology. ATREE

and Universities Press need to be congratulated for publishing

the revised and updated version in the present form, mainly

for students, field researchers and field managers. The book

covers almost every possible topical conservation topic so

there is something for every category' of reader: from genetics

of marine turtles of India to reserve size and characteristics;

from reconciliation ecology to repairing the rain forest. The

language is lucid with relevant references, wherever required.

Topics that do not fit in the flow of the text are given as box

items, which can be read along with the chapter or separately.

This voluminous book with 589 pages consists of only

seven chapters but each chapter is divided into sub-chapters,

sections, boxes etc. Each chapter ends with a Summary and

Suggested Readings; the references listed under Suggested

Readings too are explained in brief. I hope such minor details

will greatly help students of conservation biology. The papers

selected in the suggested readings (among thousands of papers

published during the last 30-35 years) are chosen with great

care and should be read or referred to by conservation

biologists, protected area managers and decision makers.

Besides the suggested readings, the reference section runs to

77 pages, which itself shows the in-depth research done by

the authors.

As the book is a primer, it has some basic information

about biodiversity, food chain and food web, natural extinction

rates, but at the same time the book contains information on

new topics such as ecological economics, common property

resources, environmental ethics, extinction vortices etc. Good

black-and-white pictures are added for emphasis and they

make the book very interesting. Captions to pictures and

diagrams provide a wealth of information.

All in all, it is a good book particularly for students

and young field biologists, but I think protected area managers,

who may have undergone various trainings, will also benefit

from this book. While reviewing it, I learnt many things from

this book; it is indeed true that there is no limit to knowledge!

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

2. THE VANISHING HERDS: THE WILD WATER BUFFALO, by Anwaruddin Choudhury

(2010). Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, ATREE, Gibbon Books and The Rhino Foundation

for Nature in NE India. Guwahati, Assam. 184 pp. Size: 18.0 cm x 24.3 cm. Hardbound.

Price: Rs. 1,250/-.

Dr. Anwaruddin Choudhury is one of India’s most

prolific natural history writers with an enviable credit of nearly

500 research papers and popular articles, and nearly 20 books

and booklets. He is also a widely travelled naturalist,

particularly in north-east India. Basically a geographer by

education, his knowledge is reflected in his meticulous

writings of areas, locations and habitats. Anwar also takes

pictures, sometimes seemingly uninteresting at the time of

photography, but he uses them very intelligently in his papers

and books to emphasize a point. This book is a classical

example of how good photographs can be woven into a story.

In this book, one can get good information on the Wild Water

Buffalo from the photographs and their captions.

The text is also a classical Anwar standard and style:

meticulous research quoting even Babur-nama ( 1483-1531 )

to the latest papers (2009), including websites (latest

download July 10, 2009), detailed personal observations (for

example see Table 1 1, page 93), interesting box items (see

Box 5. p 47-48), and easy-to-read text.

The book is divided into seven chapters, excluding

Appendices, Glossary and Bibliography. It is sad to see from

the maps how the historical distribution of the Wild Buffalo

has contracted from millions of sq. km, comprising areas from

southern Iran, Pakistan, India, to the whole of East Asia, to

present-day distribution in a few protected areas such as

Manas, Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa and a few others. From

millions of animals a couple of hundred years ago, the total

estimated population today is not more than 5,000 globally

and in India, one time its main stronghold, the total suitable

habitat left for the Wild Buffalo is only 2,500 sq. km. There

are only two small areas in south-east Asia, one in Thailand

and another in Cambodia, where currently Wild Buffalo are

reported in very small numbers, not more than 30-40 animals

each. Anwaruddin has also described the famous ‘Wild’

REVIEWS

Buffaloes of Sri Lanka, but as he rightly says, they had

originated from domestic animals, like the 'Wild' Buffaloes

of Australia. Interestingly, the so-called Wild Buffalos of

Australia are a fair ‘game" and people pay hundreds of dollars

to hunt them.

The fourth chapter Ecology and Behaviour is very

interesting to read. Although Anwaruddin has not worked

full-time on this species (he is a full-time government officer

in Assam), he has collected and collated all the information

on Wild Buffalo behaviour in this chapter, and added his own

observations of the last 20 years. In the next chapter, he

describes the controversy of wild, domestic and hybrid

buffaloes. The sixth chapter. Conservation, makes sad reading

of what we have done to this majestic animal. The Wild

Buffalo is not only a majestic animal, but it is extremely

important for our agricultural economy, as all the domestic

buffalos have originated from their wild relative. If the

Government of India implements the recommendations given

in the final chapter of this book, it may possibly increase the

number of Wild Buffalo and perhaps reintroduce it in the

areas where it was lost, such as Dudhwa National Park in

Uttar Pradesh.

In a nutshell, this is a very useful book on an

economically useful animal. I hope the Government of India

and other range countries will take effective measures to

restore, protect and save the Wild Buffalo. For this to happen,

we need inter-state and international collaborations. Looking

at the false pride, strained inter-state relationships and

geopolitics, collaboration for Wild Buffalo conservation

appears more difficult than writing a well-researched book.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

237

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010

238-269

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. FIRST RECORD OF THE SLENDER LORIS LORIS LYDEKKER1ANUS CABRERA 1908,

IN CHENNAI CITY, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Tara Gandhi1, Sai Archana Para2 3 and Amrita Sivakumar24

1 A 1 Uttaravedi, 7 Second Seaward Road, Valmiki Nagar, Chennai 600 041, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

2Kalakshtra Foundation, Tiruvanmiyur, Chennai 600 041, Tamil Nadu, India.

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Slender Loris was sighted on February 19, 2010, in the

campus of an educational institution located in a busy

residential area in south-east coastal Chennai. It was first

observed and photographed by two of us (Sai Archana and

Amrita) who are full-time students. We noticed it for its strange

and endearing appearance, but were unable to identify it or

realize its significance. After studying the photographs of

February 19, 2010, and making actual observations for a few

days, Tara Gandhi identified it as the Slender Loris. The

identification was further authenticated and confirmed by

wildlife experts. We wish to report our sighting as the first

record of the species within an urban environment in Chennai.

The Sighting

Our first sighting was in a clump of low thorny trees

overgrown with creepers in a secluded area of the campus

where we were trying to photograph an owl at about

17:00 hrs in the evening. Archana notes, “We saw a pale

greyish bundle in the tree. On first glance, I thought it to be

the owl; Amrita thought it was a bat. After a series of guesses

we had settled on a small monkey. As we looked at it, the

bundle began to separate and we realized that the creature

was not one, but two! They stared at us with their large,

round, marble-like eyes with dark markings surrounding

them, and we at them. They slowly began ascending the

branches of the canopy, always keeping a steady gaze on

us. We lost track of one of them, but although clearly

increasing the distance between us, the other one still

maintained eye contact. The higher it went, the more difficult

it became to distinguish it from the dead leaves of the

branches.”

Subsequently, over the next few weeks (February

20-March 15, 2010), we made several more observations at

the same site as well as at other spots in the campus, and we

counted four individual animals, including one infant

clinging to its mother’s underbelly. Sometimes they would

be curled up in a bundle, either separately, or two or more

together, and at other times we saw them moving slowly

along the thin branches of trees. As there were two distinct

spots more than 200 m apart where the lorises were seen

repeatedly, we were unsure as to whether there were two

separate groups or whether they were the same individuals

who had moved from one place to the other. We took several

more photographs on these occasions. All the photographs

were taken with a small amateur camera with a limited zoom

lens. The flash was used only when the lorises were seen in

shady recesses.

Status of the Species

The Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus belongs to a

group of lesser-known arboreal primates characterised by

small body with long slender limbs and no tail, rounded head

with short sharp muzzle, large round eyes, insectivorous diet

and generally solitary, nocturnal lifestyle. Sexes are alike

though males are slightly larger. There are only two

strepsirrhine primate genera found in India, Loris and

Nycticebus. The Slow Loris ( Nycticebus ) occurs in north-east

India and parts of South-east Asia, and the Slender loris {Loris)

is found in southern India, south of the Tapti and Godavari

rivers up to 800 m, and in Sri Lanka (Menon 2003). The

general habitat of the Slender Loris is open scrub jungle, dry

deciduous and evergreen forests, but there are records of the

species occurring in human-dominated landscapes like

plantations or other cultivations and even in the greener parts

of some urban and rural areas.

To quote Radhakrishna (2004), “The slender loris is

called kadupapa in Kannada, which quite literally translates

as 'forest baby’. In Tamil, it is called thevangu. According to

popular folklore, various body parts of the slender loris, most

particularly its eyes, impart strength when consumed and

potions made out of boiling its flesh and organs are

recommended to cure ailments. Hunted for use in folk

medicine, killed due to superstitious beliefs about the ill-luck

it brings, trapped for laboratory dissections, and driven out

of its natural habitat by forest fragmentation, the slender loris

is being driven towards gradual extinction. Only pocket

populations of the species survive today in scrubland, forest

patches and orchards in some parts of peninsular India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Slender lorises are nocturnal in their activity pattern.

They actively forage and explore during the night and sleep

during the day. They are almost completely arboreal and prefer

to move on thin branches that can be grasped by the digits of

their limbs. Insects like ants, termites, walking sticks, and

grasshoppers are eaten most often, though fruits of particular

plant species like Securinega and Ziziphus, and gum from

tree species like Acacia are also consumed”.

Lorises are endangered species in India (Schedule I

Wildlife Protection Act 1972). On account of their tendency

to move out of protected areas, they are in need of stringent

conservation measures by way of habitat improvement and

protection. Poaching is a serious threat. Their slow movement,

especially when they descend to the ground, makes them

victims of road-kills when they encounter vehicular traffic

(Mewa Singh pers.comm).

Methods

Since the sighting was by chance, no scientific

methodology was followed. The search for the lorises was

mostly in the evenings, before dark at the known sites as

well as at other likely secluded areas with similar tree clumps.

An attempt was also made to search for areas in the trees

where the light did not reach through and then determine if

it was leaves or fur, or perhaps owls. For majority of the

time, bunches of dry leaves misled the attempts. The lorises

blended in so well that they were hard to detect until they

moved.

No records were made between April and September

2010, partly because of summer vacations from May to July.

From July onwards, no lorises were seen, though the known

sites were frequently searched; this could also be because

the vegetation had grown denser during the rainy season

(Chennai experienced heavy rainfall between June and

September 2010), making visibility difficult. All the previous

sightings made during this study were in the dry season when

the leaves on the trees were sparse and there was dried leaf

litter on the ground that had been swept into mounds. During

the second half of the year, a single individual was recorded

on October 05, 2010, and again on November 10, 2010, at

17:00 hrs three lorises, an adult and two darker coloured

juveniles were sighted. These were initially sleeping in a

group on a tree branch, but later began to move.

We made enquiries with other students, teachers and

staff on the campus and were told that some of them had seen

small animals that fitted the description of lorises as far back

as three years ago. Some students had seen them two years

ago as well. They had mostly been spotted on the ground

while crossing from tree to tree, or walking slowly along the

road. However, apart from noticing the reddish shining eyes

and slow movement, they had attached no importance to the

animal and therefore did not report it.

The Habitat

Coastal Chennai south of the Adyar river is

characterized by a number of fairly quiet housing colonies

with tree-lined avenues linked by crowded commercial roads

with shops and restaurants. Several schools and cultural

institutions have extensive gardens and good tree cover that

provide the greenery that the area is known for. Most of these

campuses were built on what was originally sandy land that

was planted about fifty years ago with mixed local tree

species such as Neem, Ficus varieties, Jamun, Laburnum

and Morns sp. and exotics like Gulmohur, Eucalyptus,

Casuarina, Cashew and various ornamental flowering plants.

These are interspersed with native Acacia and Prosopis

species.

The present campus is an educational institution with

continuous activity and movement of people from early

morning till evening. Often there are activities and

programmes after dark during which there is vehicular traffic.

Paths and roads within the campus are well lit at night. The

fauna include over 35 species of birds, several species of

snakes, geckos, lizards and amphibians, and an abundance of

insects, spiders and other invertebrates like snails and slugs.

The other small mammals found on the campus are palm

squirrels, mongooses, domestic cats and dogs, shrews, rats

and mice.

Previous Records

The last and perhaps the only previous record of the

Slender Loris in the general vicinity of Chennai city was

sometime around 1970, when it was seen in the campus of

the Madras Christian College (MCC), located in the western

suburb of Tambaram. At that time Tambaram was outside the

city limits and the MCC abutted the Vandalur reserve forest,

an extensive scrub jungle that was still relatively undisturbed.

Several rare wildlife species were recorded by the zoology

department of the college, among which the loris was one

(Sanjeeva Raj 1973). Since then, there have been no recorded

sightings of this animal in the entire area of greater Chennai.

The species has now disappeared from the MCC site as well.

At present, the nearest geographical location where a

population of over 200 Slender Loris are known to occur is

Sriharikota island (Manakadan 2008), which is about 115 km

north of Chennai.

While Slender Loris is known to occur in large well-

wooded urban campuses in the city of Bengaluru, there are

no previous records of the species within an urban

environment in Chennai.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

239

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Discussion

The occurrence of a shy and highly endangered primate

like the Slender Loris in an urban setting comes as a surprise

and an exciting discovery, particularly as they are evidently

breeding successfully and there is some indication of their

presence at this site during the past few years. It is known

that lorises do adapt to certain human-dominated landscapes

(Honnavalli et al. 2009), and they have also been recorded in

the city of Bengaluru, where there are over 100 individuals

inhabiting its few and fast disappearing green pockets (Gandhi

2008).

However, the history of these animals at this particular

site in Chennai is still puzzling. At present we can only

speculate about the origins of this group that we have found.

They could perhaps have escaped from captivity, or they may

be released pets that had managed to survive in the wooded

campus surroundings. On the other hand they could be wild

lorises that had somehow adventurously migrated from their

natural habitat, though it is hard to imagine since there are no

natural corridors left in-between the congested urban

development. It is also possible that the animals had been

there all along, but had not been noticed on account of their

reclusive nocturnal habits.

The Guindy National Park which is an extensive forest

Gandhi. D. (2008): Touch and go for the Slender Loris. The Hindu,

May 14, 2008. Bangalore.

Honnavalli, N.K.. Mohammed Irfan-Ullah, S. Kumar (2009): Mapping

potential distribution of slender loris subspecies in peninsular

India. Endangered Species Research 7: 29-38.

Manakadan, R. (2008): Sriharikota - Wilderness Regained? Hombill

Oct-Dec 2008. Pp. 107-111.

in Chennai dating back to colonial times is located less than

6 km from this site. Despite its rich biodiversity, it has no

records of the loris and the only primate known to occur there

is the Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata. Though Chennai

has an active community of birdwatchers and nature

photographers, the loris has never been recorded in their urban

w ildlife checklists.

An extended study is required before any conclusions

can be draw n on the status of this species in the city and it is

important to conduct detailed surveys of similar green pockets

in the immediate vicinity as well. These will provide insights

into the occurrence of the Slender Loris in Chennai and will

help put conservation action into place.

We hope to continue our investigations to gather more

information and intend to maintain careful records of all

further sightings of this curious and enigmatic animal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our gratitude to Mr. Preston Ahimaz,

Prof. Dr. Sanjeeva Raj, Mr. K.V. Sudhakar. Dr. Ravi Chellam,

Dr. Ajith Kumar, Prof. Mewa Singh and Mr. Kumaran

Sathasivam for generously providing papers, articles and

information.

Menon, V. (2003): Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling Kindersley

(India).

Radhakrishna, S. (2004): Sociality in a Solitary Primate:

How Gregarious is the Slender Loris? Resonance January,

2004.

Sanjeeva Raj, P.J. (1973): Mammals of our Campus. The Madras

Christian College Magazine Vol. XLII.

2. A NOTE ON THE DIET OF TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS LINNAEUS AND DHOLE

CUON ALPINUS PALLAS IN A MONTANE SHOLA FOREST. WESTERN GHATS. INDIA

Tharmalingam, Ramesh1-2 and Riddhika Kalle13

'Wildlife Institute of India. Chandrabani. P.O. Box 18. Dehradun 248 001 . Uttarakhand. India.

Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

Diet studies of large carnivores from the montane

shola grasslands are poorly understood. Food habits of

large carnivores have been reported from the scrub jungle

(Cohen el al. 1978: Arivazhagan et al. 2007) and deciduous

forest (Johnsingh 1983; Karanth and Sunquist 1995;

Venkataraman et al. 1995; Andheria et al. 2007: Ramesh et al.

2009) of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Western Ghats. We

present notes on the diet of tiger and dhole from a three-day

surv ey in Mukurthi National Park in February 2010. The study

was conducted in the Mukurthi National Park (>1,800-2,500 m

above msl) of the Nilgiris, which comprises of rolling hills and

mountains of the evergreen shola grasslands. The sholas are

confined to depressions and folds in the mountain characterized

by small (7-15 m) and medium (15-20 m) sized trees (Von

Lengerke and Blasco 1 989). Annual rainfall ranges from 1 ,500-

2,000 mm. Frost is frequent from December to February.

240

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

During this survey, scats of tiger (n = 30) and dhole

(n = 37) were collected opportunistically whenever

encountered along roads and trails. Prey species hair remains

from each scat were observed under a high magnification

microscope and compared with reference slides at the research

laboratory of Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun.

Scat analysis revealed the presence of three prey species

in tiger scats and five prey species in dhole scats. Percent

occurrence of prey items in tiger and dhole scats was calculated.

Tiger scats comprised of Sarnbar Rusa unicolor (78.8%),

Rodent (18.4%) and Wild Pig Sus scrofa (2.6%), while dhole

scats comprised of Sarnbar (51.6%) rodent (35.5%), Wild Pig

(6.5%), Black-naped Hare Lepus nigricollis (3.2%) and bird

(3.2%) remains. It is evident that tiger and dhole depend mainly

on sarnbar as the major prey along w ith secondary prey species

like small mammals. In comparison to the deciduous forest,

which is considered as a prey rich habitat with a much wider

choice of large body-sized prey (Ramesh et al. 2009), the shola

grasslands of Mukurthi harbour low density of prey species

and absence of chital (a major prey in other tiger habitats) in

the area. Large carnivores have the potential to survive even in

low densities in Mukurthi National Park. Further

comprehensive studies are needed to document food habits of

large predators from montane sholas of India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for

providing logistic support and permits. We also thank our

assistants, C. James and S. Mathan for field support.

REFERENCES

Andheria. A.P.. K.U. Karanth & N.S. Kumar (2007): Diet and prey

profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger

Reserve, India. J. Zool. (Lond.) 273: 169-175.

Arivazhagan, C., R. Arumugam & K. Thiyagesan (2007): Food habits

of leopard (Panthera pardus fusca). dhole (Cuon alpinus ) and

striped hyena ( Hyaena hyaena ) in a tropical dry thorn forest of

southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 104(2): 247-254.

Cohen, J.A., M.W. Fox, A.J.T. Johnsingh & B.D. Barnett (1978):

Food habits of the dhole in south India. J. Wild 1. Manage. 42:

933-936.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators in

Bandipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57.

Karanth, K.U. & M E. Sunquist (1995): Prey selection by tiger.

leopard and dhole in tropical forests. J. Anim. Ecol. 64: 439-

450.

Ramesh, T„ V. Snehalatha, K. Sankar & Q. Qureshi (2009): Food habits

and prey selection of tiger and leopard in Mudumalai Tiger

Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India. J. Sci. Trans. Environ. Technov. 2:

170-181.

Venkataraman, B.A., R. Arumugam & R. Sukumar (1995): The

foraging ecology of dhole ( Cuon alpinus) in Mudumalai

Sanctuary, Southern India. J. Zool. (Lond.) 237: 543-561.

Von Lengerke, H.J. & F. Blasco (1989): The Nilgiri Environment.

In: Hockings, P. (Ed.): Blue Mountains: the Ethnography and

Biogeography of a South Indian Region. Oxford University' Press,

Oxford. Pp. 20-78.

3. THE SECOND LOCALITY RECORD OF TAPHOZOUS LONGIMANUS HARDWICKE. 1825

(CHIROPTERA: EMBALLONURIDAE) FROM NEPAL

S.B. Thapa1, M.J. Pearch2 and G. Csorba3

'Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation, P.O. Box 13153, Sundhara, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: [email protected]

:Harrison Institute, Centre for Systematics and Biodiversity Research, Bowerwood House, 15 St. Botolph’s Road, Sevenoaks, Kent TNI 3 3AQ,

England. Email: [email protected]

department of Zoology, Hungarian Natural History Museum, H-1088 Budapest, Baross 13. Hungary. Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Six species of Emballonuridae (Saccolaimus

saccolaimus, Taphozous longimanus, T. melanopogon,

T. nudiventris , T. perforatus and T. theobaldi ) are recorded

from the Indian subcontinent (Bates and Harrison 1997). The

sole representative of the Family from Nepal is T. longimanus,

six specimens of which were collected by R.M. Mitchell from

Jhapa (26° 29' N; 87° 51’ E) in the eastern Terai of Nepal in

January. 1966 (Worth and Shah 1969: Mitchell 1978). In

February 2009, a single dead male specimen of T. longimanus

was found by the first author in Samrat Chowk, a suburb of

Biratnagar, 56 km due west of Jhapa (Fig. 1 ). This is the second

locality record of the taxon in Nepal.

Nepal lies within the Himalaya Hotspot as defined by

Conservation International (www.biodiversityhotspots.org) and

both Biratnagar and Jhapa are located in the critical/

endangered Global 200 terrestrial ecoregion number 91,

Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (Olson and Dinerstein

2002).

Material and Methods

The voucher specimen was transferred from the

collection site to the Central Department of Zoology (CDZ),

Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, where it is retained as a

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

241

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Map showing the recorded distribution of T. longimanus in Nepal, the northernmost record of the species from Narkatiaganj

in India, and the delineation of the Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (shaded area)

Table 1: Selected external, cranial, and dental measurements

of T. longimanus from Samrat Chowk, Nepal

(to the nearest 1 .0 mm) and of T. longimanus from India

and Sri Lanka (to the nearest 0.1 mm)

Samrat Chowk, Nepal India and Sri Lanka

(CDZ_BAT 7) (Bates & Harrison, 1997)

HB - head and body length; T - tail length; TIB - tibia length;

HF - hindfoot length; FA - forearm length; 3mt - third metacarpal

length; 1ph3mt - length of the first phalanx of the third metacarpal;

E - ear length; GTL - greatest length of skull; CCL - condylo-canine

length; ZB - zygomatic breadth; BB - breadth of braincase;

C-M3 - maxillary toothrow length; c-m3- mandibular toothrow length;

M - mandible length.

wet specimen in 70% ethanol with the skull extracted. Fifteen

external, cranial, and dental measurements were taken and

these are presented in Table 1 together with comparative

measurements of specimens of T. longimanus from India and

Sri Lanka listed in Bates and Harrison (1997).

Systematic Review

Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825.

Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 14: 525.

Type Locality: Calcutta (now Kolkata), India

Common Name: Long-winged Tomb Bat

Variation

Bates and Harrison ( 1997) and Simmons (2005) refer

all T. longimanus in the region to the nominate form, as the

taxa brevicaudus, cantori , and fulvidus are no longer regarded

as being distinct. Csorba et al. (1999) refer specimens from

Nepal to the nominate subspecies on the same grounds.

IUCN (2010) status - Least concern (Bates etal. 2008).

Material

1 d (adult): Reg No: CDZ_BAT 7; Samrat Chowk (26°

28' 46.30" N; 87° 17' 8.18" E), Pokharia, Biratnagar-1, Nepal,

72 m above msl; 25. ii. 2009, Coll. Thapa, S.B.

The collection site is located in the eastern part of the

Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (Terrestrial ecoregion

IM0701; Global 200 ecoregion no. 91) (Fig. 1), which is a

composite mixture of tropical and subtropical grasslands,

savannas, and shrublands supporting mainly an Indo-Malayan

fauna (WWF 2001).

242

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: The skull of CDZ_BAT 7 showing the relative lengths of

the upper canine (Cl ) and the second upper premolar (PM4)

and the elevation of the braincase (B) above the rostrum (RO)

Diagnosis and Description

The specimen has a long third metacarpal (61 mm); a

naked chin; a prominent gular sac; and a moderately

developed radio-metacarpal pouch at the junction of the

forearm and the fifth metacarpal. The wing is attached to the

ankle. Fur on the dorsal and ventral areas extends

approximately to one half the length of each humerus and

femur; the wings are otherwise naked. In the skull, the

braincase is elevated above the rostrum. In the dentition, the

second upper premolar (PM4) is robust and extends roughly

to three-quarters the height of the upper canine (Cl)

(Fig. 2).

One of the external diagnostic characteristics most

helpful in distinguishing between the Emballonurid species

known from the Indian subcontinent is the attachment point

of the wing. In Taphozous melanopogon , T. nudiventris ,

T. perforatus, and T. theobaldi, the wing is attached to the

tibia; in T. longimanus and Saccolaimus saccolaimus, it is

attached to the ankle (Fig. 3). Characteristics that may be

used to distinguish between the last two species include the

chin, which is naked in longimanus but which is covered in

short hairs in saccolaimus, and a radio-metacarpal pouch,

which is present in longimanus (Fig. 4), but absent in

saccolaimus.

Ecology and Habitat

The bat was found dead on a road in Samrat Chowk,

which is a small residential area of Pokharia located within

Biratnagar Submetropolitan City Ward no. I . Approximately

50 m from the road lies a small group of teak trees Tectona

sp. The road terminates 1 km to the east of the collection site

at the Singia river, where there is a wooded area dominated

by the Indian Rosewood Datbergia sissoo. Beyond the Singia

river, there are large, open fields, in which rice Oryza sp. is

Fig. 3: Detail of the hindfoot and leg of CDZ_BAT 7

showing the attachment of the wing to the ankle (arrowed)

and the protrusion of the tip of the tail from the mid-point

of the interfemoral membrane

grown in summer and wheat Triticum sp. in winter. There

are a few small areas of cultivated sugarcane Saccharum sp.

Areas to the immediate north, south, and west of the

collection site are dominated by buildings. The average

annual daytime temperature range is 18-31 °C (DHM 2006)

and the average annual minimum night-time temperature is

7.7 °C (Central Bureau of Statistics 2009). Annual rainfall is

approximately 157 mm (DHM 2006).

Elsewhere in its range, T. longimanus has been

collected from hollows in the trunks of banyan and peepal

trees, the crowns of palm trees, the domed roof of a church

(Sinha 1986) and from the partially sunlit eaves of houses

(Wroughton 1913). The species has been observed to be a

solitary forager, flying commonly at heights of 25 to 62 m

with occasional fast, swooping runs close to the ground at

sites of high insect activity (Pearch and Writer 2009). Sinha

(1986) considered the species’ favoured diet to be

cockroaches and beetles.

Fig. 4: Right wing of CDZ_BAT 7 showing the presence

of a radio-metacarpal pouch (arrowed) and the extension

of the fur to one half the length of the humerus

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

243

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Discussion

The collection of T. longimanus from Samrat Chowk

represents the second record of the species, of the genus, and

of Family Emballonuridae from Nepal. It is also the fourth

most northerly collection locality of the taxon, the most

northerly being Narkatiaganj (c. 27° 06' 30' N; 84° 27' 40" E )

in India (Sinha 1986) (Fig. 1).

T. longimanus is a well-documented taxon throughout

its range w ith 16 locality records alone in the adjacent Indian

state of Bihar (Bates and Harrison 1997). The Chiroptera of

Nepal and the small mammal fauna of the country in general,

how ever, remain under-researched and this is evinced by the

fact that T. longimanus is one of the 1 1 bat species (or 22% of

Nepal's documented bat fauna) known from no more than

tw o localities in the country. A further 14 bat taxa (28% ) are

know n only by a single specimen or from just a single locality

(Pearch in press).

Of the 50 bat species with substantive collection records

from Nepal, only T. longimanus and Marina cyclotis are

restricted exclusively to the critical/endangered Terai-Duar

Savanna and Grasslands (Pearch in press). Although

T. longimanus may not be directly affected by these changes,

major and persistent threats to the ecoregion include the

clearance of rare tall grasslands for agriculture, over-grazing,

logging, erosion, poaching, and the diversion of w atercourses

for irrigation ( \\A\T 2001 ). The main driver of such ecological

disturbance is over-population, which is occasioned largely

by the resettlement of workers from growing communities in

highland areas, where human expansion is limited by

topographical constraints. Accordingly , research into methods

of reducing such resettlement would be of tangible benefit to

the endangered habitats in the southern part of the countrv.

With the recent improvements in access to many parts

of the country , a tremendous opportunity presents itself to

revitalise the study of the nation's fauna and it w ould seem

sensible to suggest that surveys be undertaken to determine

the small mammal composition of some of the country 's more

threatened areas, including the Terai. before the grow th of

habitat degradation gathers pace. This point was addressed

by Pearch (in press), who propounded a series of

recommendations for biodiversity assessments in protected

and other areas of Nepal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In Nepal, the first author is pleased to acknow ledge the

encouragement provided to him by Dr. Sarala Khaling and

Ang Phuri Sherpa of the Critical Ecosy stem Partnership Fund

and would like to thank Sagar Dahal of the Small Mammals

Conservation and Research Foundation for assisting w ith skull

preparation. In India, w e thank Sally Walker, Sanjay Molur.

B.A. Daniel. R. Marimuthu, and the Zoo Outreach

Organization. Coimbatore. The authors are indebted to David

Harrison and Paul Bates of the Harrison Institute. Sevenoaks.

England, for their diagnostic contributions.

The first author w ishes to express particular gratitude

to Prof. Paul Racev for his continuous support and

encouragement.

REFERENCES

Bates. P.J.J. & D.L. FLarrlson (1997): Bats of the Indian Subcontinent.

Harrison Zoological Museum. 258 pp.

Bates. P.J.J.. C.F. Francis. T. Kingston. M. Gumal & J. Walston (2008):

Taphozous longimanus. In: IUCN, 2010. IUCN Red List of

Threatened Species. Version 2010. 4. <www.iucnredlist.org>.

Downloaded on 4 December. 2010.

Central Bureau of Statistics. Government of Nepal (2009):

. Compendium on Environment Statistics, http://w w w.adb.org/

Documents/EDRC/Statistics/Environment/nepal.xls

Dow nloaded on 29E December. 2009.

C sorb a. G.. S.V. Kruskop & A.V. Borissenko (1999): Recent records of

bats (Chiroptera) from Nepal, with remarks on their natural

history . Mammalia 6311 y. 61-78.

DHN1 (2006 1: Climatological and Agro-meteorological Records of

Nepal. 2006. Department of Hy drology and Meteorology.

Ministry of EnvironmenL Science, and Technology . Kathmandu.

Nepal.

Hardwicke, T. i 1825): Description of a new species of sheath-tailed

bat ( Taphozous ) found in Calcutta. Transactions of the Linnean

Socien of London 14: 525-526.

Mitchell. R.M. ( 1978 ): Achecklist of Nepalese bats. Saugetierkundliche

Mitteilungen 26l 1 1: 75-78.

Olson. D.M. & E. Dinersteln (2002): The Global 200: priority

ecoregions for global conserv ation. Annals of the Missouri

Botanical Garden 89: 199-224.

Pearch. M.J. (in press): A review of the biological diversity and

distribution of small mammal taxa in the terrestrial ecoregions

and protected areas of Nepal. Zootaxa.

Pearch. M.J. & T.O.D. Writer (Eds) (2009 ): South-East Asian Bat

Database. Harrison Institute. Sevenoaks. L'.K.

Simmons, N.B. (2005 ): Order Chiroptera. Pp. 3 1 2-529. In: Wilson. D.E.

& D.M. Reeder (Eds): Mammal Species of the World.

A taxonomic and geographic reference. Third edition, volume 1 .

The Johns Hopkins Univ ersity Press. Baltimore. 743 pp.

Sinha. Y.P. (1986): The bats of Bihar: taxonomy and ecology . Records

of the Zoological Surve v of India. Miscellaneous Publication,

Occasional Paper No. 7. 60 pp. + 7 pis.

Worth. R.M. & N.K. Shah ( 1969): Nepal Health Survey. 1965-1966.

Honolulu (University of Hawaii Press), ix + 158 pages.

Wroughton. R.C. i 1913): Report No. 6: Kanara. Bombay Natural

Flistory Society 's Mammal Surv ey of India. J. Bombas Nat. Hist.

Soc. 22(1): 29-44.

WWF 1 2001 1: ww-w.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles. terrestrial/im

im0701_full.html. Downloaded on 4' December. 2010.

244

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dee 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. HIGH DAY TEMPERATURE AND SLEEP OUT BEHAVIOUR

OF ELLIOT'S GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS (ELLIOT)

IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY. RAJASTHAN. INDIA

Chhaya Bhatnagar1 \ Satish Kumar Sharma2 and Vijay Kumar Koli1 4

'Department of Zoology, College of Science. M.L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur 313 001. Rajasthan, India,

forest Research Farm (Banki) Sisarma, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

The Elliot’s Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista

philippensis is confined to Mahuwa Madhuca indica belt of

southern Rajasthan (Tehsin 1980; Chundawat et al. 2002;

Menon 2003; Sharma 2007). This species is commonly seen

in two wildlife sanctuaries of southern Rajasthan, namely,

Sitamata and Phulwari-ki-nal.

It is a nocturnal animal, which usually roosts in hollows

of trees or sheltered places among the branches. It comes out

from its hiding sites at dusk and retires before dawn (Prater

2005).

Arampura, a forest outpost of Sitamata Sanctuary is

famous for its Mahuwa groves and Elliot's Giant Flying Squirrel

Petaurista philippensis. On May 22, 2010. the maximum

temperature of Dhariwad, a station 20 km away from Arampura,

was 47.7 °C. The temperature of a few surrounding stations on

May 22. and 23, 2010, is given in Table 1 .

Nearly a 50 m away from the outpost building, we

observed a P. philippensis repeatedly peek from a hole in a

Mahuwa tree. Despite the presence of many humans, it

emerged from its hiding site at about 15:40 hrs. Within no

time it skulked in the foliage slightly away from its hole. It

remained hidden in the foliage for five minutes after which it

slept on its back on a thick bough keeping its belly upward.

Dense shade was available at this sleeping site, though a few

thin light beams were penetrating down through the foliage.

The squirrel remained in this posture for c. 15 minutes and

then retired to its hole.

According to Prater (2005), during hot weather, flying

squirrel may sleep on its back with legs and parachute

outspread. The animal cools itself in this manner in the tropical

forest.

In the present case, though a nocturnal animal, flying

squirrel emerges even during day time for sleeping outside

the hole. The animal was probably uncomfortable inside the

hole due to the high temperature and hence ventured out to

get relief from the heat.

Chlndawat, P.S., S.K. Sharma & H.S. Solanki (2002): Occurrence

of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel (P. petaurista philippensis)

Table 1 : Maximum temperature of a few stations

near Arampura on May 22 and 23, 2010

During April to June 2010, the temperatures ranged

from 40-48 °C in southern Rajasthan. The internal

temperatures of the hollows probably became unbearable for

the flying squirrel due to high temperature conditions. To rid

itself of the unpleasant temperature of the hollows, the

squirrels dared to come out for sleep. This “sleep out”

behaviour was seen four times in the Sitamata Sanctuary. The

“sleep out behaviour” in all cases was observed during

afternoon session between 14:00 hrs and 16:30 hrs. This

behaviour was also noticed in Phulwari-ki-Nal Sanctuary from

April to June (Hankla Gameti pers. comm. 2010).

Since Mahuwa growth is thick in Sitamata and

Phulwari sanctuaries, and squirrels remain undetected due

to dense foliage, it is likely that the animals feel safe under

the dense cover of foliage. No natural predator was seen, so

far. in the study area. It is the safety factor and high heat

inside the holes which induced the “sleep out" behaviour in

the squirrels.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the officials of the Sitamata Sanctuary

for providing facilities during the study.

in Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary. Zoos' Print Journal 17(1 Ip.

1941.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

245

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling

Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Prater, S.H. (2005): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society. Oxford University Press, UK.

Sharma, S.K. (2007): Study of Biodiversity and Ethnobiology of

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur (Rajasthan). Ph.D. Thesis.

MLS University, Udaipur (Raj.).

Tehsin, R.H. (1980): Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel

and Mouse Deer near Udaipur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 77(3): 498.

5. FIRST RECORD OF ALBINO SAMBAR RUSA UNICOLOR (KERR)

FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

Anant Pande12, Debmalya Roychowdhury1, Devlin Leishangthem1, Sudeep Banerjee1, Pushkal Bagchie1,

Neha Awasthi1, Rubi Kumari Sharma1, Priyanka Runwal1 and Shikha Bisht1

'Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box No. 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

2Email: [email protected]

A rare sighting of an albino Sambar R it set unicolor (Ken-

1792) was made on June 19, 2010, in the core area of the

Corbett Tiger Reserve. The forest department informed us

about the occurrence of a white-coloured Sambar in the

Jamunagawd beat of Jhirna range. As a part of the tiger

monitoring team, we visited the area to get photographic

evidence.

At 29° 30' 0.8" N and 78° 55' 30.3" E, we observed a

white Sambar fawn (Fig. 1) accompanied by its normal

coloured mother. The fawn was pure white with reddish snout

and red eyes. The inside of the ears was pinkish. The fawn

was feeding on grass and did not exhibit any abnormal activity.

Earlier Champion (1938) sighted an albino Sambar hind

in the mixed Sal and Chir pine forest near Chaukhamb in the

hills of Kohtri valley. Pillay (1953) also reported seeing an

albino Sambar hind and an albino Sambar stag from Talamalai

range of north Coimabatore. Another record of a museum

specimen of albino Sambar from the Archaeological Museum

of Udaipur was given by Tehsin (2006). Sangai Express

Fig. 1 : Albino Sambar Rusa unicolor sighted at Corbett Tiger

Reserve

(March 30, 2010) published the birth of a white coloured

fawn on March 23, 2010, at Manipur Zoological Garden,

Iroishemba.

REFERENCES

Champion, H.G. ( 1938): An Albino Sambar. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 40(2): 322-323.

Pillay, B.S. (1953): An Albino Sambar. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4): 935.

Tehsin, R.H. (2006): An Albino Sambar Cervus unicolor Kerr. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 97.

6. CONSERVATION STATUS OF RAJAJI-CORBETT CORRIDOR

FOR TIGER AND ELEPHANT MOVEMENT

A.J.T. Johnsingh1, Bivash Pandav2-3, K. Ramesh2-4 and Qamar QuRESHI2’5

'Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore and WWF-India. Email: [email protected]

2Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001. Uttarakand, India.

Email : bivash .pandav @ wii .gov.in

Email: ramesh @ wii. gov.in

Email: qnq@ wii. gov.in

Rajaji-Corbett corridor, composed of two stretches of

forests, connects two tiger-elephant national parks in northern

India. The southern stretch (c. 300 sq. km), including the

forests of Haridwar forest division and Bijnor plantation

division, is highly fragmented and heavily disturbed. Although

used by elephants ( Elephas maximus), due to high levels of

246

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Haiyana

Rajaji-Coibett comiloi

Shiv

(Uttai Pradesh)

Corbett Tigei Reserve

Nepal

Himachal Pradesh

Rajaji National Park

m Water Bodies/River

□ Agriculture/Habitation

Forest Cover

Fig. 1: Tiger-Elephant landscape in Uttarakand, northern India

disturbance, this strip of forest is avoided by the tiger

(. Panthera tigris). On the contrary, although disturbed, the

northern stretch (c. 200 sq. km), formed by Kotdwar and

Laldhang ranges of Lansdowne forest division, as it is hilly,

is used both by the tiger and elephants. The future of the

60,000-70,000 people, who live on the southern boundary of

the northern corridor, is closely related to the ability of these

forests to sustain the water flow in the streams that arise from

these forests. The best way of protecting these forests would

be to highlight their importance as watershed through

conservation awareness programmes to the people. Protection

and management of these forests would ultimately benefit

not only the tiger and elephant, but also people.

One important area for the long-term conservation of

the northern Indian populations of Tiger and Elephant is the

forest tract (c. 7,500 sq. km) between Yamuna and Sharda

rivers (Fig. 1 ). Although the habitat connectivity in this range

is broken along Ganga and Gola rivers ( Johnsingh et al. 1 990,

2004), this tract has been identified as Rajaji-Corbett Tiger

Conservation Unit (TCU), one of the 1 1 Level I TCUs in the

Subcontinent (Wikramanayake et al. 1998), and as Shivalik

Elephant Range, one of the 1 1 Elephant Ranges identified

in India (Bist 2002). The largest contiguous block of

c. 4,000 sq. km habitat in this tract falls between the left bank

of Ganga and Gola rivers, and evidently supports breeding

populations of these species. This area encompasses the

eastern part of Rajaji National Park (RNP), Corbett Tiger

Reserve (CTR) and the adjacent forest divisions, including

the areas between RNP and CTR, known as the Rajaji -

Corbett corridor, the most crucial habitat connectivity here

(Fig. 2). The eastern part of RNP has shown remarkable

recovery of prey populations and tiger number after the

resettlement of pastoral gujjars (Harihar et al. 2009a) and

CTR supports one of the high density tiger populations

(c. 16/100 sq. km, Jhala et al. 2008).

The forests of this corridor are in two stretches. One

lies south of the main Himalaya, along the Shyampur-

Chiriyapur forest ranges of Haridwar Forest Division (FD)

in the state of Uttarakhand and Bijnor Plantation Division in

Uttar Pradesh; this corridor is about 300 sq. km. The other

strip of forest is in the north, along the Faldhang-Kotdwar

forest ranges of Lansdowne FD in the foothills of the Outer

Himalaya. The total area of this stretch is around 200 sq. km

and the entire tract is in Uttarakhand. Although both the

corridor forests are disturbed by biotic pressures such as

grazing, fodder, firewood, gravel and sand collection, our

surveys in early 2000 showed that the southern corridor is

much more disturbed by the presence of numerous villages

and gujjar (a pastoral community) camps. Yet this corridor,

which is on flatter terrain, is used by elephants (groups as

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

247

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Rajaji Corbett corridor

well as bulls), Leopard P. pardus. Nilgai Boselaphus

tragocamelus , Chital Axis axis and Wild Pig Sits scrofa. No

evidence of tiger was seen. The northern corridor (Laldhang-

Kotdwar ranges) being hilly is used by tiger and other wide

ranging mammals such as leopard, Sambar Rusa unicolor and

elephant. The Himalayan foothills criss-crossed with

numerous nullahs provide excellent cover to predators such

as tiger and leopard, and areas that are free from poaching

support a high density of sambar (Harihar et al. 2009b).

This large deer is ecologically (preference for dense

cover) and behaviourally (being crepuscular and nocturnal,

solitary or in small groups and non-aggressive) the most

suitable prey for tiger in the hilly and mountainous parts of

its range in south and south-east Asia. Sunderraj etal. ( 1993)

recorded that elephant bulls use the entire northern corridor.

The groups from west were unable to cross as a result of steep

terrain at Gwalgod sot. Human disturbance was high in the

entire tract. For instance, in Laldhang range (94 sq. km),

Johnsingh and Negi (2003a, b) found 34 gujjar deras

(settlements) with 203 gujjars and 330 buffaloes, and four

bhotia (another pastoral community) deras with 17 people,

800 sheep and 250 goats. In Kotdwar range (92 sq. km), there

were six gujjar deras with 57 gujjars and 82 buffaloes, and six

bhotia deras with 38 people. 990 sheep. 290 goats and

1 7 ponies. Gujjars depend on buffaloes for their sustenance,

and bhotias on goats and sheep. Bhotias use the forests only in

winter, as they migrate to better pastures high up in the

Himalayas during summer. When Sunderraj et al. (1993)

studied elephants here the eastern part was heavily disturbed

as a result of bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus collection.

In addition, Johnsingh and Negi (2003a. b) enumerated

50 villages along the southern boundary of the northern

corridor (Laldhang-Kotdwar forest ranges) in a width of

5 km from the forest boundary. These villages have about

4.000 families with human population of 20,000 to 30,000.

Use of the forest by these people was apparent from over

40 trails/paths into the 27 km long boundary of the corridor

forests between Laldhang and Kotdwar. People use these trails

for fodder and firewood collection, as w'ell as for livestock

grazing. The gujjars and bhotias living in the forest also use

these trails. Similarly, along the northern boundary of this

corridor, in a 3 km width, 36 villages were enumerated with

about 3.000 families and a human population of 15.000 to

20,000. The Kho river forms the eastern boundary of the

northern corridor (Fig. 2). The forests along the river, from

Kotdwar town to about 3 km into the forest, are under

enormous firewood and fodder collection pressure from the

people of Kotdwar. Beyond the iron bridge across the river,

this zone is extensively used by elephants.

Due to high biotic pressures, tiger use of this corridor

is very much limited. In late 2002, in Laldhang-Kotdwar

ranges, 35.2 km were surveyed along eight riverbeds, and

only five sets of tiger pugmarks were seen. There were no

pugmarks along the Malan river in Kotdwar range, or

Chawariya and Nalgadi sot (river) in Laldhang range.

Occurrence of elephant dung along the Malan riverbed, which

was heavily used by villagers as a footpath, was negligible,

and absent in Chawariya sot (Johnsingh et al. 2004). Although

Sunderraj et al. (1993) did not record evidence of elephant

groups east of Gwalgod sot in the summer of 2005. frequent

movement of groups from the forests east of Kho river ( Kotri

range) to the river were observed, in spite of heavy traffic

along Kotdwar-Lansdowne road. The groups used both banks

of the river, and fed heavily on Mallotus philippensis and

Dendrocalamus strictus. However, we are not certain whether

they are able to cross Gwralgod sot and range into the western

part of the corridor.

Reducing the dependency of people on the northern

corridor forests, which are vital not only for the long-term

conservation of tiger and elephant, but also for the water

regime of the area, should be the objective of both Forest

Department and conservation NGOs. In this regard, we come

up with the following recommendations:

1. Awareness programmes: The best w ay of getting

the support of the local people in protecting these corridor

forests, which are vulnerable to summer fires set by people,

is by convincing them that this forest is crucial to sustain the

flow of water that emanates from the forest. Numerous studies

(Meher-Homji 1989; Dudley and Stolton 2003) have

highlighted the importance of forests in maintaining water

regime and microclimate. Presently three streams (Rawasan,

Malan and Kho) are perennial and two (Maili and Sigaddi)

have water up to the boundary of the forest till March,

remaining dry only from April to June. Kotdwar township,

with about 50,000 people (the population has doubled since

248

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1991), gets its drinking water from the Kho river. Protection

of the corridor forests, which form the catchment area of these

streams, therefore becomes extremely crucial. Massive and

sustained conservation awareness programmes in the villages

and Kotdwar township about the importance of these forests

as watershed, and the need to protect them from fire, would

certainly help in ultimately reducing pressures on the forests.

Massive planting of local evergreen species such as Mangifera

indica , Putranjiva roxburghii and Syzygium cuminii around

springs in this corridor, involving local people, particularly

school children, is likely to stimulate ecological awareness.

2. Protection: Special efforts should be made to

protect the forests (from the iron bridge across Kho river near

Kotdwar to Amsod village, a distance of about 5 km) from

development and garbage as a result of picnicking at the river.

The perennial and scenic, small river can attract encroachers,

and the abandoned buildings, past the iron bridge near a small

Lord Shiva temple, and in the Department of Water Supply

compound, about a kilometre from the iron bridge, might be

misused. A restaurant, which is showing signs of expansion,

has already come up to the right of the road, just a kilometre

short of Amsod. Since the Kho river is used by elephants and

other wildlife, it may be necessary to convert the two staff

quarters in the abandoned nursery into an anti-poaching camp.

3. Resettlement: On a priority basis, the gujjar and

bhotia deras from Laldhang and Kotdwar ranges should be

resettled in the southern periphery of Chiriyapur Range of

Haridwar FD.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Chief Wildlife Warden, Uttarakhand permitted us to

do the study. Save the Tiger Fund - USA provided the funds

and Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun,

encouraged us to take up the study. Shirish Kumar Kyatham

prepared the figures, M.P. Aggarwal word processed the text

and Nima Manjrekar read through the manuscript. We thank

them all very sincerely.

REFERENCES

Bist. S.S. (2002): An overview of elephant conservation in India. Indian

Forester 128: 121-136.

Dudley. N. & S. Stolton (2003): Running Pure: The importance of

forest protected areas to drinking water. A research report for

the World Bank/WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and

Sustainable Use. 112 pp.

Jhala. Y.V.. R. Gopal & Q. Qureshi (2008): Status of Tigers, Co-Predators

and Prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority and

Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun. TR 08/001 pp. 164.

Johnsingh. A.J.T.. S.N. Prasad & S.P. Goyal(1990): Conservation status

of Chilla-Motichur corridor for elephant movement in Rajaji-

Corbett National Parks area. India. Biological Conservation 51:

125-138.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. & A.S. Negi (2003a): Operation Eye of the Tiger -

India. Final report submitted to Save the Tiger Fund, USA. for

the period April 1996 - June 2003. Pp.17.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. & A.S. Negi (2003b): Status of tiger and leopard in

Rajaji-Corbett Conservation Unit, northern India. Biological

Conservation 111 : 385-393.

Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Ramesh, Q. Qureshi, A. David, S.P. Goyal,

G.S. Rawat, K. Rajapandian & S. Prasad (2004): Conserv ation

status of tiger and associated species in the Terai Arc Landscape.

India. RR-04/001, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Pp. viii+110.

FIarihar, A., B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2009a): Responses of tiger

(Panthera tigris) and their prey to removal of anthropogenic

influences in Rajaji National Park, India. European Journal of

Wildlife Research 55: 97-105.

FIarihar, A., D.L. Prasad, C. Ri. B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2009b):

Losing ground: tigers Panthera tigris in the north-western

Shivalik landscape of India. Oryx 43: 35-43.

Meher-Homji, M. (1989): Trends of rainfall relation to forest cover.

Pp. 48-59. In: Jayal, N.D. (Ed.): Deforestation, Drought and

Desertification, Perceptions on a growing ecological crisis.

Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage, New Delhi,

pp. 147.

S underraj, S.F.W.. B.K. Mishra & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993): Elephant

use of Rajaji Corbett forest corridor, northwest India.

Pp. 261-269. In: Daniel. J.C. & H.S. Datye (Eds): A Week With

Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, J.G. Robinson, U. Karanth,

A. Rabinowitz, D. Olson, T. Mathew, P. Hedao, M. Connor,

G. Hemley & D. Bolze (1998): An ecology based method for

defining priorities for large mammal conservation: the tiger as

case study. Conservation Biology 12: 865-878.

7. SIGHTING OF A RARE DARK MORPH OF GREY FRANCOLIN FRANC O LINUS

PONDICER/ANUS GMELIN 1789 NEAR SURENDRANAGAR. GUJARAT. INDIA

Aditya Roy1

'2/B. Haritej Society. Opp. ATIRA/AMA. Behind Apang Manav Mandal. Dr. V.S. Road. Vastrapur. Ahmedabad 380 015. Gujarat,

India. Email: [email protected]

On August 16, 2010, around 17:30 hrs, while in the photographic trip I sighted a pair of dark birds moving in a

wilderness around Surendranagar city of Gujarat, on a bush in the wild areas. At first I mistook it for a black

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

249

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

francolin but on literature survey, I identified them to be Grey Helm Guide Series, London. 384 pp.). These Grey Francolins

Francolins Francolinus pondicerianus (Grimmett etal. 1999: Francolinus pondicerianus had an unusually dark plumage

pocket guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent. The due to presence of excessive melanin.

8. RECENT OCCURRENCE OF THE BROWN-HEADED BARBET MEGALAIMA ZEYLANICA

GMELIN 1788 AND OTHER DRY COUNTRY SPECIES IN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE,

KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA - ARE THESE RELATED TO ECOLOGICAL CHANGE?

V.J. Zacharias1 and Richard T. Holmes2

'Division of Biology, Northern Virginia Community College, Manassas, Virginia 20109, USA. Email: [email protected]

department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA.

Email: [email protected]

Periyar Tiger Reserve, a major part of the Cardamom

Hill Reserve, is located on the wet zone of the Western Ghats

in Kerala, southern India. The area harbours a rich bird fauna

which has been studied periodically since the 1800s (Elwes

1870; Ali 1935-37; Berlioz 1940; Nichols 1944-45; Nair et

cv/. 1 985 ; Robertson and Jackson 1992; Srivastava etal. 1993;

Santharam 1996; Veeranrani et al. 2005; Elamon 2006;

Sugathan 2008). The Brown-headed Barbet Megalaima

zeylanica , which is endemic to the Indian subcontinent

(Rasmussen and Anderton 2005), has not been previously

reported from the Reserve. This note reports the occurrence

of the Brown-headed Barbet and other dry country species

sighted at about 700 m elevation in the Periyar Tiger Reserve

in recent years.

Ali ( 1935-37), Robertson and Jackson ( 1992), Nair et

al. ( 1985) and Srivastava et al. (1993) who have documented

the avifauna of Periyar, and Yahya (1988) who studied the

biology of barbets in the Reserve from 1977-1980 recorded

only two species of barbets, namely White-cheeked Barbet

Megalaima viridis and Crimson-fronted Barbet Megalaima

rubricapilla. Prasad (1990) who studied the avian abundance

in Idukky Wildlife Sanctuary, around the Hydroelectric area,

also on the Western Ghats about 50 km north of Periyar,

recorded same two species, and a third species, the Crimson¬

breasted Barbet M. haemocephala. Nichols (1944-1945) also

did not record the Brown-headed Barbet in Periyar.

While looking for birds on the Anchuruly road in

Periyar on February 21. 2007, we came across two Brown¬

headed Barbets on a fig tree near the forest edge, behind the

Anavachal guest house at about 700 m elevation. The

vegetation is moist deciduous forest with teak as the dominant

tree species and frequently disturbed by tourists, firewood

collectors and cattle grazing. The unmistakable call of the

bird attracted our attention. VJZ who worked as a research

officer at Periyar from 1991-97, lived at the Anavachal guest

house from May to December 1991 and frequently visited

the area while working in Periyar, had never previously seen

the species in this area or anywhere in the tiger reserve.

The Brown-headed Barbet occurs mostly in the rain

shadow region of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and

Karnataka, in the deciduous biotope, which include the areas of

these states bordering Kerala (VJZ pers.obs.). Little information

is available on the status and distribution of this species in Kerala.

During the Travancore-Cochin ornithological survey, Ali ( 1935-

37, 1 984) noted the bird at Thattekad and collected a specimen

from Aramboli near the Tamil Nadu border. However, Ali ( 1984)

did not mention Thattekad as a locality for this bird and wrote

that the species was local and apparently confined to the

deciduous low country in southern Kerala only. According to

Whistler and Kinnear ( 1935) two races of the Brown-headed

Barbet occurred in Kerala, M.z. zeylanica in the south and M.z.

inornata in the north, as evidenced by specimens in

the British Museum. But Abdulali (1971) did not admit M.z.

zeylanica in the Indian mainland. A recently published book,

birds of kerala (Ali 1999) recorded two races of the Brown¬

headed Barbet in Kerala. There are recent sight records of the

Brown-headed Barbet at Parambikulam and Chinnar Wildlife

sanctuaries, Malampuzha, Elivalmala and Palakkad gap, all near

the Tamil Nadu border ( Jafer Palot pers. comm. ). The species is

fairly common in Tamil Nadu, adjoining Periyar in the east, at

lower elevations. There is a specimen of the species in the

Smithsonian Museum collected at Vannathiparai (450 m) in

Tamil Nadu, about 1 2 km away from the site of our observation.

The occurrence of the Brown-headed Barbet within

Periyar near Anavachal, which is about 2 km away from the

Tamil Nadu border, at about 700 m, raises interesting

questions. The species seems to have moved from a dry habitat

at lower elevation to a higher elevation where the habitat has

become drier and thus more suitable for the species. This

illustrates encroachment of a dry habitat, lower elevation

species to a higher elevation. The extension in range may be

related to the changes in vegetation structure and perhaps

consequent changes in weather in the peripheral areas of the

Reserve in the Thekkady range.

It is worth mentioning that three other dry country

species, the Eurasian Collard Dove Streptopelia decaocto ,

250

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus, and the Asian Koel

Eudynamys scolopaceus found at lower elevations have also

been recorded by Srivastava et al. (1993) at Periyar. These

were listed as uncommon/rare without any details. Since

these are common birds and not recorded by Ali ( 1935-37),

it seems that more dry country species from lower elevations

have been moving to Periyar in recent years, which is

probably related to changing environmental conditions, as

evidenced by the drying of the marshes around Anavachal

and the recent increase in temperature in the area. This

information is reviewed below for these species along with

anecdotal information from more recent years.

Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto

(Frivaldski): Ah (1984, 1999) observed this species only near

Kanyakumari (now in Tamil Nadu) in scrub and boulder

country with scattered cultivation. VJZ (pers. obs.) sighted

two individuals near the Anavachal dormitory in 1992,

possibly moving up from the lower camp area in Tamil Nadu,

where they are fairly common.

Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert): This is a

deciduous low country species that occupies lightly wooded

and babul shrub habitat (Ali 1 984). A fledging cuckoo was found

by VJZ being fed by a group of Jungle Babbler Turdoides striata

in November 2001 near the boat landing across the Aranya Nivas

hotel in Periyar. This cuckoo is common in the neighbouring

Tamil Nadu in dry thorn scrub habitat at lower elevation, where

it often parasitized the Yellow-billed Babbler Turdoides ajfinis

in September/October (VJZ pers. obs.).

Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus (Linnaeus): This

Abdulali, H. (1974): A catalogue of the birds in the collection of the

Bombay Natural History Society. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 71(2):

244-265.

Au, S. (1935-37): The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin, with

notes by Hugh Whistler. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37(4):

814-843, 38(1): 61-92, (2): 282-320, (4): 484-514, 39(1):

4-35, (2): 320-342, (4): 569-593.

Ali, S. (1984): Birds of Kerala. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum.

Pp. 444 .

Ali, S. (1999): Birds of Kerala. Revised by R. Sugathan. Kerala Forest

Department. Thiruvananthapuram. Pp. 520.

Berlioz, J. (1940): Observations Omithologiques Dans Le Sud De

L'lnde. L'Oiseau, Paris. 10, 298-333.

Elamon, S. (2006): Birds of Periyar - Natural History Series 1. Periyar

Foundation. Kerala Forest Department. Thekkady. Pp.159.

Elwes, J.H. (1870): Birds of Cardamom hills. Letter to the Editor.

The Ibis. New Series 4: 526-528.

Nair, P.V., K.K. Ramachandran, V.S. Vijayan, PS. Easa &

P.V. Balakrishnan (1985): An Ecological study in Periyar Tiger

Reserve, with special reference to Wildlife Kerala Forest Research

Institute, Peechi, Trichur.

Nichols, E.G. (1944-45): Occurrence of birds in Madurai District.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 44(3): 387-407, (4): 574-584, 45(2):

122-132.

Prasad, N.L.N.S. (1990): Abundance and diversity of birds in the Idukky

is a fairly common species according to Ali ( 1 984), occurring

chiefly at lower elevations in Tamil Nadu. On February 22,

2007, we observed a male and a female feeding on the fruits

of Persea macrantha on the trail connecting Anchuruly with

the Thekkady checkpost. The presence and absence of Koel

is evidently governed mostly by the number of its hosts,

which are primarily crows (Ali 1984). Since the species is a

frugivore, it could likely be a competitor for the endemic

frugivores like the hornbills. Vijayakumar (1994) has

observed the territorial behaviour of the Koel, which was

aggressive to other frugivorous birds like barbets.

In summary, the recent occurrences of several dry

country bird species in Periyar, appear to be related to an

ongoing drying of the landscape possibly due to climate change

confounded by habitat degradation, caused by the increase in

tourism/human activity. A regular monitoring of the species

composition and population density of birds at key elevations

within Periyar, and especially in its border areas would be

helpful in evaluating changes occurring in future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Bennichan Thomas, Field Director, Project

Tiger, for arranging our accommodation at Periyar, Tony Gaston

for reading the manuscript and Jafer Palot for providing

information on the recent sightings of the Brown-headed Barbet

in Kerala and publication of books on the birds of Periyar. VJZ

thank James Dean of the Smithsonian Museum for permitting

to examine the Indian bird collection and to Martha Rosen at

the Smithsonian Library, Washington, D.C. for her help.

NCES

hydroelectric Project area, Kerala. Rec.zool.Surv.of India 87(4):

299-316.

Rasmussen. PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The

Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Attributes and Status. 683 pp. Lynx

Edicions. London.

Robertson, A. & M.C.A. Jackson (1992): Birds of Periyar - An aid to

bird watching in Periyar Sanctuary. Tourism and Wildlife Society

of India.

Santharam,V. (1996): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve, random notes.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 36: 53-54.

Srivastava, K.K., V.J. Zacharias, A.K. Bhardwaj & P. Mohamed Jafer

(1993): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve, South India. Indian

Forester 119( 10): 816-826.

Sugathan, R. (2008): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve. Periyar

Foundation. Kerala State Forest Department. Thekkady.

Veeramani, A., GK. Pramod & D.N. Kurup (2005): New records of

birds in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 102(2): 235-236.

Vijayakumar. T.N. (1994): Resource utilization by birds attending figs

in South India. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Calicut.

Whistler. H. & N.B. Kjnnear (1935): The Vemay Scientific Survey of

the Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37(3): 515-528.

Yahya, H.S.A. (1988): Breeding biology of barbets, Megalaima spp.

(Capitonidae: Piciformes) at Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(4): 493-51 1 .

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

251

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. AN ALBINO CROW AT SATNA, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

Archana Shukla1

'Department of Zoology, Govt. P.G. College, Satna 485 001, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

In end-July 2010, a local newspaper reported the

sighting of a white crow ( Corvus macrorhynchos or Corvus

splendens) by the people of Madhavgarh area. Madhavgargh

is a small town about 5 km from Satna district (24.34° N;

80.55° E) of Madhya Pradesh. Most of the villagers indulge

in agricultural activity here and the area is covered with crop

field and trees.

This white crow was hunted and wounded by a flock

of House crows; the injured crow was scared when it was

rescued by an alert wildlife lover Mohd. Islam Shah. It was

kept inside a large cage. The bird at first did not look like a

crow! Its body was completely white, the beak and legs were

pink, and the eyes slightly reddish. It was very aggressive,

which could be because of the frequent visits by strangers.

The bird was photographed and its call was also recorded for

future reference.

The crow was about 3 months old when rescued.

Mohd. Shah had observed only a single crow trying to feed

the white crow and presumed that it could be the mother. The

area where it was found had a growth of vegetables, as well

as some variety of trees.

Prior to this sighting three albino crows have been

reported from India, i.e., from Kolkata, Kerala and Goa

(www.newKerala.com: 2010 and www.nKrealtors.com: 2003),

and one Leucistic crow was spotted at Mysore, India (Maramkal

2008). Albino crows have also been reported from outside India.

Besides this, there are reports on sighting of albino crows by

Baker (1995), Ghose and Khan (2005), Joshua (1996).

However, this is the first report from Madhya Pradesh.

Fig. 1: Albino Crow sighted in Madhavgarh area, Satna, M.P.

It is known that albinos are sensitive to their

environment, mainly sunlight and are prone to pathogenic

attacks, hence a detailed report of this incident has been

submitted to the Conservator of Forest, Satna. The Forest

Department has ensured that the albino crow will soon be

shifted to a safe place.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely thank Dr. Shivesh Pratap Singh, Prof. Head

of the Zoology Department. Govt. (Autonomous) College,

Satna for his guidance and support. I am grateful to Dr. Kailash

Chandra, Central Regional Zone of Zoological Survey of India

for giving valuable suggestions. I also thank Mr. Pradeep

Shukla for his support during field work.

REFERENCES

Baker, E.C.S. (1995): An albino bulbul. Rec. India Mus. 11:

351-352.

Ghose, D. & S. Khan (2005): An albino bulbul at Keibul Lamjao

National Park, Manipur, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 102(1):

120-121.

Joshua, J. (1996): An albino Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 586.

Maramkal, M.B. (2008): White Crow gives jitters to Mysore royals.

The Times of India, Mumbai, August 28, 2008. Pg. 14.

Times of India (2003): Baby albino crow evokes curiosity.

www.nKrealtors.com. Kolkata.

www.wildliofeextra.com: Abbit. B, Leucistic crow spotted in Kendall.

www.webbizzu.com: Malaysia post (2007): Lucky albino crow.

www.newKerala.com: (2010): Rare albino crow rescued in Goa.

10. FIRST AUTHENTIC RECORD OF RHA DINOPHIS PRASINUM (BLYTH, 1 854)

FROM MIZORAM, NORTH-EAST INDIA

Daya Nand Harit1

'Department of Zoology, Government Champhai College, Champhai 796 321, Mizoram, India. Email: dnharit@ yahoo. co. in

Though Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth, 1854) (Reptilia: Bengal (Darjeeling district) to eastern Arunachal Pradesh

Colubridae) is known to occur in north-east India from West (Deban, Changlang district), China, Myanmar, Bangladesh,

252

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Whitaker and Captain

2008), and Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal

Pradesh (Das 2008), as well as Mizoram (Mathew 2007b),

there are no specific locality records. Though, this species

was included in their photographic guide, Ahmed etal. (2009)

do not mention any localities.

On September 04, 2009, around 14:00 hrs while

conducting a survey on tiger beetles, a road kill was observed

near Mualkawi village of Champhai district of Mizoram,

NE India, which was adequate to examine and identify.

Morphometry and scalation: Slender bodied;

smooth scales; round snout; eye large with round pupil;

supralabials 9 (4 to 6 touching eye); preocular 1 ; postoculars

2; loreal present; ventrals 199; subcaudals 1 10 paired; anal

1; temporals 2+1; body scalation 19:19:17.

Coloration: Body green in colour, supralabials and

ventral side of the body lighter green than body. Skin between

Ahmed, F., A. Das & S. Dutta (2009): Amphibians and Reptiles of

Northeast India - A Photographic Guide. Aaranyak, Guwahati,

India. Pp. i-xiv & 1-168.

Das, I. (2008): A Photographic Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of

India. Om Books International, Darya Ganj, New Delhi. Pp. 33.

Harit, D.N. & S.N. Ramanujam (2002): Reptilian fauna of Mizoram,

India. Cobra 47 : 5-7.

Harit, D.N. (2009): Survey and status on the faunal diversity of the

state of Mizoram, with special reference to the Reptilian fauna

scales black in colour, giving the appearance of black-edged

scales.

The road-killed snake was identified as Rhadinophis

prasinum (Blyth, 1854) (previously Elaphe prasina ), as per

Whitaker and Captain (2008), and Das (2008). Mathew

(2007b) has included this species in the fauna of mizoram,

but without examining or mentioning any specimens or

records. Harit and Ramanujam (2002), Mathew (2007a) and

Harit (2009) have reported several snakes from the area,

excluding this snake. Hence, this is the first authentic record

of Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth, 1854) from Mizoram and

is worthy of documentation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to the University Grants

Commission for financing a project on tiger beetles, during

which survey this snake was found.

NCES

of Champhai District of Mizoram and their status. Final Report

of the Research Project. Government Champhai College,

Mizoram.

Mathew, R. (2007a): Additions to the snake fauna of Mizoram. Cobra

1(1): 5-9.

Mathew, R. (2007b): Reptilia. In: Fauna of Mizoram, state faunal series.

Zoological Survey of India 14: 545-577.

Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2008): Snakes of India, The Field Guide.

Draco Books Chennai. Pp. 90.

1 1 . NEW DISTRIBUTION RECORD FOR HEMIDACTYLUS PRASHADI SMITH, 1935

(FAMILY: GEKKONIDAE) FROM THE KUDREMUKH FOREST COMPLEX, KARNATAKA, INDIA

Rohit Naniwadekar1 and V. Deepak2

'Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, IV Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

■Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box #18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

Kudremukh forest complex (KNP) is one of the less

explored mountain ranges of the central Western Ghats

(Vasudevan etal. 2006). We conducted herpetological surveys

for the Karnataka Forest Department from October 2005 to

February 2006 in the Kudremukh National Park, the

Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mookambika Wildlife

Sanctuary, which together form the Kudremukh forest complex.

On November 02, 2005, at 21:00 hrs, we came across an

individual of Hemidactylus. It was seen on the wall of the Forest

Department bungalow in the Bhagwati Nature Camp (820 m

above msl ) in the Kudremukh range of the Kudremukh National

Park. The specimen was fixed in 70% ethanol and is now

deposited in the Collections of the Bombay Natural History

Society (Tag No. 324, BNHS No. 1749).

The specimen was identified as H. prashadi Smith,

1935 using standard taxonomic key (Smith 1935). The

specimen matched the description completely. The coloration

of this specimen was similar to Smith’s description. The

absence of preano-femoral pores suggests that the specimen

could be a female.

As per earlier reports, H. prashadi was known to occur

from Dorle in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra (Giri and Bauer

2006) to Jog in North Kanara district of Karnataka (Smith 1935;

Jadhav etal. 1991; Tikader and Sharma 1992; Sharma 2002).

After the first sighting of the gecko on November 02, 2005,

we have seen the gecko on multiple occasions in the three

protected areas of the Kudremukh forest complex. We have

seen it from as far south as the Belthangady range of the

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

253

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kudremukh National Park (13° 06' N; 75° 18' E). According to

the previous reports, this gecko is known to occur on walls of

houses, barks of trees, lichen-covered black granite rocks (Jadhav

etal. 1991 :Tikader and Sharma 1992; Gin and Bauer 2006). In

addition to spotting the adult geckos on walls and crevices of

buildings, barks and within buttresses of trees, we have also

seen many individuals on huge rocks along the river courses in

the nights. We found the gecko from 40-820 m above msl.

It is thus noteworthy to mention this new locality report,

which extends the distribution of this species by c. 150 km

(aerial distance) towards south. This suggests that this species

ranges widely throughout the central Western Ghats and its

presence in the forests of Kodagu, which are contiguous with

the Kudremukh hills, needs to be confirmed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Karnataka Forest Department and their

staff for funding, permission and support. We thank

Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Shri. Vijay Ranjan Singh and

Shri. M.S. Chaitra for their guidance, support and

encouragement. Thanks to Mr. Varad Giri for the information

he provided. We thank Mr. Shashank Dalvi and Ms. Swapna

N. for their support during the survey.

REFERENCES

Glri, V. & A.M. Bauer (2006): Notes on the distribution, natural history

and variation of Hemidactylus prashadi Smith, 1 935. Hamadryad

30: 55-60.

Jadhav, S.P., L.T. Mote & P.K. Vadar(1991): Ecological notes on niche

of new and rare geckonid lizard, Hemidactylus prashadi. Geobios

New Reports 10: 69-70.

Sharma, R.C. (2002): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries.

Reptilia, Volume II (Sauria). Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

xxv + 430 pp.

Smith, M.A. ( 1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma: Reptilia and Amphibia. Volume II: Sauria. Taylor &

Francis, London, xiii + 440 pp. + 1 plate.

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma ( 1992): The Handbook of Indian Lizards.

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. xv + 250 pp. + 42 plates.

Vasudevan, K., M. Singh, V.R. Singh, M.S. Chaitra, R.S. Naniwadekar,

V. Deepak & N. Swapna (2006): Survey of biological diversity

in Kudremukh forest complex, Karnataka. Final Survey Report

of Kudremukh WL Division.

12. OCCURRENCE OF FLYING FISH, CHE1LOPOGON ABEI PARIN. 1996

FROM NEARSHORE WATERS OF THE NORTH-WEST COAST OF INDIA

SUJIT SUNDARAM1

‘Mumbai Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 2nd Floor, C.I.F.E old campus. Fisheries University Road,

Seven Bungalows, Andheri (W). Versova, Mumbai 400 061. Maharashtra. India. Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Flying fish (Family: Exocoetidae) are common in

tropical and subtropical waters. They form an important

fishery resource world over, especially in countries such as

Indonesia, Japan (Parin 1960), USA (Herald 1969). West

Africa (Gibbs 1981) etc. Parin (1961) gave an account of the

Exocoetid fauna of the Indian Ocean, and Day (1877, 1889)

has described six species of flying fish from India.

Since flying fishes are capable of leaping out of water

and gliding for short distances above the surface they are

commonly called as ‘Hying mullet' and they are a significant

component of the epipelagic food chain (Parin 1968). In

Maharashtra, they are locally known as ‘ Kawla maasa'

meaning ‘Crow fish'. Flying fishes have been occasionally

reported from different centres along the coastal strip of India.

Rao and Basheeruddin ( 1973) gave an account of the fishery

of the species Parexocoetus brachypterus brachypterus

(Richardson), including the size-composition, sex-ratio,

maturity studies and diet from Madras (=Chennai) waters.

Development of egg and larvae studies was carried out by

Vijayaragavan (1973). Homell (1923), Arora and Banerji

(1957), and Pajot and Prabhakaradu (1993) described the

flying fish fishery' along the Coromandel coast, south-east

India.

Sundaram and Sarang (2003) and Kizhakudan et al.

(2002) have reported the species Cheilopogon furcatus

( Mitchill 1815) from Mumbai and Veraval waters respectively.

Three other species of flying fish Cheilopogon nigricans

(Bennett 1840), Cheilopogon suttoni (Whitley & Colefax,

1938) and Hirundichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker 1852) were

also reported from Mumbai waters (Kamble et al. 2007).

Material and Methods

During May 2007. about 75 kg of flying fishes were

landed by trawlers at New Ferry Wharf ( Bhaucha Dhakka),

Mumbai, Maharashtra. The depth of fishing operation was at

20-30 m, 50-60 km off north-west coast in Mumbai waters.

About 2 kg of sample was brought to the laboratory for

identification and further biological analysis. Total length was

measured using a digital calliper and total weight (±0.01 gm)

was determined using an electronic balance after the

specimens were dried on blotting paper. The measurements

254

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

were taken as described by CMFRI (1995). Four specimens

ranging in total length from 222-247 mm with the

corresponding body weight ranging from 73.86-92.17 gm

were studied for morphometric and meristic characters.

Results and Discussion

The species was identified as Cheilopogon abei Parin.

1996 (Family: Exocoetidae. Order: Beloniformes and Class:

Actinopterygii) based on the detailed identification characters

as described in Parin (1996). A total of 23 morphometric

characters and 5 meristic counts were recorded and are given

in Table 1 .

The body of C. abei is elongate, broadly cylindrical

and flattened dorsally. The standard length and fork length of

the species is 77.3% and 83% of the total length (TL). The

pectoral fin length was 58.2% and 75.3% of the total length

and standard length respectively. The other morphometric

characteristics in relation to TL was greatest body depth

(13.5%), head length (18.6%), pelvic fin length (23.3%),

dorsal fin length (9.9%), anal fin base length (9.4%), caudal

fin upper lobe (17.5%) and caudal fin lower lobe (25.4%).

The pre orbital, orbital length and inter orbital distance was

27%, 34.5% and 45.4% of the head length. Head is slightly

shorter than the distance between dorsal fin origin and base.

The lower jaw is pointed and is somewhat longer than the

upper one when the mouth is closed. The jaw teeth are

numerous, of average size, located in 2-3 rows, and palatine

teeth are also present. The dorsal fin is rather high, it is the

longest second and the origin of anal fin is six rays behind

the origin of dorsal fin. The pectoral fins are strikingly long

and reach the origin of the upper tail lobe. The pelvic fins

reach the beginning of the 2-3rd ray of the anal fin base. The

caudal fin is deeply forked and its lower lobe is longer than

the upper. The lateral line is without branch at thorax and

the scales are large and cycloid. The pectoral fins have 13-14

rays, dorsal fin has 13-14 rays, pelvic fins have 8-9 rays, anal

fin has 9-10 rays and caudal fin rays ranged from 23-24.

The dorsal fin is grayish, with two bright black spots

between the 4th-6'h ray and between 1 0lh- 1 1 lh ray. The anal fin

is without pigmentation. The pectoral fins are black, with a

prominent bright yellow band ‘mirrow’ running through it,

narrowing towards the upper margin and reaches the l-3rd

ray. The pelvic fins have a bright black spot in their back half

and do not reach the posterior edge of the fin. The caudal fin

is evenly dark gray. The body is dark above and pale below

and usually iridescent blue in life.

C. abei occurs in the western equatorial part of the

Pacific Ocean (up to Solomon Islands in the east), the inland

seas of south-east Asia, the Indian Ocean northwards of

15-20° S, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. In the Pacific

Table 1: Morphometric and meristic characteristics

of Cheilopogon abei

Ocean it is distributed as a neritic species, and in the Indian

Ocean as a neritic oceanic species (Parin 1996). The present

report of this species from Mumbai waters, north-west coast

of India seems to be the first record from this region.

C. furcatus is a common species similar to

C. abei in appearance but its band pattern on the pectoral fin

varies slightly. In addition, it does not have a dark spot on the

dorsal and pelvic fins. C. abei also appears to be similar to

C. nigricans but differs well from this species due to the

yellow coloration of the ‘mirrow’ on the pectoral fins and in

the presence of a black spot on the pelvic fin.

According to Parin (1996), the maximum length of

C. abei from the Pacific Ocean does not exceed 210 mm,

whereas it is common to find larger fishes in the Indian Ocean,

even up to 250 mm. The maximum length recorded in the

present observation was 247 mm.

Flying fish is a tropical pelagic fish and characteristic

of surface layers of seas (Bruun 1935) and the occurrence of

flying fishes in inshore waters may be because they migrate

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

255

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

towards shallow water areas from offshore waters for feeding.

According to Rao and Basheeruddin (1973). migration may

also be for spawning. The observed specimens of this species

were in mature condition. Though flying fishes may show stray

occurrences throughout the year, the period of abundance is

during post monsoon. In May 2007, the sea was very turbulent

off Mumbai. Turbulence generally results in transport of

nutrients from deeper waters, inducing increased planktonic

productivity, and hence increased abundance of zooplankton

on which flying fish feed (Oxenford et al. 1995). This

phenomenon could have led to the occurrence of this species

during this period in Mumbai waters in such large numbers.

According to Parin (1996), flying fishes are objects of

fisheries that are fished in many tropical countries, and practical

requirements of fishery demand the knowledge of the species

composition of this group in certain regions. Regional

distribution and relative abundance of flying fishes have not

REFE

Arora, H.L. & S.K. Banerji (1957): Flying fish fishery along the

Coromandel coast. Indian J. Fish 4(1): 80-91.

Bruun, A.F. (1935): Flying-fishes (Exocoetidae) of the Atlantic-

Systematic and Biological studies. Dana Report 2(6): 1-106.

CMFRI (1995): A manual for standardised linear measurements of

exploited finfish and shellfish. CMFRI Sp. Pub. 78 pp.

Day, F. ( 1 877): The Fishes of India. Bernard Quaritch. London Part 3:

369-552.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma.

Taylor and Francis, London. Vol. I. 548 pp.

Gibbs, R.H. Jr. (1981): Exocoetidae, flying fishes. In: Fischer, W.,

G. Bianchi & W.B. Scott (Eds): FAO species identification sheets

for fishery purpose. Eastern Central Atlantic, fishing area 34, 47

(in part), Vol 2. Var. Canada finds-in-trust, Ottawa. Department of

fisheries and Oceans, Canada, by arrangement with FAO of the UN.

Herald, E.S. (1969): Living Fishes of the World. Chanticleer Press,

New York. 304 pp.

Hornell, J. (1923): The flying fish fishery of the Coromandel coast and

the spawning habits of Cypsilurus. Madras Fish Bull. 15: 99-108.

Kamble, S.K., S. Sundaram, M.P. Sreeram & J.D. Sarang (2007):

Record of three species of flying fish from Mumbai Waters. Mar.

Fish. Infor. Serv., T and E set: No. 194: 19-20.

Kizhakudan, J.K., J.K. Shoba, V.D. Savaria, J.D. Vanvi, A. A. Ladani,

J.P. Polara & A.P. Bharanda (2002): Unusual landings of flying

fish, Cheliopogon furcatus (Mitchill, 1815) in Veraval, Mangrol and

Chorward. Mar. Fish. Infor. Sere. T and E ser. No. 1 71: 10.

been studied extensively along the Indian coast, and therefore

efforts need to be taken in this direction and also regarding the

commercial exploitation of these fishes. A specimen of C. abei

has been deposited in the Reference Collection Museum of

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. N.V. Parin, Institute of Oceanology,

Russian Academy of Sciences IO RAS, Moscow

for confirming the identity of the species. I thank

Dr. V.D. Deshmukh, Principal Scientist and Scientist-in-

Charge, CMFRI, Mumbai, Dr. Miriam Paul Shreeram,

Senior Scientist, Marine Biodiversity Division, CMFRI.

Mangalore, and Mrs. T.S. Naomi, Principal Scientist, Marine

Biodiversity Division, CMFRI, Kochi. The help rendered by

J.R. Dias, S.D. Kamble and J.D. Sarang is also acknowledged.

NCES

Oxenford, H. A., R. Mohon & W. Hunte (1995): Distribution and relative

abundance of flying fish (Exocoetidae) in the eastern Caribbean. I.

Adults. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 117: 11-23.

Pajot, G. & C.R. Prabhakaradu (1993): Flying fish fishing on the

Coromandel coast, 1988-1991. BOBPAVP/84, Bay of Bengal

Programme, Project Report. Madras. 21 pp.

Parin, N.V. ( 1960): Flying fish (Exocoetidae) of the north-western part

of the Pacific Ocean. Tr. Inst. Okean. Akad. Nauk SSSR 31:

205-285.

Parin, N.V. (1961): On the Exocoetid fauna of the Pacific and Indian

Oceans. Trudy Inst, Okeanol. 43: 40-92.

Parin, N.V. ( 1 968): Ichthyo fauna of the epipelagic zone. Israel Program.

Sci. Trans! .

Parin, N.V. (1996): On the species composition of flying fishes

(Exocoetidae) in the West-Central part of tropical Pacific.

J. Ichthyol. 36(5): 357-364.

Rao, K.S. & S. Basheeruddin (1973): Unusual catches of the flying

fish. Parexocoetus brachypterus brachypterus (Richardson) in

inshore waters at Madras. Indian J. Fish. 20(2): 629-634.

Sundaram, S. & J.D. Sarang (2003): Stray landing of flying fish

Cheliopogon furcatus (Mitchill. 1 8 15) at New Ferry Wharf. Mumbai.

Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T and E ser. No. 175: 12.

Vijayaragavan, P. (1973): Studies on fish eggs and larvae from Indian

waters. I. Development of egg and larvae of Hirundichthys

(Hirundichthys) coromandelensis (Hornell). Indian J. Fish. 20(1):

108-137.

13. BEE PASTURAGE PLANTS OF APIS FLOREA IN KHAMMAM REVENUE DIVISION,

KHAMMAM DISTRICT. ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

A.Vijaya Bhasker Reddy1’2 and P. Ramachandra Reddy1

‘Department of Botany, P.G. College of Science, Saifabad, Hyderabad 500 004, Andhra Pradesh, India.

2Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Melissopalynology, one of the branches of palynology

finds a very significant application in the field of apiculture.

A qualitative and quantitative pollen analysis of honey

provides the only means of identifying the bee pasturage

plants in any locality (KalpanaTP, RamanujamCGK-1996A).

256

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The present study is carried out to reveal the bee pasturage

plants of Apis floreci in Khammam district.

Material and Methods

Seven winter honey samples were collected from

Lakshmipuram (Mudigonda mandal), Khammam (Khammam

rural mandal), Nelapatla ( Kusumanchi mandal ), Chirunomula

(Bonkal mandal), Nelakondapalli (Nelakondapalli mandal),

Konegudem (Nelakondapalli mandal), and Rejerla (Viamsur

mandal). The methodology recommended by the International

Commission of Bee Botany (Louveaux et al. 1978) was

employed for the recovery of pollen contents and their

analysis. 1 ml of honey was dissolved in 10 ml of distilled

water, centrifuged, and subjected to acetolysis (Erdtman

1960). Three pollen slides were prepared from each honey

sample and the pollen types were identified with the help of

reference slide collections of local flora and relevant literature.

Observations

Of the seven honey samples (Table 1), two samples

(N-N-K-5 and V-R-K-7) were unifloral and predominant with

Prosopis juliflora (90.5%) and Xanthium strumarium (56%).

Remaining five samples were multifloral, having the pollen

taxa of Psidium guajava, Capsicum frutescens, Phoenix

srylvestris , Prosopis spicigera, Borassus flabellifer, Holoptelea

integrifolia, Croton bonplandianum, Dendrophthoe falcata,

Ageratum conyzoides, Ricinus communis, Peltophorum

ferrugineum , Sapindus emarginatus, Coccinea grandis.

Table 1 : Honey samples collected from

Khammam revenue division

*: Unifloral honeys

Eucalyptus globulus, Cocos nucifera, Cajanus cajan, Tridax

procumbens. Citrus aurantifolia, Leucaena leucocephala,

Ziziphus mauritiana, Justicia procumbens, Alternanthera

sessilis and Tridax procumbens among others (Table 2).

Discussion

Bee pasturage plants of Apis florea in Khammam

revenue division are referred to 3 categories 1) Trees -

Prosopis juliflora, Psidium guajava, Phoenix sylvestris,

Prosopis spicigera, Borassus flabellifer, Holoptelea

integrifolia, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Sapindus

emarginatus, Muntingia calabura, Ziziphus mauritiana,

Leucaena leucocephala , Eucalyptus globulus. Cocos nucifera.

Citrus aurantifolia, Bombax ceiba, 2) Shrubs - Ricinus

communis, Cajanus cajan, Xanthium strumarium

Table 2: Frequency classes and frequencies (%) of pollen types recorded from honey samples

Honey Pollen Bee pasturage plants of Apis florea and frequencies (%) of pollen types

sample types

M-L-K-1

P- NIL

S- Psidium guajava-30.8%, Capsicum frutescens-25.6%

I- Phoenix sylvestris- 1 1 .33%, Prosopis juliflora- 10.86%, Prosopis spicigera-5.4%, Borassus flabellifer-4.58%,

Holoptelea integrifolia-4. 1 6%

M- Croton bonplandianum-2.9%, Amaranthus viridis-2.5%, Ageratum conyzoides- 0.83%, Celosia argentea-0. 1 6%,

Cocos nucifera-0.5% , Imperata cylindrica- 0.08%

K-K-K-2

P- NIL

S- Prosopis juliflora-25%, Celastrus emarginatus-2\ .6%

I- Ageratum conyzoides- 1 5%, Ricinus communis-8.3%, Peltophorum, pterocarpum-8.8%, Sapindus emarginatus-4.6%,

Coccinia grandis-4.33%, Muntingia calabura-3.33%, Phoenix sylvestris-3%

M- Sida acuta- 2.6%, Alternanthera sessilisA %, Bombax ceiba- 0.6%

K-N-K-3

P- NIL

S- Borassus flabellifer- 37%, Prosopis juliflora-33.75%

I- Eucalyptus globulus- 14.33%, Phoenix sylvestris- 10.83%, Cocos nucifera- 3.5%

M- Asteraceae-0.16%

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

257

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Frequency classes and frequencies (%) of pollen types recorded from honey samples (contd.)

Honey Pollen Bee pasturage plants of Apis fiorea and frequencies (%) of pollen types

sample types

B-C-K-4

P- NIL

S- Cajanus cajan- 30.25%, Prosopis ]uliflora-28A 6%, Capsicum frutescens- 22.33%

I- Poaceae-4. 1 6%, Achyranthes aspera- 3.6%, Tridax procumbens-3.3%

M- Ageratum conyzoides-2.3%, Justicia procumbens-2.9%, Sapindus emarginatus-t%, Vernonia cinerea- 0.1 6%,

Leucaena leucocephala- 0.6%, Cocos nucifera-0.5%, Celosia argentea- 0.5%

N-N-K-5

P- Prosopis juliflora- 90.5%

S- NIL

I- Cajanus cajan-3%, Citrus aurantifolia-3%

M- Evolvulus alsinoides- 1 .75%, Ageratum conyzoides- 1 .75%

N-K-K-6

P- NIL

S- Prosopis juliflora-25%, Ageratum conyzoides- 24.83%

I- Leucaena leucocephela-tA%, Ziziphus maur/f/ana-12.83%, Justicia procumbens- 12.5%, Citrus aurantifolia- 3.6%

M- Evolvus alsinoides-0A6%, Cocos nucifera-0.5%, Acacia nilotica-0.3%

V-R-K-7

P- Xanthium strumarium-56%

S- Ageratum conyzoides-30%

I- Alternanthera sessilis-8%, Tridax procumbens-5%

M- NIL

-45%)

P = Predominant pollen type (>45%), S = Secondary pollen type (16

I = Important pollen type (3-16%), M = Minor pollen type (0-3%)

3) Herbs - Capsicum frutescens , Croton banplandianum,

Amaranthus viridis , Ageratum conyzoides , Celosia argentea ,

Imperata cylindrica, Coccinia grandis , Sida acuta,

Alternanthera sessilis, Brassica nigra, Portulaca indica,

Justicia procumbens, Vernonia cinerea, Celosia argentea,

Evolvulus alsinoides, Tridax procumbens. Of these three

categories, trees and herbs served as major bee pasturage

plants of Apis fiorea in this revenue division.

Unifloral honeys collected from Nelakondapalli and

Viamsur Mandals are predominant with Prosopis juliflora and

Xanthium strumarium. These two plants serve as chief bee

pasturage plants of the Khammam revenue division. Psidium

guajava. Capsicum frutescens, Cajanus cajan, Phoenix

sylvestris, Borassus flabellifer. Cocos nucifera. Citrus

aurantifolia, Ricinus communis. Eucalyptus globulus, and

Leucaena leucocephala are mainly from the agricultural tracts

recorded from various honey samples. These plants serve as

secondary or sometimes chief (in maximum blooming period)

bee pasturage plants of this division. Some other herbs like

Ageratum conyzoides, Tridax procumbens, Evolvulus alsinoides,

Justicia procumbens and Croton bonplandianum grow along

road sides or among weeds in agricultural lands and serve as

other important bee pasturage plants of this division.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are extremely thankful to Prof. C.GK.Ramanujam

for his valuable suggestions and Prof. Y.N.R. Varma and

Prof. H. Ramakrishna for their help and encouragement during

this investigation.

REFERENCES

Erdtman, G. (1960): The acetolysis method. A revised description. Sven. Botan. Tidskr. 54: 561 564.

Louveaux, J., A. Maurizo & G. Vorwohi (1978): Methods of Melissopalynology. Bee World 59: 139-157.

258

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

14. A NOTE ON AN ADDITIONAL LOCALITY LOR ACANTHASPIS QUINQUESP1NOSA LABRICIUS 1 78 1

(INSECTA: HEMIPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)

Rahul Khot1-2 and Vithoba Hegde1

'Bombay Natural History Society. Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road. Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

During a faunistic survey at Ansure (16° 33' 56.1" N;

73° 23' 23.0" E) near Jaitapur. Taluka Rajapur, District

Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, on July 13, 2009. we collected one

specimen of Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabricius

underneath a rock (BNHS - Insect day-book entry No. 14/

2009).

The measurements (in mm), colour and other details

are as follows.

Abbreviations used L = Length, W = Width.

Head-L = 1.5, W= 1. 90; Thorax (pronotum including

lateral spines) - L = 3.6, W = 4.85; Abdomen - L = 7.5,

W = 4.65; Total length - 12; Rostrum - L = 2.5; Scutellar

spine -L = 1.5;Tibia-Foreleg-L = 4.35; Tibia -Mid leg-

L = 4.5; Tibia - Hind leg - L = 6.4; Colour - black. Four

posterior spines on pronotum. two lateral and two discal with

transverse discal spots at the basal area. Scutellar spine is long,

obliquely ascending. Each forewing with a pale yellow spot.

A. quinquespinosa Fabricius 1781 is an aposematic,

crepuscular, entomosuccivorous, polyphagous and

multivoltine assassin bug found in the tropical evergreen

forests, scrub jungles, semiarid zones and agroecosystems of

peninsular India (Sahayaraj 2007). The bioecology (Ambrose

1983), ethology (Ambrose etal. 1986), new methods for mass

rearing (Lakkundi 1989) and biology in relation to different

habitats (Sahayraj 2007) of this bug have been studied.

According to the previous records, the distribution of

this bug from Maharashtra was known to be Bombay (now

Mumbai) and Bor Ghat (now Bhor Ghat, district Pune)

(Distant 1904; Bergroth 1915; Ambrose 2006).

The habitat of the specimen collected was a rocky

plateau beside a road with a few trees and shrubs. Throughout

the survey, the area was always overclouded and was

frequently receiving heavy rainfall. At the time of collection,

the insect was found underneath a rock, and was seen

active and moving away from the turned rock. Occurrence

of A. quinquespinosa at Ansure indicates its presence in

Ratnagiri district, which is a new locality for this species.

A. quinquespinosa may be well-distributed in the

Konkan region of Maharashtra. In view of the lack of

information about the distribution of this species in

Maharashtra, the information about its additional locality is

noteworthy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

At the Bombay Natural History Society, we thank

Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director, Mr. J.C. Daniel, Vice

President, Mr. Varad Giri, Curator, Mr. Deepak Apte, Deputy

Director-Conservation. Dr. Swapna Prabhu. Taxonomist.

Mr. Vinod Patil, Field Assistant and the library staff.

REFERENCES

Ambrose, D.P. (1983): Bioecology of an alate assassin bug,

Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabr. (Heteroptera, Reduviidae).

Pp. 107-111. In: Goel, S.C. (Ed.): Symposium on Ecology and

Research Management.

Ambrose, D.P. (2006): A checklist of Indian assassin bugs (Insecta:

Hemiptera: Reduviidae) with taxonomic status, distribution and

diagnostic morphological characters. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(9):

2388-2406.

Ambrose, D.P., I.J.J. Kennedy & S.J. Vennison (1986): Impact

of blocking sensory input on the predatory behavior of

assassin bug. Acanthaspis quinquespinosa. Envi. Ecol 4(3):

469-474.

Bergroth, E. (1915): Hemiptera from the Bombay Presidency.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(1): 170-179.

Distant, W.L. (1904): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Rhynchota Vol. II. Pp. 257-258. Taylor and Francis,

London.

Lakkundi, N.H. (1989): Assessment of reduviids for their predation

and possibilities of their utilization in biological control.

Ph. D. Thesis, Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi.

Sahayaraj, K. (2007): Ecotypic variation in the biology of Acanthaspis

quinquespinosa Fabricius 1781 (Hemiptera: Reduviidae:

Reduviinae) from peninsular India. Egyptian Journal of Biology

9: 53-59. Egyptian British Biological Society.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

259

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. BAUHINIA PHOENICEA: A NEW LARVAL HOST PLANT LOR THE BUTTERLLY. BLUE NAWAB

POLYURA SCHREIBER WARD/I (GODART 1819) (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPH ALIDAE)

C. Susanth1, K.A. Kishore2 and K. Baiju3

'Prakriti. SNRA-20, Indira Nagar, Peroorkada P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 005, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

-Kodapully House, Manikandeswaram P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 013, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

3Sreerangam, Paravoorkonam, Karakulam P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 562, Kerala, India.

According to Wynter-Blyth ( 1957) and Evans ( 1932),

the Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii (Godart 1819) is

very rare in its range from Assam to Myanmar and S.E. Asia.

It has been mentioned that this butterfly is rare in Coorg and

other parts of the Western Ghats (Wynter-Blyth 1957).

During the last 10 years, there have been only a handful of

sightings of this butterfly from the Western Ghats, and no

record of its life cycle in recent times. It flies high in the

canopy, among flowering trees, and very rarely comes down

to mud puddle.

Fig. 1 : Prominent yellow crescent-shaped marking on the larvae of

Polyura schreiber wardii

A monsoon butterfly survey by Warblers and Waders

Nature Lovers Forum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, was

conducted during July 2010, at Ponmudi-Kallar reserve

forest (8°60'-8°79' N; 77o07'-77°20’ E), specifically in

Ashambu Hills, 52 km from Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,

in the southern range of the Western Ghats. During this

survey two larvae of a Nymphalid butterfly were found on a

climbing shrub, Bauhinia phoenicea (Wight & Am)

belonging to Family Fabaceae, locally known as “Scarlet

Bauhinia”.

We collected the larvae and reared them in captivity

to confirm the species. The larvae were velvety green and

had a yellow crescent-shaped marking (Fig. 1) on the third

abdominal segment. The head had two pairs of reddish brown

horns. The larvae we collected were final instar larvae. The

larvae pupated on the 7lh day. The pupa was pendant-like.

thick, stout and green with lighter markings and a light line

laterally connecting the abdominal spiracles, which were

brown, as was the top of the head and tail. A longitudinal

row of red spots was present on each side (Fig. 2). The

duration of pupal stage was 14 days. No change occurred in

the pupae during this period. On the morning of the 14 day,

the colour of the pupae changed to dead leaf brown. The

pupae became transparent and the white band on the wings

was visible through the transparent pupal case. The adult

butterfly emerged at midday.

Fig. 2: Longitudinal row of red spots during the pupal stage

The butterfly was later identified as the Blue Nawab

Polyura schreiber wardii. Earlier records state that the known

larval food plants are Rourea santaloides (Family:

Connaraceae) and Wagatea spicata (Family: Leguminosae)

(Davidson et al. 1896)

The successful rearing and emergence of the Blue

Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii on Bauhinia Phoenicia

confirms it as a hitherto unreported larval host plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Vijayasankar Raman, Post-Doctor

Research Associate (Botany), the University of Mississippi

(Oxford), for identifying and confirming the plant species.

We are grateful to Mr. Kishendas, Lepidopterist, and Dr. Maya

Mathew, Head of Department, Zoology, University College,

260

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Thiruvananthapuram, for comments on an earlier draft of the

manuscript. We are grateful to Mr. Peter Smetacek, expert

Lepidopterist working on Himalayan Lepido-Fauna for

reviewing the final manuscript. Special thanks to Dr. Keith

Wolf (California) who provided us with most of the older

references on the species. We are thankful to P.B. Biju,

J. Krishnajith and Satheesh, members of Warblers and Waders

survey team for field support and encouragement. We are also

thankful to B.S. Aryameher, first author’s daughter, for her

constant field support for successful rearing of the larvae.

REFERENCES

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies, 2nd ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 464. pi. 32.

Davidson, J., T.R. Bell & E.H. Aitken (1896): The butterflies of the North Canara District of the Bombay Presidency Part I. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 10(1): 237-258.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society. Pp. 523. pi. 147.

16. RECORD OF HEXABRANCHUS SANGUINEUS (RUPPELL & LEUCKART, 1828)

FROM LAKSHADWEEP ARCHIPELAGO, INDIA

Deepak Apte12 and V.K. Salahuddin1 3

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra. India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Indian opisthobranchs have received attention only in

the recent times with extensive work by Apte and Bhave along

the west coast of India (Apte 2009; Apte etal. 2010). Besides

Apte (2009), the only work on the Lakshadweep

Opisthobranch fauna was by Gardnier (1903) and Rao et cil.

(1974). Valdes (2002) in his paper on Hexabranchus discussed

taxonomic confusion regarding this genus. Valdes (2002) has

provided a comprehensive synonymy for the species.

H. sanguineus is a widespread species in tropical Indo-west

Pacific and it shows remarkable colour variation.

Hexabranchus sanguineus commonly called as the

‘Spanish Dancer’, is one of the largest nudibranch growing

up to 55 cm (Double 1992; Debelius 2004) and an active

swimmer. There are unpublished records of the species

growing up to 90 cm.

Results and Discussion

On July 14, 2010, during a night search at low tide on

the eastern reef of Agatti Island, Lakshadweep Archipelago,

west coast of India, we came across two specimens of

H. sanguineus (Family Hexabranchidae).

The specimen from Lakshadweep shows distinct colour

variation from the specimens found in Andaman. Colour of

the specimens from Lakshadweep is dark cherry red as

compared to pink coloured individuals from Andaman. Both

the specimens are illustrated here for comparison (Figs 1 and

2). Gardnier (1903) reported two species of Hexabranchus

( H.faustus and H. digitatus ) from Maldives. H.faustus Bergh,

1878 (Valdes 2002) and H. digitatus Eliot, 1903 (Thompson

1972) are now synonyms of H. sanguineus. Maldives is

located to the south of Lakshadweep Archipelago. Gardnier ’s

expedition to the Maldives and Laccadive Archipelagos in

Fig. 1: Hexabranchus cf sanguineus from Andaman Island

measuring 13 cm

Fig. 2: Hexabranchus cf sanguineus from Lakshadweep Island

measuring 21 cm

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

261

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1903 was one of the major expeditions to these reefs.

However, the expedition in Lakshadweep was confined only

to the Minicoy Island, which is the southernmost island of

the Lakshadweep Archipelago and nearest to Maldives.

The present sighting is from Agatti Island, which is over

300 nautical miles north of Minicoy Island.

The present find extends the range of H. sanguineus to

the west coast of India.

Size: 20 cm and 21 cm. Of the two specimens only one

was collected and stored in 90% ethyl alcohol, after studying

the morphological characters. The specimen is deposited in

the BNHS Collections.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to acknowledge the financial

support provided by MoEF, Gol, under AICOPTAX and

administrative support provided by the Department of

Environment and Forests, Lakshadweep. We are also

thankful to LEAD International, Darwin Initiative, for the

Whitley Fund for Nature and Shears Foundation, who has

supported Project Giant Clam at Lakshadweep. I am also

thankful to Mr. Thirunaavukarasu S., CCF, Lakshadweep,

and Dr. Sayed Ali for continued support for Project Giant

Clam.

REFERENCES

Apte, D.A. (2009): Opisthobranch fauna of Lakshadweep Islands, India

with 52 new records to Lakshadweep and 40 new records to India.

./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(2): 162-175.

Apte. D.A., V.J. Bhave & D. Parasharya (2010): An annotated

and illustrated checklist of the Opisthobranch fauna of Gulf

of Kutch, Gujarat, India, with 20 new records for Gujarat and

14 new records for India. Part 1 . J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 107( 1 )\

14-23.

Debelius. H. (1996): Nudibranchs and Sea Snails Indo-Pacific Field

Guide. IKAN - Unterwasserarchiv, Waldschulstrasse 166, 65933,

Frankfurt, Germany. 321 pp.

Double, T. ( 1992): Here be Giants. BBC Wildlife 10(5): 34-40.

Gardiner, J.S. (1903): The fauna and geography of the Maldives

and Laccadive Archipelagos. Vol. 2, Pp. 1.080. Cambridge

University Press.

Rao, K. V., P. Sivadas & L.K. Kumary (1974): On three rare doridiform

nudibranch molluscs from Kavaratti Lagoon, Laccadive Islands.

Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 16(1):

113-125.

Thompson, T.E. (1972): Observations on Hexabranchus on the Australian

Great Barrier Reef (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia). Veliger 15: 1-5.

Valdes, A. (2002): How many species of Hexabranchus

(Opisthobranchia: Dorididae) are there? Molluscan Research 22:

289-301.

17. AN AMPLIFIED DESCRIPTION OF HITHERTO LITTLE KNOWN THREATENED SPECIES,

PRIMULA GLOMERATA PAX (PRIMULACEAE)

S. Panda1

'Laboratory of Taxonomy and Biosystematics, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Barasat Govt. College, Kolkata 700 124,

West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Introduction

During a field study in North Sikkim (September-

October 2007), a species of Primula L. was collected about

10 km from Lachung towards Yumthang, at an altitude of about

3,300 m. After critical study, it was identified as

P. glomerata Pax (identified in CAL by matching type material).

Pax ( 1905) described this species based on J. Scully specimens

(no. 287, CAL) from Nepal Himalaya. The species was repotted

from India as P. crispa by Balfer and Smith (1916) based on

the collection by Smith (no. 4209. CAL!) from Ningbil in

Sikkim. However, herbarium studies (CAL) revealed that the

species was first discovered by T. Anderson from Dzongri in

West Sikkim in 1862 before the description by Pax (1905).

Subsequently, the species was described by Smith and Fletcher

( 1944), Gould (1982). Polunin and Stainton (1984), Richards

(1993), Hu chi-ming and Kelso (1996), and Basak (2001).

Foremost among others, Richards and Basak revised in detail,

especially Basak (2001) described P. glomerata based on the

very old herbarium specimens (CAL) collected by T. Anderson

(no. 830) and King's collector s.n. (acc. nos. 272260, 272261,

272263, 272938) from Dzongri in West Sikkim and described

without a line drawing. The present paper embodies an

amplified description and detailed line drawing based on live

collections from North Sikkim ( S . Panda 30792, CAL &

Barasat Govt. College herbarium) in 2007.

The genus Primula L. consisting of about 430 species

(Mabberley 2008) is confined to tropical Asia (mostly at high

hills), Europe, Africa (Ethiopia) and South America. Among

430 species, about 106 species (Basak 2001 ) are reported to

occur in India (Himalayas and North-eastern India: Assam,

Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland), mostly in the Eastern

Himalayas.

Primula glomerata Pax in Engl. Pflanzenr. 4. 237

(Ht. 22). Primulaceae: 92. 1905; W.W. Sm. and Fletcher,

Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 34(1): 156. 1944; Weibel,

Candollea 15: 162. 1956; Gould in Hara et al. (ed.), Enum.

262

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Primula glomerata Pax: A. habit; B. mature capsule; C. abaxial

leaf (part magnified); D. adaxial leaf (part magnified); E. seeds;

F, G. bracts; H. flower; I. corolla split open; J, K. calyx lobes; L. ovary

(without persistent calyx); M. ovary (with persistent calyx); N. corolla

lobes (top view); O-Q. stamens; R. immature capsule.

Scale bars: A = 2 cm; B = 1 mm; F-G, L, M, O-R = 1 mm; H-K = 2 mm;

N = 3 mm (A-R: drawn from S. Panda 30792, CAL & Barasat Govt.

College Herbarium). Drawn by S. Panda.

FI. PI. Nepal 3: 72. 1982; J. Richards, Primula : 260. 1993;

Hu chi-ming and Kelso in Wu Zheng-yi and Raven (eds.), FI.

China 15: 180. 1996; Basak, Gen. Primula vol. 1 : 408. 2001.

Type: Nepal, no proper locality, J. Scully 287 (CAL!). P. crispa

Balf. f. & W.W. Sm., Notes Royal. Bot. Card. Edinburgh 9:

160. 1916. Type: India, Sikkim, Ningbil, 3,952 m,

1 1 .viii. 1910, W W Smith 4209 (CAL!). Fig. 1.

Perennial herb, 15-45 cm long; rootstock thick

c. 12 mm long, bearing tuft of wiry roots, longer root

c. 12 cm long. Stem rhizomatous, very short beset with rosette

of leaf bases, glabrous. Leaves exstipulate, radical, 8-14 in

spreading rosette, glabrous, 50-120 x 16-26 mm (incl.

petioles), lamina papery, narrowly ovate-elliptic to rarely

obovate-elliptic, 30-80 mm long, rounded-erose-denticulate

at apex, irregularly erose-denticulate or double denticulate at

margin, long teeth gland-headed, cuneate at base, venation

craspedodromous type; petioles sheath-like flattened,

20-50 mm long, glabrous, flanked with thin laminar extension.

Scape solitary, slender, variable, usually 100-370 mm long,

central, erect, covered with white dust-like grains throughout,

mealy toward the apex, bearing a terminal globose head. Head

perulate, in umbel, usually more than 20-flowered, 30-50 x

35-55 mm, covered with white dust-like grains throughout.

Flowers erect, heteromorphic, annulate, bisexual,

actinomorphic, pentamerous, 15-18 mm long, deep blue-

mauve or intense violet in colour with dark eye at centre,

little fragrant, amid of congested imbricately arranged bracts;

pedicel short, 1-3 mm long, deep blue, puberulous. Bract 1,

basal, ligulate, c. 3 x 1 mm, acute at apex, entire at margin,

sparsely puberulous. Ebracteolate. Calyx cupular-

campanulate, 4-6 x 3-4 mm. purple; lobes 5, oblong-lanceolate,

each lobe c. 5.0 x 1.5 mm, connate basally, up to 2 mm, free

part 3 mm, shortly acuminate at apex, obscurely ciliolate at

margin, densely puberulous inside, sparsely outside. Corolla

infundibuliform, deep blue-mauve, 12-16 mm long, c. 8 mm

wide towards apex, tube distinctly cylindric, 6-10 mm long;

lobes 5, ovate-obcordate, c. 6x5 mm, emarginated or notched

at apex, ciliate at margin, distinctly veined. Stamens 5,

epipetalous, c. 1 .5 mm long; filaments minute up to 0.5 mm

long, grayish-white; anther lobes 2, oblong, light brown,

c. 1 mm long, shortly apiculate at apex, dorsifixed. Pistil

c. 3.5 mm long; ovary obovoid-globose, 1.5-2. 5 x 1.5 mm,

glabrous, 5-locular, syncarpous; numerous minute ovules on

axile placenta in each locule; style filiform, c. 1.5 mm long,

glabrous; stigma capitate to truncate. Fruit loculicidal 5-valved

capsule, c. 9 x 3 mm including pedicel, glabrous, with persistent

calyx; capsule obovoid-globose, c. 5 x 3 mm. Seeds obconical,

minute up to 0.5 mm long, scariosus.

Distribution: india: Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim: West

and North districts); Nepal; Bhutan and China (Se Xizang).

Habitat: This species grows discontinuously in patches

along moist and humus-covered rocky slopes in association

with Gaultheria hookeri. Rhododendron thomsonii,

R. niveum, R. barbatum and Vaccinium nummularia at

altitudes ranging from 3,000-3,300 m.

Flowering and Fruiting: Late September to late October.

Specimens examined: india: Sikkim: north district,

about 10 km from Lachung towards Yumthang, c. 3,200 m,

04.x. 2007, S. Panda 30792 (fl. & fr, CAL, Barasat Govt.

College Herbarium); North district, between Lachung and

Yumthang, c. 3,400 m, 04.X.2007, S. Panda 30799 (fl. & fr„

Barasat Govt. College Herbarium); West district: Dzongri

(‘Jongri’), c. 4,000 m, June, 1887, King’s Collectors./;. (Acc.

no. 272263, CAL); Dzongri (‘Jongri’), c. 4,500 m, 08.x. 1 862,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

263

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Anderson 830 (CAL).

Field notes: Craspedodromous leaf venation, up to

37 cm long scape; perulate head in umbel (3-5 x 3. 5-5. 5 cm)

beset with white dust-like grains throughout; 15-18 mm long

flowers; short puberulous deep blue pedicel up to 3 mm long;

puberulous bract and calyx lobes; 12-16 mm long corolla;

short stamens (c. 1.5 mm long) and styles (c. 1.5 mm long)

and loculicidal 5-valved obovoid-globose capsule

(c. 9 x 3 mm) not reported earlier.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 am grateful to the supervisor. Dr. M. Sanjappa,

Director, Botanical Survey of India, for guidance and

manuscript correction, to Dr. M.S. Mondal, Joint Director,

Central National Herbarium (CAL), for his kind permission

to consult herbarium specimens in CAL and to Dr. P. Saha,

Officer-in-Charge, P.G. Department of Botany, Barasat Govt.

College, for his permission to undertake research work

in the laboratory of Taxonomy and Biosystematics.

Thanks are also due to my P.G. students Mr. Arindam Adhikari

and Ms. Rumpa Sarkar for their sincere help and Camera

Lucida drawings during stomatal investigation. I desire to

express my sincere thanks to Dr. Asok Das, Reader,

Mycology and Plant Pathology, and to Dr. Naimuddin,

Convenor, P.G. Dept, of Botany, Barasat Govt. College, for

providing all facilities and help during the course of

study.

REFERENCES

Balfer. I.B. & W.W. Smith (1916): New Species of Primula. Notes

from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 9: 160.

Basak, S.K. (2001): Study on the genus Primula L. (Primulaceae Vent.).

Vol. 1: 408-410. University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal

(India).

Gould (1982): An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal 3: 72.

In: Hara, H., A.O. Charter & L.H.J. Williams (Eds): Trustees of

British Museum (Natural History), London.

Hu, CHi-MiNG & S. Kelso (1996): Flora of China. Pp. 180. In: WuZheng-

yi & P.H. Raven (Eds): Primulaceae, Vol. 15. Publ. Science

Press, Beijing and Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.

Mabberley, D.J. (2008): Primula. Mabberley’s Plant Book: A portable

dictionary of plants, their classification and uses. Ed. 3: 698.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Pax, F. (1905): In: Engler, A. (Ed.): Pflanzenreich 4. 237

(Heft 22): 92.

Polunin, O. & A. Stainton (1984): Flowers of the Himalaya

(Primulaceae). Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp. 243

Richards, J. (1993): Primula: 260. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Smith, W.W. & H.R. Fletcher (1944): The genus Primula: Sections

Corusoides. Malvaceae, Pycnoioba, Dryadifolia, Capitatae.

Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 34(1): 156.

1 8. NEW ADDITIONS TO THE SEDGE FLORA OF ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

K. Karthigeyan' \ J. Jayanthi'-4, R. Sumathi1-5 and P.G. Diwakar2

'Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous). Tambaram, Chennai 600 059, Tamil Nadu, India.

2Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

During the inventory of floristic diversity of the

Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (MGMNP) in South

Andaman, two Cyperaceae members were collected from the

swampy area and along sandy seashores. On critical

examination, the specimens were identified to be Eleocharis

acutangula (Roxb.) Schult. and Pycreus stramineus (Nees)

C.B. Clarke. Scrutiny of literature revealed that these species

were hitherto unrecorded from this archipelago and hence

reported here as new additions to the sedge Bora of Andaman

& Nicobar Islands (Vasudeva Rao 1986; Mathew 1998). Of

the two species, E. acutangula is widely distributed and

P. stramineus is found to be distributed in the South-East

Asian region. Brief descriptions, illustrations, phenology and

notes on their distribution are provided.

Eleocharis R. Br.

Eleocharis acutangula (Roxb. ) Schult. in R. & S. Mant.

2:91. 1824; Ridley, FI. Malay Peninsula 5: 151. 1925; Baker

& Bakhuizen, FI. Java 3: 461 . 1968; Kern in Steenis (ed. ), FI.

Malesiana Ser. I. 7: 525. 1974; Koyama in Dassanayke (ed.).

Rev. Handb. FI. Ceylon 5: 256. 1985; Simpson & Koyama in

Santisuk& Larsen (eds.), FI. Thailand 6(4): 285. 1998. Scirpus

acutangulus Roxb. FI. Ind. 1:216. 1820. Eleocharis fistulosa

Schult. in R. & S. Mant. 2: 89. 1824; C.B. Clarke in Hook. f„

FI. Brit. India 6: 626. 1893; Ridley, FI. Malay Peninsula 5:

151. 1925. (Fig. 1)

Perennial herbs, stoloniferous. Culms tufted, 40-60 cm

long, triquetrous; sheaths 3-8 cm long, pale brown. Spikelet

terminal, cylindrical, 2-5 cm long, pale green-yellow.

264

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Glumes ovate, 4-5 mm long, 1 -nerved, obtuse at apex, hyaline

along margin. Nutlets obovoid, c. 1.8 x 1.2 mm, compressed,

yellow-brown, annular at apex, indistinctly transversely pitted.

Hypogynous bristles 6, retrorsely barbellate, c. 2 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: August-December.

Ecology: Occasional; in swampy areas forming large

communities near Wandoor.

Specimen examined: South Andaman. Mahatma

Gandhi Marine National Park, Wandoor. Karthigeyan 19593

(PBL). 11.x. 2003.

Distribution: Pantropical.

Note: This widespread species was so far not recorded

from the Andaman Islands. It could be easily recognized from

E. dulcis (Burm.f.) Trin. ex. Henschel, by its triquetrous

stem.

Pycreus P. Beauv.

Pycreus stramineus (Nees) C.B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 6: 589. 1893; Koyama in Dassanayke (ed.). Rev.

Handb. FI. Ceylon 5: 216. 1985; Simpson & Koyama in Santisuk

Fig. 2: Pycreus stramineus (Nees) C.B. Clarke - (a) Habit;

(b) Spikelet; (c) Glume (ventral side); (d) Nutlet

& Larsen (eds.), FI. Thailand 6(4): 391. 1998. Cyperus

stramineus Nees in Wight, Contr. Bot. India 74. 1834.

C. substramineus Kukenth. in Pflanzenr. 4(20). 101 Heft: 398.

1936; Kern in Steenis (ed.), FI. Malesiana Ser. I. 7: 653. 1974.

(Fig. 2)

Annual herbs. Culms tufted, 8-20 x 0. 1 -0.2 cm, smooth.

Leaves few, linear- filiform, 2-16 x 0.1 cm, acuminate at apex;

sheaths 2. 0-3. 5 cm long, purplish. Bracts 3, 1-8 cm long.

Inflorescence slightly congested with 5-8 spikelets, 2-3 cm

long. Spikelets oblong-lanceolate, 1.0- 1.5 x 0.1 -0.2 cm,

flattened, acute at apex, straw-coloured. Rachilla straight,

wingless. Glumes distichous, broadly ovate, c. 2.0 x 1 .2 mm.

mucronate at apex, dull greenish-yellow, hyaline along

margin; keel green, 3-nerved. Stamens 2, c. 0.8 mm long.

Style 1.0- 1.2 mm long; stigmas 2. Nutlets obovoid, c. 1.0 x

0.8 mm, biconvex, laterally flattened, transversely wrinkled,

dark brown, minutely apiculate.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

265

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

FI. & Fr.: September-November.

Ecology: Occasional; in coastal areas along sandy

shores.

Specimen examined: South Andaman, Mahatma

Gandhi Marine National Park, Rutland Island, Karthigeyan

6164 (PBL). 14. ix. 2002.

Distribution: Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar,

Indo-China and Malay Peninsula.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director and

Dr. H.J. Chowdhery, Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India,

for facilities. The first three authors are also thankful to

Dr. C. Livingstone. Head (Retd.) and Dr. D. Narasimhan,

Senior Lecturer, Department of Botany, Madras Christian

College, Chennai, for encouragement.

REFERENCES

Mathew, S.P. (1998): A supplementary report on the flora and vegetation of Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the angiosperms of

Bay Islands, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 22(2): 249-272. Andaman & Nicobar Islands. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 8(1): 107-184.

19. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA

Madhukar Bachulkar1

'Department of Botany, Shri Vijaysinha Yadav Arts and Science College, Peth Vadgaon 416 112, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India.

Email : principal vyadavcollege @ yahoo. co. in

While investigating the flora of Satara, Sangli and

Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra, I came across four plant

species previously not recorded from Maharashtra. The paper

provides their nomenclature, description, distribution and

phenology. The species have been arranged alphabetically.

All voucher specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of

Shivaji University (SUK). Kolhapur.

1. Habenaria elwesii Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. t. 7478.

1896: Fischer in FI. Pres. Madras 1468. 1928 (Repr. ed. 3:

1026. 1957) (Orchidaceae).

Herb, erect slender 25-40 cm high; tuber c. 2.0 x 1 .0 cm,

hair}'. Leaves 3-6 alternate, about middle of the stem, 4.0-7.0 x

1 .0-2.0 cm. lanceolate to oblong, acute. Inflorescence 8- 16 cm

long, lax-flowered. Flowers white, sessile, bracteate. Bracts

3.0 x 1.0 cm, foliaceous, cymbiform, longer than the ovary,

broadly ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at tip. Finely puberulous

along margin. Lateral sepals obliquely lanceolate, spreading,

abruptly acuminate, 5-nerved. Dorsal sepal ovate-oblong,

concave, acuminate, finely scabrid. 3-nerved. Lateral petals

bipartite, almost to the base, densely hirsute or bearded along

the margins; lower segment slightly shorter than the upper

segment, curved. Lip spurred, longer than ovary, trilobed below

the middle with a narrow claw; lobes narrow, divaricate,

midlobe subequal with side lobes. Spur shorter than ovary.

Capsule 2.5 cm, long, ribbed, fusiform.

FI. & Fr: September-October.

Exsiccata: MPB - 20349.

Distribution: Very rare. It grows near the edges of the

forest at an altitude c. 800 m. Kolik (Chandgad) in Kolhapur

district.

Note: Earlier it was known from Nilgiri hills,

Tamil Nadu.

2. Rhynchosia viscosa (Roth) DC. Prodr. 2: 387. 1825;

Hook. f.. FI. Brit. India 2 : 225. 1876. Sharma et al. FI.

Karnataka 81. 1984. Glycine viscosa Roth. Nov. PI. Spec.

349. 1821. (Fabaceae).

Twiner or spreading herb; branchlets densely viscid-

tomentose. Leaves 3-foliate, 6-8 cm long; leaflets ovate-

deltoid, 3. 0-5.0 x 2. 0-4. 5 cm, tomentose; base cuneate,

obtuse; apex acuminate, apiculate; stipules lanceolate.

Flowers brownish-purple, in 8-15 cm long dense racemes;

bracts minute. Calyx tomentose; lobes lanceolate. Corolla

exerted; deep brown-purple; wings and keels yellowish.

Ovary pubescent. Pods oblong, homed, viscid-pubescent,

2- 4 seeded.

FI. & Fr.: November- January.

Exsiccata: MPB-6054.

Distribution: Rare along ghats. Khadgaon, Pasami ghat

in Satara district.

Note: Earlier it was known from Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu.

3. Richardia scabra L. Sp. PI. 330. 1753: Balkr. Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 6: 85. 1964. Mathew, Ill. FI. Tamil Nadu

Carnatic t. 346. 1982; Sharma et al. FI. Karnataka 132. 1984.

(Rubiaceae).

Procumbent herb: branchlets spreading, terete to

angular, hispid. Leaves simple, decussate or whorled, elliptic-

ovate, 2-4 x 1-2 cm, scabrous; base obtuse; apex acute; petiole

5 mm long; upper leaves sessile; stipules setiferous. Flowers

3- merous in terminal sessile, capitate clusters, subtended by

4 subsessile leaves. Calyx truncate, globose; lobes 6, abovate,

scabrous. Corolla white; lobes 6, triangular. Stamens 6, partly

266

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

exerted. Ovary subglobose , papillose, 3-celled. Capsules

3-valved; epicarp scabrous.

FI. & Fr.: August-December.

Exsiccata: MPB-21 1 10.

Distribution: Common weed in groundnut and sweet

potato fields. Kargaon in Satara district: Karve, Chandgad in

Kolhapur district.

Note: It is a native of Tropical America. Earlier in India,

it was known from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

4.RotalaoccultifloraKoehne, Bot. Jahrb. 1: 152. 1880;

Blatt. & Hallb. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 705. 1918;

Sharma et al. FI. Karnataka 108. 1984; Joseph & Sivaranjan

PI. Sci. 99 (3): 191. t. 5. 1989. (Lythraceae).

Small herb; stem creeping and rooting below; branches

erect, 4-6 cm tall. Leaves in whorls of 3, obspathulate, plicate;

base dialated, enclosing the flowers, 0. 6-0.9 cm long. Flowers

shortly pedicillate, solitary in the axils of bractiform leaves.

Calyx tube translucent. 1 mm long; lobes 4. triangular. Petals

absent. Stamens 2, inserted near the base of calyx

tube. Ovary ellipsoidal; style short, persistent; stigma

capitate. Capsule ellipsoidal, 3-valved. Seeds semi-

ellipsoidal.

FI. & Fr.: August-October.

Exsiccata: MPB-21 242.

Distribution: Rare in wet places. Kaas in Satara

district.

Note: An inconspicuous, ephemeral species. Earlier it

was known from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. S.R. Yadav. Professor, Department of

Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for confirming the

identity of the specimens and also Shri Vijaysinha Yadav,

President, Shri Shahu Shikshan Prasarak Mandal, Peth

Vadgaon. for encouragement.

20. CLITORIA ANNUA GRAHAM VAR. EMARGINATA (VAR. NOV.); A NEW VARIETY

OF SPECIES CLITORIA ANNUA GRAHAM (FAMILY: FABACEAE)

FROM MAHARASHTRA. INDIA

Santosh L. Yadav1 and Pramod B. Dhanke2

'Magdelin Almeida Environmental Centre, Kharvatkar Temb, P.O. Savantwadi 416 510, Sindhudurg, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

TOffice of the Chief Conservator of Forest, Chandrapur Forest Circle, Chandrapur 442 401, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

During a floristic survey of flowering plants in Sawama

taluka, Nashik district. Maharashtra, in November 2009, we

came across an interesting plant of the genus Clitoria in open

grassland near the Sawama river. A few plants from the area

were collected, processed and preserved. Comparison with

the material deposited at Blatter Herbarium (BLAT) and

literature at the BLAT library (Almeida 1990. 1998, 2005;

Cooke 1902; Hooker 1876) confirmed it as a new variety of

Clitoria annua Graham, Family Fabaceae, and was named

Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.)

Clitoria [L„ Gen. ed. 1, 344, 1737]; L., Sp.Pl. 753,

1753; Benth. & Hook. f„ Gen. PI. 1: 527, 1865 (Fabaceae,

1753). Clitoris = an anatomical term in Zoology. Lectotype:

C. tematea L. (vide Britton et Brown, Ill. FI. United States

and Canada 2: 416, 1913. Type: C. tematea L. spp.: 40 (Sant.

& Henry), 70 (Mabb.).Trop. America -3 in India. C. tematea

L„ "Aparajita. Shankhapushpi. Butterfly pea" (Trop. America)

- Now pantropic in cultivation. C. annua Graham, endemic

to Mumbai. Found in two varieties, typical one (C. annua

var. annua) and C. annua var. sekharii Almeida & Chaturvedi,

both endemic to Mumbai.

Present variety is the second variety, beside the typical

one.

Clitoria annua Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 47, 1839:

Almeida & Almeida in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84:

719-722, 1986; Almeida, FI. Maharashtra Vol. 2: 29, 1998.

Herbaceous, erect. 40-50 cm high; stem angular, with

hairs. Leaves imparipinnate; petioles 9-12 mm long, hairy;

stipules 3 mm long, subulate. Leaflets 5, membranous

(terminal the largest and lowest pair of lateral leaflets smaller

than the rest) 5-8 x 1 -4 cm. variable in shape, broadly elliptic-

oblong, subobtuse to lanceolate, acute, sparingly strigose

above, more densely beneath; petiolules 2 mm long; stipules

filiform. Flowers in axillary 2-flowered racemes; peduncles

and pedicels very short; bracts linear-lanceolate, subulate;

bracteoles 6-8 mm long, ovate or lanceolate, aristate. Calyx

tubular, 1-2 cm long, hairy, nerved; teeth shorter than tube,

lanceolate, aristate. Corolla 2.5 cm long. blue. Pods 25-50,

6 mm flat reticulately veined, pubescent. Seeds 5-6. turn black

after dr)'.

FI.: August-October.

Distribution: H. Santapau- 1 6540 collected from Sasan

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

267

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

high hill on 2.x. 1953 and deposited in the Blatter Herbarium-

16226 (BLAT).

Clitoria annua Graham var. sekharii Almeida &

Chaturvedi, FI. Maharashtra Vol. 2: 29, 1998.

This variety differs from the typical variety in having

leaves with somewhat acuminate apices. In all other characters

it resembles the typical variety.

FI.: September-October.

Distribution: D.P. Panthaki- 2370, collected from

Dang, on 24.x. 1955 and deposited in the Blatter Herbarium -

16203. (BLAT).

Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.)

This variety differs from the typical variety in having

leaves with emarginate apices in the leaflets.

Holotype: Santosh Yadav & M.R. Almeida 1034,

collected from Sawarna, Nashik district, on 5.xi.2009,

deposited in the Blatter Herbarium (BLAT).

Isotype: Santosh Yadav & M.R. Almeida 1035,

collected from Sawarna, Nashik district, on 5.xi.2009,

deposited in the Herbarium of Magdelin Almeida

Environmental Centre (MAEC), Savantwadi.

Herbaceous, erect, 30-60 cm high; stem cylindrical with

ridges, hairy. Leaves imparipinnate; petioles 5-9 mm long,

hairy: stipules 2-3 mm long, subulate. Leaflets 3 or 5,

membranous (the terminal the largest and lowest pair of lateral

leaflets smaller than the rest) 2-4 x 1 .5-3.0 cm, variable in shape,

broadly linear-oblong, apex emarginate, sparingly strigose

above, more densely so beneath; petiolules 0.5 mm long;

stipules filiform. Flowers in axillary 2-flowered racemes;

peduncles and pedicels very short; bracts linear-lanceolate,

subulate; bracteoles 6-8 mm long, ovate or lanceolate, aristate.

Calyx tubular, 1-2 cm long, hairy, nerved; teeth shorter than

the tube, lanceolate, aristate. Corolla 1.0- 1.5 cm long, white.

Pods 20-35 mm x 4-5 mm, Hat, reticulately veined, pubescent.

Seeds 3-5, 6x4 mm, black in colour, smooth surface.

FI.: September-November.

Distribution: Sawarna in Nashik district.

Distinguishing character (in Latin)

Is varietas distinctus ex typical varietas in having coma

per emarginated apices in leaflets.

The following species of genus Clitoria in literature

are published without proper description and are presently

treated as nomina nuda.

1 . Clitoria vaupelli Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 47, 1 839.

Description given under this species is too short to

match with any species of Clitoria L.

2. Clitoria brasiliana L.. Sp. PI. 753, 1753; Graham.

Fig. 1 : Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.)

Cat. Bombay PI. 47, 1839.

The correct name for this species is Centrosema

brasilianum (L.) Benth.. Comm. Leg. Gen. 54, 1837.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful Dr. M.R. Almeida, FMASc., DSc.,

former Herbarium Assistant of BLAT, for guidance and help

rendered in the preparation of this communication. We are

also thankful to Dr. (Mrs.) Ujwala Bapat, Head of Botany

Department, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, for providing

access to the Blatter Herbarium and Library.

268

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Almeida, S.M. ( 1990): Flora of Savantwadi. Vol. 1. Pp. 121. Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur.

Almeida, M.R. ( 1998): Flora of Maharashtra, Vol. 2. Pp. 29. Orient Press, Mumbai.

Almeida, M.R. (2005): Dictionary of Generic names of Flowering Plants and Ferns found in Maharashtra and Adjoining area. Orient Press,

Mumbai. Pp. 75.

Cooke, T. (1902): Flora of Presidency of Bombay. Vol. I . Pp. 405-406. London (Reprinted vols. I-III, 1958).

Hooker, J.D. (1876): The Flora of British India. Vol. 2. Pp. 208. Published by L. Reeve, London.

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on August 25, 2011

by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010

269

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CONTENTS

SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHIUPPENSIS (ELLIOT) IN SITAMATA

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Chhaya Bhatnagar, Vijay Kumar Koli and Satish Kumar Sharma . 183

CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE

RESERVE, EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA

Shivaji Chaudhry, Gopi Govindhan Veeraswami, Kripaljyoti Mazumdar and Prasanna Kumar Samal .... 189

AN ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA

HELIOTROPIOIDES (CAV.) BOISS. — ATHREATENED PLANT OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN, INDIA

R.K. Gehlotand Vinod Kumari . 198

PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA:

PORCELLANIDAE)

Alexandra Hiller, Sadanand Harkantra and Bemd Werding . 201

FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM DISTRICT, ORISSA, INDIA

D. Sahu and M.K. Misra . 213

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW CYPRINID FISHES UNDER THE GENUS GARRA (HAMILTON) FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN

INDIA

B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . 220

FISHES OF THE GENUS HOMALOPTERA VAN HASSELT, 1823 IN KERALA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF

A NEW SPECIES HOMALOPTERA SILASI

B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . 224

TOR REMADEVII, A NEW SPECIES OF TOR (GRAY) FROM CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PAMBAR

RIVER, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA

B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . 227

CHANNA MELANOSTIGMA, A NEW SPECIES OF FRESHWATER SNAKEHEAD FROM NORTH-EAST INDIA

(TELEOSTEI: CHANNIDAE)

Khangjrakpam Geetakumari and Waikhom Vishwanath . 231

REVIEWS . 236

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 238

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001.

website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]

Ernst l^syr Library

Museum of Comparative Zooioov

Harvard University