FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

EDITED BY

R. A. SPENCE, F. Z. S., M. L. A.,

B. C. ELLISON, C. M. Z. S., F. R. G. S., and S. H. PRATER, C. M. Z. S.

VOL. XXVIII.

Parts 3 and 4.

Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 41 Lithographed Plates,

1 Diagram, 3 Maps and 89 Text figures.

Dates of PuhUeation-

Part III (Pages 571 to 822) ...

». IV ( „ 823 to 1,150) ...

... 30th June 1922.

... 20th December 1922.

LONDON AGENTS:

DULAU & Co., Ltd., 34-36, Marg^aret Street, Cavendish Square, W.

PRINTED AT THE TIMES PLE3S, BOMBAY.

i

CONTENTS OF VOLUME UVIII.

No. 3.

Page.

The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon. Part

XXXII. (Genus Perdix.) {With a 'plate.) By E. C. Stuart

Baker, f.l.s., f.z.s., m.b.o.u., c.f.a.o.u 571

Birds of the Indian Empire. Part VI. By E. C. Stuart

Baker, f.l.s., f.z.s., m.b.o.u., c.f.a.o.u 576

Game Animals of Kashmir and adjacent Hill Provinces.^

Part III. {With 1 plate artd 4 text figures.) By Lt.-Col.

A. E. Ward 595

Indi.\n Dragonflies. Part XIII. {With 5 text figures.) By

Major F. C. Fraser, i.M.s., f.e.s 610

4 The Madras Aqu.^rium. By James Horuell, f.l.s., f.r.a.i.

{With a plate and 6 text figures) 621

New and little known Indian Bombyliidse. {With a

plate.) By Lt.-Col. C. G. Nurse 630

The Snare of the Giant Wood Spider {Nephila maculata)

Part I. {With 2 text figures.') By Capt. R. W. G. Kingston,

i.M.s 642

The Birds of Mesopotamia. Part III. {With 2 plates.)

By Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, m.a., m.b.o.u 650

H.R.H. The Prince of Wales’ Shoots in India in 1921 and

1922. By B. C. Ellison, c.m.z.s. {With 9 plates and a map.) 675

Notes on New and Rare Indian Dragonflies. By Major

F. C. Fraser, i.M.s. {With 2 text figures) 698

On Indian Parasitic Flies Part II. {With 2 plates.) By

Harold Russell, f.l.s., f.z.s , 703

Records and Descriptions of Orthoptera from S.W. Asia.

{With 2 text figures.) By B. P. Uvarov, f.e.s 719

The Identification of Indian Butterflies. {With 2 text

figures.) By Lt.-Col. W. H. Evans, d.s.o., r.e., f.z.s.,

F.E.S 739

IV

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVJIl,No. 3—{Contd.)

Page.

Egret Farming in Sind. [With2 plates.) By Capt. C. E.

Benson, d.s.o 748

Egret Farming in India. By C. G. Chevenix Trench, i.c.s. 751

Rough List and Notes on the Birds found breeding in

THE Gonda District, Oudh. By F. Field 753

I.-IST OF Mollusca of RANGOON. By Dr. H. Marshall 773

The Progress of the Natural History Section in the

Prince OF Wales ’ Museum. By B. C. Ellison, c.m.z.s. 777

Review. — The Edge of the Jungle. By Wm. Beebe 780

Editorial. {With a plate) 781

Miscellaneous Notes : —

I. — Editors’ and Readers’ comments on Articles and

Notes which have appeared in previous numbers. 786

II. — Jungle Notes 792

III. — The Indian Lion. By T. R. Livesey 795

IV. — The occurrence of the Stripe-Backed Weasel

{Mustela strigidorsa) in the Naga Hills. By

J. H. Hutton 795

V. — The Tenasserim Tree-Shrew {Tupaia helangeri).

By C. Primrose 796

VI. — Four-Homed Fat-Tailed Sheep. By H. J. Elwes.. . 798

VII. — Destruction of Birds’ Nests. By Dr. C. B. Ticehurst,

T. de Greither and 0. C. Ollenbach 798

VIII. — On the Homing Flight of the Common House

Crow {Corvus splendens). By S. Basil-Edwardes. 804

IX. — The White-Throated Ground Thrush {Geocichla

cyanonotus) as a mimic. By A. P. Kinloch,

F.z.s 805

X. — The occurrence of the Blue-Bearded Bee-Eater

{Nyctiornis athertoni) in the C. P. By B. B.

Osmaston, c.i.E., i.F.s. 805

' • CON-TENTS OF VOLUME XXVIII No. 3— Contd.)

Pagf.

XL — Note on Nightjars in the Central Provinces. By

E. A. D’Abreii 806

XII. — The Food of the Shikra {Astur hadius). By Lt.-Col.

E. O’Brien 807

XIII. — The Marbled Duck {Marmaronetta angustirostris)

in the Punjab. By H. W. Waite 807

XIV. — The occurrence, habits and breeding of the Spotted

Sandgrouse {Pteroclurus senegallm) in the

Bahawalpur State, Punjab. By R. C. Bolster,

i.c.s 807

XV. — ^Crocodile shooting and snaring. {With a plate) . . 809

XVI. — Food of the Fat-Tailed Lizard {Eublepharis macu-

larius). By S. H. Prater, c.m.z.s 811

XVII. — The senses of a Snake. By A. F. Abercromby. . . . 812

XVIII. — Pearl-bearing Mussels 813

XIX. — An unusual swarm of Moths 814

XX, — Occurrence of the Galeod Spider {Rhagodes nigro-

cintus) in the South Arcot District, Madras

Presidency. By S. G. Manavalaramanujam. . . . 815

XXL — A case of plant surgery. By L. B. Kulkarni, m.a. 815

Proceedings 817

• %

No. 4.

Page.

The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon. Part

XXXIII. (Genus Ammoperdix.) {With a plate.) By

E. C. Stuart Baker, f.l.s., F.z.s,, m.b.o.u., c.f.a.o.u. ... 823

Birds of the Indian Empire. Part VII, Bj- E. C, Stuart

Baker, F.L.S. , F.z.s., M.R.O.U., C.f.a.o.u..' 830

Game Animals of Kashmir and ad.jacent Hill Provinces.

Part I\7. {With a map, a plate and a text figure.) Bj'

Lt.-Col. A. E. Ward 874

vi COM’IINrS OF volume XXVIII, No. 4.—{Contd.)

Page,

New and little known Indian Bombyliid^e, By Lt.-Col.

C. G. Nurse 883

Dragonfly collecting in India. By Major F. C. Fraser,

i.M.s., f.e.s, (With 4 text figures) 889

Indian Dragonflies. Part XIV. (With Z text figures.) By

Major F. C. Fraser, i.M.S., F.E.S 899

The Snare of the Giant Wood Spider. Parts II and III.

(With a text figure.) By Capt. R. W. G. Kingston,

I.M.s 911

/ Description of a New Gobioid Fish from Tuticorin. By

James Hornell and Henry W. Fowler 924

Some Commensals of Indian Alcyonarians and Crabs. ( With

6 text figures.) By James Hornell, f.l.s., f r.a.i 926

The Birds of Mesopotamia. Part IV. (With a plate.) By

Dr. C, B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.B.O.u 937

On Indian Parasitic Flies. Part III. ( With 3 plates.) By

Harold Russell, f.l.s., f.z.s 957

A Survey Season in the Nicobar Islands. (With 4 plates.)

By Major R. B. Seymour Sewell, i.M.s., b.a., f.a.s.b.. . 970

A Contribution to the Ornithology of Cashmere. By

Hugh Whistler, F.z.s,, m.b.o.u., C.f.a.o.u 990

Supplementary Notes on the Coccid^e of Ceylon. Part

IV. (With Z9 text figures.) By E. E. Green, f.e.s., F.z.s. 1007

Fish and Fishing in the Inle Lake. (With 3 plates.) By

Dr. N. Annandale, D.sc 1038

Common Indian Spiders. (With 5 plates.) By F. H. Gravely,

D.sc 1045

A New Stone Gecko from the Himalaya. By Capt. C. M.

Ingoldby, r.a.m.c., f.r.g.s 1051

Scientific Results from the Mammal Survey. No. XXXIII.

By Martin A. C. Hinton 1052

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVllI, No. 4.—{Contd.) vii

Page.

Scientific Results from the Mammal Survey. No.

XXXIV. By Martin A. C. Hinton 1056

Scientific Results from the Mammal Survey. No. XXXV.

By Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S 1067

A Description of the Nests and Eggs of the Common Birds

OCCURRING IN THE PLAINS OF THE UNITED PROVINCES.

Part I. (With a plats.) By E. H. N. Gill 1069

Shikar near and around Poona. By Major W. B.

Trevenen 1075

Notes on Indian Wagtails. By Dr. Claud B. Ticehurst,

M.A., M.B.O.U., M.R.C.S 1082

H.R.H. The Prince of Wales’ Shooting in India in 1921-22.

Part II. (With Z plates and a map and 2 text figures.) By

B. C. Ellison 1091

Dr. Ticehurst’s Appeal. By Hugh Whistler, m.b.o.u 1107

Zoological Investigations in the Persian Gulf and

Iraq. ByCapt. R. E. Cheesman, f.r.g.s., c.m.z.s., m.b.o.u. 1108

Report of the Committee of the Bombay Natural History

Society, 1921-22 1111

Review “ Indian Game Birds ” 1114

Some comments on and corrections of previous articles

IN the Journal 1117

Miscellaneous Notes ; — •

I. — -Note on Jackals (Canis indicus indicus), etc., in a

compound. By C. M. Inglis, f.z.s., f.e.s., m.b.o.u. 1122

11. — Jackals attacking a spaniel in the compound. By

C. M. Inglis, F.z.s. , F.E.S. , m.b.o.u 1122

III. — Notes on some sheep shot in Ladak. {With a

block.) By J. S. E. Walker 1123

IV. — Notes on man-eating Tigers. By Victor N. Narayan. 1124

V. — Sore neck in Sambhar. By Lieut. R. A. H.

McConnell 1 125

viii CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVIII No. 4— {Contd.)

Page.

VI. — Corrugations on Elephant Tusks. {With a block.)

ByJ. H. W 1125

VII. — Effect of storm on Animals. By Bernard C.

Ellison, c.M.z.s 1126

VIII. — Notes on Oorial. By Major C. H. Stockley, D.s.o. 1126

IX. — The Breeding of Elephants in captivity. By

J. C. C. Wilson 1128

X. — Further notes on Trapping. By C. Primrose. ... 1129

XL — The Common Indian Bee-eater {Merops viridis).

By Lt.-Col. E. O’Brien 1130

XII. — Nidification of the Ceylon Thrush (0. imbricata).

By T. E. Tunnard 1130

XIII. — Nidification of the Ceylon Arrenga {A. blight).

By T. E. Tmrnard 1131

XIV. — Occurrence of the Desert Lark {Alcsmon desertorum)

in the Punjab. By R. C. Bolster, i.c.s 1132

XV. — Eastern Solitary Snipe shot at Nalban Island,

Chilka Lake on the 16th December 1921. By

H. B. Tilden 1133

XVI. — -Is the Dhayal {Copsychus saularis) a mimic ?

By Satya Churn Law 1133

XVII. — ^Description of chick of the Bengal Florican

{Sypheotis bengalensis). By Chas. M. Inglis,

M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., F.E.S 1133

XVIII. — Occurrence of the Black-throated Diver {Colymbus

arcticus) in India. By A. E. Jones 1134

XIX. — Occurrence on the Nilgiris of a Partial albino of

the Southern Indian Scimitar Babbler {Poma-

torhinus horsfieldi travancoriensis) (Harington)

B.l. No. 120. By Lt.-Col. H. R. Baker 1135

XX. — Breeding of the Indian Pitta {Pitta brachyura)

and the Streaked Wren Warbler {Prinia lepida).

Brig.-General R. M. Betham 1135

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVIII, No. 4—[Contd.) ix

Page,

XXL — Curious site for nest of the Bengal Red-vented

Bulbul {Molpastes hcemarhoiis hengalemis).

By Chas. M. Inglis, F.z.s., f.e.s., m.b.o.u 1135

XXII. — Curious nesting site chosen by the Purple Honey

Sucker {Arachnethra asiatica). By W. E. Shipp. 1136

XXIII.^ — Woodpecker occupying nesting box. {With a

diagram.) By B. B. Osmaston, c.i.E., i.f.s. . . 1137

XXIV. — Notes on the nesting of the Himalayan Tree-creeper

{Certhia himalayana). By F. Field 1138

XXV. — Some notes on the method employed in catching

Crocodiles in South India. By T. H. Cameron,

F.z.s 1139

XXVI. — Notes on a collection of Snakes from Shembaganur,

Palni Hills. By Col. F. Wall, i.m.s 1141

XXVII. — Gordius Worms. By Col. F. Wall, i.m.s 1142

XXVIII. — Python’s long fast. By A. G. McArthur .... 1142

XXIX. — Note on the operculum of the Turban-shells. By

James Hornell 1143

XXX. — Some interesting specimens of the Pierid Genus

Euchloe. By Cedric Dover, f.e.s. And note by

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile, i.m.s. {With 2 text

’figures) 1144

XXXI. — A note on the occurrence of a species of the family

Raphididee in British India. By Cedric

Dover, f.e.s 1146

XXXII.— A note on the reproduction of the Common Hydra of

Bengal {Hydra vulgaris, Pallas). {With diagram.)

By H. Srinivasarao, m.a 1147

XXXIII. — Folklore of Birds and Beasts of India. By Lt.-

Col. E. O’Brien 1149

XXXIV. — A long neglected group of Insects. By B. P.

Uvarov, f.e.s 1149

X

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

VOX.XXJVCX! xacviix, sros. iii sa xxr.

Pack.

Abercromby, a. F. ; The

Senses of a Snake . . . . 812

Annandale, N.,D.Sc.,F. A.S.B.;

Fish and Fishing in the

Inle Lake, {With FlaUs)

1038

Baker, E. C. Stuart ; The

Game Birds of India, Burma

and Ceylon. Part XXXII.

( With a Coloured Plate) of

{Perdix hodgsonice hodgsonice.)

The Tibetan Partridge, The

Kansu Partridge .. .. 571

Do. Part XXXIII. (With a

Coloured Plate). The See-

See 823

Hand-list of the Birds of

India, Part VI . . . . 576

Do. Part VII . . . . 830

Baker, Lt.-Col. H. R., I. A.;

Occurrence on the Nilgiris of

a Partial-albino of the South-

ern Indian Scimitar Babbler.

(Pomatorhinus horsfieldi

travancoriensis, Harington.) 1135

Basil-Edwardes, S.; On the

Homing-flight of the Com-

mon House Crow (Corvus

spelendens) . . .. . . 804

Benson, Capt. C. E.; Egret

farming in Sind (With 2

Plates .. . , . . . . 748

Page.

Betham, Brig. -General R.M.;

Breeding of the Indian

Pitta (Pitta brachyura) and

the Streaked Wren Warbler

(Prinia lepida.) .. .. 1135

Bolster, R. C., I.C.S.; The

Occurrence, habits and

breeding of the Spotted

Sand Grouse (Pteroclurus

senegallus) in the Bahawal-

pur State, Punjab . . . . 807

■ — — ; Occurrence

of the Desert-Lark. (Alce-

mon desertorum) in the

Punjab .. .. 1132

Bombay Natural History

Society’s Mammal Survey

of India. Scientific Results.

No. XXXIII Note on

Soriculus negrescens and

its subspecies. By Martin

A. C. Hinton 1052

No XXXIV. The House

Rats of Nepal. By Martin

A. C. Hinton 1056

No XXXV. Two New

Rodents from the Mergui

Archipelago. By Oldfield

Thomas, F.R.S. .. .. 1067

Brander, Dunbar ; The Tiger

making the “ Sambhar

Call” 793

Burton, R. G.; The Game

Animals of India . . . . 1 120

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W.; The

Tiger making the “ Sambhar

Call”

Buxton, P. A., M.A., M.B.O.U.,

Ticehurst, C. B., M. a.,

M. B. 0. U. and Cheesman,

Major R.E., M.B.O.U.; The

Birds of Mesopotamia.

Part III. {With 2 Plates)

Partly. (With I Plate.) ..

Cameron, T. H., F.Z.S.; Some

Notes on the method employ-

ed in catching Crocodiles

in South India

Cheesman, Major R. E.,

F. R. G. S., C. M. Z. S.,

M. B. 0. U., Ticehurst, C.B.,

M.A.,M.B.O.U. and Buxton,

P.A., M.B.O.U.; The Birds

of Mesopotamia, Part III

( With 2 Plates)

Part IV. (With 1 Plate.) ..

Capt. R.E., F.R.G.S.,

C.M.Z.S., M.B.O.U.; Zoolo-

gical Investigations in the

Persian Gulf and Iraq

Contributors ; Editorial

notice to

Copley, Hugh ; The Tiger

making the “ Sambhar

Call”

; Sambhar swing-

ing by their horns . .

D’Aereu, E. a.; Note on

Nightjar in the Central

Provinces

Dover, Cedric, F.E.S.; Some

interesting specimens of the

Pierid Genus Euchloe . .

■ ; A note on the

occurrence of a species of

the family Raphididce in

British India . .

Editorial

Editors ; Duck and Snipe

in the Central Provinces

Part II ( W ith 3 Plates, a

Map ami 2 Text- figures) . .

The Progress of the Natural

History section in the

Prince of Wales’ Museum

of Western India (With

2 Plates)

Comparison of Tiger and

Panther Skulls

Effect of Storm on Animals. .

Elwes, H. J.; Four-horned

Fat-tailed sheep

Evans, Lt.-Col. W. H.; The

Identification of Indian

Butterflies ( With 2 Text-

figures)

Page.

793

Ellison, Bernard C., C.M.Z.S.,

F.R.G.S. ; H. R. H. The

Prince of Wales’ Shoots

in India in 1921 and 1922,

Part 1 (Wit a 9 Plates and

1 .Map)

937

1108

1121

792

794

806

6.50

937

1139

xi

Page.

1144

1146

781

794

675

1091

777

789

1126

798

739

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

Page.

Field, F. ; Rough list and

notes on Birds found breed-

ing in the Gonda District,

Oudh 753

• ; Notes on the nesting of

the Himalayan Tree-creeper

(Certhia himalayana) .. 1138

Fowler. Henry W. and Hor-

NELL, James; Description of

a new Gobioid Fish from

Tuticorin . . . . . . 924

Fraser, Major F. C.,

F.E.S.; Indian Dragonflies,

Part XIII (With 5 Text-

figures) 610

Indian Dragonflies (With 3

Texl-figvres) Part XIV . . 899

X’otes on new and rare

Indian Dragonflies (With 2

Text-figures) .. .. .. 698

Dragonfly collecting in India

( With 3 Text-figures) . . 889

Gill, E. H. N.; A Description

of the Nests and Eggs of

the Common Birds occurring

in the plains of the Cnited

Provinces ( With a Plate) . . 1069

Gravely, F. H., D.Sc.; Common

Indian Spiders (With 5

Plates) . . . . . . 1045

Green, E. Ernest, F.E.S.,

F.Z.S.; S II p p 1 e m entaiy

Notes on the Coccidae of

Ceylon, Part IV ( With 39

Text-figures) . . . . . . 1007

Greyther, T. De.; Destruction

of Birds’ Nests

• Page.

Hingston,Capt. R.W.G.,I.M.S.;

The Snare of the Giant

Wood Spider (Nephila

maculata). Part 1 (With 2

Text-figures) . . . . . . 642

Part II ( With one Text-

figure) 911

Further Lessons from the

Nephila .. .. .. 917

Home, Major W.M. Logan;

Power of Scent in Wild Ani-

mals 788

Hornell, James, F.L.S.,

F.R.A.I.; The Madras Ac-

quarium . . . . . . 621

and Fowler, Henry W ;

Description of a new Gobioid

Fish from Tuticorin . . 924

Some Commensals of Indian

Alcyonarians and Crabs

( With 6 Text-figures) . . 926

Note on the Oficrculum of

the Turban-Shells .. .. 1143

Hornell, M.; Pearl-bearing

Mus.sels .. .. .. 813

Hinton, Martin, A. C.; See

Bombay Natural Historj"

Society’s Mammal Surve}'

of India.

Hutton, J. H.;The Occurrence

of the stripe-backed Weasel

(Mustela strigidorsa) in the

Naga Hills

799

795

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

xiii

Page.

luGLis, C. M., F.Z.S., F.E.S.,

M.B.O.U.; Some comments on

and corrections of previous

Articles in the Journal No. 1. 1117

Note on Jackals (Canis

indicus indicus), etc. in a

compound .. .. .. 1122

Jackals attacking a spaniel

in the Compound .. .. 1122

Description of Chick of the

Bengal Florican (Sypheoies

bengalensis) .. .. .. 1133

Curious site for nest of the

Bengal Red-vented Bulbul

{Molpastes haemorrhous ben-

galensis) .. .. .. 1135

Ingoldby, Capt. C. M.; R.A.

M.C., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. A

new stone Gecko from the

Himalaya . . . . . , 1051

Jones, A. E.; Occurrence of the

Black- throated Divpr(Golyr»-

bus arcticus) in India .. 1134

Kinloch, a. P.; The White-

throated Ground Thrush

(Geocichla cyanonotus) as a

- Page.

Lucknow Pro vinci.al Museum ;

Appeal for Photographs .. 1113

McArthur, A. G.; A Python’s

Long Fast .. .. .. 1142

McConnell, Lieut. R. A. H.;

Sore neck in Sambhar . . 1 125

Manavalaramanujam, S. G.;

Occurrence of the Galeod

Spider (Rluigodes nigrocin-

tus) in the South Arcot

District, Madras Presidency. 814

Marshaia., Dr. H.; List of

Mollusca of Rangoon . . 773

Morris, R.C.; Panthers and

artificial light . . . . . . 789

Narayan, Victor N.; Notes

on Man-eating Tigers .. 1124

Noble, K.; Notes on Lizards,

Frogs and Human Beings in

the Nilghiri District . . 791

Nurse, Libut.-Col. C. G.;

New and little known Indian

Bombyliidos. (With a Plate) 630

New and little known Indian

Bombyliidee, Part II. . . 883

O’Brien, Lt.-Col. E.; The Food

of the Shikra (Astur badius). 807

•; The Com-

mon Indian Bee-eater.

(Merops viridis) .. .. 1130

— ^ — ■; Folklore

of Birds and Beasts of India 1149

0.smaston,B.B.; The occurrence

of the Blue- bearded Bee-

eater (Nyctiomis athertoni)

in the C. P. . . . . . . 805

potamia

1119

XIV

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

Page.

CsMASTON, B. B., C.I.E., I.F.S.;

Woodpecker occupying Nest-

ing Box. (3 Diagrams to

illustrate method of construc-

tion of nesting-boxes) . . . . 1137

Patterson, Lt.-Col. J.; An

unsual swarm of Moths . . 814

Peile, Lt.-Col. H. D.; Notes on

Euchloe .. •• •• 1145

Prater, S. H.; The Tsaine . . 786

; Food of the Fat-

tailed Lizard {Eublepharis

macularius) .. .. 811

Primrose, C.; The Tenasserim

Tree- shrew {Tupaia belan-

geri) . . . . • • 796

— ^ — •; Further notes on

Trapping .. .. -- 1129

Proceedings . . . . . . 817

Reports; Committee of the

Bombay Natural History

Society, 1921-1922 .. .. 1111

Review; “The Edge of the

Jungle ” . . . . . . 780

— ; Indian Game Birds . . 1114

Russell, Harold.; On Indian

Parasitic flies, Part II ( With

2 Plates) . . . . . . 703

; Part III . . 957

Sewell, Major R. B. Sey-

mour, I.M.S., B.A., F.A.S.B.;

.1. Surv’ey Season in the

Nicobar Islands on the

Iv.I.M.S. “ Investigator,”

October 1921 to March

1922. {W ith 4: Plates)

Page.

Shipp, W.E.; Curious nesting

site chosen by the Purple

Honey-Sucker {Arachnethra

I asiatica) .. .. •• 1136

Srintvasarao, H., M.A.; A

note on the reproduction of

the common Hydra of Ben-

gal (Hydra vulgaris. Pallas.)

( W ith 5 figures) . . . . 1 147

Stockley,Major, C. H., D.S.O.;

Thomas, OLDFiELD;S'ce Bombay

Natural History Society’s

Mammal Survey of India.

Ticehurst, Dr. C. B., M.A.,

M.B.O.U., Buxton, P.A., M.

A., M.B.O.U, and Chessman

Major, R.E., M.B.O.U. The

Birds of Mesopotamia, Part

III. (With 2 Plates) .. 650

Part IV. ( With 1 Plate) . . 937

Ticehurst, Dr. C.B.; Bird Col-

lectors in India .. .. 790

— ; Destruc-

tion of Birds’ Nests . . . . 798

— ; Notes

on Indian Wagtails . . . . 1082

Tilden, H.B.; Eastern Soli-

tary Snipe at Nalban Island,

Chilka Lake, on the 16th

December 1921 .. .. 1133

Trench, C. C. Chevenix ;

Egret Farming in India . . 751

970

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

XV

Page.

Trevenen, Major W. B.; Shikar

near and around Poona . . 1075

Tunnard, T. E. ; Nidification

of the Ceylon Thrush. {Oreo-

cincla imbricata) .. .. 1130

— — ■; Nidification of

the Ceylon Arrenga (Arren-

ga blighi) .. .. .. 1131

U VAROV, B. P., E.E.S.; Records

and Descriptions of Orthop-

tera from S. W. Asia. {With

2 Text-figures) .. .. 719

;A long

neglected group of Insects . . 114

W ; J. H.; Corrugations

on Elephant Tusks {With

a Bloch) .. .. .. 1125

Waite, H. W.; The Marbled

Duck. {Marmaronetta an-

gustirostris) in the Punjab. 807

Walker, J. S. E.; Notes on

some sheep shot in Ladak.

{With a Bloch) .. .. 1123

Page.

Wall, Lieut.-Col. F., I.M.S.;

Notes on a collection of

Snakes from Shembaganur,

Palni Hills .. .. .. 1141

Gordius Worms .. .. 1142

Ward, Col. A. E.; Game Ani-

nals of Kashmir and adja-

cent Hill Provinces, Part III

( With a Plate and 4 Text-

figures) 595

Part IV. {With a Map,

Plate and one Text bloch) . . 874

Whistler Hugh, F.Z.S.; A

contribution to the Ornitho-

logy of Cashmere . . . . 990

•; Letter

on Dr. Ticehurst’s appeal for

chicks of Indian Birds .. 1107

Wilson, J. C. C.; The Breeding

of Elephants in Captivity .. 1128

#

LIST OF PLATES.

No. III.

Page.

The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon —

Plate I. — Mrs. Hodgson’s Partridge {Perdix hodgsonicB hodgsonice) . . 671

Game Animals of Kashmir and adjacent Hill Provinces —

Plate II. 1. — Himalayan Ibex (Capra si6in'ca) .. .. .. 595

2. — Himalayan Tahr (HemffragrwsjewZaicMs) .. .. 595

The Madras Acquarium- —

Plate III. — Exterior view and ground-plan .. .. .. .. 621

Plate IV. — New and little known Indian Bombyliidae . . . . . . 630

The Birds of Mesopotamia —

Plate V. 1 .— Chick of Large Pintailed Sandgrouse (Pterodes alchata

caudacuta) . . . . . . . . . . . . 650

2. — Chick of Spotted Sandgrouse (Pterodes senegallus). . 650

\

LIST OF PL A TES.

Plate XIII. (A) — H.R.H. takes a hand with his Kukri in decapitating

a Rhino

(B) — A further stage of the Ritual. (The dismembered

head of the Rhino is seen on the right of the

photograph, H.R.H. is an interested spectator at

the ceremony) . .

Plate XIV. (A) — Pegging out a Tiger Skin

(B) — The Skinning Camp at the close of a day’s work

Plate XV\ — H.R.H. The Prince of Wales with his Rhinoceros. H.R.H.

is seen wearing his Nepal Kukri

Plate XVI. A young great Indian Rhinoceros {R. iinicornis). One of a

collection of animals and birds presented by H.H. the

Maharaja of Nepal to H.R.H. The Prince of Wales. The

animal was photographed at the Victoria Gardens,

Bombay, where the collection was housed prior to its

despatch to England

Indian Parasitic Flies —

Plate I. 1. — Bonibyliiis major,

3. Pidicipkora sp.

4. Pipunculus sp.

4.\. Pipunculus extensus. Abdomen of $

Plate II. 5. — Coimps erythrocephala 9

6. Gyrostigma sumatrensis. Larva

6a. Gastrophilus equi, Larva

6b. Cobboldia elephantis. Larva . .

Egret Farming in Sind —

One of the Enclosures in a Sind Egret Farm

Plate A. — Nesting Birds

B. — Additions to the Family . .

The Progress of the Natural History Section in the Prince of Wales’

Museum of Western India. {With 2 plates) —

— View of the Exhibition in the Mammal Gallery of

the Prince of Wales’ Museum of Western India,

on the occasion of the Rox'al Visit to Bombay.

November 1921

2. A. — The Game Section as seen at the time of the Exhibi-

tion

xvii

Page.

684

685

690

691

703

710

748

749

777

778

3

xviii

LIST OF PLATES.

B. — “In Perpetuam Rei Memoriam”.

One of the Society’s old rooms at 6, Apollo Street.

Its overcrowded condition will show the ursent

need there was for additional space

The late Mr. R. C. Wroaghton, F.L.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. {Photo)

Crocodile Shooting and Snaring in Sind —

A. — Tying a rope round the Mugger’s neck after the

hand net is in position

B. — Pulling the reptile out of the water . .

No. IV.

The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon —

The See-see {Ammoperdix g. griseigularis)

Game Animals of Kashmir and adjacent Hill Provinces —

Plate (A) — The Tibetan Gazelle . .

(B)- — Goral

Plate — Haunts of the Central Asian Gazelles {Map)

The Birds of Mesopotamia. {With 1 plate) —

Plate VII (A) — Nest and eggs of little Grebe.

Near Euphrates Barrage. {Eggs uncovered for photo)

(B) — Marshes near Kurna, R. Tigris.

• Amongst other breeding birds in these parts are ; —

P^'gmy Cormorants, Darters, Little Grebes, Reed

Warblers, Gallinules . .

Indian Parasitic Flies, {With 3 plates)—

Page.

778

781

SIO

810

823

876

880

942

. 958

. 962

. 966

LIST 01 FLATBS.

XIX

Page.

A Survey Season in the Nicobar Islands. ( With 4 plates) —

Plate (A). — Scare devils from a single hut.

(B). — Tnuanga Village in Spiteful Bay, showing the two types of

huts and numerous scare devils . . . . . . . . 974

Plate (A). — Western entrance to Nankauri Harbour.

(B). — A Megapode Mound — Nankauri Island . . . . . . 982

Plate (A).^ — Part of the Coral Reef, off Reed Point, Nankauri.

(B). — View looking across Barwell Swamp, Camorta .. .. 984

Plate (A). — The Artificial Lake, Camorta.

(B). — A Bed of Alcyonarians in Octavia Bay, Camorta . . . . 988

Fish and Fishing in the Inle Lake. (With 3 plates) —

Plate A. Fig. 1. — The Golden Sprat Barbel (Barileus auropurpureus).

Fig. 2. — The Scaleless Minnowlet (Sawbwa resplendens).

Fig. 3. The Crimson Minnowlet (Microrashora erythromurn).

Fig. 4. — The Red-headed Minnowlet (Microrashora rvhescens).

Fig. 5. — Browne’s Loach (N emachielus brunneanus) . . •. 103S

Plate B. Floating Islands of the Inle Lake —

Fig. 1. — The Islands in their natural state.

Fig. 2.' — Islands used as gardens.

Fig. 3. — In the Floating Village of Kale .. T. .. 1040

Plate C. Boating and Fishing on the Inle Lake —

Fig. 1. — Inthas leg-rowing.

Fig. 2. — Inthas making a fishing enclosure for the capture

of Crosscheilsu latia.

Fig. 3.' — Boats at the edge of the Lake on Market day . . 1042

Common Indian Spiders, (With 5 pates) —

Plate I. Fig. 1. — in stridulating attitude

Fig. 2. — Diagrams of nests of “ trap-door ” spiders.

(a) Nemesiellus montanus, (b) Damarchus exca-

vatus, (c) Acanthodon harhudensis, (d) Sason

sp., (e) Diplothele ivalshi, (/) Sasonichus

arthapophysis. *

Fig. 3. — Stegodyphus sarasinorum Web on mango twig . . 1045

(B) . — Nest and Eggs of the Jungle Crow.

(C) . — Nest of the Rufous-bellied Babbler . . . . . . . . 1072

H.R.H. The Prince of Wales’ Shooting in India in 1921 and 1922. — Part

l.\ {With plates) —

Map of country around Bhopal for H.R.H. The Prince of Wales’

visit to Bhopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091

Plate (A). — The Royal Party changing Beats on 6th February 1922 . . 1094

(B). — The Cheetah at Baroda . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094

Plate (A). — Bag of Demoiselle Crane- — Kodamdesar, Bikaner, December

1921 1102

(B). — Bag of Imperial Sandgrouse — Gujner, Bikaner,

December 1921 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1102

Plate Imperial Sandgrouse Drinking — Gujner, Bikaner, December

1921 1103

XlX-BiLS't;3:*a,i:;±ox3L

voi^XT na z: acacvjcxx.

Pagk.

Asterolecanium loranthi. Fig. —

(а) Marginal poses . . 1036

(б) Posterior extremity

of adult 2 . . . . 1036

(c) Adult 2 ventral as-

pect . . . . . . 1036

— pseudomiliaris. Fig. —

(a) Marginal and discal

poses . . . . 1037

(b) Adult 2 .. .. 1037

(c) Posterior extremity

of adult 9 • • • . 1037

(d) Test of adult 2 • • 1037

Austroceschna intersedens. Wings. 613

Avicuda radiata. Fig. 1, Wing-

shells, commensal with a sea-

fan 930

Barileus auropurpureus, PI.

fig. 1 1038

Bhopal, Sketch map of coimtry

around (H.R.H. The Prince

of Wales shooting in India in

fig. 7, Larva . .

958

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

(/) Sockets of marginal

spines . . . , 1032

{g) Marginal spines . . 1032

Cyclosa confraga PI. Fig. 6

(a) Spider . . . . 1046

(c) Prople , . . . 1046

(d) Stermun and bases 1046

of legs . . . . 1046

(e) eyes . . . , 1046

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

xxiir

Page.

Cydosa confraga, PI. fig. 6 —

(/) Vulva . . . . 1046

(gr) Vulva, prople . . 1046

(h) Web, PI. fig. 6 .. 1046

Damarchus excavatus, Diagram

of nest, PI. fig. 2 (6) . . 1045

Diaspis antiquorum. Fig. Pygi-

dium of adult ? .. .. 1011

bambusoe, Fig. — (a)Adult2 1012

(6) Extremity of pygidium. 10 12

grandilobis. Fig. Margin

of pygidium . . . . 1015

heneratgoda. Fig. P.Vgi-

dium of adult $ . . 1012

mihiriya. Fig. Margin of

pygidium . . . . 1014

orientalis. Fig. — (a)Adult 2 1046

(6) Margin of pygidium. 1013

phoenicis, Rig. — (a) Adult 2 1014

(6) Pygidium . . 1014

Diplothele walshi. Diagram of

nest, PI. fig. 2 (c) . . . . 1045

Dorippe dorsipes, Fig. 5, carrying

an anemone seated upon

a shell . . . . . . 934

facckino, Fig. 2, Strip-

ped of its masking organism

to show the two pairs of spe-

cialized thoracic limbs with

their terminal hooked joints 932

Dragonflies, Indian, new and rare,

with two figures . . 698

Indian, Part XIII,

with 5 figures . . 610

Indian, with 4 figs. 889

, Indian, Part XIV,

with 3 figures. . .. .. 899

Dromia sp.. Fig. 4. Under the

mask of a stout silicious

sponge. The lower figure

depicts the sponge mantle

Page.

Lake, 3 Pis 1038-42

Gasteracantha arcuata (above) PI.

fig. 7. .. 1046

remifera (below)

Pi. fig. 7 . . . . . . 1046

Gastrophilus equi. Larva, PI. .. 710

XXIV

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Gazelles, Haunts of the Central

Asian, Map . . . . . . 880

Goral, PI 876

Gynacaniha hagade.ra, Fig. 3,

Anal appendage. . 905

• J'urcafa, Fig. 2,

Anal appendage.. 905

- — - — ■ — khasiacar Wings, Fig. 903

Fig. 1,

Anal appendage . . 905

■ d’dondi. Fig. 4,

Anal appendage . . . . 905

Gynacardhaschna Mkkirna wings 618

Gyrosiigma sumatrensis. Larva,

PI 710

Halimus, Fig. 3, with carapace 1

and limbs decorated with j

striped Sjmaptids from 1

protection . . - . . . 933 |

Hemitragus jemlaicus, PI. 595, 606 |

Heniochus macrolepidotus . . 626 j

Hersilia savignyii, PI. fig. 13 . . 1050 j

Heferopoda venaioria, J ,P1. fig.

9 .. 1048

Hippobosca camelina, PI. fig.

9 A 962

■ — rnaculala. Pi. fig. 9. . 958

H. R. H. The Prince of Wales’

Shoots in India. —

Photo of H. R. H. The

Prince of Wales, Patron

and Life Member of the

Bombay Natural History

Society, PI. . . . . 675

Sketch map of Ghitawan,

for H. R. H. The Prince

of Wales visit to Nepal,

1921 676

H. R. H. The Prince of

Wales mounting into his

Howdah on the first day’s

shoot in Nepal, PI. . . 678

Page.

(а) On the trail after

Rhino, PI. . . . . 679

(б) Elephants crossing a

stream, PI. . . . . 679

(a) H. R. H. waiting for

the Tiger to break

cover, PI. . . . . 680

(b) The line of Ele-

phants merging from

the jungle, PI. . . 680

(a) The Royal Elephant

on a typical Rhino

Swamp, PI. . . 681

(b) H. R. H. takes a

shot, PI. . . . . 681

(а) H. R. H. takes a

hand with his Kukri

in decapitating a

Rhino, PI. . . . . 684

(б) A further slage of

the Ritual, PI. .. 684

(a) Pegging out a Tiger

skin, PI 68

(b) The Skinning Camp

at the close of a

day’s work, PI. . . 685

FI. R. H. The Prince of Wales

with his Rhinoceros.

H. R. H. is seen wearing his Nepal

Kukii, PI. . . . . . . 690

A yoruig great Indian Rhinoce-

ros (R. unicornis), PI. . . 691

(One of a collection of ani-

mals and birds presented bj^

H. H. The Maharaja of

Nepal to H. R. H. The

Prince of Wales. The ani-

mal was photographed at

the Victoria Gardens, Bom-

baj% where the collection

was housed prior to its des-

patch to England ) . . 691

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXV

and Fishing in, 3 Plates 1038-42

Plate {a) Characteristic Fish

of the Inle Lake . . 1038

Plate (6) Floating Islands of

the Inle Lake . . 1040

Plate (c) Boating and Fishing

on the Inle Lake.

Inglisia chelonioides . Fig. —

4

Page.

Lambrus, Fig. 0. A crab that

lives on shingly bottom : the

carapace concealed by a

mask of oyster-shells and

barnacles . . . . . . 935

Lecaniodiaspis mimusopes. Fig. —

(a) Adult 9 , dorsal view 1034

(b,c) Antennse . . . . 1034

(d,c) Anterior legs . . 1034

(/) Mid leg .. .. 10.34

(g) Hind leg . . . . 1034

(h) Setae from anal ring. 1034

(?) Paired poses . . 1034

Lecanium desolatu7». Fig. —

(a) Marginal setae and stigmatic

spine.

(6) Anal operculum . . . . 1020

fmiforme, Fig.—

(a) Adult 9 .. .. 1C21

{h) Stigmatic cleft and

spines .. 1021

(c) Anal operculum .. 1021

■ illuppalamcB, Fig. —

(a) Anal operculum,

typical form . . 102 1

(b) Anal operculum,

varietal form . . 102 1

(c,rf) Stigmatic spines .. 1021

(e) Posterior margin,

with setae . . . . 1021

' — • — ■ — - — h-orcB, Fig.—

(a) Stigmatic spines and

marginal setae . . 1022

{h) Anal operculum . . 1022

latioperculalnm. Fig. —

(а) Stigmatic spines . . 1022

(б) Marginal setae . . 1022

(c) Anal operculum . . 1022

xxvi

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Pag®.

Lecanium trij/artitum. Fig. —

(а) Adult ? , dorsal as-

pect . . . . 1025

(б) Stigmatic cleft . . 1025

(c) Marginal area with

poses and dermal

cells .. .. 1025

(d) Anal operculum . . 1025

Lecanopsis ceylonica. Fig. —

(a) Adult 2 in situ . . 1026

(b) Antenna . . . . 1026

(c) Anal operculum . . 1026

(d) Third leg .. .. 1026

(e) Stigmatic spines . . 1026

(/) Posterior extremity

of early nymph . . 1026

(ff) Antenna of larva . . 1026

Lepidosaph.es dilatilobis. Fig.

Pygidium of adult 2 1010

Lynchia maura, PI. fig. 10 . . 962

Macromia cingulala, Semi-lateral

view . . . . 701

flavocolorata. Semi-

lateral view . . . . . . 701

Madras Aquarium, exterior view

and ground plan . . . . 621

Mesopotamia, Birds of —

(a) Valley in the Jebel

Hamrin, N. E. of

Baghdad, PI. . . 672

(b) Nest and eggs of

Chettusia leucura

near Amara . . 672

Plate (a) Little grebe nest

and eggs near Euphrates

Barrage (eggs uncovered

for photo) . . - - . • 942

Plate (6) Marshes near Kurna,

R. Tigris 942

Microrasbora eryt.hromicron, PI.

fig. 3 . . . . • . 1038

Page,

Microrasbora rube.scens, PI. fig. 4. 1038

M ymarachne laetus (a) c? and 2 .

PI. fig. 12 1049

Nemachielus branneanus, PI.

fig. 5 1038

N emesiellus montanus. Diagram

of nest, PI. fig. 2 (o) . . 1045

Nephila maculata . . . . 642

Fig. 1 Diagram of

the parts of a

Geoniet r i c a 1

Snare . . . . 645

Fig. of Section of

Snare . . . . 915

d (above)

and 2 (below) PI.

fig. 5 .. .. 1046

Nesting-boxes. Illustrating

method of construction, 3

figs 1137

Nests and eggs of the Common

Birds, United Provinces, PI. 1072

(a) Jungle Babbler, (b) Jungle

Crow, (c) Rufous-bellied

Babbler . . . . . . 1072

Nicobar Islands. A survey sea-

son in the, on the R.I.M.S.

“ Investigator ”. —

Plate (a) Scare Devils from

a single hut . . 974

Plate (b) Inuanga Village

in Spiteful Bay,

showing the two

types of Huts and

numerous Scare-

Devils . . . . 974

Plate (a) Western Entrance

to N a n k a u r i

Harbour . . 982

(b) A M e g a p o d e

Mound, Nankauri

Island . . 982

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXVII

Page.

Plate (a) Part of the Coral

Reef off Reed

Point, Nankauri . . 984

Plate (6) View looking

across Barwell

Swamp, Camorta. 984

Plate (a) The Artificial

Lake, Camorta . . 988

Plate (6) A bed of Alcyon-

arians on Octavia

Bay, Camorta . . 988

Nilgai Skin Water-Cooler .. 1100

Nycteribia sp., PI. fig. 11 .. 966

Nycteribosca amboinensis, PI.

fig. 12 966

(Eslrus ovis, PI. fig. 6c., Larva. . 958

Ovia hodgsoni. Block of head . . 1123

Paralecanium mancum. Fig. —

(а) Adult female dorsal

aspect . . . . 1023

(б) Dermal cells . . 1023

(c) Marginal flabellae . . 1023

trifasciatum , Fig. —

{a) Adult? .. .. 1024

(6) Anal operculum . . 1024

(c) Stigmatic cleft and

marginal flabellae . . 1024

Parasitic Flies, Indian, PI. .. 703,

710

Plates III-V 958-966

Parlatoria cingala namunakali.

Fig. Pygidium of adult ? . . 1019

Perdix hodgsonicB hodgsonice, PI. 571

Periceschna magdalena, wings . . 612

Pipunculus sp., PI. . . . . 703

eztensus, Abdomen

Page.

Plexippus paykolli, PI. fig. 10 6 ,

fig. 11. ? 1049

Plotosus canius . . . . • . 629

Pseudoparlatoria pusilla. Fig.

Pygidium of adult 9 . • 1011

Pterocks alchata caudacuta. Chicks,

PI 650

senegallus. Chicks, PI. . . 650

Pterodurus senegallus Nestlings 808

Pterois russelli . . . • • • 62o

Puliciphora sp., PI. .. .. 703

Rhagodes nigrocintus .. .. 814

Sason sp.. Diagram of nest, PI.

fig. 2 (d) 1045

Sasonichus arthapophysis. Dia-

gram of nest, PI. fig. 2 (/) . . 1045

Sawbwa resplendens, PI. fig. 2 . . 1038

Sima rufonigra. Fig. 12 (6) . . 1049

Stegodyphus sarasinorum, Web

on mango twig, PI. fig. 3 . . 1045

Tibetan Gazelle, PI. . . . . 876

Tropidopola cylindr ica, Hea,d. . 733

obtusa, Head . . 733

Views of the Exhibition in the

Mammal Gallery of the Prince

of Wales Museum of Western

India, on the occasion of the

Royal Visit to Bombay, Nov-

ember 1921, PI 777

The Game Bird Section as

seen at the time of the

Exhibition, PI. . . . . 778

“ In Perpetuam Rei Memo-

riam,” PI. . . . . 778

Wood Spider, Snare of the Giant,

1 Text-figure . . . . . . 915

Wroughton, R.C., Photo of the

late, PI.

of, PI...

703

781

XXVlll

errata.

No, 4, Volume XXVIII.

Page 850, line 23 from the top for Fmncolinus francolinus

interposelus read Francolinus pondicerianus

inter fosetus.

850, ,, 28 from the top for Francolinus francolinus

niecranensis read Francolinus pondicerianus

mecranensis.

864, footnote for Matthews read Matheus.

871, line 20 from the top for Malanogaster read Melano-

gaster.

895, ,, 9 from the bottom for badly read hardly.

931, ., 20 from the top for austaliensis read australiensis.

982, ,, 13 from the top for Macropigia mad Macropygia.

983, ,, 11 from the top for challybeus read chalyheus.

985, ,, 25 from the top for Numeneus read Numenius.

985, ,, 29 from the top for Numeneus read Numenius.

1030, ,, 3 from bottom /or (a) read {e).

1034. ,, 5 from bottom for antannce read antenncc.

1119, ,. 4 from the top for Alavdidce read Alaudidce.

1119, ,, 11 irom iiie top ioT Pericrocut us mad Pericrocotus.

1119, ,, 11 from the top for perejurius read peregrinus.

1119, ,, 17 from the top for Alavdidce read Alaudidce.

1135, ,, 20 from the top for brachyara read brachyura.

xxix

4 icia arabica

Jinthurus ap

4 cipiter gularis . .

nisus melanoschistus

nisosimilis

— virgatus affiiiis

— - — besra

t

1 J

I

iridium morbosum

subulatum

INDEX OF SPECIES.

beta chaldea sp. ri.

iagrion paludensis sp. nov.

imouorhynchus vincens

ridella antennata

— ~ miniata . .

robusta . .

subulatum

iridotheres tristis

srocephalus babylonicus

stentoreus . .

steiitorea brunnescens

crostoma variabile

crotylus insubricus

longipes

damsia

dansonia digitata

idelarus bemprichi

Egialitis dubia

jerdoni . .

Egithina tiphia . .

Egypius monachus

F.olophus strepens deserticola sub. sp

Number. I

1101 Alcedo atthis pallasii

628 Alectoris grseca chukar . .

591 koriakovi

591 - — pallescens

591 werER

591 Alseonax ruficaudus

591 Alsocomus eljihinstonii . .

737 1 palumboides

698 1 pulchricollis. .

11311 — ^ — puniceus

725 1 torringtonii . .

725 j Amaurornis akool

725 — — — bicolor

725 j fuscus bakeri

734 I erythrothorax

725 1 — fuscus

757, 802, 996 j insularis

1110 ! phcenicura cbinensis

755 I insularis

— — phcenicura

993 I

773 phoenicurus

730 ! Amniania rotundifolia

Ammomanes deserti

Ammoperdix bonhami

griseigularis ter-meuleni

• — — griseogularis

730

935

815

869

769

861

754 ‘ Amphiaeschna beesoni

582 ! Ampbiesma stolata

V. : Amphipnous cuchia

Number.

.. 1002

849, 1005

.. 849

.. 953

.. 996

.. 834

835, 981

.. 835

. 835

. . 835

.. 854

.. 981

.. 855

.. 854

.. 767

.. 1041

.. 1110

823, 952

952

824

“ griseogularis

823, 824, 849

..901

.. 1141

.. 1039

XXX

INDEX OF SPECIES.

Number.

Anas pcecilorhyncha

strepera

Anastomus osoitans

Anax goliathus

Anhinga rufus

■ — — chantrei

— rufus

Anisoptera

Anogeissus latifolia

Anous stolidus pileatus

tenuirostris

Anser albifrons . .

- anser

erythropus

ferus

indicus

Antennarius hispidus

— nummifer

Anthracoceros albirostris

Anthrax albofulva

■ argentiapicalis

bipunctata

— ^ — Candida < .

duvancelli

indicata . .

ISIS

obseura

• sp. mcog.

■ subnotata

■ — ■ — umbra

Anthropoides virgo

Anthus roseatus . .

rufulus

■ sordidus jerdoni

■ trivialis barineto

Antilope cervicapra

Aonidia columnifera

— - mesochitinosa

■ — mimusopis

Aphithemis nigricolar sp. n.

Aquila chrysaetus daphanse

■ clanga

■ hastata

■ heliaca

— maculata . .

653, lO"

75,1

10

081,

663, 85'

1081

654

770

900

1109

652

651

895

1101

873

652

5, 1081

1119

,1117

627

761

886

884

885

884

883

885

6, 1081

999

759

999

878, 1100

1008

1009

700

584

584, 772

584

772

Number.

Aquila nipalensis nipalensis

• — rapax vindhiana

vindhiana . .

Araehnecthra asiatica

Araneus

sp

760, 801

Arboricola atrogularis

brunneopecta brunneopecta

— • — mandelli

— rufogularis intermedia

— rufogularis

tiokelli

torqueola batemani

millardi

— ■ — — torqueola

Arcyptera elegans

Ardea anti gone

— cinerea

cinerea

goliath cretzschm

manillensis

purpurea . .

— — ■ — ■ — purpurea

Ardeola grayi

ibis ibis ..

■ — rallorides . .

Ardetta cinnamomea

sinensis . .

Arenaria interpres . .

— inter pre

Argiope

Argusianus argus

Argya caudata

earlii

malcolmi

Argyramceba olaripennis

— intermedia

nigrofimorata

Argyrodes . .

Arrenga blighi

Arius sp.

Artema atlanta

Ascodipteron speiserianum

Asio butleri

Afic

A!^i

AiH

i't

770,

658,

65£

754

772

584

584'

7651^8]

113€l

1048

642;

84f

848

847

847,

847;

847

726

856.

lOOSi

1110

658

770

112(|

658

856

770

658

11071

77®

674'

858i

1047,

83S

1072

1071

1072

886

1048

112

62f

1046

96'‘

55f

ISDEX OF SPECIES.

xxxi

Caccabis bonhami . . . . . , g23

chukor . . . . . . 692

• kakelik koriakovi . . . . 849

pallescens . . . . . , 849

Cacomantis passerinus .. .. 771

Calamoherpe griseldis . . . . ..1110

Calappa 936

zxxu

IXDEA' OF SPECIES.

Numbek. I

Numbek,

Calidris arenaria . .

canuta

■ tenuirostris

Calliphora erythrocephala

vomitoria

Calliphornise

Calliptamus italicus as. carbonar

Callistoma imperator

Callophasis burmauicUi . .

humiw

Callosciurus epomophorus fabaudius

Callotes ophioniachus

Calcenas nicobarica

Caloptenus ciniticollis

ccelesyriensis

Caloperdix oculea oculca

Calomis chalybeus

Calotropis . .

Caltrunguis havipes

nigripes

Caais aureus

— ■ — - domesticus

iudicus indicus

Capra falconeri cashmiriensis

■ falconeri . .

sibirica

Capricomis sumatrensis humei

Caprimulgus asiaticus

macrurus . .

monticola . .

Cardiococcus bivalvata . .

castilloae . .

cenehiformis

forminifer

fossilis

— — » umbonatus

Carduelis caniceps caniceps

Caridina sp.

Carine noctua bactriana . .

blewitti . .

- — brama

fryi

pulchra . .

tarayensis

Carissa corondas . .

Cl

a

Q

a

C:

c

a

INDEX OF SFEC1E6.

Numbek.

Cbaradrius geoffro.yi

gregarius

— — hiaticula intermedins

tundrffi . .

— — himantopus ..

hypomelanus

leschenaultii

leucurns

malabaricus . .

— mongolus atrifrons . .

mongolus

placidus

ventralis

veredus

Chaudhuria caudata

Chaulclasmus strepenis . .

Chelidon urbica

Chettusia gregaria . .

leucura . . . . 672,

Chibia hotentotta . .

Chilobrachys fumosus

■ — ■ — stridulans . .

Chionaspis acuminata atricolor . .

g^mandropsidis

— ^ — linearis

■ tenera

Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni

Chlidonias leucopareia indica

■ leucoptera

Chloriotes edwardsi

Choetodon sp.

Chrysomyia

Chrysopelea ornata

Ciconia ciconia ciconia

■ nigra

CircacHus gallicus . .

Circus scruginosus

seruginosus . .

• — cyaneus

macrourus

melanoleucus

— pygargus

spilonotus

Cirrepedesmus

Ciaticola cursitans

.. 671

.. 860

. . 670

670, 862

.. 863

.. 860

671, 861

.. 860

.. 859

.. 861

Cittocincla macrura

Clarias batrachus

Cobboldia . .

elepbantis

Coccj'stes coromandus

jacobinus . .

Coccyzura tusatea . .

Cocblospernum gossypium

Colas us monedula collaris.

Columba aenas

aenea

.. 862

.. 860

.. 861

.. 1039

.. 1081

.. 999

672, 860

860, 1110

755

.. 1045

.. 1046

.. 1017

.. 1018

.. 1019

663, 857

. . 870

.. 870

. 857

. 625

. 710

. 1141

. 661

. 662

. 586

. 1004

. 589

. 588

. 589

. 862

. 756

agricola

bicolor . .

cambayensis

capelbi . .

cuprea . .

fulvicollis

hodgsoni

hmnibs . .

indica

intermedia

leptogrammica

leuconota gradaria

leuconota

livia

gaddi

^ intermedia

neglecta

meena . .

■ — ~ nicobarica

oenas eversmanni

orientalis

palumbus

phcenicoptera . .

pompadora

pulcbricollis

risoria decaocto

rupestris turkestanica

striata . .

— suratensis

sylvatica

tigrina . .

tranquebarica . .

turtur . .

vernans

£xxiis

Number.

. . 758

.. 1039

711, 713

.. 713

.. 1131

. . 762

.. 837

.. 1101

.. 991

.. 945

.. 832

.. 836

.. 833

. . 836

.. 832

. . 832

.. 831

.. 834

.. 837

.. 833

766, 1081

.. 837

.. 834

.. 1004

. . 946

.. 833

.. 834

.. 835

.. 833

.. 834

.. 835

.. 945

.. 830

. . 835

.. 836

.. 834

.. 838

.. 836

.. 833

.. 8S6

8: 7

. . 835

.. 831

xxxiv

INDEX OF SPECIES.

N UMBEK.

Number.

Colymbus arcticus suschkiiii

Comatibis cremita. .

Conocephalus breviceps . .

• — incertus

nitidulus

■Conozoa rogenboferi

Copsycbus saularis

Coracias indica

Corvus cornix . .

• coronoides intermedius

niacrorlij-nehus . .

1134

662

735

729

,1133

761

791

991

753, 800, 1069

. 758, 802, 1000

■ splendens . . . . 753, 804, 991, 1070

Coryptoplectron ei-ythrorhynchus

blewitti . . . . . . . . . . 846

erythrorhyn-

chus

Cotile sinensis

Coturnix argoondah

communis

coromandelica . .

coturnix coturnix

japonica

Cuterebra

Cuticolae

Cyclophorus auranticus

Cyclopodia albertisi

ferrarii

hopei

horsfieldi

svkcsi

C5'closa confraga

sp.

erytlirorhyncha

Crateropus canorus

Crex crex . .

Crocethia alba

Crocidura nicobarica

Crocodilus biporcatus

■Crocopus chlorogaster

phcenicopterus

. . 846

. . 759

. . 846

767,1081

772, 846, 1081

846, 955

.. 846

754, 1073

853, 943

.. 866

979

.. 986

1076, 1081

.. 766

chlorogaster . . 830

phcenicopterus 830

Cj'gnus olor

Cyon dukhunensis

Cyornis tickelli

Cyphojrhorus tibialis

Cyj)riuus carpio

■ intha

Cypselus affinis

■ — • — — apus

Cyrcna bengalensis

Cyrtophora

703

, 716

774

968

1048

653

1100

757

732

1039

762

1003

774 .

1048 1

■ viridifi

Crossocheilus latia

"Crossoptiloa harmani

•Ctenochiton cinnamomi

• .fryeri..

— oUvaceum

■Cuculus canorus . .

micropterus

Cun cum a leucogaster

leucorypha

Cursorius coromandelicus

— gallicus gallicus

. jamesoni

830

1043

843

1030

1031

1032

1003

771

587

858

664

858

INDEX OF SPECIES.

XXXV

Dicrurus ater. .

ciBrulesceas

Diospyros toraentosa

Discognathus gravelji

Dissura episcopus

Dociostaurus crassiusculus

hanensteini

maroccanus

Dorippe clorsipes

facchino

Diomaeschna

Dromas ardeola

Dromia sp.

Dry o bates himalay

Diicula badia cuprea

griseicapilla

^ insignis

Ncmbek.

735, 801, 803, 993 ,

. . 755 '

.. 1101

.. 1039

. . 7G9

. . 726

.. 726

.. 720

029, 934

932, 935

.. 013

674, 858, 1108, 1110

. . 934

.. 1001

Dumetia hyperythra

Esacus recurvirostris

Etroplus maculatus

suratensis

Eublepharis macularius

Eucampsipoda hyrtli

Euchloe belemia . .

charlonia transca

vernal is . .

832 ;

832 1

832 '

1073

Euconocephalus incertus

Eucta javana

Eudroinias morinellus

Eudynamis honorata

Eulota similaris

Eulota sp.

Eunetta falcata

Euplocamus diardi

melanotus

Eurycaremis laticeps

Eurycorypha stylata

Eurynorhynchus pygmaEu

Euryzona canningi

Exacretopus farinosus

Excalfactoria chinensis

spica

Echeneis iiaucrates

Egretta alba

garzetta garzetta

Elanus cseruleus . .

cseruleus

Elephas maximus . .

Emberiza fucata arcuata

Stewart i

Epeira

Epimys nitidus

— vicerex

Eremiaphila laevifrons sp.

Erismatura leucocephala

Erolia acuminata . .

alpina alpina

pusilla

ferruginea . .

— minuta

minuta

ruficollis

subminuta . .

temmincki

626

660

659

766

588

691

999

998

1048

1063

1060

719

657

866

667

867

67, 166

866

667

866

667, 866

772, 98

chinensis

bunkutensis

Number.

768, 858

. 628

. 811

. 968

. 1144

. 1145

. 735

. 1046

. 672

62, 982

. 774

. 1117

. 842

. 888

. 735

. 866

. 854

. 1027

0, 1081

845

Exoprosopa abjecta sp. nov.

— abrogata sp. nov.

albida

■ — auripluva

— disrupta

dissoluta sp. nov.

evanescens . .

fusconota

■ — • gujaratica sp. nov.

— ■ — ■ — insulata

— — ^ — ■ interstitialis sp. nov

iridipennis sp. nov.

pennata sp. nov.

punjabensis sp. nov

siva sp. nov.

tamerlan

846

635

637

634

640

641

638

636

634

6.36

637

6.33

639

6.35

640

6.34

633

XX XVI

INDEX OF SPECIES.

Number.

Falco cherrug cherrug

ilvipes

■ chiquera chiquera

columbarius insignis

jugger

naumaimi pekinensis

— peregrinus bab3^1oaicus

calidus

— peregrinator

severus indicus

— — severus

subbuteo

streichi

subbuteo

■ tinnunculus

• interstinctus

• tinnunculus

vespertinus aniurensis

Felis affinis

bengalensis

nebulosa

pardus

tigris . .

Ficus indica

— — — religiosa

Fisclieria intermis sp. n.

s^Tiaca

Flormia kand,vensis

Francolinus chinensis

francolinus asise

— — ■ henrici

melanonotus

592 '

593

593 j

592 i

594 1

592

Fulica chinensis

cinerea

Fuligula fuligula

55

85,

855

1081

691,

690, 691,

gularis

pictus

pallidus

pictus

pondicerianus

vulgaris

1122

691

691 ,

iiooj

1099

.. 1101

.. 721

.. 722

.. 1016

.. 850

.. 849

692, 850

.. 1081

.. 850

. . 8.50

767, 1081

pondicerianus 850

interpositus 850

mecranensis 850

. . 767, 1005

— stenura

Gallinula chloropus

parvifrons

erythrothorax

poliocephala

868, 1081, 1181

.. 1005

855, 943

.. 854

Galloperdix bicalcarata . .

lunulata

— — ^ — • spadicea caurina

— spadicea

— — — — ■ — — ■ Stewart i

Gallophasis horsfieldi

Gallus gallus bankiva

— ferrugineus

— gallus

ferrugineus . .

lafaj’etti

sonneratii . .

arabistanicus

Franklinia gracilis

Fulica atra

atra .

.. 953

756, 803

.. 944

.. 855

Garra gravelyi

Garruga pinnata . .

Gasteracantha

— — — ^ arcuata

Gastricolse

Gastrophilus

equi

Gavialis gangeticus

Gazella gazella subgutturosa

— picticaudata

.. 855

.. 845

. . 845

.. 844

.. 845

.. 842

.. 840

. . 840

.. 840

.. 767

.. 840

.. 1039

.. 810

.. 1043

.. 1046

711,712

711,712,714

.. 712

. . 810

.. 881

.. 880

XXXVlll

INDEX OF SPECIES.

j Hypotsenidia striata obscuriora . .

I striata

j Hj'psipetes psaroides

Ibidorhyncha struthersi . .

Ictinaetus malayensis perniger .

Indoplanorbis exustns

Inglisia chelonioides

Inocellia

crassicornis

Inocotis papillosis

Iranella gen. nov.

eremiaphila sp. nov. .

Iris persa sp. n.

splendida sp. n.

Ithagenes cruentus

geoSrojd geofEroyi

kuseri

Ixobrj’chus minutus minutus

IjnigilJicus hardvvickii

Jagoria martini

pceciloptera

Julis sp.

Juncella juncea

JjTix torquilla japonica . .

Kctupa javanensis flavipes

javanensis

zeylonensis

nigripes

zeylonensis . .

Number.

.. 853

.. 993

863

585

774

1033

1146

769

729

730

723

844

660

760

Oil

025

926

1002

.. 578

.. 763

.. 578

.. 577

INDEX OF SPECIES.

xxxlx

INDEX OF SPECIES.

xl

6

xlii

INDEX OF SPECIES.

OphioceiAalus hareourtbutleri . .

striatus . .

Ophrysia superciliosa

Oreicola ferrea ferrea

Oreocincla imbricata

Oriolus kundoo

melanocephalus . .

oriolus kundoo

Ornithomyia avicularia . .

Orthorhamjihus magnirostris

Orthotomus sutorius

Osmotreron donivillii

phayrei

pompadora chloroptera

Otis bengalensis . .

cdwardsi

indica . .

maequceni

orientalis

tarda . .

tetrax

Otocompsa cmeria

• flaviventris

Otogyps calvus

Otus bakkamsena bakkamaena . .

balli ..

deserticolor . .

lerapiji

lettia . .

plumipes

semitorques . .

brucei

sagittatus

scops minutus

nicobarica

pulchellus

rufipennis

sunia . .

spilocephalus

Ovis hodgsoni

SP

Tignei

Ovula formosa

INDEX OF SDECIES.

xliii

Number.

N UMBER.

Pcrdix hodgsoniae sifanica

hepbui-ni pallida . .

lerwa

longirostris

lunulata

oculea

picta

sifanica

• torqueola . .

Periseschna magdalena . .

Pericrocotus brevirostris . .

■ peregrinus . .

Periophthalmus koelreuteri

Pernis cristatus

ruficollis

Petaurista mergulus sp. n

Petrorossia claripennis

• intermedia

nigrofemorata

Phalacrocorax carbo subcormoran

desmaresti

fuscicollis

graculus

javanicus

■ P3'gma3us

Phalaropns fulicarius

hyperboreus .

lobatus

Phasianus argus . .

. . 575

.. 850

. . 851

.. 849

. . 845

.. 849

. . 8.50

. . 575

.. 847

612, 613

771, 996

757

. . 985

. . 766

.. 501

.. 1067

. . 885

.. 886

. . 886

. . 651

.. 651 !

. . 651 '

651

.. 769

651,1109

.. 867

665

. . 665

.. 839

Philomachus pugnax . . . . • • 865

Phoenicopterus antiquorum .. ..1117

— — - — ruber antiquorum . . 657

Plioenicurus ca;ruleocephala . . • • 997

ochruros phoenicuroides . . 997

Pliotodilus badius assimilis . . • • 576

badius . . • • 576

Ph3’’lloscopus collj'bita tristis . . . . 994

gresiolus . . . . • • 994

inornatus humci . . • . 994

nitidus viridanus . . • . 995

occipitalis occipitalis • • 994

Pitta brachjmra .. .. .. 760,1135

Planseschna . . . . . . • • 613

Platalea leucorodia .. •• ..1110

major . . • • 662

pj'gmsea . . . . . . • • 866

Platj'plcctrurus madurensis .. ..1141

Plat^’pterna pictipes sp. n. . . . . 725

tibialis . . . . . . 725

Plegadis falcinellus falcineilus . . 662

Pleurosicya annandalei .. .. 924, 929

Plexippus cuiicivorus . . . . . . 1049

pa3’kulli . . . . . . 1048

Ploceus ba3m . . . . . . 758, 800

Plotosus canius . . . . . . 628, 629

Plotus melanogastor . . . . . . 769

Pluvialis apricarius . . . . 670, 861

— cinereus . . . . . . 860

cruentus

elegans . .

gallus

hamiltoni

humite burmanicus

humise

impejanus

leucomebanus . .

lineatus

malaccensis

melanocephalus

pucrasia

roubroul

rufus

wallichii

Phik-ematomyinse . .

xliv

IXO£X OF SPECIES.

Number.

Polioliierax insignis

Polyonyx biunguiculatus

Polyplectron bicalc-aratnm bicalcaratum

chinquis

germaini

• malaccensis

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi travancoriensis

Porcellana quadrilobata . .

Porph5Tio poliocephalus . .

Porzana bicolor . .

fusca bakeri

parva

porzana

pusilla . .

intermedia

pusilla . .

Potamides terebralia

Pratineola caprata

Prinia inomata

socialis

sylvatica . .

Prunella albigularis

■ himalayanus

• strophiatus jerdoni

Pseudog5'ps bengalensis . .

Pseudoparlatoria pusilla . .

Pterocles alchatus caudacutus

arenarius

coronatus atratus

exustus . .

— indicus . .

lichtensteinii

arabicus

594

927

S39

839

840

1135

927

768, 944

poliocephalus.. 855

854

■ orientalis

■ senegalensis erlangeri

- senegallus

.. 854

853, 943

767, 943

853

985

757

756

1001

583, 764, 1097

.. 1010, 1011

. . 838, 950

. . 949

. . 838

. . 1076, 1081

1076, 1081

. . 952

.. 838

838, 949

. . 838

639,

838.

Pteroclurus senegallus

Pterois russelli

PtiUnopus eljihinstonii

Pucrasia macrolopha

62i

-biddulphi . .

- castanea . .

- macrolopha

- nipalensis

948

807

629

834

692

841

Querquedula crecoa . . . . . . 656

oircia . . . . . . 1081

querquedula . . . . 656

Quiroguesia brullei var blanchardiaria . . 728

INDEX OF SPECIES.

xlv

Number.

Numbe®.

xlvi

IXLEX OF SPECIES.

Number.

Spingonofus savignyi

Spizsetus alboniger

cirrhatus andamanensis

ceylonensis .

cirrhatus

— limnaetus

iiipalensis kelaarti

— — nipalensis

729

.589

.585

585

586

585

926

926, 929

758

670

860

721

1046

983

776

873

1101

873

872

1108

, 941

872

1108

1110

870

871

871, 940, 1110

870, 941, 1108

872

939

873

939

871

870

longipennis .. •• •• 871

media .. .. 941,1108,1110

minuta . . . . • . • • 940

Spongodes bicolor

pulchra

Sporaeginthms amandava

Squatarola squatarola

hypomelana

Statilia ocellata sp. n.

Stegodyphus sarasinorum

Stegomjda assamense

Stenothyra monilifera

Stercorarius parasiticus para.siticus

pomarinus . .

Sterculia urens

Sterna alba

albifrons albifrons

gouldi . .

saundersi

sinensis

albigcna benghalensis

anastheta anaetheta

fuligula

■ anaethetus

anglica .. .. 941, 1108,

■ bengalensis bengalensis

zimmermanni

- bergi cristata

velox

- caspia

- dougalli korustes

- fluviatilis

- fuscata infuscata

- hirundo . .

. — — hirundo .

tibetana

- leucoptera

Sterna melanogaster

nilotica nilotica . .

ihleata

repressa . .

sandvicensis sandvicensis

seena

sumatrana

— tenuirostris

StethophjTiia bolivari

Stomoxydinae

Streptaxis burmanicus

Streptopelia chinensis ceylonensis

— suratensis

tigrina

decaocto

decaocto . .

— xanthocycla

— orient alis agricola . .

meena

— orientalis

— risoreus

— senegalensis cambay-

ensis

ermanni • .

— suratensis suratensis

— turtur arenicola

turtur

Strix aluco biddulphi

nivi color

badia

biddulphi

butleri

Candida

dercepstorfii .

flammea

indranee indranee

-mamgayi

-newarensis

jauanica

ocellata

otus . .

seloputo

zeylonensis

Sturnopastor contra

Stumus vulgaris humii

Number.

769, 871

. . 870

. . 873

.. 871

.. 870

769, 871

.. 872

. . 873

.. 726

.. 709

. . 774

. . 836

.. 947

836, 1005

. . 837

.. 836

835, 1105

. . 835

. . 947

836, 947

. . 836

.. 1005

835, 946

. . 577

577, 1003

. . 576

. . .577

577

576, 771

. . 576

576, 763

.. 577

.. 576

.. 577

.. 576

.. 577

.. 757

995

INDEX 01 SPECIES.

xlvii

xJviii

INDEX OF SPECIES,.

INDEX OF SPECIES.

jclix

NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIIDJi.

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PERDIX HODGSONIyE HODGSONI^.

Mrs. Hodgson’s Partridge.

V

a

f

i ' A ^

V

FURTHER LIZARDS AND SNAKES FROM

PERSIA AND MESOPOTAMIA.

a b c x5

Chin Shields of Phyllodactylus elisoe, Werner.

This figure was omitted from Vol. XXVIll No. 1 of the

Journal and should be included with Miss Procter’s paper on

‘Further Lizards and Snakes from Persia and Mesopotamia to face

page 251.’

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

June 1922. Vol. XXVIII. Xo. 3.

THE GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON.

BY

E. C. Stuart Baker, F.L.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U.

Part XXXII.

(Conlinved from ])age 312 of this Yohtme.)

(TTR/? a 'plote).

Perdix hodgsoni.^: hodgsoxi^

The Tibetan Partridge.

Scefa hodgsonice. — Hodg., J.A.S.B., XXV., p. 165, pi. (1837) ;

(Tsang, Tibet).

Perdix hodgsonice. — Gould, B. of A., VI., pi. 74 (1857) ; Adams,

P.Z.S., 1859, p. 185 (Ladak) ; Leadb., P.Z.S., 1861, p. 19C (Haiilee,

Tibet) ; Hume, Nests and Eggs, p. 544 (1873) ; Cock, and Marsh,

S.F., L, p. 349 (1873) ; Hume, S.F., VII., p. 432 (1878) ; Hume

and Marsh., Game-B., II., p. 65 pi. (1879); Oates’ ed. Hume’s Nests

and Eggs, IIP, p. 438 (1890), (Indus Valley) ; Ogilvie-Giant, Cat.

B.M., XXII., p. 194 (1893) ; id. Hand-b. Game-B., I., p. 150 (1895) ;

Oates, Man. Game-B., I., p. 191 (1898) ; Walton, Ibis, 1906, p. 218

(S. Tibet) ; Dresser, Ibis 1906, p. 346 (Tibet) ; Bailey, J. B. N. H, S.,

XXI, p. 179, (1911) ; id. ibid. XXII., p. 367 (1913); id. ibid.

XXIV., p. 78 (1915).

Perdix hodgsonii. — Adams, P.Z.S., 1858, p. 503 (N. of Mussoorie) ;

.Terdon, B. of I., III., p. 575* (1863).

Perdix {Scefa) hodgsonice. — Gray, Hand-L., B. II., p. 267 (1870).

Perdix hodgsonice hodgsonice. — Hartert, Vbg., Pal., IIP, p. 1936,

(1921).

Vernacidar Names.— Sahpa (East Tibetan) ; Rhahpa ( Central

Tibet) ; Che-Tra (Kongbo Tibetan) (F. M. Bailey).

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

Description, Adult Male and Female. — Line round the base of the

bill black, followed by a white line extending back over the eye as

a supercilium ; a second black line is followed by the rich chestnut

forehead and sides of the crow’n, the centre of the crown is browner

and mottled with black and white ; nape and hind-neck greyish

brown mottled with white and, to a less extent, with black ; a broad

chestnut collar at base of hind neck ; back, rump and upper tail-

coverts blue-grey barred and stippled with black and more faintly

with fulvous ; the blue tinge is strongest on the inter-scapidars and

upper back, and on the latter there are sometimes a few narrow centre

lines to some of the feathers ; central tail feathers like the upper

tail-coverts but more boldly barred, lateral tail feathers chestnut

narrowly edged with black stippled fulvous ; wing-coverts and inner

secondaries with bold central streaks of pale fulvous bordered with

black, a few bold bars of deep chestnut and pale fulvous and the rest

wdth fine stippled lines of black, grey and fulvous ; quills brovm bar-

red, ^vith light chestnut and whitish; ear-coverts blackish chestnut

with white bases ; hind cheeks black ; fore cheeks, lores, chin and

throat fulvous- white with a black border which joins more or less

with the black of the cheeks ; fore neck white, or creamy white, with

a narrow chestnut band meeting that on the hind neck ; below white ;

the centre of the breast with broad black bars, which sometimes

coalesce and form a more or less complete black patch on the belly ;

sides of breast and flanks marked with chestnut patches and with

bold blacldsh-chestnut bars ; vent and under tail-coverts pale fulvous

or fulvous-white, sometimes marked with tiny bars of speckly black.

Colours of Soft Parts. — Iris brown or red- brown ; orbital skin deep

velvety crimson in the breeding season, dull reddish-crimson at other

times; bill pale horny green; legs and feet greenish brown or pale

livid greenish.

Measurements. — Length about 300 mm. ; wing 155 to 165 mm.;

tail about 86 to 91 mm.; tarsus about 40 to 43 mm.; culmen about

15 to 17 mm.

The Female is like the male but a little smaller ; wing about 150

to 155 mm., and the other measurements in proportion.

The Young Bird has no tinge of blue-grey above, the chestnut is

wanting everywhere, and the lower parts are a dull earthy buff, the

breast with paler stri^ and indefinite narrow bars of dull black.

The crown, cheeks and ear-coverts are dark brown with white apical

spots.

Distribution. — Tibet from the extreme Wiest to the East,, where it

meets the race Perdix hodgsonice sifanica, a smaller and much less

richly coloured race. On the West it is found in Ladak, and X.E.

Kashmir, has been obtained in the N. E. Bhagiratho Valley near

Gangotri. It occurs in Kumaon and is not rare in some of the higher

valleys of both Native and British Sikldm. It does not occur, as has

THE GAME BIRBS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. 573

sometimes been claimed close to Darjiling, nor is the country there

suitable for it. It is found in both the Abor and Mishmi Hills in the

extreme North, but does not appear to be nearly so numerous there as

it is in Tibet.

Nidification.~The Tibetan Partridge breeds in great numbers

over practically the whole of Tibet in suitable ground between 11,000

feet and 15,000 feet. Major Barnes took its nest at an elevation of

over 16,000 feet, and Mr. Macdonald has obtained eggs for me at

places which he tells me are at about 17,000 feet elevation. Pro-

bably its favourite situations are on the huge plateau-plains between

12,000 and 14,000 feet. The nest is nothing more than a scratching

in the soil, an inch or two deep, and 6 or 7 inches across ; in some

wind-blown and fallen leaves and grass may collect in the hollows,

but in other cases the eggs are laid directly on the bare soil. As a

rule the site selected is one protected by rocks or bushes , sometimes

it is scratched in amongst the low thorny bushes which cover so great

a part of the Gyantse and similar plains, and sometimes, it may be

placed at the foot of a single bigger bush or clump of grass. But

the eggs may also be taken on ground which is absolutely devoid of all

vegetation, in between a couple of rocks or under some boulder. In

all cases, however, the nest is placed on the leeward side of the hill

and to the leeward of the bush, rock or other protecting cover. The

breeding season commences in the end of May and eggs are laid

throughout June and early July, occasional clutches, perhaps second

layings when the first have been destroyed, in the end of that month

and early August. Prjevalsky found a few eggs laid in early May

by P. h. sifanica in Kansu, though the hens were not then sitting.

They lay from 6 or 7 to 11 and 12 eggs sometimes, perhaps, even

more than this, as Prjevalsky speaks of clutches of 15 eggs and over ;

probably, however, 8 to 10 is the most common number of eggs laid.

In appearance they are very much like the Common Partridge’s

eggs. The colour varies from a pale reddish bufi which is rare,

through warm buff, olive buff or reddish olive to a warm, clear olive.

The shape is normally a rather long oval, the smaller end well pointed

and occasionally becoming almost peg-top in character.

The texture is very close and fine, and there is a faint gloss, rarely

very highly developed.

One hundred and fifty eggs average 37 '6 by 27*2 mm.; the maxima

are 43'0 by 26 3 and 39’8 by 28'4 mm., and the minima are 31'1 by

27 ‘8 and 38‘1 by 219 mm. The minima exclude certain pigmy

specimens which are not uncommon in clutches of this Partridge’s

eggs.

The hen-bird is said to be a very close sitter and an excellent

mother, and the cock-bird an equally attentive father and husband.

Habits. — In summer the Tibetan Partridge is found principally

between 12,000 and 15,000 feet, but wanders up to nearly 19,000 feet,

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII.

aii.i on the other hand is found down to about 11,000. In winter it

keeps below 14,000, and has been found as low as 9,000 feet, though

its visits to such comparatively low elevations must be very few and

far between.

Hume describes the country in which he found them as very bleak

and bare. He says :

“ The entire aspect of the hill where these birds were found

was dreary and desolate to a degree — no grass, no bushes, only

here and there, fed by the melting snow above, little patches

and streaks of mossy herbage, on which, I suppose, the birds

must have been feeding.”

Colonel F. M. Bailey tells me, however, that the birds do not by

preference inhabit the more rugged and bare portions of the Gyan-

tse plain, but are found in places where there are crops, grass or good

cover in the way of bushes. In these places they afford good sport,

and bags of some size may be made. Colonel Bailey mentioning two

days when he obtained 48 and 43 birds in addition to 25 and 34

hares. Elsewhere he records :

“ Found in the crops in the Tsangpo Valley from Pea up-

v/ards. They are found in flocks from 10 to 15. Their flight is

like that of an English Partridge, but they are not so willing to

rise though they are not very wild. VTien scattered they call

each other with a curious buzzing sound. I once heard this

exactly imitated by the creaking lid of a lunch-basket which

we had out with us when shooting.”

Mr. D. Macdonald and others have informed me that when in crops

or cover, these birds do not run far, but rise fairly close, and give

good shots, though the coveys bunch very much the first time they get

up when it is often difficult to avoid “browning” them. After

re-alighting they often scatter a good deal, and then afford fine single

and double shots, as they rise oire after another. When on bare

ground, instead of waiting until the shooter is close up to them, they

run a great deal, and will often scuttle along in front of one for quite

a long distance, stopping every now and then when a dip or hollow

in the ground hides them temporarily from view.

It is possible that the bird from the western portion of the range

given above, i.e.. from Ladak, Kashmir, Garhwal, etc., should be

separated as a geographical race. It is much paler than the Tibetan

bird, and has little or no bluish tinge above. The broad, rich chest-

nut collar in that bird is replaced with a narrow yellow-chestnut

collar in the Western bird, and the under parts also are paler and

duller with the black more extensive and forming a more definite

patch. All these variations with the exception of the want of the

blue-grey tinge above may be due to bleaching and abrasion, and at

present there is not sufficient material in the British Museum to allow

of their separation.

THE GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON.

575

PeRDIX HODGSOXI^ SIFAXIC/».

The Kansu Partridge.

Perdix sifanica. — Prjevalskv, Mongali Straua Taug. II., p. 124

(1876), (Kansu) ; Bailey, XXII., p. 367 (1913).

Perdix liodgsonice sifanica. — Hartert, Vog. Pal.,p. 1937 (1921).

VernarMlar Karnes. — Sakpa (East Tibet) Rhakpa, (Central

Tibet) (F. M. B.)

Description. — Similar to P. h. liodgsonice, but much less richly

coloured, the blue-grey tint on the upper parts is either absent alto-

gether or is confined to the upper back or interscapularies. The

lower parts also are duller, and there is less chestnut on the flanks

and sides of breast. The black on the cheeks is also less in extent

than it is in P. h. liodgsonice, and never meets below the throat.

Colours of Soft Parts as in the preceding bird.

Measurements. — This is a smaller bird than the last, the wing

measiu’ing from 140 to 1.53 mm., with the other measurements in

proportion.

Distribution. — N. E. Tibet, Nanschan, Koko Nor to Scetzschuan.

K idification.—P^ggs, taken by Tibetans in extreme Xorth-East

Tibet and sent to me by Mr. D. Macdonald are quite indistinguish-

able from those of the Tibetan Partridge. Prjevalsky found young

birds in August in Kansu, but the birds were not sitting in early May,

and had only commenced laying.

Habits. — Similar to those of the last bird. Bailey found it

between 12,500 and 15,000 feet at suitable places at Litang to

Dokeng in the Upper Irrawaddy Valley.

Prj evalsky records :

“ We found this bird in the Alpine regions of Kansu (it does

not extend further northwards), principally in the rhododendron

thickets about the sources of the Tutunga, where the mountains

are covered with small tufts of Potentilla tenuifolia. It descends

to the plains, which, how'ever, are not at a low^er elevation than

about 10,000 feet above the sea level.

Its habits are very similar to those of Perdix barbata,

only the voice is different. When taking to wing, it utters a

more squeaking but louder note than this latter, and its call note

is also harsher.”

Other observers have noted that the ordinary nuptial call of the

breeding male is very like that of Perdix perdix, if indeed it is in any

way distinguishable from it.

Both this and the last bird eat almost any sort of seed or insect,

and for the table Colonel Bailey tells me that he cannot see much

difference between Perdix hodgsoniic and the English Partridge.

(Jo be continued.)

HAND-LIST or THE “WEDS OF INDIA.”

BY

E. C. Stuart Baker, f.l.s., f.z.s., m.b.o.u

Part VI.

{Continued from page 333 of this Volume.)

ORDER STRIGES.

1538. (1154:) Photodilus badius badius. The Bay Owl.

Strix badia Horsf., Bes. Java., pi. 37 (1824), [Java

*The generic term Strix was first applied to birds of another genus (the Tawny

Owls) and not to the Barn-Owls. Tyto of Billberg, 1828 is the next name available

for this genus and Strix must replace Syrnium of Savigny for the Tawnj'-Owls or

Wood-Owls.

BIJWS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

577

1542.

1543.

• 544.

•545.

1546.

•547.

• 548,

•549.

‘550.

i'1158) Strix aluco nivicolor. The Himalayan Wood-Owl.

Symium nivicolum Bhjth, J.A.S.B., xiv., p. 185 (1845),

{Himalaya).

Himalayas from Garhwal to China, and N. Burma.

(1159) Strix aluco biddulphi. Scully’s Wood-Owl.

Strix biddulphi Scully, Ibis, 1881, p. 423 (Gilgit).

N. W. India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan to

Kashmir and Garhwal.

(1160) Strix indranee indranee. The Brown Wood-Owl.

Strix indranee Sykes, P.Z.S., 1832, p. 62 {Deccan).

Ceylon and Hills of S. India, N. to Mahableshwar and

Orissa.

(1160) Strix indranee newarensis. The Himalayan Brown

Wood-Oivl.

Ulula newarensis Hodg., As. Res., xix., p. 168 (1836).

Himalayas, East to Assam and the Hills of N. and

Central Burma.

(1160) Strix indranee maingayi. The Malay Broicn

Wood-Owl.

Syrnium mungayi Hume, S.F., vi., p. 29 (1875)

{Malacca).

Tennasserim.

(1161) Strix occellata. The Mottled Wood-Owl.

S}u’nium occellatum Less,. Rev. Zool., 1839, p. 389

{Pondicherry).

The Plains of India to the extreme S. and E. to Lower

Bengal.

(1162) Strix seloputo. The Malayan Wood-Owl.

Strix seloputo Horsf., Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii., p. 140

(1821), {Java).

South Burma from Pegu, South to Java, etc. and E.

to Siam and Cochin China.

(1163) Strix butleri. Hume’s Wood-Owl.

Asio butlc-ri Hume, S. F.. vii., p. 316 (1878), {Omara

Mekran Coast).

Mekran Coast and ? Sinai.

Sub-family Bubonin^.

(1164) Ketupa zeylonensis zeylonensis. The Brown

Fish Owl.

Strix zeylonensis Gmel., Syst. Nat., i., p. 287 {178S)

{Ceylon).

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

155*.

•552.

•553.

•554.

•555.

•556.

•557.

•558.

Ceylon, India, East to South China and Hainan, nearly

all Burma.

(lldl) Ketupa zeylonensis nigripes. The Himalayan

Broun Owl.

Caltrunguis nigripes Hodg., J.A.S.B., v., p. 364 (1836),

{Nepal).

Himalayas from Afghanistan to E. Assam.

(1166) Ketupa javanensis javanensis. The Malay Fish

Owl.

Strix javanensis Horsf., Tra7is. L.S., ziii., p. HI {1821)

{Java).

South Burma and Malay Peninsula to Java, Sumatra

and Borneo.

(116.5) Ketupa javanensis flavipes. The Tawny Fish Owl.

Caltmnguis flavipes Hodg., J.A.S.B., v., p. 364 (18.36),

{Nepal).

Sub-Himalayas from Kashmir East to Assam, Manipur,

N. Burma to China.

(1167) Bubo bubo turcomanus. The Turkestan Great

Horned Owl.

Strix turcomana Eversni., Add. Pall. Zoog. Rosso- As., i.,

p. 3 (1835), {Caspian Sea).

Transcaspia, Turkestan to N. W. Himalayas.

Bubo bubo tibetanus. The Tibetan Great Horned

Owl.

Bubo bubo tibetanus Bianchi, Bull. B.O.C., xvi., p. 69

(1906), {Chitsu, Tibet).

Central Tibet to Kan Schan, S. to Sikkim.

(1168) Bubo bubo bengalensis. The Indian Great Horned

Owl.

Otus bengalensis Frankl., P.Z.S., 1831, p. 115 {Bengal)

India from the South to the Sub-Himalayas and K.E.

Burma.

(1169) Bubo coramandus. The Dusky Horned Owl.

Strix coramanda Lath., Ind. Orn., i., p>- 53 (1790), {Coro-

mandel Coast).

All Central and North India as far East as Bengal.

(1170) Huhua nipalensis. The Forest Eagle-Owl.

Bubo nipalensis Hodg., As. Res., xix., p. 172 (18.36),

{Nepal).

Himalayas and Mts. of S. India, Ceylon, Assam and

Burma.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIllE. 57!)

1559. (1171) Huhua orientalis. The Malay Eagle-Owl.

Strix orientalis /7ors/., Trans. L.S., xiii., p. 140 (18211.

{Java).

S. Tenna<^serim, Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and

• Borneo.

1560. (1172) Nyctea nyctea. The Snowy Old.

Strix nyctea Linn., S.N., i., p. 93 (1858), {Sweden).

Mardan, N.W. Punjab. Northern Europe and Asia.

1561. (1173) Otus scops pulchellus. The Eastern Scops Owl.

Stryx pulchella Pall., Reise Prov. Russ. Reich., i., p. 456

(1871), {Volga).

S. Eastern Rir'sia, straggler into N.W. India.

1562. Otus scops sunia. The Indian Scops Owl.

Scops sunia Hodg., As. Res., p. 175 (1836), {NepaO.

North and Central India.

•5^3. Otus scops rufipennis. The Southern Indian Scops

Owl.

Scops rufipennis Sharpe, Cat. B.M., ii., p. 60 (1875),

{Madras).

Southern India.

I56J. Otus scops nicobarica. The Nicobar Scop>s Owl.

Ephialtes nicobaricus Hume, S.F., iv., p. 283 (1877),

{Nicobar s).

Nicobars.

1 565. Otus scops minutus. The Ceylon Scops Owl.

Scops minutus Legge, A.M.N.H., (5), i., p. 175, (1878),

{Ceylon).

Ceylon only.

’566. (II741 Otus brucei. The Striated Scops Owl.

Ephialtes brucei Hume, S.F., i., p. 8 (1873), {Bombay).

West Turkestan, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Kashmir,

S. to Bombay.

1567 (1175) Otus spilocephalus. The Spotted Himalayan Scops

Owl.

Ephialtes spilocephalus J.A.S.B., xv., p. 8 (1846),

{Darjiling).

Himalayas, MuiTee to E. Assam, N. and Central Burma.

2

580 JOURlSiAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1568. (1178) Otus bakkamcena bakkamcena. The Collared

Scops Oivl.

Otus bakkamcena Pennant, Ind. Zool., p. 3 ( 1769),

{Ceylon).

Ceylon and S. India.

1569. (1176) Otus bakkamcena balli. The Andaman Scops Oivl.

Ephialtes balli Hume, S.F., i., p. 407 (1873), {Andamans).

Andamans.

1570. Otus bakkamcena lempiji. The Malay Scops Owl.

Scops lempiji Horsf., Trans. L.8., xiii., p. 140 (1821),

{Java).

Tennasserim, South to Burma.

1571. Otus bakkamcena lettia. The Nepal Scops Oud.

Scops lettia, Hody., As. Res. xix., p. 176 (1836), {Nepal).

Nepal and Garhwal to E. A.ssam amd N. Burma.

•572. (1179) Otus bakkamcena plumipes. The Kashmir Scops

Owl.

Ephialtes plumipes Hume, My Scrap-book, p. 397, (1870),

{Murree).

N. W. Himalaj’as.

1573. Otus bakkamcena semitorques. The Japanese

Scops Old.

Otus semitorques Temm. tD Schl., Siebold's Fauv.^ Jap.,

p. 25 (1850), {Japan).

Japan Southwards. Very doubtful record from Shan

States.

1574. *Otus bakkamcena deserticolor. The Sind Scops

Owl.

Otus bakkamcena deserticolor Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C.,

xlii., p. 57 (1922), {Sind).

Sind, Baluchistan, ? Muscat and Bushire.

1575. (1177) Otus sagittatus. The Large Malay Scop>s Owl.

Ephialtes sagittatus Cass., Pro. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila., iv.

p. 121 (1850), {India, Perak).

Tennasserim, South down the Malay Peninsula.

1576. (1180) Carine noctua brama. The Indian Spotted Owlet.

Strix brama Temm., PI. Col., pi. 68 (1823), {India).

All India N. of 14^^, exc3pt extreme N. E. Assam and N.

Chin Hills.

* This bird may be Scops ssiucnoici Zariidy and Harm., Orn. Monatsb., X, p. 49’

190.3.

'577.

'578.

'579.

1580

is8i.

1582.

1583.

'584.

>585.

BllWS OF THE INDIAN EMVIRF. r>3l

Carine noctua fryi. The Southern Spotted Owlet.

Carine brama fryi Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., xl., j)- 60

(1919), {Paumbaum, Madras).

Mysore, Travancore, Deccan, Madras, and Bombay N.

to 14°.

Carine noctua pulchra. The Burmese Spotted Owlet.

Athene pulchra Hume, S. F., i., p. 469 (1873), {Pegu).

Central and S. Burma, 8han States, Siam Yunnan,

Cambodia.

(1181) Carine noctua blewitti. The Forest Spotted Owlet.

Heteroglaux blewitti Hume, S. F., i., p. 468 (1873),

{Phooljan State, TC. India).

Sambulpur, Karial, • Khandcsh tforests).

(1182) Carine noctua bactriana* Hutton’s Owlet.

Athene bactriana Hutton, J.A.S.B., xvi., p. 776 (1847),

(Candahar) .

A straggler only into N.W. India on the Afghan frontier.

Carine brama tarayensis. The Baluchistan Spotted

Oivlet.

Noctua tarayensis Hodg., As. Res., xix., p. 275 (1836),

{Nepal Terai).

N. W. India, Baluchistan, Sind and Persian Baluchistan.

(1183) Qlaucidium cuculuides cuculoides. The Large

Barred Oivlet.

Noctua cuculoides Vigoi's. P.Z.S., 1830, p. 8 {Himalaya).

From Hazara to Assam, Burma and Siam.

(1184) Qlaucidium radiatum radiatum. The Jungle Owlet.

Strix radiata Tickell, J.A.S.B, ii., p. 572 (1833).

India from the foot of the Himalayas and S. to Madra.s

and Belgaum.

Qlaucidium radiatum malabaricuni. The Malabar

Jungle Owlet.

Glaucidium malabaricum Sharpe, Cat. B.M., ii., p. 218

(1883), {Malabar).

Malabar Coast to Ceylon and N. Ceylon.

(1185) Qlaucidium radiatum castanonotum. The

Chestnut-hacked Oivlet.

Athene castanopterus apud Blyth, J.A.S.B, xv., p. 280

{nec. Horsf.), (1846), {Ceylon).

Ceylon in the wetter, hilly country.

r)8-2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

1586. *(1186) Glaucidium brodiei. The Collared Pigmy Owlet.

Noctua brodiei Burton, P.Z.S., 1835, p. 162 {Himalayas).

Himalayas, Murree to E. Assam, Burma, China and Malay

Peninsula.

1587 (1187) Ninox scutulata lugubris. The Indian Broivn

Hawk-Owl.

Strix lugubris Tickdl, J.A.S.B, ii., p. 572 (1833)>

(Dliolhhum, Bengal).

N. India from Rajputana to Bengal.

Ninox scutulata burmanica. The Burmese Brown

Hawk-Owl.

Ninox burmanica Hume, S. F., iv., p. 386 (1876), {Pegu).

Assam to Burma and Siam.

Ninox scutulata affinis. The Andaman Brown

Hawk-Owl.

Ninox affinis ITytfer, Beamu, 76is, 1867, p. 285 {Andamans).

Andamans and Nicobars.

Ninox scutulata hirsuta. The Ceylon Brown

Hawk-Owl.

Ninox hirsuta Temm., PL Col., 289 (1824), {Ceylon).

Ceylon.

Ninox obscura. Hume's Brown Hawk-Owl.

Ninox obscura Hume, S. F., i., p. 77, (1873), {Andamans)

Andamans and Nicobars.

ORDER ACCIPITRES.f

Family Pandionid^.:{;

1592. (1189) Pandion haliaetus haliaetus. The Osprey.

Falco haliaetus Linn., S.N. 10th ed., i., p. 91 (1758), {Sweden).

Europe, Asia and Africa, winter to India.

Family Gypid^.

•593- (1190) /Cgypius monachus. The Cinereous Vulture.

II Vultur monachus Linn., S.N., 12th ed. 1, p. 122 (1766)

(Arabia) S. Europe, N. Africa, East to India and China.

*This little Owl forms several geographical races which require working out.

tThis order having just been completely worked by Mr. W. L. Sclater, he has

very kindly allowed tue to make use of his Ms. and other work for this Catalogue.

{Very doubtfully separated from the true Fah onidce with which it is linked by the

genus Haltaettts-

\\VuUur applies to a quite different genus and JE<jypius Savigny, 1809, is the

next name applicable.

1588.

1589.

«590.

I59«.

• 594-

'595

1599.

1597

'598

'599.

1600.

1601.

1602.

BlIiD!S OF THE IN DUX EMPIRE. •'SSS

(1191) Torgos calvus. The Blach or Pondicherry Vulture.

Vultur calvus Scop., Del. Flor. et. Faun. Insubr., ii., p. 85

(1786), (Pondicherry).

India to Cochin China and Malay Pen.

(1192) Gyps fulvus fulvescens. The Indian Griffon

Vidtiire.

Gyps fulvcsccns Hume, Ibis, 1869, p. 356, (Punjab).

India, not extreme East or Ceylon. ? Red >Sea and

Suakim.

(1193) Gyps himalayensis. The Himalayan Griffon.

Hume, Rough Notes, i., p. 12 (1869), (Simla).

Himalayas, West from Bhutan to Turkestan and Tibet.

(1194) Gyps indicus indicus The Indian Long-hilled

Vulture.

Vultur indicus Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Instibr., ii., p. 85

(1786), (Pondicherry).

Indian Pen., X. to Punjab and Rajputana.

(1194) Gyps indicus pallescens. The Pallid Vulture.

Gjt)s pallcsccns Hume, S.F., i., p. 150 (1873), (Ajynere).

(1195) Gyps tenuirostris. The Himalayan Long-hilled

Vulture.

Hume, S.F., vii., p. 326 (1878), (Nepal).

Bengal, Afsam and foothills of Himalayas, Burma.

(1196) Pseudegyps bengalensis. The Indian White-hacked

Vulture.

Vu'.tur bengalensis G?«eC, *S'.X. i., p. 24-5 (1788), (Bengal).

India and Burma to Malay Pen. and Annam.

vll98) Neophron perenopterus perenopterus. The

EgyjJtiun Vullure.

Vultur perenopterus Linn.,S.N., i.,p.S~ (1758), (Egypt).

Africa, S. Europe East to X.W. India.

(1197) Neophron perenopterus ginginianus. The Smallet

White Scavenger Vulture.

Vu'.tur ginginianus 7n. 0/ «. i.,p. 7 (1790), (Gingee

S. India).

India, S. to Ceylon and E. to Chota Nagpur, etc.

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1603.

1 604.

1605.

1606.

1607,

1608.

1609.

Family Falconid^.

Sub-Family Gypaetin^.

(1199) Qypaetus barbatus grandis. The Eastern Bearded

Vulture.

Gypaetus grandis Storr., Alpenreise vom Jahr. 1781 — 4,

p. 69 (Switzerland).

S. Europe, East to Central Asia, Himalayas and China.

Sub-Family Falconing.

(1200) Aquila chrysaetus daphanae. Himalayan Golden

Eagle.

Aquila daphanae Hodg. in Gray's Zool. Misc., p. 81

(1844), (Nepal).

Centi’al Asia, Tianschan and Altai to Himalayas.

(1202) Aquila heliaca. The Imperial Eagle.

Savigny, Descr. Egypte Says. Ois., p. 82 (1809), (Upper

Egypt).

E. Europe and N. Africa to Lidia.

(1202) Aquila nipalensis nipalensis. The Eastern Stepjoe-

Eagle.

Circaetus nipalensis Hodg., As. Res., xviii., (2), p. 13

(1833), (Nepal).

Mongolia and S.E. Siberia to the Altai, India and

Burma.

(1203) Aquila rapax vindhiana. The Indian Tawny

Eagle.

Aquila vindhiana Frank, P.Z.S., 1831, p. 114 (Vindhya

Hills.)

India to Persian Baluchistan. Not Assam or Ceylon,

(1205) Aquila clanga. The Greater Spotted Eagle.

Pall. Zoog. Rosso. Asiat. i., p. 351 (1827), (Russia and

Siberia).

E. Europe to Amur, winter S. to S. Asia and N.E. Africa.

(1206) Aquila hastata. The Small Indian Spotted Eagle.

Morphnus hastatus Less., Voy. hid. Bdanger, p. 217

(1834), (Bengal).

India and Burma, not Ceylon.

585

\

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

1 6 10. (1207) Hieraetus fasciatus. Bonelli’s Eagle.

Aquila fasciata Vieill., Mem. Soc. Linn. Paris, ii., (2),

p. 152 (1822), {Montpellier).

S. Europe and N. Africa through India to China.

1611. (1208) Hieraetus pennatus. The Booted Eagle.

Falco pennatus Grnel., S.N., i. (1), p. 272 (1788), (Spain).

S. Europe and N. Africa to India, Burma and Ceylon.

1612. (1209) Lophotriorchis kieneri. The Rufous-bellied Hawk-

Eagle.

Astur kieneri de Sparre, Mag. ZooL, 1835, Aves, pi. 35

(Himalayas).

India and Burma and Malaya to Philippines ; Ceylon.

1613. (1210) Ictinaetus malayensis perniger. The Indian

Black Eagle.

Aquila, pjrniger Hoij., J.A.S.B., v., p. 227 (1836), (Nepal),

India, Ceylon, Burma, S. to Malay Pen.

1614, (1211) Spizaetus cirrhatus cirrhatus. The Indian Hawk-

Eagle.

Falco cirrhatus Gmel., S.N., i., p. 274 (1788), (India).

Indian Pen. N. to Rajputana and Central Provinces.

1615. (1212) Spizaetus cirrhatus limnaetus. The Changeable

Hawk-Eagle.

Falco limnaetus Horsf., Trans. L.S., ziii., p. 138 (Java).

Sub-Himalayan Tracts, Assam, Burma to Philippines,

1616. (1211) Spizaetus cirrhatus ceylanensis The Ceylon

Hawk-Eagle.

Falco ceylanensis Gmel., S.N., i., p. 275, (1788), (Ceylon).

Ceylon and Travancore.

1617. Spizaetus cirrhatus andamanensis. The Andaman

Hawk-Eagle.

Spizaetus andamanensis Tytler, P.A.S.B., 1865, p. 112

(Port Blair).

Andamans.

1618. (1213) Spizaetus nipalensis nipalensis. Hodgson’s Hawk-

Eagle.

Nisaetus nipalensis Hodg., J.A.8.B., v., p. 229 (1836),

(Nepal).

Himalayas and sub-Himalayas, Hazara to Assam.

.-)86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY SATUliAL HIST. SOCIF/TY, Vol. XXVIII.

Spizaetus nipalensis kelaarti. Legge's Hatvk-Eagle .

Spizaetus kelaarti Legge, Ibis., 1878, p. 202 (Ceylon).

Cej'lon and Travancore.

Spizaetus alboniger. BlgiJvs Hawk-Eagle.

Nisaetns albonigev Blyth, J.A.S.B., xiv., 2>. 173(1845)

(Malacca).

Tennasserim and Siam and Malay Pen. to Borneo.

Circaetus gallicus. The Short-toed Eagle.

Falco gallicus G/weZ., (1), p. 259 (1788), (France).

Central and S. Europe, N. Africa to India and China.

Spilornis cheela cheela. The Indian Crestea

Serpent-Eagle.

Falco cheela 7»cZ. Oni., i., p. 14 (1790), (Lucknow).

Himalayas, Kashmir to Sikkim, winter Southwards.

Spilornis cheela rutherfordi. The Hainan

Serpent-Eagle.

Spilornis rutherfordi Swinh., Ibis, 1870, p. 85 (Central

Hainan).

Assam, Burma and Siam to Hainan.

1624. (1217) Spilornis cheela albida. The Lesser Serpent-Eagle.

Falco albidus Temm., PI. Col., 4, pi. xix. (1824),

(Pondicherry).

Southern India.

1625. (1217) Spilornis cheela spilogaster The Ceylon Serpent-

Eagle

Hiematornis spilogaster Blyth, J.A.S.B., xxi., pi. 351

(1852), (Ceylon).

Ceylon only.

• 626. (1217) Spilornis cheela davisoni. The Andaman Serpent-

Eagle.

Spilornis davisoni Hume, S.F., i., p. 307, ( 873), (S,

Andamans).

Andaman and Nicobar Is.

1 327. (1217) Spilornis cheela ricketti. The Chinese Serpent-

Eagle.

Scl, Bull. B.O.C., xL, p. 37 (1919), (Yamakan, Fokien).

Mt. of S. China to Chindwin, U. Burma.

1619. (1214)

1620. (1215)

1621. (1216)

j622. (1217)

.323. (1217)

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. , 587

%

1628. (1217) Spilornis cheela bassus. The Malayan Serpent

Eagle.

Falco bassus Forster in Le Vaill. Nat. Af. Vog., p. 55

(1798).

Malay Pen. S. Tennasserim to Sumatra.

1629. (1218) Spilornis minimus. The Nicobar Serpent-Eagle.

Hume. S.F., i., p. 464 (1873), (Camorta, Nicobars).

Northern group of Nicobars.

1630. (1219) Spilornis elgini. The Andaimn Serpent-Eagle.

Tytler, J.A.S.B., xxxii., p. 87 (1863), (S. Andaman Is.)

Andaman Is.

1631. (1219) Spilornis kloss*. Kloss’ Serpent-Eagle.

Richmond, Pro. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv., p. 304 (1902)

{Great Nicobars).

Great Nicobars.

1632. (1220) Butastur teesa. The White-eyed Buzzard.

Cirius teesa Frankl., P.Z.S., 1831-2, p. 115 {Ganges,

Nerbudda).

All India, E. to Burma.

Butastur liviventer. The Rufous-winged Buzzard-

Eagle.

Falco liviventer Temm., PI. Col. 74, pi. 438 (1877), {Java).

Burma, Siam and Celebes and ? Java and Timor.

Butastur indicus. The Grey-faced Buzzard-Eagle.

Falco indicus Gmel., S.N., i., p. 264 (1788), {Java).

Breeding N.E. Asia, winter South. Straggler N. Burma.

Cuncuma leucorypha. Pallas' Fishing-Eagle.

Aquila leucorypha Pall., Reise. Russ. Reichs, i., p. 454

(1771), {Lower Ural R.).

S. Russia to Transbaikalia and N. India and Burma.

Cuncuma leucogaster. The White-bellied Sea-Eagle.

Falco leucogaster Gmel., 8.N., i., p. 257 (1788), {New

South Wales).

Coasts of India, Ceylon, Burma and S. China to Australia.

Haliaetus albicilla. The White-tailed Sea-Eagle.

Falco albicilla Linn., S.N., i., p. 89 (1758), {Sweden).

Breeding N. Europe and Asia, winter to India, etc.

1633 (1221)

1634. (1222)

1635. (12*23)

1636. (1224)

1637. (1225)

3

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1638. (1226)

1639. (1227)

1640. (1227)

1641. (1228)

1643. (1230)

1644. (1232)

1645. (1233)

Polioaetus ichthyaetus. The Large Grey-headed

Fishing Eagle.

Falco ichthyaetus Horsf., Trans. L.S., xiii., p. 136 (1821).

{Java.)

India, Ceylon, Burma to Philippines.

Polioaetus humilis humilis. The Malayan Fishing

Eagle.

Falco humilis Miill. d: Schleg., Verh. Nat. Oesch. Aves., p. 47

(1840), (Sumatra).

Sumatra, etc., Malay Pen., to South Tennasserim.

Polioaetus humilis plumbeus. The Himalayan

Fishing-Eagle.

Polioaetus plumbeus Jerdon, Ibis, 1871, p. 336, (N. W.

Himalayas).

Sub-Himalayas, Kashmir to Assam and Upper Burma.

Haliastur indus indus. The Brahmmy Kite.

Falco indus Bodd., Tabl. Enl., 1783, pt 25 (Pondicherry).

India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay Pen., Indo China and China.

Milvus migrans govinda. The Common Pariah

Kite.

Milvus govdnda Sykes, P.Z.S., 1832, p. 89 (Deccan).

India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay Pen., Siam to Hainan.

Milvus migrans lineatus. The Black-eared Kite.

Haliaetus lineatus Gray in Hard., III. Ind. Zool., i., p. i.

(1832), (China).

Central Asia S. to Himalayas, E. to Japan, winter widely

spread.

Elanus coeruleus coeruleus. The Black-winged

Kite.

Falco coeruleus Desfon., Hist. Acad. Roy., Paris. 1787-9,

p. 503 (Algiers).

Africa from Algiers, E. to India, Ceylon, Burma, etc

Circus macrourus. The Pale Harrier.

Accipiter macrourus S. G., Gmel., N. Comm., Acad. Petro.,

XV., p. 439 (1771), (Veronitz, Volga).

Roumania to Altai ; winter to India, Ceylon, Burma and

Africa.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

689

■ 646.

1647.

1648.

1649.

1650.

1651.

1652.

'653.

1654.

(1334) Circus pygargus. Montagu s Harrier.

Falco pygargus Linn., S. N., p. 89 (1758), {England).

Europe and N. Asia, winter South.

(1335) Circus cyaneus. The Hen Harrier.

Falco cyaneus Linn., S.N., i., p. 126 (1766), {Near

London) .

Europe and N. Asia, winter South.

(1236) Circus melanoleucus. The Pied Harrier.

Falco melanoleucus Forst. Ind. Zool., p. 12 (1781), {Ceylon)

N. E. Asia, South in winter.

(1237) Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus. The Marsh

Harrier.

Falco cvruginosus Linn., S.N., p. 91, (1858), {Sweden).

Europe and N. Asia, winter southwards.

(1238) Circus spilonotus. The Eastern Marsh Harriet

Kaup. in Jard., Con. Orn., p. 59 (1850), {Asia, Philippines)

Transbaikalia and Tibet, winter southwards.

(1239) Buteo ferox. The Long-legged Buzzard.

Accipiter ferox, S.G., Gmel. Nov. Comm. Acad., Petro., xv.

p. 442 (1771), {Astrakan).

S. and Central Russia and Central Asia to Himalayas.

(1240) Buteo hemilasius. The Upland Buzzard.

Temm. & Schleg. in Sieb. Faun. Jap., p. 16 (1845)

{Japan).

Eastern Asia, S. to Himalayas and S. China.

(1241) Buteo buteo rufiventer. The Desert Buzzard.

Buteo rufiventer Jerd., Madr. Jour. L.S., xiii., p. 165

(1844), {Nilghiris).

Breeding S.E. Russia, Asia Minor and Persia, S.E. in

winter.

(1241) Buteo buteo japonicus. The Japanese Deser

Buzzard.

Falco buteo japonicus Temm. ds Sch. in Sieb. Faun. Jap.,

p. 16 (1845), {Japan).

Breeding in Turkestan to Higher Himalayas.

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NXVlll.

>655. (1243) Astur gentilis schvedowi. The Eastern Goshawk.

Astur palumbarius schvedoivi Menzh., Orn. Geogr. Eur.,

Russ, in Mem. s.c., Un. Imp. Mosc., p. 439 (1882),

( Transbaikalia ).

Northern Asia and S. to N. India, Burma and Central

China.

1656. (1244) Astur badius badius. The Ceylon Shikra.

Falco badius Gmel., S.N., i., p. 280 (1788), {Ceylon).

Ceylon and Travancore.

1657. (1244) Astur badius dussumieri. The Shikra.

Falco dussumieri Temm., PI. Col. livr. 52, pi. 308 (1824),

{Bengal).

N. India from Kashmir to North Assam.

1658. (1244) Astur badius poliopsis. Hume's Shikra.

Micronisus poliopsis Hume, S.F., ii., p. 325 (1874),

{Thayetmyo).

S. Assam, Burma, S. to Trang and E. to Hainan.

1659. (1244) Astur badius cenchroides. Severtzov's Shikra.

Astur cenchroides Severtz., Turkes. Jevit., p. 63 (1873), {Tur-

kestan).

Turkestan to Baluchistan, Sind and Punjab.

'660. Astur butleri. Butler's Shikra or Goshawk.

Gurney, Bull. B.O.C., vii., p. xxvii. (1898), {Car Nicobar)

Nicobar Islands.

1661. stur obsoletus. Richmond's Shikra or Goshawk.

Richmond, Pro., U. S. Nat. Mus., xxv., p. 306 (1902)

{Katchal).

Nicobar Islands.

1662. (1245) Astur soloensis. Horsfield's Goshwak.

Falco soloensis Horsf., Trans. L.S., xiii., p. 137 (1821),

{Java).

Breeding China, S. in winter to A^sam, Burma, etc.

1663. (1246) Astur trivirgatus trivirgatus. The Crested

Goshawk.

Falco trivirgatus Temm., PI. Col., pi. 303, (1824),

{Sumatra) South India, May. Pen and Java, etc.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

591

1664. (1246) Astur trivirgatus rufitinctus. The Great Crested

Goshawk.

Spizaetus rufitinctus McClelL, P.Z.S., 1839 p. 153

(Assam).

N. India, Burma to Formosa and Hainan.

1665. (1247) Accipiter nisus nisosimilis. The Asiatic Sparrow-

Hawk.

Falco nisosimilis Tick., J.A.S.B., ii., p. 571 (1833),

(Bengal, Borabhum).

Breeding Turkestan to Japan. Winter India, etc.

1666. (1247) Accipiter nisus melanoschistus. The Indian

Sparrow-Hawk.

Accipiter melanoschista Hume, Ibis, 1869, p. 356

(Kotegarh).

Himala3’as, Kashmir to Assam and N. Burma, etc. ‘

1667. Accipiter gularis. The Japanese Sparrow-Hawk.

Astur gularis Temm. & Schleg. in Sieb., Faun., Jap., p. 5

(1845), (Japan).

Breeding N. E. Asia. Rare straggler to Burma in

Winter.

1668. (1248) Accipiter virgatus besra. The Besra Sparrow-

Hawk.

Accipiter besra Jerd., Madr., Jour. L.S., x., p. 84 (1839)

(S. India).

S. India and Cejdon.

1669; Accipiter virgatus affinis. The Larger Besra

Sparrow-Hawk.

Accipiter afifinis J. E. Gray, Zool. Misc., p. 81 (1844)

(Nepal).

Himalayas from Pindi to Assam, Burma, China, etc.

1670. (1249) Pernis cristatus ruficollis. The Indian Crested

Honey-Buzzard.

Pernis ruficollis Less., Traite d'Orn., p. 76 (1831), ( Bengal),

India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay Pen. to Siam and S. China.

1671. (1250) Machasrhampus alcinus. The Slender-billed Pern.

Westermann, Bigd. t. d. Dierk, i. (2), p. 29 (1851),

(Malacca).

S. Tennasserim, Malay Pen. to New Guinea.

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1672. (1251)

1673. (1251)

1674. (1252)

1675. (1253)

1676. (1254)

1677. (1255)

1678. (1256)

1679. (1257)

1680. (1258)

Lophastur leuphotes leuphotes. The Black-crested

Baza.

Falco leuphotes Dumont, Diet. Sci. Nat., xvii., p. 217

(1820), (Pondicherry).

Nepal Terai, Bengal, Travancore and Ceylon.

Lopha&tur leuphotes burmana. The Burmese

Black-crested Baza.

W. L. Sclater, Bull. B.O.C., xli., p. 31 (1920), (Malucom),

Assam, Burma, Siam, Indo China to Malay Pen.

A viced a jerdoni jerdoni. Blyth's Baza.

Lophastur jerdoni Blyth,, J.A.S.B., xi., p. 464 (1842),

(Malacca).

Sikkim, Assam, Burmese HiUs to Malay Pen. and Sumatra.

Aviceda jerdoni ceylonensis. Legge's Baza.

Baza ceylonensis Legge, S. F., iv.,p.2Yl (\%1Q), (Kandy

Ceylon).

Ceylon, Travancore, Wynaad.

Fafeo peregrinus calidus. The Siberian Peregrine

Falcon.

Falco calidus Lath., Ind. Orn., i., p. 41 (1790). (India).

Breeding N. and Clentral Asia. Winter S. to India,

Burma, Ceylon, etc.

Falco peregrinus , peregrinator. The Indian

Peregrine Falcon.

Falco peregrinator Sund., Phys. Sail. Tid., i., p. 177

(1837), (Indian Ocean).

India, Ceylon and Burma in hill country.

Falco peregrinus babylonicus. The Red-capped

Falcon.

Falco babylonicus Gurney, Ibis, 1861, p. 218 (Oudh).

Breeding Mesopotamia to Turkestan and Baluchistan.

Falco jugger. The Laggar Falcon.'

Gray in Hard., III. Ind. Zool., ii., pi. 26 (1833-4), (India).

India and N. Burma.

Falco cherrug cherrug. The Saker Falcon or

Cher rug.

Falco cherrug Gray, op. cit., pi. 25 (1833-4), (India).

S. E. Europe and Clentral Asia, winter S. to India, etc.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

593

i68i. (1259)

1682. (1260)

1683. (1260)

1684. (1261)

1685. (1261)

1686. (1262)

1687. (1263)

1688. (1264)

1689. (1265)

Falco cherrug milvipes, Hodgson’s Saker or

Shanghar Saker.

Falco milvipes Hodg., in Gray's Zool. Misc., p. 81 (1844)

(Nepal).

Central Asia, winter to India, etc.

Falco subbuteo subbuteo. The Hobby.

Falco subbuteo Linn., S.N., p. 89 (1758), (Sweden).

Europe and N. Asia, straggler to India in winter.

Falco subbuteo streichi. The Chinese Hobby.

Hartert &Neum., Jour. f. Orn., 1907, p. 572 (Swatow, S.

China).

China, visitor to Burma.

Falco severus severus. The Burmese Hobby.

Falco severus Horsf., Trans. L.S., ziii., p. 135 (1822),

(Java).

Assam, Burma and Indo China to Philippines.

Falco severus indicus. The Indian Hobby.

A. B. Meyer Wiglls., B. of Celebes, i., p. 84 (1897)i

(Calcutta).

Himalayas to Travancore and Ceylon.

Falco vespertinus amurensis. The Eastern Red-

footed Falcon.

Falco vespertinus var. amurensis Badde, Reis. Ost. Sib.,

ii., p. 110 (1863), (Blagowestschensk, Amur, SiOeria).

Central and E. Siberia, S. in winter to Africa, India,

China, etc.

Falco columbarius insignis. The Asiatic Merlin.

..Esalon regulus insignis Clark, P.U.S. Nat. Mus., xxxi.,

p. 470 (1907), (Corea).

Northern Asia, S. in winter.

Falco chiquera chiquera. The Red-head^ Merlin.

Falco chiquera Daudin, Traite, ii., p. 121 (1800), (Bengal).

India, West to Quetta, East to Assam.

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus. The Kestrel.

Falco tinnunculus Linn., S.N., p. 90 (1758), (Sweden).

In winter to India, Burma and Ceylon.

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETl , - Vol. XXVIII.

1690,

1691.

1692.

1693.

1694.

1695.

1696.

(1265) Falco dnnunculus interstinctus. The Indian

Kestrel.

Falco interstinctus McClell., P. Z. S., 1839, p. 154

(Assam).

Breeding Mts. of India and Burma to W. China.

(1266) Falco naumanni pekinensis. The Chinese Lesser

Kestrel.

Falco cenchris var. pekinensis Swinh., P.Z.S., 1870, p. 442

(Pekin).

N. China, S. in winter to India, Burma, etc.

(1267) Microhierax coerulescens coerulescens. The

Red-legged Falconet.

Falco coerulescens Linn., S.N., p. 88 (1758), (Bengal).

Sub-Himalayas, Kumaon to Assam.

(1267) Microhierax coerulescens burmanicus. The

White-breasted Falconet.

Swann, Synop., Accip. p. 116 (1920), (Thayetmyo).

Burma, Siam, Cambodia, Annam.

(1268) Microhierax melanoleucus melanoleucus. White-

legged Falconet.

lerax melanoleucus Blyth, J.A.S.B, xii., p. 179 (1843)

(Assam).

Assam, to Indo China.

(1269) Microhierax fringillaris. The Black-legged Falco-

net,

Falco fringillaris Drap., Diet. Class. d’Hist. Nat., vi., p. 412

(1824), (Malacca).

Tennasserim, S. to Borneo.

(1270) Poliohierax insignis. Fielden’s Falcon.

PoUohierax insignis Walden, P.Z.S., 1871, p, 627 (1872)

(Toungo).

Burma.

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Himal.\yan Ibex (Capra sihirica)

Shot in Baltistan by Maj. 0. H. Stocklcy.

Himalayan Tahr (Hemilragus jemlaicus)

Shot in Kishtwar by Maj. C. H. Stockley.

(PliJhs conlrih tiled by Maj. C. H. Stockley.)

595

GAJIE ANDIALS OF KASmOR AKD ADJACENT HILL PROVINCES.

BY

Col, a E. WARD.

Part III.

{Continued from page 344 of this volume.)

{With 1 plate and 4 text figures.)

GOATS.

No. 348. The Himalayan Ibex. {Capra sibirica.)

Himalayan Ibex {Capra sibiric i)

(From the Society’s collection. 45").

The “Kkeyl" of Kashmiris.

The spring is the season for Ibex shooting, when they come down to the

green grass from their winter quarters during the morning and evening hours.

They may even stay in the valleys during the day, provided the country is un-

disturbed, and there are no snow leopards on the prowl. In addition cliffs must

be adjacent to the grazing grormds. An ibex seems to be only at ease when

hung amongst the precipices from whence he can look down and watch the low

ground whilst a “ nanny ” does sentry duty in the vicinity.

In the spring the flocks of Ibex are fairly large, and all sizes are banded

together, but in the summer the larger bucks wander off to the heights,

leaving the females and kids on the lower ground.

In the summer, say after June, shooting is difficult, many a stalk is spoilt by

the mist which drives up from below, and lands the guimer in difficulties.

Ibex come to grief in avalanches, for even in the winter they generally keep

up at great elevations. In the Indus valley, Baltistan Ibex come low down

in winter, for the cliffs on that river are at a low altitude. There is no other

suitable ground at hand except perhaps in Dachin and the lower Ward wan,

hence they have to remain high up.

How do Ibex exist on the heights during the winter ? they must be

endowed with the power of living on very little food. Places where Ibex have

wintered can be found; one was between two almost parallel lines of cliffs on the

4

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

southern side of a hill ; from the foot of one lot of cliffs a steep slope ran

to the top of the next line of precipices. The upper cliffs overhung the slope.

Many traces remained, and hair, skin and the horns of females were lying on

the ground. Very possibly the Ibex were starved to death, and bears or

vultures got to work and broke up the dead goats.

Another winter quarter was much trampled ; it was practically a large cave

with a wide opening to the south. Hair was plentiful, but no sWn or bones, so

probably all went well, but very short rations must have been the rule.

Measurement of Ibex Horns.

Omitting those from the Pamir.

In-

dex

No.

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

GAME ANIMALS OF KASHMIR.

mi

r€

s

Tip

to

Tip

Name of Sportsman

Date.

Ix)cality, etc.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBA 1’ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111

Between 45" and 46" there is a list of 30 heads, of these one has a girth of

11^" shot by Mr. Lueas Tooth in Astor. Two girthed 11" one shot by Mrs. Hext

in Baltistan, the other by A. E. Ward in Dumoot. Since peace was concluded

twelve heads measuring between 45" and 48^" in length have been recorded.

Ibex shooting within the watershed of the Jhelum is now prohibited.

The records of old date prove that very big horns were got in Kashmir

proper. Look at the measurements of Nos. 13 and 14. Not long ago a fine herd

was seen in another branch of the Liddar Valley. It is an open question

whether the prohibition regarding shooting will give good results. The best

guardian of a shooting block is the license holder ; he can of course shoot up to

his limit, but what is that compared with the number that the goat-herds can

slay, and besides this the sportsman would naturally try to kill leopards and

bears. A Botanist or a Field NaturaUst may now and again visit the heights of

Kashmir, but on their own job, not to hunt game.

GAME AlS'lMALS OF KASHMIR.

599

Tian Shan Ibex.

To hark back to the hill side and records of sport.

A flock of Ibex were seen on the right bank of a snow-fed stream which was

for the time being a torrent. The flock was too far off to tell whether any bucks

were about, hence the necessity to climb and get nearer . The ascent had to be

made up a ravine which joined the main nver higher up ; the ridge was then

crossed and the ground searched. Nothing was to be seen. A move was then

made to the “ snowed stream’’ where behind some rocks breakfast and a rest

were taken.

Opposite and across the stream were precipitous rocks along which narrow

uneven ledges passed along the face of the chff.

Reading the newspapers and writing up the journal took off attention, but the

local shikari was on the alert, and crawling up he whispered “Kheyl” ! On the

narrow ledge were two bucks, which had come from opposite directions and

were a close at hand. As they approached one another both stood stiff ; one or

the other was bound to turn, for if they fought at any rate one would faff into the

torrent below and be swept away. After a time the bigger of the two raised him-

self on his hind legs for a second and then stood stiff ; this was too much for the

other, he turned, keeping his horns outwards very cleverly and fled. The big one

then slowly advanced, affording a very tempting shot, but he would have fallen

down the cliff and would never have been retrieved in the torrent.

It does not take long to write up the story, but on the vast hill side, it is a

different matter. Descending was a long job. The ridges above the rocks had to

be negotiated until the forest was reached, and a couple of small trees shoved

across a narrow gorge. On the far side of the stream the modest camp was pitch-

ed just before dark. At dawn a man was sent up and told to try and find the

flock, or the two bucks ; there was almost certain to be a flock for it was stiff

spring time. Obedient to orders the man re, turned directly he had sighted the

Ibex, but the wind was wrong and there was no chance of an approach from

below. Very early on the next day a move upwards was made, the ground above

the cliffs was easy going and the Ibex were soon located. On a slope above the

rocks, two were playing ; rising on their hind legs they made a great show of

(jOO JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXVIII.

fighting but evidently they were not in earnest. Here and there the rest of the

flock were feeding. Suddenly the “ nanny ” on guard whistled, at once the two

stopped playing and with them all turned upwards. Amongst them probably were

the two which met on the narrow ledge. There was no time to delay and what was

evidently a grand beast was fired at. It was a nasty one-quarter-on shot and he

staggered as the bullet struck him, and moved on, until the left barrel brought

him to a recumbent position almost behind a big stone. When he was

reached he could not get up.

What a difficult shot it is when the quarry is feeding under a cliff and the

gunner is trying to get into position by looking over from above !

Under these ciicumstances, it affords one very little comfort for the

shikari to say he will hold on to one and stop a fall, somehow the rifle

will not get into position and feels as if it must be dropped. Now and again

this predicament is sure to come. For days three good bucks had been

watched. On one occasion the mist came up, on another they fairly won

the game by moving steadily away, they had not got the wind nor were they

frightened, but went on and on over very difficult ground. At last it was

settled to go to a cave high up in the hills, so food and bedding with a change

of clothes were taken, and as luck turned out 4 or 5 men including the old gun

bearer and local shikari.

The cave floor was spread with creeping juniper boughs, and a small bundle

of pitch pine splinters was taken in order to light the fire. After a long

search the bucks were found under a cliff which stood erect bordering a small

ravdne. They were not more than 100 feet below and it was from the top

of this cliff that the attempt was made. The bullet struck the ground

some distance beyond the Ibex. They rushed up the ravine and turned to

the left gi\dng fairly easy shots. Two ‘500 bore rifles had been taken out

and four barrels were in all fired.

Fairly big bore rifles do not lend themselves to much fusilading, and there

were consequently many wounded animals.

One Ibex fell, a second was not fired at, and the third could not be seen for

some seconds, then he was spotted slowly labouring upwards, very hard hit

and on his last legs. He stopped and stood broadside on, and would have given

an easy shot for a high velocity small bore, but was out of range for the ‘ 500.

Watching through the telescope, the buck was seen to double his legs under

him, slowly sink on his stomach and fall on his side. On reaching him the mark

of the bullet showed in the middle of the ribs.

The summer was advancing, and unsettled weather was coming from below.

The local shikari fussed and wanted to cut off the Ibex head and bolt downwards,

but the lust for meat caused the other men to skin and cut up the

carcases. Before this operation was over, snow began to fall and a hurried

return was made to the cave, where luckily a few half burnt sticks remained

from the morning’s fire. Everything was thrown into the cave, and everyone

collected juniper boughs until the snow was thick on the ground. For two

days snow fell heavily, then the sun shone, and the soft snow began to slide

down the slopes making a move impossible until the fourth day.

Dry chupatties and a little revolting Ibex meat is poor food even when wash-

ed down with brandy and smoky water !

One head was a very fine one and taped over 48 inches in length ; a typical

Wardwan head of the best. The other horns were not diminutive but were too

small to bother much about and as there was much to be carried they

were left in the cave with the intention of sending for them later on. This

however never came off. Twice has a cave been useful and practically

afforded preservation. When there is no leakage from melting snow, it

is all right being dry, although a bit dreary, but when there is no dry place

except on a bundle of juniper boughs it is trying.

GAME ANIMALS OF KASHMIR.

601

Probably it is even harder to kill game with the sun facing the gun than it is

to do so when shooting directly downwards. A start is generally made in the

early morning when the sun is behind the hills, but often a great deal of time is

lost whilst getting over bad ground, and just as the last few yards have to

be passed the sun tops the hill, and the difficulty of looking along the barrel

and taking a fine sight is so great that a shot at 50 yards is often clean

missed. What with the wind changing and regard ha\ing to be taken

as to the sun, mist driving up, and bad ground, no one can expect successful

sfjort after Ibex without much patience and endurance, and it may be added

that good food is a necessity. If suitable ground for an approach is impossible,

and the Ibex are in a ravine, they can be brought up to the gun, by sending a

couple of intelhgent men to give them the wind. On two occasions this

method came oS well, but often it fails.

Whilst seated behind a rock just under the head of the ravine, in fact almost

on the crest, a large herd streamed passed, but there were no males worth shoot-

ing. In another drive, if it could be called so, the Ibex came in a flock and

behind them was a Thar. This was luck, for the coolies were clamouring for

meat, and were short of rice. The Thar supplied this want, and also saved the

pricking of conscience, for enough Ibex had been killed during the trip, and

somehow the proceedings did not seem to be fair.

Long ago when there were no game laws the Governor of Leh gave an enter-

tainment in the Basgo Nullah (on the road to Ladak) which in those days was

full of Ibex.

The camp was pitched close to the Ladak road, w'here a crowd of Ladakis

had assembled with their dogs. Some very fine Baltistan dogs, not unlike the

big lurchers, were also in camp, but they w'ere not'vicious, while on the con-

trary no stranger dare go near tiie Ladaki hounds.

The Governor explained that the Basgo ravine would be surrounded and the

dogs would be let loose, the Ibex would go into the cliffs and probably stand.

From the point of view of a strange sight the drive was a success on the whole,

but as a sporting undertaking it was a mean advantage. Many of the Ibex

broke through, but several were shot as they took refuge in the rocks, where

the Baltis seemed to be almost as much at home on bad ground as the goats !

One buck stood looking over a clifi with his head over the edge below, but at

some distance away dogs were barking furiously. Walking below and looking

upwards it was a prettj sight, but to shoot at the poor beast was not to be

thought of. Eventually that Ibex managed to get away.

Nearly all those shot were females or very small males.

To see much of the drive was impossible. Basgo is a big nullah, much shoot-

ing was to be heard, and now and again a few Ibex and several dogs passed.

Time makes changes. When the Game Preservation Department was started

Basgo became a sanctuary, and efforts were made to stop the Ibex drives for

if these come off in the snow, the results wei’e fatal to the game. On the next

day another drive was xmdertaken elsewhere, but luckily the game got through

the stops, and only left two or three behind which were probably slain.

The impression left was that Game Preservation was urgent, sporting weapons

were being steadily improved, and soon accurate nfles would supersede* the

smooth bore, and these combined with the aid of dogs and snow would ex-

terminate the hill animals.

No. 349. Markhor {Capra falconeri.)

The Markhor of Kashmir.

The two varieties of this grand goat which exist within the limits of the

territory dealt with in these articles are famiharly known as

1. The Astor {Capra falconeri falconeri) with a bold single twist which

gives a massive appearance.

2. The Pir Panjal or Kajnag {Capra falconeri cashmiriensis) with 2 to 2^

spirals.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Some of the Kajnag heads vary and almost approach the other variety in the

curves.

There is a third or Trans-Indus variety {Capra falconeri jerdoni) with 4 or

more twists, but this is not an appropriate name, for the “ Astor ” is also a

Trans-Indus animal ; the term Sulieman Markhor is a better one.

There is also a Cabul Markhor {Capra falconeri megaceros). The Pir Panjal and

Astor horns are generally measured round the curves, the Suleiman which

have many twists are taped straight.

The list of horns is not a long one, for very few big heads are secured, but

doubtless several between 50 to 52 inches have not been recorded.

A pair of Astor Markhor Horns.

Length 53" (much weatner worn and rather uneven).

Measurements of Astor Markhor horns from Baltistan {Astor) and digit.

Above Dumoot in the Gilgit District amongst a pile of old horns, a much

worn single one was found, this was carefully measured as 61 inches, and was

GAME AXIMALS OF KASHMIR.

603

brought to Boonji, where many people must have seen it. Another single horn

of 63 inches has been recorded.

Having spotted a fine buck, the only thing to do is to follow it day after

day and give up all idea of shooting inferior animals, until the big head

is brought to bag or all trace of the animal has been lost, — try patiently.

Luck does not always hold good, and this was the case in a very unlucky trip

during which a big Markhor was followed for sev^eral days. The continual change

of wind was fatal, and eventually the beast vanished. Another fine Markhor had

been found higher up the nullah where stalking was easier. The shot was

taken from a cliff with the buck below, as it was browsing with head slightly

downwards, the bullet went through a horn and the core and then smashed tho

skull below the second horn. The undamaged horn measured 52 inches.

There are the grandest views in the country above Dumoot, this valley is

also the field naturalist’s paradise, for here rare birds breed, and numbers of

rodents live. Now all the country is closed to the visitor. Elsewhere there are

many places where field research can be carried out, but very few places

where the big-horned Ibex and Markhor can be shot.

The sketches which were made from photographs represent horns from Astor

and the Kajnag, and are of about the same size, i.e., measurements.

PiR Pan.tal or Kajnag Markhor [C. falcon‘ri cashmiriensis.)

A pair of Homs from Kajnag. Length a little over 53".

The horns of this variety are often very long and vary greatly in curvature.

As a rule they do not girth as much as those from Gilgit and Baltistan.

The Kajnag and Shamshibri are now under the careful supervision of the Game

Preservation Department from whom copies of the rules in force can be obtained.

The Kajnag which is adjacent to the Vale of Kashmir and close to the main

road was overshot in the eighties. There are apparently very few good heads

left. However, when Malangan in the Kajnag is re-opened for sport, the big

bucks may again be found,

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV HI.

Measurements of Markhor Horns from Kajnag.

Records of horns from the Pir Panjal* * do not exist. The only two pairs of

horns of a fairly good size known of, measured 45 inches. One was shot long

ago after a prolonged search for a good head, and certainlj’ was bigger than any

other seen. The other was brought in to Srinagar either in 1886 or 1887 and

was measmed by Henri Dauvergne.

The late Captain S. G. Allan often talked about his visits to the Pir Panjal,

but stated he had seen no good Markhor heads even in the sixties.

A few but very few big bucks are to be found in Poonch and are protected

by the Rajah. So let a return be made to the Kajnag. Accompanied by a

friend a move was made to the ground opposite to Rampur on the old Abbot-

tabad route. Report had told of many big bucks high up in the Malangan

cliffs, and in other rocky mountains.

•t-(NoTE — Shamshibi’i Ranges are next to the Kajnag.)

* In Rowland Ward’s Records of Big Game the largest head from the Pir Panjal

measures 53" (Maj. F. W. Walshe) ; other good heads from this area are 51 1"

(Sir Edmund Loder) and 48J" (Mr. J. G. ^Millais).

GAME AM MALS OF KASHMIR.

605

The autumn was coming on, the mists had cleared off, the fresh morning

air was delightful and hope was in the ascendant. A well known old shikari

who was lame, but who could get over any bad ground met the camp and gave

his news.

“ One big buck quite close and three a little further off!” His idea of close

was probably 10 miles and five thousand feet up the mountain, the little

further off “ turned out to mean a very long day's climb, and then two or

three hours amongst almost vertical cliffs.”

The single buck was found and bagged b\ the camp companion,the term “big”

was an exaggeration, still the horns were well over 45 inches.

Before daylight on the second morning after a very long tramp on the

previous day the camp was on the alert. A few sticks were lighted and charcoal

made for the samavars ; hot tea is an excellent beverage at early dawn.

The start was made as soon as it was possible to see the exact place to tread,

for the rocks although not very difficult, were rather friable and unsafe.

High up under the main cliffs there is an open slope of some size, where grass

and stunted birch grow, and where young birch bushes are crushed down by the

snow and lie in tangled heaps. The slope can only be approached from one

side. For some distance above the approachable side, the ground was broken

up by rocks. It was there the three bucks were found. The lame old shikari

■“ Rahmana ” has now passed away, but he was generally very reUable and on

this occasion absolutely^so. One buck was standing up close to a lot of birch, the

Other two were resting on an open part of the slope.

By crawling and dodging from cover to cover not more than 80 yards inter-

vened between the rifle and the standing buck. It seemed to be almost impos-

sible to miss, but the buck did not appear to even flinch but stood still — on re-

ceiving the second bullet he subsided on to his side. Both bullets had hit

behind the shoulder, the first had probably struck some nerve centre.

Naturally the other two Markhor were off at once, but owing to the nature of

the ground they had to come broadside on and shghtly above. This gave time

to get hold of the second rifle, and drop the leading animal which fell dead and

rolled into the dried birch.

The third buck was still within shooting range but whether hit or not it is

difficult to say and before there was time to reload he was out of sight. The

shikari rushed forward and trod on a spike of birch wood which penetrated his

grass shoe deep into the instep.

By means of forceps which were in a roll of taxidermist tools the spike was

pulled out, cotton wool and a bandage made the lame man fairly comfoi table

and when this was finished, Ramana began to talk. He would have it the

third buck was hit, and could not get away.

Leaving the old man to take off the heads and skins of the slain the living

buck was followed. The rocks were bad going from the first and after a short

distance quite impossible, but the buck had gone on until he had reached a

ledge, and there he stood, possibly over 300 yards away. He had crossed with

his right side towards the rifle, but now as he turned round, his left side was

exposed, but the glasses showed no wound which if it existed was probably

in the middle of his body, for his legs were intact.

The shot was too long for a rifle only sighted up to 200 yards, and the result of

firing all but two or three cartridges only ended in hard smacks against the

rocks, so leaving the cooUe, who seemed reasonably acute, to watch, a return

was made to help the doubly lamed Rahmana. It was intended to return the

next morning and to expend more cartridges, for when the coolie reached the

temporary camp, where the night was spent, he said the buck was still there.

In the morning he was not to be seen, and both men declared that he must have

fallen over. Some days afterwards broken pieces of one horn, and a damaged

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL mST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

head with half a second horn were brought into camp. The chances are this

was the last of the three big bucks that were “ a little further off,” but who

knows what tricks may have been played by the shikaris.

On another occasion three shootable Markhor and two small ones w'ere said to

be in a ravine not far from camp. This was years later. One head of 51 inches

was obtained and the rest left, for Markhor were scarcer than in 1881.

Old Kamana was still going and came on the trip. His foot had healed at once,

still it w’as probable he had experienced a great deal of pain, which he bore without

a murmur. No account of Markhor shooting would be complete without mention-

ing ‘ Kennard,’ who wintered in Baltistan and shot many Ibex and Markhor. A

number of the Markhor were got on the Indus or rather just above the cliffs.

Amongst the heads were some fine massive wide spreading specimens, but the

measurements are not just now available. The late Mr. Kennard probably

shot more of the Hill Gloats than any other European; for he had the cream of

the sport in the days when ffrearms of precision were scarce on the frontier.

He also shot in the winter season, for there were no game laws, few men thought

of the future and the legion of sportsmen who now come to Kashmir. Two

hundred was then the limit of the number of visitors who could visit Kashmir.

Many of these two hundred never went outside the boundary of the Vale or

even to the Wardwan and Soroo and it was often possible to shoot over the

greater part of Ladak and Baltistan without meeting more than two or three

other sportsmen.

No. 350. The Tahr {Hemitragus jemlaicus.)

Horns of Tahr (H. jemlaicus) 13J" (From the Society’s collection)

The Kras or Jagla of Kashmir.

The Kart in the country bordering on Chamba.

The Jhula of the United Province hills, but this name is generally used

to designate the old males.

The Pir Panjal, Kishtwar-Dachan and the lower Wardwan hold many tahr.

On page 509 in the volume on Mammals (Fauna of British India Series) there

is a drawing of this thick set goat which however is very active in the precipice.

The trophy is a poor one, unless set up with the long hair of the neck. The

Thar is an e\il smelling beast, but one that gives grand sport to those who love

scrambling amongst the rocky forests, where deodars grow, and w’here pheasants

Can be met with.

GAME AEIMALS OF KASHMIR.

607

It is refreshing to be able to enter on the list of horns one of 14 inches

shot in 1921. A very large number of htads 12 inches to 14 inches could be

entered. Except for those who are keen on records there is a satisfaction in

shooting any old Thar with a head over 12 inches, and many such are to be

found.

In former years when Kishtwar, which is attached to the Jammu province, was

closed to the public, very few good heads were to be got. The lower Ward wan

and the Pir range held little worth shooting, but one head of over 13J inches

can be brought to mind, and that was shot in the Gwee-nye in the Wardwan Hills.

A Collector’s Trip on the Borders of Kishtwar and Thar Shooting.

Not far from where the Panjari-dar Mountain marks the boundary, a comfort'

able camp was pitched amongst fine horse chestnuts and deodars, the object in

view being to collect various small beasts and birds, and if luck was good a brown

bear or in fact anything that presented itself.

An expert in skinning was included in the following, for it is tiring work to be

out early and inspect the many traps, then go out after birds and come back

to skin and label them.

On arrival, it was decided to halt and sort out what might be] required ;

there were no villages, the sheep were not as yet on their grazing grounds,

and by luck no one was about.

During the halt, hours were spent in trying to find where the Speckled Wood

pigeon made their nests. A pair of Bonelli's Eagles were located in some rocks,

which chased a Monal pheasant which was put up, but they failed

as the quarry dropped suddenly and took shelter in the forest. A brown bear

and also a Serow were seen, the latter being put up by the sound of the collector’s

608 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII.

gun, and disappearing before a rifle could be handled. The bear was left alone

as it was a female.

Marching on the next day through the forest of mixed trees was very pleasant,

but nothing was seen until emerging from the trees a stream was reached and

the sound of a watei-fall heard.

Above the waterfall — there was no crossing below the fall — was a steep

smooth slab of rock over which a wide stream of water flowed.

On the far side of this slippery and smooth rock a herd of Thar were feeding

quite unconscious of danger, whilst beyond them and above them were broken

up cliffs. Between the forest and the stream there was sufficient scrub to cover the

stalkei-, but the distance from the edge of the water to where the Thar were

feeding was too far for a certain shot. Sitting amongst the bushes and watching

was pleasant enough only for a short time, but this had to be endured or the

idea of getting those Thar had to be given up. After a long wait the animals

came towards the water, it seemed to be impossible that they could get a

footing on the smooth slope. Anyway three - bucks came to the edge of

the water and the leading one was not more than 50 yards away when

he was shot, and fell forward into the water and in a second was at once

swept downwards. A second buck hard hit, went upwards and then lay down

perhaps two hundred yards away. Nothing definite could be seen, and several

shots were necessary before he rolled out of the rocks on to fairly level ground

below, and lay dead.

The Kishtwaris are Hindus, so no throat cutting operations were necessary.

A coolie was left to try and scare off vultures, whilst the rest of the party descend-

ed the ravine to look for the first Thar that had fallen. Below where the smooth

rock ended was a mass of snow. Adjacent to the rock it had been melted by the

water, leaving an open space and, in this,between rock and snow,the body of the

Thar was fixed. Evidently time would be required to get it out, so crossing on

the snow, a return was m^e and the second Thar was picked up and sent into

the main valley below. Without appliances there was no getting at the first

Tharand it was not until a pole had been placed acro.ss the chasm and the guy

ropes of the tents used, that a man could descend and fasten the ropes round

the body, which could then be hauled up ; but this work had to be deferred

until the next morning when a bedraggled mass of hair and goat was extracted.

The snow shde was a boon, for it not only formed a bridge over the side stream

where the Thar were found, but also over the main water of the valley, for the

junction of the two waters was close at hand. During various trips on three

occasions animals have fallen into crevasses or into the water below snow bridges ;

twice Thar which were got out dead, but the third time a bear which unfor-

tunately was wounded had to be left, poor beast !

There was plenty to do in camp for a day or two, and a fresh start was to have

been made on the morning of the third day but the post coolie reported he had

seen a sohtary Thar down the valley.

The road, or rather cattle track which followed the small river was taken, then

a halt was made and the glass got out, after along scrutiny the Thar was seen

lying down under a deodar tree.

To suit the wind the stalk had to be upwards. When almost vithin shootable

distance the accommodating animal got up and crossed the narrow nullah imme-

diately above. A long shot was taken, and the Thar fell, rolling dowm the steep

incline to within a few yards of where we stood. The distance probably was

over estimated for the bullet hit high up where the neck joined the body. The

skin was given to the postal runner, as he explained that Thar skins, when cut

into strips, were used to fasten the yoke of the ploughs on the cattle as caste

forbade the hides of cows being touched.

Three Thar heads were sufficient. As the five mountains (Panjendar) were only

about 8 or 10 miles further up, the camp was taken on — what a difference there

GAME ANIMALS OF KASHMIR

609

is between the preserved Deodar Forests, and the unprotected birch. The black

dead stems of the birch were a dismal sight. The cattle and goat herds had

stripped ofiE the small boughs of the birch and consequently the trees were

ruined. Maple and horse chestnut trees were cut to pieces and were monuments

of destruction standing stark and drear in the snow.

This devastation is going on almost everywhere and has ruined many and many

a fine Forest.

A return was made by another valley. Thar were seen and left alone. A

goral and a bear were shot. This ended a very pleasant trip and a most success-

ful result from a field naturalist's point of view, for the upper valle3’s of

Kishtwar hold many birds that are seldom to be seen in Kashmir. The views

of the mountain peaks of Brahma are verj'' grand — the people are interesting

and talkative.

{To be continued)

4

610

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

BY

Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.S., F.E.S.

Part XIII.

{Continued from i>age 492 of this Volicme.)

(With h Text-figures.')

* Fig. 1. i. Terminal segments of abdomen of jEschna erythromelas showing

{a) dentigerous plate, ii. The same of JEschna ornithocephala.

Group — Brachyteon.

The genera included in this group are characterized by the symmetrical fork-

ing of B.S (5th nervure) and by the presence of only a single row of cells between

Rs and Rs^l (5th nervuie and 5a ) and between Miv and Mspl (7th ner\mre and

7a). (An exception is Jagoria in which Rs is unforked.)

The eyes are generally smaller and less contiguous than in group Anax ; the

frons usually broad or very broad, the occiput small and simple. The wings are

long and broad or narrow, the reticulation open or close, the base of the hind-

wing usually excavate and angulated in the male, rounded in the female, the

stigma variable, long and narrow or short and broad.

The dentigerous plate of the female is variable, subrotundate, denticulate or

forked. The anal superior appendages of the male usuaUy lanceolate, the in-

ferior subtriangular.

* This figure was omitted from the previous i>art and should have been

included under the description of JEschna erythromelas. Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, p. 490,

INDIAI^ DRAGOIS; FLIES.

611

Genus — Jagoria.

Fig. 2. Wings of Jagoria posciloplera, Karsch. J (x 2’5).

Jagoria, Karsch, Ent. Nachr., xv., p. 238, (1889) ; Laidlaw, Rec. Ind. Mus.,

Vol. xxii, p. 76, (1921) ; Martin, Cat. Coll. Selys, Mschnines p. 155,

(1908).

Head moderately large ; eyes large, broadly or moderately contiguous. Wings

moderately long and broad, reticulation moderately open, trigones short, with

3-5 cells, basal space (prearcular) entire, 2 cubital nervures in all wings, hyper-

trigones entire or traversed by 1-2 nervures, Rs not bifurcated, only 1 row of

cells between Rs and Rspl, 1-2 rows between Miv and Mspl, membrane short

and narrow, not usually extending along the whole length of the wing — base,

stigma braced, moderately short and thick, anal triangle of 3 cells, anal border

moderately excavate.

Legs long and rather slender. Thorax robust.

Abdomen cylindrical, only slightly tumid at the base, constricted at the 3rd

segment, widening again from 4 to 6 and then narrow and cylindrical as far as

the anal end. Superior anal appendages longer than the 10th abdominal

•segment, variable in shape, the inferior more or less cylindrical, long and bifid,

rather more than half the length of the superior.

The 10th abdominal segment in the female prolonged into a finely denticulate

plate below. Anal appendages of female long and foliate.

Jagoria martini, Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxii, p. 76-77, (1921).

Female only known. Length of abdomen 40 mm. Hindwing 40 mm.

Head. Labium, labrum and epistome orange brown, the upper surface of frons

marked with a broad “ T ” shaped mark, brown in front and black against the

•eyes, frons yellowish, vesicle and occiput black, the latter fringed with a tuft of

black hairs.

Prothorax dark brown.

6

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllL

Thorax dark brown marked with a pair of oblong, ov’al, bluish green, antehu

meral bands which converge above but do not quite meet the mid-dorsal carina.

From near the upper end of these bands, a pair of similar coloured, short, nar

row bands run towards the humeral suture. On the sides two vivid green, broad

bands, one at the middle and the other covering the entire metepimeron.

Beneath orange brown.

Abdomen black above, orange brown beneath. Segment 1 marked laterally

with vivid, greenish yellow, segment 2 with a lateral, yellow band and a pair

of small, semilunar, green, apical spots, segments 4 to C with similar green spots

but smaller on Ijie latter. In addition segments 2 to 4 have each a pair of nar-

row, transverse, green marks at about their centre and there is a small, basal,,

yellowish green, triangular mark on the 2nd segment. Segments 7 to 10 unmarked.

Anal appendages .small, about 2 mm. long.

Dentigerous plate on the 10th abdominal segment almost squarely truncate

posteriorly and is furnished at the apex with about 15 small, irregularly placed

teeth.

Legs black, coxae and trochanters and the bases of femora brownish.

Wings hyaline, the bases saffronated as far out as the 1st antenodal nervure,

trigones of the forewmgs 3-ceIled, of the hind 4-celled, hypertrigones entire,

16 to 17 antenodal nervures to the forewmgs, 9 to 11 in the hind, 7 to 8 postnodal

nervures to forewings, 8 to 10 in the hind, stigma dark brown.

Hah. Darjiling District. Described from a single specimen taken on Tiger

Hill, Darjiling, 8,300,' 26-vi-18 by Mr. S. W. Kemp. Type in Lrdian Museum.

Genus — Peri.bschna.

Fig. 3. Wings of Permschna rnandahna, Martin. $ (x 2 5).

Periseschna, Martin Cat. Coll. Selys, ^schnines, xix, xx, p. 157, (1908)

Laidlaw, Rec. Lid. Mus. Vol. xxii, p. 81 (1921).

Female. Head globular; eyes broadly contiguous; occiput small.

Wings broad, a little rounded at the apices, reticulation open, trigones,

elongated, of 5 to 6 cells, prearcular and cubital spaces and hypertrigones tra-

versed, the latter 3 times, Rs bifurcated nearer the node (ban the stigma or at

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

613

least halfway between these two structures, Rspl running parallel to Rs and only

1 row of cells between them, stigma moderately short and stout, membrane

moderately short and narrow.

Legs shorii and robust. Abdomen slender. Anal appendages short and

slender. Dentigerous plate forked with fine, needle-like branches resembling

those found in Gynacanlha.

Periaeschna magdalena, Martin, Cat. Coll. Selyj, Mschnines, xix, xx, p.

157, pi. vi, fig. 22 ; Laidlaw, Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxii, p. 81, (1921).

Female. Abdomen 67 mm. Hindwing 44 mm.

Head. Labrum, labium, face and frons reddish browm, the base of the latter

black with a medial prolongation forward.

Prothorax and thorax blackish browm marked with a narrow, yellow, ante-

humeral stripe on each side and 2 broad, yellow stripes laterally.

Legs blackish brown, reddish at the bases.

Abdomen tumid at the base, slightly constricted at the 3rd segment, and

thereafter cylindrical as far as the anal end. Ground colour black marked with

yellow as follows : — ^segments 1 and 2 with the sides broadly yellow and the dorsal

Carina finely, the 3rd segment with a basal, lateral spot, segments 4 to 7 with

similar but less evident spots, segments 8 to 10 unmarked.

Superior anal appendages fine and short, but slight'}' longer than the 10th

segment which is very short.

Wings enfumed, costa dark bro^vn, stigma reddish, short and stout. All wings

have a basal brown marking which extends outwards as far as the 1st antenodal

nervure ; membrane white.

Type female in Martin’s collection Tonkin, Assam. Dr. Laidlaw reports

a pair from Tura, Garo Hills, Assam, which are now in the Indian Museum.

Genus- -Austko-bschna.

Fig. 4. Wings of Austrocesehna intersedens, Selys. (x 2'5).

Austroaeschna, Selys, Bull. Acad, Belg. Vol. 3. p. 732. (1883).

Acanthfeschva , Selys, ibid. p. 731, (1883).

Fiance schna, Maclachlan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.), Vol. 27 (1895).

Dromceschna, Forster, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.), Vol. .52 (1908).

Austrocesehna, Martin, Cat. Coll. Selys.), Vol. xix, xx (1908).

«14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Eyes slightly contiguous ; occiput small ; frons narrow as viewed from above ;

■face narrow, subglobular, fringed around with long hairs.

Abdomen slender, tumid at the base, constricted markedly at the 3rd segment

and from thence cylindrical till the end. Anal superior appendages long and

slender, much longer than the 10th segment, inferior narrow and truncate,

triangular. The dorsum of the 10th segment with a prominent carina. Oreillets

robust.

Wings moderately narrow, reticulation rather close ; trigones short, of ? to 4

cells ; prearcuiar space entire ; cubital space and hypertrigones traversed ; /?•<

bifurcated well before the stigma ; only a smgle row of cells between Rs and

Rspl and between Miv and Mspl ; anal border markedly notched ; anal triangle

of 3 cells ; membrane short and slender, not quite the length of the anal border.

Superior appendages long and slender, longer than the 10th segment ; inferior

short, truncate, triangular. Dentigerous plate of female subrounded, finely

denticulate. Appendages short.

Hah. Australia. Represented by a single species within Indian limits.

Austroseschna intersedens, Martin, 1. c. p. 101, pi. iv., fig. 14.; Laidlaw,

Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxii, p. 79, (1921).

Male. Abdomen 40 mm. Hindwing 37 mm.

Head. Eyes green, moderately contiguous ; labium olivaceous ; labrum, face

and frons bright yellow, the latter which is raised into a fine point at its centre,

smoky brown along the crest. The crest and borders of the face fringed with

a ruff of long, black hairs.

Prothorax brown.

Thorax maroon brown marked with bright yellow as follows : — 2 antehumeral

stripes on the front of dorsum, separated by the dorsal carina and lying parallel

to one another, the interalar sinus, tergum and some small spots at the bases of

the wings. Laterally two broad stripes, one of which lies between the humeral

and first lateral suture and the other covers the whole of the metepimeron.

Wings hyaline, stigma black, 3 cells in trigone of forewing, 4 in the hind, loop

very small, of 4 cells, 4 cubital cells in forewing, 4 to 5 in the hind; nodal index: —

^ ^ between Rs and Rspl ; 2 rows of cells between the

bifurcation of Rs.

Abdomen brownish black marked with yellow as follows : — 1st segment with

a quadrate spot low down on the sides and a middorsal streak, 2nd segment

with an apical, subtriangular spot low down on the sides and a middorsal streak

Avhich gradually tapers apicaUy, the oreillets are also yellow, 3rd to 10th segments

with a continuation of the fine, middorsal yellow line which broadens into a

small triangle on either side the dorsal carina about the middle of the segments.

In addition, there are on segments 3 to 9 lateral, subapical spots.

Legs dark brown, the coxae and trochanters yellow and at the base of the mid

pair this yellow is prolonged into the thorax for a short distance.

Anal appendages long, sinuous and narrow, blackish brown. The inferior

long, not quite half the length of the superior, narrow and triangular.

Female very similar to the male, the abdomen being stouter at the base, not cons-

tricted at the 3rd segment, the markings rather more pronounced. Anal

appendages small, lanceolate, pointed.

Dentigerous plate simple, prolonged into a spout-like structure, armed with

about 8 small spines.

Hah. Assam, Cherrapunji and Shillong.

Genus — Cephaljeschna.

CephalcBSchna, Selys, Bull. Acad. Bclg., (3), v., p. 739, (1883).

Caliaeschna, Selys, et Martin, Cat. Coll. Selys, jEschnines, xix,

(1908).

XX

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

615

Cephalmchna, Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxii, pp. 77-79, (1921).

Eyes broadly contiguous ; Irons raised in front or projecting markedly ; occiput

small, its hinder border slightly raised.

Thorax short, robust.

Abdomen long and slender in the male, stout and robust in the female.

Slightly tumid at the base in the male and slightly constricted at the third

segment, the 10th segment with a prominent middorsal carina. Oreillets of male

prominent, the posterior border armed with 5 to 6 robust spines.

Anal appendages nearly as long as the 9th and 10th segments, slender at the

base, broadening inwardly after the first third, with a prominent mid-rib,

pointed at the apex.

Wings hyaline or enfumed ; stigma markedly short usually braced ; trigones-

with 3 to 5 cells ; hypertrigones traversed three times ; are strongly angulated ;

arcular space traversed usually 5 times ; Rs forked, 2 rows of cells between the

fork; loop with 5 to 8 cells, rather small, and stunted ; a basal antenodal nervure

of the first series always present and continuous with the first traversing

nervure of the basal (arcular) space ; base of hindwing in the male obtusely

angular ; rounded in the female ; anal triangle with 3 cells ; Rspl and Mspl

running parallel with Rs and Miv respectively and enclosing 1 or rarely

2 rows of cells especially near the margin of the wing ; antenodal and postnodal

nervures numerous.

liCgs long and rather slim ; hind femora with a row of closely-set, robust, short

spines and 2 or 3 longer ones at the di.stal end ; tibial spines long and numerous :

claw-hooks robust, situated nearer the base than apex, at which point the claws

rapidly taper.

Dentigerous plate of the female rounded and subdenticulate.

Cephalsschna acutifrons, Martin, 1. c., Ris. Supp. Ent., No. 5, pp. 55-56,

tab. 2, fig. 5, (1916); Laid. 1. c. (1921).

Female. (Male unknown.) Length of abdomen 52 mm., of hindw'ing 47 mm.

Face and frons olivaceous yellow, no markings above the frons which projects

in front somewhat like the bows of a ship.

Thorax dark brown with a humeral stripe of bright green on each side and two

lateral stripes of yellow bordered with vivid green.

Legs reddish yellow.

Wings broad, especially the hind, hyaline but saffronated at the bases ;

stigma small, reddish brown ; costa orange ; 25 antenodal nervures and 21 post-

nodals in the forewing, 19 antenodal and 24 postnodal nervures in the hind.

Abdomen broad and tumid at the base, the 2nd segment somewhat ovoid,

the 3rd slightly constricted, dark brown marked with yellow' as follows : — the

2nd segment with 2 small, linear, yellow spots at the centre and 2 others at the

base, segments 3 to 9 have similar spots, the medial ones very small and linear,

the basal larger and more semilunar in form.

Anal appendages very small, linear, dark brown.

Hah. Type female in the collection of Selys, labelled, India, is probably from

Assam or Bengal.

Cephalsschna masoni, Martin, Caliceschna, Cat. Coll. Selys, Aeschnines, fig.

104, PI. Ill, fig. 12, p.lll ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxii, pp. 77-78,

(1921).

Male. Length of abdomen 55 mm., of hindwing 41 mm.

Face yellowish, a fringe of hairs round its circumference, flattened ; frons

yellow' bordered finely w'ith black.

Thorax blackish brown marked with a humeral band of green in front on each

side and tw'o lateral bands of the same colour.

Wings rather broad, hyaline ; stigma blackish brown, very short ; membrane

short, white ; anal triangle of 5 cells ; forking of Rs begins well liefore the stigma ;

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NX VIII.

21 antenodal nervures and II postnodals to the forewing, 15 antenodal and 16

postnodal nervures to the hind.

Abdomen long and slender, black, the 1st segment with reddish hair, the 2nd

with a basal, dorsal, yellow triangle, 2 transverse, linear spots of the same colour

on each side of the dorsal crest at the middle of the segment and at the apical

■end, segments 3 to 9 with a linear spot of yellow on each side of the dorsal carina

about the middle of the segment and a larger semilunar spot at the apical end

nearly confluent across the dorsal carina, 10 unspotted.

Superior anal appendages long, slender at the base, then broadening spatulate-

wise after the first third, the apex rounded, brovm. Inferior appendage half as

long as the superior, triangular.

Female unknoAvn. It is possible that C. acutifroi^s is the female of C. masoni.

The venation differs rather widely but this character is so variable a factor that

too much importance should not be given to it.

Type male in the Selysian collection. Assam.

Cephalseschna lugubris, Martin, 110, fig. 103, Syn. Cat. Coll. Selys.

Alschnines, xix, xx (1908).

CephaJceschna sikkima, Selys, in. litt.

Cephalceschna lugubris, Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxii, p. 78, (1921).

Male. Length of abdomen 48-51 mm., hindwing 41 mm.

Head. Labrum, labium and lower epistome yellow, upper epistome green,

frons in front shiny black, above yellow bordered with black, frons raised and

narrow ; occiput small, black.

Thorax short, blackish bro-wn, marked with a green antehumeral band on either

side of the front and laterally with two broad, green bands.

I>egs blackish brown, the bases of femora reddish.

Wings hyaline, tinted with brown ; stigma very short ; brown ; membrane

yellowish, trigones made up of 4 cells ; anal triangle with 3 cells ; 2 rows of cells

between the forking of Rs ; 21-25 antenodal nervures and 11 postnodals in the

forewings, 18-19 antenodals and 13-15 postnodals in the hind.

.Abdomen long and slender, slightly tumid at the base, a little constricted at

the 3rd segment, black marked with green as follows : — the 1st segment with a

central, yellow spot, the 2nd with a dorsal, green line broken at its middle,

2 linear transvei-se streaks at the centre of the segment, separated by the

;niddor.sal carina, and finajly an apical, green annule, segments 3 to 8 with,

similar, central, linear marks and apical ring, segments 9 and 10 unmarked, the

latter with a prominent, middorsal crest.

Anal appendages brown, nearly as long as the combined length of the last two

abdominal segments, very slender at the base, broadly spatulate after the first

third, the apex with a small spine. Inferior appendage triangular, about two-

thirds the length of the superiors.

Female. Very similar to the male but the abdomen shorter and stouter.

The frons without the black stripe above, the face olivaceous green. The 10th

abdominal segment very short above. Anal appendages short, very slender

filiform and pointed at the apex, brown.

Types in the ctrllections of Martin and Selys.

Hah. Sikkim.

Cephalaeschna orbifrons, Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg., (3) v. p. 739 (1883)

Martin, Cat. Coll. Selys, Aeschniries, xix, xx (1908) ; Laid. Rec. Ind.

Mus., Vol. xxii, p. 78, (1921).

]\Iale. Length of abdomen 45 mm., hindwing 40 mm.

Head : Labrum, labium, epistome and frons uniform olivaceous and quite

unmarked ; eyes dark olivaceous, broadly contiguous ; occiput small, black.

Prothorax dark brown bordered finely with yellow'.

Thorax short but robust, dark brown marked with apple green, an antehumeral

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

617

■streak on either side of the fiont, broad above, tapering anteriorly. Laterally

two broad stripes of the same colour, the first a little interrupted above at its

npper comer, the second covering the whole of the metepimeron and just

separated from a small spot of green at the base of the hindwing.

Legs blackish brown, the coxae yellow, long and rather slim.

Wings hyaline, rather broad ; stigma black, moderately short and usually

braced, that of fore-ning distinctly larger than that of the hind ; trigones very

variable, that of forewing with 3 to 5 cells, that of the hind with 3 or 4 cells ;

loop with 5 cells ; 2 rows of cells between the forking of i?s ; 7 to 8 cubital nervures

in the forewing, 6 in the hind ; hvpertrigones traversed 3 times in all rvings ; re -

11-18 17-11

ticulation rather close ; nodal index : —

anal triangle with 3 cells.

13-16 15-13’

membrane small, white.

Abdomen long and slim, tumid at the base, constricted at the third segment,

dark brown marked with green and yellow as follows : — 1st segment broadly

greenish j^ellow on the sides, a doraal, green triangle at the base and an apical,

oval spot of the same colour ; 2nd segment with the sides broadly yellowish green

and the dorsum with 2 transverse, wedge-shaped spots about the middle, separat-

ed by the dorsal crest, a basal irregular spot of green and an apical streak of the

same colour on the dorsal carina w'hich is united wdth an apical, yellow annule ;

3rd segment with the basal half of the dorsal carina yellow and a lateral, basal

triangle of yellow at its centre, 2 transverse, yellow spots ; 4th to 7th segments

with the same central, yellow, transverse spots and apical annules of yellow ;

8th and 9th segments with only the apical annules ; 10th segment with only a

lateral, yellow spot.

Anal appendages dark brown, the superior with a prominent mid-rib, narrow

at the base, broadening spatulatewise after the first third, the apex bevelled,

pointed as seen in profile, the upper surface near the apical end furnished with

long, stiff hairs, the inferior about two -thirds the length of the superior, trian-

gular, curling upwards.

Female. Length of abdomen 47-49 mm., hindwing 40-42 mm.

Head : Labrum bright ochreous, rest of face, labium and frons olivaceous

as in the male ; occiput black. Face as in the male, is fringed with a margin of

long, stiff, black hairs.

Rest of thorax and abdomen very much as for the male, the sides of the 2nd

segment are less broadly yellow, the sides of the 3rd are more extensively so,

reaching as far as the apex, this colour also extends along the sides of the 4th

and 5th segments and there is a trace of it on the 6th and 7th, the sides of the

8th to 10th being broadly yellow.

The other markings are as in the male but more pronounced and distinct.

Wings hyaline tinted at the extreme base with pale amber or saffron. Trigone

of forem'ngs with 4 to 5 cells, 5 in the hind ; loop with 4 to 5 cells ; hypertrigones

traversed 3 times in all wings ; 5 to 6 cells in the anal triangle ; nodal index : —

19-20 11-14 19-12 , , . , . j .

. . , , : a basal, antecostal of the second senes in all wings.

14-16 13-lo 15—16

Membrane ashy, small.

Legs yellow, the joints black as also are the spines on femora and tibiae.

Anal appendages extremely short, filiform, pointed at the apex, brown.

Dentigerous plate rounded and subdenticulate.

Hob. Bengal. Darjiling District. I am indebted to Mr. H. Stevens for

the chance of examining a number of these insects. The male as far as I know

has not yet been described. The co-type male is in my own collection. I find

as a result of my examination that the venation of this species varies very

widely and to a less extent, the same applies to the markings. From this I

deduce that the number of species described by Martin will probably resolve

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

themselves into only two species. The coloured illustrations given in the Cat,

Coll. Selys both for the Corduliince and the jEachnirue are exceedingly fallacious

and to take one instance only, e.g., that of Hemicordulia asiatica, no one knowing

the living insect would recognise it from the coloured illustration given in the

work cited. It will be seen from the above descriptions that they will equally

fit either Ingubris, acutifrons or orbifrons, not conforming to any entirelJ^ The

descriptions have been made from Mr. H. Steven’s specimens and as an alterna-

tive to giving them specific rank, I have placed them as C. orbifrons.

Genus — Gynacanth.®schna, gen. nov.

Gynacanthaschna, gen. nov.

CephalcBSchna, Karsch, Ent. Nachr., xvii, No. 20, pp. 6-7, (1891);

Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxii, p. 78, (1921).

Similar to the last genus in most respects but the neuration diffem somew'hat

as also does the dentigerous plate of the female.

Wings rather narrower, usually a little enfumed; stigma markedlj’ short, usually

unbraced (or it would be better to say that the brace has shifted outwards and

meets the stigma distal to its inner, posterior comer), 2 to 3 nervures converge

on the posterior border of the stigma especially in the female ; trigones with 3

cells in the forewdngs, usually 4 in the hindwing, other points as for Cephaloaschna.

Dentigerous plate, of the female forking into two stout spines very similar to

those seen in genus Gynacantha.

Gynacanthseschna sikkima, (Karsch. ) 1. c.

CalicBSchna sikkima, Martin, Cat. Col. Selys, .Eschnines, xix, xx

(1908); MacLachlan, Ann. Mag Nat. Hist., (6) xvii, pp. 409-425

(1905).*

Cephalmschna sikkima et Cepkalceschna sp. Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. VoL

xxii, pp. 77-81, (1921).

Fig. 5. Wings of Gynacanlhmschna sikkima, Karsch, (x 2'3).

Male. Length of abdomen 46 mm., hindMing 40 mm.

Head. Labium, labrum, epistome and frons olivaceous brown, the lips some-

what more ochraceous ; occiput black, small, fringed with black hairs ; a fringe

of longish, black hair also margins the front crest of the frons and is continued

down on either side of the face ; ej^es broadly contiguous, olivaceous green.

Prothorax brown margined finely with yellow.

INVIAK DRAGONFLIES.

619

Thorax short but robust, dark chestnut brown marked with green, tbe dorsum

bearing apple green, antehumeral bands which taper slightly forwards, the sides

entirely green except for a band of the ground colour at the middle which divides

the green into a broad, anterior band and a broader, posterior covering the whole

of the metepimeron.

Wings slightly and uniformly enfumed, long and rather narrow ; stigma short,

dark brown, over 3-4 cells in the forewing, only over 2 or IJ in the hind, usually

unbraced but a sloping nervure meets the stigma a little distal to its inner end,

the stigma of the hind wing is much smaller than that of the fore ; trigone of fore •

wing traversed regularly 3 times,that of the hind 3 to 4 times and very irregularly,

a nervure running from the base may join the first traversing nervure or run

backwards to the outer side of the trigone, thus enclosing a triangular cell ; mem-

1 ,11 10-18 19-10

brane white; nodal index: — . „ . _

13-15 17-13

I’cticulation rather close.

Legs long and rather slim, the femora reddish brown except at the distal ends

where they turn dark, tibia* blaok, armature of the legs as for Cephalcesckna.

Abdomen long and slim, tumid at the base, constricted at the 3rd segment,

cylindrical thereafter, black marked with green and yellow as follows : — segment

1 broadly yellowish green at the sides, segment 2 also broadly yellow at the side,

and the dorsum bearing an apical annule which is contiguous with a short, linear

stripe on the dorsal oarina, this itripe broken at the centre of the segment and

here, on either side of the dorsal carina but not quite meeting it are 2 linear,

transverse, yellow lines ; segment 3 has an apical, narrow annule, 2 triangular,

small, yellow spots situated nearer the base than apex and slightly separated

by the dorsal oarina, these spots are limited basally by the transverse ridge of

the segment and low dowm on the sides at the end of this ridge is another small,

yellow spot, finally at the base, on the sides is a largish, subtriangular spot ;

segments 4 to 7 have the apical annule and the tw'O sjwts margining the trans-

verse ridge ; segments 8 and 9 have only the apical annule, whilst 10 has merely

a small, lateral, yellow spot.

Anal appendages as long or nearly as long as the two last abdominal segments,

slim at the base, broadening after the first third especially inward, traversed by

a strong midrib, bevelled at the apex where they end in a small point, brown ;

inferior about two-thirds the length of the superior, curling strongly upwards,

triangular.

Female. Length of abdomen 45 to 47 mm., hindwing 41 to 43 mm.

Very similar to the male in colouring but a much bulkier and stouter insect,

the abdomen tumid at the base and not constricted at the third segment, rather

flattened from side to side, the 8th and 9th segments broadened from above down.

Head. Labium and labrum bright ochreous, the rest of face and frons golden

browm ; eyes brown ; occiput very small, blaok, with a crest of short black hair.'^.

Thorax as for the male, the antehumeral bands are of almost the same width

throughout but are rapidly pointed at the anterior end.

Legs as for the male but the spines on the femora are more scanty.

Wings long and broader than those of the male, hyaline, the bases saffronated,

this paling as far as the arc which is acutely bent ; stigma only slightly smaller

in the hindwing, the difference in size not nearly as marked as in the male, over

2 cells in all wings, braced but the brace not running from the extreme, proximal

end of the stigma, dark brown ; trigones with 4 cells in all wings ; 7 eells in the

loop ; Rs forked a long way from the stigma, 2 rows of cells between the branches

of the fork ; nodal index : — Karsoh’s specimen ; Laidlaw’s

* 12-15 16-13

9-19 19-12 „ 12-20 20-lc , , ,

l^Fs T(LT3 ’ 15145 ~I(n4' combmed

number of ante and postnodal nervures in the forewings of the first two speci-

T

620 JOUR^^AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

mens comes to 31 for the right wings and 28 for the left whilst in both of the fore-

wings of Stevens’ specimen there are 32. ) There is a basal antenodal of the 2nd

series in all wings.

Abdomen black marked w'ith green and yellow as follows : — 1st segment with

a small, dorsal streak of yellow and the sides broadly apple green ; 2nd segment

marked as in the male but the sides more broadly and the basal half green turn-

ing gradually to yellow apically ; segments 3 to 7 have an apical, dorsal, yellow

triangle formed by the confluence of 2 spots and a transverse, triangular spot

on the transverse ridge. (This ridge has been named the “jugum”byDr.

Laidlaw), this spot also formed by the confluence of 2 spots ; segments 8 to 10

are broadly yellow on the sides.

Anal appendages very short and filiform, brown.

Dentigerous plate which has been figured in the preface to the subfamily,

strongly forked into robust spines, directed downwards.

Hab. Type from Sikkim, in the Berlm Museum is a female. Laidlaw’s speci-

men is also a female, from Cherrapunji, Assam, now in the Indian Museum. The

male, which has not been described before is from Gopaldhara and I am indebted

to Mr. H. Stevens for it. I hav« seen also a female collected by Mr. Inglis

above Mangphu, 5,500’.

The differences between the descriptions of Karsch’s C. sikkima and Laidlaw’s

Cepkalceschna sp. are not greater than those between individual specimens

collected by l\Ir. Stevens and Mr. Inglis so that I have no hesitation in treating

them as one and the same species.

[I'o he continued.)

Journ , Bombay Nat. Hist Soc.

The Madras Aquarium.

Exterior view and ground plan.

621

THE MADRAS AQUARIUM.

BY

James Hobnell, F.L.S., F.R.A.I.

( With a plate and 6 text fgures.)

In spite of the faot that the Madras Aquarium was opened so long ago as 1909,

and that it has ijroved a wonderful success whether judged by the public interest

aroused or by the cold verdict of finance, it has had no imitators on the Asiatic

mainland. Until the last few years its reputation had not travelled beyond the

confines ot Madras, for till that time no strong effort was made to advertise it and

make its attractions widely knowm. The first enthusiasm aroused by its ener-

getic and versatile creator, Mr. Edgar Thurston, the then Superintendent of the

Museum, died down in large part when he retired, which unfortunately coincided

■with the completion of the building ; only when it was transferred to the care

of the Department of Fisheries was any systematic effort made to extend its

usefulness, and develop its possibilities to the utmost.

To Mr. Thurston is due the credit for the inceiition of the scheme. As is well

kno^vn he devoted an important section of his life’s work to the investigation

of the marine fauna of the Gulf of Mannar ; his notes on this subject, all too

few, are charmingly VTitten and full of interesting observations of great value

to naturalists following in his tracks. The idea of an aquarium, where some of

the wonders of the coral reefs that fringe the southern shores of the ^Madras

Presidency might be brought home to the multitudes of Madras, must surely

have been born on one of these collecting expeditions. At their best, what are

stuffed fishes, dried sponges, corals and crabs, and colourless and

shrunken specimens in jars, but faded and unsatisfying mummified remains ?

To one familiar with the wonderful beauty of form and colour of the life of the

shallower depths of our Indian seas, the desire to see these under conditions

permitting close observation of habits such as is impossible in the sea itself, is

ahvays present ; the designing of the Madras Aquarium was the outcome of

this feeling in Mr. Thurston’s case. Curiously enough, the -writer, not then

connected with Indian fishery dev’elopment, happened to be in Madras at the

time when the plans were being roughed out, and his remembrance of discuss-

ing with Mr. Thurston the details and arrangements of the tanks and fittings

is vivid ; apart from the interest of the subject, the personality of the de-

signer -was an arresting one, for Mr. Thurston had filled many roles in his career.

Funds were not available for a very extensive or elaborate building ; simplicity

and economy had to be studied, and both architect (Mr. Harris, Consulting

Architect to Government) and contractors did wonderfully well to complete the

building, virtually as it stands to-day, for the sum of Rs. 17,604 ; installation of

electric lighting and fans subsequently cost an additional Rs. 4,778.

It is located on the sandy sea-beach, opposite* the Presidency College, and

midway between Fort St. George and San Thome — between what -ft'ere the

original settlements of the Enghsh and the Portuguese at Madras. This long

line of beach, bordered by a fine promenade, the ‘ Marina,’ the pride of Madras,

has broadened considerably since the construction of the harbour works owing

to sand accretion due to the northerly drift of sand along the coast in this loca-

lity ; it is this accretion that has permitted of the erection of a building on the

seaward side of the roadway at the spot chosen as the site for the Aquarium.

Principally for ajsthetic reasons the design of the building had to be restricted

to one floor ; that too is sunk some four feet below the general ground level.

Originally it was less, but year by year drifting sand continues to raise the ground

level ; increasing difficulty is experienced in coping with this trouble.

622 .JOVENAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

The building was opened to the public on 21st October 1909. It remained

for ten years in charge of the Superintendent of the Museum, till in 1919, it was

transferred to the Department of Fisheries for the two-fold reason that this

Department has particular need for the possession of aquarium facilities for the

prosecution of its investigations into the life-histories of the local food-fishes,

and because of the greater facilities it has for the renewal of the stock of fish

and other animals required for the tanks. The change of management has been

fully justified for measures were at once taken to increase the number and variety

of the exhibits, to remodel the table aquaria, to instal electric lighting and fans

and to make the place and its attractions better known. By introducing electric

light, it became possible to keep the aquarium hall open after sunset, and at

present the evening has become the most popular time to visit the collection ;

the brilliant illumination of the tanks shows up the colouring of the fishes to

greater advantage than when viewed by daylight ; troublesome reflections,

caused by bright sunshine jxjuring in through doors and ventilators are

eliminated, and the ideal condition for viewing the inhabitants of the tanks is

attained — the view from a darkened hall of the tanks lit from behind by

brilliant lights hidden from the observer. By the use of electric bulbs, such

flexibility is possible in the lighting arrangements that the illumination of each

tank can be Studied individually and so lit at the best possible angle.

In the year when the Fisheries Department took charge, the total number

of visitors who passed the turnstile w^as 95,957 ; after the installation of lights

and fans, and the introduction of other improvements the number rose to 163,517.

To this success the issue of an illustrated handbook has greatly contributed and

has proved the best possible means of advertisement. The first edition of 1,500

copies, priced at the nominal charge of one anna, issued in October 1919, W'as

exhausted within four months. A second edition of 5,000 copies, and consider-

ably enlarged, but still priced at the same low' figure was issued in February

19^, and was in turn exhausted by' the end of 1921, when a third English edition,

again revised and enlarged to 39 pages, w’as published. This actually costs to

produce thrice the price charged but for the sake of its educational V'alue and for

the advertisement it affords. Government have sanctioned its continued sale

at the original and popular price of the single anna. In addition to the English

I edition, a Tamil translation has been published but curiously enough the

English edition continues to be the favourite with Indian visitors. Two rates of

admission to the Aquarium are charged, six pies and four annas, in order to

jjermit the poorest to have an opportunity to visit it and also to allow the better

classes to have the advantage of seeing it under less crowded conditions than

otherwise would be possible. From 2 to 5-30 p.m. admission is half an anna, at

all other hours four aimas. On Friday's the charge throughout the day' is at the

higher rate. On the great Indian festivals when thousands flock to see the

wonders of the local sea, a sp>ecial charge of one anna is made all day'. Finally

in order that no obstacle may stand in the way of any section of the community'

visiting it, a gosha day, when ladies only are admitted, is arranged for the

laLst Monday in each month ; on these days women attendants are in charge of

the building.

The Aquarium Hall is a lofty rectangular room, 35'-6' in length by 50'-6"

wide. To roof this great width, three ridged spans are employed, supported

on four rows of slender ornamental pillars ; the outside row along each side, i s

utihzed to carry two heavy brass barrier rails,spaced tw'O feet six inches from the

front of the tanks. The two short sides are occupied by ten large aquarium

tanks built into the walls. Four small rooms, with the entrance vestibule and

turnstiles, form the front side, W'hile a large opening in the middle of tlie rear

^vall was provided in the original arrangement to jjermit of visitors seeing into

a deep semicircular open-air pool, intended for such large animals as full-grown

sharks and turtles which could not be accommodated in the wall-tanks on account

THE MADRAS AQUARIUM.

623

of tlioif size. Experience has shown this plan to labour under two great disabi-

lities : the great size of the opening, approximately one-third of the entire rear

wall space, admitted such an excessive amount of bright sunlight as killed the

lighting of the side tanks, while the arrangements did not even permit of the

fishes in the tank itself being seen to advantage — partly by reason of the too

great depth allowed and partly to reflection of the sky and clouds ; in rainy

weather the arrangement sometimes led also to the flooding of the floor of the

aquarium hall. Accordingly when ‘ Fisheries ’ took charge, it was decided to

abolish this outside tank, close in the greater part of the opening in the wall and

raise the low parapet wall over which visitors used to lean to view the contents

of the tank, sufficiently high to accommodate a number of table aquaria. These

alterations have proved satiafactory.

In tne centre of the hall is an ornamental open freshwater pond sunk in the

floor, with a central fountain. Tables carrying small rectangular glass-sided

aquaria are disposed about the room wherever they can be conveniently placed,

while the two end walls are utilized for the display of typical collections of

preserv’ed specimens illustrative of the range of marine animals, dry and in

fluid, available in the zoological supply section of the Fisheries Department

for educational purposes, such as for dissection in i)ractical zoological studies

or for museum display.

The ten large tanks are constructed of masonry. They measure 7 feet in

length by 4 feet from back to front, with a depth of 3 feet. The partitions

separating them are of Cuddapah slabs (thick slate). Originally the backs of

all the tanks were lined with white glazed tiles ; this has the great advantage of

affording no lodgment for particles of uneaten food and dirt, a consideration

of the greatest moment in aquarium management, but it does not satisfy the

aesthetic sense and for this reason a rockwork background has been provided

in a number of the tanks. Each glass front consists of a plate glass sheet, one

inch in thickness, measuring 6'- 6" in length by 3 feet wide. The lower edge

and the ends are bedded against a cement-formed ledge in the masonry frame,

and after being caulked carefully with putty, an inner ledge of cement is

added on the inside of the tank, so forming with the one formed originally

on the outside, a deep groove within which the edge of the glass plate is

secured. The putty used is a mixture of red lead, white lead and litharge

powder amalgamated with boiled linseed oil by means of thorough pounding.

In fixing the glass in position, a thick bed of this putty, mingled with

oakum to give body, is placed in the half groove on the bottom and

tlie edge of the glass rested on this. The space up each end of the plate

is then filled in and only when this is set is the inner ledge of cement

placed in position. This latter must not come into contact with the

back surface of the glass; a space of ^th inch must be left, to be filled ultimately

with the special putty. The upper edge of the glass is held in position by an

ornamental wooden cross bar ; above this the space between the masonry

pillars, between the fronts of neighbouring tanks, is filled in with wooden Vene-

tians, with a door in the centre to permit access to the tank in an emergency.

The bottom of the tank is three feet from the floor, a height found to be very

satisfactory. The higher of the two barrier rails in front of each tank is 3'-6"

from the ground and this, at a distance of 2 feet 6 inches from the glass front

of the tank, has also proved to be the correct height.

The method of daylight illumination adopted is from overhead by means of a

large square of glass let into the centre of the roof tiling above each tank, the

roo ing being a continuation of that over one side of the outer span of the

aquarium hall. For evening illumination, electric light pendants are employed,

5 or 6 in each tank, with opal glass reflectors. When artificial lighting was

first introduced bracket lights were used ; these proved unreliable, for the

wiring was so subject to wetting and corrosion that short circuiting often occurred

624 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

and for this reason pendants were substituted as the wiring of these is far less

liable to damage.

The aeration of these tanks is dual, partly by the inflow of filtered sea-water

from a high level reservoir, partly by means of an air compressor delivering air

in a mist of tiny bubbles at the bottom of each tank. To obtain sufficiently

minute division of the air stream, it is delivered under pressure through filter

candles hung in the tanks. By this means, the water is kept so fully aerated

that it is possible to maintain a permanent state of overcrowding seldom if ever

found, even temporarily, in the open sea. Unfortunately it is not possible to

regulate this super-aeration to suit the varjfing constitutiona' idiosyncrasies of

every kind of fish. Some, in consequence, suffer from a disease that has

been appropriately called ‘ gas-eye.’ It arises from an excess of air finding its

way into the blood stream, by absorption through the gill-membranes ; the

outward sign of the disease is the partial protrusion of the eye-balls. Many of

the fish aff jjted ev^entually recover, and all do so quickly if transferred to ordinary

sea- water. A proportion die either directly from what appears to be a form of

asphj’xiation, or indirectly from the onslaught of the other fish in the tank, to

whom the sight of a protruding eye-ball is the signal for attack ; the eye-ball in

these cases is often plucked out and if the fish be small, it is often killed outright.

The larger ones after losing an eye not infrequently recover and this accounts

for the presence of quite a considerable number of the larger fishes in the tanks

being short of one eye. The air circulation is effected by means of a manual

air compressor which stores up compressed air in two cast iron cylinders,

whence an outflow is led through tubing to the various tanks. The table

aquaria successfully depend wholly on compressed air aeration, even in the

hottest weather.

The water circulation ai-rangements comprise three underground reservoirs

which may be named A, B and C at the rear of the aquarium, a gravel filter bed,

and a high level suppl}^ tank. A pipe from the sea margin conveys new sup-

plies of sea water when required to the median reservoir A, whence it is pumped

by hand into the filter ; from there it passes into the underground storage reser-

voir B used normally for filtered water only. From this supplies are again

pumped by a cooly into a high level iron tank, whence the water flows b}’ gravi-

tation, controlled by stop cocks, to the several aquarium tanks. The overflow

from these is at the surface, and flows back to storage reservoir C, to be pumped

by hand into the filter bed, in order to be freed from impurities before entering

again into circulation. Each tank is also provided with a clean-out pipe-exit

at the bottom, for use when the tank has to be emptied for an}' purpose. The

piping used is of galvanized iron, the stop cocks being of brass or gun metal.

In spite of considerable corrosion, the original piping is still serviceable.

The table tanks are of various types as the first patterns have been greatly

improved upon of recent years. The most useful form is one where the base is

composed of a single plank of teak (21 inches thick), carrying four stout up-

right grooved pillars at the corners, into which the four glass plates forming the

sides and ends are let. The grooving is puttied with the same material as

in the larger tanks, and as an additional waterproofing precaution, a thick

layer of asphaltum is poured hot over the wooden bottom on the inside. An

ornamental wooden beading finishes off the upper edge of the tank and supports

a protective cover-frame.

The floor tank has not been a success as it has been found impossible to light

it satisfactorily. Murrel and Gourami live well in it and the former have bred

there several times, the parents watchfully guarding the nest ; they resent actively

any prying into their domestic affairs on the part of visitors. The four rooms

at the front of the building comprise two store rooms, a pump room, where the

air compressor is located, and a curator’s room. At the rear of the building, an

additional laborato has recently been built, as the need for such a convenience

THE MADRAS AQUARIUM.

625

has long been urgently felt. The main hall and the principal side rooms are

furnished with electric ceiling fans, an improvement of recent date and one

greatly appreciated by visitors particularly on crowded days in the hot weather.

All the fishes exhibited have been obtained in the neighbouring sea, within

ten miles from Madras itself. Varied as is the collection, it comprises probably

not one-tenth of the species available in these waters. Many among the common

edible fishes, such as hilsa, mackerel and various sardines are too delicate to

stand handling and transport to the tanks. The local fishermen too are reluctant

to bring the better class of edible fishes, as they still entertain a belief that one

object of the Aquarium is to breed fishes and they fancy that if this be done,

there may be such a glut of fish that they will obtain but poor prices for their

catches ! Other classes of fishes are unattractive or too bulky to exhibit.

Fig. 1, — The Scorpion Fish (Pterois russelli).

Among the most showy fishes are the Scorpion-fish ( Pterois russelli ), the

Butterfly-fishes (various species of Choetodon and Holocanihus) and the Parrot-

fishes {Julis spp.). The first named are magnificently ornate creatures that

compel attention and admiration ; the pectoral fins have attained dimensions far

beyond anything requisite for swimming and must have some other reason —

probably that of warning, for this fish is endowed with virulently poisonous

spines in the dorsal fin. This fish’s movements are those of a mannequin on show

when it swims ; it sails along very slowly and gracefully, with a just perceptible

fluttering of the great butterfly-like fins ; it often halts for moments together

626 JOURXiL, BOMBAY NAT[IRA.L KlSf. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

as though asking for admiration and at timss will even slowly rotate that one

may view it from all points.

Fig. 2. — Wllow-tinned Balterfly-fish {f/enii'chux macrolepid‘itnx).

Another extremely pretty fish is the yellow-finned Butterfly-fish, Heniochus

macrolepidotus. Its bold black and white vertical banding and yellow fins

claim notice and admiration. The dorsal fin carries a long j'ellow streamer

often missing however, as it is too tempting to other fishes, which generally bite

it off. Like many other pretty creatures, it is of a vicious nature and is inclined

to play the bully towards the wounded or the sick.

Fig, ?. — The Common Sucker-fish {Echeneh naucrates).

Small specimens of the Tiger-shark remarkable for the beauty and intensity

of its black and white striping, are usually present in the tanks, living together

with such other notable sea-creatures as the Muraenid eels and the curious

sucker-fishes {Echeneis naucrates), often called ‘ Remora.’ These latter are

so named from the presence of a long sucker organ on the upper part of the

head, made up of a double row of transverse plates set in an oval frame. By

THE MADRAS AQUARIUM.

627

its help these fishes are able to attach to ships, whales and tvirtles, and so get

carried about without etfort on their jmrt. In some parts of the world this

habit has been utilized by fishermen in the pursuit of turtle, a sucker-fish with

one end of a strong cord tied to the tail being set free when a turtle is seen resting

on the surface of the sea. The Kemora instantly swims to the turtle, as being

a suitable object to affix to ; when attached, the fishermen haul in the line and

tvith it both turtle and sucker-fish. Columbus described this custom as prac-

tised by the Caribs. Though not now practised in the West Indies, it appears

to be in use on the African coast and by the ever ingenious Chinese.

A tank containing a large number of the Rosy-banded Snapper (Lutianus

sehce) is very popular, so beautiful are these fishes, banded dark crimson and

white. Like so many other fishes these snappers change colour on occasion.

When spoiling for a fight or struggling for food their colour bands gain greatly

in intensity, fading considerably when resting.

Fig. I. — The Yellow A.'igler (.luteminriti.t kit .■itiuit).

Other noteworthy fishes are the Yellow Anglers, Antennarius Mspidiis and

A. nummifer. The former is quite common at Madras, and some are always

present in the tanks. Like its well-known European relative, Lophius, (the

Fishing-frog), the first dorsal fin ray is modified into a miniature fishing-rod

with a fluffy white tassel at the end to represent the bait. It is a lumpy little

fish, yellow in colour with numerous dark stripes, possibly colour markings

that subserve a protective function. Its custom is to lie inert and motion-

less, flicking their tassel-bait nervously to and fro to the end that some in-

quisitive little fish may be attracted to enquire into what curious thing this may

be. If he come close enough, a great gape of mouth opens suddenly and the

little fish disappears. The feeding of these fishes always causes absorbed

interest on the part of visitors. They are so accustomed to have their

prey come to them and literally fall into their mouth that when feeding time

comes, their more active tank companions give them no chance to get food. So

the attendant has to transfix a morsel of fish on the end of a wire and dangle

it above the face of the fish, which generally snaps it up just as the attendant’s

patience is on the verge of exhaustion.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIL

The File-fishes {Balislidoe), the Spinetails {Acanthurns spp.) and the Puffers

(Tetrodontidm), form other attractive exhibits either because of the beauty of

their colouring or the curious form assumed. Small electric rays, (Narcine

indica and N. hrunnea), are generally present to give sharp little shocks to

visitors bold enough to handle them.

Both the two local Cichlid fishes, Etroplus suratensis and E. maculatiis,

remarkable for their adaptability to life either in salt or in fresh-water, are

represented in the collection. The former, which may appropriately be termed

the Pearl-spot, grows to a marketable size and has an excellent flavour ; it is

assuming considerable economic importance in Madras for these reasons in the

scheme now being put into force for the restocking of inland tanks with a better

class of fish. Both species have peculiar nest-building habits, their eggs being

adhesive and deposited on the under side of stones and logs in shallow waters.

The Pearl-spot breeds equally well in fresh and brackish water and is altogether

a remarkable and valuable species.

Fig. 5. — The FenA-spot (Etrnplus iurziemis).

Quite a number of the fishes have lived for many years in the aquarium tanks >

notably several sea-perches of the genus Serranus. Three of these have lived

in the aquarium between 10 and 11 years, having been brought in quite small,

soon after the building was opened. Their growth has been considerable and

now they must weigh from 20 to 25 lbs. each. They furnish living evidence

of the healthy conditions prevailing in the tanks for their condition is perfect

and any injuries received when fighting — they snap viciously at each other on

occasion — heal rapidly and completely.

Fig. 6. — A commoii Cat-fish (^Plotiisus caniiis').

THE MADRAS AQUARIUM.

629

Another old resident is a very large Cat-fish, Plotosus canius, that has a great

attraction for visitors because of his superlative ugliness. An allied genus,

Arius, is also often shown in the tanks and is perhaps even uglier than Plotosus ;

a point of interest in certain species of Arius is that the male has the curious

habit of receiving the eggs, as extruded by the female, into his mouth where

he retains them till the yoimg hatch out. As the eggs are particularly large,

about half an inch in diameter, the number that he can care for is limited. The

eggs completely fill his mouth, so the poor father has to abstain from feeding

till his family is born, and able to swim away.

Of fresh-water fishes, the nest-building murrel and gourami find a home in the

central floor pool, while a table tank accommodates examples of the curious

climbing jierch Anabas scandens, called in Tamil by a descriptive name that

translates into “ the Perch that climbs Palmyra palms ” ; in another are sho^vn

scores of the little fishes Haplochilus melanostigma and Panchax parvus, that

are now being bred in thousands by the Fisheries Department for the purpose

of destroying mosquito larvae in ponds and pools. These are supplied at low

rates to public bodies interested in combating the malaria scourge ; when

properly cared for, these fishes thrive and multiply prodigiously and subserve

this mosquito -larvae destrojdng purpose admirably.

One tank is given up to various species of sea-snakes abundant in the sea off

Madras. This exhibit has very great attraction for visitors, who look with awe

on these super-poisonous creatures, possessing venom several times more deadly

than that of the cobra. Actually they are most inoffensive creatures, except

towards fish on which they prey, or in the rare case of being trodden on by some

incautious foot. The attendants do not fear them nearly so much as they fear

the pretty harmless-looking Pterois russelli. And there are always a few small

sea-perches in the same tank that unconcernedly snatch fragments of meat

from amid the wi-ithing coils of these snakes at feeding time.

Little accommodation is available for other exhibits than fishes, but usually

some of the more curious crustaceans and molluscs of the district are represented.

Among the former are the spiny Crawfish (Pannlirus), various swimming crabs

such as the blue-limbed Neptunus pelagicus, the three spotted N. sanguinolentus,

and the strange little Dorippe dorsipes, camouflaging itself by holding a bivalve

shell over its back with the aid of the two last pairs of legs that have been modi-

fied specifically for this purpose. Of Molluscs, examples of the Sacred Conch,

Turbinella pirum, and various spiny Murices are often present, together with

small examples of the Octopus of a species caught in thousands by the fishermen

of Palk Bay in curious shell traps, tied in large numbers on long lines laid in

shallow water.

680

NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIID*-E

BY

Lieut. -Colonel C. G. Nurse.

{ With a plate.)

The publication of Brunetti’s Vol. I, Diptera Brachycera of the Fauna of

British India series has stimulated me to attempt the determination of some of

the Diptera I had collected while in India. My entomological energies during

the last part of my Indian service were devoted chiefly to Hj-inenoptera, but I

earefuUy preserved any conspicuous Diptera that I cams across, and thus

amassed a fair amount of material. Having recently come to reside in Lon-

don in close proximity to the Natural History Museum, I have had oppor-

tunities of comparing my specimens with those in the national collection, and

of access to the unrivalled library of the Museum. In working through the

Bombyliidce I found that I had taken representatives of several genera which had

not previously been recorded from India, and a considerable number of species

which are either undescribed, or have only been recorded from outside Indian

limits. I therefore decided to publish the result of my studies.

I have to acknowledge the kind help of Major E. E. Austen, D.S.O., who has

not only given me the benefit of his opinion from time to time, but has also placed

at my disposal his private copies of several pamphlets dealing with the Bomby-

liidce.

The present paper covers only the genera Litorrhynchus and Exoprosopa, but

I hope later on to work through the other genera of Bombyliidce as represented

in India.

Litorrhynchus, Macq.

This genus, of which the original spelling was Litorynchus, was erected in

1840 by Macquart to include certain species of Exoprosopa which have a more or

less rounded face, long proboscis, and peculiar wing pattern. Most subsequent

authors, including Brunetti in Vol. I, Diptera Brachycera, have sunk it as a

synonym of Exoprosopa. I follow Professor Bezzi (Tr. Ent. Soc., 1911, p. 629) in

keeping the two genera distinct, although one or two of what he regards as the

essential characters of the genus do not quite apply to the only two species known

from India. In these the proboscis, though considerably longer than the head,

is not twice as lonu, and the style is somewhat shorter than the 3rd antennal joint.

The two Indian species may be distinguished as follows : —

.Sides of 1st abdominal segment with white hairs . . . . lar. Fab.

.Sides of 1st abdominal segment with black haii'S . . . . collaris, Wied.

Brunetti sinks collaris as a synonj-m of lar, but I hold very strongly that

they are quite distinct. The wing band in collaris is darker than in lar, and its

outer border less rugged. The ground colour of the abdomen in collaris is black

and in lar rufous or rufescent. In lar there are white hairs near the apex of

abdomen, but these are absent in collaris. These difierences are not sexual, as

I have both sexes of collaris.

Both species appear to be widely spread in India ; Brunetti records them from

various localities, and I found both at Deesa and Jubbulpore. The pubescence

on the abdomen of most of my specimens of collaris is not at all rubbed, and the

hair at the sides of the 1st abdominal segment is pure black, though there are a

few white hairs on the thorax below the po.stalai calli.

The figure of the wing (fig. 3, plate III) given in Vol. I, Diptera Brachycera,

agrees better with collaris than with lar.

The two specimens now in the British Museum mentioned by Brunetti on p. 196

as having been obtained by Col. Yerbury in Ceylon, belong to two different

species, and should probably be assigned to Exoprosopa rather than to the

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Some Indian Bombyliid;e.

^Eir AAD LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOylBYLIlDjE.

631

present genus. The one labelled “ ? binotala Macq.” does not agree with

Macquart’s description of that species.

Exoprosopa, Macq.

This is a very rich and rather heterogeneous genus, as Professor Bezzi remarks

in Tr. Ent. Soc., 1911, p. 636. It will probably be split up eventually, and some

of the species at present included in it will have to go elsewhere. In working

out my specimens I was much puzzled by a species that occurs at Mount Abu,

which has the neuration of Exoprosopa, but the wing pattern of Thyridanthrax.

Looking over some insects which had recently been returned to the British

Museum by Professor Bezzi, I found that he had described it as a Thyridanthrax

from Africa, where it is widely spread. I also note that he now places Loew’s

Exoprosopa Iceta in Thyridanthrax, although he recorded it as an Exoprosopa in

Tr. Ent. Soc., 1911, p. 645.

When the Indian dipterous fauna becomes better known, the number of species

of Exoprosopa that occur in that country will certainly be increased by numerous

additions. There are,bothintheBritishMuseumand in my own collection, a number

of specimens which undoubtedly belong to undescribed species, but in most cases

they are in indifferent condition, and to describe new species frcm examples more

or less denuded of their pubescence is only to increase the difficulties of future

students of Diptera. As regards the generic characters Brunetti makes a slight

slip on p. 190 of Vol. I. His statement “ all tibiae without spinules ” should

read “ fore tibiae ^idthout spinules, ” as most of the species, if not all, have spinules

on the intermediate and posterior tibiae.

The following key to the species recorded from India is based as far as possible

on Brunetti’s table of species on pp. 190-192 of his work. It must not be taken

as dividing them according to their affinities, but it ought to assist a collector

to name his specimens, unless he obtains anything new to India. In preparing

the key I have relied on Brunetti’s descriptions as regards the following species

— flavipennis, otylata, puerula, annandalei, brahma, and vitrea. All the other

species are represented either in the British Museum or in my own collection.

Key to th£ Indian Species of Exoprosopa.

* This species sometimes has the 1st posterior cell open, and therefore appears

again below.

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Hind tibiae .with long and dense scales

Do. without long and dense scales

Sides of 1st abdominal segment with black hairs . .

Do. do. w'hite hairs . .

1st posterior ceU with an additional transverse vein

in its centre

Do. without an additional transverse

vein in its centre

2nd posterior cell twice as wide at base as at tip . .

Do. as wide at tip as at base or

wider

Larger ; 14-18 mm. ; sides of abdomen with black

hairs

Smaller ; 8-12 mm. ; sides of abdomen without black

hairs

Baso-anterior half of wing considerably darker than

the remainder

Basi-anterior half of wing not or scarcely darker

than the remainder . .

Dorsum of abdomen with white scale-spots

Do. -ttithout white scale- spots

Larger ; 14 mm. ; antennal style normal

11

12

pennipes, Wied.

pennata, n. sp.

evanescens. Beck.

13

14

15

lateralis, Brun.

gujaratica, n. sp.

16

21

17

18

maculiventris , Brun.

Smaller ; 8 mm. ; antennal style as long as 3rd joint stylata, Brun.

Clear part of wing without isolated dark spots

Do. with isolated dark spots . .

Abdominal ground colour, black or blackish

Abdominal ground colour, red or bro^vn . .

Baso-costal band flavous

Do.

not flavous . ,

puerala. Brim.

19

insnlata, Walk.

20

abrogata, n. sp.

alexon. Walk.

annandalei, Brun.

sp.

Wings more or less infuscated, though there is no dis-

tinct baso-costal band

Wings almost clear, though the marginal cell may

be darkened . .

22. Tip of wings hyaline . .

Do. not hyaline

23. Wings mainly tawny . .

Wings not at all tawny

24. Thorax and abdomen with iridescent blue scales

Do. white or grey scales

25. Cross veins more or less suffused

Do. quite clear

26. Scutellurr; and antennae, black

Do. reddish yellow or brown .

27. Antennae wholly black

Some joints of antennae red or ferruginous . .

28. Larger ; 15 mm. or more

Snialler ; 13 mm. or less

29. Thorax and abdomen wdth bright yellow hairs

Do. without bright yellow hairs

30. Antennal entirely brownish yellow . .

Do. only ferruginous at base .... .

(In order to assist entomologists working in India, I have given below abbre-

viated descriptions of any species now recorded from Indian limits whicti

have already been described, but which are not included is Vol. I of Piptera

Brachycera.

22

24

dissoluta,

23

auriplura. Walk.

abjecta, n. sp.

iridipennis, n. sp.

25

26

27

bengalensis, Macq.

brahma , Schin.

28

30

niveivetiiris, Brun.

29

vitrea, Brun.

punjabensis, n. sp.

vitreipennis, Brun.

hasifascia. Walk.

^'E W AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIIDM.

633

Exoprosopa tamerlan, Portachinsky.

Horae Soc. Entom. Ross, Vol. XXI, p. 185.

^ 9 Head, including antennae, thorax, and abdomen mainly or entirely

red, covered ■with rufous scales and rather sparse pubescence of similar colour ;

3rd abdominal segment bears a small spot of white scales on each Side, but this

is often obsolete or abraded ; legs mainly black, wings with a broad yellow bases

costal band, margined posteriorly by a brown band, the latter varying consider-

ably in width and intensity, apical and posterior margin hyaline ; 1st posterior

cell closed, the 4th vein meeting the 3rd nearly half way between the fork of the

latter and the wing border.

Length 18-21 mm.

This fine species is common at Quetta, where I obtained nine specimens which

agree well with Portschinsky’s description, and also vdth the figure given in

Becker’s Persische Dipteren.

Originally described from Mei v, and Becker records it from Persian Baluchistan.

Exoprosopa inter stilialis, n. sp.

. Head ; frons at level of antennae rather more than one-third the width

of head, not much narrowed at vertex ; upper mouth edge protruding, viewed

in profile fully half the short diameter of the eye ; vertex black, with short stiff

black hairs which extend nearly to the antennae, frons and face yellowish, covered

with yellowish grey scales, below which a black spot is visible just above the upper

mouth edge ; lower mouth edge very pale testaceous ; antennae brownish black,

1st and 2nd joints with stiff black haii-s, 3rd joint, excluding style, as long as the

first two combined, gradually tapering, with style | of its length; proboscis rather

long, blackish, palpi dark brown ; occiput blackish, with a fringe of white scales

along eye margins.

Thorax black, with a collar of pale yellowish grey scaly hairs, extending back

towards the wing bases; disc covered with yellowish grey scales, bristles at base

of ■wings and on postalar calli pale yellow ; mesopleurae with grey pubescence,

scutellun reddish brown, with scales similar to those on the thorax ; marginal

bristles pale.

Abdomen mainly brick red, but all the segments are more or less black at base;

disc with grey scales (partially denuded), and with a few short stiff hairs on apical

margins of segments, especially towards the sides, which are thickly covered with

greyish scaly hairs ; venter red, covered with grey scaly hairs.

Legs chiefly red ; coxae with long grey pubescence, f^ora and tibiae covered

with grey scales, tarsi bro^wnish, becoming nearly black towards apex ; inter-

mediate and posterior tibiae with black spinules.

Wings dark bro^vn, with a flavous tinge at base to beyond humeral cross vein ;

there is a very ill-defined oblique median darker band, and there are dark suffusions

on all the cross veins, but the following portions of the wing are sub-hyaline, viz.,

the greater portion of 2nd basal cell, base of anal cell, apical half of discal cell,

and most of the marginal and posterior cells ; in the apical fourth of wing the

discs of the cells are darker than in the immediate vicinity of the longitudinal

veins ; the first posterior cell is closed and long stalked, the 4th longitudinal

vein joining the 3rd at a right angle, and being interstitial with the cross vein

connecting 3rd longitudinal vein with the lower branch of the 2nd ; most of the

larger longitudinal nervures are reddish brown, the smaller ones appearing

darker ; base of costa with numerous but very short bristles, and some golden

yellow scales ; halteres pale yellow, fringe of alulae smoky.

Length 15 mm.

Described from a single specimen taken at Quetta in May. I cannot find

among published descriptions any species which combines wing markings as

described above with a closed 1st posterior cell.

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIl.

Exoprosopa fusccmotata, Becker.

Persische Dipteren., Ann. Mus. Zool. St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 566.

Head yellow or yellowish, antennse black ; thorax and scutellum blackish

brown, ■with yellow and white scales and yellow bristles. Abdomen blackish

brown, with white interrupted bands on the first four segments. Legs black ;

wings greyish, marginal cell yellowish brown ; a brown suffusion at the posterior

corner of discal cell ; 1st posterior cell closed at a right angle, and stalked.

Length lOJ mm.

The four specimens taken at Quetta agree well with Becker’s description.

Exoprosopa siva, n. sp.

d $ Head ; frons at level of antennae one-third the width of head, at vertex

about one-sixth in both sexes; black, covered with pale golden yellow scales and

black hairs, which are longest on the frons; occiput with short whitish pubescence :

antennae black, 3rd joint rather short, being not much longer than the style ;

1st and 2nd joints with black hairs, 3rd bare ; proboscis nearly twice as long

as head.

Thorax black ; pronotum and sides with rather long pale yellowish hairs, dor-

sum -with pale golden scales, bristles at base of wings and on postalar caUi black ;

underside of thorax black with black hairs ; scutellum black, with pale golden

scales and black bristles, some of the latter being very long.

Abdomen black; 1st segment with pale yellow hairs, 2nd with a narrow basal

band of similarlj" coloured scales, 4th and 7th segments ■with broad basal bands

of pure white scales ; venter black, sparsely clothed with greyish hairs and some

yellow scales.

Legs entirely black, with some pale scales on femora and tibiae.

Wings brownish grey, with an oblique blackish baso-costal band reaching the

tip of the 1st longitudinal vein, leaving the outer and posterior margins, including

most of the anal and axillary cells, clear ; on the clearer portion are the following

blackish spots or suffusions, viz., a spot near apex of upper branch of 3rd longi-

tudinal vein, one at the fork of this vein, and one on the cross vein which joins the

3rd and 4th longitudinal veins, one at the apex of discal cell, extending into 2nd

posterior cell, one smaller spot at lower margin of discal cell where it is joined by

5th longitudinal vein. The 1st posterior cell is closed a short distance before the

marghi.

Length 7-10 mm.

Described from four good specimens from Matheran. There is a similar speci-

men in the British Museum from Mahapur.

This species is quite distinct from insulaia Walk, to which it bears a superficial

lesejnblance ‘ (see remarks on that species below). It differs as follows ; the wings

are somewhat shorter, and the 1st posterior cell is closed, whereas it is open in

insulata. The latter species has apical bands of yellowish scales on the 3rd and

following segments, that on 4th being the most conspicuous, whereas siva has

broad basal bands of snow-white scales on 4th and 7th segments. The oblique

basocostal band is narrower in siva, and the spots are smaller and differently

placed.

Exoprosopa albida. Walker.

Five specimens from Deesa agree with the type and description of this species.

The shape of the 1st posterior cell is evidently variable ; in the tj*pe it is closed

and stalked ; one of my specimens agrees with the type, but in the others it is

closed just on or near the margin. It varies considerably in size, my largest

specimen measuring 16 mm., and the smallest 11 mm. This species is very doubt-

fuOy distinct from E. bagdadensis Wled, which Becker records from Persian Bal-

uchistan. The latter has the first two antennal joints testaceous, whereas

in aliida the basal joint only is of this colour.

NJ-:ir ASD LITTLE A'.YOir.V IXDIAN BOMBYLIIDM.

635

Exoprosopa abjecta, n. sp.

cl $ . Head ; frons at level of antennae about | the width of head, at vertex

rather more than half as wide as at antennae; blackish at vertex, reddish towards

antennae, becoming paler near mouth edge ; facial bump viewed in profile about

f the short diameter of the eye ; frons and face thickly covered with greyish white

scaly hairs, which are longer near antennae ; antennae daik red, 3rd joint more

or less darkened, gradually tapering, rather longer than the 1st and 2nd joints

taken together ; style about half the length of 3rd joint ; 1st joint with thick

greyish hairs, 2nd with short black bristly ones.

Thorax blackish, covered with gi'ey scales ; pronotum wth a collar of very pale

yellowish hairs ; thorax below and at the sides with rather long grey hairs ;

scutellum dark red, with grey scales; base of wings, postalar calli, and scutellum

with long yellow bristles.

Abdomen both above and below covered with short greyish scales ; 2nd seg-

ment above with a transverse apical band of dark brown scales, and 3rd segment

with indications of a similar band ; the ground colour of the abdomen is black,

but the sides and apical margins of all the segments are red.

Legs red, tarsi blackish ; femora and tibiae more or less covered with grey

scales, and with short black spinules on intermediate and hind legs.

Wings light bro ’.n, darker at extreme base ; an ill-defined oblique darker band

runs from the middle of the anterior margin to the anal cell ; the apical portion

of the 4th longitudinal vein is strongly curved, the 1st posterior cell being either

just open or closed on the margin (in one specimen closed and short stalked) ; all

the cross veins have darker suffusions ; in the apical portion of wing the longitud-

inal veins are lighter margined, leaving the middle of the cells darker ; the 2nd

posterior cell is slightly wider at apex than at base ; base of costa with yellowish

grey scales, mixed with short black bristles ; halteres yellowish white.

Length 9-12 mm.

Described from eight specimens obtained at Deesa in March and April.

The oblique median wing band varies considerably in intensity ; in some speci-

mens it is very noticeable, while in others it is scarcely darker than the rest of the

wing. The ground colour of the abdomen varies from mainly red to mainly

black. There appears to be little or no difference in the width of frons in

the sexes.

Exoprosopa penrvata, n. sp.

(S . Head with frons at antennae about J the width of head, at vertex about

J as vide as at antennae ; frons black; with short stiff black hairs and traces of

white scales; face black, covered with sin'ilar black hairs and a few white scales

near eye-margins ; antennae with 1st joint dark red, with stiff black hairs, 2nd

joint black, 3rd dark red, blackish at base, gradually tapering, with similarly

coloured style, which is about ^ the length of joint ; proboscis and palpi black at

base, becoming reddish at apex ; occiput with whitish scales near eye-margins.

Thorax black ; pronotum with a collar of greyish black hairs, dorsum covered

with iridescent blue scales; a patch of snow-white scales near base of wings, the

remainder of sides with stiff black hairs, mixed with a few grey ones; a few short

black bristles near wing-base, and similar longer ones on postalar calli ; scutellum

black, with traces of blue scales, and black marginal bristles. Abdomen black,

covered with iridescent blue scales ; 1st segment with a conspicuous patch of

snow-white scaly hairs on each side ; sides of the remaining segments with

shorter and stiffer black hairs ; venter with the basal white patches on Is*'

segment extended below, and traces of white scales on segments 2-5.

Legs black, fore tibiae and tarsi rufescent, intermediate tibiae with several

rows of moderately long spinules; a patch of white scaly hairs on posterior coxae;

the posterior femora at tip and the whole of the posterior tibiae covered with long

and dense browmish black scales.

9

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Tol.XXYIlI.

Wings blackish brown, hyaline at tip and along posterior margin, the pale

portion of wings limited by the tip of 2nd longitudinal vein and not quite reach

ing the apex of anal cell ; 1st posterior and anal cells open ; alula with a fringe

of whitish scales ; halteres brownish.

9 Similar ; frons a little wider.

Length 16-18 mm.

Described from 4 specimens in good condition from Quetta.

Nearest to E. pennipes Wied, from which it differs in the antennae being

mainly dark red, the patches of snow-white scales at sides of 1st abdominal

segment, and the more extended clear portion of the wing margin. The dark

portion of the wdng has in the present species a more brownish tinge than in

pennipes ; in one of my specimens there are somewhat lighter portions in the

2nd basal, discal, and anal cells.

The specimen from Karachi mentioned by Brunetti on p. 198 of Vol. I, Diptera

Brachycera, evidently belongs to this species.

Exoprosopa evanescens. Becker.

Pei-sische Dipteren, Ann. Mus. Zool. St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 559.

I have eight specimens from Quetta which exactly correspond with Becker’s

description.

Head, including 1st two antennal joints, scuteUum, apical portions of all ab-

donrinal segments, coxae, femora, and tibiae, red ; 3rd antennal joint, dorsum of

thorax, bases of abdominal segments, and tarsi, black or blackish. Head and

thorax covered with pale yellow scales, abdomen with grey scales. Wings lightly

infuscated, apical and posterior margins nearly clear, all cross veins darkened ;

the 1st posterior cell is crossed near its centre by a transverse vein ( “ mit ciner

iiberzahligen Querader ”). The latter character is uncommon in the genus

Exoprosopa, though it occm-s in E. singularis Macq., and a few other species.

In Becker’s type the 3rd antennal joint was broken off ; all my specimens have

this joint black, rather long and slender, with the style, w'hich is about ^ the length

of ioint, testaceous.

Exoprosopa gujaratica, n. sp.

^ Head dull red, with short greyish pubescence, intermixed on frons with short,

stiff, black hairs ; frons at vertex about the width of head, at antennae about

^ ; proboscis black ; 1st antennal joint j’^ellow, hairy ; second black at base, with

apex yellow ; 3rd black on blackish, style thick, about ^ the length of 3rd joint.

Thorax black above, rufescent below, with short but thick greyish-yellow

pubescence ; pronotum and sides with longer light yellow hairs ; bristles irear

base of wings and on postalar calli black ; scuteUum reddish brown towards

apex covered with pubescence similar to that on thorax, with black marginal

bristles.

Abdomen broadly blackish above, but red at sides and on apices of segments,

pubescence concolorous with that on thorax, no black hairs at sides or at apex.

Legs red; coxae, tips of fore femora and tibiae darkened, aU tarsi black ; femora

and tibiae sparsely covered with greyish scales ; intermediate tibiae and posterior

femora and tibiae mth the usual spinules.

Wings rather dark brown, with a narrow border, lighter but not hyaline, ex-

tending from the point where 1st longitudinal vein joins the costa rather

irregularly to the anal margin ; halteres yeUow.

9 Similar ; vertex slightly broader,

length 8-12 mm.

Described from six ^ and 2 9 9 from Deesa, all taken in October.

This species is nearest to E. lateralis Brun, from which it differs in its smaller

size, the absence of any black hairs on abdomen, and the extent of the lighter

margin of the wings. In the present species the lighter portion is much narrower

than in lateralis, amA less weU defined ; there is no lighter indentation running into

JSE TV AND LITTLE KA O WN INDIAN BOMB YLIID^.

637

discal cell. A series of both species seen side by side appear quite distinct. I

have lateralis from Mount Abu and Matheran, but did not obtain it at Deesa.

Exoprosopa insulata. Walk.

There are several Indian species with wing markings somewhat similar to

insulata. Walk., and I found four distinct species standing over that name in the

British Museum viz.,

(a) insulata ; two specimens, including the type, from ‘‘ East Indies ” — •

also a specimen from Assam.

(b) a specimen from Dehra Dun, not good enough to describe. It has a

pure white band at the base of 4th abdominal segment, and the 1st

posterior cell just open.

(c) Two specimens from Ceylon (Col. Yerbury), not in good condition.

These have the 1st posterior cell closed.

(d) A specimen from Madhapur, with the 1st posterior cell closed. This

agrees with my specimens from Matheran, which I have described

above as Exoprosopa siva.

Brunetti probably had two or more species before him when he wrote the

description of insulata on pp. 203-5 of Vol. I, Diptera Brachycera, though the

figure of the wing on Plate III corresponds well with Walker’s type, and with

my specimens. I therefore give below the points in which his description differs

from the type.

The proboscis does not project beyond the tip of antennae, but just beyond

the upper mouth edge, (in my E. siva the proboscis projects well beyond the tip

of antennae). I should describe the abdomen as follows : —

Ground colour black, covered mainly with black scales ; 1st segment with a

band of rather long yellowish brown erect hairs, 2nd segment with a complete

basal band of pale yellow scales, 3rd and following segments with apical bands

of similar but rather lighter scales, those on the 3rd and 4th segments the most

conspicuous and extending over the side margins, on the other segments these

bands are narrower and sometimes hardly noticeable ; the whole of the dorsal

surface of abdomen thinly covered with fine long black sinuous hairs ; venter

blackish, with black hairs, except on the 1st segment where the yellowish hairs

extend well over the sides.

The wings have the dark colouring extending over the basal half of the discal

cell, and the basal | of the anal and axillary cells, and the spots are situated as

follows : — One at the bifurcation of 2nd vein, being merely an extension of the

baso-costal band ; one right across the vein closing the apex of discal cell,

connected anteriorly with the dark portion of the wing ; free dark spots as follows :

two larger ones, one near apex of upper branch of 2nd longitudinal vein, and one

over cross vein connecting lower branch of same vein with 3rd longitudinal ;

two smaller spots towards apex of lower branch of 2nd longitudinal vein, and

one each near apex of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th veins, some of the latter being very

faint; both the 1st posterior and anal cells are widely open; the discal cell is

broad at apex, and has a small appendicular vein from its lower corner ; the lower

vein of 2nd posterior cell meets the discal cross vein just below the middle, and

has a slight appendix into discal cell ; halteres yellowish, base of the club dark.

I have nine specimens, including both sexes, from Simla, which exactly agree

with Walker’s type.

E. bengaUnsis is quite distinct, but I have not seen a specimen of brahma.

Exoprosopa abrogaia, n. sp.

Head ; frons at level of antennae ^ the width of head, at vertex about

half this width ; face and frons rufo-testaceous, covered with yellowish white

scales, with a few short blackish hairs ; antennae red, 1st and 2nd joints with a

few black hairs, 3rd joint rather short, gradually tapering,excluding style about 1|

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

times as long as 1st and 2nd together, style about § the length of the joint, thicker

at apex than at base ; facial bump rather prominent, viewed in profile about f the

short diameter of the eye ; proboscis rufo-testaceous ; occiput rather wide,

covered with greyish scales, the ground colour immediately behind the eyes

darker than the posterior margin.

Thorax blackish on disc, covered with greyish scales ; pronotum with a collar

of light yellow hairs ; scutellum dark red ; bristles on postalar calli and scutellum

yellowish. Abdomen both above and below light red, the segments more or less

blackish at base, covered with grey scales (partially denuded) ; 1st segment with

a tuft of light yellow hairs at each side.

Legs rufo-testaceous, with some indications of grey scales on femora and tibiae ;

all femora and tibiae with very short black spinules ; apical 2 or 3 joints of tarsi

darkened.

Wings with the anterior portion as far as the end of 1st longitudinal vein tawny

yellow ; all cross veins and the apex of discal cel) with dark tawny suffusions,

and there are similar but smaller suffusions near the apex of both branches of the

2nd longitudinal vein ; 1st posterior and anal cells open. The third posterior cell

is divided by a veinlet which runs towards the apex of discal cell (both my speci-

mens are alike in this respect, but it may be adventitious); base of costa with

greyish scales and short black bristly hairs ; halteres yellowish white.

Length 8 mm.

Described from two specimens obtained at Deesa in February.

Nearest to auriplura. Walk., but differs as follows : smaller, antennae red, not

black, 3rd joint much shorter than in auripium. In the latter species the whole

of the wings are tawny yellow ; in the present species the apical and posterior

margins are, except for the suffusions on the veins, almost hyaline.

Exoprosopa dissoluta, n. sp.

5 . Head ; frons at level of antennae about | the width of head, narrowing at

vertex to 5 the width at antennae ; face slightly convex, viewed in profile the upper

mouth edge, extends beyond the eye margin about half the short diameter of the

eye ; vertex and frons reddish brown, becoming paler towards antennae, below

which the whole face and mouth edge is pale testaceous ; frons with some short

stiff black hairs, and covered with pale yellow scales, which extend to the mouth

edge ; antennae with 1st joint red, with numerous short stiff black hairs, 2nd and

3rd joints bro^vn or blackish, 3rd gradually tapering, longer than the 1st and 2nd

together, style short ; proboscis black, palpi pale ; occiput rather broad, black

with some pale yellow scales, the indentation of the eyes with white scales;

occipital fringe short, whitish.

Thorax black, with portions of metapleurae and sternopleurae red ; pronotum

with a collar of pale yellowish scale like hairs ; disc covered with short yellowish

scales, among which are mixed a few short stiff black hairs ; patches of greyish

white scale-like hairs above and below bases of wings ; bristles near wing base and

on postalar calli black ; scutellum dark red, covered with scales like the thorax,

and with black marginal bristles.

Abdomen black, apical margins of segments narrowly reddish ; 1st segment

with a patch of greyish scale-like hairs at each side, 2nd and following segments

with basal bands of white scales, on the first three or four segments these bands

cover about half the segment, those on the apical segments being wider ; last two

segments fringed with black hairs ; venter almost entirely covered with short

greyish scales, which become yellower towards apex of abdomen.

Legs ; front coxse red, covered with long grey hairs and a few stiffer black ones ;

remainder of legs brownish or blackish, with small black spinules on inter-

mediate and hind femora and tibiae.

Wings ; base as far as humeral cross vein dark brown ; an irregular infuscated

band stretches from fore margin through discal cell and apex of anal cell,becoming

NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMDYLIID^.

639

narrower posteriorly, and hardly reaching hind margin of wing ; the infusca-

tion is more pronounced round all the cross veins ; the discal cell has a small

sub-hyaline spot near base, and another larger one near apex ; 1st posterior

and anal cells open ; base of costa with some whitish scales and short black

bristles ; halteres pale.

$ Similar, except as follows : frons slightly narrower, covered with snow-white

scales ; st3de of antennae longer, red ; occiput narrower ; abdomen red, 1st and

2nd segments wdth broad basal triangular patches black ; genitalia fringed with

soft red hairs.

Length 13-14 mm.

Described from 1 $ and 5 9 9 from Quetta, mostly in good condition. The

(S however has the abdomen somewhat denuded and has lost one wing.

This is very near to E. undans. Walk., of which the locality is unknown. It

differs as follows : the bands of white scales on the abdomen are broader in the

present species, and more distinct ; the ground colour of the abdomen is darker,

at any rate in the 9 ; the neuration is similar, except that undans has a slight

appendicular vein from lower corner of discal cell. The wing markings in the

present species are very similar to those in undans, but they are darker, and all

my specimens have the cross vein connecting the lower branch of the 2nd longi-

tudinal vein with the 3rd infuscated, whereas this ocin is clear in undans. The

type and only specimen of undans is headless, so comparison as regards the

head is possible.

Both Major Austen and Mr.CoUin, who happened to be at the British Museum

when I was comparing my specimens with Walker’s type of undans, consider

the present species distinct, otherwise I should have hesitated to describe it.

Exoprosopa iridipenn'S, n. sp.

$ Head with the eyes almost touching at vertex, but the frons at level of

antennae quite ^ the width of head ; frons and face nearly to upper mouth edge

black, becoming much lighter at mouth edge ; frons with thick black pubescence

down to the antennae, and some purple scales both above and below antennae ;

proboscis rather long, blackish ; palpi thin, covered with bristle-like hairs ;

antennae black, 1st and 2nd joints thickly covered with long black hairs, 3rd

joint bare, tapering, style about half as long as joint, with a minute terminal

bristle ; occiput with short greyish pubescence, and some purple scales.

Thorax black ; pronotum and sides thickly covered with rather long bright

golden hairs ; dorsum covered with iridescent purplish blue, scales, and with

patches of snow-white scaly hairs near wing base ; below there are patches of

similar hairs on the sternopleurae, no conspicuous bristles at base of wings

pr on postalar calli ; scutellum brownish, with some purple scales at base, and

numerous rather short black bristles along its apical margin.

Abdomen black, covered with highly iridescent purple-blue scales ; 1st segment

with a patch of whitish hairs at sides ; 3rd segment with a large oval patch of

snow-white depressed scales on each side, extending over the side margins, and

indications of a much smaller patch of similar scales on extreme sides of 6th seg-

ment ; remainder of the pubescence black, except that there is on the posterior

margins of the last two segments an admixture of scaly white hairs ; venter with

the ground colour black ; 2nd segment with a triangular patch of snow-white

scales, the apex of the triangle being at apical margin ; 3rd segment almost en-

tirely covered by similar scales, 4th with similar scales at apex ; the black part

of the venter is, like the dorsal portion of abdomen, covered with iridescent

purple blue scales.

Legs black ; all coxae covered with rather long greyish pubescence ; intermediate

and posterior femora and tibiae with very short spinules.

Wings hyaline and highly iridescent ; yellowish at base and in costal and sub-

costal cells; base of costa and all the nervures testaceous ; costa at base with very

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

sliort black bristly hairs mixed with white scales ; squamse whitish, with moder-

ately long white fringe ; halteres yellow ; the 1st posterior cell is unusually wide

at apex.

9 . Similar ; the distance between the eyes at vertex about ^ the width of

head ; the white scales on abdomen, both above and below, less apparent,

piossibly because the specimen is somewhat rubbed.

Length 13-14 mm.

Deesa ; one specimen of each sex.

This belongs to the group of E. hetrusca Fab., and is nearest to E. vitreicosia.

Walk., described from a headless type in poor condition. The present species

is considerably larger, and the colour of the iridescent scales on the black portion

is bluish-purple ; in vitreicosta they are distinctly of a bronzy black ; the tvpe

of vitreicosta has hardly indications of white scales on the abdomen.

Exoprosopa punjabensis, n. sp.

(J. Head; frons at level of antennse about ^the width of head, lessening to j of

that width at vertex ; black above, paler below, almost white along mouth edges ;

frons covered with yellowish white scales, mixed with short black hairs; face with

yellowish white scales ; facial bump rather small, about J the short diameter of

the eye ; antennae black, 1st and 2nd joints with black hairs, 3rd gradually taper-

ing, longer than the 1st and 2nd together, style short; occiput rather broad, with

snow-white scales.

Thorax black ; pronotum with a collar of greyish hairs ; dorsum covered with

long yellowish grey scales ; sides and below with long white hairs ; seutcllum

with long yellowish grey scales ; bristles at base of wings, on postalar calli, and

on margin of scutellum black.

Abdomen black ; 1st segment and the’ bases of the remaining segments thickly

covered with yellowish grey scales ; apical margins of all the segments except

the first covered with black scales, which are mixed with longer black hairs on

the last two segments; venter with the apical margins of segments broadly

covered with long white scaly hairs; sides of 1st and 2nd segments with rather

long grey hairs ; genitalia reddish.

Legs black ; femora with grey scales.

Wings rather short, hyaline and iridescent ; base and costal margin very pale

yellowish ; all the nervures testaceous ; 1st posterior and anal cells wide open,

2nd posterior cell rather wider at apex than at base; base of costa with yellowish

grey scales, mixed with short black bristly hairs ; halteres very pale testaceous.

Length 10-12 mm.

Described from 3 specimens from Ferozepore, Punjab.

Very near E. vitrea. Big., but there are no bright yellow hairs on either thorax

or abdomen in the present species, and all the abdominal segments except the

first have entire black apical bands; from viteipennis, Brun., it differs in the

antennae being black, and all the wing veins testaceous.

This species, with its banded abdomen, bears a strong superficial resemblance

to one or two small species of Andrena which occur in the same locality. Whe’n

I captured my specimens I was chiefly interested in Hymenoptera, and thought

I had caught bees until I examined them.

Exoprosopa auriplura. Walk.

By a misprint on page 212. Diptera Brachycera, Vol. I, this name is given

as auriplena.

Exoprosopa basifascia, Walk.

E. semilvcida, Walk., should be sunk as a synonym of this species. The

types of both are in the British Museum, and I can see no difference between

them, not in Walker’s descriptions.

KEW AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIID^E.

641

Exoprosopa disrupta. Walk.

Entomologist, 1871, p. 261.

There is a specimen of this species in the B. M., labelled “ Ind.” My own

specimens are from Lahej near Aden, and it i-eqnires confirmation as Indian.

The following abridged description should enable the species to be recognised.

^ 9 . Black ; lower part of frons, antennae, and mouth edge red ; face and frons

with short black hairs and white scales ; occiput with sparse white scales ; pro-

notal collar pale yellow, dorsum of thorax with yellowish white scales, sides with

longer grey scales ; scuteUum and abdomen more or less covered with grey scales,

forming bands (often denuded) at the base of abdominal segments, which bands

are usually most conspicuous on the 3rd and 5th segments; abdomen of the ^ more

or less dark red ; femora and tibiae reddish ; wings with dark baso-costal bands

and all the veins, but more espeeially the cross veins, broadly suffused.

Length 8-13 mm.

(to be continued.)

64-'

THE SXARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SVTDER[NEPHILA MACULATA)

BY

Captain R. W. G. Hingston, I.M.S.

PART I.

{With 2 text figures).

Some of my earliest observations in natural science were given to tbe won-

derful work of the spiders that weave geometrical snares. It was in a beauti-

ful and secluded valley of the Himalaya, and the spider which disclosed the

secrets of the architecture was the humble and insignificant species, the Araneus

nauticiis.*

Eight years have passed since these investigations were made, and many a

time have I reviewed the work and followed the stages of the architecture again.

Often of an evening, when chance has offered, I have watched the exquisite

fabric assume its geometrical beauty and shape ; I have noticed how the different

species possesses each its own special peculiarities and ways, yet for a long time

I met with none which made any wide or important deviation from the main

principles originally observed. But fortune in the end will always favour those

who watch and wait. At length the time arrived when another of the Epeiridae

displayed her workmanship, and revealed a succession of varied secrets that

satisfied my highest hojres.

■ Giant Wood Spider {N. maculata).

(From the Fauna of British India ( Arachnida).

The species is none other than the Nephila maculata ; in this vast country

the most handsome and most powerful of its kind.

How very different from the insignificant Araneus is this great conspicuous

giant of the woods. The Araneus is a small and globular spider, a little brown

species with stumpy legs, only one quarter to one half an inch in length. The

Nephila is an elongated monster, variegated in brilliant colour, with long and

slender limbs and four to six times as large. Equally wide is the difference

between their snares. Both are of the same geometrical pattern ; but that of

the Araneus is a fragile structure, on an average some ten to twelve inches

in width; while the Nephila spreads out a strong sheet of silk with a diameter of

five feet. I found the Araneus over the streams and pools that nestle amidst

the rocky glens. I come on the Nephila inmove gloomy haunts. She is a

resident of the dense and leafy jungle, a true inhabitant of the woods.

I must briefly describe the splendid architect herself. It is of course the

female which is responsible for the work. In front her head and thorax are welded

* The architecture has been fully described in “ A Naturalist in Himalaya.”

THE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER.

643

into a quadrangular mass. It is clothed above in a pale yellow velvet, and armed

in front with a pair of black massive jaws. Alongside the jaws are th? hairy

palpi. Each is bright yellow in its proximal half, while the remainder is a

dense black. Behind the thorax is the ponderous abdomen shaped like a

truncated cone. The base is in front, vertical and abrupt, and connected with

the thorax by a narrow moveable hinge. Behind it terminates in a blunt

round point, and beneath the tip is a reddish prominence which supports the

compact cluster of the spinnerets. The abdomen is strikingly decorated with

a pattern of spots and lines. Its general colour is a dense black reliev^ed be-

neath bj' a reddish tinge and a diversity of yellow spots. On either side of the

cone the markings are more delicately laid. They consists of five longitud-

inal streaks of pale yellowish wavy lines. On its upper surface the abdomen

is more vividly adorned. A pair of bright longitudinal orange bands traverses

it throughout its length, while in front are three broad transverse stripes of which

two are brilhant orange and the intermediate one is black. The legs

are extraordinarily long and slender, the fore leg being no less than three inches

in length. All are black in colour with a yellow spot beneath the joints. They

are clothed in delicate hairs and spines, and terminate in minute claws. Such

is the largest of our Indian spiders. It has a span of six and a half inches,

and its body is one and a half inches in length.

The magnificent snare of this great spider can be spun only in some

special site. In diameter it is almost the height of a man ; and consequently a

clear wide space is necessary for the expansion of so immense a net. The spi-

der knows well the most suitable place. It spreads it across

some open clearing between the branches of the forest trees. It often selects a

pathway or a shady water course, or it finds a tunnel in the tangled growth where

the insects pass to and fro. Frequently it secures it above to the branches, and

anchors it below by silken filaments to the low-lying foliage on the ground. It

is only in these secluded spots that we find this marvellous sheet. There is no

W’ork of architecture more worthy of our note. It is so delicate,

so beautiful, so immense ; it has such a wonderful appearance of exactitude

and of geometrical precision in all its parts. It is like a great transparent

wheel, spread out as an invisible barrier and stretched tight between the forest

trees.

Given the favourable opportunity, we can witness no more fascinating work

than the great Nephila at the architecture of her snare. She teaches us many

detailed truths which the little Araneus could never show. She is of such

size and bulk that all her complex movements are magnified to a much larger

scale. Moreover she is so deliberate in every motion ; she performs every act

so slowly, so decidedly and with such a movement of determination and precision

that it is easy to follow the geometrical principles that underlie the intricate

architecture of the snare. She thus yields more to observation than does

the small and hasty Araneus, and I will endeavour to tell the additional facts

she has disclosed.

Though permitting of close observation, nev'ertheless she is timid and shy.

At the slightest touch on her snare she immediately dashes away to the margin,

and waits there till the danger has passed. She will work only in quietness and

solitude and under cover of the darkness of night. It needs much patience and a

quiet search to see this architect at her toil. None hav'e tried my patience

higher ; none have rewarded it more.

I now turn to the workmanship, and I ask the reader’s permission to repeat

what I have elsewhere described. I must state again the essential features in

the construction of the ordinary geometrical snare, for, unless the normal pro-

cess is borne in mind, it will not be possible to realize the new lessons which

the Nephila has to tell. Let us therefore first consider the ordinary geometrical

snare. It is fashioned in this way.

10

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NXVIIl.

The hour of work is at hand, and the spider is isolated on a blade of grass stand-

ing in a narrow stream. “ The first essentials are some foundation lines to serve

as a framework for the snare. The spider begins. It climbs to the tip of the

blade of grass ; it elevates its abdomen and from the spinnerets emits a silken

filament to the vdnd. The light filament is wafted to the shore, becomes entang-

led in another blade of grass, and the first foundation-line is in place. Backwards

and forwards runs the spider along its line, adding each time a new filament,

doubling, trebling, quadrupling the line until it is strong and sound. The first

foundation-line is secure. For the second foundation-line the spider adopts a

different procedure. It takes its stand about midway on the first line and sud-

denly drops down suspended on a filament of silk. Perhaps it finds an attach-

ment. If not, it climbs up again and drops down from another point. At length

it meets a blade of grass and anchors its second line. By joining these points

together with a filament of silk a triangle is formed of three foundation-lines, the

simplest form of framework to support a geometrical snare. The spider

reinforces these lines with additional filaments until it is satisfied with the strength

of the scaffold. This is the first and elemental stage ; the construction of the

foundation-lines.

I now come to the second step in the architectme. A triangular framework

is in position or if suitable connections can be found, a trapezoid figure is more

to the spider’s choice. Whatever its shape, the spider next proceeds to construct

the radii. These are the spokes of a wheel that diverge from a common centre

to end at the foundation-lines. The spider constructs them with little trouble.

It first runs a fine from side to side across the framework. Then, selecting a

point on that line which will be the future centre of the snare, it carries a number

of lines from that central point to the circumference of the snare. In this way

it completes a series of radii, each equidistant from its adjoining radius. Each

radius is in accurate position ; all diverge equally from the common point.

The second stage is mathematicallj’’ complete.

Now comes the third stage, the construction of a hub. The snare in its

present state resembles a wheel. It has a centre, radiating spokes, and a rim

formed of its foundation-lines. The spokes need some strengthening at the

point where they leave the centre, the wheel requires a hub. This the spider

proceeds to make. It winds five turns of a slender filament around and close

to the central point, attaching the filament to every spoke. A hub is thus added

to the wheel ; the spokes are bound together at their inner ends and the third

stage is complete.

The fourth step in the work is the formation of a temporary spiral. This adds

a further strength to the snare, holding the radii still more firmly m place. The

.spider takes four turns round the hub, stepping from radius to radius and attach-

ing the filament every time it passes a spoke. A spiral of four turns, like the hair-

spring of a watch, is thus wound about the centre. All the turns are parallel,

all accurately placed. The work is perfect and precise. This is the fourth

stage in the architecture, the construction of the temporary spiral.

The spider now reaches the fifth and most important step in its work, the

formation of the viscid spiral. It proceeds to the outer margin of its snare

close to where a radius joins a foundgttion-liiiP. It now commences to wind

another and much longer spiral round and round the snare, commencing at the

circumference, working towards the centre and attachmg the spual at every

spoke. To pass from radius to radius it uses the temporary spiral as a bridge.

Now this viscid spiral is the vhai element of the snare. It is continuous in

closely parallel lines from the circumference to the very centre. It is covered

with a highly viscid fluid, while all the other lines, the radii, the hub, the

temporary spiral are non -adherent to the touch. It is that part of the fabric

that has the power of capture. The formation of the viscid spiral is a laborious

task ; it occupies the spider more time than all the rest of the snare. It is a fir e

THE SKATE 01 THE GIAKT WOOD SPIDER.

645

and subtle filament, often continuous from end to end. Every line is parallel,

and the whole is a wonderful work of mathematical beauty and precision. The

spider at length completes its viscid spiral. It anchors the end close to the

centre, and the snare is finished.

Fig. 1 Diagram of the parts of a Geometrical Snare.

(а) Centre. (d) Radius.

(б) Hub. (e) Viscid sjjiral.

(c) Temporaiy spiral. (/) Foundation line.

Such is the construction of the geometrical snare, a work of the most marvel

ous texture. There are five successive stages in its architecture (see Fig. L).

1. The foundation-lines.

2. The radii.

3. The hub.

4. The temporary spiral.

5. The viscid spiral.”

Bearing these main principles in mind , let us now inspect the work of the

Nephila; let us see how she varies from the common mode of workmanship,

let us consider the additional lessons which I find she is able to teach.

Armed with patieiice and a lantern, we move out into the jvmgle by night.

We pass to some dark secluded spot chosen by the spider for her snare. Ear-

lier m the morning we cut away the structure leaving a few foundation-lines

in place. All day long the Nephila has been hanging to a broken thread. She

will not think of work until some hours after the sun has set. We sit doivn with

the light near the fragments of the old snare. We prepare for a long and

patient wait. In all likelihood it will end in failure ; for the Nephila will often

resent our interference ; if so, then she will scramble away into the foliage and

seek for some more welcome nook elsewhere. But we wait in the hope that she

will reconstruct her architecture in the place where we have cut it away.

The weary hours drag on the lamp flickers at our side ; later the moon sheds a

faint gleam of light, and we are filled with a sense of solitude and wonder,

a veneration for the great unknown. We hear the chuckles and the hootings of

the birds of night, the trumpet of the sambhar, the growl of the leopard, the

roar of the king of Indian jungles that reverberates through the peaceful woods.

We see the ghostly shapes of the forest trees, the deep dark spaces beneath their

dripping boughs, and we feel the awe-inspuing influence of nature in the dark

and lonely silence of the night. But we must watch and wait alone. None

would join us m a midnight sitting merely to contemplate a spider at her work.

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

We persist. At length we are rewarded ; the Nephila begins to move. She

at last takes up the first thread of her wonderful work. Let us follow the suc-

cessive stages of her architecture and observe what she has to show.

She thoroughly explores the vicinity, wandering about the branches, searching

everywhere with her long legs until in the end she satisfies herself that the place

is suitable for work. Then she begins at her old foundation-lines, strengthening

and repairing the injured framework so as to make it suitable to enclose the

snare. She hangs back-dowmward from her lines ; she climbs backwards and

forwards along them ; she doubles, trebles, and still further reinforces them

until they are sufficiently firm and strong. With her slender limbs she sweeps

the air as she slowly climbs along her threads. In this way she searches for

suitable attachments. The act is very deliberate and precise. First she sus-

pends herself by the legs of the right side and with the left ones she sweeps the

air. Then she reverses the process. The left legs become the organs of suspen-

sion and those on the right side commence to explore.

We can learn a few little facts even in this early stage. We can observe that

the spider’s non-viscid thread, though apparently only a single filament, is

really composed of a number of strands fused into one line. Owing to the large

size of the spider we are able to detect this. The cluster of three, or perhaps

four, filaments can be seen to emerge from the spinnerets, and to blend into a

single thread about an inch or less away. Sometimes they will remain for a

distance of two or three inches as separate and independent lines.

Another little point that we cannot but observe is the mode of fixation of the

line. It is by no means just a simple touch with the spinnerets. This great

spider shows us that it is a very definite and decided act. The spinnerets are

first pressed against the point of anchorage, then the abdomen is rocked firmly

from side to side ; a small quantity of viscid matter is squeezed out from the

spinnerets, and this glues the non-viscid line in place. We inspect carefully

the point of fixation and we see a tiny white flake of glutinous material; it is

the substance by means of which the attachment has been made.

A third fact easy to corroborate is that on all occasions a strain is necessary

in order to draw the filament from the spinnerets. The spider has no power

to emit it by muscular force. Indeed, on occasions, she may sometimes move

a little backwards, and then the filament hangs loose owing to the loss of the

external strain. The line is always drawn from the belly of the spider by some

traction from the outside. She is incapable either of drawing in or of shooting

forth her own slender thread.

We now come to the next act in the architecture, namely the drop which

the spider makes in order to fix her first vertical line. She falls, seeking an

attachment below, and allows herself to swing at the end of her almost invisible

thread. But the point to be observed is this. The spider does not swing in

such a way as to permit a strain on her spinnerets. Indeed such a mode of sus-

pension would be impossible. It would result in the line continually running

out. The spider prevents this by stretching up one hind leg and hooking the

terminal claws over the suspension line. The claws there act as a check ; it

is they which take the weight and strain, and they prevent the suspension

line from running free from the spinnerets. Nor are the other legs idle while

the spider is swinging from her line. She spreads them wide apart ; they grope

around and search the air. They are waved about in all directions, and, since

they cover an expanse of over six inches in diameter, they supply the spider

with an excellent means of finding a point for the fixation of her thread. Should

the spider fail to secure an attachment, she will again climb up her line. Her

mode of ascent is thus. She has been swinging head downwards holding her

filament with a hind claw. She now turns about. She ascends by a hand over

hand motion, employing the claws of all the three front pairs of legs to haul

her up the thread. But the ascent is a wasteful mechanism for the spider, the

THE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER.

647

slack line which is drawn down cannot again be absorbed into the spinnerets

and is thus permanently lost.

As was observed in the case of the foundation-lines, so also is the single filament

of suspension formed by the fusion of a number of threads. They can be seen

escaping in a delicate cluster from the very front of the spinnerets. Now occa-

sionally, while the Nephila is suspended in the air, she gives forth another filament

which she permits to float away upon the breeze. She has failed to find an at-

tachment with her long and raking limbs, and now she begins to search the

air by the aid of an extensive line. But let us observe the act in a little detail.

We will first detect the fact that the line given to the wind escapes from the

posterior spinnerets, while the suspension line emerges from those in front.

Excellent arrangement. The line given to the wind must float away behind

the spider. Did it not come from the hindmost spinnerets then it would get

entangled in the suspension line. But there is another point. The flotation line,

that is the one given to the wind, is, like the suspension line, not a single but a

complex thread. Yet its composition is the exact reverse of the suspension

line. It emerges as a single filament and ends in a cluster of threads. This

terminal brush is the aerial support which permits it to float freely on the breeze.

This little fact I have elsewhere described. The new point revealed by the

Nephila is that the spider can emit at the same moment two lines constructed

on a reverse plan. The one is from the front of her spinning wheel ; it is a fixed

suspension line composed of a cluster of strands which fuse into a single thread.

The other escapes from the hindmost spinnerets ; it is a free flotation line con-

sisting of a single filament which terminates in a sheaf of threads. What a

wonderful and efficient spinning apparatus to produce such diverse work as this !

I pass now to the next stage in the architecture, the method by which the radii

are distributed through the snare. Remember first the work of the Araneus.

She spreads abroad her radiating spokes, about twenty in a moderate snare.

They are all equidistant; they all diverge evenly from a common centre ; they

form a perfect and symmetrical wheel. Now let us follow the Nephila, and see

how she varies from the common plan. Like the Araneus she lays her radii

haphazard ; a few on one side, then a few on the other, without working on any

apparent scheme. The Araneus fixee her radii in this manner. She climbs

out along one radius paying out her tilawent behind her ; she reaches the found-

ation-line ; she takes four paces along that line there she halts, draws tight her

filament, secures it to the foundation line , and her radius is in place. She then

climbs back along this new radius, anchors her thread at the centre, and thus

duplicates her spoke. Now, in what way does the Nephila act ? She also climbs

out from the centre to the circumference, but in the first half of the journey

she clings to a pair of radii; then she drops one of the two, and in the same way

as the Araneus continues her climb to the end. An essential difference now

occurs. She does not, like the Araneus, move forward four paces, fix her line,

and then climb back again along it. She advances a distance of one inch, anchors

her filament, and the radius is in place. But she does not halt here and return

to the centre. She makes a second advance over an equal distance. Then she

again fixes a line. This done, she climbs back along an adjoining radius, and at

its inner end she attaches her thread. Thus, as a result of the return journey, a

second radius in in place. This is therefore a very different mechanism from

that employed in the ordinary snare. The Araneus at each journey to and

from the centre lays out only one radius, but, since she climbs back along her

new spoke, she manufactures it of double strength. The Nephila in the same

journey constructs two radii, but since she returns along an adjoining radius,

therefore each consists of only a single line.

Now for another difference. All the radii in the snare of the Araneus diverge

evenly from the centre in the same way as a series of spokes radiate from the

hub of a wheel. It is otherwise in the architecture of the Nephila. She supplies

6i8 JOURNAL, BOMB AY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXVIII.

her snare with a system of branching spokes. All her radii are not, as in the

snare of the Araneus, clear straight lines undivided from end to end. On the

contrary, many of them after a greater or less distance break into two, and thus

reach the circumference as a pair of spokes. Let us investigate how this is done.

The NepMla, unlike the Araneus, does not first complete her radii before com-

mencing at her temporary spiral. Both stages occupy her at the same time.

Now she lays out a few radii, now she takes a few turns at the spiral, then she

resumes the radii again. Furthermore, while constructing her radii, she does

not work from the centre, but rather from the last turn of the temporary spiral

which she has laid down. If this statement is clear, then it should be obvious

that, on the spider’s return journey after fixing one end of the second radius

at the circumference, she does not continue all the way to the centre, but halts

at the outermost turn of the temporary spiral and there anchors her thread.

Thus at the point where the radius and the temporary spiral meet there the

radius will appear to divide. As a consequence of this peculiar mechanism

the radii are seen to branch in all parts of the snare. Some divide near the

centre, others near the circumference, and the point of division is always where

a radius and a spiral meet. Thus we cannot count the number of the radii,

at least the number will be much less near the centre than near the circumference

of the snare. An idea of this branching wiU be gained by making the circular

count. An inch from the centre they number 28 ; four inches from the centre

they are 80, and at the circumference 112. Indeed it is clear that, in a strict

sense, they are not radii or spokes at all.

I pass now to explain why these peculiarities exist, since there is always a

good reason for everything we see. The great increase in the number of the

radii depends of course on the immensity of the snare. They are the scaffolding

of the architecture and must support it at every point. Twenty are sufficient

for the little web of the Araneus ; over a himdred are required for the Nephila's

sheet. Moreover the radii are much closer together than they are in

the ordinary snare. This likewise depends on the vast area of the sheet. Com-

pare it with a mechanical wheel. A small wheel can be made with only a few

and widely-separated spokes ; they are sufficient to give it rigidity and strength.

But increase the circiunference, and many more must be provided, and they

must not be far apart. The rim must be supported at many and closely-con

nected points, otherwise the structure will coUapse. The mechanism is essen-

tially the same in our comparison between the two snares.

At each journey the Nephila completes two radii, while the Araneus manu-

factures only one. This deviation has a value ; it makes for economy in the

architecture, an economy not only in time, but, since each radius is a single

thread, an economy also in the expenditure of silk. The saving of time must be

of some importance, since the laying of the radii is a tedious work, and a much

more prolonged operation than in the case of the ordinary snare. So also is it

a service to the spider not to waste her precious silk, especially in so immense

a snare which contains such a multitude of lines. Possibly the strength of

the architecture is diminished by the confinement of each radius to a single

thread. But compensation is made for this by the great increase in the

number of the spokes.

The emplojTuent of branched instead of unbroken radii is another ingenious

method of securing economy in material and of adapting the system of radiat-

ing spokes to the extensive area of the snare. Indeed, without the adoption of

some such mechanism, it would, I think, be quite impossible for the spider to

extend so wide a sheet. She may be an inimitable architect. But it is beyond

even her constructive powers to lay out over a hundred lines that diverge

equally from a common point. At the point of divergence they would be so

massed and crowded that the spider would be utterly unable to manipulate

the individual threads. She could never separately distinguish them nor

THE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER.

649

distribute them evenly over the surface of her snare. Furthermore she would

waste her material by collecting so large a number of radii all at one central

point. She would only urmecessarily overburden that portion of her archi-

tecture by placing there an excessive number of radii where a few would give

sufficient strength. By making use of a branching system she obviates these

defects. She adapts her architecture to the immensity of her snare. She

simplifies her work ; she saves her material ; she more evenly distributes the

strength of her scaffold ; she economizes her valuable time.

The next point that needs consideration is the method by which the Nephila

measures the distance between her spokes. For only by some geometrical

operation could she produce so exact a work. The Araneus, I have said, per-

forms the act in this way. She climbs out along a radius; she reaches the foun-

dation-line; she takes four paces along it; and then affixes her thread. It is

by the advance of four paces that she measures the interval between her spokes.

By keeping strictly to this number she spreads her radii evenly through her

snare.

Now this method ^vill not suit the Nephila. If she made four paces between

each pair of radii, then her spokes would be very widely spread, while it is

essential that they should lie not far apart in order to support so large a wheel.

She must adopt some other method, and this is how she gains her end. She

moves out along the radius ; she reaches the foundation-line ; she advances

along it. So far it is the same as the Araneus. But watch her hind leg. The

claws at the tip are hooked over the radius along which she has just climbed

out. She advances, but she does not release her clutch on the radius. As a

consequence her hind leg becomes stretched tightly behind her. When this

happens she lowers her spinnerets, anchors her filament, and secures a new

spoke. She has measured off the distance for her first radius; it is the interval

between her spinnerets and the tip of her hind leg! She now releases her hold .

She again advances and hooks the same hind claws over the radius that she

has just laid. She continues to advance until her leg is again outstretched in

the same position as before. Once more she anchors her filament and the

second radius is measured off. In this way she continues all round the snare, at

every journey measuring a pair of spokes. AU her radii are evenly separated

at the circumference, and the distance between the spinnerets and the tip of

the hind leg is the simple measuring-rule employed.

In this manner are the radii secured. I have tried to explain the various

deviations, and to show the essential importance of each to the particular cha-

racter of the snare. This laying of the radii is a wonderful sight. I know

of no more striking architecture of its kind. Imagine, it is midnight in the silent

woods. Before us is a great vertical wheel with a diameter as tall as a man.

It is supplied with a hundred spokes, transparent, slender rays of silk which

sparkle where we shine the light. Yet so delicate, they are all firm and strong ;

yet so numerous, they are all geometrically exact; and they are spread abroad

with perfect uniformity over all this immense sheet. Amidst them moves the

great architect herself. She looks at first sight an unwieldy creature, groping

aimlessly and fruitlessly with her limbs, and scrambling out over the invisible

sheet as though she were climbing unsupported in the air. But it is not so.

She is a marvellous and consummate architect. She works wdth a perfect

regularity and precision; she weaves with an inimitable skill. Every movement

of her widespread hmbs has a definite act in view. They are now feeling, now

testing, now touching, now measuring ; they are building the most fascinating

work of architecture that I have ever had the privilege to see.

Let us pause. The construction of the radii is more than sufficient to engage

our attention here. In the next chapter we will follow to its final completion

the architecture of this geometrical snare.

{to be continued.)

650

“THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.”

BY

Claud B, Ticehurst, M.A., M.B.O.U., late Captain, E.A.M.C.

ASSISTED BY

P. A. Buxton, M.A., M.B.O.U., late Captain, R.A.M.C.

AND

Major R. E. Cheesman, M.B.O.U., 5th Buffs.

Part III,

{With 2 plates.)

Continved from, page 427 of this Volume.

190. White Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus.

1. Pelecanus onocrotalus onocrotalus. li. (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 132 — Africa)

2. Pelecanus onocrotalus roseus, Gm. (Syst. Nat. 1, p. 570, 1788 — Manila)

191, Dalmatian Pelican. Pelecanus crispus.

Pelecanus crispus, Bruch (Isis., 1832 p. 1109 — Dalmatia).

The information to hand about Pelicans is not at all satisfactory and fails to

clear up the status of these birds. White Pelicans appear to be common. Mag-

rath noted thousands on the Suveeikieh marsh in August and says they had quite

small young with them. Elsewhere on the inundations huge flocks are to be

seen from time to time as the state of the water is favourable or otherwise, as at

Kut, Nukta, Amara, near Baghdad, etc., and nearly all records relate to the

months of November to April while Pitman noted a migratory movement at

the end of February, flocks then travelling north, and he says that Pelicans

were absent from the Baghdad floods from April 23rd to the end of July.

Of the Dalmatian Pelican we have but few records ; it was noted by Pitman

at Fao and Amara in winter and seen occasionally at Tekrit by Logan Home

also in winter ; Zarudny gives it as a winter visitor.

Pelicans breed near Fao whence Gumming sent to the British Museum a number

of specimens, chicks and eggs. These specimens Mr. Kinnear has kindly hunted

up for me and examined ; of roseus there are three immature specimens and

an adult, the latter is dated October 24th, 1886, the others bear no date ; of

onocrotalus, there are two adults and two immature birds, one in Decembet’, the

rest bear no date. There are two feathering chicks ; in the onocrotalus -roseus

group the feathering on the forehead ends in a point, in the crispus-philippinensis

group the feathering ends in a concave margin and judging by this Mr. Kinnear

says these chicks are those of cmpMS. In the Ibis, 1891, p. 116, Sharpe referred

an adult head, eggs and apparently these chicks (dated October 24th, 1886) to

mitratus (= onocrotalus).

Whether both species breed in Mesopotamia is a matter which requires future

investigation as does the status of all three birds, and breeding specimens are

desirable.

i

I

CHICK OF LARGE PINTAILED SANDGROUSE CHICK OF SPOTTED SANDGROUSE

(Fterocles alcliata caudacuta) {Pterocles senegallus)

Both about the same age ; note smaller, weaker bill, smaller feet and paler colour scheme of senegalhts.

THE BIHDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

6ol

192. Cormorant. Phalacrocorax carbo.

Phalacrocomx carbo subcormoranus (Brehm). (Ornis, I, p. 42, 1824 —

Holland).

The Cormorant is a not uncommon winter visitor to the rivers and deeper

floods or lakes, from Teki'it and Ramadi to Fao ; it is recorded from October to

May, on the 18th of which month Buxton saw a few on the Hamar Lake, but

found no evidence of its breeding there nor are there any records suggestive of

its doing so in any part of our area.

It moves about locally in winter, doubtless as food supply directs. Cheesman

noted that a passing flock flying high were much terrified on meeting an aeroplane

and scattered in all directions, quite a different behaviour to Storks under a

similar circumstance.

Four specimens obtained: 9 > Sheik Saad, 13-3-17 (Ingoldby) ; 9 > Amara,

4-2-18, w. 334. B. 59 mm. ; 9> 4-2-18, wing 319, B. 61 mm. 9» Hamat

Lake, 20-5-18., w. 340. B. 66 mm. (P. A. B.)

These birds certainly belong to the smaller European- Asiatic race and not. tc

our familiar form of the British Islands.

•93- Pys?rny Cormorant. Phalacrocorax pygmseus. “El Echi.”

Phalacrocorax pygmeeus (Pall). (Reise Prov. Russ. Reichs, ii, p. 712.

1773 — Caspian Sea).

Common and resident, breeding in some of the marshes and moving out locally

to the rivers and other marshes in winter. Tomlinson received a number of

eggs on May 15th, which had been taken by Arabs in the marshes near Ezra’s

Tomb. An Arab, who knew the marsh birds well, told Logan Home that the

Cormorants at Abu Aran in 1919 had nested in April. Pitman saw Cormorants

probably of this species in the marshes near Museyib on June 12th, and Cheesman

saw many on the Horr Sanaf at the end of March, but no one seems to have actu-

ally come across a breeding colony, though probably many must exist in the

Euphrates marshes and those to the east of Amara and Ezra’s Tomb ; Buxton

obtained adults on the Hamar Lake on May 20th.

Specimens examined : 9> Horr Sanaf, 20-3-18 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.), 9>

Hamar Lake, 20-5-18; (two) 9 (Ezra’s Tomb, 23-12-18; (three) <^,Horr Hawaize,

13-7-18 (P. A. B.).

These all belong to the European form pygmeeus and not to the Indian java-

nicus. The younger birds, in the brown dress, of javanicus never seem to have

the white fllo-plumes on the flanks, rump, mantle and sides of neck which speci-

mens of pygmeeus in similar state of plumage have.

194. Shag. Phalacrocorax, sp. ?

Several observers noted Shags in winter ; Buxton says he saw them several

times in November and December near Amara, Meinertzhagen saw one at Tekiit

which he says was a very old graculus ; no specimens were obtained and so it is

impossible to say what these birds were. Stoneham too saw many on islands

below Baiji, and particularly noted some with crests.

The Common Shag (graculus) is entirely a west European bird and the Mediter-

ranean Shag (desmarestii) is not certainly known east of the Grecian islands,

while the Indian Shag (fuscicollis) is hardly known west of Sind so it would be of

gicat interest to know what these birds in Mesopotamia really are.

195. African Darter. Anhinga rufus. “Warda.”

Anhinga rufus rufus (Lacep.) (Tab. Ois. Daudin, Buffon’s Hist. Nat.

.xiv, p. 3i9, 1802).

The Darter is common and resident in the huge marshes round Kurna and east

of Amara and Ezra’s Tomb. Elsewhere we have no records of it. No one seems

to have found it nesting but Tomlinson had a number of eggs brought to hini on

11

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

May 15th from the Ezra Tomb district by the Arabs. Only one specimen was

obtained, a male from Ezra’s Tomb on February 23rd, by Buxton. I have com-

pared the bird -with a large series of African birds ; these latter vary

very much inter se according to age and perhaps individually, and I can match

this Mesopotamian bird in every detail with many African skins. A race has

been described from the sea of Antioch by Oustalet as chantrei (Ann. Sc. Nat.,

Paris, July 1882, art. 7). All the differentiating characters which Oustalet gives

for his race are to be found in many African birds, as already pointed out by

Tristram (Ibis., 1886, p. 41) ; whether chantrei is really separable from rufus I do

not know, but as this Mesopotamian skin cannot be picked out from a series of

African ones I must place the Mesopotamian birds as belonging to the typical

race, at any rate for the time being.

Mr. Jourdain informs me that of Darter’s eggs he received from Tomlinson

(sub nomine chantrei) “ some were white, unmarked and some had the peculiar

violet brown blotches already noted in the eggs of this species by Ottosson in

eggs from the Lake of Antioch.”

iq6. Grey Lag Goose. Anser anser.

Anser anser (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed., x, p. 123, 1758 — Sweden).

Grey Geese are extraordinarily abundant in the great marshes and swamps

of lower Mesopotamia. The main flocks arrive about the last week in October,

and from then onwards flock after flock may be seen passing over or arriving

daily at their winter quarters, though the first flocks may arrive a week or two

earlier. Early in March flocks may be seen again wending their way north and

most of the winter visitors have gone by the end of the month. Both of these

geese are abundant in winter and many are caught by the Arabs and brought

into the markets, such as at Amara, alive for sale.

The Grey Lag Goose besides being a winter visitor is certainly also a resident

in small numbers, and very late and very early records probably belong to those

birds which remain during the summer in the marshes. Thus Logan Home reports

some stUl left, mostly paired, on May 5th, and there are quite a number of records

of small numbers seen throughout July in such places as Suweikiyeh marsh,

marshes near Ezra’s Tomb, and at Gurmat Ali and Akkarkuf in early August.

On Maj^ 21st when Buxton was at the Hamar Lake he obtained three goslings

from the Arabs who had caught them in the reed beds there ; two of these were

eaten by mud turtles and the third Buxton preserved. Both Buxton and Chess-

man say that they have never seen domestic geese in the country, nor any

semi-tame Grey Lags in any of the villages ; so that it seems perfectly certain

that some Grey Lags stop and breed in the marshes. “ Gaggles of Grey Lag used

to fly in the early morning above no man’s land on the way to the Suweikiyeh

marsh and were invariably greeted by a ragged Are from the Turkish front line.

On one occasion a bird was dropped behind our front line trenches and was

safely retrieved, although a machine-gun was laid on to it. The O. C. snipers in

my battalion brought down one with his rifle ; and aeroplanes used to practise

their Lewis guns on these birds. Many of the gaggles which frequented the

marshes near Basra roosted during the day well out on the bare desert ”

(Magrath). Flocks of Geese passing overhead afford tempting shots with a

rifle but very few were obtained in this way.

Three specimens examined : — Legait, 12-16 (Livesay); Samarra, 25-12-17

(C. R. P.); pull Hamar L. 21-5-18 (P. A. B.).

197. White-fronted Goose. Anser albifrons.

Anser albifrons (Scop.) (Annus 1, Hist. Nat., p. 69, 1769— Carniola).

There is little to add about the White-fronted goose, it appears to come and

go at the same time as the Grey Lag. There is no suggestion that it breeds in

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

653

the country, nor is it likel_y to do so, as its known southern limit of breeding

range lies much further north. It is very common in winter and large numbers

are brought into Amara market alive.

Five specimens examined: Samarra, 22-12-17 (two) (C. R.P.), Mesopotamia

and (Bagnel), Amara (two) (P. A. B.) .

198. Lesser White=fronted Goose. Anser erythropus.

Anser erythropus (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 123, 1758— Sweden).

Apparently not at all common ; Buxton obtained one out of a small party on

some wet irrigated plough land at Amara on November 28th and thought he saw

others at different times. Thornhill recorded a flock of five at Wadi on March

20th ; Pitman saw a flock at Suweikiyeh marsh on December 3rd. Zarudny

records it in winter and he also records Anser arvensis as a rare winter visitor ;

we have no records of any Bean Goose and Buxton failed to meet with it

among great numbers of geese in the Amara bazaar.

Pitman seems pretty sure that he saw the Red-breasted Goose on several

occasions round Kut, Kurna and Qalet SaJeli in winter ; Thornhill records that

he heard of vague statements regarding geese which seemed suggestive of this

species, so awaiting further evidence I do not definitely include it ; it is

abundant on the south Caspian coast in winter and so might easily occur in

Mesopotamia.

199. Mute Swan. Cygnus olor.

Cygnus olor (Gm.) (S3'st. Nat. pt. 2, 1789, p. 501 — -Russia).

Swans are evidently rather rare winter visitors to Mesopotamia. Butler has

recorded (S. F., 7, p. 105) that he learnt through the telegraph people at Fao that

swans occasionally occur at the head of the Persian Gulf and mouth of the

Euphrates.

In the winter of 1916 a herd frequented the Suweikiyeh marshes, as recorded

by Thornhill and others ; but what species of swan it is that visits the country

was unknown until Robinson secured an adult female at Kut on January 8th,

1918, and sent it to the Bombay Museum ; it turned out to be of the above

species.

200. Common Shelduck. Tadorna tadorna.

Tadorna tadorna (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 122, 1758 — Sweden).

In lower Mesopotamia this species is a fairly common winter visitor to the

shallower floods and is, as elsewhere, extremely wary ; round Baghdad however

and perhaps elsewhere it must breed, as Pitman on July 22nd at L. Akkarkuf

saw adults with young ones, and caught and reared four of the latter ; there are

several other records which shew that some, at all events, are to be met with at

a time when they might be supposed to be breeding ; thus Logan Home records

seeing pairs in May, as also did Pitman at Nukta on May 28th, and Thornhill

recorded seeing at pair at Hanna on July 11th ; one was seen at Azizieh on June

18th.

Four specimens examined : Amara (P. A. B.), Mesopotamia (Macdonald)

Busra (Wernicke) Juv. L. Akkarkuf, 15-8-17 (C. R. P.).

201. Ruddy Shelduck. Tadorna casarca.

Tadorna casarca (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. 12, 3, App. Anim., p. 224, 1768—

Astrachan).

On the Adhaim river and on the Tigris north of this to Tekrit and probably

beyond, and also round Bund-i-kir in the Karun district, the Brahminy duck is

resident and breeds ; to the rest of Mesopotamia it is a moderately common

winter visitor. Pitman says that at Istabulat it breeds in ruins, cliffs, marl

6o4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

mounds and canal banks ; it was nesting in May and June, the holes going 14 feet

in and 7 feet below the level of the ground. Thornhill, who found a nest of eight

eggs in low hills near Samarra says the nest was situated 20 feet in and four feet

down, they were nesting in April and May. Logan Home juit several old birds

out of nesting holes in the cliffs of the Samarra-Tekrit area and found a duckling

in June. Harrison says of the Adhaim river that the birds were paired off in

April and were breeding in May. In the above districts it is fairly common.

Tomlinson has recorded it breeding on the Gagar river in April 1908 and found

young out in June ; on re-visiting the locality in 1913 no trace could be found of

any breeding there and he was told by the natives that none had bred since 1913 ;

Cheesman however saw pairs which were evidently breeding in much the same

locality, i.e., near Bunder-i-kir on May 24th, 1917. Though it occurs on the

Euphrates at Ramadi and Feluja in winter, there is no evidence as yet that it

breeds there ; Pitman failed to meet with it at the latter place after May 7th.

One specimen : Amara, 13-1-18 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.)

1 will not swell the list of Mesopotamian birds by including the Egyptian Goose

(A. cegyptiaca) which Weigold says he saw a pair of “ at a great distance ” at

Urfa on April 1 1th ; one may be mistaken over birds seen at a great distance and

further evidence is desirable before admitting this species to our fauna.

202 Mallard. Anas platyrhyncha.

Anas pMtyrhyncha, L. (=boschas auct). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 125, 1758

— Sweden).

203. Qadwall. Anas strepera.

Anas strepera, L. {,Syst. Nat. Ed. x., p. 125, 1758 — Sweden).

204. Pintail. Anas acuta.

Anas acata, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 126, 1578 — Sweden).

205. Wigeon. Anas penelope.

Anas pe.nelope, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 126, 1578 — Sweden).

206. Shoveler. Spatula clypeata L

Spatula clypeata, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 124 — S. Sweden).

Wild fowl are exceedingly abundant on the rivers, swamjjs and lakes of Meso-

potamia ; the marshes round Kurna, Babylon and the Suweikiyeh marsh, to men-

tion some of the best known, teem in winter with vast flocks of geese and all

kinds of ducks, and both reed-girt and open pieces of water are indifferently

used. But few arrive before mid-August or early September and the majority

. come later than this ; most leave in March though in places plenty may yet be

seen in April and even into May. On the Adhaim river huge flocks were seen

going south during September early in the morning, but this movement ceased

by the end of the month.

The Mallard is somewhat unevenly distributed and, as in other places, this is

probably due to suitability or otherwise of feeding ground, as it seems to be a

more particular duck in this respect than some others ; thus while some found it

to be the commonest duck, others reported that it was never very common, for

instance in a bag of 100 duck at Nasariyeh only one JIallard figured, while at

Ezra’s Tomb, Buxton considered it to be the commonest species; of course even

in Mesopotamia the Mallard is well able to take care of itself, and this may

partly account for its apparent scarcity, as it prefers places where a good look

out can be kept, such as the river or the middle of large pieces of water.

If it is doubtful if the Mallard breeds in Mesopotamia, at least there is no

certain evidence. The late Captain Thornhill has recorded that he saw it in

every month of the year and that it probably breeds ; I questioned him about

it (and I know he was too good a shikari to have confused it with any other duck).

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

655

and he was quite certain about it, though he could give me no positive proof of

nesting. Buxton thinks that on Akkarkuf lake on October 12th he saw flappers

which “ almost certainly belonged to this species Some certainly stay very

late; a flock of 20 were seen by Logan Home on May 21st, and some app>ear very

early, by July, (Magrath) and a good many by mid-August ; so that it is within

the bounds of. possibility that some may nest, though futher evidence is desirable.

The Gadwall is another very common and widely distributed duck, but there

is nothing particularly noteworthy to say about it. A few are recorded as early

as August 1st and some stop late — May 6th, a pair at Feluja, May loth and

21st small lots seen on Euphrates inundation. There is no evidence at all

that it nests.

In places Gadwall make up a large proportion of the bag, 40 and 47 being re-

ported in two bags made in January on the Euphrates inundation.

Thrc'c specimens examined : $ , Sheik Saad, 24-1-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.)

^ Basra 1-19 (Hobkirk). Amara (P. A. B.).

The Pintail is common enough and appears to arrive and depart with the mass,

there being no particularly early and late records ; first seen September 13th

and last noted April 13th ; just at the time of departure huge flocks congregate

together on the inundations.

The Wigeon is exceedingly abundant and is often seen in winter in great

flocks on the marshes round Ezra’s Tomb and Amara, etc.; they move off early in

March, the last seen was on April 9th ; they arrive late with the main mass, but

early ones were noted in August near Baghdad.

The Shoveler is exceedingly common and perhaps the best distributed, as

almost any kind of water suits it and thus it may be found in places other ducks

would scorn, such as canals, small pools and puddles as well as being found in the

marshes, lakes and inundations. It is plentiful b}’ the first or second week in

September and a few linger on into May, there being records on May 15th, 17th,

19th ; there is however no suggestion that it breeds.

Being imiversally distributed and less wary than other ducks it figures largeh

in the bag in some spots ; 20 or 30 are often got and in two bags of 100 birds,

Shovelers formed 90 and 95 per cent., respectively.

An albino was reported by Logan Home.

Three specimens examined : 9> Samarra, 4-l-18(C. R. P.), Amara (P. A. B.);

9 Sheik Saad, 24-12-17 (Robinson).

207. Marbled Duck. Anas angustirostris.

Anas angustirostris Menetr. (Cat. Rais. Caucase, p. 58, 1832 — •

Lenkoran) .

The Marbled Duck is a fairlj^ common resident ; it breeds in the vicinity of the

Tigris and Euphrates in scrub along the banks to Baghdad and Feluja. It seems

to prefer dry situations not far from the river or marshes ; Pitman found a nest,

in a Sueda bush close to crops, at Hindia Barrage some hundreds of yards from

a canal, containing 10 eggs, and fresh eggs were brought in on May 28th and June

9th ; in this locality it was plentiful. Thornhill found several nests below Kut

and obtained two hard set clutches of five and six eggs on May 15th and 18th.

Tomlinson records it breeding at Ali Gharbi, and Logan Home located a colony

near Amara. At Shush and Shushtar it also must nest as breeding birds have

been obtained by Cheesman and Tomlinson ; and Watts found it breeding at

the former place at the end of May.

Three specimens examined : Shush, 2-5-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) : near

Basra (Wood) ; Amara, 21-4-18 (P. A. B.).

208. Falcated Teal. Anas falcata.

Anas falcata, Georgi (Bemerk. Reise Russ., 1, p. 167, 1775 — Asiatic

Russia).

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV III.

Thornhill can hardly, I think, have made a mistake when he recorded that a

male in full dress was shot on the river at Hanna on March 19th, 1916. Thorn-

hill knew this and other Indian ducks exceedingly well and I personally interro-

gated him about it, and I do not think there can be any doubt that he was correct

in his identification ; it can only be a rare straggler so far west ; it has occurred

at least twice in Europe.

209. Common Teal. Querquedula crecca.

Querquedula crecca (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 125, 1758 — Sweden).

The Common Teal is an abundant winter visitor some arriving verjr early ;

large flocks were reported near Baghdad on July 17th, on the Euphrates floods

on July 31st and on Suweikiyeh marshes in mid-August. The majority however

come in September. It is very widely distributed as it not only frequents

marshes and lakes, but also the smallest irrigation canals in bare desert country,

, flooded fields, etc. Bags of 30 or 40 are often made and a bag of 64 is recorded.

Most leave again in mid-March and the last were seen in the second week of

April.

Cheesman records that on May 2nd he found Marbled and Common Teal both

“ evidently breeding ” in a rush and willow, covered Jheel at Shush ; this is the

only evidence at all that this species nests within our limits and the fact requires

further confirmation.

Four specimens examined : Amara. (two) (P. A. B.), 9. Basra, 8-3-17

^Stevens) ; Samarra, 5-2-18 (C. R. P.).

210. Garganey. Querquedula querquedula.

Querquedula querquedula (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 126, 1758 — Sweden).

The Garganey, though scarce, is fairly well distributed in winter, but is much

commoner as a bird of passage in August and September and again in April.

Flocks were seen as early as July 17th near Baghdad and as late as May 21st.

In the marshes near Hindia Barrage, Pitman clearly identified at close quarters;

a flock on June 12th ; Logan Home records seeing them also in June, while Mag-

rath says he caught a duckling on the Suweikiyeh marsh which he presumed to

have been of this species, as he saw adults. It is possible therefore that a few

remain to nest, though further definite evidence is required.

21 1. Tufted Duck. Nyroca fuligula.

Nyroca fuligula (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 128, 1758 — Sweden).

212. Common Pochard. Nyroca ferina.

Nyroca ferina (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 126, 1758 — Sweden), “Harra.’^

213. Red-crested Pochard. Netta rufina.

Netta rufina (Pall). (Reise. Russ. Reichs. App., p. 713, 1773 — S. E.

Russia).

In the absence of any outstanding early records as we have with the surface

feeding ducks, it may be taken that these diving ducks arrive in Mesopotamia

later and it is probable that not many are seen before October. These three are

widely distributed and common on suitable sheets of water and are often seen

resting in flocks on the rivers themselves. Round Amara, Buxton noted that

the Tufted was rarer than the Common Pochard, but in other places it appears

to be common enough. The bulk of these diving ducks leave in March, but

Buxton found that the Common Pochard in the main stayed longer, and both

Tufted and this species may be seen up to the second week of April. The

Red-crested Pochard is fairly common but hardly as numerous as the other

two ; stragglers linger on till the last week in April.

One specimen of each preserved.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

657

214. Scaup. Nyroca marila.

Nyroca marila (L.). (Fauna Suecica, Ed. 2, 1761, p. 39 — Lappland).

Zarudny records it as a rare winter visitor to the Karun area. It is not likely

that this species, which much prefers salt water in winter, will be found in the

Mesopotamian marshes and lakes.

215 White=eyed Pochard. Nyroca nyroca.

Nyroca nyroca (Giild.) (Nov. Comm. Petrop., 14 pt. 1, p. 403, 1770 —

S. Russia.)

The White-eye must be a common duck in winter but there are hardly any

records of it. Logan Home says many were seen and a few shot on the

Euphrates inundations, and Zanidny gives it as a winter visitor.

216. Golden Eye. QIaucion clangula.

Glaucion clangula (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 125, 1758 — Sweden).

This is not a common duck ; occasional birds are to be seen frequenting the

rivers, singly or quite a small party together ; Ludlow saw a flock and shot one

at Hit ; Thornhill obtained a male at Hanna on March 20th and there are odd

records from the Tigris, Euphrates and Shat-al-Arab.

217. Smew. Mergus albellus.

Mergus albellus (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 129, 1758 — Smyi-na).

This species too is uncommon ; a few are recorded from the Tigris and Shat-al-

Arab in winter, and like the Golden-eye it would seem to prefer the rivers to

the lakes ; it occurs singly or in quite small parties. The acuity of vision of

these and other species which obtain their living in the waters of the rivers

must be very great, as the water is so loac^d with silt that to the human eye it

appears quite opaque.

Two specimens were obtained near Amara by Cheesman and Bagnall in Febru-

ary and December, and two by Buxton at Amara.

[The Goosander has been recoi-ded as having been seen fairly commonly on the

Tigris by Meinertzhagen (Ibis, 1914). No other records of this species are to

hand and no specimens have been obtained. The Merganser (M. serrator) has

been obtained at Bushire but not so far in Mesopotamia.]

218. StifMail Duck. Erismatura leucocephala.

Erismatura leucocephala (Scop.) (Annus. 1, Hist. Nat., p. 65, 1769 — N.

Italy).

A rare duck in Mesopotamia ; one was obtained by Hobkirk at Gurmat Ali

on April 21st ; another near Kut by Thornhill on February 6th and a third on a

jheel (Abu Jisra), 70 miles north of Baghdad, on March 23rd, 1920, by Major

Chrystall ; possibly one or two others were obtained.

219. Flamingo. Phoenicopterus ruber.

Phcenicopterus ruber antiquorum, Temm. (Man. d’Orn. 2, p. 587, 1820

— Europe).

The Flamingo is a not uncommon resident and in some favoured localities it

may be said to be abundant, such as in the marshes round Museyib. But almost

anywhere where suitable inundations exist some may be seen in any month of

the year, the flocks moving about locally according to the varying conditions of

the marshes. Doubtless many move away to their nesting haunts in the breed-

ing season, but a good many non-breeding and immature birds remain behind.

According to Gumming it breeds on the Koweit side of the head of the Gulf,

whence I believe he obtained from the Arabs many eggs which are now in the

Karachi Museum.

The Flamingo is generally distributed throughout our area.

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. XXVII I.

220o Common Heron. Ardea cinerea.

Ardea cinerea cinerea, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 143, 1758 — Europe).

The majority of this species are no doubt winter visitors, but a number may be

met with during the summer months in suitable places such as the marshes at

Museyib, etc. As this heron docs not breed in its first year doubtless many of

these are non-breeding biids ; though no nests were reported yet it is quite possi-

ble some may breed in these extensive swamps, indeed Gumming had eggs brought

to him at Fao said to have been taken on the Abdulla Banks ; they may have

come from there or perhaps the marshes on the Koweit side ; Logan Home thought

it might nest on the cliffs at Tekrit as he saw birds in the vicinity from April to

June but no definite evidence was forthcoming. It is common in winter and

widely distributed. Probably a certain number are passage migrants as Chees-

man saw a flock pass over Shaiba, an oasis well out in the Arabian desert, on

September 16th flying S. W, which direction would take them towards the

centre of the Arabian continent.

One skin examined : L. Akkarkuf, 12-8-17 (C. R. P.).

221. Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea. “ErKheawwi.”

Ardea purpurea purpurea,, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. xii, p. 236, 1766— East

Europe ? )

The Purple Heron is reported in all months of the year as common and it

probably is quite resident. We have however no definite information of its

nesting and yet one can haidly doubt its doing so with such extensive marshes

at hand so eminently suited to its requirements. It is reported as common in

the breeding season in the marshes of the Amara-Kurna district and at Museyib.

Pitman remarks that this species is not so common as cinerea, but where it is

found, it swarms ; there are naturally many places where the latter may be found

which do not suit the Purple Heron, which likes lakes and swamps with plenty

of cover in the way of reeds and rushes.

One bird was found which, in trjdng to swallow a three-quarter pound fish,

had become hors de combat through partial suffocation ; however much

smaller ‘ fry ’ does not come amiss as Buxton found a dragon fly of the genus

Anax in the gullet of one he shot.

Gumming obtained eggs at Fao which were said, like all his eggs of the

Ardeidce, to have been taken near the Abdulla Banks, presumably from the

marshes on the Koweit side.

Ten skins examined ; ^ , Kurna, June 1916 (F Wall) ; Qalet Saleh, 7-7-17

(Elmhurst) ; L. Akkarkuf, 26-7-17, 26-8-17, 21-8-17 (G. R. P.) ; five, Amara

(P. A. B.)

222. Goliath Heron. Ardea goliath cretzschm.

Ardea goliath cretzschm (Ruppel’s Atlas Reise n. Afr. Vog., p. 39, 1826).

In the extensive swamps of Mesopotamia this gigantic Heron is not imcommon

and evidently resident. It is reported from the marshes that lie between Basra

and Kurna, from those near Amara and Kut and round the Euphrates Barrage,

while there are odd records from Feluja and Samarra. Sir Percy Gox obtained

young ones from the marshes at Kurna and sent them alive to the Bombay Natu-

ral History Society. Buxton remarks that in the field this species much more

resembles the Purple than the Gommon Heron.

This is one of those species which Africa may be said to have contributed to

the Mesopotamian fauna, it is found throughout tropical Africa outside of which

it is only known in Geylon and parts of eastern India, where it is rare and sjioradic,

a very curious distribution.

223. Reef Heron. Demiegretta asha.

Demiegretta asha (Sykes). (P. Z. S., 1832, p. 157, W. Goast of India).

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

659

The Reef Heron only occurs in our area on the Fao littoral. Armstrong found

it fairly common at Fao and had eggs brought to him, said to have been taken

on the Khor Abdulla, on May 20th, 1917. Gumming records it as also common

there and obtained several birds and received eggs from the Koweit side. In

the Ibis, 1886, Sharpe records two of these birds obtained by Gumming as gularis,

the west African bird ; Mr. Kinnear has examined these birds afresh for me in

the British Museum and he considers them to be nothing but asha. Both blue

and white phases of plumage occur and Gumming considered the white to be the

juvenile dress, an observation I cannot confirm.

It is a quite resident species and being essentially a salt water bird is not

likely to occur inland.

224. Buff'backed Heron. Ardeola ibis.

Ardeola ibis ibis (L.) (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 144 — Egypr,).

This Heron does not seem to be very common and its status is rather

uncertain ; Gumming thought that it was resident at Fao and says it is supposed

to breed near the Abdulla Banks, in the marshes on the Koweit side. All our

records relate to the months of March to October so may be it is a summer

visitor. Logan Home noted it at Abu Aran in June. Gheesman records that a

flock alighted in a cottonfield at Sheik Saad on September 16tb and thinks they

were on passage ; two, which he obtained there, were the only specimens

preserv^ed.

225. Sqacco Heron. Ardeola ralloides. “ Mush-’bca Beda.”

Ardeola ralloides (Scop). (Annus i. Hist. Nat., p. 88, 1769 — Garniola).

The status of this bird requires further investigation ; all our records relate

to the months March-September except two, viz., January 6th (Shat-al-Arab)

and October 23rd (Ramadi), so that, on the face of it, it would appear to be a

summer visitor. From the end of March it is common in suitable places in small

flocks of eight to twent}^ individuals, and some were thought at this period to be

migrating, as at Feluja, Basra, etc. On May 19th, Buxton found it at the Hamar

lake and shot a specimen with the sexual organs enlarged, but he was told by the

Arabs that it does not breed there; on June 5th near Amara he saw plenty ; Pit-

man too, in the marshes around Museyib met with it commonly in June and July

and supposed it was breeding, while near Baghdad it was common in July-August

and September ; in many places in August and September it is noted as common.

Gumming says it is resident at Fao and is supposed to breed in the marshes on the

Koweit side of Fao. It seems therefore likely that the species will be found

breeding in the marshes of Mesopotamia, though up to now there is no certain

record.

Eight specimens examined : d > Hamar Lake, 20-5-18; Baghdad, 31-3-18;

Amara, 14-4-18 (P. A. B.) ; d , Nahr I"mar, 26-3-18; Feluja, 27-3-17; near

Baghdad, 8-8-17 (G. R. P.) ; cf > Basra, 19-4-17 (P. Z, G. and R. E. G.) ;

Basra (Hobkirk).

I do not think this Heron can become adult at the first spring ; some of these

are in adult plumage, others at the same time of year are in immature dress.

Ardeola grayi has been recorded from Bushire ; we have no evidence of it occur-

ring within our area.

226. Little Egret. Egretta garzetta.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. xii, p. 237, 1766. “ In

Oriente ” ).

As with several of the Heron tribe, the status of this bird cannot be made out

with certainty. Gumming thought it was resident and recorded that it was

supposed to breed near the Abdulla Banks. All our records are of small numbers

seen in the months of April, August and September which suggests that it is a

12

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

passage migrant or possibly a summer visitor whose breeding quarters were not

discovered by any observer, quite a possibility when the huge expanse of some

of the marshes is remembered.

Pitman records small flocks on passage at Feluja on April 26th and 27th ; the

earliest date on which this species was noticed was April 14th and there are

several records from the lower Tigris during this month. It was noted again on

August 5th and, on and off, till early in September near Baghdad and in other

places. Pitman obtained one specimen on August 23rd ; there are two others in

the British Museum.

227. Great White Heron. Egretta alba.

Not very common ; there are scattered records from widely separate districts

from November to February so that probably it is a winter visitor in small num-

bers. Logan Home records a pair at Samarra on May 12th. Zarudny gives it as

a passage migrant in the Karun area. No specimens were obtained but it pro-

bably is the tyiiical race which occurs.

228. Night Heron. Nycticorax nycticorax.

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (L). (Syst. Nat., x, p. 142, 1758— S.

Europe).

The status of the Night Heron is not at all clear ; Gumming says it arrives at

Fao in October and leaves in May and from other evidence it is quite clear that

it is present in winter ; on the other hand there is good proof that in places it

nests, so that perhaps at the most it is a local migrant. As elsewhere it seems to

have its favourite haunts, so that where it occurs, hundreds may be seen together,

whereas over large tracts of country it may not be met with at all. Thus near

Qalet Saleh there is a very big roost where thousands come to spend the day in

the date palms, and Buxton noted a fair sized roost at Amara in March, otherwise

one may say it is generally distributed, though patchily.

Tomlinson records that it breeds at Shustar in June and Logan Home found

a colony six miles below Amara where the birds on April 11th were just begin-

ning to build, while at Samarra he saw five or six fully grown young by the river

bank on June 12th ; it probably breeds near Museyib, according to Pitman.

Four skins examined : Lake Akkaruf, 18-8-17 (C. R. P.) ; Amara,

12-1-18 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; Amara, two (P. A. B.).

229. Little Bittern. Ixobrychus minutus. “ Moodoo-wacha. ”

Ixobrychus minutus minutus (Id.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. xii, p. 240, 1766 — -

Switzerland).

Though Zarudny gives this species as a passage migrant and winter visitor, it

appears from our records that the majority are summer visitors and some per-

haps resident all the year. We have very few winter records and it is not until

the end of March and early April that it becomes at all numerous. It breeds

fairly commonly in lower Mesopotamia at all events, but appears to be commonest

in the Basra district to Fao and Shush. Nest building commences in the first

week of May or a little earlier and fresh eggs may be found from mid-May to

early June. Tomlinson has found eggs as early as May 8th. According to

Hobkirk and Logan Home the nests are situated in dense high reeds in the marshes

and made of dead reeds and placed about two feet above the water ; an unusual

site for a nest was found by the latter observer ; the nest was fifteen feet up in a

mulberry tree growing by the water side, it was built of fine twigs and lined with

green mulberry leaves, the male was standing on the empty nest on May 4th ;

when visited again on the 17th the nest contained seven eggs, a number which

was reported on two other occasions, though five or six is more usual ; the_

female, when incubating, sits very close.

Four specimens examined ; cf , Kamisiyeh, 4-1-17 (Aldworth) ; Shush,

3-5-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; cf ? , Basra, 22-5-19 (L. Home),

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

661

230. Common Bittern. Botaurus stellaris.

Botaurus stellaris stellaris (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 144, 1758 — Sweden).

A winter visitor in small numbers to those lakes and marshes which afford

suitably thick cover. In the marshes south of Baghdad it is not very uncommon

and found singly as a rule, and usually one or two are flushed when out duck and

snipe shooting. The earliest record is September and the latest April 20th and

a straggler in May.

Two specimens examined : 9> Basra, 8-3-17 (Stevens) ; Amara (P. A. B.).

231. White Stork. Ciconia ciconia. ’‘Haji Lug-a-Lug.”

Ciconia ciconia ciconia (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 142, 1758 — Sweden).

Common ; partly resident, also a passage migrant ; many no doubt are summer

visitors and some spend the winter. To what extent the breeding birds are

resident or summer visitors cannot be determined, as Storks may be seen in every

month of the year and large numbers pass over Mesopotamia at the times of mi-

gration; to the lower parts of the plains it is a winter visitor and passage migrant.

The breeding range of the Stork in Mesopotamia is somewhat curious ; a line

drawn from about Babylon on the Euphrates to Baghdad and then across to

Mendali in the foot-hills makes the southern limit of the range except that a few

nest at Shustar and Shush in Khuzistan (but not Ahwaz) ; to the north of this

line every town on both rivers has its colony, and nests on houses, mosques and tall

poplars are familiar to all who have been there, even Jonah’s tomb at Nineveh

is occupied. They start to repair their nests early in the year ; on February 19th

at Samarra, and on the 21st at Beled, operations had begun. Nesting is in full

swing by April and feathered young were noted in June. After the breeding

season they collect in the neighbourhood in vast flocks preparatory to migrat-

ing or scattering further afield in the country, and so, from the end of July on-

wards, Storks may be seen in those parts where they do not breed. From mid-

September till the end of October they are common and well distributed through-

out the country and during this period large flocks may be seen passing, circling

round and round at a great height, drifting south before the wind, doubtless

migrants from further north. In winter it is scarce, but some may be met with

in favoured spots all the winter in many different places. Spring migration

starts early and begins fairly regularly in the middle of February and lasts through

March and up to the first week in April during which time they become common

again and frequent flocks may be seen going over north or north-west.

The migrations of the Storks are well known to the Arabs who suppose that

they go on an annual pilgrimage to Mecca and are accordingly venerated by them

for this, and because they select mosques for building their nests on, hence their

title of “ Haji.” So much are they respected that when the question arose as

to whether the golden tiles on the mosque at Samarra should be repaired the

idea was abandoned as it entailed disturbing the Stork’s nest, until someone

suggested that as “ Haji Lug-a-lug ” was away at Mecca the nest was, for the

time being, not required and so the repairs might be undertaken !!

Unlike some other species of birds, the flocks of these birds were not at all

disturbed by aeroplanes flying close to them. The curious breeding distribu-

tion seems inexplicable, it cannot be on account of climate, or lack of suitable

towns, as these exist at Sera, Baghela, Kut, etc., and Sera is no great distance

from Kerbela where it nests and both are about equidistant from Baghdad. It

has been suggested that they have remained from time immemorial on the sites

of ancient cities which formed their breeding quarters when lower Mesopotamia

was under the sea, but were this so Nasariyeh, Ahwaz, etc., should have their

nesting colonies. It has been reported as breeding at Fao (Gumming) and at

Old Basra (Stoneham) on hear-say evidence ; our latest information is that it

does not breed at Fao now.

6&2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

232. Black Stork. Ciconia nigra.

Ciconia nigra (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 142. — N. Europe).

Apparently a rather rare winter visitor ; Gumming obtained one at Eao on

September 5th, Magratb saw it near Amara on May 20tb and there are a few

records in winter.

233- Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia.

Platalea leucorodia major. Tern, and Schl. (Faun. Jap. Av. p. 119,

1849 — Japan).

The Spoonbill is either resident, or perhaps a summer visitor to Mesopotamia

as we have no records between November 1 st and the end of March. It is common

in the marshes of the Euphrates and Tigris moving about locallj' as its food supply

directs. A good many flocks are recorded in these marshes during the breeding

season and it may possibly breed there ; it certainly breeds somewhere as Gum-

ming had a number of eggs brought him at Fao said to have come from Khor

Moosa and the Abdulla Banks whence Armstrong also obtained eggs on May

20th.

No specimens were obtained, but those Gumming got at Fao were examined

by Mr. Ogilvie Grant and were referred to this larger eastern race.

234. Glossy Ibis. Plegadis falcinellus. “Slindei.”

Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. xii, p. 24, 1766 —

Austria).

The status of this species is obscure and records are not very numerous ;

perhaps it is resident. Near Amara Buxton noted it in February, April, May

and August and says it probably breeds. It is recorded in fair numbers at Kurna

in January. It is noted as common near Baghdad from July to September and

Magratb found it common in the Suweikiyeh marsh in August where it was “evi-

dently breeding .”

Buxton obtained one skin.

235. Red cheeked Ibis. Comatibis emerita.

Comatihis emerita (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 118, 1758 — Switzerland).

It would seem that this Ibis is but a straggler to our part of Mesopotamia ;

Logan Home saw a few near Tekrit in February and thought it might breed in

theFatah Gorge cliffs or in the higher rocky hills of the Jebel Hamrin, but there is

no evidence that it does so. Gheesman who went all over the Fatah Gorge in the

breeding season and w'as at Tekrit in every month of the year failed to find it ;

however one was shot at Tekrit by Aldworth. There is of course a very well

known colony at Beredjik consisting, so Weigold estimated in 1912, of a thousand,

whence they wander out to other places, such as Bambudj, fifty miles south.

One was brought home alive to the Zoo from Beredjik by Gapt. E. H.

Buxton. The bird is considered sacred by the Arabs.

336. White Ibis. Threskiornis sethiopicus.

Threskioniis cethiopicus (Lath.) (Ind. Orn. ii., p. 706, 1790 — Africa).

White Ibises certainly occur and not very uncommonly in the district from

Amara to Fao ; but there are no records from Baghdad and northwards. All

records relate to the winter months and to small flocks seen, except that Logan

Home records them jiaired off in Amara marshes but gives no date. Gumming

says they are plentiful and Fao in winter and obtained one there on October

25th (recorded as melanocephala. Ibis. 1891, p. 1 1.1). Hartert ( Vog. Pal. Faun., p.

1226) states that the Sacred Ibis (T/i. aethiopicus) occurs at Fao and Zarudny

mentions it (.J. F. 0., 1911, p. 231) as a very rare vagrant to the South Gaspian

region. Mr. Kinnear therefore has been kind enough to hunt up Gumming’s bird

THj^ BIUDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

663

in the British Museum and he tells me that it has been incorrectly identified as

the Indian bird, melanocephala, and is undoubtedly an example of the African

bird — the Sacred Ibis — Th. oethiopicn.

237. Common Crane Megalornis grus.

Megalornis grus (L.) (Syst. Xat. Ed. x, p. 141, 17o8 — Sweden).

The Common Crane is a not uncommon winter visitor and probably a fair

number pass through on passage for quarters further south. It seems to be

generally distributed in the marshes. Xo specimens were obtained.

238. Demoiselle Crane, Anthrrpoides virgo.

Anthropoides virgo (L.) (Syst. Xat. Ed. x, p. 141, 1758 — X. Africa).

There are few records of this Crane ; probably the status is much like that of

the Common Crane but fewer in numbers.

239. Great Bustard. Otis tarda.

The Great Bustard is almost confined to the rolling plains in the north of our

area ; Meinertzhagen records that it was not uncommon round Jlosul in Januar<(

1914, where he saw droves of seven and fifteen birds. Thornhill saw seven near

Wadi early in March 1916.

There are somewhat vague and uncertain records of the bird from Kut and

Feluja, but Watts saw a flocks of six, a day’s march from Amara ; Weigold saw

two near Urfa in .April and Egerton obtained one at Kizil Robat.

Exact status unknown. Xo specimens examined.

240. Little Bustard. Otis tetrax.

The status of this bird is quite unknown, Tristram met with it at T7rfa in 1881

and it occurs over the Syrian boundary in that region. It was vagueh’ reported

in several places in lower Mesopotamia, but the only record which seems certain

is of a bird seen near Shush by Watts, and reported to me by Ludlow, who

deseribed the characteristic “ butterfly” flight. Gumming relates that he once

shot a smaller Bustard than the Houbara at Bushire and obtained another like

it on board ship at Fao ; probably they were of this species although thev were

never satisfactorily identified.

Zarudny .says this Bustard occurs in the Karun district where also the Florican

(Sypheotis auritus) is an accidental wanderer.

241. Houbara.. Chlamydotis undulata.

Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni (Gray). (111. Ind. Zook, ii, 1834 India).

The Houbara is pretty common in suitable places throughout Mesopotamia

and is resident, or at the most a local migrant. It is, of course, a bird of grassy

plains and desert country in which there is a certain amount of scrub. In the

Samarra-Tekrit district it is common, occurring in parties of three to ten. some-

times singly, and it is reported as fairly common from Hit downwards on the

Euphrates and as far as Kut on the Tigris; below this it is rather less numerous,

no doubt due to suitable ground being less extensive. In the foothills it is

common again at Mendali, Shush, Bund-i-Kir and doubtless elsewhere and it

inhabits suitable parts of the Arabian desert on the west side of the river.

According to Mr. Phil by it is common in the Hinterland of Arabia and breeds

freely there.

Logan Home and Aldworth found two nests on May 5th in the Samarra district

and another on May 19th on the grassy plains near the river ; the nests contained

one, two and three eggs respectively, those taken on the 19th being very far

incubated. Pitman reports it breeding in May and .Tune on the plain between

Baghdad and Museyib, and it evidently nests round Kut, Rumailah and doubt-

less in many other localities. There are eggs in the British Museum from Koweit

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

(Gumming), Zobeir (Marshall) and Diz, April 25th (Douglas). In the Bombay

Museum there is an egg taken in March by Capt. Wilson in lat, (south of

Baghdad).

One skin examined : ^ , 25-10-18, Samarra (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.).

242. Stone Curlew. Burhinus oedicnemus.

1. Burhinus cedicnemus sakarce. (Rchw.) (J. f. 0.. 1894, p. 102 —

Tunis).

2. Burhinus adicnemus astutus, Hart. (Xov\ Zook, 1916, p. 93 — F?o).

The Stone Curlew is fairly common in suitable places and both the above races

occur. Unfortunately the collections do not contain any breeding birds and so

the status of the two races cannot be made out, but Stone Curlew are to be found

throughout the year and breed in the country. Logan Home noted it as common

on the shingle islands along the river at Samarra on June 15th, the birds were

paired and were courting; it is also found all up the river to Tekrit, he also saw

it at Shaiba in May and June. Pitman noted quite large flocks of twenty to a

hundred individuals in the Adhaim area from September to Xovember, they

spent the day in the scrub and flighted out to the plains at night, at which time

they were very noisy ; specimens which he obtained at that time I refer to

Sahara. On August 1st Buxton found Stone Curlews common in the stony

desert at Khanikin whence they flighted to the valleys at sundown, one he ob-

tained there is certainly astutus and the date is early enough to suggest that

it was a breeding bird of the district ; on the other hand Pitman obtained a

specimen of saharae at Lake Akkarkuf on August 21st. It would be very re-

markable if both these forms breed in the same area, possibly one is a hill form

and comes to the plains early in autumn and the other is resident in the plains.

Further investigation is required on this point and some breeding birds from

different areas are essential.

Pitman obtained incubated eggs in the flat open country near R. Hai near

Kut on June 15th and two stale incubated eggs on May 20th near the Es Sinn

position. Stoneham says that this bird is quite good eating.

(1) L. Akkarkuf, 21-8-17; Adhaim, 27-9-17, 9-10-17 (two) (C. R. P.);

$, Shustar, 2-1-18 (F. M. B.) ; Frontier of Arabistan, 1916 (W). ; wing,

232-250, bill (base) 4P5-43 mm.

(2) 5, Khanikin, 1-8-18; wing 243 (P. A. B.); Sheik Saad, 3-10-16;

wing 246, bill (base) 43 ‘5 mm. (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; also a specimen from

Fao in the British Museum.

243. Cream-coloured Courser. Cursorius gallicus.

Cursorius gallicus gallicus (Gm.) (Syst. Nat. i, pt. 2, p. 692, 1789 —

France).

Without being called a rare bird the Courser, except perhaps in a few places,

cannot be said to be common, and is rather local ; though no nests were found

it undoubtedly breeds and is resident.

Though found in the bare flat mud desert it would seem to prefer the sandier

and more pebbly parts, such as the edge of the Arabian desert on the west of the

Euphrates and in the Adhaim area, and the former district at any rate no doubt

forms its chief breeding grounds, where Logan Home saw plenty in the breeding

season and a family party of old and young were met with on May 25th at Shaiba ;

at Chunabdah in the same area and near Hindia barrage it was also reported in

the breeding season, while Magrath notes it at Kut in July. A good deal of

local migration probably takes place in the autumn. Buxton says that some he

met with in clay desert, when the sun was low and casting a heavy shadow, were

most conspicuous.

The young of the year moult their body-plumage and tails in the autumn,

as with other Limicoline birds.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA. •

665

Five specimens examined: Amara, 17-12-17 ; juv. Basra, 19-8-17

(P. A. B.) ; Amara, 2-12-17, juv. Shaiba, 12-8-18. (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; Basra,

8-9-19 (L. Home).

These appear to me to be quite typical, wings 160-166 mm.

244. Common Pratincole. Glareola pratincola.

Glareola 'pratincola pratincola {Sysi. Ed. xii, p. 345, 1766 —

Austria).

The Pratincole is a summer visitor and locally abundant. It arrives in the

last days of March and by the end of the first week in April it is numerous in the

oireas in which it inter ds to breed.

There are many colonies dotted about in our area of which a few may be men-

tioned ; it breeds at Feluja ; on the dicing edges of Lake Akkarkuf ; near

Museyib ; at Chaldari, near Baghdad ; Samarra ; Suweikiyeh marsh ; Abu Aran ;

near Fao ; and Ahwaz. The drying edges of marshes and inundations are favour-

ite sites for colonies, the eggs being deposited in some depression such as a hoof

mark in the dry hard mud ; at Samarra they were nesting on shingle on the

edge of the river and at Ahwaz on sandy islands in the Karun below the rapids.

At Chaldari and Sera, Cheesman found colonies on hard bare sun-baked desert

some miles from the river.

Fiesh eggs may be obtained at the end of April. Few birds are more demon-

strative when they have young about than this species ; Cheesman says that on

invading a colony, there were birds on the ground in all directions with drooping

flapping wings, feigning disablement ; while Pitman, who wntnessed the same

performance, notes that in some lights the effect was very curious and that the

display to draw off attention gave the appearance of a snake coiling about or

a big lizard moving along ! !

Buxton noted that birds flying over a recently dried marsh at Amara were

nearly out of gunshot but two birds then obtained had their mouths full of small

“ water-boatmen ” {Corixidee and N otonectidee) which must have been flying

at that altitude in bright sunshine. Others, which Cheesman examined, con-

tained Coleoptera and Locust remains. Stoneham says they may be seen feeding

on Termite-n after rain.

The Pratincole probably departs in August, the latest record is September 3rd.

Nine skins examined: g, Amara, 15-5-18; g, $,7-4-18 (P. A. B.) •

g $, Ahwaz, 30-4-17 ; g $, Sera, 2-5-19; $, Baghdad, 12-5-19 (P Z c’

and R. E. C.) ; Feluja, 15-4-17, (two) (C. R. P.). ‘ ‘

These appear to me to be quite typical.

245. BIack=wing:ed Pratincole. Glareola nordmanni.

Glareola nordmanni, Fischer. (Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscow xv 1842

p. 314 — S. Russia). ’ ’ ’

There is little to record about this species. Pitman shot two at Feluja on

April loth and saw them there and between there and Baghdad in May, where

they were evidently breeding, as also at Hindia barrage. At the end of Julv

and beginning of August he met with some on L. Akkarkuf. They were nowhere

plentiful and were apparently breeding in the same colonies as the common

species. The two birds obtained had their crops crammed with half grown

locusts. ®

246. Red-necked Phalarope. Phalaropus lobatus.

Phalaropm lobatus (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed., x, p. 148, 1758— Hudson Bay)

(=hyperboreus, auct.). ^

Zarudny gives this Phalarope as a passage migrant and winter visitor. It may

occur, though I never saw it, in the sea off Fao in winter, and might be found on

passage in the marshes of our area.

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAy NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV III.

247 Woodcock. Scolopax rusticola.

Scohpai rusticola,(V..). (Syst. Xat. Ed., x, p. 146, 1758 — Sweden).

The country beiny unsuited to this bird’s requirements, it is only a rare or per-

haps occasional winter visitor. In different years there are six records of it at

Basra from November to February ; Aldworth obtained one at Tekrit in high

crops on November 11th, 1918 ; and Thornhill records one at Kut on October

6th, 1916. In January and February 1918 they were said to have been “ rather

plentiful ” in suitable places on the Diala river in the foothills district. It was

met Muth also at Ahwaz.

248. Common Snipe. Gallinago gallinago. “ Jehalul ” or

“Naja el Maya. ”

Gallinago gallinago gallinago (L.). (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 147, 17.58 —

Sweden).

Common winter visitor, abundant in suitable marshes. The first may be seen

as early as August 3rd, quite a few by the middle of the month, but the bulk do

not arrive till later. Plenty are still present in mid-Apiil, most have gone by

early Jlay and sti’agglers are noted at the end of that month. Ther-e is no evi-

dence that any remain to breed. Pitman found it absent from the marshes in the

Museyib district in .June and July. The Arabic name “ Naja-el-Maya ” means

“ water-goat ”, evidently in reference to the drumming sound which, though

constantly heard in the breeding season, may also sometimes be heard in the

winter.

In favourable localities a couple of guns may easily obtain 40 to 50 coujile in

a day.

Three skins examined; 9 > Amsra, 7-4-18 (P. A. B.) ; Samarra, 6-3-18

(C. R. P). 9, Sheik Saad, 26-1-18 (Robinson).

Zarudny gives raddei also as a winter visitor ; I am unable to recognize this

race.

249. Great Snipe. Gallinago media.

Gallinago media (Lath.l. (Gen. Synop. Supp., i, 1787, p. 292 — England).

Our records tend to show that this species is a passage migrant, though Zarudny

records it in winter also. Thornhill records it at Haibi in April where a small

patch of wheat and flooded grass seemed full of them. Gumming met with it at

Fao in April and Buxton got one at Amara on April 14th ; it is also recorded

from Shush in spring ; Logan Home met with single birds near Basra on August

3rd and 29th, and Connor obtained one there on September 16th.

250. Jack Snipe. Limnocryptes gallinula.

Limnocrijples gallinula (L ). (Syst. Nat. Ed., xii, p. 244, 1766 — France),

Generally distributed in winter in suitable localities throughout our area and

common ; time of arrival was not noted, it was still common at the end of the

first week in April.

251. Broad-billed Sandpiper. Limicola falcinellus.

Limicola falcinellus (Pont.) (Danske Atlas, 1, 1763, p. 623 — Denmark).

Gumming obtained .several at Fao in August and September where it must be

common. We have no further records.

252. Terek Sandpiper. Terekia cinerea.

Terekia cinena (Guld.) (Nov. Comm. Petrop., xix, 1775, p. 47.3 — Terek

River, S. E. Russia).

Probably common at Fao on the tidal mud flats where Gumming obtained

several at the end of August and early in September. Essentially a maritime

wader in winter.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

. . 667

253. Little Stint. Erolia minuta^

Erolia miniita minuta (Leisl,) (Nach. zu Beehst. Naturg. Deutscli., 1812

p. 74 — Hanau, Germany).

Buxton found this species abundant on spring and autumn passage in the

marshes Magrath and Meinertzhagtn noted small parties along the rivers in

winter.

Exact status not fully known, probably a winter visitor and a passage migrant,

as Zarudnj’’ states.

Four specimens examined : c? 9 > Akkarkuf, 6-10-17 ; J , Amara, 7-4-18 ; J ,

Baghdad, 21-9-17 (P. A. B.).

254. Temminck’s Stint. Erolia temmincki.

Erolia temmincki (Leisl.) (<. c. supra, p. 78).

Winter visitor, fairly common in the inundations and along the rivers in suitable

places. Some are probably passage migrants also.

Five specimens examined : Samarra, 8-2-18. ; Akkarkuf, 16-8-17 (C. R. P.)y

9 , Amara, 24-3-18 ; 6 , 5-10-17 ; one, 30-12-17 (P. A. B.)

255. - Dunlin. Erolia alpina. ' .

Erolia alpina alpina (L.) (Syst. Nat. 1758, p. 149 — ^Lappland).

Common winter visitor, arrives early in August and remains till the middle of

May. Apparently some remain all the summer as non-breeding birds, as

Logan Home saw “ many ” at Ratawi on June 19th.

Dunlins frequent edges of inundations, flooded fields, river banks, associating

with Stints.

Three specimens examined : Amara, 25-1-18 ; Sheik Saad, 18-12-16 (P. Z. C.

and R. E. C.) ; Samarra, 24-12-17 (C. R. P.) ; four, Amara, Jan.-April (P. A. B.).

These belong to the typical race, with bills 32-27 mm., wings 116-119 mm.,

which in my opinion extends east to western Siberia. I have already pointed out

(Bull. B. O. C., xxxiii, p. 99) that there is not sufficient difference between birds

from Lappland and West Siberia to warrant the distinguishing of a separate

race from the latter locality, so far as present material is available. Hartert

(Vog. Pal. Faun., p. 1576) recognises this race from Siberia doubtfully and lists

it as ? Erolia alpina pusiUa. Falk. 1786. If Tringa is used for the Stints, as

is done in the B. O. U. list, then ptisilla cannot be used for this race even if it

were recognisable as it is not the Tringa pusiUa of Linnseus, 1776.

256. Curlew Sandpiper. Erolia ferruginea.

Erolia ferruginea (Briin.) (Om. Bor., 1764, p. 53 — Iceland) {=subarquata

auct.)

Meinertzhagen and Zarudny both record the Curlew Sandpiper in winter ;

Buxton obtained examples at Amara in December and April ; probably it is a

winter visitor and passage migrant.

[The Knot is recorded from the backwaters of the Tigris near Baiji, but as no

skins were obtained and there are no other records for Mesopotamia I omit it.

It would be interesting to confirm that this species winters on fresh water and so

far inland, as I certainly do not think it is usual.]

257. Sanderling. Calidris arenaria.

Cahdris arenaria (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed., xii, p. 251, 1766 — England).

Zaradny lists the Sanderling as a winter visitor,, presumably to, the head of

the Gulf littoral. Probably common there.

258. Ruff. Machetes pugn ax.

Machetes pugnax (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed., x, p. 148, l75S — Sweden).'

13

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

Status doubtful and there are few records. Pitman found a few on L. Akkar-

kuf early in September, Livesay saw many on the Euphrates marshes on May

15th. Zarudny says it is a winter visitor to the Karun district, and Neumann

recoi-ds it from Ras-el-ain on February 14th. Stoneham notes it at Ctesiphon on

March 22nd and Ludlow at Ahwaz on the 29th. Probably a not uncommon

winter visitor and passage migrant.

One skin examined : L. Akkarkuf, 2-9-17 (C. R. P.).

259. Redshank. Totanus totanus.

Totanus totanus totanus (L.) (Sy^t. Nat. Ed., x, p. 145, 1758 — Sweden).

Common -winter -visitor and generally distributed. It arrives at the end of

July, but most come back in the middle of August and it is recorded up to the

end of May, though most have gone a week or two earlier. Magrath records

that he heard it near Amara on June 29th, so perhaps some non-breeders spend

the summer.

Four skins examined: Samarra, 22-1-18 ; 25-12-17 (C. R. P.) ; 9» Basra,

3-1-19 (Armstrong) ; 9 Amara, 30-12-17 (P. A. B.).

Not distinguishable from W. European examples.

260. Spotted Redshank. Totanus maculatus.

Totanus maculatus (Tunst.) (Om. Brit., 1771 — England).

Zanidny records this as a winter visitor to the Karun district and Stoneham

nited it at Samarra on May 17th. It is recorded from Biredjik by Weigold on

May 1st and Ludlow shot two near Ahwaz in March. Probably it is commoner

than the above records indicate.

261. Marsh Sandpiper. Totanus stagnatilis.

Totanus stagnatilis Bechst (Orn. Taschenb., ii., 1803, p. 292 — Germany).

Probably a net uncommon winter \dsitor ; recorded by Zarudny, and Buxton

obtained one at Baghdad on March 13th.

262. Qreenshank, Totanus nebularius.

Totanus nebularius (Gunn.) (Leem. Beskr. Finm Lapp. 1767, p. 251 —

Norway).

Fairly common winter visitor: some airive at the end of July; most of them in

August ; leaves at the end of April.

Two skins examined : 9 > Azizieh, 16-10-08 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; 9, Bagh-

dad, 26-9-17 (P. A. B.).

263. Common Sandpiper. Tringa hypoleucos.

Tringa hypoleucos (L.) (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 149 — Sweden).

A -winter -visitor generally distributed on the rivers and canals but commoner

as a passage migrant. It apparently arrives as early as mid-July and it is record-

ed as leaving about the middle of May. Tomlinson says it is resident at Basra

and “ immature birds were seen in the summer ” but this does not necessarily

prove that it breeds in Mesopotamia. Pitman too thought he saw it in the Hindia

barrage marshes in June and July. Quite possibly some may spend the summer

in their usual winter quarters if they are not going to breed that year.

Four skins examined : 9 » Amara 14-9-18 ; 9 > 14-4-18 (P. A. B.) ; d > Ahwaz,

24-5-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; Feluja, 9-4-17 (C. R. P.)

264. Green Sandpiper. Tringa ochropus.

Tringa ochropus, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 149, 1758 — Sweden).

265. Wood Sandpiper. Tringa glareola.

Tringa glareola, L. (Sj'st. Nat., Ed. x,p. 149, 1758 — Sweden).

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

669

Both Wood and Green Sandpipers are fairly common. They arrive during

August and both are recorded up to the middle of May by which time most have

gone. Whereas the Green Sandpiper is certainly present all the winter, there

are only two records of the Wood Sandpiper after October, odd birds being record-

ed by Pitman in February and December, so that in the main the latter species

is a i>assrge migrant and probably the former to some extent elso.

266. Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa.

Limosa limosa (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 147, 1758 — Sweden).

A common winter visitor frequenting the muddy margins of floods, etc. It

arrives early in August and probably departs again in April and May. A certain

number however spend the summer in the Euphrates marshes, as round Museyib

and Ratawi ; these of course are non-breeding birds as is the case with many

other waders.

Six specimens examined : L. Akkarkuf, 12-8-17; 17-8-17 (C. R. P.) ; 9>

Baghailah, 11-3-17 (Ingoldby) ; S 9>E- Akkarkuf, 10-17; S, Amara, 17-2-18

(P. A. B.).

267. Bar=tailed Qodwit. Limosa lapponica.

Limosa lapponica (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 147, 1758 — Lappland).

Recorded by Pitman from the mud banks of the Shat-al-Aiab in January.* It

is probably common there.

268 Common Curlew. Numenius arquata.

Numenius arquata (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 145, 1758 — Sweden).

Common as a winter visitor and also as a passage migrant. Gumming says

it arrives at Fao in July and leaves in March. Pitman records it as first seen in

the Hindia marshes on July 10th, and huge flocks were passing over to the south-

east during the first week in August near Baghdad. On the return passage he

noted large flocks frequently from mid-April to May 25th at Feluja going north-

east in the evenings.

It is equally at home on the floods and marshes as on the foreshore at Fao.

One skin : Amara, 8-1-18 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.).

269. Whimbrel. Numenius phseopus.

Numenius phceopus (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 146, 1758 — Sweden).

Common passage migrant, arrives in July and August and the passage lasts

till the end of September. Passes through again in April and May. Some may

overwinter as Gumming records it as a winter visitor to Fao, and odd ones

may pass the summer since Magrath records it from near Amara on June 30th.

270. Slender-billed Curlew. Numenius tenuirostris.

Numenius tenuirostris, Vieill. (N. Diet. d’Hist. Nat. viii, 1817, p. 302 — '

Egypt).

Status quite unknown. Buxton saw many on December 16th, 1917, in a tempo-

rary winter lake in a hollow in the bare desert ten miles north of Amara and secur-

ed a specimen. This is the only definite record.

271. Black-wing’ed Stilt. Himantopus bimantopus.

Himantopus himantopus (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 151, 1758 — Egypt).

Resident and common in the larger marshes, spreading out in winter to tempo-

rary floods, etc. Magrath records that it breeds in the marshes above Amara but

was much disturbed by shell fire in 1916.

Numbers breed on the Suweikiyeh marsh, some breed near Basra, and Pitman

found it breeding plentifully in the Hindia and Museyib marshes. The first

nest he found was on May 31st containing three incubated eggs ; the nest was

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111.

just a hollow in spongy ground ; he found many more nests between June 2nd

and 12th and all these nests were on mud mounds well above the general level

and well out on the marsh ; the birds had apparently constructed these mounds

themselves ; three or four eggs were the usual full clutch and the eggs varied

very much in colour and markings. See plate.

Five specimens examined ; L. Akkarkuf, 18-7-17 (C. R. P.) ; Amara, 24-1-18

(P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; <S , Amara, 16-6-18; $, 24-3-18; Shahroban,

30-7-18 (P. A. B.).

272. Avocet, Recurvirostris avocetta.

Recurvirostris avocetta (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 151, 1758 — Sweden).

The Avocet is not very common but is resident and breeds. Quite small

parties or single birds may be met with in the non-breeding season almost any-

where on the rivers and marshes. The only district that there are any records

of its breeding in is Museyib where, on the west side of the Euphrates, Pitman

found it nesting and on June 3rd took a nest of four eggs ; the nest was just a

depression in the ground on the edge of a marsh with a little grass material as

lining ; he also saw a few on L. Akkarkuf in July which he thought had bred

there.

There are eggs in the British Museum labelled “ Mesopotamia.”

Four skins examined : S , Amara, 1-1-18 (two) (P. A. B.) ; S , Amara, 8-1-18

(P.Z.C. and R. E. C.).

273. Golden Plover. Pluvialis apricarius ( =pluvialis,

auct.).

Pluvialis apricarius {=}iluvialis, (L.) Nat. Ed. x, p. 150,

1758 — Sweden).

274. Asiatic Golden Plover. Pluvialis dominicus.

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gm.) (Syst. Nat. i, pt. 2, 1789, p. 687 —

Tahiti).

The Golden Plover is recorded as a winter visitor and the Asiatic bird as a

passage migrant by Zarudny in the Karun district.

We have no records of the former, but Capt. Hanna obtained three of the latter

iiear Sheik Saad on January 21st, 1921, as he informs me.

275. Grey Plover. Squatarola squatarola

Squatarola squatarola (L.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 149, 1758 — Sweden).

Gumming obtained this species at Fao in September and October where it is

probably a common winter visitor.

276. Common Ringed Plover. Charadrius hiaticula.

Charadrius hiaticula tundrce (Lowe). (Bull B. 0. C., 36, p. 7, 1915 —

Yenisei).

Some records of the Little Ringed Plover may refer to this species as most

observers were not aware that both occur, or simply entered their records as

“ Ringed Plover.” The status of this bird is therefore doubtful, but it must be

either a winter visitor or a passage migrant ; Zarudny lists it as both. Buxton

obtained two young examples on L. Akkarkuf on September 26th and October

6th where it is not uuacommon. These have black bills and dull ochre-coloured

legs and feet ; a male measures in wing 123 mm. and an unsexed bird 127mm.

From their small size and the darkness of the mantle I refer them to the

Siberian race described by Lowe, though I am not quite certain that his name

can stand. Mr. Schibler {Dansk Orn. F. Tids., 1915, p. 177-9),has gone very fully

into the question of this race and its name, and considers that Menetries name

int,c,rmedius should be used, but as this name is not quite clearly referable to

this bird, it is perhaps better to drop it, as should be done with most doubtful

Mimes.

THE BIBDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

671

277. Little Ring^ed Plover. Charadrius dubius, “ Dah rooj.”

Charadrius dubius curonicus, Gm. (Syst. Nat. T. p. 692 — “ Curonia”).

Common and resident through the length and breadth of our area moving

about locally after the breeding season ; there is no evidence of any influx in

autumn of winter visitors. Pitman found it nesting in the Euphrates marshes

near Museyib on June 3rd. Logan Home met with it breeding on the river above

Samarra and found several nests containing four eggs between May 21st and June

2nd. Cheesman found them just beginning to breed on the pebbly banks at

Baiji in April. It probably breeds at Feluja, L. Akkarkuf, Nabr Umar and many

other places. In winter it is frequently seen along the foreshore of the rivers

and sides of canals as well as on the inundations and is perhaps the commonest

and most widely distributed small wader.

Eight specimens examined : Baghdad, 8-10-17, 5-10-17 ; Khanikin, 1-8-18

(P.A.B.); Feluja, 21-3-17, 7-4-17 Samarra, 8-3-18 ; Baghdad, 18-8-17 (C. R. P.);

Fatah Gorge, 18-4-19 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.).

The wings of these birds measure 109'5- 120 mm. and bills from edge of fore-

head feathers 12’5-13‘5 mm.

278. Large Sand Plover. Charadrius leschenaultii, Less.

(=geoffroyi auct.).

Charadrius leschenaultii. Less. {=geojfroyi auct.) (Diet. Sci. Nat. XLII,

p. 36, 1826 — Pondicherry, India).

Common at Fao where Butcher and Cumming obtained several specimens in

August, February and March and where I saw a flock on March 16th.

279. Kentish Plover. Charadrius alexandrinus.

Charadrius alexandrinus alexandrinus L. (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 150 —

Egypt).

The Kentish Plover is pretty common and resident throughout our area. It

particularly affects the drjing edges of temporary marshes and such situations

are favourite nesting sites. The breeding season lasts from the end of April till

the end of Jime ; Ludlow records flnding several nests at Ahwaz on April 29th.

At Abu Aran, above Kurna, Logan Home found several nests in J une on small

sandy islets in a reed grown marsh, where also Little Terns, Pratincoles and White-

tailed Lapwings were nesting. Buxton and Evans found nests at Amara on May

26th and June 5th on sandy ridges on a dried up piece of marsh ; the nests were

lined with a few bents and quite a number of shells which the birds had been at

pains to gather, as Buxton noted that they were not common. It breeds round

Basra, at the Suweikiyeh marsh and doubtless many other places.

Two specimens examined : 9> Amara, 22-1-18, wing 109, bill 15 (P. A. B.);

9 , Sheik Saad, 18-12-16, wing 109-5, bill 15-25 mm. (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.).

These both belong to the typical race.

280. Caspian Plover. Charadrius asiatica.

Charadrius asiatica asiataca, PaU. (Reise Russ. Reichs ii, 1773,

p. 715— S. Tartary).

Common, but rather local, on spring and autumn passages. Pitman saw

flocks of thousands on the fertile plain on the left bank of the Tigris from Kut

to Azizieh in the flrst week of March, and on the 19th he saw a flock on cultiva-

tion at Feluja. Cheesman found it plentiful, feeding round gardens on desert

land at Sheik Saad on March 26th. Cumming obtained a young one at Fao on

August 11th, while Pitman saw a large flock on a semi-cultivated plain near

Samarra on November 18th.

Five specimens examined: Sheik Saad, 21-3-17, 25-3-17 ; 9> 25-3-17

(P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; Kut, 2-3-17 (two) (C. R. P.).

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

All are in breeding dress except one ; they are finishing or have finished a body

moult which seems to be complete below, but only partial on the upper parts

where many feathers are worn and, as no new ones are coming through, these

perhaps will be retained for the summer. The odd bird is in winter dress still.

281. Dotterel. Eudromias morinellus.

Eudromias morinellus (L.). (Syst. Nat. 71758, p. 150 — Sweden).

A common but local winter visitor. Pitman noted it as common on the un-

dulating wastes covered with grass near Samarra during the winter, where it

occurred in vast flocks. It is reported as plentiful at Feluja and common in the

Karun district. Elsewhere it occurs according to our records sparsely and in

quite small numbers. Last record April 7th.

Seven skins examined : Arab village, 3-12-16 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.); Feluja,

11-4-17 Samarra, 20-1-18 (C. R. P.) ; Amara, 16-12-17 (P. A. B.) ; Feluja,

1-11-17 (Ludlow); ^ Khamisiyeh, 24-11-16 (Aldworth) ; Ramadie,

16-11-18 (Brooking).

^82. Sociable Lapwing. Chettusia gregaria.

Chettusia gregaria (Pall). (Reise. Russ Reichs I, 1771, p. 456 — S. E.

Russia).

This species is a winter visitor and like the two previous Plovers it is very

local, but where it occurs at all, good numbers may be met with. Logan Home

recorded it in large flocks on the Tekrit uplands from October to February and

Pitman met with it plentifully in huge flocks on the cultivated plain between

Kut and Azizieh at the end of February. Cheesman found flocks on the desert

near Tel-al-lahm 20 miles from the nver. It is recorded from Basra, Ezra’s Tomb,

Urfa district and Ras-el-Ain. The latest record was on April 4th. Like the two

previous species this bird prefers cultivated land and grassy uplands to marshes.

Three specimens examined: $. Ezra’s Tomb , 3-12-18 ; Tel-al-lahm,

28-12-18 (two) (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.)

283. White-tailed Lapwing. Chettusia leucura. “ Tatwa.”

Chettusia leucura (Licht.). (Eversm’s Reise v. Oremb. nach Buchara,

p. 137, 1823, between Kuwan and Jan-Darja).

Very common resident, breeding round the inundations, temporary and perma-

nent marshes ; in winter spreading further afield and some may even migrate.

Unlike the last three Plovers this is a true denizen of the marshes and is never

found far from water. The breeding season begins about the second week in

May and full clutches are universal early in June. In the Euphrates marshes

round Museyib and Hindia Barrage, Pitman came across great numbers of this

species nesting in the first week of June. The nests were on the edge of the

marsh or on semi-submerged islets, indeed many nests had been flooded out.

So numerous were they there that he several times examined 50 to 100 nests in

an hour, and a tiny islet might hold three or four nests. He describes the nest

as being much like that of the Peewit ; the eggs four in number, vary a good deal

in size and markings and are smaller and more clay-coloured than those of the

Red- wattled Lapwing. Logan Home, who found a colony at Abu Aran on June

8th, says the nests were on the edges of islands in a marsh and usually 5 to 10

yards from the waters edge. These islands were sandy with small hillocks and

patches of short grass here and there on them and were closed in by high reeds

all round. The nests were of the usual Plover shape with a few bits of shell

under the eggs.

He says that, unlike the Pratincoles and Little Terns which were nesting

there, these birds were very wary and would not go on to their nests while he was

on the island. Like the Peewit they are very noisy at the nesting ground.

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI

t3

fl

W .

I i

Co 0)

Mco

% O

<D

1-0 a

<D S

Birds of Mesopotamia.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

m-6

Other breeding grounds are the Suweikiyeh marsh, L. Akkai-kuf, marshes

round Aniara, and doubtless many other places.

In the Samarra-Tekrit area where less amount of suitable ground is to be found

it is somewhat local and Pitman thought many moved away from that district

in winter.

Six specimens examined : Frontier of Arabistan (Wilson) 9* Hindia Barrage,

22-3-19 (P. Z. C. and K. E. C.) ; 9> Amara, 30-12-17, (two) 9 Amara' 26-2-18

(P, A. B.) ; 6, Basra, 19-3-18 (C. B. T.)

284 Red-wattled Lapwing". Sarcogrammus indicus.

Sarcogrammus indicus aigneri, Laubm. (Falco 9, p. 10. 1913 — Las

Belas in Beluchistan),

It is of considerable interest to find this Lapwing, which is so common and

familiar to everyone in India, has spread westwards along the Mekran and Persian

Gulf into Mesopotamia. It is not uncommon, widely distributed and of course

resident. Unlike the Indian Roller, which has but a limited distribution in our

area, this Lapwing, which can adapt itself to almost any circumstances compatible

with a Plover’s hfe, has extended throughout the length and breadth of Meso-

potamia; from the Karun and Basra districts it may be traced up the Euphrates

to Feluja and up the Tigris to Tekrit, Samaria and Mosul while it is found out on

the Persian frontier at Shahroban and Khanikin. The breeding season begins

in the middle of April and eggs are reported as late as June 6th. The nest un-

like that of the W^hite-tailed Plover is placed “ high and diy,” generally some

little distance from water and is a mere scrape after the fashion of its kind, nor

is it colonial in its nesting habits like the last named, each pair jealously guarding

its own territory. In ■winter it is subject to local migrations.

Three specimens examined : 9 Amara, 1-12-17, -wing 229, bill 38 (P.A.B.) ;

Sheik Saad. 2-11-16 w. 225-5, B. 36, (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) Sheik Saad

14-12-17, w. 233, B. 38 (Robinson).

These are not to be distinguished in any way from Baluchi specimens, whence

came the type of aigneri.

285. Spur-winged Lapwing. Hoplopterus spinosus.

Hoplopierus spinosus (L.) (Syst. Xat., 1758, p. 151 — ^Egj'pt).

Zarudny records this as a rare -winter visitor to the Karun district. Pitman

seems certain he saw some near Kurna in Januan'. Weigold says he saw it

apparently breeding at Bambudj and Beredjik just over the Mesopotamian

boundarj" in Syria. The status of this bird jn Mesopotamia requu-es further

investigation.

286. Common Lapwing. Vanellus vanellus.

Vanellus vanellus (L). (Syst. Nat. 1758, p. 148 — Sweden).

A -winter visitor in small numbers and widely distributed throughout orrr area.

It apparently arrives late in the autumn, the first record being on October 22nd

and the majority do not ari-ive till early November. Buxton, who found it common

at Amara, noted that it disappeared at the end of February and the latest date

we have any record of is March 4th. In some marshes it appears to be pretty

common, but most records refer to small flocks or small numbers.

Four specimens examined ; — Samarra, 13-12-17 (C. R. P.) ; Tekrit. 9-12-18

(P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; Amara, 27-11-17. 10-12-17 (P. A. B.)

287. Oyster-catcher. Usematopus ostralegus.

Hcematopus ostralegus, L. (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 152 — Sweden).

The Oyster-catcher is not a very common winter visitor ; small parties may

be met with on the inundations and mud banks of the Tigris and Euphrates in

their lower reaches and it was once recorded as far north as Baghdad ; at Fao

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

it is probably not uncommon. There are several records of it during the breed-

ing season, but there is no indication that it nests in our area. As it is recorded

in nearly every month of the year it is impossible to say what its migratory

movements are.

One skin examined : Amara, 16-3-19 (Logan Home).

288. Crab, Plover. Dromas ardeola.

Dramas ardeola, Paykull (K. Sevensk. Vet. Ak. Handl. 26, pp. 182-188,

1805 — India),

This, essentially a maritime species, is only known in our district in the Fao

littoral. Here Gumming obtained specimens in October and eggs from the dis-

trict. Probably these came from the Khor Abdulla, as Armstrong, while at

Fao, ascertained that it breeds there in large numbers and had eggs brought to

him on May 20th from there. From the Arab who obtained them Armstrong

ascertained the following facts.

The Khor Abdulla, or Abdulla banks, are situated on the Arabian side of Fao,

distant about 15 mUes, in an old estuary of the Shat-al-Arab; they are a group of

rocks with much mud and sand silted up in between them, and round them is a

huge mud flat at low water ; on the Khor the Crab Plovers nest in colonies, ex-

cavating bm-rows two to fom- feet long into the sand, at the end of which one or

two eggs are deposited. The breeding season is well known to the Arabs who do

quite a trade both in birds and eggs in the country around. The birds are taken

from the bmrows, put into baskets and taken to Basra for sale ; Armstrong who

tried eight of them in a pie found they were very good eating ; they had been

taken from nest burrows and all were females.

This accoimt agrees very well with that of Huskisson and Nash who visited

breeding colonies on islands near Bushire {Hume's Nests and Eggs 4, p. 328)

except that they invariably found a single egg in each burrow and I think we

may take it that this is the correct number.

This aberant species lays a pm-e white egg, utterly unlike a wader’s egg, and

is very large for the size of the bird.

Comparatively, little is known about the nesting economy of this bhd and should

any ornithologist be able to visit the Khor in the nesting season and make obser-

vations there he would be well repaid for the discomfort of the heat. Eggs may be

looked for early in May and both eggs and young early in June. Spirit specimens

of both chicks and adults are great desiderata for working out the relationship

of this anomalous bird.

289. Turnstone. Areiaria interpres.

Arenaria interpres (L). (Syst. Nat. 1768, p. 148 — Sweden:)

Probably not uncommon at Fao as a winter visitor. Finch obtained one

on February 17th and Cumming shot one there on June 18th so that pro-

bably some non-breeding birds spend the summer there.

{To he continued.)

JoUrn., BOm. Mat Hist SoC.

2:2 .

H. R. R. The Pkince of Walf.s, Pateon and Life Member of the Bombay

Natural History Society

675

H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES’ SHOOTS IN INDIA

IN 1921 AND 1922.— Part I.

By \

BERNARD C. ELLISON, C.M.Z.S' — {Naturalist to the Shoots.)

{With Q plates and a map.)

Nepal.

To the average Englishman in India, but little is known of Nepal or its people.

Brian Hodgson, to whom we are indebted for most of what we know of the

Natural History of the country, gives an account of the physical characters of

Nep>al dividing it into 3 distinct regions according to the elevation of the several

districts. The lower region consists of the Terai, or Marshes ; the Bhawar or

forest and the lower hills, with a climate approximating that of the plains of

Hindustan, with a certain increase of heat and a great excess of moisture. Next

comes the Central region composed of a “ clusterous succession of mountains ”

varying in elevation from 3,000 — 13,000 feet, with a temperature of 10® to 20°

lower than the plains ; and, lastly, the juxta-Himalayan region consisting

entirely of high mountains whose summits are buried in snow for the most part

of the year and whose climate has nothing tropical about it except perhaps

the succession of seasons. Before describing the arrival of H. R. H. and staff in

Nepal on the 14th December and the sport subsequently enjoyed by the party, it

is necessary to explain shortly the arrangements made by H. H. the Maharaja

of Nepal to take the utmost advantage of the extraordinary sporting re-

sources of his country. General Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur, President of

the Nepalese Committee relating to the Prince's visit and also officer-in-charge

of the arrangements of the shoot, in a letter, says : —

“ It was only in July (1921) that definite news of the Prince’s visit to India

being available, the question of H. R. H. having a shoot in Nepal was raised.

The Prime Minister of Nepal had pressed the Government of India to arrange

the dates of the Royal Shoot to fall in January, or better still in February, so

that a better bag of big game might be anticipated, but in view of the

extended tour in India and the Far East, the 14th and 21st December were

given as the only possible dates. The Prince’s stay in Nepal was, therefore,

shorter than those of his father and grandfather.

In 1910 previous notice of more than a year had been received enabhng

the men to work for two seasons, i. e., on either side of the rainy season

to erect 2 shooting boxes and camps in the interior of Chitone for the use of

H. I. M. the King-Emperor in 1911. The short notice on the present

occasion compelled the Prime Minister to abandon the idea of a shoot in

Chitone and consequently Pathenghetta off Bairagnia was suggested, but

considering the poorness of game that side, a camp at Thon, the gate of

Chitone, was finally decided upon.”

The venue for the Royal Shoot was the Terai which may be classed

amongst the richest and most strictly preserved game tracts in the world. The

shooting camp prepared for the Prince was about 2 miles from Bikna Thori

Station on the Nepal Border. It was not the same camp which was used on the

occasion when H. M. King George visited Nepal. His Majesty’s camp was

about thirty miles away from the frontier, at a place called Kasra, where a per-

manent pavilion was built for the use of His Majesty. The present camp had no

wooden pavilion, but nevertheless it presented a most delightful spectacle being a

mass of creamy white tents shaded by giant forest trees, flanked by and over-

looking the river : beyond the river lay a great tract of forest land, and still

further in the distance the snow capped peaks of the Himalayas. On all the

other sides jungle of the thickest kind and then the Indian frontier.

14

676 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

There were really three different camps. The Royal Camp was on a plateau

by itself directly overlooking the river bed. Descending from this one came to

the Press Camp, which, though on a lower elevation, still commanded the same

view. Opposite this was the servant’s camp which housed the huge following

which generally accompanys a gathering of this description. About of a

mile away through the forest lay H. H. the Maharaja’s camp. The locality

covered by the camp before the middle of November had been rank jungle —

the haunt of wild animals, which had left their tracks even after the grounds

had been tramped.

Both camps, that is to say H. R. H.’s and that of the Maharaja of Nepal were

surrounded completely by pallisades and guarded by Nepalese troops. Great

fires were lit at night to keep away a possible marauding elephant or wandering

rhino or tiger. Such unwelcome visitors were always a possibility in a spot

where wild animals abounded. A further provision against incidents of this

dt^scription was a machan, termed very aptly a “Funk Machan,” designed as a

haven of refuge in the event of a stampede of elephants or the visit of a wander-

ing rogue. The greatest attention to detail was displayed in the lay out of the

camp and every provision was made for the comfort and convenience of the

guests. The roomy tents which were beautifully furnished and fronted by garden

terraces flanked an open lawn scattered with chairs and tables where people

might sit in the evenings. Here also a huge bonfire flared all night and a giant

yule log blazed — quite the biggest I have ever seen. The whole camp, both inside

and outside, was lit with electricity from the great arc lamps which hung picture-

squely from the trees, under which all the trophies shot during the day's sport

used to be shown before being banded over to the ministrations of my men in

the skinning camp, down to the little reading lamp by one’s bedside which

one could switch off before turning in.

The Royal suite of apartments were simple, yet all that could be desired, and

ornamented, as befitted the occasion, with emblems and trophies of the chase.

The floor of the mess tent was carpeted -with Leopard skins pieced together as a

great mat ; the effect, as can be gathered, was extremely rich and striking. The

very appointments of H. R. H.’s writing table were all mementos of sport in Nepal

being made up from Rhino hoofs, horns and hide, and even the waste paper-

basket was made from the lower joint of a rhino’s leg. One cannot but refer to

the beautiful albums on the tables of the mess tent, whose pages held the photo-

graphie record of many a famous shoot in the Nepal Terai.

The Camp had a well appointed Post and Telegraph office attached to it.

On the eve of the Prince's arrival it was inspected by H. H. the Maharaja

of Nepal who, though in indifferent health, insisted on previously visiting the

camp wdth Col. O’Connor, the British Envoy, to see that everything was as it

should be for the reception of the Royal Guest. Of an urbane and generous

disposition H. H. the Maharaja impressed one immediately by his character

brimming over with good nature and kindliness. I was also introduced to the

Maharaja’s sons, all of them Generals. It is the custom in Nepal, I believe, to

have all Royalty created Generals i>ractically simultaneously with their birth.

I was much impressed with the youngest boy who, though only eight years of

age, had a few days previously single handed accounted for his first tiger.

Very efficient arrangements were made by the Nepal authorities for the dis-

posal of the game after each shoot, and Lieut. Hem Bahadur Rajbhandair,

the Nepalese officer attached to the writer, was most helpful. The

skinning camp was situated about a mile from the main camp. This

was a mistake in my opinion although the reasons for it were very good and sound.

The people who placed it there, considered that for sanitarj’^ reasons it was

advisable to have all the skinning done as far away as possible. On all the other

shoots I asked to have the skinning camp within a quarter-of-a-mile of my own

tent, and accommodation for my own men provided on the spot. This worked

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SKETCH MAP OF CHITAWAN

I’OE H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES'

VISIT TO NEPAL 1921.

Scale I iocli‘2 MiWs

; /w.

) ^ A. 'w ‘

The road fiiui the Reya! Shootii f; Cini]! at BiknaThoii is nia)k(d in if d. At ditTerfrjt places cn this loute most of the beats mentioned in this narrative took

plate. On the extumc left of the map is Kasia, wheie His Majesty Kiry Gtorpe V stayed, when he shot in Nepal in 1911.

R. It. H. THE PRINCE OF WALEH' SHOOTS.

677

better, I found, as, after the animals came to the camp and had been viewed by

H. R. H. and the people who shot them, thej' were immediately and without

delay sent to the skinning camp and on arrival at once dealt with by

our department. In shooting on a large scale celerity in skinning is a

great point, particularly in the present instance where I had only two men* with

me who could be trusted to attend to the more intricate points of skinning, such

as the head and limbs. We obviated difficulties as regards nauseous smell, etc.,

which other\\ise would have made the skinning camp in Nepal a perfect Glolgotha

by a plentiful scattering of lime and disinfectants. However in spite of this at

times, when we had five or six disarticulated rhino ' together with numerous

tigers and an odd bear in different stages of skinning, the stench was almost

unbeai’able.

Before describing the shooting I cannot but comment on the elaborate and

extremely efficient methods adopted forgiving prompt and exact ‘‘khubber”

about kills and the movements of game. This was accomphshed by a precise

system of signalling, on a scale which I think has never been attempted before

on a shoot of this description. The whole arrangement was under the direction

of Lieut< Leonardj R.E., who had arrived in Nepal some weeks previously to put

up a system of telephonic communication between the Roj^al Camp and certain

suitable spots, within the forest for a radius of 30 miles. Lieut. Leonard

was assisted by a party of English Sappers who dming the period during which

they were engaged in putting up the necessary wires and installation spent a very

thrilling fortnight alone in the jungles. Considering that these jungles in

normal times abound with dangerous game of all description, and that parti-

cularly at this period when in preparation for the Royal Shoot there had been a

close season for some time, it can be readily understood that Lieut. Leonard and

his party had some exciting experiences to recount of the time spent in the Nepal

jungles. One of the receiving field stations was fixed to the trunk of a tree near

by my tent and every morning on my visit to the skinning camp I would ring

up for news and would be promptly informed as to the whereabouts of the last

“ Kill ” or the location of a tiger 10 or 15 miles away. No rhino was untracked

or tiger left to itself. The rhino no sooner began to doze off as the sun grew

warm, as is his wont, than the tracker climbing up a neighbouring tree made

signs to his mate on the ground who ran off to flash the news by the nearest

telephone station.

I give the following extract from my diary of the first day’s shoot : —

Deceinber 14fA. — At Biknathori to-day the camp is aglow with excite-

ment from early morning. I was awakened by the trumpeting of elephants

and the shouts of an army of Nepalese attendants. I watched the little Gurkhas

passing to and fro near my tent. What a noise these stout little fellows with the

Kukris make ! Talk is of nothing else but the arrival of the Prince and the pros-

pects of the shooting. A very large tiger had been seen and it was hoped that it

would fall to the Prince’s rifle. Shortly after 9 a.m. a fanfare of bugles announce

the arrival of the Prince. The Nepalese Guard present arms and the Royal Car

sweeps into the camp followed by the cars of his suite. The Prince steps out,

looking remarkably well and bojfish in light khaki Jodhpur breeches, shooting

coat, and Sambhar leather shoes. A few minutes were spent in introductions.

Then off we all go in the cars to the shooting beat. This is quite near the camp,

at a place called Sarasvati Khola. We get out of the ears and mount the

pad elephants which take us to the line of elephants, with howdahs, in position

by the river bed. His Royal Highness mounts into his howdah which, by the

* I brought with me from the Natural History Society two skinners — N. A-

Baptista, a Goanese skinner of considerable experience who for many years had been

in the employ of the Society, and my servant Rawjee Kaneira, a Hindu, who had a

knowledge of skinning. Under my supervision they did all the skinning in the

principal shoots in India and Nepal and worked exceedingly well.

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

way, is the same as was used by his father when he last shot in Nepal. The rest

of the party are the Earl of Cromer, Admiral Sir Lionel Halsey, Col.

Worgan, Lord Louis Mountbatten, Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh and the Hon’ble

Bruce Ogilvy and myself. Every-body is expectant though nothing happens for

sometime. On the other side of the huge river bed, now reduced to a narrow

stream, stretches the jungle for mile on mile. It is very hot, the elephants are

impatient and every now and then one of them gives utterance to restless trum-

peting. Suddenly there is a movement on the left hand side of the line and

General Kaiser, the Master of Ceremonie.s, who had organised all the Shikar

arrangements in connection with the shoots, rides in on a fast trotting pad ele-

phant with news of a tiger and off we start. The elephants move forward with

their wierd lumbering gait. H. R. H. leads the procession ; followed immediately

by the party and then an army of pad elephants, and stiU more pad elephants to

be used in case of accidents. Ponderously the line proceeds through the dense

jungle, crossing many a placid stream, and emerging at times from the cool shade

of the giant trees into some glade where the sun beat hot and fierce, only to

plunge again into the cool depths of the evergreen jungle. One is instinctively

impressed with the calm and twilit grandeur of these gigantic forests. Within

their depths all is stillness and no movement is discernible. There is nothing to

break the monotonous tread of the elephants save an occasional burst of

drumming from cicadas whose shrill music subsides as quickly as it rises. Sud-

denly there is a stir in the line. All the elephants begin to close up, shoulder to

shoulder, and the great beasts stand to form the ring. All is expectancy :

there is an outburst of shouting from the beaters ; out rushes a deer and escapes

terrified into the jungle shortly followed by another and another. Then the

real thing happens and there is a cry ‘ Bagh, Bagh ’ from the beaters. The

tiger at last ! A glimpse of a yellowish form is seen in the long grass for

the space of a few seconds and is at once lost to view. Once again it is

seen behind a tree trunk. Closer advance the beaters, the tiger charges out,

but he is a wary beast and seems to know intuitively where the guns are

posted and gives them a wide berth. Again and again he is driven out only to

seek cover in the long grass away from the guns. A Shikari climbs a tree

and pelts him with stones. The manoeuvre succeeds, and once again we get

a half length view of ‘ stripes ’ as he makes a spring at his tormentor in the

tree top. The ring closes in upon him, but with a roar he dives into the long

grass ; another roar and he show's himself quite near the Royal howdah. A

moment’s suspense andH. R. H. fires and a second afterwards two more shots

ring out. The Prince has hit. The tiger though mortally wounded has

plenty of go in him and charges to the opposite side and is buried once more in

the heavy cover. The ring closes in : a shot rings out : and the tiger rolls over

dead. I descend from my how'dah and measure him. It was a striking scene

this great circle of sportsmen, beaters, mahouts and elephants, waiting in

silence while the measuring was done. The tiger taped 9 feet but he was a

royal beast and looked splendid when I saw him later stretched out for the

Prince's inspection near the great log fire in the Royal Camp. In the evening

we had news of three more tigers having been shot by another party who had

gone farther afield. There appears to have been much excitement, and no

little risk, experienced on the occasion, as several of the party were filled more

with zeal than with experience of tiger shooting, guns were pointed in all

directions and the poor tigers eventually succumbed to a perfect fusilade of

bullets. One of the members of the party contributes the following descrip-

tion of the exciting episode :

“ The tigress came out straight towards my elephant, but turned very

quickly to its own right, and I fired just as it turned back into the jungle. I

hit it on the near quarter, and broke its hind leg with the first barrel. The

second barrel I fired as it was disappearing in the jungle and from what we

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist Soc,

H. R. H. the Prince of Wales mounting into his Howdah on the first day’s shoot in Nepal,

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc

On the trail after Rhino.

Elephants crossing a stream.

. H. i?. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES' SHOOTS.

679

found afterwards apparently hit it on the tip of the tail ! There was a great

difficulty in stirring the tigress out again from the jmigle, so we went in on

our elephants when she suddenly came out and charged the elephant P.

was on, which turned round so quickly that P. sat down on his topi and

squashed it flat. The tigress was finished off, I think, by H. but I am not

quite certain.”

After dinner I went down to the skinning camp to see what had been done as

regards the disposal of the trophies. It was an eerie experience tramping through

the heavy jvmgle after nightfall. Of course in the present instance, with so many

people about, there was not much danger though everj'where one saw the pug

marks of tiger, and the tracks of elephants. Thanks to the efforts of my men

the work of skinning the various trophies had been satisfactorily concluded and so

with an easy conscience I went to bed.

December \oth. — To-day was fixed for the first rhino shoot. We did

not get off till 10 a.m. as there were several delays. Even after a start

had been made there was a stoppage caused through a huge lorry breaking

dowm on the very steep hill leading up to the entrance of the camp.

None of the cars could get past the obstacle and there was nothing for

it but to get out and push, and H. R. H. was the foremost of all in helping.

At last we were all speeding along bumping over the forest road that

had been specially constructed for the purpose of the shoots. The first

part of the journey was through a dense piece of jungle. One realised how

difficult a task a hunter would have in bringing his quarry to bag in a forest

of this description. This is one of the main reasons why the ‘ ringing ’ method

of hunting tigers is practised in Nepal. The dense jungle found in the foot

hills of the Terai must be seen to be appreciated. Massive elephant grass up

to 20 feet in height, and so thick as to almost obscure the elephant from the

view of ihe Howdah occupants in his passage through it. Often it is not

possible even to see the next elephant though it is only a few yards away .

Our destination this morning is Thoba, a rim of 20 miles by motor. The road

led for the most part of the way through the cool depths of the forest till the

vicinity of Thoba was reached. Here the country was open with fields of

yellow mustard on either hand. The machans erected in their midst told of

the eternal warfare waged by the ryot against the jungle denizens. At the

22nd milestone we leave the cars to mount the pad elephants. Besides H. R.

H. the party includes Lord Cromer, Admiral Halsey, Col. Worgan, Capt. Ogilvy,

Lord Louis Mountbatten and myself. H. R. H. looked rather tired, as even after

yesterday’s long journey and long shoot, he had been playing polo at 6 a.m.

Before arriving at the spot where the ring was fonned it transpired that the

tiger had broken back. Shortly afterwards the elephant in which the Prince was

riding got bogged in crossing a stream and H. R. H. transferred to an ordinary

pad elephant. The sight of a line of elephants crossing a stream is always

impressive. I call to mind as I write, the stately array of elephants crossing

the Thute river at sunset, the great grey beasts plunging through the swirling

water, the red light of the setting sun, and the dark forest background, all

combined to make an impressive and unforgetable picture.

One quickly gets accustomed to elephants as a means of transport. A pad

elephant is generally the most comfortable and certainly the best as far as celeri-

ty goes, though possibly not the safest, as in the case of a charging tiger the man

on the pad takes his chance of being mauled. All honour to the plucky mahouts

who guide these great beasts sticking gamely to their posts often in moments of

extreme danger. Many have paid with their lives for their coolness and daring.

In fact one of the brave fellows was killed on a pad elephant a few days after

the Prince’s departure. The occupant of a howdah is practically safe from the

onslaught of a charging tiger, but there is one risk which is always present in

shooting from an elephant in heavy forest and that is the possibility of the

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voh XXVIII.

elephant taking fright, and bolting when mahout, howdah and occupants stand

a very good chance of being swept away in the headlong rush of the beast

through the jungle. To return to what happened. The party arrived at the spot

where the shooting was to take place at 1 p.m. and an adjournment for lunch

was agreed to with general acclaim. Several rhinos had been seen in the swamp

in close proximity and the chances of a good afternoon’s sport seemed assured.

After lunch we mounted our elephants and it was not long before a rhino was

discerned in the thick grass cover. H. R. H., whose position was rather disad-

vantageous, since he could scarcely see the animal from where he was, fired. Lord

Louis Mountbatten fired immediately afterwards and the rhino made off. A pro-

longed search was made for the beast. The blood -spattered leaves and grass

showed clearly that the bullet had found its mark, but it was not till many days

later that the beast was picked up dead. It was then too decomposed for pre-

servation, but the skull and horn were recovered. It proved to be the best of

all the rhino heads obtained in Nepal during the present shoot. A second

rhino wounded on this day by Capt. Dudley North was picked up later under

similar circumstances. As we blundered through the dense forest in search of

the wounded rhino one could not help thinking of what would have been the

effect on our ranks, if a rhino took it into his head to charge, bunched

up as we were at the moment. The consequences would have been rather

disconcerting as the resultant stampede would not exactly have been a

pleasant experience.

Just before the search was abandoned a tiger was seen, a ring was immediately

formed and the animal was soon accounted for. H. R. H. fired at the beast

but missed. The tiger took cover, but immediately reappeared giving Sir

Godfrey Thomas a broadside shot at close range.

Shortly afterwards H. R. H. returned to camp, but certain enthusiasts re-

mained till dark without any results beyond a rather exciting five minutes with

a pig. In the fading light an animal was discovered moving in the bushes.

Everybody thought it was a panther or a tiger, a ring was formed. Whatever

it was, it took a great deal of dislodging, but at last with a protesting

squeal out rushed a much harassed and di.^gruntled porker who promptly dodged

through the hnes of elephants and vanished into the jungle.

Friday, December \&th. — There were several different parties on this

shoot. H. R. H., Col. Worgan, Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh, Commander

Newport and Lord Louis Mountbatten motored to the 13th milestone to a

place called Bagliae. A ring had been formed about a half a mile from

the road and after the party arrived H. R. H. himself posted the guns

placing them at intervals of about 50 yards. Shortly after the beat

commenced, a tiger broke in front of the Prince’s howdah. H. R. H. fired

and was immediately followed by a right and left from Capt. the Hon ble

Piers Legh. The next 20 minutes were sj>ent in an effort to dislodge the bea t

from some heavy cover. Very suddenly “ Stripes ” put in a second appearance,

but a shot in the leg from Mountbatten sent him limping back into cover. The

ring now closed in upon him and the tiger making his last bid for liberty sprung

gamely at Lord Louis’ mount and was dropped with a shot through the head. A

subsequent examination showed that only the last two shots had taken effect

and the trophy accordingly went to Lord Louis Mountbatten. H. R. H.

returned to camp after lunch while the remainder of the party went off on a

fruitless quest after tiger.

A second party consisting of the Earl of Cromer, Capt. Dudley North and

two others spent the morning after rhino at Kasra. One was secured

which fell to Capt. Dudley North’s rifle. The party went into some very

thick jungle bordering a lake where the shikaris had jireviously located a few

rhino. The rhinos wei’ ■ heard moving about as the elephants approached

Journ , Boirbay Nat. Hist. Soc

H. K. H. WAITING Foit ttie'J'igek to BKUAK C'OVEH.

Ihe line 6p Elephants merging from the .Jungle

Journ , Bomba.y Na.t. Hist. Soc

H- K- H. TAKES A Shot.

The Foyal Elephant in a tyucal Rhino Swamp

if. R H. THE PRINCE OF WALES' SHOOTS.

681

and presently one of them was seen by a young member of the Maharaja’s

family, in the howdah with Capt. Dudley North, who urged him to fire.

Capt. Dudley North had previously won the toss for the first shot and the

occupant of the adjoining howdah who had also seen the animal excitedly point-

ed him out : Capt. Dudley North witing to me said :

“ I could see nothing and told my friend so, he however still urged me

to shoot. I could not see anything so I aimed at what I presumed was

the object he intended and fired. Absolutely nothing happened and the

conglomeration of the tree stump and grass which might have been or

looked like a rhino remained exactly where it was. Even the real rhinos

in our vicinity did not stir. We continued groping about in the big grass

and shortly afterwards two rhinos dashed out of the pool av'ay from us and

in an impossible position for a decent shot. We tracked them for some dis-

tance, and were in a small clearing on the edge of some very high grass when

we observed a great commotion going on ncai- by. The top of the high grass

was violently agitated as though some great beast was pushing through and

there was no doubt that a rhino was coming our way and shortly afterwards

he did, with a rush, charging straight at my elephant. The high grass

parted and directly I saw the horn on the top of his nose, through the dense

cover, I fired. Lord Cromer, on my left, fired two barrels in quick succes-

sion and my elephant wheeled round immediately I fired, and was for

getting out it, so I did not have much time to see exactly what happened.

The impression was that the rhino stumbled and almost fell but i-ecovered

and made off through the grass. Lord Cromer was of the same opinion and

thought both our shots had taken effect. In the confusion of elephants

trying to bolt no one had time to shoot at another rhino which came out

on our right but went back into cover very quickly. There were blood traces

which we tracked for some time but eventually lost. This rhino was picked

up dead some days after the Royal party left Nepal.”

After the above incident the party formed into line moving slowly through

the jungle. Shortly afterwards a rhino was seen and very fortunately bagged

by Capt. Dudley North. The beast was hit through the spine half way down

its neck and dropped in his tracks needing only another shot to give it its

quietus. Capt. Dudley North was using a double-barrelled ‘470 Gibbs Rifle

with a solid bullet.

Admiral Halsey with a party consisting of Sir Godfrey Thomas, the Hon’ble

Bruce Ogilvy and Col. Harvey secured a tiger late in the afternoon of the same

day. The morning had been blank and after lunch a second attempt was made.

A very long trek through dense jimgle where everyone got more or less lost,

brought no result. So a man was sent ahead to reconnoitre ; it seemed that

all arrangements had failed, and a return to camp was decided on at 4 p.ir.,

a few minutes after however ‘ Khubber ’ was brought that a tiger had been

ringed quite close by. Soon all the guns were in position and a few minutes

later Admiral Halsey bagged his tiger with a shot through the neck.

Saturday, December \lth. — H. R. H. spent the morning after small game and

with his party accounted for some 25 head. The Admiral, Col. Harvey and

Lord Louis Mountbatten motored to Kasra (30 miles) after rhino. They saw

none and had a tiger beat which was also blank. The same morning Capt.

Po3'nder and Capt. Dudley North both had a shot at a rhino which fell to the

former’s rifle. She was a gravid female. When it was being skinned a

calf was found in ntero. The animal gave no trouble and did not charge, but

as Capt. Dudley North afterwards said “ she took a terrible lot of killing.”

Tbe rhino shoots in Nepal showed very clearly the extreme difficulty of bring-

ing these animals to bag without a vital shot. In the dense swamps

of the Terai a wounded rhino is practically impossible to track and

recover. In the present instance the rhine was spotted in a strip of grass jungle

682 JOZjRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

flanked on three sides by forest and on the fourth by a watercourse. ‘ Stops ’

were posted in trees on two sides and Capt. Poynder and Capt. Dudley North

walked their elephants through the thick grass to a point from which the ani-

mal could be seen. The rhino moved off on their approach, but was turned

back by the tumult raised by the stops and blundered back to within 10 yards

of the guns. It was extremely difficult to see in the heavy cover but both

Capt. North and Capt. Po3Tider fired, putting 4 high velocity '470 bullets

into it. The rhino lurched forward but got away and was again turned by

the stops, some 200 or 300 yards off when the brute was finally dropped with a

shot through the neck from Poynder’s rifle. All five shots had taken effect.

Four of them in the region of the shoulder. The shot in the neck had finished

it. But for this, and the ‘ stops ’ posted in the trees, the animal would have

got away in all probabihty to perish miserably in the trackless swamps. A

shot in the vertebrae in the forepart of the neck will drop a rhino in his

tracks. This and the brain shot would seem to be the most effective. Mr.

Percival Landon shot his large bull rhino at a 100 yards with a single bullet

from a ‘350 rifle, placed three or four inches in front of the root of the ear.

Another party consisting of Col. Worgan, Mr. Petrie, Sir Godfrey Thomas,

Commander Newport and Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh left camp on ele-

phants late in the morning. They went down to the river bed from Bikna

Thori Station about 4 miles and changed from the pads into howdah ele-

phants. The ring was formed and very soon a fine tigress gave Sir Godfrey

Thomas a shot. “ It was not a difficult one,” wrote Sir Godfrey later, “and

Rushbrooke Williams who was in my howdah is certain that I hit it. Perso-

nally I am not at all sure as my elephant had no guts and turned round and

more or less bolted as soon as the tiger appeared. I was on the floor of the

howdah and Rushbrooke Williams nearly fell out while the elephant began to

make for the woods. Luckily the mahout stopped the bnite and we got back

near the line to see the tiger do^vn with everyone shooting at it. It took an

awful lot of lead to kill it stone dead. An uproar then began down the line

and we discovered that there were two cubs outside the ring. The lino closed

in upon them as we had an idea of taking the beasts alive, but they were too

big to catch Avithout nets and a good deal of preparation, and too young to

leave, as in all probability they would not have lived without their mother.

Col. Worgan got one and Commander Newport the other. All the way

home the jungle was beaten but nothing was seen.”

A tiger measuring 9 ft. 2 inches was also shot by Capt. Bruce Ogilvy on

this day.

Sunday, December \%ih. — It being Sunday there was no shooting to-day, and this

was rather a relief to my skinning department, which had been working at high

pressure the last few days getting rid of the great mass of material that had

been sent in. I was up all night with my men, as, with so much already having

come in and vrith great disarticulated limbs of rhino arriving continually I had

to work against time to prevent anything being spoilt. Day and night oper-

ations thus became the order. We had a generous supply of disinfectants which

were scattered with a lavish hand, but even so it was an obscene business and

not to be dwelt on more than is necessary. An entry I saw in the diary of a

member of the staff succinctly describes the case. “ I visited the skinning camp

where Ellison is dealing wth the stuff; there was an appalling stink there ! ! ! ”

The skinning camp was guarded day and night by Gurkhas. Tigers’ claws,

whiskers and fat and kindred articles are of much value to the native who

has uses for them not dreamt of in our philosophy and with such a

profusion of riches lying about one had to guard against the intrasion of the

“ snapper-up-of-unconsidered-trifles.” One such gentleman we caught red-handed

and his subsequent fate at the hands of the Nepalese officials was a sufficient

deterrent against attempts of this nature. Anent the tigers fat. To me came

H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES' SHOOTS.

683

diverse petitioners pleading for a modicum of the precious adipose, reputed as a

panacea for many ills, but as Phaioah of old to his starving Egyptians, I com-

mended them to Joseph, in this instance Baptista, my head skinner. To him

in the course of his labours had fallen a bountiful harvest of the desirable un-

guent and to the waiting multitude he bestowed his favours, with, I am afraid,

a somewhat niggardly hand.

Sunday afternoon was spent in the distribution of gifts and mementos from

the Maharaja to his guests. Among these were a number of beautiful silver

mounted kukris which were presented to various membei-s of the party% a fit-

ting memento of their days in Nepal. According to time honoured custom

H. R. H. was the recipient of a number of live animals and birds. A list of the

collection is printed at the end. Among the animals was the famous

‘ unicorn ’ sheep of Nepal. These are normally two horned. When quite

young the horns are bound closely together so that they grow up in contact

nith one another giving them the desired “unicorn” effect. The birds included

a very fine series of pheasants. Particularly striking were the gorgeous

Monauls, the Tragopans with their crimson wlute-spotted breasts, and the

little Blood Pheasants in green splashed over with blood-red markings. After

being inspected by the Prince the collections were finally handed over to the

writer and at the close of the shikar in Nepal were brought donn to Bombay

where the animals and birds were temporarily housed in the Victoria Gardens

previous to their being shipped to the London Zoo, their final destination.

Monday, December \Wi. — On this day His Royal Highness shot a rhino at

Sarasoti Kola. Capt. Dudley North describing the shoot w'ritts :

“ I went out with H. R. H. after Rhino. We went to where one was

reported and soon sighted a Rhino lying down. H. R. H. had not seen

one properly before so that at fimt he did not recognisB it as they are so

difficult to distinguish in heavy' cover. However when the brute rose he

saw it. The Rhino moved slowly towards us and I suggested his firing a

raking shot into it, but H. R. H. very rightly preferred to wait for a more

advantageous position. The Rhino turned to the right and the Prince fired.

His first shot hit, though rather high, and the beast swung round and H. R.

H. fired again hitting it this time on the neck. We followed the beast into

very heavy cover, but the trees were so thick that it was impossible to get a

clear shot, the elephants were just getting clear of the trees w'hen the Rhino

was dropped by one of the Nepalese officials* who had fired as he w'as under

the impression the beast was going to charge. H. R. H. used my ‘470 Gibbs

Rifle which I lent him.”

A separate party consisting of Sir Godfrey Thomas, Capt. the Hon’ble Bruce

Ogilvy and Lord Louis Mountbatten spent a fruitless morning after Rhino at

Kasra. The day was not without its excitement however, as in the course of

operations Lord Louis Mountbatten’s elephant suddenly went ‘ musth ’ while he

was in the howdah. The party was going through what one of them described as

“ the longest and thickest grass I have ever had the misfortrme to encounter ” it

was several feet above the head of a man standing up in a howdah. Without

any appreciable warning Lord Louis’ elephant attacked another animal on

which a Nepalese Colonel was sitting and disappeared into the bush. For-

tunately the mahout managed to stop him by slashing at his head with a kukri.

Lord Louis was then rescued and transferred to another elephant. After that

the party went through “ still worse country ” ; the noise the elephants made

crashing through the tangle of tree and grass was sufficient to scare any game

within a radius of miles, so the shoot was abandoned and the party retired to

the base and motored back, reaching camp long after dark.

Near Dhoba, one mile to the south of the 22nd milestone, the same morning

Mr. Percival Landon, who was with another party, bagged a fine bull rhino

with a single shot clean through the brain. I am indebted to Mr. Percival

* General Kaiser Shamsher Jimg Bahadur.

15

eS4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Landon for the following graphic description of the day’s sport. “ The Rhino

was shot after the first ring at which Lord Cromer secured a fine leopard as

well as the largest tiger that had yet been shot ; the party divided as the

beaters had reported two finds three or four miles away — some animal, probably

another tiger, cornered in a dense bit of jungle, and a rhino in an open

plantation. ]\Ir. M. A. Metcalfe, Capt. Poynder and Mr. Percival Landon

went after the Rhino on elephants. By this time the sun was getting low.

They made their way across more or less open country for about two

miles and then entered the plantation. This was irregular in character,

large woods of free grooving young sal alternating with treeless stretches

of coarse shoulder-high grass indicating swampy soil, the whole being sur-

rounded by a ring of thick and sometimes impenetrable undergrowth. The light

was fading, tending to become yellow, a fact which only enhanced the unusual

beauty of the surroundings. The party moved forward in silence broken only

by the steady crash of what light undergrowth there was under the sal trees,

or the tear and the squish of the high marsh grass. Several times, where the

mud was exceptionally deep, they came upon signs of recent wallowings, but of

rhinoceros they saw nothing though they spent over an hour in carefully quar-

tering the plantation in response to the noise and whistles of the beaters on foot.

They were on the point of giving up and returning to the rest of the jjarty when

a soft but insistent whistle some distance to the right turned them back for a

last chance. Mr. Landon was on the right hand elephant with a Nepalese

officer and slightly in advance of Mr. Metcalfe and Capt. Poynder, when he

suddenly came in sight of a huge rhino. He was standing sidewa3's motionless

among sal trees well lighted for a shot. He stood about 6 feet high, and as

rouehly paced out afterwards, was 9 ' 10" in length. In the low evening sun he

locked as big as a locomotive. Mr. Landon fired twice, the first bullet hitting

i t nearly opposite the centre of the spine, though whether the bullet did much

work through the plate at that angle one cannot say. It did not seem to have

any effect. With the second shot he hit it clean through the brain and the rhino

sunk down in his track, without a movement, stone dead. The distance was

just 90 j'ards and everybody came up to find the beaters already closed in and

celebrating the occasion, with the amazing rites that alwaj's accompany the kill-

ing of a Rhinoceros in Nepal. Everything that could hold blood was requisition-

ed and the thick blood flo'wdng from the nostrils was collected with the utmost

care. This was not a concession to the spirit of the monster, as in the rite of

the dabbling of a tiger’s whiskers in his own blood. A Rhinoceros’s blood is

apparently unrivalled as a viaticum for the d3dng, ensuring for the soul both a

peaeeful departure and a happy rebirth on the other side. There are indeed

many superstitions about a dead rhinoceros, but it is worth noting that its

power for ensuring peace for the departed soul is retained by the mere empty

shell — it is hard to call it skin — of the beast for years after its o\ra decease. The

scene was a strange one and Capt. Pojmder aptly re-called the prehistoric as-

sociation of ‘Tarzan of the Apes’ as half a dozen elephants closed in from no-

where and ranged about the inconceivable scene of blood ritual which was

carried a step further by the decapitation, amid fountains of blood, of the beast’s

head. There was no time for witnessing the ‘ gralloching ’ of the carcase, ano-

ther messy and obscene ceremony of great importance. The head was mea-

sured from the top of the snout to the fold of the hide over the jaw bone and

found to be a shade over 30 J inches straight. The horn was of no great height

perhaps 8 inches but of massive construction. The colour was of an unusually

light grey and the only mark on the head was that of the • 350 bullet three or

foiK inches in front of the root of the ear.”

In the afternoon news was brought to the Camp that a tiger had been ringed

about six miles out ; the following party therefore went out after him : —

H. R. H. The Prince of Wales, Col. O’Connor, Captain Dudley North, the

Hon’ble Piers Legh, Captain Ogilvy and Captain Villiers.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

I{. R. H. TAKES A HAND WITH HTS KUKRI IN DECAPITATING A RhiNO.

A FURTHER stage OF THE RiTUAL.

The dismembered head of the Rhino is seen on the right of the pothograph. IJ. R H. is an

nterested .spectator at the ceremony.

Journ , Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Skinning ('amp at the close of a day's wokk.

H. R. H. THE PEIXCE OF WALES’ SHOOTS.

685

In about three quarters of an hour the party reached the spot where the

tiger was surrounded, the ring being a fairly large one and the jungle in the

middle unusually thick. The tiger, or tigress as she turned out to be,

gave very good sport and was finally bagged by Captain the Hon’ble Piers

Legh, who d ropped her with a very fine running shot clean through the heart.

Information was then brought that there was another tiger not far off,

which there was a chance of ringing if people liked to hurry out, but as it was

getting late and the chances were not very great of reaching the spot in time.

His Royal Highness and Col. O’Connor returned to the camp. The remainder,

however, went on, on the off chance and after they had plunged into inordin-

ately heavy jungle for the space of a further half hour, came to the spot where

the Shikari said the tiger should be, and started trying to ring him. Captain

Villiers thus describes what happened : —

“ I suddenly saw a tigress cantering quite slowly diagonally across

towards rrry elephant and after waiting till she was within easy range I fired

and got her through the shoulder dropping her immediately, but not killing

her outright since the shot just missed the heart ; I finally des]iatched her with

a second shot. I was shooting with a 22 bore double-barrelled rifle made by

Messrs. Manton & Co., which, I nray mention, is without any exception the

nicest weapon I have ever handled ; it comes up to the shoulder just like a

well fitting 12 bore and it was interesting to see how effectually this extremely

small bore, but very high velocity weapon stopped the tigress. She proved

to be a tigress measuring 8 ft. arrd was in excellent condition.”

Judging from the trophies received at the skinning camp, this day, Monday,

December 19th, provided the most successful sport.

In addition to the rhino bagged by H. R. H. and the one shot by iMr. Landon

a third rhino was accounted for by Commander- Newport. The Earl of Cromer

shot a fine tiger, the largest obtained in Nejral, during the Prince’s shikar taping

9' 10", arrd a leopard- All this meant a considerable amount of work for my

men, but it is to be recorded that they carried it through with the utmost

zeal and fervour.

December 20th. — H. R. H. did not go out in the morning but remained in

camp till after lunch when he rode out with Sir Godfrey Thomas and a few

others into British Territory where he shot small game.

Lord Louis Mount batten and Col. Worgan motored to the 22nd milestone at

Dhoba where a rhino was shot by the latter. They then joined up -with Col.

Harvey, Col. O’Kinoaly and Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh and went to a tiger

ring which proved to be blank. Later a ring was made for panther and pro-

rided an exciting evening. On the elephants beating the ring a bear was found

who caused a great deal of amusement charging round the ring and giving

every one a chance of a shot. The shooting appears to have been

“ promiscuous, ” but it is to be recorded that the bear eventually

succumbed. After the firing subsided the presence of the panther became

a matter of doubt as he had not put in an appearance diming the

tremendous bombardment of Bruin, but on the ring closing up they flushed

him, and he charged straight through the elephants and broke the ring. He

was hit by Sir Geoffrey de Montmorency but was not deterred in his charge,

and went straight through. The ring reformed rather raggedly, and the panther

again broke through springing on an elephant’s trunk. He was dislodged

but it was too dark to continue that evening and was shot the next day

and proved to be a fine animal taping 7' 6".

Lord Cromer and the Hon’ble Bruce Ogilvy each accounted for a rhino in the

course of the day and Capt. Poynder bagged a bear just outside the Royal Camp.

December 2\st. — This was the last day of the Nepal shoot. H. R. H. rode

out after lunch with Col. O’Connor, the British Envoy, Sir Godfrey Thomas

and others.

686 JOUIi^^AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

In the course of the evening, near the village of Persanni, in British Territory,

the Prince encountered a Hamadryad or King Cobra which he luckily killed. The

party were walking up jungle fowl at the time. H.R. H. first shot at the snake

as it was moving away and apparently hit it, for the brute turned and appeared

to be about to attack him \vhen he killed it with his second barrd. The snake

was brought into camp with the rest of the daj^'s bag. It was first assumed that

it was an ordinary Rat Snake or Dhaman when examined in the fading light.

Subsequently when the skin was examined at the Society’s Museum in Bombay

the identity of the reptile was revealed. The Prince’s King Cobra taped 10' 3".

The Hamadiyad, the largest known poisonous snake in the world, grows to about

15' in length. The record specimen now in the Society’s Museum measures

15' 5". Much has been written about the ferocity of the King Cobra, and its

projxsnsity for making an unprovoked attack. When cornered a King Cobra

may show fight, or a female will very probably attack should her nest or eggs bo

endangered, but experience has shown that these serpents under ordinary cir-

cumstances usually seek safety in flight.

On the 21st morning a party consisting of Lord Louis Mountbatten, Sir

Godfrey Thomas, Admiral Halsey, Col. Worgan, Commander Newport, Col.

Harvey and Mr. A. Metcalfe went down to Dhoba near the 20th milestone

where a tiger had been ringed. The following is an extract from Sir Godfrey

Thomas’s Diary ■ —

“ The ring was in very thick jungle and we spent sometime in getting

the elephants to trample down a patch in front of each gun. Nothing

happened for sometime till we got a fright when a big pig suddenly dashed

out. Shortly afterwards we heard a tiger woofing in the middle but he

could not be seen. Suddenly he appeared in the same place as the pig, and was

just coming out when Mr. Metcalfe got him with a very good shot in the

head. He could not see where he fell but he subsequently proved to be

stone dead. Metcalfe was all for getting down to have a look at him but

as they shouted out that there was another tiger in the ring we quickly

resumed our places. Sure enough a tigress came dashing out again by an

extraordinary’ coincidence right in front of us. Metcalfe missed with his

first shot whereupon the beast charged the elephants on our left. There

was a regular mix up, elephants trumpeting, squealing and going in every

direction. I did not dare fire but Metcalfe took what looked like a pretty

dangerous second shot, apparently without result. By then all the elephants

had cleared off and seeing a gap the tigress went straight through. I turned

round in my howdah and got a broadside shot just as she was disappearing,

and thought I hit but couldn’t be absolutely certain. However they swung

the elephant round and made a big ring round the place she was going to.

They beat about in the middle for sometime V’ithout anything happening.

I thought she had probably slipped right through, a,s had she been wounded,

they would have known it properly. However they suddenly discovered

her quite dead having burrowed right under some grass so as to be prac-

tically’ invisible. Metcalfe and I were lucky’ in getting both beasts from

the same elephant. My shot had gone right through about 6" behind the

shoulder.”

All the shooting was fiirished by 6 p.m. and the evening was spent in saying

good-bye. H. H. The Maharaja and his sons went dou’n to Bikna Thori station

to see the Royal Party off and the Roy'al Train steamed out of Bikna Thoii

station at 6-30 p.m.

Thus ended H. R. H. the Prince of Wales’ shoot in the Nepal Terai which

certainly’ for the colossal scale on which it was carried out is to be ranked

among the greatest in the annals of big game shooting in this country’.

687—888

GAME RECORD OK THE ROYAL SHOOT IN* NEPAL.

December (o 21«f Deeemb^ 1921.

In addition to the 17 tigert shot a cub was taken alive and was included in tbecollcction oHive animals presented to H. R. H. by the Maharaja of Nepal.

Date.

Place where shot.

Shot by

Sex.

Remarks,

RHINOCEROS.

1 6th

nth

19tb

. . Kasra

. . Do.

. . Sarasoti Kholn

Do.

(Art jwi-nnumHen^jt tnkfn in

Capt. Dudley North

Capt. Poynder

H. U. H, Prince of Wales . .

Commander NcwiKirt

. Dhoba

. 15tb milestone

. . Percival Landon, Esq.

j

..'Lord Louis Mounthatten

..^Hon'ble Bruce Ogilvy

Two rhinos wounded by H. R. H. and Capt. Dudley North respectively

rhe bides were found to bo too decomposed to be of use.

the

. . Female.

. . D.i.

. . Male

.. 1)0

. . A calf was taken in vtero.

. . The horn was broken.

Single '.I(!5 bullet through temple between

jaw and the eye.

One hole through right car, one hole near

left eye and one Imlo on the left side of

the neck.

Female.

Do.

were subsequently picked up dead by the Nepalese after the shoots were oveb

7’oto/s-

Tigera .. .. •• •• •• ..17

Rbino

Leopards. .

Bears

Hamadryad

1

W;.‘ ^3

«<•

A.

■ 7

'I

'

■*

V ■

JSte^’ *•

H. R. H. THE RRiyCE OF WALEH' SHOOTS.

689

NOTES ON NEPAL SHOOTING.

Ehinoceros {R. unicornis).

Throughout the shoots I never had the opportunity of measuring any of

the animals in the flesh* as they were generally shot far away from camp, and

were disarticulated on the spot and sent into the skinning camp in sections,

this being the easiest method of transporting these big beasts. I am indebted

to General Kaiser Shumsher Jung for the following note on the Rhinoceros

in Nepal. General Kaiser gives the following measurement of a rhino which

appeared to him as ‘unusually’ big : —

had left Nepal, taped o'-9" in height at withers, greatest girth 12'. The longest

rhino horn obtained in Nepal, w^as one of an animal shot by Lord Curzon, then

Viceroy in 1901, at Morang. The horn measured 21^ inches with a circum-

ference of 24| inches at the base. The record horn measures 24* and was

got by Mr. Briscoe in Assam.

Hodgson gives the following measurement of a new born rhino length 3'-4*

and height 2'. An animal 8 years old taped 9'-3" in length and 4'- 10" in height,

the maximum girth being 10'-5". A fulljr developed calf in utero taken from

an animal shot during the Prince’s shikar ih Nepal measured as follows : —

Length between pegs . . . . . . . . 4'-l"

Head and body . . . . '. . , . . . 3'-4"

Girth . . . . . . . . I . . . 2'-9"

Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 lbs.

Commenting on the habits of the animal General Kaiser writes, “ I'hough

it prefers swamps and high grass the great Indian Rhinoceros is also found

in wooded jungles, up ravines and low hills ; along the numerous rivers it has its

particular places for the evacuation of excreta. Along the runs to such places

it walks backw'ards and falls an unsuspecting victim to poachers.” The period

of gestation is given by Hodgson as 17-18 months though General Kaiser says

it is believed to be one j’ear, and the cow produces one at birth. According

to General Kaiser breeding takes place at all times of the year. Writers have

commented on the longevity of the Rhinoceros, a hundred years being given as

the age. General Kaiser is of opinion that as regards breeding and longevity

the ‘ rhino ’ is ‘ first cousin to the elephant.’ ”

Rhinoceros are still very numerous in the Nepal Terai, especially so in

Chitawan and along the Rapti river. In January 1907, 28 rhinos were bagged,

14 males and 14 females, yet the forests in Chitawan were in 1909 so full of

them that no appreciable diminution in the stock had been made.

Many legends and beliefs are attached to the Rhinoceros in Nepal. Mr.

Landon’s eloquent account of the scene at the death of one of these animals

during the shoot in Nepal is sufiiciently illustrative of the esteem the animal

is held in by the Nepalese in general. Commenting on the above General Kai-

ser writes : —

“ The flesh and blood of the rhino is considered pure and highly acceptable

to the Manes, to whom the high caste Hindus and most Gurkhas offer libation

of its blood after entering its disembowelled body. On ordinary Sradh days

• With the exception of the Rhino calf in utero.

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

the libation of water and milk is poured from a cup carved from its horn. The

urine is considered antiseptic : it is hung in a vessel at the principal door as a

charm against ghosts, evil spirits and diseases.” The above beliefs are in no-

wise confined to Nepal as the Chinese, Burmese and Siamese preserve practi-

cally every part of the rhinoceros. The horn, hoof, blood, urine, hide and even

the intestines being dried up and afterwards converted into various medicines.

As regards shooting rhino in Nepal the importance of a vital shot has been

already commented upon. Selous in his ‘ Hunters Wanderings in Africa ’ in

writing about rhino says : — “ As with elephants it is very unsatisfactory work

following up a wounded rhino as they do not go and lie down but walk on and

on tnl their strength gives way. They die very quickly when shot through both

lungs and the upper part of the heart, but if shot from the front, and the bullet

only penetrates one lung, they will go on to all eternity though throwing blood

out of their mouth and nostrils by the gallon. With a broken shoulder they

wll run first at a gallop and then at a halting trot for more than a mile, but

if the hind leg is broken they do not appear to be able to budge a step.”

Conditions in Nepal are entirely different from the country in which Selous

shot; owing to the nature of the terrain the tracking of wounded rhino is practically

impossible and many a mortally wounded beast has been lost in consequence.

A shot through the brain placed a few inches in front of the root of the ear

would seem to be the most effective, or a shot through the forepart of the neck

severing the cervical vertebrae. In the Society’s journal Mr. G. C. Shortridge

records shooting an Asiatic two-horned rhino with a shot yun loaded with lethal

bullet dropping him at 7 paces with a lucky shot in the head which sma

through the skufl and lodged in the brain. shed

Writing of the Rhinoceros of Somali Land (iJ. bicornis) Captain P. Z. Cox

(Society’s Journal, Vol. XITT, p. 93 et seq.) describes his experiences and those

of Donaldson- Smith, as tothe effect of variously placed shots with heavy rifles,

the conclu.sion arrived at b.^ing that the “ knock out ” blow is a broadside shot

in the belly, the reason probably being that in this part of the Rhino’s anatomy,

there is such a number of nerve.« and blood vessels that a bullet planted

therein causes him a violent shock to the system.

Another writer commenting on the abo\^e on page 538 of Vol. XIII takes

exception to the belly shot, states he has no faith in head shots, and consi-

ders a shot behind the shoulder to be the most fatal.

Tiger {F. tiyris).

The method of ‘ ringing ’ tiger with elephants is I think peculiar to Nepal

and certain parts of Assam and is necessitated by the dense jungle, found in

the foot hills or Terai. This must be seen to be appreciated. Dense elephant

grass up to 20' in height and so thick as to almost obscure the elephant from tlie

view of the howdah occupant in its passage through it. The training of the actual

elephants that beat the inside of the ring is astonishing. Time after time they

beat through this dense jungle and in more than one instance have been mauled

by the tiger. This also speaks volumes for the courage of the mahouts. The

method of ringing was very interesting and exceedingly skilful. Two lines in a V

advanced through the jungle where the ‘ kill’ was known to have been

dragged to, one line beating up towards the other. As soon as the tiger was

flushed the open ends of the V closed in an incredibly short time, and in only

two cases failed to enclose the game.* *

The vitality of one tigress calls for comment ; she and two cubs were ringed

on, I think, the fourth day and was still alive and dangerous with 2 bullets

through the head, one in the neck, one in the chest, two in the shoulders and

one in the body.

* For ftirther notes on Tiger Ringing in Nepal, vide Fi.'ld April 22nd and

May tJth, 1922.

Journ , Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE Prince of Wales with his Rhinoceros.

1 R. H. i.s seen wearing his Nepal Kukri.

Journ , Bombay Nat Hist. Soc

A Young Oueat Indian Hhinoceros {R. tiniconi's'^.

H. R. if. THE PRINCE OF WALES’ HHOOT.

691

Elephants {E. maximus).

The visitor to Nepal is struck with the numbers of elephants met with. The

total roll-call of elephants used in connection with the Royal shoots was 423,

which were divided into three sections according to the district, viz, , those

assigned to Thore, those to Haraiya and those to Kasra. What the

camel is to the desert the elephant is to Nepal — practically the only means

of transport through its pathless jungles. In the wild state they are plentiful

in the South of Nepal (the Terai). In some years they are more commonly

found than in others. During the rains they visit the cultivated portion of the

Terai doing a considerable ariiount of damage to crops, etc. For the greater

part of the time they are buried in the dense jungle roaming in herds of 80 to 90

and, with the exception of an occasional ‘rogue’, doing a great deal of harm

to life and property, these elephants unless molested seldom attack. Numbers

are annually caught in Nepal and tamed, a young elephant being completely

domesticated by the Nepalese in six months though an old elephant will often

take a year to thoroughly tame. The pad elephant is perhaps more comfortable

as a means of transport than the howdah-carrying beast. The danger of the

animal bolting is a contingency which might at any time arise in hunting from

an elephant in a heavy forest country, where an occurrence of this nature is

fraught with extreme danger to the occupants of a howdah or indeed of

a pad. A friend of mine related an exciting experience which befell him

while shooting in the Terai. An infuriated rhino took it into his head to

charge, and selecting the elephant on which he was seated made a terrific

onrush. The elephant immediately turned and bolted for dear life, hotly

pursued by the monster. My friend’s mount was frantic with fear and went

crashing through the jungle. In a moment half the howdah was swept off by the

branch of a tree, the great beast not abating the pace one jot went on and on.

My friend thought he would be killed and stood an excellent chance of ending

his career. The rhino was close behind and would certainly have ‘ got

home ’ had she not been turned from her purpose by her calf, who stopped

abruptly and the mother seeing she was unaccompanied turned and gave up the

chase. The elephant swerved to the left fortunately striking an open bit of

country, but she did not give up her headlong flight, till she had put a good 2

miles between herself and the scene of the adventure.

Collection of Animals, Birds and Reptiles presented by H. H. The

Mahar.aja of Nepal to H. R. H. The Prince of Wales on Sunday,

December 18th, 1921, at the Shooting Camp, Biknathori.

Mammals and Invertebrates.

1 Baby Elephant {E. maximus).

1 Rhino Calf {R. unicornis).

2 I.eopard Cats (F. bengalensis).

2 Himalayan Black Bears {V. himalayanus).

1 Black Leopard (F. pardus).

1 Clouded Leopard {F. nebulosa).

1 Tiger {F. tigris).

1 Tibetan Fox (F. ferrilatus).

1 Mountain Fox ( V. montanus).

2 Sambhar.s (C. unicolor).

1 Tahr (H. jemlaicusK

3 Musk Deer (.'/. moschiferus).

1 One-hornecl Sheep t^Ovis sp.).

1 Four-horned Sheep ( „ ).

1 One-horned Tibetan ShaM l Goat (Ovts sp.).

692 JOUliNAl, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIBTl, Vol. A'AT/ii,

Mammals and Invertebrates — contd.

2 Tibetan mastiffs (C. domesticus).

„ „ pups.

1 Monitor (F. bengalensis).

1 Python (P. molurus).

Birds.

4 Nepal Kalij (G. leucomelanus).

1 White Crested Kalij Pheasant {G. albocristatus).

4 Monal Pheasants (X. refulgens).

4 Cheer Pheasants (C. wallichi).

2 Koklass Pheasants (P. macrolopha).

4 Chukore Partridges (C. chukor).

Swamp Partridges (P. gularis).

2 Green Pigeons (0. phayrei).

10 Bronze-\\ inged Doves {C. indica).

.3 Great Indian Adjutants (L. dubius).

1 Hawk .

Pea-fowls (P. cristatus).

The animals were brought down from Nepal to Bombay under the charge of

the writer of this article and Capt. Shanka Bahadur Shah, a cousin of the

Maharaja, and some Nepalese assistants and though there was a certain amoimt

of delay they stood the journey very well and arrived in Bombay on January

10th without any casualties.

BAGS* OF SOME OF THE SMALLER SHOOTS BETWEEN

NOVEMBER 26th, 1921, UP TO BUT NOT INCLUDING

THE MYSORE SHOOT IN FEBRUARY 1922—

TOGETHER WITH SOME FIELD NOTES.

SMALL GAIVIE SHOOTING AT UDAIPUR.

2&h November.

First Party. A party consisting of H. R. H. the Prince of V^ales, Lord Louis

Mountbatten, Col. Harvey, Capt. Dudley North, Commander Newport and

]\Ir. D. Petrie went out to the Pichola Lake and shot 1 1 Snipe and one Chinkara

in two and a half hours. They also shot at Fateh Sagar and got 1 Goose, 15

Snipe and one Cliinkara. (The Chinkara were shot by Lord Louis Mountbatten

and Capt. Dudley North.)

Second Party consisting of Sir G. de Montmorency, Col. Worgan, and Mr. A.

Metcalfe shot at Jaisamand and got 15 Snipe.

A party consisting of Admiral Halse3^, Sir G. de Montmorency, Sir Godfrey

Thomas, Col. IVorgan, Capt. Bruce Ogilvy and Mr. Holland, Agent to the

Governor-General in Rajputana, went to Jaisamand. There were two beats for

Sambhar and Leopard, but nothing was shot, though some Sambhar were seen.

IMPERIAL SAND GROUSE AND SMALL GAME SHOOTING AT BIKANER.

3rd December.

The whole party motored out from Bikaner to Kodamdesar to shoot

demoiselle crane. H. R. H. and staff arrived at Kodamdesar at about

10 o’clock where they found a small artificial tank .surrounded bj' huts with

decoy cranes placed around. Having got into their huts, lookout men were

* Most of the Bags were taken from the Ro.val Game Book now in the

possession of the Hon’ble Bruce Ogilvy.

H. B. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES’ SHOOTS.

693

posted at various points who signalled when they saw flights of crane approach-

ing. T1 ey were generally flying too high to start with, so people were told to

let them fly round two or three times and let them get lower before shooting

at them. In the morning at Kodamdesar the bag was 26 crane and 4 duck.

In the afternoon the party shot duck in Gujner Lake. They got 299 ducks.

Total bag of the day 303 ducks and 26 cranes.

r->th December.

H. R. H.’s staff at Gujner shot 5 Duck, 1,061 Imperial Rand Grouse and 324

Common Sand Grouse.

Admiral Halsey shot at Gujner 1 Black Buck and 1 Chinkara.

Gth December.

H. R. H. and staff at Gujner shot 2 Duck, 885 Imperial Sand Grouse and

29 Common Sand Grouse.

H. R. H. shot 2 Black Buck and 1 Chinkara.

Lord Louis Mountbatten shot 4 Chinkara.

BLACK BUCK AND DUCK SHOOTING IN BHARATPUR.

Ith December.

Lord Louis Mountbatten. 1 Black Buck.*

Sth December.

TT r> TT j T, \ 1 Black Buck.

H. R. H and Party. | 2^200 Duck, t

In the duck shoot the birds remained more or less low for the first 20 minutes.

Some of the butts were nearly 2 miles’ walk from the edge of the lake. Conse-

quently although people walked as fast as they could, the bugle for the com-

mencement sounded 10 minutes before they could get to the butts. After

this gun cases had to be opened so that some of the best part of the shooting

was missed. *

ELEPHANT AND SMALL GAME IN BURMA.

4th January.

Commander Newport,

Mr. Petrie,

Mr. Foster.

4th January.

Admiral Halsey,

Mr. Petrie,

Commander Newport,

Mr. Thompstone.

January.

Sir G. deMontmorency.

Col. O’Kinealy.

1th January.

H. R. H.,

Col. Harvey,

Commander Vibart.

Lord Cromer,

Lord Louis Mountbatten,

Mr. Thompstone.

J

* One of Lord Louis Mountbatten’s Black Buck measured 264."

t H, R, H. the Prince of Wales accounted for 65 birds.

16

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Admiral Halsey,

Mr. Petrie,

Sir G. deMontmorency,

Col. Pringle.

Commander Newport,

Mr. Laidlaw.

1

y 68 Snipe.

j

I 29 Snipe.

On January 2nd a party consisting of Capt. Dudley North, Capt. Piers Legh,

Sir Godfrey Thomas, Capt. Metcalfe, Capt. Poynder and Capt. Ogilvy left Ran-

goon for Mandalay en-route for Upper Burma. They arrived at Mandalay early-

on the 3rd, and embarked on a steamer to go up the Irrawady. There were

three different places at which to shoot and the party' was split up as follows : —

Capt. Metcalfe and Capt. Poynder and

Capt. Ogilvy. Sir Godfrey Thomas.

Capt. Dudley North and

Capt. Piers Legh.

The elephant shooting party returned on the 8th, spending that night in

Mandalay and reached Rangoon on the morning of the 10th.

B'lg.

Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh . . 1 Elephant.

Capt. E. D. Metcalfe at Ingadi . . 1 „

Capt. F. S. Poynder ... ... ... 1 ,,

3 Elephants.*

There were six guns in three parties in the Mogok (Ruby Mines) District.

Two guns disembarked at Ingadi and Singu ; the remainder at Thabeitkyin, the

terminus of the Ruby Mines road. In each case jungle was very thick, teak

and bamboo being predominant, with some fine timber and spear grass. Fresh

tracks of Tsaine and Bison were found in large quantity, but the density of the

undergrowth and the consequent noise prevented close approach. At this time

of the year, although there was an immense amount of game in the jungle, it was

impossible to get up to it, owing to the leaves on the ground being so dry, and

it was impossible to track properly. After a long trek, just as the sun was going

down on the 5th of January, Sir Godfrey Thomas flushed a bull Tsaine who gave

a bellow and was off. Later, when hot on the bull's track, he saw two herds of

Tsaine. Then darkness came on.

Capt. Ogilvy had a shot at a Bison, but again in such dense jungle that a

certain sight could not be obtained. Capt. Legh got a fine tusker elephant

(solitary) and his trackers flushed two large bull bisons. They were -within a

100 yards of him when he was inspecting a kill.

On the 7th of January Capt. Poynder got a medium size Tusker (solitary'),

and killed him with one shot between the ey^e and the ear.

Sir Godfrey Thomas who started at 5-30 a.m. had a very hard day. He

came across fairly fresh tracks and some quite fresh Sambhar blood. It was a

sambhar that had been chased and attacked by -wild dogs.

Capt. Metcalfe got a small tusker out of a herd and he took a dozen rounds

to finally kill it. Large numbers of barking deer were very common and were

often seen. Tracks of many sambhar were also found, and the jungle was full

of monkey's — mostly Gibbons.

Writing about these shoots Mr. V. H. T. Fields Clarke says—

“ Capt. Ogilvy and I had 4 fairly strenuous days. The first day we went

out after bison, but did not come across any sufficiently fresh tracks. The

*Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh's Elephant tusks weighed 20 lbs. and 21 lbs.

respectively. Their length from root to tip along the curve was 3'-6" and 3'-5"

respectively. I did not have the opportunity of examining Capt. Metcalf’s or

Capt. Poynder's Elephant tusks.

U. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES' SHOOTS.

695

second day we went out after Saing, but could not find the herd. The

jungle was very dry and bad for shooting generally. On the third day

news of the fresh tracks having been brought in the day before — we

followed the tracks of a solitary bison till about 3 p. m. when we came

on the animal in dense young flowered bamboo jungle. Capt. Ogilvy got

a shot, but where he hit we could never decide — anyhow it was not in a

vital spot. The next day we followed up the animal again and although

we were close behind it, it knew it w’as being followed and kept ahead of

us. This day we left camp at 5 a.m. and did not get into Singu till 11 p.m.

and must have done all told the best part of 30 miles.”

The party covered more than 65 miles in three days ; mostly climbing, too,

through very fine jungle. The hills there w'cnt up to 3,900 feet.

SNIPE SHOOTING AT MADRAS.

14/^ January by a party of members of the stall . . 65 Snipe.

\lth January ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, . . 44 ,,

21s^ January „ „ „ „ „ • • 21 „

Total bag . . 65 couple.

This was very interesting shooting because the snipe were mostly in bushes.

There was no water aitd the shooting was mostly overhead.

BLACK BUCK SHOOTING IN INDORE.

2nd February.

Capt. Dudle}' North,

Capt. the Hon’ble Piers Legh and

Capt. Ogilvy

3rd February.

Capt. Dudley North,

Capt. Piers Legh,

.Sir Godfrey Thomas and

Commander Newport

1 Black Buck.

I

^2 Black Buck.

J

Total bag . . 3 Black Buck.

The shoot on February 2nd was an ordinary stalk on a flatish plain. There

were a great many buck, but at first no one could get near any of them. A

pack donkey w'as conscripted and then Capt. Dudley North shot a buck.

On February 3rd the party motored out from Indore about 8 miles where they

found bullock carts. Sir Godfrey Thomas got bis buck after going about three

quarters of an hour. There were a lot of herds about. Commander Newport

also got a buck. The name of the district wLere shooting took place on

both occasions was Bijasani (one of the State preserves).

RIFLES AND GUNS USED BY H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES

AND SOME MEMBEKS OF H. R. H.’S STAFF DURING

THE SHOOTS IN INDIA.

RIFLES — H. R. H. the Prince of Wales, K.G., M.C.

1. One '400 bore express double barrel rifle No. 21906 by J. Purdey and

Sons, London. Barrels made of Sir Joseph Whitworth’s fluid

pressed steel, taking 47 grains low pressure Cordite and 230

grains bullet

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV III.

2. One ‘400 bore express double barrel rifle by J. Purdey and Sons,

London, taking 3" case, 47 grains low pressure Cordite and 230

grains nickel base bullet.

3. * One '280 bore single barrel high velocity magazine rifle by Chas.

Lancaster, No. 13097, taking 52 grains powder and 160 grains

hollow bullet.

4. One ‘450 bore rifle supplied by H. H. the Maharaja of Udaipur.

5. One "470 bore rifle supplied by H. H. the Maharaja of Udaipur,

Sir Godfrey Thomas, C.V.O.

1. One -450 bore rifle by George Gibbs.

2. One ‘280 bore Ross single barrel magazine rifle. Property of Lt.-Co).

R. D. Waterhouse, C.B., C.M.G., Buckingham Palace.

Capt. Dudley North, C.M.G., C.V.O., R.X.

1. One ’470 bore double barrel rifle by Gibbs. (Shot tiger and rhino

in Nepal with this). This rifle was used by H. U.H. when he shot

his Rhino.

2. One ’286 bore Mauser magazine rifle for Chmkara, etc. (Probably this

is a mistake and ought to read '256 bore Mannlicker Schonauer.)

Capt. F. S. Poynder, M.V.O., M.C.

1. One '470 bore double barrel high velocity rifle by ‘Chas. Boswell, charge

75 grains Axite and 500 grains bullet.

This was a first class all round weapon which could not be bettered.

2. One -350 bore single barrel automatic rifle by Remington Arms Co.

firing 200 grains bullet. Little used on this tour, but an efiflcient light

rifle. Not recommended for normal all round use owing to delicate

mechanism being likely to jam under unfavourable conditions of

sand, etc.

Capt. Poynder could not speak too highly of No. 1. He shot a tiger

and an elephant each with one shot killing them instantly. It is very power-

ful. not too heavy to be portable and hits like a sledge hammer.

Capt. E. D. Metcalfe, M.C.

1. One '450 bore express rifle.

Lord Louis Mountbatten, M.V.O., R.N.

1. One '450-400 bore double barrel high velocity rifle by Watson Bros.

For Tiger and Rhino.

2. One '375 bore rifle by Watson Bros, for Buck and Gazelle.

H. R. H. THE Prince of Wales.

GUNS .

1. Two 16 bore double barrel guns by J. Purdey & Sons, London. (Made

of Sir Joseph Whitworth’s fluid pressed steel).

Capt. F. S. Poynder.

1. One 12 bore double barrel hammerless gun by Francis Scott,

Birmingham.

• II. M. the King in 1911 used the same t3rpe of rifle in Nepal.

H. R. II. THE PRIECE OF WALES’ SHOOTS.

697

I am very much indebted to different members of H. R. H. the Prince of

W ales’ staff whose names appear in my notes and to all who took part in the

shoots for the help and encouragement they have given me in compiling these

records, especially to Sir Geoflrej' de Montmorency, who most kindly read

through the final proofs for me. The authorities in Nepal, in particular

General Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur and Col. O’Connor, also helped me very

much, and it is through the kindness of Col. Samar Shumsher, a nephew of the

Maharaja, that some of the photos are published. But most of all I am grateful

to Col. Burton, a big game hunter of great experience with whom readers of the

Journal are familiar for his valuable advice and criticism, and my colleague Mr.

Prater, who with his ever ready good nature, and his great experience, gave me

most valuable assistance both as regards the editing and final arrangement, and

the selection of material from a mass of rough field notes. I regret that

exigencies of space, and the not-to-be-forgotten question of expense, has

prevented me from publishing a large number of illustrations of the Nepal

shoot (and other shoots mentioned in the narrative), from the photographic

records in my possession.

In a future number of the Journal will appear a report drawn up by Messrs.

Hinton and T. B. Fry of the British Museum regarding recent Natural History

collecting in Nepal. This collecting work was conducted by Lt.-Col. R, L.

Kennion with the assistance of the Society’s collector N. A. Baptista, and

the report deals with the physical configuration of Nepal, so that in this

article I have not dealt further in the matter of describing the country.

Bombay Natural History Society,

12th June 1922.

698

NOTES ON NEW AND RARE INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

By

I

Maj. F. C. Frasek, i.m.s.

{With 2 Text Figures.)

1. Hemicordulia asiatica, Seiys.

Up to the year 1918 this rare dragonfly was only known Irom 2 males both of

which had been taken in Assam. In the year mentioned whilst going over a

collection of specimens sent from the Agriculture Institute, Pusa, I found a pair

of these insects which had been taken some time before by Mr. Bainbrigge

Fletcher at Sliillong and had remained in the Pusa collection for some time

unidentified.

i\Ir. Fletcher on his next visit to Shillong took a number of specimens both

male and female on the Ward Lake and has sent me others since.

It was thought that the insect was localised to the N. W. until this year when

I received a letter from Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher who was staying in Kodaikanal

stating that he had seen a Corduline on the lake there which much resembled

Heinicorduiia asiatica., He finally secured specimens both by the net and others

which he found caught up in spider webs on sedges, on the borders of the lake

and on receipt I found them to be true H. asiatica.

ilr. Bainbrigge Fletcher in his covering letter, wdien sending these specimens

suggested that the insect would probably be found in the Nilgiris and in this he

proved to be a true prophet. Two days after receiving his letter I had occasion

to go down to Coonoor and there in a shady lane adjoining Sims Park took my

first H. asiatica, a male, which was hawking insects up and down the road.

The same day on returning to Ooty I ran doun to the lake and immediately

saw a male and shortly afterwards several more, hawking along the banks.

The insect is fairly common on the Lovedale lake as well as the Ooty lake

from August to the 1st November, exuvia being common in September and larvse

not difficult to obtain amongst the grass and sedges lining both lakes.

1 hope to obtain information of this insect from the lake in Newara-Eliya,

Ceylon, next season and probably also from the lake at Mahableshwar. From

the numbers seen it would appear that the insect is more common in the south

than the far north.

2. Aciagrion paludensis, sp. nov.

2 males and one female at Masnagudi, Nilgiris, 4,500' ; 2 males Avalanche,

Nilgiris, 6,500', Nov.-Dee. 1921.

Male. Abdomen 24 mm. Hindwing 15 mm.

Head. Face, cheeks epistome and lips pale blue -with a fine, basal, black line

to the labrum and a broad transverse band across the epistome, also black ;

eyes pale blue except for a broad, black cap on the upper pole ; occiimt and

vertex black, the former with a transverse, oval postocular spot of pale blue on

either side connected across the middle line by a narrow band of the same

colour.

Prothorax, with a fine pale blue colour anteriorly, the posterior border

finely pale yellow and the sides broadly pale blue.

Thorax black on the dorsum marked with narrow, pale j^ellow, humeral

bands ; the sides blue marked only by two small, black, linear spots posteriorly ;

tergum spotted with blue.

Legs white, the extensor surface of femora striped vith black.

Wings hyaline, stigma small, equal in all four wings, sepia ; postnodal nervures

9 in the forewing, 8 in the hind.

Abdomen pale blue marked with black as follows segment 1 with an

obdurate, dorsal, black spot separated by a narrow, blue, apical annule from a

yOTJSS ON NEW AND RARE INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. 699

dorsal, black, thistle-shaped mark on segment 2. The latter mark connected by

a short, narrow stalk to a narrow, black annule at the apex; segments 3 to 7 with

broad, dorsal, black stripes connected to apical, black annules and separated from

each other by narrow, blue, basal annules ; segment 8 all blue save for a dorsal,

black mark shaped like a chess pawn with its apex directed basal. In the

Masnagudi specimens this spot extends as far as the base but in the specimens

from Avalanche it falls far short of it ; segment 9 entirely blue ; 10 Avith a dorsal,

broad, X-like mark of black.

Anal superior appendages very small, foliate, triangular, strongly divaricate,

black tipped with white ; inferior appendages small, conical and white.

Female. Abdomen 23 mm. Hindwing 15.5 mm.

Almost exactly similar to the male and differing only by the stouter abdomen,

by the 8th segment having an uniformly, broad, black, dorsal stripe, segment 9,

a large, basal, triangular, black spot and the 10th all blue. The anal border of

the latter is strongly indented and raised into a prominent hump on the dorsum

not hoAvever cleft on top as in the Ischmira. The spine on the ventral, apical

aspect of segment 8 is white and very robust.

Hah. The Masnagudi specimens Avere found among sedges along the borders

of the drinking Avater tank, whilst those from the plateau above AAere found in

marshes. They are very conspicuous although so small, by reason of their

bright blue colour and can be easily picked out from the more sombre coloured

Aciagrion hisopa Avith Avhich they mix. They are smaller and more slender

than any of the other species of the genus.

I have seen a pair collected by Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher at Simla, 23-5-1918,

7,000', AA-hich apjAarently belongs to this species or is a local race. They differ

only in haAung 8 instead of 9 postnodal nervures in the foreAving, and the mark-

ing on the 8th segment which in the male is a plain Avedge of black taiDering

from the apex of the segment to its base and imidented on its sides.

From hisopa and tilhjardi the species may be distinguished by the fewer

postnodal nervures and also by the 8th abdominal segment bearing a black

marking (immaculate in the tAA’o species mentioned).

3. Anaciaeschna donaldi, sp. nov.

As the description of this ncAV species is shortly appearing in “ Indian

Dragonflies ”, I refrain from here giving it in detail. Shortly it may be described

as an Anacixschna of the size and bulk of Anax immaculijrons, Avith the AAungs

deeply and uniformly enfumed from base to apices and vrith the general colouring

of the body, dark warm brown marked with brilliant apple green. It is one of

the largest and finest of the Indian dragonflies so far discovered.

ilr. Bainbrigge Fletcher sent me a painting made by his Avife of this insect

from Kodaikanal this year and from it I was able to recognise an insect which

I had had in my possession since 1908 in which year I had taken it at Kodai.

( The note oc the packet stated that the insect’s colours were dark broAAUi and

bright apple green, but the colours had so faded that I was unable to make out

any such markings, and so was reluctant to publish the species until I had more

reliable data). A few days later I took a female of the same insect on the Ooty

lake and a Aveek later received another female from Mr. T. Hearsey from Yercaud

BetAveen the three of us Ave secured 6 females and saAv probably another 6 (also

females). Both ilr. Hearsey and Mr. Fletcher believe they have seen the males

flAung SAviftly near the lakes, but I have not been as fortunate and up to date the

whereabouts of the male and its appearance remain a complete mystery. I

have recently found the larvae of this insect in considerable numbers in the

Lovedale lake, Ooty, and both Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher and myself have found

a number of exuvia. The venation on the wing covers of these latter has been

very distinct and very easy to decipher. Quite a number of the exuvia and larvae

obtained are males so their scarcity is hard to explain. Adjacent jungles have

been searched in vain and the ponds have been visited at dusk in the hope that

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

the insect might be a night-flyer as is its cousin A. jaspidea, but all in vain.

During the past week I have found it breeding in marshes at Avalanche,

Nilgiris, and such spots are probably its natural habitat as all standing waters

in these and the Palni Hills are artificial and of comparatively modern forma-

tion. I have now a large number of larvae and should be able to breed out some

males in the next few months thus settling the identity of this puzzling insect.

4. Gynacantha o’doneli, sp. nov.

A single male from Hasimara, Duars, Bengal, collected by Mr. H. V. O’Donel.

Male. Abdomen 41 mm. Hindwing 39 mm. Anal appendages 4 mm.

Closely resembles G. millardi, Fras., from Poona and Malabar, but differs

from it by the 3rd segment being more constricted, by all four wings being uni-

formly enfumed and by its much smaller size which is equivalent to G. saltatrix,

Martin. The relative sizes of abdomen and hindwing are however different,

being 42-35 in saltatrix to 41-39 in o'doneli, and the dark T-shaped marking on

the upper surface of the frons is absent in the latter.

The thorax is an uniform, olive green, paler below and with no traces of

humeral bands.

Legs very pale brown with black spines.

Abdomen olivaceous green and brown marked vuth darker brown and black,

apical rings at and towards the end of the segments. The first 2 segments are

largely olivaceous green especially on the sides. The oreillets are large and robust

and bear 5 to 6 robust spines on the posterior border.

Wings (very ragged in this specimen) deeply enfumed ; nodal index : —

13-22 I 18-13

; trigones with 5 cells ; hypertrigones traversed four times ;

16-14 I 1.5-15

4-5 rows of cells between Rspl. and Rs. 3-4 between Miv. and Mspl. ; mem-

brane absent ; anal triangle of 5 cells ; stigma dark golden brown, over 3-4 ceils

braced.

Anal superior appendages long and slender, almost straight on the outer

border, a little dilated after the 1st quarter inw'ardly, fringed with long hairs,

black and inwardly directed and meshing with those of the other appendage.

Inferior appendage triangular, nearly half the length of the superiors.

5. Amphithemis nigricolor, sp. nov.

One pair from Hasimara, Duars, Bengal, collected by Mr. H. V. O’Donel.

Male. Abdomen 23 mm. Hindwing 23 mm.

Head. Labium, labrum and epistome creamy white ; frons and vesicle

metallic blue ; occiput black. Eyes reddish browm.

Rest of body, thorax, abdomen and legs matt black, except abdominal segments

2 and 3 which are quite white with pruinescence. There is also some slight

pruinescence on the tergum.

Wings hyaline ; stigma narrow, very dark brown, non-braced, over about 2

cells ; extreme bases of wings slightly saffronated ; membrane very small,

cinereous ; 2 rows of cells in the beginning of the discoidal field ; trigones entire ;

subtrigones traversed once as also the hypertrigones ; Mspl. absent ; 1 cubital

8-11—12-8

nervure to the forew'ings, 3 in the hind ; nodal index ; the base of

9-9—10-7

the hindwing very narrow, bevelled sharply off, no vestige of a loop.

Anal superior appendages resemble those of A. vacillans in shape, but the

superior are only slightly longer than the inferior.

The abdomen is very slender, cylindrical and of even length throughout.

Female. Abdomen and hindwdng 23.5 mm.

Very similar in shape to the male but slightly stouter and without its dainty

elegance. The wings are broader, especially the hind where a distinct loop of

7 cells is found.

701

NOTES ON NEW AND RARE INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

The reticulation in the apices of both right wings is aberrant and the right hind

stigma is double the length of any of the others. The basal saffronation is deeper

and more extensive ; in the right hindwing there is an aberrant cubital nervure

7-12—12-7

situated close up to the trigone in the angle ; nodal index ; neura-

&-9— 11-5

tion otherwise as in the male.

Head similar to that of the male, but the labrum broadly bordered with black

and the metallic of upper frons encroaching on the epistome.

Prothorax yellow with a black band in front ; posterior lobe small and

depressed.

Thorax golden yellow changing to golden brown on the dorsum where there

is a diffuse, humeral fascia only visible below ; a small, black streak on the upper

part of the postero-lateral suture.

Legs rather long, slim and blackish brown in colour.

Abdomen blackish brown, segments 2, 3 and 4 having broad, light golden

yellow, basal, annules, occupying l-4th, l-3rd and l-7th respectively of the basal

end of the segments, segments 5 to 7 with a small, basal, subdorsal spot of golden

yellow, the rest immaculate.

Genital valves very similar to those of A. curvistyl , but the vulvar scale cor-

rugated transversely.

The male is easily distinguished from other forms by its uniform black colour,

except A. vacillans which in the adult stage is also matt black with abdominal

segments 2 and 3 pruinosed white. (Mr. O’Donel informs me that this white

mark is very conspicuous and it evidently serves the purpose of a distinguishing

sexual mark.) From vacillans, nigricolor may be distinguished by the abdomen

and hindwing being of the same length in both the sexes and also by its smaller

size.

They apparently rest high as Mr. O’Donel informs me that he took the present

pair by a swish of his topee whilst riding on the back of an elephant.

1. Semi-lateral^ view of Macromia cingulata.

2. Do. do. of Macromia jiavocoloraia.

f02 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXl^IIl.

6. Macromia flavocolorata, sp. nov.

A single female from Hasimara, Duars, Bengal, collected by Mr. H. V.

O’Donel.

Abdomen 43 mm. Hindwing 38 mm.

Although the male of this insect has not yet been found, the markings of the

female are so striking and different from other species of the genus that I have no

hesitation in regarding it as new

It resembles M. cingulata by its brilliant clearly defined markings and is evi-

dently allied to that species which has hitherto stood alone in a monotypic

group, but there is no possibility of confusing the two.

The facial and abdominal markings differ widely from cingulata and the new

species is a much larger insect.

Head. Labium with the lateral lobes brown, the base naiTOwly yellow, mid-

lobe yellow, its border and a medial prolongation backwards bro^vn; labrum

shiny black with a transverse, bright citron yellow spot at its base ; frons and

face metallic bluish green with a broad, citron yellow spot traversing the epistome;

vesicle and occiput black ; eyes bluish green.

Prothorax small, yellowish.

Thorax metallic greenish blue marked vith citron yellow as follows : — The

antealar sinus and middorsal carina finely moderately broad, antehumeral

stripes not quite reaching the alar sinus ; laterally a broad, medial stripe and the

posterior third of the metepimeron. Beneath white marked with 3 black,

triangular spots arranged in a fteur-de-lys.

Abdomen tumid at the base, somewhat compressed, dilating again from the

7th segment, glossy jet black marked with clear, well-defined citron yellow marks

as follows ; — 1st segment wholly citron yellow save for a narrow, dark, apical

annule ; 2nd segment similar but the annule rather broader, narrowing laterally

and then sending a prolongation forwards beneath, on the dorsum the yellow

invading it slightly ; 3rd segment with a basal, subdorsal, linear spot and a medial,

smaller, subquadrate, dorsal spot finely separated from its fellow by the black,

dorsal crest. These medial spots repeated on segments 4, 5 and 6, hut growing

progressively smaller. On segment 7 the dorsal spots coalesce to form a very

large, quadrate basal, spot occupying nearly half the segment and throwing a

small projection analwards on either side of the dorsal crest. Segment 8 has a

small, round, subdorsal, basal spot and a quadrate spot low down on the side

at the basal end ; 9 and 10 are unmarked.

Wings very patchily enfumed, with some slight evidences of dark saffronation

at the extreme base ; stigma small, black ; 5 cubital nervures in the forewing,

4 in the hind ; hypertrigones traversed 2-3 times in the forewing, twice in the

9-15—15-6

hind ; nodal index : —

9-9—10-10

The clearly defined yellow markings will serve to separate this insect from all

other Indian species whilst the more restricted and irregular abdominal markings

will distinguish it from cingulata.

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I.

INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

1. — Pupa of Botnbylius major, L. x 4.

2. — A Cyrtid pupa (after Brauer).

3. — Wingless Phorid, PuZicipltora sp. (after Brues). x 38.

4. — Pipunculus sp. (Assam-Bhutan frontier). xlO.

4a. — Abdomen of Pip«ncMZ«s extensMs, Brunetti 5. (Occurs in Bengal.) x 23.

1 J

703

ON INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

BY

Hakold Russell, f.l.s., f.z.s.

II

With Tiro Plates

{Continued from page 380 of this Volume.)

III.

The Muscoihea.

The next five families that must be mentioned in connection with

parasitism and Diptera {Taclnnidce, Dexiidee, Muscidee, Sarco-

'phrtgidcB and (Eslridce) all belong to the super-family Muscoidea of

Townsend. It is very noteworthy that this Muscoidean stock has

developed three separate and absolutely distinct types of parasitism,

or at least feeding, on mammals. * All three have the same aim,

which is to nourish the dipterous larvae at the expense of the Mam-

malia. What is interesting is that each of the three has attained

the same result in such fundamentally opposite ways.

1. In the first group come Cuter ehra {(Eslridce) and its allies.

The end is attained by subcutaneous or internal larval endoparasitism.

The larva does all the feeding and the imago takes no nourishment

whatever. To such a complete extent does this prevail that the

adult mouthparts are atrophied and do not function at all. The

Oestrid habit of parasitism seems to be the oldest of the three.

2. In the second division we have Glossina {Muscidee) the genus

which includes the tse-tse flies. The same result is attained by

supracutaneous imaginal blood-sucking which strictly speaking is

not ectoparasitism. This is the exact antithesis of the preceding.

The adult fly does all the feeding by blood-sucking. But it retains

and nourishes the larva within the oviduct until full grown. The

larva is then extruded and almost immediately becomes a pupa

without feeding any more.

3. In the third division we have the case of the Congo floor-maggot

{Auchmeromyia), another of the Muscidae. The fly produces a

blood-sucking larva. The desired result is here obtained by sup-

racutaneous larval ectoparasitism. It is a remarkable method be-

cause unique among dipterous larvae. The larva sucks blood ex-

* C. H. T. Town.send. “The Taxonotn}' of the Muscoidean flies 1908) Snnithso-

®ian Miscellaneous Collections. Vol. 51.

17

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll,

ternally by mechanical means. It pierces the skin of sleeping per-

sons with its small sharp jaws and imbibes their blood. The habit

is without parallel among Diptera. The larva is a footless maggot

with very minute jaws and cannot attach itself to the skin of the

host except by the mouth-parts. It cannot cling whilst piercing by

any structure except the mouth-hooklets. Such a habit could hardly

have arisen but for the fact that the African natives sleep on mats

on the earthen floors of their huts. The larvae, which probably

originally fed on foul liquids, are common beneath children’s mats

which become stained with urine. The adult flies are attracted by

the smell and lay their eggs under the mats.

It has been stated previously that the parasitic habit of the (Es-

tridae is apparently the most ancient. The Glossina habit comes

next. The habit of blood-sucking of the Congo floor-maggot is evi-

dently a comparatively recent development. The stages of parasi-

tism can thus be placed in order. In the Hippoboscidae, which are

imaginal parasites and which will be described in the section on Pu-

pipara, the peculiar mode of reproduction of Glossina is carried a

stage further. In Glossina the larva when extruded has sufficient

power of movement to find a suitable place for pupating ; thereupon

its integument becomes chitinized to form the pupal envelope. The

Hippoboscid larva upon extrusion at once undergoes this change ;

the Hipposboscid female therefore deposits the larva in a situation

suitable for it to remain during the pupal period.

The Hippohoscidce are probably an offshoot from the old muscid

stock. The (Estridce are possibly an earlier off-shoot in an oppo-

site direction from several stems of the same stock. Townsend

regards the (Estridce as a polyphyletic group showing affinities with

various sub-families and tribes of Muscoidea. Its preponderating

characters are due to similar parasitic modes of life in the larvae with

corresponding similarity in the adults. These suggestions are en-

lightening when one tries to discover the origin of the different forms

of parasitism among flies.

J. Pantel in his “ Eecherches sur les Dipteres a larves entomo-

bies ” has suggested ten groups of Muscoid flies fomided on re-

productive and parasitic habits. * These may be compared with the

five Tachinid groups of Townsend referred to further on and based

also on reproductive habits. ToMmsend considers that Pantel’s

• Two parts of this great and interesting contribution have appeared: I .Cara-

teres parasitiques aux points de vue biologique, ethologique et histologique. La

Cellule (1910) Vol 26 pp. 2 /-216. II. Les enveloppesde I’oeuf avec les formations

qui en dependent; les degats indirects du parasitisme (1913) Vol 29 pp. 1-289.

Each part contains a bibliography of the literature on parasitism in the Diptera.

The earlier part of Pantel’s two papers has been reviewed and criticised in Eng-

lish by C. H. T. Townsend : “ Review of work by Pantel and Poitchimski on Je-

productive and early stage characters of Muscoid flies.” (1911) Proc. Ent. Soc. Wa-

shington., Vol 13, p. 151.

ox IXDIAX FABASITIG FLIES.

705

^ouping becomes in a large measure a true and natural one though

not founded on the ordinary taxonomic characters.

The ten groups are as set out below :

1. Species which glue a short flattened macrotype egg to the

host’s body.

2. Species which deposit on the food of the host a microtype

egg containing the developed maggot and destined to be swallowed.

3. Species extruding large and strong larvae known as ordinary

flesh maggots.

4. Species which deposit maggots (naked or in choria) in the

path of the host.

5. Species which deposit maggots (naked or in choria) probably

in the neighbourhood of the host.

6. Species which deposit maggots (naked or in choria) on the

body of the host.

7. Species which introduce into the host’s body maggots (naked

or in choria) by means of separate instruments of perforation and

injection.

8. The same but by means of a combined instrument to perforate

and inject.

9. Species destitute of incubating apparatus but provided with a

variable chitinous ovipositor for introducing the undeveloped eggs

into the host.

10. Species which deposit on the host a pediceled egg in which

the maggot is already well developed.

Examples of most of these groups will be met with in the five

families now to be dealt with.

Taohiiiidce and DzxiiicB. The habits and life histories of these

two families are so much alike that the) can be treated together.

The Dexiidce closely resemble the Tachinidce. Willistone consi-

ders that the distinction between the two families is very difficult

to make, if it be not actually evanescent. Townsend lumps most

of the old Dexiidce with the Tachinidce. Both are smallish to fair-

sized hairy flies with strong legs and conspicuously large squamae.

The habits of the mature Tachinid flies are much the same in all the

members of the group which is a large one. They are found on plants

and on leaves or flowers which are the haunts of the hosts which they

seek to parasitize. So far as is known all the larvae are parasit.c

in habit and the parasitism is confined to the larval stages of other

insects. The individual female Tachinid is not always particular

in the choice of the species of larvae which she parasitizes.

In the Muscoidean flies the integument is furnished with many

large bristles called machrochaetce. In the Tachinidce this hairiness

is most characteristic and is of some interest in connection with their

parasitic habits which involve running about and searching for

caterpillars. Osten-Sacken has pointed out that these bristles occur

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV Hi.

almost solely iu flies with pedestrian habits and he concludes that

the machrochaelce are organs of orientation which fulfil much the

same function as a cat’s vibrissae or whiskers. If it be the

truth that the bristles on the Tachinid and other flies are connected

with pedestrian habits, it is worth noticing in confirmation that in

another utterly different animal, namely the three-toed Sloth, whose

habits are the reverse of pedestrian, facial vibrissae are absent.

There can be little doubt that parasitism in the Tachinidce is fairly

recent and not nearly so effective and well evolved as, for instance,

in the parasitic Hymenoptera with almost similar habits. Unlike

most of the parasitic Hymenoptera, these Dipterous parasites do not

usually confine themselves to one particular host. By far the largest

number of species are parasitic on lepidopterous larvae. The lives

of some 400 species have been more or less studied. About 70

are parasitic on Hymenoptera. Then follow as hosts ; Coleoptera ;

Orthoptcra ; Hemiptera ; and other Diptera in diminishing numbers.

The precise adjustment of perfect parasitism has not yet been

attained by these flies and they make two frequent blunders with

disastrous results to their offspring . The first consists in laying

eggs on a caterpillar which is about to moult ; the second, in laying

eggs on a caterpillar which has been already parasitized, with the

result that some or all of the young Tachinids perish of starvation.

This points to the comparatively recent adoption of this mode of

life. Yet when all is said the Tachinid flies are a successful family.

To secure successful parasitism five forms of reproductive habit

have been evolved in the Tachinidce. They are thus summarized

by Townsend

1. Host-oviposition.

2. Leaf-oviposition.

3. Supracutaneous host-larviposifcion.

4. Subcutaneous host-larviposition.

5. Leaf-larviposition.

These five forms of reproduction are arranged above in order of

probable antiquity. The placing of the egg upon the host is thought

to be the most primitive, and the placing of the larva on a leaf, where

the host will pass, appears to be the most recent stage. From the

commonsense view of the habits of these flies this seems natural ;

and it is also confirmed by a study of the external characters of the

flies.* A few words may be added on each of these five methods

of reproduction.

]. Host-oviposition. The eggs are laid by the female Tachinid

on the caterpillars. The eggs are usually thin shelled and in some

* C. H. T. Townsend (1908) “A record of results from rearines and di.«sections

of Tachinidae.” U. S. Dept. Agriculture. Bureau of Entomology. Tech. Series

No. 12 Pt. VI. pp. 95-118.

ON INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

707

species on pedicels. The maggots hatch out and penetrate the cater-

pillars. In some cases the segments of the parasitic maggot’s body

are furnished with rows of minute spines directed backwards. These

help progression over the caterpillars skin and are aids to penetration

also. In the .second .stage of the maggot’s life, having served their

purpose, the spines for the most part disappear. A very marvel-

lous adaptation appears in the third or penultimate stage. The pen-

ultimate stage of many Tachinid maggots presents this strange pecu-

liarity. During the. two first stages the maggot derives no air from

the outside. In the third stage it protrudes a pointed posterior end

through the skin of the caterpillar. The protruded end becomes

highly chitiniscd from exposure to the air and ends in a pointed tube

in the base of which lie the posterior stigmata. Through this pro-

truded tube the maggot obtains air. The fourth and last stage of

these maggots is passed living free inside the hosts. The cast skins

of the penultimate stage remain fixed in their place protruding through

the caterpillar’s skin. A few species remain as last-stage maggots

within the chitinised cast skin and transform to pupm inside

the caterpillar skin. Most Tachinids pupate outside the host and

the exit is fatal to the host.

2. Leaf-oviposition. The suggestion that the parasitic maggot

could obtain entrance into the host by the egg in which it is enclosed

being swallowed by the caterpillar, was received with incredulity

when originally put forward. The facts are now well established.

The eggs are swallowed by the caterpillars and hatch within their

alimentary canal. In such cases the eggs are minute, perhaps not a

fiftieth part of the usual size, though the flies laying them may be

larger than the average size. The piece of leaf swallowed by the

caterpillars may be six or eight times the size of one of those eggs.

Where a fly produces minute eggs it is certain that when matured

they will be black and highly chitinised. They are intended to

stand exposure and swallowing. Probably such eggs when depo-

sited on leaves can retain their vitality for a long while. Probably

also they are not laid until the embryo is well developed ; the diges-

tive juices and the conditions in the alimentary canal act on the

chitin, weaken the shell and release the maggot. It is certain that

somehow the egg must hatch within a few hours of being swallowed

else it would pass through the gut of the caterpillar and perish. A

very small egg cannot have a thick chorion and is therefore provided

with a chitinised thin one which withstands atmospheric conditions-

better than an unchitinised thick one. Some eggs are protected by

a reticulated surface which possibly preserves them from injury in

the swallowing. Thus the history of the species can be read from'

the uterine eggs dissected from the female Tachinid.

3. Supracutaneous host-larviposition . This brings us to anothei

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

phase of Tachinid parasitism but the leap from reproduction by living

larvae is not so abrupt as it may seem. There are species of Tachi-

nidce in process of transition. Female Tachinids of certain species

may deposit eggs almost undeveloped, or at any stage of the develop-

ment of the embryo, or may even perhaps deposit living maggots.

When the larva is deposited on the skin of the caterpillar it is exposed

to much the same danger as an egg ; it may be accidentally or pur-

posely removed by the caterpillar and if the host moults before the

maggot has managed to penetrate this is fatal.

4. Subentaneom host-larviposiiion. Another step forward is at-

tained if the parasitic maggot can be immediately introduced beneath

the host’s skin. The females of those Tachinids which have attained

this higher grade of efficiency are furnished with a long curved sheath

which tapers down to a point and is microscopically fine and sharp.

The ovijDositor fits into the base of this organ and wdth this

organ the female Tachinid punctures the caterpillar’s skin at the

moment when the living maggot is being extruded. Until Townsend

and his assistants worked at this group (1908) the habit of introducing

the living maggot within the skin of the host was never suspected in

the Tachinidee.

5. Leaf-larviposition. It is unexpected to discover that Tachinid

parasitism reaches, apparently, the highest efficiency in those forms

which deposit their maggots on leaves to wait the passmg by of a

chance host. The maggots, in a fashion wonderful to relate, are

securely attached to the surface of the leaf at the moment of biidh

by a membranous cup-shaped case which holds the posterior end of

their bodies. The maggot can reach out in all directions and moves

constantly on feeling the proximity of a host. When midisturbed it

lies at length on the leaf but on being touched it becomes excitedly

active seeking to attach itself to the expected host. No sooner does

it lay hold of a caterpillar than it is torn from the cup-shaped attach-

ment by the motion of the caterpillar and its own exertions.

It would be thought perhaps that the chances of parasite and host

meeting under such conditions were very remote. But this is not the

case, for the Tachinid female selects leaves and stems where cater-

pillars have already crawled and usually deposits a maggot where

a silken thread has been left by a caterpillar. Possibly the sense of

smell guides the flies in selecting these silken threads. In such a

case, where the caterpillar follows the thread back, it is sure to pick

up the maggot on the way.

A second- advantage is gained by this habit in the greater certainty

with which a maggot can become attached to a caterpillar especially

if one of a hairy sort. Being placed where the caterpillar will pass

over it, the maggot can attach itself with greater ease to the under parts

where hairs are sparse and short. If the female Tachinid tried to

ox IXDIAX PARASITIC PLIES.

709

deposit it on the back of the caterpillar it would be much less certain

of securing an attachment. The alarming size of the fly, the con-

sequent frantic efforts of the caterpillar to shake off the maggot and

the hairs which protect the back and sidis of the caterpillar with an

almost impenetrable thicket, are thus circumvented.

The maggots of this group are protected by a thicker and darker

integument than the usual white and thin-skinned forms, since they

have to pass a time exposed to the atmosphere.

Tachinids form an enormous group of parasitic flies with wide

geographical distribution. Over 300 genera have been established.

Classification and nomenclature are in a state of flux. The Indian

species have hardly been studied at all and must be very numerous.*

Here is a rich and almost virgin field for Indian collectors and ob-

servers.

Muscidee and Sarcophagida'. Although most of the species in

these two allied families are not parasitic at any stage of their exis-

tence, others are always or occasionally parasitic as larvaj, and a few

are blood-suckers in the adult stage. The frontier which divides

these two families is undetermined. The Muscoidea are of extremely

recent evolution ; in fact their evolution is still going on. In

these two families we can see parasites in the making. It has already

been pointed out that a promiscuous choice of hosts is evidence, and

indeed a necessary result, of the recent origin of the parasitism.

No fixed habits comparable with those of the Hymenopterous

parasites are to be found in any parasitic Muscoidea except the

(Estridee.

Muscidee. To this family belong the only blood-sucking

Cyclorihapha, other than Diptera pupipara if these latter are to be

regarded as one of the cyclorrhaphous sections. The blood-sucking

Muscids, which as everyone knows, are well represented in India,

belong to the three sub-families following :

(1) Philcematomyince : with a single genus and three species all

Indian.

(2) Stomoxydince : with some six genera and many Indian species.

(3) Glossinince : with a single large genus : the African Tse-tse

flies.

These three blood-sucking groups contain perhaps some potential

or embryo parasites. The pupiparous habit is highly developed in

the last of the three ; and it is but a step to the Hippoboscidee with

a completely parasitic life.

The eggs of the Muscidee usually hatch in a day but sometimes larvee

* Tliere is an excellent coloured plate (Plate LXVIII) of some Indian Tachinids,

after Van der Wulp’s water-colour drawings in H. Maxwell Lefroy’s “Indian Insect

I-#e ” Calcutta 1909.

F. ^1. Van der Wulp’s “Catalogue of described Diptera from South .Asia.” The

Hague, 1896, mentions under fifty Indian species and is otherwise far from perfect.

710 JOUR}^AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV Hi.

are deposited, the eggs having hatched within the body of the parent

fly. In this respect the same conditions prevail as in some Sarcop-

hagidcB and some Tachinidw. The typical Muscidse are house-flies,

blue-bottles and blow-flics. In the sub-family Calliphorince there

are several grades of parasitism. All the species are oviparous,

so far as we know, and usually the eggs are deposited on dead

bodies. The stages towards parasitic habits are as follows ; —

(a) Some flies will occasionally lay their eggs in sores on the

skin of living animals where the larvae can feed on the juices that

surround them. The larvae of Calliphora vomitoria L. a com-

mon European and American member of the blue-bottle genus,

occasionally cause cutaneous myiasis in man and animals. The

allied C. enjthwcephala Macq. is found in North India and may some-

times have the same habit. Lucillia serenissima, Fabr., a greenish

medium sized fly common about the meat stalls at bazaars in South

India, as a rule deposits its eggs on dead meat. Occasionally it will

oviposit on sore places in the skin of sickly cattle. This often happens

during outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in Madras.

{b) The next stage begins where this has become the regular habit

as is the case with many species belonging to several genera.

Pycnosoma is a genus to which belong the Oriental representatives

of the genus Chrysomyia which in tropical America cause serious

myiasis in men and beasts. They are thick-set insects with character-

istic red cheeks. P. flaviceps, Walk., a well known species in South

India, deposits its eggs in the nostrils particularly of human beinga

and camels. The female flies are attracted by foul breath. The

larvae penetrate within the nasal and frontal sinuses producing ul-

ceration, fever and sometimes death.

(c) The latest stage of parasitism is the blood-sucking maggot.

The two genera AvcJwieromyid and Chceromyia which have developed

this habit are both African. The Congo floor-maggot has already

been referred to. The larvae of Chotromyia inhabit the lairs of wart-

hogs and aard-varks whose blood they suck.

Sarcophagidcr. The flesh-flies, as they are commonly called, are

a family of few genera but there are many species and they are

difficiilt to distinguish. The larvae sometimes live as parasites in

wounds and sores causing dermal myiasis. They have also be(m

discovered in the nasal cavities of man and other mammals.

Whether this is one of the regular reproductive habits of definite species

is not certainly known. The genus Sarcophaga is sometimes and

perhaps habitually larviparous. These larvae have been found living

in the stomachs of frogs and under the skin of turtles. The larvae

of several species have been also found in snails, beetles, grass-hoppers

and in the larvae of moths. <

These flies are common all over India. They may be recognised

JoHBN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II.

INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

5. — Conops erythrocephala, Fabr. J . x 4.

Q.—hsiTwa, ot Oyrostigma sumatrensis, 'Bra.ner. (After Bau.) x2J.

6a. — Larva of Gastrophilus equi., Clark, x 3.

6b. — Larva of Gobboldia elephcmtis, Gohhold. (After Bau.) x 3.

ON JNDIAN PAliASniC FLIES.

711

by their red eyes and grey thorax striped longitudinally with black.

They are thick-set flies of moderate size and frequent the neighbour-

hood of decaying animal and vegetable matter. The known Indian

species nearly all belong to the genus Sarcophaga and the commonest

Indian species is probably S. Imeatocollis Macq. In Gujarat it is

not uncommon to see large sores on the human scalp full of the larvae

of a species of Sarcophaga ; whether such larvae truly deserve the name

of parasites depends on how far this method of nutrition is an estab-

lished and regulai habit.

(Estridee. The flies of this family are sometimes included among

Calyptrate Muscoids but are best regarded as a distinct group which,

has arisen from several Muscoid types and now is much specialised

for a parasitic life. They form a small and well defined group with

about seventy or eighty desciibcd species scattered over the world.

The larvae are always parasitic on mammals and on mammals only.

The hosts of the Indian species are horses, sheep, cattle, elephants,

rhinoceroses and camels. The note-worthy feature in the life history

of an CEstrid fly is that feeding is confined to the larval

stage. This is the parasitic period when the growing insect lives

surrounded by nourishment.

Parasitism of the larval insects takes three principal forms. We

have parasities (1) in the food canal, (2) in tumours formed by the

larvae under the skin, and (3) in the normal cavities of the nose and

throat. It is a general rule, with but few exceptions, that each species

of CEstrid fly is confined to a single species of mammal ; and allied

species of fly are parasitic in the same fashion upon allied mammals.

The adults are free-living, large, hairy flies, which take no food

and exist only for procreation of their species. The adult fly

has a minute mouth and often such atrophied vestiges of mouth,

parts that it is incapable of taking any food. Nevertheless some of

these flies live for three or four weeks and display great activity.

Brauer classified the CEstridee according to the combined characters

of the larvae and the perfect insects*. He divided the typical

CEstrids into three groups, which ^coincide with a classification based

on the parasitic habits of the larvae. His three divisions are the

following : —

1. Gaslricolce. Larvae found in the stomach and gut of Equi-

dae (Horses, asses, etc), Bhinocerotidee (rhinoceroses) and Probos-

cidea (elephants). To this group belong Gastrophilus, Gyrostigma

and Cobboldia which are all three Indian genera.

* Profe.ssor Friedrich Brauer of Vienna brought out his monograph in 1803. .1/o-

nofjraphie der CEslriden, by Friedrich Brauer. Wien, 1863. It was an epoch-making

work ami contains a complete bibliography of all the literature on the (Estridm

up to that year. It is still a standard authority in spite of much recent work on t! e-

group. See also “ Nachtrdge zur Monographie dir CEslriden ”, Wiener Eniom.

Zeitung, (1887) vol. VI., p.4. by F. Brauer.

18

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

2. CavicolcE. Larvse found in the frontal sinus, nasal cavity and

throat of Covicarnia ^cattle, sheep and other hollow-horned rumin-

ants). Tylopoda or camels, Cervidce (the deer family), Probcscidea

(elephants). The Indian genera are (Estrus and Cephelomyia.

3. Cuticolce. Larvae found under the skin of Gavicornia, deer,

the horse family and rodents. Hypoderma, so far as I can discover,

is the only recorded Indian genus. This is the group to which the

warble-flies belong.

Brauer enumerated sixteen genera in the whole CEstrid family

and about half a dozen more have been established since his day.

The adult flies belonging to this family are not difficult to recognise.

They are fairly large and thick-set flies with big heads, of which the

lower part is inflated, giving a sturdy appearance. The short, three-

jointed antennae are sunk in the front of the head and hardly visible.

The compound eyes are not prominent, and there are also ocelli, or

simple eyes. The abdomen is short, conical and often hairy, somewhat

like that of a bee. The veins in the wings are like those of house-

flies and others of the Muscid stock, from which the CEstrids are

doubtless descended. The second pair of wings (as in all Diptera) are

represented by small balancers called halteres. In many CEstrid

flies the halteres are protected by scales, usually large, which are

known as squamae or tegula-.

Much controversy has raged as to the manner in which the larval

parasites reach their abiding place in the host’s body. It is now

generally believed that the eggs, or young larvse, are, with some

possible exceptions, taken into the mouths or nostrils of the animals

which they infest, and so proceed, respectively, into the stomach,

nose, throat and frontal sinus, or bore a way through the tissues

of the body to the skin.

1. Gastricolce. — The genus Gastrophilus has many species and a

world-wide distribution. All are parasites of horses, wild asses and

zebras. These flies are therefore restricted as regards geographical

distribution by that of the Equid.ee. Several species are common

wherever men keep horses, and their larvae are the horse-bots well

known to grooms and veterinary surgeons. Gastrophilus equi Fab.

one of the typical species is widely distributed in India. The female

buzzes about horses during the hot hours of the daj^ Hovering a

moment, she deposits a yellowish conical egg which adheres, like the

nit of a louse, by its narrow end to the hair. This egg remains se-

curely attached, owing to a viscid matter which is deposited at the

same time. The fore legs, which are most accessible to the horse’s

tongue, arc as a rule the parts selected. The flies are somewhat hairy,

with fawn-coloured faces and blackish thorax. The abdomen is

mottled yellow, with darker brown irregular blotches. The abdomen

of the female ends in a long ovipositor, which is doubled beneath

ON INDIAN PABASiriC FLIES.

713

the body when at rest. Though hundreds of eggs may sometimes be

seen glued to the hairs of a single horse, the future host does not seem

to be troubled by the performance. Hatching follows after a few days.

Perhaps it is the itching caused by the larvae which makes the horse

lick the places. On reaching the alimentary canal, the parasites

travel down and ultimately attach themselves by their mouth-hooks

to the stomach wall. The place of attachment is marked by a depres-

sion, and the head of the larva becomes more and more deeply plunged

into the mucous membrane. During this parasitic stage, which lasts

ten months to a year and includes two moults and three stages of

larval growth, the larvse feed on the inflammatory products which

exude from the minute wound. After the bots are detached from

a horse’s stomach the pitting remains.

The body of the CEstrid larva consists of twelve segments, of which

the first two cannot be differentiated from the cephalic ring. No

head can be recognised. The antennae are rudimentary membranous

papillae. The problem of respiration during the parasitic time in the

host’s stomach presents difficulties which are, however, successfully

solved. On reaching maturity the larvae let go their hold and pass

out of the horse’s body with the droppings . The larvae are then

whitish oval maggots, about 20 millimetres long, with rows of brownish

spines. They are at first lively, but soon burrow into the

horse-dung or the earth, and there turn into rigid, dark-brown shiny

pupae. This stage lasts a month or more. The fly emerges by forcing

open the lid of the puparium, and the life-cycle begins once more.

Indian elephants are the hosts of CEstrid larvae which attach

themselves to the stomach walls and go through stages of development

similar to those of the horse-bots. The flies belong to the genus

CobboJdia. The parasites of Asiatic elephants are probably of a diffe-

rent species from those which attach themselves to African elephants.

The Indian insect, CobboJdia elephantis Cobb., is known, and is a

large fly with conspicuous reddish head, black wings and body, marked

with startling white spots at the base of each wing. Eggs of flies

have often been observed in the erosions at the roots of elephants’

tusks. It may be that this is the usual spot chosen by the CEstrids

to deposit their eggs. Since elephants do not lick their fore-legs or

flanks like horses, a spot near the root of the tusk gives the newly

hatched larvse the best likelihood of making their way into the gut

of the proboscidean. The mature larvse, which have long been known

in the stomachs of elephants, are much larger than horse-bots, though

of the same type. Their mouths are furnished with only a single

pair of strongly curved hooks which act as formidable organs of attach-

ment to the stomach membrane.

The history of our knowledge of this parasite of the elephant is

interesting. Cobbold collected the first larvse from Indian elephants

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL. KKVlll

which succumbed to an epidemic in Sanger’s Circus. Di'. Livingstone,

the explorer, subsequently sent home specimens from African ele-

phants. Brauer's own account of how he reared the first known flics

from larvte obtained from the dung of some newly arrived Indian

elephants in the Imperial Austrian Menagerie at Schonbrunn is a

delightful tale that may be recommended to all diptcrologists.*

In this group of OEstrids there remains to be mentioned the genus

Gyrostigma, which is parasitic on rhinoceroses. The larvae have been

obtained from the stomachs of two species of Asiatic rhinoceros

namely /?. sumatreiisis and R. lasiotis. They resemble in most

characters the Gastrophili, or horse-bots, but are larger. Since both

species of African rhinoceros are the hosts of allied OEstrid larvae it

would be surprising if the rhinoceroses of the Indian peninsula were

exempt from these parasites. Sportsmen who have an opportunity

should examine the stomach walls of newly killed rhinoceroses and

should detach the larvae, if they are found, without injuring them.

They should be preserved in alcohol.

Elephants, as is well known, are ancient types of mammal which

have long existed on the earth. The evolution of mammalian host

and insect parasite must have proceeded simultaneously during

the long ages of the earth’s history. Cobboldia, the elephant para-

site, is therefore of special interest. The imago is a synthetic type

which unites the characters of almost all forms of genuine CEstrid

flies. I’he origin of the elephant is lost in the obscurity of geological

ages, whilst the horse and the rhinoceros are both more recently

evolved types of mammal and allied to one another. It is also signi-

ficant, when we appreciate the relationship of the hosts, that the

parasites of the horse and the rhinoceros belonging to the CEstrid

genera Gastrophihis and Gyrostigma respectively are closely related.

The deduction which may be drawn from these facts is that the para-

sitism of CEstrid flies on mammals is of ancient origin. Host and

parasite have evolved into their present form side by side : and where

the mammalian hosts are allied, the parasitic larvse, which live in

their stomachs, will turn into more or less closely related flies.

Cavicolcp. This group comprises some fifteen or twenty species

of CEstrid flies, whose common characteristic is that the larvae live

in the cavities within the skulls of a variety of mammals. Sheep,

antdopes, goats, buffaloes, camels,deer, horses and the' African elephant

and hippopotamus are the hosts of these remarkable parasites.

In many cases only the larva has been obtained and the adult fly is

still unknown. Six or seven species of the genus CEstrus are known,

but the only recorded Indian species appears to be CEstrns ovis L.

which has been known to man from ancient times. It is said to be

• “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss aus<?ereuropaischer OEstrirlen ”, by Dr. F. Brauer

(1896) Denks. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. 64 259.

ox IXDIAX rAItASlTlC FLIES.

715

not uncommon in Bengal. The nasal fly, bot or head-maggot of

sheep must have attracted the notice of shepherds in all ages. The

fly is now found in all four continents and in Australia, the parasite

having, thanks to man, travelled round the world with its host,

but whether introduced or indigenous to India is uncertain.

The adult is rather a small fly, but larger than a house-fly, and of

a yellowish- grey mottled and hairy apjiearance. Like other CLstrids,

it avoids the shade and loves the hot bright sunshine. During incle-

ment weather it hides and emerges in the warmth, to fly with much

liveliness at a great height and to bask on stones heated by the sun.

According to some observers the approach of the flies alarms the sheep,

who huddle together with heads down and bury their noses in the dust.

After being touched about the nostrils by the female fly, they snort

and rub their noses on the ground According to other observers,

the fly has been seen to settle on the nostrils of the sheep, and to

deposit as many as fifteen eggs in succession, without causing any

immediate annoyance to the future host.

There has been divergi.nce of opinion as to whether eggs or larvae

are eleposited, but there is little doubt that in Europe both habits

obtain. It has been suggesteel that this depends on the weather.*

The pregnant female, if the weathen’ is fine, deposits eggs round the

sheep’s nostril. But if low tempeiature makes her inactive, the ova

develop within the body of the parent during the period of delay.

Larvae are then laid in the sheep’s nostrils. The larvae enter the nasal

cavities of the sheep, creep into the frontal and maxillary sinuses,

even into those of the horn-cores, and there develop. They pass

through the usual three stages of an CEstrid larva. In the first stage

they are white and transparent, with a length of 2 millimetres. When

they have attained maturity they develop dark transverse streaks,

and sometimes attain a length of 30 millimetres. The parasites

remain about ten months in these cavities of the head, feeding on the

mucus. It is not unusual to find three or four together, and at the

suitable season they may be found together in all stages of develop-

ment. Yet they rarely occasion any morbid disturbance in the host

unless they are far advanced in development and exceedingly numer-

ous. During the months of larval growth they attach themselves by

their mouth-hooks to the membranous lining of the cavity. On

attaining maturity, the larva lets go and creeps about until it passes

into the nose, from which it is expelled on to the ground by the vio-

lent snorting of the host. There pupation takes place within twenty-

four hours. The pupal envelope, at first red, becomes brown and

ultimately black. In about a month the perfect fly emerges and

another life-cycle begins. So far as is known, the life-history of the

other members of this group is somewhat similar. Other species of

• “ Note on the Deposition of the Eggs and Larvae of CEstnis ovw, Linn.”, by

Walter E. Collinge, Jour. Econ. Biology, (1906) vol. I, p. 72.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111.

(Estrus have been obtained from various wild sheep and from some

African antelopes.

An interesting species Cephalomyia maculata Wied. is a parasite

of camels, and the larval stage is passed in the nose or throat of

the host. Both the Bactrian and the one-humped camel suffer from

this fly. It is a small species, with thorax mottled yellow and black

and abdomen blackish-grey. The head is broad and has a strangely

swollen appearance. The wings are small, cut away at the hind

margin, and mottled yellow along the anterior border. The halteres

are masked by large scales or tegulse. The larva reaches, when mature,

a length of 30 millimetres. It is then sneezed or spat out by the camel.

It at once pupates, and, if kept under observation in a box of sand,

the fly will be seen to emerge in about fourteen days. This species

ranges across North Africa eastwards into India, and is also found in

South Europe. It is the only representative of the genus so far

discovered. Camels appear to suffer from the presence of the para-

sifx;, and during various campaigns in Afghanistan and India the

camels in the British expeditionary forces suffered severely. The

continuous irritation produced in the nasal cavities and pharynx is

followed by snorting and shaking of the head, with much exhaustion

and a bloody and offensive discharge from the beast’s nostrils. If

it should be proved that the same species is also a parasite of such a

totally difierent host as the buffalo {Bos huhalm) of Southern Europe

and Asia, as has been asserted by some authorities, it would indeed

be remarkable. The evidence is not conclusive and it is a general

characteristic that OEstrid flies restrict themselves to one host, or,

at least, to closely allied species. To find the same form in a camel

and an ox would upset many preconceived notions.

3. Cuticolce-. Fifteen to twenty species of Hypodenna are known,

whose larvae are parasitic on horses, oxen, buffaloes, American bisons,

goats, deer, antelopes and musk-deer. The insects are known as

warble-flies. Domestic cattle in India are the victims of a Palearctic

species H. hovis, De Geer, which is nearly allied to H. lineata. There

is uncertainty as to their exact geographical distribution and whether

their life-histories differ to any great extent.* The late Miss Ormerod

spent over ten years in collecting the evidence of farmers and hide-

merchants as to the injuries to cattle and hides. She estimated that

48 per cent of the hides exported from India were damaged by reason

of the holes which the larvae bore in them. There is little exact in-

formation as to the distribution of H bo vis in India. It seems

to be found in Western India from the Punjab southwards probably

as far as Gujerat. In Bengal it is confined to the hills. When the

female fly approaches the herd of cattle to lay her eggs, the beasts

often stampede into the nearest water, where it is supposed the flies

• A good summary of what was known in 1906 was put together by A. D. Imma

On the Life -Histories of the Ox Warble Flies,” Jour. Econ. Biology., vol. i., p. 74

oy ixniAy parasitic flies.

717

do not follow them. This terror is attributed to a shrill buzzing,

made by the fly. The flies certainly neither bite nor sting the cattel.

The female has no instrument, as many parasitic flies have, capable

of inserting an egg under the host’s skin. Her ovipositor is a flexible

tube which opens and shuts in the manner of a telescope.

The flies move with such extreme rapidity that they are difficult to-

follow with the eye. They are rare in collections. The evidence seems

to show that it is through the mouth of the host that the parasites

reach the warbles, or subcutaneous tumours, in which they go through

the last stages of their larval development. The female is so quick

in performing the act of laying that she does not seem to remain on

the host for more than a few seconds. The eggs are longish, flattened,

white, with an appendage at the base which is perfectly adapted for

clasping a hair. A number are often placed on a single hair. The

appendage consists of two lobes, which form a bulbous enlargement

at the base of the egg, and are attached to it by a thin neck. The

lobes close over the hair and give a secure hold as soon as the egg is

deposited. The eggs are laid on the backs and flanks of the cattle,

perhaps on any spot which the beast’s tongue can reach.

Once the eggs are laid, three possible courses have been put forward

by different entomologists for the life-history of the parasite between

the egg and the warble stage. First, that on hatching the larva eats

its way through the hide and wanders a short distance in the sub-

cutaneous tissues ; eventually it returns to the surface and gives

rise to the well-known tumours, in which it lives until the time for

pupation arrives. Or, secondly, having bored a way through the

skin, the larva wanders extensively in the tissues of its host, sometimes

reaching the spinal canal and the walls of the cesophagus. Even-

- tually it returns to the surface and completes its development beneath

the skin. Or, thirdly, that the larvse never bore through the skin of

the host, but are taken into the throat when the beast licks the eggs

off its body. Having hatched, the larva slowly bores through the

walls of the cesophagus and wanders about the tissues, sometimes

reaching the spinal canal through the spaces between the verte-

brae. Eventually it reaches the skin as before.

There are grounds for believing that the last is the normal life-

history. During the early part of the larval life, growth would seem

to be very slow, but the small parasite may wander far and wide

through the host’s tissues. This is the winter period. Brauer called,

this stage the Stillstandstadium, and pointed out that a similar period

of slow growth occurred in other larvae of the CEstrid family*.

AVhen the eggs are laid, the young larva; within are already well

developed. Sometimes they are licked up with the hair attached

and the larva inside, at other times they may have already hatched^

* “ Ueber das sogenannte Stillstandstadium in der Entwicbeliing dtr Oestiidcn

Larven,” by F. Brauer (1892), TerJiandl. Zool-Boi. Gcscllschaft vol. 42 p. 79.

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. XXV III-

In either event the moisture and warmth of the beast’s saliva seem

to conduce to their development. It is specially to be noticed that the

season of egg-laying coincides with the time when the cattle are shed-

ding their coats and have the habit of licking themselves.

The newly hatched larvae are worm-like, whitish and transparent ;

they have minute spines over most of their body, which cause them

to adhere to the walls of the oesophagus. In that situation they

soon moult and assume the smooth stage. In the smooth condition

they bore through the ccsophagal walls and wander slowly through

the host’s tissues. This period of migration lasts some nine months,

during which period growth is extremely slow. Towards the end of

winter, at least in Europe, they make for a point in the region r f the

animal's back and there penetrate the skin. A second moult then

ensues, and the spiny character is once more assumed. Development

is rapid and causes much inflammation. As it reaches maturity the

larva grows still more spiny. It lives in the fully developed warble,

feeding on the products of the inflammation which it causes and

breathing through the hole in the skin. This period of life in the

tumour lasts into the ensuing summer. The larva is then some 25

millimetres long, bluntly oval in form, with a warty apj^earance.

Its skin has become thick, and a powerful coat of subcutaneous muscles

has been developed. The prickles are larger and more luimc-rous

than in the previous stages. They are probably erected by the muscles

and used to create irritation and a copious sccr'.tion of the pus on which

the parasite feeds. During the period of rapid growth it is desirable

that the parasite should have access to the external atmosphere and

should enjoy a suHicient supply of oxygen. The larva therefore

enlarges the hole through the hide and lies with the tail end, contain-

ing the spiracles, in the passage, and the head end, hanging down-

wards, in the cavity of the warble.

AVhen the larva has become full-fed and reaches maturity, it works

a way out through the aperture of the warble. In this the jDrickles

on its skin assist, by preventing it from slipping backwards. This

exit usually takes place at night, or at least between six in the evening

and eight in the morning, a habit that was long ago known to Reaumur.

By fixing little bags over the apertures of the warbles it has been

ascertained that the larvse never emerge during the middle of the day.

The larva pupates on the ground, taking shelter beneath a stone or

clod of earth. The pupa, which is formed in the old larval skin,

is dark brown and rather flattened on one side. In about twenty-

five days the perfect insctfct emerges by forcing open the lid at the

front end of the puparium.

This account of the Indian CEstrids concludes the group of Cyc-

clorhaphous flies. The next group brings us to the Diptera Pupi-

para which are imaginal parasites.

{To be continued.)

719

RECORDS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF ORTHOPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA

BY

B. P. UvAROV, F.E.S.

{With 2 text figures.)

Our knowledge of the Orthopteran fauna of the vast deserts of S. W. Asia

(Persia, Mesopotamia, Arabia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, N. W. ludia) is, so far,

extremely fragmentary, this particular group of insects not being usually favoured

by collectors. At the same time, each lot of Orthoptera brought home from

there, however small and accidently collected it may be, gives the strongest

proof of the great richness and originality of that fauna. Endeavouring to

collect as full records of species, inhabiting the Asiatic deserts, and of their

geographical distribution, as it is possible, I have recently worked out all the

odd specimens from Arabia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Persia and Syria in the

British and Paris Museum collections ; a small collection sent by the Bombay

Natural History Society, containing the specimens taken by Lt.-Col. J. E. B.

Hotson in Baluchistan, Capt. G. C. Shortridge, Lt.-Col. F. P. Connor and Lt.-

Col. H. D. Peile in Mesopotamia, and by Mr. Peter Paschen in Persia (the

latter lot received by the Society through Colonel P. Gough) has also been

identified by me and several new forms described in the present paper. The total

number of specimens studied in preparing this paper scarcely exceeds two

hundred and the proportion of new species and even genera is simply asto-

nishing. I hope that this fact will encourage all entomologists, who have the

opportunity of collecting in those countries to pay more attention to a class

of insects usually ignored and regarded as “ uninteresting” viz.-. — Grasshoppers,

Katydids, Crickets and other members of the order Orthoptera ; the writer will

be very pleased to examine and work out all oollections of Orthoptera from the

Desert regions in Asia, however small and casually made they may be.* The

types of new forms, described in this paper, are in the British Museum.

Mantidce.

1. Eremiaphila l-evifrons, sp. n.

5 ; Head as broad, as pronotum ; facial clypeus distinctly convex, without

any trace of upper carina, smooth, sparsely impresso-punctate ; ocellar area

scarcely concave ; transverse furrow deUmitating this area from vertex feebly

developed ; vertex smooth, with lateral furrows distinct, but shallow, while

the intermediate furrows are scarcely developed. Pronotum as broad anteriorly

as it is long ; distinctly narrowed posteriorly ; fore margin convex in the middle,

bisinuate laterally ; lateral margins distinctly convex ; hind margin convex ;

fore and hind angles a little more than 90°, acute ; upper surface smooth with a

transverse oval gibbosity at the fore margin and two smaller gibbosities pos-

teriorly. Elytra distinctly coriaceous, with raised veins, longer than broad

widely rounded anteriorly and at the apex, with hind margin almost straight,

slightly excavate beyond the middle. Wings broader than long, with hind

angle acute, rounded apically. Fore femora and tibiie armed with four

spines outwardly.

General colouration clay yellow. Head and underside whitish. Elytra

beneath with a subapical obhque transverse blue-black band, not reaching the

fore margin, and with a not sharply defined dark border ; both the band and the

* Collections may be sent directly to the author (British Museum [Natura

History] Cromwell Road, London, S.W.7.) or through the Bombay Natural Historv

Society. If any particulars as to the best methods of collecting and preservation

are wanted the author will be glad to answer enquiries

19

720 JUVENAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

dark border are well visible on the upside of el3^tra, as well. Wings unicolorous

brownish, with lighter border. Legs whitish beneath and clay-grej% with

scarcely perceptible transverse bands on the upper side.

9 (type). d (paratype).

One female and two males, taken at Muscat, Arabia, by the late Lt.-Col.

A. S. G. Jaj’akai (British Museum).

There is only one more known species of this genus, in which the spot on the

elytra is visible from above ; this is the E. persica Wern., which is easily distin-

guished from the new species by the form of pronotal angles and by the structure

of the head, as well as by the far smaller dimensions.

2. Takachodes aeabicus, n. sp.

d . Bather small for the genus. Antennae about twice as long as head and

pronotum together. Head broader than pronotum ; facial clypeus transverse,

entirely flat, its angles rounded, upper carina feeble and not reaching the sides ;

occiput with two fm-rows nearest to the eyes rather well developed, while the

two intermediate ones are scarcely perceptible. Pronotum about twice as long

as it is broad in its widest part which is before its middle, but distinctly

behind the transverse sulcus ; sides of pronotum parallel, with a feeble excava-

tion before the dilated part and slightly convergent behind it ; marginal expan-

sion narrow in prozona and rather broad in metazona, narrowing gradually

towards the base of pronotum ; transverse sulcus placed near the base of the

apical third, its middle part is very feebly developed, while the lateral parts are

deeply impressed and strongly curved forwards, with extreme ends almost

parallel to pronotal margins ; metazona with an oval gibbosity in its fore part ;

middle sulcus scarcelj’ perceptible, very shallow near the apex and base of pro-

zona, as well as on the fore part of metazona, being entirely undeveloped on the

whole basal half of the latter. Elytra longer than the abdomen, subparallel,

with apex lanceolate. Wings distinctly shorter than el3d;ra, with apical

lobe markedly separated from the rest by an emargination.

General coloration pale greyish. Facial clypeus with a transverse band,

upper and lower margins black. Inner side of fore legs rufous, without any

black marks. Prosternum with a black transverse band near its base and

brownish near the base of fore legs. Elytra entirely hyalinous, veins greyish,

with only a few small brownish stripes along veins. Wings hyalinous, with

cells of the hind part very feebly infumated.

DESCJilPTIOXS OF ORTHOPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA.

721

5 (type.) 6 (paratype.)

Length of wings . . . . . . . . 23 ?

„ hind femora . . . . ..7,5 7, 5

„ hind tibiae . . . . . . 7 7

The paratypic female differs from male by the broader pronotum, armed with

two tubercules, with margins strongly denticulate ; by short elytra and by

darker general coloration, with well pronounced grey bands on the legs ; inner

spines of the fore tibiae are in female entirely black.

Two males and one female in British Museum from Ktubu, Arabia, G. W.

Bury.

This species is easily distinguished from all previously known by the coloration

of the inside of fore legs and prosternum ; these characters seem to be very con-

stant and quite suitable for separating species in this genus.

The new species is the first Asiatic representative of the genus Tarachodes,

all others being known from Afi'ica.

3. Statilia ocellata, sp. n.

9 : Closely resembles St. haani, Sauss., but differs distinctly by the following

character's : pronotum with more elongate prozona ; pronotal dilatation nar-

rower ; prosternum with two whitish ocellar spots, encircled by black ; fore

coxae armed with seven spines

elytra extending well beyond apex of abdomen.

One female in British Museum from Quetta, Baluchistan (received in 1889

from the Karachi Museum).

4. Fischeria ineemis, sp. n.

^ : Smaller and more slender than any known species. Antennae very

long, setaceous. Head less than twice as broad as pronotal dilatation ; facial

clypeus transverse, with apex rotundate ; occiput convex with two lateral

furrows more deeply impressed than two intermediate ones, which are quite

shallow ; eyes tliick, hemispherical. Pronotum slender ; its sides slightly

expanded, with a few marginal granules in prozona, but without spines and

parallel in prozona and in the middle part of metazona, slightly diverging

backwards ; fore margin elliptical; coxal dilatation placed just behind transverse

sulcus ; its width is about one- half as much again as the width of pronotum in

its narrowest part, which is about the middle of metazona ; metazona twice

as long, as prozona ; median carina placed in a shallow longitudinal sulcus,

very feeble in prozona. scarcely perceptible in the fore third of metazona and

entirely disappearing in the hind part of the latter. Elytta extending beyond

the apex of abdomen. Wings but a little shorter than elytra. Fore coxw a

little longer than metazona of pronotum, not granulated, armed with 6-7 feeble

erected spines along the ujiper carina ; fore femora smooth, their armatiu'e, as well

as that of fore tibise presenting no difference from other specie^ of the genus.

Hind metatarsus armed with but scarcely perceptible spinules, closely l3nng

down to metatarsus. Supra anal plate a little longer than its base wide, acutely

triangular, with apex rounded, lateral margins feebly but distinctly concave,

median keel developed in the middle part only. Cerci rounded, rather thick,

distinctly longer than supra anal plate. Subgenital plate with its apex tria*-

gularly cmarginated between short styli.

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAl NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

General coloration grey. Fore coxse unicolorous, fore femora with three

darker coloured bands on the upper side. Pronotum unicolorous, darker than

elytra. Elytra with a whitish border along the fore margin of the costal area,

interrupted by irregular brownish spots ; bases of radial veins pale ; a some-

what darker not sharply defined transverse spot in the basal third, followed by

a whitish area ; the second, larger and more defined whitish spot before the

apex, followed by a smaller dark spot; veins darker than cellules, and the whole

surface appears, therefore, sUghtly marmorated ; anal area brownish-viola-

ceous, but not so dark as in other species, the colour fading backwards. Wings

rather equally infumate throughout the whole surface, the basal part being

scarcely more hyaline ; transverse venules pale ; apex with a common, for this

genus white spot, encircled by brownish-violaceous colour.

Length of body . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 mm.

Width of head . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Length of pronotum . . . . . . . . . . 9,5

„ metazona . . . . . . . . . . 6,5

Maximal width of pronotum . . . . . . . . 3,25

Minimal „ ,, ,, . . . . ■ . . . 2

Length of fore coxae . . . . . . . . . . 7

„ „ „ femora ... . . . . . . . . 9

„ „ „ elytra 30

„ „ „ wdngs 27

„ „ hind femora .. .. .. .. 13

>5

„ tibiae

14

,, „ „ metatarsi . . . . . . . . 4,5

The type is unique ; it has been taken by G. W. Bury at El-Kubar, S. W.

Arabia (British Museum collection).

This new species is easily recognised by its small size, very feebly armed hind

metatarsus, not denticulated pronotum and the shape of supraanal plate.

5. Fischeeia syeiaca, Sauss.

1871. Fischeria hcetica, Ramb. var. syriaca, Saussure, Mem. Soc. Phys.

Geneve, xxi, p. 109.

1915. Fischeria festoe. Gigho-Tos., Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xhni, p. 22.

Gigho-Tos, in description of his F. festce gives exactly the same differences

of it from F. bcetica, as Saussure gives for var. syriaca ; both being of the same

origin, it is obvious that they are identical. The same species (or only sub-

species of bcetica, Ramb.), and not the typical bcetica, Ramb., populates all

desert parts of S.W. and Central Asia, and all previous records of hcetica from

those countries must be undoubtedly credited to syriam.

Male of syriaca, of which only female has been described by Saussure and

Giglio-Tos, differs well from bcetica by its larger dimensions, and especially

by longer elytra which extend well beyond the apex of abdomen ; wings

are scarcely shorter than elytra. Dimensions of a male from Mesopotamia

are, as follows : —

Length of body

Width of head

Length of pronotum

„ metazona

Maximal width of pronotum

Minimal „ „

Length of fore coxae

„ femora

hind „

,, „ tibiae

„ „ metatarsus

elytra

72mm.

7.5

18

12

5, 5

3

13

17.5

21

25

6, 5

48

DESCRIPTIONS OF ORTHOPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA.

723

The specimens studied are from the following localities : Kut and Amara in

Mesopotamia ; Bushire in S. W. Persia ; Aleppo, Syria (in British Museum

and in Bombay N. H. Society).

6. Microthespis divutrievi, Wern.

One male in British Museum from Bushire, S. W. Persia. The species has

been described (Ann. Mus. Zool. Petersb., xiii, 1908, p. 120) from Djibouti and

Harrar on the Somali Coast.

7. Iris persa, sp. n.

S . Agrees in all essential characters with /. oratoria, L., but differs well from

it in the shape of head, pronotum and elytra.

Larger than 7. oratoria and more robust. Head transverse, a little less than

twice as broad as pronotal dilatation ; facial cl3rpeus about one and half times

as broad as high, with upper keel not sharp, slightly curved, developed in the

middle only and disappearing towards the eyes, with short vertical median

Carina, extending from upper margin to the middle of clypeus, where there are

two raised points ; other four raised points are at the angles of clypeus. Oc-

ciput distinctly convex. Pronotum rather thick ; prozona slightly narrowed

anteriorly, with parabolic apex, with feeble median longitudinal furrow ; meta-

zona about twice as long as prozona, gradually narrowed posteriorly in its

fore half, while in the hind half its sides are parallel ; margins of pronotum

expanded. Elytra extending but a httle beyond the apex of abdomen, about

three times as long as they arc in the broadest part wide ; preradial area widened

in its basal third and rather suddenly narrowed towards the apex ; the vena-

tion agrees with this in 7. oratoria. Wings distinctly shorter than elytra, with

apex parabolic ; hind margin almost straight. The armure of fore legs much

the same as in 7. oratoria, but the coxae arc more strongly spined and granu-

lated. Supraanal plate rounded ; cerci rounded, rather thick. Subgenital plate

with hind margin rather broad, slightly convex.

Greenish-pale; fore tibiae with inner surface reddish ; fore metatarsus black

beneath. Coloration of wings as in 7. oratoria.

Length of body

Width of head

Length of pronotum

„ metazona . .

Maximal width of pronotum

Minimal ,, „

Length of elytra

Maximal width of elytra . .

Length of wings

,, „ fore coxae . .

,, ,, femora

„ „ „ tibiae

,, ,, hind femoia

„ „ „ tibiae

41 mm.

6.5

13.5

9

4.5

3

29

8.5

24.5

9

11.5

6

11

10.5

Four male specimens in the British Museum from Bushire, S. W. Persia

taken in September 1890, by W. D. Cumming.

The most striking differences from 7. oratoria are : the form of clypeus,

which in oratoria is more than twice as broad as high, with well developed upper

Carina ; the form of pronotum and especially the relative length of prozona and

metazona ; the length and form of elytra. Co-typic specimens are of brick-red-

dish general coloration, but I am not sure that this coloration is natural and not

the consequence of immersion in spirit.

8. Iris splendida, sp. n.

2 . About the size of 7. oratoria, L., but more robust. Antennre thin, seta-

ceous. Frontal clypeus about twice as broad, as high, flat, with two small

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIH

tubcrcules in its middle, its upper carina not sharp, but fully developed, rounded ;

vertex with two lateral furrows narrow, but very distinct. Eyes egg-shaped ;

inner orbits slightly emarginate in upper part. Pronotum rather broad ; its

margins dentieulate ; fore margin semicircular ; sides in prozona and in meta-

zona parallel ; coxae dilatation but a little wider than prozona, while metazona

is distinctly more narrow ; prozonal disc very convex, with two small oblique

impressions near its apex ; its longitudinal sulcus scarcely perceptible in the

hind part only ; transverse sulcus not interrupted, narrow, but very distinct,

straiglit, with ends directed forwards ; metazona twice as long as prozona, less

con vi^x, slightly selliform in profile, with two shallow impressions just behind the

coxae dilatation, with middle carina entire, though feeble, better developed in the

hind part ; the whole surface of pronotum, especially the middle part of meta-

zona, bears scattered small gi-anules ; hind margin widely rounded, with shght,

but sharp, emargination in its middle. Elytra shorter than abdomen, entirely

coriaceous, slightly widened towards the apex, which is very widely rounded.

Wings semicircular. Anterior coxae with numerous densely placed acute tuber-

cles beneath ; interior surface with an irregular row of callous tubercles ; upper

external carina armed with eight obtuse spines, with minute acute spinules,

placed in interspaces ; upper surface slightly convex, smooth, with a few scar-

cely perceptible spinules, placed in a longitudinal row along the middle. Fore

femora and tibiae with an armure typical for the genus. Supraanal plate semi-

elliptical, feebly carinated along its middle. Cerci short, thick, rounded. Sub-

genital plate with apex divided in two lobes.

General coloration greyish-yellow. Spines of fore femora and tibiie brownish,

darker towards the tips. Fore tibiae orange red beneath. Fore metatarsi

black on the inside, except the apices. Wings violaceous-black ; humeral

field rose-violaceous, wdth an oval black spot near the apex ; the whole outer

margin with a bright sulphurous border about 2-3mm. broad.

Length of body

Width of head

Length of pronotum

„ metazona

Width of prozona in its middle

,, metazona „ „

„ „ coxal dilatation . .

Length of elytra

Width of elytra in their middle

Length of wdngs

Width „ in their middle

Length of anterior coxae . .

„ ,, femora . .

,, „ tibiae

„ hind femora

48 mm.

6

12.5

8.5

4

3.5

5

17

7

15

12

9

11

5.5

10

The type is unique. It was brought home from Afghanistan by Dr.

Aitchison of the Afghan Delimitation Commission, but somehow, probably

because it had not been set out, it remained unnoticed and was not recorded

by W. Kirby, who worked out the collection of the said Commission.* The

species is so conspicuous by the splendid coloration of its hind wdngs, that

there is no need for its comparison with other known species of the genus.

9. Hestiasula brunneriana, Sauss.

Quetta, Baluchistan, 1 5 (British Museum).

The single poorly preserved specimen agrees fairly well with Saussure’s original

description, as well as with Wood-Mason’s drawings (Journ. Asiat. Soc., Bengal

Trans. Linn. Soc , London, second series, Vol. V, part 3, pp. 137-14 •.

DESCRIPTIONS OF OIITROPTERA FROM S. If. ASIA.

725

1884, Vol. liii, pi. xiii, fig. la, lb.) which according to the author (Revis. Mantid.>

1889, p. 22) presents the same species. The drawing of the head is, however,

not quite exact, since it presents the lower surface of frontal appendix as convex,

while it is entirely flat, as rightly described by Saussure. This species has

been known from Sylhet, Calcutta and Mysore ; Quetta is, therefore, the most

north-western known point of its distribution.

10. Blepharopsis mendica nuda, Giglio-Tos.

1917. Blepharopsis nuda, Giglio-Tos, Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital., xlviii,

p. 70 (of separate copy.)

Numerous specimens in British Museum from Arabia, Sinai, Mesopotamia,

Quetta, etc.

The characters of nuda are not quite constant ; especially variable and not

characteristic for nuda is the degree of hairiness of the pronotum, on which

Giglio-Tos has based his species. On the other hand the form of femoral lobes,

specially those of middle femora, is rather constant : while in typical mendica

(from Portugal, Canaries) these lobes are scarcely denticulate at all, the speci-

mens from Desert Asia have the lobes strongly spined. As this character is,

however, also hable to individual variation, I think it more right to regard

nuda as but an Eastern geographical race of mendica.

Phasmidce.

11. Bubria LONGixiPHA, Br. Watt.

Aden, Arabia, 1 $ (British Museum).

The genus and this species has been hitherto known from the African Coast of

the Red Sea.

Locustidce.

12. Acbidium subtjlatum, L. — Baghdad, ii. 17 (Bombay N. H. Society).

13. Acrid ELLA robusta, Uvar. — Persia : Pusht-i-koh, Chekerava, 540 m.

above sea-level, 1907, de Morgan (Paris Museum).

14. Acbidella miniata, K1. — Amara, Mesopotamia, viii-ix. 16., Lt.-Col. F. P.

Connor (Bombay N. H. Society).

15. Acridella antennata, Krauss.

One male and two females v/ere taken at Ktubu, Arabia, by G. W.Bury.

The species is easily recognised by its very long antennae and strongly attenu-

ate hind angle of pronotum, apart from the peculiar dark coloration of wings.

16. Platypterna tibialis, Fieb. — Arabia, Percival and Dodson, 2 (^ . 2 5 ? ,

(British Museum).

17. Platypterna pictipes, sp. n.

$ . Of medium size for the genus. Antennae rather short (their exact length

unknown, the tips being broken), moderately compressed and widened in basal

part.

Front moderately reclinate, smooth, but not shining ; frontal ridge parallel,

slightly dilated near the ocellum, gradually and very feebly widened towards

the clypeus ; fastigium of vertex seen in profile subequal to one-half of the length

of an eye ; foveolae reniform, rather broad, curvate, not strongly impressed, with

margins rounded, the upper margins being especially obtuse and low, while

the lower ones are better developed ; vertex seen from above obtuse, rotundat^'-

triangular at the apex, as broad, as long, convex, with thick, but very low,

shining median carina. Eyes oval, oblique. Pronotum feebly, but distinctly

constricted in prozona ; lateral keels parallel between the fore margin and the

second transverse sulcus, gradually diverging behind the latter, slightly convex

in about the middle of metazona ; median keel sharp, straight, interrupted by

the third sulcus ; metazona distinctly shorter than prozona, distinctly convex

and raised above the level of prozona ; hind margin obtusely angulate, with

the angle itself not rounded ; lateral lobes rather convex, narrowed downwards,

with fore margin sUghtly sinuate, lower margin feebly bisinuate, with a very

I

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

minute obtuse angle in the middle, hind margin straight, feebly sinuate ; fore

and hind angles of lobes a little more than 90 , rounded. Elytra very long,

parallel-sided. Hind femora moderately broad, rather robust, subapical

filiform part not developed.

General coloration is that of sand. Head with small brownish spots, forming

two occipital and two postocular stripes. Pronotum with lateral keels shining,

paler than disc ; lateral lobes darker along their upper margin and with a narrow

whitish border beneath. Elytra sand-coloured in the basal fifth part and

colourless in the rest, with a longitudinal row of brownish spots in the intercalate

area and 3-4 smaller and more feebly colom-ed spots in the apical third, just

behind the second radial vein ; several feebly coloured spots are also scattered

on the whole apical half of elytra ; aU veins and venules are sand-coloured with

small irregular darker knots. Wings hyalinous ; veins, especially near the

apex, brownish. Hind femora with superno-median area of the general color-

ation, while the externomedian area is whitish ; irmer surface unicolorous ;

This species seems to be related to P. geniculata, Bol. (Novit. Zool., XX, 1917,

p. 608, Xo. 9) from Algerian Sahara, but it is well characterised by the structure

of frontal ridge, foveolae of vertex, shape of pronotum and coloration of

hind tibiae.

18. DociosTAUEtrs CEASsiuscTJLUs,-Pant. (=hauensteini Bob).- — Persia : Poush-

e-kouh, Ai'kovaz, J. de Morgan, 1904 (Paris Museum).

19. Dociostatteus maeoccanus, Thunb. — Persia : Abadch, Peter Paschen

(Bombay N. H. Society).

20. Eambueiella teuchuana, F. W. — Syria, Aleppo, F. G. Aldous (British

Museum).- — The genera Ramburiella, Bol. and Pallasiella, Kirby, are evidently

identical, since Ramburiella hispanica, and Pallasiella truchmana, F. W.,

are undoubtedly congeneric. As Bolivar’s name for the genus is the oldest of

the two, the genus must be called Ramburiella, and it includes three species ;

R. hispanica, Ramb .,R. truchmana, F. W. and R. bolivari, Kuthy.*

21. HiloLOPtrs THALASsiNUs, Rossi. — Baghdad, ii., 17 (Bombay N, H. Society) .

22. HioLOPUS STEEPEN.s STEEPENS, Latr. — Syria, Aleppo, F. G. Aldous ; Bagh-

dad (British Museum) ; Persia : Susa, J. de Morgan (Paris Museum). — This

Mediterranean species has never been previously recorded from the Desert

subregion and its occurrence in Baghdad and Susa in the typical form is quite

interesting, since in S. W. Persia another race occurs, which is described below.

23. HllOLOPITS STEEPENS DESEETICOLA, Subsp. n.

Differs from the typical Mediterranean form in the following characters : —

Pronotum more distinctly constricted, less convex above ; elytra somewhat

longer ; general coloration brownish-grey ; elytra with wider fight transverse

bands : wings feebly infumate apically ; hind femora with black points along

the lower carina of the area externomedia and with three indistinct fasciae in the

same area ; inner side of femora pale with two black fasciae ; hind tibiae bluish

with black base, and a pale subbasal ring, followed by a dark grey ring.

* Described as Stethophyma bolivari Kuthy (Ann. Mus. Hung., 1907, p. 431), and

again by me as Arcyptera elegans, Uvar. (Horae Soc. Entom. Rossicae, Vol. 39, 1910.

p. 370; see also Bull. Mus. Caucase, xii, 1919, p. 156); this species is very closely

related to R. hispanica, Ramb. and is pos.«ibly but a geographical race of the latter

DESCIUPTIONS OF ORTROPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA.

727

5

24. Lkrina a^olopoides, sp. n.

^ . Of the size of L. oedipodioides, Bol., but more compressed laterally. An-

te niise very feebly flattened and scarcely dilated apically. Head in profile

distinctly reclinate ; frontal ridge gradually, though feebly, widened towards

clypeus, shallowly, but distinctly, impressed, with margins raised, rather

sharp ; facial keels raised, almost straight. Fastigium of vertex distinctly

longer than broad, pentagonal, with apex much attenuate, acute ; lateral margins

raised, sharp, the anterior ones feebly concave ; surface very feebly sloping

forwards, slightly concave. Temporal foveolae elongate, strongly narrowed

anteriorly, triangular, feebly curvate, shallow, with raised margins. Eyes

sUghtly higher than broad, less rounded anteriorly than posteriorly. Occiput

with its surface uneven. Pronotum distinctly constricted laterally, much

alike in its shape to that of Molopus strepens, Latr. ; disc subtectiform, feebly

narrowed anteriorly ; median keel raised, slightly lowered behind the first trans-

verse sulcus, interrupted by the hind sulcus, which is placed distinctly before its

middle ; metazona with its hind angle acute ; lateral keels scarcely perceptible

in the fore part of prozona, very obtuse in metazona ; lateral lobes higher than

long, with their lower margins oblique in the fore part ; their fore angle obtuse,

hind angle straight, widely rounded. Elytra with the fore ulnar vein sinuate ;

false vein in discoidal area thick, distinctly tra,nsversely serrulate, approaching

apically to the hind radial vein ; interulnar area more than twice as broad as

the discoidal area, with the false vein distinct only near the base of the area,

the rest of the latter being irregularly reticulated ; furcal branches of the ulnar

vein, as well as the false vein in the interfurcal area and transverse venules in

the same area, are distinctly thickened, callous.

General coloration reddish-sandy with black and grey points and designs.

Antennae unicolorous. Face whitish ; frontal and facial keels with black

longitudinal spots. Pronotum with numerous blackish points. Elytra with

three broad castaneous fasciae : sub-basal, median and pre- apical, all reaching

the anal area, but not extending into it ; interspaces between the fasciae whitish ;

apex hyaline ; anal area sandy. Wings feebly greenish basally, with an indefinite

infumate preapical fascia, not reaching the inner margin. Hind femora out-

wardly reddish-sandy in the basal half and blackish apically, with a reddish

ring before the knee ; innerside and lower sulcus totally black, except a pale

preapical ring ; knees blackish, except the reddish upside. Hind tibiae black,

with apex and a narrow subbasal ring ivory white. Hind tarsi ivory white,

with second joint brownish. Abdomen reddish with 3-6 segments black late-

rally.

Length of body . . . . . . . . 16, 5 mm.

„ pronotum . . . . . . . . 4

„ elytra . . . . . . . . 18

„ hind femur . . . . . . . . 9, 5

The unique specimen of this species has been taken by A. S. G. Jayakar at

Muscat, Arabia (British Museum). It is with some hesitation that I put this

species into the genus Lerina, Bol. which has been described from one Indian

* Specimens of this race recorded by me (Journ., Bombay N. H. Soc., Vol.

-xxvii, 1921, p. 804) from Mesopotamia, seem to belong to a distinct species, which

I am unable to identify with certainty now, owing to scarcity of material.

2fi

728 journal, BOMBAY natural HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXTIII.

species — L. oedipodioides, Bol. The new species itself is very striking by its

close resemblance to Molopus strepens, Latr., by venation of elytra and by

coloration of the same and of hind legs.

25. Lerina buxtoni, sp. n.

cf , Of the size and habitus of the Indian L. oedipodioides, Bol. Antennae

slightly flattened, feebly dilated towards the apex ; last joint truncate. Front

in profile distinctly reclinate ; face impresso-punctate ; frontal ridge subparallel,

rather suddenly narrowed near fastigium and very feebly widening towards

clypeus, not reaching the latter, flat, with a small impression below the ocellum,

with lateral margins obtuse ; facial carinae obtuse, rather thick, feebly curvate.

Vertex slightly sloping ; fastigium much longer than broad, elongato-hexagonal,

narrowly truncate anteriorly, shghtly concave, with raised margins ; foveolae

long and straight, strongly narrowed anteriorly, almost triangular, shallow,

with margins not sharply delineate. Eyes almost vertical, distinctly higher

than broad, with fore margin straight. Pronotum feebly constricted and rounded

in prozona, which is distinctly longer than metazona ; median keel in prozona

scarcely distinct, interrupted by two transverse sulci, in metazona sharp, though

low ; lateral keels in the shape of small, low tubercules near the fore margin

of prozona and very obtuse in metazona ; fore margin of the pronotal disc

slightly prominent, with a small emargination in the middle ; hind margin

obtusely angulate, widely rounded ; lateral lobes much higher than long, with

lower margin oblique in its fore part, fore angle obtuse, hind angle about 90°

rounded. Elytra extending beyond the hind knees ; interulnar field about twice

as broad as discoidal, with an irregular false vein ; intercalate vein in discoidal

area approaching apically to the radial vein; two furcal veins and the false vein

in the furcal area, as well as transverse venules in the same area thick, callous.

Venation of wings as in L. oedipodioides, Bol. Hind femora short, broad ; hind

tibiae shorter than femora. ,

General coloration is that of sand, with numerous greyish and blackish points.

Antennae brown with numerous pale rings. Pronotum above brick-reddish,

with two indefinite blackish longitudinal sinuate fasciae. Elytra with three

irregular blackish bands and scattered brownish-grey spots. Wings hyalinous,

very feebly coerulescent basally. Fore and middle legs with several brown

transverse fasciae. Hind femora with two irregular transverse fasciae in area

externomedia and with three on the upper side ; inside black, except a post-

median and a preapical pale fascia ; knees black from inside and grey outwardly.

Hind tibiae ivory white,with base, median and preapical rings, and tips of

The unique type specimen has been taken by P. A. Buxton at Amara, Meso-

potamia, 10. viii, 18, together with a paratypic male, which agrees with the type

in all morphological characters, but has the elytra unicolorous, without any

trace of fasciae or spots.

26. CEdaleus nigrofasciatxts, De Geer. — Persia; Bakhtyari Mountains, 1500-

4500 m., J. deMorgan, 1904 (Paris Museum).

27. .SciNTHARISTA NOTABILIS BRUNNERI, SaUSS.

1884. Scintharista brunneri, Saussure, Prodr. Oedipod., p. 121, No. 1.

1888. Quiroguesia brullei var. blanchardiana, Saussure, Add. ad Prodr.

CEdipod., p. 35.

The most careful examination of the cotypes of blanchardiana, Sauss., which

are in British Musuem, and comparison of them with original description ot

bninneri, Sauss., leaves no doubt in the identity of this form. It is evident,

therefore, that the genera Scintharista, Sauss., and Quiroguesia, Bol., are identical

DESCRIPTIONS OF ORTHOPTERA FROM S. If. ASIA.

729

and Saussure’s name has priority. I consider the Asiatic Sc. brunneri,

Sauss., as a mere geographical race of the Western Mediterranean

Sc. notabilis, Walk. (=brullei, Sauss.), the difference between them being too

insignificant for separation of species. This race occurs in two different colour

forms, which might be taken together, one with rose wings and another with

yellow wings ; it is distributed all over the deserts of S. W. Asia, from North

Kashmir and Bombay to Ordubad in Transcaucasia and to Southern Arabia,

occurring even at Massowah, on the African Coast of the Red Sea.

Specimens in British Museum are from following locahties ; — Aden, Arabia

(Co-types of blanchardiavM, Sauss). ; Muscat, Dr. Jayakar ; Malakand, N. India,

A. Begbie ; Campbellpore, N. India ; Hunza, N. Kashmir ; Quetta, Baluchistan.

In the Bombay Natural History Society there is one female from Teghab Kelat,

Baluchistan, 28, viii, 17, J. E. B. Hotson.

28. Morphaeris fasciata, Thunbg., &h sulcata, Thunb. — SjTia, 1 cj (British

Museum). — Full synonymy of this species is given by me in another paper on

the Indian Orthoptera. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1921, p. 488).

29. Mioscirtus wagneri Ev. — Fao, Persian Gulf, v., 91, W. D. Cumming,

2 $ 5 — Specimens from Mesopotamia and Southern Persia are somewhat larger

than those from the original locality of the species, which is Sarepta, North from

Caspian Sea ; if this difference proves to be constant in large series of speci-

mens, a distinct southern geographical race may be distinguished, which might

be called subsp. rogenhoferi, Sauss. (described as Conozoa rogenhoferi, Sauss.).

30. Pyrgodera armata, F. W. — Jebel-Hamrin, River Diala, Mesopotamia,

vii, 18, 1 d , H. D. Piele ; Ba^tyari, W. Persia, 29, vi. 11,1 d , G. B. Scott (British

Museum) ; Abadeh, W. Persia, P. Paschen (Bombay Society) ; Eivar-i-kerkha,

Persia, iv. Vol. 1907, I. deMorgan (Paris Museum),

31. Sphingonotus savignyi, Sauss. — Abadeh, Persia, vii-viii, P. Paschen

(Bombay Society).

32. Sphingonotus brunneri, Sauss. — Abadeh, Persia, vii-viii, 1 5 , P.

Paschen (Bombay Society).

33. Spingonatus balteaus, Serv. — Abadeh, Persia, vii-viii, 1 d > 2 2 2,

P, Paschen (Bombay Society),

34. Sphingonotus octofasciatus, Serv. — Abadeh, Persia, v-vi, 2 d d ,

3 2 2 - P- Paschen (Bombay Society).

35. Helioscirtus moseri, Sauss. — Benn-Chah-Bah, Baluchistan, 20. viii.

17, 1 2 > J- E. B. Hotson (Bombay Society).

Iranella, gen. nov.

General habitus not unlike that of Sphingonotus, but elytra and wings only

half developed.

Head rather large and thick. Front vertical ; frontal ridge above ocellum

flat, broad, strongly punctured, below ocellum suddenly depressed and narrowed,

with lateral margins raised, and totally disappearing half-way between ocellum

and clypeus ; face broad ; facial keels strongly raised, rather thick, vertical,

diverging downwards ; lateral ocelli touching the eyes and lateral margins of

fastigium ; fastigium strongly sloping, shghtly convex, strongly rugose, with a

short median sulcus which is widened anteriorly, then narrowed again and

passing gradually into frontal ridge ; vertex between the eyes slightly concave,

broad, with lateral margins straight, parallel, with a low median carinula,

bifurcate anteriorily, very narrowly sulcate and extended into the occiput ,

the latter strongly rugose. Pronotum in prozona constricted and cylindrical

intersected by three deep transverse sulci, the second one being bifurcate in that

disc, so that the latter is intersected by four sulci ; lateral keels in prozona

distinct, but interrupted in the middle ; metazona equal in length to prozona,

slightly convex, strongly rugose and densely covered with small tubercules,

while tubercules in prozona are large, but not densely placed ; median Carina

in prozona replaced by a scarcely perceptible sulcus, while in metazona it is

730 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

well developed, very thin, linear ; hind angle of metazona straight, rounded ;

lateral lobes about as long as high, strongly widened upwards, their fore margin

slightly sinuate, lower margin oblique and very feebly sinuate in the fore part,

hind margin very oblique, almost straight ; hind angle obtuse, rounded ; prozona

in lateral lobes more than twice as long as metazona. Prosternum with its

fore margin produced in a large, trapezoidal collar, widened and slightly bi-

sinuate apically, with outer angles a httle less than 90°. Pectus very broad ;

mesosternal lobes trapezoidal, a httle broader than long, with inner and hind

margins straight, inner angles sharp, about 90° ; mesosternal interspace broader

than long ; metasternal lobes extremely short, their interspace equal in breadth

to the mesosternal one. Tympanum very large, oval. Fore and middle tibiae

armed with 2-3 small spines both on outer and inner side near the apex. Hind'

femora rather short, thick, with upper carina denticulate ; lower carina not

widened, almost straight. Hind tibiae shghtly incurved and widened towards

the apex, with 9 inner and 8 outer spines, without subapical spine on the outside ;

outer spures twice as short as the inner ones. Elytra just a httle longer than

abdomen, coriaceous, rugose, with the fore margin gradually rounded, hind

margin almost straight, apex vddely rounded ; veins rather irregular, sinuate ;

prc -radial area broad ; discoidal area open with an irregular intercalate vein ;

anterior ulnar vein straight, reaching the apex of elytra ; anal area almost

equal in breadth to one half of the whole elytra. Wings shorter than elytra,

circular.

Genotype : Jranella eremiaphila, sp. n.

36. Iranella eremiaphila, sp. n.

d : Greyish ochraceous, rvith whitish and grey marks. Elytra beneath with

several confluent round black spots in the pre -radial area and four smaller and

lighter coloured ones in discoidal area ; all these spots are shghtly conspicuous

(grey) on the upper side ; the hind radial and humeral veins, as well as all trans-

verse venules of the anal field bluish-black on the lower side, but not distinctly

coloured on the upside of elytra ; hind femora shghtly rose in the basal half of

the inner side, with two scarcely perceptible greyish transverse fasciae in area

extreno-media ; knees grey. Hind tibiae bluish-grey in the basal half, shghtly

i-ose apicaUy, with spines sanguineous, black tipped.

Length of body . . . . . . . . 15 mm.

,, pronotum . . . . . . . . 5, 5

,, elytra . . . . . . . . 11

Maximal width of elytra . . . . . . 5

Length of hind femur . . . . . . . . 10

The type of this striking insect is unique. It has been taken by P. Paschen

in Abadeh, Persia, vh-vih, 1916.

This insect somewhat resembles Sphingonotus in the shape of the head

and pronotum, but the disc of the latter is intersected by four sulci ; short

elytra and wings give it a general appearance quite unlike any other genus of

(Edipodince. The black spots on the underside of el3rtra remind one of the Jlantid

genus Eremiaphila ; their biological meaning is quite incomprehensible without

a careful study of the biology of the insect in its natural surroundings.

37. CEdipoda gratiosa, Serv. — Persia ; Abadeh, vii-viii. 16, P. Paschen

(Bombay N. H. Society).

38. Acrotyltjs longipes, Charp. — Arabia : Muscat, Id, A. S. J. Jayakar

(British Museum).

39. Acrotylus instjbricus, Scop.^ — Persia : Abadeh, vii-viii, 16, P. Paschen

(Bombay N. H. Society).

40. Tmethis cisti, F.- — Syria : A1 eppo, F. G. Aldous (British Museum).

41. Tmethis .saussurei, Uvar., ab. violacea, n.— Differs from the typical

blue-winged form only by the violaceous colour of wings, all morphological

DESCRIPTIONS OF ORTROPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA.

731

characters, as well as dimensions, being the same. Types and several cotypes

from Abadeh, Persia, P. Paschen (British Museum and Bombay N. H. Society).

42. Tmethis hotsoni, sp. n.

9 . Large, laterally compressed. Head narrow, prominent a bove pronotum ;

front reclinate ; frontal ridge expressed above ocellum only, tot ally and abruptly

disappearing below it ; fastigium of the vertex strongly sloping, longer than

broaid, slightly widened anteriorly, transversely rugose ; eyes very prominent,

oval ; occiput with an irregular median carina. Pronotum laterally compressed,

especially so in prozona, which is considerably narrower and shorter than meta-

zona ; prozona strongly tectiform, with median crista thick, deeply intersected

by three transverse sulci, the hindmost of which is especially deep ; metazona

as high, as prozona, thick, tectiform in its fore half, with thick elevated carina,

which disappears on the apical third ; hind angle acute, rounded ; lateral lobes

much higher, than long, with fore margin slightly sinuate ; lower margin sinuate

anteriorly ; hind angle of lobes straight, rounded ; whole pronotum is covered

with rather large, but not dense callous tubercules ; metazona rugulose. Eiytra

very long, extending far beyond hind knees. Hind wings a little shorter than

elytra. Mesostemal lobes nearly triangular, their inner margins being strongly

oblique ; interspace much broader, than long. Metasternal lobes widely sepa-

rated. Hind femora elongate, granulose, with upper margins slightly undulate ;

lower margin straight. Second abdominal segment raised posteriorly in a rather

thick median protuberance.

General coloration whitish-grey ; pronotum feebly brick-reddish. Elytra

ochraceous-grey, with indistinct grey marks. Wings light greenish-blue, with

a 4-5 mm. wide black band, which starts from the middle of fore margin and

runs straight backwards to the hind margin but does not reach it by about 5 mm.,

suddenly turning under a straight angle inwardly and reaching the inner margin ;

two apical lobes brown. Hind femora coeruleous beneath, light blue inwardly,

with inner knee lobes dark blue. Hind tibiae with inner and upper surfaces

blue, with a pale ring near the base and a red apical spot. Abdomen pale

The female of this species has been taken by Lt.-Col. J. E. B. Hotson inMand,

Baluchistan, 29, iv. 1916, on sand ; it bears the remark, ‘‘plentiful,” but only one

rather damaged specimen has been included in collection sent to British Museum

by the Bombay Society. The species belongs to the group of T. gibber, St.,

but is bigger, more constricted laterally, with longer elytra, than any other

known species, and is also easily recognised by narrow band of wings, bent under

a right angle.

43. PcECiLOCERtrs viTTATUS, Klug. — Arabia: Aden, Ktubu (British Museum).

43a. PcEciLOCERUS viTTATTJs var. CALOTROPiDis, Karsh. — A very large series

of specimens in British Museum from Hadramaut, Arabia.

44. PcECiLocERFS PiCTTJs, F. — ^Baluchistan : Quetta (British Museum); Orma-

rah, W. Gumming ; Nal, 21, ix. 17 and Greshag-Kalat, 28, viii, 17, J. E. B. Hotson

(Bombay N. H. Society). — These are the most north-western records of this

Indian species.

44a. PcRciLOCERTJs BUFONis, Klug. and ab. vulcania, Serv. — Very numerous

specimens in Paris Museum from Sinai, J. Couayt, 1908, belonging both to

typical form and entirely black ab. vulcania, together with several of inter-

mediate coloration.

45. PcECLILOCERtrS ARABICUS, Sp. n.

d . Size rather small for the genus. Antennae feebly flattened, distinctly longer

than head and pronotum together. Front not very oblique, scarcely concave

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HLST. SOCLBTl, Vol. XXVUl.

in profile ; frontal ridge between antennae strongly compressed, very narrowly

sulcate, the sulcus slightly widened towards ocellum, suddenly narrowed below

it, gradually widened and becoming more shallow towards the clypeus, not

reaching the latter ; lateral facial keels more raised near the eyes, lowered below

their middle. Fastigium of vertex attenuate, convex, rugosely punctate,

with apex deeply furrowed. Eyes very prominent, short, oval. Occiput with

a low median carina. Pronotum short, convex, its whole surface feebly coria-

ceous ; transverse sulci very feeble ; median carina undeveloped in prozona and

scarcely perceptible in metazona ; the latter a little shorter, than prozona ;

hind margin very widely rounded ; lateral lobes with fore angles very obtuse,

hind angles obliquely truncate. Elytra narrow, extending a httle beyond hind

knees, marginal field feebly widened basally and gradually narrowed towards

apex, the basal dilatation being, therefore, not as well marked, as in most other

species of the genus ; apex of elytra elliptical. Wings shorter than elytra,

with disc coloured. Hind femora slender, narrow. Supraanal plate obtusely

triangular. Cerci short, slightly compressed, obtuse. Subgenital plate thick,

rounded, carinated apically.

General coloration grey. Antennae with basal joints blackish, with apical

two-thirds irregularly annulated with browm, black and pale rings ; apical

joints black. Face pale-brownish. Fastigium blackish from above. Occiput

of darker shade than the cheeks. Pronotum unicolorous grey, -with hind margin

narrowly shining black. Mesonotum and metanotum bluish-black. Elytra

ash-grey, with numerous orange-yellow speckles. Wings rose, except the apex

and hind border, which are hyahnous ; veins in apical part brownish. Abdomen

dirty-yellow, with brown rings at the base of each segment. Fore and middle

legs uniformly brownish-grey. Hind femora grey on the outside and black

inwardly. Hind tibiae dark violaceous, with base almost black ; spines pale

with black tips. Two basal joints of hind tarsi pale with brown spots ; last

joint violaceous.

Arabia : Ktubu, G. W. Bury, 1 ^ (British Museum). -

This species is very well characterised by its coloration, as well as by morpho-

logical features, the shortness of pronotum and form of elytra rendering the best

characters for separating it from its related species.

46. Pyegomobpha conica, 01. — Amara, Mesopotamia, F. P. Connor (Bombay

Society).

47. Tropidauchen escalerai, Bol. — Persia, 1 9 (British Museum). This

species differs from T. securicollis. Sauss. by but unimportant characters and is,

probably, only a geographical form of the latter species.

48. Tropidauchen cultricolle, Sauss. — Afghanistan: Hari-rud valley, 1(J,

1 9 > 1 larva ; Badghis, 1 larva (British Museum). — These specimens have been

recorded b/ Kirby (Trans. Lin. Soc. London, Zool. v, 3, p. 139, No. 11) as

Eunapius granosvs, Stal.

49. Dericorys albidula, Serv. — Persia : Fao, 1891, W. Cummings (British

Museum).

1839. Dericorys albidula, Serv., Ins. Orth., p. 639.

1853. Cyphopliorus tibialis, Fieber, Lotos, iii, p. 121, No. 2.

1875. Derocorys acutispina, Stal, Bih. Sven. Akad., iii (14), p. 27, No. 1.

1889. Derocorystes curvipes, Redt., Wien Ent. Ztg., viii, p. 29, No. 5.

1913. Dericorys albidula, Bolivar, Novitates Zool., xx, p. 613, No. 23.

I am fully convinced by the most careful study of descriptions of all above

quoted species, that there exists only one large species of Dericorys, which is

\

DESCRIPTIOXS OF ORTHOPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA.

733

distributed from Transcaspia to Sahara and from Persian Gulf to Syria. The

characters given by BoUvar (l.c.) as separating albidula, Serv., from curvipes

Redt., are not specific but individual.

50. Tropidopola obtusa, sp. n. (fig. 2).

Tn studying a rather extensive series of Tropidopola (\.2^ 139 9) taken

in different parts of the Desert region, and comparing these specimens with those

of Tropidopola cylindrica, Marsh, from Greece and Macedonia, I came to the

conclusion that the desert species is not cylindrica, as it has been identified by

all authors, including myself, but is well distinct from it. As it, however, agrees

with cylindrica in all characters, except structure of the head, which is quite

different and very constant throughout the series, I think it unnecessary to

give a full description of the new species, and the following key together with

drawings must be sufficient for separating it from cylindrica : —

Fig. I. A. Tropidopola cylindrica 'Ma.rah,

B. Tropidopola obtusa. sp. n.

1 (A) Head not thicker than pronotum, gradually narrowed anteriorly.

Front long, more reclinate, in profile quite straight ; frontal carinm

straight, converging gradually towards fastigium. Fastigium of

vertex (fig. 1) distinctly longer than its base wide ; its sides straight,

apex subacute. Eyes more elongate. Antennae distinctly flattened

with median joints subquadrate , T. cylindrica Marsh.

2 (B) Head a little thicker than pronotum. Front shorter, less reclinate ;

in profile slightly convex ; frontal carime subparallel, suddenly

converging between the base of antennae and fastigium. Fastigium

of vertex (fig. 2) not longer than its base wide ; its sides convex ; apex

rounded. Eyes shorter and broader. Antennae scarce^ flattened

with median joints distinctly longer than wide. Length of body of

the type (female) 35mm. ; of pronotum 6, 5 ; of elytra 26 ; of hind femur

14, 5 T. obtusa, sp. n.

The type is from Qualat-Salah, Mesopotamia, 6, i., 1918, P. A. Buxton. Other

specimens of T. obtusa studied by me were from following localities: —

Mesopotamia : Amara, Basra, P. A. Buxton ; S. Persia : Fao, D. Cummings,

River Karun, Mohamarra, K. C. Mabbs (British Museum) ; Susa, J. dcMorgan

(Paris Museum).

Two specimens taken by Dr. Buxton in Mesopotamia (l^J from Basra,12, viii,

18 and 19 from Amara, 18, vii, 18) differ from all others by their fight green

coloration, which is more fresh in 9 > while the male is slightly brownish from

above ; both specimens are also larger than usual, and have longer antenme

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIBT. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

consisting of more elongated joints, than may be seen in typical specimens

of obtusa. Without studying a larger series of this form, I cannot decide

whether those characters are sufficiently constant to be specific, and I pro-

pose in the meantime to designate it as var. vikescens ; n. The dimensions of

the typical specimen (female from Amara, Mesopotamia) are, as follows : — Length

of body 39 mm.; of pronotum 7 ; of elytra 28 ; of hind femur 16, 5.*

51. Thiscecelkus (?) moebosus, Serv.

1839. Acridium morbosum, Serville, Ins. Orth., p. 682, No. 44.

1870. Caloptenus cinciicollis, Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt. Br. Mus. iy, p. 689,

No. 29.

There is no doubt though the types of cincticollis, Walk., are lost, that this

species is identical with morbosum, Serv., both insects having been described

from Sinai ; I have seen two females from the same locality : Sinai, J. Couayt,

1909 ; desert Arabique, Mahamadieh, canal de Suez (Paris Museum). In

British Museum there is one female of this species, which is labelled “ Spain”

which is doubtless wrong and due to some mistake in labelling. I am not quite

sure, whether the species belongs to Tkisoecetrus, where it is included by some

authors, but the question cannot be decided, until male specimens are

studied.

52. Sphodeomerus cceleosyriensis, Giglio-Tos (Fig. 3c, 4c.).

1893. Caloptenus ccdesyriensis, Giglio-Tos, Boll. Mus. Zool. An. comp. Torino,

viii, N. 164, p. 10, No. 51, fig. 4.

1914. Calliptamus italicus, L. .ab. carbonaria, Uvar., Revue Russe d’Entom.,

xiv, p. 10.

Shortly after I described carbonaria I had

the opportimityof stud /ing extensive series

of the same insect from different loca-

hties in Transcaucasia, Persia and Kurdis-

tan, as well as of maMng some field obser-

vations on living insects, which enables me

to state, that it is quite a distinct species

from italicus, 1j. The examination of a

single male in British Museum from Syria

(Aleppo) enables me to identify carbonaria

mth coelesyriensis. The species is rather

variable in the development of lateral keels

of pronotum and, as its coloration also

varies from pitch-black to reddish-grey or

clay-yellow, it might be mistaken for

italicus. It differs, however, from the lat-

ter species by shorter and broader hind

femora, and, more distinctly, by the shape

of end of male cerci, which in italicus is

armed with two small teeth under the

apical lobe, while in coelosyriensis there is

only one tooth ; these differences are clearly shown in figures (see fig. 2).

This species is distributed from Syria to Turkestan (Ferghana) and from S. E.

Transcaucasia to Central Persia (Teheran, in Caucasian Museum ; Pusht-i-Kuh,

B

Fig 2. Tips of the male cerci.

A — of Calliptamus ccelosyrien-

sis, G. T.

B — of C. italicus, L.

these

Paris Museum).

53. Thiscecetrus ADSPERSUS, Redt. — Mesopotamia: Sinn-Abtar, vii, 16,

Shortridge ; Amara, viii-ix, 16, Connor ; Baghdad, 13, ii.l7 (Bombay Society).

* Specimens of Tropidopola from Algeria, whence I have studied only three

examples, are mor j alike obtusa, than cylindrica in the shape of fastigium, b:it they

differ by the frontal carinse being gradually coiivergent, as in clylindrica. I propose to

regard the Algerian Tropidopola as a geographical race of the desert o6<mso., un(mr the

subspecific name algeriana, subsp. nova (type from Biskra, Algeria, W. I. H. King.

DESCRlPTlOyS OF ORTHOFTEliA FROM S. ir. ASIA.

735

54. Thisoecetru-s DORSATUS, F.-W. — Mesopotamia: Sinn.-Abtar vi, 16, G-

C. Shortridgc (Bombay Society).

55. This<ecetrus pulcher, Bob — Baluchistan : Gaza Kalah, 1, ix, 1917, J.

E. B. Hotson (Bombay Society). — The species belongs to Indian fauna and this

is the most north-western record of its occurrence.

Tetligoniidce.

56. Eurycorypha sty’lata, St. — El-Kubar, N. W. Ai-abia. G. W. Bury,

Sod (British Museum). — The genus is essentially African in its distribution

and the species is African, as well.

.57. Euconocephaltjs incertus. Walk.

1869. CoNocEPHALTJs INCE KTUs, Walk.— Cat. Derm. Sait. B.M., ii, p. 320.

1891. CoNOCEPHALTJS BREVicEPS, Redt.— Vcrh. Zool. -Bot. Gcs. Wien, p. 417.

Tj this species must be partly referred records on the occurrence in the deserts

of S. W. Asia of Horn, nitidulus, Scop. The above synonymy is estabhshed by me

after comparison of Redtenbacher’s description with Walker's types of incertus. I

have seen the specimens from the following localities: — Arabia: Fao, 27, x.. 91,

15; Aden. 16, iii, 95, 19; ^Mesopotamia : Amara, P. A. Bii.xton. 19 (named by

L. Chopard as nitidulus, Scop) ; Baluchistan ; Omarah, W. D. Cummings, 1 9

(all in Britisli Museum).

58. XiPHiDiUYi FUSCUM TCRANicuM. Sem. — Amara, Mesopotamia, \iii-ix, 16-

30, V. 17, F. P. Connor (Bombay Society).

59. Decticus albifrons, Cyi'. — Mesopotamia : Amara, vii., 16, F. P. Connor ;

Sinn-Abtar, ani, 16, G. C. Shorti’idge.

60. Trigoxocorypha angustata, sp. n.

9 : Fastigium of vertex triangular, with middle sulcus broad and deep,

open anteriorly. Pronotal disc rugulose, very feebly convex anteriorly and as

feebly concave posteriorly ; fore margin rotundately concave ; hind margin

circular with a very small emargination in its middle ; lateral carinse straight,

feebly convergent anteriorly, more distinctly serrulate in prozona, than in

metazona ; transverse sulcus feeble, curved backwards in the middle, placed at

the end of the basal third ; lateral lobes forming a right angle with disc, distinctly

higher than long ; their fore margin very feebly concave, lower and hind margin

widely rounded. Elytra reaching well beyond hind knees ; marginal field

strongly widened, but near its apical third rather suddenly narrowed, fore

margin being distinctly concave and the apex of elytron lanceolato-attenuate ;

radial veins almost straight ; first radial branch bifurcate, second one not divided;

hind margin in apical half distinctly concave. Wings longer than elytra, with

apex acute. Hind femora with tvn rows of numerous spinules beneath. Sub-

genital plate short, triangular. Ovipositor short, strongly recurved.

General coloration brownish (probably decolarated through preserving in

some liquid) ; pronotal carinje slightly darker ; all other parts unicolorous.

Length of bodj^ . . . . . . . . 26 mm.

., pronotum . . . . . . . . 6, 5

,, elytra . . . . . . . . 37, 5

Width of ,, in the middle . . . . 10

„ ,, in the apical fourth . . 6

Length of wings . . . . . . 4<1

,, hind femur . . . . . . 24

,, ovipositor . . . . . . . . 6

The only specimen of this species is from Fao, Persian Gulf (British Museum).

Tliis is the fourth known species of the genus, the two previously known

(unicolor, Stall, and abnormis, Br. W.) being Indo-Malayan in their distribution,

and one has been described recently from Madagascar (maxima, Carl, Rev. Suisse

Zook, vol. 22, Xo. 6, 1914, p. 167, pi. 5, fig. 5). Form of ehdra in the new species

is quite peculiar and the shape of fastigium of vertex, which is completely

divdded in two lateral parts by middle sulcus, presents another good specific

character.

21

736 J0UR2\AL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Gryllidce.

60. . Beachytrypes chopaedi, sp. n.

cJ . Of the size and habitus intermediate between membranaceus, Drury, and

megacephalus, Lef.

Head slightly broader than pronotum. Face flattened, vertical, in shape

of a regular circle (its vertical diameter being equal to horizontal one). Fasti-

gium of vertex with a not deep impression in the form of a half-moon. Ocelli

as usual for the genus size ; the middle ocellus placed a little lower than

the line connecting lateral ocelli ; the latter placed on the outer side of vertical

keels which are distinctly convergent downwards and not extending beyond

the base of antennae ; middle facial space between these keels trapezoidal,

distinctly higher than broad, with a wide slightly raised coarsely hneato-rugose

transverse band ; in the middle of which there is a small tubercle with the

median ocellum on it ; below this band face is rugose, except a smooth shining

oval space just beneath ocellum ; lower part of face, between bases of antennae,

is slightly convex r below and a little outwardly from bases of antennae,

there are short vertical keels, slightly raised and obtuse. Clypeus with a dis-

tinct transverse keel. Occiput strongly convex, raised above pronotum,- very

sparsely and minutely punctured. Pronotum distinctly constricted in its

hind part, but less so than in megacephalus ; its length exceeds its basal width

by a little ; its apical width is subequal to one and a half of the length. Disc

rugose, with a short smooth median line in the fore half. Fore margin slightly

concave ; hind margin straight. Lateral lobes a little longer than liigh, scarcely

broadened dowmwards ; fore margin and fore angle broadly rounded ; lower

margin straight, slightly ascending backwards ; hind angle about 100°, rounded ;

hind margin vertical. Elytra about four and half times as long as pronotum

Tympanal field sUghtly longer than broad. Harpa with three long and 1-2 short

oblique veins. Speculum oblique, elongate ; its extemo-anterior margin straight ;

fore angle nearly straight, slightly rounded. Apical field occupies less than one-

third of the whole length of elytra. Lateral field with 5 branches of radial vein

and 8 obhque veins, with feeble transverse venules. Wings fully developed,

extending about one-fourth their length beyond the apex of elytra. Fore tibia

with a large oblique tympanum on the outer side, and with but a small one

inwardly ; apical tibial spurs short and obtuse, the two inner ones equal to one-

third part of the first tarsal joint ; the outer spur about one-half of the inner.

Fore tarsi about twice shorter, than tibiae ; first joint as second and third

together; its apex seen from beneath oblique, obtusely produced ; second joint,

equal to one-third of the first ; third joint twice as long as second ; claws thin,

almost straight, with apex bent, acute. Middle tibiae armed with four thick

and short apical spurs, the two inner and lower outer one being subequal in

length to each other, while upper outer is shorter. Hind tibiae armed inwardly

and outwardly with 3-4 irregular spines of different size and shape and with

six apical spurs ; upper inner spur is the longest, reaching about the middle

of metatarsus, and incurved ; two lower spars short and rather thin, the inner

of them being a little shorter than the outer ; three remaining spurs are sub-

equal in length to each other, about one-third of metatarsus, thick, straight.

Metatarsus equal to one-half of tibia, armed with three short irregular spinules

outwardly and four inwardly, and with two apical spurs, the outer spur being

quite short, very thick and obtuse, wdiile the inner reaches about the middle of

the third joint of tarsus, thick, slightly recurved, with obtuse apex. Supraanal

plate thick, with middle part impressed. Cerci slender long, with long per-

pendicular hairs. Subgenital plate acutely navicular.

General coloration brownish-pale. Face pale, with the suture between it

and clypeus blackish-brown ; trapezoidal space upwai-ds from the middle ocellum

and its lateral margins, as well as upper margin of antennae impressions,

castaneons ; vertex light castaneous, the colour gradually fading in occiput

DESCBIPTIOyS OF ORTHOPTERA FROM S. W. ASIA.

737

with a pale median line bifurcate anteriorly, and two darker indefinite narrow

submedian longitudinal fasciae. Pronotum pale with fore and hind part of

disc castaneous ; the hind castaneous part being twice as broad as the fore one ;

both are connected by a longitudinal median castaneous fascia, including a

pale median line ; a round pale point near fore margin and another before

hind margin ; lateral lobes pale. All legs pale ; hind knees with castaneous

semilunar patches. Elytra not strongly infumate ; wings hyahne, feebly

infumate apically.

Length of body . .

,, pronotum

Width of „ anteriorly

,, „ posteriorly

Length of elytra

„ wings

„ fore femur . .

„ „ tibia

„ „ tarsus . .

„ hind femur . .

,, „ tibia

„ „ tarsus . .

„ „ metatarsus

. . 34 mm

.. 6, 5

.. 11,5

. . 9

. . 24

.. 32

. . 9

. . 4

. . 20

.. 11

. . 8, 5

. . 5, 5

Two males (type and paratype) taken at Ktubu, Arabia, by G. W. Bury

in 1902.

I have the great pleasure in naming this interesting species after Dr. L. Chopard,

who has done so much for increasing our knowledge of Orthoptera, and especially,

of Gryllidce.

The species is somewhat similar to B. megacephalus, Lef., but it differs from it

in many important characters, as follows ; — Head in B. chopardi is but a little

broader, than pronotum ; trapezoidal space between eyes higher than broad, while

it is transverse in megacephalus. Pronotum in new species is lelatively longer, less

narrowed posteriorly ; lateral lobes distinctly longer than high and but feebly

widened downwards. Tympanal field of elytra is distinctly transveise in

megacephalus, while it is as broad as long in chopardi ; apical field is relatively

'bnger. Apical spurs of fore tibiae in chopardi are thick and much shorter than

first joint of tarsus, while in megacephalus they are thinner and longer ; apex

of first joint of fore tarsi is in new species not truncate, as in megacephalus, but

obtusely prominent. The larger apical spurs of hind tibiae (i.e., ail, except

inner upper ones) are subequal to one-third of metatarsus, while in megacephalus

they aje almost as long as a half of metatarsus. From another related species,

B. membranaceus, the new species differs partly by the same characters, as

from megacephalus, but is most easily separated by the form of the head, which

in membranaceus is not wider, than pronotum ; pronotum in the latter species

is not narrowed posteriorly ; median ocellum in chopardi is placed on a very

small tubercle, while in membranaceus this tubercle is very distinct ; apical field

of elytra in membranaceus is distinctly longer than one-third of elytra.

62. Acheta chaedea, sp. n.

d . Size rather small for the genus, just a little larger than that of A amarensis

Chopard.

Head distinctly broader, than pronotum, though not as broad comparatively,

as in campestris L., in profilb very little prominent before eyes. Face in its

lower part slightly impressed, or rather inclined, forming a very obtuse, but

distinct, angle with clypeus ; the latter is also subangularly prominent in its

middle, if seen in profile ; two scarcely perceptible impressions run obliquely

from base of antennae towards the middle ocellus, not reaching the latter. Pro-

notum not much broader than long, equally broad throughout ; fore margin

s'ightly excavate ;hind margin straight ; a feeble median impressed line not

733 JO UH:SAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll .

eaching the hind margin ; lateral lobes gradually widened anteriorly ; thei^

hind margin forming an obliquely rotundate line with lower margin ; fore angle

about 90°, rounded. Elytra not reaching the apex of abdomen ; tympanal area

much broader, than long ; four oblique veins, the first of which is but feebly

developed ; speculum rotundato — rhomboidal, with transverse vein curved ;

marginal field Avith 5 branches of radial vein and four oblique wings. Wings

undeveloped. Hind tibiae rather inflated on the upper side, just beyond the

base ; both upper margins in ajDical half sharp ; five outer .«pines, the first of

which is about half of the second and each of the rest slightly longer than its

preceding ; four inner spines thick, distinctly compressed laterally, with sharply

attenuate feebly sinuate tips ; first inner spine as long as the last of outer

spines ; three others a little longer ; inner upper spur not much longer than the

inner apical spine, slightly longer than a half of metatarsus, rather thick and

compressed, feebly sinuate ; lower inner spur only a little shorter than the

upper one and subequal to inner apical spine ; metatarsus thick ; its upper inner

margin rounded, while the upper outer margin is sharp and armed with four

sharp spines ; inner apical spur of metatarsus thick, compressed, subequal to

one-half of second tarsal joint.

Black, slightly shining, entirely non-pubescent. Head and pronotum verv

finely rugulose. Mandibulae reddish-brown. Eyes and ocelli buff. El3dra

dark-brown dorsallj’ and black laterally. Hind femora reddish-brown at

jhe base.

Length of body . . . . . . . . 20 mm.

Width of head' . . . . . . . . 6, 5

,, pronotum . . . . . . fi

Length of pronotum . . . . . . 45

„ elytra 11, 5

,, hind femur . . . . 9

„ „ tibia . . . . . . 6, 5

„ metatarsus . . . . 3

„ ., tai-sus . . . . 5, 5

3 J (5 (tj’pe and trvo paratypes) taken at Susa, Persian Chaldea, 60mt. above

sea-level, bj’ J. deMorgan’s Expedition, 1904 (Paris Museum ; one of paratj’pes in

the British Museum).

This new species belongs to small representatives of the genus and is most

nearh' related to A. amarensis, Chopard, recently described from Meso-

potamia but differs from it in the shape of head, clvpeus and pronotum, in the

more heavy armure of hind tibiae, as Avell as in relative dimensions of certain

spines and spurs of the latter. In its habitus, A. chaldea reminds more of A.

campesiris L., while A. amarensis is a diminutive form of the type of bima-

culata, De Geer.

63. Gkylia's tabtakus obscueus Uvarov.* — S.vria, Aleppo, iv-\ii. 19, F. C.

Aldous (British Museum).

64. Gkyllus domesticus L. — Mohammerah, Pei-sian Gulf, iii-iv. 17, R. C.

Mabbs, 1 (S (Biitish Museum).

65. Gkyllu.s DESEKirs Pall. — S^yria, Alepi^o, F.G. Aldous (British Museum),

66. Geyllotalba geyllotalpa L. — Mesopotamia. Basrah, 27, v. 16, F. Wall

(Bombay Society) ; River Karun, Mohammerah, Persian Gulf, iii-iv, 1917.

R. C. Mabbs (British Museum).

London,

April 1921.

Entom Month Magaz. !>21,Vol. vii, p, 50.

739

THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES.

By

Lieut. -Colonel W. H. Evans, D.S.O., R.E., F.Z.S., F.E.S.

( With 2 text figures.)

1. In a former paper, entitled “ Butterfly collecting in India,” I have

described briefly the characteristics of Indian butterflies and how to catch and

preserve them. The object of the present article is to exjilain in simple lan-

guage how butterflies are to be identified. There are several means of doing

this. Perhaps the simplest is to get an expert to do it for one ; anotlicr b}'

comparison with Museum collections or coloured diagrams and lastly by wor-

rying them out with a text book, such as Bingham’s or De Niceville’s. Muse-

ums and coloured diagrams are inaccessible to the majorily of collectors except

at rare intervals. Experts are few and far between and often somewhat un-

satisfactory, so that the only thing remaining to be done is to work with a text

book, v'hich method, I may add is the most satisfactory in the long run. I would

warn the reader that the identification of the 1,500 odd butterflies to be ob tam-

ed in the Indian Empire is no easy matter even for the Museum expert and,

unless the subject is studied in a methodical manner, the results are likely to

be most inaccurate. Still do not bs dismayed ; except perhaps for the Blues

and Skippers, the names of the butterflies, that are ordinarily to be met wdth,

can be picked up pretty quickly, while the rarer or more obscure species can be

put aside until a museum can be visited or an expert consulted.

2. As a prelude to identification it is necessary to understand the system

of classification in general use. Now the object of classification is to arrange

the specimens being classified in the most convenient manner possible for refer-

ence. With the various species belonging to the Animal and Vegetable King-

doms the accepted desideratum is to follow what is called the natural order of

evolution, the lowly bacteria being at the beginning of the list and man, in the

opinion of himself, at the end.

l!J Uj [\} I. !.i l!J LU IN I! 1 1 !J UJ l!.i ' !J ' !J LU U.J

a\ A

The system of evolution may be compared to a tree. Consider the butter-

flies as represented by such a tree, which has sprung in the distant past from

some older tree and so on from the earliest forms of life. Imagine our tree

to be composed of a number of branches, from each of which has sprung a

number of branchlets and from each of which again there have growm a

number of twigs. The twigs represent the various sjiecies of butterflies and

Hie problem is to arrange them in the best order possible. The correct solution

of the problem is to take the lowest branch and to lay it on the ground ;

on its right is placed the next branch and so on to the last or topmost ; the

branchlets are then stripped off and laid above each branch in the same order

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXVIII

finally the twigs are placed over the branchlets. Thus we manage to arrange the

twigs or species in a reasonable order. It seems very easy, but unfortunately

all that is left of our ti’ee, which has been growing for millions of years, are

just a few of the tv'igs. In some of the other branches of Natural Historj' the

Geologist can help the Zoologist to reconstruct their trees by means of fossils,

but, as may very well be imagined, he can give us no assistance -vvorth the name

with our tree. Thus it may be seen that the problem of butterfly classification

is extraordinarily dififlcult, since all we have to go upon is the study of present

day conditions, our knowledge of which may be said to have attained respec-

table dimensions since the days of the pioneer Linnaeus at the end of the

eigteenth century, but, as stated in my former paper, far more remains to be

done especially in India.

3. The species Ls the basis of classification, but what constitutes a species is

not so easy to define. Bingham in his volumes in the Fauna of India Series on

the butterflies discarded the word as it was so open to misconception and used

the word “ form ” instead. I think it is now generally accepted that, when

two so-called forms fly together and do not interbreed, they are to be regarded

as species ; where they do not fly together and present well defined differences,

it is a matter of opinion whether they are to be regarded as species or geogi'a-

phical races ; usually if they are structurally similar and of similar habits, it

is probably prefsrable to regard the two forms as races, otherwise they should

be treated as species. A number of allied species are grouped for the sake of

convenience into what is called a genus. Usually butterflies that differ in struc-

ture are placed in seiiarate genera, but no hard and fast rule can l>e laid down,

since certain obviously closely allied species differ materially from each other

in this respect, as also do rarely individuals of the same species, while cases are

by no means unknown where the structure of the wings on one side differs from

that on the other side. Some Naturalists divide genera into sub-genera, but

except perhaps in the case of some of the larger and more unv«elcly genera this

elaboration is undesirable. Genera are further grouped into sub-families and

families. A reference to the diagram in paragraph 2 will indicate how the

families, genera and species correspond to the branches, branchlets and twigs

of the butterfly tree.

4. Without the history of the past to aid him, it will be realised that the

Naturalist is groping in the dark w'hen he tries to discover the natural order in

which butterflies should bo placed. All he can do is to examine the features

of each species ; to ascertain and tabulate the differences between them in res-

pect of every know'n character ; to decide w'hat value is to be placed on the

differences that he has found and finally to adojet a grouping and order that

appears most natural. Amateurs are ahvays blaming the so-called cabmet

naturalist for changing the classification and nomenclature ; I share their an-

noyance when some delver into the records of the past enforces what is called

the law of priority, that is to say, changes a name because he has found that

some defunct naturalist had produced some other name prior to the date on

which the one in current use had been coined. But when the change is neces-

sitated by a well founded advance in knowledge, the objection is a foolish one.

The essential point to bear in mmd is that no hard and fast rules can be laid

down for the definition of a species, genus, or family or for the value of any

particular feature ; again and again a character that has been considered above

reproach for defining species, etc., has turned out to be a snare and a delusion.

The consensus of opinion of the best naturalists of the day is the only guiding

principle that can be followed. I am afraid that the leading experts often

differ a good deal, but at least the main principles of butterfly classification

have now been settled.

.5. Having outlined the principles of the system of classification in vogue

aad its limitations, it is now' necessary to consider the various characters on

THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTEBFLIES.

741

which it is based and to explain in general terms the %’alue that can be placed

on each. Broadly tlie characters may be divided into two main groujJs, those

appertaining to the early stages and those to the butterfly itself. I will pass

briefly over the features that concern the early stages. My j-easons are fii’stly

that a knowledge of them is of no use to the amateur who is trymg to identify

liis captures and secondly that they have been very fully described by Mr.

Bell in his articles on the “ Common Butterflies of the Plains ” now being pub-

lished m the joiu-nal ; for purposes of classification their importance is paramount.

The principal characters are the egg, its shape, size, its delicate ribs and whether

laid singly or in clutches ; the caterpillar or larva at birth and W'hen full grown,

its shape ana clothing, wdrether of hairs, spines or tentacles, etc., the plant it

feeds on and whether its habits are gregarious or not ; the chrysalis or pupa,

its shape and mode of attacliment. Let us pass on to the perfect msect or

imago as it is tecimically called. The featmes to be studied are firstly those

pertaining to the body, i.e., the legs, eyes, antennae, j>alin and genitalia ; se-

condly those pertammg to the wing, i.e., the shape, venation, cilia, markhigs

and secondary sexual characters. I wall not discuss further the genitalia,

which are to be found at the end of the body or abdomen, smee their examination

is beyond the beginner ; their study is still incomplete, but since it was com-

menced, a number of changes have had to be made in the arrangement of various

species and genera. The remaming featirres should be studied carefully by the

begmner : the procedure is perfectly simple, if the spirit is wdlling. To follow

the descriptions it is as well to have at hand a freshly killed butterfly of com-

paratively large size so that it does not dry quickly and which has not been

mauled about too much durmg the process of killing. A good hand lens is a

necessity and to make the veins of the svings easily visible apply pure petrol

liberally by means of an ordinary fine paint brush.

6. A butterfly has six legs sprmging from the part of the body known as the

thorax and each leg consists of four parts ; the coxa or hip next the body, usual-

ly rather difficult to see properly ; the femur or thigh next to the coxa, usually

long and directed upwards ; the tibia or shank, also usually long and directed

domiwards ; the tarsus, which is m continuation of and in line with the tibia, is

composed of a number of small joints and ends in a single or double pair of claws.

The tibia of the foreleg sometimes bears a central spur and on the hind leg it

may be furnished with one or two pairs of movable spines. In many butter-

flies the forelegs are atrophied and unfitted for walking, sometimes, more par

ticularly in the male, appearing as a brush pres.sed up against the body. Some

times the legs are curiously swollen, often more or less hairy, while in some

species of skippers the male has a prominent tuft of hair on each of the fore

coxae or hmd tibiae. The difterences between the legs have proved of the

very greatest importance in defining families and genera, perhaps more so than

any other feature. In certain families the sex can be at once indicated by a

glance at the forelegs.

7. The eyes of butterflies are compo.sed of an innumerable number of minute

faces ; they may be absolutely smooth or covered with hairs, the density and

length of which varies with the species. Whether the eyes are smooth or hairy

(ciliated) serves very often as a useful and easily recognised character for sepa-

rating genera. Usually the eyes are black or shining golden brown, but in some

of the skippers they are blood red.

8. The antennae are the long feelers that spring from the forehead of a

butterfly between the eyes. Usually they are close together at their bases

but in the skippers they are wide apart. They may be smooth or scaled, plain

or chequered, or smeared with white or ochreous colouring. Their relative length

is an important matter, while the shape of the club at the end of the antenna

is even more important. In some species, blues principallj', there is no club at all

(filiform) ; in others there is just a perceptible thickening at the end (incrassate),

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

usually there is a well shaped club (clavate or pyriform) ; the club may be

hollowed out below (excavate) ; in many skippers there is a long f^iform end

to the club, which is bent over like a hook. The colour of the club varies

and there may be a white band below it. The variations in the antennae are

often found to be useful in defining genera.

9. The palpi are comparatively large processes, one on either side of the head

springing from the edges of the mouth and curving forwards in fi’ont of the face

and eyes ; between the palpi is protruded the proboscis. Each of the palpi

consists of three joints, of which the first, nearest to the body, is hardly distin-

guishable from the stout second joint ; the third joint is much narrower and

varies very considerably in different species ; in some it is needle like ; in others

entirely concealed in the second joint ; sometimes very long and stout; sometimes

the third joint is what is known as porrect or extended forwards horizontally

or it may be vertical, known as erect. The clothing of the palpi often fur-

nishes a uiefnl mesns ol separating genera; it may be hairy, bristly (or seto.se)

or scaly.

10. The beginner should master as soon as be can the venation (or neura-

tion), that is to say, the arrangement of the veins (or ribs, nervures or nervules)

that support the wing membrane and the nomenclature that is employed to

describe them. The majority of the genera are based upon venation differences.

B is the “ Base ” of the wing next the body.

A is the “ Apex ” and T the “ Tornus ” or anal angle.

The margin of the wing from B to A is known as the “ Costa ” or costal margin ;

from A to T as the “ Termen ” or outer margin ; from B to T as the “ Dorsum ”

or inner margin.

C is an enclosed area known as the “ Cell,” from which it will be seen that

most of the veins spring or have their origin.

The veins are numbered as showm in the diagi’am.

The vein bordering the upper edge of the cell from the base to the origin of

vein 7 is called the subcostal vein (or sev for short) ; that bordering the lower

edge of the cell from the base to vein 4 is the median vein (mv) ; the veins at

the end of the cell betw'een veins 4 and 7 are the discocellulars (dev) ; between

7 and 6 it is the upper dev, between 6 and 5 the middle dev and between 5

and 4 the lower dev ; the middle and lower devs may sometimes be absent.

There are normally 12 veins on the forewing (F or FW for short), but vein

8 and sometimes vein 9 also may be missing. In the majority of butterflies

vein 8 and 9 and sometimes vein 10, rarely vein 6 as well, emanate from vein

7, but in the skippers all the veins spring from the cell. In some groups vein

1 (vl for short) is forked at the base; in others there is a small vein between vl

and the mv ; via is only present in one group. The veins along the costa are

sometimes bent towards each other, occasionally touching and more rarely

7

8 -A

THE IDEXTIFICATlOy OF IXDIAX BUTTERFLIES.

743

completely coalesced or what is called anastomosed. In one group the basal

portion of vl2, often also of the sev and oven of the mv is swollen.

In the hindwing (H or H\V) there are only 8 veins, but via is present in the

majority of species, as is also the short curved .spur near the base of v8, known

as the precosta! vehi (pcv). In some species there is a small precostal cell formed

either by a small vein between v8 and the sev or v8 and the pcv. Normally

all the veins from 2 to 8 spring from the cell, but sometimes vs 3 and 4 may be

forked bej’ond the cell. The middle and lower devs as well as vo may be absent

or only faintly indicated.

The secondary sexual characters often cause curious distortions or swellings

of the veins.

In the older text books vl is called the submedian, vs 2, 3 and 4 the first,

second and third medians ; vs 5 and 6 F and vo H the discoidal veins, v5 also

being knovTi as the radial ; vs 7 to 11 F and 6, 7 H the subcostals ; vl2 F and

v8 H the costal. The dev is sometirnes called the transverse vein.

Differences of venation are of variable value in different groups ; sometimes a

diffei'ence will separate whole sub-families, while sometimes well marked

differences are to be found between the sexes of the same species. As a rule

the differences observable on the forewing are more important than those of

the hindwing.

11. The shape of the wings is often an important consideration, though

here again the value of the feature is variable ; sometimes the seasonal and sexual

differences are remarkable. The presence or absence of one or more tails (cau-

date) towards the tornus of the hindwing is usually important, though there

are species, which may or may not have a tail. The tails may be very fine

(filiform) or stout and fringed like the rest of the wing (ciliate). The costa may

be straight or more or less highly arched and sometimes on the fore wing it is ser-

rate or furnished with teeth like a saw, easily felt by drawing the tip of the

finger along it from the tip towards the base ; on the hind wing the costa is

occasionally concave. The apex may be rounded, sharply pointed or produced

in comparison with the rest of the wing ; occasionally it is produced and the

termen is concave below, when it is termed falcate. The termen or outer mar-

gin may be sinuate or wavy, straight, convex or somewhat rarely concave ;

crenulate or dentate, when produced at the end of each vein and concave between

the veins. The dorsum may be straight or concave ; sometimes in the males

it is highly convex. The tomus of the hindwing is often more or less produced,

but more usually it is rounded ; it may be angled sharply ; sometimes, espe-

cially in the blues, it is furnished with a more or less prominent lobe.

12. The cilia are the fringes, composed of two or three layers of scales that

are to be found bordering the termens of the wings. They may be cinereous

(ashy), white, yellow or brown ; or they may be more or less chequered. Their

length is variable and often more pronounced at the tornus of the hind wing,

where also they may be differently coloured.

13. The differences between the markings on the wings are used to separate

species, but here again a word of caution is necessary ; the seasonal or sexual

differences are often most extraordinary ; development under identical condi-

tons often causes the species of widely separated genera or even families to

look alike and an examination of the structure is necessary. In some genera the

species are so alike that they can only be separated by an examination of the

genitalia or of the secondary sexual characters. The variation between the

individuals of the same species is often considerable and there is a tendency to

the obsolescence of the markings, while so-called sports or mutations are occa-

sionally to be met with. There are quite a number of skippers belonging to

different genera which are plain brown insects bearing no markings whatsoever.

A few technical terms are used when describing a butterfly, which the beginner

should master.

22

744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

The interspaces between the veins are numbered after the vein next below;

thus space 1 is the interspace between veins 1 and 2 ; the space before vein 1

is la and that before vein la, when present, is called lb. Markings parallel

to the veins are called longitudinal and those at right angles to them transverse.

Markings internal to the centre of the cell are basal ; those about a line through

the centre of the cell are subbasal ; those about a line through the end of the

cell are central. The area between the end of the cell and the termen is known as

the disc and the markings about the centre of the disc are discal ; those before

the centre are prediscal and those after the centre are postdiscal. Markings

along the termen are terminal or marginal and those just before the termen

are subterminal or submarginal. Markings along the costa are costal, those

about the apex are apical ; those about the tornus are tornal or anal and those

about the dorsum are dorsal. The names subapical, etc., are used for markings

near the apex, etc.

The colour of the ground generally and of the markings is natm'aUy a matter

of importance and is often very difficult to describe in words. Often it is iri-

descent, presenting a different shade according to the light. Amongst the

blues, it is quite impossible to define the exact shade.

The shape of the markings have to be defined. A spot may be annular, if it

is just a ring enclosing the ground colour ; reniform if it is kidney shaped; the

words quadrate, rhomboidal, oval, elongate require no definition. If there is

an eye in the centre of a spot, it is called an ocellus and the eye may be fur-

nished with an iris ; if there are two eyes the ocellus is called geminate. A

band or fascia may be continuous or broken, straight or curved, regular or ir-

regular ; if broken or irregular, it is important to note at which vein or space

this occurs. A band consisting of more or less conjoined spots is called ma-

cular and, if the spots are annular, it is catenulated. A line may be sinuous,

or if, as is often the case, it is composed of conjoined crescents, it is lunulate

or lunular. Fine lines are called strigae and, if the wing or a portion thereof

is covered with fine lines, it is described as striated.

14. The secondary sexual characters to be found in the males of certain

species are of various types. Many authors separate oS genera on accomrt of

differences in these characters, but unless a convenient group is formed thereby,

the practice is to be deprecated. The features to be found are tufts of hair

on the wings, legs or at the end of the abdomen, which may be recumbent or

erectile ; brands on the wmgs m various positions, which may consist of narrow

stigmas or of large circular or ova! patches and which may be covered with tufts

of hair ; swollen or distorted veins ; pouches on the whigs, pendulous or flat ;

the dorsum of the forewing bowed ; nacreous or scale-less patches about the

dorsum on the unf or the costa on the uph ; pencils of hair that can be extended

from the end of the abdomen. Except in a few isolated cases the females are

devoid of these characters ; in two genera there is a corneous pouch, the shape

of which varies with the sj>ecies, at the end of the abdomen ; and in the Blues

there is a species with a peculiar tuft of close set fine hairs at the end of the

abdomen.

15. The description of a genus comprises the following in the order given :

Fore’whig (F), shape and venation.

Hindw'ing (H), do.

Body. Legs, Antennae, Palpi, Eyes.

A note showing how the sexes differ and how the genus differs from its allies.

For a species the description should be given in the following sequence :

Above, general colouring ; cilia.

Upperside foiewing (upf), shape and markmgs.

Upperside hindwing (uph), do.

Below, general colourmg ; cilia.

Underside forewing (unf), shape and markhigs.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES.

745

Underside hindwing (unh), shape and makings.

Colour of body, legs, antennae and palpi.

The male ( cf ) is described first and then the female ( 9 ). Where seasonal

variation occurs, the wet season form (wsf) is followed by the drj' season form

(dsf). Individual and geographical variation is then described, ending ulth a

comparison with its allies and a note on its habits, time of appearance, etc. -At

the end of the description the expanse should be stated, preferably in milli-

metres, the expanse of a butterfly is measured from the centre of the thorax to

the extreme tip of the fore^ving and the figure so obtained is doubled.

A butterfly scientifically bears two names, that of the genus followed by that

of the species, thus Papilio polyies ; if the individual belongs to a particular

geogi-ajjhical race a third name is added, thus Papilio polyte^ romulus, the first

named race (name tj’pe or nymotypical form) being Papilio polyies polyies.

Where a variety has to be specified, a further name is added with the prefix var.

or V., and if pertaining to one sex only, the sex sign is also given, thus Papilio

polyies romulus J v. cyrus. After the last name it is usual to add the abbre-

viated name of the describer, thus Papilio polyies, L. (= Linnaeus). Some

authors assign latin names to seasonal forms, but the suffixes wsf. and dsf. seem

more suitable. Casual varieties and aberrations have been named, but the

practice is undesirable, while the naming of slight varieties leads to endless

confusion. Dimorphic forms and strongly marked varieties of reasonably frequent

occiu'rence alone seem to be worthy of names as varieties.

16. The foregoing sketch will, I hope, enable the beginner to follow the text

books on Indian butterflies, viz. —

The Butterflies of India, Burma and Ceylon ; by Marshall and De

Niceville.

Lepidoptera Indica ; by Moore and Sudnhoe.

Butterflies, Fauna of India series, b}* Bingham.

The Macro-lepidoptera of the World ; by Seitz ; the Indo-Malayan

section by Fruhstorfer and Jordan.

DeATceville and Bingham give full descriptions of each species but very few

illustrations ; they both give keys, whereby the patient student can work out

the identification of his captures. Moore gives complete descriptions and a

coloured figure of every insect, but no keys. Fruhstorfer gives the briefest of

brief descriptions, no keys, but nearly every species is illustrated. It will be

found that the nomenclature adopted by the above authors differs very mate-

rially, partly because their ideas on ciassification differed, partly because of

the progress of the knowledge in the interval and partly because errors in names

required rectif5dng. When somebody catches a butterfly that he cannot iden-

tify and thinks rightly or \vrongly that he has a species no one has given a name

to, if he considers he is competent enough to do so, he describes it and gives

it a name. He is supposed to describe a particular specimen, which is desig-

nated the type and if he would only lodge the type in the British or other first

class museum, all would be well, since any mistakes he may have made can be

rectified in due course. But if, as is so often the case, he keeps the type in his

own collection, it eventually gets lost and then the trouble begins ; reams may

have to be written as to what he really meant, while others catching the same in-

sect may describe it as new. If perchance a name has been used for a species that

had already been used in the same genus, then bv the rules of priority the name

cannot stand and another name has to be coined, but, if later on the species is

put into another genus, the old name has to be dug out ; and so the game goes

on. In the case of genera the rule is that you must not use a name that has been

used for a genus already in any of the realms of Zoology, so that the game of

changing names is almost as exciting as in the case of species. Owing to our

nation not being the only pebble on the beach, the institution of a strict co-

ordinating authority is hopeless, though efforts have been made in that direc-

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

tion with some success. Discarded names are called synonyms and many

species have collected quite a number of them.

17. In ordei' to further the study of the Indian butterflies and to popularise

it, what appears to be needed is a cheap publication, whereby identification may

be effected with reasonable facility. Full descriptions bore the ordinary amateur,

\\4»ile the really earnest student can refer to the text books ; good kej’s giving

the main differences are more acceptable to the majority. Colom'cd plates are

very expensive, but well executed photographs carry one a long way and have

the merit of being accurate, which is more than can be said alwaj's of hand

coloured plates. I propose to follow up the introduction to butterfl}^ catching

in India contained in my previous article and the present one by a series of keys

accompanied by about thirty plates, containing sufficient illustrations to enable

a beginner to spot the genus to which a particular insect belongs, after which the

key will enable him to discover the species. The i)hotogi’aphs are tx!Uig taken

by Mr. Albert Jealdns of Simla, who being a Naturalist as well as a photo

grapher, is taking the very greatest pains in carrjdng out the work. An at-

tempt has been made to give trivial names to the species, not the races, since

many a beginner will not face the latin names ; I have made an attempt to use

the names prevailing at schools in the Hills ; JMr. 0. C. Ollcnbach has assisted

me in selecting the names. The work, which has been carried out in my leisure

moments, wdll not be quite up to the standard it might have reached had I had

more time to devote to it and the opportunity of referring to a museum

collection or library. It will, I hope, serve a u.seful purpose and later on it may

be possible to produce an improved edition in book form, embodying any

suggestions that members may care to make.

18. In order to shorten the work, full use has been made of abbreviations.

Where I cannot personally vouch for a locality, I have added the authority

in brackets. The families are lettered A, B, etc. ; genera are numbered serially

within the family and species serially within the genus ; a particular butterfly

can then be referred to as say B14-3. It will be seen that at the beginning of

each paragraph in the keys there is a number followed by a number in brackets

(in the families key letters in place of numbers), thus la (6a), if the de.scription

under 1 a corresponds, pass on to 1 b, if it fails go on to the number in brackets

6a. The reason for using the order la, lb — 1 is to preserve the numbering of the

species or genus as the case may be, w'hich always follows a number without

the small letter suffix. Geographical races are distmguished by Greek letters.

No synonyms will be given. I follow the order which appears to me best and

most up-to-date. Small print notes will be found at the end of each section ex-

plaining any departures from the hitherto accepted practice, notes on any new

genera, species or races, etc. ; these notes are intended for the expert and the

amateur need not bother to read them ; they will be made as short as possible.

Do not expect perfection ; owing to the variation that occurs, the construction

of foolproof keys is impossible ; remember too that the aim of the work is

cheapness and that it has been executed in the spare time of an overworked

official.

Keys to Indian Butterflies.

Families.

Aa (I). F one or more veins cm.anate from v7. Antennae approximate

at the base. Hind tibiae with only one pair of spurs.

Ab (H). H with precostal vein (except a few Pierid se).

Ac (Ca). Forelegs fully developed in both sexes.

A (B). H via absent (present in all other families).

Papilionidee. The Swallowtails.

B (A). H via present.

Pieridee. The Whites.

THE IDENTIFICATION (>F INDIAN BUTTERFLIES.

747

Ca (Ac). Forelegs not perfect in botli sexes.

Cb (G). Forelegs inipei'fcct in both scx;es (except in two genera).

Ce (Ea-)- F H colls closed, devs present.

C (D). F vl runs into the mv at the base.

Danaidce. The Danai'h.

1) (C). Fvi runs into base free of the m\n

Satyridee. The Browns.

Ea (Cc). H cell open, devs absent (slenderly closed in a few cases.)

E (F). Palpi small, narrow and sharp in front

Amathusudoe. The Amathusiids.

F (E). Palpi large, broad, rounded in front. F cell usually open.

N ymphalidce. The Nymphalids.

G (Cb). Forelegs imperfect and brush like in cf ; developed for walking

in the $ .

Erycinidee. The Erycinids.

H (Ab). H no precostal vein. Forelegs perfect.

Lycaenidee . The Blues.

I (Aa). F all veins from the coll or base. Antennae wide apart at the base

and often with a hooked club. All legs perfect.

Hesperiidee. The Shippers.

Notes. — 1 have followed tieiiz in adopting the above order and naniesj

English authors place the Papilionidie and Pieridte after the Erycinidae; treat the

Danaidee, Satyridae, AmathusiidtB and Nymphalidae as subfamilies of one family,

the Nymphalidie ; call the Amathusiidse, the Morpbidse and the Erycinidas, the

Nemeobidae or Riodinidte. The Hesperiidse are s< metimes treated as a separate

suborder under the name Grypocera, the remainder of the Butterflies being the

Rhopalocera.

748

EGRET FARMING IN SIND.

• BY

Capt. C. E. Benson, D.S.O.

( With 2 j)lates)

Whilst spending a fortnight duck shooting in Sind, I took the opportunity of

visiting one or two Egret farms. My object was to try and form some sort of

opinion as to whether the method of farming, as practised by the villagers, was

satisfactory or not.

There are many difficulties which stand in the way of an individual who

attempts to collect true information on a subject that closely concerns the

pockets of the people from whom he is trying to collect that information. Not

the least of these is, that one is usually mistaken for what one is not. As an

instance of this, at Changro, in the Kambar district, near Larkana, — a busy

centre of Egret farming, — I was mistaken for a Government of India official

expressly sent down from Delhi, for the object of finding some just cause for

levying an increased tax on Egret feathers. No assurances on my part could

remove this idea from the minds of the villagers. The information obtained

there was consequently entirely derived from personal observation, and any other

facts, for the truth of w'hich I had to rely on the word of the villagers them-

selves, were not probably strictly within the bounds of accuracy.

Again, one of the most important features of Egret farming, is the actual

method of plucking ; for it is in doing this that the greatest cruelty can be

practised.

If one cannot witness the actual operation of plucking, the next best thing

is to be able to see the bird immediately afterwards. This I was able to do at

an Egret farm on the Munnchur Lake near Boubak Road. The Mahanas on

the Muimchur themselves proffered a great deal more information than any

that I had been able to collect either in the Larkana or in the Kambar district—

information that I was able to verify by personal observation. They were no

strangers to me and consequently had no suspicions of my having any underlying

motive for my enquiries.

Here also I was lucky enough to meet an Excise Officer who had himself

countless times witnessed the capture, breeding, transport and plucking of the

birds, and consequently was able to add invaluable and reliable information to

that which I had already obtained.

In the following table I have endeavoured to collate aU the facts of importance,

accuracy and interest obtained from the sources above mentioned, avoiding as

far as possible any statements which I have not been able to prove either b}'

personal observation or through reliable information.

Though there are many Egret Farms in Sind and I have had the

opportunity of visiting only a very few of them, I am nevertheless convinced

that the methods practised in one are in the main those jx-actised throughout the

whole of that country.

Enclosures for Birds.

1. The size of the average enclosure is about 40 feet long, 20 broad and 5

high.

2. The walls and roof are constructed of poles and matting, or of woven

reeds.

3. The floor is of hard mud and the general condition is extremely clean.

4. The number of birds to each enclosure varies from 80 to 120.

5. In some places birds are marked according to broods or enclosures by

dyeing the breast feathers.

6. No perches are provided for the birds.

Food and Water.

1. The food supplied consists of un-chopped small fry.

EGKET FARMING IN SIND.

One of the enclosures in a Sind Egret Farm.

KOHl-rr FARMING IN SIND.

Nesting Birds. Additions to the F/Uiily.

EGEET FARMING IN SIND.

749

2. In all the places visited the supply of these fry was easily obtainable by

netting in the neighbouring dhands and they were all fresh and clean.

3. The quantity given per bird per day was sufficient — about 1 lb. a day.

4. Water is supplied in earthenware bowls which are left lying on the

ground and of which there are large numbers in each enclosure.

5. This water is obtained either from the well in the village itself, as at

Changro where the villagers drink the same water as that supplied

to the birds, or from the neighbouring dhand, as on the Munnchur.

N.B. — As the condition of the feathers of the bird is improved by a good

supply of both fresh food and water, it is certainly not in the inter-

ests of the villagers to in any way stint them of these necessities.

In all the enclosures I visited the birds appeared well fed and not

in the least hungry, and there was never any visible sign of any

shortage of either food or drink, both of which were lying about in

every enclosure in large quantities.

Mutilation.

1. No blind Egrets were seen.

2. The terminal joint of the wing of every bird is amputated.

3. Birds are never tethered in the enclosure.

4. Whenever the birds are moved, either by road or rail, the eyelids are

sown up. The method adopted is as follows : —

The lower lid of each eye is pierced by a fine needle and a piece of

very fine cotton thread is drawn through. The two pieces of

cotton are then tied over the head of the bird, thus causing the

lower eyelid to be drawn up over the upper e5'elid.

N.B. — With the exception of the Egret farm on the Munnchur very little

transportation takes place. In fact the transportation of the birds

is almost entirely confined to those times when the newly captured

Egrets are brought by rail from the place where they have been

originally caught to the farm in Sind which has bought them. As

most of the farming is carried on by breeding, there is very little

transportation taking place and therefore very little suturing.

But on the Munnchur it is quite different. Here the Mahanas are com-

pelled by floods to move their huts twice a year — once at the begin-

ning of the rains from the borders of the lake to Bubak village, and

again back again at the end of the rains. Hence the birds have

their eyelids sown up twice a year.

I carefully examined over 50 birds on the Munnchur Lake which had

undergone the operation of suturing, but never discovered any

visible ill affects caused thereby. But it must be remembered that

as I visited the farm in February, no birds had been sutured for the

last four or five months.

Extraction of Plumes.

1. All the dorsal plumes of H. yarzetta are plucked once every three

months, just before moulting would naturally take place.

2. The plumes are not plucked one by one, but all together, one man

holding the bird while the other plucks.

3. The feathers are held in the centre and are jerked out;

4. The backs of the birds immediately after plucking show considerable

laceration and a good deal of blood is draMoi during the process.

5. The occipital plumes of H. yarzetta are not plucked.

N.B. — Curiously enough the bird, dming the actual plucking, does not

show any obvious signs of pain. There are no bad after effects that

I could see. The bird does not sulk but continues, on release,

to walk about and feed as if nothing had occurred. What pain there

may be would appear to be purely temporary. But from the con-

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

dition L>t the backs of the birds which I was able to examine care-

fully on the Munnchur Lake, I am convinced that the pain inflicted

by plucking, as the ^illagers do it, temporary as it may be, is certainly

very considerable. It is also hard to believe that there are no

permanent after effects, though I never found a single trace of one.

The method they adopt however for extracting the feathers in Sind

is undoubtedly disgraceful and all the pain inflicted could certainly

be avoided.

Breeding and Treatment of Young.

1. When the nesting season approaches, in some cases old Egret nests

are provided ; in others dried sticks and grass are given the birds

with which to make their own nests.

2. Sufficient quantities of nests or of other materials are provided to allow

for every pair of birds who wish to nest.

3. No perches are provided and the nest has to be made on the ground.

4. The number of birds in each enclosure is not reduced when the nesting

season approaches which leads to over-crowding.

5. The young birds are not removed from the parent birds, nor are they

fed in any separate way or on any other diet.

6. The parent birds and their young are placed in separate enclosures

and there is no interference with the natural bringing up of the

young birds.

7. On the young birds being fledged the terminal joint of the wing is cut

and the new brood is then placed in a fresh enclosure, the parent

birds being returned to their original enclosm’e.

N.B. — On the Munnchur the parent birds are allowed to wander free with

their young outside the enclosure. But on the young becoming

fledged the same procedure is followed as above.

Capture of Wild Birds.

1. Comparatively speaking few wild birds are captured, and the stock is

almost entirely renewed by breeding.

2. In the Kambar district the villagers say that they imjMrt their new

birds from the Punjab and that no trapping of any sort takes place

in their district.

N.B. — This is probablj- not true, but I could obtain little information about

this actual fact.

3. On the Munnchur, when wild birds are required, they are captured as

follows : —

A one inch mesh net is staked out on the ground when and where the

Mahanas expect the wild birds to come. Round this net are

placed stuffed decoys. When the wild bird alights he gets his

feet entangled in the mesh of the net and is then easily caj)tured.

The wing is then cut and the birds are put into an enclosure.

4. There seems to be no special method of taming the newly captured birds.

0. The method of starving wild birds as a means of taming them is not

employed.

N.B. — I myself know of one wild bird which was captured, slightly hurt,

by a private individual. On being cured, which took only a few

days, it was handed over to the Mahanas on the Munnchur who

placed it straight into an enclosure with the other already tame birds.

Transportation of Birds.

1 . The cages employed for transportation, either by rail or otherwise, are:

Size : — 3 feet by 3 by 3.

From 15 to 20 birds are placed in these cages.

751

EGRET FARMING IN INDIA

BY

C. C. Chevenix Trench, I.C.S.

Thanks to painstaking enquiry and persistent re-iteration of the truth

by observers in India, there is now no shadow of excuse for any

intelligent inhabitant of the United Kingdom to doubt the existence, on

a fairly extensive scale, of Egret farms in India, where the birds are kept

in conditions favourable to their increase and whence the plumes are

exported without the slightest danger to the life of the birds. The

charges of ‘ bribed by the trade ’ so recklessly levelled by the home-

keeping sentimentalist are now a matter of amused and contemptuous

recollection. I suggest that the time has come for a brief survey of the

position of Egrets in India and for determining the lines along which the

efforts of the Society in their behalf should be directed. The following

observations are, therefore, submitted, in all diffidence.

(«) Egrets (Lesser and Cattle) are at present extraordinarily plentiful

nearly all over India. Their plumes are so valuable and so easily

smuggled out of the country, that no amount of prohibitive, but

unintelligent legislation, will prevent the export trade in au/rettes, which

continues to-day as it has done in the past, in spite of the Plumage Act.

(6) What has saved the birds from partial or complete extermination

in the past, is the ignorance, apathy and conservatism of the Indian,

and the Anns Act.

(c) The ignorance, etc., is rapidly disappearing under economic pressure.

(In November the Central Provinces are overrun by itinerant middle-men

who buy up the plumes from petty local men, and either take them to

“a gentleman ” in Calcutta or hawk them about Indian cities for a price

which, in my experience, ranges from 10 to 28 times their weight in silver).

The Arms Act, under pressure of the Reforms, is being relaxed. Provincial

Councils cannot for much longer withstand the clamour of the Agricultural

classes (70 to 80 per cent, of the population) for unlimited gun licenses

for protection of crops, and soon every peasant will, if he likes, possess

a gas pipe gun.

(d) When both these tendencies come into full play, the extermination

of the egret from India is, I consider, certain, and may take place in an

astonishingly short time. Because the birds congregate in colonies when

the plumes are at their best, and have a distinct tendency to locate their

breeding colonies near or even in the heart of villages and towns. Thus

they are accessible with no eS'ort and can be killed with the minimum of

expense. We have the example of the American Bison to warn us.

(e) In the competition between the gun-man and the egret farmer, for

the supply of plumes, the latter will go to the wall, unless officially

encouraged. No one who has watched the course of the times can doubt

that it will soon be cheaper and easier to kill egrets than farm them, nor

is there the faintest danger of interference by the local rural police, who,

in the rainy, i.e., the breeding season, are powerless.

(/) To save the egret the farming of the birds should be encouraged

in every possible way, and the e-vport of fanned plumes l ennitted under

license,

{(/) This will be the founding of a virtually new cottage industry in

India of which the profits are likely to be very large. The industry can

be managed at least as humanely as Ostrich farming. In parenthesis, had

it not been for the farming of the ostrich, the geographical range of that

23

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111.

bird would by this date, have undoubtedly been restricted to the least

accessible parts of Africa and Asia.

(h) On economic as well as sentimental grounds, egret farms should be

legalised and the present ill-considered prohibitive legislation which is

leading to the extinction of the bird, altered at the next review of the

Plumage Act Schedule. This can be done by influencing public opinion

in Europe through the press and through leaders of Society. Photographs,

propoganda, interviews, etc., are necessary.

In March last I had the honour of interviewing the then Secretary of

State for India Mr. Montagu, on the subject. A keen, practical

ornithologist himself he listened with the greatest sympathy and under-

took to look into the matter again after consulting local Governments in

India. But as he is no longer in office, without a fresh effort it is

probable that little or nothing will be done.

The chief objection in official circles to the amendment of the

Schedule in the direction suggested, appears to be the difficulty they anti-

cipate, on the part of Customs Officers, of distinguishing between parcels

of shot, i.e., illicit plumes and farmed plumes. This is a bogey and any Reve-

nue Collector through his staff of Patwaris, Talatis and other Revenue

officials, can discover in a single season the number and localities of the pro-

tected Egret breeding colonies or Egret farms, in his district. He can also

ascertain with equal ease the output in plumes almost to a tola, of each

colony or farm. With little or no risk of gross error he will be in a position

to ‘ certify ’ every consignment of plumes from his district. His certificate

will accompany every parcel and state the weight of the parcel covered

by it. All the customs authorities need do is to check the weight.

I mention ‘ colonies ’ as well as farms because though farming egrets

has not yet spread to my own, the Central Provinces, in one district a

breeding colony on a riverain island has been protected for 15 years past

with great profit by a half-witted Mahomedan, who picks up and sells the

moulted plumes which drop at the colony. In 1910 I found this man

tending the fire he had lit round the root of the nesting tree to keep off

the pythons. There were then about 60 couples breeding. Neighbouring

landlords were shooting his birds and after giving him what protection a

Settlement Officer could, I left the district in 1912. In 1920 I revisited

the colony. It has spread to over 100 nests, and established a branch

colony on the mainland. The watcher had become a man of substance,

purchased land, married his nieces. He called the colony his village and

climbed in and out of the nests without the birds appearing to notice his

presence. Spoonbills, snakebirds, little green bitterns, cormorants and

purple herons had also joined this happy little republic of ‘ Cloud-cuckoo

town.’ He sells his output yearly to a ‘ gentleman in Calcutta ’ for Rs. 6/- a

tola. The moulted plumes from a colony in the compound of the Police

station house in Raipur, C. P., used to be zealously collected and sold

till the trees were felled a few years ago.

All the evidence shows that the rural Indian takes very kindly and

spontaneously to egret protection and farming. With a little official encour-

agement, I am convinced that in a few years there would be thousands

of farms and protected colonies scattered over the Peninsula and that

public opinion would by then dispose of the murderous gun-man. The

legislation now in force is an efl'ectual barrier to the realization of

this much-to-be desired ideal. Well may the Indian egrets pray for

protection from their friends.

753

ROUGH LIST AM) NOTES ON THE BIRDS FOUND BREED-

ING IN THE GONDA DISTRICT, OUDH.

By

F. Field.

A short description of the physical features of the District will not be out

of place. The District of Gonda lies in the north of Oudh, between the outer

ranges of the Himalayas and the Ghagra river, which are its Northern and

Southern boundaries, to the West is the Bahraich and East the Basti

Districts. The District is one of the largest in Oudh, it comprises 2,809 square

miles between Lat. 26° 46' and 27° 50' N. & Long. 81° 33' & 82° 46' E.

The District may be roughly divided into three classes of country. From the

Nepal frontier, its Northern boundary is a belt of Government and Zemindari

Forest, this belt is roughly from 5 to 10 or more miles in width ; below this is an

open and low lying tract, chiefly under rice cultivation, termed ‘tora*,’ subject

to frequent floods, as innumerable torrents from the hills debouch into this

part; tWs portion is drained by the Rapti river, which practically cuts the Dis-

trict in two.

South of the Rapti, the country is upland, planted over with numerous

groves of Mango trees and others, and well cultivated. This upland forms

a rather narrow belt, running diagonally across the District ; along this belt

flows the Kuhany river, a deep, but sluggish stream, both banks being covered

with forests and jungle. Below this high land comes a lower lying tract, rich soil

and heavily cultivated with numerous groves of trees. This fertile land is

watered by two deep, but sluggish winding rivers, Tehre and Sarjoo. These

streams have in the course of ages shifted their beds repeatedly, leaving numer-

ous large lakes and jheels, these lakes are sometimes clear, but usually covered

with aquatic plants, wild rice and taU rushes, reeds, etc.

This great variety in the features of the District, giving tracts of dense

forest, open plain, country covered by numerous groves of trees with rivers,

lakes, marsh, etc., makes it an ideal country for variety of bird life from water

birds to the submontane species.

jVotes on nidification of Birds of the Gonda District.

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

755

No.

290

Scientific name.

English name.

Remarks.

Otocompsa

ventris.

flavi- Black-crested Ycl-

321 Sitta castaneiventris

326

Dicrurus anncctens.

low Bulbul.

Chestnut-bellied Nu-

thatch.

Crow-billed Drongo

327

330

Dicruius ater

Dicrurus cterules-

cens.

335 IChibia hotentotta

363

Acrocephalus sten-

toreiis.

Black Drongo

White-belliedDronsrp

Hair-crested Drongo

Great Reed Warbler

Breeds in the forests. General-

ly in dense creepers, but one

nest found was at the top of

a fair sized Mango tree well

concealed. May, June.

Holes of trees. Entrance par-

tially closed with cowdung,

mixed with gum of fig or

mango tree. February,

March.

A forest bird. The}' breed in

the forests north of the dis-

trict making the usual dron-

go nest in forks of Dhow (Ano-

(/eissus latifolia ) trees. Nest

quite conspicuous, 3 eggs

usually. Saw a monkey

(-1/. rhesus) rob one of their

nests, eating the eggs though

savagely attacked by bird.

Breeds in June.

Common. Breeds in June.

Has two types of eggs, a

white and a spotted.

Also a forest bird, except in the

winter when it may be seen

in nearly every ‘bagh’ in the

district. It makes the usual

Drongo nest in forest trees,

placing it in the forks of

slender boughs, eggs 3 — 4.

June.

purely forest bird. Breeds

in the northern forests in

June. Nest of the Drongo

type in forks of Dhow .trees

Eggs 3 — 4.

Breeds among the reeds in some

of the large jheels, nests at-

tached to reeds growing in

water, and about 18 inches

above surface. I believe

they have two broods a year

as their nests have been taken

in May, June and again in

July, August. There are

two, if not three types of egg.

756 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXVIII.

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

757

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XNVIII.

BIRDS OF (WNDA DISTRICT.

769

24

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIl.

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

761

banks, field bunds, etc.

Blue-bearded Bee-

eater.

Pied Kingfisher.

Stork-billed Bling'

fisher.

White - breasted

Kingfisher.

Indo-Burmese Pied

Hornbill.

1062

Lophoceros birostris.

Grey Hornbill

Breeds in holes of stream

banks in the forests. Nest

holes are sunk deep, 8 to 10

feet.

Common along all the streams,

in the banks of which they

nest. January, April.

Several of their nest holes exa-

mined but no eggs found,

they select the heavily- wooded

streams in forests.

Fairly common. Nests in

banks, either streams, or

tanks.

Common in the northern forests

here. Large holes in trees,

the entrance to which is par-

tially closed after the female

has entered. Whilst she is

sitting all her feathers fall off

I am told ; how she manages,

on being Uberated ‘informant

sayeth not.’ Lay in April,

May.

Very common all over this Dis-

trict. Lays in holes of large

trees, partly closing entrance

after female has entered, the

hen does not lay her eggs im-

mediately she shuts herself

up, as I have on three occa-

sions dug out the hole to find

no eggs, although the male

bird was seen feeding her.

Lays in May.

.762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVUr.

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

763

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

No.

Scientific name.

English name.

Remarks.

1191

Otogyps calvns

Black or King Vul-

ture.

1194

1195

jGyps tenuirostris . .

1196

1197

Gyps indicus

Long -billed

ture.

Vul

Pseudogyps bengal

ensis.

Neophron gingini-

unus.

Himalayan Long-

billed Vulture.

White -backed

ture.

Vul-

Small Scavenger

Vulture.

Nest built on top of solitary

trees, generally Pipal, Janu-

ary, Febuary. A plucky

bird, I sent a man up to a

nest on a large Pipal on

which the bird was sitting;

on the man’s approach she

went for him, driving him

off, he then got a stick, even

then she refused to allow him

to go near nest, she had

a newly hatched chick so I

called man down.

Only one nest found, this was

on top of soUtarj^ Pipal tree ;

there was no doubt of the

bird as I watched her with

binoculars whilst the man

was climbing tree. There are

numbers of this and G. tenui-

rostris in this District, and as

there are no cliffs for them to

build on, they have perforce

to build on trees. December.

I have found three nests of

this bird, two contained eggs,

the 3rd a chick, two were on

top of solitary trees, the 3rd

(7th January, 21), a hard-set

egg, was an old P. bengalen-

sis nest, occupied by that

bird only last year. Decem-

ber, January.

Very common. November to

January.

Birds are common, but I have

only found 4 nests. One

pair have each year used the

same site, i.e., about 30 ft.

up a Pipal tree, where a large

hmb separates; this pair have

very handsomely marked

eggs. March, April,

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

765

No. I Scientific name.

English name.

Remarks.

1203 Aquila vindhiana . . Tawny Eagle

1217jSpilornis cheela

1220 Butaster teesa

1223iHaliaetus leucory-

■ phus.

. . Crested

Eagle.

Serpent

White -eyed Buzzard

Pallas’ s

Eagle.

Fishing

1226jPohoaetus ichthyae- Grey-headed Fishing

' tus. Eagle.

1228

Haliastur Indus

1229 Milvus govinda

Brahminy Kite

Common Kite

A common bird in this District.

Breeds from November to

January ; places its nest on

the very top of isolated trees

nearly always a Pipal. Out

of 16 nests examined, 7 had

one egg each, 8 two, and 1

three.

Breeds along the Kohany river,

a thickly wooded and deep

stream. Nest in large trees.

April, May.

Very common. Nests in thick

trees. April, May.

Builds a huge structure, general-

ly on top of some large tree

near a lake or jheel. Novem-

ber, December.

Locally distributed; found along

well wooded streams or

marshes in forests. Builds

a large nest, well concealed,

about the centre of some

forest tree. They use the same

nest year after year, even

after it has been robbed; what

is more, I took an egg from

a nest on 9th November, on

6th March I again visited

nest and she had laid again

in same nest. Again on 15th

March next year, the samu

pair occupied the same nest,

I took one fresh egg. On 31st

March she was on the nest,

on sending up a man there

was an egg, slightly set.

Lays in April and May, eggs

1 to 3.

Commences carrying sticks in

November, but does not lay

till March or even later.

766 JOURI^AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

76T

No.

Scientific name.

English name.

1328Gallus ferrugineus. Red Jiingle-fowl

ISooCoturnix communis

Grey Quail

1372

1375

1382

1393

1401

Francolinus vul-

garis.

Black Partridge

Francolinus pondi-

cerianus.

Turnix pugnax

Porzana pusilla

Grey Partridge

Bustard Quail

Remarks.

Eastern

Crake.

Baillon’s

Amaurornis

nicurus.

phee-

White-breasted

Water-hen.

Only found in the forests, where

it breeds in May, June. It

is wonderful how the young

chicks hide, I saw a hen with

about 6 or 7 chicks, there was

no cover except dry leaves ;

we went quicklj’^ up, the hen

flew off, and the chicks had

vanished ; we searched very

carefully, so as not to crush

an\’ but not a chick could we

discover, and yet they were

there.

Chicks seen in grass and thorn

scrub in August, so she must

have had her nest near by.

The eggs have been brought

to L. P. Hutchison by shi-

kari.

Fairly plentiful in the southern

parts of District, where it

breeds. A large number of

their eggs are however des-

troyed b}-^ mungooses, rats,

snakes and also crows. I

have found numbers of nests

with egg shells scattered

about. Their chicks too

have a bad time.

Only found along the jungles.

Breeds in May, June.

Plentiful in the grass jungles,

where it breeds in June, July.

One nest of this bird was taken

in 1911. Consisted of a

few weeds, piled on a water

lily leaf, well concealed in wild

rice. 2 eggs. August.

Very common and a very

familiar bird. Frequents \illage

pools, breeds everywhere,

generally, nest placed in

thick bushes or bamboo

clumps. July, August.

25

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

BIRDS OF GONDA DISTRICT.

769

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XX VIII-

BIRDS Of GONDA DISTRICT.

771

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII,

1283 Sphenocercus sphen-'i Kokla Green

urns. Pigeon.

1354

Excalfactoria

ensis.

chin- Blue-b r e a s t e d

! Quail.

1356:Coturnix coroman-i Rain Quail

I delica. |

1416|Sypheotis aurita

107

Likh or Lesser

Florican.

ArgA'a malcolmi

Large Grey

Babbler.

young.

Heard calling in forest in May,

June.

Twice seen pair in heavy grass

and apparently feeding

young.

Said to breed here.

Seen in breeding plumage in the

large grass patches in the

forests, Shikaris say they

have eggs in the grass.

This bird is very local, found in

small parties in parts of the

District where there are pat-

ches of Babul jungle, and is a

permanent resident, but 1

have not found the eggs.

773

L ST OF MOLLUSCA OF RANGOON.

BY

Dk. H. Makshall.

(A.) Fresh Water Mollusca,

la. Melanoides tuberculata, Miiller. — (F. B. I. No. 28. liara {Stnatella}

tuberculata). This is a common species in Rangoon. The majority of

specimens obtainable are very small, and light coloured. Some medium

sized specimens were obtained from the Cantonment Garden tanks and

JIunicipal tank in Creek Street. These are very dark in colour.

2a. Melanoides scabra, Muller. — (F. B. I. No. 60. Tiam (Flotia) scabra).

Specimens of this mollusc were only obtained from the Roj'al Lakes.

They are dark in colour and much decollated.

3a. Acrostoma variabile (Benson). — (F. B. I. No. 39. Tiara {Melanoides)

tariahilis). This is not a very common species in Rangoon. The local

variety bears as a rule strong longitudinal ribs and is very dark in colour,

some specimens being covered with a thick black deposit. Very occasion-

ally somewhat lighter and more delicate specimens are obtainable and

these are marked with two brownish bands on the last whorl. Specimens

which are almost smooth and of a light olive colour ornamented with

brown bands on the last whorl are sometimes brought into the market

with prawns. I have not been able to ascertain as to where these speci-

mens come from.

4a. Vivipara bengalensis var ; digona (Blanford). — (F. B. I. No. 179. Vivi-

para digona). This is a common species found in almost all tanks, ponds,

and ditches. Very beautiful specimens are obtainable in the Kokin ^

Lakes.

5a. V ivi para bengalensis var : doliaris (Gould). — (F. B. I. No. 168. Yivipara

duliaris). Specimens which I take to be this variety do not appear to be

anything like as common as digona. Most of the specimens obtainable

are small. i

6a. Vivipara keliciformis var : viridis. Reeve. — (F. B. I. No. 185. Vivipara

(Idiopoma) helicifonnis var : viridis. Specimens which I take to be this

variety were only found on one occasion.

7a. Vivipara dissimilis (Muller). — (F. B. I. No. 174. Virigiai-a dissimilis).

Specimens of a uniform green colour with spire not much produced were

obtained. I take these to be some variety of dissimilis.

8a. Pachylabra conica (Gray). — (F. B. I. No. 197. Fila conica). This is a

very common species in Rangoon. Two varieties are obtainable, one

unicoloured which is usually of a large size, the other variously banded

with brownish bands. The banded specimens do not appear to reach the

size of unicoloured specimens. This species is eaten by many classes of

Natives, and many persons are employed in the trade who gather the

Molluscs and take them round to private houses for sale. This mollusc

along with Vivipara bengalensis, Indoplanorbis e.vustus, and Melan-

oides tuberculata are largely collected by the Chinese duck farm owners

for the feeding of ducks.

9a. Limncea acuminata, (Lam.) — (F. B. I. No. 211. Limneea {Limncea) acumi-

nata). All specimens obtainable in Rangoon appear to be dwarfed.

Two varieties have been found ; one something like variety amygdalum,

Troschel, and the other variety nana, Amiandale (Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol.

XVI, Part 1, No. 6). This species is only obtainable from about October

till the end of the year, after which it disappears.

1 r. bengalensis \&i : digona ha.% novi been merged ia doiinris (Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. XXII.

Part 211, Ko. 20, p. 272.)

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII,

10a. Limncea pinguis (Dohrn.) — (F. B. I. No. 222. Limnma {Gulnaria)

pinyuis). Only a few specimens were obtained but have apparently been

mislaid.

I la. Indoplanorbis exustus, Desh. — (F. B. I. No. 227. Rlanorbis exustus).

This is the commonest fresh water mollusc obtainable in Rangoon. This

species is known to carry Schistosoma spindalis also a cercaria morpholo-

gically identical with that of Schistosoma japonicum.

12a. Gyraulus convex iusculus (Hutton). — (F. B. I. No. 234. Rlanorbis

(Gyraulus) convexiusculus). A couple of specimens were found in the

Pazundaung quarter of the town. This species is fairly common in

Kamaj-ut just outside Rangoon. Probably Gyraulus euphraticus, Mous-

son, ■null also be found here.

13a. Lamellidens marginalis (Lam.) — (F. B. I. No. 310. Lamellidens margi-

nalis). This is a fairly common species in Rangoon. The following

varieties have been obtained : (1) generosus (Gould). Usually large

specimens ; (2) corrianus (Lea). Not common ; (3) scutum (Sowerby).

Fairly common. There are specimens of ■ var : zonata (Desh.) in the

Indian Museum collection from Rangoon, but in spite of much searching

I have not been able to find any.

14a. Cyrena bengalensis, (Lam.) — (F. B. I. No. 328. Cyrena bengalensis).

After much searching a few living specimens were found at Dawbong and

in a drain in Upper Pazundaung Road.

(B.) Land Molldsca.

lb. Streptaxis burmanicus, Blf. — (F. B. I. No. 6. Streptaais burjnanicus).

A single dead specimen (small variety) was picked up in Kemmendine.

2b. ? Macrochlamys sp. — This species at first sight looks very much like

Indoplanorbis exustus. Specimens of this were sent to J. Cosmo Melville

and he was of opinion that this was probably a juvenile Plectophylis. The

specimen sent was apparently imperfect. I am certain that even young

specimens are not tomentose.

3b. Macrochlamys molecula, Benson. — (F. B. I. No. 195. Macrochlamys ?

molecula). After much searching specimens have not been found.

4b. Austenia peguensis, Theobald. — (F. B. I. No. 297. Austenia pegue?isis).

This is a common species at Hlawga which is about twenty miles from

Rangoon. Only a single specimen has been taken locally.

5b. This small species was obtained in the Kemmendine Cemetery. I have

not been able to identify it.

(lb. Pupisoma lignicola, Stol. — (F. B. I. No. 49. Pupisoma liynicola).

This species has been recorded from Rangoon by Hungerford, but I

have not been able to obtain it.

7b. Eulota similaris, Fer. — (F. B. I. No. 173. Eulota similaris). This species

is plentiful in Rangoon. All the specimens obtained were unicoloured.

8b. Eulota sp. — This is a small, extremely fragile, transparent, highly polish-

ed shell. The animal is not able to withdraw itself within the shell. It

looks very like a Eulota, but I have not been able to identify it.

9b. Opeas gracile, Hutton. — (F. B. I. No. .317. Opeas yracile). This is a

fairly common shell in Rangoon, but no specimens of Ennea bicolor

Hutton, were found associated with it.

10b. Succinea semiserica, Gould.— (F. B. I. No. 448. Succinea semiserica).

This is a very common species in Rangoon.

11b. Vaginulus birmanicus, Theobald. — (F. B. I. No. 478. Vayinulus birma-

nicus). This slug is fairly common in Rangoon.

12b. Cyclophonis auranticus, Schumacher. — This species is very localised,

but where found is usually plentiful. Rangoon specimens appear to be

somewhat like var : andersoni (Fauna of ]\Iergui, von. Jlartens, p. 159)

LIST OF MOLLUSC A OF RANGOON.

775

but more white round the umbilicus. V'ery young specimens are almost

transparent, and mottled with reddish brovur. Young specimens before the

lip is formed are very deep reddish brown. Full grown adult specimens

greyish brown. Very old specimens seem to lose their colour and become

almost white, though the peristome never loses its colour. ’

(C.) River Mollusca.

Ic. Cerithium lemniscatum , Qusay and Gaimard. — This .species is recorded

from Rangoon by von Martens.

2c. ?? Cerithidea sp.—A large specimen something like a Cerithium was

taken at Dawbong, Rangoon. I have also a specimen from Kyanktan,

Burma. Having no books dealing with Cerithium and its allies I am not

able to say what this is.

3c. Turritella columnaris, Kiener. — This species has been recorded from

Rangoon by von Martens. I have not been able to obtain specimens.

4c. Littorina rubropicta, von Martens. — (Fauna of Mergui, p. 170). This is a

very common species in Rangoon. Specimens obtained in Kyanktan,

Burma, are much larger than Rangoon specimens.

5c. Littorina subintermedia, Nevill. — This specimen was kindly identified for

me by Dr. Annandale of the Indian Museum. It is fairly common attach-

ed to stones on the banks of the river.

6c. Assiminia francescice ?, Gray. — These specimens were very kindly identi-

fied for me by Dr. Annandale as probably francescioe.

7c. Assiminia sp. — These specimens are red in colour and might possibly

be A. brevictila, Pfeiffer, but unfortunately no books are available giving

the description of this species.

8c. ? Rissoina sp. — These specimens were found on the river training walls.

I am unable to say what they really are.

9c. Larina biirma riorum, Blanford ; — This species has been recorded from

the Rangoon River (Burma, Its People, and Productions, Vol. I, p. 157).

I have not been able to obtain any specimens.

10c. Neritina crepidularia, Lam. ; — (Fauna of Mergui, p. 171). Black (lower

surface) coloured specimens {Dostia cornucopice) are usually found mixed

with typical red (lower surface) specimens. The periostracum varies

• from olive green to almost black. Some specimens being very prettily

marked with black lines resembling somewhat Arabic writing.

11c. Neritina sp. — These are small and very dark being whitish below. I

at first took them for young of N. crepidularia but probably they are a

separate species.

12c. Nerita sp. — Only one specimen was taken and I am unable to identify

it.

13c. ? Siphonaria sp. — This limpet is very plentiful. I cannot say whether

it is really a Siphonaria or not.

14e. Auricula jiidoe, L.- — Specimens apparently representing this species

have been taken near Monkey Point in decaying vegetable matter. They

are not common.

15c. Auricula sp. — This is the common Auricula of Rangoon, and may, per-

haps, be A. (j angelica.

16c. Rythia plicata, For. — This species is mentioned by von Martens as from

Rangoon. Many specimens have been taken on trees from two localities.

( 1 ) trees on bank of tidal drain Lower Pazundaung Road, (2) trees in

marshy land exposed to tide near Monkey Point. Auricula and Rythia

have been so far found in the same localities, but Auricula has never

been seen on trees. Rythia appears to be more of a land shell than a salt

water species.

17c. Rythia trigona, Troschel. — This species is also recorded from Rangoon

26

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

by von Martens. It is much rarer than P. plicata, only having been taken

from one locality in small quantities.

18c. Turbo margaritaceus, L. — This species has been recorded from Rangoon

by von Martens, but after much searching I have not been able to find a

specimen.

19c. ? A single specimen of a Mollusc somewhat broken was found. This

is probably a Littorina of some kind.

20c. Mytilus curvatus Dunker ? ; — Some young specimens which might

possibly be this were found on the training wall, but I am not able to say

really what they are.

21g. ? Two or three apparently j’oung bivalves were taken from the river

training wall. These may perhaps belong to the genus Modiolus. 2

2 Stenothyra monilifera, Benson , should be included in the estuarine fauna of Rangoon’

Journ , Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc

i

/ i i

THE PROGRESS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SECTION

IN THE PRINCE OF WALES’ MUSEUM

OF WESTERN INDIA.

BY

B. C. Ellisox, c. m. z. s.

2 plates.)

Since the scheme for the arrangement of the collections of the Bombay

Natural History Section in the Prince of Wales’ Museum was brought out

(a synopsis of which appeared in Volume XXVII, No. 4 of the Journal)

matters have progressed more or less rapidly with regard to the trans-

ference of the Society’s collections.

On account of H. li. H. the Prince of Wales proposed visit to the

Museum it was decided in August 1921 that the first arrangement of the

collections in the New Museum should be made with a view to show him

something about the Animal and Bird life of India. An exhibition was

therefore arranged of some of the more representative animals and birds

found in this country, the specimens being selected particularly from the

point of view of sporting interest. By comparing the photos shown in the

present number of the Journal and the photos which appeared in

Volume XXVII, No. 4, one is able to see the transformation in the

appearance of the galleries after three months work. Though not arranged

in its final form, nevertheless a very creditable exhibition was made

which was favourably commented upon both by the public and the press.

A general guide book to all the Sections of the Museum was compiled^

the pages of which gave a brief account of the Natural History Exhibition

in the Museum. This was illustrated with a map showing the areas covered

by the Society’s Mammal Survey and photos of various game animals. A

chart was also prepared giving the measurements of the best horns in the

Society’s collection compared with hitherto published records. Three

beautifully bound copies were presented to H. R. H. The Prince of Wales,

the Viceroy and to H. E. the Governor of Bombay respectively in which

were included some of the beautiful plates which have appeared in the

“Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon” by E. C. Stuart Baker, r.z.s., etc.

The principal exhibit in the Mammal Gallery illustrated the work of

the Society’s Mammal Survey. Along the central row of tables a series of

skins ranging from Primates to Pangolins were grouped according to

classification. These were further embellished with photographs and maps

showing distribution, etc. A separate exhibit illustrated the large number

of genera and species which had been added to the list of the Indian

Fauna through the agency of the survey. The Society’s fine collection

of Big Game Horns was shown to very great advantage on the walls of the

gallery.

An endeavour had been made to procure the best photos possible of

Indian animals shown under natural conditions. Through the kindness of

many of the Society’s sporting members a good representative collection

of these were obtained and were enlarged and framed and placed

underneath trophies or side by side with the unmounted specimens. In

addition to the enlarged photos were numerous others sent by members

from all over India. These were shown especially for people interested

in Big Game Shooting. There was a magnificent collection of fine photos

presented by H. H. the Maharaja of Bikaneer and numerous members.

H. H. the Maharaja of Dhar,' Mr. J. Ridland and others lent their

trophies for the exhibition. One cannot but comment on the beautiful

778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

Tiger skins loaned to the Society by the latter gentleman. These

formed an extremely striking- exhibit on the walls of the gallery. The

labelling of the exhibits was a matter that demanded particular atten-

tion. Experience has shown that the ordinary type of label is very

apt to rapidly deteriorate under local climatic conditions, and a satisfactory

expedient was found in having all the large printed ones framed under

glass pari passu.

In the Bird Gallery (which \ad been temporarily housed in the Gallery

marked (/3) in the general scheme)- perhaps the most interesting exhibition

besides the splendid display of s&ns and paintings of Indian Game

Birds was the portion allotted to Egrets in the little gallery at the end of

the alcove. Through the kindness of the Connsissioner in Sind, specimens

of these birds procured from the farms, together with samples of plumes and

photographs of the birds in various stages of development, were shown.

The method of exhibiting specimens by means of plaster casts whereby

a number of Mr. Prater’s beautiful life-like casts of the commoner Indian

snakes were shown, att'-acted considerable attention.

The Natural History Section was open to the public for a week during

the time of the Prince’s visit. Sir Perry Eobinson, Special Correspondent

of The Times, was one of many who spent an afternoon in the Natural

History Section. He wrote a very appreciative article on his visit

The expenses incurred in connection with the transfer of collections,

iucliuiing the cost of tables hired and purchased, amounted to Rs. 10,068.

The impression gathered by the visitor in many Museums is one of

mustiness and decay. This has rather the efl'e^ of detracting much from

the utility of these institutions, and turns them into caverns of mouldy

antiquities. Every effort, therefore, was made in the present instance to

avoid the above effect. Our object being to interest as well as to instruct.

Early in January His Excellency the Governor and Lady Lloyd paid

a private visit to the Natural History Section. Their Excellencies were

met by the Managing Committee of the Society and conducted over the

Section by Mr. R. A. Spence and Mr. Prater. The writer was unable to bo

present on the occasion being in Nepal at the time. Their Excellencies

expressed themselves very favourably as to the arrangement of the section.

His Excellency showed a great interest in its future and very kindly pro-

mised his assistance in furthering the plans put forward by the Honorary

Secretary, which were chiefly concerned with the question of funds and

the ways and means of their acquirements.

The great drawback affecting the running of Museums and kindred

institutions in ludia as elsewhere seems to be a cramping lack of funds.

The writer is of opinion that disadvantageous as it may seem to the aims of

a public institution such as a Museum, a small charge to visitors on every

day of the week, except perhaps one, would go far towards remedying this

deplorable condition.

The exhibition hitherto arranged was purely of a temporary character

and the specimens arranged on tables, etc., could not possibly continue in

their present condition without the risk of infinite harm. Unless properly

pr<Jtected under airtight cases they become an easy prey to the attacks

of Dermestes and mites. It was decided, therefore, to disband the present

exhibition until suitable show cases had been provided for the housing of

the collections. Arrangements were speedily concluded with Messrs. Chung

Sang & Co. of Calcutta who had already erected cases for the Art

and Archfeological Sections and who had had considerably previous ex-

perience in the construction of cases for Museums. Designs for their

arrangement were prepared and approved of. One cannot but comment

on the valuable assistance rendered by Mr. Prater who during the

Journ.,' Bombay Nat Hist Soc.

The Game Bird Section as seen at tlm time of tlie Exhibition.

“ In PEKi'iiTUAM Rei MemOkiam. ’

One of the Society's old rooni.s at 6, Apollo Street. Its overcrowded condition will show

the urgent need there was for additional space.

THE PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM.

779

writer’s absence on the Prince's shoots at this critical period had

the onus of this work thrown on his shoulders. A considerable

saving in the cost was affected through the Honorary Secretary, who

previous to accepting the local estimates for plate glass cabled for the

current prices in England with the result that the estimate was reduced by

the substantial sum of Rs. 1(3,000.

The cases for the Mammal Gallery which are now completed ; have

been designed on the latest principles ; they are air-tight and constructed

of the best seasoned teak available.

The next question before us is the filling of the cases. The problem

of mounting animals was one that required considerable deliberation. The

usual policy in the past was to have the animals mounted by a Taxider-

mist attached to the Museum. The man was usually poorly paid and had

the vaguest notion of the work he was attempting to do. This often

resulted in a horrible collection of monstrosites. Taxidermy is at the

present day a fine art, and in England and America is attracting quite a

superior type of man to the bird stuff’er of old. After consultation with

Experts in England and comparison of the estimates proffered by one

or two well-known Taxidermist firms in India, it was discovered that it

would be decidedly more advantageous if the Museum could secure for

itself either the services of a trained taxidermist to mount the animals

himself or some one with sufficient knowledge to supervise the carrying

out of this work. It was, therefore, decided to send the Society’s Assistant

Curator to England in this connection. We are fully convinced that the

course adopted will be of extreme advantage to the Museum.

As regards the remaining galleries funds wdll not allow of our touchinor

these until we have completed the Mammal Gallery. When this is finished

it is proposed to take up the Bird Gallery and then the remaining sections.

Many members will be wondering about the old rooms in Anollo

Street, clinging to which are a host of memories. These are and wilf still

continue to be the offices and headquarters of the Society and here will

still be housed the reference collections. Except for the giving up of one

room, and sundry gaps and vacancies on the walls caused by the trans-

ference of trophies to the Prince of Wales Museum (these gaps are being

rapidly filled however) the old rooms continue the same as formerly. In

perpetuani memoriam, we publish the photo of the room no longer tenanted

by the Society.

Bombay Natural History Society, IWi .June 1922.

780

REVIEW.

The Edge of the Jungle. By William Beebe, (Witherby). 12«. 6cZ.

The ‘Edge of the Jungle ’is a series of essays on observations of Natural

History in Guiana.

The author Mr. William Beebe has travelled widely as a scientific naturalist :

he is apparently mainly a biologist setting up a laboratory wherever he goes in

the jungles, but he is also a very close and careful observer of Nature, and his

record of the daily routine of a nest of Army Ants watched at the risk of extreme

discomfort is of the greatest interest.

Unfortunately Mr. Beebe has gained a reputation for language “ holding all

I the charm of an essay by R. L. Stevenson” {vide, wrapper), and he laboriously and

' self-consciously upholds that reputation by giving us fifteen annas of fine

^ %vriting to every anna of information, which is not, by the way, the method of

R. L. S. The result is that in this book we find many tantalising allusions to

]Mr. Beebe’s experiences in Borneo, Egypt, China and the “ Queen’s Golden

Monastery in Northern Burma within storm sound of Tibet ” and almost the

only thing we learn about the Natural History of Guiana is that the mongoose

(described of course a la R.L.S. as “ that furry fiend Rikki tikki”) has been

introduced into the country, and is ‘ having a rather hard time of it.’

We in India perhaps hardly realise what a literature of Natural History and

Sport has been built up for us by plain men teUing us what we want to know in

plain language.

The model of all books on the wanderings of a Naturalist, though we cannot

claim it for India, is Wallace’s Eastern Archipelago. But in India we have

writers like the “Old Forest Ranger,” Simson, Hume,Marshall, Eha, Stuart Baker

to take only the first names that occur : and all of these tell their stories in a way

that appeals at once and directly to anyone who has ever taken a bird’s egg or

held a gun.

Mr. Beebe does not succeed in making the same appeal nor does he probably

desire to do so. He is Avriting for a public which you may call more cultured

or more sentimental as suits your fancy, and he has no doubt a very wide and

enthusiastic circle of admirers, and he very justifiably from his own point of view

considers us lacking in the finer sense of taste, in that we should have preferred

to find in his book rather less vivid word painting and a good deal more about

the Natural History of a fascinating country.

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JOMrn,, Bom- Nat- Hist- Soc-

Thr late JIh. K. C. WROUGHTON, f.l.s., f.z.s.. m.b.o.u.

“ It was typical of Wroughton's indomitable energy of spirit that lie slionld, after 70, and

suffering from the grave illness of which he died, have planned and started on such a monu

mental work as a new Blanford. But this was the key to the character of the man. No work

was too laborious, too great, or too difficult for him to start on, if life were given him to

carry it through to a successful conclusion.”

Oldfield Thomas.\

781

EDITOlUAL.

Mammal Survey. — We have much satisfactiou iu acknowledging the

receipt of a grant of Rs. 45,000 from the Imperial Government of India

towards the expenses of the Mammal Survey. This grant was paid to the

Society in two instalments of Rs. 22,500 for the years 1921-22 and 1922-23

respectively. The Mammal Survey has been further benefited by a grant of

£ 100 from the Royal Society and a donation of £ 50 from the Zoological

Society of London. It is with much gratification that we record

these marks of appreciation on the part of the Indian Government and

the premier learned Societies of the Empire. Our thanks are also due to

all those members of the Society who gave us their generous support at

a time when funds were urgently needed by the Society to complete

the task it had set out to accomplish.

With the financial aspect more or less assured the Society confi-

dently hopes to complete the Survey as originally planned. Four

collectors are at present engaged in the work. Mr. C. Primrose has recently

completed the Survey of the Mergui Archipelago and Mr. Oldfield Thomas

has written very appreciatively of his work among those Islands. Owing

to the impracticability of continuing his work in Burma during the monsoon,

Mr. Primrose has been transferred to Gwalior and our thanks are due to

H. H. The Maharaja for permission accorded to our collector to work in

his territories and for the facilities promised him. Mr. Wells is working

in the Kangra District in the North Western Himalayas. His report

recounting his experiences of “ Scrambling over frozen snow slopes ”

reached us in Bombay on a particularly vicious day at the latter end of

May. It is to be recorded that the temptation to exchange the office

chair for a collector’s gun was successfully overcome. Our third collector

Mr. McCann is carrying on the Survey in the Palni Hills in Southern

India. He proposes to descend to the plains during the monsoon, his

future venue being the Salem and Trichinopoly Districts. The Society

will be grateful to members in Southern India for any assistance they can

accord him while in their districts. W e are pleased further to report, that

permission has once more been obtained from the Nepal Government for

N. A. Baptista to resume the Survey work in that country, where Col. W. F.

O’Connor, the British Envoy, has very kindly agreed to take over the work

of his predecessor Col. R. L. Kennion in supervising the arrangements.

Members are aware that the material obtained through the Agency of

the Survey is being worked out at the British Museum by the members

of the staff and also by the aid of voluntary workers siieh as the late Mr.

R. C. Wroughton and Mr. T. B. Fry. Mr. Oldfield Thomas in a recent

letter mentioned that there would shortly be a possibility of our having to

secure the services of some one who would be willing to take over the work

of cataloguing and labelling the Survey material. He writes that there

must be many retired officials in England, who are simply pining for the

want of something to do, who would be ready to take up this work

as a hobby. Whether they take up the scientific side of the work or

attend merely to its routine nature, they would in either instance be

doing work of much value and would be rendering a great service both

to the British Museum and to the Survey. Both Mr. Wroughton and

Mr. Fry came to the Museum after retirement from official life and

Mr. Oldfield Thomas would be glad to hear from any of our members who

would be willing to help in any way.

Bombay Fisheries.— Vf hen in 1917, the newly formed Government

Department of Industries turned its attention to the fishing industry of

the Presidency with a view to its development and improvement, and

782 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIL

declared in its first annual report ( for 1917-18 ) its appreciation of the

need for scientific investigation, it seemed as if our authorities had at last

become alive to a public duty recognised and acted upon by all civilised

maritime countries, which had here been too long ignored.

A decided step forward was taken in 1918, when it was resolved to

acquire a steam trawler to investigate the unknown fishery resources of

the deep sea, and at the same time to secure the services of a “ Marine

Biologist with knowledge and experience of the scientific and economic

sides of the industry, who will investigate the resources to be exploited

and make proposals for the means of doing so and the necessary organi-

sation."

The above is quoted from the annual report of the Department of

Industries for 1918-19, which further goes on to say : “This is a field for

Government endeavour analogous to the exploration of the country’s

mineral resources by the GedTogical Survey of India.”

The Director of Industries qualifies and dilutes this point of view by adding:

“ In the case of fisheries, however, I consider that mere exploration work

should, at the outset, be subordinated to the policy of ascertaining definitely

whether trawling will or will not pay in Bombay waters. If it does pay, and

perhaps even if it does not pay, there will probably be for many years to

come a rich field for scientific and economic enquiry.” By trawling here

is apparently meant the operations of the Government’s experimental

vessel.

It appears to us that the Department of Industries showed an undue

haste to get down to a commercial basis. Borrowing its own metaphor

of the Geological Survey he would be a very short-sighted geologist who

limited his attention in the field only to those minerals which could be

immediately disposed of at a profit.

The fishing scheme materialised in the appearance of the Steam

Trawler “ William Garrick ” at Bombay in March 1921, and trawling

operations were begun towards the end of May 1921. The explor-

atory object appears from the outset to have been subordinated to

the catching and landing of fish for the market. The experiment of plac-

ing trawl-caught fish upon the Bombay market was doubtless an interest-

ing and necessary one, but it is obvious that making the marketing a

primary consideration would be a handicap, to systematic sea work and

would make substantial inroads into the time available for the exploration

of the virgin fishing grounds which are sufficiently vast in any case for a

single vessel to trawl over. To put exploitation before exploration was on

the face of it a case of putting the cart before the horse.

We are informed that the operations were not a commercial success as

at no time did the proceeds from the sales of fish approach anywhere near

the working expenses. It was doubtless this circumstance, in the face of

the financial straits in which the Government found itself in budgeting for

the financial year 1922-23, which led to the abandonment of trawling at

the end of last February, after a working period which barely exceeded 9

months. It seems a sad and untimely fizzling out of a big project which

must have involved the Government in a very substantial capital outlay-sub-

stantial enough to merit a longer period of activity one would imagine.

Our present knowledge of the natural history of the food fishes of these

parts is practically nil and therefore the publication of the details and the

results of the work will be awaited with much interest, but it is clear that

a fisher survey of the seas of a province with over 1,000 miles of coastline

cannot have been carried very far in so short a period. It is to be hoped

that although the Bombay Government has not been able to maintain

its deep-sea trawling project — admittedly an expensive matter in the hard

EDITORIAL.

783

times of to-day — it will nevertheless realise that the natural resources of

the sea, no less than those which flourish on the face of the earth or lie

buried beneath its surface, have a considerable present and still greater

potential value to the state and to posterity.

The present prospects for the continuance of fishing investigations are

somewhat blank. There appears to be no provision for the appointment

of a successor to the Marine Biologist who returns to England at the end

of the year ; and the post of Assistant Marine Biologist which was only

filled for a matter of about 5 months has been abolished, one of the

minutice of Government economy.

The inconclusive ending of a costly enterprise emphasises the fact that

experiments of this nature are foredoomed to failure unless their conduct

goes hand-in-hand with scientific investigation, and, if possible, under the

direction of someone who combines knowledge of local fishing conditions

from both the scientific and practical sides. We are satisfied from many

facts already known that power-fishing — not necessarily steam-trawling —

will some day become one of the great industries of the Bombay Presi-

dency, and that the present setback is purely temporary and due to

faults in the conception and carrying out of the scheme. What is wanted

is enlightened commercial control working in close collaboration with

informed (practical) scientific advice. It is evident that wide local

knowledge of the life-history and habits of our food fishes is essential

to ensure success. We must know at least the salient facts about them,

their breeding seasons, spawning grounds, and the main factors control-

ling the periodic migrations that are outstanding characteristics of some

of our most valuable marketable fishes. Knowledge of this description

intelligently applied will assuredly enable our sea-fishing industry to

develop on modern lines and so obtain the largest possible quantities of

fish in the best condition upon an expenditure low enough to permit of sale

at reasonable prices ; perhaps in no other industry depending directly

upon the spontaneous produce of Nature, can the possible result so amply

repay the capital and labour expended upon it. But the practical scientist

(zoologist) is essential to success and it is also needful that any extensive

steam or motor fishery organization should have strong and patient financial

backing and should he run in conjunction with a well-thought out and

extensive cold-storage and distributing agency. It is probably an easier

proposition to catch the fish than to dispose of the catches at remunera-

tive rates. This is work that no Government department can iackle

satisfactorily ; Government should confine itself to the investigations that

are needful to supply the data essential to commercial success and should

not try directly and through their own organization to develop commer-

cially such capitalistic methods of fishing as steam-trawling.

The Administration Report of the Department of Fisheries, Madras, by

the Director, Mr. .1. Hornell, F.L.S., F.R.A.I., just to hand makes very

interesting reading. Although such a department should not be considered

a profit-earning department, as its resources should be devoted primarily

and principally to investigation and research in ' the interests both of

the fishing industry and the general community, it manages to cover

the greater part of its expenditure by profits made on the departmental

tank fishery and from the improvement of inland waters. The latter

source of revenue is particularly noteworthy. The Department takes over

tanks and rivers from the local authorities on payment of yearly com-

pensation based on past rentals received, and then by applying up-to-

date piscicultural methods for the improvement of these waters, is able

to obtain largely increased rentals, which pay all the expenses of the

section and leave a handsom-e surplus that goes far to c8ver expenditure

27

784 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

upon scientific investigation that is not and cannot be directly productive

however valuable its conclusions may eventually prove to the industries

concerned. If the Director’s programme of research continues to be ade-

quately supported by Government, about which some misgivings are felt,

the operations of the Madras Department of Fisheries should become one

of the greatest economic assets of that Presidency. The operations of the

department have constantly expanded since its inception and include

among other minor lines, a Zoological Supply section which we have much

pleasure in bringing to the notice of schools, colleges and other educational

establishments in India. The scheme was inaugurated by Mr. Hornell

with the object of supplying schools and colleges where zoology is taught,

with type and dissection specimens of our marine fauna for study in the

class room. Until then, students to a large extent relied upon a study of

text-book figures and had little or no familiarity with the animals them-

selves. Tiiey could describe a sea-anemone or a holothurian with exacti-

tude, but would fail to recognise either if they saw it alive in a rock-pool

or on the sea shore. For school museums, Mr. Hornell has had prepared

wall cases of typical mollusca, crustaceans and sponges. To render these

more useful, he is engaged upon the preparation of illustrated handbooks

descriptive of the types represented in these cases ; the first one, dealing

with South Indian shells, has just been issued and he hopes shortly to

complete a companion work on the larger Indian Crustacea, to illustrate a

collection of our common crabs.

Readers of our Journal will be interested to learn that Mr. Hornell has

promised to write a series of descriptive papers on the common marine

and fresh-water shells of India. In the present number of the Journal, we

publish a paper by him on the Madras Aquarium while a future issue will

contain a very interesting article on the Commensals of Indian Crabs and

Alcyonarians.

Nature Study in Schools. — While on the subject of Nature Study in

schools we are pleased to state that as a result of representations made by

the Society Government has been pleased to appoint a Committee “ to con-

sider and report on the question of arranging for the formation, in

co-operation with the Bombay Natural History Society, of a Nature Study

Museum in Bombay, for the use of teachers and students of the subject.”

The Committee will enquire into and submit proposals on the most advan-

tageous methods of exhibiting suitable portions of the Society’s collections

to European and Indian children in Government and recognised schools

and will report on the best manner in which the Society can render

guidance and assistance to teachers. The Committee thus constituted will

also serve as a Standing Advisory Committee in future and will meet once

a year to settle the lines of work. Mr. R. A. Spence has been appointed

the Society’s representative on the proposed Committee and during his

absence on leave in England, Revd. Father Blatter, s.J., f.l.s., will take

his place.

Egret Farming — In the present issue of the Journal we publish

articles by Capt. C. E. Benson and Mr. Chevenix Trench, i.e.s., on the

subject of Egret Farming. Members of the Society will recall the previous

papers on the subject by Mr. G. Birch published in Vol. XXIII, No. 1.

At the time of its publication Mr. Birch’s article roused considerable

comment in England, especially during the period the Plumage Bill was

before Parliament. Last year a proposition was afoot for a Government

enquiry into the status of these farms, particularly with a view to

establishing whether cruelty was being practised. The matter however

was dropped for no very apparent reason. There can be little doubt that

an enquiry intcfthis subject must eventually be undertaken. Numerous

EDITORIAL.

785

unsupervisecl farms which have sprung up in suitable localities throughout

the Province and the information to hand seems to indicate that the

farming of egrets on humane lines is not an impossibility and that the

cruelty at present practiced could be abolished. The present method of

‘ plucking’ as observed by Capt. Benson is both cruel and reprehensible.

The suturing of the eyelids appears to be practiced only by a small

section of the farmers who are compelled to transfer their establishments

at seasonal periods. We once more urge upon Government the necessity

of establishing the proposed enquiry. It will take time as the birds must

be visited in the middle of the Sind hot weather, July-August, in the cold

weather and in the early spring, but provided that the right men are sent

and sufficient time given for a thorough investigation a valuable report

could be obtained.

We draw the attention of members to the excellent series of

articles on the collection and identification of Indian Butterflies by

Col. Evans the first of which appeared in Vol. XXVIII, No. 2. Col, Evans

is supplying a very much felt want, i.e., a guide to the budding collector

and to the recognition of the more common Indian Species. The series of

articles will be illustrated with black and white photographs of various

species and will be a great help to a large circle of people who are at

present prevented from taking up a fascinating study for want of suitable

and helpful literature. We have already commented on Mr. Hornell’s

proposed papers on the Common Molluscs and are pleased to announce

that a popular paper, on similar lines, on Spiders and Dragonflies will

shortly appear in the Journal — the former by Dr. Gravely and the latter

by Major Fraser, the two best authorities on the subject in the country.

The editors of the journal are doing all they can to make their publica-

tions interesting to those of their readers to whom a recondite scientific

article is somewhat terrifying. At the same time the scientific aspect of

our publications must be preserved. The accumulation of knowledge

by the scientific worker, who places the results of his researches, in

whatever seemingly unimportant sphere of study he may be engaged,

within the reach of those that come after him, is helping towards the

progress of knowledge and those conversant with that progress are

aware that at any time some apparently insignificant discovery has

thrown such a flood of light upon certain phenomena as to directly benefit

the whole progress of our race.

The Society is striving to meet the wishes of all its members, novices as

well as experts, and the editors will always be glad to receive from their

readers any suggestion whereby this publication may be improved or in

anj’' way tend to become of greater benefit to those to whom it appeals.

Our readers are aware that this Society is almost entirely maintained

out of member’s subscriptions and if the high standard of its publications

is to be continued the source of its income must remain unimpaired. The

recent unavoidable increase in subscriptions has been to some extent dis-

counted by a corresponding loss of membership, and the editors hope that

members will do all they can to help the Society by making its work and

the advantage it offers, more widely known to their friends. A strong

membership roll with constant additions to its numbers means to' an

amateur Society such as ours an increased vitality and a continuity of

progress in the many spheres of its activity.

788

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

No. 1.— EDITORS’ AND READERS’ COIVIMENTS ON ARTICLES AND

NOTES WHICH HAVE APPEARED IN PREVIOUS NUMBERS.

The Tsaine (Bos banteng).

(Vol XXVIII, No. 2. Misc. Note No. 6.)

In his Catalogue of Ungulate Mammals Lydekker recognises 5 races of the

Banting or Tsaine (Bos banteng) (Bos sondaicus of Blanford).

The range of the animal is given as “ Java, Borneo, probably Sumatra, Bali ;

apparently a portion of the Malay Peninsula, Burma as far as the north of Pegu

and Arrakan and thence through the hiUs of Chittagong to Manipur, Siam and

Cochin China.”

The typical race (Bos banteng banteng) is from Java. Lydekker describes

the colour of the adult bull as blackish brown to black, with face similar to the

back, and the white rump patch very large and contrasting strongly with the

dark area. The Bornean Banting (B. banteng lowi) is said to be more or less

identical in colour with the Javan form.

Lydekker distinguishes the Northern races from the two above described

mainly by the white rump patch which is very much more developed in the Javan

and Bornean races and by the colour of the adult buUs.

In the Burmese Banting or Tsaine (B. banteng birmanicus) the colour of the

old buU is given as “ dark tawny or chestnut appearing darker in some hghts

than in others and shading to hght brown below. Very old bulls apparently

become darker”. The white rump patch is described as covering a smaller

area than in the Javan and Bornean races being confined to the hind surface of

the buttocks and thighs.

In the Siamese race (B. banteng porteri) (described from two fragmentary

specimens) the colour is stated to be brown, flecked with white in contradis-

tinction to the Burmese in which the body colour is said to be uniform.

The Malayan Banting (B. b. butteri) is considered in all probability to be a

feral race of the domesticated Bah Banting (which is largely imported into

Singapore). The bulls are described as ‘ blackish ’.

The last race mentioned by Lydekker to which no sub speciflc has been attached

is from Cochin China.

An interesting commentary on the above might be obtained from Major

(now Col.) J. P. Evans’ notes on the Tsaine in his book on Big Game shooting

in Upper Burma (1911) in which Col. Evans goes somewhat into detail in refer-

ence to the colouring of the Tsaine ; also from a letter received from Major

Stockley on the subject. Commenting on the “ white rump patch ” which

Lydekker cites as a point of difference between the Southern and Northern races

of Banting. Major Stockley writes : —

‘‘ Lydekker states that the rump patch is more developed in the Burmese.

Siamese and Malayan races than in the Javan and Bornean. I am quite sme that

individual variation is great in this respect and would fike to know how much

material he had on which to base this differentiation. I also strongly suspect

that the area of white on the buttocks and thighs decreases with age, as I have

twice noticed yoimg bulls with the white area extending nearly all over the

thighs : so much so that in one case, in which the bull was grazing tail on to me,

I at first took him to be an animal of some new species.”

As regards the colour of the body. Col. Evans, who has had considerable op-

portunities of observing the Burmese Banting in a •ndld state, is of opinion that

the cows and young bulls are of a bright chestnut with a white face, white

stockings and a white patch on the buttocks. “ Young bulls have practically

the same colour as the cows but often have white spots in the flanks which in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

787

course of time merge into each other and turn a dirty grey.” Is it not pro-

bable that the white flecked colouring described by Lydekker as distinctive of

the Siamese race {B.b. porteri) is merely the colouring of an immature animal.

Writing of the Siamese race Major Stockley says : —

“ As for Bos banteng porteri, I consider the subspecific quite unwarranted.

The type specimen of B.b. porteri was shot by Mr. Porter on groimd where

several other tsaine had been shot previously, none of which had been spotted,

or noted as such. I saw a photo of the specimen which was shovTi me by Mr.

K. G. Gardiner, a keen and competent naturahst who has lived in Siam for nearly

twenty years, and who doubted the validity of the race. The photo was pub-

lished in the journal of the Natural History Society of Siam and showed a spot-

ted bull with a poor head, which I would say was not quite mature, and cer-

tainly did not look to be an old animal. The spots were distributed fairly

thickly over the shoulders and decreased in frequency towards the rear. The

second specimen of B.b. porteri was shot by Mr. C. Yates at the end of March

1917, and was one of the three shot by him in that month on the same ground.

Mr. Elwes was with him all the time, and himself shot a bull tsaine. Neither Mr.

Elwes’ bull or Mr. Yates’ other two were spotted, nor were any of the bulls

which Mr. Elwes had shot on the ground in previous years. It is improbable

in the extreme that there could be two races of tsaine hving in continuous areas

of which specimens occasionally invade each other’s territory. I may say

that I have photos of two buck Barking Deer {Cervulus muntiacus grandicornis)

shot in the Yamethin district of Burma in the same week on the same ground :

one of them has two parallel rows of white spots on its sides, the other is quite

unspotted. WiU any sane person maintain that they are of different races ?”

j\Iature bulls according to Evans are usually yeUovash brown, sometimes

turning to dark grey colour on the sides and flanks. Old bulls usually have the

face down to the muzzle a dirty white approaching to grey. They may be en-

tirely grey (grey bulls according to Evans always possess magnificent heads) or the

prevailing colour may be dull yeUovdsh red (the shade of a withered leaf, or

the red of old brown canvas) occasionally the colour is almost dark chocolate

and rarely black {the normal colour of the Javan race.)

Thus we find in the males of the Burmese Banting a range of colour extending

in the immature animals from bright chestnut, chestnut flecked with white to

yello'wish brown mixed with grey and in the older animals ranging from uniform

grey to red, chocolate and black. Evans states that ordinarily in Burma the

older the bull the lighter he is while Lydekker is of opinion that “ very old

bulls apparently become darker.” Major Stockley is in agreement 'ivith Col.

Evans. He writes : —

“ I differ altogether from Lydekker when he states that the colour of old bulls

goes darker with age. The khaki coloured bulls, I am sure, do nothing of

the sort. As I have said in my original notes, I think it possible that the grey

and copper-beech bulls possibly become buffalo-blue and chocolate, respectively,

eventually, in some cases, going quite black ; but this is merely a suggestion,

and not even my opinion, as I think the matter is quite imcertain.”

The question arises in the absence of complete data and material as to how

far the colouration of the Banting can be made the basis for distinguishing the

various races of animal. What exactly are the features or characteristics by

which the various races can be recognised, as tending to become permanent

forms inhabiting a definite area ?

I think that a perusal of Major Stockley’s and Col. Evans’ notes ■null show how

entirely unrehable colour is as a basis for determining the races of Bos banteng.

Distinctions based on scanty museum material are not in many instances

borne out by the subsequent observation of field Naturahsts and it would be

better if decisions of this nature are deferred until sufficient material and data

were forthcoming. Major Stockley writes : —

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

“ I have protested before in the Society’s journal against hasty differen-

tiation of subspecies based on insufficient data [vide my notes on the horns of

the Thamin) and I think that ‘ Wait and see ’ is the motto to adopt in the

case of the Tsaine in this respect.”

“ Recent correspondence in the ‘ Field ’ has shown what a terrible muddle

has been made of the Waterbucks and Kobs through Museum workers rushing

to append new names to specimens with insufficient material to work on, with the

result that now the genera and species are so mixed, that it is difficult to say

w'hat is a Kob and what a Waterbuck. Museum workers who do this sort of thing,

put themselves in the position of staff officers who issue orders wdthout reference

to the information received from the front line, or who make no attempt to ob-

tain such information : the result in each case is the same — chaos.”

The dependence of the Museum worker on the Field Xaturahst is here

definitely expressed. He relies on the field observer not only for material but

also for information as regards the conditions under which the species he is

examining lives and has its being ; including data as regards the time when the

particular specimen was obtained, the locality, the altitude, and whether any

variations in colour have been observed due to sex, age or season in any given

district. Col. Evans and Major Stockley’s notes on the Tsaine can be cited as

an instance how far intelligent observation can go towards assisting in this

direction.

S. H. Prater, C. M. Z. S.

Bombay Natural History Society.

Power of Scent in Wild Animals.

{Misc. Note No 1, Fol. XXVIII, No. 1.)

Major W. M. Logan Home writes : — I have read Mr. Copley’s notes on “ The

Power of Scent in Wild Animals”, in Vol. XXVIII, No. 1, with interest.

I think however most sportsmen who have done much stalking in the Hima-

la\’as will agree wrth me that Mr. Copley’s observations on lack of power of

scent in wild animals do not in the least apply to Himalayan Game.

It is well known, for instance, that bears have most remarkable powers of

scent : I have known a brown bear scent me 1,400 yards off, and I have had many

stalks after black bears spoilt by their getting our wind.

The same appUes to Ibex and Markhor. I remember on one occasion, my

shikari and I were sitting in full view of a small herd of Ibex, which were about

25 yards off and feeding past us ; although several of them looked straight at

us, they continued feeding until they had got round to our wind side when thej’

suddenly snorted and rushed off downhill and I can remember many other in-

stances of the same sort where we eluded detection by sitting motionless against

rocks or trees until the beasts worked round into the wnnd.

I remember losing the biggest Ibex I ever saw by neglecting to properly test

the wnnd and as the incident might be of interest I give it below : —

My shikari and I and a local Balti cooly had been lying all day on the top of

a ridge watching the Ibex, 4 fine old males, and one a very big head, where

shown 400 yards below us. The wind where we lay blew straight up towards us

from below from both sides and along up the ridge.

At about 4 p.m. I told the cooly to go back to camp the path led past the

position of the Ibex but w'as hidden from view of the animals as it lay on the

opposite side of the ridge. When he reached a point to the windward of the

Ibex they suddenly got to their feet and rushed madly down in a direction

away from the cooly halting after going about 200 yards and gazing bank in

the direction from which they came.

I reahsed then, to my disgust, that an eddy of wind had come round the ridge

and carried the cooly’s scent to the Ibex. The latter made off right across the

valley and I saw them no more. The cooly was in my view all the time and w'as

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

78d

quite hidden behind the ridge. Col. Kennion in his fascinating book, “ Sport

and Life in the further Himalaya,” relates a similar incident where the changing

of the wind in the middle of the stalk lost him a big head.

COMPAKISON OF TiGEE AND PaNIHER SkULLS.

(Tol. XXVII, No. 4, Mi'sc. Note No. 2.)

Mrs. Maxwell writes : —

“ It may be of interest in connection with the photographs of skulls in the

journal of 31st July 1921, page 934, to see a photograph of two tiger skulls, the

occipital cond3des of which rest on the surface of the table, and to know that

four out of eight tiger skulls in our possession have the occipital cond3des in

contact with the table.”

We have examined a series of 24 tiger skulls in the SocietA^’s collection and find

that in 7 skulls the occipital condyles were in contact with the surface on

which they were resting. The remainder were raised above. It would appear

from this, that, as a jK)int of difference between Tiger and Panther skulls, Blan-

ford’s test would be of little value, since the above mentioned character is to be

observed in the skulls of both animals, though possibly to a less extent in th3

Tiger.

B. C. Ellison, C.M.Z.S.

Panthers and Artificial Light.

(Vol. XXVIII, No. 1, Misc. Note No. 2.)

Mr. R. C. Morris writes ;• — With reference to the note rmder the above

heading wnitten by Mr. C. B Beadnell, the following accoimt should be of

interest:

In February 1921, m3' wife and I were sitting up over a “ kill ” in a shola.

Soon after dark I decided to test the electric light apparatus and found that it

was not working. There was no time or light to see what was wrong, and whist-

ling for our sholaga shikaris, I instructed them to tie up a hunicane lamp over

the kill. While they were doing so the panther came to the edge of the cleared

patch round the kill and slimk back into the shola on seeing the men. I had to

call out to the men, who had not seen the panther, to clear out. A few minutes

later the panther walked out into the full light of the lantern and started his

meal and paid the penalty for his daring. Another panther was killed, and yet

another was missed, in lantern light last year on these hills and I know of no

other instances.

An instance of the extraordinary cunning of panthers is showm by the

foUow'ing incident : —

Recently my wife’s favourite dog was killed by a panther and we sat up over

the kill until it began to rain, when we decided to return to our bimgalow.

My wife did not like the idea of the panther turning up and devouring the dog’s

remains in oim absence and so we had the carcase put up on the machan. On

our visiting the spot the next morning we were astonished to find that the pan-

ther had cfimbed up on to the machan and had devoured the remains of the dog.

The machan was a considerable height off the ground.

Living a life in the jungle one sees or comes across many strange and exciting

jungle incidents and tragedies. Perhaps the most extraordinary sight that I

have ever witnessed was the killing of a solitary bull bison by a solitary

elephant.

790 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Bird Collectors in India.

{Editorial, Vol. XXVIII, No. 1.)

Dr. C. B. Ticehurst writes : —

With reference to the letter of Capt. Livesey quoted in your last editorial,

and your remarks on his impossible scheme, I should like to say a few words.

The impression given is that India is swarming with bird collectors, out to get

any rare and beautiful plumaged bird they see. Broadly speaking, of course,

there is no such thing as a rare bird, all being as common as Nature intended them

to be, if looked for in their true habitation, that, however, is by the way. But

where are aU these collectors Capt. Livesey complains about ? I should be glad to

know as with so much yet remaining to do in India they should be encouraged.

When I was in Sind I knew of three (besides myself) aU doing valuable work in

parts little or not known, there may have been others I did not hear of, if so, they

remain silent judging by the papers which have in the last few years appeared

in the Journal. But since I left India, it appears, collectors have greatly in-

creased in number, I rejoice to hear it, as doubtless now there will be no difficulty

in obtaining desiderata which we in England are handicapped for the lack of !

If Capt. Livesey will give us a hst of collectors and their districts we can then

inform them through the Journal what specimens are required thence for the

British Museum, and the Curator of our Society could add his desiderata.

Now as to his scheme, in the first place the Society surely has no power to

prohibit “ the slaughter of rare and beautiful birds.” Tliis can only be done by

an Act and the “ Prohibition of Export of Plumes Act ” gives protection against

slaughter for trade purposes. Without a very wide and very special know-

ledge of the whole of the birds of India, which no single man possesses, no one can

lay down the law as to what should be the limits in collecting. Capt. Livesey

suggests a typical series of skins of each species by which of course he must mean

a series from the type locality, a very desirable object which neither the Bombay

nor British Museum has attained as yet for every Indian species even. And

what of races ? StiU less are these collections representative.

To avoid collecting birds on the fringe of their ddstribution pre-supposes a pretty

exact knowledge of the range of every species and race in India, and entails far

more collecting yet ; the results when obtained would take the most skilled

worker years to work out. No ! In my opinion Capt. Livesey has started at the

wrong end and the required knowledge for his diagrams does not exist. As re-

gards publication of diagrams, 12-15 quarterly, by the Society giving such in-

formation as we possess up to date of geographic^ distribution, is it suggested

that each Indian species should be put on one of these ? That is taking the num-

ber as in the Fauna as 1617 (and it is many more now), is the work to be

spread over 27 years, and who is to prepare this almost life’s work ?

There is one suggestion, however, which I can find myself in agreement with

and that is the pubhcation of a list of “wants”. I should not bother about

“ do not wants ” as no well made skin with full data of practically any Indian

bird from anywhere would ever figure among the “ do not wants ” at any

Museum ; I should confine “ do not wants ” to scraps without data. I began a

hst of “ wants ” last year with an appeal for nestlings of any Indian birds, a

subject on which we know nothing (see B. N. H. S. J., XXVII, p. 931), an investi-

gation any egg collector in India (and in my day they far out-numbered skin

collectors) could help with, but up to date as a result I have received one specimen.

I, and no doubt others, who work at the British Museum would send along

fists of “ wants ” for various localities if there was any chance that the wants

would be supplied. For example, certain birds are wanted, all common enough,

from some locality between Benares and the Vindhya HiUs — say the area, Saugor-

Jubbulpore-Ramnagar — as it was from this area Franklin described a good many

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

791

birds, but even to this day specimens thence are very poorly represented in the

British Museum. If any response is forthcoming I shall be pleased to supply

the names of the actual species. Collecting without method provided birds

are collected properly is not a waste of time or bird life, though I quite grant

more could be done if collectors knew what was particularly wanted in their area,

but they must make themselves known first.

Birds of Mesopotamia.

( FoZ. XXVIII, No. 1, page 222).

In Dr- Ticehurst’s “ Birds of Mesopotamia” pubhshed in your last issue, he

omits perhaps the one and only interesting fact in the nidification of the Hooded

crow ( Corvus cornix) in Mesopotamia, which is, that in the absence of date

palms it will nest in the dense reed beds (Hamar Lake).

Kotah, Rajaputana, T. R. Livesey, Capt.

2bth February 1922.

Notes on Lizards, Frogs and Human Beings in the Nilgiri District,

( Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, page 493.)

A parallel to Col. Wall’s interesting researches into the habits of Reptiles and

Amphibians in the Nilgiris pubhshed in Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, of the Society’s

journal may be foimd in an interesting article pubhshed in the September issue

of the Magazine of Natural History (Journal of the American Museum of

Natural History). Mr. Kingsley Noble, Curator of Reptiles in the American

Museum of Natural History, recounts the methods employed by him in his at-

tempts to discover the life histories and habits of the reptiles and amphi-

bians, especiaUy the remarkable frogs of the Andean region. The most interest-

ing of these is the Marsupial Frog the female of which is provided with a pouch

in which she carries the eggs until well developed. In the pouch the young

are reared until an advanced stage in the tadpole existence. Many interesting

details in the life history of this Frog remain unsolved. Little is known about

its habits, its pouch, its egg laying and the manner in which the egg reaches the

pouch which, by the way, is situated on the frog’s back. It was towards help-

ing to solve some of these problems that Mr. Noble particularly directed his

efforts. Col. Wall spent much time and patience in discovering that, the httle

“ Castanet ” Frogs were the authors of the “ Clap like sounds ”, which

every visitor to the Nilgiris during the rains is familiar with. Mr. Noble’s

methods may therefore commend themselves to the gallant Colonel or anyone

desirous of following in his footsteps. Mr. Noble writes: “There is only one way

of delving into the home hfe of a frog, i.e., to steal upon him at night when his

amorous caUing betrays his place of hiding. With an electric flash light the

task is easy for the frog seems to be as little concerned over one’s presence

as he is over the Are flies which flit across his world. His callings, love

making, nest building, may be examined in as great detail in the open as in

his structure in the laboratory. It was obvious that if we were to investigate

the marsupial frog into reveahng any of his great secrets it would have to

be done at night.” Recounting his esperiences Mr. Noble writes : —

“ I started off alone toward a bannana patch where I had heard

the previous evening the hammering of a dozen carpenters. There was

something about the quaUty of the hammering which told me the ‘ Carpenters ’

28

792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

were not human. I thought of the carpenter frogs which come to our Jersey

pine barrens in the spring. These are of a different family and their ham-

mering has a clattering, less deliberate ring. The New Jersey ‘ Carpenters ’

always soimd to me like a crowd of boys laying shingles, while the clear measured

clap of these hammers could be compared only with that of a skilled workman.

First I followed an did agave-grown wall, then another stone wall running to

the bannana field. It was a different world at night. My light fell first upon a

giant centipede, more than eight inches in length, putting into service every one

of its many legs for a rapid escape up the trail. Numerous jewels shone on the

periphery of the light. Some of these on investigation proved to be nothing but

drops of water, others of a deeper glow were the eyes of spiders. A little farther

on a glimpse of two close-set headhghts, followed by a creature’s wild rush through

a thicket, told me that I had disturbed an opossum in its nocturnal wanderings.

The hammering became mucTi louder as I approached the bannana patch.

I realized that the hammerers were not aU in the bannana plants ; some were

in the old stone wall, and others in the agave plants. I started toward one of the

performers, but another caUing nearer at hand turned me aside, and before I

had fairly well started, it seemed much easier to run down a third. It was only

after I had concentrated my entire attention on the pounding of one of these

Huancabamba ‘ Carpenters ’ that I had any success at all, and then it seemed

so easy. The performers were not the least disconcerted by the spot light. ”

No. II.— JUNGLE NOTES.

The Tiger making the “ Sambhar Call.”

Mr. Hugh Copley writes to us on the above subject as follows :■ —

“ When away on Christmas Camp and enjoying the blaze of a jolly fire we

heard the call of a sambhar which every night came to drink below us within

half a mile followed by the tiger ‘ sambhar ’ call if I might call it so. The

sambhar and the tiger called after each other for ten minutes during which time

we had called up two Bigas who confirmed each caU as it was made.

Now the call although ahke (and would be sworn to as alike by the average

man) is not so by any means. Firstly the sambhar call is higher in pitch, more

musical and also shorter and finishes clear. The tiger ‘ sambhar ’ call is lower,

more chesty, and not clear cut. This call given by itself might easily be mistaken

but the two calling together educated the listener to the difference verj”

quickly.

It is known and proved by experiments that the ear drum of man

has by evolution changed considerably since the time we were cave

men, and is rapidly (used in its correct sense with reference to evolution)

changing to receive wave lengths of much shorter length, such as the

noises of civihsation heard towns, so that we cannot, as we once did, receive

and interpret lower or longer wave lengths. You have only to see bush tribes

(hunters) in Central Africa at work, to reahse how they receive and interpret

lower wave lengths. Now the same thing occurs in a much greater degree

with animals and I doubt very much if any animal mistakes the sambhar call

for that of the tiger ‘ sambhar ’ call. Therefore this caU is not used by the

tiger with any idea of luring the poor imsuspecting sambhar to his doom.

Secondly it would be a cute animal to lure a C.F. sambhar to any doom. This

view is also held by theBigas.

It therefore must I think be a mate call but this vdll be a very difficult thing

to find out.”

MISCELLAISIEOUS NOTES.

793

^Ir. Dunbar Brander wTiting to us in regard to this says : —

“ The tiger’s noise is a mate call pure and simple, although very

like a low sambhar bell no sambhar would mistake it. I have had a tiger

make it at me when I walked him ofiE his kill in long grass and he

thought I was his mate.”

Major C. H. Stockley gives us the following experience : —

“ Walking along a forest track in upper Burma in July 1914 about

11 a.m. I came to a small tract of open tree and grass jimgle bordering

a deep ravine into which several small gullies ran from my direction.

From the direction of the ravine I heard what I took to be a sambhar

call, when I was only 40 yards from it. I walked towards it hoping to see

a stag, when suddenly the call came from a small gully 15 yards away.

I could not see the bottom but it looked much too small to hold a

sambhar. I moved cautiously forward and found it was only three feet

deep with a sandy bottom in which were the pug marks of a large tiger :

the sand was still running down into them. I followed them to the

main ra\nne and found the tiger had then gallopped off along the

bottom. I surmise that he had heard me coming along the track, called,

and then sneaked up the gully towards me thinking it was game (a cow

tsaine perhaps) approaching, discovered his mistake and bolted. The call

was quite possibly to attract his mate.”

Lt.-Col. E. W. Burton in episiola says on this subject : —

“ That tigers make a ‘ Sambhar-hke-call ’ has been noticed in the

Journal of the Society (Vol. XXI, page 235) by writers from both India

and Burma. Vide Vol. XXI, page 235, where Major H. H. Harington

writes that it is a well known fact in Burma that tigers often ‘ call ’

like a .sambhar and he gives an experience of his own. Mr. J. W. Best

also relates an occasion on which in the Central Provinces of India he

actually saw a tigress making a noise which he at first thought to come

from a sambhar. Mr. Copley now writing from the Central Provinces

describes the ‘ call ’ and gives an interesting description of it as

compared with that of the sambhar, both being heard at the same time,

and thinks it must be a ‘ mate ’ call.

I have on two occasions heard tigers make the ‘ Sambhar-like-call ’

(1912 Eastern Ghats) and agree with Mr. Copley that the call would

not, probably, deceive an animal. No doubt the denizens of the jungle

very readily recognise it for the imitation that it is : but Mr. Copley’s

conjectme as to its being a ‘ mate ’ call is not borne out by the circum-

stances related by the two writers previously quoted. So far as I know

there was no tiger any where near when I heard the ‘ call ’ which was

several times ’•epeated and it seemed to be a ‘ hrmting ’ note : perhaps

tigers think themselves to be better mimics than tney are.

It may be that animal curiosity causes sambhar to tarry in the vicinity

and so enable the questing tiger, having ‘ called ’ in one direction, to slip

round and gain a nearer approach.

It is not difficult to call up ‘Kakur ’ (Muntjac) by means of a blade of

grass or a leaf placed between the thumbs and blown upon edgewa3's.

Moose are ‘called up’ as is weU known. Certain tribes in India — snarers

of animals — can call up jackals to within a few yards. Such incidents can

be added to from many parts of the world, so whj' should not the tiger

have acquired the habit of caUing up a prospective dinner or at least

inducing it to stay a while from headlong flight.-

794 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Probably sportsmen with wider experience than mine may be able to

offer more definite information. It is curious that Mr. Inverarity and

Mr. Reginald Gilbert, have made no mention of this habit in their various

exhaustive articles in our journal : neither so far as I can call to mind

have any other writers.”

The papers by Mr. Inverarity and the late IVIr. Reginald Gilbert which Col.

Burton refers to are evidently the following : — Sambhar and Sambhar Stalking

by J. D. Inverarity, Vol. VIII, p. 391, and an article with the same title by

Reginald Gilbert published in Vol. Ill, p. 224. We give particulars of the journal

in which they appeared as some members who do not possess the earher

numbers of the journal might hke to obtain them.

Sambhar Swinging by their Horns.

In regard to this Mr. Copley writes : —

“ Not long ago I was watching a fine Cheetal Stag with attendant ladies

grazing under a ‘ ber ’ tree which at this time of the year has a plum like fruit.

This was as usual a pretty jungle scene, but what particularly interested me was

the fact that several times the stag got up on his hind legs and swept his horns

through the branches of the ‘ber ’ tree knocking the fruit to ground. Then quite

bucked with the performance he ate, but would not allow the does to do so.

Does this bear on the above question ? Mght a ,«ambhar also brushing off

‘ ber ’ fruit get caught hke Absalom? I cannot think that pleasure is expressed

by males more than females. My experience is (certainly when watched, in

big herds) that the females are always up to pleasure, generally being very

skittish, and female sambhar who are apt to play much more than their lords

and masters cannot try swinging for pleasure so why should the stags ? So

if the kind gentleman who next finds the swinging places of sambhar stags will

kindly tell us the name of the tree, heights, etc., we shall be much more

nearer the truth.”

Mr. Dunbar Brander comments as follows : —

“ The sambhar stands right up on his hind legs during the rut and remains

so quite a time. In doing so he not infrequently gets his horns over an overhang-

ing branch ; the tree may be of any species — he is not after food.”

Lt.-Col. Burton in his letter quoted before writes : —

“ The legend of sambhar swinging by their horns as a pastime has not come to

my notice either among the Marias or other jungle people with whom I am

acquainted.”

Duck and Snipe in the Central Provinces

Can any of our members in the Central Provinces answer the following

question by Mr. Copley ?

“ Where are the duck and snipe this year in the Central Provinces ? From all

the different districts I haye had no news, neither have I seen them myself.

North, East, West and South they are absent, even in places which unhke this

blessed place, have full tanks and have had plentiful rain during the season.”

Will members of the Society, w'herover they may be stationed, send us copies

of their Game books for the past season ? In Mr. Kinnear’s days we tiied

to collect such information and though we had fewer rephes than we anticipated,

the rephes received were of considerable use to Mr. Stuart Baker and the au-

thorities at the British Museum. For the majority of our members such re-

ports. elaborated a httle with personal notes on the shoots recorded, will be

of considerable interest. We do not ask our correspondents to give away their

favourite shooting grounds, the district is all that is necessary for record purposes.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

795

A summarised account of the cold weather season 1921-22 shooting in India and

Burma, if only the response to this appeal will make it comprehensive enough,

will be of benefit to members and perhaps be the means of increasing the

membership of the Society. We ought to have far more members than we

have but we fear some consider the journal “ too scientific”. There should

be no reproach in our journal being scientific. It is the scientific papers which

have made and do make it so valuable but in view of papers such as the above,

the article on ‘ Butterfly collecting in India ’ by Col. Evans, Major Stockley’s

papers, and so many others, is there not sufficient matter of interest for the

most unscientific “ shikari ?”

No. III.— THE INDIAN LION.

A few months ago a lion was shot in the main street of the small and semi-

deserted village of Shergarh in Kotah State. I have been able to obtain pos-

session of the skin — or the remains of the skin — which I am sending to the Society

as a donation from the Maharaj Kumar Saheb of Kotah. A Honess is reported

to have been seen in the same vicinity. Rumours of a lion having been seen

at Sawai Mahdopur, just north of this State, were current about a year ago.

With regard to this skin, I have endeavoured to discover — in vain — where this

lion came from. It is said that the hons liberated in Gwahor some years ago

were all accounted for, though it would be as well to get this confirmed or

contradicted.

The only other Hons I have heard of were a pair Uberated in Bundi some 10-15

years ago. According to some accounts both these beasts (which are said to have

come originaUy from Kotah) were shortly afterwards found dead ; according to

others they were not seen again. It is just possible that they bred. Perhaps

some member of the Society will be able to supply some information which

win help to clear up this somewhat mysterious occurrence of a lion in Rajputana.

That Hons were abundant here in the old days would seem apparent, for they

are frequently depicted in the stirring shikar scenes which decorate the old Pala-

ces, taking precedence as Royal game, over even the tiger.

In conclusion I may say that the skin is a small one — apparently a male Hon

2 or 3 years old. We are trying to obtain the skull but it has probably been

broken up and disposed of.

T. R. LIVESEY.

Kotah. March 2\st, 1922.

No. IV— THE OCCURRENCE OF THE STRIPE-BACKED WEASEL

{MU STELA STBIGIDORSA) IN THE NAGA HILLS.

I write to report the occurrence in this district of Mustela strigidorsa, which

as far as the authorities to which I have access go, has hitherto only been reported

from the Himalayas. I was driving in a motor car in this district at a height

of about 5,000 feet when the car had to be stopped to avoid running over two small

animals fighting in the middle of the road. In spite of the fact that they were

almost touched by the front wheel of a very ramshackle and noisy Ford, they

continued fighting within a foot of the car, and the battle progressed for some

minutes alongside the foot-board and eventually worked across the road into

the gutter on the far side, when I got out to watch it at close quarters again.

The bigger of the two was an enormous rat, probably a bandicoot or something

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

very like it, while the smaller, whieh could not have weighed more than a third

of its antagonist, was a weasel. I was able to observe it very closely. The

body was about 11 or 12 inches long and its tail 4 or 5. The hairs of the tail

were bristling out at right angles to the bone, and were shorter towards the tip.

The general colour was a deep ruddy brown, with hint of something almost pur-

phsh in it. The chest and throat appeared to be lighter and yellowish; there was

no black tip to the tail ; from the neck right down the back, nearly to the root of

the tail, ran a narrow white line, so clearly marked as to appear artificial, as

though put on with paint. The head was that of a typical weasel, with the e5'es

set very much on the surface and looking like protruding black beads. The

weasel had the rat by the muzzle, holding on like a bull-terrier, and kept pull-

ing him down, when the two would roll over until the rat managed to stagger

to his feet again, when the process recommenced. The rat was obviously being

worn out, as he was unable to run when the weasel let go (which he did not do

till I was stooping over and almost touching him), while the weasel was able to

run off exceedingly briskly. I have never seen this weasel before, and a Kuki who

was with me said that it was unknown to him also, though he was a native of

the district and an intelligent jungle man.

Kohima, Naga Hills,

J. H. HUTTOX.

\^th January 1922.

No. V— THE TENASSEREVI TREE-SHREW (TUPAIA BELANGERI).

As this little beast is plentiful in the area I am working in and as hitherto

tree-shrews have been looked upon by me, and I have no doubt the same applies

to many of our members, as quaint rarities, I made it a point to try and learn

something about it and I hope these notes may be of interest.

The first thing I noticed about this little animal was the fact that it must

have been named “ tree-shrew ” by some learned naturalist when feeling in a

sarcastic mood, as, though an inhabitant of heavy and medium forests, up

a tree is the last place I should advise a collector to search for it. Having

learnt a good deal about this animal I should advise any one finding a tree-

shrew up a tree to treat it exactly as recommended in the case of weasles caught

asleep. So far as I have been able to observe, the tree-shrew is wholly diurnal in

its habits but, being a confirmed skulker and an exceedingly timid one at that,

it is not as commonly seen as one would expect from the numbers caught in

traps. Its movements remind one forcibly of the days when, due to ground being

under enemy observation or to points where snipers sniped from, one moved in

the same way. Sitting perfectly quiet in the jungle after an absolute silence

of perhaps a minute or two, one hears a slight rustling coming from a dense

patch of tangled creepers messed up with a large fallen branch on one’s left.

Very very gradually you turn your head towards the sound but, just as the

spot comes into view, all sound ceases. You turned the least little bit too quick

and have been spotted. You continue to stare hard at where you think the

last sound came from but see no sign of animal life whatever and then a bril-

liant idea strikes you. “ Confound it, it must have been one of those lizards

that are always poking about under leaves” but just as you are thinking of tak-

ing a look up at the trees a “tch tch” comes from the old spot. More eye strain

and once again no soimd but, this time, you know that it is a bird, one of those

wee ground babblers, and you are determined to spot it. Patiently you stare

at the mass of creepers, working from right to left, from top to bottom and

vice versa but no ! not a living thing can you see bar red ants on that tendril,

and if you can see them your sight cannot be so bad. You decide to rest your

eyes for a few seconds and then to have another look so you take a glance up at

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

797

that creeper bedecked tree as being a likely place for a squirrel. Hardly have

you focussed on the creepers when there is a scuny from the old spot and you

are just in time to see something small and brou-n disappear into a patch of tmder-

growth some three or four yards to the right. Once again you freeze and stare

but this time, just as yoiu- eyes are beginning to smart, there is a jump, jump,

and you see something small and browm among leaves of the same colour, but it

might be anything. Then once again there is the “ tch tch ” and a little brown

beast starts to move, lifting each foot carefully and with its tail all of a bristle

and “ half cocked ” if I may use such an expression. “ Tch Tch Tch Tch ”

it calls and ■with each sound the tail gives a twdtch. It has now reached the

edge of the cover and is deciding whether the next cover can be reached in one

or two short sharp rushes. Its mind made up, it streaks across the open in a

series of rapid jumps. Not half away across it spots you and becomes suddenly

motionless, all four feet together, back arched and tail inclined almost parallel

to its back. Thus it remains for a few seconds, too terrified to think properly,

then making up its mind to chance it, it dashes across the remaining distance to

cover. Curiosity is said to have done do’wn the cat but the tree-shrew, in common

with all living creatures, has its full share and if you remain quiet you ■wiU see

that this is so. There ! it jumped on to that creeper and is now behind that

leaf. Another jump and it is in ftdl ^^ew directly facing you. Its head now

starts to bob up and down in a hawk-like fashion and its tail, aU a bristle,

t'witches simultaneously. It has settled in its mind that you are only a stump

so hops along among the creepers and is on to the ground again nosing among

the fallen leaves for insects. It pauses a moment with head bowed and mouth

open while ■nith one paw it picks its teeth. While doing this one might almost

imagine it a miniature mongoose, in fact in many of its movements there is some-

thing very mongoose -like. Just when you are getting really interested in

watching the little nerve ridden beast a squirrel gives the warning “ hawk

over ” and the tree-shrew darts back into cover again.

Though I never came across the young and am unable to give information

as to the time of year in which they are born, I found that the adults were courting

in January. During the period of courtship the tree-shrew is more in evidence

though not, as I found, so often trapped. Love evidently aboUshes hunger !

The males as far as I could judge positively refuse to take NO for an answer, though

whether like some married men, they afterwards wish to goodness they had,

I know not. I watched for a considerable time a couple chasing around and

while the chase was in progress an occasional shrill twittering cry would come

from them both, no doubt meaning something as different in each case as the

.sex which uttered it. Eventually (feehng no doubt exhausted) the female

jumped into a creeper about two inches off the ground and turned facing the

male. Though I was within a few feet of the pair I heard nothing beyond an

occasional very low chortle but the tails of both kept up a continual twitching

and doubtless that, and facial expression were ample language for the occasion.

When the lady was rested she fled, screaming in the same shrill twitter “ I loathe

you, nothing will ever induce me to become your wife.” “ Consent is the least

part of it ” was the reply as her lover scampered after her and I thought at the

time of an old song, in regard to a persistent lover, entitled “ The villain still

pursued her.”

The tree-shrew is an exceedingly agile little beast and can, like a mongoose,

jump with the same rapidity backwards, sideways or forward. Being very

tenacious of life quite a number escape from the traps and the more badly in-

jured ones may sometimes be found at a little distance from the traps stiU en-

deavouring to get away. I find that it is a good thing to look for blow-flies

in a case where an animal has escaped as, if it is unable, as is often the case, to

do more than crawl, these flies get busy on it and I think it is beyond doubt

that where these flies are, something dead or smelly or both will be found.

798 JOURIS'AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Fol. XXrill.

Tree-shrews eat fruit picked up off the ground as well as insects, as an

examination of their interior economy shows.

From the article which appeared in the last number I gather that Mr. Fitz-

patrick is a keen collector of animal folklore stories and if he wishes to add to

his collection I have the true story as to exactly how the tree-shrew came about

and why he is, what he is, a little brown, furry, longnosed, nerve ridden beast.

Unfortunately the Editors tell me it is too long for inclusion here.

Mergui, C. primrose.

20th March 1922.

No. VI— FOUR-HORNED FAT-TAILED SHEEP.

Can anyone tell me whether they have seen alive or dead a fat-tailed sheep

with four horns ? I came across a passage in a book called a Summer in High Asia

(Thacker 1899) by Capt. Adair, late Rifle Brigade. He says on page 199 that he

saw in the possession of two travellers (mentioned only as “ P & C ”) who had

wintered in Yarkand and were biinging down some flne heads of 0. poll from the

Pamirs, where they had been deserted by their coolies in attempting to cross

the Mustagh Pass, a four-horned sheep, one of the fat-tailed, from the Pamir.

In addition to its ordinary ram’s horns it had two horns rather hke those of an

Ibex, but straight and some 20 inches in length. It was quite tame and would

eat from the hand. I possess the head of a four-homed ram from Kishtwar

and have seen others from various parts of China but none of these were fat-

tailed sheep and if such a thing now exists in any museum or collection I should

be very glad to procure a photograph or measurements of it.

, H. J. ELWES.

COLESBORNE. GlOS., ENGLAND.

1th Janimry 1922.

No, VII.— DESTRUCTION OF BIRDS’ NESTS.

IFe publish below a number of letters received in response to Mr, R. O. Bolster's

appeal for information on the above subject: —

It is with interest that I have read Mr. Bolster’s account of mysterious dis-

appearance and destraction of nests. This must be very common in India and

has been noted by several people. Colonel Butler in the seventies recorded

that if a nest with eggs was left for future visit, they always in the interval

disappeared. During 2^ years in Sind I only remember one nest which on being

left came to anjdhing, and that was a nest of the Indus Sand-Lark, which I spot-

ted as I was riding across the Desert and looked at without dismounting. Every

other nest disappeared, or at least, the eggs were taken ; I have even known a

nest from which I had taken the eggs completely vanish.

I think that there are several causes, firstly in many places, unless very lonely

spots, there is a native about, and his curiosity, natural at all times, is aroused

by the (to him) strange behaviour of anyone interested in natural history, and

one is constantly being watched; when the coast is clear, he goes to see what the

sahib was doing and takes the eggs of larger birds for food, and smaller ones

possibly, I fear, from spite.

Round Karachi I know crows and heron’s eggs were always taken, but there

are other enemies to small birds, and I think Mr. Bolster is quite correct in ac-

cusing lizards, but the worst thief of all is the House Crow. In the nesting season

I always had a flock following me about all day in the cultivation and I am cer-

tain they watch one’s doings with an eye, to future evil intent: so certain was I

that they did this, that I have fooled them by being very interested in nothing

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

799

in a likely bush, and have afterwards seen them fly to the bush to investigate.

Other enemies to groimd birds are Kites and Desert Foxes. I have seen

the foot-prints of Kites at a nest of Saunders’ Tern, which the day previous

held eggs, and I have found Fox “ spoor ” in amongst the colony after I had

visited it, and, here again I was watched or more probably tracked by this

very inquisitive little animal. Snakes too, may be guilty, but whether a

nest is found or not there is a huge destruction by nature. One colony of

Saunders’ Tei'ns owing to big tides and depredations of animals did not produce

a single flying young, one year, and a colony of Sandgrouse, about 50 pairs, did

not raise six yoimg; think what it would be if every bird brought out a full

brood every year and none died for ten years. For a lecture I once gave at

Karachi, I calculated the effect in the case of the House Crow and I estimated

that in this town, every available inch of space, houses, ground and , trees in

Karachi would be covered with birds, and above them a huge black pall oi

those which had no room to settle!

In an article on ‘ Birds and their enemies ’ in a recent issue of the “Pioneer”

Mr. Dewar answers a question which is very often asked.

My experience added to this might serve to throw some light on Mr. Bolster’s

‘ Destruction of Birds ’ Nests ’ which appeared in the last Volume XXVIII,

No. 1 of your journal.

The hot weather is come and with it have retmned a number of my feathered

friends who spent the summer with me last year : the bulbul, the tailor-bird,

the honeysucker and the brown munia are here again seeking to build nests,

strange to say, about the same places where three out of the four pairs unsuccess*

fully kept house last year.

For years I had noticed the destruction of nests as described by Mr. Bolster,

and only last year I discovered the cause. I watched a tailor bird build its

nest in a vine which overhangs my study window and later I saw one of the

birds sitting in the nest which I one day noticed contained three tiny eggs. Two

or three days after I answered their calls of distress and arrived in time to drive

off a tree pie which had torn one side of the nest and dislodged two of the yoimg.

With a needle and thread I repaired the nest and replaced the little ones which

I was glad to see take wing a fortnight later.

On two other occasions the cries of the munias which had built in a creeping

rose hard by my verandah steps, and of the bulbuls which had taken pos

session of an aralia in my verandah, brought me out ; and on each occasion

I saw the same bird rifle the nests.

The honeysucker’s nest was destroyed in my absence but I have no doubt

Dendrocitta rufa knew something about it.

Another thief is the Crow-pheasant or mokok (Ceniropus sinensis) I saw him

carry off a dove’s egg which he placed on my lawn and which I rescued before

he had time to begin his meal. But it was no use, he had dented the egg in the

act of carrying it.

I had often noticed the mutri and the mokok hopping through the whole

length of a hedge row and only last year discovered what their object was.

Yes, garden hzards are responsible, not for the destruction but for the rifling

of many a httle bird’s nest. In the one instance which came under my obser-

vation the eggs were eaten in the nest and the shells left. I saw the hzard

leave the nest.

Lowestoft, England.

\%th March 1922.

CLAUD. B. TICEHURST, M.A., M.B.O.U.

Late Capt., E. A. M. C.

Lucknow,

T. De GREYTHEE.

21th March 1922.

29

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HLST. SOCLETY, Vol. XXVILI.

Having read IVIi-. R. C. Bolster’s note on the above subject, I am tempted to

send observations made by me from time to time which I hope will be of some

interest.

During the months of May and June 1918, having time to spare, I gave a good

deal of it to searching for nests with the view to finding out what is roughly the

percentage of success in birds bringing out their young. The difficulties were

far greater than I had expected but I give in the following list the results. The

nests were visited by me frequently, but not daily and I always went rmaccom-

panied, so that no human being knew of these nests, so far as I am aware.

From the tables on the adjoining pages will be seen that 27 birds laid 77

eggs ; hatched 39 young, but only succeeded in taking out 26. The percentage

of success is roughly 33 per cent. The members of the genus Lanius were most

successful and reared all their young. This no doubt is due to their pluck in

keeping off despoilers. Only in two cases were the robbers actually caught in the

act and in both instances they were Jungle crows (0. macrorhynchus), but I

would not place all thefts to their account. The greatest shiner in this respect

is Dendrocitta rufa (Scop). (The Indian Tree Fie) and the destruction caused

by this bird is appalling.

I have noticed these birds for several years now and only wonder that any

nests of the small birds escape destruction. Whether they feed their young on

the eggs and young of other birds while they are nesthngs I cannot say, but they

certainly do so after the brood is able to fly. For the past few years a pair of

D. rufa have visited this place accompanied by their brood, from two to four

almost full grown youngsters, and have made a systematic search of aU the trees

and bushes in my garden. It is generally in early July that they come,

and it is also just about the time when most birds have eggs or young. Dming

these visits I have always found that aU the nests have been cleared out, and

no matter how well a nest may have been placed, it never escaped destruction.

During August 1919 I had over a dozen nests of Weaver Birds {Ploceus

baya) (Blyth) imder observation. These nests were hung from some thorny

bushes a few feet from the ground. I visited these daily and on 14th August

noticed that some had young, as the parent birds were busy feeding them. The

next day on my arrival I found the whole family of D. rufa (two parent birds

and three young) engaged at the nests and were just finishing their work of

destruction. They had torn a hole in each nest sufficiently large to admit their

heaids just at the spot where the nest bulges and had extracted and devoured

the contents. I have httle doubt that the monitor lizard (F. bengalensis)

referred to by Mr. Bolster does a great deal of mischief, but I have offiy once

seen him swallow the unfledged young of a Sun bird [Arachnecthra). The nest

was hanging from a creeper just outside my window and on noticing that the

birds were alarmed I looked out and saw him with one in his mouth which he

proceeded to swallow alive. I hastened to the nest but was too late as the young

had all gone.

Name of Bird. Date. Position of Nest. Clutch. Hatched or not. Remarks.

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804 JOURNAL, BOMB AY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

No. Vm.— ON THE HOMING FLIGHT OF THE COMMON HOUSE-CROW

{CORVUS SPLENDENS).

A friend of mine has recently furnished me with a most interesting account

of an extraordinary flight of Common House-Crows {Corvus splendens) which

he witnessed not long ago. As I have not had a similar experience, nor do I

know of anyone else who has, I give below a brief description of what my friend

saw. There are, possibly, some members of the Society who may have noticed

a similar flight of crows, and if so, it would be interesting to know what explana-

tions they have to offer as to the cause or causes of such flights. I imderstand

that there is no record in our Journal, so that this note may be of some

interest. Some who read this note will perhaps think that the facts are greatly

exaggerated, but I am satisfied that there is very httle, if any, exaggeration.

While undertaking a railway journey between Lahore and Ambala on the 14th

January this year a large number of common house-crows was observed

moving in the same direction as the train between the stations of Goraya and

PiuUaur. The most noticeable featurej about this flight was the number of

birds seen. My friend states that the crows were at least “ ten deep ” that

they were in a solid phalanx about three miles in length, and that the number

of crows he saw must have run into terhs of thousands. The birds were all

flying in one fixed direction, viz., from North-West to South-East, and appeared

to be coming in the direction of Phillaur from some point North-West of that

statioa The birds were close to the train and were flying parallel to it, sometimes

very near to the carriages and sometimes a httle distance away. The height at

which the crows were flying was estimated at about 40 feet approximately, as

they were above the tops of the trees (keekur and babool) growing in that part

of the country through which the train was passing; the rate at which the crows

were flying was estimated at 15 miles per hour; and the manner of their

flight was a steady flapping. It is stated that some of the crows seemed to bo

slowing down and gave the impression that they had flown for a considerable

distance. This idea was apparently a correct one, because along the whole

route many trees were covered with evidently tired birds. The time at which

this extraordinary flight of crows were seen was between five and six o’clock

in the evening. The atmospheric conditions were : an overclouded sky, a

low temperature sufficiently cold to make one close the windows of the railway

carriage, and a eutting breeze from the North.

My friend is quite certain that the birds he saw were common house-crows

{C. splendens), and further, that there were no other kinds of crows (e. g. C.

macrorhynchus) or, in fact, any other species of birds which formed the enormous

flock.

The above are the main facts concerning this curious flight. What were

the causes which led to it ? I cannot offer any explanation which I can say is

correct. I am inchned to think that this flight was due to migration, which

in turn was probably caused (?) either by (a) sudden change in chmate in the

place from which the crows were coming, or (b) lack of food-supply in that place.

These seem to me to be obvious reasons which would explain why the flight was

undertaken, but can there be any other causes, and if so, what are they ? The

facts that the crows were flying in such numbers, were aU flying in one direction

and in a fixed manner, were slowly slackening in speed, and were resting on

trees en route, aU point to migration. I do not think that it can be said that

the crows were going to roost. Is the common house-crow a recognised migra-

tory species in the sense that some ducks are ? Is it even a locally migratory

species ? I should think that lack of food-supply would not have a strong

influence in the distribution of so ubiquitous and omnivorous a species. Again,

is it possible for the climate in a particular area in which crows are found to

suddenly change in such a manner as to drive out the crows from that place P

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

805

Suppose we reject the migratory theory: what other theory could be advanced

in support of this flight of crows in such large numbers ? If we must retain the

migration theory, then can it be said that crows are a non-migratory species ?

Delhi, 22nd February 1922. S. BASIL-EDWARDES.

We submitted the above Note to Mr. H. Whistler who writes as follows : —

“ I have read with care the note on a flight of crows which you have been

kind enough to send me for perusal. In my opinion the writer's friend saw

the flight as described by him, and the species was correctly identified.

The flight was undoubtedly only the usual evening flight of Corvus splendens

to its roosting place, which is a very familiar sight in portions of the

Punjab. I am unaware whether similar flights occur in other parts

of India, but in the Punjab they are noticeable in certain areas, where a

suitable roosting place collects the birds for miles, around. These flights

occur both in summer and winter, and the loitering about on the route (the ‘‘tired

birds ” of the writer), is a characteristic of the flights. There is no question of

migration and no question of food supply involved : had the writer passed the

same way on other evenings he would have seen similar flights.”

A reference to similar flights is to be found in the Ibis, 1916, p. 42. — Eds.

No. IX.— THE WHITE-THROATED GROUND THRUSH {GEOCICHLA

CYANONOTUS) AS A MIMIC.

On the 28th January 1921 it was my fate to be abroad at 3-30 a.m. As I

was returning to the bungalow at dawn, I observed a White-throated Ground

Thrush {Geocichla cyanonotus) perched on one of the lower branches of a leafless

rubber tree, beside the road. It was singing, and one so seldom hears its pretty

song that I stopped to listen. I could hardly credit the evidence of my own

senses, for out of that groimd thrush’s open mouth pomed forth the clear

rollicking whistle of a spotted babbler, followed by a Nilgiri babbler’s song, then

came a much poorer attempt at a racket tailed drongo’s bell-notes and finally

its own tune was resumed.

A. P. KINLOCH, F. Z. S.

Nelliampathy Hills,

Isi February 1922.

No. X.— THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLUE-BEARDED BEE-EATER

[NYCTIORNIS ATHERTONI) IN THE C. P.

In the Fauna of British India this species is stated not to have been reported

either from Central India or the Central Provinces.

In a list of the birds of Pachmarhi recently published in Vol. XXVIII, No. 2

of the Society’s journal I stated that I had heard on one occasion in the vici-

nity of Pachmarhi the characteristic guttural call of this bird, but that I had

failed to see the bird. Such evidence was, to say the least, unsatisfactory.

I am glad to be able to report that I have quite recently watched a pair of these

birds at close quarters at Nimbu Bojh within a mile of Pachmarhi, so that the

occurrence of this bird in the Satpura hills is now an observed fact.

Pachmarhi, C. R, B. B. OSMASTON, I.F.S,

\6th January 1922.

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAl NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

No. XI.— NOTE ON NIGHTJARS IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES.

With reference to Mr. B. B. Osmaston’s notes on Indian Nightjars I am able

to supply the following authentic instances of Nightjars in the Central Pro-

vinces. The specimens themselves are all available for examination in the

Nagpur Museum: —

Franklin’s Nightjar (C. monticola.)

Common Indian Nightjar (C. asiaticus.)

Horsfield’s Nightjar (C. macrurus.)

We have a clutch of C. asiaticus from Saugor and there is a clutch from the

Bilaspur District sent in as belonging to the Jungle Nightjar by Mr. Dunbar

Brander.

Clutches of C. monticola have been taken by Mr. D. MacArthur in the Nagpur

and adjacent Districts.

C. monticola, which is the common species at Nagpur, has a pecidiar call re-

sembling “ wakh, wakh, — wakh wakhoo”. Whether this call is uttered in the

breeding- season only I am not quite sure.

E. A. D’ABREU.

Central Museum, Nagpur.

23rd January 1922.

MISCELLA^EOUS NOTES.

607

No. XII.— THE FOOD OF THE SHIKRA {ASTUR BADIUS).

On the morning of 6th February a Shikra caught a little Indian Kingfisher

under a babul tree 4 or 6 yards from me. The kingfisher gave the shikra a useful

peck but the latter was just attacking the former’s throat when I ran up and the

shikra let go. The kingfisher flew off apparently unharmed. Somehow one

does not connect a kingfisher with the idea of game for a small hawk. I felt

rather virtuous at having saved the kingfisher from its cruel enemy but I

smiled afterwards at my hj^crisy as I was on my way to my stand for a duck

shoot.

I see the Field has been giving instances of a variety bag with one shot. I got

a quail and a field rat on the 3rd with one shot which seems unusual.

E. O’BRIEN, Lt.-Col.

Bhuj, Cutch,

8th February 1922.

[The usual food of the shikra appears to be lizards, but it is not averse to

seizing small birds, rats or mice, or even large insects. — Eds.]

No. XIII.— THE MARBLED DUCK [MARMARONETTA ANGUSTI-

ROSTRIS) IN THE PUNJAB.

From what is said in Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon

(V ol. I, page 242) regarding the distribution of the Marbled Duck I gather that

records of its appearance in the Punjab may be of interest.

I have shot single specimens of this bird in the Punjab on four occasions : —

15th November 1908 'j

>Ferozepore District.

28th February 1909 J

20th November 1918 "I Jhelum District (on the salt lake at Kallar

> Kahar in the Salt Range, altitude 2,100

1st November 1921 J feet.)

H. W. WAITE,

Indian Police.

Jhelum, Punjab,

2‘ith March 1922.

No. XIV.— THE OCCURRENCE, HABITS AND BREEDING OF THE

SPOTTED SANDGROUSE {PTEROCLURUS SENEGALLUS) IN

THE BAHAWALPUR STATE, PUNJAB.

The spotted Sandgrouse (Pteroclurus senegallus, Blanford) is, within my

experience at any rate, sufficiently uncommon in the Punjab to justify my

writing to you to record the fact that Col. O’Brien and I have recently shot

it in this State.

On one occasion these sandgrouse (the only kind of sandgrouse about) were

from 200 to 300 in number. The weather here has been rather unusual (cool

and rainy) which perhaps brings these birds.

After writing the above I have had further opportunities of observing these

birds and I am now able to give a definite assurance that this species breeds

here also.

30

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

On the 7th current I was dri\ung in a car through the desert at a place about

10 miles West of Ahmadpur East with a companion when I noticed a bird on

the ground that seemed worth investigation. It was late in the afternoon,

but we got out and looked. The bird proved to be a Sandgrouse, and, on ap-

proaching nearer, we saw that there were two. Then a second pair came in

view and, by the time I looked at the first pair again, I found there were with

them a pair of yormg ones about one-third their size, but weU able to move

on the ground. This was distinctly interesting, both because the date struck

us as early for any Sandgrouse to be breeding and because we had both heard a

note which assured us that this was senegallus, and were near enough to identify

the coloming. We have both shot the spotted Sandgrouse recently and his

note cannot be confused •with that of the black-beUied Pterocles arenarius

or the common Pteroclurus exuslus.

The old birds with their young ran on ahead of us, and the tactics of the old

ones were perfect. There was only one tiny bit of cover in the near neighbour-

hood in this waste of hard wind-swept clay, viz., a thin strip of dwarfish

bush not more than a few inches high. In this the parents left their babies,

while they themselves ran on ahead and went through the most approved decoy

antics. We were not deceived however and proceeded to hunt for the nest-

lings, which were soon found squatting very close with heads drawn in

and looking exactly like the bits of dry camel dimg which are to be foimd about.

My friend stalked one httle bird and caught it successfully in his hand, the in-

fant not moving till it was secured. The other, either alarmed at the fate of

its companion or because more advanced (there was a distinct difference in size

between the two), got up as I approached and ran off, flapping its immature

wings, but I secured it. There seemed a very good chance of our being able to

bring the chicks up, so we determined to take them back with us. This we did,

the old birds flying round us most persistently tiU the last.

These nesthngs were densely covered ■noth yellowish down of a most com-

pletely protective colom\ My photo shows the two side by side on a brick

of regulation size.

The day but one after, I went out and spent an hour and a half quartering

the ground in the neighbourhood with a rope. I saw a flock of 14 of the same

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

809

species, but got no nests or eggs. Numerous smooth hollows in the ground

hereabouts however were filled with convoluted droppings which I suspect to

be those of this species. Xlieir number seems to suggest that the birds may

sleep, as the Common Em’opean Partrige is said to do, in parties heads outwards,

tails inwards, for purposes of protection, but it is a point which I have not veri-

fied by personal observation. The nesthngs were aUve on the 10th April, and

the man in charge of them, who has much to do with the care of domestic fowls,

reported that they were doing satisfactorily, though he had to feed them by hand

still. I then had to go away for several days and was distressed to find on my

return that both had died. The precocity of the Sandgrouse and their congeners

among “ nidifugous ” birds is well-known. I should imagine that these young-

sters were a week to ten days out of the egg when we fovmd them.

The place where our find was made is not less than 30 miles from the River

Indus, which with the jheels and ponds near it, is where our winter species drink.

This bears out what Stuart Baker has to say about the distance these birds

breed away from water. How then are the young birds given the liquid they

require ? A recent book of a type more scientific than it affects to be, viz.,

Pycraft’s “ History of Birds,” says that the parent Sandgrouse, after slaking

their own thirst at distant water, wallow till their under-plumage is laden with

water, which they are able to convey, after the long return flight, to their

yoimg. Regurgitation, as with other kinds of birds, is perhaps a means of

providing liquid or food of a semi-hquid kind.

A last point for notice is that the chicks were able to give the call-note of the

species, — which may be rendered “whit-hu", perfectly. It is not difficult for a

human to mimic, and I could get the yoimgsters to answer me when I tried it

on them. Stuart Baker gives the Sindi name as Gutu, which is no doubt ono-

matopoeic hke the Vernaciflar names for the commoner kinds of Sandgrouse

that I am familiar with in the Punjab.

Dera Nawab N. W. R., R. C. BOLSTER.

Bahawalpur State,

19th April 1922.

No. XV.— CROCODILE SHOOTING AND SNARING.

( With a plate. )

Mr. Shortt’s good article was enjoyable reading.

My own shooting has been confined entirely to Sind, and to crocodile in

jheels, “ dunds ” we call them here. A year ago I spent a week at a group of

“ dunds ” in the neighbourhood, they were full of mugger, but the beasts

diffieult to shoot as the shores in most places were open maidan, with no

cover excepting where too thick to penetrate. All the shooting had to be

done on the same side, as the crocodile stalked was lying, as the water was

too wide to fire across. As a result of some years’ experience at this sort

of shikar, I have formed certain theories, and my methods of stalking are

based on these.

The occasion here related was the first shoot of sufficient length I had had,

to give my methods a really good test.

I may first of all say that I have never been successful in approaching mugger

over open ground unless the wind was in my favour, excepting for odd

animals sound asleep. I have frequently noticed that sheep, goats and cattle,

however much noise they made when feeding naturally, and not galloping

about in fright, never sent mugger into the water. I found that by getting

on to my hands and knees at a long distance from the mugger, and appoaching

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII^

in a more or less irregular and zig-zag fashion avoiding a straight line, and

pausing at intervals in the manner of a feeding animal, I could get easily

within 40 or 50 yards.

Previously I always used a H. V. magazine rifle, and relied more on the force

of the blow at a longer range. When I discovered that by adopting the tactics

described I could get up to a much nearer range I experimented with a hghter

weapon, much easier to handle and with no recoil and httle noise, and which I

could use much more accurately. I found, that provided the right spots,

as described in Mr. Shortt’s article were reached, the result, H. V. or Low

Velocity, was much the same. The mugger was either killed or more

frequently knocked out sufficiently to allow him to be secured. In addition

to the advantages the light rifle mentioned gives, one gets infinitely more

chances of shots, and provided the securing and despatching is done with httle

noise it is very common to find another candidate waiting round the next

bend of the shore. During the first day’s shooting I secured 14 skins and

actually had 5 lying on the shore in different parts of a large “ drmd ”

awaiting the skinners, who were very much overworked that day ! ! I got 42

skins in the week, average 8 ft.

I take with me four men, two of them are Bhils, for skinning. These two fol-

low me, keeping out of sight all the time in the jimgle, until called up by a whistle

The chief assistant follows me, stalking as I do, and at a few yards distance

behind me. The second keeps well behind. If the stalk is successful every-

thing is done as quietly as possible, without shouting, or loud expressions of

satisfaction, and when the dead mugger is drawn up the beach to be skinned

out of sight, I am ready to continue. I have often been amused at the

gathering accompanying some sportsmen I have seen at work. There is

nothing a mugger hates worse than a durbar, and no wonder that many people

find they are hard to get under such circumstances.

Curiously enough I have never seen mugger come up again after being

wounded, excepting for one that I hit and for some reason he could not

submerge.

I have known them come out to die often enough, and one I remember came

out half an hour afterwards, right to my feet. In the dimds I speak of they

are all of the blunt nosed variety ( C. palustris ), rarely over 12 feet, though

in a certain “ dund ” I know of, entirely siu’roimded by high sand hills,

there are 5 or 6 big Ga vials ( G. gangeticus ), all about the same size, 14 feet,

judging by one I got.

I have heard it said that Gavials cannot climb over these hills and go from

dimd to dund the way the other kind do. If this is so, it is interesting to

speculate how they got there, or if they were imprisoned by the sand hills

forming, as they do very quickly about here.

I have been unable to find any reliable information regarding the age of

crocodiles, and as they grow so differently under different conditions I think it

must be impossible to tell.

Once when fishing, I hooked and played and eventually landed a small Gavial,

2 ft. in length. He gave excellent sport, and just as I got him to the bank ex-

hausted, a large turtle came up and bit off a forefoot. I kept him alive in a tank

for some months. I have thrice hooked big fellows while fishing, but they

have simply lain like logs and worried the cast through. A friend shot one,

in the act of swallowing a wild cat, which was quite fresh and had presumably

been seized while drinking.

There are two methods known to me which are practised in Sind, by which

mugger are taken alive. The first which I have not actually witnessed my-

self is as follows.

The water must be shallow enough to allow men to wade, say up to their

necks. A man goes out on a hollow copper pot, the usual way of crossing water

Journ , Bombay Nat Hist. 8oc.

Tying a rope round the mugger's neck after the hand net is in position

Pulling the reptile out of the water.

Crocodile Snaring in Sind.

ML%GELLANEOUS yOTES.

81]

about here. He locates a mugger lying in the mud at the bottom, and

places the stick he carries on the animal’s back, which remains motionless, for

some reason or other. Other men then come into the water, and duck under

and get a rope round him, and he is then pulled out.

The other method I have seen. When the river water recedes the dunds are

partially drained through narrow channels. Mugger wandering at night

take refuge in the deeper spots in these channels and are tracked there.

The first step is to burn away all overhanging grass and bushes, as the brute

is invariably lying in a hole under the bank, head outwards, and under water

of course. His head is located by a stick and a small hand net is placed over

his head. I have never quite understood the reason of this, as it would be of no

use to hold him or to protect the men. I believe that when a crocodile feels

any pressure on his body or head he is disinclined to move, possibly through

fright.

Another man then gets into the water and with the head actually touching

him, and facing him, ties a rope round the mugger’s neck, or forelegs.

Until pulled to the surface he makes no movement of any kind, and the whole

proceeding is the tamest and most unexciting affair imaginable.

A wounded mugger is another proposition and feared by the men who do

this work.

Regarding the treatment of skins, I have found that they will keep indefi-

nitely it put into a pit in the groimd after being well cleaned and kept in brine.

Though the Railway do not accept wet skins it is possible to pack them while

wet into a packing case and send them in this way.

I attach two photographs showing the second method of catching crocodile

aUve, and it will be noticed that the lower jaw of the animal depicted has been

shot away partially at some time. We also found a number of hard lumps in

which we expected to find bullets, but they only contained hard black sand or

something similar.

“ SIND.”

2nd February 1922.

No. XVI.— FOOD OF THE FAT-TAILED LIZARD {EUBLEPHABIS

MACULABIUS).

As very little is known of the food of Indian Lizards it may be of interest to

record that the Fat-tailed Lizards (E. macularius) living in captivity in the So-

ciety’s rooms feed very readily on any Lizards introduced into their cage ; a

young skink (Mabuia carinata) and a common blood sucker (Calotes versicolor)

were both very easily accounted for. On one occasion an immature Fat-tailed

Lizard {E. macularius) met with a similar fate.

The two lizards have Hved in the Society’s rooms for the past 5 years. They

were presented by Capt. W. B. Cotton from Wano Waziristan, and until quite

recently they lived almost exclusively on Spiders and Insects, chiefly

grasshoppers and cockroaches, and could even be tempted into eating the

crumbs of a biscuit. Their vision by day strikes one as being rather defective

as it is constantly noticed that they make several aimless snaps at food which is

hterally under their noses ; this was strikingly displayed in the case of a i^kink

who, hemmed in a corner by one of these hzards, repeatedly wriggled into safety

owing to the blundering tactics of its pursuer. These lizards betray an

extreme ferocity in attack, one of them sprung from the ground on to a

branch about 8 inches overhead in an attempt to secure its victim. Since

writing the above the writer introduced a scorpion into the cage occupied by

the lizards. It was immediately seized and swallowed, repeatedly stinging

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL mST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

its attacker about the head and lips during the process. The lizard paid not

the slightest heed to these demonstrations on the part of its victim, but sw al-

lowed it in a few gulps and seemed none the worse for the experience.

Bombay Nattjeal History Society, S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.

\&th Ma/y 1922

No. XVII.— THE SENSES OF A SNAKE.

The sight of snakes is not good in the day time even in the case of diurnal snakes

with round pupilled eyes. Those snakes that stalk their prey instead of way-

laying it, do so chiefly by means of the tongue. The two branches of the forked

tongue, flickering up and down, come in contact with the two footprints of the

animal or reptile stalked and then dart up to its own nose, each branch convey-

ing to one of the nostrils the scent of its prey.

n a snake is watched stalking prey which it cannot see, in long grass for

instance, it will be noticed that it follows the exact course, no matter how twisted,

of the creature it is after, which proves that until the prey is sighted the snake

depends on scent and not on hearing.

It is uncertain whether the tongue of a snake is able to sense a scent spoor it-

self, or whether it is entirely dependent on the nostrils of the snake to do this ;

at any rate the tongue appears to act as the carrier of the scent to the nostrils.

If the tongue itself could sense a scent spoor, it would no doubt receive it in

the form of taste. It is, however, doubtful whether a snake possesses much, if

any, sense of taste. Several instances have been reported, and I have seen a few

cases myself, where snakes in captivity have seized and swallowed cloths, and,

in one case even a stick, which had previously come in contact with, and absorbed

the scent of rats, which the snakes, relying chiefly on their sense of scent, mis-

took them for. It must, however, be admitted that in aU such cases I have

heard of, the snakes in question have been Pythons, which, being nocturnal

snakes, with eyes adapted for night work {i.e., elliptic-pupiUed), see badly in

the day-light.

One of the most notable examples of such an accident, was the case of a Py-

thon at the London Zoological Gardens which seized and swallowed a rug. I do

not know whether the snake was misled by feeling or by scent in this case, but

it helps to show that snakes possess little or no sense of taste.

A snake’s tongue appears to act as a guide as well as a scent carrier, playing

the same part as whiners do in a cat. As, however, a snake is not totally blind

and only bad sighted, it is curious that it uses its tongue as much as it does,

when not hunting.

Possessing no external ears, even in the form of ear-holes, the hearing of snakes

is bad. Sounds appear to be conveyed to it chiefly through vibrations through

the ground, and it is easily disturbed by footfalls, while often remaining deaf to

louder noises above groimd level, and I have foimd that it is possible to approach

closer to a snake without alarming it, when walking on a ground level above it,

as for example walking on the bund of a paddyfield when the snake is lying

below the bund.

A. F. ABERCROMBY.

Travancoee.

\2th July 1921.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

813

No. XVIII.— PEARL BEARING IVIUSSELS.

Mr. Laird Macgregor recently forwarded the Society a small packet of Pearls

produced by a species of Mussel foxmd in a tank at Badas a few miles from Bel-

gaum. Two examples of the Mussel were sent with the packet. Mr. Laii’d Mac-

gregor wrote : — “ I do not suppose the pearls are of any value, but is it not

rather unusual to find pearl bearing mussels in fresh water? ”

The mussels and pearls were sent to Mr. Hornell, Director of Fisheries, Madras,

for investigation and Mr. Hornell has sent in the following interesting re-

marks in connection with them.

“ The shells are of the common fresh- water mussel, probably Lamdlidens mar-

ginalis. This species is often very abundant in fresh waterponds and streams

and it is not uncommon for it to produce pearls. The quality is usually poor on

accormt of the small size, poor lustre and frequent colouration. But when the

mussels occur in large numbers and when they produce pearls freely, their collec-

tion is remunerative ; such small pearls should fetch about Rs. 10 per tola

weight and there is always the chance of finding a large pearl of fair lustre that

may command a price of anything up to Rs. 50 or possibly even more. At

Surada in Ganjam, fresh water Mussels producing pearls are so abundant that

the villagers collect them for this pmpose and their pearls are often to be had

in the village bazaars. Similarly in Bengal there is a well-known Zemindari

fishery for these Mussels farmed out, I beheve, by the Zamindar for a considera-

ble sum.

Curiously enough these Mussels vary greatly in their pearl-producing quahty.

In some localities, pearls are so seldom formed that collection of the Mussels

is wholly unremunerative. This is due to the fact that the formation of pearls

in these animals is due mainly to the presence of certain parasites. If these be

absent, as in most localities, the Mussels produce few or no pearls ; if they be

numerous, we may then expect pearl production to be abundant.

The famous Scots pearls celebrated in the middle ages are produced by river-

mussels closely related to those sent to me. As is well known these pearls are

occasionally of considerable value. But they are distinguished by a pink

tint which diminishes their market value. Those sent from Belgaum are simi-

larly tinted. Several of these fresh-water pearl fisheries are still worked in the

north of Scotland. Some Welsh streams also produce pearl-bearing Mussels.

In North American rivers, the fishery for fresh-water mussels is a big industry

emplojing hundreds of workers and a large capital. But while pearls are

occasionally found of some considerable value, this fishery is conducted prima-

rily to obtain mother-of-pearl for the pearl button factories. These consume

many tons of these fresh-water Mussel shells.

In India, this same industry has arisen in Bengal, where supplies of a species

of Lamellidens are found in the rivers, sufficiently stout to permit of poor quality

shirt-buttons being cut from the shell. I believe it might be worth while to ex-

amine the streams and large tanks throughout the Bombay Presidency in order

to ascertain if any species exists here with shell sufficiently thick and in good

abundance, for if there be, then further quantities might be cultivated and

the material sold for button making.

Streams draining from or passing through a limestone region are the most

likely to produce thick-shelled Mussels. Here in Madras, the streams are

generally deficient in carbonate of lime and so our Mussels are almost wholly

too thin shelled to be utilizable commercially.”

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

No. XIX.— AN UNUSUAL SWARM OF MOTHS.

The Society recently received a number of moths which were said to be

swarming in very large numbers round the cantonments at Amballa. Lt.-Qol.

J. Patterson in forwarding the specimens wrote : —

“ Numbers are found every morning in dark corners, such as behind pictures,

inside topees, behind almirahs, curtains, etc. They get into strange places such

as chests of drawers, the only way to which is by entering at the bottom of the

chests of drawers, and passing up between the back of the drawers and the back

of the piece of furniture. I do not think they can breed out in the drawers.

I have asked the inhabitants here and they say that they have never seen

an3dhing like these numbers of moths.”

The moths were examined by Mr. T. R. Bell who identified them as follows: —

The moth is Agrates flammatra, Fabricus; in England it is called the Black-coUar

and is very rare. It is there known as Noctua flammatra-, I believe its new

generic name is Rhycia. I do not know anything about the local food plant but it

is probable that it feeds upon any low plant. The food plant in Europe is the

Dandelion, Taraxacum densleonis and Strawberry (Fragaria). The larva

is certain to pupate underground in the earth like others of the type. In some

years it is certain to find that certain species of moths turn up in enormous

numbers even though, ordinarily, they may be scarce. It depends mostly, I

think, on absence of Natural enemies (Ichneumons, etc.) combined with suit-

able climatic conditions.

No. XX.— OCCURRENCE OF THE GALEOD SPIDER (RHAGODES

NIGROCINTUS) IN THE SOUTH ARCOT DISTRICT,

MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

{With a 'photograph.)

It may be o. interest to your readers that a male specimen of Rhagodes nigro-

cintus (GaleodidcB, Arachnida) was obtained last September at Gingee in the

South Arcot District of this Presidency.

M ISC EL LA NE O US NO TES.

815

The interest of the specimen lies in the fact, I believe, that it is the seeoml

specimen of the species on record and the first male specimen. The female spec!,

men through which the species is known is 7'ecorded from Vellore and is in tl e

British Museum (vide J. B. N. H. S., Vol. IX, p. 452). The present specimen

is in the Indian Museum.

I may state that I am confirmed in my identification by Dr. Gravel}' of the

Madras Museum.

Department of Zoology, S. G. MAXAVALAIIAMANUJAM.

Madras Christian College,

2<dth July 1921.

No. XXI.— A CASE OF PLANT SURGERY.

There is an old gigantic Baobab tree (Adansmia digiiata) probably more

than 300 years old, since the offenders sentenced to death at the time of

Alii Adilshah, were executed on this tree (Bijapur Gazetteer,); fo>

which reason the tree is still known as “ The Execution Tree

The tree has a very thick stem with a girth of 49 ft. at 3 ft., 50 ft. at 6 ft., and

58 ft. at 10 ft. from the ground. The largest measurement of Adansonia digitata,

as stated by W. B. Bannerman from Madras in 1904, is 48’-2".* The tree di\ddes

into 3 huge branches at about 10 ft. from the ground. The whole tree covers an

area, of 10 gunthas. Thus it presents a huge appearance in the compound and

attracts the notice of every passer-by.

Being old, this tree was naturally attacked badly by rot and the main

trunk near the base, where there was a hole, and the whole of the heart of tree

had disappeared.

Being afraid of losing the tree, Jlr. Elliot, the District Judge, first applied to

the Private Secretary to His Excellency the Governor of Bombay for steps to

be taken to rejuvenate the tree. The correspondence was forwarded by the

Director ol Agriculture, Bombay Presidency, Poona, to the Economic Botanist

to the Government of Bombay, Poona, and I was deputed for the work.

Being encouraged by the successful results of similar work done on Casuarina

and other trees in the Ganeshkind Botanical Gardens, Kirkee, I went there and

observed the tree. In the base, a hollow was found of the dimensions of 15

feet by 17 ft. It was conical in shape. The following operations were made

during the first week of September 1920. The hollow was filled in with rubble

and mud and concreted over. The affected parts were first cut out and it was

found that the rot was due to the grubs of a large beetle. Hundreds of these

grubs were cut out of the tree. As soon as the woimd edges were cut dowm

to sound wood, the wound was tari-ed over and then filled in \rith concrete.

All other parts which showed signs of attack or suscejitibility to it, within a short

time were tarred over and any spot where water was likely to lodge was

filled in with concrete.

The District Judge was pleased to remark in his letter, dated the 10th Feb-

ruary 1921, addressed to the wiiter as follows: —

“ The result has been a most workman-like job and the tree this year, though

a famine year, at once reacted by producing a far finer foliage than was noticeable

the year before. The whole job has been satisfactorily done and attracted

a large crowd who had never seen such a surgical operation on a tree before.”

* Journal, Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. XV, p. 718,

31

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXflll.

Within my knowledge this kind of operation has proved successful on the

following trees in the Deccan :

Names : —

(1) Garruga pinnata.

(2) Casaurina equistifolia.

I recommend this treatment with confidence to the attention of those who

have an interest in saving their old mango and other trees.

Poona,

January 1922.

L. B. KULKARNI, M.A.,

Assistant Professor of Botany.

8:7

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD ON THE 27th FEBRUARY

AT THE PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM.

The election of the following 7 members since the last meeting was

announced : — Capt. C. P. Hancock, Bombay ; Capt. J. L. Longbottcm,

Bombay ; Rev. J. C. Hall, Ahmeduagar ; Mr. W. W. Clifl’ord, Nadiad ;

Mr. G. C. Phillips, Bombay ; Mr. P. G. Glendinning, Monlmein ; and

Mr. R. M. Crofton, I.C.S., Amraoti.

COMMITTEE OF MANAGEMENT.

The following gentlemen were elected as Office Bearers for the present

year ; —

Pkesident.

H. E. Sir George Lloyd, D.S.O., G.C.I.E.

Vice-Pke'^ident.

Mr. J. D. Inverarity, B.A., LL.B.

The Hon’ble Sir Norman Macleod, Kt.

H. H. The Maharao of Catch, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E.

Managing Committee.

Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, F.E..S., Mr. T. R. Bell, c.i.e., i.f.s. (Retd.)

Major H. Benson, d.s.o., Rev. E. Blatter, s.J., Mr. B. C. Ellison,

O.M.Z.S.

Lt.-Col. W. H. Evans, r.e.. Major F. C. Fraser, i.m.s., Mr. A. E.

Heflord.

Mr. J. E. B. Hotson, i.c.s., Prof. V. N. Hate, m.a., Mr. C. M. Inglis,

F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

Lt.-Col W. Glen Liston, c.i.e., i.m.s., Mr. F. Ludlow, i.e.s., m.b.o.u.

Mr. P. J. Mead, c.i.e , i.c.s , Mr. H. P. Macnaghten, m.a., m.l.c., Mr

J. C. Ridland.

Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, Major C. H. Stockley, d.s.o.. Dr. D. A.

Turkhud.

Mr. H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u., c.f.a.o.d.

Mr. R. A. Spence, the Honorary Secretary and Mr. H. F. Lodge,

Honorary Treasurer being e.v-ojficio members of the Committee.

SOCIETY’S REPRESENTATIVES IN ENGLAND.

W. S. Millard, Esq., f.z.s., and E. C. Stuart Baker, Esq., m.b.o.t ,

C.F.A.O.TT., F.z.s.

ALTERATION IN RULES.

In accordance with the notice on the agenda Mr. R. A. Spence, the

Honorary Secretary, moved that the following new rule be adopted and

inserted between rules 2 and 3 : —

2 («)

The Society shall consist of Life Members and Ordinary Members. The

Committee are authorised to invite such persons as they may think tit to be

Patron or Vice-Patrons of the Society.

818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hl&T. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIU.

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1921.

With regard to the working of the Society during the past year the

following may be of interest to members : —

MEMBERSHIP.

At the end of the year 1920 there wore 102 Life Members on the roll of

tlie Society and 1,744 Ordinary Members had paid their subscription for

1920. In 1921 tinancial stress compelled an increase in the annual subscrip-

tion and in the entrance fee with a corresponding rise in the Life Member-

ship donation. Old members were however allowed six months in which to

become Life Members at the old rate and this privilege was availed of by

no less than 49 members.

At the end of 1921 there were lol Life Members on the books and

l,ld5 who had paid their subscription for 1921.

PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM.

The past year has marked an important epoch in the history of the

Society, namely the comment ement of the Society’s activities in its new role

of maintaining and providing a Museum for the benefit net merely of its

members but for the benefit of the public of Bombay. The scheme for the

arrangement of the Society’s display collections in the Prince of Wales

Museum was prepared by Messrs. Ellison and Prater in March 1921 and at

the time of His Royal Highness’ arrival in India the Curators had airanged

for his inspection and for that of the general public a very interesting display

of the Fauna of the Indian Empire. Unfortunately the exhibit has had to

be temporarily closed to the public until the necessary glass show cases

have been obtained as without the protection afl'orded by air-tight cases the

specimens would be attacked by living Natural History Specimens of a

type better dead than alive.

Estimates have been prepared of the cost of show cases and also

separate estimates of the cost of mounting specimens. The grant of

Rs. 40,U0U already made by the Bombay Government is about a lakh of

rupees short of the amount required to carry out the Curators’ Scheme in

its entirety. It is evident from this that if the Public of Western India are

to have a Museum worthy of the Prince of Walts and “ Urbs Prima in

Indis ” a very generous response will have to be made to the appeal the

Society is making for the provision of the necessary •funds.

MAMMAL SURVEY.

The IMammal Survey has been continued during the past year and will

be carried on throughout this year mainly in consequence of financial assis-

tance received from the Central Government. This assistance has been

given because of the value the Survey is to the Country and because the

Society had provided in the past over a lakh of rupees for the carrying on

of the Survey and it is in the interests of Government to help those who

help Government to save money.

H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES AND THE SOCIETY.

The past year will also be memorable on account of the connection of

the Society with the visit of H. R. H. The Prince of Wales to India. It

was with great pleasure that the Committee received intimation that their

offer of the ser\iccs of t1 eir Curator, Mr. Ellison, and some of the

staff to supervise the skinning and mounting of trophies obtained by H. R.

H. and the party in India had been accepted. It is with greater pleasure

PROCEEDINGS.

819

that the Committee record that the services Mr. Ellison and his party have

been able to render have been appreciated and that H. R. H. has intimated

his willingness to become a Life Member of this Society. It is hoped that

the connection of H. K,. H. with the Society may become even more closel}^

marked.

APPRECIATION OF WORK OF THE STAFF.

The Committee take this opportunity of expressing their appreciation

of the work done by the members of the Staff. The absence of the Honorary

Secretary during part of the year and Mr. Ellison’s deputation on the

Prince’s tour has thrown a good deal of work on to the shoulders of

Mr. Prater. This extra burden he has cheerfully accepted and borne to the

full satisfaction of all connected with the Society.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MUSEUM.

Mammals.

1 Indian Elephant Skeleton (E. 7>ia.vivius), Kanara, M. S. Tuggerse.

1 Golden Cat (F. temminckii), Moulmein from Togon Valley, Tenasserim,

G. Hundley.

1 Tenasserim Giant Squirrel {R. mdanopepld), Moulmein from Togon V^alley,

Tenasserim, G. Hundley.

2 Taylor’s Flying Squirrels (P. taylori), Moulmein from Togon Valley, Tenas-

serim, G. Hundley.

1 Leopard Cat (P. beyiyalensis), Moulmein from Togon Valley, Tenasserim,

G. Hundley.

2 Skulls of Brow- Antlered Deer (C. eldi), Punjab, Major C. H. Stockley.

2 Skulls of Indian Gazelle {G. hennetti), Punjab, Major C. H. Stockley.

4 Skulls of Bears {Ursus sp.), Punjab, Major C. H. Stockley.

1 Sind Ibex (C. hircus blythi), Punjab, Major C. H. Stockley.

1 Tiger cub skull (P. tiyris), Amraoti, R. A. Wilson.

I Common Indian Mongoose {M. m. munyo), Amballa, A. E. Jones.

1 Albino Spotted Deer (A. a.tis), Mahomed Kharim Khan.

1 Indian Lion {Felis leo), from the Maharaja Kumar Sahib of Kotah.

I Black Bear {U. hhnalayanuf) (Rug), Lt.-Col. H. D. Peilo.

1 Black Bear (TJ. himalayanus), (Head mounted on shield), Lt.-Col. H. D.

Peilo.

1 Large Burmese Civet Cat {Vioe)-ra sp.), Eindayaza, Tenasserim, Salim A. Ali.

1 Burmese Leopard Cat (P. pardicolor), Eindayaza, Tenasserim, Salim A.

Ali.

1 Striped Burmese Squirrel {T. wmccA/awdi), Eindayaza, Tenasserim, Salim A.

Ali.

1 Golden-backed Squirrel (C. cumiceps), Eindayaza, Tenasserim, Salim A.

Ali.

2 Taylor’s Flying Squirrels (P. tay/o/'i), Eindayaza, Tenasserim, Salim A. Ali

1 Langur {Pithecus entellus), Yellapur, Kanara, G. Amor.

3 Bats, Turjum Tea Estate, Darjeeling, Oscar Lindgren.

1 V’uuan Flying Squirrel (P. yunanensis), Sikhim, F. M. Bailey.

5 Bats, Rustum. Right Bank of Dyala River, Mesopotamia, J. F’ernandes.

1 Painted Bat (A', picta), Mandalay, Burma, C. C. Ghooh.

Birds.

I The Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher (Sip/iia albicilla), Ghazipur, U. P.,

E. H. N. Gill.

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1 Gull-billed Tern {Sterna anglica), Ghazipur, U. P., E. H. N. Gill.

1 Black Vulture {Otoyyi^s calrus), Ghazipur, U. P., E. H. N. Gill.

1 Indian White-backed Vulture {Pseudogypa bengalends), Ghazipur, U. P.,

E. H. N. Gdl.

1 Spoon-bill {Platalea leucorodia) , Jodhpur, Rajputaua, Miss P. Hawksley.

2 Quails {Micropcrdi c sp.), Manipur, Assam, Mr. Clarke.

2 Chinese Francolin {F. chinends), Mr. Clarke.

1 Western Blue-rock Thrush (M. S. pandoo), Khandalla, A. Fitzgerald.

1 Malabar Wood Shrike {T. pan dice rianus), B. E. C. Beadnell.

1 Peregrin Falcon {F. peregrinus), Bakloh, Punjab, Capt. Chas. Bilderbade.

2 Western Blossom-headed Paroquets (P. cganocephalui), Yellapur, Kanara,

G. Amor.

1 Palm Swift (T. batassienai)<), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

1 Indian Grebe (P. albipennis), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

1 Large Pied Wagtail (M. 7>iadraspatensis), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

I Indian Tree pie {D. rufa), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

I Indian Bee-eater {M. viridis), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

1 Common Indian Hawk Cuckoo {H. varius), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

1 Common Indian Roller (C. indica), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

1 Black Drongo {D. ater), Salem, D. F. Stileman.

A large collection of Birds. Bengal, C. M. Inglis.*

47 Birds, Munchar, Sind, Capt. C. E. Benson.

49 Birds, Yellapur, Kanara, Capt. C. E. Benson.

2 Birds, Burma, F. Kingdon Ward.

10 Birds, including 3 Tragopans (T. teminckii) and one Koklass pheasant

(P. macrolopha), Nepal, B. C. Ellison.

Birds Eggs.

1 Bird’s egg, Aurangabad, Deccan, Major C. C. Hicks.

4 Eggs (P. torquatus), Larkana, Sind, George Amore.

3 Eggs (Gallus soneratti), S. India, A. P. Kinloch.

Birds Nests.

1 Nest of Nilgiri Babbler {Alcippe sp.). Silver Cascade, S. India, Chas.

McCann.

2 Nests of Nilgiri Babbler {Niltaca sp.). Silver Cascade, S. India, Chas.

McCann.

Reptiles.

Snakes.

1 Fasciolated Rat Snake {Z. fasciolatus), Thana, Bombay Presidency, Pur-

chased.

1 Anamallay Viper {L. anamallensis), Silver Cascade, S. India, Chas.

McCann.

1 Common Wolf Snake (/.. aidicus), ']

2 Common Keelbacks ( T. stolatus),

1 Green Keelback ( M. plumbicoln-), f F. Poole.

1 Russell’s Viper {V. russelli), J

1 Helen's Snake (C. helena), S. India, A. P. Kinloch.

3 Blind Snakes {S. brevis), S. India, A. P. Kinloch.

4 (Ablabes calamaria), Kangra District, Punjab, H. Whistler.

2 Common Keelbacks {T. stolatus), Kangra Distiict, Punjab, H. Whistler.

* This is the largest collection presented to the Society since 1914. list

will be published in a further number of the Journal.

CO t-H

PROCEEDINGS.

821

2 Himalayan Vipers {A. himalai/anus), K’^.ugra District, Punjab, H. Whistler.

2 Young Cobras (^Y. tripudians), Karachi, P. Wall.

1(17. grandis), F. Wall.

1 (D. pulverulentus), Matugama, Ceylon, F. Wall.

1 Tree Snake {Dipsas ceylonensis), Matugama, Ceylon. F. Wall.

4 (Acontia burtoni), Matugama, Ceylon, F. Wall.

1 Common Sand Boa {E. conicus), Ahmedabad, F. Wall.

3 Saw-scaled Vipers (jF. cannata), Karachi, A. Flynn.

I Common Wolf Snake (i. aulicus), Igatpuri, District Surgeon.

1 Common Sand Boa (E. conicus), Igatpuri, District Surgeon.

1 (Lioselas7na spiralis 2), Henjam, P. Gulf, Capt. Mody.

1 [Lioselasma cyanocinctus), Henjam, P. Gulf, Capt. Mody.

6 Snakes, Nagrispur, Darjeeling, Oscar Lindgren.

1 Rat Snake {Z. mucosus), Yellapur, Kanara, G. Amore.

1 Common Green Whip Snake {D. mycterizans), Yellapur, Kanara, G. Amore

3 Large-scaled Vipers (Z. macrolepis), Silver Cascade, S. I., Chas. McCann.

1 Common Checkered Snake {T. tassellatus), Nahrumar, Mesopotamia, Capt.

R. N. Seval.

Lizards.

3 Eumeces schneideri,

3 Eumeces scuttatus,

Eublepharis macularius,

Agama isolepis,

Aya77ia ruh7-oyularis, ^Capt. C. M. Ingoldby.

Ayai7iu nupta,

1 Ayu7na caucasica,

1 A. Ih'ata,

4 Lyyosoma sp.,

1 Gecko, Karachi, fi’. Wall, I.M.S.

3 D7-aco sp., Yellapur Kanara, G. Amore.

1 Gecko, Yellapur, Kanara, G. Amore.

Fish.

2 Fish, S. India, A. P. Kinloch.

I Octopus sp., Mahim Beach, A. F. Ferguson.

I Fish, Hassimara Duars, H. V. O’Donel.

Insects.

1 Glow Worm, Mysore, Van Ingen.

1 Giant Centipede, S. India, D. G. Cameron.

I Vespa cincta, S. India, A. P. Kinloch.

1 Bos of Dragonflies, Bangkok, Siam, E. W. Trotter.

6 Moths {Ay7'otis fla77i7nat7‘a), Lt.-Col. J. Patterson.

Minor contributions from J. Fernandes, Mesopotamia, A. Fitzgerald,

Khandala, E. M. Van Ingen, Mysore, Capt. S. Jervis.

Printed by E. (I. Pearson at the Times Press, Bombay, and unblisbed by

U. A. Spence for the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay— 691-22.

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CONTENTS OF VoL XXVIII, No. 4,~{contd.) ih

Page

Kotes on Indlvn Wagtails. By Dr. Claud B. Ticeliurst, m.a., ii.B.o.ir., m.r.c.s 1082

H.R.H. The Prince of Wales’ Shooting in India in 1921-22. Part II. {With 3 plates

and a map and 2 text figures.) By B. C. Ellison 1091

Dr. Ticbhurst’s Appeal. By Hugh Whistler, m.b.o.h 1107

Zoological Investigations in the Persian Gitlf and Iraq. By Capt. R. E. Chees-

man, f.r.g.s., c.m.z.s., m.b.o.h 1108

Report of the Committee of the Bombay Natural History Society, 1921-22 .... mi

Review “Indian Game Birds’’ 1114

Some cobiments on and corrections of previous articles in the Journal 1117

^Miscellaneous Notes ; —

I. — Note on Jackals {Canis indicus indicus), etc., in a compound.

By C. M. Inglis, F.z.s., f.e.s., m.b.o.u 1122

II. — Jackals attacking a Spaniel in the Compound. By C. M. LigUs, f.z.s.,

F.E.S., M. B.o.u 1122

III. — Notes on some sheep shot m Ladakh. {Withablock.) By J. S. E. Walker. 1123

IV. — Notes on man-eating tigers. By Victor N. Narayan 1124

V. — Sore neck in Sambhar. By Lieut. R. A. H. McConnell 1125

VI. — Corrugations on Elephant Tusks. {Withablock.) ByJ. H. W 1125

VII. — Effect of storm on Animals. By Bernard C. Elhson, c.m.z.s 1126

VIII. — ^Notes on Oorial. By Major C. H. Stockley, d.s.o 1126

IX. — The Breeding of elephants ui captivity. By J. C. C. Wilson 1128

X. — Further notes on Trappmg. By C. Primrose 1129

XI. — The Common Indian Bee-eater {Merops viridis). By Lt.-CoL E. O’Brien. 1130

Xn. — Nidification of the Ceylon Thrush {O. imbricata). By T. E Timnard 1130

Xni. — ^Nidification of the Ceylon Arrenga {A. blighi). By T. E. Tunnard 1131

XIV. — Occurrence of the Desert Lark {Aloemon desertorum) in the Punjab, By

R. C. Bolster, i.c.s 1132

XV. — Eastern Solitary Snipe shot at Nalban Island Chilka Lake on the 16th

December 1921. By H. B. Tilden II33

XVI. — Is the Dhayal (Gopsj/cAiis saidam) a mimic. By Satya Churn Law 1133

XVn. — ^Description of chick of the Bengal Florican {Sypheotis bengalensis). By

Chas. M, Liglis, m.b.o.u., f.z.s., f.e.s II33

XVIII. — Occurrence of the Black- throated Diver {Colymbus arcticus) in India.

By A. E. Jones 1 134

XIX. — Occurrence on the Nilgiris of a partial albino of the Southern Indian

Scimitar Babbler {Pomatorhinus horsfieldi travancoriensis) (Harington)

B. 1. No. 120. By Lt.-Col. H. R. Baker II35

iv CONT ENTS OF l/o/, XXVIII, No. 4.—{contd.)

Page.

XX. — Breeding of the Indian Pitta {Pitta brachyura) and the Streaked Wren

Warbler {Prinia lepida). Brig.-General R. M. Betham 1135

XXI.— Curious site for nest of the Bengal Red Vented Bulbul {Molpastes

hoemarrhous bengalensis). By Chas. M. Inglis, f.z.s., f.e.s., m.b.o.u. . . . 1135

XXII. — Curious nestmg site chosen by the Purple Honey Sucker {Arachnethra asv.-

tica). By W. E. Shipp 1136

XXIII. — ^Woodpecker occupying nesting box. {With a diagram). By B. B,

Osmaston C.I.E., i.f.s 1137

XXIV. — ^Notes on the nesting of the Himalayan Tree Creeper {Certhia hima-

layana). By F. Field 1138

XXV. — Some notes on the method employed m catching Crocodiles hi South Lidia.

By T. H. Cameron, F.z.s 1139

XXVI. — ^Notes on a collection of Snakes from Shemhaganur, Palni HiUs. By

Col. F. Wall, i.M.s 1141

XXVII. — Gordius Worms. By Col. F. Wall, i.m.s 1142

XXVIII. — A Python’s long fast. By A. G. McArthur 1142

XXIX. — Xote on the operculum of the Turhan-sheUs. By James HonieU 1143

XXX. — Some interesting specimens of the Pierid Genus Euchlce. By Cedric

Dover, f.e.s. And note by Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile, i.m.s. {With 2 text

figures) 1144

XXXI. — A note on the occurrence of a species of the family Baphididce in British

India. By Cedric Dover, f.e.s 1146

XXXII. ^ — A note on the reproduction of the Common Hydra of Bengal {Hydra vul-

garis, Pallas) {With diagram). By H. Srinivasarao, M.A 1147

XXXIII. — Folklore of Birds and Beasts of Lidia. By Lt.-Col. E. O’Brien 1149

XXXIV. — A long neglected group of Insects. By B. P. LWarov, f.e.s 1149

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

THE SEESEE

Ammoperdix g. griseigularis

natural size )

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

t)FX\ 1922. VoL. XXVIII. No. 4.

THE GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON.

BY

E. C. Stuart Baker, F.L.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U.

Part XXXIII.

{Continued from page 575 of this Volume).

{With a plate).

Genus— AM MOPE RDIX.

The genus Ammoperdix contains two species of small partridges

which are found from Egypt to South Arabia, A. heyi and its races,

and through Persia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan to

N. W. India, A. griseogularis and its sub-species.

The tail is short, measuring about half the length of the wing, and

consists of 12 tail feathers ; the wing is rounded, tho third or fourth

primary the longest, and the first, second, fifth and sixth a little shorter

and graduated ; the legs are strong and the tarsus fairly long. There

are no spurs, but a few males show a small knob or incipient spur ;

the biU has a very distinct cere, rather brighter in colour than the

rest of the bill.

The Indian bird A. griseogularis griseogularis is replaced in Arabis-

tan and ? Mesopotamia by an allied form A. griseogularis fermeulin,

Zarudny.

Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis.

The See-see Partridge.

Perdix griseogularis, Brandt, Bull. Acad. St. Pet., I., p. 3655,

(1843), (India).

Perdix honhami, Frazer, P.Z.S., 1843, p. 70, (Teheran) ; Des Murs,

Icon. Om., pi. 29, (1849).

Caccabis honhami, Gray, A.M.N.H., XI, p. 372, (1843).

Ammoperdix honhami, Gould, B. of A. pi. I, (1851) ; Adams,

P.Z.S., 1858, p. 503, (N. Punjab) ; Jerdon, B. of I., Ill, p. 567, (1863) ;

1

S-24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Hume, S.F., I, p.226, (1873), (Sind and Mekran) ; id. Nests and Eggs,

p. 540, (1873) ; Butler S.F., III, p. 209, (1875), fSuliman HiUs) ;

Dresser, Ibis, 1876, p. 323 ; Butler, S.F., IV, p. 41, (1876), (Guzerat) ;

Blanf., E. Persia, II, p. 274, (1876), (Shiraz) ; Butler, Cat. B. of Sind,

p. 54, (1879) ; Hume and Marsh., Game-B., II., p. 45, (1879) ; Barnes,

S.F., IX, pp. 219, 458, (1880), (Chaman) ; Swinhoe, Ibis, 1882, p.

119, (S. Afghanistan) ; Sharpe, ibid, 1886, p. 498, (Bushire) ; Pleske,

Mem. Acad. St. Pet., 7, XXXVI, 3, p. 47, (1888), (Bokhara) ;

St. John, Ibis, 1889, p. 175, (S. Afghanistan) ; Oates, Hume’s Nest

and Eggs, III., p. 433, (1890) ; Ogilvi e-Grant, Cat. B.M., XXII, p.

123, (1893); id. Hand 1. Game-B., L, p. 99, (1895); Blanf. and

Oates, Avifauna, B.I., IV, p. 133, (1898) ; Oates, Man. Game-B., I,

p. 185, (1898) ; Rattray, J.B.N.H.S., XII, j). 345, (1900), (Thull) ;

Marshall, ibid XV, p. 353, (1904), (Quetta) ; Gumming, ibid, XVI, p.

692, (1905), (Seistan) ; Whitehead, Ibis, 1909, p. 269, (Kohat and Kur-

ram) ; id, J.B.N.H.S., XX, p. 969, (1911), (Kurram) ; Meinertzhagen,

J.B.N.H.S., XXIII, p. 363, (1914), (Quetta) ; Whistler, Ibis, 1816,

p. 99, (Jhelum) ; Thornhill, J.B.N.H.S., XXV, p. 486 ; Gumming,

J.B.N.H.S., XXVI, p. 294, (1918), (Fao).

Ammoperdix griseogularis, Filippi, Viag. St. Petersb., I, p. 351,

(1865) ; Meinertzhagen, Ibis. 1920, p. 187, (Quetta).

Perdix cinereogularis, Cabanis, J.F.O. 1873, p. 458.

Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis, Hartert, Nov. Zool. XXIV.

p. 282, (1917).

Vernacular Names — Sisi (Punjab, Sind); Tihu, (Persian).

Description — Adult Male. — Forehead, supercilium and a narrow

streak under the eye black ; lores and behind the eye white, turning

to rufous behind the ear-coverts ; crown and nape ashy grey, turning

to vinous red on the centre of the hind neck which is obsoletely barred

with grey ; back and interscapulars vinous red, profusely marked

with wavy bars of grey, the red varying much in depth and extent ;

lower back, rump, upper tail coverts and central tail-feathers vinous

buff, very finely vermiculated with grey and with tiny central arrow-

head markings of black ; outer tail-feathers chestnut, with paler,

faintly vermiculated tips ; sides of neck gre)' with broad white trian-

gular spots ; chin fulvous white changing to pure ashy grey on throat,

sides of head and foreneck ; breast vinous buff, becoming a more dis-

tinct vinous on the lower breast and flanks and changing to a more

yellowish tint on abdomen and under tail-coverts ; the feathers of

the flanks and sides of the belly have internal edges of black, and

external broad margins of chestnut paling to pearly white ; wings like

the back, the primaries and outer secondaries light brovui, all but the

first barred with pale buff on the outer webs.

Colours of Soft Parts. — “ Legs and feet pale dingy wax yellow, in

some greenish, in some dusky yellow ; claws pale brown ; the irides

vary a good deal ; they are generally either bright yellow, orange, or

THE GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. 825

orange brown ; but in some specimens they were dull red, and in

some a bright brown ; the bill is generally orange, somew^hat dusky on

the culmen ; in some, however, it is a brownish orange-red, and in the

females, especially, often brown above and orange below, or even

yellowish brown or ripe olive ; the cere is generally a hoary orange

red. sometimes only brown.” (Hume).

Measuretmnts.—ljuxi^ih 250 to 270 mm.; wing 123 to 139 mm.;

tail 60 to 68 mm. ; tarsus 32 to 34 mm. ; culmen about 11 to 12 *5 mm.

“Weight, 7 to 8 ozs.” (Hume).

Females have the head like the back, which is similar to that of the

male but almost without the red tinge ; the wing-coverts are less

finelv marked and the inner webs of the inner secondaries are much

marked with brown ; the lower parts are coloured like the upper but

paler, the throat and belly being albescent and the under tail-coverts

buff.

Colours of Soft Parts. — Similar to those of the male with the ex-

ceptions noted above.

Measurements . — The females average a little smaller than the males ;

wings 123 to 133 mm. ; tail 59 to 62 mm. ; tarsus 31 to 33 mm. ; culmen

11 to 12 mm.

Distribution. — “Greater part of Persia. West to Berijik and

Kum-Kale on the Euphrates, North to Transcaspia and Bolchara,

Afghanistan, Baluchistan to Sind and the Indus and across the

Indus Valley to the Khariar Hills and Salt Range in the Punjab.”

(Hartert).

Nidification. — The See-see breeds during April, May and June

at all heights from the lowest foothills and broken ground adjoining

the actual plains up to some 6,000 or 7,000 feet. Whitehead found

them breeding in Chitral, in the Kurram Valley and Kohat up to the

latter height, and in Afghanistan, eggs have been taken at 7,000 feet.

The nest consists merely of a scratching in the ground, lined only

with such scraps of grass leaves as the winds may provide or, perhaps,

a few fallen feathers of the parent birds. Occasionally rather more

attempt is made at a nest, a few leaves and pieces of grass being

collected by the bird and placed in the nest hollow, but such

attempts are rare and, even then, the results but meagre.

Tlie site selected is often on the most bare and stony gi-ound, with

no more shelter than is provided by a boulder larger than the rest, or

a tuft of the coarse yellow grass which struggles here and there for

existence. Sometimes it is down in a ravine, well protected by an

overhanging rock or a bush or, at other times, in an equally well

protected crevice on the side of a steep hill. One nest has been found

placed in the angle of the parapet on the flat roof of a temporarily

uninhabited house.

The eggs number anything from 5 to 14, but the normal clutch

piobably varies from 6 to 9. In colour they range from a faint pearly

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVI II.

white to a decided cream or pale cafe-au-lait ; most eggs are a pale

cream with a distinctly grey tint about them. As a rule they are

rather dull coloured eggs even when quite fresh, and they are never

very bright in tint or highly glossed. The texture is close and fine, the

surface often much pitted with tiny pores, but at other times quite

Jevoid of these.

In shape they vary from sub-pyriform to long ovals, but 9 eggs out

of 10 are well pointed at the smaller end.

Fifty eggs average 35 '5 X 26-2 mm., whilst the extremes are, maxima

38‘7x26‘8mm. and 37 3x28’3 mm. ; minima 33'0 X 26 0 mm.

and 34: • 1 X 24 ■ 7 mni.

The hen is said not to be a very close sitter unless the eggs are far

advanced in incubation when she will sit on until the intruder almost

touches her. When the eggs are fresh she sneaks off quietly whilst

the enemy is still far away. The cock-bird is said to wander about

close to the vicinity of the nest and to assist in the care of the chicks

as soon as they are hatched. .

General Habits. — The See-see, even more than the Chukor is a

bird of barren hills, bare broken ground and wastes of boulders, stones

and sun-beaten soil. In forest they are never found and in bush jungle

but seldom, on the other hand in the early mornings and late after-

noons they frequent grass lands and crops for the purpose of feeding.

In the middle of the day, however, they leave them for the shelter

of the ravines and broken ground, generally seeking the protection

from the sun afforded by the larger boulders and rocks, or by some

deep crack, but occasionally lying up in a clump of bushes or dead

grass. They seem to be curiously addicted to deserted stone buildings

and ruins. Repeatedly they have been rei^orted as common about

mins in Persia and Afghanistan, and Hume also refers to this trait.

He writes : —

“ They are generally seen running on the bare rocks

or pecking about the droppings of cattle on the mountain

paths ; but at Tobar — some 2,000 feet high, the rainy season

residence of the miners, who, during the rest of the year, reside

in the Khewra Gorge (some 700 feet above the sea) and work

the neighbouring Salt Mines, — I saw several pairs rimning about

the flat roofs of the houses. The males may often be seen perched

on some rocky point, and the female, in the spring, though less

commonly seen in exposed positions, will always be found close

to her mate. They run very rapidly and fly smartly, always,

if possible, down hiU.”

Hume did not consider them much of a game-bird, though he

records shooting eleven and a half brace in a day. At the same time a

morning with the See-see may give much pleasure and enjoyment

and is a welcome change from an office chair and everlasting

report- writing.

THE GAME BIRDS OF IBDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. 827

Col. H. L. Haugliton sends me the folio \song accoimt of a morning’s

shoot which is quite typical of the See-see and the sport to be

obtained with this bird.

“I once knew a Colonel who declared that he had shot every feather

o£E a See-see and then it had flown away naked !!!

“This may be somewhat of an exaggeration of the See-see’s powers

of resistance to shot, but it serves to bear out my own limited experience

that this little partridge is not an easy bird to hit, and that even when

hit the bird is by no means always in the bag.

“As regards the first proposition it may be said that the colouring

of the See-see blends so well with the hues of the terrain in which he

is usually to be found that he is not easy to see either dead or alive.

Again, though he moves at a good pace it is not his speed but the fact

that as often as not he is on the curve, dropping or fast disappearing

round a corner that makes him difficult to hit against a backgroimd

into which he merges so well.

“ Supposing, however, he is hit. If he falls dead and you see him

fall, mark the spot and pick him at once, well and good. If on the

other hand, he has a spark of life left in him he well hide away in a

manner which will cause you to lose many precious minutes looking

for him, or you may lose him altogether.

“A hole in a cliff, a cre\’ice under a rock, any nook or cranny will

serve him as a refuge, and as the ground he haunts is full of such

harbours of refuge it is wonderful how quickly he will disappear. To

make matters worse you often cannot actually see him fall, for when

you put him up he instinctively makes for some nullah or water course

the edge of which he reaches just as you fire : down he goes over the-

edge and sometimes you are in doubt as to whether you have hit him

at all.

“AJmost any low foothills or network of sandy, stony nullahs in

the North West Frontier Province or the Northern Punjab hold See-see,

and as typical examples one might take the Margalla Range which

crosses the Rawalpindi-Peshawar Road, or the water-worn nullahs

which, running from the Frontier hills, intersect the Peshawar Plain.

A day after See-see probably means getting other game as well,

such as grey partridge, a hare or two, possibly some sand grouse and

in some places Chukor. In this respect the Phandu nullah near Pesha-

war used to be in the old days a most attractive spot, and an entry

in my game-book recalls a very pleasant and profitable morning spent

there. My first impression of that day is scarcely a pleasant one for

it consists of a recollection of a start in the dark and a drive in the bit-

ter cold of a Peshawar morning before dawn. This early start was

necessary in order to reach the ground in time to catch any possible

sand grouse that might come to water at the shallow stream which in

those days — though I believe no longer — meandered down the Phandu

nullah from the Bara River. Ears tingled in the cold which brought

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

the water to one’s eyes, and thick boots and gloves scarce served to keep

a vestige of warmth in feet and fingers. And yet, looking back on it

all, there was a wonderful fascination in skirting round the sleeping

city whence came as yet no sound but the barking of a dog, the tinkle

of bells from some shaggy camel drowsily shaking his head in the

Kabul Sarai, the crowing of a cock or the voice of the Muezzin, each

in his own way heralding the coming dawn, sharp and clear in the

frosty air. Dawn breaks shortly before the nullah is reached and on

arrival some conveniently placed straw, sticks, etc., are set alight

and serve to make a cheerful blaze at which hands may be warmed for

a moment before beginning the business of the day.

“ The shikari had made arrangements for a couple of lads to meet

us, and when a start was made the modus operandi was as follows : —

“ The nullah at this point was too broad for both sides to be work-

ed by one gun, so the shikari and I made our way along the bottom

of the nullah, following the stream, whilst the two lads were to form

line with us along the top of the cliffs which flank the nidlah on either

.side, one keeping along the edge of the cliffs and throwing down stones

into such cover as there might be, and the other keeping out some

distance in the plain to round up any birds which might be out feeding

on th? plain or in the scattered patches of cultivation which occurred

here and there. We had scarcely gone a hundred yeards when out

came a See-see from a deep waterworn fissure in the cliffs. Directly

this bird takes wing, one knows it is a See-see for his fast beating wings

make a sound which to me always seems to be rather a metallic “tinkle”

than the “whirr” of the large partridges. I can see that bird now as he

shot straight down the deep cleft towards me for a second and then, as

mv gun went up he swerved abrubtly round the comer and up the main

nullah, vnth the result that I missed him badly and ])lastered the |

cliff with shot yards behind him. |

“And so it went on up the nullah, several See-see being brought I

dovm and several missed. Occasionally a bird would cross the nullah j

from the cliffs on one side to those opposite, but generally it was a |

case of a bird skimming away following the line of the cliffs and slip- !

ping round a corner, or of birds driven in from the edge of the plain 5

on top. These latter, put up by one of the boys, would drop like t

stones into the nullah over the edge of the cliffs where they *thought i

they were safe. The discovery that they had as it were jumped out of j

the frying pan into the fire must have been a rude shock to them, j

but they did not lose their nerve for long, and would jink, turn and

swing away the moment thay saw one, often offering most puzzling

shots in their sudden changes of direction.

“ A couple of blue rock pigeon were added to the bag out of a good

number seen, and some duck, disturbed higher up, and coming straight

down the stream, gave me a beautiful shot which resulted in the

death of their leader, a fine drake gadwal. A patch of scrub gave me

THE GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. 829

<a chance of right and left at ordinary grey partridge,, of which I did

not fully avail myself, missing with my first, but killing a bird with

my second barrel.

“ The last shot, just before halting for a late breakfast, was in some

ways a most satisfactory one. 1 remember I had just been trying

to beat out a couple of See-see which had disappeared round a corner

after running in front of me for a long way in the most impertinent

manner. Before disappearing one had hopped up on to a mass of

fallen earth at the foot of the cliff, his little neck stretched up to look

back at me, in an attitude which reminded me at once of a cheeky

boy “cocking a snook” at a jjoliceman round the corner before bolting,

his whole j^erson exuding the essence of impertinence, and that was

the last I ever saw of him. Where he went to Goodness only knows,

-lust as we were giving it up a soft note caused me to look up in time

to see two Imperial Sandgrouse coming straight up the nullah. They

were moving at a great pace and neither showed a sign of being touch-

ed as I fired ; but whilst following them ruefully with my eyes, I sud-

denly saw one bird crumple up and fall stone dead about 150 yards

behind me.

“One Gadwal, one Sandgrouse, one grey partridge, some Blue llock

and the nine See-see, which I had got by about 11 o’clock were the

outward signs of a very pleasant morning in the Phandu nullah, a

morning typical of the shooting obtainable round Peshawar in those

days.”

Opinions differ greatly as to the qualifications of the See-see for

the table. Hume and some others describe them as dry, insipid and

poor eating, others modify this and say they are “fair to middling”,

whilst yet others consider them to be amongst the best of our Indian

Partridges and Pheasants.

They appear to be almost entirely vegetarian in their diet, subsist-

ing largely on grass seeds, but doubtless they eat a few insects from time

to time and undoubtedly eat ants freely, and of course termites. The

young, when first hatched, are probably fed, as are all other partridges,

principally on insects, and amongst insects for the main paid on ants.

Their call is a loud double whistle, sounding like See-see or So-see

and gives the birds their trivial name, but they have a low soft whistle

which they utter when feeding in company or as a call to their young.

Apparently the family coveys in which the See-see keeps during

the summer and autumn often break up in the early winter when

many birds are again seen singly or in pairs though other parties

keep together until the end of March or early April when the business

of preparing for the next brood commences in earnest.

The Plate is a good one and represents our typical Indian bird.

The third bird is a male in the attitude adopted when displaying to

the female and, extraordinary as it seems, is quite true to life*

(To he continued.')

830

HAND-LIST OF THE “ BIRDS OF INDIA.’'

BY'

E. C. Stuart Baker, f.l.s., e.z.s., m.b.o.u., c.k.a.o.u.

Part VII.

(Continued from fage 594 of this volume.)

Order COLUMBJi;.

Family CoLUMBiOiE.

Sub-famil}- Treronince.

1695. (1271) Crocopus phoenicopterus phoenicopterus.

The Bengal Green Pigeon.

Columba phoenicoptera Lath., Ind., Orn., ii., p. 597

(1790), (in insula Eimeo).

Central and N. E. India to Assam N. of

Brahmaputra.

1696. (1‘271) Crocopus phoenicopterus viridifrons. The

Burmese Green Pigeon.

Treron viridifrons Blyth, J. A. S. B., :vio., pt. 2, p,

849 (1845), (Tennasserim).

Assam S. of Brahmaputra, Burma S. to Moulmein,

E. to Cochin.

1697. (1272) Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster. The

Southern Green Pigeon.

Vinago chlorogaster Blyth, J. A. S. B.,xii,pt. i.,p.

167 (1843), {Indian Pen.)

India S. of the range of 1696, Ceylon, N. W.

to sub-Himalayas.

*1698. (1275) Treron pompadora pompadora. The Pompa-

dour Green Pigeon.

Columba pompadora Gniel., S. N., i., p. 775

(1789), {Ceylon).

Ceylon only.

1699. (1273) Treron pompadora phayrei. The Ashy-headed

Green Pigeon.

Osmotreron phayrei Blyth, -J. A. S. B., .v.v.ri., p. 344

(1862), {Tounyhoo).

E. Bengal, Assam, Burma, S. to Tavoy and E. to

Cochin China.

♦ The generic name Osmotreron Bonaparte, 1 854, is antedated by Dendrophasa

Gloger, 1842, and cannot therefore be used but Osmotreron and Treron (Vieill 1816)

are not separable so that the latter name will be retained.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

831

1700. (1274) Treron pompadora affinis. The Grey-fronted

Green Pigeon.

Vinago affinis Jerd., Madr. J. L. S., xii., p. 13

(1840), {Malabar Coast).

West Coast of India from Kanara to Cape Como-

rin.

1701. (127»i) Treron pompadora chloroptera. The Anda-

manese Green Pigeon.

Treron chloroptera Blyth, J. A. S. B., aiv., p. 852

(1845), (Nicobars).

Andamans and Nicobar Islands.

"*1702. (1277) Treron fuivicollis fulvicollis. The Cinnamon-

headed Green Pigeon.

Columba fulvicollis Wayler, Syst. Av. Columba

(1827), {Java).

S. Burma and Siam, Malay Pen., Sumatra

(? Celebes, Philippines, etc.).

1703. (1278) Treron bisincta bisincta. The Lesser Orange-

breasted Green Pigeon.

Vinago bisincta Jerd., Madr. J. L. 8., aii.,p. 13

(1840), {Madras).

Bombay S. from Kanara, Madras S. of lat. 14,

and Ceylon.

J 1704. (1278) Treron bisincta domvillii. The Larger Orange-

breasted Green Pigecm .

Osmotreron domvillii Sicinh., Ibis, 1870, p. 354

{Hainan).

Orissa, Bengal, Assam, Burma, Cochin China,

Siam and Malay Pen.

•705. (1279) Treron vernans vernans. The Pinh-necked

Green Pigeon.

Columba vernans Linn., Mant.,p. 52Q (1771), (P//i-

lippines).

Peninsular Siam and Burma to Sumatra, Borneo

and Philippines.

1706. (1281) Treron curvirostra nipalensis. The Thick-

billed Green Pigeon.

Toria nipalensis Hodgs., As. Res., .fix., p. 104

(1836), {Nipal).

Himalayas, Nepal to E. Assam, Burma, Shan

States, Yunnan, Cochin China, Siam.

* Typo locality changed to Sumatra. Robinson, Siam N. H. J., v., p. 30, 1921.

t I cannot separate Robinson’s and Smith’s T. b. prcetermissa from Siam (Siam

J. N. H„ v., p. 29, 1921).

2

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

BIRDS OF THE IFDIAN EMPIRE.

833

1714. (1284) Muscadivores aenea sylvatica. The Northern

Green Imperial Pigeon .

Coluraba sylvatica Tickell, J. A. S. B. ii., p. •'581

(1833), iJBorabhum and Dhabblnmi).

India East of long. 80°, Burma, Shan States, Siam,

Andamans.

1715. (1284) Muscadivores aenea pusiila. The Ceylon Green

Imperial Pigeon.

Carpophaga pusiila Blyth, J. A. S. B., ndii., p. 816

(1849), {Ceylon).

Ceylon and S. W. India to Kanara.

1716. (1285) Muscadivores aenea insularis. The Nicobar

Green Imperial Pigeon.

Carpophaga insularis Bhjth, ./. A. S. B., .v:nh., p.

270 (IS-’SS), {Nicobar.'i).

Nicobars only.

1717. (1289) Myristicivores bicolor. The Pied Imperial

Pigeon .

Columba bicolor Scop., Del. Flor. et laun. Insuhr.,

ii., p. 94 (1786), (Nev. Guinea).

Andamans, Nicobars through Malay Arch, to

Australia. West Malay Pen.

Sub-family Calcenadince.

1718. (2190, Caloenas nicobarica. The Nicobar Pigeon.

Columba nicobarica Linn., S. N., p. 164 (17-58),

{Nicobars).

Cocos, Andamans and Nicobars. Straggler to

Malay Pen.

(Sub-family Phabina\

I7I9- (1291) Chalcophaps indica. The Emerald Dove.

Columba indica Linn., S. N., ed. x., p. 164 (17-58).

{in India orientali).

Ceylon, the greater part of India, Burma, Malaya,

etc.

Sub- family Columbince.

1720. (1292) Columba livia intermedia. The Indian Blue

Pock-Pigeon.

Columba intermedia Strict.-., A. M. N. H. 1844 »

39 {India).

Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, etc.

834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. XNVIII.

1721. (1293) Columba livia neglecta. Hume's Blue Rock-

Pigeon.

Columba neglecta Hume, Lahore to Yar., p. 272

(1873), (Ladak).

Turkestan, East Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanis-

tan, Ladak and N. Kashmir.

1722. (1294) Columba rupestris turkestanica. The Indian

Blue Hill-Pigeon.

C. r. turkestanica Buturlin, Orn. Monatsb., p. 45

(1908), {Altai).

Altai, Turkestan, Tibet and Northern Himalayas.

1723. (1295) Columba oenas eversmanni. The Eastern Stock-

Pigeon.

Columba eversmanni Bonaparte, Compt. Rend., xliii

p. 838 (1856), {Central Asia).

Turkestan to N. W. India in winter.

1724. (1296) Columba leuconota leuconota. The White-

hellied Pigeon, or Snow-Pigeon.

Columba leuconota Vigors, P. Z. S. I., p. 23 (1831)

{Himalayas.)

Himalayas from Chitral to Sikkim.

1725. Columba leuconota gradaria. The Tibetan

Snow-Pigeon.

Hartert, Nov. Zooh, 1916, p. 85 {Szetschwan).

From N. E. Sikkim to N. W. China.

1726. (1297) Dendrotreron hodgsoni. The Speckled Wood-

Pigeon.

Columba hodgsoni Vigors, P. Z. S., 1832, p. 16

{Nepal).

Kashmir to E. Assam, N. Burma, Shan States,

Yunnan and Siam.

1727. (1298) Palumbus palumbus casiotis. The Eastern

Wood-Pigeon or Ring-Dove.

Palumbus casiotis Bonap., Consp. Gen. Av., u., p. 42

(1854), {Himalayas).

Turkestan to N. W. India and Sind.

1728. (1299) Alsocomus elphinstonii. The Nilgiri Wood-

Pigeon.

Ptilinopus elphinstonii Sykes, P. Z. 8., 1832, p. 149

{Nilgiris).

Hill-tracts of S. W. India, Bombay to Capo

Comorin.

BIRDS OF THE IFDIAF EMPIRE.

835

* Ear ter t has dealt fully with this t;enu8 both in his Vog. Pal. xi., p. H8S

(1920) and in Not. Zool.

836 JOURNAL, BOMIiAi NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

'737-

‘738-

1739-

1740.

1741.

1742.

>743.

(1306) Streptopelia orientalis agricola. The Indian ^

Turtle-Dove. i

Columba agricola Tick., J. A. S. B., u,, p. 581 (

(1833), (Borabhum). )

Practically all India, Assam, Burma to Tennas-

serim. ,

I

(1307) Streptopelia chinensis suratensis. The Indian

Spotted Dove. i

Columba suratensis Gmel., S. N., i., p. 778 (1789) j

(Surat). j

All India to E. Assam, N. of Brahmaputra. j

i

Streptopelia chinensis ceylonensis. The Ceylon |

Spotted Dove. 1

Turtur ceylonensis Reichenbach, Vol. Nat. Tauben., Fig,

3373 (1861), (Ceylon).

Ceylon and South Travancore.

(1308) Streptopelia chinensis tigrina. The Burmese |

Spotted Dove. j

Columba tigriua Temm., Les Pigeons, p. 94 (1810)

(Java). \

Assam S. of Brahmaputra, Burma to Malay Pen.

and Islands.

(1309) Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis. The

Little Brown Dove. i

Columba cambayensis Gmel., S. N ., i., p. 779, I

(1789), (Camhaya).

India W. of the Hugh, Ganges and Kusi Rivers.

Streptopelia senegalensis ermanni. The |

Persian Little Brown Dove. \

Turtur ermani.i Bonap., Compt. Rend., p. 942 (1856), j

(Bochara). !

Turkestan, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan ij

(Quetta). )

(1310) Streptopelia decaocto decaocto. The Indian j

Ring-Dove. j

Columba risoria decaocto Frivalszky, A. M. Tarsasag j

Evk., p. 183 (1838), (Turkei). i

Western Europe to India and Ceylon, China '

to Japan. ii

I

BIRDS OF THE INDIAF EM FIRE.

837

1744. (1310) Streptopelia decaocto xanthocycla. The

Burmese Ring-Dove.

Turtiir decaocto xanthocycla Newman, Av. Mag.,

iv., p. 324 (1906), {Burma).

Burma, Siam, Shan States, Cochin China,

Yunnan.

>745* (1311) Oenopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica.

The Indian Red Turtle-Dove.

Columba tranquebarica Herm., Observ. Zool., p. 200

(1804), {Tranquebarica).

India from N. W. to Ceylon, E. to Behar and

Bengal.

1746. (1311) Oenopopelia tranquebarica murmensis. The

Sikkim Red Turtle-Dove.

Harlert, Yog. Pal. xii., p. 1499 (1920), {Nepal).

Nepal and Sikkim, East to Assam, N. of

Brahmaputra.

1747. (1311) Oenopopelia tranquebarica humilis. The

Burmese Red Turtle-Dove.

Columba humilis Tcmm., PI. Col., jd. 44 (1824)

{Bengal -Luzon).

Assam S. of Brahmaputra, E. to China, Formosa,

S. to Tennasserim.

1748. (1312) Macropygia leptogrammica leptogrammica.

The Malay Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove,

Columba leptogrammica Temm., PI. Col., pi. 360

(1833), {Java).

Tenasserim S. to Java and Sumatra.

1749 Macropygia leptogrammica tusalia. The

Indian Bar tailed, Cuckoo-Dove.

Coccyzura tusalia Hodgs., J. A. S. B., xiv., p. 809

(1843), {Nepal).

Himalayas from Simla to E. Assam, Burma, Shan

States and Siam.

•750. (1313) Macropygia rufipennis. The Andaman Cuc-

' koo-Dove.

MacTopygia rufipennis Blyth, J.A.S.B., zi\, p. 371

(1846), {Andamans.)

Andamans and Nicobars.

I75I- (1314) Macropygia ruficeps assimilis. The Malay

Little Cuckoo-Dove.

Macropygia assimilis Hume, S. F., ii„ j). 441 (1874)

{Burma),

Burma and N. Malay Peninsula, ? Siam,

838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Sub-family Geopeliinw.

• Sclater, Bull, B.O.C., xlii., p. 73, 1922, has shewn that Pteroclurns is only a

synonym for Pterocics. I do not propose to separate the two genera but to retain

all the species under Pterodes.

BIliDS OF THE lyEIAF EMPIRE.

S‘6»

•759 (1322) Pterocles senegallus. The Spotted Sand-Grouse.

Tetrao senegallus Lhin., p. r>26 (1771)

(Sentf/al).

Algeria to India, to Karachi and to Jodhpore.

1760. (1323) Syrrhaptes tibetanus. The Tibetan Sand-

Grouse.

Syrrhaptes tibetanus Gould, P.Z.B., p. 92 (I80O)

{Ladakh in Tibet).

Tibet W. to Ladakh, S. to Sikkim.

Order GALl.IN/K.

Sub-order A LECTOROPO I )E S.

Family PiiASiAMUiC.

Sub-family Phasianin ce.

1761. (1 324) Pavo cristatus. The Comnicni Feafoui.

Pavo cristatus Linn., iS’.A’., i., p. 267 (1766), {India

orien tali).

Ceylon, practically all India to 'W. Assam and

Cachar.

1762. (132,7) Pavo muticus. The Burmese Peafoui.

Pavo muticus IJnn., S.N., i., p. 268 (1766), ( Java,

Hartert).

Looshai Hills, Chittagong, Burma, Siam, Cochin

China, Malaya, Java.

1763. (I32G) Argusianus argus. The Argus Pheasant.

Phasianus argus Linn., S.K., i., p. 272 (1766),

{Malacca, Hartert).

Peninsula Burma and Siam, Malay Peninsula,

to Sumatra,

1764, (1327) Polyplectron bicalcaratum bicalcaratum. The

Indian Grey Peacock-Pheasant.

Pavo bicalcaratos JAnn., <S'.A., ed. x., p. I06 (1758)

{China in errore), {Cachar).

Sub-Himalayas from Bhutan to E. Assam,

1765. Polyplectron bicalcaratum chinquis. The Bur-

mese Grey Peacock-Pheasant .

Pavo chinquis Mull., Suppl. lAnn. S.N., p. 12l

(1776), {China).

Burma, Is . Siam.

^40 JOVR^'AL, BOMBAY 2\ArURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Tol. XXVIll.

1766. Polyplectron bicalcaratum germaini. Ger-

main's Peacock-Pheasant.

Polyplectron germaini Elliot, Il/is, 1866, j>. 56 [Cochin

China).

E. Siam, Cochin China, Annam, (P Looshai Hills).

J767. Polyplectron malaccensis. The ^lalay Peacock-

Pheasant.

Phasianus malaccensis Scop., del, Flor. et. Faun

Insubr., ii., p. 93 (1786), [Malacca).

Extreme S. W. Siam and S. Burma, Malay

Peninsula and Sumatra.

*1768. (1328) Gailus gallus gallus. The Indian Jnngle-Fotvl.

Phasianus gallu.s Linn., S.X., p. 158 (1758)

[Bengal, Bangs and Peunard).

Northern India tO Assam.

1769. Qallus gallus ferrugineus. The Burmese J ungle-

Fowl.\

Gallus ferrugineus (Imel., S.X., i., p. 761 (1789)

( China).

S. W. China to Burma, Siam, ilalay Peninsula.

1770. Gallus gallus bankiva. The Sumatran Jxingle

Fowl.

Gallus bankiva Temm., Pig. Gall., ii., p. 87 (1813)

[Sumatra.)

Sumatra ?

1771. (1329) Gallus sonneratii. The Grey Jungle-Fowl,

Gallus sonneratii Temm., Pig. Oall., ii., p. 246

(1813), [India).

South and South-West India, Central India,

N.E. to the Godavery.

5772- (1330) Gallus lafayettji. The Ceylon Jungle-Fowl.

Gallus lafayettii J.ess., Truitt d'Orn., p. 491 (1831),

[Ceylon).

Ceylon only.

^773- (lo31) Phasianus humiae humiae. Mrs. Hume's

Pheasant.

Callophasis humije Hume, S.F., i.r., p. 461 (1881),

[Manipu>).

Naga Hills, Manipur, Looshai, Chin Hills.

* For the name our Bed Jungle-Fowls should bear see Bangs and Pemiard Pro

New. Eng, Zool. Club, vii., p. 23 (1919), and Kloss, Journal Fed., Malay >States.

I accept the above only provisionally for this Catalogue.

BIRDS OF THE lyDIAX EMPIRE.

841

Phasianus humiae burmanicus. The Bur-

mese Bar red-backed Pheasant.

Collophasis burmanicus Oates, Ibis, 1898, p. 124

(Ruby Mines).

Kachin Hills, Shan States, Yunnan and N.E.

Central Burma.

1775- (1332) Phasianus elegans. Slone’s Pheasant.

Phasianus elegans Elliot, A.M.F.H. (4), vi., p.

:112 (1870), (Szechuan).

W. Szechuan to Kachin Hills, Shan States

Yunnan.

1776. (1333) Catreus wallichii The Cheer Pheasant.

Phasianus wallichii Hardw., Trans. L.S., .vv.,

160 (1827), (Almorah).

Himalayas, from Hazara to Garhwal.

I

111-

1778.

1779.

17S0.

(13341

Pucrasia macrolopha macrolopha. The Kohlas

or Piikras Pheasant.

Satyra macrolopha Less., Die. Sci. Xat., li.r., p. 196

(1829), (Almorah, Griffith).

Naini Tal to Garhwal, Simla States, S, Kashmir.

Pucrasia macrolopha biddulphi. The Kash-

mir Koklas.

Pucrasia biddulphi Marshall, Ibis., 1879, p. 481

(Kashmir).

Northern Kashmir.

Pucrasia macrolopha nipalensis. The Nipal

Koklas.

Pucrasia nipalensis Gould, P.Z.S., l8o4. n. 100

(Xipal).

AVesteru Nipal to PBhutan.

Pucrasia macrolopha castanea. The Chestnut-

mantled Koklas.

Pucrasia castanea Gould, P.Z.S., 1854 v 99 (Kafi

ristan). ^

Afghanistan and borders of N.W. Province.

1781. (133.0) Lophura rufa rufa. The Fire-hacked Pheasant.

Phasianus rufus Raffles, Trans. L.S. .riii. /> ;5->l

(1822), (Sumatra). ’

Peninsula Siam and Burma to Sumatra,

* Mr. (Jhubb points out that Phasianus pucrasia Gray iii In 7nn1 T v.i an

0™ l.t have priority over .V. Irroiopfo rirf’

^ however the almost certain date of the Diet. Sci. Nat. is also 1829 I do noi

disturb the existing nomenclature. ^ y i ao not

842 JOUR^AL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vot XXVIIL

* Mr. C. Chubb has kindly pointed out to me that P. haviiltonii o! Griffith 1829

antedates P. albocrislatus of Vigors, P.Z.S., 1830.

BIRDS OF THF lyDlAX F.M PI RF.

843

1790.

1791.

3792.

:793-

1794-

1795.

3796.

*797-

Gennaeus lineatus sharpei. Grant's Silver Phea-

sant.

Geiinieus sharpei Oaten, Man. Onme-B., p. 3-17

^1898), {Salween).

E. Central Burma, North-West Siam, S. Shan

States.

Gennaeus nycthemerus nycthemerus. The

Chinese Silver Pheasant.

Gennjeus nycthemertis JAnn., S.X., ed. .r., p. 159

(1758), {China).

S. and S.W. China.

Gennaeus nycthemerus ripponi. The Yunnan

Silver Pheasant.

Gennaeus ripponi Shaipe, RuU., B.O.C., .t iii., p. 29

(1902), {S. Shan States).

Inter Salwin Mekong country.

(1341) Gennaeus nycthemerus rufipes. The Ruby-

Mines Silver Pheasant.

Gennfeus rufipes Oates, Man. Game-B., i., p. 362

(1898), {Ruhy Mines).

Irrawaddy Salwin District between 21° and 27°

latitude.

(1342)

343)^ Lophophorus impejanus. The Monal.

Phasianus impejanus Rath., Ind. Orn., ii., p. 632

(1790), {India).

Himalayas, Afghanistan to Bhutan.

Lophophorus sclateri. Sclater’s Monal.

Lophophorus sclateri Jerdon, Ibis, 1870, p, 148

{Mishmi Hills.)

Himalayas N. of Assam, Dafla to E. Abor Hills

Yunnan (Beebe).

Crossoptilon harmani. Elwes' Horned Pheasant.

Crossoptilon harmani Elwes, Ibis, 1881, p. 399 {East

Tibet).

Abor and Mishmi Hills and E. Tibet.

(1344) Tragopan satyra. The Crimson Tragopan.

Meleagris satyra Zm?r., 8.X., ed. p. \r>7 (1758),

(Bengal), {Sikkim).

Himalayas, Garhwal to Darrang.

844 JOUliXAL, BOMBAl XATVRAL HIkST. SOL’IBTr, f’ol. XXJ III.

1798.

1799.

iSoo.

1801.

1802.

1803.

1804.

1805.

1806.

(1345) Tragopan melanocephalus The Western Trago-

jjun.

Phasiamis melanocephalus Urnti in driff. ed. Cur., Hi.,

2>, 20 (1820), {Ahnorah).

Baghiratti Biver, West to Hazara.

{1340) Tragopan blythi blythi. The Grey-bellied Trogo-

]wn.

Ceriornis blythi Jerdon, P. A. S. B., 18 iO, p. 60

(Assam), (Henema, Naga Hills).

Hills S. of the Brahmaputra to Chin Hills.

Tragopan blythi molesworthi. The Tibetan

Tragopan.

T. b. molesworthi Stvart Baker, Bull, B. 0. C.

XXXV., p. 18 (1014), (Tibet).

Tse-la, Tawang, Tibet.

Tragopan temminckii. TemmincVs Trago'pan.

Satyra temminckii J. C. Gray, 111. Ind. Zool., i., pi.

50 (1830), (China, Szechuan).

Mishmi and Abor Hills, Tibet. Chin and Kachin

Hills, Yunnan, China.

(1347) Ithagenes cruentus. The Blood -Pheasant.

Phasianus cruentus Hardw.. Trans. L. S., xiii., p. 237^

(1822), (Nepal).

Nepal, from the Uogra, East to Bhutan.

Ithagenes kuseri. The Yvnnan Blood-Pheasant.

Ithaginis kuseri Beebe, Zoologica, i.. (10), p. 190

(1912), (N. W. Ytinnan).

Mishmi and Abor Hills to Yunnan.

Ithagenes geoffroyi geoffroyi. Verreanx' Blood-

Pheasant.

Ithaginis geoff royi Verreaux, Bull Soc. d'Ac. (2), iv.,

p. 706 (1867), (Mujiin).

Extreme S. E. Tibet, E. of the Dong and Brah-

maputra to W. (!hina.

(1348) Ophrysia superciliosa. The Mountain Quail.

Bollulus superciliosus Gray, Knowsl. Menag, Av., pi.

xvi. (1846), (India, Mussoorie).

Mussoorie, Nainital.

(1340) Qalloperdix spadicea spadicea. The Red Spur-

Fowl.

Tetrao spadiceus Grnel., S. N., i., pi. 2, p. 759 (1789)^

(Madagascar, Nilgiris).

Himalayan Terai, Central India to E, Bengal

Orissa. Madras, Mysore, etc. '

BIRDS OF THE IXDIAX EMPIRE.

1807.

1808.

■ 809.

1810.

181 1.

1812.

1813.

1814.

84'>

Galloperdix spadicea stewarti. The Travan-

core Red Spur-Fonl.

G. 8. stewarti Stuart Baker, Bull, B. 0. C\, xL, p. 18

(1919), {Aneichardi, Travancore).

Travancore.

Galloperdix spadicea caurina. The M(. Abu

Spiir-Foui.

Galloperdix cauriua Blanf., Avi. B. /., »t'., p. 107

(1898), (Mt. Abu).

Mt. Abu and surrounding country.

(1350) Galloperdix lunulata. The Painted Spur-Foivl.

Perdix lunulata Valenc. Diet. Sci.Nat., xxxviii.,p. 44(e

(182o), {Bengal).

\i. Bengal, Orissa, S, to Madras Hills, Nilgiris,

etc., W. to Jhansi, etc.

(1351) Galloperdix bicalcarata. The Ceylon Jimgle-

Fov-i.

Perdix bicalcaratus Former, Ind. ZooL, p. 25, pt. 14

(1781), {Ceylon).

Ceylon only.

(1852) Bambusicola fytchii fytehii. The Yunnan Bam^

boo Partridge.

Bambusicola fytchii, Anderson, P. Z. S., 1871, p. 214

{Ponse, Tunnan).

N. E. Burma to Yunnan and Siam.

Bambusicola fytchii hopkinsoni. The Assam

Bamboo Partridge.

Bambusicola hopkinsoni Godic. Aus., P. Z. S., 1874,.

p. 44 (,45sam).

Assam, S. of Brahmaputra and Western Burma,

(1353) Rollulus roulroul. The Green Wood Quail.

Phasianus roulroul Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr.,.

{{., p. 93 (1786), {Malacca).

Tennasserim, Siam, Malay Peninsula, etc.

(1354) Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis. The Blue-

throated Quail.

Tetrao Chinensis Linn., S. N.. i., p. 277 (1766)

{China).

Ceylon, India, except N. W., to Burma, China

and Malaya,

«46 JOURyAL, BOMBAY XATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1815.

1816.

1817.

1818.

1819.

j820.

1821.

J822.

Excalfactoria chinensis trinkutensis. The

Trinkut Blue-throated Quail.

Excalfactoria trinkutensis Richmond, Pro. Nat. Mus.

U. S., XXV, p. 310 (1902), (Trinkut).

Is. of Trinkut and Kamorta.

(1353) Coturnix coturnix coturnix. The t'ommon

Quail.

Tetrao coturnix Linn, S. N. ed. x., p. 161 (17o8),

(Stveden).

Europe, N. Africa, Asia, E. to Lake Baikal and

India.

Coturnix coturnix japonica. The Japanese

Quail.

Coturnix japonica Temm. and Schleg., Faun. Jap., p.

103 (1842), (Japan).

East Siberia to Japan. Winter S. to China and

India (Assam and Burma).

(1356) Coturnix coramandelica. The Black-breasted or

Rain-Quail.

* Tetrao coramandelicus Gmel., S. N., i., p. 764 (1789)

(Coramandel Coast).

Throughout India to. E. Assam and N. Burma.

(1357) Perdicula asiatica. The J angle Bush-Quail.

Perdix asiatica Lath., Ind. Orn., ii., p. 649 (1790),

(Mahratta region).

Ceylon and the whole of India, N. to the Jodh-

pur Hills and E. Bengal.

(1358) Perdicula argoondah. The Rock Bush-Quail.

Coturnix argoondah Sykes, P. Z. S., 1832, p. lo3,

(Deccan).

N. W. Provinces, Punjab through W. Central

Provinces to E. Travancore.

(1359) Coryptoplectron erythrorhynchus erythro-

rhynchus. The Painted Bush-Quail.

Coturnix erythrorhyncha Sykes, P. Z. S., 1832, p.

153 (N. Konkan).

Western Ghats from Bombay to Travancore.

(1560) Coryptoplectron erythrorhynchus blewitti.

Bleu'itt’s Bush-Quail.

Microperdix blewitti Hume, S. F., ii., p. 512 (1874)

(Karial, Raipur).

Eastern Central Provinces to Eastern Benga'

BIRDS OF THE ISDIAN EMPIRE.

847

1823.

1824.

1825.

■1826.

1827.

1828.

1829.

1830.

(loOl) Microperdix manipurensis manipurensis. The

Manipur Bush-Quail.

Perdicula manipurensis Hume, S. F., ix., p. 467

(1880), E. {Manipur).

Manipur, Cachar.

Microperdix manipurensis inglisi. Inglis'

Bush-Qmil.

Microperdix inglisi Ogilvie-Grant, B. N. H. Jour.,

xix, p. 1 (1909), (Goalpara).

Goalpara.

(1362) Arboricola torqueola torqueola. The Common

Hill-Partridge.

Perdix torqueola Valenc., Diet. Sci. Kal., xxxviii., p,

43o (182o), (Bengal).

Garhwal to E. Assam, X. and S. of the Brahma-

putra.

Arboricola torqueola batemani. Ogilvie-Grant' s

Hill-Partridije.

Arboricola batemani Ogilvie-Grant, Bull. B. 0. C.

xvi., p. 68 (1906), (Chin Hills).

Chin and Kachin Hills.

Arboricola torqueola millardi. The Simla Hill-

Partridge.

A. t. millardi Stuart Baker, Bull, B. 0. C., xli., p. 101

(1921), (Koteghur).

Simla Hills to Chamba, Kullu and Kangra.

(1363) Arboricola rufogularis rufogularis. Blyth’s or

the Rufous-throated Hill-Partridge.

Arboricola rufogularis Blyth, J, A. S. B., xviii., p.

819 (1849), (Sikkim).

Kumaon and Garhwal to E. Assam, N. of the

Brahmaputra.

(1364) Arboricola rufogularis intermedia. The

Arrakan Hill-Partridge.

Arboricola intermedia Blyth, J. A. S. B., xxiv.,

p. 277 (I806), (Arrakan).

Assam, S. of the Brahmaputra, Chin, Kachin

Hills and Arrakan.

Arboricola rufogularis tickelli. TickelVs Red

throated Hill-Partridge.

Arboricola tickelli Hume, Game-B., ii., p. 77 (1880),

(Mooleyit, Tenasserim).

Tennasserim, S. Shan States, E. and S. Siam

and N. Malay States.

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. XXVIII

1831.

1832.

>833.

1834.

•835.

1836.

837-

(1305) Arboricola atrogularis. The White-cheeked HiU~

Partridge.

Arboricola atrogularis Blyth, .T.A.S.B., xviii., p. 819

(1849), (^S5am).

Assam, S. and N. E. of the Brahmaputra, Chin

and Kachin Hills, Arrakau.

(loGO) Arboricola mandellii. The Red-breasted Hill-

Partridge.

Arborophila mandellii Hiivie, S. F., ii, p. 449 (1874)

{Bhutan Duars).

Hills N. of the Brahmaputra from Sikkim to E.

Assam.

(1307) Arboricola brunneopecta brunneopecta. The

Broun-hreasted Hill-Partridge.

Arboricola brunneopectus Tick., Blyth, J. A. S. B.

xxiv., p. 276 (1855), {Termasscrim).

Pegu and Eastern Burma, N. W. Siam and S.

Shan States.

(1368) Tropicoperdix charltoni charltoni- The Malay

Green-legged Hill- Partridge .

Perdix charltoni Eyton, A. M. N. H. {!), xvi.,

p. 230 (1845), {Malacca).

Peninsular Siam (Gyldenstolpe), ? S. Tennas-

serim, Malay Pen. to Borneo.

Tropicoperdix charltoni chloropus. The

Green-legged Hill-Partridge.

Tropicoperdix chloropus Tick, J. A. S. B., xxiv.

p. 415 (1859), {Tennasserim).

Tennasserim, Eastern Burma to Bhamo Hills,

W. Siam, W. Shan States.

(1309j Caloperdix oculea oculea. The Ferruginous

Wood-Partridge.

Perdix oculea Temm., Piy. Galt, in., pp. 408, 732

(1815), {Sumatra).

Sumatra to Tennasserim and S. W. Siam.

Rhizothera longrirostris. The Long-hilled Wood

Partridge.

Perdix longirostris Temm., Pig. Gall., Hi., p. 323

(1815), {N. Sumatra).

Peninsular Siam and Burma to Sumatra and W

Borneo.

liIRDS OF THE IXUIAX EMPIRE.

84»

*1838. (1370) Alectoris graeca chukar. The Chukar.

Perdix chukar Gray, Hardw. III. hi. Zool., i., pi- •*4

(1830-32), {India, Nepal).

Hills of N. India and Himalayas, E. to Tibet

and Sikkim.

1839. (1370) Alectoris graeca pallescens. The Nofthern

Clmkar.

Caccabis pallescens Hume, Lahore to Yar., p. 283

(1873), {Karbu in Ladalc).

Turkestan to extreme X. Kashmir and Ladak.

1840. (1370) Alectoris graeca koriakovi. The Persian

Chukar.

Caccabis kakelik koriakovi Zarudny, Mess. Orn., j>.

(1914), {E. Persia).

E. Persia to Baluchistan, ? Sind and Quetta.

1841. (1371) Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis. The

See- see Partridge.

Perdix griseogularis Brandt, Bull. Acad. St. Peters,,

p. 365 (1843), (Transcaspia).

? Arabia, Persia, Transcaspia to Baluchistan,.

Afghanistan, Sind, Punjab.

1842. (1372) Francolinus francolinus asiae. The Northern

Indian Black Partridge.

Francolinus asiae Bonap., Compf. Rend., xlii., p. 882

(1856), (Asio), (Gurgaon).

X. India to W. Xepal ; S. to Deesa, Sambhur,.

etc., E. to Chota Xagpore.

1843. (1372) Francolinus francolinus henrici. The South,

Persian Black Partridge.

Francolinus henrici Bonap., Cowpt. Rend., xHi.,

p. 882 (1856), (Sind).

S. and E. Persia to Baluchistan, Afghanistan and

Sind.

1844. (1372) Francolinus francolinus melanonotus. The

Assam Black Partridge.

Francolinus melanonotus Hume, S. F., xi., p. 305

(1888), (.455am).

Nepal to E. Assam, Central and W. Bengal.

* For a review of the genera Alectoris (Caccabis) and Ammoperdix, see Hartert

Nov. Zool. xxiv., p. 276 (1917). For Francoh’/ms ibid, p. 288.

' ^50 JOURyAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE'IY, Vol. XXVIII.

1845. (1373) Francolinus pictus pictus. The Southern

Painted Partridge.

Perdix picta Jarrf. <€• Set., III. Orn., pi. 30 (1828),

• {Bangalore).

Ceylon and S. India, N. to Kbandesh, Raipur

and Behar.

<846. (1373) Francolinus pictus pallidus. The Northern

, Painted Partridge.

Perdix hepburni var pallida Gray, III. In. ZooL, i.,

pi. 00 (1830-32), (Odypore).

India, N. and W. of the preceding bird.

1847. (1374) Francolinus chinensis. The Eastern or Chinese

Francolin.

Tetrao chinensis Osbeck, Voyage en Chine, ii., p. 326

(1771), (China).

South China to Chin Hills and Pegu. Hainan,

Siam, etc.

1848. (1375) Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus.

The Southern Grey Partridge.

Tetrao pondicerianus Gmel., S. X., i., 2, p 760 (1789),

(Pondicherry).

South India and Ceylon.

>1849. -(137.0) Francolinus francolinus interpositus. The

Northern Grey Partridge.

F. f. interpositus Hariert, Nov. Zool., xxiv., p, 288

(1917), (Oudh).

N. W. India to Behar.

11850. (137.7) Francolinus francolinus mecranensis. The

Sind Grey Partridge.

Francolinus mecranensis Zarud. <t- Harm., Orn.

Monatsh., p. o3 (1913), (Baluchistan).

South Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan to Sind.

1851. (1376) Francolinus gularis. The Kyah or Swamp

Partridge.

Perdix gularis Temm., Pig. Gall., Hi., p. 401

(I8I0), (India), (Cachar).

Eastern Bengal, Behar and Assam.

3852. (1377) Perdix hodgsonise hodgsoniae. The Tibetan

Partridge.

Saefa hodgsonise Hodys., J. A. S. B., xxv., p. 16.")

(18.77), (Tibet).

Tibet plateaTi X. of .Sikkim and Nepal W. to

H anle.

BIRD!S OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. 8/51

'853- (!378) Tetraogallus himalayensis himalayensis. The

Him ala I/an Snoic-Coch.

T. himalayensis Gray, P. Z. S.. 184i/, p. 105

{Himalayas).

"Western Himalayas, Pamirs, to Bochara and

Turkestan.

1854. (1370) Tetraogallus tibetanus tibetanus. The Ladak

Snoiv-Cock.

T. tibetanus Gould, P.Z. S., 185.‘», -p. 47 (Ladat).

Extreme X. E. Kashmir, Ladak, W. Tibet,

Yarkand, Kashgar.

• 855. (1370) Tetraogallus tibetanus przewalskii. The East

Tibet Snov:-Cock.

T. t. przewalskii Bianchi, Aves Exped. Mong. Tibet,,

p. 165 (1907), {E. Tibet).

S. and E. Tibet t<> Kansu and Xan-Schan.

1856. (1380) Lerwa lerwa. The Snoic Partridge.

Perdix lerwa Hodgs., P. Z. S., 1833, p. 107 (X region

of Nepal).

Himalayas froar W. Kashmir to W. China.

Sub-order PEHISTEROPODES.

Famih’ MKGAPODIDiE.

1857. (1381) Megapodius nicobariensis. The Nicobar Mega-

pode.

M. nicobariensis Blytk, J. .4. S. B., o:v.. p. 52 (1846)

{Nicobars).

• Xicobars, Car X'icobar, Battye Malve.

Order HEMIPODIl.

Family TcRXiciDyE.

*1858. (1382) Turnix javanica leggei- The Ceylon Bustard-

Quail.

T. j. leggei Stuart Baker, Bull. B. O. C.. xliii « 9.

(1920), {Ceylon). ’’ ^ ^

Ceylon only.

Pugnax of Temminck (1815) is antedated by Javanica of Eafiuesque (1811 >.

«52 JOVRyAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

>859* Turnix javanica plumbipes. The Burmese Bus-

tard-Quail.

Hemii)odin8 plumbipes Hodgs., Beng. Sport Mag.,

1837, p. 346' (Nepal).

Nepal to E. Assam, Burma, W. Siam, Fed, Malay

States.

ii86o. (1382) Turnix javanica taijoor The Cmnmon Bustard-

Quail.

Hemipodius taijoor Sylces, P. Z. S., 1832, jj. loo

(Deccan).

The whole of India S. A W. of the range of

plumbipes.

1861. (1382) Turnix javanica rostrata. The Chinese Bustard-

Quail.

Turnix rostrata SwinJi., Ibis, 186o,^. o42 (China).

Formosa, and thence through S. China to Yunnan

and Shan States.

1862. (1383)

(1384)

(1385)

Turnix dussumieri. The Little Button-Quail.

Hemipodius dussumieri Temm., PI. Col., v., p. 454

(1828), (India).

All India, Burma, Siam, Formosa, Hainan.

Turnix tanki tanki. The Indian Button^Qnail.

Turnix tanki Blyth, J. A. S. B.. zii., p. 180 (1843).

All India, N. E. to Assam N. of the Brahmaputra.

*864. (]38(!) Turnix tanki blanfordi. The Burmese Button-

Quail.

Turnix blanfordi Blyth, J. A. S. B., xxii., p. 80

(1843), (Thayetmyo, Burma).

Burma, Siam, China to Manchuria and N. W. to

Assam S. of the Brahmaputra.

Order (jRALLyK.

Sub- order FULICARIyR.

Family Rallid^.

1865, (1387) Rallus aquaticus aquaticus. The W ater Rail.

I’allus aquaticus Linn., S. N., i., p. 153 (1758), (Great

Britain).

Straggler in winter into N. \V. India.

BIRDS Of THE INDIAX EMPIRE.

85.'5

1866. (13S7) Rallus aquaticus indicus. 'The Indian It'afer

Tiail.

Rallus iiulicus Blyth, J. A. S. B., xviii., p. 820 (1840),

(Bengal).

Japan, East Siberia, N, China to Himalayas ; S.

in winter.

1867. Rallus aquaticus korejewi.

Sarudny, Orn. Monatsb., p. 20^ (1905), (E. Turkestan).

A common winter visitor to N. W. India, ^ Breed-

ing Kashmir (Livesey).

'1868. (1889) Hypotaenidia Striata striata. The Blue-breast-

ed Banded Rail.

Rallus striatus Linn., S. N., p. 202 (1706),

(Philippines).

Ceylon, India, N. and Central Burma.

1869. (1390) Hypotaenidia striata obscuriora.r/(c Andaman-

ese Banded Rail.

Hypotaenidia obscuriora Hume, S. F., ii., p. 302

(1874), (Andamans).

Andaman Islands.

1870. (1391) Crexcrex. The Corn-Crake or Land-Rail.

Rallus crex Linn., S. K., i., p. 153 (1758), (Stveden).

A rare straggler into N. W. India in winter.

1871. (1392) Porzana parva. 'The Little Crake.

Rallus parvus Scop., Ann. I. Hist. Nat., p. 108 (1769)

(Kdrnthen).

A common winter visitor to N. W. India.

1872. (1393) Porzana pusilla pusilia. The Eastern Baillons

Crake.

Rallus pusillus 'Pallas, Reis. Ri(ss. Reich., Hi., p. 700

(1776), (Dauria).

Throughout Ceylon, India, Burma and E. Asia

generally.

1873. Porzana pusilla intermedia. )yestern Baillons

Crake.

Rallus intermedins i/crm., 05-«. ZooL, p 198 (1804),

(SirasburgJi).

Europe, much of Africa, 'r Deesa.

1874. (1394) Porzana porzana. The Spotted Crake.

Rallus porzana Lmn, S. N., i., p. 262 (1766), {France).

A winter visitor to X. and Central India and X.

Burma.

• I have not worked out this species and its variations.

854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII^

1875. (13!'5)

1876. (181K>)

1877. (1397)

1878. U398)

1879 (1398)

1880. (1398)

1881. (1399)

1882. (1400)

*1883. (1401)

Rallina superciliaris. The Banded Crake.

Rallus superciliaris Eyton, A. M. N. H., xvi., p. 230

(1844), {Malay Peninsula).

Throughout Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Ma'ay

Peninsula.

Rallina fasciata. The Malayan Banded Crake.

Rallus fasciatus Raffi., Trans. L. S., xiii., p. 328

(1822), (Malay).

Assam, Burma, Siam, etc.

Rallina canningi. The Andamanese Banded Crake

Euryzona canningi (Tytler) Blyth, Ibis, 1863, p. HO

(Port Canning, Andamans).

Andamans.

Amaurornis fuscus fuscus. The Buddy Crake.

Rallus fuscus Linn,, S. X., i., p. 262 (1766), (Philip-

pines).

S. India, Ceylon, Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra,

etc.

Amaurornis fuscus bakeri. The Northern Buddy

Crake.

Porzana fusca bakeri Hartert, Nov. ZooL, 1917, p. 272

(Bhim-tal).

Northern India and Burma.

Amaurornis fuscus erythrothorax. The Eastern

Buddy Crake.

Gallinula erythrothorax Tenun. and ScJil., Faun. Jap.,

p. 121 (1849), (Japan).

A rare straggler into extreme X. E. Burma ;

Japan to Yunnan and Siam.

Amaurornis bicolor. Elves' Crake.

Porzana bicolor Wald.. A. M. X. H., (4) »r., p. 47

(1872), (Sikkim). ' *

Nepal and Sikkim to E. Assam, N. and S. of the

Brahmaputra.

Amaurornis akool. The Brou n Crake.

Rallus akool Sykes, P. Z. S., 1832, p. 164 (Deccayi).

N. and Central India, S. to the Deccan and Mysore.

Amaurornis phoenicura phcenicura. The

Ceylon White-breasted Water-Hen.

Rallus phoenicurus Pennant, Ind. ZooL, ix., p. 10

(1769), (Ceylon).

Ceylon and Travancore.

See Stresemann Nov. Zool., xx., p. 305, 1913.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

8o5

1884.

1S85.

1886.

1887.

1888.

1889.

1890.

1891,

(1401) Amaurornis phoenicura chinensis. The Chi-

nese White-breasted Water-Hen.

Fulica chinensis Tabl. PI. Enl., p. 54 (1783),

{China).

India, Burma, China, etc.

(1401) Amaurornis phoenicura insularis. The Anda-.

man White-breasted W ater-Hen.

A. insularis Sharpe, Cat. B. M., xxiii., p. 163 (1894),

{Andamans).

Andamans.

(1402) Gallinula chloropus parvifrons. The Indian

Moorhen.

Gallinula parvifrons Blyth, J. A. 8. B., xii., p. 180

(1843), {Calcutta).

Practically the whole of India and Ceylon.

(1403) Qallicrex cinerea. The Kora or Water-Cock.

Fulica cinerea Gmel., S. N., i., p. 702 (1789), {China).

Ceylon, India East to China, Japan and to Phi-

lippines.

(1404) Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus. The

Indian Purple Coot.

Gallinula poliocephala Lath., Ind. Om. Suppl., p. 68

(1801), {India).

India, Ceylon, Burma, Siam.

(1405) Fulica atra atra. The Common Coot.

Fulica atra Linn., S. N., i., p, 151 (1758), {Sweden).

Europe, Africa, Asia. All India.

Heliornithid.e.

(1406) Heliopais personata. The Masked Finfoot.

Podica personata Gray., P. Z. S., 1848, p. 90

{Malacca).

Assam, Burma and Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.

Sub-order MEGALORNES.

Familjf MegalornithidjE.

(1407) Megalornis grus lilfordi. The Eastern Crane.

Grus lilfordi Sharpe, Gat. B, M., xxiii., p. 252 (1894),

{E. Siberia.)

Eastern Siberia, Wintering in N. W. India.

5

8r,6 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV JIl

i8q2. Megalornis nigricoliis. The Black-iMcked

Crane.

Grus nigricoliis Przewahki, Mo7igol. Tang., ii., p. 135

(1876), (Koko-Nur).

Tibet to the Koko-Nor.

i8q3. Megalornis monachus. The Hooded Crane.

Grus monacha Temm., PI. Col., 555 (1836), (Tesao

and Corea).

A rare straggler into India. (Assam and Manipur.)

1894. (1408) Megalornis leucogeranus. The Great White or

Siberian Crane.

Grus leucogeranus Pallas, Beise Reich. Russ., ii., p.

714 (1773), {Irtin and Ob Rivers).

Hare visitor to N. W. Ind.

1895. (1400) Megalornis antigone antigone. The Sarus

Crane.

Ardea antigone Linn., S. N., i., p. 142 (1758), {India?/

Harte?'t).

Northern India to W. Assam,

1806. H410) Megalornis antigone sharpii. The Burmese

Sarus.

Grus sharpii Blanf., Bull. B. 0. C.,v.,p. vii. (1896),

( Burma).

Assam, E, and S. of the Brahmaputra, Burma and

Siam.

1897. (1411) Anthropoides virgo. The Demoiselle Crane.

Ardea virgo Linn., S. N., i., p. 141 (1758), {In

( iriente).

E. Europe and W. Asia, wintering N. E. Africa

and India.

Sub-order OTIDES.

Family OTiDiDi®.

*1898. (1412) Otis tarda tarda. The Great Bustard.

Otis tarda Lin?/,, S. N., i., p. 154 (1768), {Poland).

Hare straggler into N. W. India. Europe and W.

Asia.

* Sarudny separates tlic Turke.stan (and Indian) bird as 0. t. korejewi. I cannot

divide them.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

857

1899. (1413) Tetrax tetrax orientalis. The Eastern Little

Bustard.

O. t. orientalis Hartert, Nov. ZooL, xxiii., p. •'’>•‘50,

(1916), {Sarepta).

S. E. Russia, AV. Siberia and Central Asia. AAMnter

visitor to India.

1900. (1414) Choriotes edwardsi. The Great Indian Bustard.

Otis edwardsi. Gray in Hardw., IH. In. ZooL, i., pi. 50

(1830-2), {no locality) (Khaiiawar).

N. \W India. E. to Shahabad and Gaza, S. to

about 11°.

1901. (1115) Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni. Macqueen's

Bustard or Houbara.

Otis macqueeni Gray, Op. cit.,pl. 47, {Himalaya^).

N. W. India to a little E. of the .Tamna. S. K.

Europe and A\'. Asia.

*1903. (1416) Sypheotides indica. The Lesser Florican or

Lthh •

Otis indica Gm;I., S. N., i., p. 725 (1789), {India).

The greater part of India in suitable localities.

E. to AA'’. Bengal and Behar.

1903. (1417) Sypheotides bengralensis. The Bengal Florican.

Otis bengalensis Gmel., S. N., i., p. 724 (1789),

{Benyat).

Bengal and A.ssam X. and E. of Gauges.

Order IJMICOL^V

Family Burhimd^:.

1904. (1418) Burhinus oedicnemus indicus. The Indian

Stone-Curleu'.

Oedicnemus indicus, Salva.. Att. Soc. Ital. Set. Nat.,

vii.,p. 381 (1866), {India).

Practically throughout Ceylon, India, Burma and

Siam.

1905. (1418) Burhinus oedicnemus astutus. The Sind

Stone-Curlew.

Hartert, Nov. Zool. xxiii., p. 93 (1916), {Fao, Perxia).

Transcaspia, E. Persia, Baluchistan and Sind.

• Mr. Iredale points out to me that timelin’s name indica is founded on the

plate of Miller. This is undoubtedly Syphvotes auTitu and therefore indica must be

retained.

8o8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAIS EMPIRE.

859

1914. (1427) Olareola lactea. The Small Indian Pratincole or

Swallow-Plover.

Glareola lactea Temm., Man. d'Orn., ed. 2, ii., jp. 503

(1820), (Bengal).

Cejdon, Inclia, Burma and Siau’

Family Jacanid^e.

1915. (1428) Metopidius indicus. The Bronze-winged Jacana.

Parra indica Lath., Ind. Orn., ii., p. 765 (1790),

(India).

India, Burma, Siam, Malay Pen., Sumatra, Java

to Celebes.

1916. (1429) Hydrophasianus chirurgus. The Pheasant-tailed

Jaeana.

Tringa chirurgus Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr.,

ii.,p. 92 (1786), (New Guinea).

India, Burma, Ceylon, Siam, South China, Malay

P. to Java, etc.

Family Charadkiid^.*

Sub-family Charadriince.

1917. (1430) Arenaria interpres interpres. The Turnstone.

Tringa interpres Linn., S.N., i., p. 148 (1758),

(Sweden),

Winter visitor to India. S. to Ceylon. E. to

Siam, etc.

1918. (1431) Lobivanellus indicus indicus. The Indian

Red-wattled Lapwing.

Tringa indica Boad., PL Enl., p. 50 (1783), (Goa).

India and Ceylon.

1919. (1432) Lobivanellus indicus atronuchalis. The Bur-

mese Red-wattled Lap>wing.

Lobivanellus atronuchalis Blyth, Jerd., B. of iiii,,

p. 648 (1864), (Burma).

Assam S. of the Brahmaputra to Siam, Cochin

China, Malay P., etc.

1920. (1433) Sarciophorus malabaricus. The Y ellow- wattled

Lapwing.

Charadrius malabaricus Bodd., PI. Enl., p. 53 (1783

(Malabar Coast).

India and Ceylon generally, E. to E. Assam.

* This paper does not attempt to deal with tlie question of Families and Sub-

families which are left, pending further investigation, as in Blanford and Oates.

860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1921. (1434) Microsarcops cinereus. The Grey-headed Lap-

wing.

PluvianuB cinereus Blyth, J.A.8.B., xi., p. .587

(1842), (Calcutta).

N. China, Mongolia, Japan. In winter, S. to

India, etc.

1922. (143;')) Hoplopterus ventralis. The Spur-winged Plover.

Charadrius ventralis Wagl., Syst. Av., No. ii. (1827),

(Java).

N. E. India, Burma, Siam and S. China.

1923. (1436) Vanellus vanellus. The Lapwing, Peewit or

Green Plover.

Tringa vanellus Linn., S.N., i., p. 148 (1758),

(Sweden).

Fairly common from N. "W. India to Assam and

Burma (once).

1924. (1437) Chettusia gregaria. The Sociable Plover.

Charadrius gregarius Pall., Reise. Reichs. Russ., i.,

p. 456 (1771), (Volga).

E. aud S. E. Russia and Central Asia. Northern

and Central India in winter.

1925. (1438) Chettusia leucura. The White-tailed Lapwing.

Charadrius leucurus Licht. in Eversm. Reise. av.

Orenb.nach Buchara, p. 137 (1823), (Kuwan).

Syria, Persia, Mesopotamia, Turkestan. Winter

in India.

1926. (1441) Squatarola squatarola hypomelana. The East-

ern Grey Plover.

Charadrius hypomelanus Pall., Reise., Russ. Reichs.

iii.,p. 699 (1776), (Siberia).

Siberia from Taimyr to Alaska. Winter to

India, Ceylon, etc.

*1927. (1439) Pluvialis dominicus fulvus. The Eastern Golden

Plover.

Charadrius fulvus Gmel., S.N., i., 2, p. 687 (1789)

( Tahiti).

Breeding Siberia and wintering S. Asia, India,

Ceylon, etc.

* As the generic name Charadrius is applicable to the Ring Plovers, etc., we

cannot use it for the Golden Plover. The next name available is Pluvialis Brisson

Omith, V. p. 42, 1700.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

861

1928. (1440), Pluvialis apricarius. The Golden Plover.

Charadrius apricarius Linn., S.N., i.,p. 150 (1758),

(Oland).

Breeding N. Europe, straggler only into N. W.

India.

1929. (1442) Charadrius leschenaulti. The Large Sand-

Plover.

Charadrius leschenaulti Less., Diet. Sci. Nat., xUi.

p. 36 (1826), {Pondicherry).

Winter, Sea-coasts of India, Burma and Ceylon.

1930. (1443) Charadrius mongolus mong-oius.

Lesser Sand-Plover.

Charadrius mongolus Pall., Reise. Reiches. Russ., Hi.,

p. 700 (1776), {Mongolia).

Breeding Mongolia and E. Siberia, winter to

India, etc.

1931. (1443) Charadrius mongolus atrifrons. The Centred,

Asian Lesser Sand-Plover.

Charadrius atrifrons Wagler, Isis, 1829, p. 650

{Bengal).

Breeding Central Asia. Winter to India, etc.

1932. (1444) Charadrius asiaticus asiaticus. The Caspian

Sand-Plover.

Charadrius asiaticus Pall., Reise. Reichs. Russ., ii.,

p. 715 (1773), {8. Arctic Steppes).

Breeding Caspia to Central Asia. India, Hatna-

giri.

>933* (1445) Charadrius veredus. The Eastern Sand-Plover

or Dotterel.

Charadrius veredus Gould, P.Z.<S., 1848, p. 38 {N,

Australia).

Breeds N. China and Mongolia, winters South

Andamans.

• 934- (1447) Charadrius dubius dubius. The Little Ringed-

Plover.

Charadrius dubius Scop. Del. Flor. et Faun. Insuhr.

ii., p. 93 (1786), {Luzon).

South China to Philippines (? Tennasserim).

•935- (1447) Charadrius dubiu^ Jerdoni. Jerdon’s Little

Ringed-Plover.

Agialitis jerdoni Legge, P.Z.8., i., p. 125 (1831),

{Ganges).

Throughout India.

862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

1936. (1448) Charadrius dubius curonicus. The European

Little Ringed-Plover.

Charadrius curonicus Gmel., S.N., i., 2, 692 (1789),

(Guronia).

Breeding Europe, winter in India.

*•937* (1449) Charadrius hiaticula tundrae. The Eastern

Ringed-Plover.

jd5gialitis hiaticula tundrae Lowe, Bull. B.O.G., xxxvi,

p. 7 (1915), (Yenneaei).

>938. (1450) Charadrius placidus. The Long-billed Ringed-

Plover.

Charadrius placidus Gray, Cat. Mam., etc. Coll. Hodg.,

p. 70 (1863), (Nepal).

Breeding N. E. Asia. Winter casual to N. E.

India, Nepal to Assam and Burma.

>939* (1446) Charadrius alexandrinus alexandrinus. The

Kentish-Plover.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linn., S. N., i., p. 160

(1758), (Egypt).

Breeding Europe, N. Africa, N. Asia, etc..

Winter, S. Asia.

1940. (1446) Charadrius alexandrinus seebohmi. The

Indian Kentish-Plover.

C. a. seebohmi Hartert and Jackson, Ibis, 1915, p. 529

(Ceylon).

Shores of Red Sea, Ceylon.

1941. (1446) Charadrius alexandrinus dealbatus. The

Chinese Kentish-Plover.

Agialites dealbatus Swinh., P. Z. S., 1870, p. 138

(Chirm).

Japan and China. Straggler Burma.

1942. (1446) Charadrius alexandrinus peroni. TheBornean

Kentish-Plover.

Charadrius peroni Schleg., Mus. Pay-Bos, sp. 33

(1865), (Borneo.)

Resident Malay Coasts and Borneo. Extreme

S. Tennasserim.

• The type of the Genus is 7«ia<ic?<Zo. If the Northern Sand-Plovers

be removed from this genus they would bear the name Cirrepedesmus.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

863

•943.

1944.

•945.

1946.

1947-

1948.

1949.

Sub-family H^EMATOPiDiE.

(1450) Haematopus ostralegus ostralegus. The

Oyster-catcher.

Hsematopus ostralegus Linn., S.N., i., p. 152 (1758),

(Oland).

Breeding N. Europe. India in winter.

(1450) Hasmatopus ostralegus longipes. The Siberian

Oyster-catcher.

H. o. longipes Buturlin, Men. Orn., 1910, p. 36

{Caspian Basin).

Breeding Siberia, wintering South. Common

India.

(1451) Haematopus ostralegus osculans. TheChinese

Oyster-catcher.

Htematopus osculans Swinlt., P. Z. S., 1871, p. 405

{N. China).

Breeding N. China, Japan, etc. Winter to

Burma.

(1452) Himantopus himantopus himantopus. The

Black-winged Stilt.

Charadrius himantopus Linn., S. N., i., p. 151 (1758),

{Europe).

Breeding S. Europe, S. Asia to China, Ceylon,

Malaya, Siam, etc.

(1453) Recurvirostra avocetta avocetta. The Avocet.

Recurvirostra avocetta Linn., S. K., i., p. 151

(1758) {Europe, Oland).

Breeding Europe, X. Central Asia, etc. Winter

Africa, India, etc.

(1454) Ibidorhnycha struthersii. The Ibis Bill.

Ibidorhnycha Struthersii, Vigors, P. Z. S., i.,p. 174

(1831), {Himalaya).

Central Asia and Himalayas to AY. China.

Sub-family Totanin'a;.

(1454) Numenius arquatus arquatus. The Curlew.

Scolopax arquata Linn., 8. N., i., p. 145 (1758),

{Sweden).

X. Europe. Winter Southwards, casual in India.

864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

■950. (1454) Numenius arquatus lineatus. The Eastern

Curlew.

Numenius lineatus Cuv., Regne d’Ani. i, p. 521

(1831), {India).

Breeding Central Asia, wintering India to

Ceylon.

1951. (1455) Numenius phaeopus phaeopus. The Whimbrel.

Scolopax phaeopus Linn., S. N., i., p. 146 (1758)

{Sweden).

Breeding Europe, N. W. Asia. Wintering

India to Ceylon.

1952. (145C)) Limosa limosa limosa The Bloch-tailed Godwit.

Scolopax limosa Linn., S. N., i., p. 147 (1758),

{Sweden).

Breeding N. Europe and N. Asia. Winter-

ing India to Ceylon.

•953- (1457) Limosa lapponica lapponica. The Bar-tailed

Godwit.

Scolopax lapponica Linn., S. N., i., p. 147 (1758);

{West Europe).

Breeding N. Europe, N. W. Asia. Winter N.W.

India.

1954. (1458) Macroramphus semipalmatus. The Snipe-

biUed Godwit.

Macroramphus semipalmatus {Jerdon) Blyth, J.A.S.B.,

xvii., I., p. 252 (1848), {Calcutta).

Breeding ? ; N. China and Mongolia to .Japan.

Casual visitor, India and Burma.

1955- (1459) Terekia cinerea. The Terek Sandpiper.

Scolopax cinerea (iuldenstat, Nov. Com. Petrop., xix.,

p. 473 (1774), {Caspian S.)

Breeding N. E. Europe, N. Asia. South in

winter.

*1956. (1460) Tringa hypoleuca. The Common Sandpiper.

Tringa hypoleucos Linn., S. N., i., p. 149 (17.58),

{Sweden).

Breeding Europe and Asia, England to Japan

and Himalayas.

1957. (1461) Tringa glareola. The Wood Sandpiper.

Tringa glareola Linn., S.N., i., p. 149 (1758)

{Sweden).

Breeding Europe and N. Asia. Winter South,

India, Ceylon, etc.

♦ The type of the genus Tringa is T. ochropus (Matthews, Nov. Zool. xviii,

p. 6, 1911). Tringa is therefore tne generic nanae for all the following Sand-

pipers.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

865

1958. (1462) Tringa ochropus. The Green Sandpiper.

Tringa ochropus Linn., S. N., i., p. 149 (1758),

{Sweden).

Breeding N, Europe and Asia. Winter S. t«>

India, Burma, Ceylon, etc.

•959- (1463) Tringa stagnatilis. The Marsh Sandpiper.

Totanus stagnatilis Becks., Orn. Taschenb. ii., p. 293

(1803), {Holland).

Breeding Europe and Central Asia. Winter S.

to India, Burma and Ceylon, etc.

i960. (1465) Tringa erythropus. The Spotted or Dusky

Redshank.

Scolopax erythropus Pall., Vroeg’s Cat. Colt. Adurn.,

p. 6 (1764), {Holland).

Breeds N. of Arctic Circle Europe and Asia ;

S. in winter to Ceylon, etc.

*1961. (1464) Tringa totanus eurhinus. The Eastern

Redshank.

Totanus totanus eurhinus Oberholser, Pro. U. S. Nat.

Mus., xxii., p. 207 (1900), {Ladak).

Breeds Central Asia and Himalayas. Winter

India, Ceylon, Burma, etc.

1962. (1466) Tringa nebularia. The Greenshank.

Scolopax nebularia Gunner., Leem, Beskr. Finm.

Lapp.,p. 251 (1767), {Norway).

Breeding N. Europe and Asia. S. in winter to

Ceylon, etc.

1963. (1467) Tringa guttifer. Armstrong's Sandpiper.

Totanus guttifer Nordm., Erm. Reise. Nat. Atl., p. 17

{1835), {Ochotsk).

Breeding N, and Central Asia and Himalayas.

Winter to N.-E. India, Burma.

1964. (14(;8) Philomachus pugnax. The Ruff and Reeve.

Tringa pugnax Linn., S. N., i., p. 148 (1758)

{Sweden).

Breeds temperate Europe and Asia ; S. to India,

Ceylon and Burma in winter.

‘ It is more than probable that a great number of our Indian migrants ari;

Tn'njfa fotowMS especially in N. W' India.

866 JOURjSiAL, BOMBAY BATURAL UlST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII-

* As Tringa takes the place of Tolanus for the Sandpipers, Erolia (Vieill., Anal.

1816, p. 55) takes the place of Tringa for the Stints.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

867

1973. (1478)

1974.

Erolia alpina pusilla. The Eastern Dunlin.

Scolopax pusilla Falk., Beylriige, Rvss. Reich., Hi,, p.

371 (1786), {Tomsk).

Breeding W. Siberia, S. to India in winter.

Calidris canuta canuta. The Knot.

Tringa canutus Linn., S. N., i., p, 149 (1758),

{Sweden).

Breeding N. Siberia, etc. Winter rare straggler

into India.

•975- (li’'7) Calidris tenuirostris. The Eastern Knot.

Tetanus tenuirostris Horsf., Trans. L. S., xiii., p. 192

(1821), {Java).

Summer E. Siberia. Winter S. E. Asia, straggler

into India and Burma.

1976. (1479) Limicola falcinella falcinella. The Western

Broad-hilled Sandpiper.

Scolopax falcinellus Pontop., Danske Atl., i., p. 263

(1763), {Denmark).

Breeding N. Europe and N. W. Asia ; winter to

N. W. India.

•977. (1^79)

*1978. (1480)

1979. (1481)

Limicola-falcinella sibirica. The Eastern Broad-

hilled Sandpiper.

Limicola sibirica Dresser, P. Z. S., 1876, p. 674

{China).

Breeding N. E. Siberia. Winter South to X. E.

India, Burma, etc.

Lobipes lobatus. The Red-necked Phalarope.

Tringa lobata Linn., S. N., i., p. 148 (1758), {Hud-

son's Bay).

Breeding N. Europe, Asia and America. Winter

S. to India, etc.

Phalaropus fulica rius. The Grey Phalarope.

Tringa fulicaria Linn., S. N., i., p. 148 (1758), {Hud-

.son’s Bay).

Breeding circumpolar. S. in Asia to N. India,

etc.

Sub-family Scolapacina:.

1980. (1482) Scolopax rusticola rusticola. The Wood-Cock.

Scolopax rusticola Linn., S. N.,i., p. 146 (1758),

{Sweden).

Breeding N. Europe and Asia. Wintering South

to Ceylon, etc.

* The Red— necked Phalarope and Grey Phalarope through so alike superficially

are very distinct generically and cannot be retained in the same genus.

868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. XXVIII.

1981. (1488) Gallinago nemoricola. The Wood-Snife.

Gallinago nemoricola Hodgs., J. A. S. B., vi., p. 490

(1831), {Nepal).

Himalayas, Dalhousim to E. Assam, Burma,

Bombay.

1983. (1486) Gallinago solitaria. The Solitary Snife.

Gallinago solitaria Hodgs., Glean, in Sci., Hi., p. 288

(1831), {Nepal).

Altai to Japan, Himalayas and N. Burmese

Hills ; S. in winter.

1983. (1485) Gallinago gallinago gallinago. The Common,

Fantail Snipe.

Scolopax gallinago Linn., S. N., i., p. 244 (1758),

{Sweden).

Europe and N. Asia to Lake Baikal, S. whole

Indian Empire.

1984. (1484) Gallinago gallinago raddei. The Eastern Fan-

tail Snipe.

Scolopax gallinago raddei Buturlin, Waders. Russ. Em.

p. 56 (1902), ( E. Siberia).

Eastern Siberia and N. China. Winter to S.

China, Burma, E. India, etc.

1985. (1485) Gallinago stenura. The Pin-tail Snipe.

Scolopax stenura Kuhl, Bonap., Ann. Star. Nut. Bol.

iv., p. 335 (1830), {Sunda Is.).

Summer N. E. Asia. Winter S. including whole

Indian Empire.

1986. Gallinago media. The Great Snipe .

Scolopax media Lath., Gen. Syn. Supp. i., p. 292

(1787), {England).

Breeding N. Europe to Caucasus. Straggler

into India.

1987. Gallinago megala. Swinhoe's Snipe.

Gallinago megala Swinh., Ibis, 1861, p. 343 {Peking)

Breeding N. E. Siberia and China. Winter South.

Straggler into India and Burma.

1988. (1487) Lymnocryptes minima. The Jack Snipe.

Scolopax minima Briinn., Om,., Bor. p. 49 (1764),

{Europe).

Breeding N. E. Europe and N. W. Asia. Winter

South, whole Indian Empire.

BIRDS OF rUE INDIAN EMPIRE .

869

Family Rostratulid^e.

1989. ''^ (1488) Rostratula beng^halensis ben^halensis. The

Painted Snipe.

Rallus benghalensis Liraw., 8. N.,i., p. lo.S (IT/iS),

{Asia).

N. E. Africa, S. Arabia, Persia, India, Ceylon,

’ Burma, China, etc.

Order GAVI^.

Family LARiUiE.

Sub-family Larince.

1990. (1489) Larus ichthyaetus The Great Black-headed Gull.

Larus ichthyaetus Pall., Reise. Reichs.\Russ., it., p. 713

(1733), (Caspian Sea).

Breeding S. Russia to Iritisch. Winter India,

Burma and Ceylon.

199'- (1400) Larus ridibundus ridibundus- T/ie RZac/.

Gull.

Larus ridibundus Linn., 8. N., p. 225 (1736),

(Europe).

Breeding Europe to Turkestan. Winter N. India

to Bombay, etc.

1992. (1491) Larus brunnicephalus. The Brown-headed

Gull.

Larus brunnicephalus ,/crrf., JAfdr. J.A.6' , rii p ->25

(1840), (India).

Breeding Central Asia. S. in winter, India,

Burma, Siam, etc.

1993. (1492) Larus hemprichii. The Sooty Gull.

Adelarus hemprichii J. F. Orn. 1853 « 106

(Red Sea).

Coast of East Africa, Red Sea, S. Arabia.

Mekran and Sind Coasts.

1994. (1493) Larus genei. The Slender-billed Gull.

Larus genei Breme, Rev. Zool., 18.39, r4. ii., p 3->]

(Africa).

Mediterranean to Persian Gulf, Mekran, Sind.

• This genus has little in common with the time Snipes and will have to be

removed to a position leading from the Rails to tlie Snipe and their other relations.

870 JOTJBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII.

1995* (1404) Larus fuscus taimyrensis. The Dark-hacked

Herring Gull.

Larus affinis taimyrensis Buturlin, Mess. Om. 1911,

p. 149 {Yenessei).

Breeding N. Europe and Siberia. Winter S, to

E. Indian Coasts.

1996. (1495) Larus argentatus cachinans. The Yellou'-legged

Herring Gull.

Larus cachinans Pall., Zooij. Russ. As., it., p. 318

(1827), {Caspiaii Sea).

S. Europe, N. Africa, S. W. Asia, E. to Bay of

Bengal.

Sub-family Sternin,e.

,1997. (1496) Chlidonias leucopareia indica. The Indian

Whiskered Tern.

Viralva indica Stevens, Shaw's Gen. Zool., xiii., i.,

p. 169 (1832), (Cawnpore).

All India to Ceylon.

1998. (1497) Chlidonias leucoptera. The White-winged Black

Tern.

Sterna leucoptera Temm., Man. d'Orn., p. 483 (I8I0)

{Mediterranean).

S. Europe to E. Asia. Tippera, Burma and

Ceylon, etc.

1999. (1498) Hydroprogne caspia caspia. The Caspian Tern.

Sterna caspia Pall., Nov. Com. Acad. Petro., xiv., i.,

p. -582 (1770), {Caspian Sea).

In India breeding N. W. Coast and Ceylon.

2000. (1499) Sterna nilotica nilotica. The GuU-hilled Tern.

Sterna nilotica Gmel., S.N., i., p. 606 (1789), {Egypt).

Europe, X. Africa, Central Asia, India and Ceylon.

2001. (1500) Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis. The Sand-

u'ich Tern.

Sterna sandvicensis Lath., Gen. Syn. Suppl., i., p. 296

(1787), {Sandwich Island).

Summer in Europe ; winter S. to Africa, Persian

Gulf and X. W. India.

2002. (1501) Sterna bengalensis bengalensis. The Smaller

Crested Tern.

Sterna bengalensis Less., Traite d'Orn., p. 621 (1831),

{Indian Coasts.)

Mediterranean to Persian Gulf and X. W. India.

BIRDS OB THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

871

2003. (1501)

2004. (1502)

2005. (1502)

2006. (1503)

2007. (1504)

2008. (1505)

2009. (1506)

2010. (1506)

2011. (1507)

Sterna bengalensis zimmermanni. The Chinest,

Small Crested Tern.

Sterna zimmermanni Reichen., Orn. Monatshr., p.

(1903), (Kiachao).

East Coast China. ? Siam and Burma.

Sterna bergii velpx. The Arabian Large Crested

Tern.

Sterna velox CrHzschmar, RuppdVs Atl., p. 21 (1826),

(Coasts of Red Sea.)

Red Sea to Persian Gulf and Ceylon.

Sterna bergii cristata. The Australian Large

Crested Tern.

Sterna cristata Stephens in Shaw's Genn. Zool., xiii.,

p. 146(1826), (China). -

Australia, S. E. China to Malay Pen., Siam and

Burma.

Sterna seena. The Indian River Tern.

Sterna seena Sykes, P.Z.S., 1832, p. 171 (Deccan).

India, Burma and N. Malay Pen.

Sterna malanogaster. The Black-bellied Tern.

Sterna melanogaster Temm., PI. Col., pi. 434 (1827)

(Ceylon).

All India and Burma. Ceylon.

Sterna repressa. The White-cheeked Tern.

Sterna repressa Hartert, Nov. Zool., 1916, p. 288

(Persian Sea).

Sea coasts from E. Arabia and Persia to

Laccadives.

Sterna hirundo hirundo. The Common Tern.

Sterna hirundo Linn. S.N., i. p. 137 (1758), (Sweden

Temperate N. America, Europe, Asia. India to

Ceylon.

Sterna hirundo tibetana. The Tibetan Tern.

Sterna tibetana Saunders, P.Z.S., 1876,^. 649 (Tibet)

Tibet, Turkestan, Himalayas.

Sterna longipennis. Nordmann’s Tern.

Sterna longipennis Nordm., in Erman’a Reise., p. 17

(1835), (Ochotsk).

Eastern coasts of Asia to New Guinea, Malay

Pen., Ceylon (once).

7

872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vd. XXVIIl.

2012. (1508) Sterna dougalli korustes. The Eastern Rosy

Tern.

Sterna korustes Hume., S.F., ii., p. 318 (1874),

(Andamans).

Ceylon, Andamans, Tenasserim Islands, etc.

2013. (1510) Sterna albifrons albifrons. The Little Tern.

Sterna albifrons Pall., Vroeg's Cat., p. 6 (1764),

(Holland).

Temperate Europe, Central Asia. Winter, N.

W. India, (sea-coasts).

Sterna albifrons gouldi. Hume’s Little Tern.

Sterna gouldi Hume, S.F., v., p. 326 (1877), (Upper

India).

Breeding on the larger rivers of N. India ;

• extreme W. to E.

Sterna albifrons sinensis. The White-shafted

Little Tern.

Sterna sinensis Gmel., S. N. i., p. 605 (1789), (China).

Ceylon, Burmese and Malayan coast eastwards

(sea coasts).

Sterna albifrons saundersi. The Bloch-shafted

Little Tern.

Sterna saundersi Hume, S.F., v., p. 324-326 (1877),

(Karachi).

Itesident, breeding, on coasts of Sind and

Mekran.

Sterna sumatrana. The Blach-naped Tern.

Sterna sumatrana Ruffl., Trans. L.S., xiii., p. 329

(1877), (Sumatra).

Islands of Indian Ocean, Malay Pen. to

Australia, etc.

2018. (1513) Sterna anaetheta anaetheta. The Panayan

Tern.

Sterna ansethetus Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Insuhr.,

ii., p. 92 (1786), (Panay).

Japan to Ceylon.

2019. (1513) Sterna anaetheta fuligula. The Red Sea Brown-

winged Tern.

Sterna fuligula Licht., Forster's Descrip. Anim. (1844),

(Red (Sea).

Red Sea. Mekran Coast to islands off Malabar.

• This bird is possibly a true species and not a subspecies but for the present I

retain it as a race of albifrons (minula auct.;

2014. (1510)

2015. (1509)

•2016. (1511)

2017. (1512)

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

873

2020. (1514) Sterna fuscata infuscata. The Indian Sooty.

Tern.

Sterna infuscata Licht. Verv. Doubt. Mus. Berlin, p.

81 (1823), (India).

Laccadives, India, Malay Archipelago, etc.

2021. (1515) Anous stolidus pileatus. The Philippine Noddy.

Sterna pileata Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Insuhr. ii ,

p. 92 (1786), (Philippines).

Japanese Islands, Philippines to Laccadives, to

Nicobars, etc.

2022. (1516) Anous tenuirostris. The Slender-billed N oddy .

Sterna tenuirostris Temm., PI. Col. d'Ois., ii., pi. 202

(1873), (Senegal errore, Seychelles).

Tropical Seas.

2023. Gygis alba. The White Tern.

Sterna alba Sparm., Mus. Carl., i.. No. 2 (1786),

(India orientali errore. Ascension /.).

Straggler Bay of Bengal.

2024. (1517) Rhyncops albicollis. The Indian Skimmer.

Rhyncops albicollis Swains., An. in Menag., p. 360

(1838), (India).

India, Burma, Siam.

Family STEKCORARIIDiG.

2025. (1518) Stercorarius parasiticus parasiticus. Richard-

son's Skua.

Larus parasiticus Linn., S. N., i., p. 136 (1758),

(Scandinavian Coast).

Breeding almost circumpolar. Mekran and Sind

Coasts.

2026. (1519) Stercorarius pomarinus. The Pomatorhine

Skua.

Lestris pomarinus Temm., Man. d'Orn., p. 514 (1815),

(Holland).

Moulmein, once.

(To he continued.)

874

GAME ANBIALS OF KASHMIR AND ADJACENT HILL PROVINCES.

By

Col. a. E. Ward.

Fart IV.

(With a map, plate and one text block.)

GOAT ANTELOPES.

No. 352.— SEROW.

The “Ramu” of Kashmiris ; eastward named “ Yahmu” and then further the

“ Kurt ” or even the “ Thar ” is the name used by the villagers.

A few years ago very few serow were to be found in Kashmir, as they had

been neaily exterminated by the villagers who, when the snow was deep, drove

them with dogs.

When disturbed the serow dashes wildly down hill, leaping from rock to rock

wdth extraordinary agility, which is unlooked for in a heavy built animal ; it

is thin habit which gives the dogs a great advantage, for it gets driven

down to the bottom of the vaUey and is mobbed in the soft snow. Apart

from the snow the serow is not a good traveller on the flat, where it seldom

goes, for its home is amongst rocks and forest, where the undergrowth is not

heavy. At times however it will penetrate into masses of ringal and hide.

After a rainy night comes often a sunny morning, the serow then takes to

some rocky ledge and lies in the sunshine, often alone but generally within

reasonable distance of a companion. In country which is not disturbed and is

well preserved, a pair of serow will settle down in a small area, and apparently

seldom leave it. In the Kashmir Game Reserves it is easy to find a serow, but

not always so easy to get at it. Two settled down amongst some cliffs which

bordered the road or rather the riding path, for in the Kashmir Game Reserves

there are no public roads. Over and over again these serow were seen, some-

times they would stand but if within 200 or 300 yards they would move off.

Last year these serow were over bold and were wiped out by a guest of the

State, but their place has been taken by others, enticed possibly by the shelter

of the overhanging rocks, the trickling water, the feeding and comparative

seclusion.

Measurement of Horns.

GAME ANIMALS OF KASHMIR.

875

These horns are a poor record, but Kashmir and the adjacent districts do

not supply any better. It may be that the serow are overshot and do not

reach old age, for many sportsmen want a specimen to complete a collection.

In the United Provinces horns of 10 inches are not rare. 12" is a really good

head but this length has been exceeded.

A frightened serow utters a screeching whistle, which when once started it

will continue for some time.

On a winter’s day in one of the Game Reserves this noise was repeated over and

over again. The verandah of the very rough shed in which residence had been

taken up looked over the river and across an open flat space about 150 yards

wide, then came a path following the line of the hills on the opposite side of the

river. The serow w'as somewhere on the flat and upstream.

It was a bright sunny day, and, as the snow was slowly melting, walking was

not easy as the surface w'ould not bear but gave way with a jerk.

Going round by the bridge and walking up stream along the path, which as

mentioned skirted the opposite hill, took about lialf an hour. The path turned

to the right and went round a few rocks which jutted out ; beyond this corner

nothing could be seen except the bushes on the flat covered with snow, forming

a number of pure white mounds.

The path as usual was marked with deer tracks, but there w'as nothing to

guide or to give a clue as to what animal had frightened the serow ; probably a

leopard was on the prowl, but it might be that pigs were about.

In order to see round the rocky corner an attempt to get off the path to

the left was made, but the bushes and snow made bad going ; the serow stopped

whistbng by the time the corner was turned, it was standing in the open on the

flat, and the track of its move from the hills was plain. On the road opposite

the serow were the marks of a leopard, also the sign in the snow where it had

crouched and watched. When disturbed it had moved up the valley from there it

crossed the riv'er by a bridge up stream of the hut and went into the hills.

Unless accompanied by trained dogs it is not good enough to follow a leopard

up hill in heavy snow, of this more will be written hereafter

The serow was in luck for the leopard would in all probabihty have killed it

when it went back to the hill side.

The spring was at hand, and soon the migrating finches would arrive, the

little anemones and the tulips would be in flower. The leopards would lose their

advantage over the deer and serow, and most animal life would rejoice for there

had been a very severe winter and heavy snow falls. The reports of kills by

leopards were veiy numerous, seventeen deer having been accounted for in

Achhabal Rukh alone ! It was vexatious to have been done by the ‘ pard,’

but probably the serow was saved.

The difficulty in getting a shot at a serow is due to the ground it frequents.

Standing absolutely stiU it is difficult to see amongst the trees and rocks ; prob-

ably it is concealed and is watching the sportsman, then suddenly it dashes

off and is gone in a second.

If found on bare rock the serow is in an almost inaccessible spot where

it has for some reason or other taken refuge, and is then much on the alert.

When serow are plentiful sooner or later the sportsman after topping the crest

of a ridge will get an easy shot. There is no rule which governs serow

shooting, all that can be done is to make the best of the chance when it comes.

No. 354.— GORAL.

THE PIJUR OF KASHMIR.

Not being concerned with the scientific side of sport and wild animals at

present, let us adhere to Jerdon’s classification and class the serow with

goral, leaving discussion to the future.

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAy NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

The Goral has a wide distribution, it inhabits any suitable ground from

2,000' to about 8,000' or higher, but it is not found in the hills, from which in

winter it cannot descend below the snow line. It has been shot in the Sind,

Kashmir, but probably had crossed the valley from the Baramulla hills. On

the Murree road route into Kashmir, Kishtwar and Jammu there are goral

which seem to carry fine heads.

In former notes on sport mention was made of an 8^ inch goral head, and

this was the longest seen out of many scores. Mr. P. F. Hadow now tops the

list with 8f" measured, it is beh'eved, by Rowland Ward who was most exact.

Measurement of Horns.

Goral are to be found near most hill stations, and afford first class sport to

those who care for a change from files and office routine, not to mention

“ social functions.”

A small bore rifle and “ a week end ” of leisure with a climb over the hills bring

health and a sense of freedom from the “ prison ” feeling of secretarial

duties.

The lower ranges, especially the Siwaliks, are full of goral. They are not

strictly speaking gregarious, but on the same hill-side several are often found.

An Indian friend, a first class sportsman and shot, owned a Goral Reserve

which once a year was driven. Opposite to the cliffs was a bush covered hill-

side where the guns were placed. Along the cliffs the goral came, some times

one by one then two or three, at distances of about 120 to 200 yards from the

guns. How the httle goat-hke creatures hopped about, and how they were

missed !

Now and again one would stand still and met its fate, but to kill more than

two or three was the exception.

Sitting on a flat rock with bushes on all sides, and intently watching the

goral notice was taken of nothing else, until a bear’s growl was heard absolutely

Journ,, Bombay Nat. His. Soc.

GORAL,

GAME ANIMALS OF KASHMIR.

877

within a few feet, then a loud explosion, and the bear fell back. An old shikari

“ Gunga ” had slain the bear with the 12 bore gun whilst it was almost on us.

Gnnga afterwards explained that he had seen the bear coming along the very

narrow path which led to the post and had put ball into the gun ; then the bear's

head reached the rock and no time was to bo spared. The bear probably was

quite peaceful and only wanted to get away from the noise, and finding the

track in the bushes had come along it.

Those goral drives were pleasant days but the old friend is gone and his

son reigneth in his stead.

On a different occasion the afternoon was far advanced, a goral had been shot

and despatched to the Camp, which was pitched about two miles away in an

open glade amongst the outside hills which border on the plain, when

another goral was seen, not in the valley where the first was shot but on a hill

further from the road. There was no difficulty in getting at it nor in wounding

it, but an hour or so was lost in following up and finally killing it. Then the

light failed, there was nothing for it but to make a bee line for th“ plain, for the

valley in which the road and camp lay could only be reached by climbing over

a very difficult ridge, and this was not to be thought of in the dark.

The small ravine down which the return had to be made was bound to reach

the firohne at the foot of the hills, and once on the broad line, the rest was

easy.

The distance could not have been more than 2^ miles, but it was midnight

before Camp was reached. There were no waterfalls, the bed of the little stream

in daylight would have presented no obstacles, but at night every yard ahead

had to be prodded with a stick. In high grass close to the fireline a wild

beast of some kind or other growled and caused the coolies to drop the goral

and bolt. Nothing would induce them to go back. Curious people, they had

managed to get along very well carrying the goral with apparent ease, and all

the time probably thinking why on earth the track was found so difficult and

why everyone could not see as well as they could, and yet the growl was

too much for them and they lost their goral, for by morning it had been eaten

by jackals.

No. 355.— THE NILG.^I ANTELOPE.

The blue bull is held sacred in Jammu and many can be seen from the Railway

carriage on the journey from Sialkot to Tawi Station. There are now prac-

tically no other animals in the Jammu Game Reserves, and as the damage

done by Nilgai in the crops is great it must be intensely aggravating to have

to try and raise your food in fields alongside of herds of. Nilgai which are

protected. In Kumaon it was bad enough, for the Nilgai are wonderful

jumpers and used to clear a 6 foot high fence with eas’. However by shooting

them down as opportunity occurred, male, female and young, the numbers were

kept in check. It was understood that anyone who got leave to shoot in the

jungles should help to diminish the number of this destructive Antelope in the

Kumaon Forests.

The meat of an old Blue Bull is very tough. Even the Mahouts do not care

much about it, but they are very keen on getting the skins both for leather and

also for selling as gigantic mussacks. These mussacks or inflated skins are used

for carrying rafts, and stand a groat deal of bumping against rocks, which

they certainly get in many of the rapids when the main livers leave the

hills.

As the Nilgai is a heavily made animal of nearly 14 hands in height, at-

tempts are made in some places to tame them for draught, and they

are generally used with a bullock as one of the pair. Not much success has

attended this experiment.

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. XXVIII.

No. 357.— THE BLACK BUCK.

There is no necessity to dwell on the “ Black Buck ” in sporting articles

deaUng with the game of the hills. It need hardly be said that what few there

may be are in the plains comitry of Jammu where visitors may not travel.

No. 358.— THE TIBETAN ANTELOPE.

The “Hekan” op Kashmiris, the “ Cheru ” or “ Choos ” of Ladakis.

Head of Tibetan Antelope.

This antelope is found only at very high altitudes from about 14,500, to

the tops of the highest hills. Probably at these very great altitudes the herd is

migrating. In the spring the sexes separate, only the very young males remain

with the females and later on in the year females are seen alone. On the

Karakoram, hundreds of does may be noticed in the summer, all intent on

migration.

It is difficult to give any tolerably exact dates on which this antelope can be

found at any particular place or elevation, because the seasons in Northern

GAME ANIM ALS OF KASHMIR.

879

Ladak and Tibet vary greatly, and all depends on the severity or the mildness

of the early spring and in consequence the grazing.

After searching the Changchenmo for a shootable buck a move was made

across the passes when many big horned males were seen. On another occasion,

very little later in the year, Changchenmo was full of bucks.

Now and again a solitary male may be seen. No. 2 on the list was alone and

not another antelope was found in the ra%’ine, but, as a rule, they are

gregarious whether in their summer grazing grounds or when journeying

from place to place.

The list of horns is not encouraging. It may be that the Tibetan Antelope

has taken to other locaUties but possibly sportsmen have not reported their

successes, and the horns have not been put on record.

Measurement of Horns.

The record horns were in the Hume Collection, they measured fully

28 inches shortlv after being killed, but were measured at home at 27^". All

horny sheaths shrink when drying up, the shrinkage being from the end next to

the skull.

Occasionally on broken ground a close shot can be obtained, but as a rule the

bucks stay out on a sandy plain or on a bare hill side. Crawling along sand

and pebbles is ruinous to one’s woollen clothing, and this is a serious trouble

when baggage has been cut down to a minimum. After about a week one of

the two warm suits taken beyond Leh was in tatters.

The time of the year was late in May and very early in June. Having

during May been lucky with the wild sheep, it was time to have a turn at

the antelope.

Abstract from “ Dairy.”

May 28th. — Tried for hours to get near two very fine bucks, but it

was useless.

Then came on six, and again on four but the country was far too open.

May 29th. — Again saw six ; very possibly the same lot, the nearest cover

was quite 300 yards from the bucks ; shelter was taken there and as time went

on a single antelope strolled towards the cover, then suddenly wheeled roimd

and bolted taking of course the others with him ; it was no use firing.

8

880 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HLST. SOCLETY, Vol, XXVIII.

The camp was moving, so waited until it arrived and then towards evening

tried fresh ground ahead. Four bucks were lying down in the sand having

scooped out small hollows, as is their habit, consequently they did not show up

well and were nearly overlooked. There was no chance of getting nearer than a

short 200 yards so when the bucks rose the shot was taken and one hit, this was

followed and come on whilst lying down, again he was wounded and at last

found dead. The diary adds “ saw a hawk and two pigeons, the first birds of

the season.” May and early June are too soon in the year for migratory

birds in little Tibet.

May 30th. — Had a long stalk and missed a hard shot at an antelope.

June 1st. — The camp was high up in a side ravine, where stalking was easy,

the antelope were in small bands and not very wild. In the morning got an

easy shot under 200 yards and killed, then got another at about 100 yards,

and again had commenced a third advance when a herd of 25 cow yaks were

seen and the afternoon was spent in watching them. There was no bull

but that did not matter for yak were not wanted. Light snow fell and gave

an excuse for a rest on the next day.

June 3rd. — Got close up to antelope and killed to the first barrel, and

wounded another with the second, which was easily bagged. Then had shortly

after an easy shot, but missed badly, or rather only slightly wounded it, this

buck joined others in a herd about a mile or so further up the ravine ; killed

out of that lot a buck which gave an easy shot, and missed the wounded animal.

On the way back to camp had a long shot at a running buck which fell dead.

That made the fourth in one day. The antelope must have been migrating

for on the following day only one solitary animal was seen.

For some days afterwards the hiU sides were devoid of any life except for a

large black wolf, but its pursuit is another story.

Since the above records were entered in the Diary, only one buck was

shot, and the readers of this article may say “ a very good thing too. ”

There were any number of antelope about ; where are they now to be found

is the question ? They can scarcely have been killed off, wolves undoubtedly

take many, but wolves, owing to the prices paid for the pelts, are decreased in

numbers. There can be little doubt that high up in the Gogra and towards

the Demjor lake the Tibetan antelope stHl is plentiful. The limited number

shot can have had little effect on the vast herds that existed. The country

has no inhabitants to kill these antelope, success seems to depend entirely on

the chance of meeting the cheru whilst migrating.

THE GAZELLES.

The Gazelles which are found in Central Asia have in the “ Fauna of India

been divided up into three species.

It is not easy to agree to the distribution of the Persian Gazelle, and the

‘‘ larger species from parts of Mongolia ” when the notes of various travellers

are studied.

According to Blanford we have (1) The Tibetan Gazelle ; (2) Gazella sub-

ffutturnsa or the Persian Gazelle : (3) Gazella guiturosa.

If No. 3 can bo separated from the Persian Gazelle, it might be convenient

to call it the Mongolian Gazelle, but Mongolia also harbours other Gazelles ;

this is discussed in the next chapter.

No. 361.— THE TIBETAN GAZELLE.— THE “ GOA ” OF TIBET.

In the early eighties, that is from about 1880 to 1885, a large number of these

Gazelles were killed. Apparently they were . never numerous even in their

stronghold, which is in Northern Ladak on the plateaux, notably in Rupshu

and Hanle, and by the Kyun Fresh and Salt Lakes, There in 1882 ten bucks

were shot by sportsmen in 5 days.

/ipproAim stely S400m^

HAUNTS OF THE CENTRAL ASIAN GAZELLES.

GAME ANIMALS OF KASHMIR.

881

The Goa is found in small herds rarely exceeding 8 or 10 in number. Long

ago when Kinloch, who is quoted by Blanford, was in Ladak the game was not

as shy as at present, and perhaps this gazelle w'as less so than most other ani-

mals, but that it is indifferent to the scent of man or to their enemies, the

wolves, &c., is scarcely the case.

Near the Nima crossing of the Indus, a small batch of Goa were lying on the

plain just out of shot from the broken and higher grounds. From above was

a good view of a ravine along which an easy approach could have been made

but it was to windward of the game. After a long wait, the gazelles got up,

and without waiting to look round dashed across fhe plain. From where they

were they could not have seen into the small ravine but the glasses showed a

wolf, the scent evidently caused the sudden departure.

Other Goa were found a short while afterwards, but the wind was uncertain

and the result a failure owing to this mishap. It was some time before any

luck came off.

The Ladaki Shikaris would insist that antelope also did not mind an ap-

proach down wind so on two occasions, to test this, trials were made and on

both the animals bolted.

Ludlow sent notes on the Goa to the journal and. also a photograph of

the 14J" trophy secured, hence there is no need to write more.

The record of a few other horns is attached and a photograph of No. 6

showing the complete animal is furnished.

Measurements of Horns.

In Rowland Ward’s records, there is another head carrying 14J inch horns

owned by The Hon’ble Walter Rothschild,

Goa do not appear to visit the Kuen-lun ; during two journeys in that country

none were seen, there were hundreds of antelopes but no gazelles of any species.

If this surmise is correct, it may help to elucidate matters when dealing with the

rather vexed question of the distribution of the other Gazelles which are

found in Turkistan, Mongolia and coimtries more or less adjacent to the

Ladak boundaries.

THE GUTTUROSA GAZELLE— THE DJERAN OF KASHGAR.

The Hwang Yang or Yellow Goat of the Chinese.

Blanford in his concluding sentence when describing the Persian Gazelle

mentions this Gazelle.

It is a far taller animal than the Goa, but is slighter built and paler in colour

882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

The late Mr. Nsy Elias, a well-known explorer and traveller, gives this Gazell®

an enormous distribution “Eastern Mongolia, all ov< r Western Mongolia from

the northern bend of the Yellow River to the Altai mountains they were general-

ly in large herds sometimes I should think four or five hundred or more to-

gether.” Elias measured a buck as at the shoulder, he also took home a

pair of horns to Blyth who called the animal “ A yutturom sub-genus Pro-

capra.'" This head was got near the Gobi. Colonel Biddulph shot one on the

road between Macallashi and Kashgar. Major Cumberland, Messrs. J. V. Phelps

and E. L. Phelps also got their specimens in Turkestan. Blyth described the

horns thus “resembles the Common Indian Gazelle except that the horns are

longer and curve outwards, the tips being turned sharply inwards towards

another.”

Look at the sketch map of the country under discussion, and remember that

from the Kuen-lun to the Altai is 1,000 miles in a straight line to the North-

wards, and to the Caspian considerably more to the Westward, there is ample

room for local differences in the Gazelles, or in other words suh-gutturosa'wh.vih.

could conveniently be called sub-gutturosa and it is probably here that the

Persian and Przewalskii’s Gazelles come in.

No. 360.— THE PERSIAN GAZELLE.

The only portion of British territory where this animal had been shot, as Sir

Oliver St. John remarked, is near Pishin. He shot one here and thus brought

it to notice, then others were obtained.

This Gazelle is very rare in Baluchistan but not so towards Kandahar and

in Afghanistan.

That this sub-species “ extends through Turkestan to the Gobi ” is very

doubtful for that is the home of the Djeran.

There is considerable difl&culty in separating the varieties of the Central Asian

Gazelles. In the future articles to be written for the Society it will probably

be best to omit as being beyond our range.

1. Przewalskii’s Gazelle.

2. Persian species as belonging to Afghanistan and Persia,

and deal only with

1. The Tibetan GazeUe (Goa).

2. The Gutturosa of Turkestan and Mongolia.

3. The so called Goitered Gazelle from the Altai.

In order to make the notes on these Gazelles as clear as possible Col. Harry

Ward has been asked to have photographs taken of the horns at home.

{To be continued.)

883

NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIIDAi.

By Lieut.-Colonel C. G. Nurse.

{Continued from page 641 of this volume.)

Part II.

When I began my studies of this family, I hoped to deal with the Lidian repre-

sentatives of all the genera as fully as I have dealt with those belonging to the two

genera, Litorrhynchus and Exoprosopa, included in my former paper. But un-

foreseen circumstances have necessitated my removal from London, and I have

no longer the opportunity of consulting the library at the British Museum, or of

access to the specimens in the national collection. In the present paper,

therefore, I confine myself to material I had prepared before leaving London,

but as it brings forward representatives of several genera not previously

recorded from Indian limits, it may probably be useful to dipterists studying

the fauiia of Lidia.

Some changes of nomenc ature are unfortunately necessary, as Pro-

fessor Bezzi has pointed out that the genus hitherto known as Argyramotha

should be known as Anthrax, while he has, very properly I consider,

split up the old genus Anthrax. Such changes are very puzzling to students

of insects who do not happen to be specialists, but as Professor Bezzi

has been followed by Becker in his “ Genera Bombyliidarum,” which is

perhaps the most up-to-date study of the family as a whole, I have conse-

quently followed them in this paper.

The genus Exprosopa has, as I anticipated when dealing with its Indian repre-

sentatives, now been split up by Professor Bezzi (Ann. S. African Museum, Vol.

XVIII, p. 138) into several new genera.

Anthrax Scop. {Argyramoeba, olim).

Before dealing with the Indian representatives of this genus, I should state

that m 1908 Professor Bezzi erected a genus Petrorossia for the species which

had, up to that time, been known as Argyramoeba hesperus, Rossi. He has since

described in Trans. Ent. Soc., 1911, pp. 615-17, several new species of Peb'orossta

from Africa. As representatives of this genus occur in India, it will be necessary

to differentiate Petrorossia (which Becker places in a different sub-family) from

Anthrax. The two genera may be tabulated as follows : —

Prtefurca long ; 2nd longitudinal vein arising from the 3rd

opposite or nearly opposite the anterior cross-vein . . Anthrax.

Preefurca short ; 2nd longitudinal vem issuing from the

3rd further from the anterior cross-vein than the length

of the cross-vein itself . . . . . . . . . , Petrorossia.

Anthrax indicata, n. sp.

Head ; frons at vertex less than -J- the breadth of head, at level of antennae

about f ; frons and face blackish brown, covered with short stiff black hairs, mix-

ed with a few grey ones near upper mouth edge ; a little white tomentum near

eye margins ; antennae dull black, 3rd joint onion-shaped, its base with a little

grey shimmer, style bisected at about f its length, its apex with the usual pencil

of hairs ; proboscis short, blackish brown ; occiput dull black, deeply indented

at vertex, with a little white tomentum along eye margins ; occipital fringe dark

brown. Thorax black, covered above with black hairs, mixed with some greyer

ones especially about the pronotal collar ; on the disc, especially about the

wing bases, there are some very fine short yellowish grey scales ; below the pube-

scence is rather long, entirely grey ; scutellum concolorus with thorax, and

similarly clothed ; the marginal hairs, which are too fine to be called bristles,

long and black.

884 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

Abdomen dull brownish black, similarly clothed to the thorax ; 1st segment

with two small patches of grey scales near the middle of the apical margin, its

sides with tufts of long white silky hairs ; sides of remaining segments clothed

chiefly with black hairs, intermixed with a few grey ones ; apical 2 or 3 segments

rather denuded, but showing traces of white scales ; genitalia red.

Legs black, tibim, and tarsi more or less rufesceiit ; coxae with rather long

grey pubescence, femora with white scales ; tibiae with numerous short black

bristles ; pulvilli nearly as long as claws.

Wings sub-hyaline ; the base as far as the humeral cross-vein, costal and sub-

costal cells, dark brovTi ; on the clear portion are dark brown spots in the follow-

ing positions : one, connected with the dark costal margin, and carried across

base of discal cell as far as the anal cell ; one across anterior cross-vein and point

of origin of 2nd longitudinal vein, not quite connected with the dark costal

margin ; one at the pomt when 3rd longitudinal vein forks ; a smaller one at apex

of discal cell, and one stiU smaller at its posterior angle ; the 2nd longitudinal

vein forks just before the anterior cross- vein, but there is no appendiculation ;

the upper branch of the 3rd longitudinal vein has an mdication of appendicula-

tion ; first posterior cell open for nearly the distance of anterior cross-vein ;

anal cell only narrowly open ; base of costa with black bristles ; halteres entirely

black.

L. 8mm.

Described from a single specimen from Matheran.

This is quite distinct from A. inslituta Walk., with the type of which I have

compared it. It would run into Brunotti’s key with distigma and obscurifrons.

Anthrax argentiapicalis, Brun.

I have a male from Matheran. It is like the 9 described by Brunetti, except

that the frons at level of antennae is fuUy f the width of head ; the femora are

more or less rufuscent, there are a few white scales on apical border of the 3rd

abdominal segment near the sides, and only the knob of the halteres in black,

the other being pale.

Anthrax duvancelii, Macq.

I have 3 specimens of this species from Deesa, one of which was bred from

the nest of a wasp. They agree absolutely with Brunotti’s description except

as regards the abdomen, which I should describe as follows : — Black ; 1st seg-

ment with an apical band of long white scaly hairs, which are longest at the sides ;

remaining segments with apical bands of white or yeUowish-white scales, reach-

ing over the side margins, those on the 3rd and 4th segments being very narrow

and sometimes interrupted ; bases of segments with rather stiS black hairs.

Anthrax Candida, Sack.

(Die palaearktischen Spongostilien, p. 583.)

This species was described from Persia, and Becker records it from Persian

Baluchistan. I have two specimens from Quetta which correspond fairly well

with Sack’s description, except that they are rather smaller than the measure-

ments he gives.

The following abbreviated description should enable the species to be recognis-

ed : Frons black-haired ; face with grey scales ; upper mouth edge with long

grey scaly hairs, and a pair of black bristles, the latter not always visible ; ant-

ennae black, 3rd joint with a grey shimmer, onion-shaped, with a rather long black

pencil of hairs.

Thorax blackish, with white scales and black bristles near wing base and on

post-alar calli ; sides and below with white scaly hairs. Legs black, with browai

tibiae and tarsi ; coxae, especially the middle ones, with rather long black bristly

liEir AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIIDM.

8S6

hairs ; pulvilli large, yellowish white. Abdomen blackish, extreme spices of

most of the segments lighter ; 1st segment with grey scaly hairs ; 2 — 4 segments

with black hairs, their margins covered with white scales ; last 3 segments

thickly covered with white scales, the bristles on their apical margins whitish,

except for a few black ones in the middle ; venter eovered with white hairs and

scales. Wmgs hyaline, a little yellowish at base and along costal margin ; slight

infuscations near base of 3rd longitudinal vein and on cross-veins ; base of

costa with black bristles and yellowish grey scales.

L. 16 mm. My specimens are about 12 and 14 mm.

Anthrax? subnotata, Walk.

Walker’s description of this species was very meagre, and I have not been able

to find his type in the B. M. collection. Sack records it with some doubt from

Persia, and Becker from Persian Baluchistan. I have 3 specimens from Quetta

which correspond fairly well with Sack’s description.

Anthrax ? isis. Mg.

I obtahied at Deesa two specimens which are probably this species.

Anthrax obscura, Sake.

(Die palaearktischen Spongostilien, p. 516.)

I have a specimen from Quetta, and there are in the B. M. five specimens from

Chaman, captured by Col. Swinhoe in 1880 (“ at Mess, 11 p.m.”). Becker records

it as common in Persia, Seistan and Persian Baluchistan. I do not thmk it can

be common at Quetta, as I only obtained one specimen during my two years’

stay there, and it is so conspicuous that I could hardly have failed to notice it.

It need only be contrasted with A. bipunctata P., from which it differs in being

rather smaller (14- 16mm.), having no white pubescence on 1st abdominal

segment, and the 1st posterior cell closed. The 3rd joint of the antennae is

onion-shaped in the present species.

Anthrax bipunctata, F.

Brunetti does not mention that the 3rd antennal joint of this species is conica

and not, like most of the other species of this genus, onion-shaped.

I have a specimen from Deesa, but have not met with it elsewhere.

Anthrax, sp. inc.

There are in the B. M. two specimens of an Anthrax, standing over the name

of Mm6ra Walk., one of which is labelled “ N. Ind.” I have compared these with

Walker’s type, and they are certainly not that species, though resembling it

in size and the colour of the wings. The type of umbra, of which the locality

was unknown, has the 3rd joint of the antennae onion-shaped. The two spe-

cimens now referred to have only one antenna left, but the 3rd joint of this is

conical, and they must thus belong to Sack’s subgenus Satyramceba, which in-

cludes bipunctata F. and etrusca F. One of the specimens has the abdomen more

or less denuded, the other has four minute spots of white scales on the 2nd ab-

dominal segment, and two similar but rather larger spots on each of the remain-

ing segments.

If the locality is correctly given, this species will probably turn up at some

future time in N. India, and I therefore caU attention to it. The B. M. speci-

mens are not in sufficiently good condition for description.

Petrorossia, Bezzi.

The following should certainly be transferred to this genus : —

Argyramoeba claripennis. Brim., deseribed as having the 2nd longitudinal

vein originating half way between base of discal cell and anterior cross- vein.

886 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Argyraviceba nigrofemorata, Brun. I have a specimen from Matheran which

agrees with Brunetti’s description, and is a Petrorossia.

Argyramceha intermedia, Brun. I have examined the two specimens in the

B. M. and they certainly belong to Petrorossia.

Anthrax albofulva, Walk. The type of this species is headless, but the position

of the origin of 2nd longitudinal vein marks it as a Petrorossia. I have

specimens from Deesa which correspond so far as comparison is possible,

with Walker’s type. The specimens described by Brunetti may not all

belong to one species, as he mentions differences in the neuration.

As regards the insect described by Brunetti as Aphcebantus ceylonicus (Dipt

Brach. Vol. I, pp. 257-9), it is possibly identical with Walker’s Anthrax fervida. It

is certainly not an Aphcebantus, as that genus has the 3rd antennal joint conical.

I have a single specimen from Jubbulpore which corresponds with Brunetti’s

description, and there are in the B. M. four specimens named by him. These all

have the 3rd antennal joint onion-shaped. The pnefurca is even shorter than is

typical Petrorossia, and the 3rd antennal joint bears a moderately long style,

but no pencil of hairs. They are either an aberrant form of Petrorossia, or belong

to a closely allied genus as yet undescribed.

The following five species belong to genera hitherto unrecorded from Indian

limits. I have not thought it necessary to give full generic descriptions, which

may be found in Becker’s “ Genera Bombyliidarum.” The figures on the plate

which accompanies this paper should enable students of Indian Diptera to

recognise the genera Callistoma, Mariobezzia, and Heterotropus. As regards

Eurycarenus, I have not included it in the plate, being somewhat doubtful

whether the Indian specimens obtained by me are conspecific with African ones.

Callistoma imperator, n. sp.

(S Head ; frons below antennae about half as broad as head, narrowing at

vertex to half this width ; black ; vertex with a rather narrow band of

blackish bro^vn hairs, extending to the eye margins; frons and face thickly covered

with white scales, and some longer whitish hairs ; antenae black, 1st and 2nd joints

with some short black hairs, 3rd joint, excluding style, rather longer than the 1st

and 2nd together, suddenly narrowed at about the middle, with a reddish style

about half the length of the joint ; proboscis black, as long as the head and thorax

combined ; mouth edge very narrowly testaceous ; occiput narrow, with a fringe

of white hairs behind vertex, and some short scaly white hairs behind eyes.

Thorax and scutellum black, covered with rather short yellowish grey hairs and

some whitish scales on dorsum, below and on metapleurse with longer white

hairs ; bristles near base of wings, on post-alar calli, posterior margin of dorsum,

and scutellum, pale yellow.

Abdomen black, long and rather narrow ; 1st segment rather thickly covered

with greyish white hairs of moderate length ; 2nd and following segments with

rather narrow basal bands of depressed greyish scales ; beyond these bands the

hairs on the abdominal segments are short, black and depressed, and each segment

except the first has a complete apical row of long yellowish bristly hairs ; the

sides of the abdomen are thickly covered with moderately long greyish white

hairs ; ventral segments 1 — 4 with the apical half of eaich segment covered with

snow-white scales.

Legs black ; femora and tibiae with greyish scales and rather short black

spiniiles.

Wings hyaline with a broad moderately dark band across the middle, its

outer boimdary being at the apex of 1st longitudinal vein ; it includes the whole

of discal cell, but is slightly narrowed towards the posterior margin bf wing ;

base of wing as far as the humeral cross-vein, and the costal and subcostal

cells, light brown ; alula smoke brown, with dark fringe, base of costa with

NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN INDIAN BOMBYLIIDE.

887

rather long black bristles and a few grey scales ; halteres brownish, pale yellow

at tip.

9 Similar ; vertex and abdomen much broader ; the abdominal bands of

greyish white scales rather broader than in the d .

L. 18 mm.

Described from 2 d d and 1 9 in good condition obtained at Quetta in April

and May.

CallistoDM may be recognised from other Anthracince by the long proboscis,

narrow abdomen, and radial vein diverging from the praefurca well before the

discal cross-vein. The 1st posterior cell is closed and long stalked. The present

species is much larger than any previously described in this genus, none of which

exceed about 12mm. in length. The 4th posterior cell is twice as wide at base

as at apex, whereas in C. fascipennis it is only 1^ times as wide. The 1st post-

erior cell is closed nearer to the wing margin in my two ^ ^ than in the 9 > but

this may be only an individual variation.

The larva of the European species (C. /ascipew?u’s) is reported (Tr. Ent. Soc.,

1881, XIV) to be parasitic on the egg cases of locusts. The genus appears to

be confined to Eastern Europe and Western Asia.

Mariobezzia griseohirta, n. sp.

d Head ; eyes separated at vertex by about f the breadth of head, frons and

face gradually widening towards mouth edge ; vertex narrowly black, the colour

extending over the occiput ; frons and face whitish, the raised portion between

the base of antennae and mouth edge reddish brown, with a darker line down the

middle ; antennae black, 3rd joint three or four times as long as the first two

together, style very short ; the facets on the lower third of the eyes are much

smaller than those on the upper two-thirds ; the cheeks from the lower portion

of eyes to the mouth edge, and the proboscis dark brown ; face, frons, and occi-

put covered with greyish pubescence.

Thorax and scutellum entirely black, with rather long grey pubescence. Ab-

domen black, the apical margins of segment 1 — -3 with narrow white transverse

bands, 4th segment at apex narrowly testaceous ; venter black, with apical mar-

gins of first foTir segments more or less pale ; the whole abdomen covered with

grey pubescence.

Legs ; coxae and femora, except the extreme apex of the latter, black with

grey pubescence ; tibiae pale at base, darkening towards apex ; tarsi dark brown.

Wings hyaline, with a suffused patch or band from anterior margin towards

discal cell, blackish on margin, becoming gradually less dark, and hardly notice

able beyond discal cell ; nervures pale, tegulae dark, halteres creamy white.

L. 6 mm.

Described from one specimen obtained at Quetta in May.

This species is much darker and more pubescent than either lichlwasdti.

Beck or zarudnyi Beck, both of which are bare, and have the thorax mainly

yellow. As regards neuration and the shape of the face it exactly agrees

with Becker’s description of the genus in Genera .Bombyliidarum, p. 470.

Heterotropus itidicus, n. sp.

^Head ; pale green, eyes touching for a space rather shorter than the vertical

triangle, which is distinctly raised, and on which there are a few pale hairs ;

antennae with the first joint pale green, the 2nd similar but rather darker above,

3rd joint pale yellow, the latter, excluding style,nearly twice as long as the other,

two taken together ; style pale red, about as long as 3rd antennal joint ;

proboscis and palpi yellow, the former dark brown at apex ; eyes with the lower

third divided from the upper portion by a fine line, the facets on the lower part

very fine ; above this line the facets are much larger about the middle of the

eyes, decreasing in size on the upper third ; occiput with fine soft pubescence.

9

888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII.

Thorax and scutellum pale green, with short pale pubescence ; dorsum with

three brown longitudinal lines, the middle one shorter than the outer ones, none

of them reaching the scutellum ; (these lines are often almost or quite

obsolete, but usually traces of them may be observed).

Abdomen eoncolorous with thorax, with similar pubescence, and a double

series of small black longitudinal spots on segments 3—7 inclusive, but these are

sometimes obsolete, or the whole abdomen may be more or less darkened.

Legs j)ale green, with short soft pubescence ; fore coxae very long, more than half

as Jong as femora ; motatarsi, except apex, pale, remaining tarsal joints blackish

brown.

Wings clear hyaline, all nervures pale, halteres light yellowish green.

$ Similar to the ^ , but abdomen without dark markings, and those on the

thorax very faint or obsolete ; the distanee between the eyes at vertex is about

g the total w'idth of head ; the frons and face widen slightly towards the mouth

edge ; the facets of the eyes are of equal size throughout.

L. 6-8 mm.

Described from 9 specimens from Deesa, most of which were obtained at

flowers of Calotropis gigantea.

Only two species of this genus have hitherto been described, viz., H. albidipen-

ms Lw. and H. glancus Beck. The present species differs from both the above

in its larger size and much lighter colour.

Heterotropus pallens, n. sp.

(5 Superficially very like H. indicus described above, but differs structurally

as follows : eyes touching for only a very short space ; upper mouth edge consider-

ably produced ; 3rd antennal joint longer, but terminal style shorter; first joint

of antennae and apical third of 2nd joint pale, remainder of antennae reddish

brown, style about i the length of 3rd joint ; the lower third of the eyes is divided

from the upper portion by a fine line as in the preceding species, but the facets

are of approximately equal size on the upper two-thirds. Thorax with some

indications of two darker longitudinal lines, abdomen with longer pubescence

and no black markings, though segments 1 — 3 at base appear somewhat darker

underneath the pubescence ; tarsi much lighter, the first four joints at ajiex

narrowl5% and the w^hole of the 5th joint reddish brown.

$ Similar to the ^ , but the production of the upper mouth edge is much more

noticeable, bemg almost rostrate ; view’ed in profile it equals about § the short

diameter of the eye. The eye facets are more or less of equal size throughout.

L. 6-8 mm.

Described from 1 d and 2 9 $ obtained at Quetta in May.

Eiirycarenus ? laticeps, Loew.

This species w^as originally described from S. Africa, and appears to be widely

distributed in E. and S. E. Africa. Bezzi records it from Nigeria and Kordafan,

and there are specimens is the B. M. from Natal, Ehodesia, and Nyasaland.

I can detect no difference betw'een my Indian specimens, obtained at Jubbul-

])ore, and those from E. Africa, but my only d is not in good condition, and I

am inclined to think that the males of this genus differ more than the females.

Bezzi wrote in Tr. Ent. Soc., 1911, p. 613, that only one species of this genus was

known, as he considered that E. pachyceratus Big. may belong to another genus.

I have, however, recently seen in the B. M. specimens from Africa, to which he

has given new names, and which will presumably be described by him in due

course. Colonel Yerbury informs me that a species of Eurycarenvs, which he

believes to be undescribed, occurs at Aden, and it is quite possible that the Lidian

pecimens may prove to belong to a distinct species when males in good condi-

ion are available for exammation.

889

DRAGONFLY COLLECTING IN INT)IA.

BY

Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.S., F.E.S.

{With 3 text figures.)

I. The Pros and Cons of Dragonfly Collecting.

Col. Evans in his able and helpful papers on eollecting and identifying

Indian butterflies has much simplified my task of \vriting a similar paper on

Indian dragonflies.

Much of what he has said with regard to the distribution and evolution of

butterflies is also applicable to the Odonata or dragonflies and it would be mere

plagiarism were I to repeat it.

I shall therefore confine my remarks to these two aspects in only so far as

they differ from butterflies.

Dragonflies are so familiar an item of the Indian land or waterscape that

there is little fear of mixing them up with any other insect, nevertheless I am

continually receiving specimens of ant-lions from amateur collectors, sent to me

under the belief that they are really dragonflies. Ant-lions can be readily

distinguished by their long antennse (or “ feelers ” as they are popularly called)

which may or may not be clubbed. In dragonflies the antennse are very tiny

objects and can be seen with difficulty. There are practically no other insects

with which they may be confused even by amateurs. I shall go further into

the structure of a dragonfly when discussing the question of classification.

These insects are not nearly so popular with collectors as are butterflies or

beetles and if one seeks to find the reason for this, they will be found to be any

of the five detailed below. If I can dispel these seeming drawbacks I feel sure

that many a collector, who has up to the present been confining his attentions

to one of the more popular groups, will bestow a little time to the study of a

much more interesting order of insects and thus find an added zest to life in the

tropics.

( i ) There is a mistaken belief that the species are few in number and that

a collection would soon be so complete as to lose interest. Amateurs examining

my collection nearly always express their astonishment at the great number and

variety of dragonflies found within Indian limits, which now number close on

four hundred species.

( ii ) The brittleness and fragility of the insects which render them difficult

to keep satisfactorily, especially by those who are accustomed to lengthy and

frequent transfers.

Kept and stored as detailed below, dragonflies will stand far more knocking

about than a collection of butterflies. I frequently receive store boxes full of

specimens and not a smgle one has been damaged or shaken loose, a striking

testimony when one considers the merciless treatment meted out by the Indian

Parcel Post. Dr. Ris tells me that he has sent large parts of his collection from

Switzerland to America and back again without a single specimen being damaged.

( iii ) The rapidity with which the beautiful colours fade after death, thus

rendering the insects comparatively unattractive objects in a collection.

Prepared as detailed below the colours may be retained after death almost

as vivid as they were in life. Colouration however is not the only attraction

of a dragonfly, the real beauty and interest lies in its mngs, the study of the

venation of which is one of the most fascinating branches in the study of

evolution of species.

If as it has been truly said, the story of evolution is written on the wings

of a butterfly, then it is doubly so on those of the dragonfly.

( iv ) The large amount of room they take up when set out in store boxes,

which is, it must be admitted, a serious objection. Especially is this so to the

civil servant or military officer who is accustomed to frequent transfer from

place to place. Store boxes multiply and take up a lot of room, which adds

considerably to one’s kit.

890 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111-

Personally I have given up setting out my specimens, as dragonflies lend

themselves peculiarly to a paper collection.

In store boxes it is best to set out three specimens of each insect, two males

and a female. The former are placed side by side facing forwards, the

latter between them facing in the opposite dkection — the three thus forming

a compact group. I have also tried removing the wings of one side which de-

tracts but little from the value of the insects and almost doubles the accommo-

dation of a store box. The wings removed are kept in an album secured by

a spot of cement at the base and thus form a very interesting eoUection illustrating

the evolution of a dragonfly’s wing.

A paper collection however will be found the most satisfactory for the worker

in this comitry, not only on accoimt of its compactness but its readiness to

access and reference. Dr. Ris, the greatest living authority on dragonflies,

tells me that he has long ago given up setting out his specimens and now keeps

them entirely in paper.

Two cabinets of ten drawers each will accommodate about one thousand

specimens and will take up only about two cubic feet each.

The dragonflies with the wings folded flat are put into paper packets of the

“ cocked-hat ” type described by Col. Evans in his paper on Indian Butterflies.

I use clean foolscap for this purpose and as dragonflies vary enormously in size,

make my packets after each shikar to suit the size of individual specimens.

Each paper packet is now put into an envelope on the front of which

is written (typing looks neater) the name, sex, place, altitude, date of

capture and name of collector and lastly any brief notes that may be of

interest. Envelopes of 5 X 3 inches are the most suitable to use. The

drawers of the cabmets are made of a size to accommodate these and each

should be long enough to hold about fifty envelopes. The drawers have labels

on the front indicating the families to which the species belong. The cabinets

should have a pair of folding doors in front to lock and enclose all the drawers.

This will keep out damp and facilitate packing when moving about country.

The dragonflies are arranged firstly accordmg to families and the families in

alphabetical order so that a very eomplete index system is obtained enabling

one to pick out any particular specimen at a glance. In addition I also keep a

card index, corresponding to the arrangement of the eollection, which enables

me to make any notes and thus keep a complete history of the collection.

Dragonflies keep well and look extremely neat in a collection of this sort and

as the majority have clear wings, nothing is hidden or lost to view by folding

the latter. To examine the venation all that is necessary is to run a small slip

of notepaper between the two pairs of wings and the vems will stand out clearly

on the white background. In the case of species which have the wings coloured

or opaque, one pair of the ■wings may be removed so that both sides of the remain-

ing pair are brought into view.

I find that a small printing outfit, to be purchased for a few rupees, saves a

lot of time in labelhng the paper packets. After a day’s shikar which has been

conducted m one locality, it is only necessary to prepare one stamp and impress

the packets rapidly. If a large variety of species has been taken, it will be found

quicker to write in the name of the species in lieu of assembling the type for

each, but all other data such as the locality, date, etc., can be stamped on.

(v) The last and perhaps the most serious drawback must now be dealt with.

This is the scarcity of literature on the subject and the want of names to give

our species, as well as the difficulty of identifying them. The absence of litera-

ture forces the collector to fall back upon one of two expedients, either he must

send his captures to an expert for identification or he must compare them witli

those of a named collection. There are several of the latter in India and the most

complete are those of the Indian Museum and Pusa collection. Smaller collections

are to be found in the Forest Research College at Dehra Dun and in the

Bombay Natural History Society’s Museum. My o^vn collection, which is nearly

complete, is always at the service of collectors who may care to use it.

DRAGONFLY COLLEOTING IN INDIA.

891

and I am always pleased to identify and return specimens sent to me for that

pm'pose through the medium of the Bombay Natural History Society.

Literature on the subject is extremely scattered, many of the most important

works now being out of print. Descriptions of Indian species have to bo sifted

out of a great mass of literature, mostly papers in Journals or Works on the

world’s dragonflies written in a foreign language and many of these difficult

or impossible to obtain. Descriptions of Indian species will be found in the

following works

Rambur, Ins. Nevrop., published in 1842.

Baron Edmond de Selys’ ISIonographs on the Gomphines and Calopterygines,

published in 1857 and 1854 respectively.

By the same author, the S3mopses on the Calopterygines, Gom pliines, Aesch-

nines and Agrionines, published from 1850 to 1876.

Dr. Ris’ monumental work on the Libellulince, Cat. Coll, de Selys, IX-

XVI, and his addenda, published from 1909-1916.

Martin’s companion work on the Aeschnines and Cordulines, Cat. Coll, de

Selys, published in 1909.

Dr. Laidlaw’s notes on Indian Dragonflies, published in the Records, Lidian

Museum, continuously from 1914 to 1921.

Williamson’s Dragonflies of Burma and Siam, Gomphines and Calopterygines,

published in the Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1904.

“ Indian Dragonflies,” a series of articles which have been appearmg in

this Journal since 1918.

Lastly there are a number of individual descriptions which have appeared

in numerous journals at Home and abroad by distinguished entomologists like

Kirby, MacLachlan, Karsch, Calvert, Brauer, Hagen, Charpentier and others.

For purposes of identification however this literature will be superfluous

if the amatem’ will only take the trouble to master a few necessary terms, the

employment of which is essential in describing dragonflies. A knowledge of these

terms will enable anyone to work out for himself the identifleation of any spe-

cies by employing the key given at the end of this paper.

Having dealt with the seeming drawbacks of dragonfly collecting, let me now

say something in compensation of the pursuit.

(i) Dragonflies can be handled with impunity without fear of rubbing off

their beautiful plumage, there are no coloured scales for careless handling to

remove, and a cyanide bottle can be filled to the brim and emptied out at the

end of the day without revealing a mass of mangled and spoilt specimens.

(ii) They are far swifter and more cunning and wary on the wing than butter-

flies and to those who possess the instincts of the shikari or fisherman will afford

abundant sport. In 1917 when on War leave in Coonoor I used to run

*clo-wn daily to Kallar at the foot of the Nilgiris. It was here that I one day

spotted a dragonfly (Onychothemis tonkinensis ) which had not hitherto been

taken within Indian limits. I failed to take it on the first day but saw it near

the same sjiot on the following and again failed to secure it. On the third day

I once more put it up and after wading about up to my hips in the Kallar river

for the best part of two hours finally succeeded in taking it. Approaching it

from behmd, it would wait until I was about five yards off and would then move

up stream for some thirty yards. When I was almost within striking distance

agam, it would take a chakar round me and move off do-wn stream again tc

its original resting place. Struggling deep in the water, barking my shins on

submerged rocks or tripping over them, hot and perspiring, I at length secui’ed

my specimen by stooping under the overhangmg Ian tana bordering the stream

and working my way steadily towards the insect until I was directly under it.

Experience has taught me that dragonflies can sec very little below them and I

took this particular one with a swift upward stroke. I probably spent four hours

on the successive days stalking this specimen which is the only one that has been

seen or taken within Indian limits. What finer and more exciting sport could one

desire than this ? And you have something unique to show for it at the end

892 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

of the day! I can still remember the thrill I experienced when I finally bagged

my prey. I have had many such thrills before and since.

(iii) Besides the sport of collecting and the collection itself there are other

interests underlying the study of dragonflies. These insects on account of

their naked and strongly veined wings have lent themselves peculiarly to the for-

mation of geological specimens. Thus a very large percentage of insect fossils

are those of dragonflies and we are enabled with the mass of material avail-

able, to trace their evolution in an almost imbroken chain of descent down to

modem times. The venation is so diverse in spite of the basic scheme which

runs through all, that even in modem species we can trace a chain of descent

beginning from those resembling fossil species and ending in a very highly or-

ganised and structmally perfect wing. Some present day dragonflies are so much

akin to fossil species that they must be regarded as survivals from the past and

here in India we find several of these. Any one who has the time and oppor-

tmiity to visit the British Musemn should pay a visit to the lower insect galleries

where I am sure ]\Ir. Herbert Campion Avill only be too pleased to show him the

beautiful collection of fossil dragonflies. Here one will see the wings delineated

on the slates of Solenhofen with the most wondrous exactitude.

(iv) Dragonflies are amphibious insects spending the greater part of their

life in a watery element. The larvae are chitinous or homy insects and, unlike

those of butterflies or moths, can be preserved in the dry state without any

difificulty. It is true that they are not objects of beauty but what they lack

in this respect they more than compensate for by their interesting and curious

formation. They have no resting stage correspondmg to the pupal or chrysalid

state of the Lepidoptera but change direct from the larva to the winged insect.

When a larva prepares to change into the aerial form, it climbs out of the water

and ascends some reed or rock bordering the pond, tank or river in which it has

been living, and it is in such places that the empty shells or “ exuvia” as they are

called must be sought for. The exuvia make very interesting objects in a col-

lection and can be mounted alongside the corresponding dragonflies.

If one of the exuAria or larvae be examined they will be found to possess short

wing cases and if these be further examined, it will be seen that they bear an

exact repHqua in minatiu'e of the destined venation of the dragonfly that has

or will eventually emerge from it. Thus it is often possible to tell by an exa-

mination of the wing cases to what species the larva or exuvia belongs, even if

we have not seen the actual dragonfly emerge.

In June 1918 Dr. S. Kemp of the Zoological Smvey of India whilst hunting

for exuvia and larvae near Ghum in the Himalayas Ashed up a specimen which

looked very much like a Gomphme larvae. This has since been determined by Drs.

Laidlaw and Tillyard as the larva of a new Epiophlebia, the venation of its

wing cases corresponding to that genus. There is only one species at present"

knoAvn of this very interesting genus, which forms a connecting link between the

two big suborders into which dragonflies are divided. This species, which is

the only representative of its suborder knOAvm to exist in the world, is found

in Japan, so that the discover\- of a larva pointing to the existence of a second

species is of absorbing interest. The Avinged insect belonging to Dr. Kemp’s

larva is so far imknoAAoi — what a prize aAvaits the collector in that district ?

In the Nilgiris last year I came across a new Anaciaeschna, a fine lai’ge spe-

cies marked in dark brown and bright apple green. All the specimens Avere

females and so far not a single adult male has been seen. The larvae hoAvever

were easy and plentiful to obtain and from these I have succeeded in r.earing

males. Thus it is possible for any collector to obtain larvae and possibly rear up

imknoAvn or rare species. Dragonflies present many cmious and puzzling prob-

lems like those mentioned above, the larvae of some of our commonest species

being unknoAATi whilst the larvae of some of the rarest may be quite common.

^v) The Lepidoptera of India have been worked almost drjq the study of

her dragonflies remains in its infancy, much remains to be .solved of their life-

histories, many new species remain to be discovered so that there is ahvays the

DRAGONFLY COLLECTING IN INDIA.

893

pleasant anticipation of coming across “ something new.” A new butterfly

is a rare event now-a-days but new species of dragonflies are constantly being

discovered. Since I have been in the Nilgiris, a space of only one year, I have

found no less than ten new species and have received a larger number than this

from various parts of India and Burma.

(vi) The distribution of species is another interesting point on which ama-

teur collectors can help to give information. Less than six years ago, Hemi-

cordulia asiatica was only known from a couple of male specimens taken in

Assam. Since then Mr. Bambrigge Fletcher, the Imperial Entomologist, has redis-

covered it in Assam and last year foimd it fairly common at Kodaikanal in

the Palni Hills. Since then I have found it quite common in the Nilgiris, a

species which was thought to be conflned to the far North. Hemicordulia is an

Australian genus so that it is evident that it has spread from the south to the

north and I have no doubt but that we shall shortly hear of it from Cevlon and

possibly Java.

II. — How and Where to Collect Dragonflies.

A few words first about the equipment the dragonfly collector needs. I

usually carry a small haversack fitted with three small and one large pockets.

In the small pockets are a couple of cyanide killing bottles to be obtained from

any chemist and an empty large mouthed bottle fitted with a cork for carrying

larvae in. In the large pocket is a small folding net of muslin and another with

a strong iron rim, the material formmg the net being strong, rather open, dun-

garee. This latter is used for dredging for larvae. A few small tins (Colgate’s

shaving stick tins are very useful) are also carried in the large pocket for

holding the surplus of our captures and any exuvia that may be happened upon.

For all round work I use a large net of somewhat different type to that des-

cribed by Col. Evans in his paper on

collecthig butterflies. I find the

weak part of his net is where the

cane fits into the arms of the Y-piece.

The constant swa5dng backwards and

forwards of the net when in play,

.soon causes the cane to splitj and

break at this point. To remedy

this defect I had a Y-piece made

with the stem prolonged beyond

the arms of the Y as shown in the

diagram (Fig. 1). The stick rims

right through the Y and is carried

across the centre of the net to fit

into a T-piece at the top. The cane

is fitted into the arms of the Y and

runs clean through the arms of the

T-piece. Such a net is absolutely

rigid and strong enough to last for

years. My present one was made by

a tmsmith in the Trichinopoly

bazaar fourteen years ago. The

stick in the middle of the net is no

draw-back as one very rarely strikes

a specimen with it and even when

this happens, the insect passes on

into the net without any appreciable

damage. The measurements are 2

„ . 1 H f®ct and the material ordinary

Fig. 1. ^Net u^d for collecthig dragonflies. Mosquito netting is useless as

Note the three-armed Y-piece and jg terrible stuff to rip in tho length

the top T-piece. j£ bump up against lantana

or other thorny bushes your hunting is over for the day.

894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAl URAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

An extension to the stick as described by Ck)l. Evans is useful but must not be

too long or you will lose the nice balance a net should always have. Mr. Bain-

brigge Fletcher always uses a small folding net which clamps on to the end of

a stick. I always carry one of these as a spare and can catch most things in it.

Mr. Fletcher is very expert in the use of this net which can be purchased at

the Army and Navy Stores or any Entomological dealers.

Dragonfly larvae must be dredged for, as they lie up in weed or burrow in

the muddy bottoms of streams. Leafy debris in pools of streams is a fruitful

source for some species, whilst others cling to rocks and unless seen are difficult

to obtain. The mass of weed, leafy debris or mud must be spread out on a

cleared spot of groimd and left for a time as most species feign death after being

taken from water. As soon as they begin to dry, they are stirred into activity

and can be easily detected.

Exuvia must be sought for clinging to reeds, grass, sedges or water plants,

whilst others invariably ascend rocks bordering the tanks and streams they in-

habit. Others scale trees and I have found exuvia at a height of over six feet

from the gromid.

Ywmg larvae unless rare or wanted for study should be replaced in their watery

home, adults being the most likely to breed out into the wmged state. Larvae

must be kept in surroundmgs closely assimilating those from which they have

been taken and frequent aereation is essential. Weed should be added to the

breeding tanks for this purpose and water poured in from a height daily. Too

many larvae must not be kept in one tank as they are terrible cannibals, and

rarities are best kept apart or they may fall victims to other commoner species.

When dragonflies emerge they are soft, colourless insects and take some time

in drjdng. At least 48 hours are necessary for the colours to develop and for

this purpose I place my specimens in a warm sunny room where they can fly

about or cUng to the curtains exposed to the sunlight.

When netting dragonflies full account must be taken of their habits. Many

species never come to rest save at the end of the day or when the sun goes in and

then vanish to the depths of jungles or ascend far out of reach to the tops of

trees. These must be taken when on the wing and it is safer to strike at them

from behmd.

A full face shot at a swift species on the wing nearly always fails, it is best to

let them pass and then follow up with a swift stroke which will usually be suc-

cessful. In stalking a dragonfly, it should always be approached from behind

or below ; from behmd when in flight and from below and behind when at rest.

Other species take short flights with frequent rests and for such it is better to

allow them to come to rest before attemptmg to capture them, when they should

be approached from below and behind where possible. Other species again,

like butterflies, show great inquisitiveness and the steady, slow approach of

a net appears to fascinate them so that the final stroke is almost invariably suc-

cessful.

Small species have fi-equently to be beaten up and are taken without any

difficulty. Night flyers lie up under the cover of bushes and must be beaten up.

Such species when roused soon seek a fresh shelter and with care and a keen eye-

sight are traced to their new lair where they may be easily taken.

Females as a general rule, only come to water when they wish to lay their eggs

and so are less often seen than males. The weaker sex may often be found

hiding up in jungle adjacent to water supplies and are usually perched on promi-

nent or bare and dead twigs.

Every large body of water will be fomid to possess its omi fauna, determined

by the factor as to whether the larvae live in still or running waters. Some

species of dragonfly are often foimd flying in local swarms far from water, e.g.,

Pantala flavescens, which I have never once seen over water although probably

the commonest dragonfly in India.

Modem species usually frequent open or cultivated areas, whilst archaic ones

keep to jungles and jimgly streams. Weedy ponds are better than weedless ones,

probably because the latter give no shelter to the larvae.

DRAGONFLY COLLECTING IN INDIA.

895

Some species are cryptic in colouring and take advantage of this by selecting

appropriate coloured surfaces to settle on, such as slab-rock, whilst others lurk

in dark, shado^vy spots amongst the rocks of mountain streams.

The ends of the two monsoons are the two best times of the year for taking

dragonflies' and the close seasons between these periods the best time for hunting

for larvae, so that one never need be idle — eollecting can go on all the year

round.

At the end of the day’s shikar no time must be lost in preparmg the captured

specimens for the store box or paper collection. The abdomen contains a large

mass of food and that of the female a large mass of eggs as well. This soon

decomposes and unless removed leads to complete loss of colour in the specimens.

The larger ones must be treated as follows : — With a pair of sharp pointed

scissors open the abdomen below, at a point where it joins the thorax and slit

it up as far as the anal end. In the case of the male avoid cutting through the

genitalia which will be found beneath the 2nd segment from the thorax, and in

the case of the female, below the 8th and 9th segments from the thorax — these

structiu’es should have the incision curved round them.

Now with a pair of forceps, seize the gut near the thorax and draw it out com-

pletely in its length. The eggs should be scraped out with the blmit point of

the forceps. The procedure sounds tedious and difficult but it is simplicity

itself, especially with a little practice, and occupies only a mmute or so. Small

species do not lend themselves to this treatment so must be strengthened by pass-

ing a bristle (hog’s bristles or stout horse-hair are the most suitable) through

the thorax and running it along to the end of the abdomen. The bristle should

be sharpened by cutting it obhquely with scissors and must be entered between

the second pair of legs, that is at the juncture of the prothorax with the thorax

[Fig. 2. — How to bristle a dragonfly. The bristle a-h is passed through the

body from between the second pair of legs to the end of the abdomen. The parts

at a and b are merely shown to give the direction of the bristle, that at b being cut

off as soon as the bristle reaches the end of the abdomen.]

as shown in the diagram (Fig 2). After this is completed the specimens can be

put to dry in powdered napthalinc which I find the best preservative for colours

in the smaller species. A spirit collection of the smaller species may be made

by putting them up in lengths of glass tubing and sealing off the ends in a blow

lamp. They keep their colours absolutely perfect in spirit.

Rapid drying after cleansing is essential for the preservation of colours and

after papering my specimens I drop them into an ordinary drying tin as used for

drying cigars for a few days. In the dry hot weather which one gets in the

plains this is badly necessary as specimens dry rapidly and often preserve their

coloms absolutely intact.

To keep out mould or mites I find the best plan is to remove the drawers

from the cabinet periodically and paint the recesses with creosote. Each

drawer is thus surrounded with an atmosphere of creosote vapom- which will

sterilize moulds and kill off mites.

III. Classiflcation of Dragonflies.

Dragonflies belong to the order Odonata and this is again split up into two large

.suborders : — the Anisoptera and Zygoptera.

10

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Anisoptera have the fore and hind-wings unequal, the base of the hmdwing

being with rare exceptions much broader than that of the fore. The eyes, ex-

cept in one family — the Gomphince, are always more or less in contact with one

another.

Zijgoptera have both wings of the same shape, the hind in- some species may be

broader but the base is invariably narrow. The eyes are invariably separated.

For further classification it is necessary to master a few terms which with very

little mental effort one soon grows accustomed to.

The venation of the wings forms the main basis of classification, .so must be

studied in particular.

1. The Wing.

The foreborder of the wing is called the “ costa,” the hind, the “ termen.”

The part nearest the body, the “ base,” and the part most remote, the “ apex.”

Near the apex, on the costa will be seen a small opaque, thickened part, varying

in shape, sometimes long and narrow, sometimes nearly square, rarely in one of

the sexes (female) absent altogether. This is called the “ pterostigma.” The

3

Fig. 3.— A. Wing of an Anisoptera. B. Wing of a Zygoptera. (Only the

base is shovTi.)

1. Pterostigma, 2. Postnodal nervures, 3. Costa, 4. Node, 5. Antenodai

nervures, 6. Arc, 7. Sectors of arc, 8. Trigone in the Anisopterous wing.

Quadrilateral in the Zygopterous, 9. Cubital nervure (known as ac.). 10.

Median or arcular space, 11. Cubital space, 12. Anal triangle, 13. Loop,

14. Tomus or Anal angle, 15. Base of wing, 16. Termen or posterior border

of wing, 17. Apea: of wing, 18. Radius, 19 Mi, 20. MU, 21. Rs or Radial

sector, 22. Rspl. or Radial supplement, 23. Miii, 24. Miv, 25. Mspl or

supplement to Miv, 26. Cui, 27. Cuii, 28. Bridge, 29. Membrane. 30 Anal

bridge (known as ab.)

nervures are best learnt from a study of the text figure (Fig. 3) but the .spaces at

the base of the wing must be noted. A well marked triangle will in particular be

noted in the Anisoptera which is known as the “ trigone.”

The space immediately above the trigone is called the “ hypertrigone,” whilst

the space below and behind it is the “ subtrigone.” The upper border of the

DRAGONFLY COLLECTING IN INDIA.

897

trigone and one other nervure spring from a small, oblique nervurc called the

“ arc ” and the space basal to this is called the “ arcular space,” whilst the

space immediately below this latter is the “ cubital space.”

About the middle of the costa will be seen a kind of rigid jomt which is called

t he “ node ” and the small vertical nervures internal to this are called the

“ antenodal nervures,” whilst those external to it are the “ postnodal nervures.”

The antenodal nervures are split up into two sets by a nervure which runs trans-

versely through them and it is to be noted that in some species the two sets cor-

respond whilst in others they do not, that is, they are independent of one

another,

Li the Zygoptera the place of the trigone is taken by an oblique or squarish

space called the “ quadrilateral ” and the adjacent structures are modified as

will be seen in the figures.

2. The Head.

The head consists largely of two large compound eyes, the “ occiput,” lying

between and behind them, and the

up of

-lower

Fig. 4. — A. Head of an Anisoptera full

face. B. Ditto {OompMne.) C. Head

of a Zygoptera.

1. Labrum (or upper lip), 2. Labium (or

lower lip), 3. Eye, 4. Frons, 5. Vesicle,

6. Ocelli (or accessory eyes), 7. Occiput,

8. Nasus or epistome, 9. Aniennoe.

“ face.” The latter is made

the lips (labium and labrum

and upper lips), the “ nasus ” or

“epistome” which corresponds to

the position of the nose and lastly

the upper part of the face or fore-

head which is kno\vn as the “ frons ”

(Fig. 4).

3. The Thorax.

This is made up of a small part

immediately behind the head, the

“ prothorax,” which bears the first

pair of legs and a large bulky part

carrying the second and third pairs

of legs and the two pairs of wings,

the “ synthorax.”

The posterior part of the upper

surface of the prothorax is of impor-

tance in some species for purposes of

classification, and is knovm as the

“ posterior lobe.”

The front and upper surface of

the thorax is its “ dorsal ” surface,

whilst the part to one side of this,

correspondmg to our shoulders, is

called the “ humeral region.” The

sides posterior to this region will be

seen to hare two false joints, the

“ sutures.”

The legs consist of the same parts

as in the butterfly, viz., the “ coxa,”

“ trochanter,” “ femur,” “ tibia ”

and “ tarsus ” or “ claws.” The

femur, tibia and the shape of the

claws are the only parts used in

classification.

4. The Abdomen.

This is the long, narrow x^art im-

mediately following the thorax and

is made up of ten segments. The

abdomen may be moderately short

and stout, or long, or excessively

898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.XXVIll.

long and narrow. At the extreme end, jutting out from the tenth segment,

will be seen two pairs of appendages (“ anal appendages ”) in the male, and

one pair in the female, which vary enormously in shape in different species.

These appendages are used by the male for seizing the female prior to copulation.

This it does by encirclmg the female at the junction of the prothorax with the

thorax, that is just behind the posterior lobe of the prothorax. Beneath the

second abdominal segment of the male will be found the genital organs, whilst

in the female these will be found under the 8th and 9th segments. The female

organ consists of a more or less well-developed ovipositor, small in some

species, enormously developed in others. On the sides of the 2nd segment in

some species, will be seen two curious, ear-like processes which are known as the

“ auricles.”

5. The Larva.

In the adult insect it will be noticed that the head is remarkably mobile, but

in the larva, the head, prothorax and thorax are more or less fused and immobile.

The wing cases of the larvae must be noted although they are not very apparent in

very young larvae. The antennae here are much larger and more evident than

in the adult insect and show marked family differences in shape. Beneath the

head will be seen the “ mask ” or labium or lower lip, which is a highly specialized

organ used for the capture of prey. It is capable of extension by means of jomts

and fitted with nippers or formidable jaws by means of which, it grips its prey

as the mask unfolds and shoots out with lightening rapidity. The shape of the

mask varies widely in different families and is a useful means of classification.

All the larv8B of the Anisoptera breathe by means of the rectum but the

Zygopterous larvae have curious, leaf -like gills at the end of the abdomen which

carry out this function and are known as the “ caudal gills.” These number

two or three according to sub-families and serve to distinguish the larvae of the

three sub-families.

The comparatively few terms explained above should serve to help the amateur

to read the keys which follow but for further convenience I shall append

a glossary at the end of the latter.

(To be conUnued.)

899

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

BY

Major F, C. Fraser, I.M.S., F.E.S.

{With 3 Text-figures.)

{Continued firom page 620 ofi this Volume.)

Part XIV.

Family— AESCHNIDA: (Cont.).

Since the Ms. of Part XII went to the press, Mr. C. F. Beeson of the Forest

Research Institute, Dehi-a Dun, has sent me several new species belonging to

the family Aeschnidce and as these have not yet been described, I take this op-

portunity of including them in our list.

Gynacanthaeschna viridifrons, sp. nov.

I ^ Gahan, Bashahs Div., Burma, 26, IX, 21, coU. C. F. C. Beeson.

Type deposited in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

(The specimen is somewhat crushed or flattened out by pressure in the paper

packet, so that the shape of the head is doubtful.)

Abdomen 41 mm. Hind^ving 40 mm. Anal appendages 4 mm.

Head. Labium bright citron yellow, labnim greenish yellow, narrowly

bordered with black ; epistome similarly coloured ; frons above bright greenish

yellow changing to olivaceous brown in front ; eyes dark brown ; oeciput

greenish.

Thorax dark brown marked on the dorsiun with a bright yellow, antehumeral

stripe, square at both ends, a small spot of the same colour just above the upper

end of the stripe and also the antealar sinus. Laterally the whole of the mete-

pimeron grass green as is also a broad, posthumeral stripe.

Legs dark reddish brown, the distal ends of femora and tarsi black. Hind

femora mth a row of extremely closely-set spines and two large ones at the

distal end.

Wings hyaline, stigma black, small, exactly similar to that of G. sikkima, the

lu-19 1 19-15

brace meeting it distal to its proximal eiid ; nodal index : —

17-15 1 14r-16

3-4 cells in trigone of forewmg, 4 in that of hind ; 3-4 median nervures in

forewmg, 5 m the hind ; 6-7 cubital nervures in forewing, 5-6 in the hind ; 5-6

cells in the loop ; Rs forked a long way before the stigma ; membrane white ;

hypertrigones traversed 3 times in forewflng, 3-4 times in the hmd ; anal

triangle wdth 4-6 cells.

Abdomen reddish black to blackish brown marked with grass green as follows :

the sides of segment 1 and 2 and the middorsum of the latter narrowly, segments

3 to 7 have the middorsal carina and a fine, apical, dorsal annule, segments 8, 9

and 10 have the dorsal carina finely yellow and 8 and 9 have also a lateral

comma-shaped spot at the basal end.

Segment 10 strongly keeled.

Anal appendages. Superior nearly as long as the last two segments, curved,

broad at the base, narrowing and flattening afterwards and dilatmg gradually

900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

towards the apex which is blunt, black, Inferior triangular, two-thirds the length

of superior, bright yellow, curling strongly upward.

Distinguished from sikkima by the bright colour of the lips and frons also by

the bhmt tipped anal superior appendages, etc.

Anax goliathus, sp. nov.

1 9 Magayi, Insein, Burma, 30, XI, 21, at dusk, coll. C. F. C. Beeson.

Ty[)e deposited in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Abdomen with appendages 56 mm. Hindwing 53 mm.

Head. Eyes dark olivaceous brown, probably greenish in the living state .

labium and labrum bright ochreous, the latter bordered narrowly Avith dark

brown ; face greenish yellow, upper surface of frons sky blue, the base narrowly

black with a small, triangular projection m the middle line ; vesicle greenish ;

occiput yellow, the surface wrinkled, posterior border slightly concave, simple.

Thorax mriform grass green, beneath violaceous brown.

Legs black, the femora dark reddish brown, hind femora with a row of small

closely-set, evenly sized spines and 2 to 3 larger ones at the distal end.

Abdomen very tumid at the base, cylindrical and tapering thereafter, 7, 8 and

9 somewhat dilated. Segments 1 and 2 grass green except at the apical half of

the dorsum of the 2nd which is blue, 3rd segment with a small patch of blue

at the sides, basad, rest of abdomen dark blackish bro\vn, each segment marked

w'ith 3 lateral, dark yellow spots, one basal, one apical and the third subbasal ;

segment 7 has only 2 of these spots and 8 and 9 only one which is situated

apical-ward.

Anal appendages very short, spatulate, rounded at the tips, shaped very much

like thbse of A. petalura.

Dentigerous plate rounded, coated with minute, black spines, very similar to

the plate of A. guttatus.

Wings very broad and hyaline, the bases of the hind enfumed in the subcostal

space and anal triangle ; stigma pale brown, very long and slender ; trigones of

fore-^vings mth 6 cells, 4 in the hind ; nodal index

8-16

10-14

I 18-7

1 13-10 ’

membrane

black, its extreme base white, very long ; 12 cells in the loop ; hypertrigones

traversed 3 times in the forewing, 2 in the hind ; 5 cubital nervurcs in the

forewing, 4 in the hind ; costa yellow.

The species which belongs to the guttatus group is very similar to the female of

.4. guttatus but is easily distinguished from all other .species by the distinctive

character of its anal appendages.

Genus — AMPmiESCHNA, Selys.

Amphiaeschna, Selys, Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1871,]). 413; Bull. Acad. Belg.

(3) V., p. 737 (1883).

Eyes widely contiguous ; frons rounded ; occiput small ; wings moderately broad

and long, reticulation close, stigma small, membrane mediocre, trigones elongate,

of 5 to 6 cells, cubital space and hypertrigones traversed several times, basal

space traversed, Rs. bifurcated well before the level of stigma, 3 to 4 rows of

cells between Rs. and Rspl. Abdomen long and subcylindrical, constricted at

the 3rd segment in the male ; anal appendages sublanceolate, excavate on the

inner border, the inferior appendage short and subtriangular.

Female. Dentigerous plate denticulate, armed with (i spines.

Ty])c. A. ampla, Ramb.

Hob. Southern Asia.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

901

Amphiseschna beesoni, sp. nov.

1 Magavi, Insein, Burma, 38, XI, 21. “ Taken at dusk,” coll. C. F. C,

Beeson.

Type deposited in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Abdomen 46 mm. Hindwing 43 mm. Anal appendages 6 mm.

Fig. 1 A. Anal appendages and B. Genitalia of Amphiceschna beesoni (male)

Head globular, eyes dark biwni, very broadly contiguous; occiput very small,

pale whitish green ; labium browmish yellow ; labrum, epistome and frons oliva-

ceous, upper surface of latter with a subbasal, black line at its centre, not

traversing its whole breadth. Face very narrow.

Thorax dark olivaceous, with bright greenish yellow spots at bases of all

wmgs. Xo other markings.

Legs reddish brown, the knee-joints darker ; hind femora udth a row of close-

ly-set, robust spines, gradually lengthening distally.

Wings faintly saflfronated, the hind the more so and especially towards its

basal half ; stigma pale bro^vn, rather small, that of forewing longer than that of

hind; forewmg 3'5 mm., hindwmg 3'0 mm., outer border strongly bevelled,

braced, the brace with a slight curve ; trigone of forewing with 5-6

cells, the hind similar ; a single nervure in the median space in all wings ; 7 cu-

bital nervures in forewing, 5 in the hind ; 3 cells in anal triangle ; nodal mdex

12-221 22-12

1 ; 8 cells in the loop ; Rs. forked .some way before the stigma, 3 rows

16-151 15-16

between the forking ; 3 rows of cells between Rs. and Rspl. in forewmg, 4 hi the

hind ; membrane grejnsh, almost absent ; hypertrigones with 5 nervures in

forewing, 4 in the hind ; arc strongly angulated, sectors arising from its

middle.

;)02 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

Abdomen tumid at base, segment 3 constricted, cylindrical thereafter, the

two last segments slightly dilated ; ore diets robust, with 3-4 robust teeth on the

free border ; segment 1 olivaceous green as is also the basal half of 2, the apical

half of latter sky blue, remaining segments pale olivaceous browm with black,

apical rings.

Superior anal appendages very long and highly specialized, considerably

longer than the two last abdominal segments, shaped like the blade of a kukri,

the edge directed inwards, tapered at base, broad at apex which ends in a sharp,

outwardly curved point ; inner border with a deep indentation at its middle

third and a broad, spine-like projection basal to it. The two mdentations, by

apposition enclose a large fenestration. Inferior appendage less than one-third

the length of superior, blunt at apex, broad at base. Dark olivaceous brown,

the inferior paler at its base.

The edge of the indentation of the superior is raised into a prominent rib which

is studded with minute, black tubercles from each of which arises a long, brown-

ish hair.

This is the first record of any member of the genus Aw pTiiceschna from withm

Indian limits.

Genus — Gynacantha, Ramb.

Gynacantha. Ramb., Ins. Nevr. (1842) ; Selys, Sagra, Hist. Cuba. Ins., p. 459

(1857) ; Hagen, Neur. N. Amer., p. 31 (1861) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 94

(1890); Martin, Cat. CoU. Selys. fas. XIX, XX, p. 167 (1909).

Aoanthagyna, Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 94 (1890).

Selysyophlebia, Forster, Insekten-Bomeo (1904).

Auslrogynacantha, Tillyard, Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S.W.V., 33 (1908).

Head large and globular, eyes broadly contiguous, face deep and narrow,

occiput very small ; wings long and broad, reticulation very close, trigones elon-

gate, median space entire, submedian and hypertrigones traver.sed, Rs. bifurcat-

ed,Rspf. widely separated from it so as to enclose 4-7 rows of cells between them,

stigma usually rather long, membrane short, narrow or obsolete. Abdomen

long and slender, the 3rd segment usually but not always constricted. Legs

moderately short, the hind femora usually with a row of gradually lengthening,

closely-set spines.

Anal appendages very long and very narrow, sublanceolate, the inferior trian-

gular, shorter than the superior.

Dentigerous plate of female formed by a prolongation of the sides of the 10th

segment, on the end of which are two, robust, long spines, separating like the

prongs of a hay-fork.

This genus comprises a large group of dull coloured dragonflies, all crepuscular

in habits. Their \vings are so thickly studded beneath -with small spines as to

give them a particular velvety feel analagous to a similar condition foutid

in the genera Zyxomma and Thohjmis both of which are also crepu.scular in

habits. The dull colours are in keeping with their nocturnal habits. Most are-

insects of large size and none can be said to be small. The female deposits its

eggs in dry or damp earth in the dried up beds of watercourses. From these

sites the ova are washed down by the first freshet and quickly hatch out. The

dentigerous plate is peculiarly fitted for this work, serving to steady the end of

the abdomen whilst the ovipositor is driven into the earth Ijctween the prongs

of the dentigerous fork. In this act the long anal appendages apparently get

in the way and are soon fractured off. It is rare to find an old female with en-

tire anal appendages.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

903

All are iiortlioni species excejit one or two from Ceylon and O. millardi which

extends widely throughout Southern India.

Fig. 2. Wings of Gijnacantha klmsiaca, Maclach. (male).

Gynacantha millardi, Fjas, Bombay Nat. Hist. Journ., Vol. XXVII, No. 1, p.

147 (1920); Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XXII, p. 91 (1921).

^lale. Abdomen 46 mm. Hindwing 44 mm.

Head. Eyes deep blue in some specimens, olivaceous green in others, vei’y

broadly contiguous; in hill specimens the eyes may be a pale dove grey, pale yel-

low behind and pale greenish yellow below. Face very deep and very narrow,

pale olivaceous grey or putty coloured ; labium pale yellow as is also the occiput,

in specimens from Poona the face, labrum and frons are pale green, the latter

being unmarked.

Prothorax and thorax bright foliage green, unmarked but the female some-

times has the dorsum brownish.

Legs brown, or yellowish, the femora with minute spines.

Abdomen pale fawi or darker brown, the sides of the first three segments

bright foliage green. Oreillets green or brown. The 2nd segment has a mid-

dorsal, transverse streak of yellowish broken at the middle.

The 3rd segment is hardly constricted, thus differing from the majority of the

genus.

Wings hyaline, long and broad ; stigma pale brown ; hypertrigones traversed

3 times; trigones with 6 cells in the forewing, 5 in the hind, 9 to 10 cells in the loop ;

membrane absent ; 7 cubital nervures in the forewing, 6 in the hind ; nodal index

Superior anal appendages long and slim, longer than the two last abdominal

segments, fringed inwardly with long black hairs, the inner border distinctly

sinuous, the outer straight. Inferior appendage not half the length of the

superior, turning up, narrowly triangular.

Female almost exactly similar to the male, the abdomen paler, the iuterseg-

mental joints and jugal joints outlined in black.

li

904 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY f^VoL X.\ VIII.

Dentigerous plate shaped like a hay fork, the two prongs in extension of the

produced sides of the 10th segment.

Anal appendages shorter than those of the male and broadening towards the

apex internally, reddish brown, the hairs on the inner side not so evident.

Hah. The type and many other specimens were taken in the Empress

Gardens, Poona, hiding up under the drooping branches of mango trees or cling-

ing to the inside of green hedges. They took to the wing about dusk and con-

tmued flying to long after dark. 1 have since received specimens from Mr.

Hearsey, from Palghat, which do not differ in any way from the Poona examples.

StiU more recently I have taken the insect and seen it widely scattered through-

out the Nilgiris at elevations of over 7,000 ft. At this altitude, being cooler, it

appears on the wing at about half past two or three and continues on the wing

until about six when it apparently grows too cold for it. I have seen them

hovermg at about a foot from the ground, in front of deodar hedges around the

Ooty lake or describing figures of eight at a few inches from the ground, when

they were well nigh invisible. Tropical, crepuscular dragonflies apparently

become diurnal in colder climates.

Gynacantha khasiaca, Maclachlan, Ajin. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), p. 429 (1895) ;

Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. VIII, p. 340 (1914) ; Martin, Cat. Coll.

Selys, pp. 202-203 (fig. 207), XIX, XX (1909).

Male. Abdomen 54 mm. Hindwing 45 mm.

Head. Eyes very large and broadly contiguous, green, paler below where

they have a yellowish tint ; occiput yellow ; labium and lower part of labrum

ochreous, the rest of face olivaceous with a slight ochreous tinting. Above

Irons a black, T- shaped mark on a greenish backgroimd.

Prothorax and thorax bright olivaceous green, the hind, lateral suture brown

and a brownish tinting of the dorsum.

Legs black, bases of femora and tibiae reddish brown. Hind femora with rows

of robust, closely-set, gradually lengthening spines.

Wings hyaline or in adults more or less deeply enfumed ; stigma light brown,

braced, rather large ; 5-6 cells in trigones of forewing, 5 in the hind; nodal

18-27 I 25-17

index ; hvpertrigones traversed 7-8 times in the forewing, 5-6 in

20-19 I 18-19

the hind ; loop with 8 cells but its limits very obscure ; 7 cubital nervures in the

forewing, 6 in the hind ; membrane very small, white.

Abdomen very long and slim, tumid at the base, markedly constricted at the

base of the 3rd segment, cylmdrical and of even width thereafter.

Blackish brown, segment 1 pale on the dorsum, a broad, green spot on the sides,

2 with the dorsal carina narrowly green and a transverse stripe about its middle

of the same colour vdiich does not quite meet the green on the carina, apically

there is another green patch, whilst the oreillets and the sides are turquoise blue,

except for a small spot of green beneath the oreillet, segment 3 has the basal and

lateral part turquoise blue, whilst segments 3 to 6 have medial, transverse, green-

ish marks and yellowish, apical markings on the dorsum.

Anal appendages black, very long and slim, the inferior being about three-

fourths the length of the superior. The latter are a little expanded at the apex

where they end in a fine, long inwardly curved point.

Female very similar to the male, the appendages shorter.

This species is easily distinguished from all others by the relatively great length

of the inferior anal appendage, about-three fourths that of the superior (in no

others does it reach more than half the length of the superior)' The type is from

the Khasia Hills, but it has also been reported from the Abor Country and I have

a specimen from Lower Burma. The above description is taken from this

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

905

s|)«!cimen and differs in a few respects from the type but I have no doubt but that

it l)clongs to khasiaca.

I

1:'

III

IV

Fig. 3. Anal appendages of : — 1. G. khasiaca. 2. G. furcata. 3. G. bayadera.

4. G .o’dondi.

Gynacantha bainbriggei, Fras, Memoirs of Pusa. Vol. VTI, Nos. 7 and 8,

■June 1922.

Male. Abdomen 50 mm. Hindwing 47 mm.

Head. Eyes bluish grey, frons pale brown with an ill-defined, black, T-shaped

mark above ; lips and face pale brownish yellow, unmarked ; occiput yellowish ;

a fringe of long hairs along the ophthalmic suture.

Prothorax black on the dorsum, brown on the sides.

Thorax pale brown with diffuse, mid-dorsal and humeral blackish fasciae, each

traversed by a dark line. No markings on the sides.

Legs black, the femora brown at the base, sometimes entirely pale brown.

Wings hyaline ; stigma pale brown, 3' 5 mm. in length ; hypertrigones traversed

6-8 times; trigones variable, traversed by 3-5 nervures ; loop with 11-13 cells;

21-26 I 25-22

nodal index

21-21 I 20-21

Abdomen pale broum marked with shades of grey and black and a pair of sky

blue spots on the 2nd to 7th segments. On the 3rd segment are a pair of similarly

906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HLST. SOCLETY, Vol. XXVJll.

coloured spots at the base. The apical spots are edged apically and outwardly

with black, this colour being continued forward subdorsally and tapering away

until finally lost in the ground colour.

The last 3 segments black, unmarked. Oreillets large, sky blue above, dark

beneath, the posterior border minutely toothed.

Anal appendages very long and very narrow, 7 mm. in length, fringed in-

wardly with long hairs, inner border slightly sinuous ; inferior triangular, narrow,

less than half the length of the superior.

Female. Abdomen 53 mm. Hindwing 50 mm.

Almost exactly similar to the male. The w'ings rather deejily enfumed,

usually a dirty browi especially at the apices.

Liibrum, labium and face distinctly ochreous. Thorax greenish. Legs a

light brown, the hind femora with a row of closely set, gradually lengthening

spines.

Dentigerous plate as for genus. Anal appendages long and narrow, but in

all specimens which I have seen they are fractured off about half way.

Bainbrigge Fletcher, who discovered this species, has seen it ovipositing in

dry earth, in a dried up water course. Eggs, which he secured from samples of

the soil, developed into larvae in a few hours.

The species was found at Gauhati and most specimens were beaten up

from dry bamboo jungle durmg the day. Ovipositing was seen late in the

afternoon.

Gynacantha bayadera, Selys, Odonat. Birmanie, Ann. Mus. Genov., XXX, p.

400 (1891) ; Martin, Cat. Coll. Selys. XIX, XX, p. 198 (1909).

Male. Abdomen 45 mm. Hindwing 41 mm.

Labium, labi’um and face olivaceous ; frons yellowish, its crest black but nO’

T-shaped marking above. Occiput yellow, very small.

Prothorax and thorax foliage green, unmarked.

. Legs palest brown.

Abdomen slightly tumid at the base, a little constricted at the 3rd segment or

this scarcely noticeable, brown marked with yellow as follows : — segment 2 with

an annule and two subapical lunules, 3 to 7 with basal annule, two median,

linear spots and two terminal lunules ; 8 and 9 with longituduial, yellow

markings on the sides.

Wings broad, slightly enfumed, costa yellow ; stigma yellowish, of medium

size ; membrane small, blackish ; Rs. forked just under the origin of stigma ; anal

12-22 I 18-17

triangle broad and short, with 3 cells ; nodal index — — . Base of

17-18 I 17-19

wings often saffronated.

Anal appendages brown, long and narrow, the superior rather longer than the

last two abdominal segments, rather sinuous ; inferior rather less than half the

length of superior, narrowly triangular.

Female closely similar to the male. Appendages brown, slender at the base

long, foliate with slender, rounded ends.

Abdomen 45-47 mm ; hindwing 40-41 mm.

Reported from India and Burma (Sikkim, Bhamo). I have not seen examples

of this species.

Gynacantha hanumana, Fras., Memoirs of Pusa, Vol. VII, Nos. 7 and 8.

p. 76, June 1922.

Male. Abdomen 43 mm. Hindwing 44 mm. Anal appendages 4-5 mm.

Head. Labrum, labium and face palest brown or fawn ; frons pale olivaceous

marked with a thick, black T-shaped mark above ; eyes olivaceous, occiput

yellow, very minute.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

907

Prothorax blackish.

Thora^ pale violaceous grey, clouded with sooty grey on the sides, the mid-

dorsal qArina diffusely black.

Leg^ pale brown, yellow ish, or ochreous ; hind femora with a row of very short

spines with some longer ones at the distal end ; tibial spines long and numerous,

claw-hooks basal, robust.

Wings hyalline but distinctly enfumed ; loop wdth 12-13 cells ; stigma 3- 7 mm.

in the forewdng, that of hindwing smaller, w'hitish brown wdth dark borders,

braced sinuously; 8-10 cubital nervures in the forewing, 7 in the hind ; 6 cells in

trigone of forewing, 5-6 in the hind ; nodal index— j ; hypertrigones

^ ® 20-19 I 19-21 ’ ' ^ ®

traversed 6 times in the forewing, 5-6 in the hind.

Abdomen very long and slender, the 3rd segment constricted at the ba.se, cy-

lindrical thereafter to the anal end, transverse ridges on segments 2-8. Bluey

grey in colour, dorsum of segments browmish black, broadly so at the apex, this

colour gradually fading basally, the 3rd segment basal to the transverse ridge,

jjalo greyish blue, tlve oreillets turquoise blue, narrowly margined with

black, segments 3 to 7 have also a pair of apical, blue spots.

Anal appendages long, narrow and pointed at the apex, blackish brown, the

inferior two fifths the length of the superior, the superior fringed densely with

black hairs.

Type in the Pusa collection, taken by Mr. C. M. Inglis at Mangpu, 18-2-20,

5,200 ft, Darjiling Dist.

Gynacantha furcata, Ramb., Ins, Nevr. p. 210 (1842) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus.

Vol. XXII, p. 91 (1921); Kirby, Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. XXIV, p. 558;

id. Cat. Odonata, p. 95 (1890).

Male. Abdomen 53 mm. Hindwing 45 mm.

Head. Labrum, labium and face greenish yellow' ; frons greenish with a

black stripe across the crest but no tail converting it into a “ T ”.

Thorax greenish yellow', unmarked.

Legs reddish.

Abdomen tumid at the base, constricted at the 3rd segment, cylindrical there-

after. An oblique, subdorsal, yellow spot on most segments about the middle.

Anal appendages long and slender

Wings hyaline, reticulation open ; stigma broad and yellowish in colour.

Martin’s male from Tonkin differs somew'hat from this meagre description.

The legs are reddish wdth black articulations. The abdomen is mahogany

brow'n with a greenish spot on the dorsum of the 2nd segment, and 2 median and

2 apical, yellow' spots on all segments from 2 to 7.

The superior appendages are brown in the middle, black at base and apex,

moderately slender at the base, enlarging towards the apex which is spatulate

and pointed. The inner border sinuous. Inferior black, broadly triangular,

a little more than one-third the length of the superior.

The wings are enfumed at the base, the anal triangle is broad and short, the

nodal index : — 18-28/24-20 in forewings.

The female from Tonkin has the face olivaceous, the frons with a w'ell-marked

T above, the thorax bro\vn, marked with blackish; other points as for the male.

Martin is inclined to regard this species as a race of hyalina.

The male in the Selysian collection has the abdomen 48 mm., hindwing 40

mm. Selys regards it with some doubt. The type male is in the Selysian

■collection, the paratypes, from Tonkin, in Martin’s collection. Kirby has

reported it from Ceylon so I include it here, although w'ith some doubt.

Gynacantha saltatrix, Martin, Cat. coll. Selys. Ease. XIX, XX (fig. 199), pp.

194,195 (1909) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XXII., p. 91 (1921).

Male. Abdomen 42 mm. Hindwing 35 mm.

908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIE

Head. Labium, labrum, face and irons pale greenish yellow, the irons mark-

ed with a thick, black T above ; occiput very small, pale yellow.

Thorax broad, bro\vn above marked with obscure, green, humeral bands,

the sides greenish.

Legs pale yellowish brown.

Abdomen tumid at the base, constricted at the 3rd segment, broadening again

at the 4th and thereafter tapering to the anal end, reddish brown spotted with

green. The 1st segment with a large blue spot at its base, the 2nd with a dorsal

and two central green spots and two lateral, apical spots of green, 3 with an obli-

que, medial line and an apical, slender line of green, 4 to 8 with the medial line

and two apical spots, 9 with 2 subapical spots of yellow, 10 reddish, unmarked,

bordered with black.

Superior anal appendages longer than segments 9 and 10, slender, of even

breadth from base to apex where they are slightly broadened and pomted,

fringed internally with black hairs. Inferior about one-third the length of the

superior, narrowly triangular, pale yellow with the apex black.

Wings long and broad, hyaline, costa yellow ; stigma moderately long and

slender, pale brown; membrane nearly obsolete, white ; Rs. forking a little before

the stigma ; 5 cells in the trigones ; anal triangle with 3 cells ; nodal index : —

15-21

17-15

Closely resembles bayadera, differs as follows : — by the we 11 marked “ T ” on

frons, by the tumid basal segments of abdomen, the very large oreillets, the 3rd

segment of abdomen very constricted, and by the even sized superior anal ap-

pendages. Differs from subMerrupta by its smaller size and by the absence of

brown spots at the base of the wings.

Type male in Martin’s collection. Laidlaw mentions a male from Mazbat,

MangaldaiDist., Assam, collected by Mr. S. Kemp and now in the Indian

Museum ( abdomen 42, anal appendages 6 mm, hindwing 39 mm.). The type

is from Tonkin.

Gynacantha basiguttata, Selys., Ann. Soc. Esp. XXI. p. 20 (1842); Martin,

Cat. coll. Selys., XIX, XX, pp. 192-193 (1909); Kruger, Stett. Ent.

Zeit. pp. 283-284, (1895) ; Ris. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. LV. pp. 246-247,

fig. 13 (1911) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XXII, p. 91 (1921) ; Kirby,

Cat. Odon. p. 95 (1890).

Male. Abdomen 54 mm. Hindwing 45 mm.

Head. Labium, labrum, face and frons brownish yellow, the latter yellow

above marked with a black T ; occiput very small, brown.

Thorax brownish, greenish brown or reddish brown, probably greenish during

life. Legs all black.

Abdomen very tumid at base, markedly constricted at the 3rd segment and

then cylindrical to the end, black marked with yellow as follows : — segment

1 yellowish at the sides, 2 yellowish brown, the carina and a medial

transverse line and the apical border black, 3 to 7 with a pair of medial and a

pair of apical spots yellow, 8 with the median spots only. OreUlets large.

Wings slightly tinted with brown, sometimes deeply enfumed and with

a reddish brown mark at the base extending as far out as the 1st antenodal ner-

vure ; stigma brown, very slender ; membrane very small, grey ; Rs. forking just

before the stigma, with 7 rows of cells between it and Rspl ; anal triangle with 3

or rarely 4 cells ; tomus very accentuated ; nodal index 22-30, 26-23 in fore-

wings.

Superior anal appendages longer than segments 9 and 10, very slender at the

base and for the basal three-fourths, then broadening and spatulate, fringed

thickly with black hairs on the inner side at the ends.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

909

Liferior appendages one-fifth the length of superior, brown, black at the end,

nearly linear, narrowly triangular at the base.

Female similar to the male, the basal spot of wings more extensive, reaching

to the 3rd antencdal nervure. Anal appendages veiy long and slender, broaden-

ing foliately in the second half.

Legs black (or yellow in teneral specimens).

Type in the Selysian collection from the Philippmes. Reported from Burma.

Gynacantha subinterrupta, Ramb, Ins. Nevr. p. 212 (1842).

Acanthagyna subinterrupta, Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 95 (1890); id, Linn.

Soc., Journ. Zool., XXIV, p. 558.

Gynacantha subinterrupta, Martin, Cat. coll. Selys, fasc. XIX, XX, p.

193, (1909).

Male. Abdomen 58 mm. Hindwing 45 mm.

Head. Labium, labruin and face olivaceous yellow ; frons yellow marked

with a thick, black T above ; occiput very small, black bordered behind with

yellow, slightly notched and ciliated.

Thorax dark yellow or ochreous, rather darker on the dorsum, spotted with

blue at the attachments of the wings. The sides yellowish.

Legs reddish yellow.

Abdomen very tumid at the base, markedly constricted at the 3rd segment,

then cylindrical and of even width to the anal end. Oreillets large, bordered

with 6 to 7 small teeth. Dark reddish brown, the bases of segments paler, each

with a basal pair and an apical pair of ochreous spots, segment 1 is yellow at

the base, 2 has only 2 median spots of yellow, 10 is red on the dorsum, black

at its apical border.

Superior anal appendages long and slender, browoi, considerably longer than

the combined length of segments 9 and 10, very slender at the base, then dilated

inwardly and again narrowing so that the inner border is sinuous; inferior very

narrow, triangular, truncate at the apex which is turned up and slightly bifid.

Wings moderately broad, reticulation close, a little reddish at the base; mem-

brane very small, whitish ; stigma short, yellowish brown ; costa yellow ; some

basal spots not very evident in the forewings but more marked in the hind

between the subcosta and median nervures and submedian and postcosta ; Rs.

forked a little before the level of stigma ; anal triangle with 3 cells ; tornus rather

prominent ; nodal index 22-28, 30-22.

Female similar to the male, the abdomen more tumid at the base and the 3rd

segment less eonstricted. Anal appendages long, slender, foliate.

Abdomen 57 mm. Hindwing 52 mm.

Type in the Selysian collection is from Java. Other specimens are from

Papua. Hagen reports it from Rhambodda, Ceylon.

Gynacantha o’doneli, Fraser, Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XXVIII,

p. 700, 1922.

Male. Abdomen 41 mm. Hindwing 39 mm. Anal appendages 4 mm.

Head. Labium brownish, labrum, face and epistome yellewish green, very

rugose : upper surface of frons dark olivaceous green, unmarked ; occiput bright

yellow, rather small. Eyes brown but probably blue or green during life.

Prothorax pale fawny, the posterior lobe fringed with a ruff of long, yellowish

hair.

Thorax olivaceous brown on the dorsum, greenish yellow on the sides.

Legs palest brown or yellowish, the hind femora with a row of closel3^ set,

evenly spaced, short but robust spines.

Wings very ragged, deeply and evenl)' enfumed with brown ; stigma brown ;

13-22 18-13

nodal index : — ; trigones with 5 cells ; hypertrigones traversed 4

16-14

15-15

910 JOURNAL, BOM BAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

times ; loop with 15-16 cells ; 4-5 rows of cells between Rs and Rspl : membiane

absent ; anal triangle with 3 cells.

Abdomen olivaceous green and brown, marked with darker brown and black

apical rings towards the end of the segments. The 1st and 2nd .segments are

broadl}' green on the sides, the oreillets are large and bear 5-6 robust spines on

the hinder border.

Superior anal appendages long and slender, the outer border nearly straight,

the inner slightly sinuous and coated with long black hairs, the apex bevelled

outwards and ending in a small point. Inferior appendage triangular, nearly

half the length of the superior, curled up strongly.

The single male specimen of this in.sect was sent to me by Mr. H. V. O’Donel

whom it is named after, from Hasimara Tea Estate, Duars, Bengal.

It bears a close resemblance to G. millardi but is very much smaller. The

3rd abdominal segment is also much more constricted and the wings

are deeply enfumed. In size it is equivalent to the smallest known Gynacantha

saltatrix hut the relative sizes of abdomen and wings differ, being 42 to 35 mm.

in saltatrix, to 41 to 39 mm. in o'donelU. It differs again by ha\dng the upper

surface of frons unmarked.

Gynacantha hyalina, Selys. Bull. Acad. Belg. (3) V., p. 19 (1882).

Acanthagyna hyalina, Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 95 (1890.)

Gynacantha hyalina, Kruger, Stett. Ent. Zeit. p. 275 (1899) ; Laid. Rec.

Ind. Mus., Vol. XXII, p. 90 (1921) ; Martin. Cat. coll. Selys. fasc.

XIX, XX, pp. 198-199, (fig. 203) (1909).

Male. Abdomen 52 mm. Hindwing 42 mm.

Female. Abdomen 56 mm. Hindwing 51 mm.

Male. Head entirely olivaceous, the frons only being marked with a thick,

black “T” above.

Prothorax and thorax olivaceous brown in front and on dorsum, olivaceous

on the sides, yellow beneath.

Abdomen blacldsh brown above, reddish beneath. The dorsal carina and

articulations black. The 2nd segment bears very large oreillets, rounded

behind and furnished with small teeth. The 3rd segment markedly constricted.

Legs slender, reddish brown, the femora darker at the distal ends on the

inner side.

Wings hyaline, slightly enfumed and tinted with brown at the extreme base.

Reticulation dark reddish, the costa brownish yellow. Stigma yellow, medium

size, 0‘3 mm, over 4 cells. The hindwing very broad, the membrane rudimen-

tary, pale grey. 18 postnodal nervures and 24 antenodals to the forewing.

Superior anal appendages black, furnished with long hairs on the inner side

before the apex, longer than the 9th and 10th abdominal segments together, 5

mm. straight, very slender, nearly cylindrical, a little thickened before the apex

which tapers to a sharp point very slighth' inclined outwards. Inferior appen-

dage subtriangular, blunt, a little more than one-third the length of the

superior.

Female. Similar to the male but the body and legs paler, the abdomen not

constricted, the oreillets nearly absent. Stigma 4 mm. in length. Anal appen-

dages broken, shape doubtful.

Hab. Bhamo (June, July and August). Nilgiri Hills from 1,000 to 7,000 ft.

This species varies much in size, the adults ate often enfumed as regards the

wings and the antenodal nervures vary from 24-36 in the forewing. Sylhet.

China, Loo-choo, Lucon, Borneo. The species is very similar to subinterrupta

but there is no basal marking in the hind wings of hyalina.

{To be continued''.

91i

HE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER {NEPHILA MACULATA).

BV

Captain R. W. G. Hingston, I. M. S.

(Continued from page G49 of this Volume.)

PART II.

The Continuation of the Snare.

one text figure.)

I resume the architecture of the Nephilu. Her radii are in position, or, at

least, the frame has been supplied with a system of branching spokes. Now

comes the next stage, the construction of the hub. In the snare of the Araneus

this is a distinct and separate act. The spider winds five turns of a slender fila-

ment around and close to the centre anchoring it at every spoke. Its object

of course is to strengthen the framework at the point where the radii meet. Now

look at the snare of the Nephita. We see no sign of any thread just coiled a

few times around the centre. There is, in an architectural sense, no trace of

a hub.

The next stage deserves more careful notice ; it is the construction of the tem-

porary spiral. Remember the mechanism of the Araneus. Having completed

her radii, she proceeds to lay down four turns of a spiral round about

the inner half of her snare. It is but a temporary scaffold. At a later stage

in the architecture she cuts it completely away. Compare the architecture

of the Nephita with this. She does not first complete her radii and then apply

herself to the winding of the coil. I see both operations in progress at the same

time ; first the placing of a few radii, then the laying of a few turns of the spiral,

then the resumption of the radii again. The spiral of the Araneus consists of

about four turns separated widely in the snare. That of the Nephita is a much

longer and more important structure. I count the turns in the snare under

observation. They number forty-four. And it is a more closely wound and

widely distributed filament. It is continued from the centre right out to the

very rim. Near the centre the turns are very close together ; the distance

between them being only half an inch. They gradually separate as they

proceed to the circumference where they are as much as two inches

apart.

Again I have no doubt that the reason of the variation in the mode of ar-

chitecture is the result of the difference in the size of the snares. Four turns

in the inner half will provide a scaffold of sufficient strength for the few radii

of a small snare. But this will not satisfy the Nephita. She needs a much

more elaborate scaffold to support her longer and more numerous spokes. More-

over, the spiral must be more closely wound and spread throughout the whole

area of the snare. It is also an excellent provision for the turns to come near

together at the centre and at the circumference to lie wide apart. For near

the centre the radii approach one another and there require an additional

support. t

I must now enter a word of explanation with respect to the temporary spiral.

I have called it by this name, though I doubt if I am strictly correct. I imagine

that it only appears a temporary spiral, while in reality it is something quite

distinct. Anyone after witnessing the architecture of the Araneus and then

passing to that of the Nephita, could not but imagine that the two spirals which

12

912 JOVRI^AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

I have compared were essentially of the same kind. Nevertheless in a strict sense

I doubt if this would be true. I suspect that what I have called the temporary

spiral is in actual reality an immensely extended hub. Just compare a few points

of detail. The hub is the first of the different spirals which the Araneus ap-

phes to her snare. And so is the temporary spiral in the architecture of the

Nephila, for, as I have before stated, she constructs no real hub. Again, the

Araneus, when she extends her radii, at the same time manufactures her hub.

And this is exactly what the Nephila does when she is constructing what appears

to be her temporary spiral. But a more important point is this. The temporary

spiral in the snare of the Nephila is not destroyed at a later stage as always

occurs in the ordinary snare. It remains as a part of the architecture to the

end. Thus in this point it differs markedly from the temporary spiral of the

Araneus and agrees more closely with the hub. Indeed it is only for conve-

nience of description that we can speak of it as the “ temporary spiral.” It

appears as such ; fulfils that purpose as a scaffold, but close and strict obser-

vation reveals that it is in reality more to be compared with the ordinary hub.

Considered in this light the snare of the Nephila possesses an enormous hub

and no temporary spiral at all.

We have now reached the last stage in the architecture, the construction of the

viscid spiral. The work bears a close resemblance to that of the Araneus ; never-

theless it supplies some additional information and differs in some interesting

points. The Nephila, of course, begins at the circumference and winds her

spiral round and round the snare. >She draws out a thin transparent line which

she affixes to every spoke. It is very delicate, pale yellow in colour, and a

powerful light will disclose even to the naked aye that it is beaded with droj)-

lets of gum.

Now this laying of the viscid spiral is a very prolonged and tedious work.

I have seen the Nephila commence her thread at 8-15 p.m. She worked inces-

santly almost without interruption, and not till 1 a.m., on the following morn-

ing did she finally secure the line. How different is this from the Araneus,

The wea\dng of her viscid spiral is likewise her slowest and most difficult work ;

nevertheless she will secure it to a moderate snare in from twenty minutes ta

half an hour. Elsewhere I have told of certain forms of Araneus which destroy

their architecture every evening and reconstruct a new one for the night. But

such an operation would not suit the Nephila. The laying of this spiral is

much too tedious to permit of such frequent architecture as this. Her immense

sheet must fulfil its purpose for many nights and days.

By means of the application of the viscid spiral the Nephila converts her

naked spokes into a delicate and close-meshed net. She must travel a consi-

derable distance in the operation ; she may circle one hundred and thirty or

more times around her great wheel before she has completed the whole. It is

at this stage of the architecture that the Araneus severs her temporary spiral.

As soon as she draws her viscid line across two spokes then she cuts the tempo-

rary thread away. Its work as a scaffold is over ; consequently it has no further

use. Her final spiral is thus very exact, being composed of only a single viscid

line. But the Nephila acts otherwise ; she allows her long temporary spiral

to remain. Thus her snare is in a sense less perfect than that of the Araneus ;

there is an intermingling of viscid and non-viscid lines. This results in some

confusion and in a loss of symmetry in the architecture. The turns of the two

spirals tend to become entangled wherever they happen to meet, and

this detracts somewhat from the perfect and symmetrical appearance of the

web.

It is worth examining with a little care the more detailed mechanism of this

tedious work. How is each long slender limb employed in the slow deliberate

circuit round the snare ? Here is our opportunity. The little Araneus baffles

us by her agility and speed, but we can follow the great methodical Nephila

THE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER.

918

and distinguish each separate act. She takes a position in line with the spokes

her head is directed to the centre ; and in this attitude, with great deliberation,

she moves sideways round and round her wheel. The Araneus, and others

of the smaller kind, have to make use of their temporary spiral in order to pass

from radius to radius. Between each attachment they have to run inward and

cross over by the bridge. Not so the Nephila. She is independent of her

temporary spiral. She need only reach across from radius to radius and pull

herself over the spokes.

Now each of her limbs has its special duty as she moves in the architectural

round. Consider that her head is towards the centre, the tip of her abdomen

close to her spiral, and that she is making her circle to the left. First look to the

legs of the left or advancing side ; they are emploj’ed in the following way. The

fore leg is stretched far out to the left and clutches one of the radii a considera-

ble distance ahead. It is a long and slender limb, and near the circumference

I see it grasp a radius as many as eight in advance. This fore limb, therefore,

serves as an implement to pull the spider round and round her snare. Now

look to the second leg, of course on the same side. It also is stretched out but

the radius which it clutches in its terminal claws is only two in advance. The

second leg draws in this radius towards the spider ; then it passes the line on to

the claws at the tip of the third leg which is stretched out to receive it. In the

same way the third leg passes on the line and hooks it over the claws of the hind

leg ; and the hind leg then continues the traction until it finally anchors the line

to the spinnerets. This last effort is a careful and decided pull. At the same

time the tip of the abdomen is pressed down with decision upon the radius ;

the spinnerets touch the line, and the viscid spiral is secured. But there is

another detail ; the function of the left hind leg is not yet quite complete. Im-

mediately after the attachment has been made, the hind leg then presses away

the radius which before it had pulled in, and this has the effect of drawing some

of the viscid spiral from the spider’s spinnerets.

Now turn to the limbs of the right side. The first three do not perform any

work quite so particularly precise. They certainly move with deliberation

and care. They are stretched in towards the centre ; they clutch the turns of

the temporary spiral, but they do not appear to fulfil any more precise function

than just to support the spider in her circles round the snare. But it is other-

wise in the case of the hind limb of this side. I have just said that the last

effort of the left hind leg was to press the radius away from the spinnerets, but,

after a short thrust, it then passes over the line to the care of the right hind leg,

and this limb continues to press away the radius until sufficient of the filament

has been drawn out. One other minute point ; the left hind leg works with

its claws ; the right one thrusts with the joints of its tarsus.

This, so far as I can see, is the rather detailed and complex mechanism of the

movement, and it is one in which each leg has its own particular purpose to

fulfil. The legs of the left side are mainly organs of traction employed to

pull the spider on her course. Moreover the last three serve as a series of im-

plements to pass the radius to its anchorage on the spinnerets. The legs on

the opposite side act chiefly as organs of support, but the hind leg

possesses the additional function of pressing away the radii so as to extract

the sticky line. j:

We watch the spider. We look with wonder at all this complexity, and we

note the precision with which each member peifforms its particular work. When

all of a sudden the Nephila halts ; she reverses her direction ; she has been mo-

ving to the left ; she changes, and starts on a fresh circle to the right. Now

again observe her limbs. Those of the right side take up the duties previously

performed by those of the left side. There is no confusion ; each assumes its

corresponding task, and, without a sign of any hesitation, she reverses the

functions of her limbs. Excellent ai’chitect ; she is ambidextrous in a refined

914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NXVIll

and elaborate degree, even in the complexity of delicate movements that enter

into the manufacture of this spiral line.

There is still a further point to consider before we leave this portion of the

snare. By what mechanism does the Nephila measure the even distance be-

tween her coils ? She is a skilful geometrician, and she must have some very

efficient method of securing the perfect parallelism of her lines. Again I recall

the work of the Araneus. She is so swift, so agile in all her movements ; she

fixes her line so rapidly that it is difficult to observe with minute care the mode

of measurement whicli she adopts. Nevertheless, I found by the aid of ex-

periment that she works on a very simple plan. She converts her fore leg into

a measuring rule in order to estimate the distance between the turns. While

she is engaged at one turn she stretches out her fore leg until with the extreme

tip she touches the turn which she laid down in her last circle. In this way she

measures off a certain distance from her last turn and then she affixes her thread.

At every point of fixation she makes the same measurement ; thus she ensures

that the new line is parallel to the one last laid down.

Let us look now to the slow and leisurely Nephila. There is no haste about

her grave actions. She will surely tell us something ; she is so decided in every-

thing she does. It is immediately evident that her mode of operation is quite

distinct from that of the Araneus. At no time does she bring her fore leg so

is to touch her viscid spiral ; indeed, I have already shown that these legs are

employed in another way. We must look to the hind leg of the Nephila in

order to discover how the measurement is made.

I fear that I am very tedious, but it is worth observing this geometrical act

with a little detail and care. The Nephila is circling to the left. Four turns

of her viscid spiral are in place, and she is now engaged in anchoring the fifth.

I have already explained how the hind leg on the left side receives the radius

from the third leg, and then draws the line steadily in until it touches the spin-

nerets. But let us fix our attention at the very moment of this act. The

hind leg receives the radius ; the line is clutched in the terminal claws ; but the

essential point to observe is that the claws take hold of the I’adius at the exact

point where it meets the fourth turn of the spiral, that is the turn which has

last been laid down. From that point it draws in the radius until the line comes

in contact with the spinnerets about one-sixth of an inch away. The spider

passes on from radius to radius, and at every anchorage the same mechanism

occurs. The tip of the hind leg always takes hold of the radius at the point

where it meets the last turn of the spiral. And as the leg is kept bent in the same

position an equal distance is thus always measured off. It is the distance from

the spinnerets to the tip of the hind leg. Thus each line is the same distance

from each preceding line, and a perfect parallelism is secured. It is a very

simple mechanism, but it is wonderfully precise. It stamps the Nephila as

an accurate geometrician that works in a mathematical way.

It is only by some such simple mode of measurement that this excellent result

could be obtained. For remember that the Nephila is an ungainly creature

with slender groping limbs that span over six inches across. Yet with such

long and awkward implements see what a marvellous net does she produce.

Every line is in perfect parallel, and they are only one-sixth of an inch apart !

By the aid of two experiments I confirm the fact that this is the mode of

measurement employed to draw line parallel to line. The first experiment is

a mere repetition of one previously made on the snare of the Araneijis. It

fixes the junction of the last turn of the viscid spiral with the radius as the

point from which the measurements are made. For if the spider places one

turn by estimating the distance from this junction on the preceding turn, then

if I remove the preceding turn, I will deprive her of this junction ; I will have

taken away her point of measurement, and, as a result, she should fail

to draw parallel lines. I perform the experiment ; I remove the turn in one

THE ISNABE 01 THE GIAST WOOD SPIDER.

915

segment, and let us now look to the diagram (Fig. 2) and witness what has

occurred.

Fig. 2. — Loss of paraiielism resulting fiom division of one turn

of viscid spiral in one segment.

(a) Viscid spiral divided in segment X.

(J) Result of spider’s work. Loss of parallelism in both

• X and Y.

Arrow mark the direction of spider s circle.

Turn first to diagram a. Let w, x, y, z be four adjoining segments. Let x

be the experimental segment, and let three turns 1, 2, 3 of the viscid spiral be

complete. I divide the innermost turn in segment x. Now turn to diagram />.

The spider circles on laying down the fourth turn of its spiral all round the snare.

At length it reaches the radius between z and y. Here all is well. It stret-

ches out its hind leg ; it touches the radius between the segments exactly at

the jxrint o, that is the point where the radius meets the last turn of the viscid

spiral. This point of measurement is intact. Therefore the spider makes an

accurate judgment, and draws her line parallel across segment z. She passes

on to the radius between x and y. She again stretches out to hook the radius

.at the point wLere it meets line 3. But line 3 is gone, therefore she must touch

the radius where it meets line 2. Her measurement is consequently incorrect.

Her attachment is made in the wrong place, farther out on the radius, and

the line drawn across segment y is out of parallel. The spider passes on. She

reaches the radius between w and x. She stretches forward ; here she finds

the line correct, and she anchors her filament in the right place. But the other

end of that filament has found a wrong attachment, therefore the line across

segment x is also out of parallel. To sum up ; the result of the experiment is

this. One turn of the viscid spiral is removed from one segment. The point

where it touches the radius is as a consequence destroyed. But, since this is

the measuring point for the spider, therefore the next turn of her viscid spiral

is incorrectly laid. Its parallelism is lost in both the experimental and the

preceding segment. In the one the lines converge, in the other they diverge.

The essential fact is that the point of measurement being removed then the

parallelism is lost. Thus the clear conclusion is that each attachment of the

viscid spiral is measured off from that point on the radius where it is touched

by the preceding turn.

So much is confirmed ; but we have not yet clinched the fact that the hind

leg is the measuring rule employed. We must make certain of this observation,

since it is directly opposite to the method of the Aranevs which measures by the

aid of her fore leg. I satisfied myself of this by first amputating the legs

and then witnessing the result. Let us attempt a similar experiment on the

Eephila. But in her case it is the hind legs which we must first cut away. It

916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

is a simple matter to operate on these long limbs, much easier than on the little

agile Araneus. But we are dealing with a very timid creature and we must

be patient in waiting for the result. With a fine pair of scissors I snip off the

tips of the two hind legs. The Nephila is very concerned. She does not soon

return to work as did the mutilated Araneus ; she remains at the outskirts of her

snare for as long as six hours. At length she does return and again takes up her

spiral thread. I watch her movements, and it is clear in a moment that I have

anticipated the result aright. It is the same as occurred to the Araneus after

her fore leg had been removed. The Nephila, as a result of the mutilation, is

immediately at serious fault. She advances in her slow methodical way. But

no longer do the hind legs apply themselves to their task ; no longer do the

claws clutch on to the radius ; the amputated tarsi are now held wide apart

and tilted behind her clear of the web. Nevertheless she works persistently

on ; she climbs across from radius to radius, and, though clearly hampered by

the grievous loss, yet she sticks with a dogged determination to the work.

Though her organ of measurement is gone, yet her instinct still impels her on,

and, correct or incorrect, she must anchor a spiral of some kind to her spokes.

Therefore hour after hour she struggles perseveringly on. Though she can no

longer measure from her viscid spiral, yet she still has a rough and imperfect

guide. She can work along the turns of her temporary spiral ; they will not help

her to draw her lines parallel, but at least they will keep her in her circular course

She thus looks to her temporay spiral for assistance in her present strait. She

applies her third pair of legs to it, and, employing it as a guide, she works round

and round her snare. With its help she lays down three or four turns of her viscid

spiral, and anchors them in some way to the spokes. Then she passes in to the

next circle of her temporary spiral, and, under the guidance of this, she lays

down three or four turns more. Thus she advances to the centre employing the

circles of her temporary spiral as a number of successive guides. They are

certainly of value to her ; they help her to maintain her circular direction ; they

prevent the most absolute and complete confusion ; they lend some slight aid

to a spiral workmanship, but they cannot supply that dehcate adjustment

necessary to ensure the parallelism of the lines. It is otherwise ; the viscid spiral

is all chaos and confusion. The lines meet one another ; they cross ; they in-

tertangle ; they are anchored here and there and anywhere, and always in the

wrong place. Nevertheless she persists ; she struggles on to her last attachment,

working for half the night. She secures the final touch in place ; she seals it

with her usual care and precision, as though she had completed as harmo-

nious a fabric as ever she had woven before in her life. It is an example of

dogged determination, but it is a tangled and disordered work. The turns of

the temporary spiral are distinct owing to the parallelism in their successive

coils. But the viscid filament is only an endless tangle ; there is no trace of

that exquisite and perfect parallelism which is the feature of admiration in the

geometrical snare. Why ? The Nephila has lost her organ of measurement ;

she has been robbed of her geometrical power.

Just one final word of summary in order to contrast the architecture of the

Nephila with that of a species such as the Araneus which constructs an ordinary

snare. I will review only the most striking points. The web of the Araneus

is twelve inches across ; the sheet of the Nephila is as tall as a man. The Ara-

neus extends about twenty radii ; the Nephila spreads out a hundred or more.

At each journey the Araneus lays a single radius ; the Nephila secures a pair.

Each spoke of the Araneus is a double filament ; the Nephila makes a single

line. Undivided radii is the system of the Araneus ; the Nephila prefers bran-

ching spokes. By a four-pace interval the Araneus measures the distance

between her radii ; the Nephila secures her interval by measuring from the tip

of her hind leg to her spinnerets. At the centre the Araneus attaches a little

spiral which serves the purpose of a hub ; the Nephila has nothing of the kind

THE SNABE OF THE hIA^T WOOD SlUDER.

917

’n her architecture unless her temporary spiral be an extended hub. The tem-

porary spiral of the Araneus is a wide-open structure ; the Nephila weaves a

close-wound coil. Four turns are enough for the Araneus, and they are confined

to the inner half of the snare ; the Nephila makes over forty circles spread from

the centre to the rim. The temporary spiral serves the Araneus for the purpose

of a bridge ; the Nephila steps from spoke to spoke. In the snare of the Araneus

it is subsequently destroyed ; the Nephila retains it permanently to the end.

The viscid spiral of the Araneus is uniform through the snare ; the Nephila

intermingles it with her temporary coils. The fore leg of the Araneus measures

the distance between its lines ; the Nephila makes use of her hind leg to secure

a similar end. The architecture of the Araneus takes half an hour ; the Nephila

works for half a night.

We have finished. We have watched the Nephila through the lonely hours,

and we leave her now to take her station in her snare. The long night is over ;

we even see the first faint streak of dawn. Let us go, satisfied with what we

have seen. There are none who would join us in this silent vigil, yet the hours

are not altogether lost. We have learnt something of beauty and of wonder

from this marvellous geometrical snare.

P.ART III.

Further Lessoxs of the Xephila.

I will now consider some further lessons taught us by the architect of this

snare. We must take every opportunity to learn from one who is so large and

so leisurely at her woi-k.

The first is a matter in respect to he r architecture. It concerns what I have

elsewhere described as the “ reversal of the spiral.” It is only on rare occasions

that a little spider, such as the Araneus, will construct a viscid spiral of one

single line continuous from end to end. That is the ideal nuthod, but in actual

practice she has to modify the work. If we observe her with reasonable care

we ■will often see the following occur. She is anchoring her 'vdscid spiral; all of a

sudden she halts ; she seals off the end of her spiral ; she turns about and commen-

ces a new spiral by circling in the opposite way. Moreover, we rvill observe that

she always adopts this behaviour when the point from where her radii diverge

happens not to coincide ■with the true centre of the web. On those occasions

some of the radii happen to be long, others happen to be short. And the

reversal, we observe, is a plan of architecture associated with the eccentricity

of the snare. Furthermore, we will observe that she so arranges her reverses

that their effect is to add additional turns to the long radii, and in this way make

up for the eccentric nature of the work.*

The Nephila adopts a similar plan. I have found certain of her immense

sheets in which the so-called centre was very eccentric. I recall one of over five

feet in diameter where the centre was only eight inches from the upper edge.

While employed in the architecture of so eccentric a work the Nephila must

reverse at almost every turn. If she circled in the ordinary way round and

round her snare, she would very soon complete her spiral in the short and upper

spokes, while the long and lo^wer ones would be almost empty of threads. To

prevent this she must repeatedly reverse so as to keep her thread almost confined

* The reversal of the spiral is discussed in detail in “ A Xaturalist in Himalaya.”

918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIH.

to the long spokes. I watch her in the ingenious work. She is moving across

hoi lower and longer radii anchoring her filament as she goes. She reaches the

shorter radii ; she reverses ; she comes back over her long radii again. Soon she

approaches the short radii on the other side of the snare. But she will go no

further ; again she reverses ; again she works back over hei long radii

fi-ving her filament to the spokes. Thus she, so to speak, oscillates over

her long radii; she largely neglects the upper and shorter ones; only on

rare occasions does she make a complete circuit round her snare. So seldom

indeed that, in this instance, there were 130 turns of the viscid spiral attached

to the lower and longer radii, and only 3 turns to the upper and shorter spokes.

Moreover, the Nephila employs this mechanism not only when dealing with her

viscid spiral, but she introduces the same operation into her temporary .spiral

too. And as with the viscid filament, she may sometimes do so to an extreme

degree. In thi.s same .snare, for example, she attached 44 turns of her temporary

spiral to the longer, and only 7 to the shorter spokes. Thus she is a spider which

works with judgment and system. She can modifv her various lines to suit

even the most eccentiic of eccentric snares.

There is another structure in the arehitcctuiw of the Nephila w'hich I have

not observed in ordinary snares. Xot only does she spread an extensive sheet,

but she also constructs a special barrier in order to drive her %ictim more surely

into the toils. She places it so as to face one surface of her .sheet ; it is at a slightly

higher level than the main snare, and a little distance away. There is nothing

precise or geometrical in its workmanship, it is merely a tangled maze of lines.

They are poweidul filaments ; they are non-viseid ,• they m^et at all angles; they

are spread about in every direction ; they form an entangled barrier through

which no insect can pass. It is a strong and imixnetrahle silken wall, about

two feet or more in depth, and secured by an anchorage of powerful cables above,

below, and at the .sides. In some places its meshes are wide and ojxm, and

strange insignificant spiders will then sometimes .seek a I’duge there. They

rvill spin their own miniature but perfect webs amidst the entanglement of

coar.ser lines.

The object of the barrier is, I think, this. The main snare, though a vast

sheet, is in texture rather fragile and thin. It is spread chiefly for the moths

and flies that emerge from their concealment by night. It will not secure the

larger prey. A locust will tear itself from the viscid grasp and easily break

aw'ay. Thus without the aid of some additional resource many of the captures

would certainly be lost. By means of the bax-rier this purpose is fulfilled.

The victims w'hich break from the main snare strike the entanglement of

lines ; they carmot advance ; they strive to escape, but are only driven back again

into the snare.

There is another feature in connection with this snare which it is worth our

while to observe. The Araneus possesses the remarkable habit of swallowing

completely the remains of her architecture as soon as it is worn out. It usually

serves for twenty-four hours, after which time it is a tattered web. Then at

evening we may see the spider demolishing all that is left. She eats up her

successive radii, her viscid attachments, every little tag and shred, and all the

tiny insects that happen to bo entangled on her lines. In fact she systematically

destroys and takes back into he.’ owm substance all that remains of her imservice-

able snare.

I have little doubt that the Nephila behaves in a similar w'ay. Her architec-

ture, of course, lasts a much longer time, and I have not actually seen the final

desti-uction that occurs. But an experiment will indicate with sufficient certainty

the manner in which the structure disappears. I sever the strong foundation

lines all round an immense sheet. I leave just one attachment to the upper

hoiizontal line. The snare collapses, its elastic sides fall in, its innumerable

filaments gather themselves together, and, in the form of a sticky rope, it swings

THE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER.

919

like a pendulum in the wind. The Nephila is alarmed. She hangs for a while

to her foundation-line, but at length she recovers and begins to look to her

snare. Her first act is to gather up the tissue that remains. It is completely

disordered, massed into a rope, and, of course, beyond any idea of repair. This

is how the Nephila acts. She climbs down along the sticky rope paying out her

filament behind. She must descend slowly and with care, for tMs is a viscid

and a tangled ladder, and it sways in every breeze. At last she reaches the lower

end, and there, at the extreme foot of the rope, she makes an attachment with

her spinnerets. Immediately she starts to climb up again, and we now witness

an occurrence which we have never seen before. We observe that the Nephila

in her ascent actually pays out no thread. She makes use of the filaments for a

very different purpose, she literally employs it as a hauling-line by means of

which she drags up the foot of the rope behind her. When she has hauled it

up a height equal to about her own length, she makes a second attachment and

in this way she converts the lower end of the rope into a coil. Now she makes a

second ascent, hauls up her coil, climbs an equal distance, makes a third attach-

ment and thus bends another coil. In this manner, by successive stages, she

continues to make her ascent. She gathers up behind her coil upon coil, and

finally secures the well-wound rope to hei upper horizontal line. There it hangs

for a little while waiting for the next step to occur.

What an excellent and ingenious performance is tliis by wliich the, spider

gathers up her rope ! As the seaman coils his cable on the ship, so does the

Nephila wind into a coil the final rope-like fragments of her snare. How

simple, yet how human like, are the ways of the Nephila and many of the acts

she does ! It is not alone in the geometrical measurements of her construction,

but also in the manner that she gathers together the last and tattered fragments

that re mam.

We wait for about five minutes when we see the next act begin. The spider

returns and pays attention to her sticky coils. With her long legs she com-

pres.ses them into a smaller bulk ; with her palpi she guides the mass into her

mouth, and takes it between her ponderous jaws. Then, in this attitude, hanging

by her legs to her foundation -line, she commences to devour her snare. It is Id

a.m. when the process of mastication begins. She chews at it, she turns it about,

she moistens it all over with her saliva, and moulds it into a roundish lump. It is

now a dark yellow globule no larger than her own head ; and the huge sheet, five

feet in diameter, has beem compressed into a firm ball. Apparently it is no easy

matter to digest tliis globule of silk. The Nephila is tardy in all her actions,

but in this she is slow and tedious in the extreme ; the most prolonged of all the

operations of her life is the mastication of her own snare. I watch her for hours

with the yellow ball fixed between her patient jaws. She digests it with such

infinite slowness that it seems scarcely to diminish at all in size. All day long

I I'eturn at intervals, and I visit her late at night. The globular mass is still

there ; it has grown much less, but a nodule of half digested substance is still

fixed between her jaws. I visit her again the next morning. The nodule has

disappeared. A vast and beautiful sheet is now spread from tree to tree. The

spider has devoured all her irrevious architecture ; not a particle of it is left, so

that nothing has gone waste. She has digested it, absorbed it, assimilated it,

and brought it foiih again. She has converted into her own substance the

texture which I had destroyed, and has rewoven the fabric anew.

Another lesson taught by the Nephila is the detailed method by which a spi-

der overcomes its struggling pre;,. The Araneus will show us the main opera-

tion, but from the large and leisurely Nephila we can learn some further points.

The Nephila is in wait at her usual place, in the very centre of the snare. Hei-

legs are spread out all round about her ; they touch the radii on every side, and

thus she feels the gentlest quiver in any part of her web. An insect all of a

sudden falls against the viscid lines. The Nephila is iinmediately on the alert.

920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

She dashes out with unusual speed, much more rapidly than we should ever ex-

IK?ct. She comes down upon her struggling prey ; she seizes it in her long fore-

legs ; she draws it towards her and sweeps it into her jaws. She falls first upon

the thorax ; it is there that she makes the deadly stroke. This is the vital

spot, for Avithin lies the nervous centre and into its substance she must strike.

She acts like the Hippasa, which weaves a non -viscid sheet, or the Tarantula

of Fabre which digs a tunnel in the soil ; she behaves as though she knew the

anatomy of her prey ; she first pierces the vital and essential point in

the whole nervous chain. Nor is it any gentle thrust, for her fangs are suffi-

ciently powerful to penetrate the human skin. I have watched her drive them

deep into my finger, and have .seen the drops of limpid poison gather round

the bleeding wound. The insect has little chance from such a deadly and unerr-

ing stroke. At the first thi'Ust the nervous ganglion is reached. The poison

is driven in ; the victim is struck motionless ; it can no longer struggle and

beat its wings and injure the precious snare. The spider by her cunning has

prevented this, for instant paralysis occurs.

The swift struggle is over, and the insect prey is dead. She now takes it be-

tween her palpi, and with her middle pair of legs secures it on either side. In

this attitude for about half a minute she holds it tenaciously in her jaws. No

doubt she is forcing in her fangs and injecting the poison deep into her prey.

Satisfied at length that her capture is overwhelmed, she commences to drag it

away. She takes it between the claws of her middle legs, tears it from its

viscid attachments to the lines, and transports it to her station at the very cen-

tre of the snare. Then comes the next process, the sheathing of the captured

prey. She releases her jaws ; she thrusts her capture out in front of her, hold-

ing it in position betweeir the tips of her middle legs. It also receives an addi-

tional support from the palpi on either side. The next act is as follows.

The Nephila bends in her long hind legs and brings the claws to the tip of her

abdomen just behind the spiimerets. She hooks the claws round the project-

ing line and draws the silk steadily out. But she does not pull forth the ordi-

nary line ; she extracts a dense sheaf of many .slender threads, and these she

slowly carries forward beneath her until they reach tJtre capture held out in

front. Then she begins to rvind them round her victim. The hind leg of one

side first makes a turn ; then follows the hind leg of the opposite side, and thus,

by their alternate action, coil after coil is wrapped around the prey. Some

assistance is given to the operation by the pecuhar use of the middle legs. By

their efforts the prey itself is rotated ; and, since the coiling of the sheaf is in

the opposite direction to the twisting of the prey, both actions help towards

the same result. At length, after a number of turns, the victim is completely

sheathed ; it is both closely imprisoned and dead. Then she lowers it a little

and with a slender strand of silk anchors it near the centre of the snare.

The capture is made, sheathed and anchored ; the Nephila now begins to

feed. like evei-y other operation it is a slow and patient act. She commences

at the head ; she brui.ses it a little and sucks from it all its juice. She then passes

on to the thorax, deals with it in the same manner, and then turns to the soft

and succulent abdomen. Into the entrails .she thrusts her greedy fangs; all

the time they are working, sucking, masticating ; but there is little bruising

of the victim's skin ; her object is to extract the soft internal tis.sues and suck

out the animal juice . At length she finishes ; she has erfscerated her victim

and nothing but a shrivelled carcass remains. She swathes a few more turrrs

of silk around it and fixes it again to her snare. Occasionally she returns to it,

takes it up again and tries to extract a further drop. At last it is completely

gutted ; nothing is left but a mere husk, a dry and empty shell. This is no fur-

ther use, so she drops it out of the snare. The little drama is over, and she

waits for the next capture to occur.

THE SNARE OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER.

921

It was proved by the ingenious experiments of Fabre why a geometrical spi-

der does not become entangled in its own snare. He discovered in his usual

simple way that on the integument of the spider there was an oily film, and

that, owing to the presence of this unctious coat, the architect did not adhere

to her own lines. It was a simple matter to substantiate this.

By means of disulphide of carbon the oily film was dissolved away ; and then

the spider, like any oi-dinary substance, adhered to the sticky filaments of

the snare. I have had the opportunity of repeating these experiments, and

they led me to the same result.

But a point which did not come vathin the observation of Fabre was how and

where this oily film is produced. At first it might naturally be suspected that

the oil was some kind of a cutaneous secretion which oozed out from the spi-

der’s skin ; but when we consider the character and structure of the integument

it is difficult to understand from where the secretion could appear. We can

scarcely imagine glands in the hard coat of a spider in any way like those in the

human skin. But speculation on the matter is needless ; the Nephila supplies

an excellent opportunity of obser%ing the source from where the film is derived.

It occurs in this waj. The sim has almost set, and the Nephila is hanging

suspended from a single line. Her snare has already been cut away, and the

hour has not 3’’et come for her to commence the architecture anew. Her legs arc

stretched out round about her ; one, of course, is fixed to the suspension line,

and, in this attitude, she hangs stationary in the air. I see her now from time

to time act in a very deliberate way. She slowdy carries a hind leg forward

and carefully inserts the tarsus into her mouth. It is placed lengthways be-

tween her jaws, and the palpi secure it on either side. It is held there for a little

while ; it is thoroughly moistened with a clear secretion, squeezed out, I sup-

pose, from the salivary glands ; indeed I can even see a drop of the liquid oozed

out between the spider’s jaws. The tarsus is then withdrawn ; it is carried

backward, and, while still wet with the secietion, it is gently stroked over the

tip of the abdomen romid about the cluster of the spinnerets. I now see another

leg brought in the same determined manner to the mouth. It likewise is mois-

tened with secretion, then withdrawn, and then employed as a kind of brush

along the full length of one of the opposite limbs. Then another change fol-

lows. A third leg is taken to the mouth, and the same procedure occurs. In

this behaviour the Nephila persists, all the while suspended from a thread.

She brings each leg repeatedly and in succession to her mouth, moistens it, ex-

tracts it, and then transfers the moisture elsewhere. It is a very slow and metho-

dical operation, an act full of purpose and decision. Now what does it mean,

for it is clearly a work of much importance ; it is so slow, so persistent, and I

see her engaged at it for over an hour ?

Its purpose is this. The Nephila is smearing her body with oil in order to

prevent her sticking to the snare. She w'ill commence the ffist stages of construc-

tion soon ; this is the prehminary to the work. Her oil, therefore, is no cutaneous

secretion ; there are no delicate hair-glands, no minute perforations, that open

on the surface of the skin. It is from her sahvary glands that she obtains the oil,

and she applies it to the various parts of her body by means of her own legs.

Now watch again with a Httle care. There are a few further points to note.

She does not smear the secretion everywhere so as to cover her whole body in a

film. She shows far greater care and discrimination than this ; it is offiy to

certain particular parts that she applies her layer of oil. It is no doubt a pre-

cious substance of which she has no profuse supplj’, she must therefore work

with providence and apply it only where required. She pays most attention

to her legs. Each tarsus, of course, is oiled in the mouth but she is also very

careful to paint the legs throughout their whole length. For this purpose one

tarsus is often carried across so as to smear a shank on the opposite side.

Another point that gets much attention is the ventral surface of the tip of the

922 JOURNAL, BOMB AY {NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

abdomen in the prominent region of the spinnerets. The palpi are also

thoroughly oiled. Each receives its greasy coat by being pushed into the cavity

of the mouth, but. in addition, one is often employed as a brush to paint the

palp of the opposite side. They also carry the secretion elsewhere ; from time

to time they apply a little to the outer surface of the great jaws. But, with the

exception of these special parts, the legs, the palpi, the* jaws, the ventral sur-

face of the abdomen in the vicinity of the spinnerets, I do not see the spider

attempt to apply her secretion anywhere else. None is placed on the back of

the head ; none anywhere on the thorax ; none on the front of the imder

surface of the belly, and the whole of the broad dorsal surface of the abdomen

does not receive a single touch. The parts that receive it do so repeatedly

and in profusion ; the remainder of the body is completely ignored. And

there is a very good reason for this. The spider smears only those parts of her

body which come in contact with her viscid Unes. Her legs of comse incessant-

ly touch them as she moves from point to point ; the tip of her abdomen must

often meet them whenever she affixes a Une ; the jaws and palpi come down

upon then at the moment when she stiikes her prey. But the remainder of the

surface of her body does not ordinarily touch her lines. She need not smear

the surface of her belly, since, owing to the natural curve of her body, it is hfted

away from the snare. For the same reason she can neglect the front of her

thorax, and, since on all occasions she faces her architecture, she need apply

none to the dorsal surface of her abdomen , nor indeed to any part of her back.

It is therefore only to the special and essential points that she applies her pre-

cious oU.

I put this conclusion to the test by bringing the different parts of the body in

contact with the viscid lines. I pulled off a leg and applied it to the spiral, but it

did not adhere to the thread. I tried the same with the palpi, and I also ap-

plied the under surface of the abdomen in the vicinity of the spinnerets. The

result was the same ; those parts of the spider showed no indication of stick-

ing to the viscid lines. I then touched them with the back of the thorax, and

subsequently with the dorsal surface of the abdomen, and these parts immediately

adhered just like an object of any ordinary kind. It is clear, therefore, that

the spider applies her film of oil only where it is absolutely required. I have

told before of her providence in architecture, and of her strict economy in the

use of her valuable silk. We see here a further display of prudence in the fni-

gality with which she apphes her oil.

How wonderful must be the nature of the special glands that open near a

spider’s mouth! At her other extremity there is wonder enough ; for we look

with amazement at the marvellous spinning-wheel and the work which it

brings forth. But in the secretions that escape near the mouth there is some-

thing to marvel at too. They must have a powerful digestive function. They

no doubt chemically alter the ingested food, and we have seen the slow but

efficient manner in which they dissolve the viscid snare. But even more re-

markable is the manner in which they give forth oil to prevent their owner

sticking in her web. Nor must we forget that hereabouts too are fixed those

glands that secrete the deadly poison for the prey. What a collection of

strange and subtle fluids gathered in a spider’s head ! There is juice for diges-

tion, poison for destruction, oil for locomotion, each with its own particular

purpose and flowing at its appointed time.

These are the chief of the additional lessons which we learn from the great

Nephila of the woods. She tells us first how essential is the reversal of

the spiral in order to ensure the symmetry of the snare. We had known it

in part before ; but she shows how it can be carried to an extreme degree, and

employed not only in the viscid spiral, but also in the architecture of the tempo-

rary spiral too. Her second lesson also relates to her architecture. It

discloses an additional feature in the handiwork which we had not before

THE SNARE OF THE OIANT WOOD SPIDER.

923

observed in the snare. This is the barrier, a complex maze of tangled lines

which serves to prevent the escape of the capture by driving it back again

into the snare. Her third lesson leaves the construction and deals with the

destruction of the work. We have not seen it destroyed in the natural way,

but we have observed sufficient to indicate the manner in which the struc-

ture must certainly disappear. We have witnessed her ingenuity in gathering

up her fragments and her coiling of the suspended rope. We have watched her

in the patient and determined manner that she devoius every particle that re-

mains. In her fourth lesson we learn the minute details of how she deals with

her insect prey. We marvel at her knowledge of the vital point, and at the

unerring precision of her stroke. We follow the manipulations by which she

sheathes her capture and deprives it of its animal juice. Her last lesson

is, I think, the most interesting of all. She instructs us in the origin of the

superficial film that prevents her entanglement in her own snare. She informs

us that it is no cutaneous secretion, but that she manufactures it in her sali-

vary glands. She displays to us the method by which it is extracted and ap-

plied to the essential parts. And finally she leaves us with reflections of wonder

at the fluids which she is able to produce.

Excellent Nephila. She has supplied us with all that we could wish or hope.

She has taught us many a lesson in geometrical architecture^ and she has

told us other things of interest too.

024

DESCRIPTION or A NEW GOBIOID FISH

FROM TUTICORIN.

BY

James Hornell, Director of Fisheries, Madras, and

Henry W. Fowlp^r, of the Academy of Natural Sciences

OF Philadelphia.

Pleurosicya annandalei new species.

Head 2| ; depth 4 ; D. 8, i ; A. I, 9, i ; P. 20 ; V. i, 4 ; 26 scales

in median lateral series between suprascapula and caudal base ; 9 scales

transversely between soft dorsal and anal origins ; 10 predorsal scales

forward nearly to hind eye edge ; head width If in its length ; head

depth at occiput If; snout 2f ; eye 3i ; maxillary 2 ; interorbital 4^ ;

second dorsal spine 2^0 > second dorsal ray 2 ; second anal ray 3| ; least

depth of caudal peduncle 3 ; caudal fin If ; pectoral 1| ; length of ventral

disk If.

Body elongately ovoid in profile, deepest at spinous dorsal origin, well

compressed, edges all convex. Caudal peduncle strongly compressed, its

least depth half its length.

Head large, well depressed, convex over surface ; upper profile slightly

convex and little more inclined than lower ; cheeks swollen moderately.

Snout depressed moderately, convex over surface, broadly obtuse as seen

from above, length about ^ its width at front of eye. Eye moderate, hind

edge of pupil about midway in length of head and upper edge slightly

impinging on upper profile. Mouth large, moderately inclined, jaws about

even. Maxillary reaches nearly opposite centre of eye. Lips thick, firm,

fleshy. Teeth firmly conic, simple ; uniserial in upper jaw, forward each

side several enlarged slightly or canine-like, of which posterior largest ;

band of fine firm teeth in lower jaw, widest all around front of mandible

and inside forward pair of canines, though much closer ; no teeth on palate.

Tongue thick, fleshy, free and emarginate in front. Nostrils well sepa-

rated, simple, pore-like, close before eye ; anterior falls little behind last

third in snout ; posterior close to front eye edge. Interorbital very

slightly concave.

Gill-opening forward opposite hind eye edge, deeply incised over wide

isthmus, from which free or with only narrow fold anteriorly. Gill-rakers

2-1-6 short rounded tubercles, greatly less than gill-filaments, which are

about length of eye. Branchiostegals o, with third quite divergent from

fourth and fifth, these closely shielded along opercular apparatus.

Scales large, firmly adherent, in even longitudinal rows on trunk ; absent

from most of head, though above extend forward to each eye, leaving

median triangular post-interorbital region and line of demarcation to

occiput, scales not passing over ; breast, pectoral base and fins naked,

except slight area on caudal base ; 2 median conspicuous interorbital

pores, also one behind each posterior nostril with series of papilhe extend-

ing forward from each just above front nostril ; two large pores behind

each eye, from hind pore row of papillte extends along upper edge of

opercle ; row of papillm along front edge of opercle, with median inter-

secting branch backward ; two close-set parallel rows of papilL'e along

preopercle edge, below extending along lower face of each mandibular

ramus ; from below front nostril row of papillae extends down along preorbi-

tal edge and then back across cheek ; scales with 14 to 17 basal radiating

striae ; apical denticles 35 to 38 and circuli rather coarse.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GOBIOID FISH.

92o

Origin of spinous dorsal little behind that of pectoral, front spines little

curved, though third spine as depressed extends back as nearly as far as last.

Soft dorsal inserted about midway between hind eye edge and caudal base,

front rays highest. Anal like soft dorsal, origin slightly behind that of

soft dorsal. Caudal small, rounded. Pectoral large, broad, rounded.

V entral disk nearly third wider than long, rays all greatly branched and

spines each with several flat cutaneous flaps in front. Vent close before

anal, with slight papilla.

Colour in life pink over entire body ; in alcohol faded pale brownish.

Under a lens the alcohol specimen shows dull brownish dots dusted in

small patch on cheeks and along side medianly. Fins all uniformly pale

to whitish. Iris whitish, with greyish tinge above.

Length 34 mm.

Type, No. 51,094, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Loca-

lity. Tuticorin, India.

This interesting little fish is found commensal with the Alcyonarian

Solenocaulon tortuosum Cray, in company with certain Alpheids and other

crustaceans.* We are unaware that the commensal habit has been noted

in the other species of the genus, Pleurosicya holdinghi Weber, obtained oS'

Western New Guinea. The latter differs at once in the much higher soft

dorsal and in the fin formulae. Weber’s examples were smaller, 22 to 31

mm. long, and were dredged at a depth of 32 meters ; ours came from 14

to 16 meters, sandy bottom.

(Named after Dr. Nelson Annandale, in slight recognition of his work on

Indian fishes.)

* For details of the commensahsm of this fish and the associated crustaceans

with Solenocaulon, see page 929 of this Journal.

SOME COMMENSALS OF INDIAN ALCYONARIANS AND CRABS.

By

James Hoknell, F.L.S., F.R.A.I.

(With 6 text figures.)

No group of marine animals is more prone than the Alcyonarians to harbour

uninvited guests, often of very varied zoological standing. Indian Alcyonarians

or ‘ Soft Corals’ as we may dub them in common parlance, are exceedingly

variable in form, ranging from the brick red Sea- whip, Juncella juncea, through

the great assemblage of the Sea-fans, the Gorgonids proper, to the massive Sea-

cauliflowers of which Spongodes is the tj'pe ; besides these are the Sea-pens — the

thin starved rods of Virgularia, the pinnate fleshy Pennafula, typical of the group,

and the great soft obese Cavernularia that Lives gregarious in muddy sand.

Those that are greatly branched, offer the best shelter to small animals looking

for safe hiding places and so it happens that Spongodes and its near relatives

harbour a greater variety of commensals* than any other marine organism.

The Commensals of Spongodes. — The common form of Spongodes met with in

Indian seas lives from low tide level (Gulf of Kutch) to depths of about 10

fathoms. It is particiJarly common in 5 to 8 fathoms in the Pearl Bank region

of the Gulf of Mannar ; the dredge and the divers bring it up in dozens when the

right spot, fairly clean sandy ground, is met with. The term sea-cauliflower

which, for want of any accepted English name, is what I propose to call it,

gives an accurate idea of the general appearance of a well-grovTi typical colony,

if we imagine all the outer leaves tom away and the terminal florets tinted some

bright colour from yellow and orange to pink and dark lake. Each colony

has a short massive stalk or rather trimk, giving off numerous branches which

divide and subdivide till the terminal branchlets are reached, on which are set

innumerable little polyps, white or lemon tinted, each protected by a collar of

defensive coloured spicules. The whole is rooted in the sand by means of many

sand-encrusted ‘rootlets’. The substance of the trunk and branches is permeated

by a system of numerous wide canals and bj’ means either of flooding or partially

draining these by the action of a net -work of fine muscles fibres, the colony is

capable of assuming very different forms ; it may expand freely, spreading wide

and loosely its many branches — its normal condition — or it may retract into a

compact nearly solid mass if irritated, with every gradation between the two

extremes. Preserved specimens exhibit many of these gradations, dependent

upon the method of killing and the time that has elapsed between captrrre and

preservation. This, in conjunction with the natural great variability of the

common species, has landed systematists in difficulties. On the one hand we

have lists of 80 or more species, and on the other, the opinion of such an able

zoologist as Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, that possibly there is otrly one true species

to which all the 80 may be referred.

The conrmonest form of Spongodes on oirr pearl barrks is one where the ter-

minal branchlets are suffrrsed some tint of red, usually a warm dark pink, the

trunk (excepting the base which is dirty grey) and the main branches being white.

This form approaches most closely to the species (? varieties) described by Prof.

J. A. Thompson under the names Spongodes bicolor and S. pulchra.

If specimens of this species be examined as soon as they are brought up by the

dredge or by divers, a host of symbiotic animals can be located hiding among

* To be strictly accurate, I ought to say .symbiotic organisms, for the term com-

mensals should be restricted to animals that live together in partnership and share

the same table. But in this paper I use it in a somewhat loose way as a convenient

word to cover all animals that lodge with another and are not definitely parasitic.

SOME COMMENSALS OF INDIAN ALCYONARIANS.

927

the branches ; the list includes at least a couple of brittle-stars, several crusta-

ceans including a galatheid, a porcelain-crab, a clicking prawn, a colourless

compound ascidian and a tiny little cowry. A sipunculid worm is often present

among the anchoring rootlets, while last and most interesting is one of the

velvet-crabs, belonging to the family Drojniidce.

Omitting the last two, the others with the one exception of the alpheid, have

the body ordinarily speckled, spotted or mottled with some tint of red.

The most numerous of these uninvited guests is the little porcelain-crab,

Porcellana quadrilobata. Several of these are usually met with in each colony,

the yoimger and smaller either colourless (white) or faintly speckled with red,

while the larger generally have the carapace well mottled with pink. Both colour-

ations are protective as the white ones harmonize with the colour of the trunk and

branches, while the pink-mottled are easily lost to sight amongst the pinktipjoed

branchlets. The graceful Galatheid, Polyonyx hmnguiculatus, is also sometimes

found, its upper surface mottled reddish brown. The Ophiuroid and the Cowry

are still more distinctively blotched with red, and both seem to be consistently

associated with this pai ticular species of Sj)ongodes for T have never seen them

elsewhere. They are not however always present and they seem local in oc-

currence. For example, out of 14 spongodes examined on one occasion on the

Ceylon banks, 10 had this ophiuroid, while of 12 examined a few days later from

the same depth of water (5 to 6 fathoms) but from a locality a few miles distant,

in no case was this ophim’oid seen. It is a smooth -armed species of fair size ;

the disc measures 10mm. across, the arms 3^ to 4^- inches in length. It lies

securely lodged among the branches, the long arms twining ivy-like in and out

among them. In colour it is whitish, with five groups of pirdcish red blotches

on the aboral surface of the disc, and with band-like splashes of the same colour

at regular intervals on the upper surface of the arms. The rmder surface is

uniformly white. The upper surface of the aixus is actually in no place quite

without red pigment ; tin}' points of red occur over the whole surface, but at

fairly evenly spaced intervals they are greatly increased in number and this

massing gives rise to the appearance so characteristic of this species of having

the arms regularly banded with pinkish red. In some individuals the general

pigmentation is much more intense than in others but it can be made out in all

when they are carefully examined. When moving about over the host’s branches

this scheme of colouring harmonizes effectively with the pinli and white of the

terminal polyp-bearing twigs.

The last of the commensal cmstaceans, the clicking-prawn, Synalpheus gravieri,

never exhibits any red spotting. This is no disadvantage to it, for it is too

large, active and pugnacious to fear any animal that is small enough or brave

enough to penetrate within the spicule-beset branches of the host. In any

case its pale white tint does agree with that of the inner recesses of Spongodes.

Then there is the tiny little spotted Cowry (Cypraea). It lives among the

outer branches where there is a good deal of mottled reddish coloming. Its

mantle, normally reflected over the whole of the shell, is accordingly spotted

red, harmonizing exactly with the red and white mottling of its host. The

shell itself is marked with a few large brown blotches, quite different from

the numerous small red spots on the mantle ; as the latter enwraps the shell

completely, the colouring showu to the world of its enemies is that of the

mantle.

Normally the trunk of this species of Spongodes is entire and solid looking, but

a considerable proportion of large-sized individuals from one particular area of

the Ceylon Pearl Banks, namely the sandy ground to the east of the Cheval

Par and around the Moderagam Pars, where it is particularly abundant, have

either deep pockets in the upper part of the trunk, or have wide tubes passing

down this main axis. These cavities do not communicate in any way with the

intrinsic canal system of the Alcyonarian. In many instances the open central

U

!»i>8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

tube passes completely to tbe base of the colony, with an opening to the sand

beneath, situated juore or less centrally among the “ rootlets”. The upper

end coramimicates with the exterior usually by a simple wide opening,

occasionally by two. Such apertures occur on the side of the trunk towards

its summit, well concealed by the bases of the main branches which spring

from this region.

When the Spongodes colonies have lain about for some time after collection,

the ‘ pockets ’ and tubes are found empty ; when examined immediately the

divers bring them up, a small rounded crab, a Dromia, an inch to an inch and a

half across the carapace, covered with a velvety coating of short golden brown

hairs, is found lodging in many — not in all, for this Dromia can be

activ'c at times wlien danger is apprehended and in the cases where his tube

has an opening to the sand beneath, he sometimes has time to slip down and

shake liimself free of the colony as this is being drawn by the diver from its at-

tachment in the sand. His smooth velvet coat facilitates this escape through the

lower opening of the burrow. One Dromia only is found in each Spongodes

colony. Fragments of Spongodes branchlets, bearing polyps and having every

apjiearance of having been nipped og recently, are frequently present in the

tuhular burrow, giving rise to the inference that Dromia uses his host’s body

not only as a dwelling place, but also as a constantly renewed larder ; in such

case the intruder conics really within the dehnition of parasite rather than

commensal. Very often the walls of the tubular pocket or tube wherein the

crab lives, is tinted a distinct red. At hrst I took this for a development of red

spicules in the walls, due peihaps to special irritation, but closer examination

proved it to be owing to the presence of more or less broken spicules lying loose

in a mucous layer on the inner surface of the tube. It is probable then that these

broken spicules are detritus from the food consumed by the crab. Quite fre-

quently the scars where branchlets have been nipped og, can be seen on the

surface of these crab-frequented Spongodes.

As showing the great frequency of this peculiar association, on one day out of

twelve Spongodes colonies obtained from the Kallatidal Par (Ceylon Pearl

Banks) from a depth of 5 to 5^ fathoms, gve contained these symbiotic crabs,

lodged in tubular cavities excavated in the trunk. In three instances the cavity

went right through the base and opened among the rootlets. In the other two

it went far down the trunk, but did not perforate the base. The upper

aperture of the tube was usually close to the summit of the main axis but to one

side ; in one case two apertures were present close to the top, while in another

the opening was only about half way up the trunk. My observations convince

n»e that these cavities are induced by the O'ab, but whether they are formed

by the crab forcing its way in by continued and persistent pressure or whether

they are produced by the tissues of the Spongodes colony gradually growing

upwards and around the crab, we cannot as yet say. It is a well-known habit

of many species of Dromia to detach fragments of sponges and compound asci-

dians from their original attachment, and to hold the fragment over the carapace

rvith the aid of the specially modihed hinder thoracic legs until such time as the

fragment has grown and shaped itself on the under side, exactly to the convex-

ity of the crab’s carapace. How this habit has been niodihed in the case of

Spongodes has yet to be discovered but I am inclined to think that the associa-

tion is formed early in the life of both organisms, and that from a small depres-

sion in which the crab hrst lodged for safety, the subsequent change to a long

wide tube is due to the continued presence of the crab necessitating the axis

to grow upwards as a hollow cylinder instead of a Solid one. I do not consider

it to be a gall-like growth but merely an aperture in the tissues kept open by

the mechanical presence, not necessarily causing irritation, of the intruding

crustacean. Possibly however the crab may help mechanically in the forma-

tion of the burrow by pinching and pulling the tissues.

SOME COMMENSALS OF INDIAN ALC YONARIANS.

929

In species of Spongodes of more lax growth such as S. dendrophyta, where the

stem is markedly elongated, I have never found Dromia present. The habit

of such species would appear to make it less fitted for concealment than in

Spongodes pvlchra ; the association also appears local in its range, for while

common over a considerable area off the Ceylon coast in the pearl bank region, 1

have’ never found it to occur on the Indian side, where the same species of

Spongodes is equally abundant.

The Commensals of Solenocavlon tortuosum. Gray. — This species is common

in depths of 8 to 9 fathoms on certain coarse sandy ground off Tuticorin, parti-

cularly in the vicinity of the pearl bank known as the Melonbadu Par. It is

perhaps the most handsome of Indian Alcyonarians, consisting of a strong stalk

rooted at its base in the sand, the projecting part a foot and even more in length,

the whole suffused with shades of pinkish red. Frequenth^ the stalk, at a height

of a few inches above the ground, divides into two main branches, broad and

foliaceous in appearance, giving off again secondary branches even more foliace-

ous, which in turn give off numerous stout terminal branchlets, bearing most ele-

gant yellow tinted po]}’ps. The stalk except at the base is usually tubular,

as are also usually the primary branches. The secondary branches may be

either tubular or merely grooved. Variation in form is however extreme and all

possible modifications may be met with both in branching and in the extent

of tubulation. In some, the tubular character is even restricted to the stalk ;

in others it extends only into the primary branches, the remainder being grooved

in varying degree from a slight inturning of the margin to a deep semi-circular

gutter. On account of this great variation Prof. S. J. Hickson* united all the

previously described species into one, and I consider he is correct in this attitude.

He was also the first to put forward the theory that the origin of the tubulation

of the stalk and branches is due to the constant irritation caused to the tissues by

the running backwards and forwards of symbiotic crustaceans belonging to the

genus Alpheus. Hickson notices the presence of these Uttle prawns in the tubular

portions of many of the jireserved specimens from the Maldives which came

under his examination. He hazarded the suggestion that the tubular character

of Solenocaulon is “of the natme of a gall produced by an active crustacean and

that the degree to which it affects the secondary and tertiary branches depends,

not upon any inherent specific character of the Solenocaulon, but upon the

number or activity of the symbiotic Crustacea.” He instanced the weU-known

fact that in such corals as Pocillopora, Seriatopora, and Millepora, which often

harbour a sjunbiotic crab, its presence affects growth at the place where it

settles and there induces the formation of a spherical or oval gall, “ the margins

of the affected part being hypertrophied and growing round and enclosing the

animal that causes the irritation”; analogous gaU-like grow'ths are produced on

the branches of various corals and gorgonids bj"' the settlement thereon of various

species of cirripedes, whose presence causes a local disturbance of normal

growth. He pointed out also how the hypertrophied surfaces in such cases

show a smoothness of surface, and in Millepora, an absence of polyps

of the same character as is exhibited by the grooved surfaces of the branches

and terminal twigs of Solenocaulon. The new evidence which I have adduced

above showing how similar and even greater tubes are formed in the related

genus of Spongodes, goes far to prove the vahdity of his main inference.

My observations show however that other animals live symbiotic lives with

Solenocaulon, besides the Alpheid rrentioned by Hickson. The principal

of these comprise an Anoraurid, a Porcelain-crab and, most interesting of

all, a tiny Gobioid fish of an hitherto undescribed sjx^cies of the genus

Pleurosicya.

* “ The Alcyonaria of the Maldives” in The Fauna and Geography of the Maidive

and Laccadive Archipelagoes, Vol. II, Pt. II, Cambridge, 1903.

9;i0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

The Alpheid, which clicks loudly when disturbed, is pale in colour and lives

Diogenes-like in the tubular portions of the host, which are usually white-

walled within, so that the colourless alpheid is indistinguishable when lying

in wait in his lair for any small animals that may be tempted to enter for

shelter. The little fish also uses the tubular region as a permanent home.

In colour it is suffused pink over the whole body. It appears to lead a much

freer life than its companion, the Alpheid, issuing forth to search for food fre-

quently, but ready to retreat to his burrow on the least sign of danger.

The other two of the usual commensals living with Solenocaulon, do not seem

to make any particular use of the hollow and grooved branches though doubt-

less they do derive some protective benefit from these facilities for hiding. They

are however generally found crawling over the branchlets and among the po-

lyps with which their colour assimilates perfectly.

Hickson suggests that grooving and tabulation are due to the irritation of

the tissues consequent upon the constant running to and fro of the Alpheid. I

am inclined to think that the irritation is more direct and specific ; whether the

nippers of the big chela have anything to do with it, say by pinching, is worth

consideration when some one with the needful opportunity turns attention to

this problem.

Commensals of Gorgonids. — Gorgonids of many species are abundant

on rocky and stony ground everywhere in shallow water round thejindian

Fig. 1. — Wing-shells (Avicula radiata) commensal with^a

sea-fan. (Original),

SOME COMMENSALS OF INDIAN ALCI ONARIANS.

931

coasts. In the Gulf of Mannar on rough bottom these sea-fans

and sea-whips are particularly characteristic. Unlike Spongodes their

surface texture is hard and coriaceous, and as their branching

is usually in one plane, they do not afford such excellent hiding places to those

small animals that elect to live as commensals. But as they are well defended

from attack by their hardness and spicular texture, a number of animals never-

theless do seek protection by association with them. These are much better

known to zoologists than those of Spongodes and Solenocaulon ; it has long

been noted, for instance by Thurston*, that delicate Ophiuroids commonly

chng in numbers to the branches of the larger Gorgonids, while the beautiful

little Cypraeid, Ovula {Sadhis) foimosa, is sometimes found crawling along the

branches and mimicing their colour exactly, whether red or yellowish-brown.

Aviculids (A. radiata) have also been noted, settled on several species of sea-fans,

their narrow elongated shells oriented in such way that, at least when j-oung,

they blend in shape with the branches and so escape detection ; they usually

settle on colonies of brownish tint similar to their own. (Fig. 1.)

All these I have frequently met ■with on Gorgonids on both sides of the Gulf

of Mannar, together with several other less common or conspicuous commensals.

Tiny Ophiuroids are by far the most plentiful. On one great specimen of

Leptogorgia austaliensis having a spread of 6J in. in height by 11 inches in width,

I counted 952 individuals, and on two smaller ones from the same locality (north

end of the Periya Par, Ceylon), 159 and 109 were noted I’espectively. I had

understood from previous \mters that these Ophiuroids followed the common

commensal rule of assimilating in colour to that of their host. My actual ex-

perience showed a noteworthy discrepancy. Taking the three specimens above

noted, all of dark claret colour, two colour varieties of the ophiuroid were

represented, one claret-coloured, the other orange. The former however predo-

minated ; of the 952 on the largest Gorgonid, 622 were of this hue, while 330

only were orange ; upon the second, 85 were claret, 74 orange, while those on

the third were divided into 69 claret and 40 orange. All the Gorgonid trees

taken at this particular place were claret coloured. On another occasion, on

the outer Vangali Par (Cejdon) in depths of to 9 fathoms, the same species

was found in remarkable abundance, over 250 colonies being obtained in one

morning ; the great majority were claret coloured as in the previous case but a

few were orange -coloured. All colonies, irrespective of colour, were infested

heamly with the same little Ophiotrix which again showed the same two colour

varieties. Whether on the orange or the claret coloured Gorgonids, the majority

of the ophiuroids were of the latter colour. Correlated wnth this we must note

that by far the greater number of this (3orgonid (Leptogorgia australensis) are

claret colomed ; only a small minority are orange. But the same ophiuroid

is also found on other species and on none more commonly than on Lophogorgia

lutkeni. Now this species is characteristically and consistently orange in colour

and wherever I have found it bearing these ophiuroid commensals,

the latter have all been of the yellow variety. The occurrence of the yellow

form only on the orange coloured Lophogorgia lutkeni, whereas both coloiu’ va-

rieties are found commingled on Leptogorgia australiensis, which is predomi-

nently claret coloured and only rarely yellow, suggests that the yellow variety is

the original colour of the Ophiuroid and that the claret coloured ones represent a

variety in process of colour evolution with a view to adaptation to the tint of

the claret-hued (and predominant) variety of L. australiensis. The colour has not

yet become stabilized, seeing that a large proportion, roughly 35 per cent., are

still yellow among those seen on the Gorgonids of claret tint. As the orange

* Thurston E. “ Littoral Fauna of the Gulf of Manaar”, Madras Government

Museum Bulletin, No. 3, Madras, 1895, page 104.

932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

ophiuroids are extremely conspicuous on such hosts, these must tend to be

picked o£E by those animals that feed upon them ; this must give such an ad-

vantage to those strains that produce a majority of dark coloured offspring that

there can be little doubt that here we have a distinct variety in the making,

whereby a strain will be formed producing none but dark coloured young to

Jive on a similarly coloured host.

Masking among Indian Crabs,

The habit of certain crabs to seek safety by masking their body with weeds

and sponges and other organisms is well known ; the spider-crabs of the fa-

mily Maiidae, the velvet crabs (Dromiidae), and the various species of the sand-

crab Dorippe, are those that have developed this habit to its greatest extent.

They adopt two principal methods ; the first, employed by the spider-crabs, is

by trimming the carapace and often the larger legs, with fragments of seaweeds,

sponges, zoophytes or ascidians, which are held in position by being hooked on

recurved hairs developed for this purpose, and not found on any other kind of

crab. The smlace of the carapace in these crabs is very rough, usually raised

into numerous low conical tubercles ; these assist in heightening the disguise

ana in one case, where I had a number ot the large English Maia squinado in

confinement (Jersey) in a tank bereft of seaweeds, the crabs in lieu of anything

better adapted to the purpose, selected suitable pebbles and balanced them

carefully among these tubercles. The second method, that of the various

genera of the Dromiidse and Dorippidse, is to hold either a mass of some im-

attraetive sessile animal or a flattened shell over the back as a concealing cloak;

to this end the hinder legs, either one or two pairs, are employed, and specially

modified both in jointing and in the form of the terminal joint. This last in

these crabs is sharp and exactly suits its purpose of being hooked into the sub-

stance of the concealing sponge or ascidian in the case of the Dromiidse ; in the

Dorippidae the two last joints are still further modified so that they form a

fairly perfect hook, pecidiarly well adapted to grasp the thin edge of a shell held

aloft over the body. (Figs. 2 and 5).

Fig. 2. — Dorippe facchino stripped of its masking organism, to

show the two pairs of specialized thoracic limbs with

their terminal hooked joints. (Original.)

In the weedy shallows of Palk Bay, a small stoutly built spider-crab, Halimus

sp.. is fairly common. After the manner of its kind it usually decorates its

SOME COMMENSALS OF INDIAN ALCYON ARIANS.

933

shell with fragments of seaweed, but occasionally I have met with individuals

that have improved on this, hy camouflaging the carapace and limbs with many

worm-like Synaptids, striped very distinctively purple and white {Synapta

striata). These live normally as commensals with certain rough-surfaced sjwnges ;

it is evident that the crab picks these off the sponge and transfers them to its

own back and limbs. (Fig. 3.) The drawing given has been made from a preserved

Fig 3. — A Spider-crab (Halimus) from Palk Bay that has decorated

its carapace and limbs with striped Sjniaptids for protec-

tion. (Original.)

specimen, after several synaptse nad been removed, but even so, it shows

how symmetrically the synaptse are arranged, and particularly the way in

which each leg of the crab has its own synapta, arranged so as to conceal it

effectually. In addition to concealing the crab, the S3maptte give it protection

through their warning colouration ; their skin is full of tiny calcareous spicules

of which many are in the form of ‘anchors’, the points (flukes) projecting, so

that if touched the synapta adheres like a burr and is not easily shaken off.

Except in regard to the association of one species of Dromia with Spongodes as

above detailed, I have little to add to what is known of the masking habits of

the velvet-crabs. Most usually a massive silicious sponge is used to hide the

body, as shown in figure i. In this case the sponge has been so long held

in position, that its growth has gone on to such an extent that it fits the body

of the crab like a glove, indeed the crab appears to be occupying merely a cavity

scooped out in the underside of a massive ball of sponge. Less frequently an

ascidian colony is utihzed and on one occasion I noted that -the concealing

cloak carried by a tiny Dromia, only a quarter of an inch across the carapace.

934 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII. •

was a ramifying mass of the fine branches of the calcareous sponge Leucosolenia

gi-eenish yellow in colour.

Fi4. 4. — A Velvet-crab (Dromia sp.) under the mask of a stout

silicious sponge. The lower figure depicts, the sponge

mantle entirely hiding the crab from view the upper

one shows the under side of the pair, the crab esconced

in a deep hollow in the mass of the sponge. (Original).

At least two species of Dorippe are common on the Madras east coast,

Fig. 5. — Dorippe dorsipes, carrymg an anemone seated upon a shell.

(Original).

SOME COMMENSALS OF INDIAN ALCYONAltlANS.

93.)

D. dorsipes and D, facc.hino (Fig. 2). Both love sandy bottom, and Dorippe dor-

sipes is particularly numerous at Madras ; numbers are often to be found in

the rubbish tlnown aside from fisheimen’s nets. Their usual habit here is to

carry over their back a vah'e of some species of thin bivalve shell, concave side

down, of size suitable for effective concealment. The illustration given (Fig. 5)

shows the usual appearance of this crab when carrying his buckler in position,

held securely by the claws of the two last pairs of legs ; the points of these claws

show over the edge on both the fore and hinder margins of the shell. In many

cases, the defence is increased by the presence on the surface of the shell of a

little pale-colouroi anemone. .lust as the association of Spnapla striata with the

spider-crab already noted, gives added j)rotection because of the burr-like spi-

cules in the skin of the synapta, so here the crab, perching an anemone upon

the concealing shell, provides himself with a whole series of ready-made batteries

of stinging cells, capable of frightening away any small fishes that might otherwise

penetrate the disguise of the concealing shell. Hermit-crabs are known to

transfer the anemone Adamsia from other gastropod shells to those which they

use for their own habitation, so here it seems certain that Dorippe has a

related habit, but whether it merely selects a shell on which an anemone

already is settled, or whether it actually detaches the anemone from its first

foothold and then transfers it to the shell which it has already selected for its

concealing cloak is not known. This is one of those interesting points that

can only be settled by keej ing these animals under close observation in am

Aq uarium

Fig. 6. — Lumhrvs, a crab that lives o i shingly bottc m ; the carapace in this

case is concealed by a mask of oyster shells and barnacles.

(Original).

1.0

936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVllI.

Figure 6 shows a form of masking brought about, not by deliberate action

on the part of the crab, but through its pure passivity and slowness of move-

ment. It is a Lambrus, whereon an oyster (Ostrea sp.) has settled, and grown

so as to cover the whole of the carapace and the legs on the left side. This crab

lives on pebbly bottom and when at rest with the chelipeds folded close to the

body and the other legs tucked down, such an individual as this would look a

worthless morsel to tackle. The association is of long standing, for on the ori-

ginal oyster two younger ones have settled, together with over a dozen bar-

nacles {Balanus). Lamhrus like Calappa shams death, when disturbed.

!)37

“THE BIHDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.”

HY

Claud B. Tkjkiiukst, M.A., ^I.B.O.U., late Captain, ll.A.M.C.

ASSISTED DY

P. A. Buxton, ^I.A., M.B.O.IJ., late Captain, ll.A.M.C.

AND

Major II. E. Cheesman, M.B.O.U., 5th Bufik.

Part IV.

(^With 1 plate.')

(^Continued from pa[ie G7 f of this Volume.)

290. Common Gull. Larus canus.

Larus canus canus L. (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 136 — Sweden).

A fairly common winter visitor, more particularly perhaps to the river from

Sheik Saad downwards. Bu.xton did not observe it before December and it

remained common at Amara till the end of March, when it left suddenly.

Neumann records it from Ras-el-Ain in February.

Six specimens examined : Sheik Saad, J , 14-i2-16 ; 9, 10-2-17 (P. Z. C. and

R. E. C.) ; (J, Sheik Saad, 28-1-18 ; 5, 24-1-18 (Robinson) ; 9, Amara, 13-1-18,

11-2-18 (P. A. B.)

291. Yellow^Ieg-ged Herring Gull. Larus argentatus.

Larus argentatus cachinnans Pall. (Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. 2, 1827, p.

318 — S. E. Russia).

A common winter visitor ; very numerous at Eao and not uncommon up the

rivers, particularly at the sites of larger towns where food supply in the shape

of offal abounds, up to and beyond Baghdad. It is recorded in every month of

the year, so some non-breeders must spend the summer ; it is recorded from

Basra on May 28th and in August, while by September 7tli it is common at

Baghdad, whence it is also recorded in mid-July and June ; Meinerzhagen

records it scouring even the desert for food.

There is no evidence of the European Herring Gull occurring in Mesopota-

mia.

One skin exaraied : Amara, 27-11-17 (P. A. B.).

292. Lesser Black'backed Gull. Larus fuscus.

1. Larus fuscus fuscus, L. (Syst. Nat., 1758. p. 136 — Sweden).

2. Larus fuscus tahnyrensis (^affinis a,uct.) Hut. (Mess. Orn. 1911, p.

149 — Yenissei).

(1) While anchored at Eao bar on November 23rd, 1917, and again on March

16th, 1918, I saw several adults of this species. Round the ship were many

taim.rjrensis and cachinnaiis quarrelling for scraps, and amongst them the almost

938 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVH1.

black mantle ot these birds at once drew attention. whUe as they dipped for food

their bright lemon-coloured legs were easily seen.

There are no other records of this species, which is probably a winter visitor

to Fao district in small numbers ; Fao must be about its limit east.

(2) The Siberian Lesser Black-backed Gull is common, especially at Fao and

what has been said about tlie Herring Gull applies apparently equally well to

this bird, except that there is no record of it north of Baghdad.

293. Great Black=headed Gull. Larus ichthyaetus.

Larus ichthyaetns, Pall. (Kcisc, Russ. Rcichs. 2, 1773, p. 713 — Caspian

Sea).

Magrath saw huge gulls with black heads on the Suwelkiyeh Maish in August

which could only have been of this species.

There is no other record, but it is a bird which of course is quite likely to

occur. The Sooty Gull (L. /(ewpr/cAi) which certainly occurs in the Gulf is as

yet unrecorded at Fao ; though on the look out for it, I failed to see it west of

Bunder Abbas in Xovember and March.

294. Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus.

Larus ridibundus, L. (Syst. Xat. Ed. 12. 1766, p. 225 — England).

A winter visitor, very common from Fao on both rivers to Hit and Tekrit

respectively. It arrives back quite early, some being noted by mid- July near

Baghdad, and some may still be seen at the end of May. Possibly a few non-

breeders may spend the summer as in the case of the Herring Gull, though there

are no actual records in June or July. Pitman says it was quite absent from

the marshes of the Hindia Barrage, etc., in these months and there is no evidence

that it breeds in our area. It assumes its breeding jjlumage before leaving in

the spring. They become very tame and used to the various river craft which

ply in the port of Basra, and Pitman relates that he saw a heUurn wallah actually

catch one in his hand as it flew over his helium in Aschar creek. There is no

record of melanocephalus in our area.

(^9, Sheik Saad, 14-3-17 ; J , 20-3-17 (two) (P. Z. C. and K. E. C.), $

Sheik Saad, 15-1-18 (Robinson). Amara, 13-1-18 (P. A. B.) ; Basra, 20-11-7

(C. B. T.).

295. Little Gull. Larus minutus.

Larus minutus. Pall. (Reise Rnss Rcichs. 3. 1776, p. 702 — Siberia).

Zarudny records this as a passage migrant in the Karun district.

There are no- other records ; it is not unlikely to occur in small numbers.

296. .Slender-billed Gull. Larus gelastes.

Larus (jelastes, Licht. (Theinem,. Fortpf. Vog. Eur., pt., 5, p. 22 1838 —

S. France).

The Slender-billed Gull is eommon artd resident; in winter it is widely distrib-

uted and may be met with frequenting the rivers in flocks from Feluja and

Samarra southwaids, as well as flooded areas. In summer they congregate in

tlieir breeding grounds, which are the marshes and lakes in the Hindia Barrage

area and elsewhere.

Here near Museyib, Pitman found them in thousands in June and July ; on

June 12th he found a colony of grass-built nests on islands in the marshes which,

tJiough no eggs were found, he certainly took to belong to this species. Buxton

records that it probably breeds in the marshes 20 miles east of Amara, where he

obtained a bird on July 10th. It certainly breeds near Fao. where Armstrong

found an egg in June which had been flooded out of its nest by the tides somo-

tini" previously. The egg was on .a small mound in that part of the mud-banks

THE BlRDci OF ME80WTAMIA.

9;^9

which are liable to be flooded by spring tides, and which lie between fao and

the Abdidla Banks ; from the latter neighbourhood Gumming obtained eggs on

April 24th, 1884. Tomlinson found an egg of this Gull in the marshes near

Basra about June 9th, 191.3.

Just before and just after the breeding season this species may be met with

in huge flocks on floods, such as existed at Akkarkuf near Baghdad.

Three skins examined : Akkarkuf 6-10-17 : ^ , Halfayah, 6-7-18 (P. A. B.) ;

Hindia Barrage, 8-7-17 (C. R. P.).

297. Whiskered Tern. Hydrochelidon leucopareia.

H ydrochelidon leucopareia (Temm.) (Man. d’Ornith. 2nd Ed. 2, 1820,

p. 746 — Hungary).

Gumming has recorded that the Whiskered Tern is resident all the year at Fao

though all the specimens he obtained were got in August and September. Pit-

man says it first arrived near Feluja on April 23rd ; he saw many on the inunda-

tions west of Baghdad at the end of May. In June he found it breeding in the

marshes of Babylon, Kerbela and Museyib, on both banks of the Euphrates, and

took two nests of one and two fresh eggs respectively on June 3rd, and obtained

a breeding bird. The nests were quite large made of grasses and aquatic plants

and were almost in the water on a semi-submerged strip of land in the centre of a

large marsh ; he found also many empty nests. The eggs were pale stone and

pale clay buff, sparsely spotted and blotched with brownish surface, and purple-

grey and slate shell markings. They average P585xP215 inch or 40x31 mm.

It is noted as common near Baghdad from mid-July onwards, also on Suw'ei-

k3^eh Marsh and Gheesman obtained one at Sheik Saad on December 15th.

298. White=\vinged Black Tern. Hydrochelidon leucoptera.

Hydrochelidon leucoptera (Temm.) (Man. d’Ornith., 1815, p. 483 —

Mediterranean shores).

A common summer visitor to the marshes of lower Mesopotamia ; it arrives

about the middle of April till well on into May and may then be found feeding in

flocks over cornfields, stubbles, etc., as well as marshes and on the rivers. So far

as I am aware no eggs were actually taken but there can be no doubt that it

breeds. Magrath sa}fs it nested on the shores of the Suw'eikiyeh lake ; Tomlinson

saw pairs near Basra in the breeding season, and Buxton found it common near

there on May 28th and saw some on the Hamar lake on the 15th. On the mar-

shes round the Hindia Barrage, Pitman found it fairly common in June and July

and obtained a bird on June 12th, he thought that probably some pf the empty

nests he found there belonged to this species and that on June 3rd most of these

and Whiskered Terns had hatched out. He saw plenty of young on the wing

there on July 2nd. After the breeding season they spread out to other marshes

and floods, and Pitman noted that in August flocks were coming to the marshes

near Baghdad to hawk insects at dawn and in the evening, while they were absent

during the rest of the day. Buxton noted flocks passing up the river, probably

on passage, every day at Baghdad from September 7th to 24th and this letter

date is the last on which there is any record. This species was recorded in

many places from Tekrit to the Karun river, but the onlj' places where there w'as

at all any evidence of its breeding are those mentioned.

Zarudny curiously omits this Tern from his list, but says the Black Tern {H.

nigra) is a passage migrant. We have no records of this species.

299. Common Tern. Sterna hirundo.

Sterna hirundo, L. {=fluviatilis, auct.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, 1758, p. 137

— Sweden).

The Common Tern seems to be resident in Mesopotamia moving about locally

but as there few winter records perhaps the majority are summer visitors

940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII^

Zarudny says it occurs in winter in the Karun river and Pitman records it all

the year on the rivers and marshes but nowhere common except at the nesting

places. By March 20th I found it common on the lower reaches of the

Shat-el-Arab, otherwise all the other records relate to the breeding season.

Tomlinson says it breeds near Basra early in June on sandy islets in the in-

undation ; Cheesman found it breeding at Gurmat Ali and the Hamar lake, and

Buxton on the drying marshes east of Amara. It probably breeds at Ahwaz.

Pitman found large colonies nesting in June in the marshes of the Hindia Barrage;

no nest was made, the eggs being laid in a scrape or natural depression ; over 100

fresh eggs were examined on June 2nd and 3rd and many eggs were destroyed

through the rising of the water ; 49 eggs varied from l'33-l’6x P04 — P2 inches

(or 33’75 — 40’5x26'5 — 30‘5 mm.) ; the ground colour varied through all shades

of green to almost deep blue. This Tern probably nests in many other places,

such as the Tekrit area where Logan Home saw it in June.

Skins obtained : J - Basra, 19-4-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; Hindia Barrage,

2-6-17, 25-6-17 (C. R. P.). *

Several observers thought they saw the Arctic Tern in Mesopotamia, but so far I

we have no evidence that it occurs.

300. Little Tern. Sterna minuta. |

Sterna minuta minuta, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. xii, 1766, p. 228 — S. Europe)

The actual status of the Little Tern is doubtful, probably most are summer

visitors, though perhaps here and there a few spend the winter. Thus Pitman

says that at Kut some were seen after heavy rain in winter and I saw two over

the river at Basra on November 23rd.

On April 18th Cheesman noted parties flying up the river at Basra all day,

evidently a movement up to some breeding ground ; Pitman records the arrival

at Eeluja on April 29th.

It breeds in many places from Tekrit to Fao ; the site usually chosen is the

bare dry ground on the edge of a flooded area, or islands in marshes, and conse-

quently, as with the Common Tern, many nests are destroyed when the floods

rise. Two eggs form the usual clutch, but sometimes three are laid ; 13 eggs

average P15 — L29X’9 — '97 inch (or 26'5 — 32’75 X 22‘75 — 24‘5 mm.) according

to Pitman who says the ground colour in some cases was greenish stone. It

breeds on sandy islands on the Karun at Ahwaz. The majority have left by the

end of September, and Buxton records an apparent migration up the Tigris at

Baghdad from the 7th to 26th.

Four skins examined ; Fao, 12-5-18 (Armstrong) : Kurna, 8-6-19 ; Basra,

16-8-19 (Logan Home). ; Basra, 18-4-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.).

Besides these there are a good many from Fao in the B. M. ; all belong to

minuta, the typical race, and not one of them is saundersi (the type and a

large series of topo-types of which I have examined). Saundersi has been recorded

from Fao by Sharpe and is said to breed near the Abdulla Banks. Armstrong’s

bird which was breeding on the dry mud above high water maik at Fao however,

and all Cumming’s birds in the B. M. are m. minuta.

Zarudny records saundersi as rare in winter in the Karun district, but at pre-

sent I consider that it should be deleted from the Mesopotamian list.

301. Large Crested Tern. Sterna bergii.

Sterna bergii relax, Cretzsch (Rupp. Atlas, p. 21, 1826).

Camming states (Ibis. 1891) that he obtained six eggs at P'ao ; probably it

breeds on one of the islands in the head of the Gulf and must occur off the Fao

littoral and the entrance to the Shat-el-Arab where Harrison says he saw it : it

is not likely to penetrate inland. According to Hartert it is the above race which

occurs in the Persian Gulf, — I have seen no specimens thence.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

941

302. Lesser Crested Tern. Sterna media.

Sterna media hengalensis. Less. (Traiti, p. 621, 1831).

The only record of the Lesser Crested or Allied Tern I can find is that of one

shot at Fao in June 1900 by Mr. Ffinch ; it is in the British Museum. It must

occur commonly off Fao one would think ; it breeds on an islet near the island

of Arabe in great numbers (Hume’s Nests and Eggs 4, p. 299). Pitman thought

he saw it on the floods near Baghdad but so essentially a sea tern is not in the

least likel}' to occur inland. The White-cheeked Tern (titerna albigena auct)

may occur off Fao ; it breeds on Allah island 40 miles east of Bushire (Hume

1. c., p. 312) in June.

303. Lesser Sooty Tern. Sterna ansethetus.

Sterna ancethetus (Del. Faun, et Flor. Ins. 2, 1786, p. 92 — Phillipine

Islands).

This Tern breeds on Allah off Tungistan, east of Bushire in June and July

(Hume t. c., pp. 300, 312). Its only claim to inclusion is Zarudny’s statement

that he saw two skins which had been obtained at the mouth of the Karun

river at Mohommera.

304. Caspian Tern. Sterna caspia.

Sterna, caspia, Pall. (Nov. Comm. Petrop. pt. 14, 1, 1770, p. 582 —

Caspian Sea).

This fine Tern is resident in Lower Mesopotamia, and breeds on Warba island

of the Khor Abdulla whence Huskisson obtained eggs and a parent bird for Butler

on April 3rd, 1878 (Hume's Nests and Eggs 4, p. 296). In the non-breeding season

it is not very uncommon on the rivers up to at any rate as far as Samarra and

doubtless visits the lakes as well ; even in the breeding season odd non-breeding

birds may be met with. It is commoner on the Shat-el-Arab than elsewhere.

305. Gull=billed Tern. Sterna anglica.

Sterna anglica, Montagu (Orn. Diet. SuppL, 1813 — England).

The Gull-billed Tern is also resident and is fairly common. I saw them at

intervals all the way up the river to Basra on November 20th and again on March

16th. Cumming records that it is resident and breeds on both sides of the river

at Fao. It also breeds on Warba island abundantly in a tightly packed colony,

but on a different part of the island to the Caspian Terns ; eggs were obtained

by Huskisson on April 3rd, 1878 (Hume's Nests and Eggs). Pitman thinks that

some were breeding on dry islands in the flooded area of the Euphrates marshes

near Museyib, but eggs he obtained in the first week of June are all far smaller

than any known eggs of this species and measure about 43 •7x31 ‘75 mm. ; as

he did not see the birds on the nests it is very doubtful whether these eggs belong

1.0 this species though it is quite possible they were breeding there as he saw and

obtained specimens.

Two skins examined : — L. Akkarkuf, 12-8-17 (C. R. P.), Basra, 21-11-17

(C. B. T.).

306. Great Crested Grebe. Podiceps cristatus.

Podiceps cristatus cristatus, L. (Syst. Nat. 1758, p. 135 — Sweden).

So far as is known the Great-crested Grebe is a winter visitant in small numbers

to the rivers and inundations. Pitman obtained two adults in breeding dress on

L. Akkarkuf on August 21st, so that it is within the bounds of possibility some

may breed in our area ; all other records relate to the winter months.

Five skins examined: — Amara, 17-12-18 (P. A. B.); S, Amara, 7-1-18

(P. Z. C. and R. E. C.), 2 L. Akkarkuf, 21-8-17 (C. R. P.); Amara. 12-2-17

(Bagnall).

These seem in no way different to west European examples.

942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXVIII.

307. Black-necked Grebe. Podiceps nigricollis.

Podiceps nigricoUis nigricollis, C. L. Brehin. (Viig. Deutschl., 1831, j).

963 — E. Germany).

Apparently resident in small numbers ; Pitman records that he found this

species breeding in the marshes west of Museyib near the Barrage in May and

June and that it was still present in July.

He found two nests on June 2nd each containing a single egg ; these measure

1 • 83 X 1 ■ 21 and 1 ■ 74 x 1 • 23 inches. On L. Akkarkuf he often saw 6 or 8 adults

together in August and obtained specimens.

In winter this species spreads out and may be found in the rivers ; Xeuman

records it from Ras-el-Ain.

Fivm skins examined : Amara, 25-12-17 (P. A. B.) ; Kut, 18-3-18 (Hob-

kirk): Sheik Saad, 13-12-16 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.); 9, Sheik Saad, 22-12-17

(Robinson).

308. Little Greb2. Podiceps fluviatilis.

Podiceps fluviatilis capensis, Salvad. (Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova., (2) 1,

p. 2.52, 1884 — Shoa).

The Little Grebe is fairly common and resident. Pitman found it breeding

commonly in the marshes west of Muse3’ib in June and during the first fortnight

of that month found manj' nests, quite a number being in quite a small area.

The nests contained 4 to 6 and even 7 eggs in various stages of incubation. These

measured P305 — P51 X ‘915 — P09 inches (or 3.3 — 38’5x23 — 27 '5 mm.)

they varied much in size and shape.

Tomlinson recorded it breeding at Basra and found six nests in a small

area on June 9th. In winter it spreads out and maj' be found on the rivers and

inundations where it is not to be found in the breeding season.

Three skins examined : 9 > Amara, 15-2-18 (P. A. B.); L. Akkarkuf, 19-7-17

(two) (C. R. P.).

These are clearlj^ capensis and not the European bird ; in the latter the

white of the flight feathers is alwaj^s confined to the inner webs of the

secondaries ; in capensis the amount of white is more extensive on the secondaries

and extends to the outer web also ; moreover the white extends to all except

the first three or four primaries, alwaj'S on the inner, often on to both webs.

309. Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus.

Rallus aquaticus Icorejewi, Zar. sOrn. Monats., 1905, p. 209 — N. E.

Tm’kestan).

The Water Rail is a winter visitor, probably fairlj'^ common, but, like all Rails,

being unobtrusive few came under observation. It appears to be generally

distributed in suitable localities and the records range from September 10th to

February 9th.

One was caught in a “ dug out ” at Samarra.

Four skins examined: — 9. Basra, 9-2-19 (Armstrong); Samarra, 24-12-17

(C. R. P.); Sheik Saad, 10-9-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.); one Amara (P. A. B.).

These I refer to the eastern race with the paler markings on the upper parts.

310. Spotted Crake. Porzana porzana.

Porzana porzana, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. xii, 1766, p. 262 — France).

This Crake is not very uncommon on both migrations and most come under

observation by being caught exhausted or being found dead under the telegraph

wires. We have no evidence that it breeds or winters on Mesopotamia ; there

are several records between March 18th and May 20th in the spring and August

27th and October on the autumn passage.

I

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE VII.

Photo. Capf. C. II. Pitma)i.

A. — Nest and eggs of Little Grebe. 12-6-17.

Near Euphrates Barrage. (Eggs uncovered for photo.)

Photo. Capt. C. R. Pitman,

B. — Marshes near Kurna, R. Tigris.

Amongst other breeding birds in these parts are: — Pygmy Cormorants, Darters, Little

Grebes, Reed Warblers, Gallinules.

Birds of Mesopotamia.

V

THE BIBDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

943

Six speoiin^iis obtiiiisd : Shaibi, 23-9-16: 9 , Saad, 7-4-17 (P. Z. C.

and R. E. 0.): L. AkkirkuF, 27-8-17 (C. R. P.); Amira, 20-.‘3-19 (L. Home);

2, Amaia (P. A. B.).

311. Little Crake. Porzana parva.

PorziiVt px'v^, ScTp. (Ann. 1 Hist. Nat., 1769, p. 108 — Carniola).

Apparently a winter visitor and not very uncommon.

Chcesman obtained one at Sheik Saad on September 1.3th out of a melon

bed. Pitman thought it was fairly common in the marshes of Kurna on Mai'ch

24th. Tomlinson records it from Basra in February and on May 16th.

Zarundy gives it as a winter visitor.

Four skins examined : Basra, 8-3-17 (Stevens) : 9 > Sheik Saad, 13-9-17,

(P.Z.C. and R.E.C.);(^,Feluja, 23-4-17 (C. R. P.) ; Samarra, 11-3-18 (Hobkirk).

312. Baillon’s Crake. Porzana pusilla.

Porz'in'x pusilla intermedia (Herm). (Obs. Zool. 1, p. 198, 1804 — -

Strasbourg).

• Cumming obtained one at Fao in October and records it as a winter visitor.

Pitman says he saw several in the marshes at Kurna whilst shooting in January;

Cumining’s bird belongs to the above race.

313. Corncrake. Crex crex.

Crex crex (L.) (Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 153 — Sweden).

The Corncrake is a passage migrant in spring and autumn, it arrives during

the last half of April and may be met with till the third week in May ; the return

passage begins about the middle of September and lasts well into October. At

these times it is not uncommon. Cumming has recorded that stray ones may

be seen in .June and July and all have gone by the beginning of December;

we have no evidence of it I’emaining to breed nor have we any winter records.

It is interesting to note that this bird was found at the Oasis of Shaiba on the

autumn passage and one must suppose that it intended to continue its flight

across Arabia ; in slight confirmation of this I may mention that [ obtained

some years age the wings of corncrakes from two lied Sea light-houses on

spring and autumn migrations, together with those of a Scops Owl, Persian

Bee-eaters. Rollers. Quails, Spotted Crakes, etc. (Sanganeb Lt. off P. Sudan

and Daedalus Lt.).

Four specimens examined : 9 > »5haiba, 17-9-16,4-10-16 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.):

Feluja, 20-4-17 (two) (C. R. P.).

314. Water Hen, Gallinula chloropus

Gallinula chloropus parvifrons, Blyth. (J. A. S. B. 1843, p. 180 —

Calcutta).

Common everywhere in the marshes in winter and also breeds in suitable

places. Probably a certain number are winter visitors and passage migrants.

Cheesman records that one was shot from the top of a 30-foot Tamarisk at the

Oasis of Shaiba on September 30th which, had it resumed its migrations, must

have taken it into Arabia. Logan Home found two nests at Basra on May 22nd

and Tomlinson records finding eggs there from June 9th to 21st. Cheesman noted

that a pair took up their quarters and apparently intended to breed in a small

reed covered pool which after being dry and bare for six months had become

filled by the river floods in April.

Hobkirk found a nest of eggs on June 6th at Girdilaun.

Four skins examined : 9, Basra, 6-2-19, w. 152 '5 (Armstrong); d , Kazimain.

6-5-19 (breeding), w. 166; d , Shaiba, 30-9-16, w. 170 (P. Z. C. and R, E. C.);

9, Amara, 6-4-18, w. 1.53 (P. A. B.).

16

944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

From the smallness of these birds they must belong to the eastern race parvi-

frons with which they well agree. Grant (Ibis. 1915, p. 47) in a revdew of races

of the Water-hen gives as the measurements of this race: 155-175; $, 159-

162. Our birds come well -vvithin these measurements, in fact the two females

are smaller than his minimum.

It is interesting to find this race so far west and it is in keeping with what

we know about the occurrence of not a few other eastern races in our area.

315. Coot. Fulica atra. “ Dijaj Mai.”

FiiUoa aim, L. (Syst. Xat., 1758, p. 152 — Sweden).

In its general distribution the Coot is very common in winter in all the marshes

and inundations while parties may be met with on the rivers right down to Fao.

Probably many are winter visitors but in some places, at all events it breeds.

Thus Pitman found many breeding in the marshes west of Museyib near the

Barrage in June and on the 9th found a clutch of five incubated eggs ; in July,

August and September he saw many adults and young ones. Buxton met with

several on the Hamar Lake on May 19th so it is quite likely that it breeds there

also. Livesay also obtained eggs, probably in the Euphrates marshes.

Magi-ath records that the Coots were very tame and familiar and used to swim

round when “ Tommy ” was bathing and pick at the soap suds. The bridge of

boats at Samarra was a constant source of annoyance to the flock of coots which

used to live all day above it ; the current drifted them down to the bridge whence

they used to flap up stream again to their chosen spot only to be drifted down

again and so on ad infinitum.

316. Purple Qallinule. Porphyrio poiiocephalus. “Birhan.”

Porphyria poliocephalus poliocephalus, hath. (Ind. Orn. Suppl. p. Ixviii,

1801 — India).

Common and resident in all suitable large marshes, where reeds are plentiful;

Cheesman records that it was apparently going to breed in the Horr Sanef. Bux-

ton found it breeding in the Hamar Lake on May 19th — 21st where he found

their nests containing three to four eggs, fresh to much incubated. Pitman saw

plenty in the marshes west of Museyib and found a nest of four eggs on June 9th

nearly hatching. Marshall and Tomlinson found nests at Kurna, three eggs on

May 15th and four eggs on May 3rd. Logan Home found it breeding plentifully

at Abu Aran in June. The nest built in reed beds, where the water is two to four

feet deep, resembles a coot’s nest and is made of dead reeds with a few stalks

bent over above to make a slight screen. The Arabs collect the eggs for eating.

Ten specimens examined : (J $ , Horr Sanef, 20-3-18 (P. Z. C. and K. E. C.) ;

(J, Amara, 12-5-18 : 3 J, 29> Hamar Lake, 20-5-18 ; Amara, 5-1-18 (P. A.

B.). Besides these I have examined three others on the British Museum from

Mesopotamia.

The typical race comes from the peninsular of India ; there has been described

a race — seistanicus — from Seistan by Zarudny and Harms (J.F.O., 1911, p. 240),

differing from the Caspian bird by the paler coloration, and the Caspian bird

has been described by Hartert as caspius (Novit. 24, p. 266) on account of its

larger size as compared with the typical race. The question therefore arises as

to what race tlie Mesopotamian birds belong. Hartert gives as wing measure-

ments of ca.spiMiqJ , 270 — 286,9 259 — 266 mm. Our birds measure 257 — 272,

9 239-2.55 mm., and three unsexed examples 224, 250, 253, so evidentl}'^ our

birds are not caspius, in fact they agree well in measurement with and are not

at all paler than Indian peninsular examples. — Indian birds (both sexes) measure

237-271 mm. Nor can I find an_v difference b3^ which our birds maj' be differen-

tiated from Indian birds either in size of bill or tarsi or feet, all of which vary

very much.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

945

Zarudny in his list of birds of the Karun district places P. ceruleus ? as a com-

mon resident. The only information Zarudny had concerning Gallinules he ob-

tained from the Arabs who described to him the birds and nests, and he supposed

that it would be this species which occurred in the Hawaizie marshes. Jourdain

informs me (in lilt.) that he has 12 eggs of seisfanicus from Mesopotamia ; I know

not how he arrived at the determination of these eggs, the average measure-

ments of which he gives as 50x37’5 mm. (almost exactly the same as Blanford

gives for the Indian bird) ; if he was going on the eggs themselves it would only

show that the eggs of these two races cannot be differentiated, as I am not aware

that seistanicus occurs in Mesopotamia at all.

As Hartert described caspins from five birds from Lenkoran and two from

E. Persia, it would seem highly probable that caspius is the same as seistanicus.

F. cceriiletis does not occur at all ; specimens, which were referred to this, in the

British Museum from Mesopotamia are in fact poliocephalus.

317. Stock Dove. Columba senas.

Columha cenas, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 162, 175S — Sweden).

Woosnam found the Stock Dove plentiful on the Diz and Kerkha rivers in the

Karun district, where Zarudny also records it as a winter visitor and passage

migrant. Pitman thought he saw it at Sheik Saad in January and at Kut in

November. There is a specimen from Baghdad in the British Museum obtained

by Loftus. Cheesman met with it. Brooking has recorded that it was heard

occasionally at Nasariyeh and Raniadi. Zarudny has described a TAce-hyrcana-

from the S. Caspian region ; two specimens I have examined from near Shiraz

in winter differ in no way from English ones.

318. Wood Pigeon. Columba palumbus.

Columba pal ambus palumbus, L. (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 163, 1758 — Sweden).

The Wood Pigeon is extraordinarily local in Mesopotamia. Round Basra it is

not uncommon and as there are records of it there in small numbers from March

to August, it must certainly breed there. Gumming records that, in one year

only, many visited Fao and built in the date palms there, but left again as sud-

denly as they arrived. At Baghdad it appears to be resident and fairly common

and it must breed there also, though no nests were reported ; Cheesman however

was assured by the natives that they do nest there in the gardens. It occurs and

is probably resident in the foothill towns of the Karun district as Diz, where

Woosnam records it, and Shush, where Cheesman saw and heard them on May

3rd. Buxton, who was at Amara for some time, never met with it there nor at

any other place during his wanderings except at Baghdad ; Pitman at Feluja,

Museyib, and Samarra failed to see it and Logan Home only came across it at

Basra. Brooking in his list of birds observed by him says the “ Ring Dove ”

is common and breeds in the palm groves of the Euphrates, but he almost

certainly refers to a Dove and not the Wood Pigeon. Hingston records it from

Khanjedidah in Ajuil. Livesay obtained eggs but failed to supply any further

details.

It would certainly seem that this Pigeon is a bird of palm groves, but yet does

not occur everywhere the palm does. Its status requires further examination.

Cheesman says the cooing and love flights are exactly similar to those of the

English bird, but he noticed a constant difference in the bill which he says is

“ putty white,” nostril pinkish, instead of the usual coloration ; he verified this

in about a dozen birds shot in winter. This difference is lost in dried skins, as

those which I have seen from Mesopotamia differ in no way from the English

birds nor could I detect any other difference by which they could be sepaiated ;

to separate the Mesopotamian Wood Pigeon as a distinct race, therefore, only

on coloration of bill in life would, I hardlj- tliink, serve an5' useful purpose.

946 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVII L

Six specimens examined : 9 , Baglidad, 21-9-17 (P. A. B.); 9, Baghdad,

14-1 19, 22-1-19 (two); $, 11-2-19, 9-2-19 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.).

The eastern form ci.yiotis does not, so far as I am aware, occur.

319. Rock Dove. Columba li via.

Columha livia gaddi, Zar. and Loud. (Orn. Monats. 1906, p. 133 —

Kanin R.).

Common and resident wherever suitable places exist ; it swarms in most of the

larger towns, as at Mosul and Baghdad, and is semi-domesticated, all being how-

ever pure blue, none of the mongrel kinds seen in most places having as yet been

introduced. In the towns it frequents houses and particularly mosques and so

enjoys a considerable amount of protection. Elsewhere it inhabits ruins, and the

arch at Ctesiphon swarms with them ; all along the cliffs in the Tekrit and Samarra

districts it is abundant, and it nests in the Euphrates Barrage at Hindiyeh and in

wells at many places. It is common enough in the towns of the Karun district and

occurs in the Jebel Hamrin, as at Mendali, in cliffs many miles from any habita-

tion. Where no suitable sites exist for it as at Kut, Ali Gharbi, Sheik Saad and

Fao it is rare or absent. There is nothing very particular to note about its nest-

ing habits ; as elsewhere more than one brood is reared and Pitman records fresh

eggs and fledged young in June. At the Barrage no nest is made, the eggs being

deposited on the bare shelves.

Five skins examined: Mendali, 2-8-18 (P. A. B ); Adhaim, 15-11-17 ;

Samaira, 7 3-18 (C.R.P.) ; Amara, 9-2-18 (P.Z.C. and R. E. C.); Shustar.

18-1-18 (F. M. B.).

In addition to these five I have examined two others from “ Mesopota-

mia one from Biridjik ; one from Kharag Is. off Bushire ; three from

Palestine ; one from Muscat and a very large series from Afghanistan, Belu-

chistan, X. W. India and Turkestan. As regards the Palestine, Mesopotani’an

and S. W. Persian birds these are not the typical race, the upper parts are distinct-

ly paler and the birds are smaller. Rock pigeons vary very considerably through-

out their range and doubtless introduced stock in some places upsets all attempts

at classification into races; but if one is going to recognize races of this pigeon at all,

one must consider what race the Mesopotamian bird belongs to; it is certainly not

livia as already pointed out, and it is equally certainly not intermedia. Several

observers thought they saw intermedia in Mesopotamia because they saw Rock

pigeons with bluish rumps. From the very large series I have seen from the

above mentioned localities there was not a single example of intermedia (which

is a fairly distinct race from Central and South India), and as for the colour

of the rump in our Mesopotamian birds, it goes for nothing; some are pure

white, others pale blue grey, and some are white tinged with this colour,

but none has the slate grey of inter?nedia ; it is purely an individual variation.

Zarudny and Loudon described gaddi from the Karun river, their description

tallies well with our Mesopotamian birds and the latter are all quite similar to a

topo-type of gaddi from Shustar ; quite the same also are the three birds from

Palestine and the birds from Biridjik and Kharag Island — all are rather pale

and rather small (wings 21.5 — 227 mm.) and therefore I consider palestinxB of

Zedlitz (J. F. 0. 1912, p. 339) to be a .synonym of gaddi. The Muscat bird is paler

than any others I have seen and more from this locality are desirable.

320. Turtle Dove. Streptopelia turtur. “ Tabaan ”

1. Streptopelia turtur arenicolor (Hart.) (Novit. Zool. 1894, p. 42 —

Fao).

2. Streptopelia turtur turtur (I,.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x. p. 164, 1758 —

England).

The eastern race of the Turtle Dove is an exceedingly common summer visitor

to the whole of our area and also a passage migrant through the country. The

THE BIRDS OF MESOBOTAM lA.

'.<47

first few arrive in the last days of March and they become numerous througliout

April ; many leave during September and few are to be seen up to October 25th.

Cheesman and Buxton found it rare at Baghdad and thought that it only occurred

there on passage, its place being taken there, as a breeding bird by the Indian

Ring Dove {S. decaocto); otherwise it breeds freely in all areas from Tekrit to

Fao and Karun district.

Nests ready for eggs may be found in the last days of April ; eggs are reported

during the first week of May and are general bj’ the middle of the month and may

be found well on into June ; its nesting habits do not appear to differ from those of

the European bird.

Large flocks probably of passage migrants were noted in the Samarra district in

April and in the willow' jungles at Shush on May 3rd, while Magrath saw' flocks

migrating over the Sanniyat position regardless of a heavy artillery bombard-

ment.

Elev'en specimens examined: Amara, 6-6 18, 24-4 18. 9, 26-10-18;

d, Baghdad, 29 7 18 (P. A. B.). Sheik Saad, 2 4-17; Zobeir, 11-5-16; 9,

Basra, 2 8-16. Baghdad, 11-4-19 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.). Wadi, 26-4-17 {Y)

All these are arenicolor with paler wing coverts and sca.pulars, and usually paler

mantle and head, than the European birds. One specimen shows the “rufous

phase” which is also to be found in the typical race.

(2) The typical race according to Wcigold passes through Urta on spring mig-

ration from April 16th onwards. Sassi records it from RIosul, Zarudny gives it as

a passage migrant in the Karun district. Vl'itherby identified one from Eeridan

in W. Persia obtained by Woosuam on May 10th as belonging to this race.

Pitman obtained two at Foluja on j).assage on Apiil 11th which from their dar-

ker colour I assign to the typical race. They match British specimens well.

321. Indian Rin,2T-Dove. Streptopelia decaocto ( = risorius

auct.) “Fuchtee."’

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Friv.) (A. M. Tarsasag Evkiinyvei,

1834-36, hi, p. 183, 1838— Turkey).

Where this dove occurs it is quite common arid its bleeding distribution is evi-

dently much influenced by the presence or absence of date palm groves. From

Fao to Kurna it is resident and breeds, as also up the Eujjhrates where palm

groves exist and also at Baghdad w'here it is common.

In some places, such as Amara, Kut, Qalet Saleh it is a winter visitor and not

at all common even then, a flock perhaps frequenting the same spot where food

is plentiful, such as mule lines, etc., all the w'inter ; w'hile in other places, as Feluja

and the Samarra-Tekrit area where the locality is not suited to it, it w'ould

appear to be absent altogether.

It nests usually in palm trees, sometimes as high uj) as 30 feet, and the nesting

season is a long one, eggs being re2)ortcd eai ly in May up to Se2)tember.

Four specimens e.xamined : Basra, 28-7-16; 9, Ka'/.imain, 30-3-19

(P. Z. C. and R. E. C.): 9, Baghdad, 11-9-17, , 23-1-18 (P. A. B.)

322. Little Brown Dove. Streptopelia senegalensis.

Streptopelia senegalensis camhayejisis (Cm.). (Syst. Nat. I. 2, jc. 779,

1789 — Cambay, Bombay Pres.)

The status of this dove is quite unknow'n in Mesopotamia. Cumming obtaine<l

one at Fao in January in a severe storm and Buxton got one female at Amara on

February 1st, 1918. I have examined both these skins, whose wings measure 127'5

and 130 mm. and they are in no w'ay sei)arable from birds from the Bombay Presi-

dency, and this species must be added to the list of those- Indo-Beluchi birds which

straggle along the Persian Gulf into Mesopotamia. Hartert (Vog. P. F. pi. 495).

948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

refers this Fao specimen to a larger race ermanni (from Bokhara) but both these

Mesopotamian specimens are well on the small size for this and are not larger than

many Bombay birds. Weigold records camhayensis from Aleppo and Biredjik

as common and resident. I have seen no specimens thenoe but Hartert (t. c.)

gives Palestine as being inhabited by the typical race and almost certainly these

Syrian birds belong also to this race and not to camhayensis; moreover the wing

length given by Weigold (149-150 mm.) is much too large for this latter race.

323. Spotted Sand-grouse. Pterocles senegallus.

Plerocles senegallus {L.) (Mant. Plant. Regni. An App., p., 526 1771

— “Senegallia”).

The Spotted Sand-Grouse is common, and widely, but rather locally, distributed

and is resident. It is not in most places so numerically abundant as alchata, and

like the latter it is subject to local migrations in the country, due to exigencies of

food, water and breeding ground. In most places the Large Pintail is the com-

moner bird and with them may be found a few Spotted, or the latter are in small

flocks by themselves ; at Nasariyeh however the reverse is the case and in this

district the latter bird is abundant, the former scarce, as well shewn by a bag made

there on August 25th, when 7 guns obtained 140 senegallus and only 10 alchata.

So too in the triangle Baghdad-Feluja-Museyib senegallus would seem to be the

commoner bird, while in the Kurna-Amara district it is rare. Until we know

more about the food supply of these two birds their curiously patchy distribu-

tion \\’ill remain obscure.

A good many breeding localities are recorded; it evidently breeds in some num-

bers along the edge of the Arabio-Syrian desert from Shaiba westwards ; it

breeds also in numbers between Museyib and Baghdad (there being a very large

colony about halfwaj’) and between Baghdad and Feluja; it breeds in the Samarra

and Tekrit districts and in places, though no large colonies are reported, from

there to Basra. So little has been recorded concerning the breeding of this bird

that I will quote the notes sent by Logan Home in extenso: — “On June 18th I

set out from Chunabdah (about 40 miles W. of Basra) at 4-30 a.m.; the sun rose

at5a,m., I saw large numbers of Cursorius, P. alchata and a fair num-

ber of senegallus. These all fed up to 7 a.m., when they commenced flying to

water at the marsh edge six miles distant to the East. About 7-15 a.m. I saw

a senegallus creeping through some small plants about 300 yards off, evidently

having run off eggs. I sat down and watched it and in twenty minutes it had

come back a bit and squatted. I gave it ten more minutes to make sure it was

on its nest and then walked to the spot and found nil ! The bird ran off as soon

as I stood up, although fully 300 yards away. I then moved to another position

500 yards away on the other side of the spot. About 8-40 a.m., another sene-

gallus, a female, flew in towards where I was lying, and settling within a 100 yards

ran to a spot and squatted down. I watched it for 10 minutes ; then another, the

male,came along from the direction of the marsh to the same spot and, when with-

in 10 yards of the squatting bird, the latter rose and flew off to the water and the

former ran on to the same spot and remained there. 1 then knew there must be

eggs and walking to the spot I found a nest containing three eggs. The nest

was merely a slight scrape in the hard soil on top of a stony plateau about 20 feet

above the surrounding plain. Further on I saw another senegallus female 400

yards away feeding; after 10 minutes watching she crept behind a small plant and

squatted. The bird .sat until I was about 20 yards away (it then being very hot)

and then crept off trailing her wings ; the nest contained 3 eggs. She stayed

quite close for some time and only rose when I walked right up to her.

From the above I gather that the male drinks first and then comes to relieve

the female, which would appear to again relieve the male after drinking

Logan Home also obtained eggs from Tekrit on June 10th and, judging by

the number of scrapes in the ground and the birds seen, quite a number must

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

949

have been nesting in fairly close proximity — on stony ground. Tomlinson records

eggs from near Basra on June 19th and Pitman found a stale egg ne.-.r Museyih

on June 27th. Cheesman obtained a chick in down at .Shaiba on August 12th

when many were fully grown.

A clutch of 3 eggs in my collection taken by Capt. Hanna on July 3rd near

Ur of the Chaldees measure 42' 5 x 29. All three were fresh and similarly marked ;

the ground colour is pale yellowish stone (“pale olive buff ”, Ridgw. xl. f.) rathei

sparsely but evenly marked with fine and coarser spots of pale red-brown

( “ tawny olive ” Ridgw, xxix, i.) with a few larger secondary markings of “ pale

violet grey,” (Ridgw. lii, d.) ; they are less closely marked and much less glossy

than those of the common Indian Sandgrouse, indeed they are practically glossless.

The male bird which was on the eggs ran off at very close range and performed

the usual “ dying ” trick.

All Sand-grouse are good eating in my experience but Pitman thought sene-

gallns to be better in this respect than alchata. There is a certain amount of

evidence to show that this species feeds on only small seeds and not on dropped

corn, as alchata often does, although obtainable, but the identification of crop

contents of both species and in a large number of specimens is desirable.

Eighteen specimens: ^Baghdad, 7-8-18 2, Nasariyeh, 25-8-18 (P.A.B.);

Sheik Saad, 29-10-16. 9, 30-10-16; pwZ/. Shaiba, 12-8-18 (P. Z. C. and

R.E.C.); 2 Twin Canals, 3-11-18; 9, Kut, 24-11-16 (C. R, P.) 5 3 9 nr.

Kut (Keary and Perreau).

Down Plumage. — So far as I am aware the young in down of this species has

never been described. Cheesman’s bird is of the same age as the young of alchata

referred to and, as the feathers have sprouted the down pattern is lost. Chicks

soon after hatching are desiderata, as I believe this to be the only one preserved

anywhere. I exhibited it at the December 1920 meeting of the B. O. C. and it

is now in the British Museum.

Compared with the chick of alchata it has a noticeably smaller, less stout and

less high bill, and slforter feet besides a different (paler) down and feather pattern.

Down. Upper parts. — Head, cheeks and ear coverts, a mixture as in alchata,

but the ginger brown element much paler and their hair like filaments much

shorter and less noticeable. Back and scapulars, — here the paler ginger colour

of alchata is replaced by a pale sandy yellow with heavier black tips, here too

the filaments are shorter than in alchata ; wing coverts a mixture, like the back,

and the filaments again shorter than in alchata.

Under parts. — Down fluffy, less hair like than in alchata, also not so white,

more isabelline white.

Feathers of the upper parts quite different to alchata, pale isabelline brown

grizzled with black marks ; those of the under parts paler than in alchata, also

smaller and more disintegrated. See plate p. 650.

324. Imperial Sand^grouse. Pterocles nrientalis.

Pterocles orientalis (= arenar'.us auct.) (Syst. Nat. Ed. x, p. 161, 1758

— Anatolia).

Scattered flocks may be met with in winter throughout the country ; these

are winter visitors from the Persian plateau where they breed in great numbers;

there is no evidence that it breeds anywhere in our area. Never what might be

called common, yet it cannot be considered rare, small flocks may be met w'ith

by themselves, or a few mixed up with the packs of alchata or senegallvs. They

arrive somewhere about the middle of November and Cheesman records some as

late as April 27th drinking at islands in the Karun river at Qazarieh.

Apart from their size, lack of the “ pin tail”, and the black belly Cheesman

noted that their cry W'as distinctive, a croaking noise rather like a Raven’s ;

Wimshurst obtained a number of minute seeds, estimated at .30,000, out of a

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111.

crop, which were identified by Mr. Irving of Kew as those of Melilotus, sp... pro-

bably indie, a, and Astragulus, sp., in about equal proportions.

One skin obtained : Sheik, Saad 24-12-16 (P. Z. C. and It. E. C.).

325. Large Pin-tailed Sand-grouse, Pterocles alchata.

Pterocies alchata cmidacutus (Gm.) (Reise d. Russ, iii, p. 93, 1774—

X. Persia).

Tliis is the Sand-grouse of Mesopotamia ; it is widely distributed, resident, and

in most places excessively abundant. There are a number of records -of the

migrations of vast flocks in March in several areas, as in Kut, Feluja and Baghdad,

etc., and again in the autumn from August to the end of October. These move-

ments are accounted for in two waj’s ; this species has its own favourite nesting

areas and breeds there in large scattered colonies, and so towards the nesting

season birds draw towards these lavourpd places from districts ^^•here they have

spent the winter. Other movements are doubtless explained by their flights

to their drinking ground and to their feeding grounds ; also the latter sites are

changed as frequently as the food supply is exhausted, or become untenable due

to flooding or other causes ; then again in the rainy season these birds can

push further out into the desert, not being dependant on the rivers and canals for

their water, and so in this way perform a local migration.

There is no evidence at all that any Sand-grouse of this species visits our plains

as either a summer or winter visitor, and all the movements noted are no doubt

purely local.

Like all Sand-grouse this species is somewhat local ; in some places it swarms

in countless myriads and yet large stretches of country may be ti-a versed without

seeing one ; the key to this of course must be food supjfly. Although it may be

said to be in winter widely distributed throughout the country and very common,

I will give one or two instances to show its erratic distribution ; Cheesman found

it abundant at Kifri in January, but on a journey from Kanikin to Mosul none

W'cre seen ; Buxton, at Amara, says they are there in verj' irregular numbers

throughout the year except in December and January, sportsmen agreeing that

it was absent in mid winter there every year ; yet Pitman saw- a large flock near

there in .January. Doubtless in this case different parts of these areas were

worked with the above varying results. Most agree that it is uncommon at

Xasariyeh.

This Sand-grouse breeds throughout our area from Ras-el-Ain and Mosul to

Basra and Ahwaz, though there again its distribution is somewdiat local and in

some places as at Hindia, Feluja and Amara it is quite scarce or sporadic, or as

round Baghdad where it is said not to breed at all ; in other places as Ahwaz,

Tekrit, Mendali it is pretty common, while round Kut, Sinn Banks and Sheik-

Saad enormous colonies exist. Pitman wiio was in this latter district during

the breeding season and found many nests, has furnished a number of notes on

the nesting of this species. Here he found these »Sand-gi'ouse vei-y abundant in

April and towards the end of the month they shewed evident signs of wanting

to nest, but were much w’orried by the presence of troops on what was probably

their old breeding grounds, and by the incessant fil ing of field guns and howitzers.

The first eggs were found on Ajn-il 25th, but it was not until the middle of May

that nesting W'as in full swing, and he thinks that tlie birds had been delayed

by the firing in starting nesting operatioms.

There must have been thousands of pairs in a few- square miles of country and

not a few of them were nesting between our lines and the Sinn position.

The ■■ nesst ” is situated preferably on dry open flat ground esj^ecially on the

drv outskirts of wdiat had been a mud-marsh, though some were found in shoit

stubble and gi-ass. Xo nest is made but in a few eases a few bits of straws were

found in the nest, Tlie usual clutch is three eggs : in one case two were normal

in size and the third no larger than a dove’s egg. Of twenty eggs taken by

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

951

Ludlow at Ahwaz the largest measured 49 X 31, the smallest 39 X 28 "5 and the

average 44*36 X 30mm., these eggs varied very much in colour, they were

mostly of a pale creamy-buff ground colour with dark brown or red-brown

primary and violet grey secondary markings ; two eggs were nearly white, one

with a few secondary markings, the other with a few faint markings of both

degrees.

Pitman came to the conclusion that the eggs, once incubation had started,

were never left unless the birds were compelled to, or the heat would kill the

embryo ; he found many stale deserted eggs which were so hot as to be hardly

handled ; Logan Home however says they sit verj- little !

Pitman several times saw the male sitting on the nest, but probably incubation

is shared by both sexes, though the male was noted in each case on the eggs in

eight nests found by Livesay. On being put off a nest with eggs, the incubating

bird sneaks away, the head being kept low, and does not shew up till a long way

from the nest, or it may feign a broken vdng when 30 yards from the nest, this

performance in nearly every case being done by the male. When the 5’oung are

hatched more violent are the tviles utilized to deceive, which Pitman describes

as follows : — “ On the evening of June 15th I witnessed an interesting spectacle

at a nest I had been watching and the eggs of which had hatched that morning.

I saw the male sitting not far from the nest, but he at once went off playing the

“ broken -wing ” game ; as I got up to the nest the hen flew off under the pony’s

nose, having sat very tight and went away vuth a tremendous performance.

First of all she went staggering away, then rolled over and over as if badly wound-

ed and with both wings smashed. This not having drawn me awa}^ she went

off again with tail elevated, wings drooping, and trailing on the ground head

down and neck outstretched, every feather especially on the under parts fluffed

out ; after a little of this display she got up and flew awa}'.”

Many nests were found in June and young in July and early August, but it is

not certain that more than one brood reared ; many nests are destroyed by

grass fires (burnt patches were found dotted with hundreds of semi-roasted eggs).

Jackals, foxes, snakes, and bkds of prey, so that late nests may well occm- due to

these causes. In August family parties or small flocks of seven to ten indivi-

duals are the usual thing, but later on the flocks mass into enormous packs.

At drinking time the flocks pack together on bare land before coming down to

the water ; as all sportsmen know these birds have their favourite places for

drinking, and where Avater is limited enormous numbers may here congregate ;

in July, Pitman noted the first flocks arrive about 5 a.m., followed by other flocks,

which all packed on the bare ground near by ; the whole lot rose with a deafening

roar at 7 a.m. to come down to the water ; so numerous were they that shoot-

ing was sheer murder and some could be knocked down with a stick as they flew

in. while the stream bank of both sides was packed five or six deep with birds.

They usually wade in and get wet or even settle in shallow w-ater ; some drink

hen fashion and others like horses do ; they go off directly after drinking either

separately or reforming packs. In June they Avater from 6 to 8 a.m., and again

at 5 to 6-30 p.m., but some may be seen going to drink all day long ; in the cold

weather they drink from 8 a.m. till noon. In the heat of the day the flocks

pack together to rest, and again for the night after feeding.

Their food consists of tiny seeds of a small grass like shrub, grains of cereals,

pieces of green leaves, etc., while from one bird, of many feeding on newly sown

wheat and barley, tw’o ounces of cereals were taken and at this time of year the

damage done must be considerable.

Pitman noted that during a sand storm these birds get quite lost and may then

come into tents or can be even knocked dowm with sticks in the open. They

dislike rain and the accompanying wetting of their plumage, as they then fly

very badly and moreover are apt to get their feet clogged and balled with

the clayey soil. Directly an area becomes saturated Avith moisture all the

17

952 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

iSandgrouse move off to some drier district, and these local migrations from

■whatever cause are performed at a considerable height.

Their note is a harsh penetrating “Caa” followed by a softer “Craa”; both sexes

too have an alarm note — “twoi,” “twoi” “twoi”.

.3. Kumait, 17-11-17 (P. A. B.) ; c? , Shaiba, 31-10-16 ; d 2 , Sheik Saad,

3-10-16; S, Twin Canals, 22-11-16 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; <S , Feluja,

14-4-17. 2,5-4-17; 2 > Samarra. 22-2-18 (C. R. P.); 2 2> Amara, 11-16

(Connor) ; Shaiba, 6-16 (Graham) ; Shaiba, 6-16 (Ingoldby) ; pull, Mendali

3-8-18 (P. A. B.).

Zarudny and Loudon have described (Orn. Monats. 1906, p. 132) a race bogdanovi

from the Karim district. Mesopotamian birds compared with N. Persian

birds shew no constant difference and I look upon this supposed race as being in-

separable from caudacutus, and bogdanovi, therefore, a synonym.

The downy chicks of nearly aU Sand-grouse are so little or else not knovn that

I will give a description of the one obtained by Buxton. The chick has feathers

sprouting and so the pattern is lost.

Down Plumage — Clipper parts : Head, cheeks and ear coverts are a mixture

running more or less in lines of (1) pale ginger brown with faint black tips, (2)

creamy white ; back and scapulars — a mixture of (1) and (2), the black tips on (1)

more marked. This down is being pushed out by first feathers. Under parts

are covered by a long, rather hair-like, down which is being pushed out by pale

isabeUine first feathers.

Wing coverts — -On the lesser rows the dowm is pale ginger, on the rest creamy

white. Everywhere the brown down canies long black hair-like filaments, espe-

cially noticeable on the head and neck ; these filaments are carried one on each

component of each tuft of down ; the white do'wn carries short white filaments

longest on the coverts.

Feathers of the upper parts nut-brown with blackish border and whitish edges.

The do"wny young of this Sand-grouse was figured in the P. Z. S., 1866, plate 9.

326. Close-barred Sand=grouse. Pterocles lichtensteinii.

This Sand-grouse is evidently quite rare or very local. Magrath assures me

that two or three w'ere shot near Shaiba (whence the Society has a skin) and that

he personally handled them, and he also met ■with it at Sanniyat. The Arabian

desert, border is the most likely place for it, as rocky hiUs are not far distant and it

might occur along the Jebel Hamrin foot-hOls ; however there are no other re-

cords on which rehance can be placed. Zarudny records a supposed race of

this Sand-grouse, arabicus, as a winter visitor, but of all Sand-grouse, I believe

the rock haunting species to be the most sedentary.

The Coronetted and Common Indian Sand-grouse were reported to have been

seen but no specimens were obtained, and further confirmation is desirable ;

Zarudny gives the latter as a rare winter visitor, and Gumming thought he saw it

flying over Fao.

327. See See. Ammoperdix ^riseigularis { bonhami auct.)

Ammoperdix griseigularis ter-meuleni (Orn. Jahrb., 1904 p. 221 —

Karun District, S. W. Persia).

Common and resident wherever hiUy country occms, as in the Ahwaz-Shustar

district and all along the Jebel Hamrin range to Mosul, the cliffs and ravines of

the Diala and Adhaim rivers and the Tigris from Sindia to Fatah Gorge, and at

Hit on the Euphrates. It is eminently a bird of stony hill sides, ravines and

broken nullahs ; on the plains proper it never occurs. Common where it occurs, it

may be found in coveys up to twenty (which break up into pairs about February),

but no large bags are made, as it much prefers running to flying, and it can get

over broken ground far quicker than the sportsman can ! The breeding season

is May and June. Cheesman found a female containing eggs on May 2nd, but full

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

9o3

clutches are not to be expected till towards the end of the month. Aldworth

found a nest of two eggs on MaylSth in the ruins ofAl-a-jib in the Samarra district,

and Thornhill a clutch of eight on May 24th in the same district. Tomlinson has

recorded the finding of nests at Bund-i-kir. Here the banks of the Karun are

steep and rocky and about 40 feet high; from a likely looking hole about 10 or 12

feet from the ground a See See was flushed from the nest about two feet down

the hole, the nest contained 1 1 fresh eggs on I\Iay 28th . Another nest on the

same day was also in a hole about two and a half feet deep, like a small jackal’s

hole, in a sloping bank of a gully and contained 13 eggs. Mr. Jourdain informs

me that the average of 23 Mesopotamian eggs is 36 X 25’8 mm.

Pitman noted that See See hide up in the day time and come out on to the

plateau, scrub and camp areas to feed and drink morning and evening. The

squeaky eall note is rather like that of the Amrnomanes.

Eight skins examined : (J $ , Mendali, 3-8-18 (P. A. B.) ; Maidan-i-Naptun,

29-5-17. Shush, $, 3-5-17 (P. Z. C. and R. E. C.) ; $, Adhaim, 1-10-17,

11-11-17 (two) ; $, Samarra, 7-2-18 (C. R. P.)

There are also in the British Museum a pah from Bund-i-kir, a pair fromBushire

and a male from “Mesopotamia.”

Comparing this series with a series of typical griseigularis Mi-. Kinnear and I

have come to the conclusion that Zarudny’s race is just recognizable (several

sportsmen thought that the bhds they got were different to the Indian ones).

The Mesopotamian birds are, in the males, more sandy on the back and more

vinous on the head ; the more rusty coloration of the spots on the neck does not

hold good ; the females are distinctly paler and more marked in difference than

the males. Wings : c? ?, 121-140 mm. Young in down are desiderata.

Zarudny gives the typical race also as resident jn small numbers in the Karun

district, where his ter-meuhni is common !

328. Chukar. Alectoris grseca.

Alectoris graeca weroe (Zar. and Loud.) (Orn. Jahr. 15, p. 225 — S.

Lauristan and Arabistan).

There is little to record about the Chukar in our area, it certainly occurs in

places in the Jebel Hamrin range as at Khanikin and Kizil Robat and probably

elsewhere, while Brooking has recorded that a pair were seen in April near Hit on

the Euphrates. There are two specimens in the British Museum labelled “ Bagh-

dad” obtained by Loftus, probably from the Jebel Hamrin, and Logan Home

thought he saw it at Fatah Gorge.* It is common round Mosul. No specimens

were brought home. ‘ I have examined these two Mesopotamian birds and five

others from S. W. Persia and I think that werce must be considered a distinct pale

race. Wings : d ? 155-179 mm.

, 329. Black Partridge, Francolinus vulgaris.

Francolinus vulgaris arabistanicus (Zar. and Harms.) (Ornith. Monats,

April 1913 — Arabistan).

The Francolin or Black Partridge is common in suitable places throughout

our area ; it is of course resident, inhabiting any thick scrub, especially tamarisk

and liquorice, thick grass and cultivation of all sorts, a most favourite place being

scrub along irrigation canals. Very good Black Partridge country is to be found

between Kut and Sheik Saad and also up the Karun river. It is common in the

scrub of the Tekrit flats, but at Samarra it is rare owing to unsuitable conditions.

The breeding season is May and June ; Pitman at Feluja found three nests of

five, seven and eight eggs respectively between the 6th and 8th of May and

* Since writing the above, Stoneham assures me that he knew of several obtained

by sportsmen at Fatah, and I have heard of others being obtained in the more

southern parts of this range.

954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXV III.

Cheesman found a brood hatched out at Amara on May 28th. A nesb of

eggs is reported from Basra on June 1st, and a covey strong on the wing at the

end of June at Kut, while a clutch of 6 eggs just hatching was found there on

June 23rd. These discrepancies in dates of laying are doubtless due to acci-

dents to first nests. The eggs vary much in colour ; Gumming records four

types — plain olive, dark olive, bluish olive and dark stone and the gives as

measurements 1’6— 2'Ox 1 •2—1 ‘35 inches (or in millimetres 40‘5 — 50‘5x30'5 —

34’3). The nest is a mere hollow in the ground and is placed usually in scrub

and near water. The young are easily hand reared on flies, grasshoppers and

grain.

The male starts calling early in March and calls up to July, a few do so in August

and odd ones even in November, but as a rule it does not call in winter. Watts

and Magrath, who both know the Indian bird well, considered that the call of

the Mesopotamian bird was different ; Ludlow and .Thornhill both told me

that the call had an extra syllable. The chicks make a noise like the chirrup of

a cricket.

When Baghdad was first occupied this Partridge was common there but it

rapidly became rare, and it was only a beneficent army order which saved it

here and in other places from very serious diminution, a close season being insti-

tuted from March 15th to September 1st. They chiefly feed in the morning and

evening, in the heat of the day they lie up in thick cover ; where scrub is not

available they may be found in the thick reeds along irrigation canals. From

one bird shot at Beled 284 grains of barley were taken, but there is also a balance

on the other side as Buxton found the crop of another bird crammed with the

harmful locust Decticus albifrons, and probabl}' the good they do outweighs the

harm.

Nineteen spe6imens obtained : X Kut, 9-8-18 ; Amara, 28-5-18, 13-7-18,

17-1-18, 3-4-18, 4-11-17 ?. 26-10-17, 20-10-17, 31-10-18 (P. A. B.) ; $ , Qalet

Saleh, 25-11-17: (two) 9 . Kumait, 28-2-18; 9 • Amara, 25-12-17, 25-9-17 (P. Z. C.

and R. E. C.) ; d, Kut, 11-16 (Perreau) ; d, Kut (Robinson); Basra

20-11-.17; cf, 21-11-17. (two) (C. B. T.)

Besides these I have seen also in the British Museum three more males and

four females (including three from Arabistan), making in all a fine series of 14

males and 12 females. Mr. Kinnear and. I had a very large series of the typical

form, of Beluchi, Sind and N. W. Indian birds for comparison. The birds from

Arabistan are quite the same as those from the Mesopotamian plains ; they cer-

tainly do not belong to the tjq>ical form, which is a darker bird, and they match

in coloration exactly the Sind race henrici but are larger.. The wings of the 14

males measure 163-178 mm., and of 12 females 154-168 mm. ; the Sind race does

not even overlap these measurements.

As a rule, but not quite invariably, the rump and upper tail coverts in the Meso-

potamian birds are tinged with rust, occasional Sind birds shew this and occasional

Mesopotamian birds do not. In all the races we examined, the white chin and

moustache, a character some have relied on, was found to be very variable in

occurrence ; it is a purely individual character. Also, the white check patch is

very variable in all of these five races, both in shape and size, partly perhaps due

to make of skin, but in vulgaris and arabistanicus the patch is usually more or

less ticked with black, which in Sind and Beluchi birds is seldom the case.

Another character in races of Black Partridge which has been relied on is the

amount of white spotting on the under parts of the male, this is purely indivi-

dual in all races examined and the apparent amount is often influenced by the

make of the skin.

The young in down of this race are desiderata, also half grown birds ; it is inter-

esting to note that a feathered chick from Fao is so pale compared with a similar

one from Nepal (melanonotus, the darkest race of all) that one would hardly

guess they belonged to the same species.

THE BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

9o5

330. Quail. Coturnix coturnix.

Coturnix coturnix coturnix (L.) (Syst. Xat. Ed. x, p. 161, 1758' — Sweden),

The Quail occurs chiefly as a passage migrant, arriving early in March ; the

passage lasts throughout April and into early May ; as elsewhere they frequent

scrub, grass land and crops. It is fairly common in suitable places on passage ;

as a winter visitor it occurs sparsely, never very common, in suitable cover all

over the country singly, in pairs, or in small lots. Some evidently stay to breed

in the country as Livesay obtained eggs and Pitman saw a covey of cheepers at

Kut in the middle of June and in July. The return passage apparently takes

place in September. Bags of up to 27 brace were got on spring passage.

Five specimens : Daur, 22-10-18 (two) (P. Z. C. and R, E. C.) S , Sulimania,

11-19 (Ross) ; Amara, 21-9-18 ; Kuwait, 28-12-18. (P. A. B.)

C. B. T.

Literature.

1870-72. Although it contains little relating to Mesopotamia proper, mention

must be made of Vol. II of Eastern Persia on account of the Journeys

of the Persian Bombay Conunission, 1870-72. Birds occupy pp. 98-304

of Vol. II, in which 284 species are recorded.

Occasional references chiefly to the bird colonies in the Persian Gulf

will be found in Hume and Oates, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds,

3 vols. (1889-90) and the Birds (4 vols.) of the Fauna of India by the

same writers.

1882. Canon H. B. Tristram. Ibis pp. 402-419. Ornithological Notes of a

Journey through Mesopotamia and Southern Armenia in 1881.

1886. R.B. Sharpe. Ibis. pp. 475-493. On a Collection of Birds from Fao in

the Persian Gulf with field notes by W. D. Cumming (99 species,

recorded, first account of breeding of Hypocolius ampelinus).

R. B. Sharpe, t. c. pp. 493-199. On a Collection of birds

from Bushire in the Persian Gulf (53).

1891. R. B. Sharpe. Op. Cit., pp. 103-116. Notes on a second Collection of

Birds made by Mr. W. D. Cumming at Fao in the Persian Gulf

(includes' 95 species and notes on eggs collected).

1899. W. D. Cumming. J. Bomb. N. H. S. XII, p. 760 (Letter on the nesting

of Hypocolius ampelinus).

1903. H. E. Witherby; Ibis, p. 501-571. An Ornithological Joirrney in

Fars, South-West Persia, (Notes on 163 species.)

1904-9. (In 1903-4 Zarudny travelled and collected in Western Persia and

the Ornithological results of his journeys are embodied in a series of

short papers and descriptions of new forms chiefly in the Ornith.

Monatsberichte and the Ornith. Jahrbuch. A complete list of these

papers will be found in the Joi<r«aZ/M/- Ornithologie, 1911,pp. 188-189).

1904. N. Zarudny. Orn. Jahrbuch, xv, p. 108, Passer mesopotaniicus, spec, nov,

1906. N. Zarudny and H. Baron, London. Orn. Monatsber., XIV, pp.

133-134, Zum Material rtber die Asiatischen Pterocles und Columbce.

1907. H. F. Witherby. Ibis, pp.74-1 1 1. On a collection of birds from Western

Persia and Armenia ; ^vith field notes by Woosnam (168 species).

1910. Rev. F. C. R, Jourdain. Bull. B. 0. G., XXV, pp. 72-73 (E.xhibition

of Eggs collected by A. G. Tomlinson near Basra, etc.)

1911. N. Zarudny, Journ. fur Ornith., pp. 185-241. Verzeichnis der Vogel

Persiens (an important list with notes on literature. Zoological regions

and a distributional list of 716 forms with some Ornithological

Notes).

1912-13. H. Weigold. cit. Op. 1912, pp. 249-297, 365-410, and 1913, pp,

1-40 “ Ein Monat. Ornithologie in den Wusten und Kulturoasen Nord-

westmesopotamiens und Imieryisiens. (127 species.)

956 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV III.

1912. N. Zarudny, U. M. Harms, Op. cit., pp. 592-619 “ Bemerkungen uber

einige Viigd Persiens

1912. M. Sassi. Annalen d. K. K. Natur. Hist. Hofmuseurns, xxvi, pp. 116119

Liste von Vogelbalgen aus Mesopotamien (List of 53 species chiefly

collected at Mosul.)

1913. N. Zarudny, U. M. Hurms, Journ.fur OniithoL, pp. 630-661, Bemerkun-

gen uber einige Vogel Persiens II. Die Sperlinge Persiens.

1914. Capt. R. Meinertzhagen. Ibis, pp. 387-395. Notes from Mesoimtamia.

1915. O. Neumann. Journ. fur Ornithol, pp. 118-123 “ Uber eine Heine Vogel-

sammlung atis Nord Mesopotamien ” [A small collection from Ras-

el-Ain].

1916. N. B. K. (Kinnear). Notes on the Animals (Mammals, Birds and

Reptiles) of Mesopotamia. [Birds, pp. 9-24 (Annotated list of 218

species based on Sharpe’s and Witherby’s papers published by the

Bomb. N. H. Soc. and the B. M. Catalogue].

A. G. Tomlinson. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 825-829. Notes

on the Birds of Mesopotamia. [Notes on 102 species observed

chiefly near Basra and on the Karun R.^

1918. T. R. L. (Livesay). Field, 14th Dec. A Jheel on the Lower Euphrates

[12 species recorded breeding].

Capt. C. B. Ticehurst. Journ. Bom. N. H. Soc., XXVI, pp. 279-280.

The Mesopotamian Bulbul.

W. D. Cumming. t. c. p. 292-295 Natural History Notes from Fao.

(Corrections to the list of buds from Fao published in the Ibis of

1886 and 1891).

Capt. Thornhill. Jotii-n. Bom. N.H. Soc., XXV, p. 486. “Some notes on

Game Birds of Mesopotamia.”

1919. F. Kingdon Ward. Field, Jan. 18. “ Notes on Me.sopotamian Deserts.”

H. F. Stoneham. t. cit.. May 17 and 24. “Bud Life in Mesopotamia.”

Lieut.-Col. H. A. F. Magrath. Journ. Bomb. N. H. Soc., XXVI, pp.

672-3. “ Sand Grouse in Mesopotamia ”.

Maj-Gen. H. T. Brooking t. c. pp. 676-678. List of Birds observed

in the Euphrates Valley.

Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain. t. c. pp. 860-1. “Mesopotamian Bud Notes”

(Con-ections to W. D. Cumming’s paper, 1918).

C. H. Donald, t. c. pp. 845-6. “ Some Birds of Prey of Mesopotamia.”

Major R. E. Cheesman . Bidl. B. O. C. XL, p. 59. (Exhibition of

Nests and Eggs of Passer moabiticus mesopotamicus) {c. f. also

t. c. p. 77.

P. A. Buxton, t. c. p. 60 (Exhibition of skins of P. moabiticus meso-

potamicus).

1920 Capt. H. F. Stoneham. ‘‘ An Ornithological Record.” (Printed

privately).

Some scattered note on the skins and eggs collected by W. D. Cum-

ming will be found in the Catalogue of the Birds and Catalogue of the-

Eggs in the British Museum, 1874-1912.

957

ON INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

BY

Harold Russell, f.l.s., f.z.s.

PART III.

With 3 Plates,

{Continued from page 718 of this Volume.)

IV.

THE PUPtPARA.

The Pupipara are a remarkable group of flies, with numerous Indian

representatives, whose structure has been greatly modified in

accordance with their parasitic habits. The Diptera already described

are all parasites in the larval stage. In the Pupipara the adult perfect

flies are parasites which feed upon the blood of their hosts. All the

species of the three families, Hippoboscidce, NycteribiidcB and Streblidce,

are ectoparasites of warm-blooded vertebrates. They cling persis-

tently to their hosts and seek to crawl in between the hairs or feathers.

They are small to moderatel)'' large flies. Some forms are Avinged,

others wmgless. The winged forms rarely fly long distances, but

use these organs of locomotion to pass from one part of the host’s

body to another, or occasionally, to fly from one host to another in the

neighbourhood. The wings may be well developed, rudimentary

or entirely wanting. In some species, though the wings may at

first be well developed, they are subsequently shed, the insect, on

reaching a host, having no further use for them.

The legs, on the other hand, as might be excepted in parasitic insects,

are highly developed. They may be either short, strong and stout,

as in Hippoboscids, or, on the other hand, as in the Nycteribiids, which

are bat parasites, long, prehensile and slender. The claws are always

adapted for clinging to the host and in some forms are toothed

and provided with necessary spurs. The body is usually more or less

dorso-ventrally compressed, which is another modification frequently

found in parasitic insects. As a rule the segmentation of the abdomen

is indistinct and its integument is of a leathery consistence. Some

forms also are furnished with combs, or rows of spines, which are also

organs associated with a parasitic life on mammals or birds.

The name Pupipara is really a misnomer, but it is a recognised

name and long established. The eggs hatch in the body of the female

fly. The larvae are retained within the maternal body and are there

nourished by special glands. When fully mature and ready to pupate

they are deposited on the ground or in the abodes and nests of their

hosts. Only one larva is produced at a time and on leaving the body

958 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

of the mother it pupates. From what has been said it will be seen

that the flies included in this group have developed most remarkable

modifications and adaptations in connection with their parasitic

habits. It is instructive to trace the stages in which the pupiparous

habit has been developed. The word pupiparous is inaccurate be-

cause it is not a pupa which is produced from the mature female,

but a full grown larva which may pass into the pupal stage on the

spot where it is deposited by the mother, or ma)'- be capable of moving

about until it finds a suitable place for pupation.

The pupiparous habit occurs in three distinct degrees in the

Diptera. {a) It will be remembered that some Calyptrate Muscoids

are viviparous. The eggs are retained -within the maternal

body until after they have developed into larvae. The larvae

are very small and are born almost as soon as they hatch

out of the egg. They are laid in a large batch, exactly as the eggs

of most flies are laid, and undergo little or no development within

the body of the mother. This habit probably originates from the

circumstances under which the larval stage is passed. Some Tachinid

flies, it will be remembered, deposit their young larvae just hatched

from the eggs, in the bodies of other larvae on which they are parasitic.

It is therefore of extreme importance, for their welfare and perhaps

their existence, to reduce the duration of the immature stage so that

it may be accomplished within a given time. The food supply will

fail imless the larval stage of the parasite is completed before the host

pupates. (6) The second degree occurs in certain Muscid species

which are blood-suckers. There the larva on hatching is retained

and nourished for part of its life within the body of the mother. But

it is deposited before attaining matxirity and completes its growth,

feeding itself in the same fashion as the normal larvse of the Muscidce.

{c) The third degree is found in the Diptera Pupipara where the larva

is retained mitil it is ready to pupate. This involves remarkable

changes in the internal structure of the female fly. The large size

of the larva during the later stages of its growth renders it necessary

that the internal organs of the mother should be greatly modified.

More remarkable still is the development of “ milk glands ” to provide

nourishment for the growing larva. The similar pupiparous habits

Avhich are found in the Muscid genus Glossina (the blood-sucking

African Tse-tse flies) emphasize the close connection between the

Muscidce and Hippohoscidce.

Hippoboscida-. This family is probably familiar to Anglo-Indians,

who are at all observant in matters of entomology, for the flies are

common parasites of cattle and dogs. They are commonly knowm

as “ cattle-flies ” or “ dog-flies ” and also as “ skaters ” and Kuku-

macchi. The native cattle do not seem to be much troubled by their

presence or blood-sucking propensities, but dogs of British breed

-are worried to distraction.

JouEN. Bombay Nat. Hiht. Soc.

Plate III.

INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

6c. — Larva of (Estrus ovis, L. x 4.

6d. — Larva of Hypoderma bovis, de Geer, x 2J.

7. — Larva of Cephalomyia maculata, Wied. x 3.

9. — Hippobosca maculata, ILe&ch, 5. x6.

ON INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

959

The greatest European authority on this family is Dr. Paul Speiser,

a Prussian doctor of medicine and an entomologist, whose writings and

researches during the last twenty years have added greatly to our

knowledge.* The family has a world- wide distribution and some-

where about a hundred species have been discovered and described.

Speiser has recognised five sub-families ; but as one of these is con-

fined to Madagascar where lemurs are their hosts it need not

trouble us further. There occur in India representatives of the four

other sub-families : Hifpoboscince, Lipopteninw, Olfersiince, Ornitho-

myiince. Until the family received attention from Speiser it had

been much neglected. The Indian species are hardly known and the

list in the late F. M. Van der VVulp’s “ Catalogue of the Describ-

ed Diptera from South Asia” (1896) might be greathy added to.

For instance, the British Museum collection contains specimens of

the horse parasite Hippobosca equina L., a male from Upper Burmah

and a female from Bengal ; also the camel parasite H. camelina,

Leach, a single female from South Afghanistan. Even H. macidata,

Leach, one of the commonest Indian species is omitted from Van

der Wulp’s Catalogue. The British Museum has a good series from

various localities in India and Ceylon, t

The Hippoboscids are flat n,nd leathery looking flies with a short

proboscis designed for blood-sucking and capable of protrusion when

in use, but protected by the palpi when the insect is crawling among

hair or feathers. The tip is furnished with sharp chitinous teeth to

pierce the skin of the host. They are all blood-suckers and all para-

sites which spend more or less of their lives on the bodies of their

hosts. The parasitism is reflected in the development of strong

legs with powerful claws and small inconspicuous antennae. The

associated blood-sucking habit has led to the usual Dipterous life-

history becoming reversed. In the present gronp the blood-sucking

habit enables the adult female to supply nourishment of the richest

description to carry on the life of the larva within her own body

and the larva is born when about to pupate. The puparium looks

like a brown shiny seed with a dark cap at one end. When first

laid it is soft and white like a larva, which in fact it is. The mahogany

colour and hard outer skin are assumed in a few days. These puparia

may be found in dry places, on shelves or stone floors in cattle-sheds

and stables. AVhere the hosts have nests, the larvae are dropped in

•Dr. Speiser’s chief papers are the following which should be referred to by any-

one who knows German. They contain many suggestive remarks on parasitic Dip-

tera : (1902) “Studienuber Diptera pupipara.” Zeits. fiir syst. Hymenojderologi-

und Dipterologie Vol. II. p. 145. (1905) “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Hippobos-

ciden.” Idem Vol. V. p. 347. (1908) “Die Geographische Verbreitung der Dip-

tera pupipari und thro Phylogenie.” Zeits. fiir wiss. Insektenbiologie. Vol. IV

pp. 241, .301, 420, 437.

f Notes on Hippoboscidae in the British Museum. By E. E. Austen, Ann. and

Mag. of Nat. Hist. 7th Series, 1903. Vol. XII. p. 255.

18

960 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ZXVlIi.

the nests and there pupate. The larva does not feed and only one is

produced at a birth ; but as the Hippoboscids have spread over the

globe, and in some countries are relatively abundant, one must assume

that the slow birth-rate 'is compensated for by the avoidance of mani-

fold dangers which assail larval life.

]\Iost Hippoboscids have no distinct neck and the head is sunk

deep in the thorax, so as to be protected when working a way over

the host’s body. The wings of Hippoboscids are an interesting subject

of study. In comiection with the sedentary life, which parasitism

tends to produce, there is a progressive reduction of the wings until

in the genus whichisa sheep parasite, wings are always

entirely absent. These are wingless flies incapable of flight which

pass the whole of their existence on their hosts and which can only

get to a new host when the two sheep are touching or in close proximity.

In the sub-family Hippoboscince the wings are well developed. In the

Lipoptenince the wings are very weak and often practically useless.

In some species, which are parasites of deer, male and female flies

emerge from the pupal stage with wings which they use to reach a

host. Those of the female at once break off leaving a pair of stumps ;

or it may be that she rids herself of organs which are of no more use.

Once in the coat of the deer she has conquered the problem of nour-

ishment. The problem of reproduction involves a visit from a male

fly. The males appear to retain their wings longer, possibly until

they have found a deer with female parasites. Later in the season

both sexes cohabit in a wingless condition as parasites in the hairs

of the host. Lipoptena moschi is a parasite of the musk-deer. L.

gracilis has been obtained in India from chevrotams. L. pteropi

occurs in Ceylon on fruit eating bats.

In the Oljersiince the wings are well developed whilst in the Orni-

thomyiince they are often fairly substantial. In some cases they are

reduced to mere rags or shreds. Now both these sub-families are

typically bird parasites. Lynchia exornata Sp. , which occurs frequently

on pigeons in India, is a member of the first named group. It would

seem that the wings are retained by the bird parasites as a useful

adjunct in connection with winged hosts. When a bird infested by

these flies is shot, one or more flies will often follow the sportsman

who carries the dead host, sometimes alighting on him and seeking

refuge in his hair, beard or clothing.

But even in the winged Hippoboscids there are signs of incipient

atrophy of the wings which must be attributed to the effects of para-

sitic habits. The veins are crowded together along the anterior

wing-border, whilst the few veins which run obliquely across the wing

are lacking in strength.

Some account of the life-history and structure of Hippobosca

maculata, a well-known Indian cattle fly, will serve to illustrate the

ON INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

adaptations which have been developed by this family in connection

with their parasitic habits. On emerging from the pupal stage the

insect, when its wings and body have hardened in the air, must seek a

host on whose blood it will feed and on whose body it will dwell.

For this purpose the wings are used ; but once established on the cattle

these flies rarely use their wings except to move from one part of the

host’s body to another or to fly a short distance to another member

of the herd. They cling in clusters to the softer parts of the body

between the legs and beneath the tail. They move slowly and

laboriously, often side-ways with crab-like motion. So far as is

known the female deposits her single larva on the ground in places

■frequented by cattle. The larva is incapable of movement, and forth-

with pupates, whilst the mother returns to the host to suck more

blood and nourish another single larva. How many larvae are thus

successively produced is unknown, but probably they are compara-

tively few in number. This is one of the contrasts between this

present family and other usually prolific Diptera. The ovaries are

greatly ixiodified. A single large egg is produced at a time and the

larva remains in the distended oviduct. After extrusion the larva

hardens by the excretion of chitin and it then resembles a small brown

pea. Out of this emerges in due course another generation. There

is no free larval life. Such is the cycle of life in H. maculata.

The structure of H. maculata is typical of many other members

of the family. The flies are of middle size with oval flattened bodies

of a tough and coriaceous texture. This is an adaptation which

enables the parasite to apply itself closely to the host’s body and to

stand with impunity a certain amount of violence if the host tries

to dislodge it. The head is small and not half the breadth of the

thorax. The fly has a pair of large, oblong, compound eyes, but

they are not prominent and the facets are notably small. There are

no ocelli in this species, but some other Hippoboscids have simple

eyes as well as the compound ones. The antennae are extremely

short. The first and second joints are indistinct while the third

joint is round and bears a bristle-like arista. The thorax is broad.

The abdomen is slightly hairy, compact and leathery so that the

sutures between the segments are indistinct. The sexes can be readily

distinguished by the shape of the abdomen which in the male is

linear, shorter and narrower than the thorax ; in the female it is

oval, longer and broader than the thorax.

We come now to the legs and wings which show modificatioirs

connected with a parasitic and sedentary life. The legs are rather

short, very stout and slightly bristly. The two posterior pairs are

fixed wide apart. The tibiae are a little shorter than the femora ;

the tarsi are half the length of the tibiae. Each foot terminates with

imgues or claws which are long, stout, curved and bidentate. The

962 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

legs in fact have become modified so as to form organs for clinging

rather than for locomotion.

The wings, on the other hand, are less strong than the normal

Dipterous type. The costal vein extends about three quarters of

the length of the wing and the sub-costal only half the length. Along

the anterior margin of the wing there are a number of veins in close

proximity, but the posterior part of the wing is weak and reduced.

There are no veins to support and strengthen the membrane. AVhen

the wings are closed they are crossed like a pair of scissors and cover

or conceal the abdomen of the fly.* The wings in fact are becoming

atrophied as organs of locomotion.

The general colouring of the^e flies is brown, mottled, with yeUow

on the thorax and legs. They are found cm horses, occasionally,

as well as on cattle ; but they can be distinguished from H. equina

L. which is essentially a parasite of horses. H. maculata is an Indian

or South Asiatic species. It was introduced into Madagascar with

Indian cattle. During the Boer War it was introduced into South

Africa in the same way and is apparently established there.

The travels of these parasitic flies in company with their hosts are

illustrated in the case of H. capetisis well-known in India and Ceylon

as a pest of dogs. It is a fly of hot countries with habits somewhat

similar to the last mentioned species. It is now found on the shores

of the Mediterranean and down the East African coast as far as the

Cape. There it has long extended its range into the interior. From

Africa it also ranges eastward across Southern Asia as far as Korea

and Japan. Such a geographical distribution can only be explained

by man’s action. We do not know the original habitat of this dog

parasite, but it has evidently accompanied the friend of man in its

travels with its master.

The Indian Hippoboscids which are found on birds are very imper-

fectly known but there must certainly be numerous species belonging

to the two sub-families OrnithoniyiinrB and Olfersiince. All forms

of birds appear to be victimised and the parasites of the birds seem

to be less particular as to their host than those which attach themselves

to mammals. The same fly has been collected from widely different

birds. The parasites migrate naturally with their hosts and certain

species of these flies such as OniitJiomyia avicularia L. are found almost

all over the globe on all sorts of birds. On the other hand one genus

of fly (Stenopteryx) is associated with the swallow-family and another

(Oxypterum) vfith the swift-family. Why this should be we do not

know at present, but may some day discover.

Streblidcc. The flies of this small and little known family are for

the most part ecto-parasites of bats. One Central American species

* The reader will find a good coloured figure of U. inaculata in “ Indian Insect

Life ” by H. Maxwell-Lefroy, Calcutta, 1909 (Plate LXIX. fig. 7.) which will enable

the above description to be followed.

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IV.

INDIAN PARASITIC PLIES.

^^■~^WPohosca camelina, Leach, J . x 5.

10.— Zywc/iia wawm, Bigot, 5 . x6.

ON INDIAN PARASITIC I LIES.

963

is a bird parasite. They were separated from the Hippoboscidce by

Kolenati (1862) and seem to form a natural group between that family

and the Nycteribiidce which are more highly specialised and ex-

clusively bat-parasites. They are, however, nearer the Hippobos-

cids and are probably descended likewise from Muscid ancestors

but along another line of descent. Some are destitute of eyes ; and

where eyes are present the Streblids may usually be distinguished

from the Hippoboscids by two fairly salient features. First, no

Streblids have facetted compound eyes. Where the eyes are more

than single ocelli they are formed by the agglomeration of several

occelli. Secondly, in the Streblids the palpi do not sheathe the pro-

boscis as they do in the Hippoboscids.

A Streblid fly can often be recognised at a glance by the flattened

leaflike pair of maxillary palpi which project in front of the head.

Kolenati was certainly wrong when he suggested that the larval Streb-

lids fed on the excrement of the bats ; they are pupiparous and their

methods of reproduction are similar to those of the other families in

that group. In some forms the legs are short and thick recalling

those of the Hippoboscids ; in others they are enormously long and

attenuated, or spider-like, recalling those of the Nycteribiids. It is

of interest to note, in this connection, the two contrary lines along

which the legs of ectoparasitic Diptera have evolved from the normal

type in flies, the object in both cases, of course, being to secure a

hold on the host. Wings in Streblids are sometimes well developed,

sometimes reduced and sometimes absent. They are never much

used as organs of locomotion ; and, where wings are well developed,

they are covered with fine hairs which give a milky appearance rather

rmusual among flies. Where the wings are reduced, the wing vena-

tion is unlike that of the Hippoboscid wing, showing that reduction

in this family has proceeded on other lines. Halteres are present

but in the wingless species they are reduced. In many species of

Streblid the halteres are protected by a projection of the thorax which

may be regarded as an adaptation developed in connection with

parasitic life to shield these delicate organs when the fly makes its

way about the body of the host. The claws are always well developed ;

and in one species, which is quite wingless, there is an indication of

an accessory tooth. This is another illustration of the tendency

among parasites to develop organs of prehension when organs of loco-

motion are lost.

The abdomen in this family shows little sign of segmentation except

at the base where it is united to the thorax. In the winged species,

the wings are contrived to fold back fan-wise and lie flat upon the

surface of the insect’s back. With this, the arrangement of bristles

on the dorsal surface of the abdomen seems to coincide ; for there

is a bare tract along the back where the wings are tucked away. On

964 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV Hi.

either side a row of stout bristles, with a pair of chitiuous hooks on

the first abdominal segment, shield them from injury when the in-

sect is creeping through the hairs of its host. Some have also a row

of stout bristles or spines arranged across the ventral surface of the

abdomen which reminds one forcibly of the abdominal ctenidium

in the Nycteribiids and which probably serves a similar purpose.

In the genus Strebla, Wiod, from which the family is named there

are at least four peculiarities which have been developed as para-

sitic adjuncts. First, there is a collar of many chitiuous spines beneath

the head which seems to be analogous with the ctenidium of Nycteri-

biids ; secondly, there is a collar with a few similar spines on the

dorsal surface at the back of the head ; thirdly, on the surface of the

head and directed forwards, there is a semi-circular plate with seven

rows of spines below and two large ones above all directed backwards

so as to facilitate progress forwards ; fourthly, there are two grooves

along the sides of the thorax -which enable the very long pair of front

legs to be tucked away when the parasite requires to protect them.

The grooves are fringed along the margin with spines and are

shaped to contain the tibial joint when the legs are folded. The

front pair of legs are placed far in front of the middle and hind pair

and are separated from them by nearly the whole length of the thorax.

These extremely strange peculiarities in the insects’ morphology

are difficult to make intelligible to the reader by a mere verbal de-

scription. They are, however, clearly seen in the two well drawn and

large plates at the end of Dr. Speiser’s paper which contains the best

general account of the flies of this family that has yet been written.*

Among certain Streblids of the genus Ascodipteron there is an

extraordinary divergence between the male and female, both as regards

appearance and life history. These insects are found in the Oriental

region and may some day be obtained in India. The first member of

this remarkable group was discovered in 1896 by Dr. Theodor Aden-

samer of Vienna who found a solitary specimen embedded in the

wing-membrane of a bat which he had brought back from Java.r

Dissection of the internal organs under the microscope showed it

to be a female Dipteron reduced by parasitism to a shapeless lump

He rightly guessed that when the males were discovered they would

prove to be free-living normal insects. We now know that the female

is at first wdnged but imbeds herself in the bat, sheds her wings and

legs and undergoes post-imaginal metamorphosis into a flask-shaped

object. Her abdomen grows to such an extent that it surrounds and

* “ Ueber die Strebliden, Fledermaus Parasiten aus der Gruppe der pupiparen

Dipteren ” by P. Speiser (1900) Archiv fur Naturg. 66 Jahrg. Vol. I. p. 31. 2 Plates

and Bibliography.

t T. Adensanier : VheT Ascodipteron phyllorinae (n. gen. n. sp.) eine eigenthii-

mliche Pupiparenforin ”. (1896). Sitzung.sb. K. Akad. der Wissenscliaft. Wien,

Vol. 105. Pt. I. p.400. 2 Plates.

ON INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

965

<;overs her head and thorax. The proboscis of the female is modified

to enable her to cut into the skin of the host but the homology with the

normal Streblid proboscis can be discerned. The following summary

is based on the observations made by Mr. F. Muir, an American ento-

mologist.* The adult flies emerge from the pupa-case which lies upon

the groimd in caves and other haimts of bats. Both sexes are per-

fectly normal flies with fully developed legs and wings. They are of

a light reddish-brown colour with a pair of large rounded wings.

Both sexes are destitute of eyes and only the male has maxillary

palps or feelers. The most striking features in the female is the enor-

mous size of the proboscis and the fact that head and thorax appear

as though welded into one piece. But for this she has the normal

appearance of a small fly and nothing suggests how she will end her

days. The proboscis is a chitinous, broad, flattened, blunt cone

with a base somewhat wider than the head. At the apex of the pro-

boscis there arise fourteen rows of chitinous blades. They are like

circiflar saws cut in half so as to form a row of semi-circles placed

side by side.

There is a short ga]3 in our knowledge of the life liistory but the pair-

ing of the sexes probably takes place in a normal manner whilst the

female is winged. The female then seeks her host and by theaid of

the blades at the end of her proboscis cuts through the skin of the bat.

The parasites were always foimd imbedded in the same position under

the skin at the base of the ear. There were usually two, rarely three,

but sometimes only one specimen on a bat. When she is imbedded

the abdomen enlarges and engulfs the head and thorax so that even-

tually they lie at the bottom of a pit at the anterior end of the abdo-

men. The fly burrows into the bat head foremost and the posterior

end of the abdomen remains protruding. The presence of the para-

site makes itself visible as a swelling with a small pearly- white body

protruding at one side thereof. When cut out of the host the para-

site appears as a semitranslucent white flask-shaped body four to

five millimetres long. No head or thorax is visible. Wings and legs

are gone. How and when the female gets rid of them remains a

mystery. The stumps can be detected but there are no traces of

legs or wings in the cavity formed under the skin of the bat. The

proboscis is so rigidly fixed to the head that it could not be used to

sever wings or legs. They must, by some other means, be got rid

of before the female insect is completely imbedded. In this dismal

fashion she produces her larvae which are born mature, fall to the

ground and pupate at once. The male fly is not provided with ade-

quate weapons on his proboscis to cut through the skin of a bat. He

* Muir found that at Amboina only one species of bat (Miniojiterua schreibersij

was attacked by Ascodipteron speiserianum and that 28 percent of the bats examined

were infested. P. Muir: Two new species of Ascodipteron. (1912) Bull. Mus. Zool.

Harvard, Vol. LIV. pp. 351-366. 3 Plates.

966 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV III ^

remains external, enjoying a free and, let us hope, merrier life. He

is a normal pupiparous fly in habits, structure and development

similar to other Streblids. The reader who is an entomologist will

at once think of an analogous case where the female of a parasitic

insect buries herself in the flesh of the host, namely the jigger flea,

Derniatophilus, of hot countries.

The distribution of the Streblids is not at all accurately known.

Nycteribosca gigantea, Speis., has been taken off bats in the caves of

Burmah. Two species of Raymondia, Frfld., have been collected in

Madras. There must be numerous species in India if they were

searched for, since bat parasites have been so little collected.

Nycteribiidce. The members of this family are wingless flies para-

sitic on bats ; and it follows that the ordinary person who does not

make a special business of collecting bat-parasites is unlikely ever

to come across them. The family is an extremely interesting one

because of the extraordinary morphological modifications which the

typical Dipterous structure has undergone under the influence of a

highly specialised parasitic existence. These insects pass almost the

whole of their lives on the bat’s body and derive the whole of their

nourishment from its blood which they suck at frequent intervals.

The Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus (1758), thought that they were

lice. Latreille (1795) established the genus Nycteribia. This emi-

nent French entomologist also saw that these insects were, in fact,

wingless flies and not lice. The ordinary unlearned person might

mistake them for small spiders, which they somewhat resemble both

in form and in manner of movement.

The Nycteribiidae have an almost world-wide distribution. Bats

are found all over the globe except in the Polar regions. It would

seem that all sorts of bats are at times infested with these parasites.

An individual bat may harbour Nycteribiids belonging to two diffe-

rent genera ; and several species of these iirsects have frequently

been taken from, the same species of bat. The migratory powers

of the hosts are sufficient to explain the wide geographical distribu-

tion of these parasites. Nine different species of Nycteribiid have

been collected from one form of bat which has an exceptionally wide

geographical range. It is a well established generalisation that these

bat parasites have their headquarters in the Old World and are most

abundant in the countries which lie round the Indian Ocean. Speiser,

who is again the greatest authority on the family, recognises some

eight genera and between thirty and forty species.* The genus Archi-

* Tn his learned and painstaking paper there ■will be found a full bibliography

of the literature down to 1901 and a summary of our knowledge of the group together

with a revision of the family and a table to show the geographical distribution. See

“ Ueber die Nycteribiiden, Fledermaus Parasiten aus der Gruppe der pupiparen

Dipteren.” Von cand. med. P. Speiser. Archiv fur NaturgeschicJite (1901) CGth yea

Vol. I, p. 11.

JouBN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate V.

INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

11. — Nycteribia sp. (after Sharp,) x 9.

12. Nycteribosca amboinensis, Rondani. (Prom Biserat, Malay Peuinsula.) x 22.

'^^■—Ascodipteron speiserianuin,'^lM\x ^ . (After Muir.) x25.

l^k.—Ascodipteron phyllorhincB, Adensamer (After Adensamer.) x 10.

ox INDIAN PARASITIC FLIES.

967

nycteribia with a single species from New Guinea may represent

an ancestral type ; the first tarsal segment of the legs instead of being

long and attenuated is exceedingly short and hardly so long as the

three next segments put together ; there is no ctenidium or comb

on the underside of the abdomen.

No mere description can give more than a general view of the

comformation of these remarkable Diptera.* There are no vestiges

whatever of the front pair of wings but all species have halteres rep-

resenting the second pair of wings. The retention of these stalked

knobs in a group which does not fly is some confirmation of the belief

that the halteres are not balancers but sense-organs. The separation

of head, thorax and abdomen is clearly marked. The head is small

and attached to the upper side of the thorax by such a slender and

flexible neck that in dead specimens the head is often completely

bent back. In such cases the back of the head rests on the thorax and

the mouth parts are directed upwards to the heavens. It was at one

time thought that Nycteribiids must turn over to feed but it seems

uncertain whether this unusual posture of the head is ever adopted

when the insect is alive.

The conformation of the thorax and position of the legs is also

singular. The lower surface is strongly protected with a dark and

homy chitin whilst the upper surface is soft and of a yellowish white.

It is just the reverse of what one finds in other Diptera. The ventral

plate of the thorax projects in front vmder the head and to the rear

beyond where the abdomen is rooted to the thorax. But the oddity

does not rest there, for the three pairs of legs are inserted on the upper

instead of the nether surface of the thorax. In fact the ventral plate

is prolonged roimd the sides of the thorax. In death the six legs are

contracted together over the back instead of under the belly as in a

dead house-fly. In life the insects seem to be nmning about upside

down or with belly uppermost. Although their native heath is the

furry skin of a bat, they can make good progress on a mahogany table.

The six legs of a Nycteribiid conform in general, as to structure,,

with those of other Diptera and all the normal segments are present :

coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, tarsus. The following peculiarities

are note-worthy. First in every species of Nycteribiid the femur

is marked with a ring or furrow of lighter coloured and softer chitin

which would seem to increase the flexibility and reduce the rigidity

of the segment ; secondly, in two genera both of which are Indian

{Cyclopodia and Encampsipoda) the tibiae are similarly marked res-

pectively with two or three rings, as the case may be, which make

the tibial segments more lissom ; thirdly, the tarsi have peculiarities

♦ There is an excellent figure of a Nycteribiid in the Cambridge Natural History

“ Insects ” and also in Mr. Hugh Scott’s jmper on these insects Parasitologj/

(1917) Vol. IX. p. 593. The coloured figure in Indian Insect Ltfe by H. Maxwell

Lefroy, Plate LXIX, is too small to show the structure in detail.

19

9(58 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII.

\vliich are almost unique among insects. The tarsi are five-jointed

u,nd the distal joint is furnished with a pair of curved claws like grap-

pling irons. The first tarsal segment is of immense length, very slender

and occasionally bowed. It is capable of being twisted in every

direction and in some species is actually longer than the tibia which

is next to it. The result is to increase the prehensile power of the

parasites when the bats move and to enable them to adjust their

hold to any contortions of the hosts.

The abdomen is the bulkiest portion of the insect’s body. That

•of the male is darker and more chitinous ; that of the female is soft,

membranous and capable of distention. Both sexes have numerous

bristles on the abdomen directed backwards and systematically

arranged so as to be of some taxonomic importance. The total length

of the body is from one to four millimetres. The largest species are

parasitic on tropical fruit-bats. The majority of species are provided

Avith ctenidia or combs such as are familiar to students of fleas and

some other insects parasitic on mammals or birds. The combs

are furnished with horny teeth and facilitate progress through or

over the fur of the host. They may also serve to protect the joints

of the parasite against the hairs of the host. All Nycteribiids

(except the genus Eremoctenia which has no combs at all) have a

pair of combs attached to the thorax in front of the insertion of

the first pair of legs. Associated with the comb is a groove from

which apparently it can be raised, or into which it can be depressed

by special muscles, as occasion may require. The thoracic combs

may have from 9 to 22 teeth. They are not, as was once thought,

atrophied vestiges of a pair of wings but distinct organs evolved

in connection with parasitic life. All Nycteribiids (except the two

genera Eremoctenia and Archinycteribia) have a comb on the under-

side of the abdomen attached to the second segment. There are

seven segments but the first is almost invisible.

Speiser in the paper alluded to above gives the following thirteen

species as having been obtained in the Indian region where the Nyc-

teribiids are represented by more species than in other geographical

regions. Our knowledge is too scanty to lay down in detail the geo-

graphical distribution of the various forms.

Indian Region.

1. Penicillidia ienynsi (Westw.)

2. J\ euxesta, Sp.

3. Nycteribia minuta, v. d. W.

4. N. stichotricha, Sp.

5. N. roylei. Westw.

fi. N. parvula. Sp.

7. N. allotopa, Sp.

8. Cyclopodia albertisi, Rnd.

9. C. horsfieldi, de Meij.

10. C. sykesi ( x West w . )

11. C. hopei (Westw.)

12. C. ferrarii (Rnd.)

13. Eucampsipoda hyrtli (Kol.)

ox IXniAX PARASITIC FLIES.

969

There remain some further facts worth noting on the habits and

structure of these dipterous parasites. Many species are destitute of

eyes, and where ocelli are present, they are of such a simple kind that

the insects’ power of vision must be of the poorest description. The

anteimse are only two-jointed and are protected by deep pits at the

base of which they are inserted. On the under side of the head there

is a narrow groove into which fit proboscis and maxillary palpi. All

these characteristics are features frequently found in many ecto-

parasitic insects. With them may be also mentioned prehensile

legs with clawed feet, ctenidia or combs, and the absence of wings.

The pupiparous habit of the Nycteribiids was made known by

J. 0. Westwood (1835) and some recent observations on this have

been made by keeping fruit-bats in captivity and watchmg the doings

of their parasites. When the time for her labour arrived, the female

insect hurriedly left the bats and sought a suitable place to deposit her

larva. Under natural conditions this would be some part of the tree

where these bats congregate. The larva is a minute soft yellowish-

white maggot of oval shape and dorso-ventrally compressed. It

does not move and is covered with a sticky substance. Immed-

ately after parturition the female stood over the larva and pressed it

down with her thorax, causing it to adhere to the place where it was

laid. She then hastened back to the bat. The males were never seen

to leave the bats but they doubtless travel in search of females. In

some species the female Nycteribiid fastens her larva to the host by

means of the adhesive exudation. The place generally chosen is near

the junction of the wing-membrane and the bat’s body. The larva a

nnce assumes the shape of a puparium ; in half an hour it has hardened

and darkened ; in 48 hours the transformation into a pupa is complete.

The pupal stage lasts about a fortnight. For those species which

deposit their larvae in the haunts of their hosts and not on their bodies

this is a critical moment. The perfect insect must secure a host or it

■will perish in about forty-eight hours. A newly emerged female Cy-

clopodia has been observed to begin to breed in about ten days. Ten

larvae were produced in twenty -nine days. For a fly this is not prolific

and one may infer that mortality from failure to secure a host is not

heavy. A lugh birth rate is not always a sign of prosperity nor of high

evolution either in the vertebrate or the arthropod world.

970

A SURVEY SEASOX IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS ON THE

R.I.M.S. “INVESTIGATOR,” OCTOBER, 1921, TO MARCH, 1922.

BY

Major R. B. Seymour Sewell, I.M.S., B.A., F.A.S.B.,

Surgeon- Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India, and Superintendent,

Zoological Survey of India.

( With 4 plates.)

“ Do you know the pile-built village where the sago-clealers trade —

Do you know the reek of fish and wet bamboo ?

Do you know the steaming stillness of the orchid-scented glade

When the blazoned, bird-winged butterflies flap though ?

It is there that I am going with my camphor, net and boxes,

To a gentle yellow pirate that I know — ”

Kipliny.

On iny return to India in the middle of September, 1921, I learnt that the

R.I.M.S. “Investigator” was due to leave Bombay early in October and that

our destination for the Survey Season, 1921-22, was to be the Nicobar

Islands or, to be more exact, the central group of islands that en-

closes Nankauri Harbour. Prior to our sailing the Hon. Secretary of the

Bombay Natural History Society begged me to contribute to the Journal

an account of my experiences and I was rash enough to promise that I

would do my best to comply with his request. I am, however, fully con-

scious that my contribution to the literature of this locality con--

tains little that is new for, in spite of their remote and comparatively

isolated position on the map, the Nicobar Islands are by no means a

“terra incognita.” ]\Iany reports and papers dealing with the islands

and their inhabitants have from time to time been published and in 1902

a full and graphic description was Avritten by C. Boden Kloss,* Avho spent

some Aveeks, cruising round these and the neighbouring Andaman Islands.

Moreover, to do full justice to this extremely interesting locality one needs

to be something of a geologist and an anthropologist, in addition to liaA-ing

had far Avider experience as a student of both land and Avater fauna and

flora than I can lay claim to.

The R.I.M.S. “ Investigator ” reached Nankauri Harbour, Avhere we Avere

destined to spend the next four months, about noon on October 26th. As Ave

approached our destination Ave passed several islands belonging to the group,

runnmg to the East of Choura, Teressa and Bompoka. We then

entered Revello Channel betAveen Camorta and Kachal. Continuing our

course to the southward, \\'e passed the narroAV cliff-bound entrance to

Expedition Harbour, at one time a place of ill-repute as it was the head-

quarters of the notorious pirate Captain Kidd, and finally we arrived off

the western entrance to Nankauri Harbour. We Avere thus able at the very

start of our labours to get a general impression of the different characters of the

islands and to compare, for instance, the thickly -Avooded slopes of Kachal with

the open rolling grass-lands of Camorta.

Horsburghf AATiting in 1836, describes Nankauri Harbour as follows : —

“ Nancoury Harbour in lat. 8® 0" N., long. 93° 41' E., distant from the E.

side of Katchall 4 or 5 miles, formed by a narroAV channel that separates

the Island Nancoury from the south part of the Island Carmorta, is A^ery

capacious and Avill shelter a large fleet of ships from all Avinds. Having

* “ In the Andamans and Nicobars,” published by John Murra3", London.

I Horsburgh’s East Indian Directory, Vol. II., 1836.

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS. 971

an entrance at each end, one to the eastward, another to tlie westward, with

soundings close to them, where ships may anchor occasionally, makes it very

convenient and they may enter or depart from it in every month of the year.

The western entrance, about one-eighth of a mile or 100 fathoms wide, is formed

between two steep points of high land and the depths in it are generally from

27 to 35 fathoms ; outside of it, a sand bank with irregular soundings from 6 to

12 fathoms, and patches of rocky bottom project a little way from the S. W.

point of Carmorta. The eastern entrance is very little wider than the former,

being contracted by rocky banks which line the shore on each side havmg 12

and 14 fathoms close to them and from 18 to 20 fathoms in mid-channel

The tide runs strongly with eddies through the Western entrance. The flood sets

tlrrough the harbour to the eastward ; but with very little velocity inside.”

At the base of the cliffs on either side of the western entrance several of the

larger rocks and boulders have been gradually eroded and now form rocky arch,

ways through which the siu'f rushes in a smother of white foam. Once past

the narrow entrance the harbour widens out and indentations of the coast line

form four subsidiary bays — Satellite and Octavia Bays on the northern side and

Wasp and Spiteful Bays on the south. As we steamed slowly up the harbour

we saw several scattered villages, each consisting of two or three huts with

thatched roofs and built on piles just above high water mai’k on a patch of sandy

beach. The site of a village is almost invariably rendered conspicuous by

the presence of one or more tall, ta^^ering bamboos, decorated at intervals

with bunches of leaves and grass, which the inhabitants erect in the .water

a little distance in front of their huts. We eventually anchored in Octavia

Bay not very far from the jetty that has been built out across the coral reef

opposite the Government Agent’s bungalow ; to celebrate our arrival a union-

jack was hoisted on the flag-staff on shore and shortly afterwards the agent

himself came on board to report.

During the first few days of our sojourn we received a succession of visitors

in the persons of the headmen of the neighbouring villages, who came, in ac-

cordance with the terms of their office, to report themselves and to offer such

assistance as should be required, but in reality their chief object was to find out

what they could obtain from us in the way of cigarettes, ship’s biscuits, rum or

spirits, etc., for, whatever they may have been in the past, mider the present

sj''stem of government the Xicobarese have become the most bare-faced and

persistent ‘ cadgers.’ Every headman, according to the Gazetteer!, receives

an annual gift from Government of a suit of clothes and he is instructed to don

these whenever he reports on board Government ships. This custom dates back

for many years prior to the British occupation of these Islands, for Buschf, in

his journal of a cruise among the Nicobar Islands in the Schooner V

Espit’gle in 1845, relates that “ several natives, dressed in jackets, hats and

trousers, came on board and some of them showed us badges of authority — as

also several certificates — appointing them headmen of different villages.”

At the time of Busch’s visit the Nicobars were under no administration.

The badges and certificates that he refers to had been granted during the

Danish occupation, which practically terminated in 1837. It was not till 1869

that the British Government undertook the control of these islands and it was

during the thirty years of abandonment that piracy became so rife, over

27 ships being scuttled and the majority of their crews murdered by the

natives during the period. There seems to be little doubt that the Nicobarese

J Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

Calcutta, 1909.

Vide Selections from Records of Government of India, Home Dept., No.

XXVIL, “ Papers relating to the Nicobar Islands,” Calcutta, 1870

972 JOVBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

themselves took an active part in these piraeies, though they were pro-

bably organised and directed by Malays, but even the oldest inhabitants

now profess complete ignorance of such deeds when questioned regarding their

imsavoury past.

During the early j^ears of European administration the sight of natives com-

pletely nude or clad only in the most meagre of loin cloths appears to have

shocked the susceptibilities of those in authority, so the fiat went forth and the

unfortunate headmen were and still are compelled to make their appearance

looking like nothing more than a gang of coolies from the purheus of one of the

big Lidian cities. An old tom khaki shirt and shorts and a battered 'pig*

sticker ’ topee, probably worn back to front, constitute the basis of his make up,

while the scarcity of water and his own natural laziness and disinclination to

perform the work of a dhobi provide the finishing touches ! To one interested in

anthropology the first sight of the Nicobar natives proves a great disappomt-

ment. It is only when one has got to know them better and has met them in

the jimgle or in their own villages, unrestrained by jietty regulations,

that one begins to realise that they are a fine race of men of splendid

physique though their features are, from our western point of view, marred by

the almost universal habit of betel-chewing that renders the teeth black and

covers them with a coat of betel-stained tartar. Among the Nicobarese

themselves, however, this is regarded as a thing of beauty !

The inhabitants of these islands, as they exist to-day, are the result of an ad-

mixture of many races. Most observers agree that the origuial stock probably

came from Malay and many of their customs still show a distinct resemblance to

those pertaining among the Dyaks of Borneo, but the simplicity of their marriage

laws has resulted in an infusion of Indo-Chinese, Indian and Dravidian blood

so that one finds individuals of vudely different physical types. In many adults,

though not in all, we find a certain degree of prognathism. This character is gene

rally attributed to prolonged lactation during infancy and to the habit of suckuig

cocoanuts. How this latter cause ever came to be suggested I cannot conceive.

The Nicobarese do not suck cocoanuts. In order to obtain the cocoanut-milk the

native by a single blow of his sharp dao cuts off the top of the green cocoanut

leaving a round hole about the size of a rupee, and the coconut-milk is then

drunk. No suction whatever is required and one’s chief difficulty diu-ing the pro-

cess is to avoid having an involmitary bath simultaneously. It would be much

more rational to attribute the broad flat nose to this method of drinking than to

cite it as a cause of prognathism. The children are for the most part sturdy little

youngsters and do not usually exhibit the same degree of prognathism that one

notices in the adults, a fact which incidentally seems to be against prolonged

lactation as one of the causes of this featiire. Their chief characterstics are

a protuberant stomach and a curiously flat occipital region of the head. This

flattening is artificially produced by pressure of the mothers hand during early

infancy.

A visit to one of the native villages is always heralded by a chorus of barks

from several dogs for the most part of the typical ‘ pi ’ varietj% These dogs

are kept for hunting purposes and are used in chasing the wild pig with which

these islands aboimd. The dogs are by no means too well fed and it is not

unusual to see them dashing down on to the beach and even into the water

to snap up small fish that have been chased ashore by some predatory enemy.

They are as a rule well treated, though occasionally in some of the islands

one is sacrificed and is then cooked and eaten, a proceeding that is of consi-

derable interest since the dog is undoubtedly the totem of the tribe If. In

their legends regarding the origin of the race the Nicobarese are stated to be

Tf. For information on this point I am indebted to Mr. E. Hart, Assistant Commis-

sioner, Car, Nicobar.

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

973

the offspring of a man from an unknown country and liis. pet dog, and their

present day dress is an attempt to imitate the canuie characters ; thus the

two-horned head dress made of a strip of palm-leaf resembles the ears,

the end of the loin cloth left hanging do\vn behind represents the tail. While

the so-called loin-cloth (kissals) which is conical in shape and is made of red

cloth, fits over the private parts and projects forwards as a blatant imitation

of the dog’s penis.* * In the villages romid Nankauri Harbour, however, one

seldom if ever sees a Nicobarese in his native costume. Communication

with the outer world has introduced more civilized customs and

it is only on rare occasions in their huts or in the jungle that one comes across

individuals clad in only a scanty loin cloth.

Each native habitation consists of two huts. The chief of these is of a

bee-hive shape with domed roof capped by a projecting spike, while the other is

rectangular with a sloping roof. This latter is referred to by Boden Kloss as the

“kitchen” but in my experience it is used partly as a store house and partly

as a dwelling : most, if not all, the cookmg is carried out on a

clay fire-place in the larger bee-hive type of hut. Each hut is built

on piles and underneath is a platform on which articles can be stored

or on which the men sit and smoke during the heat of the day. Vil-

lages are usually situated close down to the beach and just above high-

water mark at the head of a small sandy bay, though one that I visited on Trm-

kat Island, to the east of Camorta and just across Beresford Channel, stands

back a little way and is almost completely hidden in trees. The selection

of the site is dictated by the necessity of having a good landing place for the

canoes. Occasionally the village is screened from view by an outlying man-

grove swamp or by a small projecting promontory, but its position is always

clearly indicated by the tall bamboos, decorated at intervals by bunches of leaves

and grass, which are erected well out in the water in front of the village. The

size of the village is roughly indicated by the number of such erections. There

should be one bamboo for each family, but this is not always accurately car-

ried out. Li certain other islands of the Nicobar group these bamboos seem to

have a definite superstitious significance and are erected in the belief that they

will bring good luck to the inhabitants of the village in their fishing ; but in Nan-

kaimi Harbour they are regarded merely as land marks. True scare-devils

of various kinds are, however, sometimes erected in the water in front of the vil-

lages, though in Nankauri Harbour I only saw one where this was done. This

was at Inuanga on the east shore of Spiteful Bay. Some of these scare-devils

took the form of a rattan or piece of wood placed upright in the water and split

at the top longitudinally, while below it was decorated with a bunch of leaves

and grass. Others took the form of human heads, decorated below with palm-

leaves and grass : these were erected in groups of three. In the group which I

photographed the central figure wears a top-hat, while the two side figures are

crowned with a head dress terminating above in two white pomts.

Each Nicobarese family is the proud possessor of a certain number of domes-

tic animals in addition to the dogs already mentioned. Fowls scratch up the

sand and pick up what they can in the way of food, and below the dwelling house,

on the platform mentioned above, one usually finds boxes and cane baskets

in which the eggs are laid and there is usually at least one broody hen patiently

hatching out a clutch. Pigs of all sizes, from full-grown sows to little “sqeakers”,

root about in the neighbouring jimgle and fore-shore, picking up imeonsidered

trifles, and occasionally make a dash for and in one gulp despatch a stray small

chicken. In addition to what they glean for themselves the pigs are

fed daily, their allowance being two cocoanuts apiece : each housewife knows

** This costume is in its complete form best seen at the Northern Island of Car

Nicobar.

974 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

lier o\vii and woe betide any strange pig that tries to intrude during the feeding

jjrocess. Finally one usually finds one or more cats busy washing themselves

or lying in the sun near the entrance to the hut. Entry to the living hut

is effected by means of a short bamboo ladder or by steps cut alternately in

the two sides of a stout piece of timber. On Chowra Island as well as in

Great Nicobar the Nicobarese use a large flat sponge as a door mat, on which they

wipe their feet before entering the hut.* These sponges are found growing on

the coral-reefs round those islands, but I saw none either growing or in use in

the villages round Nankauri Harbour. The contents of a hut remind one irresis-

tibly of a museum. At the far end of the hut opposite the entrance is an earthen

or stone fire-place, upon which rest various pots and pans of earthenware ; the

rest of the space is largely occupied by “ scare-devils ” of every conceivable and

inconceivable variety, some being crowded together in comers, others being sus-

pended from the roof, while occupying a central position one frequently finds

a red cloth-covered board, on which is displayed an amazing assortment of cheap

German-silver or nickel-plated spoons, etc., obtained from traders in exchange

for cocoanuts.

In spite of all efforts to christianise the inhabitants of the central group

of islands their religion remains unchanged and is fundamentally and essentially

animistic. They have an implicit belief in “spirits”, for the most part, so far

as I could gather, evil in character, that have the power to cause misfortune or

sickness, but which can be kept away or driven out of the aftticted person by

objects of a supposedly terrifying nature. A study of these “scare-devils” gives

one a very good idea of both the history and natural history of these islands.

The accompanying photograph shows a collection of these objects, all taken

from a smgle hut, together with their proud possessor. The majority of these

scare-devils can be divided into two groups : —

(a) Models of human beings and

(b) Paintings on wooden boards or shields.

On the left of the photograph stands the principal scare-devil (kareau),

a life-size model of a Nicobarese medicine-man. As is invariably the case,

the attitude is threatening and to make the resemblance complete the

face is painted red and round the neck is hung a string of grass, orna-

mented with bits of cloth and glass beads. When in its proper place this figure

usually stands at the head of the ladder and close to the entrance to the hut.

On the right of the photograph is a three-quarter life-size figure of a Nicobarese

woman, also in a threatening attitude and with vertical bars of white paint on

the cheeks and chin. The squatting female figure in the centre is interesting,

as it is in my experience of a very unusual type ; the attitude, the legs crossed

and the sole of the upper foot turned upwards, the left hand outstretched and

the right hand raised, reminds one forcibly, in spite of the sex, of a statue of

Buddha in the attitude of blessing, and to render the similarity yet more com-

plete there is a painted caste-mark in the centre of the forehead. The fourth

little figure with the peaked cap, buttoned-up coat and trousers is in a pro-

bability an image of one of the officers of the Austrian frigate “ Novara ”

which visited these islands in 1858 — at any rate the little man has been

adorned with a very fine “ kaiserlich “ moustache. One of these scare-devils

is of a most miusual type. Apparently it is intended for a model of a boat,

but both stem and stern terminate in a four-faced head crowned with a top-hat

and each bears a ring of spikes radiating outwards ; seated in the boat are five

little figures, each wearing a hat of the ‘boating-straw’ type with a black band.

• Vide Census report by A. R. S. Anderson, Census of India, 1901, Vol. Ill, An-

daman and Nicobar Islands, pp. 163-169. Calcutta. 1903. a7id Dr. A. M. Meerwath.

Ethnological gallery Guide Book, No. 2. “ The Andamane.se, Nicobarese and Hill

Tribes of Assam,” Indian Museum, Calcutta, 1919.

Journ., Bombay Nat Hist. Soc.

SCARE DEVILS FROM A SINGLE HUT.

INUANGA VILLAGE IN SPITEFUL BAV SHOWING THE TWO TYPES

OF HUTS AND NUMEROUS SCARE -DEVILS.

c

• »

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

975

The two painted shields {Henlakoi) are used in curing cases of sickness

wliich according to the Nicobarese is the result of being ‘possessed ’ an evil

spirit. In the majority of cases the scenes portrayed on these boards are paint-

ed in a series of parallel rows, as in the case of the left hand example. The upper

iwrtion of the shield is adorned with a large central figure of the Creator, usually

portrayed as a European, dressed in coat and trousers or a skirt-like garment,

possibly intended for a cassock, and a wide-brimmed hat. Occasionally he

carries an umbrella. This figure is an midoubted survival of missionary teach-

ing and is only found on boards painted in the central group of islands.

Around this figure are sho^vn most of the necessary household imple-

ments, water-pots, fishing-spears, knives, etc., emblems of headmanship,

and almost invariably a table covered with a table cloth and furnished

with all necessary materials, such as bottles and glasses, for a drunken

debauch — the Nicobarese ideal of a really good time and termed by him

“makmg Christmas.” Below this there is usually a row of men and women danc-

ing and then follows a picture of a native hut with aU the domestic animals,

a cow, a pig, and a hen, and on some boards a native canoe : in the hentakoi in

the photograph there is a perfectly recognisable Imperial Pigeon, Carpophaga

cenea iiisularis, with its dark body, wings and tail and pale gray head and neck.

The bottom row of all comprises the sea and all that is therem. Among the ani-

mals portrayed here one can recognise a sting-ray, a shark, a crocodile, a dugong,

a gar-fish and a Triacanthus, showing that the Nicobarese are well-acquainted

with these animals, and the mclusion of the last two among the other dangerous

animals further indicates that these natives are aware of the poisonous character

■of the dorsal spine of the Triacanthus and the possibility of injury being inflicted

by the gar-fish when it leaps out of the sea. Such knowledge, however, is not

surprismg when one considers how much of their time is spent either on the reefs

or in their canoes when fishing.

Almost the only means of communication between villages is by water,

though occasionally one finds a narrow path cut and kept open though the jmigle

in order to save a long detour round the coast. The native canoe, of which there

is only one type in use though the size may vary very considerably, is shaped

and hollowed out by hand from the trmik of a tree. Although the shaping is

-done entirely by eye, it is extraordmary how graceful the lines are. When

the cutting out process is complete, the canoe is first siuik in the sea and

left to soak and then finally both inside and outside are burnt and any

cracks stopped up by means of rag and crude tar. Finally a long straight

beam of wood is fixed as an outrigger by means of two short bamboos, and planks

or short lengths of bamboo are lashed on to form seats. A mast and light sail

are sometimes used if the wmd is favourable, in which case the mast is stepped

on one of the thwarts, but more often the canoe is propelled by paddles or, when

in shallow water, by means of a pole. Li addition to the ordinary canoes a vil-

lage may possess a large ceremonial canoe, capable of seating eight or ten peo-

ple, and on festival days these are decorated with short bamboo uprights hung

with flags and bunting while the occupants dress themselves up in top-hats or

other types of head-gear made specially for the occasion. The canoes when

properly managed are comparatively stable craft, but they are by no means

uncapsizable, as Boden Kloss states, as we learnt to our cost on one occasion.

A party of five of us had gone up Alligator creek and on om return, when near

the mouth, a pigeon was shot and fell into the water just inside the fringe of

mangi’oves. In his keeimess to retrieve the carcase our Navigating Officer

essayed to go over board after it, and stepping on the edge of the canoe

completely capsized the craft and all its contents ! Fortunately the water

was shallow and we managed to bale out the water and retrieve various object from

the muddy bed of the creek. Had we knovm at the time, what we subsequently

learnt from the natives, that crocodiles are by no means uncommon in

20

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

that vicinity, we should have regarded the episode in a somewhat less light'

hearted manner ; and incidentally had the only ‘ land-lubber ’ present been the

culprit he would not have been allowed to forget it for many a long day !

The Nicobarese to a certain extent use fish traps, consisting of baskets made

of spht rattan cane, but, in Nankauri Harbour at any rate, fish are usually-

speared, either from a canoe or by the men wading in water up to their waists.

Whenever a fish is ‘ spotted ’ the man slowly and quietly approaches until he is

within striking distance and then hurls his fish-spear, which is armed with

five or six barbed iron prongs. The usual result is a clean miss, but occasionally

a good-sized fish is struck and captured.

As one would naturally expect in a race that lives and moves and has its

being by the sea, the children’s games largely consist in imitating their parents’

chief occupation, and in most families we find that the youngsters are the proud

possessors of toy boats, some of them being models of the native outrigger

canoe, while others are crude models of either the sampan, carried by the

Burmese or Chinese Trading craft, or the pulling-cutters and whalers of Bri'

tish ships. Occasionally these models are fitted with masts and sails and one

not infrequently finds one riding at anchor a few feet out from the beach.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are, as a study of the contours of

the ocean bed clearly shows, the top-most peaks of a great mountain range

that has a height of approximately 15,000 feet, for on either side of the chaui

of islands the sea-bed rapidly sinks to a depth of 2,000 fathom? or more. This

great mountain chain, which is a continuation of the Arakan Hills of Burma

and links on at its southern end with the mountains of Sumatra, is supposed to

be a part of the great Alpine-Himalayan system that was gradually thrown

up during the Miocene and early Pliocene periods. There are two breaks in

the continuity of the ridge, which extends in a curved line for nearly 700 miles,-

The northern and lesser gap separates the Andamans from the Nicobars and

is known as Ten-Degree Channel, in which the depth of water is about 550 fathoms.

The southern break, or the Great channel, separates the Nicobars from Sumatra,

and here the depth of water over the ridge is nearly 800 fathoms. According

to Professor Suess* the whole of the Andaman Sea was at one time dry land

and formed a continuation to the south of the present basins of the Irrawadi and

Sitang Rivers. If this be so, then the whole of the Andaman-Sumatra ridge

must have formed one connected mountain chain and have been continuous with

the main land. To geologists the subsidence or elevation of a small area of the

earth’s crust through a distance of 10,000 feet is a minor affair, when compared

with such collosal convulsions as those which gave rise to the appearance and sub-

sequent disappearance of huge areas of surface such as the theoretical continent

of Gondwana land. From a study of the Mammalian and Avian fauna of the

Nicobars and Andamans Boden Kloss reached the conclusion that these islands

have never either been part of the main land or in any way directly connected

with it. On the other hand the presence of numbers of Reptilia, the occurrence

of numerous land and fresh water molluscs, which according to Godwin-Austen

show an undoubted affinity to the molluscan fauna of Burma, and the presence

of fresh-water Crustacea, such as Palaemon and Caridina, seem to me to indicate

that there must have been a connection with the main land and that this was

followed at some later period by an almost, though not quite complete, submer-

gence. This appears to have been followed in turn by a second period of eleva-

tion, which, so far as one can judge, is still progressing.

The geological formation of all the islands directly or indirectly connected

with Nankauri Harbour, namely Nankauri, Camorta, Kachal and Trmkat,

shows that at one time this area was almost, if not entirely, submerged. The

Suess, “ The Face of the Earth,” Vol. I, English Authorised Translation.

A Sl/nri:!' SEASON in the nicobar islands.

97T

various deposits that make up the whole facies have, with the exception of a

double outcrop in two parallel lines of true rook, been laid down at some jjeriod

or other, probably in Eocene times, beneath the surface of the ocean. Camorta

and Nankauri Islands are for the most part composed of clays that are in places

so hard that they have all the appearance of rock. Tipper* has shown that

these clays are generally found near igneous rocks and seem to bo a product of

their decomposition. The rock-like appearance of these masses of hard clay

is specially well seen in certain parts of the coast line, where the cliffs have fallen

away and the resultmg debris now lies as large boulders on the fore-shore, or

where denser bands of this deposit still resist the gradual wearing away by winds

and tides and now run in ledges and shelves, exactly like those of a rock reef ^

out from the shore. This latter condition is particularly well seen at Naval

Point on the eastern entrance to Nankauri Harbour, where a small headland

juts out into the sea. The fauna of the clay masses is an interesting one. From

the similarity of their appearanee to true rocks one would expect to find them en-

crusted with Rock-oysters and Barnacles and serving as a habitat for such mol-

luscs as limpets and Chiton. But as a matter of fact all these are conspicuous by

their absence and instead we find that the boulders are bored through and through

with the tube-like dwellings of Pholas and associated with the mollusc in these

burrows one not infrequently comes across Turbellarian worms, while numerous

browii-colomed actinians occupy pock-like pittings on the surface. Underneath

these rocks and boulders I found a large assortment of animal life. Flat little

PorceUanid crabs, that rapidly dropped off the boulder and scuttled away to

another shelter, were of frequent occurrence, and numerous other crabs, such as

Leptodius sp., were found half bmied in the underlying mud. In certain areas

one could usually manage to find an example of a Gephyrean, apparently be-

longing to the genus Tludassema, with chocolate-brown body and long yellow

proboscis. Polychaet worms and Turbellarians were also by no means uncom-

mon, while small Amphipods were ubiquitous. ' Not infrequently the lower

surfaces of these clay masses were encrusted with sponges of brilliant hues, red

yellow and blue being the prevailing tints.

Dr. von Hochstetter f, of the Austrian frigate “ Novara ” which visited the

Nicobars in 1858, was the first to pomt out that there is a very distinct correlation

between the geological formation and the type of vegetation of these islands.

I have already referred to the difference between the well-wooded slopes of

Kachal and the open grass-lands of Camorta,and the cause of this difference is

to be found in the fact that Kachal is composed of limestone and corresponds, as

regards its geological features, to the southern islands of Great and Little Nicobar,

whereas with the exception of two bands of upper cretacious rocks, one forming

the north-east coast of Nankauri Island and the other extending in a dis-

continuous ridge along the west coast of Nankauri and Camorta Islands, — 'being

interrupted at the entrances of Nankauri and Expedition Harbours — almost the

whole of Nankauri, Camorta and Trinkat Islands are composed of a sterile

magnesian clay.J

During the process of upheaval from its original submarme level to its present

altitude the clay strata have in many places been folded and contorted. Along

the northern shores of the eastern entrance to Nankauri Harbour the exposed

* Tipper, G.H., “The geological formation of the Andamans with references to

the Nicobars.” Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXXV, Pt. 4,

p. 13, Calcutta, 1911.

t Hochstetter, Dr. von., “ Contributions to the Geology and Physical Geography

of the Nicobar Islands.” Selections from Records of the Government of India,

Home Dept., No. LXXVTI. — ^Pa^jers relating to the Nicobar Islands, Calcutta, 1870.

J Vide Tipper, “ The geological formation of the Andamans with references

to the Nicobars.” Rec. Geol. Survey, India. Vol. XXXV, Pt. 4, Calcutta, 1911.

978 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXV 111.

section shows a trough or saucer-like folding, so that at each end of the section

there are grass eovered headlands: Battery and Ray Points on the west and Naval

Point on the east of the section. Between these points is a stretch of low-lying

land composed of coral debris and marine alluvium, and, as Hochstetter pointed

out, this serves as an admirable basis for the growth of many cocoanut-palms and

screw-pines. Across the other side of the channel on the north-east shore of

Xankauri Island the same bending of the clay strata is discernible, though here

it is cut short on the east by the outcrop of true rock, which forms the head-

land, Reed Point. In both cases we find that the eastern-most end of the clay

stratum is characterised by the interpolation of a bed of conglomerate and

there seems little room for doubt that originally the deposits were continuous.

In places where rain has washed away the surface soil and has formed irregular

gullies and water coui'ses,this magnesian clay can be seen to be of a yellow-ochre

or brick-red colour, and, when dry, it hardens and cracks into small irregular

blocks, like a child’s toy bricks. As a result of this clay formation the greater

part of these islands, and more particularly the higher levels and interior, consists

of open grass-land with here and there patches of bracken fern and the low grow-

ing sensitive plant Mimosa pudica. This latter plant, which is now nothing

but a weed-pest, appears to have been introduced accidentally, during the time

of the last British occupation, in sheep fodder from the Andamans. Scattered

about the slopes are screw-pines (Pandanus odoratissimus) that are, however,

only miniatures of the trees which grow in more suitable soil. This type of scenery

has been termed ‘ park like’ but the similarity of appearance is superficial rather

than real, for m this case the open spaces are due, in the main at any rate, to the

sterility of the soil, though in a lesser degree they are maintained by human

agency, for the Nicobarese periodically set fire to the grass, thus destroying any

shrubs or young trees that may have obtained a foot-hold. Anderson§ indeed,

goes so far as to deny that it is the sterility of the soil that produces the

open grass lands and attributes their presence entirely to this periodical

burning, and, in support of his view, he states that on Teressa the natives

enclose parts of this clay land and form fertile gardens, while in places the

line between grass-land and primaeval forest is much too straight to be attri-

buted to changes in the geological character of the soil. In some of the smaller

ravines and valleys, and especially in the neighbourhood of patches of primaeval

forest, one sometimes comes across an area dotted over with low bushes that

gives one the impression that it was originally a garden but has since been

abandoned and allowed to run wild. Frequenting these spots one usually finds a

number of small birds, conspicuous among which are brightly coloured bulbuls

and little flycatchers. The grass that covers these lands is of an extremely

coarse kind, knorvn as ‘ lalang’ or tbatching-grass, and it attains to a height of

two to three feet. Incidentally it has an extremely sharp edge and when drawn

across the skin causes a cut that, though usually not deep, can be extremely

painful. Coarse though the grass is, it serves to supjjort quite a respectable

herd of wild cattle, the feral descendants of the domestic herds maintained by

the missionaries in the old days or introduced during the period of occupation by

the Penal Settlement from 1869 — 1888. These cattle roam about usually in

small parties consisting of one bull, one or two cows and often several calves of

various ages. At the time of our stay in Nankauri Harbour a gang of convicts

from the Penal Settlement in Port Blair, under the charge of a few Indian Police,

were engaged in clearing away the jungle from the south end of Camorta. The

passion of Indians for milk needs no emphasis and the manner in which the

cravings of these men were satisfied was as follows : — a small herd containing

a young calf would be carefully marked down in a small area of open land, and

§ Anderson, A. R. S, “ Diary of a visit to the Nicobars for census purposes ”

•Census of India, 1901, Vol. Ill, pp. 16.3-164, 1903.

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

979>

five or six men would gradually surround the herd, quietly working their way

closer and closer without disturbing the animals. Eventually the herd would

take fright and bolt, but with a wild final rush the men would usually manage to-

secure the young calf. This was then tethered to a stake on the spot and left

there. After a time the mother cow would return to feed the calf and each day

the little animal was moved nearer to the convict camp. E%'entually the cow

was thus lured into the camp and submitted to being milked.

As a natural corollary to the presence of a herd of cattle the grass-land was

swarming with ticks, but the numbers present seem to show a distinct seasonal

variation. During the wet months, November-January, each time our dogs

were taken for a run on shore they came back infested with dozens of these

parasites, but as soon as the comparatively dry weather set in, about the middle

of February, there was a marked diminution in their numbers.

One’s first impression of the famia of these islands is that of comparative pau-

city. In addition to the wild cattle there are also numbers of wild i>ig, and Miller^

on the evidence of the skin and skull of a yoimg adult male and the skull of

another older male, has created the species Sus nicoharicus. According to Abbot,

whom MiUer quotes, this wild pig of Great Nicobar is different from the domes-

tic one and is smaller in size ; but one should keep in mind that the natives of

these islands only keep the sows. Any boars in a litter are turned adrift into the

jimgle where they fend for themselves. The sows on the other hand are carefully

tended and fed daily and one would naturally expect them to attain to a greater

size than the wild examples. Moreover all the sows are fertilized by wild boars

and it is difficult to see how two true species could be maintained under these

conditions. Certainly during my wanderings on Camorta or Nankauri all the

wild pig seen by me appeared to be uniform in character with the domestic ones.

The only other land mammal kno-wn from these islands is the rat. Thanks to

“Sammy” — the Captain’s dog — managed to obtain a specimen from Camorta,

A second example was seen, but, though Sammy again did his best, we failed to

secure it. Both these rats were living on the grassy uplands at the back of the

old settlement site. The government agent, Mewa Lai, told me that large rats

used frequently to come donm to the jetty near his bungalow at night to feed

on the shore crabs. I neither saw any myself nor succeeded in procuring a spe-

cimen, but the agent’s story was corroborated by our own Tide-watchers, who

were living on the jetty, and according to their accomit the rats were large and

in size resembled a bandicoot ; possibly they were examples of the shrew,.

Crocidura nicobarica, Miller, a species obtained by Abbott and Boden Kloss from

Great Nicobar. The only other mammal seen in the neighbourhood of these

islands was a small bat — ^probably Miniopterus pusillus, Dobson. Every evening

at sun -down during the later months of the year numbers of these little creatures

could be seen flying across Nankauri Harbour from the south-west towards

Camorta. During January and February the numbers of these bats that were

seen showed a marked diminution. Possibly during these months they mig-

rate elsewhere or it may be that their evening flight occurred later in the day and

so was not noticed. I managed to secure a couple of examples, though I hesitate

to say how many cartridges were vainly expended by myself and my shipmates

before we were at last successful ! One of the Forest Officers of the Andamans,

Mr. Bonnington, who spent some months in this neighbourhood studying the

flora, tells me that these bats live in limestone caves in Kaehal Island and

nightly cross over Revello Channel and Nankauri Harbour to Camorta. The

presence of these bats in the caves on Kaehal has been recorded on several occa-

sions. Thus Anderson writing in 1901 remarks. “ The bats (Miniopterus

schreibersi), which Ball noticed in this cave thirty years ago, are still there in

1! G. S. Miller .In., “ The mammals of the Andamans and Nicobar Islands,” Proc-.

U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 24, p. 755, Washington, 1902.

980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

large numbers.” The cave he refers to is m weather-worn coral limestone at a

height of 200 feet above sea-level.

Other inhabitants of the grassy uplands are iiumerous, wagtails and pipits and

one could usually be certain of putting up a few little quail, belonging to two

different species, i.e., the Blue-breasted Quail, Excalfactoria cMnensis, and the

^Nicobar Button-Quail, Turnix albiventris, whose crops seemed invariably to

be fidl of grass-seed.

It would be out of place in a paper such as this to review the past history of

the Nicobars and the various attempts that have been made since the 17th cen-

tury to christianise the inhabitants or to colonize the islands. In every case

the effort has proved to be a failure and the attempt has been abandoned ; but

traces of former occupations are plentiful and this is especially the case on Camorta

near the south-eastern corner, where the British Penal Settlement was located.

During the period of occupation a regular little torvn must have existed here and

one can still see numerous traces of its former greatness. Both east and west

of the jetty a low seawall that forms a habitat for the terrestrial Isopod Ligia,

lias been built of coral blocks, cemented together and at intervals this wall is

interrupted by the exit of “ pucca ” drams designed to carry off the storm water

from the settlement area. In the little ravine at the back of the Agent’s bungalow

is a large rvater-reservoir and two brick wells, while higher up on the slopes and

summit of the rising ground one finds remains of the foundations of bungalows

and portions of brick walls, now overgrorvu with ferns and with great trees rising

from among the displaced bricks. Traces of roads and paths made of broken

coral can still be found but nature is doing her best to hide these evidences of past

failure, and the jungle has gradually encroached inwards. During the period of

occupation, and especially that part of it when Mr. E. H. Man was in residence,

numerous trees and shrubs were introduced and in consequence the character

of the jungle in this part of the island is very different from what one finds

elsewhere. TSvo large avenues of Casuarina trees lead up from the jetty through

the jungle, bordering what were evidently at one time main roads, and a

number of fine trees, belonging, so far as I can judge, to the genus Albizzia, form

the predominating feature of the upper slopes. These latter trees have wide

spreading branches and form a large umbrella-shaped dome that gives, rvhen in

full leaf, plenty of shade. During late January these trees begin to shed their

old leaves and early in February they were in full flower, being covered with

pink blossoms. The presence of these trees produces a curious effect on the

jungle, for at sundown the compound pinnate leaves all fold up and droop, exactly

after the manner of the leaves of the sensitive plant when they are touched, thus

giving one the impression that the trees are dying and the leaves becoming

withered. Yet next morning at sunrise they are again obviously flourishing

and every leaf is wide-spread.

As one follow's the path over the brow of the hill one comes out on open grass

land intersected by ravines and nullahs, and on the right of the path, and a little

below it, is a little artificial lake that has been formed by throwing a bund across

one of these ravines. In the course of years this has become populated by a

■flora and fauna. Water-lilies are growing on its surface and living in it are fish

of the genus Eleotris, fresh water prawns of the genus Palaemon, and a few ex-

amples of a mollusc of the genus Neretina. In addition there are numerous in-

sect larvre and water beetles. Swallows flit backwards and forwards over its

surface, occasionally dipping down to the water, and near by a small flock of the

Little Egret {Herodias garzetta) can usually be found perched on one of the trees.

A chorus of loud croaks indicates the presence in the grass bordering the lake

of numerous frogs but I only succeeded in obtaming a single specimen which

appears to belong to the species Rana erythroea.

During the occupation of the island two other large ravines were apparently

under rice cultivation and bunds, provided with sluice-gates, were construe-

SURVIJy SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

981

it'd across their mouths close to where they open into a lai'ge mangrove swamjr

on the east side. Traces of these bunds can still be seen. The low-lying area

forms an excellent snipe-gromid during the cold weather, and one could nearly

always depend on finding several couple of the Pin-tail Snipe, Gallinago

stenura. In addition to these comparatively large nullahs, numerous small ravines

run down from the higher gromid to the sea. During the rains these become

true water courses and serve as a habitat for three species of operculate fresh

water molluscs belonging to the Neritidae and Melaniidae. It is interesting to

note that such widely distributed non -operculate genera as Limnoea and

Planorbis (including Indoplanorhis) are conspicuous by their absence. Even the

only two land snails that I came across belonged to operculate genera. In

view of the amount of rain that falls annually, namely some 120 inches, and

its comparatively miiform distribution throughout the year — March and April

being the only dry months — this marked predominance of operculate forms is

■extremely interesting . It cannot be accoimted for by prolonged periods of

•drought that would tend to kill off all non-ox>erculate forms, and it suggests that

it is this character that has facilitated the transport of these forms from

<li.stant coasts of Burma or Sumatra.

In one low-lying area, through which a small stream ran a tortuous course,

I found several examines of Palcetnon and two specimens of what appears to be a

species of Caridina : in addition a few young fish, Eleotris sp., were also obtained.

AH these ravines served as a habitat for the Pin -tail Snipe, Gallinago stenura,

and not infrequently one saw the White-breasted Water-hen, Amaurornis

insularis Sharpe, but the numbers present were always small.

All along the eastern and western sides of Nankauri and the west side of

Camorta, where the geological formation consists of true rock, and in smaller

patches in other parts of the islands where the soil is suitable, one finds a dense

growth of primaeval jungle with occasional cocoanut palms and Pandanus trees,

the whole laced together with creepers that in places form a dense green blanket

spreading from tree-top to tree-top, while on the groimd level a thick growth of

rattan cane and creeping bamboo renders progress almost impossible. The

Pandanus tree appears to be able to grow in almost any locality. I have already

mentioned that it is almost the only tree that will grow on the sterile clay-land

— a power that it shares with the Casuarina — and near the entrance to Expedi-

tion Harbour several small and stunted examples are maintaining a precarious

foot-hold on a narrow ledge of rock only a few feet above the sea. It is in the pri-

maeval jungle or in special plantations that we find the enormously tall Pandanus

trees that Roxburgh* refers to in his work on Indian plants. He there gives the

height of these trees as thirty-five to forty feet, but in the jungle I have seen them

considerably taller than this and, indeed, there seems to be no limit to which they

cannot attain. The extension upwards seems to be an adaptation to the surround-

ings, for unless the tree can rise to the level of or above the immensely tall

forest trees of the primaeval jmigle it will be completely deprived of smrlight and

hence Avill die.

In the neighbouring island of Kachal numerous monkeys are to be fomid, but

I never saw any nor so far as I know have any been recorded from Camorta or

Xankauri. In these islands the chief inhabitants of the primaeval forest are

enormous numbers of Pigeon. The commonest of all is the Nicobar Imperial Pi-

geon, Carpophaga cenea insularis (Blyth) ; though very often difficult to see owmg

to the thickness of the foliage, its deep low coo betrays its presence everywhere.

Associated with these birds, and hardly to be distinguished from them until they

have been shot and examined carefully, are a few examples of the Andamanese

Wood-Pigeon, Alsoco^nus 2i(flumhoides (Hume). Ear less common than the

• W. Roxburgh, “ Flora Indica or Descriptions of Indian Plants” i) 707

Calcutta, 1874. ’

98-2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Nicobar Imperial Pigeon, and keeping much more to the low-lying parts of the

jungle and the mangrove swamps, are small flocks of the Pied Imperial Pigeon,.

Myrislicivora bicolor (Scop.) : while the Nicobar Pigeon, Calcenas nicobaricor

(Linn.) ,was comparative rare. The distribution of these different species seems

to be to a certain extent local : for instance the Imperial Pigeon were common

on Nankauri Island but were comparatively rare on the south-east comer of

Camorta, though their numbers increased as one went northward towards the

head of Grand Harbom ; and the Pied Imperial Pigeon were comparatively rare

on Nankauri Island and roimd the site of the old settlement on Camorta but

were very common further north round the entrance to Expedition Harbour.

From time to time floeks of the Andamanese Green Pigeon, Osynotreron

pompadora chloroptera (Blyth), were seen feeding on certain trees in the jun-

gle. The Andaman Cockoo-Dove, Macropigia rufipennis (Blyth), was by no-

means rare. In the Andamans the flesh of this bird is said to have a

peculiar and somewhat pungent flavour that renders it unsatisfactory

as an article of diet, but our experience in the Nicobars was the

exact opposite. The presence of this bird in the bag was always

welcomed, as we found it extremely pleasant to eat with a flavour

distinctly superior to that of the larger Pigeon. A few examples of the Bronze-

Winged Dove, Chalcophaps indica (Linn.), were from time to time seen in the

jungle or flying across a bit of open ground from one patch of forest to another.

Another common denizen of the jungle and the trees romid the old settlement

site is the Indian Koel, Eudynamis honorata (Lum.), Green Parrots of more than

one species frequented the tree tops, and on one occasion a pair of the Malay

Bittern, Gorsachius rmlanolophm (Raffles), rvere seen in a small patch of jungle

near the little artificial lake above the old settlement site on Camorta.

The bird that we were all anxious to see was, of course, the Megapod, Mega,

podius nicobariensis, Blyth, but in this locality it proved to be comparatively rare.

A couple of Megapod momrds were foimd in the jungle only a few yards from

the beach near one of the villages ; one of these mounds was imdoubtedl3' fresh

but the other was an old disused one. I caught a glimpse of one of these birds

on the edge of a brackish swamp, thickly overgrorvn with Nipa fruticans^

irear Reed Point, but that was the only occasion orr which I actually saw a specimen

alive. Two examples were brought in, havmg been killed by the natives, and

were in due course cooked and sampled ; but we came to the conclusion that

Blanford* who states that “ these birds are delicious eating” must have been

prejudiced. The occurrence of the Megapod on these islands is one of the pro-

blems that zoologists have hitherto failed to solve, and they have therefore

fallen back on the assumption that it has been imported by Malay's ;

but this assumption breaks down in the face of the occurrence of the bird

in the Cocos Islands to the north of the Andamans. It is generally

stated that the Megapod is absent from the Andamans, but I have

seen in Little Andaman, in a patch of open jungle a hundred yards

or so from the beach and the same distance from a mangrove creek, a

large momid of earth and leaves about four feet high and ten feet in diameter,

exactly similar to the moimds I saw in Nankauri, and I have no doubt that it

was a Megapod mound though I did not see the bird itself.

So far as the number of species is concerned the avifauna of the Nicobars

is comparatively poor. At the most only about hundred species have been

recorded and of these several are mere winter visitors that are found throughout

the whole of the Indian region. Various species that are so common on the

coasts of Burma, such as the crows, the hornbills, jungle-fowl, pea-fowl, and

smaller forms, like the Chesnut-Headed Bee-eater, are all conspicuous by their

absence.

Blanford, Fauna of British India, Vol. IV, p. 148.

Journ,, Bombay Nat. Hist. 8oc.

THE WESTERN ENTRANCE TO NANKAURI HARBOUR.

A MEGAPODE MOUND -NANKAURI ISLAND.

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

983.

I have already pointed out the complete absence of indigenous mammalia

from these islands, but this is almost if not quite compensated for by the super-

abundance of reptiles. Though the actual number of species may be small in com-

parison with the continental fauna, the primaeval forest is everywhere swarming

with small lizards, most of which belong to the genus Callotes. >So numerous are

these little animals that there seems to be one to almost every tree and, as one

quietly strolls through the more open parts of the jungle or along the paths cut

by the natives, there is a continuous rustle on either side among the dead and

rotting leaves covering the ground as these little animals make a dash for the

nearest tree trimk and run up it like a flash, usually keeping to the reverse side

till well out of reach. All the examples that I succeeded in obtaining seem to

belong to the species Callotes ophiomachus. A species of Skink was also seen but

I was unable to obtain a specimen. Frequenting the jungle or the more open

patches of bush were several species of snakes, chief among which were examples

of the Pit-vipers of the genus Trimeresurus. Boulengcr* remarks “ This genus

includes terrestrial and arboreal species, but the two divisions are so insensibly

blended as to render their distinction almost impossible.” Even a single species

may combine both arboreal and terrestrial habits and of the three specimens of

Trimeresurus gramineus, which I saw, two were found on the ground, while

the third was discovered by a lascar coiled round the extreme end of a branch

of a tree and half hidden by the leaves about ten feet up. Natives are occasion-

ally bitten by these snakes, but as a rule without a fatal result. One case,

seen by me, had been bitten near the heel and the agent had already made free use

of a Lauder- Brmiton lancet : for inehes round the whole skin was perforated w'itii

needle pricks, like an old pin cushion ! Apart from considerable pain and local

swelling, the man suffered no ill effects from either the bite or the treatment and

in a few days was carrying on as usual. Andersonf reports finding two examples

of Trimeresurus cantori (?) on Kachal, and one of these was captured alive and

taken to Port Blair for experimental piu’poses. “ In spite of his enormous fangs

and poisonous aspect,” this species, according to Anderson, “ is imable to inflict

fatal bites on a guuiea pig.” A python has been recorded from some of these

islands. Boden Kloss makes no mention of its occimrence in his book but several

of the older vTiters have recorded its presence ; thus the Rev. P. BarbeJ in his

notes on the Nicobar Islands remarks “ The Boa- con stricter is found also in the

islands, particularly at Teressa,” and BuschJ also reports its occurrence on Kar

Nicobar, where he saw one about 12 feet in length ; according to Boulenger the

species is Python reticulatus. No example was seen during our stay in Nankauri

Harbour and it seems to be absent from Nankauri and Camorta Islands.

Before leaving the subject of the primaeval forest I must not omit to mention

that ubiquitous pest, the mosquito. The jungle simply swarms with Slegomyia ;

the vast majority belong to a single si)ecies characterised by the presence of a

very distinct white spot on the dorsum of the thoracic region, a feature that is

one of the characteristics of S. assamense which the Nicobarese specimens closely

resemble. The moment one enters the jungle, and on calm days even when work-

ing on the beach some yards away, hundreds of these insects attack one and only

the prolific use of some highly pungent ointment serves to discourage their atten-

tions. Although the Nicobars possess the reputation of being an intensely mala-

rious locality, neither officers nor crew suffered unduly from this disease, probably

because we were living out in the harbour on board ship. At certain season.s

many of the natives are affected and the earrier seems to be Nyssomyzomyia

ludlowi.

• Boulenger, Fauna of British India “ Reptilia and Batrachia,” p. 425, 1901.

+ Anderson, Census of India, Vol. Ill, Andamans and Nicobars, p. 1G4, Calcutta

1903.

t Selections from Records of the Government of India, Home Department,

No. LXXVII, Calcutta, 1870.

21 .

984 JOVBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV HI.

Other common insect inhabitants of the jungle are termites, butterflies,

ants and cicadas. As regards the first of these one frequently sees large nests,

constructed apparently by termites, of a dull grey or black colour and compos-

ed of a substance resembling papier-mache, either surroimding or projecting from

a branch of a tree. Butterflies are fairly common both in the jungle and over the

open grass land. I saw no very striking examples and for the most part the

individuals seen were of a dull brown colour. Over the open lands these insects

keep very largely to the tracks made by the cattle during their wanderings. As

one follows such a track one invariably sees several brown butterflies flitting

along in front of one near the ground. In this situation they have a high wall of

grass on either side and it seems not improbable that this habit has been adopted

as a protection against the high-winds of the monsoon. In places large spiders

are to be fomid and as one walks through the jungle or between bushes in the

more open tracts one frequently walks into a tough web in the centre of which

ifi sitting a gaudy blue and yellow fellow who rapidly beats a retreat as one

pfxuses to remove the tough clinging strands of her web that festoon one’s face

and topee.

As is only to be expected in islands situated within the tropical zone, where-

ever the coast line is protected coral abounds and fonns great reefs extending

out, in some cases for very considerable distances, from the shore.

The debris from these reefs gradually silts up on the shore side and gives rise

to extensive mud flats, on which mangrove trees can find a hold and can fiourish.

All around the shores of Nankauri Harbour and Beresford Channel are extensive

reefs spreading out from the land, and in the land-locked Expedition Harbour

and Grand Harboiu the growth of coral has extended so far out from the shore

that a very great portion of their area is now occupied by reefs, while mangroves

form an almost continuous fringe around their margins. As has been pointed

out by Tipper.,* “ The general effect of the mangrove swamps is to add gradually

to the area of the island. The roots of the mangroves act as a sort of catch net

for sediment washed on to them from the land and also for material brought by

the tide”, and he might also have added that they act as a basis for the growth

of rock oysters, which further assist in the process of reclamation. As this pro-

cess of reclamation extends further and further outwards, the inshore portion

gradually dries and forms first a damp marine alluvium, on which only mangroves

can flemish, and finally a dry marine alluvium on which cocoanut palms and

screw pines find a suitable habitat. Throughout the whole length of the coast

line of these islands this process is slowly going on, and patches of mangroves are

spreading out upon the reefs, which in time will become connected into dry land.

But in addition to this slow process of reclamation, in certain areas a further

extension of these islands appears to have taken place within geologically recent

times by the process of upheaval, for on both Camorta and Trinkat Islands I

have seen masses of what seems to be undoubted reef coral now raised well

above high water mark.

I was only able dming our stay in Nankauri Harbour to pay a single visit to

Trinkat. We sailed across Beresford Channel in the ‘ whaler ’ and landed at

a large village, Ok-chauka, situated in a little bay on the west side of the island.

The entrance to the bay is at low water almost completely blocked by an exten-

sive coral reef, continuous with the main reef that runs along the whole of

west coast. The landing place in front of the village lies between two

stretches of mangrove swamp and consists of a small sandy beach,

intersected here and there by exposed masses of reef-coral, now well above high

water mark. The village itself stands back a little from the shore and is almost

hidden in jungle, but from the sea-ward side its position was plainly marked by

* Tipper,“ The geology of the Andaman Islands, with references to the Nic-

obars,” Mem. Geol. Survey India XXXV, Pt. 4, p. 15. Calcutta. 1911.

Jeurn., Bombay Nat, His. 8oc,

PART^OF THE CORAL REEF OFF REED POINT, NANKAFRI.

VIEW LOOKING ACROSS BARWEI.L SWAMP, CAMORTA.

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS. 985

the usual tall bamboos with their ornamental tufts of grass. Around the village,

which incidentally was much cleaner than those on the shores of Nankauri Har-

bour, were growing several Pumelow trees and a little way off was a large plan •

tation of tall Pandanus trees. A short walk through the village and along a well

kept path brought us out on the bank of a little ‘'JheeV where we had hoped to

find some Whistling Teal, Dendrocijgna javanica (Horsfield), but we were dis-

appointed. In the jmigle round were numerous pigeon, both Imperial Pigeon

and Pied Imperial Pigeon being seen and shot. A little to the west of the

village a tidal creek ran in from the mangrove swamp and here were numerous

crabs and small fish. Several kingfishers were fljning about and a specimen of

the Glossy Calornis, Calornis challybeus Horsf., was added to our bag.

On the east side of Camorta, about a mile north of Naval Point, is a small bay,

knoAvn as Barwell Swamp. Ai’ound the south and south-west sides of this bay,

and shut off from it, except for one or two channels, by a strip of sandy fore-

shore, is an extensive mangrove swamp. Both this swamp and the bay itself

dry almost completely at low tide. A somewhat similar, though much smaller,

swamp exists on the east shore of Spiteful Bay a little to the south of

Inuanga village. In both cases these swamps provided a habitat for thousands

of specimens of all sizes of the mollusc Potamides terebralia palustris and in smaller

numbers of a species of Telescopiutn. In places these are in such abundance that

they literally form a mosaic pavement over the soft surface of the mud. In

additioir in these localities are numbers of Sesarma crabs and of the ubiquitous

mudhopper, Periophtkalmus Icoelreuteri.

Along the margins of these mangrove swamps, especially at low water a number

of wading birds are to be found busily searching for food. Cm-lew, Numeneus

arquata, are fairly common, but are remarkably shy and seldom allow one to

get near to them. The Redshank, Totanus calidris (Linn.), the Greenshank, T.

glottis (Linn.), and the SanderUng, Calidris arenaria (Lirm.), were all seen and iden-

tified, and numerous ‘ snippet ’ were also present. Curlew and Whimbrel, Nu-

meneus phceops (Lirm.), were frequently seen on the mud flats exposed at low tide

and the Eastern Reef Heron, Lepterodius sacer (Gmel.), in both its grey and

white phases, was by no means uncommon. The Golden Plover, Charadrius

fulvus (Gmel.) was common both in this locality and on the grassy slopes of

the higher ground inland.

The central group of islands which eirclose Nairkauri and Expedition Harbours

can boast of no rivers, such as those which are found in Great Nicobar. The only

“river” that I know of m this group is theAUigator River that opens mto Spite-

ful Bay on its eastern side, but the application of the term is liable to be mislead-

ing, for it is in reality only a tidal creek that runs for the greater part of its

length — about three-quarters of a mile— thi-ough mangrove swamps, the roots

of the mangroves being almost completely submerged at high tide. The

creek finally terminates in a small swampy area overgrown with the stem-

less palm, Nipa fruticans, which only flourishes in areas where the water has

a slightly brackish character. Hochstetterf describes a similar creek in

the Great Nicobar in the following words : — •

“ The extreme end termmating on the sea is stUl in progress of formation,

swampy and regularly flooded over by brackish water during high tide

But in the interior the mangrove trees stand perfectly bare out of the mud,

supported by numerous air roots variously spreading over the ground. The

grormd, flooded by brackish water is covered with a very large number of a

species of Cerithium and inhabited by numerous crabs Farther

up the valley the land rises and is only flooded by the river when its waters

t Hochstetter, Dr. F. von, “ Contribution to the Geology and Physical

Geography of the Nicobar Islands,” Selections from Records of the Government of

India, Home Department, No. LXXVII. Calcutta, 1870.

986 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIU.

are swollen during the rainy season. The vegetation becomes here at once-

more varied and is specially characterised by the stemless palm, Nij>a JruticansN

All the main streams of the islands ajjpear to terminate in a similiar manner

and although the term river is a euphemism when applied to Alligator River

there seems to be little doubt that its cognomen is more or less justified. No

alligator, sensu slricto, is known to occur nearer tb/an Chuia, but crocodiles

almost certainly occur in this locality. Although J-iievtlr saw one myself,,

the natives assm’ed me that they were to be foimd here and that their dogs,

are afraid to enter the water, as on several occasions one has been taken by

these animals. Accordmg to local information these crocodiles are small,

measurmg live to six feet in length. Boden Kloss | records having seen one

at the mouth of a jheel in Great Nicobar which measured about 10 feet in length

and was brilliantly marked with yellow. One of the earliest references to the

occm'rence of these animals that I have seen is contained in a letter from the

Rev. Gottfried Haensel, who was a missionary in these parts and who left the

islands in 1787. To quote his own w'ords,-“ One of the most formidable animals

with which these islands abound is the crocodile or alligator. Car Nicobar

is overrun with them as are all the other Nicobar Islands, which have

fresh water lakes and streams. They are of two kinds, the black kayman

and the proper crocodile.” The “ black kayman” that he refers to is almost

certainly the large lizard, Varanus salvator, that is comparatively common

and attams to a great size, the largest that I have seen measuring seven feet

four inches in length. The colour of this Varanus is black with j’ellow markmgs

over the sides and back : they readily enter w'ater when distiurbed or pursued

and I am inclined to suspect that it was one of these that Boden Kloss mistook

for a crocodile. The frequency with which the crocodile is depicted on the

pamted ‘ scare devils ’ proves however that the natives are well acquainted

with the animal and Blyth§ referred a specimen examined by him to the species

Crocodilus biporcatus {= C. porosus.).

The coral reefs aromid these islands are all of the nature of fringing reef's

and along the sheltered east coast of Camorta and Nankauri Islands these extend

out for several hundred yards from the coast line proper. At their sea-ward

edge these reefs arise almost vertically from a depth of 15-20 fht-hoins to within

a few- feet of the surface and even on a calm day with little or no wind blowing,

the rise and fall of the swell causes such a rush of water over the edge of the reef

that one realizes how easity in rough weather fragments of coral may be torn

off and hurled shorew'ards over the reef to assist in the formation of the mud-

flat beyond. When the sea is calm one can look do\ni through the water and

see numerous gaudy-coloimed fish swdmming backwards and forwards among

the growing coral masses, w-hile the surface of the reef-face is dotted

over with large crinoids, of a black or greenish yellow colour, the delicate

arms of which look like ferns growing out of crevices in a wall. Liside the grow-

ing edge of the reef the sea bottom consists of fragments of coral-debris on

which scattered isolated colonies of living coral or masses of alcyonarians still

maintain their existence. Still further inshore the bottom consists of soft mud

or a mixture of mud and sand, which completely kills off all coral growTh but

forms a suitable soil for the growth of several different kinds of sea-weed.

The quantity of sea-weed around these islands forms a marked contrast to

the coral reefs and mud flats of the Burma coast, where weed of any kind is for

the most part absent. Each of these weed patches has a fauna that is quite its

o%vn, distinguished by the various different schemes of protective colomation.

Thus on red weed we find numerous red-coloured holothm’ians, while sheltering

J C. Boden Kloss, “ In the Andamans and Nicobars,” p. G9.

§ Blyth, E., “ Notes on the Fauna of the Nicobar I.slands”. Selections from

Records of the Government of India, Home Department, Vol. LXXVII, Calcutta, 1870.

A SURVEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

987

among the green ■weed we find green erabs and mottled green gobies. In places

this sandy or mud flat is, instead of being smooth of surface, thro\ni into a

number of little valleys and ridges : at the bottom of each valley a funnel-shaped

depression loads doum to a small central burrow and sheltering in the mouth of

this is a small gobioid fish, that on the first sign of danger disappears down tho

hole. On the stretch of sand that is laid bare by each receding tide are hosts of

small crabs, which live in burrows : some of these are round and spherical,

Dotilla, while others have one claw enormously enlarged, Gelasimus. Sometimes

a whole stretch of sandy beach may be twinkling with little brightly-coloured

objects as these fiddler-crabs wander over the surface in search of food, each

male waving its enormous gaudy-coloured claw : but the first step fonvard or

even a sudden movement of the arm will cause the total disapix^arance of these

little animals douii their holes.

A /jingle example of the cel, Ophichthys coluhrinus, was found lying buried in

the siand, with only the anterior two or three inches protruding, on the beach near

the entrance to Expedition Harbour. Its black and white rings render it very

conspicuous and may be an example of warning colouration, for it has been

credited with possessing poisonous properties.* Other inhabitants of these

stretches of sand and mud are starfish, of which a few were obtained near Xaval

Point, and holothurians though these latter are far more common in rock pools

and on the reefs themselves. Crawling over the mud-flats at low tide are numbers

of molluscs, Nassa and Nntica being the genera more commonly represented,

and numerous examples of the stalk-eyed crabs of the genus Ocypoda can be

found busily hunting for food. In certain areas Gelasimus crabs are also common

but for some unexplained reason their distribution seems to be discontinuous,

large areas of sand showing no trace of either them or their burrows. **

An interesting feature of the reefs is the peculiarly local distribution of the

various kinds of coral. Everywhere the main bulk of the wall of coral on the

face of the reef consists of Porites but inside this in any one area some one

particular kind of coral seems to thrive to the almost complete exclusion of all

other forms. Commencing off Xaval Point at the eastern entrance to Xankauri

Harbour and extending northward along the east coast of Camorta the bulk

of the reef consists almost entirely of stag-horn coral {Madrepora), scattered

about among the branches of which are numbers of round or oval mushroom

corals (Fitngcoi^ and in patches a few colonies of the branchmg forms of Mille-

pora and PociP.opora. The prevailing tint of the growuig coral is brown or red

and the tip? of the branches vary in colour but are usually pale blue or mauve.

Living amoiig the branches of the coral and firmly attached to them are numer-

ous small flattened oysters and crawling over the branches are crabs and alpheids

many of which show very distinct protective coloimation. If a mass of this

stag-hom coral be lifted out of the water and shaken over a net a number of small

fish, belonging for the most part to two species, will be secured. These are the

little greenish-yelloAv Heliasfes lepidurus and the black and white banded Tetra-

drachmum aruanum.

On the opposite side of the entrance to Xankauri Harbour off Reed Point the

bulk of the coral growing on the reef consists of rounded masses of Moniipora in

which the plates are arranged vertically and rarliate from the centre of the mass.

The basic colour to these colonies also is browi but the margin of each plate is

pure white. Here we found, embedded in and almost completely enclosed by

coral debris, a number of Tridacna, whose brilliantly coloured mantle renders

* Wood, Jones., “ Coral and Atolls,” p. 329, London, 1912.

** In many places trees that were growing on the edge of the jungle have fallen

down and their dead and decaying trunks and branches now lie prone on the

sandy shore at or a little below high-watermark and these serve as a habitat for

numbers of molluscs belonging to two species of Littorina.

988 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XKVIU.

them one of the most conspicuous objects of the reef. Large Actinians, Discoso-

ma, of a brown colom, were growing in the shallow pools attached to dead masses-

of coral, and scattered about were masses of a compound actinian of a grey-

white colour. Each of these serves as a shelter for other animals. The brown sea-

anenome harbours among its tentacles a little brown fish, AmpMprion acallopis-

ius, while the white form serves as a habitat for small crabs and alpheids. Living

in holes among the coral debris were a number of sea-urchins w-ith long delicate

spines, and numerous little gaudy-coloured fish -were swimming about in the

coral pools. Crabs were far more common here than among the stag-hom corals

and one or two large starfish w'ere obtained near the edge of the reef.

Again in Octavia Bay on the north side there is a patch of reef that consists

for the most part of rounded masses of Porites overgrown with dense masses of a

pale leathery alcyonarian. Anderson f calls attention to a similar area on the

south side of Nankauri Harbour w^here the reef w'as characterised by the jjre-

sence of digitate Alcyonacece of at least two species. Li these colonies the stocks

are 1-2 feet in diameter and the figures 1 foot in length.

In a small bay on the w'estern side of Camorta, just north of the entrance to

Expedition Harbour, there is a small patch of coral consisting entirely of a colony

of Turbinaria, of a yellow colour and with flattened plate-like outgrow'ths set

more or less parallel to the sea-bottom. It was here that one afternoon I obtained

a fine specimen of the poisonous fish Synancaea verrucosa. I w^as examining a

smalt rock and coral pool in the centre of which was a yellowish mass which I at

first took to be a lump of coral overgrowm with patches of algae. After a minute

or two it began to dawn on me that the motionless object was a large fish- — and

so it proved to be !

I do not propose to go into details regarding the causes of these local variations-

in the type of coral met with on the reefs, and I would refer anyone who is in-

terested in the subject to Wood- Jones, J work on the Coral reefs of the Cocos-

KeelLng Islands.

I have already referred to the comparative paucity of bird life in these islands

but one would expect to find that islands such as these, situated

well out in the ocean, would have a considerable population of sea-

birds such as gulls and terns. One species of tern, Sterna melanau-

cken, is said to breed in the Andamans and Nicobars, but during the whole of our

stay in the vicinity I never saw a single example ; and on only a single occasion

did I see any gulls. We w'ere steaming down the west coast of Carmorta and near

the north end of the island in the distance were three gulls and those were all

that I saw' during five months. Every day one could see at some part or another

of Nankauri Harbour examples of the fine white-bellied sea-eagle, Halia-hts

leucogaster, soaring over the foreshore and occasionally swooping down on to some

object below'. One pair were alw'ays present over the beach near Naval Point

though I never could discover where they were nesting. Curlew, whimbrel and

reef herons were ahvays to be seen, though never in large numbers, searching

for food on the reef at low water but true sea-birds were invariably absent.

In a paper as short and of necessity as discursive as the above

one cannot hope to do even the merest justice to a locality' as in-

teresting as the Nicobar Islands, nor have I attempted to touch

upon the many interesting problems in evolution and distribution

that confront a zoologist who essays to deal with the fauna. Separa-

ted as these islands have been through long ages from the rest of the Burma-

Malayan Peninsula and from one another it is only to be expected that new species

have arisen. Li recent years a number of these have been recognised and describ-

t Anderson., Census of India, 1901, “The Andamans and Nicobars,” Vol. Ill,

p. 164, Calcutta, 1903.

J F. Wood-Jones, “ Coral and Atolls)” London, 1912.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A BED OF ALCVOXARIANS IX OCTAVIA

BAV.CAMORTA.

A SUR yEY SEASON IN THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.

98»

cd, and in many cases these seem to be confined to individual islands, thus

rendering the problem still more complex and its solution still more difficult.

Much work must yet be done before we shall be in a position to review the fauna

as a whole and to trace its origin in the past.

It is beyond my powers adequately to express the many beauties of these

islands. The Imperial Gazetteer, which one would hesitate to accuse of bias or

sentiment, claims for this region the distinction of being one of the beauty

spots of the world, and as regards the truth or otherwise of this assertion I feel

that I can safely leave my readers to draw their own conclusion from the photo-

graphs I have given above.

Finally I should like to end with a tribute to my shipmates, whose ready help

and imfaUing good fellowship rendered my visit to these islands one of which

I shall always have a very pleasant memory.

[The Editors regret that owing to financial considerations they are unable

to publish all the interesting photos taken by Major Seymour Sewell and which

fully endorse the claim made by the writer in the Imperial Gazetteer.]

990

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE.

By

Hugh Whistler, e.z.s., Indiay Police.

Ill spite of the number of ornithologists and sportsmen who have visited Cash-

mere, and of the number of specimens illustrative of the ornithology of Cashmere

which are to be found in various museums and collections, no complete account

of the avifauna of the comitry has been published. There is indeed compara-

tively little on record at all in 2irhit regarding this most interesting of countries

to the naturalist. Under these circumstances it appears to me worth while

to record some notes made in Srinagar during a short stay of about six weeks,

in the hope that they maybe of value to anyone who later on has time and the

opportunity to fill up this conspicuous gap in our knowledge of Asiatic orni

thology.

My trip was imdertaken at the shortest notice and without any previous in-

tention, bemg solely due to the opjiortunity afforded by the late difficulty in

securing .steam ship accommodation owing to which an interval had to elapse

between the commencement of a period of leave and my departme for England.

I left Rawalpmdi by motor on the 1 st April ( 1 920) and arrived at Kohala, the

first point in the territory of Cashmere State, on the afternoon of the same day ;

that night was spent at Garhi, the journey being resumed early next morning,

so that I reached Srinagar about 4 p.m. on the 2nd April. I remained at Srinagar

until May 12th : when I started down again by motor and reached Kohala about

8 p.m. that night. A few observations were made during the course of these

journeys along the motor road and they have been included in the following

notes ; othenrise all records refer to the immediate neighbourhood of Srinagar.

The distance between Rawalpindi and Srmagar by road is nearly 200 miles.

From the moment of entering Cashmere territory at Kohala the road follows the

course of the Jhelum river, rmmmg alongside of it at varying heights through

a vast belt of momitams as far as Baramullah, where the road leaves the moun-

tain barrier most abruptly and emerges into the Happy Valley. Here the char-

acter of the country changes with almost equal suddenness. The mountain

scenery, f amiUar to aU travellers in the Outer Himalayas, gives place to a wide plain

whose salient features are reminiscent of the plains of Northern France and Hol-

land or of the flat cultivation of Suffolk and Essex. For mile upon mile the road

passes through long lines of poplars, closely planted and growing to a great

height. All about the liver and the numerous tributary channels and dykes

grow willows, singly and in plantations ; clumps of mulberry trees are on all

sides and here and there stand the giant chenar trees, most wonderful of all.

Srinagar itself is situated at an altitude of about .5,000 feet above sea level,

and is built on the River , Jhelum. The native city is down stream and covers

a wide area on both banks of the river, connected by seven bridges, of which the

lowest had been washed away some months before my \nsit. Above the native

city stands the European quarter and the shops whicli cater for visitors. Here

good hou.ses and pleasant gardens are diversified by wide expanses of turf with

fine trees, in marked contrast to the crowded and filthy city.

North of the Eiuopean quarter stands the Takht-i-8uleman, a bare rocky

hill surmounted by an ancient temple, and rising to a height of over 6,200 feet.

Behind the Takht lies a range of mountains that reach a still greater height and

form part of the mountain ring ivhich entirely surrounds the Happy Valley.

At the foot of the Takht and the mountains behind it spreads the famous Dhal

lake ; while the area between the city and the lake is an intricate maze of gar-

dens, orchards, and waterways. All visitors to Srinagar are expected to climb

^^he Takht. From it a wonderful view is obtained and the climber is able to

appreciate to the full the circumstances of the vale of Cashmere ; it lies before

A OONTBIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 991

him as a wide plain surrounded by a complete circle of snows, and tra-

versed by the tortuous course of the Jhelum river. The Dhal lake at his feet,

the Woolar lake in the distance, and the numerous smaller lakes and patches of

flood or migation water, all tend to give the impression that the plain is water-

logged,— almost a gigantic marsh.

In comparison with the plains of Lidia or the various hill stations, Srinagar

has an atmosphere predominantly English ; the clean fresh air, the gardens and

orchards, and the gi’een level turf all contribute to this impression, which is height-

ened by the Avifauna. The majority of the common birds are of types famihar

to the Englishman. The loud Jack ” of the Daws and the song of Tickell’s

Ouzel, the call of the Wryneck and the twitter of Goldfinches, all recall familiar

sounds of the English coiuitryside. Swallows, Kingfishers, and SpaiTows are

abimdant. Flocks of Starlings feed busily on the laivns. And if the abundance

of Kites, Hoopoes, Bee-eaters, and Golden Orioles introduces an element that is

not Enghsh, it is after all as much South European as Asiatic.

The spring of 1920 was an imusually late and cold one. In fact the residents

of the place told me everything might be considered at least three weeks later

than usual. To this fact may be attributed the small number of nests fomid.

The majority of the common bu’ds were just beginning to lay eggs at the date

of my departm’e.

Finally I should like to acknowledge with gratitude the great assistance

rendered to me by Miss G. Robinson in the study of the birds of Cashmere. I

have also to thank Dr. Hartert and Dr. C. B. Ticehurst for their assistance in

identifying many of the skins collected.

The .Jungle Crow — Corvvs coronoides intertnedins, Adams.

While the .Jungle Crow was abundant all along the country from Kohala to

Baramullah, it proved to be comparatively scarce in the plain of Srinagar winch

is not sufficiently wooded for its requirements. Onlj' a few indhriduals were

seen actually in Srinagar.

The House Crow — Corvus splendens, Vieill.

Observed in small numbers in Srinagar and about the road, but by no means

as common as the next species or as in the plains of the Punjab.

The Jackdaw — Colams monedula collaris (Drummond).

On the upward journey of April 1st a small party of .Jackdaws was first

observed at Domel, 21 miles from Kohala, and some more w'ere seen next day

about the 68th mile. After that the species became very numerous and one

of the most familiar of the objects along the roadside. On the return journey

of May 12th the Jackdaw was common all along the road as far as Baramullah

but was not observed below Uri.

Jn Srinagar it was the most common and noticeable of all the birds and with

the well known call greatly contributed to the English atmosphere of the place ;

it breeds in the hollow Chenar trees, in the roofs of the houses and in holes of walls

and bridges, being just as impudent and tame, as is Corvus splendens in the

plains.

On my first anival J was much struck by the stream of Jackdaws which

poured into Srinagar in the evenings and left again about sunrise. These flights

continued throughout my stay but appeared to diminish in number, being

latterly perhaps composed of non-breeding birds ; as far as J could ascertain

these flights roosted in the beds of -willow trees Avhich border all the waterways

between the city and Dhal lake.

Kidification was in full swing by about the middle of April and from that time

onward the birds were to be seen in the day time mostly in pairs sitting about

side by side in the -vicinity of their nests ; so that a huge Chenar tree, hollow with

age, would be seen to hold a dozen or more birds, sitting sedately pair by pair,

each near the hole that held its nest.

00

992 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

The first eggs, two incomplete clutches of 3 and 2 respectively, were obtained

on May 8th, but when I examined a large number of nests in a colony about some

buildings on May 10th most of them were either unfinished or empty, although

two nests contained clutches of 5 eggs, all fresh. There was of coiu’se a good

deal of variation according to site in the size of the nests, many of them being

in holes imder the rafters and eaves which previously I should have considered

too small for them to use. The nests were built of the usual miscellaneous mate-

rials, sticks and thorny twigs with a lining of dirty wool, rags, and hair ; indeed

I foimd this particular colony by following up the indi\ddual pairs which

were tearing the wool off a half decomposed sheepskin hung up in the fork

of a tree.

The Yellow -billed Blue Magpie — Urocissaflavirostris (Blyth).

On April 2nd two or three individuals were seen in the hills between Nausheh-

rah (mile 87) and Baramullah.

The Black -throated Jay — Laletris lanceolatus, (Vig.).

On 12th May a pair were seen on the road a short distance below Baramullah.

The Cashmere Great Tit — Parus major cashmirensis (Hartert).

This race of the Great Tit was abimdant on the Srinagar plain and at my

first arrival was still commonly met Avith in parties, although the breeding song

was already to be heard.

On April 28th a bird was seen carrying nesting material into a hole in the

trunk of a mulberry tree and seven fresh eggs wer^ taken from this nest when

it was opened up on May 1 1th. The female was caught on the eggs and contained

an eighth egg in the oviduct. The nest hole was interiorly large and contained

three or fom- handfuls of roots, dry grass, bents, and a few rags, with a thick

lining of hair and wool. On the same day a single egg was found in

another nest hole, containing but little material, in a hole in the trunk of a fruit

tree. •

A series collected yield the following measurements : —

Bill from skull. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

4 Males .. 12-5—13 73'5— 76 60-5— 65-5 19— 21 mm.

8 Females.. 12 — 13 68'5 — ^72-5 56‘5 — 61 18 5 — 20 mm.

The clutch of seven eggs measure 18 — 18-5 mm. in length and 14—14-5 mm.

in width.

The Crested Cole Tit — Parus melanolophus Vig.

A flock was seen on the Bund on April 7th and 11th and by the Dhal lake on

April 14th ; a single bird was seen by the temple of the Takht-i-Suliman on

April 17th and a pair in the small pine wood below it on April 19th.

The Fire-cap — -Cephalopyrus jlamtniceps (Bm-ton).

This species was observed on several dates between April 19th and May 9th.

On every occasion, with the exception of the finding of a solitary male in the

bushes about a small mountain stream on April 29th, the birds were in flocks

which were feeding in willow trees, working the blossoms, catkins, or old seed

cases after the manner of Redpolls and indulging in the same varietj- of acrobatic

postures. They were not at all shy, and appeared in the willows even of the

most frequented locahties such as the Bund.

The Western Streaked Laughing Thrush — Trochalopteron lineatum (Vig.).

This Laughing Thrush is of course common on the hillsides of Cashmere but

it was interesting to note, in view of Whitehead’s remarks 'on its partial migration

in winter to the orchards of Kohat {Ibis. 1909), that while it was seen occasionally

on my first arrival in the gardens of Srinagar and about the edges of the Dhal

lake, it appeared to have disappeared about the middle of April and had doubt-

less returned to the hillsides. No specimens were obtained so it is impossible

to be certain of the sub-species to which the birds should be attributed.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 993

The White-eye — Zosterops palpebrosa (Temm.).

A flock of White-eyes were seen in a willow grove by the Dhal lake on April

25th but the species was otherwise not observed in Srinagar. On the road up

I only noticed a single flock at Gahri on April 2nd. although on the return joui'-

ney of May 12th the species appeared common all along the lower part of the

road below Baramullah.

The White-cheeked Bulbul — Pycnonotus leucogenys (Gray).

The White-cheeked Bulbul was abundant throughout the road from Kohala

to Srinagar and in Srinagar it is one of the most characteristic and noticeable

of the birds. With its bright cheeky behaviour, quaintly cocked crest, and

pleasant notes, it is a universal favourite, catching the eye even of the most

unobservant, as it enters boats and houses, or hops about the feet of picnic

parties in search of stray scraps and greedily eating the pieces of bread and cake

thrown to it. The first nest, with three fresh eggs was found on May lOtli ;

it was a large but shallow cup, loosely constructed vfitli a foundation of dr}'-

grasses and fibres, followed by a layer of the same materials mixed with fine

strips of bark ; the lining was a thick layer of fine roots. It was placed some

10 to 15 feet from the ground on the thick stem of a large vine growing against

a roadside poplar.

The Red vented Bulbul — Pycnonotus hcemorrlwus (subs. ?).

One was seen at Garhi on April 1st.

The Himalayan Black Bulbul — Hypsipetes psaroides, Vig«

Observed fairly commonly, firstly in small parties, and after the beginning of

May in pairs, both in Srinagar and about the greater portion of the road.

The Wall Creeper — Tichodroma muraria (L.)

On April 17th a Wall Creeper was seen cUmbing about the huge stones of

the temple on the summit of the Takht-i-Suliman (6263 feet).

The Himalayan Tree Creeper — Certhia himalayana, Vig.

A single Tree Creeper was seen with a large hunting party of Phylloscojn in

the pine wood on the Takht-i-Suliman on April 19th.

The Himalayan Wren Troglodytes troglodytes neglectus Brooks.

One was seen in the ruined monastery of Pari Mahal on April 15th.

The Indian Ashy Drongo — Dicrurus leucopJweus longicaudatus (Hay.)

The Black Drongo^ — Dicrurus ater (Herm.).

No Drongo was seen on the journey up or in Srinagar until April 11th when

a pair were seen at Gupkar : one or two others were seen in May. These were

probably all D. longicaudatus. On the return journey however Drongos were

common all along the road both in the Happy Valley and throughout the hilly por-

tion of the road. Although these two species are not in my opinion easy to

disciiminate in the field, especially when seen from a motor, I think that the

birds seen above Baramullah were all Dicrurus longicaudatus, but that below

Baramullah they were largely replaced by D. ater.

The Great Reed-warbler— stentorea brunnescens (Jerd.).

On my first visit to the Dhal lake on April 8th the young growth of the reed

beds was just commencing to appear above the surface of the water and the onlj'

Reed-warbler seen was a single bird creeping about a line of o.siers. I first heard

the song on April 21st, by which date the reeds were half grown and the species

had apparently become common and after that the birds were to be heard or

seen in every patch of suitable cover on the lake. The song is not easily described ;

it is very loud and variable, harsh and metallic in tone for the most part, but

interspersed with pleasant bars. Like all the members of the genus the Great

Reed-warbler is a skulker and appears to prefer to move about the reeds close

to the surface of the water, but it is certainly not shy and allows a close

994 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlIh

approach and on occasion sings from the summit of some exposed pole or branch.

O^ving to the lateness of the season it did not appear worth while searching for

nests before my departure.

The Brown Bush-warbler — Horeites pallidas. Brooks.

A male was shot near Gaiiii on April 2nd as it was creeping about in some bushes

by the roadside.

The Indian Lesser White-throat Sylvia ciirruca affinis, Blyth.

Not observed before April 11th : but from that date onwards until my depar-

ture on May 12 small numbers seemed to be passing through Srinagar to the

breeding quarters. At the same time however, at least as early as April 20th

the lower slopes of the range of hills just behind Srinagar were tenanted by birds

which from their behaviour, singing courting and quarreUing, appeared to have

reached their breeding quarters and were preparing to nest. Many old nests

seen in bushes on these hill sides were probably of this species.

Although I have assigned these birds to Sylvia curruca, affinis it is with some

hesitation. It is well known that some race of Lesser White-throat breeds in

Cashmere in considerable numbers, and in the literature of the subject they

are always caUediSylviffl affinis but the breeding range of this race as given in the

Vogel Pal : Fauna does not include Cashmere, and the only specimen that I

obtained, which was killed by accident, pi’oved on comparison to be an example

of Hume’s Wliite-throat, Sylvia althaea. It was unfortunate that no series was

obtained, but at the time I was under the impression that there was no doubt

regai'ding the identity of the Cashmere breeding race, and I was un\villing to

devote any of the short time at my disposal to collecting so common a bird.

The Least White-throat — Sylvia curruca niinula, Hume.

A White-throat seen but unfortunately not procured on a stony hillside,

about 6,000 feet, on April 27th was attributed to this race : it was doubtless on

passage.

Hume’s White-throat — Sylvia althrea, Hume.

As mentioned above, a male was obtained on 24th April on the hillside above

Pendreathan about 6,000 feet.

The .Siberian Chiii Chaff — Phylloscopus collybita trisiis, Blyth.

The .Siberian Chiff Chaff was passing through Siinagar throughout the whole

of the six weeks that I was there. The greatest rush appeared to occur roughly

during the 10 days from the 13th to the 22nd of April, but the species was

sufficiently common on most days. It was very partial to the hnes of osiers in

the Dhal lake, in addition to being found in the ordinary haunts of the other

Willow-wi’ens.

The Yellow browed Willow-wren — Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks).

This species, like the last, was passing through Srinagar during the whole of

jny stay, and the two together must have included the vast majority of the

migrating Willow-TVTens which was one of the marked features of the Avifauna.

The period of their greatest abundance was perhaps a few days later than in

the ca.se of P. c. tristis.

The Olivaceous Willow- wren — Phylloscopus griseolus (Blyth.)

This Wdlow-WTen passed through Srinagar on its spring, migration in small

numbers and was noted by me on various dates from April 19th until May

10th. Unlike the vast majority of the migrating Phylloscopi, which congre-

gated in the willow groves that are so widespread a feature of .Srinagar, this bird

was chiefly found singly or in small parties in open ground on hillsides amongst

the scrub and low bushes of the boulder-strewn slopes.

The Large Crowned Willow-wren — Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth.)

Tills species was not noticed until April 26th but from that date onwards

until my departure, it was met with in small numbers amongst the rush of migrat-

ing willow-wrens.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGJ OF CASHMERE. 995

The Greenish Willow-WTen — Phylloscopiis nitidus viridanvs; Blyth.

This Willow wren was common on passage during the second week of May

when two specimens were preserved. It was also I believe present a week or

two earlier.

The Himalayan Starling — Slurnits ndgaris hvmii. Brooks.

On the upward journey of April 2nd Hume’s Starling was first observed at the

108th mile and became gradually commoner along the road side as we drew nearer

to Srinagar. In Srinagar itself the bird was most abundant and was still in large

flocks, although the yellow bill of the breeding plumage had been assumed and

the males were in song and some individuals were already at their nesting holes.

I did not however secure any eggs before my departure. No Starlings were seen

below Srinagar on the return journey.

The song is of the usual Starhng character but not so loud as that of the tv’pical

race : whilst it is uttered the wings are frequently flirted in the manner of the

latter. I could detect no special characteristic in the habits of this race in

Srinagar : the main stronghold of the birds was in the extensive groves of

pollarded willows in the holes of w'hich they were obviously intending to breed,

but pairs w^ere tenanting Chenar and other trees in the vicinit}’ of the houses,

although I did not actually observ'e any attempt at occupying any holes under

eaves or in walls.

A series of 6 mates and 4 females was collected. ' Their measurements are as

follows in millimetres : —

Bill]. Bill j. Breadth Wing. Tail. Tarsus,

skull. nostril. at nostril.

Males 29—31-5 17—19-5 7—7-5 116—121 56—59 29-5—31-5

Females 27-5—29-5 17—18-5 7—7-5 112-5—119 54—57-5 29-5—31

The adult female differs from the adult male in having the body feathers shorter

and broader so that on the mantle, scapulars, back and upper tail coverts the buff

tips are less completely worn awaj- and those parts remain more spotted. The

metallic gloss in less brilliant, and less extensive on the secondaries and greater

coverts. The first summer birds, the males amongst which were certainly about

to breed from the size of the testes, differ from the adults in the maikedly less

brilliant gloss, and the presence of the buff spots of the w-inter plumage, but partly

worn away, which remain throughout the plumage, and on the abdomen and rmder

tail coverts stiU largely conceal the black. In the first winter plumage of this

race the spots are so large that the abdomen appears almost white, (see Ihis. 1909,

57).

In this race the colour of the soft parts appears somewhat variable. In the

adult male the iris is dark brown ; mouth livid fleshy, bill bright yellow, homy

steel colour at base of lower mandible, nostril area horn colour ; feet salmon

brown, tarsus darker, claws dusky horn darker toward tip. The immatui’e males

show roughly the same colours.

In the adult female the iris is pale yellow and the bill hoiny yellow, anterior

half tinged with orange. The remainder is as in the male ; the immature females

have the bill either homy mottled with brown and yellow, or bright yellow,

with the base of the lower mandible horny.

The range and migrations of the Himalayan Starling appear to be very imper-

fectly know-n. Hartert (Vog. Pal. Fauna, I, 45) states that it breeds in the

Himalaj-as from Cashmere to Nepal and in the N. W. Punjab, wintering in the

plains of N. W. India. That it breeds in Cashmere has long been well known, and

it undoubtedly breeds in the v-alley of Peshawar (cf . N. E. 2nd ed. I. 369). But I

cannot trace the authority for the further extension of its breeding range eastward.

It certainlj- does not breed in the Kangra Valley, Kulu, Lahul, Spiti, the Simla

hills, or British Gahi-wal. Although I ha\-e paid particular attention to the

masses of Starlings which visit the Punjab in winter I hav'e only met with this

race in small numbers in the Kangra valley and in the district of Jhelum : here a

«9G J0VR:SAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. XXVIII.

small marked passage passed through from the middle of September imtil the

middle of October, and apparently returned about the middle of February : they

became abundant by the end of that month, decreased by the end of March, and

only a few remained as late as April.

Common Mynah. — Acridotheres tristis (L).

Observed commonly throughout my stay in Srinagar and ail along the road on

both joumej’s.

The Golden Oriole. — Oriolus oriolus Icundoo, Sykes.

The Golden Oriole is only a summer visitor to Srinagar and was not observed

rmtil April 20th after which it quickly became abundant. Several of last year’s

nests were noted in the trees about the European qxiarter.

The Rufous-backed shrike. — Laniiis schach erythronotus (Vig.)

The Rufous backed shrike is certainly one of the commonest and most charac-

teristic birds of Srinagar ; it is found everywhere, in the fields and orchards,

in gardens and villages, and particularly in the poplars that thickly border all the

roads, while individuals visit the reeds-beds of the Dhal lake. It occurs of course

in the Munee hills and I presume also in all the hiUs between Kohala and Bara-

muUah, but their numbers there do not strike one in the same way as after

Baramullah is left and the poplars start with a Shrike to every couple of hundred

yards or so. On my first arrival the birds did not apjrear to be paired but courting

commenced with the first fine weather and nidification was in full swing by the

end of April though I did not actually obtain any eggs before my departure. Like

many of the genus this Shrike is a great mimic and songster.

The Short-billed Minivet — Pericrocotus hrevirostris (Vig.) .

Observed in small numbers, at first in parties and latterly singl}^ or in paii-s,

throughout my stay in Srinagar.

The Cashmere Red -breasted Flycatcher — Muscicapa parvahyperythm (Cab.).

This Flycatcher was first observed on April 14th on which date two specimens

were obtained in a willow grove by the Dhal lake. For the rest of the month it

was observed in small numbers about gardens and orchards, although only males

were seen. After May 1st no individual was seen imtil May 10th on which date a

female was shot and a second seen. One or two individuals were seen from the

motor during the first stages of the journey down on May 12th. The behaviour

and habits are similar to those of M. parva parva in the plains, but the upward

jerk of the tail is more noticeable owing to the greater length of the feathers.

The call note is indistinguishable from that of M. superciliaris.

Seven males preserved yield the following measurements : — bill from skull

12’5-13‘5 ; wing 65 ’5 — 69‘5; tail 49 — 54; tarsus 17' 5 — 19. The

only female obtained measures: — bill from skull 13'5 mm. ; wing 67 '5; tail

50- 5; tarsus 18 ‘5. All the above had the organs shghtly developed and were

somewhat fat. The colour of the soft parts was as follows : — ^iris dark brown ;

mouth 5'eUow ; bill yellow, upper mandible brown (males), dark brown, basal half

of lower mandible yellowish (female) ; legs sooty brown, soles dull oUve (males),

black (female).

The White-eyebrowed Blue Flycatcher — Muscicapa, superciliaris Jerd.

First observed on April 17th when a male was feeding about the rocks of the

summit of the Takht-i-Suhman. After this it became fairly common and remained

so until my departure on May 12th, being often found in company with the

last species. It was I presume on migration.

The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher — Alseonax ruficaudu^s (Swains).

A single individual was seen in an orchard on May 1st.

The Slaty-blue Flycatcher — Muscicapa tricolor (Hodgs.).

A female was shot in a grove of fruit trees on May 10th where it was hawking

about the boughs in company with M. superciliaris and M. hypenjthra.

A COXTRIBUTIOX TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 997

The Riifous-bellied Niltava — Niltava sundara, Hodgs.

T am practically certain that I saw a male of this species on the embankment

of the Chenar Bagh on April 12th.

The Paradise Flycatcher — Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.).

With the exception of an adult male seen on April 6th no Paradise Flycatcher

was seen until April 14th. After that date the species was common about Srina-

gar until my departure and I saw several about the road on my downward

journey.

The Wliite-capped Redstart — Chaimarrornis leucocephala (Vig.).

One or two were seen along the Jhelum river on April 1st between Kohala and

Domel.

The Plumbeous Redstart — Chaimanornis juliginosa juliginosa (Vig.).

Observed fairly commonly on April 1st about the banks of the Jhelum river

from mile 25 onwards to about Uri. On the return journey of 12th May one was

seen near Uri.

The Indian Black Redstart — Phoenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides (Moore).

A few individual Redstarts were seen as follows, in every case at the foot

of the Takht-i-SuUman, or of the hill behind it:-April 17th one male ; April 27th

a male and female ; April 28th one male; May 10th two females.

The Blue-headed Redstart — Phoenicurus coeruleocephala (Vig.).

A few were observed both on April 20th and 29th in a nullah at about 7,500-

8,000 feet elevation on the hill behind the Gupkar corner.

The Blue Rock Thrush — Monticola solitarius pandoo (Sykes).

First observed on April 20th but it had perhaps been overlooked as by the end

of the month pairs were fairly common on the bare hillsides in that area between

about 5,500 feet and 8,000 feet, which for the most part was so wanting in bird life.

The House Sparrow — Passer domesticus parkini, Whistler.

On arrival in Srinagar I was immediately struck by the marked difference of the

House Sparrows from the common Passer d. indicus of the Plains. I was therefore

careful to collect a small series which were compared in England with the series

of sparrows in the Tring Museum and in Dr. Ticehurst’s and my own collections;

this confirmed my opinion andthe birds were described (Bull. B. O. C.,xli,13,1920)

as Passer domesticus parkini, with the type locality Srinagar. It is distinguish-

ed from indicus by the richer chestnut of the mantle, scapulars, and lesser wing

coverts, and by the considerably larger size and heavier biU; bill from skull 14-15;

wing 77" 5-83 (majority over 80) ; tail 57-62*5 ; tarsus 18*5-20 mm. The female

differs from the female of indicus only in the larger size and heavier bill : wing

75-78*5; tail 53-61 mm. The range of this new race has not yet been fully worked

out; but it occurs at Bampur, Karman, Shiraz, Bushire (in winter), Afghanis-

tan, and probably Baluchistan. It is I think the breeding bird of Lahul and

Spiti. It is a migratory species and in winter visits the plains of Sindh and

the Pimjab, and possibly further south and east.

The Common Rose-finch — Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Hodgs.).

A few parties, on migration, were met with from April 28th up till the date

of my departure.

The Himalayan Gold-finch — Carduelis caniceps caniceps, Vig.

The Himalayan Gold-finch was very common throughout my stay in Srinagar,

occmrring in fiocks which had not fully broken up even as late as May 12th. These

flocks were found largely about the lower slopes of the hiUs, feeding on the ground

amongst the boulders, or visting the orchard and groves in the neighbourhood.

The huge Chenar trees were also much frequented by the birds which doubtless

feed in the seeds remaining in the “ ball”.

Q9S JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV HI.

Four males and two females preserved yield the following measurements in

millimetres : —

Bill Jrom skull. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Males .. 16-5—17 79-5—81 49-5—51-5 14-5—15

Females .. 15-5 77-5 — 78-5 48 — 49-5 14.5

In the May birds the organs were but partly enlarged. The females differ

in plumage from the males only in the smaller extent of the red area about the

base of the bill. The colour of the soft parts was in both sexes as follows : —

iris dark brown ; mouth white; bill fleshy white, sometimes tipped \vith brown;

legs fleshy browm.

The Gold-fronted Finch — Serinus pusillus {Paiil.)

It was with particular pleasure that I first found this species on April 20th,

as it had been for some years a special object of my search, and I was afraid that

it would have left the Srinagar Valley before my arrival. On that day I found

two large flocks at about 6,000 feet in a large open nullah of the Une of hills behind

Srinagar. These flocks were rather loose and straggling in character, the birds

breaking away from or rejoining the others freely when disturbed. The ground

that they were on was without trees, but covered with bushes and coarse herbage

growing amongst a litter of boulders ; on settling they rapidly fluttered dow-n to

feed on the seed heads of the grass and other coarse herbage, or on the ground. In

manner and demeanour they were very reminiscent of Gold-finches, and indeed a

fe-w days later I met with a mixed flock of both kinds considerably lower down,

almost on the level of the plain, w-here they were feeding on an open stretch of

short turf thickl}’ covered with stones. Although shy and restless the two birds

are easily differentiated in the field ; the Gold-fronted Finch appears very dark

with a blackish looking head, and at a near approach the golden poll shines very

brightly in the sun. The note is a clear double call, distinctive in character, but

hard to describe ; the song is hardly more than a shrill warbling twitter, a more

sustained version of the call note.

These flocks continued to frequent the same nullah for a few days but had

apparent^ broken up or moved away by the 29th April, ; on that date I looked

for them without success, although a few- indi\iduals were singing in the under-

growth about a small stream w-hich ran down one side of the nuUah.

Later, on May 4th, I found that about a dozen birds w-ere frequenting a line of

willow trees planted along a water channel on another part of the same range of

hills, and these birds were in the same place on May 7th. Five specimens were

obtained in all and in view of the comparative rarity of this bird in collections it

may be as w-ell to place their measurements on record.

rufescent browai, faintlj’ streaked with sooty black. The ear coverts are dull

rufescent brown. The remainder of the plumage is similar to that of the adult

males. There is some variation in the depth of colour of the gold poll in the adult

birds, but this appears purely individual. The organs were minute in all the birds

except that in No. 3284 they were very slightly enlarged. The soft parts are

constant in colours as follow-s : — iris brown ; mouth wliitish ; bill horny blackish,

legs black. Nos. 3224, 3265 and 3266 show slight traces of moult about the head.

The White-capped Bunting — Emheriza stewarti, Blj-th.

The White-capped Bunting was very common along the road from Kohala to

Baramullah, and about the slopes of the Takht-i-Suliman and the range of hills

A CONTBIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 999

behind it, where they were preparing to nest. I did not however see it on the

Srinagar plain away from the hills. It is a matter of surprise to me that although

I kept a careful watch over all the Buntings seen I could not detect a single speci-

men of Emberiza da stracheyi amongst the numbers of this species.

The Grey-headed Bunting — Emberiza fucata arcuata, Sharpe.

On April 24th some seven or eight of these Buntings were found on the ground

described above as the haunt of Serinus pusillus. They were rather shy and kept

very much to the ground moving about amongst the herbage and I failed to

secure a specimen.

The Swallow — Hirundo ruslica rustica, L.

Throughout the journey of April 1st and 2nd the Swallow was observed in

loose parties, in the hiUy portion of the road often in company with the next

species, hawking about the vicinity of the river. At Srinagar it was most

abundant and curiously tame, settling within a few feet of the heads of passers-

by in the verandahs of crowded places like the post office and the European shops

along the Bund. By the middle of the month the birds were building or

repairing old nests, some of which were placed in the smallest of native dwellings,

so that they were easily within reach from the ground. The very publicity of the

sites rendered it difficult to examine most of the nests, but I took a clutch of 5

fresh eggs on May 11th.

The Striated Swallow — Hirundo daurica (sub-sp?).

Observed in small numbers on April 1st and 2nd from Kohala to BaramuUah ,

but only about the vicinity of Domel on the return journey of May 12th.

The Crag Martin — Riparia rupestris (Scop.)

Three or four individulals were seen over the hill behind Pendreathan on

April 20th. On April 27th a large flight were flying around and resting on a

rocky cliff of another part of the same range ; these birds were apparently on

passage, as when disturbed they immediately disappeared and did not

return.

The House-martin — Chelidon urbica (sub-sp ?).

A few were seen hawking over the water-ways of the Dhal lake on May 6tli.

The Tree Pipit — Anihus trivialis harringtoni, Witherby.

Small parties of Tree Pipits were seen about throughout the month of April,

and a male which was shot on 3rd April proved to be of this race.

Hodgson’s Pipit — Anthus roseatus, Blyth.

Several were observed about the floating gardens of the Dhal lake on April 8th

when they were in company with YeUow-headed Wagtails. Two were seen in a

ploughed field on April 23rd. Several pairs in breeding plumage were also seen

usually near water, about the last week of April and into May.

The Brown Rock-Pipit — Anthus sordidus jerdoni, Finsch.

The Brown Rock Pipit was common about the Takht-i-Suhman and the bare

lower slopes of the range of hills behind it, about 6,000 feet. Here they were

in pairs and obviously about to breed, the courting flight being seen as early

as April 9th. ^

The Grey Wagtail — Motadlla dnerea mdanope, Pall.

A single bird was seen on April 5th. No more were seen until April 13th after

which the species became fairly common on passage rmtil about the end of the

month, after which only two were seen, on May 8th.

The Cashmere White Vi agtaid— Motadlla alba hodgsoni, Blytffi

This handsome Wagtail was first seen on the upward journey of April 2nd

about mile 48. In Srinagar it was common, but kept for the most part to the

neighbourhood of the river and the Dhal lake where it was particularly partial

23

1000 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

to the house boats, being usually seen on their roofs ; some might alwa5^s be

seen at the Dhal Darwaza feeding busily on the lumps of floating refuse which

were continually being SAvept down by the faU of water. It was occasionally met

with, sometimes in the company of other Wagtails, on flooded pastures. Pairs

were seen carrying nesting material on April 22nd and May 3rd and in the former

case the nest site was an old box on the roof of a house boat. On two occasions

I saw the courting display ; in this the cock shuffled roimd the hen, with the tail

and wing nearest the latter spread out and sloped dowmwards, so that the upper

surfaces were presented to the object of his affections.

Three males and three females were preserved and yield the following

measurements : —

Bill Jrom ir mg. Tail. Tarsus,

skull.

Males .. 17- 5— 18 mm 91—96 89—94 24-5—25

Females .. 17-5 — 18-5mm. 87 — 93'5 84'5 — 90 23-5 — 25‘5

The three males and one female appear to be full adults, and are practically iden-

tical in plumage except that the female has the pure black of the back somewhat

sullied with ashy grey. All four birds have recently moulted the central pair of

tail feathers. The other two females appear to be in their first summer plumage

and have not moulted the central tail feathers. In both the back is ashy grey,

somewhat mottled with black. All six birds were about to breed this year by the

condition of the organs. The soft parts are : — iris dark brown ; bill and legs

black ; mouth, blackish in males, tongue slaty-grey, in females fleshy or blackish

livid.

The flashed Wagtail — Motacilla dlLa perso'iiata, Gld.

Observed occasionally for the greater part of April but I did not make very

accurate notes on the appearance of this race, owing to the difficulty of distin-

guishing it in the field from some phases of M. a. hodr/soni.

The White Wagtail — Motacilla alba alba, L.

Occasional specimens of the White Wagtail were seen throughout the first half

of April ; two were seen as late as April 23rd and one of these last birds was

secured. It is a male in summer plumage and is not distinguishable from

European examples of this race.

The Yellow-headed Wagtail — Motacilla cilrcjola citreola, Pall.

Met with in small numbers on various dates from April 13th to May 5th.

Hodgson’s Yellow Wagtail — Motacilla citreola calcaratus, Hodgs.

Met Arith in small numbers on A-arious dates from April 18th to May 6th.

y The Cashmere Blue -throat — Luscinia suecica abbotti (Richm.).

Blue-throats, obviously on passage, were seen as follows : — April 4th two single

birds, one in a garden and one in a AA-illow grove, but not clearly identified were

apparently Blue- throats ; April 17th one amongst boulders at the foot of the

Takht-i-Suhman ; April 20th one seen ; April 22nd one or two in the same place

as on April 17th ; Ain-il28th one in the same place ; May 4th one in an orchard

tree. The last bird, a male, Avas shot and proves to be of the above-named race,

to which presumably the other birds also belonged.

The Himalayan Ruby-throat — Luscinia pectoralis (Gould).

A female was shot on April 29th in a small bush — covered ravine Avith running

water on the lower slopes of the range of hills behind Pendreathan.

The Magpie Robin — Copsychus saidaris (L.).

Several Avere seen along the road about Garhi both on April 2nd and May 12th.

The Pied Wheatear — Oe^ianthe picata (Blj-th).

A male was seen on April 9th on the boulder-strewn base of the hill near Pen-

dreathan.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 1001

The White-capped Wheatear — Oenanthe capislrata (Gould).

A male was seen at the base of the above range, but further along in the dii-ec-

tion of the P. W. D. quarries on April 27th. A female Wheatear seen in the

same direction on April 19th was also attributed to this species.

The Stone -chat — Saxicola torquata indica, Blyth.

On the upward journey of April 1st and 2nd the Stone-chat was obseiwed

throughout the road from Kohala upward and for the first half of April it was

common about the fields and gardens about Srinagar. These birds were evidently

on passage and had gone by the end of the month leardng only those birds on the

lower slopes of the range of hills behind Srinagar which were about to breed

between 5,500 feet and about 7,000 feet, and which had been present at the same

time as the migrating birds in the fields below. A good deal of variation was

observable in the colouration of the birds, some of the males appearing more

uniformly black and white than others, and I regret that the limited time at my

disposal did not allow me to collect a series for examination.

The Pied Bush-chat — Saxicola caprata hicolor, Sykes.

Abundant in the hills along the road from Kohala to BaramuUah on both

Ap”il 1st and 2nd and May 12th, but not observed at Srinagar.

The Iron-grey Bush-chat — Oreicola Jerrea ferrea (Gray).

A male was seen at Garhi on April 2nd. One or two uidividuals, which might

however have been only a single pair, were noted about the bund during the first

half of April. A male was seen near the Takht on April 15th.

The Altai Accentor — Prundla himalayanus (Blyth).'

A fiock of some 15 to 20 of these Accentors was met with on the Takht-i

Suliman on April 17th.

The Black-throated Accentor — Prunella albigularis (Brandt).

An Accentor was seen on the hillside by the Peri Mahal on April 15th which

was apparently of this species.

Jerdon’s Accentor — Prunella slrophiatus jerdoni (Brooks).

A female was shot on April 29th in the same ravine and near the same place

as the specimen of Luscinia pectoralis.

The Himalayan Whistling Thrush — Myiophoneus tertiminclci temmincki Vig.

Common along the road from Kohala to BaramuUah on both April 1st and

2nd and May 12th. Single birds were observed near the Dhal lake on April 14th

and April 28th.

Tickell’s Ouzel — Turdus unicolor, TickeU.

Tickell’s Ouzel was exceedingly common in Srinagar and was to be found

throughout the gardens and camping grounds of the English quarter, and the

willow groves and orchards of the surrounding country, but seldom ventured

into the open fields or any distance up the hiUsides. In habits and demeanour it

resembles the Enghsh Song Thrush, and the meUow song was very reminiscent

of the countryside at home. Many old nests placed in the forks and holes of

trees were attributed to this species, but I did not find anj^ new nest although

courting was in full swing by the middle of April. Under its influence the

birds became very pugnacious and were continuaUy sparring.

The Black-throated Ouzel — Turdus ruficollis atrigularis Tenim.

On April 2nd a few were seen along the road in the hill barrier between Gahri

and BaramuUah. At Srinagar small parties were met on different dates up till

April 26th ; a single bird was seen on April 29th.

The Himalayan Pied Woodpecker — Dryobates hintalayensis (Jard. & Selb.).

One was seen on April 11th in a willow gi’ove by the Dhal lake and was heard

in the same place some days later.

1002 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIL

The Wi'3nieck — Jynx torquilla japonica. Bp.

I first observed the Wryneck on April 8th being attracted by the noisy behaviour

of a pair in some old trees near the chinch ; after this the species was common and

was frequently to be heard in civil fines, and the surrounding willow groves and

orchards ; about the end of April the call was less frequently to be heard but the

birds were still about and evidently intending to breed. Two specimens obtained

are rather grey in tint.

The Pied Kingfisher — Ceryle rudis leucomelanura, Reich.

Observed occasionally on the Dhal lake throughout my stay.

The Common Kingfisher — Alcedo atthis pallasii, Rchb.

Kingfishers were exceedingly abimdant in Srinagar throughout my stay. Their

main stronghold was of course the confused labyrinth of plots of cultivation, float-

ing gardens, and small channels, which fie between the Jhelum river and the Dhal

lake, and to a lesser extent break up the margins of the lake itself. To thread

this labyrinth in a “ Shikara” was to meet with an endless succession of these

beautiful birds, here sitting motionless on some bough close to the passing boat,

there flying before it in fright utteiing the familiar hard sharp squeak

which is the call of the species. To leave the neighbourhood of the lake was not

however to part with Kingfishers ; anywhere throughout the surrounding plain

small pools and dykes provided their quota, and even for a short distance up

the hill sides occasional birds might be seen, attracted by some suitable nesting

site on the face of the slope.

On my arrival the birds were already in pairs and many nest-holes were appar-

ently ready for eggs : yet I was unable to find any hole containing eggs until

May 8th on which date I took 7 fresh eggs from a burrow which had been found

as early as April 8th, when the pair had been very noisy and tame, and apparently

courting.

It is well known h?w dirty the burrows of this species become after the young

are hatched, but it was new to me to discover that the entrance tunnel starts to

grow dirty with the excreta of the parent birds, before the eggs are even laid.

Six adult specimens were preserved and their measurements are as follows

The sexes are alike in plumage : as regards the soft parts the dark brown iris

the salmon mouth and the orange red feet with dusky claws are alike in both

sexes. The bill is however very variable as follows : —

No. 3198 Black.

No. 3221 Blackish horn, a streak of salmon along sides of lower mandible.

No. 3240 Black, base of lower M. homy.

No. 3225 Blackish horn above, salmon horn below.

No. 3241 Upper mandible purplish brown, anterior half black ; lower

salmon red.

No. 3287 Black, gape and lower surface salmon.

The clutch of seven eggs which were taken measure respectively : — 21 x 17 '5,

21 17, 21 X 17-5, 21 x 17-5, 20-5x17-5, 20-5 x 17-5, 20-5 x 17, mm.

The European Bee-eater — Merops apiaster, L.

The first Bee-eaters of the season were observed on April 22nd when a party

of 8 were seen passing over head by the Gupkar gap, and a similar party was seen

next day. By the end of the month the species had become common, their

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 1003

main stronghold being the open ground about the base of the Takht and the

hills behind it. Numbers might also be seen over the reed beds of the Dhal lake.

It is strange that I saw no Bee-eaters about the road on the return journey of May

12th.

The Hoopoe — Upwpa epops epops, L.

On April 2nd we formd the Hoopoe common as soon as we entered the plains

at BaramuUah and it was most abundant at Srinagar throughout my stay. About

the end of April the birds were evidently preparing to nest in trees and in the walls

of Kashmiri houses but I did not examine any nests.

The Cuckoo — Cuculus canorus, L.

The Cuckoo was heard calling once on each of the following dates, April 21st,

April 26th and May 1st.

The Common Swift — Cypselus apus, L.

Observed as follows : — one over the summit of the Pendreathan hill on April

29th ; several over the Dhal lake on May 6th ; on the journey of May 12th one

near BaramuUah, two near Chakoti, and one at Domel.

The Slaty-headed Parrakeet — Palceornis schisticeps, Hodgs.

One was seen in a Chenar tree at Srinagar on April 13th. On the domiward

journey of May 12th several were seen in the hiUs below BaramuUah, and a big

flock was flying about the road at Domel.

The Himalayan Wood Owl — Strix aluco nivicola (Blyth).

I attribute to tliis species, which I have not previoush’ met, a fine Owl seen

sitting in a wiUow tree on the bund on April 10th and 11th. The remains of

an owl which had been kiUed and eaten in some fir trees on a hillside was appa-

rently of the same species.

The Lammergaier — GypaHus harbatus grandis, Storr.

Compared with the abundance of this grand bird about many of the hill stations

the Lammergaier seemed very scarce in Cashmere. One was seen on both jour-

neys, on April 2nd and May 12th in the hiUs between Ghari and Uri. At Srinagar

I saw only a single example, on April 27th and AprU 29th, over the hill behind

the P. W. D. stone quarry.

The Himalayan Griffon Vulture — Gyps Jtdvus himalayensis, Hume.

Observed in small numbers at Srinagar and about the road on both journeys.

The Eg^qitian Vulture — Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (L.).

Seen at Gahri on April 1st. At Srinagar one or two pairs were to be met about

the neighbourhood of the Talrht and the range of hiUs behind it, but the species

was not common. On April 20th a nest containing eggs could be seen on a ledge

of rock in a very narrow and precipitous gully at about 8,000 feet, but the site

was quite inaccessible without the use of ropes.

Pallas’s Fishing Eagle — Haliaetus leucoryphus Pali.

A pair or possibly more were frequenting the neighbourhood of the Jhelum

river just above Srinagar and were seen on various dates from April 21st until

my departure.

The Booted Eagle — Hieraetus pennatus Gmel.

A small species of Raptor which I doubtfully identify with this species was

occasionally met with during the latter half of April, always in the neighbour-

hood of the river.

The Shahin Falcon — Falco peregrinus peregrinator, Sundev,

On April 16th a Wagtail that I had wounded on the camping ground near the

rifle ranges was nearly taken by a Falcon which appeared by its flight and size to

be a female Shahin.

1004 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCLETY, Vol. NXYIll.

The Hobby — Falco subbuteo, L.

A party of 3 or 4 Hobbies were watehed for some time on April 29tb when

they were soaring and playing about the bare summit, rougldy 8,500 feet, of the

hill behind Pendreathan. A small Falcon which was soaiing over the river by

the Post Office on the evening of May 4th was also, I think, of this species.

The Kestrel — Falco tinnuncvlus, L.

One or two were seen throughout the journey on April 1st and 2nd. One was

seen on the return journey at Domel on May 12th.

At Srinagar occasional individuals were seen througliout the month of April.

The Larger Kite — Milvus melanotis, Temm. & Schl.

On the journey up on April 2nd I noticed the first nests of this Kite about the

neighbourhood of Rampur, and they became more numerous as Srinagar was ap-

proached. In Srinagar the birds were common and the nests were not easy to secure

as the majority of them were placed in the huge smooth limbed Chenar trees in

situations that no chmber could I’each without ropes and ladders. These nests

were for the most part very large solid structures, possibly added to from year to

year, two or three times the size of the majority of the nests built in the plains by

the common Milvus govinda.

A few nests were found in mulberry trees, at a comparatively low height, and

these nests were but small and untidy. Two or three nests were also found in

poplar trees.

The following clutches of eggs were actually taken. (The measurements in

miUimetres are appended) : —

April 7th : one fresh egg (nest not seen), 54 '5 X 44 '5.

April 9th : c/3 moderately incubated eggs taken from the side bough of

a huge Chenar tree, only reached -with rope and ladder after

an hour’s work. Rest large and massive. 59 '5 x 46, 57 '5 x

47, 56 X 48.

April 13th : c/2 moderately incubated eggs taken from one of three small

mulberry trees growing on a small island in the middle of the

Dhal lake. The nest was small and shallow and thickly lined

with dirty rags and fragments of rubbish. 56 X 45 : 58 X 44'5.

April 13th : c/2 fresh eggs taken from a small nest on the summit ota

medium sized mulberry tree. 55 ‘5 X 44 '5, 58 '5 X 43.

April 19th : c /2 fresh eggs taken from a comparatively small and untidy

nest built about 30 feet from the ground on the side bough

of a small Chenar tree in a small farm yard on the river bank.

Both birds came soaring round and attacked the chmber in a

very determined manner, stooping right through the branches

. at him, and on one occasion actually drawing blood from his

scalp. 56-5 X 44-5, 57'5 X 45.

April 23rd ; c/2 fresh eggs taken from a rather large nest built about 35 to

40 feet from the ground in one of a row of poplar trees on the

golf course.

In Srinagar the Larger Kite is in no sense a jungle Kite but occupies exactl}'

the place of Milvus govinda in the plains of the Punjab ; it is not however so num-

erous. The greater size and the white wing patches are very marked in most of

the birds, but there are of course a large number of individuals which would hardly

be distinguishable from the common species.

The Marsh Harrier — Circus eeruginosus (L.)

Single examples of the Marsh Harrier were seen on April 13th, April 19th and

April 30th.

The Blue Rock Dove — Coluniba livia, Bonnaterre.

Seen in small numbers, mostly about the hills, but no specimens were collected

for subspecific identification.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF CASHMERE. 1005

The Indian Turtle Dove — Strtplopdia orientalis meena (Sykes).

One was seen about 8,000 feet near the summit of the hill behind Pendreathan

on April 20th. Several were seen about the orchards and willow groves on April

25th and 28th and these were clearly migrating birds.

The CoUared Turtle Dove — Streptopelia decaocto, decaoclo (Frev.)

Tills familiar Dove w’as not seen until April 20th after which date the species

rapidly became common.

The Spotted Dove — Streptopelia suratensis suratensis (Gm).

This Dove was not noted on my journey into Cashmere, nor in Srinagar ; but

on the return journey of May 12th it ivas found to be fairly common from

Uri downwards.

The Snow-Cock — Tetraogallm himalayensis, G. R. Gray.

A pair were seen on April 20th at about 8,000 feet on the summit of the range

of hills behind Srinagar. They were being pursued by a large Eagle, possibl}’

Bonelli’s Eagle, but the pursuit passed rapidly beyond my ken and the result

remained unknown.

The Chukor Partridge — Alectoris grceca chukar (Gray).

The Chukor Partridge was common enough on the range of hiUs behind Srinagar

from about 6,000 feet upwards, but it was comparatively even more abimdant on

the Takht-i-Suliman ; there the sacred traditions of the liill save the birds from

molestation, and they have benefitted accordingly.

The Black-Partridge — Francolinus vulgaris, Steph.

Heard near Garhi on May 12th.

The Water-hen — Gallinula chloropus (L.)

The Water-hen ajipears to be a summer visitor to the Dhal lake as I only saw

a single bird there (on April 13th) before April 25th on which date the species

had become very numerous. '

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana — Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scop.)

Several were seen on May 8th about the marshes which lie on the southern side

of the river near the Rifle Range. None were seen on the Dhal lake.

The Red-wattled Lapwing — Sarcogrammus indicus (Bodd.)

One was seen on April 6th at Srinagar.

The Black and White Stilt — Himantopus Candidas, Bonn.

One was seen on April 16th on some flooded fields near the Rifle Range.

The Green Sandpiper — Tringa ochropus, L.

The Green Sandpiper was observed fairly common about the Happy Valley

throughout the entire period of my staj' in Cashmere.

The Common Sand -piper — Tringa hypoleucus, L.

This Sand -piper was observed occasionally about the Jhelum river on various

dates from April 5th to May 5th.

The Wood Sandpiper — Tringa ylareola, I,.

A small number were observed about the marshes south of the river near the

Rifle Range on both April 16th and May 8t1i.

The Common Heron — Arden cinerca, L.

Observed in small numbers about Srinagar throughout my stay. Some were

•een on the river near mile 94 on April 2nd.

The Night Heron — Nyclicorax nycticorax (L.).

Observed as follows : — one in a line of osiers on the Dhal lake on Api-il 25th ; one

or two about the Dhal lake on ilay 6th ; one or two about the Mar Canal on May

9th.

1006 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXVIII

The Blackheaded Gull — Larus ridibundus, L.

On May 6th a party of some 20 Gulls in full breeding plumage with dark masks

were seen on the Dhal lake, from whence they moved off towards the river. No

specimen was obtained but there can be no doubt that they were of this species

which I obtained at Jhelum in March 1914 when some numbers were moving up

the Jhelum river on migration to their breeding quarters on the Salt lakes of

Western Tibet.

The Whiskered Tern —Hydrochelidon leucopareia indim (Steph.).

The Whiskered Teru did not arrive until the end of April when I first saw a

party flying down the river on the 30th of the month. Several were observed

during the following days and when I visited Nasim Bagh by boat on May 6th

numbers were observed fishing over the Dhal lake, especially over patches of weed.

All were in full breeding plumage. The birds remained common until my depar-

ture on May 12th when they were observed in some numbers about the flooded

fields of the Happy Valley as far as BaramuUah ; none were seen below this.

The call is a harsh grating version of the syllable “ Creak”.

The Little Grebe — Podieceps ruficollis capensis, Salvad.

Three or four Dabchicks were seen on some ponds near the BaramuUah road on

April 8th. Single birds were seen on the Dhal lake on April 25th and May 6th.

1007

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE COCGTDM

OF CEYLON.

BY

E, Ernest Green, F.E.S., F.Z.S.

Part IV .

(^Continued from page 357 of Vol. XVI of this Journal.')

{With 39 text figures.)

The following notes and descriptions deal with new species of genera

that were considered in the earlier parts of my Monograph. With the

publication of part V, and the present paper, the list of Ceylon Coccidre

has been brought up to date. Other species, doubtless, remain to be

discovered by any diligent collector. I shoidd be glad to receive such

novelties, with a view to the publication of further Supplementary Papers.

Aspidiotus ambalangoda, n. sp. (Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1 — Aspidiotus amhalangcda. Pygidium of adidt 5, X 450.

Puparium of female flattish, oblong, much longer than broad, usually

tapering to each extremity. Colour brownish black ; larval pellicle reddish,

surrounded by a narrow pale ring ; nymphal pellicle concealed. Dimen-

sions of fully developed example 2'25 hy 1-5 mm.

Adult female rather strongly chitinized ; broadly rounded in front,

pointed behind, with a well defined transverse groove between the prothor-

acic and mesothoracic segments. No circumgenital pores. Dorsal pores

minute and inconspicuous. Median area of pygidium more densely chiti=

nous, with faint traces of partial tessellation. Extremity of pygidium with

four pairs of prominent, bluntly pointed lobes each of which has a more

or less distinct notch on the outer side ; median and first lateral lobes

approximately equal in size ; second and third lateral lobes larger,

widely separate ; margin beyond outer lobes strongly cristate. Margin

without squames. Spines small and inconspicuous. Paraphyses six,

elongate, slender, each with a circular knob at its inner extremity.

Length 1'5 mm.

Disposed along the mid rib, on the upper surface of leaves of an

undetermined shrub. Ambalangoda.

Somewhat resembling Pseudaonidia nigra Brain ; but differing in the

absence of circumgenital pores.

34

1008 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Aspidiotus calophylli, n. sp. (Fig. 2.

Puparium of female pale brown, semi-

translucent ; flat, broadly ovate. Exuviae

yellowish, sub-central.

Adult female turbinate ; broadly

rounded in front, acutely pointed behind.

There is a slight lateral constriction

demarkiiig tho thoracic from the abdomi-

nal areas. Segmental divisions strongly

deflued, especially those between the

thorax and abdomen and between the

abdomen and pygidium. Pygidium with

three pairs of prominent lobes of which

the median are the largest ; median and

first laterals distinctly trifoliate, second

laterals bifoliate. Squames broad and

deeply fimbriate ; numerous, nine beyond

the outer lateral lobe. Circumgenital pores

in four groups ; upper groups with from lo

to 23, lower groups with from 14 to 18

pores. Dorsal pores numerous, small, com-

municating with conspicuous ducts which are long and slender on the central

area, but relatively short and stout on the lateral areas. Length 2 mm.

On foliage of Calophi/llum walker i. Namunakuli Hill, Badulla.

Difl'ers from pedronis in the strongly marked segmentation and in the

broader and more numerous squames.

.Aonidia (Oreeniella) columnifera, n. sp. (Fig. 3.)

)

Fig. 2 —Axjndiotus calophylli.

Adult $ , X 30.

Fig. 3 — Aonidia columnifera. (a) Pygidium of nymph. X 4o0.

(b) Pygidium of adult 9 , X 220. (c) Male puparium, x 10.

Puparium of female flattish, broadly oblate ; dull castaiieous ; larval

pellicle blackish, the central area occupied by a cylindrical column of

dense, white wax which is often missing in old examples.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCCIDAL OF CEYLON. 1009

Male puparium (c) very thin and flat ; grayish ; larval pellicle as in the

female.

Adult female broadly oblate, more or less crescentic in outline. Pygi-

dium (6) narrow ; without any vestiges of pygidial lobes ; the posterior

margin produced into long flagellate processes ; the sides (towards the

base) narrowly cristate. Length 1 mm.

Pygidium of nymphal pellicle (a) with two pairs of prominent lobes ; the

median lobes parallel sided, entire ; the lateral lobes gibbous, emar-

ginate on the outer side ; lateral margins strongly cristate.

On the under surface of leaves of Tiirpinia pomifem. Hakgala. (Coll.

T. Petchh

Aonidia mesochitinosa, n. sp. (Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4 — Aonidia mesochitinosa. Pygidium of adult $ . X 4-50.

Puparium of female bright castaneous ; regularly ovoid, dorsal area

slightly concave. Length 1 mm.

Adult female sub-circular, the pygidium not projecting, its outer margin

evenly rounded. Cepbalo-thorax with a large, circumscribed area more

strongly chitinized. Anal orifice relatively large, at a distance from the

posterior margin slightly greater than its longer diameter. Margin of

abdomen with a close series of minute, bluntly conical tubercles. Margin

of pygidium with five pairs of short but moderately broad lobes, of which

the median are the largest, the others decreasing in size to the outer-

most ; the three inner pairs obscurely notched on each side ; the two outer

pairs deltoid, entire ; the fifth lobe is often missing on one or both sides.

Squames short but relatively broad, emarginate. Spines projecting beyond

the lobes. Length 0’6 to 0'6 mm.

On both surfaces of foliage of Canthium montanujii. Hakgala. The

puparia occupy distinct depressions which appear as raised spots on the

opposite surface of the leaf,

Aonidia mimusopis, n. sp. (Fig. 5.)

Puparium of female

small and inconspicuous ;

pale grayish ochreous,

with a darker central

area ; broadly ovate, flat.

Exuviae concealed by the

secretionary covering.

Pygidium of adult fe-

male with two pairs of

broad and prominent

lobes, the apices nearer

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

the inner side, their outer margins coarsely serrate ; a pair of small,

squamiform processes between the median and lateral lobes, and three

similar but larger processes lieyond the lateral lobe ; marginal spines

moderately long. Length of insect 0'5 mm.

Pygidial margin of nymph with two pairs of stout, prominent lobes, each

indented on the outer side. There is a conspicuous lunate pore between

the median and lateral lobes, and two others, on each side, beyond the

lateral lobes.

On Mimusops hexandm. Trincomali. (Coll. T. B. Fletcher). The puparia

are disposed along each side of the mid rib, on the under surface of

the leaf.

Lepidosaphes dilatilobis, n. sp. (Fig. 6.)

Puparium of adult female

flattish ; pale stramineous ;

thin and translucent ; two

opaque (often reddish) lines

mark the position of a

median ventral channel on

each side of which the scale

extends to a width of more

than half that of the channel.

Length l‘o mm.

Puparium of male paler

and of more regular outline ;

posterior half depressed and

slightly concave. Length

\"2o mm.

Adult female of normal

form. Margins of abdominal

segments markedly produced ; with many small pores, but without the usual

spiniform squames. Pygidium bluntly conical ; median and lateral lobes

dolabriform, (outwardly dilated, their bases extending inwards to a consi-

derable distance. The lateral lobes are duplex, the outer lobule much

smaller. The median and lateral lobes are separated by a single, stout,

pore-bearing process. Circumgenital pores in five groups : median group

with 2 pores, upper laterals with 3 or 4, lower laterals with 4 ; there is a

considerable interval between the upper and lower lateral groups. Length

O'o to 0‘75 mm.

On undetermined shrub. Sigiriya and Ambalangoda. The scales are

crowded, in irregular patches, on the undersurface of the leaves. Their

presence is indicated by a purple-brown discoloration on the upper surface

of the leaves.

Pseudoparlatoria pusilla, n. sp. (Fig. 7.)

Puparium of female irregularly circular, flat ; pale yellow ; thin and

translucent. Diameter 1 mm.

Adult female yellow ; ovate. Mouth parts large and conspicuous.

Spiracles without parastigmatic pores. Circumgenital pores, in four groups,

each containing from 8 to 9 pores. Anal orifice long ovate, at a distance

from the margin of about twice its longer diameter. Median lobes trifo-

liate, rather widely separate ; a single pair of duplex lateral lobes, the

lobules simple ; a pair of stout spiniform squames in the space between

the median lobes, and a similar but smaller squame immediately outside

both the median and lateral lobes. Marginal dorsal pores elongate, com-

P’lo. Lepidosaphes dilatilobis.

Pygidium of adult $, X 4o0.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCCIDM OF CEYLON. lOJl

Fig. 7 — Pseudoparlatoria pusilla. Pygidium of adult 5? X 450

On Theobroma cacao. Peradeniya. The scales are extremely inconspi-

cuous and are distributed, singly, at wide intervals, on the undersurface

of the foliage.

Diaspis antiquorum, n. sp. (Fig. 8.)

Puparium of female sub-circular, moderately convex ; white, opaque ;

exuviae eccentric, larval pellicle bright castaneous, nymphal pellicle con-

cealed. Diameter 2'5 mm.

Adult female broadly ovate, narrower behind. Pygidium with median

lobes recessed, divergent, their bases confluent, their free margins very

obscurely serrate ; two pairs of duplex lateral lobes, the lobules of the first

pair narrowly dolabriform, those of the second pair broadly so, the inner

lobule of each pair with a short inward extension defined by slender

but densely chitinous paraphyses. Circumgenital pores in five large groups

with numerous pores. Length D25 mm.

On the fleshy branches of Euphorbia antiquorum. Elephant Pass. Asso-

ciated with Parlatoria manyiferce.

1012 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Diaspis bambusae. n. sp. (Fig. 9.)

Pnparium of female circular, modera-

tely convex ; white, opaque ; exuviae

eccentric, reddish brown. Diameter

2‘o mm.

Adult female (a) yellowish, tinged

with dull purple ; elongate, sharply

contracted behind the cephalo-thoracic

area, then widening again to the segment

immediately preceding the pygidium ;

lateral margins of abdominal segments

strongly protuberant. Cephalo-thorax

rather densely chitinized. Anterior and

posterior spiracles each with a crowded

group of parastigmatic pores. Margin

of pygidium {h) with the median lobes

recessed, divergent, not serrated ; two

pairs of small, duplex, lateral lobes.

Spiniform squames numerous and cons-

picuous on the base of pygidium and on

lateral margins of the two previous

.segments. Circumgenital pores in five

densely crowded groups which are

almost confluent. Dorsal pores in four

linear series, on each side ; the inner-

most series containing o or 6 pores only,

the outermost series partly double.

Length 1-25 to I'o mm.

On small stems and branches of

Bambusa sp.; usually disposed immedia-

tely behind a node. Yatiyantota. Vm. 9— Diaspis bambusce. (a) adult

$, X oO. (6) Extreiuity

of pygidium, X 450.

Diaspis heneratgoda, n. sp. (Fig. 10.)

Fig. 10 — Diaspis heneratgoda. Pygidium of adult 5, X 450.

Puparium of female white, sometimes slightly tinged with ochreous ;

broadly ovate or sub-circular, flattish or moderately convex ; exuviae

reddish brown, eccentric, close to the margin of the scale, the larval pellicle

occasionally projecting beyond the margin. Longer diameter 2'5 mm.

Puparium of male white ; weakly tricarinate ; accompanied by some

loose, white, woolly matter. Length 1 mm.

Adult female turbinate in outline, the abdominal segments tapering

evenly to the extremity of the pygidium. Parastigmatic pores at ante-

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCCIDM OF CEYLON. 1013

rior spiracles only. Pygidium with the mesal lobes relatively small,

recessed, widely divergent, minutely serrate ; first lateral lobes relatively

large, duplex, prominent, each lobule rounded at apex, the outer lobule as

broad as or broader than the inner one; second lateral lobes in the form

of broad, cristate prominences. Circumgenital pores in five groups,

median group averaging 8, upper laterals 18, lower laterals 23. Dorsal

pores in four conspicuous linear series, with an additional pair adjacent

to the circumgenital pores. Length 1'5 mm.

On foliage of undetermined tree. Heneratgoda.

Oiaspis orientalis, n. sp.

(Fig. 11.)

Pupanum of female white ;

sub-circular, flattish, rather

thin ; exuviae central or

slightly eccentric, very pale

stramineoirs. Diameter 2'0

mm.

Male puparia white ; with a

strong median and weak

lateral carinae ; sometimes

masked by a loose covering of

woolly filaments. Length 1

mm.

Adult female (a) oblong ;

sharply contracted behind

the cephalo-thoracic area ;

the remaining segments nar-

rowing, successively, to the

pygidium. Cephalo-t h o r a x

and lateral protuberances of

abdominal segments rather

densely chitinized. Each

spiracle with a small group of

parastigmatic pores. Margin

of pygidium (b) with the

mesal lobes small, partlj'

recessed, bluntly pointed,

divergent, the inner edge

obscurely serrate ; lateral

lobes duplex, the first pair

prominent, small, the two

lobules of approximately equal

size, their apices rounded or

bluntly pointed ; second pair

broader, each lobule with its

apex at the inner side, their

free edges serrate ; margin

beyond the lobes strongly and deeply cristate. Circumgenital pores

in five groups ; the mesal group averaging 18, upper laterals 32, lower

laterals 24. Dorsal pores numerous, extending on to the free abdominal

segments ; one or two close to the circumgenital pores, five curved linear

series extending inwards from the margin, and four short series situated

slightly above and overlapping the inner extremities of the longer series.

Spiniform squames, on last abdominal segment and base of pygidium, small

and inconspicuous. Length D2o to Dfimm.

Fig. \\~Diaspis orientalis. (a) Adult

X 50. (b) Margin of pygidium,

X 450.

1014 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Ou the undersurface of leaves of undetermined trees ; Maha Illuppalama

and Galgammuwa. Also on Sapindus sp., Sigiriya. Received also from

India, on Hemigyrosa sp.

Diaspis phoenicis, n. sp.

Puparium of female broadly

and irregularly ovate or sub-

circular ; ilattish ; white, thin

and semi-translucent ; exuvim

stramineous or very pale fulvous,

eccentric, the larval pellicle

often extra-marginal. Longer

diameter 2 mm.

Male puparium white ;

strongly tri-carinate. Length

1 mm.

Adult female (a) oblong,

sharply contracted behind the

cephalo-thorax, lateral margins

of last free abdominal segment

strongly produced. Upper

spiracles each with a group of

parastigmatic pores ; lower

spiracles with two or three

pores only. Margin of pygi-

diuni (6) with the mesal lobes

small, recessed, slightly diver-

gent, their apices evenly

rounded ; two pairs of duplex

lateral lobes, both of approxi-

mately the same size and form,

the two lobules of each pair

rather widely separate. Spiniform squames small and inconspicuous.

Circumgenital pores in five groups ; the mesal group with 8 pores, upper

laterals averaging 15, lower laterals averaging 13. Dorsal pores few ; a

single pore adjacent to the circumgenital groups, and three curved series

(of five or six pores only) on each side of the pygidium. Length slightly

less than 1 mm.

On the upper surface of foliage of Phoenix zeylanica ; Maha llluppa-

laina. Nearly allied to cinnamomi of Newstead.

Diaspis mihiriya, n. sp. (Fig. 13.)

(Fig. 12.)

Fig. 12 — Diaspis phcenicis.

(a) Adult $, X 50. (b) Pygidium,

X 450.

Fig. 13 — Diaspis mihiriya. Margin of pygidium, X 450.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCCID^ OF CEYLON. 1015

Puparium of adult female pale ochreous, opaque ; very irregularly

circular or broadly ovate, very slightly convex ; exuvim eccentric, often

projecting beyond the margin. Average diameter 1'75 mm.

Male puparia snowy white, very obscurely tricarinate, thickly covered

with dense white secretionary matter which completely conceals the

exuvim. Collected into close clusters of from 4 to 15, with their anterior

extremities directed towards the centre of the cluster. Length l’2o mm.

Adult female sub-circular, the pygidium broadly rounded ; abdominal

segments moderately protuberant. Spiracles small and obcure, without

parastigmatic pores. Pygidium with the mesal lobes widely separate,

recessed, narrow, excurved ; lateral lobes duplex, each lobule rather

broadly rounded, the inner lobule of the first pair projecting beyond the

mesal lobes ; a pair of long slender spines in the space between the mesal

lobes , spiniform squames extending on to the margins of the free abdominal

segments. Circumgenital pores in five crowded groups ; mesal group of

type individual containing 27 pores, upper lateral groups with 40 and 36,

lower lateral groups with 31 and 33. Dorsal pores large and conspicuous,

extending on to the abdominal segments, but those on the latter area of

smaller size than those on the pygidium. Diameter 0 75 mm.

On foliage of Eickopsis grandis ; Bogawantalawa.

Diaspis grandilobis, n. sp. (Fig. 14.)

Fig. 14 — Diaspis grandilobis. Margin of pygidium, X 150.

Puparium of female similar to that of pentagona ; colour creamy white,

exuviae reddish. Diameter 2 mm.

Adult female. Form similar to that of pentagona. Parastigmatic pores

at each spiracle, but more crowded at the anterior pair. Mesal lobes of

py 'id ium very large and dense ; their bases confluent ; their free margins

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXVIII.

prominent, broadly rounded, minutely but obscurely crenulate. Lateral

lobes duplex, the outer lobule of the second pair represented by a broad

cristate marginal prominence. A pair of short, dense broad paraphyses on

each side, situated in the intervals between the lobes. Spiniform squames

large and conspicuous, numerous on the base of the pysidium and on the

margins of the abdominal segments. Circumgenital pores in five crowded

groups, each group with from 60 to 80 pores. Dorsal pores extending on to

the thoracic segments, those on the pygidium larger. Length 1 ‘20

to l'7o mm.

On the smaller branches of Diospyros Thicaitesii; Peradeniya. Near

Hacourtue, but differing in the form of the mesal lobes and in the presence

of prominent lateral lobes.

Fiorinia kandyensis, n. sp. (Fig. 15.)

P u p a r i u m of

female consisting

solely of the nym-

phal pellicle which

is of a bright cast-

aneous colour,

with a darker

median longitud-

inal fascia ; elong-

ate, moderately

convex. Length

approximately 1 ’5

mm.

Male p u p a r i a

scattered ; white ;

very obscurely cari-

nate, the carina-

tions concealed by

a covering of loose,

woolly matter.

Length 0 75 mm.

Adult female of

normal form ; thin

and delicate. In-

terantennal tuber-

cle («) prominent,

rounded, almost as

long as it is broad.

Margin of abdomi-

nal segments with-

out tubercles.

Parastigmatic pores

few (2 or 3), at the anterior spiracles only. Mesal lobes of pygidium

small, varying in form; often with a narrow, prominent process at the apex

(6), or coarsely serrated (d), or bifid (c). Lateral lobes represented by

irregular marginal incrassations. Spiniform squames broad, tapering to a

point. Spines setiform, unusually long and slender. Circumgenital pores

forming an irregular arch containing between 60 and 70 pores. Dorsal

pores few, small and inconspicuous, confined to the marginal area of the

pygidium. Length approximately 0‘75 mm.

On the undersurface of leaves of an undetermined shrub ; Kandy.

Fig. \q— Fiorinia kandyensis. {a) Adult 2,

frons and antennse. (6) Margin of pygidium, (e, d)

different forms of the mesal lobes, (e) Pygi-

dial margin of nymphal pellicle. (All x 450).

SUPPLEMEyTARY NOTES ON COCCID.E OF CEYLON. 1017

The species is well characterized by the unusually long setiform spines

on the margin of the pygidium.

Chionaspis acuminata atricolor, n. var.

It will be convenient to give a varietal name to this very constant form.

The puparium is of a deep castaneous brown, that of the type form

being ochreous or pale fulvous.

On foliage of Carissa sp., Maha Illuppalama ; and on an undetermined

plant, Kandy. Received also from Southern India, on Cnrissa and

Tarnniindm.

Chionaspis gynandropsidis, n. sp. (Fig. 16.)

Fig. 16 — Chionaspis yynandvopsidis. (a, b, c). Various forms of the

pygidial lobes, x 4o0.

Puparium of female white, exuvise bright fulvous ; elongate, sinuous,

broadest posteriorly. Length 2 2o mm.

Adult female reddish yellow ; ovate, broadest across the"' abdomen. A

small group of parastigmatic pores at the anterior spiracles only. Mesal

lobes of pygidium varying considerably in size and form {a, b, c), large,

divergent, partly recessed, their bases confluent, their free margins finely

serrate ; first lateral lobes well developed, duplex, the inner lobule dilated,

sometimes projecting beyond the mesal lobes (as at a), but usually shorter

(6, c) ; second lateral lobes represented by broad, cristate, marginal pro-

minences. Spiniform squames few and small. Circumgenital pores in five

groups ; mesal group with from 8 to 10 pores ; upper laterals averaging

24 ; lower laterals averaging 23. Oval dorsal pores conspicuous, four linear

series on each side of the pygidium, with similar but smaller pores grouped

on the margins of the abdominal and thoracic segments. Length

1 to l'2o mm.

On stems and branches of Gynandropsis sp.; Peradeniya. Very near

subcorticalis, from which it may be distinguished by the much stronger

development of the first lateral lobes, and by the smaller spiniform

squames.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Chionaspis linearis, n. sp. (Fig. 17.)

a

3

Fig. 17. — Chionaspis linearis, {a) Puparium of adult X 30.

(b) Nymphal pellicle, X 30. (c) Adult X 30. (d) Posterior

extremity of larval pellicle, X 430. (e) Pygidium of

adult $, X 430.

Puparium of female (a) white, the exuviae pale stramineous; very long and

narrow, filiform, posterioi extremity tapering to a point, secretionary

appendix with a median longitudinal ridge. Length 2 mm. Breadth

approximately 01 mm. Nymphal pellicle (b) elongate, narrow. Posterior

margin very similar to that of the adult insect. Length 0'75 mm. Poste-

rior extremity of larval pellicle (d) without lobes or processes. Length

0‘6 mm.

Adult female (c) long and slender ; pale yellow. Pygidium (e) pointed

with a mesal pair of narrow hastate lobes, rather widely separate, and two

lateral lobes, of the same form, on each side. The lateral lobes are

approximate to each other, but are separated by a considerable interval

from the mesal lobes. Spiniform squames very slender. Margin weakly

cristate for a short distance beyond the outer lateral lobes. Anal orifice

relatively large, situated near the base of the pygidium. Circumgenital

pores in five groups ; mesal group 2 or 3, upper laterals 3, lower laterals

4 or 3. Oval dorsal pores associated with short ducts ; numerous, scat-

tered, not disposed in definite series. There is a single median pore

between the mesal lobes. Length 1 mm.

On the margins of the leaves of a small species of Bamboo ; Peradeniya.

Allied to annanialei, from which species it difi'ers, principally, in the

possession of circumgenital pores.

SUPPLEMEXTARY NOTES ON COCCID^ OF CEILON. 1019

Chionaspis tenera, n sp. (Fig. 18.

Pnparium of female

white ; very thin and

delicate ; elongate, nar-

row, gradually widen-

ing to the middle and

then more abrnptly

narrowing to the post-

erior extremity ; with a

median longitudinal

channel due to the fact

that the scale lies in

the sunken median vein

of the leaf. Larval

pellicle pale strami-

neous ; nymphal pellicle

colourless, concealed.

Length 2‘25. Greatest breadth approximately 1 mm.

Male pupariuin without, or with very obscure carinse.

Adult female pale jellow ; elongate, narrow. Pygidium with the mesa

lobes narrow, recessed, widely divergent, their bases confluent, their free

margins minutely serrate. A single pair of prominent, duplex, lateral

lobes, the base of the inner lobule extended inwards. Spiniform squames

few, small and inconspicuous ; none on the base of the pygidium, or mar-

gins of abdominal segments. Circumgenital pores in five small groups ;

median group with 3 or 4 pores, upper laterals with 7 to 12, lower laterals

with 10 to 1.5. Oval dorsal pores few, but large and conspicuous, in short

series of 2 or -3 pores only. Length 1 to L5 mm.

Disposed along the sunken mid rib, on the upper surface of foliage of an

undetermined shrub ; Maha Illuppalama.

Parlatoria cingala var. namunakuli, n. var. (Fig. 19.)

r.

V n

n

Fig. 18. — Chionaspis tenera. Margin of

pygidium, X 450.

Fig. 19. — Parlatoria cingala namunakuli, Pygidium of adult 9> X 450.

Difi'ering from the type in the structure of the outermost lobe on each

side of the pygidium of the adult female. In typical cingala this lobe is

arge and broadly rounded. In var. namunakuli it is small and lanceolate.

On leaves of an undetermined shrub : Namunakuli Hill, Badulla.

1020 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HLST. SOCLETY, Vol. XXV HR

Parlatoria rutherfordi, nom. nor.

Parlatoria zexjlanica, Unthfd., ‘ Journ. Bom, Nat. Hist. Soc.’ xxiv., p. 114,

(1915.)

Rutherford having described two distinct species, under the same name,

on two consecutive pages of his paper (loc. cit.), a new name is necessary

for the second species.

On Cinnamomum, sp. Peradeniya.

Lecanium desolatum, n. sp.

Adult female irregularly

ovate, often narrowed in front,

flattish. At first yellowish

green, with an interrupted,

brown, medio-longitudinal

stripe ; the margin with a

radiating series of narrow

brownish streaks. In older

examples the dorsum becomes

sufi'used with reddish brown,

leaving a broad, pale, median

fascia. Dorsum pitted with

polygonal depressions contain-

ing concentric, superimposed,

waxy plates. Dead and dried

examples uniformly pale cast-

aneous. Antennse 7-jointed ;

.3 and 4 equal, longest, the

division between these two

joints indistinct. Eye spots

marginal. Tarsus about three-

quarters the length of the

tibia. Marginal s e t se («)

curved, flattened and slightlj-

dilated at the distal extremity.

Stigmatic clefts shallow, with a

denser chitin projecting inwards

(Fig. 20.)

9 '>

Fig 20. — Ljccanimn desolatum.

(a) Marginal setae and stigmatic

spines, X 450. {f>) Anal

operculum, X 130.

translucent, wedgeshaped break in the

from the cleft. Stigmatic spines three

in the first cleft, two only in the second cleft, small but relatively stout.

Anal operculum (6) elongate, the base of each valve twice as long as its

outer edge, surrounded by small, translucent, tear-shaped streaks.

Derm with minu.te, scattered, translucent pores. Length 3 to 3’75 mm.

On the undersurface of leaves of Ficus gibhosa : Peradeniya.

Lecanium (Platylecanium) fusiforme, n. sp. (Fig. 21).

Adult female (a) flat, broadly fusiform, the anterior and posterior

extremities produced into beak-like points. Surface smooth, without

carinte. Colour dull castaneous. Old examples with a thin, colourless

coating of wax. Eye spots conspicuous, placed far within the margin.

Antenme small, rudimentary, with from 3 to 4 joints. Limbs absent.

Anal operculum (c) small, pointed, longer than broad, the base of each

valve approximately equal to its outer edge. Marginal setie minute, few,

widely separate. Stigmatic clefts (6) deep, broadly rounded, margined

inwardly with a narrow chitinous band. A long, slender, translucent streak

extends inwards from each cleft. Stigmatic spines three, stout, long, all

of approximately the same size. Marginal area with numerous, small.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCOIDM OF CEYLON:. 1021

rounded or irregu-

lar cells, followed

by a sub-marginal

zone of larger and

and more crowded

cells, the latter

with a tendency to

a polygonal form.

Dorsum with small

translucent pores,

each set in a small,

denser chitinous

spot, the whole

forming an obscure-

ly tess e 1 1 a t e d

pattern. Len g t h

d'75 to 4*5 mm.

Greatest breadth

2‘5 to 3’o mm.

On the upper sur-

face of foliage of

an undetermined

shrub : Ambalan-

goda.

Fig. 21 — Lecanium fusiforine. {a) Adult 9> X IB.

(6) Stigmatic cleft and spines, X 4-'>0. (c) Anal

operculum, x 130.

Lecanium illuppalamae, n. sp. (ITig. 22.)

Adult female broadly

ovate, moderately convex.

Colour ochreous or reddish,

mottled with brown.

Autennse 7-joiiited ; 3 and

4 longest and approximately

equal. Limbs well develo-

ped ; tarsus about three-

quarters the length of the

tibia. Anal operculatum

typically quadrate (a), occa-

sionally oblate (b). Margi-

nal set* unusually long ;

simple, except at the post-

erior extremity of the body,

where some of them are

deeply forked (e), the

hindmost seta (one on each

side of the anal cleft) is

stouter and spiniform.

Stigmatic clefts shallow,

containing from 3 to 5

spines (c, d) of which the

central one is very much

longer than the others.

Dermal cells small and in-

conspicuous ; circular,

scattered. Length 2 5 mm.

Fig. 22 — Lecanium illuppalama. (a) Anal

operculum, typical form, x 130.

(6) Anal operculum, varietal form, x 130.

(c, d) Stigmatic spines, x 405 and 220.

(e) Posterior margin, with set*, X 450.

1022 Jf)URNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XN VIII

On twigs of an undetermined tree ; Maha Illuppalama. Differing from

discrepans in the longer, more slender and simpler marginal setse.

Lecanium ixorae, n. sp. (Fig. 23.)

Adult female ovate, flattish, thin. Colour

pale fulvous. Antennae 6 to 7 jointed. Legs

small but robust ; tarsus almost as long as

tibia. Marginal setae small, their extremities

ciliated. Stigmatic spines (a) three, the

median spine twice as long as the other two.

A single row of conspicuous pores extends

from each stigmatic cleft to its associated

spiracle. Anal operculum (6) elongate, the

basal margin of each valve twice as long as

its outer margin. No visible dermal cells.

Length 1’5 to 2 mm.

On Ivora coccinea ; Heneratgoda.

The structural characters are very similar

to those of Lee. psidii ; but ixorcB is a much

smaller, flatter and less densely chitinous

insect. These differences are not due to

immaturity. The specimens under examina-

tion were fully developed and contained ova.

The complete absence of dermal cells is a

distinguishing character.

Fig. 23 — Lecanium ixorce.

(a) Stigmatic spines

and marginal setas,

X 450. (b) Anal

operculum, X 130.

Lecanium latioperculatum, n. sp. (Fig. 24.)

Adult female broadly ovate, mode-

rately convex ; derm soft, wrinkling

when dry. Colour yellowish fulvous,

the intestinal loop visible as an irre-

gular reddish line. Antennae 7- joint-

ed ; 3 and 4 longest, equal. Limbs

well developed ; tarsus about three-

quarters the length of the tibia.

Stigmatic spines (a) small, scarcely

projecting beyond the margin, the

median spine twice as long as the

other two ; Marginal setie (b) short,

curved ; more or less flattened, expan-

ded and fimbriate at extremity. Anal

operculum (c) broader than long, the

outer margin of each valve rounded

and often deeply incised towards the

middle. Dermal cells inconspicuous,

small, scattered. Length 1'75 to 2

mm.

Fig. 24 — Lecanium latioperculatum.

(a) Stigmatic spines, X 450.

\b) Marginal setae, X 450.

(c) Anal operculum, X 130.

On smaller branches of an undeter-

mined shrub ; Peradeniya. Attended

by ants {CEcophylla smaragdina) \ and often included in their silken enclo-

sures.

Examples from Datticaloa have the marginal setie more slender and less

distinctly fimbriate.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON C0CCIDA5 UE CEYLON. 1023

Lecanium (Paralecanium) limbatum, u. sp.

Adult female broadly ovate ; flat. Colour bright castaiieous, the mar-

ginal area and a medio-longitudinal fascia darker. Dorsum with five or six

inconspicuous hyaline streaks, on each side, extending inwards from the

margin. Venter with a sharply defined, broad, denser marginal zone.

Antennse 6-jointed ; 3rd longest, 6th elongated. Limbs small but fully

developed; the tarsus less than half the length of the tibia. Valves of

anal operculum sharply pointed, basal margin shortest. Margin minutely

cremdate. Marginal flabellae broadly rounded, overlapping. Stigmatic spines

three, long and slender, bluntly pointed. Length 3 mm.

On I.vora coccinea ; Batticaloa.

Dift’ering from calophylli in the creuulate margin, in the absence of promi-

nent quadrate processes beneath the flabellje, and in the smaller number

of hyaline streaks radiating inwards from the margin.

Lecanium (Paralecanium) mancum, u. sp. (Fig. 2-0.)

Fiu. 2.5 — Paralecanium mancum, (a) Adult 9 > dorsal aspect, X 18

(6) Dermal cells, x 220. (c) Marginal flabelhe, X 450.

Adult female («) flat, deltoid, with rounded angles, usually asymmetrical,

always narrower in front. Colour dark castaneous, with a narrow hyaline

border and Avith hyaline canals extending inwards from each stigmatic

cleft. Dorsum with more or less well defined, thin, colourless, polygonal,

waxy plates. Eye spots conspicuous ; at some distance from the margin.

Antennse relatively short, articulation obscure. Limbs entirely wanting.

Anal operculum sub-quadrate, the base of each valve slightly shorter than

its outer edge. Stigmatic spines three, blunt, the median spine usually

shorter than the other two. Marginal flabellse (c) sub-triangular in form,

the outer edge flatly curved, the converging sides approximately straight.

2(5

lO^^JOVllNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL RIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXVIII.

Margin, between the flabellae, very obscurely creuulate. Derm of dorsum

with definite series of minute pores, (associated with small setrn) demarking

the areas occupied by the waxy plates. Submarginal area crowded with

irregularly rounded dermal cells (/>). A curved series of from four to five

small groups of translucent vacuoles extends forwards from each side of

the anal orifice. Length 4 to 4'o mm. Breadth across abdomen 2'75

to 3 mm.

On Calophilhim walkeri. Namunakuli Hill, Badulla.

Lecanium piperis var. namunakuli, n. var.

DiS'ering from the type in having 6-jointed antennae, two of the seg-

ments being suppressed to form a single, long third joint. The stigmatic

spines are in groups of 3 (instead of 4 or 3). Length 4 to 4‘0 mm.

On I’iper s\). Namunakuli Hill, Badulla.

Lecanium tessellatum var. obsoletum, n. var.

Difi’ering from the type in the almost complete suppression of the tessel-

lation, only the merest traces of which are distinguishable, and that only

in the more heavily chitinized examples. It is very much smaller and less

robust than typical tessellattwi. The anal operculum is slightly smaller.

The stigmatic clefts are deeper and more sharply incised. Colour pale

fulvous ; translucent. Length of largest example l'7o mm.

On Mi/rtus co7nmunis : Matale.

Lecanium (Baralecanium) trifasciatum, u. sp. (Big. 26.)

Adult female (a) fiat,

broadly rounded, sub-

circular, the margin in-

dented on the frontal

and stigmatic areas.

Colour pale translucent

green, with three, broad,

reddish brown, trans-

verse bands across the

dorsum. Antennae 6-

jointed, the articula-

tions indistinct. Limbs

well developed ; tarsus

longer than tibia. Anal

operculum (6) longer

than broad ; the basal

slightly shorter than the

outer margin ; the apices

acutely pointed. There

are two compact groups

of pores on each side,

on a level with the anal

operculum. Stigmatic

clefts (c) deep, their

sides densely chitinous.

Stigmatic spines three,

cylindrical, blunt. A

single row of pores

extends from each cleft

to its associated spiracle.

Eye spots not distin-

Fig. 26. — Paralecatiiwn trifasciatum. (a) Adult

5 , X 18. (6) Anal operculum

X 130. (c) Stigmatic cleft and

marginal flabelhe, X 430.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCCII)^ OF CEYLON. 1026

guishable. Margin (c) sinuous and obscurely crenulate ; the flabella'

crowded, overlapping by nearly half their diameter. Diameter 2‘25 mm.

On foliage of Hemicyclea : Batticaloa.

In form and general appearance closely resembling P. expanmm, from

which it IS distinguished by the presence of well developed limbs. It is

probable that the examples examined, though adult, were not fully

developed and that the colouration may assume a more uniform tint in

later life. If, at the same time, the insect increases in size the flabellse

would be more widely separated and would not overlap to the same

extent.

Lecanium tripartitum, n. sp. (Fig. 27.)

Fig. 27. — Lecanium tripartitum. (a) Adult $, dorsal aspect, X 10.

(6) Stigmatic cleft, X 450. (c) Marginal area, with pores

and dermal cells, X 80. (d) Anal operculum, X 130.

Adult female (a) bright castaneous ; highly polished— as if coated with

varnish ; very flat, with shallow median longitudinal carina giving ofl', on

each side, eight or nine inconspicuous branches which curve round and meet

each other, enclosing a series of shallow sunken areas. Form deltoid,

asymmetrical, rather sharply pointed in fronts widest across the posterior

extremity. Antennae 6-jointed, 3 longest, 6 only slightly longer than 6.

Limbs small but fully developed ; tarsi of first and second legs shorter

than the tibiae, those of the third pair equal to the tibiae. Stigmatic cleft.s

(6) with a broad, lunate, strongly chitinized inner rim at each extremity

of which is a single (occasionally two) lanceolate spine. Anal operculum

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

(d) lozenge-shaped : longer than broad ; bordered by a broad, strongly

chitinized, hoop-shaped band with sharply defined margins ; valves with

thickened margins ; the whole surrounded by an irregular translucent

space. Derm with scattered circular pores and numerous small, irregularly

shaped, translucent maculse (e). Length 5'5 to 5 75 mm. ; greatest breadth

4'75 to 5 mm.

On foliage of Calophyllum xvalkeri ; Namunakul: Hill, Badulla.

The character of the stigmatic clefts is peculiar, in which respect it

approaches L. marmpiale, but from which it is otherwise very distinct.

Lecanopsis ceylonica, n. sp. (Fig. 28.)

Fig. 28. — Lecanopsis ceylonica. (a) Adult 5, in situ, X 12. (A) Antenna, X

220. (c) Anal operculum, X 130. (d) Third leg, X 130. (e) Stigmatic

spines, X 220. ( f) Posterior extremity of early nymph, x 220.

(ff) Antenna of larva, X 220.

Adult female (a) surrounded and partially covered by a white felted

test. Insect broadly ovate, narrower in front ; strongly convex above ;

with a deep, transverse furrow behind the csphalothorax ; the next two

segments deeply, the remainder shallowly furrowed. Colour ochreous

yellow, dull, opaque. Dorsum coarsely punctured, more particularly

on the abdomen. Antennse (l>) short and stout, 6-jointed, the 3rd longer

than the terminal three together. Limbs (d) well developed ; the tibia

SUPPLEMENT ARY NOTES ON COCClDyE OF CEYLON, 1027

and tarsus completely fused together without trace of division. Tarsal

digitules slender, minutely knobbed ; ungual digitules slightly dilated.

Anal operculum (c) oblate ; the base of each valve longer than its outer

edge, the apices incurved ; a stout spiniform seta on the inner edge of each

valve ; three or four circular cicatrices, nearer the apex, suggest the

earlier presence of other similar setae ; a broad, sharply defined densely

chitinous hoop surrounds the upper half of the operculum. Margin with

long, slender setae, most of which (in the example under examination) are

indicated by their basal sockets only. No stigmatic clefts ; but the mar-

gin, opposite each spiracle, bears two, widely separate, stout, acuminate,

irregularly conical spines (e). Derm without conspicuous cells, but with

scattered circular pores and small setae. Length mm.

Nymph with antennae and limbs similar to those of the adult insect.

Valves of anal operculum (/) with apices bluntly pointed and bearing a

longish stout seta mounted on a small tubercle ; a similar seta within the

inner margin, about half way between the apex and the base, and indi-

cations of lost setae on the apical half. Margin with many strong setae,

becoming longer snd stouter towards the extremity of the body. Stigma-

tic spines similar to those of the adult insect.

Larva with stigmatic spines as in the later stages. Antenna {g) 6-joint-

ed, the 6th with a very long lateral seta that exceeds the length of the

antenna itself. Tarsus and tibia of approximately equal length. Margin with

short curved setae, increasing in length towards the posterior extremity.

At the base of a grass plant, below a large stone, on patna land;

attended by ants. Pattipola. Described from a single adult female,

and several nymphs and larvae.

Exaeretopus farinosus, n. sp. (Fig. 29.)

Fig. 29. — Exaeretopus farinosus. {a) Anal operculum, X 130.

(6) Stigmatic cleft, spines and setae, X 220. (c) Antenna, X 130.

{d) Tarsus of anterior leg, X 220. (e) Dermal cells, X 220.

Adult female olivaceous or slaty gray ; the dorsal surface thickly dusted

with white, mealy secretion. Form elongate ovate, moderately convex ;

divisions of abdominal segments clearly defined, in the living insect

C

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Antennae (c) 8-jointecl, 3, 4 and 5 elongate, 3rd longest — equal to the

terminal three together. Legs well developed ; the tarsus approximately

half as long as the tibia, often more or less bowed ; tarsus of anterior leg

(d) usually with an incomplete division at about half its length ; claw

large, strong and falcate ; tarsal digitules long and slender, minutely

knobbed ; ungual digitules long, narrow, dilated at the extremity. Anal

operculum (a) as broad as it is long ; the basal margins slightly concave,

the outer margins convex ; apices bluntly pointed. Stigmatic clefts (h)

shallow, with three stout spines, the median spine longest and curved at

its extremity, the outer spines straight and bluntly pointed. Marginal setae

simple, slender, larger towards the posterior extremity of the body. Derm

of dorsum crowded with irregularly circular or ovate, conspicuous cells

(c), often filled with dark granular matter, moderately large, each cell

opening onto the surface by a small oval pore. There is an irregular,

medio-longitudinal series of small, discoid pores on the dorsum, extending

from shortly in front of the anal operculum to the base of the abdomen.

Venter with some longish, stout setae, arranged in a double median series

on the abdomen, somewhat scattered on the thoracic area, and in a trans-

verse group below the point of insertion of the antennae. Length 3-o

to 4 '5 mm.

On the young stems and foliage of Psyehotria /nsulcata : Namunaknli

Hill, Badulla.

This species has been assigned, somewhat doubtfully, to the genus

Exaeretopus, in the type species of which there are no stigmatic spines.

But the characters of the limbs and antennae are more in accordance with

that genus than with Lecanium. The absence of any ovisac precludes a

position in Pulmnaria with which, otherwise, the characters are in close

agreement.

Chalcid parasites, bred from this species, have been determined as

Ooccophagun Jlavescem How.

Ceronema fryeri, n. sp. (Fig. 30.)

Fig. 30. — Ceronema fryeri. (a) Adult 9 > X 7. [b) Stigmatic

cleft and spines, X 220. (c) Dermal cells, X ISO. {d) An-

tenna, X 220.

SUPPLEMENTAliY NOTES ON COCGIPM OF CEYLON. 1029

Adult female (a) ovate, highly convex, depressed posteriorly ; with a

strongly marked rounded tumescence on each side of the dorsum. Colour

dull olivaceous brown, dusted with mealy secretion which is condensed

into a thick covering on the marginal area. Dense, vertical, waxy bands,

of an ochreous white colour, arise from the stigmatic areas on each side,

extending far onto the dorsum. A long, stout, curling, white filament

arises from near the posterior extremity, on each side, extending upwards

and backwards. Several waxy spots, on each side of the abdomen,

possibly mark the position of other similar filaments that have been lost.

Derm deeply and closelj'- pitted. Antennte probably 8-jointed, normally ;

in the example under examination the antennae are 7-jointed {d), the

long third joint showing indications of incomplete division. Limbs and

antennae relatively small and weakly chitinized Tarsus rather more

than half the length of the tibia ; tibiotarsal articulation very indistinct

tarsal digitules slender, knobbed ; ungual digitules slightly dilated.

Anal operculum small, ovate, the base and outer margin of each valve

together forming an even curve. Margin with a distant series of small,

slender spines. Stigmatic clefts (b) shallow, inwardly bordered with a

lunate chitinous plate ; stigmatic spines three, rather slender, of

approximately equal length. Dorsum closely crowded with large, irregu-

larly polygonal, dermal cells (c). Length 8 mm.

On an unidentified shrub : Maha Illuppalama. Described from a single

example collected hy Mr. J. C. F. Fryer to whom I am pleased to dedicate

this fine species.

Ceronema iceryoides, n. sp. (Fig. .‘51.)

Fig. 81 — Ceronema iceryoides. (a) Anterior leg, x 220. (A) Dermal cells

X 220. (c) Margin, with stigmatic cleft, X 220. (d) Antenna

X 220. (e) Anal operculum, x 130.

1030 JOURh'AL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Adult female superficially resembling Icerya aegyptiaca . Dorsum covered

with cushions of pulverulent, white, waxy secretion ; margin with a loose

fringe of long, white, curling waxy processes. After denudation the insect

is of a broadly ovate form, wider behind. Antenna (a) 6-jointed, the 3rd

wreatly exceeding the length of the terminal three joints together. Limbs

(a) relatively small, but robust ; tibio-tarsal articulation wanting or incom-

plete. The suppressed joint indicated by a slight infolding of the outer

margin at about one third of the length from the distal extremity ; claw

stout and strongly falcate ; tarsal digitules slender, knobbed ; ungual

digitules broadly dilated. Stigmatic clefts (c) shallow but sharply defined ;

lunate ; with a moderately stout, curved spine at each extremity of a nar-

row curved plate that borders the inner margin of each cleft. Margin

with a close series of slender, spiniform setse. Anal operculum (e) obovate,

the outer angles evenly rounded ; almost completely encircled by a sharply

defined, narrow, densely chitinous plate. Derm of dorsum crowded with

small, circular or ovate cells (6), each cell enclosing a minute pore. Length

of denuded insect 3'o mm.

On an undetermined plant ; Putalam.

Described from a single example that was put aside as a specimen of

Icerya aegytiaca. It was only after denudation, in potassium hydrate, that

its iiecaniid character was revealed.

Ctenochiton cinnamomi, n. sp. (Fig. 32.)

SlJPPLEMElSTARY NOTES ON COCCIDAl OF CEYLON. 1031

Adult female (a) superficially resembling Lecanium olece, but without

conspicuous carinse. Sub-circular or broadly ovoid ; strongly convex, apex

flattened, sides sloping steeply ; margins of anal cleft prominent. Colour

dark purplish brown, closely studded with irregular, colourless, glassy

granules, giving the insect a frosted appearance. Margin densely chiti-

iious ; irregularly indented and WTinkled. Antenna either 6 or 7- jointed ;

in the 6-jointed form ( /") the 3rd equals or exceeds the length of the three

terminal joints together ; in the 7- jointed form (c) the 3rd and 4th are

elongated. Legs ( g) rather slender ; the tarsus approximately equal to

the tibia ; tibia and tarsus together markedly longer than femur and

trochanter ; tarsal digitules slender, knobbed ; ungual digitules unequal,

one slender and the other broadly dilated at the extremity (A). Anal

operculum (6) approximately circular, the base and outer margin of each

valve forming an even curve ; surrounded by a narrow, densely chitinized

zone. Margin with a close fringe of stout, acute spines (c, d). No

stigmatic clefts ; but opposite each spiracle is a group of three slender,

cylindrical, truncate spines (f), of which the median is more than twice as

long as either of the other two. Derm with large, irregularly polygonal

cells (c). There is a distant, submarginal series of large, prominent,

tulenlar pores (j), and a few similar pores scattered over the dorsolateral

area. Length (under compression) 3 to 4*5 min.

On Cinnamomum sp., Colombo ; and on an undetermined tree, Chilaw.

Ctenochiton fryeri, n. sp. (Fig. 33.)

Fig. 33 — Ctenochiton fryeri. (a) Antenna, X 130. (6) Mid leg, X 130.

(c) Foot, X 150. (d) Tubular pore, X 450. (e) Dermal cells,

X 220. ( f ) Marginal and stigmatic spines, X 450.

Adult female ovate, depressed or moderately convex. Colour pale

castaneous ; the dorsum studded with irregular, colourless waxy granules ;

the granule^ projecting, on the margin, in the form of irregular delnticues.

Antennae (a) 8-jointed ; the 5th longest and with an imperfect division

which — if complete — would add a ninth joint ; 6th and 7th shortest. Limbs

(h) rather small, but well developed ; tarsus approximately three quarters

the length of the tibia ; there is a false joint in the tarsus, shortly behind

the digitules ; tibia and tarsus together of same length as femur and tro-

27

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

chanter; tarsal cligitules slender, knobbed ; ungual digitules (e) unequal,

one slender, the other stouter and distally expanded into a circular disc.

Rostrum large and conspicuous. Margin (/) with a close fringe of stout,

acutely pointed spines. No stigmatic clefts ; stigmatic spines three,

^cylindrical, truncate, the median spine about three times as long as either

of the other two. Dorsum crowded with moderately large, irregularly poly-

gonal and rounded dermal cells (e). At intervals along the submarginal

area, and distributed irregularly over the dorsum, are some conspicuous,

prominent, globular, tubular pores (d). Anal operculum large ; approxi-

mately circular ; surrounded by a narrow, densely chitinous zone. Length

'2‘7o to 3 mm.

On the bark of an undetermined tree ; Vavuniya. Collected by Mr. .J.

C. F. Fryer.

Closely allied to Cten, cinnamomi ; but differing in the number of

antennal joints, in the proportions of the tibia and tarsus, in the size of the

dermal cells, and in the form of the tubular pores. (Compare figs,

and 33.)

Ctenchiton olivaceum. n. sp. (Fig. 34.)

Flo. 34. — Ctenochiton olivaceum. (a) Adult $ , dorsal view, X d

{h) Posterior extremity, X 30. (c) Anterior leg, X 220.

(d) Antenna, X 220. (e) Left valve of anal operculum, X 130.

(r) Sockets of marginal spines, X 220. (y) Marginal spines, X 220.

Adult female (a) with the dorsum completely covered with a confused

mass of slender, translucent, waxy processes, most of which are directed

backwards. There are three or four stouter, bluntly conical processes on

the medio-thoracic area. Margin with a series of larger, tapering, broader

and flatter processes interspersed with a few delicate, silky filaments.

^Vhen placed in boiling potash the whole of this covering comes away,

complete in one piece. Colour of secretionary covering olivaceous green,

darker on the median area. The sublying insect is of a pale ^castaneous

tint. Antennse (d) small and rudimentary, consisting of three or four

confused joints. My single example has lost all but one anterior leg (e)

which is small and wrinkled : femur iinusually short, with the trochanter

much compressed ; tarsus about two-thirds as long as the tibia. The

SUPPLEMENTAltY NOTES ON COCCIDyE OF CEYLON. 1033

digitules are missing (probably broken oft ). Anal ring with six very long

setae which are contained in an unnsually long anal tube (b). Valves of

anal operculum of irregular form (c), the extremity produced ; two short

spines on the apical half of the inner margin and a longish, stout seta

immediately outside the apical point. Margin {</ ) with numerous stout,

sharply pointed, conical spines arranged in small clusters with a single

larger spine in each interval. The arrangement and relative proportions

•of these spines can be seen more clearly on areas where theV have been

displaced, leaving their sockets (/) exposed. No stigmatic clefts or

specialized stigmatic spines. Overall dimensions 7 by 5 mm. Length of

denuded insect 4'o mm.

Described from a single example, on the undersurface of a leaf of Pteros-

permum suberifolium : Matale.

Inglisia chelonioides, Green. (Fig. 3o.)

CoGcidce of Ceylon, Vol. iv, p. 283 (1909).

Fio. 3o. — Inglisia chelonioides. (a) Adult after treatment with

potash, X 6. (Ij) Tibio-tarsal joint of mid leg, X 220. (c)

Posterior spiracle, X 220. {d) Hind leg, X 220. (e) Antenna,

X 220. (/) Marginal and stigmatic spines, x 4o0. {y)

Aberrant form of stigmatic spine, x 450.

At the time of publication (loc. cit.) I was in possession of a single

example only, which I was reluctant to destroy. I was able, therefore,

to describe the external characters alone. I have, since then, obtained

further material, both from Ceylon and from India, from which the

following details have now been drawn up.

The denuded insect (a), after being boiled in potash, is of the form in-

dicated on Plate GVII (of my Monograph), fig. 3, which shows a diagram-

matic view of the area occupied by the body of the insect. The derm of

the dorsum is densely chitinous ; that of the venter very thin and delicate.

At the centre of the dorsum is a prominent erect, horn-like process. At

about midway between this and the anterior extremity is a smaller,

irregularly tricuspid prominence ; and, at about the same distance from the

posterior extremity, is a similar process. The position of the waxy plates

1034 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

of the living insect is sharply defined by densely chitinized infoldings of

the derm. The antennae (e) are 6-jointed ; the 3rd elongated, almost

equalling the total length of the remaining five joints; terminal joint short.

Limbs relatively small and weakly chitinized : on the anterior and mid legs

(6) the tibio-tarsal division is obscure or incomplete ; on the third leg (d)

the division is distinct, the tarsus being approximately three-quarters the

length of the tibia. Ungual and tarsal digitules slender, the former

slightly dilated towards the extremity, the latter minutely knobbed.

Spiracles (c) large and conspicuous, rather densely chitinous. Anal

operculum very narrow, twice as long as it is broad ; each valve four times

as long as the breadth, the base very short, the outer and inner margins of

approximately equal length. Margin of body with a close series of flat-

tened, ligulate spines ( /), with concave extremities. Opposite each

spiracle is a single longer, cylindrical (/) or irregularly expanded {</ )

stigmatic spine. Lateral areas with many small, inconspicuous, rounded

dermal cells. Length 7 to 7'5 mm.

On Pithecoloblum dulce : Colombo. Eeceived, also, from Coimbatore,

S. India, on Parkinsonia aculeata ; (coll. E. Ballard).

Cardiococcus; Ckll.

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xi, p. 155 (1903).

This genus was erected to accommodate species (hitherto placed under

Inglisia) in which the arrangement of the waxy plates is bilateral. In

typical Inglisia there is an undivided median series of plates. Mrs. Fernald,

in her ‘ Catalogue,’ lists the following species of Cardiococcus : — forminifer

(Mask.), (Mask.) and umbonatus, Ckll. To these should be added

bivalvata (Green), castilloce (Green) and cenehifovmis (Newst).

Lecaniodiaspis mimusopis,- n. sp. (Fig. 36.)

Fig. ZQ.— Lecaniodiaspis mimusopis. («) Adult 5, dorsal view, X 3. (6, cf

Antannse, X 130. ( d. e) Anterior legs, X 130. (/) Mid

leg, X 130. (y) Hind leg, X 130. {h) Setae from anal ring,

X 2510. (?) Paired pores, X 450.

Test of adult female {a) approximately circular ; strongly convex.

Colour dull pale brown. Surface so minutely granular as to appear

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COOCIDyE OF CEYLON. 1035

smooth. Margin with a continuous series of broad, flattened, triangular,

whitish, waxy processes which (in the example under examination)

number 15, the hindermost one being medially disposed, the remainder

paired. Across the middle of the dorsum are three transverse series of

flve small, whitish, truncately conical, waxy points and, behind these, a

short medio-longitudinal series of three similar points. Overall diameter

of test 9'5 mm.

The structural characters of the insect itself were obtained from a single

example, in poor condition, and are consequently incomplete. The two

antennm {b, c.) are not symmetrical. In one (6) there are eight distinct

joints and an incomplete division in the 4th. In the other (c) there are

only 7 distinct joints, but the long 4th joint shows two incomplete divisions.

In each case, if all the divisions were complete, there would be nine

joints. The two terminal joints are very short. The legs are more or less

rudimentary, but vary in the amount of their development. Of the first

pair, one (e) shows complete division between the femur and tibia ; while

the other {d) consists of two joints only, a coxa and a fused terminal joint.

This condition is repeated in the mid legs ( /); but the hind limbs are

distinctly 3-jointed (y). The spiracles are large and conspicuous. The

anal aperture is supported by the usual bilobed chitinous plates. Anal

ring with 8 stout, lanceolate setce (h). The cribriform plates are small and

irregular in form ; but, owing to the poor condition of the material, their

exact position and number cannot be determined. For the same reason

I have been unable to locate any stigmatic spines. Derm closely studded

with minute V-shaped or bilobed pores (i) and crowded with the usual

tubular glands.

Described from two examples only, on the bark of Mhnusops he.vandra ;

Hambantota. This is, by far, the largest known species of the genus.

Judged by external characters alone, the insect might be mistaken for

a species of Walkeriana.

Asterolecanium gutta, n. sp. (Fig. 37.)

Test of adult female

bright yellow, translu-

cent, highly polished.

The reddish ova, showing

through the test, give it

a maculate appearance.

The shrivelled body of

the insect is revealed as

a deep brown patch at

the anterior extremity.

There is a fragmentary

and rather inconspicuous

fringe of pinkish fila-

ments. Form of test

approximately circular

and hemispherical. Ave-

rage diameter 3 mm.

The actual insect (a) is

broadly pyriform, nar-

rower behind, the anal

segment slightly produced

but without prominent „ „ , , . , .

anal lobes. There is a Asterolecanium r/utta. (a) Adult 9

conspicuous, uninterrupt- X, 1^. (b) Marginal

ed, marginal series of Po^^^s^ X 450. (c) Anal ring, x 4o0

W6Q JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXrill,

paired and simple pores (6), both of which are unusually large. In places,

particularly on the frontal area, the series tends to be irregularly double.

There are no supplementary paired pores on the dorsum. The two halves

of each pair are oblate and closely applied to each other, without any

interval. Both paired and simple pores have thickened rims. Anal ring

(c) broad and densely chitinous, closely studded with small circular pores,

and bearing six stout setse. Length 2 mm.

On young branches of Calopliylhmi icalkeri : Pattipola. The yellow tests

resemble small congealed drops of gamboge gum.

Asterolecanium loranthi, n. sp. (Fig. <58.)

Fits. 38 — Asterolecanium loranthi. (a) Marginal pores, X 450. (a) Poste-

rior extremity of adult X 450. (c) Adult 9> ventral aspect

X 30.

Test of adult female very pale stramineous, translucent, broadly Ovate.

Fringe bright orange-red ; well developed, uninterrupted except at the

actual posterior extremity. Dorsum with a few, scattered erect filaments.

Length approximately 1‘5 mm.

Adult female insect (c) olivaceous brown ; broadly ovate, bluntly pointed

behind. There is a complete marginal series of rather small paired pores

(a), with a close series of minute simple pores, extending almost to the

posterior extremity. Similar paired pores, of the same size, are distri-

buted sparsely over the dorsum of the thorax in small, ill-defined groups,

arranged — more or less — in longitudinal series of which the median series

is the more distinct. Posterior extremity (6) indistinctly lobed ; rather

strongly chitinized, but without any sharply defined dorsal plates. Caudal

sette stout and moderately long; four shorter setae between the caudal

pair. Length slightly exceeding 1 mm.

Described from a single example, on a young branch of Loranthus neel-

gherrensis: Hakgala. Somewhat resembling flavocilliatuin, from which it

differs in the characters of the anal segment.

Asterolecanium pseudomiliaris. n. sp. (Fig. 39.)

Test of adult female (d) closely resembling that of miliaris ; but more

delicate in texture and more irregular in outline. Very pale yellow,

translucent ; early adult examples with a median reddish line. Posterior

extremity narrowed and tapering to a blunt point; with a low, rounded.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COCCID/K 01 CEYLON. 1037

median carina. There are

three longitudinal series of

very slender and delicate

colourless, glassy, double

filaments on the dorsum.

Marginal fringe colourless

or slightly tinged with

pink ; irregular, usually in-

complete, moderately long.

Length 0‘7o to 1'25 mm.

Breadth across median area

0‘4 to 0’5 mm.

Adult female insect (6)

pale yellow ; often deeply

and irregularly indented

on the cephalo-thoracic

margins. Posterior extre-

mity (c) rounded. Caudal

setie stout, crossed, set on

small but distinct anal

lobes. Anal ring with six

setm. There is a narrow,

transverse, dorsal plate 39— A sterolecanmm pseudomiliaris. (a)

below the anal ring. Mar- Marginal and discal pores, x 450.

ginal paired pores (a) very U*) Adult 9 , X 50. (e) Posterior-

small, distant from each extremity of adult 9, x. 450.

other by more than their \^) Test of adult 9 , X 30.

own length; continuous to within a short distance of the posterior extremity.

Ventral simple pores few, minute, at a considerable distance from the

margin. Some larger paired pores occur on the dorsum, arranged in three

longitudinal series, about ten in each series. Length 0’4 to 0'6 mm.

On foliage of Bumlmsa sp. Peradeniya.

Differs from miliaris in the presence of erect filaments on the test, and

of supplementary paired pores on the dorsum of the insect.

1038

FISH AND FISHING IN THE INLE LAKE.

BY

N. Annandale, D. Sc., F.A.S.B.,

Director, Zoological Survey of India.

(With 3 plates.)

It has been niy lot in the last ten years to visit many lakes, scattered over

Asia from Japan to Palestine. I know of none so interesting to the naturalist

and the student of human races as the Inle Lake in the Southern Shan States,

which I had the good luck to investigate both in 1917 and in 1922. It lies in a

hollow some three thousand feet above sea-level but bordered on either side by

mountains fifteen hundred to two thousand feet higher. As in hilly country in

other parts of Burma and south-eastern Assam, these mountains run almost due

north and south. At the head of the valley there is an alluvial plain, evidently

covered at no very distant period by the lake, while to the south the bordering

mountains gradually dwindle and a stream flows down to Karen -ni, where, more

than a hundred miles away, it disappears into the ground. That its water

ultimately reaches the Salween there can be little doubt. The area of the lake

varies wfith the seasons, but, roughly speaking, it is fourteen miles long, about

four miles broad and of an irregular oval shape.

In the physiography of the lake two features are particularly striking, the

clearness of the water and the floating islands that form a ring roimd the margm.

Both these features give a peculiar beauty, imique in my experience, to the Inle

L<ike. The Loktak Lake in Manipur has the floatmg islands, less rich and less

varied in vegetation but formed in the same way and of the same general

appearance, but its waters are muddy and turbid.

Out in the middle of the lake, a mile and a half from any land, the State

of Ya^vng^vhe maintains a bmigalow for the use of visitors, supported on strong

wooden posts and stoutly constructed of bamboo matting with wooden floors

and beams and a thatched roof. Around and under this ideal retreat one can

watch the fish and the beautiful and highly pecuhar water-snails almost as in

an aquarium, except that the point of view, natural to an air-breathing animal,

is from above. In the mornings of early spring the surface is usually un-

ruffled by the slightest breeze, the water is as clear as glass and the luxuriant

growth of the submerged weed {Najas minor) provides a background and a floor

unrivalled in graceful outlines and the beauty of its deep greens and browns.

The house-posts themselves are veiled in a thin film of fixed vegetable and animal

life, mostly in delicate tones of rusty tint.

Round and round the house swims the Inle Herring Barbel (Barbus

compressiformis)* , a graceful green-backed silvery fish only known from

tile Inle Lake. The smaller fish congregate in shoals and rush to the surface,

some little distance beneath which they usually swim, when anything edible or

otherwise is thrown into the water. If it be edible they await its descent for a

few inches before attacking it. Everything that it is not too hard or too big

they find edible, and they are very foul feeders. The larger fish of the same

species, half a pound or rather more in weight, remain near the bottom and

swim solitary. They are not attracted by what happens on the surface. From

their large mouths and from their general structure and appearance, not

* The species was originally called B. compressus by Boulenger (Ann. Mag

Nat. Hist (6) XII. p. 202, 1893) and the name was changed at the suggestion of

the author to B. steadmanensis in 1918 (Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. XIV, p. 47) In the

the meanwhile, however, Cockerell had called it B. compressiformis in a paper on

the scales of fishes (Bull. Bour. Fisher. (AVashington) XXXII, p, 133. 1913).

^ourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate A.

Characteristic Fish i./ the lute Lake.

Fig. 1. —The Golden Sprat Barbel {Bartleus auropurpureus, Aimand).

Slightly reduced.

Fig. 2. —The Scaleless Minnowlet (Saicbica resplendens, Annand).

Twice natural size.

Fig. 3. — The Crimson Mimiovvlot ( Micro rashora eri/throm'cron,

Annand). Twice natural size.

Fig. 4. — The Red-headed Minnowlet {Microrasbora rubescens, Annand).

Twice natural size.

Fig. 5. — Browne’s Loach (Neniachielus brunneanus, Annand). Twice

i ■ ^VS^ r Y>W^^ *

I .- . ^.-

KwSSm.' V

. rJik

FISH AND FISHING IN THE INLE LAKE.

1039

unlike that of small pike, they are probably both predaceous and voracious.

Here and there smgle individuals of the Burmese Red-Fimied Barbel (Barbus

earana caudimarginatus) may be seen, but apart from the Herrmg Barbel.

With the young Herring Barbel, but not mixing with them, are still larger shoals

-of a smaller but more beautiful fish. Like the AssjTian host, its “ cohorts are

gleaming vdth purple and gold.” Its sides are golden, its beUy silver, and on

its sides are numerous bands of deep purple-blue. This fish is imknown

outside the Inle Lake -system. To it has been granted the name Barilius auro-

purpureus. Its shoals have the habit of conglomerating from time to time

.into great spheres of living units a short distance below the surface. More of a

surface fish than the Herrmg Barbel, the Golden Sprat Barbel, (as it may be called

familiarly), feeds mainly on the small may-flies and caddis-flies and gnats (fortu-

nately not mosquitoes) that rise from the lake in countless thousands every

evening. It does not, however, ignore the attraction of the kitchen perched

above its abode. In the heat of the day it goes to the bottom and may there be

seen through the glassy water, eight feet dowm, tugging worms and insect-larvse

from the mud, a task for which its upwardly dii’ected mouth is ill-adapted. It

has to lie well over on its side to get a grip and often turns completely upside

down in its struggles.

In the weeds skulks the Small Burmese Murrel (Ophiocephalus harcourt

butleri), a voracious fish, and occasionally a Shan Carp (Cyprinus carpio intha),

a fish which lives by “ suction ” from the mud of the bottom. In the He-Ho

plain, which lies to the east of the Lile Lake and eight hundred feet higher but

belongs to the same lake-system, the Carp (Cyprinus carpio) apparently reaches

the western limits of its range in southern Asia. It is on the Shan plateau from

He-Ho eastwards that the local race (intha) has become differentiated. La the

weeds also five shoals of two other fish, both smaller than the English Minnow,

both confined to the lake and its connected waters, both of gorgeous colom-ation

and both belonging to small genera of limited tange. Both are highly pecuhar

representatives of the carp family and both are remarkable not only for their

small size and brilliant tuits but also for their large eyes. This last feature is

characteristic of the fish-famia of the lake, in the clear water of which barbels

and other tactile organs are rarely well-developed, while full advantage is taken

of the high visibfiity in the strong development of organs of vision. The two

little fish have been called Saubwa resplendens and Microrasbora rubescens. We

may refer to them here as the Naked Minnowlet and the Red-headed Minnowlet.

The former is unique in the carp family in that it has completely lost its scales.

In the male the sides of the body are of an intense steely blue, while the head

and the impaired fins are of the most brilliant scarlet. The female, though more

moderately garbed has a fine silvery sheen. The Red-headed Miimowlet pos-

sesses scales and is less abnormal in other respects. In both sexes the sides and

lower parts of the head are orange -scarlet, while in the breeding male the whole

body is suffused with the same bright hue. Neither of these fishes ever gi-ow

much more than an inch long.

Yet another little fish, even more abnormal than either of the Minnowlets, is

also to be foimd, single and not in shoals, among the weeds under the bungalow,

namely Chaudhuria caudata — a speeies so peculiar that it has been found

necessary to propose a new family for its recognition. It is a little eel-like, or

rather worm-like, creature, which does not gi'ow much more than two and a half

inches long. Small size, as well as large eyes and bright colours (neither of which

■Chaudhuria possesses), is charaeteristic generally of the fish of the lake.

Of the fish that live under and around the lake bungalow, I have left to the

last the one that is most peculiar in habits. To it the Intha or “Sons of the Lake”

have given a name which means the “fish that climbs the posts of houses”. Its

scientific name is Discognathus (or Garra) gravelyi. Both its Intha name and the

;generic name by which it is most generally knoivn refer to obvious phvsical or

28

1040 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

physiological j)eculiaritics. Its mouth is situated on the lower surface of the head

and immediately behind the mouth there is a large flattened disk by means of

which it can adhere to any solid object. Most of the species of the genus*, which

are numerous in the hilly districts of India and Burma, inhabit rapid-ruiming

water and cling by means of their disk to rocks or stones in the current. Such a

habitat does not afford the same facilities for watching the mode of life as does

the lake -bungalow. One usually sees the fish swimming out in a clumsy manner

from a mass of weeds, moving forward by abrupt and awkward jerks of its tail.

It swims to one of the house-posts, to which it affixes itself by means of its disk.

It spreads out both its paired fins flat against the post like a couple of fans on

each side of its body. With its sharji upper jaw it then scrapes from the post

the minute algae and Polyzoa which cover the wood. These are prevented from

escaping by the deep fold of skin that forms a false uj)per lip, and are swallowed

as they are set free. As it feeds the fish moves gradually up the post, thrusting

itself upward by hardly perceptible movements of its tail.

These are the fish most abundaiit beneath the bungalow ; but others are also

to be seen occasionally : for instance, the two stickle-back eels {Mastacem-

belus caudiocellatus and M. oafesii) peculiar to the Inle Lake system. Mr. Tate

Regant of the Bi-itish ]\Iuseum believes that it is to their family, or at any rate

sub-order, Chrnulhuria belongs, and doubtless he is right at any rate as to the

sub-order. But as the most salient characters of the Stickle-back Eels are the

spines on their backs and their peculiar fleshy snouts, neither of which charac-

ters Chaudhuria possesses, it is a remarkably isolated little fish.

I have mentioned twelve different kinds of fish as living beneath the Lake

Bungalow, but this by no means exhausts the fish-fauna of the lake, from which

no less than thirty-five or thirty-six species have been recorded. Of these, three

are mud-loving forms of wide distribution in Eastern Asia, but found in the lake

only among the floating islands at the edge. They are the two amphibious eels

Moriopterus alhusand Amphipnous cuchia and the Black Cat fish Clarias batracMis.

The last is regarded as one of the best edible fish in the lake, but is a foul

feeder and the flesh is too soft to my taste. The Shans will not eat the

eels, the fle.sh of which they believe to produce leprosy, probably on account

of the livid mottled colour of their skins. The Intha, or true Sons of the Lake,

have no such prejudice.

Among the islands at the edge, but near the surface under floating grass and

water-weeds, a very different fish is found. It is even smaller than the two little

fish that live amongst the thickets under the bungalow, hardly attaining the

length of half an inch, but still more gorgeous in colouration. Its ground-colour,

so to speak, is deep crimson and it bears on its sides a series of deep blue bars.

At the base of its tail there is a large round eye-like black spot surrounded by a

pale ring. The name of this fish is 21 icrorasbora eri/thromicron. It is probably

the smallest of the whole of the great carp family. For a trivial name I would

suggest that of the Crimson Minnowlet.

The other species in the fish-fauna call for no very sj)ecial notice, though several'

of them are peculiar to the lake. They belong to the carp family in a wide sense

with the exception of the wide-ranging Freshwater Herring {Notopterus

notopterus) and Striped Murrel {Ophiocephalus striatus), but thi-ee of them are

small loaches of the family Cobitidae in a restricted sense. Further particulars

may be found in my paper in Vol. XIV of the Records of the Indian Museum.

The method of fishing used in the Inle Lake are almost as diverse as the species

of fish. The most striking to the visitor who is there in March are the use of float-

ing islands as decoys for fish, and the manoeuvres of the spearing parties, to’

seen daily on the lake especially on the day before one of the local markets.

* See Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus. XXII, pp. 633-687, pis. xxiv-xxvi (1921).

t Regan. Ann. Not. (O’) 111, p. 198, (1919).

Journ , Bombay Nat. Hist Soc

Plate B.

Floating Islands of the Inle Lahe,

Fig. 1. — The islands in their natural state (above).

Fig. 2.— Islands used as gardens (in the middle).

Fig. 3. — In the floating village of Ka-!c- (below).

FISH AND FISHING IN THE INLE LAKE.

1041

The floating islands, as already stated, surround the lake in a ring. The}^ are

formed entirely of growing and decaying vegetation. The first stage in their

formation is the growing out, either from the shore or from an already

formed island, of long shoots of various grasses and sedges which float

on the surface. Among these shoots floating water-2>lants, such as the

water-lettuce, duckweed, etc., get entangled and also much vegetable

debris, including the topmost branches of the submerged plant Najas'

which are killed as the water sinks in the dry season, partly by dessication,

partly by the heat of the sun, and partly by the luxuriant growth of

alg;e of the family Rivulareacese encouraged by this heat. Other shoots

of similar plants and the floating masses of other weeds such as Ammania

rotundifolia also get entangled. The peculiar chemical composition of the water

transforms the dead parts of all this vegetation into a kmd of peat, which soon

forms a fertile soil held together on the surface by the roots of the growing jrlants.

A rich flora springs up on this soil, including both ferns and numerous flowering

plants such as orchids of two species and a jreculiar Utricidaria with yellow and

purple flowers. This plant produces its flowers on long trailing stems which

twist up the reeds to a height of several feet. A large shrub (Cephalanthus occi-

dentaUs) also grows on the floating islands and in places forms regular thickets

amongst the tall grasses and sedges.

The floating islands are of primary importance in the economy of the Intha.

Pieces of them can be cut off with iron spades and towed to any convenient

spot. They are used for a great variety of purposes ; as cemeteries it is

said, and certainly for horticulture, in fisheries, and as break-waters to protect-

houses built out on the lake. Our concern here is with them as fishing appliances.

Any fisherman can, without cost to himself, cut off an island of suitable size,

tie it to his boat by means of the reeds growing upon it and ropes made by twist-

ing these reeds together, and tow it away anywhere on the lake ; or if he

is too occupied or too unskilled himself, he can hire somebody else to do all

this for him, paying accordmg to a recognized tariff based on the size of

the island detached. Towards the latter end of March the process may

be watched daily. A long stri^r of island, commonly of a hundred feet

in length and five or six feet in width, is first cut off and tied to a boat,

which is fastened at the side towards one end. The boatman, rvho is some-

times quite a small boy, laboriously poles the mass along until he reaches

the appointed site. The island is then manoeuvred until its long axis

points directly across the lake and is fixed in this position by means of

numerous long bamboo poles thrust through it down into the water and into the

soft mud of the bottom. All of this is usually a day’s work and sometimes

the island-cutter — a recognised profession amongst the Intha — has to anchor

his island temporarily for the night before he reaches its halting-place.

Once in position he proceeds to cut off from one end of the island a piece

about as long as broad. This he releases by pulling out the pole, or poles,

thi’ust through it and tows it away to some distance in a straight line with the

main piece. When he has towed it far enough he anchors it again with the

pole and cuts off another piece of the same size, which he treats in the same

way. The division and the towing-out of fragments of the original strip con-

tinues until there is a regular line of little islets extending out across the lake

at regular intervals for a distance of several hundred yards.

Each of these islands is a trap, or rather a decoy, for fish. The main breeding-

season in the lake begins just about the time that the islets are floated out and

for most freshwater fish in tropical Asia the one essential at sprawning time is

cover and a suitable nidus. For these reasons the fish are attracted to the shade

of the islets and are there caught at night by means of dip-nets and various other

kinds of nets.

,1042 JOUR2HAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

An even more peculiar method of fishing is the use of the spear, either alone

or in company, either by day or by night. The Intha fish-sjrear is of two kinds.

One has two prongs of iron, each with a smgle barb on its inner side. The two

prongs are inserted in a mass of resin at the end of a bamboo. This kind of spear

is only u.sed for catching eels in the mud. The more popular kind has five simi-

lar, but finer, prongs cast in one piece with a corkscrew spike at the base. This

spike is inserted into the stem of a long reed and neatly bound in position. The

spear is used for catching all kinds of fish, especially the true Carp, which is the

most abundant fish in the Intha markets, and the Herring Barbel. The spear

is always used from a boat, and the Intha are extremely skilful in its

manipulation.

Their boats are long and narrow, bifurcate and slightly turned up at either end.

They are formed of stout planks of wood neatly fitted together and covered with

black varnish in such a way as to give the impression of being carved out of a

single log. They are flat-bottomed but very easily worked, answering to the

'lightest turn of the paddle. The Intha have a peculiar method of rowing by means

of which they are said, in their own boats, to excel all other Burmese rowers in

speed. They are “ leg-rowers ” : that is to say, they row standing with one leg

twisted round the paddle and use the leg in working, the oar as well as one arm.

They can actually row in this way with one arm and one leg, standmg on the

other leg, and spear fish with the other arm. In this extraordinary manoeuvre

they seem to be quite ambidextrous as well as bemg able to use either leg indis-

criminately.

In the use of the spear they are equally ambidextrous. Often a man or a

boy goes out to spear fish alone. In order to prevent the boat turning round in

an inconvenient manner Avbile he is executing the manoeuvre already described

he hangs over the end of the boat that happens to be hindermost at the time — for

the two ends are alike — a piece of rope to either end of which a small flat plank

is attached. The string is just long enough to allow the two planks to hang in

the water. They are very efficient in giving the boat stability. Sometimes the

fish-spearer trusts merely to his own skill. He stirs up the weeds with a long

bamboo pole and spears the fish as they come out, or waits for them over a clear

space in the submerged thickets. Often he uses a large conical structure made of

ii-eeds sufficiently long to reach the bottom of the lake. This he inserts over a

likely mass of weeds or at a place where he has seen a fish take shelter. In the

narrow end of the cone, which remains uppermost, there is a small hole and

through this hole he jabs down his spear until he hits the fish or decides that he

has not succeeded in enclosing one.

frequently a number of men combme together in spearing parties. They

surround a suitable weedy area with a net the lower end of which is weighted and

rests on the bottom while the upper end, to which floats are attached, lies some

little distance below the surface of the water. The fishermen in their canoes re-

main inside the space enclosed by the net and alternately hit the surface with

their paddles to frighten the fish and thrust at any they see. Thej' know that

the natui'al tendency of those fish which haunt the submerged thickets is to dive

doum wards and that individuals which escape their spears will sufim along or near

the bottom and entangle themselves in the net instead of making their way over

the top. The fish caught most commonly in this way is the Herring Barbel,

while the one particularly sought with the aid of the cone of reeds is the true

Carp.

The most profitable method of spearing, however, is to go out at night with a

.'mall fire or a lamp at the front end of the boat which both attracts the fish

and lights up the water. Sometimes single boats go out for the purpose, at

others several advance together in a line. For every method of fishing the

fisherman has to pay a small monthly license to the State. That for spearing

at night with a light is the most expensive of all, costing Re. 1 a month.

Journ., ftombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plato C.

Boating and Inshing on the Inle T,ake.

Fifi. 1. — Tnthas leg-rowing (above).

Fio. 2. Intlias making a Sailing enclosure foi the capture of Crossocheilsu

Intta (in the middle).

Fig. .3. Fo.ats at the edge of the Lake on market day (below).

FISH AXI> FISHIXG IX THE IXLE LAKE.

1043

Numerous other methods of fishing are also adopted and most of the different

kinds of nets and traps in common use throughout the Lidian Empire are known

to the Intha, I shall only mention two more methods which seem to me to be

characteristic. The first is that of making large enclosures for the special cajiture

of the fish Crossocheilus latia, a species usually found in running water, but not

uncommon in the lake. The enclosure, which often surrounds a very large area,

is made of masses of water -Aveed {Najas ) dried and pegged down with

bamboo poles to form a sm-rounding Avail in the water and reaching up to tlie

surface. Conical traps made of weeds are fixed in this Avail. The fishermen take

their boats into the enclosm-e and paddle about, striking the Avater with their

paddles and stirring up the Aveeds with bamboo poles. At the end of the

enclosure towards which the boats move, nets are fixed up in the air on poles to a

considerable height. As the fish are driven out from the AA-eeds many of them

make their way into the traps, while others, attemptuig to jump over the wall,

land themselves in the aerial nets.

The last method of fishing that I shall attempt to describe is the use of what may

be called the weed-trawl. This is a bag-shaped net fixed in a bamboo frame with

an almost triangular outline but AA'ith the top rounded instead of pomted. The

broader end is strengthened by a bamboo rumring across the side-piece.s.

Two boats and three men are necessary for the r>se of this net. The tAA'o boats

remain at first a few yards apart. Lr one of them there is a single fisherman ; in

the other, two. The single fisherman plrmges the trawl doAAuiAA'ards into the AA'ater

among the weeds, holding it by;the upper end. The two men in the other boat

then pull it towards them by means of a couple of ropes fixed to the sides near

the loAA'er end. They thus puU up the loAver end obliquely through the weeds-

capturing numerous stickle-back eels, carp and other fish in the mass of vegeta-

tion they detach.

The Intha are versatile folk. They are not only fishermen and agriculturists

but also keen traders and skilled weavers of silk and cotton. Perhaps their most

characteristic means of livelihood is the trade they conduct in dried whitebait

and dried praAvns. In both cases the animals which compose the product are

of extremely small size. The fish belong mostly to such genera as Sawbwa,

Microrasbora, Nemachilus and Lepidocephalus. In other words they are fish

which never attaiu the length of more than a few inches. Some years ago it Avas

proposed to suppress the industry as being destructive to immature fish. After

careful examination of samples from several of the Intha bazaars I was able to

assure the authorities that in none of these samples Avas the proportion of fish

capable of groAving to a reasonable size more than 5 per cent, and that in a very

large proportion such fish were completely absent. The trade was not suppressed,

and the product is still carried by coolies and on pack-oxen and mules as far as

the Siamese frontier over three hundred miles aAvay and up through the He-Ho

gorge (by cooUes only) to the railhead at He-Ho.

The dried praAvns, which are not mixed vrith the fish in the bazaars, consist

of two species of the genus Caridina * and are even smaller than the fish. Both

fish and praAvns are dried in the sim on mats. They have no bad smell when of

good quality and form a palatable condiment for curry when fried with onions

and salt and pepper.

The Intha claim to be Burmese not Shans and to haA'e come at some not very

remote period from Tavoy. Authorities say that this legendary origin

is confirmed by their language, which is a dialect of Burmese akin to Talaung.

They dress hke the Shans however, the men in baggy trousers and a short jacket

and a loose turban, the women with a long simple skirt in place of the trousers,

but also with the turban. They are stimdily built and taller than the Burmese

Ijroperly so-called. Their faces are broader, their featmres generally of coarser

(*) Kemp, Fee. Ind. Mus. XIV, p. 96 (1918).

1044 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111.

t3’pe. Their houses are like those of the Shans but are often built on bamboo

poles in the water.

As in other parts of Burma a bazaar is held in each village once every five days.

Xo two villages within easy walking distance have the same market day, but m

any one small district there is a market that any one can attend somewhere

practically every day of the week. The biggest market in the State of Yawnghwe

is held at a large village called Nan -pan, which is situated just south of the lake

on the river that runs down to Karen-ni. Two thousand boats are said to come

to this market on a full market as well as numerous pack-oxen from the eastern

part of the State, while the hill tribes for many miles round come dovm on foot.

The people of Nan-pan are famous for their silks, for their iron-work, their

gongs and their lacquer tables. Their blacksmiths are said to be the most skilled

in the country and provide a great deal of the gilded iron foliage with which the

thrones of the images of Buddha in the temples of Yawnghwe are decorated. A

few men m this village are still able to make the fine boxes in niello work in which

Intha elegants carry the lime for their betel-chewing. Very beautiful little

tables, or rather low stands for holding food-dishes, are here made of bamboo

basket-work covered with red and black lacquer on a wooden stand. They are

used particularly by the monks and numbers of them are to be seen in any of

the numerous monasteries that stud the shores of the lake.

But, in spite of all these industries and arts, the Intha are essentially simple

fisher-folk, and it is to the lake and its fauna they owe the fact that

they are in a position to indulge in such luxuries as silk trousers and

lacquer tables. Even their fishing-nets are sometimes made of silk through the

crude material is brought overland from China many hundred miles awa\%

Plate I.

Jourriii Bombay Na^ Hlati 8oc.

2. 3.

1. CAi/o&rac%s s<ri(iuiaws in stridulating attitude. (From Trans. Ent. Soc., London.) "

2. Diagrams of nests of “trap-door” spiders: (a) Nermsiellus monlanus •, (6) Damarchus f

p excavatus ; (c) Acanthodon barkudensis ; (d) Sason sj). ; (e) Diplothele walshi ; (/) Sasonichus '

nrthapophysis. (Modified from Rec. Ind. Mus.)

3. Web of Slegodyphus sarasinorum on mango twig.

1045

COMMON INDIAN SPIDERS.

BY

F. H. GRAVELY, D. Sc.,

Superintendent, Government Museum, Madras.

(iri/7i. jive plates.)

Spiders are among the most ubiquitous creatures in India, and seem every-

where to have an evil, but so far as I have been able to ascertain quite unjnoved,

reputation as the cause of the painful sore popularly called a “spider-lick”. It

is surprising therefore' to find how little is really known about them and their

varied and interesting habits.

The order is divided into two suborders : ( 1 ) the Araneae Theraphosae or

ilygalomorphae characterised (a) by jaws which project straight forwards, the

fang of each folding straight backwards along its under side and (b) by two pairs

of conspicuous slit-like stigmata or openings into fom' corresponding lung-sacs

in the anterior part of the ventral surface of the abdomen ; and (2) the Araneae

Verae or Ai-achnomorphae characterised (a) by jaws which project vertically

or obliquely downwards, the fang of each folding along its inner or hinder side

and (b) by one instead of two pairs of more or less conspicuous pulmonary stig-

imata, and either one or two stigmata, usually not very evident, opening into

tracheal breathing tubes.

The foimer suborder includes the massive hairy spiders, generally known

as Tarantulas, and a number of smaller forms alHed to them, such as the Trap-

door-spiders. The latter suborder is much the more extensive of the two and

includes all the rest. The so-called Harvest-Spiders (order Phalangidea=

Opiliones) and Camel Spiders or Jerrymungalums (order Solifugse=Solpugae)

are not true spiders at all since, among other differences, there is no clearly

marked division between the cephalothorax and abdomen in the fonner, and

in the latter the jaws are of a different type from those of true spiders.

The large Mygalomorph spiders, commonly known as Tarantulas, are much

more massive than any others, though several groups contain species having

about the same span. Most of them live in holes in the ground lined with silk,

from which they emerge at night to catch their prey. The genus Poecilotheria,

however, which is confined to India and Ceylon, lives in trees.

All spiders possess a pair of poison-glands, opening near the tip of the fangs,

but few seem to have the power of injecting their poison into human beings.

It is probable, moreover, that the poison is not automatically ejected when-

ever the fangs are used, but is under the spider’s control. That the popular

dread of a Tarantula bite is to a considerable extent justified is proved by the

following observation, communicated to me by Dr. Sutherland of Kalimpong.

“ A boy of 14 years was bitten by this spider [a well grown female of Macrothele

vid^ia) on the finger. The pain extended up the arm and down the side. After

24 hours the finger was still swollen ”. The spider only bites on great provoca-

tion, however, and this was the first instance that Dr. Sutherland had known,

although the boys in his school frequently kept specimens in capti\fity. Mr.

R. S. Lister, on the other hand, suffered no ill effects beyond a slight local swell-

ing when bitten by a fine specimen of the much larger species Chilobrachys

fumosus. This may have been due to the fact that we had been making

the specimen very angry beforehand, in order to hear the faint rattling sound

which is produced as it strikes ; and it is possible that it had uselessly emptied

ts poison-glands before the bite was given, drops having been seen exuding

from the tijrs of the fangs.

1046 JOURNAL, BOMB AY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.XXYIlI.

The sound-producing organs of these spiders consist of specialised teeth or

spines on the opposed surfaces of the basal joints of the chelicerae and palps,

but they are not present in all genera. They were first discovered in

ChilohracJiys (‘Mygale’) stridulans, which is said to make a noise that “ is

both peculiar and loud ; it resembles that made by pouring out small shot

on to a plate from a height of a few inches, or, better still, by drawing

the back of a knife along the edge of a strong comb While stridulating

“ the spider usually rested on the four posterior legs, raising the other

four and shaking them in the air, -with the thorax thrown up almost

at right angles to the abdomen and the chelicerae in rapid motion —

assumed in fact, quite a threatening attitude” (Trans Ent. Soc. London, 1877,

pp. 281-2, pi. VII; pi. reproduced as fig. 1 of present paper). It is

interesting to note that the sound produced by C. stridulans is much louder

than that made by C. fiimosus, as the stridulating organs of the former are of

more highly specialised structure than are those of the latter.

The Trapdoor-spiders belong to two distinct subfamihes, the Ctenizinae

and the Barychdinae, but not aU species of these subfamilies close the mouths

of their abodes with trapdoors. So far as my observations go, the abodes of

the Ctenizidae are more or less elongated burrows with a single opening each,

whereas those of the Barychdinae are shorter and broader with two apertures

(see fig. 2). The burrows of some of the Ctenizidae ( e.g., Nemesiellus

montanus) are, however, forked near the bottom with an internal trapdoor at

the fork which can be pulled across so as to shut off whichever branch the

spider choses to hide in (fig. 2o). The trapdoors may be thin and “ wafer ”

like falUng over the aperture they have to hide ; or they may be stout and '

“ cork ” like, fitting tightly into the aperture. In either case they are difficult

to detect, being composed of silk covered on the outer surface with soil, etc.;'

but whereas in the former case there is only one layer of silk, in the latter a

number of layers are imited one on top of another.

Males have to leave their nests in search of mates, but ■with this

exception these spiders probably never go out except through misadventure,

resting on the irmer side of the trapdoor till a fly aUghts on the outer side, when'

the door opens and the fly disappears with Hghtning rapidity. If a specimen

is removed from its nest it appears to have no knowledge as to how to make a

new one unless it is pro-vided with some sort of burrow to start -with,

in which case this will be provided with a trapdoor, enlarged if necessary,

and fined ■with silk. Otherwise the spider wanders about rmtil after a day or

two it dies, ■without attempting to make a new burrow for itself.

Further observations on the habits and nests of various species of Trapdoor-

spider are much to be desired. All the species so far described have been My-

galomorphs belonging to one or other of the two above mentioned subfamilies ;

but in Madras there is a species belonging apparently to the Arachnomorph

family Zodaiiidae which like'wise closes the entrances to its nest ■with trapdoors.

The Araneae Verae or Arachnomorphae can be di'vided into two groups,

the Crihellatae and Ecribellatae, according to whether a cribeUum or spinning

plate IS present or not in front of the spinerettes ; and this classification is

commonly adopted, though it is by no means certain that it is a natural one,

since certain Cribellate families appear in other respects to be more closely re-

lated to different Ecribellate families than to each other.

Stegodyphus sarasinorum (Fam. Eresidae), a common social spider ■widely

distributed throughout India, is among the most interesting of the Crihellatae.

It spins dense untidy cobwebs among the branches of trees and bushes, each of

these being as a rule the home of a large number of spiders (fig. 3). From

these nests sheets of very sticky and elastic silk extend outwards, and woe

betide any insect unwary enough to fall into one of them. For immediately the

spiders find that anything has been caught they swarm out and together drag if

Jdurn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe.

Plate II,

PlW

6.

4. Eucta javana.

5. Nephila maculata g (above) and $ (below) both same scale, about ^ natural size.

6. Cydosa confraga : (a) Spider, {b) about § natural size ; (c) Profile ; {d) Sternum and bases

of legs; (e) Eyes ; (/) Vulva ; (g) Do. profile ; (h) AVeb (reduced). (From Workman's

“ Malaysian Spiders

7. G'isteracantha arcuata (above) and G, remifera (below).

COMMON INDIAN SPIDERS.

1047

to the nest where it is devouied. Tlic nests consequently come to be filled

with the dried remains of various insects and often afford a useful clue to the

entomology of the locality, including night flying forms such as readily escape

notice by day. Further references to the habits of this species, as well as to

the different kinds of silk used to give these webs their special characteristics

wilt be found in Rec. Ind. Mus. XI, 1915, pp. 534-536, pi. XXV.

Some of the Dictynidae, another cribellate family, also spin their webs

among foliage, but live in them singly.

The Psechridae include certain large spiders \idth long slender legs which are

abmidant in damp junglps such as those on the lower slopes of the Darjeeling

Hills and the Western Ghats. They spin a somewhat irregular sheet-like

web which extends forward from a tubular lair. When lying in wait for their

prey the spiders rest upside down on the under side of their sheets.

The Uloboridae. alone among the Cribellatae, spin circular snares construct-

ed on a definite geometrical plan with regular radii, like the webs characteristic

of the Argiopidae among the Ecribellatae. Several small species are commonly

foimd in association with the webs of other spiders. A somewhat larger one,

Uloborus geniculatus, frequents outhouses, etc., where it spins a web with a very

charactei'istic lace-like centre ; and yet others spin two horizontal webs, one

above the other, the upper one flat and of moderately fine mesh and the lower

one funnel-shaped and of much more open mesh.

The majority of spiders with circular snares belong, however, to the family

Argiopidae, which comprises a large number of species of very varied appearance.

The habits of several Indian species are carefully recorded in Kingston’s fasci-

nating book “ A Naturalist in Himalaya ”.

The genus Tetragnatha includes most of the spiders with long slender bodies

and strongly divaricate slender jaws, which spin webs among vegetation around

water, but leave them empty by day while they sit on a neighbouring

twig or blade of grass, coming out into them at dusk. Other species

live among bushes in the jungle, and one at least of these, T. gracilis, often

spins its web with the twig on which it rests extending right across the centre.

The genus E«cta (fig. 4), also very abundant near water, differs from Tetragnatha

only in having the abdomen produced beyond the spinnerettes into a pointed

tail. To the same subfamily belongs Leucauge { = Argyroepeira), a genus of common

diurnal spiders, whose striking black niarkings, vHth or without orange or green

on a background of metallic silver, render many of the species exceptionally

h andsome.

The next subfamily contains the giant Nephila, whose immense web

of strong yellow silk is a striking feature of all damp jungles during the

rains, when it reaches maturity, its term of life being confined apparently to

a single year. The legs of a full grown female have a span of about six inches,

the body attaining a length of about two inches and a thickness of about three

quarters of an inch. The great disparity between the sizes of the two sexes

which is noticeable in many spiders, is illustrated in an extreme form in this

genus (see fig. 5), the males being relatively insignificant slender little spiders

of a reddish brown colour, of which one or more is commonly to be found

residing among the outer whorls of the web of the female.

The genus Argiope, which gives its name to the whole famih% includes the

familiar spider with abdomen transversely banded in dark brown and pale yel-

low, that sits with its legs stretched out in pairs over a “ St. Andrew’s cross ”

(not always complete however) of opaque white silk, vvdth which its web is deco-

rated. Males of this species are also relatively minute and liv’e in small webs

on the borders of the web of the female : they are of a uniform brownish colour.

Very young specimens decorate the centre of their webs with lace-like silk not

unlike that found at the centre of the web of Uloborus genicidatua (see above).

29

1048 JOVENAL, BOMBAY yATUEAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Members of the genus Cyrtophora are remarkable for the extreme complexity

of their webs, which are probably more elaborate than those of any other spider

Instead of all the radial strands extending outwards from the hub, with inter-

spaces consequently much wider near the periphery than near the centre, addi-

tional strands are inserted so as to produce a web of exceedingly tine and uni-

form mesh. Nor is this aU, for these webs are supported in a horizontal position

by an extensive irregular network with the help of which the centre of the circle is

more or less greatly raised above the periphery, thus forming a sort of tent or

dome. One or two species are very common all over India. Their webs are

usually found in groups, the irregular supporting framework of which gives them

a most untidy and unattractive appearance ; and it is only on closer examination

that the exquisitely delicate structure of the circular web is seen. Slender

Reduviid bugs, Eugubinus spp. feed on the eggs of this spider and are sometimes

to be seen making their way about in its webs, which also seem very attractive

to certain other species of spiders, mostly belonging to the genera Argyrodes

and Uloborus.

Severa* species of Cyclosa (fig. 6) are to be met with in aU parts of the country.

The cephalic portion of the carapace is strongly elevated and separated from the

lateral and posterior parts by a deep grove, while the abdomen is as a rule orna-

mented by at least one pair of conical protuberances. The webs frequently

have a Une of debris extending across one diameter (fig. 6 h), with a gap in

the centre which is exactly filled by the spider.

The immense genus Araneus (=Epeira) includes many common forms,

■for the most part more or less nocturnal and having the same general form and

colouration as the common European garden spider of the same genus. The

colour is often variable, the structure of the vulva affording the safest means

of identihcation. Another genus of Argiopidae, Gasteracantha by name, is re-

markable for its hard integuments, drawn out on the sides of the abdomen into

spines, often of fantastic appearance and sometimes of astounding length

(fig- '<)■

The allied family Theridiidae contains curious genera resembling Gasteracantha,

as well as a large number of other genera many of which resemble other Argyo-

pidae in general appearance. But their webs are always irregular, never cir-

cular. Some species live in a curled up dead leaf or even in a specially construc-

ted shelter in the middle of the web. Several small forms, belonging to the

genus Argyrodes, live in the webs of larger Argiopid spiders, where they are apt

to be mistaken by inexperienced collectors for the mates of the rightful nwner

of the web.

The common Indian house spiders are most useful allies in our attempts to

keep down cockroaches, mosquitoes and other noxious insects, and with one or

two exceptions should always be welcomed and encomaged to stay. The

exceptions are of course those which spin untidy-looking and dust-coUecting

webs. One of these, Uloborus geniculatus, has already been mentioned. But a

much more troublesome species is the long legged Artema atlanta (fig. 8) which

loves to spin untidy cobwebs in any quiet corner of the house, and to rest there

upside down with its eggs in its jaws. If it manages to remain till its eggs are

hatched a colony wiU soon be estabhshed, for, like the majority of the family

Pholcidae to w'hich it belongs, it is a spider with strong social instincts.

The large house spider Heteropoda venatoria and its allies (farhily Clubionidae)

on the contrary spin no webs, beyond neat biscuit-hke cocoons around their eggs.

They sit flat upon the walls, usually hidden behind pictures and almirahs by

day, coming out in search of prey at night. They are often seen in bathrooms

and other such places and are um-easonably dreaded by many. In reality they

are much to be encouraged. In the commonest species, H. venatoria, which is

found throughout all tropical countries, the female and young are brown but

full grown males are velvety grey and black ( fig. 9 ). Another common

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. S6c.

Plate III.

8.

9.

8. Artema atlanta with eggs.

9. Heteropoda venatoria ^ .

(From photograph and drawing lent by the Zoological Survey of India).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hl«t. Soc.

Plate IV.

10.

11.

12.

Plexippus paykulli

Plexippui paykulli 9.

yjymarachueiaetus, and 9 (a) and its model rufonigra (b).

(From drawings lent by the Zoological Survey of India)

m. ■■Mi

: . 5*-'»

.'itiT J n -oU— ■

n^Ufl Xai|n ■

l"';’.T,V;J . ' va

A ♦ • 'S . V 'f * "* i -.> ' •I

*? •:- '^^4 • V- #

Utt'o ' 5 . '

- ' ' V* "iL *%.

'f : if/"! . sr.‘ . ^•*^' I , J^' 'y v-^ ij(^l^j’)'''’i ?• ‘ ~* ■ • ’•■

COMMON INDIAN SPIDERS.

1049

and useful, though much smaller, house spider is the little jumping spider Pie-

xippus (family Attidce), a creature so partial to a diet of mosquitoes that one

species has earned for itself the specific name culicivorus.

In both Heteropoda vomtoria and the common Plexippus the female is of a

dull mottled brown colour, and the male much handsomer. The difference is

most marked in Plexippus (see figs. 10 & 11) in which the male is not brown

at all but strikingly marked with rich black on a whitish ground. I am not

aware that anything is known of the courtship of Heteropoda. . But among

the Attidae it is well known that this often includes a dance of the male

before the female and I have on more than one occasion seen the male Plexip-

pus cautiously approaching his mate Avith uplifted fore-legs, though the dance

does not appear to be so Avell shoAvn in this species as in some that have

been investigated.

The Attidae are an immense family, and most of its members are jumping

spiders not unhke Plexippus in general structure, but of very varied size, pro-

portions and colouration. Some of the smaller species are resplendent with

amazingly brilliant metallic colours. One interesting group, however, closely

resembles various species of ants in form and mode of progression as Avell as in

colour (see fig. 12). Ant-mimicing spiders are found also in other families,

such as the Clubionidae, to which the large House spider belongs, and the

Thomisidae or Crab-spiders ; and they form a most interesting study. There

are also species which mimic the handsomely coloured wingless female MutUid

wasps. Such spiders can, of course, be at once distinguished from their insect

models by the possession of four instead of three pairs of walking legs. The

first pair is often held up to look like antennae, but is always attached to the

lower surface behind the mouth instead of to the upper surface in front

of it.

The majority of the Thomisidae (Crab-spiders) are broad bodied AAith Avidely

spreading legs, not unlike the Large House Spider in general build, but Avith the

two hind pairs of legs much smaller than the two front pairs. One of the

commonest species, usually greenish or Avhitish in colour, hides among leaves

or floAvers to pounce on such insects as may be tempted to visit them.

Several of the smaller species of Lycosa (family Lycosidae or Wolf spiders)

are usually to be found running about in large numbers on open ground, both

wet and dry, especially the former. They are broAvnish in colour, the males

sometimes with conspicuous silvery white palps or front legs ; they may

readily be recognised from spiders belonging to other families by the arrange-

ment of the eyes, the four posteriors being as a rule of relatively enormous

size, the medians directed forwards and the laterals outwards, while the four

anterior eyes are quite small, and situated in a line below the posterior

medians. One or two much larger species of Lycosa live in broad burroAvs,

open at the mouth and lined Avith loosely spun silk. They are often to be

found on open grassy land.

A closely allied genus, Hippasa, distinguished from Lycosa by having the

posterior spinerettes much longer than the anterior, instead of about equal to

them, is the builder of most of the sheet- webs communicating Avith a tunnel

that are commonly to be found spreading out from walls, bushes, grass and other

convenient hiding places. The spiders lie in Avait for their prey at the mouth

of the tunnel ; and when mature they appear to live amicably in pairs, the male

guarding the mouth of the tunnel Avhile the female rests inside.

The Lycosidae carry their eggs in a spherical cocoon attached to the spineret-

tes, and the young Avhen hatched mount on the back of the mother and are thus

carried about by her for a time.

The Oxgypidae are a family of more slender and brightly coloured hunting

spiders, Avith eyes of normal size, and very spiney legs. They hide their cocoons

among foliage, where they mount guard over them.

1050 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

The Hersiliidae are much flattened, long legged spiders, with very long pointed

spinerettes ffig. 13). They live on tree trunks and walls, adapting their

colour to that of their surroundings, and are very difficult to detect until

they are disturbed, when they dart to a new resting place and again become

practically invisible. Only one species, Hersilia savignyi, appears to be

common in India.

In the space of a short article like this it is impossible to do more than indi-

cate something of the habits and systematic position of the sjuders most likely

to come to the notiee of field naturalists in India, and a glance at the “ Fauna of

British India ” or at the “ Cambridge Natural History ” vill show how many

whole families have been entirely omitted. I am always glad to enlighten

members, so far as I am able, as to any spiders they may find which specially

interest them. But in spiders as in so many other groups, the literature is both

extensive and difficult and specific identification is more often than not imprac-

ticable at present.

Jourrii, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fla'.s V.

13.

Hersilia savignyii.

(From a drawing lent by the Zoological Survey of India.)

r

1051

A NEW STONE GECKO FROM THE HIMALAYA.

By

Capt. C. M. Ingoldby, R.A.M.C., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Ill the Suraniei’ of 1921 1 obtained a series of a small Gjinnodactylus at Jutogh

near Simla. By the kindness of Miss Procter, I have been able to compar d these

with specimens from the British Museum collection. 1 find that they belong

to a hitherto unrecognized species, of which one example already existed in the

■ B. M. collection, incorrectly catalogued as G. stoliczkae. This specimen was

presented by Colonel Wall, C.M.G., I. M.S., from Chitral. It is a very young spe-

cimen minus the tail. The new lizaixl appears to be closest to G. stoliczkae but

is separated by the following points : —

G. ^toliczhee.

(a) Infra-femoral scales large, marked- (a)

ly larger than the ventrals ; 4 or

5 in transverse series.

{h) Ventrals larger ; 21 rows. ' (h)

(c) No prae-anal pores. (c)

(d) External ear-opening minute. {d)

(e) Hind limb over 00 per cent, of (e)

the body length.

G. sp.

Infra-femoral scales small not

larger than the ventrals ; 9-13

in transverse series.

Ventrals smaller ; 27-33 rows.

Prae'-anal pores present in the

male.

External ear-openmg moderate.

Hind limb 50 per cent, of body

length or under.

I have great pride and pleasure in naming the new lizard in honour of its dis-

tinguished discoverer.

Gymnodactyhis walli sp. n.

Gymnodactylus stoliczkae Glundachen. Wall. .Journ., Bom. N.

H. S., Vol. XXI, P. 1.32.

Specimens. l^J 2 9 1 Hgi'- 1 vg.

Localities. — Chitral 1. .Jutogh 4.

Type. — A young specimen from Chitral ; Briti.sh Mu.seum Reg. No.

1910-7-12-1.

Description. — Small, elongate, somewhat depressed. Head rather large, liftle'

depre.ssed, ovoid; snout .slightly longer than distance from eye to eai^pening; ear-

opening moderate, oval, largest diameter oblique, measuring in adults 1-5 mm,

when fully expanded'; eye moderate ; limbs moderate ; hmd limb not more than

50 per cent, of length from snout to vent. Tail cylindrical or slightly depressed.

Lepidosis. — Head, body and limbs covered with numerous sub-equal granules

with a few larger granules irregularly intermixed ; granules larger on snout and

tending to enlargement on the flanks. Subgular scales very small, ventrals

moderate, in about 30 longitudinal rows ; no lateral fold. Tail ringed with

imbricating moderate sized scales, larger below. Each fourth ring shows three

large leaf shaped scales, which form longitudinal series, two scale rows apart.

Males with five prse-anal pores ; arranged in a flat chevron.

Colouration. — Grey above, irregularly banded or blotched with blackish.

Tail with 9 or 10 dark cross bands.

9

1052

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY.

No. XXXIII.

NOTE ON SORICULUS NIGRESCENS AND ITS SUBSPECIES.

By

Martin A. C. Hinton.

{Published by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.)

In ■working out the collections made for the Society in Nepal by Lt. -Col. Kennion

and the Society’s collector, N. A. Baptista, I have had not only to examine

all the material representing Soriculus nigrescens in the British Museum but to

enquire into the history of the older specimens. In connection 'with the re'vdsion

of “ Blanford ” the Zoological Society of London has lent me two of the most

valuable treasures in its great library, namely, the volumes containing the ori-

ginal dra-wings and manuscript notes made by Hodgson in Nepal and Sikkim.

By carefully collating Hodgson’s specimens ■with the dra^wings and notes it

is possible now, in many cases, to ascertain exact localities and the dates of

collecting for specimens which hitherto, by reason of insufficient and often inac-

curate labelling, have been merely so many stumbling 'clocks in the waj* of

the mammalogist.

Although Blanford (p. 230) states that Soriculus nigrescens inhabits “ Sikkim

and Neiial”, my enquiries show that before the work of the Mammal Survey the

species was, in reality, only kno^wn to occur in Sikkim and Bhutan. All the

older, or pre -Blanford, material of this species in the British Museum was received

there, at divers dates, as donations from the East India Company ; some of the

specimens reached the national collection shortly after their arrival in England,

while many came in at a far later date when the Company’s London Museum was

broken up. Gray described (Ann. Mag. N.H. X. p. 261) his “ Cor sir a nigrescens'^

in 1842; giving “India” as habitat; but in his list of 1843 p. 79 the type.

Skin. 42.4.29*65 ) • • j

( B. M. A, -- • - tlie only specimen then in the Museum, is mentioned

' t>kull 43-5-31-5 ^

as “a. India, Dargelin ? Presented by the E. India Company”. “Dargelin

is of coui-se a missiielling of Daijiling and as most of the later specimens men-

tioned below came from this place, and agree ■with the type in every respect,

Darjiling may be accepted as being in all probability the true type -locality.

In 1844 a second specimen (44.9.13.7 ), ■with the simple locality “ India ” was

received ; this probably came from the same source as the type.

Hodgson, as appears from his MS., first became acquainted %vith the species

at Dai jiling in January 1848 and in June of that year he sent a pair, marked

“ No. 7”, home to the India House ; one of the pair, still bearing a label

“Hodgson Nepal No. 7” in Gray’s writiug, is now before me (B.M. 49.11.23.

16 ), whUe the other may be 79.11.21.481 a Hodgson specimen labelled “Sikkim”

but ■without an original number. With the latter, on the break-up of the India

Museum, seven other Hodgson specimens (79.11.21.313-318, and 482, the latter

being the t^vpe of Sorex sikimensis, Hodgson) arrived at the British Museum

and 'were then promptly labelled “Nepal”. But these still bear Hodgson’s

original labels (in script) and each is marked “ No. 82” ; plate 33 in \ol. I of

Hodgson’s MS. is headed “ India House November 1852 No. 82” and notes on

that dra^wing leave no room for doubting that the six specimens in question

all obtained in Darjiling Garden. Blanford also collected specimens at Darji-

ling, at a much later date, and some of these are before me. With only one

definite exception the whole of the material in the collection before the days

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY. 1053

of the Mammal Survey can thus be shown to have come from Darjiling. The

exception is a specimen collected, probably about 1838, by Major Pemberton

in “ Boot an ” (No. 79.11.21.484 ) and received from the India Museum.

The Mammal Survey has now obtained the species in Kumaon and in Nepal.

On laying all the material out, rather well marked geographical variation be-

comes visible in the colour and to some extent in the size and proportions. Four

forms would seem now to be recognizable, namely, two in Sikkim, true nigrescens

from moderate elevations (up to 7,40(y) and a somewhat larger form from

greater altitudes (up to 12,300') ; one in Nepal ; and one in Kumaon.

SORICULUS NIGRESCENS NIGRESCENS.

Sorex sikimensis, Hodgson.

As explained above, Darjiling is the type locality and no doubt, as regards

the type specimen and those collected by Hodgson “ Darjiling, ” refers actually

to the towm and its immediate vicinity, rather than to the district at large. But

as regai-ds the specimens collected by Blanford “ Darjiling ” would seem to in-

dicate the district. The material now before me Horn this district is extremely

rich for in addition to the early specimens already mentioned we have no fewer

than 83 collected at various stations by the Mammal Suiwey. Of these modern

specimens 57 were collected at stations around Darjiling, lying at various heights

between 3,500' (Pashok) and 7,400' (Ghoom). These agree exactly with the

type of nigrescens, -with Hodgson’s specimens, and with most of those collected

by Blanford, in having the hindfoot measurement between 14 and 15mm. and

the condylo-basal length of the skull between 21.3 and 22.6 mm. The

general colour is dark, near “ chsetura black”, more or less overcast with red-

dish brow'n above and below ; the effect produced being richer and darker than

in the subspecies inhabiting Kumaon, though less sombre than in that from

Nepal described below. As regards proportions, in a series of 36 specimens, the

average lengths of the tail and hindfoot were found to equal respectively 51.5

and 17.8% of the head and body length, but these figures are of course, subject

to considerable individual variation.

As to higher stations Lachen (8,800') and Gnatong (12,300') these shrews

were found to be distinctly larger tlian in those from the lower altitudes. These

may be regarded as representing a distinct subspecies which may be called

Soriculus nigrescens pahari, subsp. n.

Distinguished from the typical form by its slightly larger size and (in the type

locality) by its lighter colour.

Size rather large (Head and Body. 82-93, HF. 15-16, condylo-basal length of

skull 21.9-23.3mm.) Tail relatively shorter than in n. nigrescens its average

length in Gnatong specimens equal to 46.5% instead of 51.5% of the head and

body measurement.

Colour (in Gnatong specimens) lighter and browmer than in n. nigrescens

approaching the “ deep olive ” of Ridgway. Specimens from Lachen arc as

large as those from Gnatong, (“dark greyish olive”) and have rather

longer tails, (averaging 50^o of tbe head and body measurement) ; in these

respects they approach n. nigrescens.

Habitat. — Sikkim, at elevations above 8000'.

Type: — -Adult female B. M. No. 15.9.1.56. Original No. 5704. Collected

by Mr. C. A. Crump, Oct. 29th, 1914, at Gnatong, Sikkim, Altitude 12,300'.

Remarks : — -Two of Blanford’s “ Darjiling ” specimens (90.1.1.5 & 9) are larger

than the others and evidently belong to the present form. In all ])robability

they were obtained from one of the higher points in the Darjiling district.

1054 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIl

Soriculus nigrescens cauriiius, subsp. n.

Resembling the typical form in proportions, but colour colder and greyer.

.Size rather larger than in typical nigrescens (H.F. usually 1.5mm., condylo-

basal length of skull about 22'5mm.) Tail, feet and ears as in n. 7iigrescens

shorter than in n. centralis.

Colour near “ chaetura drab” above and below, but under surface with

u.sually a well marked brownish suffusion. Hands and feet dusky, tail dusky

throughout.

For measiu’ements see table at p. 1054.

Habitat : — Kumaon.

Type Adult male. B.M. Xo. 14.7.10. 245. Original Xo. 3714. Collected

September 11th, 1913, at Khati, Kumaon (altitude 7,600') by Mr. C.A. Crump

for the Mammal Survey ; presented to the British iluseum by the Bombay

Xatural History Society.

So)'iculus nigt'escens centralis, subsp. n.

Distinguished from the typical form mo.st readily by its darker colour : and

different proportions.

Size rather large (HF. 15-16mm. ; condylo-basal length of skull about 23)

Tail, feet and ears relatively longer (see table at p. 1055). Colour very dark

near “ dark mouse grey ” of Ridgway ; dorsal and ventral surfaces alike, the

latter jjei-haps a little greyer. Hands, feet and tail dusky ; but the terminal

5mm. of the tail white in all four specimens examined. For measurements see

table at p. 1055.

Habitat : — Xepal.

Type: — Adult male B.M. Xo. 22-5-16-17 Original Xo. 322 collected Jan. Ist,

1921, by X. A. Baptista for the Mammal Survey at Bouzini Xepal; presented

to the British Museum by the Bombay Xatural History Society'.

Soriculus nigrescens.

A. External measurements and proportions.

Millimetres.

Percentages.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY. 1055

SOEICULUS NIGRESCENS.

B. Skull measurements (in millimetres).

30

1056

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY.

No. XXXIV.

THE HOUSE RATS OF NEPAL.

By

Martin A. C. Hinton.

{Published by 'permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.)

A large part of the historic Hodgson collection forms one of the

principal treasures in the National Collection of mammals. But

hitherto this material, which should always have been one of our chief

guides to Himalayan mammalogy, has, to a large extent, constituted

merely a stumbling block in the way of the student. Unfortunately

Hodgson rarely labelled his specimens in English ; and early curators,

impressed with Hodgson’s long association with Nepal, were too

prone to assume that all his specimens came from that country unless

some other locality was specifically stated. But Hodgson collected

from many sources, such as Kashmir, Sikkim and Tibet, besides

Nepal. The confusion which such imperfect labelling introduced may

be imagined ; the result of it was that for many years the Hodgson

material was deprived of its real scientific value. When preparing

my report on the Indian House Rats for this Society some years ago,

I found it impossible to deal satisfactorily with the Hodgson material

and with great reluctance I had to brush it almost wholly aside.

Two recent events have enabled us to rehabilitate this Collection to

a considerable extent. In the first place the authorities of the

Zoological Society of London have lent us the original notes and draw-

ings made by Hodgson so that we are able to collate them with the

specimens on which they were based. By this means it has been

found possible to ascertain the exact localities of many specimens of

which the real provenance was previously unknown and to identify

a good many of Hodgson’s co-types. Secondly, large collections have

been made in Nepal for the Mammal Survey by Lt.-Col. Kemiion and

this Society’s collector N. A. Baptista. With this modern material

it is possible to form opinions as to the status of the Nepalese forms,

which, in many cases, could not be based satisfactorily upon the

scanty and often imperfect typical specimens.

A general report upon the Nepal collections will appear shortly

in this Journal. The present paper is intended to clear up some of

the questions relating to the status and relationships of that most

difficult group, the House Rats of Nepal. As is well knorvn Hodgson

asserted these animals to be distinguishable from those of neighbouring

countries, e.g., Sikkim, and he bestowed names upon several forms.

He was a most acute and energetic observer, with views for the most

SCIENTIHC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY. 1057

part far in advance of those held by the majority of his contem-

poraries ; and it is with great pleasure and satisfaction that I now

find myself able to confirm some of the results, derisively received in

the past, at which he arrived in 1845.

1. Rattus rattus arboreus, Buch. Ham.

This subspecies enters Nepal, where it appears to be restricted to

the Terai, The specimens now before me are indistinguishable from

typical examples from Bengal.

Material examined. — The following are the external measurements, taken in

the flesh by the collector, of those examples of which the skull measurements

are recorded in Tables I and II : — •

2. Rattus rattus rufescens, Gray.

Bairia, s 1 ; Hazaria, c? 4, 5 4.

Quite typical examples. Evidently the “ parasitic ” phase R. r.

arboreus as it occurs in the Terai.

3. Rattus rattus brunneusculus, Hodgson.

1841. Mus decumanoides (in part). Hodgson. J. A. S. B. x., p.

915 (nomen nudum.)

1845. Mus brunneusculus, Hodgson. Ann. Mag. N. H. xv., p.

267.

1881. Mus alexandrius, var. rufescens, Thomas. P. Z. S. 1881,

p. 533.

Mus rattus, Blanford (in part.)

Size small (HF. about 34 mm. ; condylo-basal length about 40).

General form as in normal Indian subspecies of R. rattus. Mammte

3-3=12.

General colour of upper parts rather bright brown,. Underparts

pure white with the lateral lines of demarcation sharply defined.

Skull rather li.ghtly built with the frontal beads normally developed.

As compared with that of brunneus, it differs in having the braincase

relatively broader, the temporal ridges more closely approximated

posteriorly, the postraolar region shorter, the nasals, palate and tooth

rows longer. For skull measurements see tables at pp. 1064-66.

Type: — B. M. 45.1.3.353. Nepal. Presented bv B. H. Hodgson,

Esq.

10.j8 journal, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Material examined.—ln addition to the type, the following specimens, collected

for the Mammal Survey by Lt.-Col. R. E. Kennion and the Society’s collector

N. A. Baptista. have been examined. — Nagacot 4, 9 6 ; Bouzini, ^2, 9 2;

Chalna-Khel,^ 2, 9 2 ; Thankot, ^ 1, 9 2 ; Pattibhagan (8,000'), 9 1 ; Sipari,

1, 9 1 ; Kakhani (7,000'), ^ 1 ; Ramchi (11,000'), 9 1 ; Total 29 adults.

The following are the dimensions of the more important specimens : — •

This subspecies appears to be most closely related to R. r. sikki-

mensis, agreeing with the latter in possessing 12 mamnue, in general

outward appearance and coloration, and in the general character of

the skull. The proportions, however, seem to be rather different.

In sikkimensis the head and body and hind foot measurements in

adults average 154 mm. and 32.2 respectively, the maximum values

in the long series examined being 174 and 35 ; in the present form the

corresponding averages are 162 and 33.4, the maxima being 186 and

36. The Nepal form would seem to attain a greater weight than

sikkimemis : for according to Hodgson brunneusculus weighs 9 to

10 oz., while no specimen of the many weighed in Sikkim by the

i\Iammal Survey exceeded 7 oz. On the other hand the skull of

brunneusculus averages slightly smaller and is relatively a little

broader throughout than that of sikkimensis. The temporal ridges

are more normally bowed as a rule than in the^^latter, and they are

rather less closely approximated behind.

4. Ratius rattus brunneus, Hodgson.

1841. dccumonoides (in part), Hodg.son. J. B. A. S., x., p. 915

(nomen nudum).

1845. Mus brunneus, Hodgson. Ann. Mag. N. H. xv., p. 266.

1881. Mus decumanus, Thomas. P. Z. S. 1881, p. 532; Blanford

No. 274 (in part ; nee Pallas).

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM TEE MAMMAL SURVEF.

Size large (H.F. about 38 mm. ; condylo-basal length about 44).

General torm, robust and heavy, the animal presenting a strong

superficial resemblance to the Brown Rat {R. norvegicus — “ decum-

anus”). Essential characters (tail, ears, feet and skull) those of R.

rattus. Mammaj 3-3=12. ’

General colour of upper parts dark brown, more or less grizzled with

grey or black. Under parts, in the typical form., dusky with a more

or less well-marked rusty or buffy suffusion — the ventral hairs having

slaty bases and lighter tip.s. In “ wild-coloured ” individuals the

underparts pure white, the ventral hairs being white to their bases.

Skull strongly built, with iinusually coarse frontal beads. As com-

pared with that of the other Nepalese sub-species it is characterised

by its larger size, relatively narrow braincase, the comparatively wide

separation of the temporal ridges posteriorly, longer postmolar region,

shorter nasals, palate and tooth-rows. These differences are illustrat-

ed by the measurements in Table II.

Co-types. — Three specimens in the British Museum (B. 1\I. 43.1.12.61,

69 and 131) are co-types of Hodgson’s species. Of these I select B.IM.

43.1.12.69 as the lecto-type, the other two becoming lecto-para-

types.

Material examined. — Besides Hodgson’s specimens I have before me the

following specimens collected in Nepal for the Mammal Survey by Lt.-Col.

Kennion and N. A. Baptista : — Ferping, $ 5 ; Hathiban, 9 7 ; Chalna-Khel,

$ 1 ; Katmandu, ^ 1 ; Godaveri, 7,000', 2 2 ; Changoo, d 2, 2 5 (including

2 juv.) Total 29 (27 adults).

The following are the external measurements of the more important

specimens: — ■

1060 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

Sharply contrasted with all other Indian forms of Raitus by its

large size, great weight and robust and strongly ridged skull, this

extremely interesting rat presents a strong superficial resemblance to

R. norvegicus, now the Common Eat of Europe. Hodgson, deceived

by this likeness, thought the present animal “ as nearly allied to

decumanus as ” Bandicota nemorivaga is “ to the Bandicoot ” ; and

since, to within a few days ago, the skulls of his specimens remained

concealed within the skins, no subsequent writer appears to have had

any more accurate notion of its affinities. This form puzzled me very

much when I was preparing my former account of the House Rats of

India, and in the end I thought it better to await the coming of modern

material from Nepal before attempting to deal with it.

The specimens collected by the Survey in Nepal agree exactly with

those collected by Hodgson in that country eighty years ago ; and it

is now perfectly clear that brunneus is a form of R. rattus and has

nothing whatever to do with R. norvegicus. If it were not for the fact

that some of the specimens [e.g., Ferping No. 237, Godaveri No. 134,

and all those from Changoo) have pure white bellies and that their

skulls were slightly smaller than those of dusky bellied brunneus (see

Table II), one could regard brunneus as a full species of the rattus

group, confined to Nepal. But the specimens just mentioned are

on the whole intermediate between brunneus on the one hand and

brunneusculus and other Indian subspecies on fhe other, although it

is to be noted that the skull proportions, apart from the absolute size,

remain much the same in both light-bellied and dark-bellied brunneus.

Personally I am inclined to think that brunneus is a local “ parasitic ”

development from the true wild form [R. r. brunneusculus) of Nepal.

Bv becoming more strictly commensal with man these rats have

obtained access to larger food supplies ; with increased nutrition there

has come increased bodily size. On the other hand parasitic habits

have had their usual effects upon the skull ; the temporal muscles have

become relatively weak, so that the ridges marking the upper limits

of the origins of those muscles are less closely approximated post-

eriorly than in the wild form ; the tooth-rows shortened, etc. The

unusual thickening of the frontal beads is also I think a character of

degeneration, comparable, perhaps, with that peculiar thickening of

the supraorbital ridges seen in monkeys which have lived in captivity.

5. Rattus rattoides, Hodgson.

1841. Mus rattoides, Hodgson. J. A. S. B., x., p. 915 (no descrip-

tion.)

1845. Mus rattoides, Hodgson. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, xv., p. 267.

1891. Mus rattus, Blanford (in part.)

1914. Epimys vicerex, Wroughton {nec Bonhote). J. B. N. H. S.,

xxiv. p. 489.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY. 1061

1920. Rattus vicerex (in part), Wroughton. J. B. N. H. S. xxvi.,

p. 798 ; Hinton, ib., p. 918.

Closely allied to R. vicerex, Bonhote, but difiering in the following

characters : —

Tail relatively longer, its length averaging 133 per cent, of the head

and body measurement.

Coat harsher and looser, the whitish “ spines ” and long black

hairs being more numerous. General colour, above and below, darker

and greyer than in typical vicerex from Simla, the underparts much

less strikingly contrasted with the flanks. The darkening of the beUy

is due to the fact that the ventral hairs have slatey bases instead of

being pure white throughout. Tips of ventral hairs usually silvery

but sometimes yellowish, the underparts then having a more or less

evident rusty sufiusion. Tail, in the majority of specimens, dusky

above and below, lacking the marked bicoloration characteristic of,

and constant in true vicerex. In a few Nepalese specimens the tail

shows faint traces of bicoloration ; and in two or three it is well-marked

Mammae 3-3=12 (as in vicerex*.)

Skull with relatively still broader nasals, peculiarly expanded

interorbital region, smaller and still less inflated bullae, and slightly

longer tooth-rows.

For measurements see Tables at pp. 1065-1066.

Leclo-Type. — B. M. No. 43. 1. 12. 66. Collected in Nepal and

presented to the British Museum by B. H. Hodgson, Esq.

Habitat. — Nepal and Sikkim.

Material examined : — In addition to the two co-types in the Hodgson collec-

tion the followingcollected in Nepal for the Mammal Survey are now before me : —

Katmandu, 1 ; Nagarkot, J 7, 9 7; Ferping, $ 3, Hathiban, d' 2, 2 1 ;

Thankot, S' 3; Changoo, c? 2; Sipari, $ 1 and Ramchi (11,000'), 21- Total

from Nepal 30 adults.

From Sikkim I have 13 specimens, all collected by the Mammal Survey, ob-

tained at the locahties Chimtang (.5,350'). Ghoom (7.400'), and Batasia (6,000').

The following are the external measurements of the more important

specimens : —

* Wroughton “ Summary ” (J. B. N. H. S. xxvi., p. 798) gives the mammse as

10, but I find 12 to be present normally in vicerex.

1062 J0UR:SAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Tot. XXVIII.

RemarJiS. — The rediscovery of this species, described so long ago

by Hodgson, is one of the most interesting results obtained by the

Mammal iSurvey in Nepal. Hodgson in describing rattoides called

it the “ Black Rat of Nepal ” and stated it to be “ as similar to the

Black Rat of Europe as the foregoing {bninneus and hrunncuscidus^

is to our brown rat.” His very brief description is as follows : —

“ Above dusky or blackish brown, below dusky hoary. Limbs,

dark ; fingers, pale ; tail decidedly longer than the body and head.

Long piles sufficiently numerous ; weight 5 — 7 oz.” This (apart from

the measurements t), as far as it goes, so accurately fits both Hodgson’s

co-types (hitherto imperfectly labelled! and the material recently

collected for the Mammal Survey that I have no hestitation in identi-

fying the present species with “ Mus rattoides ” an identification con-

firmed by comparison with the original coloured drawing in the

Library of the Zoological Society (Hodgson, MS. Vol. 1, p. 197, Fig. 2).

Comparison shows further that the specimens collected by the

Mammal Survey in Sikkim, which v,ere referred to “ Epimys

vicerex ” by Wroughton (J. B. N. H. S. xxiv, p. 489) “ with some

hestitation,” because “ the characteristic white belly and bicoloured

tail are much less marked than in true vicerex and even than in our

Kuinaon specimens,” agree so closely with those from Nepal that they

too must be referred to rattoides.

There can be no doubt that rattoides, vicerex and turhestanicus are

all closely related to each other ; and it may prove hereafter that all

three represent merely sub-specific forms of a single species for which

the name rattoides, as being by far the oldest name, must be used.

In the present state of our knowledge it is better, however, to regard

them as distinct species. It is to be hoped that members of the

Society residing in Simla and in North-Western India will endeavour

to collect a good series of the rats of this group, easily recognisable,

in the region specified, by the conspicuously bicoloured tail ; for the

material at present existing in the National Collection is wholly in-

sufiicient for the purpose of determining the true status of R. vicerex.

Our present knowledge may be summed up in a few words. R.

rattoides of Nepal and Sikkim makes a nearer approach in external

characters to R. rattiis, but departs further from the latter species in

skull structure ; while exactly converse statements apply to R. vicerex

from Simla and districts to the north-west of that station. The

specimens collected in Kumaon by the Survey are of a somewhat

intermediate character, having an external appearance something

like that of rattoides, coupled with a skull more like that of vicerex.

t Hodgson’s measurements are : Head and body, 7«" ; tail, 8J" ; hindfoot, IJ" ;

ear> : which equal 198-230-40-23. The head and body and hindfoot measurements

are too large, for, as is the case with other species, they were taken in a manner

different from that now' in vogue.

SCIENTIIIC RESULTS IROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY. 1063

f

4. Rattus nitidus, Hodgson.

1845. Mus nitidus, Hodgson. Ann. Mag. N. H. xv, p. 267 (Nepal.)

1849. Mus cequicaudalis, Hodgson. Ib. (2) iii, p. 203 (Darjiling)

1881. Mus alexandrinus var nitidus (in part), Thomas. P. Z. S.

1881, p. 533.

1891. Mus rattus var nitidus (in part), Blanford. Mammalia, p. 407.

1914. Epimijs nitidus, Wroughton. J. B. N. H. S. xxiii, p. 296 ;

xxiv, p. 489.

1196. Rattus nitidus, Wroughton, Ih., xxiv, p. 782 ; Hinton, lb.,

xxvi, p. 412.

Material examined : — Ferping, 5 1 ; Thankot, ^ 1 ; Changoo cJ 1, $ 1.

The following are the external measurements of the more important

specimens ; —

This rat is apparently rare in Nepal, only four specimens of the

long series of house rats collected by Baptista being referable to it.

These specimens are important since they confirm the identifications

of the material collected by the Mammal Survey in Kumaon and

Sikkim with Hodgson’s species. Measurements supplementing those

given in my earlier paper are included in the Tables at pp. 1065-1066.

The skull measurements and proportions recorded in the following

table correspond with and supplement those given m my earlier paper

(J. B. N. H. S. xxvi, pp. 716 and 910).

f

31

Table I. — Measurements of skulls of Nepalese members of Raltus raltus group, [in millimetres.)

1064

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIlJ.

00

V

si

s

-o

«0

e

«o

s

e

HC-i J?

T3 £

O O

‘:3 o

S ^

5?

= O

S ^

IS ^

■^COMCDCO^CC^-0^'--l^W^C^GCC<lQO'^t^

F- 00l><Ol>Q0iOMCOC^l>;O00'^C5;O

cccoioooi>c<ii>(Nt-‘CO’^ o o CO o

OCQ*— IIOOCO^?OC50<—

p-,*— 1,-Hr— I ^,— I.— I — .

"OO <M00^<MO0t^TjiO0 iOC005^0000<D

0'^OlOOTt'^50000^0-^eOOQO(Mt-M<t^

C5 «0 00 <D (M O 00 ^ .«':OC500l^CO'»4<M<

CCOOOlCCOCC(NtOC5t>OffO'^OC50(NI>-^<0

eoco^

t^^^^^ffyj^LOCOO^COCO ■*^<o^foco

CO Tt^ (T4 ,-N ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ <M — '

IC 00 00 GO OO^OSlOCOOO'^O'lOO

l-00<OCO'^O^C5^w5Tt<'<jHp-^Ot-OlO'^t^

cocoon ^ ^ ^ 1-t ,-t ^ (N^

'^00t-CO1>(M— <C0|>t*<C5CO<M—

OOOOOl010)CO^'^OOOC5CO'^^C5t-C^O’^l>

COCO^ ^ ^

lO cOt*<o icoi CO 00 oooi -

^CO^?OO^^OoC5^1iO»OCO^OOO-lt^'«!j<t^

CO^«O^COlOiOt»C5iOCOOOO^COOLOi coo-^

COCO»-HOCOCOO^C5C5^t-4lOJ-OC<lOOCOOO*^t^

^CO00Tt«l>t-.<MCi — OO’^OIO)^

— <CO— <OCO'Ti4-^OOOOO^^C0^1>01t>'^t^

^00Ol0)C<J'<tt^C5O00<N'^<000O U0C<100CO

oococooirSf— 'C^co CO ^ CO oq i-o 00 uo ^ r-i

oo^o^^‘^o‘^ot>o‘0'^oiot^c<jr-'^i^

C0'^<M

00 CO COCOCOt^^Tt^COO^JCO^OCOiOCOOO'^

^COO^^fOC<ICOoCi— HCO'*i<COoOCC<JI>rt<t^

(M — <

r- 00 (C4 (M 01 I> CO ^ t- CO <M ^ o I-N O LO

COOOOCU040CO<MUOCiCOC5Tt<'^--C5t-*'— 'CO'tt'^

Cr^CO-^ ^ ^ O'!

*n

X

oo

la

n

o

iO(M--oot^ (Miot~coe^io«i>i050— le^oui

•■eTJT'eg

Table I. — Measurements of skulls of Nepalese members of Raltus raltus group, {in millimetres) — (concluded.)

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SRUVEY. 1066

1066 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

House Rats of Nepal.

Table II. — Skulls : proportional measurements.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS IROM TEE MAMMAL SURVEY. 1067

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF THE MAMMAL SURVEY.

No. XXXV.

Two NEW Rodents from the Mergui Archipelago.

By Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S.

(^Published hij permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.')

Among the Mammals collected by Mr. C. Primrose in the Mergui Archi-

pelago for the Bombay Natural History Society there are examples of the

two following new species : —

Petaurista mergulus, sp. n.

Allied to P. cineraceuSy Bly., but very much smaller.

Size, as gauged by skull, conspicuously less than in cineraceus. Colours

essentially as in that animal, or at least as in the non-rufous specimens of

it, for there is much variation in cineraceus as regard the presence or

absence of rufous on the head and limbs. Back grizzled greyish brown

with a slight olivaceus suffusion, the grey tips to the hairs not so conspic-

uous as in cineraceus. Undersurface greyish white, the hairs whitish with

their bases more or less grey ; chin and throat browner. Face greyer

and less olivaceus than back. Eyes with inconspicuous blackish rings.

Ears not very long, their proectote^short-haired, grizzled brownish white.

Posterior part of outer surfaces (metectote) with long black hairs, which

extend back on to the sides of the neck, and form a conspicuous post-

aural black tuft. Fur on nape and across shoulders often with a rufous or

fulvous tinge, but there is much variation in this respect. Upper surface

of parachute washed with olivaceous. Hands and feet black. Tail

grizzled hoary grey, the extreme tip inconspicuously blackish.

Skull in general shape as in cineraceus, but much smaller ; the bullae

also disproportionally smaller. •

Dimensions of the type, measured in flesh : —

Head and body 410 mm.; tail 400 ; hindfoot 70 ; ear 37.

Skull, greatest length 66'7 (in cineraceus 78'7); condylo-incisive length

62 '2 ; zygomatic breadth 45 ; nasals 20 X 13 5 ; interorbital breadth

13'6 ; length of bulla 13'2 (in cineraceus 17) ; upper tooth series,

exclusive of p.^, 14'5.

Hab. Mergui Archipelago. Type and five others from Ross Island;

one from Tavoy Island.

Type. Adult male. B. M. No. 22-8-21-1. Original number 243. Collected

18 November 1921 by C. Primrose. Presented by the Bombay Natural

History Society. Seven specimens.

This Flying Squirrel is clearly most closely allied to the Tenasserim P,

cineraceus, but it is so much smaller as to demand specific distinction.

Two of the seven specimens are melanoid in colour, of a glossy blackish

brown.

Callosciurus epomophorus tabaudius, subsp. n.

A dark insular form of the mainland epomophorus, the fore-back tending

towards rufous.

Size as usual in the group. Colour essentially as in C. e. davisoni of S.

Tenasserim, but darker throughout. Epaulets well marked. Nape and

fore-back strongly suffused with cinnamon, which is not redder towards

•1068 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIL

the sides as it is in some of the subspecies. Hind-back dark olivaceous

( near “olive-brown”). Undersurface about as in davisoni, dark grey, with

a more intense median line on the chest, and dull rufous groin-patches.

Ears grizzled whitish, the usual slight tuft scarcely developed. Hands

and feet grizzled iron-grey. Tail darker than in other subspecies, the

black rings on the hairs broader ; the hairs as usual ringed with buffy

basally ; terminal black tuft well defined.

Dimensions of the type, measured in the flesh ; —

Head and body 242 mm.; tail 215 ; hindfoot 50 ; ear 20.

Skull, condylo-incisive length 58.

Hab. Tavoy Island, Mergui Archipelago,

Type. Adult female. B. M. No. 22-8-21-2. Original number 118. Collected

21 October 1921 by C. Primrose. Presented by the Bombay Natural

History Society. Five specimens.

In this island subspecies the general colour is darker than in its allies,

and the suffusion of the fore-back is both more uniform, and more tending

to cinnamon, that of davisoni being more yellowish.

Whether it occurs in other islands than Tavoy we do not yet know, but

Mr. Primrose did not find it in Ross Island.

1069

A DESCRIPTION OF THE NESTS AND EGGS OF THE COMMON BIRDS

OCCURRING IN THE PLAINS OF THE UNITED PROVINCES.

BY

E. H. N. GILL.

(^With a plate.)

Corvus macrorhynchus (4) . . The Jungle-Crow.

Local name . . . . . . Kala-Kaowa.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . Raven.

This bird breeds commonly throughout the Province ; the most favoured

months being February and March. In the eastern districts (those lying east of

Benares) domestic operations are commenced as a rule in January, almost all the

nests having eggs between the middle and end of February. I have taken slightly

incubated eggs in the first week of March, and have found young ones on several

occasions by the middle of March. By the end of March and beginning of April

mostly all the nests contain young, and so far as my experience goes, it has been

rather the exception than the rule to find fresh eggs after these dates. In the

Western districts (those lying west of Benares) the period of nidification seems

to be slightly delayed, but I would not go so far as to say that this constitutes

a general rule. In Allahabad, Fatehpur, Cawnpore, and Lucknow, I have

taken eggs in April, mostly all in various stages of incubation. But then I have

also taken eggs in the same stations in March, so that the inference to be drawn

is not conclusive. However, the Eastern districts not being subjected to the

winter cold of the Western districts, the period of nidification in the latter would

probably have a tendency to be longer delayed.

The Jungle-Crow does not seem to favour any particular tree when choosing

a site for its nursery, nor is any great importance attached to height. The top-

most branches of a gigantic “Pipal” are as acceptable as the low, lean branches

of some thorny acacia, or the leafy comfort of the “Mangoe”. Being by nature

an outrageous buUy, scant attention is paid to any effort at concealment. In fact,

in numerous cases it would seem as though every effort were made to render the

nest as visible as possible. Both birds assist in building the nest, incubating

the eggs, and rearing the young, but their powers of discrimination are as feeble

as the parental instinct is strong ; for I know of one particular pair which nursed

a golf-ball with loving care for weeks after their eggs had been removed.

The nest externally^ is a crude structure of coarse sticks which serve the pur-

pose of a substantial foundation ; but internally the egg cavity is a marvel of

construction for such a clumsy bird. Beautifully cup-shaped, between 6 and

8 inches in diameter, and 4 to 5 inches in depth, and lined with fine grass-roots,

and vegetable fibres, over which is placed a soft cushion of horse-hair carefully

fashioned to the internal shape of the nest. From below all that is generally

visible of the sitting bird are the tips of the bill and tail.

I have never found more than three eggs in a nest, which I consider is the

maximum number laid. So far as coloration is concerned the variation is not

considerable, except that the groimd -colour in some specimens may be of a richer

or lighter shade than in others, and the markings in some much darker, and more

irregular than in others. The ground-colour of a normal specimen is what might

be described as a greenish-blue with little or no gloss, more or less blotched and

streaked with different shades of yellowish-brown. In shape they are typically

long ovals, distinctly pointed towards one end, but.in size they vary considerably,

even in regard to the eggs of one clutch. A normal egg would measure about

I ’75 by U2 inch.

1070 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

Ck)rvus splendens (7) . . . . The Indian House-Crow.

Local name • . . . . . Desi-Kaowa.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . Common Crow.

This species breeds, if anything, even more commonly than C. macrorhyn-

chus ; but at a much later xwriod in the Eastern and Western districts alike.

June, July, and August seem to be the most favoured months, though almost all

the nests I have examined in August have contained yormg. Domestic opera-

tions, as a rule, are commenced in May, but I have no notes of ever having taken

eggs in that month. A few stragglers with other interests in life do not commence

building tiU July, but the longer they delay the more they seem to be victimised

by the Koels, which commence their depredations with the advent of the rains.

I have examined hundreds of nests, and have come to the conclusion that those

crows which nidificate early, in the beginning of June, are comparatively free

from the attentions of these parasites, and it is only the stragglers who are bur-

dened with the work of foster parents.

This species, unlike the last, seems to prefer nesting on trees in the immediate

vicinity of human dwellings ; while I have noticed several iirstances of more than

one nest on the'same tree ; a domestic liberty which C. macrorhynchus would not

tolerate. The nests, though smaller, are similar in structure to those already

described, except that the egg cavity is usually not constructed with such elab-

orate care, nor is so much discrimination exercised in the choice of materials ;

course rags and wool often being incorporated.

The normal number of eggs laid by this bird appears to be four, but Ihave taken

six on more than one occasion. Departures from the normal, both as regards size

and coloration, are more pronounced in this species than in the last. As a w'hole

they are more glossy, and of a brighter blue, and the markings, though not as a

rule so numerous, are in many cases much darker in colour, and more defined.

Two eggs taken by me some years ago caused much speculation at the time as

to their correct identification, but I was subsequently convinced as to their be-

longing to this species. The nest was low down on a “Nim” tree which I found

to contain a single egg of pale pure blue, without spot or blemish of any kind.

There was no sign of any bird, so after watching the nest for a time I departed,

and the following morning discovered a second egg of exactly the same type.

Still no bird in sight, but as vfilage urchins had seen the nest as well, I considered

it advisable to remove the eggs ; and though the nest was obviously a crow’s, I

was at a loss to account for the abnormal colouring of the eggs. Subsequent

visits to the nest were to no purpose, but about ten days later I was rewarded

for my pains by seeing a crow in occupation. She must have been on the point

of laying an egg for she hopped out at my approach and, sitting on an adjacent

branch, laid her egg, which dropped to the ground and broke. I examined the

shells carefully and found them to be of the same spotless blue ; thus eliminating

all doubts as to the correct identity of the other two. To find one such egg in

a clutch would not be extraordinary, but to have all going the same way certainly

provides food for thought.

In shape the eggs vary considerably ; pyriform, elongated, and globular

varieties being common. Typically however, they may be said to be broad

ovals, a good deal pointed towards one end. The size of a normal specimen

would be about 1 • 45 by 1 • 05 inch.

Dendrocitta rufa (16) . . . . The Indian Tree-Pie.

Local name . . . . . . Mootri.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . Long-tailed Jay ; Oglevie.

This bird is common throughout the Province, is resident, and breeds ordin-

arily from April to July ; though I have taken eggs in the Lucknow district as

late as August. When commencing domestic operations the birds are invari-

ably seen together, and are very noisy ; and if building a nest one has only to fol-

low them about in order to locate it. One tree seems to suit their purpose as

N£STS ANB EGGS OF COMMON BIIWS OF THE U. P.

1071

well as another, but a certain amount of attention is paid to concealment, with

the result that trees with large leaves, and heavy foliage are specially favoured.

The nests are rarely lower than 15 feet from the ground, and arc almost invari-

ably placed in the fork of some high branch. As a rule they are of course twigs

roughly put together, more or less circular in shape, the external measurement

being about 7 inches across, and in a carefully constructed nest the egg cavity

would be about 5 inches in diameter, and from 3 to 4 inches in depth. As a rule

however, the egg cavity is shallow, and is lined with various kinds of grass-roots,

and vegetable fibres.

The eggs are of two distinct types, for which I can offer no explanation, apart

from the suggestion that this peculiarity mightbe influenced by the age of the bird.

The period of nidification does not seem to bear any significance whatsoever,

for after taking careful note of the matter I have found that throughout the period

of nidification the two types occur with comparative regularity ; though so far

as my experience goes, I have found the salmon-coloured type to be more nume-

rous ; a fact upon which I have based my suggestion of age. On the other hand

I have found the two types as often in exposed and badly constructed nests as

in concealed and well constracted ones, so that the theory of protective coloration

would seem not to apply.

Both birds share in building the nest, incubating the eggs, and rearing the

young ; and are very intolerant of the presence of other species on or near their

family tree ; another trait which renders the nest easy of location.

In shape the eggs are typically elongated ovals, a good deal pointed towards

one end, but broad ovals and globular specimens are common. The bread ovals

particularly so. The variation as regards character and colouring is pretty

wide but the eggs of the one clutch usually bear a close resemblence to each

other. Of the two prominent types the ground-colour of one varies from a pale

greenish-white to pale salmon, with markings of dark salmon and shades of pur-

ple more numerous towards the large end. The ground-colour of the other is

greyish or greenish-white, with markings which vary between dark grey and light

browTi shades, sometimes profusely but usually thinly, scattered over the eggs

more so towards the large end. Between these two types intermediate varieties

varying in tone ajid character occur not infrequently ; some specimens greatly

resembling those of Lanius lahiora. The size of a normal specimen would be

about 1'17 by O' 86 inch. '

Argya earlii (104) . . . . The Striated Babbler.

Local name . . . . . . ‘ Chilchil.

Anglo-Indiam name . . . . Unknown.

This species can hardly be described as being common in the Province. So

far as my experience goes I have only seen it on a few occasions when touring

in November over some of the grass-covered plateaux of the Vindhyas, at a point

where they pass through the southern portion of the Mirzapur district, comprising

part of the Benares division. Whenever I came across them they were in small

parties numbering from six to a dozen. But whether they remain there to breed,

or are purely vrinter visitors is what I was unable to ascertain. The natives of

those parts are decidedly backward and unobservant, and were not able to sup-

ply me with any reliable information. In fact I very much doubt whether

they were capable of differentiating between this species and Argya caudata

which was found to be extremely common. Consequently any preferred infor-

mation was not to be relied on.

According to Hume, Colonel Marshall foimd this sx>ecies breeding in the Saha-

ranpur district of the U, P. during the month of March and April, so that it would

appear to keep to the sub-mountain tracts during the breeding season, and mig-

rate further towards the plains during the winter. The nest is described as a

deep cup-shaped structure, rather neatly made of grass without lining, and woven

in with the stems if in a clump of grass, or firmly fixed in a fork if in a bush or

32

1072 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

low tree. The int. rior diameter is about 3 inches, and the depth nearly 2

inches.

I have never taken the eggs of this bird, but in shape they are described as

ovals, rather thinner at one end, and of a clear, full, verditer-blue colour, measur-

ing about 0- 88 by 0* 7 inch,

Argya caudata (105) . . . . The Common Babbler.

Local name . . . . . . Chilchil.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . Bush-Sparrow.

This bird is very common throughout the Western districts, and particularly

in the jungle covered tracts of the Jhansi division, and southern portions of the

Allahabad and Mirzapur districts. In the Eastern districts they occur, but never

in any large numbers. Mr. Douglas Dewar in an article to the Pioneer some

time back stated, I think, that this bird did not occur in the Ghazipur district,

and he doubted if iu occurred at all in the Benares division. So far as my ob-

servations go, I have seen small parties of this species in May and June on

Baipur Island, not far from the civil station of Ghazipur, and in June found two

of their nests ; while in the hilly tracts of the Mirzapur district(part of the Benares

division) it is far and away the commonest bird to be seen ; occurring in small

parties in almost every little patch of scrub. Indeed one has only to get down

at Chunar railway station (E.I.R.) to find them comparatively common in the

adjoining scrub jungle.

The nest is typical, and when once .seen can never be mistaken for any other.

As a rule the most noticeable points are, symmetery of form, cleanliness, the

extraordinary thickness of the walls, and height from the ground ; while the

egg cavity is as perfect a cup as can be imagined. They are constructed through-

out of grass-roots, and vegetable fibres, usually unlined, but sometimes lined with

fine grass stems and even horse hair; and are placed in low thorn bushes, the

more thorny the better, and only occasionally in clumps of course grass. Exter-

nally a nest would measure about 7 inches across, and the egg cavity from 2

to 3 inches in diameter, and from 1| to inches in depth.

The period of nidification is much prolonged, March to September, some

stragglers even extending domestic operations into October and November.

The bulk seem to have eggs in March, April, and May, the young ones being

fully fledged by the end of June. The popular idea seems to be that there are

two, and even three broods a year, but I have not been able to accumulate any

evidence to justify this theory ; in fact I am inclined to believe that there is not

much ground for arriving at this conclusion.

The eggs in shape are typically moderately elongated ovals, slightly compress-

ed towards one end, but globular, and pyriform varieties are not imcommon. The

shells are usually brilliantly glosy and of a delicate, spotless, pale blue colour,

a shade which varies very little indeed. A normal egg would measure about

0.82 by 0.64 inch.

Argya malcolmi (107) .. .. The large Grey Babbler.

Local name . . . , . . Gangai, Sat-bhai.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . Long-tailed Magpie.

This bird is comparatively common, and breeds throughout the Province in

suitable locahties. Here again the period of nidification is much prolonged, from

about March to October, though nests are often found in December and January.

The theory of two and three broods in the year seems to be applied generally to

this species as well, but it would be difficult to substantiate this with rehable evi-

dence. In the next species I have propounded a theory, or rather made a sugges-

tion, which might be worth the consideration of any one sufficiently interested.

Like Crateropiis canorus, this species associate together in small parties even

when breeding, a departure from the general custom obtaining amongfst gregar-

ious birds in regard to nidification, but where the former frequent gardens and

groves, the present species are found more frequently in open spaces quite re-

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Nest and Eggs of the Jungle Babbler. Nest and Eggs of the Jungle Crow. Nest of the Rufous-bellied Babbler.

NESTS AND EGGS OF THE COMMON BIRDS, UNITED PROVINCES.

NESTS AND EGGS OF COMMON BIRDS OF TEE U. P. 1073

moved from human habitations. Nests are commonly found in thin scrub jungle,

and especially on babool trees scattered about open plains. In fact I have never

taken nests which were not on babool trees or thorny bushes. They are never

placed at any great height from the ground, and are eonstnicted almost entire-

ly of dry grass-roots, and vegetable fibres ; in numerous instances the outer

layers being eomposed of thorny twigs, like the nests of Lanius lahtora. The

egg cavity, which is more or less cup-shaped, is lined with close-woven roots of

“khus-khus” grass, and similar vegetable fibres. Externally the nest would meas-

ure about 6 inches in diameter, and the egg cavity from 3 to 4 inches in diameter,

and from 2 to 3 inches in depth. As a rule the nest is fairly substantial, but is

not to be compared for compactness with that of A. caudata.

The normal number of eggs laid appears to bo four. In shape they are typical-

ly rather broad ovals, somewhat pointed towards one end, but more or less elon-

gated and spherical varieties occur sometimes. They are of a bright greenish-

blue colour throughout, darker in some specimens than in others, with a decided

gloss. A normal specimen would measure about 0.99 by 0.77 inch.

Crate ro pus canorus (10) . . The Jungle Babbler.

Local names . . . . . . Sat-bhai.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . The Common Magpie.

I should say that this bird without exception is the commonest in almost ever^

district of the Province. Every eompound and garden is frequented by them

in large or small parties. In Ghazipur they are so numerous and aggressive,

inflicting considerable damage in both flower and vegetable gardens, that they

might very well be classified as vermin. The period of nidification is somewhat

prolonged, from March to August, though I have frequently found nests in

September.

The associating together of small parties even when nesting is specially notice-

able in this species ; but in all my experience I have never met with more than

one nest at a time in the vicinity frequented by any one party. The young

when fledged immediately swell the numbers of that party, but what seems most

extraordinary is that it is not till the parents of one brood are busy feeding the

fledglings that another pair take it into their heads to commence building. The

birds certainly do not assist in feeding the brood from another nest, so that their

parential instinct would seem to be stirred only by the sight of young birds in

their midst. I have noticed this peculiarity in several instances, and if it consti-

tutes a general practice, it would explain the long period of nidification, and dis-

prove the existing idea of two and three broods a year.

The nest resembles very much)that of A. malcolmi but is generally not so

substantially constructed, nor as neatly put together ; and is more often than not

to be found in groves and gardens adjoining human dwellings. Any small tree

or scrub serves the purpose equally well, but as the nest is never placed at any

great distance from the ground, a corrsiderable amount of attention is paid to

concealment. Bushes and shrubbery are specially favoured.

With regard to the division of labour the greater portion seems to be borne

by the hen bird ; but the cock is invariably in attendance, if for no other

purpose than to cheer her with his presence, and to assist in protecting the

nursery against attack.

The normal number of eggs laid appears to be four, and from a large series

it would be very diflScult to separate them from the eggs of A. malcolmi, except

that taken as a whole they are somewhat smaller and of a deeper blue ; a normal

specimen measuring about 0.82 by 0 . 64 inch.

Dumotia hyperythra (135) . . The Rufous-bellied Babbler.

Local name . . . . . . Unknown.

Anglo-Indian names . . . • Titmouse.

This bird seems to have a curious distribution in as much as it is comparat-

ively common in some districts, and rare in others. Its skulking nature does

1074 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXV 111.

not tend to bring it into prominence, so that one is apt to pass it by. I draw my

conclusions, however, from the number of nests I have seen and taken.

The only districts in which I have taken eggs are Lucknow and the southern

portions of Cawnpore and Mirzapur, though I have seen the birds on several oc-

casions at Rae-Bareli, Fatehpur and Allahabad. I have never met with them

in Benares and Ghazipur. The period of nidification is comparatively short,

June to August, though in the Lucknow district I found the eggs most

common in July, after the rains had set in well. One had only to walk along

certain railway embankments to find the nests in the grass.

The nest is more or less globular, often egg-shaped, and the materials used in

construction vary in regard to the position of the nest. In fact it may be regard-

ed as a general rule that it is composed of material obtainable in the immediate

vicinity. When placed in bamboo clumps it is made of bamboo leaves lined in-

ternally with fine grass roots and vegetable fibre, and if placed in grass it is almo.st

invariably made of broad grass-blades lined with fine grasses, hair, and vege-

table down.

The nest varies from 4 to 5 inches in diameter, and as a rule is well concealed,

in some cases practically touching the ground, so that one has to search pretty

carefully to find it. The usual complement of eggs appears to be four, though I

have often taken only three. In shape they are short, broad ovals, very slightly

compressed, and as a rule are characterised by irregular, smudgy, confluent

zones, at the largo end, of shades varying between red, and brownish-purple.

The groimd colour is white, pinkish-white, and bluish-white ; and the small end

faintly spotted and speckled with reddish-brown. A normal specimen

would measure about 0.67 by 0.53 inch.

Pyctorhis sinensis (139) The Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Local names . . . . . . . . . . Bara-podna ; Bara-piddi.

Anglo-Indian name . . . . . . . . Reed-Warbler.

This bird is to be found in most districts in the province, though I would not

regard it as common. It seems to occur more abundantly in grass lands, and

especially in the long, coarse grass along the banks of rivers and streams. I have

noticed the birds on several occasions while out pigsticking, but I cannot claim

to have taken many of their nests, and those only in the Lucknow district.

The period of nidification apj)ears to be from the end of June to August and

September, most of the nests being started after the rains have set in, and the

grass is green and robust. The birds are frequently met with in gardens, while

nests have been found in bushes and shrubbery. But the few nests I have seen

have always been built in thick coarse grass, suspended between two or three

substantial reeds, usually in the densest part.

The nest is cone-shaped, the apex being at the bottom. It is strong, solid,

and compact, being composed of long strips of strong grass and vegetable fibres,

tightly wound round and kept in place with cobwebs and gossamer-threads.

At the top of this structure is the egg-cavity which is beautifully cup-shaped,

measuring about 24 inches in diameter, and 2 inches in depth, and lined with fine

twigs and vegetable fibre closely interwoven.

The fuU complement of eggs appears to be five, and they are usually very beauti-

ful to look at. Some specimens are almost bright blood-red throughout with

white, or pinkish-white, grornid colouring showing through here and there ; while

in others the ground colouring is more conspicuous and is covered over with irreg-

ular spots, blotches, and clumsy daubs of shades ranging between brick-dust

red and palejpurple, intermingled sometimes with hierogl3^hic streaks. In size

and shape they vary a good deal, but are typically very broad ovals, obtuse at

the small end ; and a normal specimen would measure about 0.73 by 0.59”.

{To he continued.) .

1075

SHIKAR NEAR AND AROUND POONA.

BY

Major W. B. Trevenen.

In commencing this article I would first of all warn all readers who have

shot in such favoured parts as are to be found in Sind, parts of the United Pro-

vinces, Central Provinces and other districts, and who are accustomed to bring

home bags of 100 head or more a day, that if they expect the same in this district

and are not content with much smaller results, they had better read no further.

During a period of nearly five years, during which time I have shot here

regularly throughout each season, I have come to the conclusion that if a bag

of 20 head per gun is obtained, such days may be considered good. The two best

days I have had, were 69 and 73 head, the first occasion being in the cold weather

of 1919-20 with two guns, and the second in the last cold weather with three

guns, one gun however being only responsible for 7 head !

On both the above occasions the bag chiefiy consisted of duck and snipe.

To my mind, one of the chief charms of small game shooting in this district

is the variety of species of game to be met with, although their numbers may

not compare favourably with other places. This is a fact which should appeal

to the sportsman who is also a naturalist. As an instance, there are ten different

kinds of Quail which it is possible to obtain. Eight of these varieties I have

actually shot, but two of them, the Painted Bush Quail (Microperdix erythro-

rhyncus), and the Eastern Painted Bush Quail (Microperdix blewitti ) I have

not succeeded in bringing to bag as yet although I must have tramped nearly

500 miles in search of them. As however ‘ Hume and Marshall’ and Finn both

state that the former has been shot near Poona, and it is possible that the latter

might also rarely occur, I include them both in the list of “ possibles.” During

the time I have been in Poona, I have shot fourteen varieties of duck and teal.

Also in the cold weather of 1918-19 one goose, the Dwarf Goose (Anser eryth-

ropus) which bird is rarely met with even in other parts of India. Hume

and Marshal] only record the occurrence of 9 birds. I have also seen both the

Comb Duck, or Nukta (S. melanonotus), and the Bar-headed Goose (A.

indicus), but have not succeeded in shooting either of them in these parts.

One of the latter I saw only a very short time ago in company with two

Brahminies (C. rutila). I spent nearly three hours trying to get within

range but eventually all three birds settled on an island where it was

absolutely impossible to reach them without a boat. The Goose appeared

to be by far the most confiding of the three, the Brahminies in each case

giving the alarm.

The usual varieties of Snipe, Pin-tail, Fan-tail and Jack are all fairly com-

mon. As a rule the first to arrive in these parts is the Pin-tail which predomi-

nates in numbers at the commencement of the season, whilst towards the end

of the cold weather a greater number of Fan-tail generally appears in the bag.

This season however has been an exception in this respect as regards the

first arrivals, most of the snipe shot up to the middle of November being Fan-

tails. This may possibly be accounted for by the fact that birds were unusu-

ally late this year, and that possibly the majority of the first detachment from

the East may have halted on their way owing to the super-abundance of water

this season, and that the Northern contingent (Fan-tail) which usually arrive

here later, were the actual first arrivals.

It is a curious fact that although the present season is abnormally late and

birds hitherto very scarce and only now coming in in any numbers (November

10th), yet both in the case of snipe and duck, I got my first bird earlier than

in former years, the first snipe coming to bag on September 22nd and the first

1076 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

duck on October 1st as compared with September 27th and October 2nd, which

were the earliest dates these birds had been shot by me previously.

I have heard that snipe have been shot here on September 15th but have

never been able to verify this.

Another bird which is occasionally seen in large numbers is the ‘ demoi-

selle crane,’ or ‘ kocnj.’ I have only twice seen any of these brought to bag

in this district, once with a rifle at Yewat Tank on the Sholapur Eoad and once

on the river Bhima below Koregaon. On three other occasions I have noticed

a large flock of these birds circling round over Khadakwasla Lake, but only saw

them settle there once, when, after a very short time, they all moved off again

without giving a chance of a shot.

As regards “ dry ” game I have already referred to Quail. Partridge,

both grey and painted species, are fairly common. The Black Partridge, of

course, is not found so far south. The Common Sand Grouse ( Pterocles exustus)

are numerous in places and I have also shot the Painted Sand Grouse (Pterocles

indicus) occasionally. The usual hare or two is generally to be found in the

bag after a day’s shot. Florican are said to be occasionally seen and last season

I heard of three Greater Bustard being shot, but did not see them personally.

The common blue pigeon is plentiful in parts. In one place in particular, within

fifteen miles of Poona, where there is a collection cf old disused wells, I have

several times had a most enjoyable hour or so, four to six birds coming

out of each well as soon as a stone was thrown in, and affording excellent

practice.

Green pigeon (Crocopus chlorogaster) a,ve fairly well distributed over the

district and quite decent bags could be made by two or three guns when the

Pipal trees are bearing fruit. There are several good spots for these birds on

the Poona-Satara Road and also on the Poona-Paud Road.

Peacock are fairly common, but, before killing any of these birds, it is

always advisable to make enquiries first as to whether the mllagers object, or

not. Do not believe your shikari in this respect (he will always tell you “ hu-

kum hai ”), but find out from some of the actual inhabitants.

As a general rule, one is usually fairly safe in shooting these birds so long as

there is no temple or village close at hand, and they always form a welcome

and substantial addition to the pot !

The Shikai'is in Poona are a poor lot. Very few of them have the remotest

idea of shikar, or of making any bandobast. The only use I find for them, as a

rule, is to act as interpreter if one does not happen to know the language of the

district (Marathi), or to send them on overnight, or the day before, to fix up

arrangements for coolies, etc., if an early start the next morning is intended.

The pay shikaris demand in these parts, about Rs. 20 per mensem is far

mC're than they are worth. I always make it a rule to give only Rs. 15 or

Rs. 16 with a bonus on the number of head shot varying according to the

species, which generally brings the amount up to over Rs. 20 per mensem, but

has the effect of making them far more energetic as every bird shot means

something to them as well.

One can, of coimse, send a shikari out to a certain place to bring in “ khabar ”

but even then they are not reliable and sometimes never go near the place if

they think they can persuade the Sahib to the contrary.

A new comer to the station is, of course, more or less dependent on them if

he is only making a short stay in the district, unless he can get a friend who knows

the ropes to take him out or direct him where to go. The shikaris will only

take him out to a few stock places which they probably have not been near for

weeks, their only “ khabar ” being either pure invention or hearsay from som3

other shikari who has been out there with another Sahib.

My advice to the man who is going to remain any length of time in the

district, is to send off at once to the Survey of India Office, Calcutta, for the

SHIKAR NEAR AND AROUND POONA.

1077

lour 1* to the mile Ordnance Maps of the country round Poona. (Poona is,

roughly, in the centre of these four maps) and then steadily explore the country

around independently. By doing this he will not only come across the well-

known places, about which he will very soon find out in any case, but will also

incidentally discover many a useful little spot where none or few sportsmen

ever go. There is, also, much more satisfaction in discovering some little “ pre-

serve ” on one’s own apart from the fact that it probably has not been shot

over for some considerable time.

There are many of these little places around Poona if only a little trouble

is taken to find them.

An instance of this kind occurred to me only last season. I had been

shooting on one of the larger well-known tanks and had noticed a lot of duck

going off in one direction and appearing to settle at some spot some miles off.

The following week I made up my mind to explore in this direction and after

travelling some miles off the road and incidentally discovering a small tank on

the way, on which there were a fair number of duck and snipe of which I took

due toll, came across another small tank completely hidden from the surrounding

country which was literally full of duck. It was, by then, after 1 o’clock in

the afternoon, but nevertheless I managed to pick up twenty seven duck before

they finally cleared off and on the way home bagged a buck from the driving

seat of the car (a Ford, nothing else would have gone over the country I had to

pass through). Not a bad result for one day’s exploring ! I went again a

second time and did equally well, but on the third time found the tank bone-

dry.

On my first visit the villagers told me that no Sahib had shot the place for

over 3 years.

I might mention here that towards the end of December or beginning of

January, when the tanks are beginning to dry up, the rivers around are well

worth exploring for duck. By this time the rivers have also shrunk and a

considerable amount of “ feed ” begins to show. There are several useful

places on both the Mula-Mutha and the Bhima where a fair amount of cover is

also available. It was from one of these spots that I shot the Dwarf Goose

that I have alluded to above.

To work the country in the manner I suggest, a motor of sorts is indis-

pensable (a Ford for preference) as many of these spots are well off the road and

there is often only a very “ kutcha ” road, or a bullock track or even less.

Many of the tracks on which I take my old Ford, now nearly eight years old,

would be impossible even to a motor-byke, and very few other cars have suffici-

ent clearance or are light and strong enough to stand the jolting and bumps !

So far as big game shooting is concerned, it is practically non-existent within

50 miles of Poona save for an occasional panther around some of the neighbour-

ing hills. The shikaries will always tell you of one that has just “ killed ” and

that he is willing to go out and make a bandobast provided he gets an advance

and the price of a goat, but in 19 cases out of 20 the result is the same — the

goat vanishes and no panther !

To the man, however, who is content with Black Buck or Chinkara, Poona

offers many opportunities, at any rate so far as numbers are concerned. The

heads of the Black Buck average very small when compared with those up-

country. An5rthing of twenty inches or over is above the average in this

district. Occasionally one comes across a head of twenty-one or twenty-two

inches but anjrthing larger than this is rare now-a-days. The largest head which

I have seen from these parts was one shot by Mr. L. J. Sedgwick, I.C.S., in 1910,

near Kalas, on the eastern side of Dhond. This is a remarkably fine head, and

is, I believe, the record for the Deccan. The measurements from base to tip

are 24| inches right horn, and 24f inches left horn. There are five complete

spirals, but the spread is somewhat small for the length. I believe the buck to

1078 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

the east of Dhond average larger than those in the country on the Poona side,

but this is from hearsay only.

I always consider that, in proportion, the chinkara in this District have

better heads than buck. Once, when shooting from Alandi, on the M. & S. M.

Railway, I saw a chink which 1 put down to be well over 12 inches and another,

which I put up once out of a nullah a little distance of the Sholapur Road when

after partridge, was, I think, nearly as large.

The biggest chink of all I have seen in these parts and which one would

have been proud to have shot anywhere was one I saw off the old disused

Poona-Bombay road which joins the present Bombay road somewhere about

the nineteenth milestone. I spotted this chink one day when doing some

exploring in the above direction and after a long and weary stalk under a mid-

day sun got within a fair range and took my shot. To my delight he fell with

hardly a struggle and my shikari and chokra who were watching from behind

rushed up with shouts of glee to perform the necessary operations. To my

disgust, however, just as they got within a few yards, the animal got up again

and slowly made off in a direct line with the shikari so that I was unable to

fire again. I followed as quickly as possible although he seemed to be going

stronger every minute, but lost sight of him in some undulating ground and

although I tracked him for a long way, eventually lost sight of his trail on some

bare rocky ground and never saw him again. I went back to the spot where

I had first fired but could find no trace of any blood. The bullet had evidently

been high and must have either grazed his scull or one of his horns and tempo-

rarily stuimed him. My remarks on this occasion had better be imagined than

repeated ! I should not like to say what I put down his measurements to be,

but it was certainly a better head than any I had got before up-country.

Another little animal which cne comes across in some of the thicker

jungles in the nallahs at the foot of the hills round about Poona is the four-

horned antelope, locally termed “ bekri ” or “ bekr.” The fore horns however

do not seem to develop in these parts. Both the heads that I have got,

whilst having comparatively good posterior horns had merely an excrescence on

the scull where the fore horns should have been and these were hardly notice-

able until the scull was bare.

In both cases I got these animals with a shot gun, when walking through

thick jungles.

The district round Poona also offers opportunities to the fisherman. The

rivers Mula, Mula-Mutha, Indrayani and Bhima all hold Mahseer which can be

caught occasionally with spoon, fly spoon, or small salmon-fly. I have never

seen any large Mahseer in these rivers except in the Indrayani at Dehu in the

pool opposite the temple, where, of course, one caimot fish. There is no objection

to fishing a certain distance below, but I have heard that the large fish prefer

to remain in their own special pool and are not to be enticed therefrom. I have

never fished there myself.

There is a belief among the local people that these fish, at a certain religious

festival, held once a year, aU proceed some twelve miles down the river to Alandi,

whence after being fed with appetizing morsels, they return again to Dehu

when the festival is over.

To what extent this fable is founded on fact I do not know, but I have

been repeatedly assured by the inhabitants of both Dehu and Alandi that the

fish do actually disappear from the former place at times and are seen at Alandi

later, only to reappear shortly again at their former haunts.

As regards the river fishing round Poona, I have done very little. Sir

Charles Anderson, the late Army Commander, who was a very keen fisherman,

used to catch a fair number, I believe, in the rivers near Poona with a small sal-

mon-fly or fly spoon, but I do not think the size of the fish caught would average

more than somewhere between two and four pounds.

SHIKAR NEAR AND AROUND POONA.

1079

Above the Bund at Poona there are many large fish, particularly near the

far bank just opposite the lower Boat Club and also up the backwater to the

south of the island about a mile above the Bund. They seem to lie in a stretch

of water between a small temple on the south bank of the backwater and the

point where the latter joins the main river. It was here that I saw the biggest

fresh water fish that I have ever seen. He turned over in the water in the middle

whilst I was fishing towards the bank. He appeared to be nearly a foot in

width, and, from the hasty glance I had, seemed to be something like a “Rohu”.

I have never heard of any of these large fish being caught and cannot say for

certain of what species they are, but I imagine they belong to the above named

family. The only fish I have caught in the still water above the Bund are small

species of Wahago attu, Tengra, Neopferus kapimt, and a fish which appears

to be exactly similar to tb“ English Roach.

The only place near Poona where fish of any size are to be had is in the lake

at Khadakwasla, which is the Poona water supply. This lake is full of Mahseer

and also holds Carnatic Carp, Wallayo attu. Megalops, all of which will

take a spoon.

The largest Mahseer I have taken out of this tank weighed 17^ lbs. and the

largest I have actually seen caught was a fish caught by Lt.-Col. H. R. Brown,

I. M. S., who fished this lake regularly a few years ago. This fish, as far as I

remember, weighed 18| lbs., but it may have been larger.

The best day I ever had on this water was on the twenty first of April 1919,

the same day on which I caught my biggest fish. On this day I had six fish,

one of 17^ lbs. one of 12 lbs. and four small fish weighing from 5 lbs. dowri-

wards. There are, undoubtedly, fish in this lake well over 20 lbs.

The best time is from January onwards, until the strong winds before the

monsoon begin, (generally at the end of April or early in May) when the water

gets muddy. The water is then always low and the best lure is a Bronze and

Silver spoon from two to two and a half inches with a three inch .Jardine or

spiral lead. In the early part of the cold weather when the water is high I

have curiously enough, found a one and a half inch spoon with a two or two

and a half inch lead decidedly more effective.

All fishing is done from a boat. To use these boats it is necessary to become

a member of the Royal Connaught Boat Club, Poona, to whom they belong.

The fishing is all done by trolling and about forty yards of line should be let

out. The boat should only be rowed just fast enough to make the spoon spin.

A spoon that “ wobbles ” rather than spins is more effective, especially when

fishing deep for large fish. The best spoon I ever had for this work was Copper

and Silver, 2 inches, plain, not hogged, and on the deep rather than shallow

style, and mounted with two triangles at head and tail respectively.

The spoons sold in India that I have come across nearly always seem too

flat or shallow to spin well when trolling. The rod should be fairly stiff but at

the same time should have plenty of “ spring ” in it. I had a single jointed,

eleven foot, Ringal rod made by Mantons in Calcutta in 1917 for tank fishing

and found this made an ideal Mahseer rod for this kind of work.

It is necessary to hold these fish very firmly at the start and to reel up

quickly, otherwise, with such a length of line out, the line becomes slack and then

“ Goodbye ” to the fish .

I was constantly missing fish in this way until I hit upon the following

plan.

I generally use two rods, and formerly, as soon as I hooked a fish, my boat-

man used to stop rowing at once in order to reel up the other line. The boat

very quickly lost way and before I could really get a tight line the fish was off.

Now, on getting a run, I make my boatman keep on rowing until I am really

on terms with the fish and have got a large portion of the line on the reel, and not

until then do I worry about the other line Of course there is just a chance

33

\am JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL RIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

that the lines might foul in this case, but it has never happened to me yet and

I lose far fewer fish than formerly.

. Of course when a fish takes the hook and goes off on a rush directly away

from the boat and does not stop or turn round after a short run it would not

make much difference either way, but even then it is better, I think, to keep a

certain amount of way on the boat until a fair length of line has been recovered.

The boat can of course be quickly stopped, or even backed, if found necessary,

but to do this before the other line is reeled up, is rather asking for trouble.

As regards the particular places of the lake on which to fish, I have practi-

: cally confined my attention to the large sheet of water at the noi-th end of the

lake.

Towards the evening and when the water is low, the httle bay to the left

of the bungalow when looking out ever the lake is good. There is a spit running

out near here which can be seen when the water is very low and the fish seem to

lie over this, particularly in the evenings. It is necessary to be careful not to

approach too close to the shore here as the water is fairly shallow and the spoon

will foul the bottom. There are, however, practically no “ snags,” and in the

case of a foul, the spoon can nearly always be recovered by backing the boat

over or beyond the spot where the hook is caught.

Another good spot, especially for large fish, is in line w4th the two largest

mango trees on the bank opposite the bungalow (the largest tree is nearest

the bank). Keep these two trees more or less in line and troll backwards and

forwards in the centre of the lake. When fishing here I have generally found it

better to use a fairly heavy lead.

One other place where I have had good fish is between the point running

out from the near bank (lying in a half left direction from the bungalow) and the

opposite creek. This point can easily be recognised by the fact that there are

three or four isolated Mango trees almost on the apex. The fish seem to lie

from 200 to 400 yards off the point. When the wind is blowing from anyivhere

. between north and east it is often x>ossible to put up fish on the sheltered water

in the north eastern corner of the lake close to the Bund.

There used to be an idea that it was useless to fish this lake after about

4 p. m., and also when there was any wind, but both these ideas have been

proved wrong. The best time to fish is undoubtedly between 10 a. m. and

1 p. m. with little or no wind but I have been able to catch fish with quite a

strong breeze so long as the water remained clear. Once it gets muddy, it is

useless to try any longer. Also, I have found that the fish are often on the “ go ”

for about a half to three quarters of an hour at sunset and I once caught a decent

fi.sh when it was nearly dark, but this is only possible when there is little or

no wind and the evening is fairly warm. There are two or three good boatmen

there whom I can recommend for fishing. The man who is in charge of the

P. W. D. motor boat is far and away the best of them, but I have forgotten

his name. The other two are Abu and Dhaku. The former of these is the

better.

There is another large piece of water. Lake Whiting, at Bhatgarh, a little

over 30 miles from Poona, and lying to the west of the Poona-Satara Road.

• There are, however, no club boats or boats for hire here, and to fish the lake it

is necessary to get permission from the P. W. D. authorities for the use of a

boat. I have also heard of good fish up to 7 or 8 lbs. being caught in the stream

below the Bund.

There is also another large lake at Lonavla, about 40 miles from Poona

«n the Poona-Bombay road where I believe it is necessary to get tickets to fish,

and which, I think, were obtainable at an office at the end of the Bund. So

far as I remeiAber the price of the tickets was Re. 1 per day. This lake is one of

those constructed by Messrs. Tata & Company. I have never fished there, but

d believe there is a difficulty sometimes about obtaining a boat.

SHIKAR NEAR AND AROUND POONA.

1081

One lake is now under construction by the same Company in the Andhra

Valley, which hes in the same direction but rather nearer to Poona. This

should be a good fishing place in a few years’ time.

In conclusion, as some sort of general guide as to what may be expected in

the way of small game shooting in this district, I give below a list of the various

species of birds I have either shot or seen during my residence in these parts.

Those marked with an asterisk were all included in last year’s bag, which

amounted to a total of 583 head. Roughly two-thirds of these were duck

and snipe, in about equal proportion. Those which I have only seen are

marked with an -j-

Geese. Scientific Name.

1082

NOTES ON INDIAN WAGTAILS.

BY

Claud B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.B.O.U., M.R.C.S.

{late Capt. R.A.M.C.)

Having for a number of jears paid special attention to some of the Indian

Wagtails I thought it might be of some help to others to place on record the

lesult of my researches. That the subject is a complex one may be gathered

from the writings of earlier authors and I may say at once that I have seldom

tackled so difficult a subject. One may be able to determine correctly most

of one’s cabinet specimens but to put on paper any reliable guide which enable

others to do so is a matter of extreme difficulty. When one finds that, with say

the Yellow-hi adbd Wagtails, one has the two sexes differing in plumage in

winter and summer, and the birds taking two years to become fully adult one

may bc;gin to realise the complexity of the task which confronts one. Thus

there may be eight or ten specimens of the same species before one and not

one alike ! and all more or less similar to eight or ten more of a closely aUied form,

not to mention the possibility of individiml variations.

To try and differemtiate these in their various plumages and to tell others how

to do so has been my aim and it is mainly the very carefully collected series

obtained by myself and Mr. Whistler which had enabled me, I hope, to evolve

a certain amount of order out of chaos.

I,— The Yellow- headed Wagtails.

Motacilla c. citreola and Motacilla r.. calcarata.

In the Fauna of British India vol. ii p. 299, it is stated that M. citreola {=cal-

carata) can be diffen ntiated from other Wagtails by the longer tarsus. I do

not think these two Wagtails can be confused with any other at any si asor or

age, the broad y. Uow supercilium and more or less yvffiow on the fon head being

sufficient distinction. Moreover the statement about the length of the tarsus

is not correct except for calcarata which certainly has a longer tarsus, for I

find that out of 9 adult males of melanogriseus (feldeggi F.B.I.) and out of 10

heema, 8 of each are within the limits of measurement of the tarsus of citreola,

viz., 23-25'5 mm.

Summer Plumage, males.

The. males can always bo differentiated. In the calcarata the back is black

and the edg- s of the wing coverts tinged with y. llow, in citreola tlae back is grey

with a black neck collar and the tidgos of the coverts white. One may find

birds of both spici s in breeding dress which are not quite the same as adults

and th so are most certainly birds of the previous yt^ar. In such sp :cimons

of calcarata the black of the back is mixed with dark grey and in citreola there

IS only a trace of the black collar and the yellow of the head is much sullied on

the crown with dark heathers but in no state of plumage has citreola any black

feathers on the back.

Calcarata : Winter Plumage, males:

Ccdcarat a is, dark T on the back than cifreoia and lacks the black collar which

perfectly adult citreola generally shews, while the back fn quontly has blackish

feathers intiumixed which citreola lacks. Occasionally the blackish f. athers on

calcarata ar«; n- ar the nap-, of the neck and so do form an indistinct collar but if

so there am generally some black feathers elsewhere on the mantle. The amount

af b'ack in the upp>r-parts in this species varies a good deal and those with most

ore adults and those with little or none, and whoso backs are grtiy brown and

NOTES ON INDIAN WAGTAILS.

10S3

whose under-parts are less yellow, are birds of the year. These latter are rather

like some first winter citreola but size will always differentiate. Another small

difference between citreola and calcarata is that in the latter the under tail

coverts are more strongly tinged with yellow, these parts being nearly white in

citreola.

Citreola ; Adult Winter, males.

These differ but little from adults in summer plumage ; the head is usually less

pure yellow, more sullied with dark feathers on the crown, and the black collar

rather less well marked ; one finds many birds which are certainly not birds of

the year and which differ considerably however from perfect adults. These

are probably birds a year old. They differ from the adults in having the

yellow on the head confined to the forehead and a broad supercilium running

from the base of the bill to beyond the ear-coverts, the rest of the head being

brown or olive brown tinged with yellow. There is no black neck band or collar

and the ear coverts are sullied yellow instead of pure ; the upper-parts are more

tinged with brown but the under-parts are yellow as in the adult. These birds

probably become perfect adults at the next spring moult.

First winter plumage, both sexes, and adult females.

These are distinguishable at once from adults and one year old birds in having

the under-parts whitish except that the chin and throat are always and the

middle of the belly sometimes tinged pale yellow. On the upper parts they

are browner, less grey and the only yellow on the head is confined to the super-

cilium which runs forward to the base of the bill on each side and is never ab-

sent. The cheeks and ear-coverts vary a good deal hut are more or less duskj',

di'vaijs tinged with yellow ; in some there is a pectoral band of black spots.

The yellow supercilium and tinge of yellow in the ear-coverts together with the

lack of greenish tint on the upper-parts at once distinguish it from any Blue-

headed Wagtail. So far as I can judge, in this plumage males and females are

not distinguishable, and vary so much inter se that I cannot see any reliable

guide to distinguish them from adult females.

Calcarata ; Females in summer plumage.

In this plumage two forms are found ; one, the adult, has blight canary yellow

under-parts, supercilia and a tinge on the forehead (much as in winter) and the

other, which is the first summer plumage is distinguishable from it at a glance

by these yellow parts being very pale or whitish tinged with yellow (rather as in

first winter). This was indicated by Whitehead (Ibis 1909 p. 242) and can be

clearly seen in his specimens in the British Museum. From citreola adult it is

distinguished by the greater size, blacker upper tail coverts and, whereas adult

calcarata is as rich a yellow as adult citreola, the first summer calcarata is less

yellow than any citreola.

Citreola ; Females in summer plumage.

In the “ Fauna of British India" it is said that the males and females

are similar; this is not so. The adult female has neither the pure grey back

nor the black collar of the male ; the upper-parts are greyish brown, the fore-

head, supercilia and a good deal of the ear-coverts are yellow, the under-parts

are as yellow as in the male . As in calcarata so in this bird, the adult plumage

is not acquired in the first spring and the first summer birds are distinguished

< from the adults by the less bright yellow coloration of the plumage, a yellowish

olive brown crown, darker, less yellow, ear-coverts.

Calcarata : Females in lointer.

The adult female differs from any male in winter in lacking the yellow forehead,

(the yellow on this part being confined to the base of the bill where the two

supercilia coalesce) so that the whole head is dark olive with a yellow tinge

instead of a yellow forehead and dark olive crown ; the lores, cheeks, ear-

coverts are olive tinged with yellow instead of y'ellow ; there are no blackish

1084 JOURNAL, BOMBAL NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll.

feathers on the upper-parts, the under-parts are as yellow as in the male, but

the intensity varies in both sexes.

The adult female differs from adult female citreola in having much brighter

yellow under-parts (merely tinged with yellow in citreola) a brighter yellow

supercdium, and rather darker upper-parts and ear-coverts.

The female of the year differs from the adult female in lacking almost all yellow

on the under parts, these being nearly white, the supercilium and feathers at the

base of the bill are sullied white instead of yellow ; head and upper-parts dark

slate grey instead of olivaceous brown. The lack of any yellow at once dis-

tinguishes it from any male. In this dress it is very like the young of the year

of melanogriseus, in fact except for the larger supercilia which meet over the base

of the bill I can see no difference except for the size of the tarsi, toes and claws.

The white supercilia and usually the lack of any yellow on under- parts help to

distinguish it from first year citreola of either sex. Females differ in size from

males only in the length of the ■wing and tail which average smaller : -wings

77-81 tails, 75-78 m.m.

Juvenile or nestling plumage.

Upper-parts rich bro-wn ; bufifish supercilia smmounted by a broad, nearly

black line, imderparts strongly tinged -with bufifish brown, wWtish on vent and

throat, -with a black moustachial line running down each side to the black

spotted pectoral band ; calcarata and citreola are probably indistinguishable

in this dress except that (in those examined) the white edges to the -wing coverts

are broader in calcarata.

The spring moult of citreola and calcarata is the same as that given for melano-

griseus ; it starts towards the end of February and males are in full plumage

about the middle of March, females somewhat later.

I have already stated that the tarsus in calcarata is longer than in the other

Wagtails and I find that the middle toe and claw as weU as the hind claw are

also longer ; in fact calcarata is altogether a larger bird with a slightly longer

bill, tail and -wing. Compared -with citreola the bill is nearly always 1 to 2 mn.

longer (and this difference is more apparent to the eye than measmrements

indicate) and though the measurements of -wings and tail overlap calcarata

averages larger in both measurements. Compared -with beema and melano-

griseus, calcarata is absolutely longer in all measurements (bill, tarsus, tail,

and -wing ; extremes may just meet).

NOTES ON INDIAN WAGTAILS.

1085 t

The name calcarata of Hodgson for one of the Yellow-headed Wagtails has

been dropped as it M'as considered that, as Hodgson described a winter bird,

it could not be said which of the two Wagtails he had before him and therefore'

Gould’s later name citreoloides* was substituted and used in the Fauna and other

works. But a careful examination of Hodgson’s original description reveals

that his calcarata must have been citreoloides and not citreola ; not only does

of course the name itself suggest that he had before him a bird ■with an out-

standingly long hind claw but his measurements at once reveal that they could

not apply to citreola. His bird -with a tarsus of 1'19 (=30mm.) could only be'

citreoloides. One does not know how he measured the bill so this measurement is

of little account. His measurement of the hind claw is short and I find that

this measurement varies according to the time of the year. In autumn and

early ■winter the hind claw is longer as a rule than in spring and summer in all

Wagtails, this is due to wear or breaking off of the very slender tip and in such

examples of citreoloides the hind claw often measures about 12mm. whereas

autumn birds have the hind claw about 15mm.

The measurement of the tarsus and middle toe ■with claw is not a very easy

one to take and no doubt different people would get different results on the same

specimens according to where they considered the tarso-phalangeal joint to be

(not always easy to see in a dry skin), but ■with care this measurement can be

done witb accuracy. Measurement from the tuberosity of the tarsus on its

outer side to the tarso-phalangeal joint ■will give the longest possible tarsal mea-

surement, from this last (marked) point measure ■to the tip of the middle claw

with the toe well extended. Though these two measurements may differ accord-

ing to different observers, the sum of the two measurements should correspond,

and it will be seen from the table given that in citreola the sum of the two varies

from 43-47 and in citreoloides from 48’7o-53mm. This distinction holds for

both sexes.

II. — Yellow Wagtails.

H the Yellow- headed Wagtails can be differentiated with fair certainty the

. same cannot always be said for the rest of the Yellow Wagtails except for the

adult males ; ■with females and more particularly with first ■winter birds the

difficulty in many cases is to find specimens which from the locality in which

they were obtained can only belong to one form, (for instance Yellow Wagtails

obtained in Northern Scandina'via could only belong to the race thunhergi as

no other form occurs there,) and some of these basic guides (if I may so call them)

do not seem to be represented in any collection.

® Citreoloides of Hodgson was a 'nomen nudam.

1086 /0?7i2iV^.4Z, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, fol. XXV III.

{i) Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus {=feldegg F.B.I.)

Feldegg is the western form of the Black-headed Wagtail, melanogriseus

is the eastern. Dr. Hartert (Vog. Pal. F. 296) says this race breeds in Tur-

kestan and winters in India and may be distinguished at first glance from

feldegg by the white chin and moustachial streak, shorter wing and some slight

differences in the colour tone of the upper and under parts. I have examined

15 adult males in spring and find the following results :

White chin present in 6, absent in 3, a trace in 6.

Moustachial streak in 3, absent in 4, a trace in 8.

Both characters are fully present in only 3 of these, entirely absent in 2, the

rest have one character and a trace of the other. Now out of 24 Egyptian adult

males 3 exhibit these characters of melanogriseus and 3 more partly so, so either

both races occur in India and in Egypt, or these characters are variable ; I

incline to the latter view.

15 adult males melanogriseus measure wings (78,) 79‘5-84‘5 (85‘5) mm.

24 adult males feldegg measure wings (82,) 83-87 mm.

so that melanogriseus is on the average a smaller bird ; its wings measure

mostly 80-83 whereas feldegg measure mostly 83-86 ; also I think that usually

the tail is also shorter (mostly 68-72 mm.). Taking all these points I think that

a sufficient percentage of specimens could be picked out to warrant recognition

of the two races.

Summer plumage.

The jet black head of the male suffices to distinguish it from any other Indian

Wagtail ; the female has the upper-parts brownish grey lightly tinted with

olive green, the head darker usually mth some black feathers in it or, and

these are probably older birds, the whole crown blackish, the ear-coverts and

lores like the head ; a lew light feathers behind the eye is the only trace of

a supercihum ; under-parts white tinge with yellow, most pronounced on the

belly and under-tail coverts and often dark spots occur in the pectoral region.

From female of thunhergi, the black on the head, the less richly yellow under-

parts and usually less developed supercilia help to distinguish it, though some

birds (? first summer) of each may be difficult. From female of beema easily

distinguishable even in the field by darker ear-coverts and absence of a clear

white supercilium, besides being less olive green on the upper-parts.

Winter plumage.

In the adult male the olive green back is not so bright as in summer, the

under-parts a less pure bright yellow ; often some dark spots on the pectoral

region. Whole head is now dark slate, tinged with oUve in fresh feather, with

always a certain but variable amount of black feathers admixed, especially at

base of biU, forehead, lores, and round eye ; no supercilium. Ear-coverts dark

slate or brown, with odd light feathers. Easily distinguishable from all other

Wagtails except adult thunbergi (=borealis) in the field; in the hand the

black feathers on the head distinguish it from the latter.

The adult female resembles the spring bird ; it is rather less bright in general

coloration and has no black on the head, this part being greyer ; it is very similar

to female thunbergi but is usually less richly yellow underneath and the super-

cilia are not so well developed ; the same differences between this bird and female

beema in spring also apply in winter plumage.

Females are smaller than males: wing 75-77 ‘5, once 79; tail 64-72 mm.

In the first winter {i.e. birds of the year) both sexes lack aU yellow and green

tones in the plumage ; this at once distinguishes them from any citreola and

beema. The upper-parts including the head and ear-coverts are brownish grey

or dark slatey grey, somewhat variable, darkest on the rump and the upper-

tail coverts, which in males are blackish (and this is the only difference between

the sexes that I can see) ; a well marked whitish or huffish white supercilium

from base of bill to well behind the eye, but not coalescing with that of the

NOTES ON INDIAN WAGTAILS.

1087

opposite side over the base of the bill as in young female calcarata ; under-parts

sullied white, often a huffish wash and a few dark spots on the pectoral region.

I have already drawn attention to the similarity in this dress to that of female

calcarata in the first winter plumage.

The above description is taken from specimens which were collected in an

area where thunbergi does not occur and checked by specimens moulting into

summer plumage and so is undoubtably correct {rf. F.B.I. ii. p. 297).

Spring Moult. Involves the whole of the body feathers, the inner three

secondaries (=tertials) all, or all except the outer two or three, of the greater

coverts, aU the median, all or part of the lesser coverts ; the central tail always,

often the whole tail, but odd feathers may not be renewed. Moults in

February ; by early in March males are in full plumage ; females about a

fortnight later.

{ii) Motacilla flava heema : Summer plumage.

The wmZes cannot be confounded with any other Indian Wagtail. The pale

french-grey head, large white supercilia; white chin and moustachial streak and

pale grey ear-coverts mixed with white suffice to distinguish it in the hand

as well as in the field. The females are also distinctive ; Avhole of the upper-

parts brown with a strong olive green wash except on the head ; supercilia

pronounced and white ; ear-coverts hke head but mixed with white ; chin and

throat yellowish white with a buff tinge ; rest of under-parts pale yellow, much

less rich than in the male. Distinguished from female thunbergi by the paler

ear-coverts and lores and by the clear white supercilia.

Winter plumage.

The adult males are a dull edition of the spring birds ; the under-parts less

rich yellow, dark spots in the pectoral region may be present, and the grey on

the head is partially masked by an olive-green wash to the tips of the feathers.

From melanogriseus and thunbergi by the clear white supercilia and paler grey

crown, etc. The adult females resemble very much the spring females and are

distinguished by the same characters from the other female Wagtails.

In first winter plumage the sexes are not with certainty distinguishable. They

are much like the adult female but usually less yellow on the under-parts.

From young melanogriseus by the yellower belly and under-tail coverts and a

certain, though variable, amount of olivaceous green on the upper-parts.

Spring moult as in melanogriseus.

{Hi) Motacilla flava thunbergi {=borealis F.B.I.) Summer plumage.

The male is easily distinguishable by the dark slate grey head, absence

of any supercilium (an old white feather or two behind the eye is oc-

casionally present) and dark ear-coverts. The upper-parts vary somewhat ;

some specimens are dull olive green, others bright olive green, these latter also

being brighter yellow underneath. This may be a question of age, and I think

it is very likely, or it may be an individual variation. I am satisfied that it is

not a geographical variation as both forms breed in the same district (Yenesay

River).

The female exhibits two types differing from each other in the intensity of

the yellow of the imder parts. This is probably due to age (as with the Yellow-

headed Wagtails), those which are brighter yellow being adults and those

which are duller being birds of the first summer. The head and upper-parts

are dark olive brown, greenish olive on the rump, dark ear-coverts and lores,

a weakly-marked whitish supercilium is present ; the pectoral region with or

without spots.

Winter plumage.

The adult male resembles the spring male but the slatey-blue head is more

or less marked by ohve edges to tips of the feathers, the under-parts are less

bright yellow and the mantle is more olive-brown, not so olive-green.

34

1088 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXVIII.

The adult female resembles in all essentials what I have characterised as the

adult summer female ; the pectoral region may or may not have blackish

spots.

Yhe first winter plumage. I can give no distinguishing characters in this plum-

age as I have seen no specimens which for a certainty belong to this race.

(tv) Motacilla jlava simillima {=Jlava F.B.I.)

The adult male in spring closely resembles that of thuniergi except that there

is a well marked white supercdium behind the eye and more constantly has

blackish spots on the pectoral region. It is doubtful whether the females and

first year birds can be differentiated from thuribergi. The darker crown and ear-

coverts distinguish it from the true jlava of Europe with which it was confounded

in the Fauna. A winter visitor to the eastern parts of the Empire.

(v) Motacilla jlava leucocephala.

Spring males are distinguishable from any other Wagtail by the almost pure

white crown and ear coverts, — even in the field. Females and winter birds

I have not seen.

III. — The Black and White Wagtails.

(i) Motacilla alba dukhunensis.

This is the common White Wagtail of a large pait of the Indian Plains in

winter and is rather a poorly differentiated form of the European White Wagtail

(M. a. alba.) The spring birds and adult males in winter are a shade paler grey

on the upper parts, usually the white edges to the covert, s are wider so that the

two wing bars coalesce to form a broad band as in personata, and the wings

are a trifle longer on the average than in the typical alba. The first winter birds

and adult females in winter cannot with certainty be differentiated ; some are

a shade paler on the upper parts and some are not ; the ^ving bars do not coalesce

but some have rather wider white edges to coverts than is found in alba ; on the

other hand many others are indistinguishable in this respect; they average longer

in the wing and, so far as I have seen, never shew the yellowish tinge on the white

of the face which is often, but not always, found in alba in similar dress ; more-

over they have often more distinctly white foreheads. There is no single charac-

ter however which wiU invariably separate them. It is possible of course that

these birds which cannot be differentiated are the typical alba ; on the other

hand I have not seen any adult male which could certainly be referred to the

latter race.

Summer Plumage.

Males and females when fully adult are not with certainty distinguishable;

some females however have the white forehead less pure, ticked with black or

grey, and less white in the wing coverts, these very likely are first summer birds.

Sometimes females have a certain amount of white on the chin and throat but

this is an individual variation.

Winter Plumage.

The adult male resembles the summer male, except of course for the white,

not black, chin and throat, and the black crown is sullied posteriorly with dark

grey ; the adud female has the crown grey, sometimes with a few black feathers

and the forehead white, but less broad and less pure than the male.

The males in first winter have the crown dark, a mixture of black and dark

grey, very variable, and the forehead white, some are entirely grey on the crown

and the forehead greyish, these latter resemble the first year female and are

not to be differentiated ; in both sexes the wing bar is double.

NOTJSS ON INDIAN WAGTAILS.

1089

Measurements.

M. alba. alba. Norway, Sweden and W. Europe (20^ $ ) wing 88-92 ‘5 mm.

(11$$) „ 84^88-5 „

M. alba dukhunensis. Sind and Punjab (21^ (S) „ 91-96 „

(7 $ $ ) „ 84-91

J/. aZ6a daMunejisis Yenesay (breeding) (17d^) » 91-96 ,>

Dukhunensis is distinguished at all seasons and in both sexes from personata

by the white, not the black, ear-coverts ; in winter also by the white throat,

and always by the shorter tail.

dukhunensis tail (82,84) 88-95 mm.

personata tail (87,90) 93-102 mm.

Spring moult involves body, always the central tail and fairly often other

tail feathers ; inner greater coverts, usually the three tertials, aU the median

and some of the lesser coverts.

(ii) Motacilla alba personata.

Summer plumage. Both sexes have white foreheads and black crowms and ear-

coverts, also chin and throat. The black on the head in the female rather less

wide than in the male, that is to say it extends not so far down on the nape,

otherwise the sexes are similar. Males differ from males of hodgsoni in having

grey, not black, lesser wing coverts and mantles ; some females almost indis-

tinguishable from females of hodgsoni but in the latter the mantle and lesser

coverts are usually grey mixed with black or almost quite black, in both sexes

however hodgsoni has usuaUy a longer bill and shorter tail (89-95mm.) Broad

white wing band much as in hodgsoni.

Winter plumage. The mantle resembles the summer bird but the chin is

white and the bases of the throat feathers are white so that a certain amount of

white shews in this part. The female is much the same, usually the black on

the head is less wide. In both the ear-coverts are black.

Males in first winter resemble adult males, sometimes, but not always, the

crown is less black, i.e., mixed with grey ; the broad white wing band is not so

pme white. The female has black ear-coverts as in the males, the head is grey,

forehead white bordered posteriorly with blackish feathers ; wing band as in

male. Chin and throat in first year birds much as in adult ; the amount of

black or white on the throat varies individually.

Measurements.

6^ $ wing 94’5-98 tail mostly 98-102 bill from base 16'5-17'5 mm.

7$ V wing 87 '5-95 tail mostly 90-100 bill from base 15‘5— 17 m.m.

(m) Motacilla alba hodgsoni.

This is perhaps the most handsome of the Black and White Wagtails ; in

summer plumage the male has the crown and all the upper -parts pme black,

forehead white, ear-coverts, chin and throat black as in personata. Lesser

coverts black and broad pure white wing band. The female varies somewhat,

some, perhaps older birds, are as black on the upper-parts as the male, others

are darker grey than personata mixed or not with black feathers ; these are

perhaps birds of the previous year.

In winter the black ear-coverts are retained and the bird is very like personata ;

however the darker grey of the mantle with or without black feathers ad-

mixed, the shorter tail and rather longer bill will differentiate it.

{iv) Motacilla alba ocularis.

Differentiated from all the other Wagtails at all seasons by a black line from

the base of the bill through and carried on beyond the eyes. It has a gre

mantle and white ear-coverts.

{v) Motacilla alba leucopsis.

A black-backed form like hodgsoni but has white ear-coverts, which at all

seasons will differentiate it from the latter.

1090 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

{vi) Motacilla maderaspatensis.

Mr. Stuart Baker puts this Wagtail (B.N.H.S. 27 p. 37) as a race of alba ;

with this I cannot agree. It is possibly ti-ue that it does not breed in the area

of hodgsoni, there being probably an altitudinal difference in habitat, though

it undoubtedly does breed in the Himalayas ; yet in many points this species

differs from the alba group. Firstly this bird is in habits unlike the latter group

in being practically confined to water courses. Secondly, it is resident through-

out most of its range whereas all the alba group are migratory. Thirdly, its

very superior size ; fourthly, its total absence of white forehead which all races

of alba shew in winter, fifthly the summer and winter plumages are alike and

sixthly, so far as I have been able to ascertain, it has no spring moult.

IV'. — The Grey Wagtail.

Motacilla cinerea melanope.

This is the Eastern representative of the European Grey Wagtail. It differs

from the latter in having a shorter tail and some alleged differences in the outer

three tail feathers, viz : — ( 1) outer tail feather brown on the middle of the shaft,

(2) the next, some brown on the inner web and (3) the third, black on the inner

web’s edge. I have examined 30 specimens as regards these characters and I

find the following results :

Character (1) Present in 23 out of 28

(2) „ „ 5 „ 28

(3) „ „ 15 „ 24

In only 4 out of 27 do the alleged characters hold good in aU three feathers,

in only one do they fail in all three. On the other hand in M. cinerea cinerea

I find —

Character (1) Present in 1 out of 9

(2) „ „ 1 „ 9

(3) „ „ 7 „ 9

Hence it is obvious that characters (2) and (3) are useless and character

(1) is of some slight help together with the length of tail in distinguishing these

races.

30 specimens of melanope measure : — Tail 88-95, and 9 of cinerea 98-1 10 mm.

Besides a wide breeding distribution in Asia, this bird breeds in the Safed

Koh, (just over the N. W. Frontier) and in the Himalayas.

JOURN.. BOMi

NAT. HIST SOC-

I

1091

H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES’ SHOOTING IN INDIA

IN 1921 AND 1922.— Part II.

By

BERNARD C. ELLISON, C.M.Z.S. — {Naturalist to the Shoot'ng.)

F.R.O.S.

{With three plates and a map and 2 text fibres.)

BHOPAL.*

The Prince arrived at Bhopal on a bracingly cold morning, February 4th, 1922.

But this account is not concerned with shivering officers dressed in white, nor

with red carpets, bands, banners and booming guns, but with wooded hills and

glades, and the free unfettered life of a shooting camp.

Before we plmige into the jiuiglcs, a word to those to whom Bhopal is but a

famiUar name. Thousands are hurled into the Bhopal railway station yearly

and thousands pass on, little knowing, for the sight is not for them, that a mile

beyond the utilitarian rows of station buildings lies one of the most beautiful

places in all India, imique, with a charm wholly its o^vn.

Here on the northern edge of two large sheets of water rises the city, white

palaces gleaming amidst green trees, while tall minarets, their glittering spikes

dominating all, mark unmistakably the religion of the Ruler.

On the southern shore stands the residence of General Obeidullab IChan with

its magnificicnt view over the lakes, and, at a lower elevation, the comfortable

“ Lai Kothi ” in whieh His Royal Highness resided during the visit. This faces

across the lower lake towards the group of old palaces, the grim city walls, and

the Fatehgarh Fort which so stoutly withstood the Maratha hordes in the

18th century. To the west, towards Sehore, the coimtry is level and cultivated,

but to the north and east the land is full of hills which, as one gets further from

the eity, become rougher and covered with fine jungle, an ideal haunt for wild

animals of every kind.

The intervenhig time from the 4th till the evening of the 5th was spent in a

round of fimctions and amusements comprising the State visits, the Banquet,

Polo, Tennis, Yachting and Shooting, all provided by the hospitable Bi^gum of

Bhopal in honour of her Royal guest. The shooting proper was to take place at

Kachnaria, about 20 miles as the crow flies out of Bhopal, where had been

pitched a standing eamp out in the jungle.

Some sport was enjoyed roimd Bhopal before the party went to Kachnaria.

Sir Godfrey Thomas went out from Bhopal for buck on the afternoon of the

4th February towards Duraha, but, although the country promised well, a glimpse

of two Chinkara out of shot was all the reward he obtained for his exertions.

Admiral Halsey who went towards Ashta also had a blank day. There had

been a lot of recent traffic on these roads on account of the Prince’s visit

w’hich had disturbed all buck and chinkara and made the herds go far from the

main roads.

Captain Dudley North, Captain Piers Lcgh and Commander Now'port went

out after stiipe and had some sport, bringmg in 18| couple. A good morning

was spent wdth sand grouse on the Sehore Road. A nullah was found where

the grouse watered and about 1 5 brace were got, mostly pintail.

Anoth- r party amused themselves on the lake at Bhopal with duek, wMeh

were vt;ry numerous but difficult to got at. Attempts were made to circumvent

them in boats, but it was of no avail. Staying out for Heir evening flight was

tried by another party who had good sport at the top end of the lake among the

• I am largely indebted to Colonel Luard for this article.

1092 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, fol. XXVIll.

reeds. About twelve couple were accounted for among which were four couple

of mallard.

On the 5th of February the ^vriter left early by special train in order to see

that his men, who had arrived some days previously, were properly settled in

their camp. After a railway journey of about 30 miles through thickly wooded

country with plenty of small hills and crags which augured well for prospects

of good shooting he arrived at Salamatpur Station and was met by Colonel

Iqbal Mohamad Khan, a nephew of Her Highness the Begum, and together

they rode to the camp about five miles away.

The Shooting box at Kachnaria provided for the Prmce’s accommodation

was a magnificent white pavilion made of stone. This had boon built at the

shooting camp by His Royal Highness’ host, the eldest son and heir of Her

Highness the Begum, Nawab Sir Nasrullah Khan, himself a big game shot of

high repute, who has shot over 130 tigers, mostly in Bhopal State. Some

time ago the Nawab started erecting a country residence at Kachnaria, and

as soon as the Prince of Wales’ projected visit was announced the building

was rapidly completed, electric light was installed, and water laid on. Round

it a large camp was pitched, as the house was only able to accommedate the

Prince and a small portion of his staff. His Royal Highness was the first

inhabitant of the house and consented that it should be named the

“ Prince of Wales’ Farhat Manzil ”

(Prince of Wales’ abode of delight)

in memory of his visit.

Some distance from the house at Kachnaria a special skinning camp had been

arranged. It lay in a small depression and was surrounded by trees— the

“ Wanton lapwing’s ” eternal cry of “Did you do it ” shewing that it was their

favourite haunt. Sheds of bamboo with leafy tops had been erected. Here

every arrangement was made for dealing with the animals shot. The whole

place was delightfully cool and airy and both for this reason and on accoimt

of the convenience of its situation so close to the rest of the camp was an ideal

place for a skinning camp.

Profiting from his experience in Nepal the writer made arrangements for

each member of the shooting party to take out labels, giving them to each

person every day after dinner at the end of the day’s shoot. This he found

worked very well, as all confusion was thus obviated. There were generally

several parties shooting and every person who secured a trophy affixed a label

to the animal immediately after it was killed and saw that proper measurements

were taken. Thus mistakes were impossible , measurements being taken and

recorded at the time of shooting before rigor mortis had set in.

The arrangements at the shooting camp had been personally supervised

by Sir Nasrullah who had spent weeks in accelerating the work of preparing

the house and in arranging the beats.

4: * *

Leaving Bhopal by special train on the evening of February 5th, the Prince

and his staff reached a way-side platform erected for the purpose about 6-30 p.m.,

whence they were motored along fair weather roads, made for the occasion,

to Kachnaria about two miles away.

A triumphal arch of green leaves had been erected at the entrance to the

camp, and here the local populace had gathered to await His Royal Highness’

arrival. Most of these people were Gonds, a jungle tribe which inhabits these

forests. They had prepared to greet the Prince with one of their dances, and

women and men were already dancing, as their custom is, in separate groups,

the men in white and the women in red clothes ; “tom toms,” cymbals and

the monotonous chant with its emphatic caesura beat and occasional loud

shouts adding to the weird scene. But alas ! a practice game of polo and

H. R. U, THE PRINCE 01 WALES' SHOOTING IN INDIA. 1093

an inspection at General Obaidullah Khan’s house of the record Sambhar

head (oOJ") shot by the General’s father delayed the start and His Royal

Highness reached the cam only as darlmess fell. No bustling Police car (an un-

necessary precaution there) announced H. R. H.’s approach and the Prince

had come and passed the arch unrecognised before it was even suspected

he had passed. However on another occasion, Avhen returning from a shoot,

the Gond.s had their opportimity of performmg.

While the writer was at the sliinning camp just before the Prince’s arrival news

of a “ kill” some four miles away was brought in. As in Mysore, news generally

came by an elaborate system of Heliographs on the surrounding hills. In the early

morning from one’s tent the lights could be always seen flashing in the morning

sun.

To turn now to actual events. A glance at the map will show the plaees to

which His Royal Highness went, these being marked “ P,” while blocks to which

members of the party went are marked “ O ”. I have already noted that some

shooting was done direct from Bhopal by members of the staff, who did not come

out to Kachnaria but joined the camp for the day.

1094 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXVIII.

The party at Kachnaria on the night of the 5th February comprised : —

H. R. H. the Prince of Wales,

Colonel Nawab Sir NasruUah Khan,

The Earl of Cromer,

Admiral Sir Lionel Halsey,

Colonel Worgan,

Mr. Petrie,

Commander Newport,

Lord Louis Mountbatten,

Colonel C. E. Luard, Political Agent in Bhopal.

Colonel McConaghy, Agency Surgeon in Bhopal.

Sahibzada HabibuUah Khan,

Sahibzada RafiquUah Khan,

Colonel Nawabzada ObeiduUah Khan,

Lt.-Col. Nawabzada Hamidullah Khan,

and the WTiter.

The following diary extracts are the writer’s impressions of the shooting ; —

6<A February. — Although several people got up early to shoot, most waited for

the Prince ; and until 9 am. the party awaited news of a “ kill.”

The Prince then set out on horse-back accompanied by Nawabzada Hamidullah

Khan, the Begum’s youngest son, who was also a member of His Royal Highness’

suite, and Sahibzada HabibuUah Khan. Sir NasruUah then foUowed in a car in

which were Colonel Luard and myself. The route led from Kachnaria to Salamat-

pur Station, 3 miles off, whence a fine metaUed road leads to the old fort of

Raisen. After traveUing some distance along the road our car picked up

Admiral Halsey who had been out since early in the morning and had shot a

NUgai, about two miles from the Station.

The country on either side of this road was cultivated except where the hiUs

come close up to it, and the fields were covered with a fine crop of wheat,

easUy grown without irrigation on the fertile soil of this region. The wheat,

though it looked very stunted to eyes accustomed to the com-lields of England,

was in fact a first rate crop.

Soon the car reached the old fort of Raisen standing high above the road on a

lofty rock, 1 ,980 feet above sea level. Founded in early days of Hindu domination

in these parts, it subsequently became one of the strongholds of the local

dynasty of the Muhammadan Sultans of Malwa, whose capital was the ancient

fort of Mandu, near Mhow Cantonment. Held by various competitors for

power in these parts, it witnessed many a sanguinary struggle, falling to the

Emperor Sher Shah (1543) only after a protracted si ge when, as the picturesque

aecount of the old historian says, its defender, a Hindu, “ ‘ Puran Mai ’ and

his eompanions, Uke hogs at bay, faded not to exhibit valour and gaUantry,

but in a twinkling of an eye, aU were slain.” It is now but the shed of a fort,

yet its massive stone wad, pierced with nine gate-ways, and its thirteen bastions

stid defy the elements. But this is a digression.

At Raisen the car swung off on to a speciady prepared fair-weather road through

jungle country and round fearsome comers, no relaxation of speed being considered

necessary by the drivers because the road was “ Kacha”, though possibly

Mr. Nash (the car’s maker) might have expostulated had he been

present.

At a spot a little distance from Raisen we halted for a short time to wait

for the Prince who was on horse-back some way behind. It was a most

picturesque place, where a shrine and small Idgah stood in a waded enclosure

surrounded by trees — the tomb of Pir Fatehudah Shah.

At the Pir’s tomb we were joined by Colonel Worgan who was dmping, being

rather lame after a reeent polo accident ; he had been out very early, but had

only flushed some smad game ; shortly afterwards the Prince of Wales came

JouRN., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

THE ROYAL PARTY CHANGING BEATS ON 6th FEBRUARY 1922.

THE CHEETAH AT BAUODA.

H. It. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES' SHOOTING IN INDIA. 1095

riding up. We then drove on for a coujile of miles and reached a place called

Bijalia Kondul (3) at about 12-30. Getting out of the ear we walked to the

raachans which were about 200 yards distant, flushing some partridge on the

waj'. The machan in which Colonel Worgan and I were placed was not a good

one except from the point of view of being nicely sheltered. It did not allow

one to swing a rifle round quickly in the event of the tiger breaking cover from

any direction other than that immediately in front of us. Little basket stools

would have been extremely useful here.

The tree on which the machan was erected had a lot of dry leaves which made

a constant cracking noise as the wind rustled through them.

The cry of the beaters began at 12-50, a not unmusical “ Yoo-oo ” in a pleasant

intonation, punctuated now and then by the beat of a drum, and was maintained

continuously up to the shooting line. Some jackals sneaJced out, stood for a

moment on the edge of the open space, and then crossing in haste, vanished

bej’ond, while the pit pat on the dry leaves of many jjeacocks’ feet was heard,

followed by a whirr as a cock cleared the open space and floated down

into the brushwood beyond.

The beaters’ voices seemed to approach and recede, as they mounted a ridge

or crossed a depression.

A quarter past one passes but no tiger. He seemed to be keeping along

the bill. Suddenly two shots rang out — then silence — -that pregnant silence

of wliich the secret is known as a rule only to the shooter and often not to him.

We remained quietly in our machan thinking that probably the tiger had been

killed by the Prince. The heir apparent of Bhopal then came up to our machan

and told us he thought the tiger was hit. We got down from the machan

and learnt what really happened. Actually a tigress did come out very fast in

front of uttered a “ woof ” and passed clean under the machan and out

in the rear, giving very little chance of a certain shot, and fled untouched — going

away equally fast. The Prince did not fire as it was not a possible shot. She

was an old hand at the game and had evidently escaped her fate on many previous

occasions. Three Sambhar also broke out and it was at these the shots had

been fired.

After this we had lunch and then drove back towards the Raisen road

to a place called Makhni ( 2 on the map ) about eight miles awaj', where

the second beat was arranged. At 3 o’clock the raachans were reached

and the beat began. At about 3-45 the beat came up. But no tiger was

seen, only some bears and one male and two female Nilgai, which passed

within sight of Colonel Luard, but out of range. The reason I think why

the drive was blank was that we had been expected in the morning,

many people had been about and thek movements had driven game

away. Moreover the machans, as in Mysore, were in rather too ojien ground

and too near the out drive. Getting into the care again Ave drove to the scene

of the third beat Avhich was in Makhni forest about two miles off. Two shots

■w'ere fired, but nothing was hit nor did the majority of the guns see an^-thing

but a lot of langurs and some quail and pea fowl.*

So much for the fate of His Roj^al Highness’ party. Those who were not

with the Prince had better luck.

Sir Godfrey Thomas, Captain Poynder, Captain Legh, Cajitain Metcalfe and

Mr. A. Metcalfe, under the guidance of Colonel McConaghy, went to Satdhara

(1). The first beat, a very long one, produced a tiger. It was shot by

Captain Poynder and was in fine coat, and had a magnificent ruff on its neck.

As it lay on the ground by the tree near Captain Pojnider’s tent it looked a fine

• The peacock is sacred in the eyes of Hindus. In tlieir mythology it is the steed on whieli the

goddess Sarasvati, the Minerva of India, rides, and therefore peacock feathers are not unlucky

here as they are in Europe. Peacocks are never molested in Hindu States ; but in Mussulman

States like Bhopal they can be shot, as long as they are not in or close to villages.

3.5

\am JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX VIII.

big tiger, but on rueasurement did not prove to be as big as was anticipated. It

measured and was I'-IO" round the fore-arm.

The party then moved to a second beat at Bhulna ( 5 ). This was in the

same Erection and the line of machans was under a low range of wooded hills.

Some sambhar crossed the ridge, but they were too far off to distinguish heads.

There was a certain amormt of firing and Colonel McConaghy got two sambhar.

One was of a class now so often met with I am told in Bhopal jimgles, with a

large body and ill-developed horns. Whether this is due to overshooting resulting

in the destruction of the best heads, or due to an excess of does and consequent

weakening of the stock it is difl&cult to decide. A member of the staff vTiting

to me describes what followed afterwards.

“ Poynder had shot at a panther which galloped straight down the path

towards him and Avoimded it, but had no idea where he hit it. It was decided to

follow it up for a bit on foot and everyone was just getting on to the blood tracks

when an excited man rushed up and said that the panther was sitting

under a rock on the hiU about 100 yards in the rear. We made a cautious

approach and found several men up in trees chattering hard and pointing to

a spot where we eventually with the greatest difficulty distinguished the

animal. It was hard to make out how he was lying, and though obviously

hit he was by no means hors-de-combat. Poynder took a shot at it which

made it jump and then Legh and a shikari blazed off. Stones were then thrown

and people came to the conclusion that it was dead. She proved to be a small

female panther and was so knocked about as to render the sldn practically

useless but she was carried back in triumph by a vast crowd of beaters who

suddenly appeared as if by magic from every point of the compass.”

Captain Pojnder described the incident himself to me as follows : —

“ The panther came out right at the end and galloped straight at me down a

path. I fired twice and she disappeared. We found blood and hair on the path

and a cooly came in shortly afterwards saying she was badly wounded and

lying down 200 yards away. We walked up and foimd her lying behind some

rocks with only her side showing. Not knowing how badly sbe was hit we did

not risk too close an approach and fired at this. Unfortunately both Legh, Godfrey

Thomas and a shikari fired as well as myself so the animal was knocked to pieces.

My original shot had gone through the off shoulder from the front, breaking

the bone to atoms so we need not have been so alarmed. Again my *470 that I

eulogised to you before.” The panther measured 6 feet and was a female.

Having only come out for the day from Bhopal Colonel McConaghy’s party

had to return in the evening by goods-train. JMisinformed as to the time of

its departure they were quietly motoring to Salamatpur to catch it when they

saAv it commg aloiig towards them. Abandoning their car, which was close to

the line, they rushed on to the track, carrying their gims, and stood four abreast

across the track with their arms out. The train had either to stop or run over

them and the engine driver luckily chose the former alternative. They climbed

into the guard’s van and the man did not seem at all surprised, as if holding up

trains on the mam line was a common occurrence in India.

Captain Dudley North went out for sambhar to Bhojpur (7) on this day, and

thus describes his experiences to me: “On the 6th February I shot a sambhar stag

33" with my ’286 Mauser. I rvas sitting in a machan, which was on a high rock

half way down the slope of a hill, the beaters being on the other side.

A number of sambhar does passed down a track along the side of the hill,

going from left to right about 100 yards from me. There Avas a cutting in

the jungle going straight up the hill, and as each one jsassed I took careful

aim ui case a stag came along. A small stag passed and then a much larger

and darker-coloured one. The light rvas not good but the head seemed to be

good enough, and so I fired. I thought I had hit it, but it rvent on, and it

H. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES' SHOOTING IN INDIA 1097

was not till the beat was over that I was able to climb up and look and found

it, 15 yards further on, shot right through the heart. I paced out the range

which was about 1 10 yards.”

Setting out very early in the morning of this same day, the 6th of

February, the Earl of Cromer and Lord Louis Mountbatten reached Bagha at

about 8 a.m. This place, marked on the map (9), is 45 miles south-east of

Kachnaria and at the bottom of the map on the extreme right. A few

minutes after their arrival the beat started. Four tigers came out;

two were bagged by Lord Cromer and two, on hearing the shots, broke away

from the line of beaters.

Sambhar and chital passed Lord Louis Mountbatten within shot, but he

did not shoot at them as he was waiting for a tiger. From Bagha they motored

to Majus (8) where they were joined by Commander Newport and Mr. Petrie

who had gone out to Pipaliaghat but had had no luck, although imme-

diately after the beat started a tiger was heard roaring close by. Unfortunately

it did not pass the machans, and probably slipped away between the stops.

No shot was fired in this Pipaliaghat beat. At Majus the beat started

at about 2 p.m. A special machan was given to Lord Louis as he

had had no luck at Bagha. Sambhar, chital, etc., came out. Eleven shots

were fired at them by Commander Newport, Mr. Petrie and Lord Louis,

but nothing fell to any body’s gun.

Lord Louis Mountbatten thought that he had wounded a sambhar, so a

search was made but with no result.

Among the guests at Bhopal on the Royal Visit were members of the Cavalry

School at Saugor who, with Colonel P. B. Sangster, their Commandant, came

to play Polo with the Prince and they shot on several occasions with members of

the staff.

Admiral Halsey, Mr. Petrie, Captain Watkins and Captain Crichton motored

out about 5 miles from the shooting camp and bad 3 beats for sambhar.

They saw plenty of sambhar, at least 30, but there was not a suitable

head amongst them.

The Prince’s party, with which I was, arrived back at Kachnaria about 6 p.m.

Gohig down to the skinning camp I saw that three tigers, one panther and one

Nilgai had aheady arrived and, after the Prmce had inspected them, they were

taken to the skinning camp and work on them was immediately commenced.

The panther had been very badly hit. All the entrails were coming out

and the skin was practically useless.

The skinning camp was naturally looked on by the vultm’e community as their

special meetmg place. Hundreds assembled, dropping out of space to the tasty

and sumptuous feast below. The King vultm'e {Otogyps calims) with his con-

spicuous zone of white feathers on the breast ; the long-billed brown vultme

(Gyps indicus) with his fine white ruff ; the white backed vulture {Pseudogyps

bengalensis) with his marked white rump, the commonest of all vultures in Central

Lrdia, and “ Pharaoh’s chicken” (Neophron ginginianus) with his consequential

waddling walk, a familiar figure in very cantonment in India. In addition to

the tigers and panther which were already in the camp, 5 sambhar were shot

this day, one by Colonel O’Kineally, one by Captain Bruce Ogilvie, two by

members of the Cavalry School and one by an American whose name I have

forgotten.

The State band came doTOi to camp and played at and after dinner, greatly

assisting certam terpsichorean efforts of the guests while adding materially to the

entertainment of all.

I had brought with me to camp two of Stuart Baker’s Game Bird books, one on

‘‘Ducks and their A.llies” and the other on “Snipe, Bustard, etc.” These I showed

to the Prince after dinner, and also to the heir-apparent of Bhopal who had quite

1098 JOLRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, f ol. XXVJII^

recovered, after a rest, from a slight hurt he had experienced dui’hig the arduous

day’s shoot. They interested His Royal Highness greatly, particularly the

description of Imperial Sand Grouse vhich he had shot only two months before

in Bikanir. The Rrmce told me he had at Sandringham several origmal bird pain-

tings, which he prized very much, by Thorburn, the famous ornithological artist.

February 1th. — The beats on this day also la}- towards Raisen. Some of the

party, it may be mentioned, went out at dami but obtamed nothmg. As

before, the way lay through jungle over kachha roads marked out with stones.

The advance guard of the party had to wait for His Royal Highness who had

ridden part of the way. On his arrival at Mawal-Klio (4) the part}^ climbed up

to the machans which were placed on a high ridge.

There was dead silence for a time and from my machan I could see that the beat

had started numbers of langiu's which came bounding through the Ime quite

miconscious of the presence of the shooters. Two wanted to ascend my machan,

but the somid of the breaking of a twig frightened them and off they scuttled.

A sambhar belled, perhaps scenting the tiger, and a small chital passed out.

Four bears came out close to the Prmce’s machan, two being cubs which kept fall-

ing back as they tried to follow their parents up the steep cliff, an amusing

spectacle.

When the beaters came out Lord Cromer and myself left our machans and

went to the one on which Colonel Luard was sitting. He pointed cut the risk

of being below while beating was still going on over part of the line, and so we

mounted up beside him. Xothmg came out, although it was asserted that the

tiger was there when the beat began.

On the wav" back some chital and a buck uere seen. The Prince got out to

shoot ; but another car coming up frightened the buck away.

I then Avent back with the party to Salamatpnr Station and from there motored

on to the skinning camjA. The Prmce and staff returned to Bhopal. On the

Raesin-Salamatpur road Avhich we traversed we could see the ancient Buddhist

topes of Sanchi. Colonel Luard told me, and it is interestmg to recollect, that the

jmigle m this part Avas so thick clming the Pindari War that the existence of

these famous topes, Avhich had stood on this hill smee 300 B.C., Avas unkiAOAAii

to all but a fcAV Gonds, and that General Taylor came upon them by accident only

in 1818. The carA-ed gateAA ays, Avhich can just be seen from this road, standing

in front of the central tojje are unique specimens of cai’A’ed stone AA ork and date

from the first century A.D.

Of the other parties out this day, Captahi DucIIca’ North, Commander NeAv])ort

and Lord Louis Mountbatten had been far afield to Garhi but returned at 5-30

p.m. haA’ing seen nothing at all.

Sir Godfrey Thomas, Sir Geoffrey de MontmorencA', Captain the Hon’ble Piei-s

Legh and Colonel HarA*ey motored out from Bhopal in a north-Avesterly direction

to a series of beats m parallel Imes along a thickly-AA ooded ridge. The place A\'as

called Dhandhar. There Avere a number of Sambhar in the beat. Sir Godfrey

Thomas had a shot at one that came out opposite his machan, but hit it too

high up and it had stumbled and AA as gone before he could get in a second shot.

It passed through the next beat and Su’ G. cle Montmorency had a shot at it

from long range, but he ncA-er saAv it again, though as it happened it aa us picked

up dead that eA’enmg after the party had left.

Sir Geoffre}’ de Montmorency also had success, securing a big Nilgai, and

Colonel HaiA'ej' shot a jjig on the same daj'.

The antics of a Mongoose caused them much amusement. It Avas running

about OA'er some rocks and A\as much harassed by a lot of peacocks A\ ho made

a great commotion moA'ing OA'er the dry leaA'es, so much so that .people

thought that at least a sambhar Avas commg out. Sir Godfrey Thomas met AA'ith a

curious incident in his machan. A fan-tailed fly-catcher (Rhipidura albo-frontata}

H. R. H. THE PRIXCE OF WALES’ SHOOTING IN INDIA. 1099

came and fluttered about among the branches a few feet from his head and

■eventually jierched on the end of his rifle barrel.

Two more beats resulted in nothing. This finished the shooting in Bhopal

between the dates of February 4th and February 7th, 1922. The total bag in

the Bhopal shoot waS' —

Big Game-

Tigers . .

Panthers

Sambhar

Xilgai . ,

Wild Boar

Small Game-

Snipe

3

2

12

2

1

18.^ couple.

Sand Grouse . . . . . . . . 1.5 brace.

Duck . . . . . . . . . . 12 couple.

The bag given is not a large one, but it is only fair to all concerned to point

out that in February the trees and bushes are still covered with leaves, and grass

is high, which increases the difficulty of turning out animals. In addition to the

difiiculties in beating at this time of year, perhaps ill-luck was inadvertently

added through disregarding the idiosyncrasies of Indian shooting. It is

fatal to mention the word “ Kargosh ” (a hare) when starting out; the partridge

may have called upon the left hand side, a fatal omen up to noon, but the

reverse after midday ; and both the grey (Francolinus pondicerianus), with its

cry of “ pateela-pateela pateela,” and the painted variety {Francolinus pictus),

with that curious harsh call, translated by Hindus into “ lahsan piaz adrak ”

(garlic, onions and gmger), and by Musalmans into “ Khuda teri Kudrat ” (God

is your strength), were calling all day : a cat may have crossed the road, or

some one sneezed in front (a sneeze behind is lucky). These and other similar

hindrances to good luck may well have influenced the bag but they did not

affect a most enjoyable outing. The shoot in Bhopal must be considered

both on account of the variety of the bag and of the care and hospitality of its

august ruler equal to any of the great shoots arranged by the various States in

India to do honour to His Roval Highness.

NOTE ON BHOPAL SHOOTING.

Tiger {F. tigns).

In Bhopal the country where shoots take place offers unique opportunities

for good tiger shooting. There are very large cliffs in the jungles and the beaters

try to drive the tigers in the direction of the cliffs where it is difficult for them

to escajie. In my opmion this is the easiest method of shooting, is surer, and

does not involve as much trouble and labour as the ringing and netting

systems used in Nepal and Mysore respectively.

Sir Geoffrey de Montmorency told me something rather interesting in con-

nection with tigers in Bhopal. He and Major Harvey one Sunday when they

could not shoot saw a tiger sit over its kill nearly nine hours.

NOTES ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA IN THE SHOOTING

DISTRICTS ROUND BHOPAL.

Fauna. — The Avriter well remembers being told before he visited Bhopal

that the jungles of this State provide the finest mixed bags in the whole of

India. This is very true.

\m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

The most important Fauna met with in these jungles are the Langur Monkey

{Semnopitkecus entellus) whose hordes under Hanuman rescued Sita from the

clutches of Ravan, the demon king of Ceylon ; the little brouTi bandar (Macacus

rhesus). Tiger {Felis tipris). Leopard {F. pardus), Hyaena (H. striata). Wild dog

(Cyan dukhunensis). Jackal (Cams aureus). Black Bear (Mehirsus ursinus).

Nilgai* (Boselaphus tragommelus). Black Buck (Antilope cervicapra), the Four-

homed antilope (Tertacervus quadricornis), Chital (Cervus axis), Sambhar (C.

unicolor). Wild Boar (Sus cristatus).

The bison and buffalo, once common, have long disappeared in this part of the

country. In Mughal days elephants and lions were numerous, the lion surviving

in the neighbourhood to modem times, the last being shot near Guna on W^aterloo

day 1872. The usual game birds and reptilia of course exist in this area.

Round Kachnaria, tales of snakes being numerous and scorpions abounding

were circrdated, as is not unusual, the presence of such unpleasant neighbours

being calculated to impress visitors. But in point of fact Colonel Luard, who is

* Regarding Nilgai, Col. Luard, the Political Agent in Bhopal, told me

of a rather useful way of making use of a Nilgai skin when shot. In view

of the fact that a Nilgai is generally considered one of the poorest trophies

afforded to the sportsman in India — this information is most valuable. Col. Luard

told me “ A Nilgai skin, if chrome tanned is porous and make a wonderful water

cooler ; it will make a jar of butter placed in it in the hot weather as hard as if

it had been iced, and make the temperature of water as cold as possible.”

Col. Luard very kindly had a drawing made for me of a Nilgai skin water

cooler. Nilgai marrow bones by the way are as is well known, exceedingly

good eating. The leather is as good as sambhar leather for making shikar

boots and gaiters.

PLAN

SHOWING

COMPARTMENTS FOR

BOTTLES.

SHOWING

WOODEN BASE WITH

DRAIN HOLES.

NILGAI SKIN WATER-COOLER.

R. R. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES’ SHOOTING IN INDIA. 1101

a considerable expert on such matters and who has given much practical study

to the natural history of the country round Bhopal, told me snakes are not

particularly abundant and scorpions are always very local in their habitat.

Speaking generally as regards the natural history of these regions there is pro-

bably httle to be done, in bird identification, but much in other respects such as

nidification, migration, local prevalence, etc. On the other hand, entomology

certainly, and probably the study of snakes and other reptiles, would repay

observers. Something, but not very much, has been done here by the Society’s

Mammal Survey of India.

Flora. — The jungles round Bhopal consist mainly of deciduous trees contain-

ing a large number of flowering trees and shrubs. Unluckily February was too

early for the “ flame of the forest,” the “ kakra ” {Butea frondosa) whose fiery

glare fights up the country side in March. At this season only the brown green

buds were to be seen. The “ ganiar ” also ( Cochlospernum gossypium) was not

yet bearing its brilliant yellow flowers. The “ teak” (Tectona grandis), here but a

stunted variety, stood out conspicuously with its huge leaves. These latter some-

times obstruct the sportsman’s view, when shooting, and often rouse his ire by their

incessant crackling. The white-stemmed and delicately leaved “dhaora’’ {Anogeis^

.SM5 latifolia), often used to bear machans on its strong boughs ; the “ mahua ”

(Bassia latifolia),- whence the country liquor now taboo under prohibition in

Bhopal comes, was just commencing to bear flowers ; along the banks of

streams the “ kabua ” (Terminalia arjuna) which produces a good tannin, was

conspicuous for its winged fruit. Other trees were the Nim (Azadirachta indica) ;

Indian Ebony (Diospyros tomentosa) with its dark black stem ; clinging to cliffs

in the most precipitous places stood out the “ ghost tree” {Stfivculia urens)

lifting its weird pinky white arms to the sky ; the aerial rooted banian tree

{Ficus indica) (so called from a well known specimen at Gombroon under

which “ Bamas ” sat awaiting orders from the factory) ; the Pipal (Ficus

religiosa) whose leaves the gods delight to inhabit thus making it sacred

to Hindus ; the tall spiky-stemmed Silk-cotton tree, the “ Semel ” (Bombax

malaharicum) just commencing to glow with scarlet blossoms ; the leafless “salai”

(Boswellia serrata) with its peeling bark and gum-oozing trunk ; the “ Amaltas

or “ Indian Ijaburnum ” ( Cassia fistula) at this season without its lovely

cascades of yellow flowers ; the shady Tamarind ( T. indica) ; the Mango, then

covered with its scented flowers ; Acacias of many kinds amongst which the

brilliant green of the Babul (Acacia arabica) outshines all ; the Caronda (Carissa

carandas) with its small sweet-smelling blossom. Among smaller trees and

shrubs, the Parhmsonia, with its yellow sho'wy flowers, the curious “ Madar,”

the Calotropis with its artificial looking white and purple blossom and poisonous

milky juice used at times to remove undesired female offspring, and the palm

tree familiar wherever there is water. All these and many others less con-

spicuous were met nith a hundred times in traversing the forests from shoot to

shoot. Colonel Luard. whose knowledge on botany is considerable, was most

assiduous in pointing the different trees and shrubs out to us.

BABODA.

The only sport which the limited time of H. II. H.’s visit to Baroda

permitted was a cheetah hunt. This was arranged at His Highness’ preserve at

Sunderpura on the morning of the second day. Their Highnesses and staff, and

the Resident moved out with the carts and quickly came up to a large herd of

buck. One cart was sent on with a cheetah on it and was about to be loosed

at a buck, Avhen a crowd of men in white suits with note books, sketch books,

cameras and hand cinemas, lept up from under every bush and charged the

herd. It stampeded and frightened every buck for miles. For over two hours

attempts to find more buck were made and at last a few were found. His

\W2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXVllI.

Royal Highness went off after these with a cheetah and after a long and

careful approach, the cart got close enough to allow the cheeta to be loosed

and he lulled very quickly.

SHOOTING AT BIKANER DURING H. R. H. THE PRINCE

OF WALES’ VISIT.

In the previous number of the Journal the writer included the bag of

Imperial Sand Grouse and Small Game obtained at Bikaner.

The following notes on the habits of [Imperial Sand Grouse in Bikaner,

which Were not ready on the previous occasion and are now published, are

of interest in connection with the illustrations and the detailed statement

of the bag.

The shooting season is, usually, from 1st November to 1st February and a

shoot takes place early in the mornings from about 7-30 to about 10-30 during

which hours the birds come to drink. Butts are placed in suitable lines and

places, some 50 yards from each other, and the success of a shoot mostly

depends on the manner in which the butts are placed. For instance, the

placing of one butt in the wrong place might absohitoly ruin the shooting

of say 15 other guns, as the birds are very cunning and as a rule do not

come over the butts a second time after being fired at. When a pack of

grouse is approaching a butt the gmr has to keep well down under

cover of the butt. If the shooter is spotted by the birds they, more often

than not, swerve away out of range. After the first shot is fired at a pack

they go at a tremendous place jinking and swerving over and even between

butts, rendering the shooting most difficult and exciting. In a good year

something like 50,000 birds come to drink at one place. They travel from

20 to 30 miles in the early morning for their drink and will always go to

their favourite place, passing over other tanks where they could easily get

a drink. They come in thousands and very hot shooting indeed is afforded

for about an hour when guns — particularly those who are not used to

such shooting — ^get bewildered, as the birds come from every direction

and, unless accustomed to it, the guns find it very hard to pick out their

birds, and the shooting must be good as they carry a great quantity of

shot. Three guns — -all being used as quickly as the two loaders can reload

and hand them to the shooter — are required to cope with these birds and

to be able to make a really good bag.

Gujner is not the only place where excellent shooting can be had.

H. H. the Maharaja once shot 475 Imperial Sand-Grouse to his own

gun in one morning's shoot at Pilap — a pretty spot some 11 miles from

Gujner.

All previous records were broken lately on a recent visit to Bikaner of,

His Excellency I.ord Rawlinson. The total bag for the 2 mornings

shoot was : —

Imperial Sand-Grouse . . . . . . . . . . 5,963

Other Sand-Grouse . . . . . . . . . . 43

Duck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

The statement of bag here given of the Royal Shoot includes all

birds picked up and therefore slightly exceeds the totals given in

Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, pages 692 and 693.

JoURN. Bombay Nat. Hist. SoC.

BAG OF DEMOISELLE CRANE— KODAMDESAB,

BIKANER, DECEMBER 1921.

BAG OF IMPERIAL SAND GROUSE— GU.INER

BIKANER, DECEMBER 1921.

JouRN,. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

h

y

t

i

IMPERIAL SAND GROUSE DRINKING— GUJNER, BIKANER, DECEMBER 1921.

H. It. H. THE PRINCE OF WALES’ SHOOTING IN INDIA.

1103

STATEMENT OF BAG OF THE ROYAL SHOOT IN BIKANER.

Uecember Sni to December 1th, 1921.

Name.

Place.

Black buck

Chinkara.

Gtjjner

HIS ROYAL HIGH-

NESS

Lieut.-Colonel O’Kinealy

Surgeon Commander

Newport

Mr. Petrie

Mr. de Montmorency .

Sir Godfrey Thomas

Capt. the Hon. Pier

Legh

Capt. the Hon. Bruce

Ogilvy

Lieut.-Colonel Harvey .

The Earl of Cromer

Sir Lionel Halsey

The Maharaj Kumar .

Captain Dudley North.

Captain Metcalfe

Lord Louis Mountbatten

Picked up

HIS ROYAL HIGH

^ NESS

Sir Lionel Halsey

Lieut.-Colonel Harvey

The Earl of Cromer

Mr. de Montmorency

His Highness

Lord Louis Mountbatten

Colonel Worgan

Surgeon Commande

Newport

Mr. Petrie

Lieut.-Colonel O’Kinealy

Captain Poynder

Captain Metcalfe

Captain the Hon. Piers

Legh . .

Captain Dudley North

The Maharaj Kumar

Mr. Metcalfe

Captain the Hon. Bruc

Ogilvy

Sir Godfrey Thomas

Maharaj Sri Bijey

Singh ji .. . . Golri

Picked up

Kodamdesar

Chandasagar

SUGANSAGAR

3rd December (morning).

3rd December (afternoon).

35

33

28

8

3

23

25

17

7

6

4

3

8

231

2

3

1

33

35

33

28

8

3

23

7

5

4

1

17

7

6

4

3

8

231

36

/

1104 JOUENAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Name.

Place.

1

2

3

4

His Highness the Maha-

rajah Jam Saheb of

Nawanagar

His Highness the Nawab

Sahib of Palanpur

Sir Philip Grey-Egerton.

Sir Harry Watson

Picked up . .

Duebaki

>9

99

1

2

3

Captain Walker

Mr. Holland

Mr. Ashdown

. . Kodamdesae

• • 99

1

2

3

4

HIS ROYAL HIGH

NESS

His Highness

Sir Lionel Halsey

The Earl of Cromer

Picked up

Gejnee

99

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

The Maharaj Kumar . . Sugansagae

His Highness the Maha-

rajah Jam Sahib of

Nawanagar . . . . „

His Highness the Nawab

Sahib of Palanpur . . ,,

Colonel Worgan . . ,,

Mr. de Montmorency . . „

Sir Philip Grej’-Egerton. ,,

Captain Metcalfe . . „

Captain the Hon. Piers

Legh „

Captain Dudley North. . ,,

Sir Godfrey Thomas . . „

Captain Walker . . ,,

Mr. Petrie . . ,,

Captain the Hon. Bruce

Ogilvy . . . . „

Sir Harrj’ Watson . . ,,

Mr. Ashdown . . ,,

Lieut. -Colonel Harvey . . ,,

Commander Fry . . „

Captain Boileau . . „

Mr. Holland . . ,,

Captain Poynder . . ,,

Black buck.

Chinkaia.

3rd December {afternoon) —

contd.

olh December {morning).

65

138

87

45

322

55

51

46

42

36

33

32

30

28

25

24

23

22

21

20

19

H. R H. THE PRINCE OF W ALE N SHOOTING IN INDIA

1105

1106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

HIS ROYAL HIGH

NESS

His Highness

Sir Lionel Halsey

His Highness the Xawab

Sahib of Palanpur

Mr. de Montmorency .

Lieut. -Colonel Harvey

Capt. the Hon. Bruce

( Igih'y

Commander Fry

Major Jackson

The Earl of Cromer

Mr. Metcalfe

Surgeon Commande

Newport

Mr. Petrie

Maharaj Sri Bijey

Singh ji

Sir Godfrey Thomas

Captain Dudley North .

Captain Poynder

Kumar Sri Bhawani

Singhji

Mr. Percival Landon

Captain Boileau

Colonel O’Kinealy

Lord Louis Mountbatten

Picked Up

The Maharaj Kumar

His Highness the Maha

rajah Jam Sahib of

Nawanagar

Colonel Worgan

Capt. the Hon. Piers

.Legh

Sir Philip Gret'-Egerton

Picked up

HIS ROYAL HIGH.

NESS

Lord Louis Mountbatten.

SUGANSAGAK

GU.JXER

Qth December (morning)

I

&th December (afternoon).

1

54

69

64

5

508

120

90

50

49

30

300

20

34

3f

1107

Dr. TICEHURST’S APPEAL.

Our members may be interested to learn that Dr. Ticehurst has just written

to me wth reference to his appeal for spirit specimens of chicks of Indian or

other birds which recently appeared in the Journal. He informs me that he

has now examined the chicks of about 70 species of Indian birds and that this

material, although of course insufficient for any definite results of A-alue, has

sho\ra that the enquiry, if continued, is likely to be most interesting and to throw

a good deal of light on classification problems. It appears however that very

few members have responded to the appeal, the majority of the specimens

being due to the efforts of two members only. I think possibly many people

are deterred from helping from the idea that it is a matter for the expert alone,

and also by the somewhat formidable thought of “spirit specimens’’. May

I disabuse them of these ideas.

Anyone can help with even a very slight knowledge of Indian birds. Every

observer or sportsman automatically comes across a nest or two during the year,

or meets with the downy chick of some game bird. At present almost every species

is still a desideratum, so there need be no fear that any chick found is too com-

mon to be wanted. So if only our members would make up their minds to save a

specimen of any young chick they come across, it would help on the survey

immensely and immediately. The only thing required is that the chick must

be named, though some sfight latitude can be allowed in this respect. At

the present state of the enquiry a Bee-eater chick for instance Avould be of

A-alue even if the sender could not accurately determine the actual species.

There is no need to be frightened of the idea of a “sjfirit specimen”; all that is

requhed is to drop the chick into a small bottle of any common spirit, AvhateA er

is hand}^ : jjersonaOy I find spirits of wine the best but others may har-e

something else more handy. If more than one chick is obtained, to prevent

subsequent confusion, a little card can be tied to one leg : on the card the name

of the bird should be VTitten in pencil ; ink of course would wash out.

If any member like to send his sjAecimens to me I can forward them to Dr

Ticehurst in England. For posting, simply wraii each chick in a small bit Oj.

cloth after it has soaked for about a week in the spirit, and damp the cloth

with spirit. Then pack in the ordinary way in a tin or wooden box. If several

specimens are obtained it is often easier to send them along in the original

spirit bottle, though wrapped separately in cloth to avoid jolting ; all the spirit,'

except as much as the cloth absorbs, can be poured out before packing : this

saves postage and avoids leakage.

May I remind our Oological members that the chick exhibits down before

hatching, that is to say a hard set egg, Avhich cannot be saved for the egg collec -

tion, will be of value to Dr. Ticehurst. Simply make a hole in the shell to admit

spirit and add the egg to the spirit bottle. The most convenient way of labelhng,

if several eggs are likely to be confused, is to wrap a piece of cloth round the

egg inserting in it a slip with the name pencilled on it.

To end up : — The eggs of most Indian birds are well known by now, but the

chicks of nearly all are unknown. On the present state of our knowledge more

is to be learnt from one chick than a dozen clutches of eggs.

HUGH WHISTLER, F.Z.S.,

Dhakmsala, Punjab,

24</t June 1922.

Indian Police.

1108

ZOOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE PERSIAN

GULF AND IRAQ.

BY

Captain R. E. Chessman, f.e.g.s., c.m.z.s.,

.\fter what has been, I fear, a long silence, yon will be interested to hear a short

account of the itinerary and work of the Society’s Collector, Mr. La Personne,

kindly placed at the disposal of Sir Percy Cox and employed by him on Zoologi-

cal investigations in the Persian Gulf. His Excellency’s first intention was to

obtain a man to preserve specimens of Palmarctic birds that during the spring

migration might be expected to be killed at the hghthouse on Quoin Island, a

small rock which geographically seemed well placed to catch a migration stream

passing through Arabia and crossing the Persian Gulf to Persia. It was finally

decided however that the Tanb Island Lighthouse would be more suitable as,

being on an island some 6 miles in circumference, the land could be worked for rest-

ing birds in addition to those attracted to the light. The choice was fortunate

for that reason. Not a single bird was obtained at the hghthouse itself and it

may confidently be stated that, probably owing to the clear atmosphere, hght-

houscs in these regions may be neglected as far as migration is concerned. Every

assistance to the project was given by the Director of the Royal Indian ]\Iarine,

Bombay, and Captain Poyntz, D.S.C., Commander of the R.I.M.S. “Nearchus”

and his officers. La Personne arrived at Basrah in February 1921 to join the

“ Nearchus ” where by chance I was able to meet him and travel with him on

the vessel’s journey of inspection of the Gulf Lighthouses and finally leave him

Avith the lighthouse staff on Tanb Island to be called for on the ship’s next visit

a month later. While waiting at Basrah for the departure of the “ Nearchus ”

we stayed at Zobeir, the desert town about 12 miles away. It was possible to

introduce La Personne to several of the Palsearctic groups of migrants in the

field with which of course he was then unacquainted, such as Chats, Warblers,

Shrikes and Wagtails. The “ Nearchus ” sailed from Basrah on March 8th,

1921, and we reached Tanb Island on March 14th. The birds obtained were

mostly migrants which breed on the Persian plateau and northwards, and winter

in Africa, such as Bimtings, Cuckoo, (C. canorus) Redstarts and IVheatears and

three breeding birds, PhoRton, Latiius and Charadrius.

Two species of hedgehog which have proved new to science and a quantity

of reptiles and Crustacea w'ere also brought back. On La Personne’s return from

Tanb Island Sir Percy Cox decided to take the opportunity of attempting to

clear up the status of the breeding Terns, Pelicans, Flamingoes and Crab Plovers

which are knowm to frequent the islands at the head of the Gulf in the neighbour-

hood of the Khor Abdullah and Klior Musa. A considerable amount of material

has been from time to time brought from this locahty, but in some instances

deductions had been based on baskets of unidentified eggs brought by Arab

fishermen.

La Personne’s instructions were to bring back nothing but clutches of eggs

accompanied by the skin of the parent bird shot on the nest.

His headquarters were estabhshed at Fao on jNIay 10th, 1921, with Mr. Hatton

in charge of the Telegraph Department, and the various islands were \-isited by

trips made in an Ai’ab dhow. The results of these journeys were eminently

satisfactory and authentic breeding records were secured of the Slender-billed

Gull (Larus gcfastes). Lesser Crested Sea Tern (S'terna media), Caspian Tern {S.

ca-spia). White cheeked Tern (S. albigena henghalensis), Lesser Sooty Tern

( Sterna ancethetus ), Gull Billed Tern (Sterna anglica). Crab Plover ( Dramas

ardeola) and Reef Heron (Demiegretta asha) among others.

According to vague local information obtained in 1921 the Pelican and

Flamingo had finished breeding, and not -without some difficulty La Persomie

ZOOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN PERSIAN GULF AND IRAQ. 1109

arrived at the conclusion that the month of March was a generally agreed date

to tind egga. This date proved in the following year to be correct. At the time,

a visit to the islands in 1922 was not contemplated and the failure to obtain any

data regarding these two birds was much regretted.

The voyages to the islands had been made in very hot damp weather but be-

yond a touch of the sun which laid him up from Jime 16th to the 26th, and one

or two storms which are vmpleasant in these small saihng boats. La Personne left

Fao on July 3rd for Qurnah none the worse for his experiences. The objective

now was the vast marshes which omithologically are httle known at the breeding

season. We had that year received a large basket of mixed eggs from one of

the Shaikhs, and La Personne’s instructions were as before to visit the breeding

colonies and bring back only clutches of which he had shot the parent bird.

Headquarters in this area were rrrade at Qurnah on July 7th and then voyages of

2 or 3 days’ duration were made into the heart of the rrrarshes with the marsh

Aiubs in their canoes — paddhng or pohng mile after mile along lanes in a forest

of reeds 18 feet high. The official recorded temperature at this time ran up

to 128° in the shade and made the work no sinecure especially as the atmosphere

is heavily laden with moistm'e and mosquitoes. The season was drawing to

a close. In aU the colonies located most of the eggs had hatched and the few that

remained were in an advanced stage of incirbation.

Chrtehes with parent birds were however secured of The Night lleron

{Nycticorax nycticorax rtycticm'ax), Squacco Heron ( Ardeola ralloides), White

Ibis ( Threskiornis cethiopicus ), African Darter ( Anhinga rufus ), Pigmy

Cormorant { Phalacrocorax pygmaeus), all five being the first authentic breeding

records for Iraq. La Persoime had the satisfaction of remaining fit

during these exiieditions while the marsh Arabs were in some cases laid out

by heat stroke ! On receiving instmctions to proceed to Baghdad he

left Qurnah on August 7th. For the rest of the year he remained in Baghdad.

After wTitmg up notes and arranging liis specimens be was employed in collect-

ing in the neighbourhood, making series of the birds that have hitherto been

scarcely represented in collections.

From February 1st to the 11th, 1922, he was sent to Daur between Samarrah

and Teki'it on the Tigris to work the conglomerate cliffs 30 feet to 60 feet high

where in February and March Captain Aldworth had previously foimd nests

and eggs of the white-tailed Sea Eagle, Bonelli's Eagle and the Eagle Owl. Several

other chff- breeding birds were considered hkely to be found there. La

Personne however failed to locate any and returned without any specimens.

Sir Percy Cox, now determined to make one more attempt to clear up the

status of the Pehcan at Fao, fix the actual date and locahty of the breeding

operations and determine the species of the breeding birds. La Personne arrived

at Fao on Fe binary 18th and found quarters as before with Mr. Hatton of the

Telegraph Department. He then searched Warba and Bubiyan islands in the

KJior Abdullah and Dara and Boonah in the Khor Musa and all likely places in

their vicinity. He saw pelicans mo\dng about but found no sign of a breeding

colonj^ and formed the opinion that he was too early and wired to Baghdad

accordingly. We rephed that he should w'ait and try again in a month’s time.

About the middle of Apiil on the next rtsit to Bubiyan he discovered the

breeding ground of Pehcan wdth young in dorvn and near by a colony of Flamingo

with eggs. The pehcans kept well out of range and after an unsuccessful attempt

to shoot the parents he took some of the yoimg pelicans and eggs of the Flamingo

and sailed for Fao. As ill-luck would have it a heavy storm broke over them on

the way and the joUy-boat in which the young pelicans were travelling was

swamped during the night and sank with the specimens. As however spirit

specimens of young in down and adults of the Crab Plover were required for inves-

tigation into the generic affinities of this pecuhar wader. Sir Percy Cox, decided to

take this opportunity of procuring them and La Persomie was instructed to avail

1110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

the period of hatching and visit their colonies and bring specimens. These were

duly secured by June 10th, 1922, and he left on June 21st for Basrah ndth his

specimens which included eggs of the large crested Sea Tern ( Sterna hergii

velox), Spoon-bill (Platalea leucorodia) and Common Heron {Ardea cinerea cinerea)

and the white phase of the Reef Heron (Demiegretta asJta) in addition to other-

species wliich were also obtained last year and a quantity of skins of migrants.

Also a series of young in down of Gull-billed Tern {S. anglica). Lesser-crested Sea

Tem [S. media). Slender-billed GuU (Lams gelastes) and Crab Plover (Dramas

ardeola).

La Personne’s activities were next directed to Basrah to obtain, if not

too late in the season, sldns and eggs of the Babylon Reed Warbler, (Cala-

moherpe. griseldis= Acroceplialus hahylonicus) of Ticehurst. With the kind

assistance of I\Ir. A. G. Tomlinson a few eggs and skins of this rare

Warbler were obtained in the reed beds of the Shatt-al-Arab. A short ex-

cursion was also made to Zobeir and Jabal Sanam to endeavour to procure more

specimens of the Desert Lark (Ammomanes deserti ), Black-crowned Finch Lark

(Pyrrhulauda frontalis ) and sjiecimens and nests and eggs of the Bifasciated Lark

(Alaemon alaudipes pallida) ; series of skins from tliis area being desiderata.

La Personne found the Desert Lark in some numbers at Jabal Sanam but un-

fortunately mistook their identity and only brought back one specimen Adults

and fl>dng young of the Bifasciated I.,ark were brought home but the Finch Larks

were not .seen. On July 20th, 1922, La Personne arrived in Baghdad and though

the breeding season was nearly over it was considered there might be just time

to clear up a few' more points in the marshes around Musaiyib on the Euphrates

whence well intentioned Shaikhs had sent in baskets of nameless eggs of marsh

birds such as Terns, Grebes and many w'aders.

Of first importance w'as to determine the status of the White-winged Black

Tern (Hydrochelidon leucoptera). This bird had been constantly seen coming

northwards in the spring but strange to say no reliable record existed as to its

breeding in Iraq. The Gull-biUed Tern, Slender-billed Gull and three kinds of

gi’ebe were all undoubtedly represented in the egg basket but required clutches

and parents to confinn their position as breeders. There was also the possibi-

lity that young in down of the White-tailed Plover ( Chettusia leucura) and othef

waders would be encountered.

La Persomie left for the Euphrates on July 25th and returned August 6th with

2 clutches of eggs of the White-muged Black Tern w'ith parents, which were

probably the last of the year ; also an adult Wliiskered Tern. The other birds

mentioned w'ere not forthcoming. For the last few weeks he has been occupied

in WTiting up liis notes and aiTauging specimens of this year’s collections.

The birds are being sent in batches to Di’. C. B. Ticehurst who in spite of

fully occupied days has kindly consented to look them through so we may have on

doubt as to their correct identification.

“ Affairs of State ” have made insistent calls on time during the last two

vears and it has only been possible so far to collect, label and list these and other

specimens and keep the notes up to date and in an intelhgible form.

It is our hope eventually to marshal the facts and summarise the results in

the form of two or more papers to be offered for pubheation in the journal of

the B. N. H. S. if so desired.

[The Editors will be very pleased to publish further papers from Capt.

Cheosman giving the results of his and Mr. La Personno’s investigations.

They take this opportunity of expressing the pleasure the Committee feel

over the good work done by their young collector.]

1111

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE BOMBAY

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1921-22.

The Committee of the Bombay Natural History Society have the honour

to submit herewith their report on the operations and the progress of the Society

covering a period from 1st August 1920 to 31st October 1922,

Patron and Vice-Patrons.

His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, K.G., is the Patron of the Society

and it is hoped that several of the Ruling Princes in India who are members

of the Society will become Vice-Patrons.

Administration.

The administration of the institution is directed by a Committee consisting

of a President, three Vice-Presidents, an Honorary Secretary, Honorary Treasurer

and 20 members. The Museum and Library are in the charge of a Curator.

The Editorship of the Journal is in the hands of the Honorary Secretaiy who is

assisted by joint editors.

The following is the personnel of the management for the current year : —

President.

His Excellency Sir George Lloyd, G.C.I.E., D.S.O.

Vice-Presidents.

Mr. J. D. Inverarity, B.A., LL.B.

The Hon’ble Sir Norman Macleod, Kt., Chief Justice of Bombay.

H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.C.S.L, G.C.I.E,

Honorary Secretary.

Mr. R. A. Spence, M.L.A., F.Z.S.

Honorary Treasurer.

Mr. H. F. Lodge, M.C.

Honorary Editors.

Mr. R. A. Spence, F.Z.S., Mr. B. C. Ellison, C.M.Z.S., and Mr. S. H. Prater

C.M.Z.S.

Curator — Mr. B. C. Ellison ; Assistant Curator — Mr. S. H. Prater ; Head

Clerk — Mr. A. F. Fernandes.

Managing Committee.

Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, F.E.S.

Mr. T. R. Bell, C.I.E., I.F.S. (Retd.)

Major R. Benson, D.S.O.

Rev. E. Blatter, S.J.

Mr. B. C. Ellison, C.M.Z.S.

Lt.- Col. W. H. Evans, R.E.

Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.S.

Mr. A. E. Hefford.

Mr. J. E. B. Hotson, I.C.S.

Prof. V. N. Hate, M.A.

Mr. C. M.-Inglis, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

Mr. F. Ludlow, I.E.S., M.B.O.U.

Lt.- Col. W. Glen Liston, C.I.E., I.M.S.

Mr. P. J. Mead, C.I.E,, I.C.S.

Mr. H. Macnaghten, M.A., M.L.C.

37

1112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vcl. XXVIll

Mr. J. G. Ridland.

Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson.

Major C. H. Stocklej% D.S.O.

Dr. D. A. Turkhud.

Mr. H. Whistler, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

and the President, Vice Presidents, Treasurer and Honorary Secretary

ex-officio.

Membership and Subscription.

At the annual General Meeting held in March 1921 it was decided that owing

to the heavy increase in printing charges and the increased cost of administration

the entrance fee should be raised from Rs. 10 to Rs. 20, the annual subscription

from Rs. 15 to 25 and the Life Membership from Rs. 200 to Rs. 350. Opportu-

nity was given to old members to comixjund at the old rate up to September

1921 and the result was a large increase in the number of Life Members, the

mmiber now on the rolls being 160. The increase in annual subscription

resulted in a small diminution in membership but the total number now on the

rolls is 1,491.

Prince of Wales' Museum.

The woi'k of arranging the Society’s show collections in the Natural History

section of the Prince of Wales’ Museum has made steady progress and the assist-

ant curator, IMr. S. H. Prater, has gone on deputation to England for training in

taxidermy and also to study at first hand the working of the principal Natural

History Museums in the British Isles.

Towards the cost of working the Natural History section of the Prince of

Wales’ Museum, the Bombay Government has made an initial grant of Rs. 40,000

but it is estimated that the minimum cost of carrying out the scheme prepared

by the curators will be over a lakh of Rupees and imless the scheme is to be

abandoned a great effort must be made to obtain strong financial support from

those who wish to see Bombay provided with a Natural History Museum worthy

of the city.

Society's Apollo Street Collection.

During the period under review the Society received considerable additions to

its mammal collections through the Mammal Survey, the w'ork of wdiich it was

enabled to continue as a result of the Government of India granting in 1921

Rs. 22,500 per annum for two yeai-s for the work of the survey. The specimens

sent in are being worked out by the authorities at the British Museum and it is

hoped in due couree to publish the scientific results in the Society’s journal.

Specimens have been received throughout the year from members in all parts

of India and Burma and have been identified either by the scientific staff

of the Society or by the authorities at the British and Indian IMuseums.

A keen interest in the work of the Society is maintained by its members in

all parts of India and Burma and despite the increase in subscription the active

membership in the period under review compares favourably with the past.

Publications.

The Society is at present publishing amongst others the following series of

articles in its Journal

1. Game Biixls of India, Burma and Ceylon, by E. C. Stuart Baker.

2. Birds of the Indian Empire, by E. C. Stuart Baker.

3. Scientific Results from the Mammal Survey.

4. The Game Animals of Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill Districts, by

Col. A. E. Ward.

REPORT OP THE COMMITTEE FOR 1921-22.

1113

5. Indian Dragonflies, by Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.S.

0. Identiflcation of Indian Butterflies, by Col. Evans, R. E. (A Guide to

beginners in Butterfly collecting).

7. Dragonfly collecting in India, by Major F. C. Fraser, I.M.S. (A Guide to

beginners in Dragonfly collecting).

8. Indian Parasitic Flies, by H. Russell.

and has completed the series of papers on the Fauna of Mesopotamia and

N. W. Pei-sia.

The Society has published two volumes of the Game Birds of India, Burma

and Ceylon.

H. R. H. The Prince of Wales' visit to India.

The Society’s Curator, Mr. B. C. Elhson, was deputed to attend several of the

shooting camps arranged in honour of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales,

and imder his direction the trophies obtained by H. R. H. and staff were

preserved and sent to England. Mr. Ellison also supervised the transit to Bom-

bay of the live animals presented to His Royal Highness by the Government of

Nepal.

(Sd.) R. A. SPENCE,

Honorary Secretary,

APPEAL FROM THE PROVINCIAL MUSEIBI, LUCKNOW.

With a view to forming a collection of photographs illustrating Wild Life

in its natural surroundings for exhibition in the Natm-al History Department

of the Provincial Museum, Lucknow, and preparing lantern shdes for circula-

tion in schools and colleges, the Curator of the Provincial Museum, Lucknow,

will be extremely obhged if any who are interested in the subject and have got

any such photographs, for example pictru'es taken from a machan, would be

generous enough to lend him photographs or negatives for reproduction.

1114

REVIEW.

Indian Game Birds.

The Editors offer no apology for borrowing from the “ Times Literary Supple-

ment ” the subjoined review on Mr. Stuart Baker’s Game-Birds of India, Burma

and Ceylon. There have been several very good reviews of these books in the

home journals and all have been favourable, but the one we reproduce is, we

think, the best and an excellent example of what a review should be.

May we take this opportunity of asking members, who have been so fortunate as

already to possess copies, to show those copies to their friends and point out the

desirability of their too possessing them ! Copies are obtainable from Messrs.

Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta; Thacker & Co. and Taraporewalla & Co., Bombay;

Higginbotham & Co., Madras, and from the Honorary Secretary of the Society.

The price in India is : — Vol. I, Rs. 63. Vol. II, Rs. 55. (Postage and packing

Rs. 2 extra on each volume).

The Game-Birds of India, Burma, and Ceylon. By E.C. Stuart Baker. Vol-

umes I. and II. (The Bombay Natural History Society, London : Bale, Sons

and Danielsson. Vol. L, £4 4s.; Vol. II., £3 13s. 6d.)

The Bombay Natural History Society has earned and is maintaining a high

reputation. Its museum work is excellent ; and it was unfortunate that circum-

stances made it impossible for the Prince of Wales to visit the admirable exhibi-

tion which it had especially arranged for his inspection. The survey of the

mammals of India, which the Society has in hand, is an imdertaking of the first

importance. The Society’s Journal is among the best of the publications of its

class ; and one of the outstanding features of the Journal for some time past has

been the series of articles by Mr. Stuart Baker which, amended and brought up

to date, form the material of these two volumes, being the first half of what is

to be a five-volume work.

India has always been fortunate in its winters on natural history. Among

the multitude of keen sportsmen who have gone out in the Government Services,

whether Civil or Military, there have been a large proportion of good amateur

naturalists ; and when the first-class men arose, like Jerdon and Hume, they

had an immense amount of accumulated knowledge ready to their hand. Both

Jerdon’s work and the volumes of Hume and Marshall remain to-day astonish-

ingly good. No one, not Mr. Stuart Baker or any other, can ever work in the

same field without drawing largely on these two great reservoirs ; but the mere

passage of time, with the progress of science and the changes in nomenclature

and systematic method, in the couise of nearly half a century makes any book

out of date. There is, therefore, abimdant room for this work on the game-

birds, as there is also room for other monographs in special fields, which will

doubtless follow.

The first of the present volumes is only in a very limited sense new, being, in

effect, a new edition, improved, added to and brought up to date, of the same

author’s “ Indian Ducks and their Allies,” which appeared fourteen years ago.

The changes in matter consist chiefly in the incorporation of new records and

the adoption' — irritating but necessary— of the accepted modern nomenclature.

One new species, or sub-species, of duck is, however, admitted ; for Mr. Baker

accepts now as a legitimate sub-species of the common SpotbiU the birds of the

Burmese type {Haringtoni) which, in his volume of 1908, he had declared to

have “ nothing to distinguish them from ” the yoimg of the established species.

It is, or to the lay mind wiU seem, a small matter. No one is likely to shoot

or see this particular sub-species alive in its wild state without going to Burma,

the Shan States, or Cochin, the area to which it is practically confined. And

only a naturalist, if he did shoot it, would recognise it as in any way differing

from the common form which is found aU over India, to the West, or from the

Eastern form (another sub-species) which spreads over Trans-Baikalia, Eastern

REVIEW.

1115

Siberia and Mongolia to Japan and Northern China. A small matter, then ; but

anyone who can teU just how and why these three forms arose, so nearly alike,

will have in his hands the whole secret of the origin and distribution of species.

Of illustrations, this volume, as compared with the earher publication, contains

plates of the heads of two additional kinds of swan, and certain less formal photo-

graphs of the bieeding-groimd of the bar-headed goose in Tibet. And here,

again, is a problem. Why does the bar-headed goose, which comes down at

other seasons to the more comfortable latitudes of a large part of India, choose

to nest and rear its yoimg at a height of nearly 15,000 feet above the sea, and

probably much higher ? The natural suggestion is that it retires into the remote

sohtudes for the safety of isolation. Isolation from what ? For when the habits

of geese wei’e fonned they can hardly have had to guard against the enmity

of man. The commonly accepted assumption is, moreover, that the breeding-

ground of a species is its original habitat. Did the bar-headed geese, then,

originate on the Himalayan heights in some far-distant past, when climatic

conditions were other than they are to-day ; and was it the increasing cold which,

making their homeland foodless in winter, drove them down to the lower levels

in search of sustenance, only to return each spring to their native haunts when

the iron grip of winter was removed ? This, or something like it, is probably

the cause which lies at the root of all migration. But it helps us but a httle

way towards an imdeistanding of the marvel of migration as a whole.

It is in the second volume, however, that English readers will find the greater

fascination ; for here — besides the snipes and woodcock— are the birds more

characteristic of the gorgeous East, all delightfully pictirred by Mr. Gronvold :

the bustards, of which, including the houbara and the floricans, there are six

species, and eight kinds of the lovely dove-’ike sand grouse. The Imperial Sand

Grouse was one of the birds with which the Prince of Wales had good sport on

his recent Indian tour. It is a tricky and difficult bird to shoot, coming in in

flocks (it is usually shot from butts as it comes to water in the early morning),

travelling at a disconcertingly high speed, with a knack of ducking— dropping,

almost perpendicularly, like a stone — as soon as it catches sight of the gunner.

As to the abundance of the birds at the right places, Mr. Stuart Baker quotes

Hume’s statement that in the course of a fifteen-mile drive he saw over one

himdred packs of grouse, the packs varying in size from four or five birds to

nearly a thousand. A more recent and exact record, however, is now furnished

by the records of the Prince and his party at Gujner Lake, as compiled by the

Maharaja of Bikaner. On the preceding morning (December 4, 1921) the Maha-

raja’s markers had reported that about 17,000 birds had come in to drink. On

the two following days the party of 40 gims (of whom, however, a dozen at out-

lying butts got but thirty birds among them) killed 1,946 birds, the largest

individual bags being made by the Maharaja with 207 birds and H.R.H. with

119, the latter being a good record for any man shooting at so evasive a bird for

the first time.

Apart from their sporting virtues, all the sand grouse are beautiful creatures.

The Painted Sand Grouse, the Large Pintailed Sand Grouse, and the Tibetan Sand

Grouse in particular, are even more beautiful than the Imperial race itself ; and

in his paintings of them Sir. Gronvold has evidently dehghted in his subjects.

As often in human efforts to describe the voices of birds, there is a curious dis-

crepancy in the rendering by different observers of the Sand Grouse’s note. The

Imperial’s note is, we are told, described by some writers as “ a clucking soxmd

difficult to write down in words,” while others call it a “ soft double chuckle.”

The Special Correspondent of The Times with the Prince of Wales, however,

speaks of the air, as the birds came in, being full of “ the sweet purring whistle ”

of their calls.

In view of the ineffectual efforts that have been made to re-establish the Great

Bustard as a resident of the British Isles, we caimot help being a little envious

1116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

of any country which can claim the noble bird as its own. India, however, is

not much better off than we are in this matter ; for only six specimens are known

to have been obtained in all India, and these have been young birds. This

shows, as Mr. Stuart Baker notes, what other evidence has indicated, that yoimg

birds, whether from inexperience or the heady adventurousness of youth, have

a tendency to range farther on migration than their more prudent elders. But

other members of the Bustai-d family are numerous. They have need to be ;

for some are easy to shoot, and the wiles by which they are circumvented by

native sportsmen are many. One method is to approach them on foot behind

cover of a camel, walking the camel round the birds in diminishing circles imtil

within range. Another trick is to go after them at night with a lantern and a

cowbell, the birds being accustomed to the sound of the cowbell and knowing it

to mean no harm. A more laborious plan is to stud the ground thick with

nooses and then walk the birds carefully into the area where the snares are set.

Bustaixis are a favourite quarry for hawking, and have been so hunted from time

immemorial. But meanest of all the devices is that of the Bhils, who light a cir-

cular fire round the bird’s nest, which the hen bird promptly tries to extinguish

by beating it with her wings, so singeing them that she cannot fly and is then

easily run down on foot. In Jerdon’s day the Great Indian Bustard was so

plentiful that one man claimed to have shot over one thousand with his rifle.

INIore recently a “ so-called sportsman,” as Mr. Stuart Baker describes him,

in Assam shot sixty-four Bengal Floricans in a day, in the breeding season, by

walking backwards and forwards across the narrow area amid waters where the

birds were nesting. “ It would be excellent,” says Mr. Stuart Baker, “ if the

shooting of females could be altogether stopped for some years to come, as there

is no doubt that the Florican has been seriously decreasing in

late years.”

The nineteen coloured plates in the Second Volume, as well as the majority

of those in the first, are all by Mr. Gronvold, the quality of whose work is always

admirable. If there is any falling away from his high standard here, it is in the

picture of the Cotton Teal, where the contempt of sportsmen for that pretty

but impalatable fowl has perhaps reacted to damp the enthusiasm of the artist.

The other drawings are by J. G. Keulemans and G. E. Lodge. The excellence

of the former’s work is well knowm ; and it is a high comphment to the few plates

by Mr. Lodge to say that they are not imworthy to stand beside the drawings

of the other two masters. As for Mr. Stuart Baker’s own work, it would be

difficult to say where to turn for a better model of what such a book should be.

The author is himself a sportsman and nature-lover as well as a naturalist. He

is excellent both in his literary style and in the judgment shown in the selection

of material, whether from his own experience, from earlier authorities, or from

other sources.

1117

SOME COMMENTS ON AND CORRECTIONS OP

PREVIOUS ARTICLES IN THE JOURNAL.

No. I.

I should like to make some remarks and point out some errors, mostly clerical,

which have appeared in the Society’s Journals and publications of late.

Starting with Mr. Stuart Baker’s most interesting series on the “ Game Birds of

India ” now being published in book form I should like to make the following

comments.

If I remember correctly, there was in a former volume of the Journal a most

interesting photograph of the nests of the Flamingo {Phoenicopterus antiqu

orum) ; it seems a pity that this was not made use of to illustrate the article on

this bird in Vol. I of this work. With regard to the plates, besides agreeing

with the reviewer in the Ibis of April 1922, p. 352, as to the bad reproduction of

some of these, especially that of the Ruddy Skeldrake, I should like to remark

on the beautiful manner in which Messrs. Vitty and Seaborne have reproduced

those in Vol. II and it is to be hoped that Mr. Stuart Baker and the Society will

see their way to have those of the remaining volumes printed by this firm.

Grbnvold’s plate of the Bar -headed Goose {A. indicus) is a great success and a

great improvement on Keuleman’s in the first edition. All Keuleman’s plates are

very stiff and inartistic, and when one compares them wth the beautiful illus-

trations by Thorbum and Lodge in Beebe’s “ Monograph of the Pheasants ” and

with most of Gron void’s in the Game Bird Series, one realizes how inartistic those

plates really are. I should like to remark on his (Keulemair’s) fondness of de-

picting his ducks standing on rocks in water ; out of the eight plates painted

by him for this series, six are standing on rocks ; one on a stump of a tree

in water and one on dry land. The plate of the Bronze Capped Teal (N. falcata)

is very bad. I have had considerable experience of these birds both in a dead

and a live state, besides a good number of skins passmg through my hands,

I have twice had live birds living in my aviary, one of the latter only died to-

day.

This duck is much deeper built in front than depicted by tlie artist and the

crest never bristles like a porcupine’s quills set for action, but is pendant, even

during excitement. The point of the long crest hangs down to the base of the

hind-neck Avhen the bird raises its head to its full extent and when in a position

of repose it lies along the upper back. The elongated sickle shaped tertials

do not hang over the side of the body as shown in the plate but come right over

each side of the tail completely hiding it when viewed from the side. The patch

on each side of the lower tail-coverts is deep buff not pure white as given by Keule

man and the black border in front of this is rather deeper in tint and more com-

plete ; the white patch in front of this border is more this shape

and it is also bordered by black in front. The colour of the feet in 7

specimens or live birds I have examined has been more of a gre y

hue than depicted.

The plate of the Red -breasted Merganser (Merganser serralor) has been by

mistake placed opposite the description of the Eastern Goosander (M. m.

orientalis) instead of opposite p. 328. The plates in Vol. II are excellent and

that of the Painted Snipe (R. capensis) is a great improvement on the former

one of the male of that bird.

Now turning to the plates of the yet mipublished portion in book form, it

seems to me to be rather a pity, when Gronvold did his plate of the Nicobar Mega-

pode (M. nicobariensis), he didn’t depict it in the vicinity of one of its curious

mounds as w-as done by the artist in Hume and Marshall’s illustration of this

bird.

1118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

The plate of the Monal {Lophophorus impejanus), which is by the way mis-

called L. refulgens on the plate, is rather unhappy. The birds are not very well

dra-vra and the one representhig the cock fails to show the line of shining met-

allic green, which extends from the lower side neck, backward from the mantte

and breast as mentioned by Beebe. This is a most noticeable feature in full

plumaged birds. It is to be hoped that a new plate of this species will be given

when Vol. Ill of this series is pubhshed in book form.

It is rather difficult to follow the exact area included by Sir. Stuart Baker

in this series. He evidently includes Tibet which can hardly be called India,

and what about the mclusion of such species as the Chinese Blood Pheasant

{Ithagenes sinensis) ? He gives no distribution of this species, but Beebe in

his monograph vTitmg of this bird says: — “The Northern Blood Partridge

inhabits the subalpme slopes of the mountains of central China, the eastern

Nanshan momitains m Kansu, and eastwards along the highlands of the Hoang -

ho River, tbrough central and southern Shensi in the Tsinghng Range, and on

into Eastern Honan. Southward we fhid it in north central Szechuan. Future

thorough exploration vdll reveal much more of the range of this partridge, but

at present we may roughly indicate its distribution by a triangle, with the points

respectively at 102'^ E. 38^ N. m the north ; 111‘^ E. SI'’ N. m the east, and

103“ E. 31“ N. in the south.”

The Chinese Eared Pheasant's (C. mantchuricum) distribution is given by

Mr. Stuart Baker as “ The Moimtains of Manchuria and North-Eastern China.”

This can hardly be called India.

I also note that IVIi-. Baker includes Cabot’s Tragopan {Tragopan caboti) in his

key but do not \mderstand why he does so, as he liimself says : — “ At present

five species are known, aU of which, with the exception of (the italics are mine)

the Eastern Chinese bird, Tragopan caboti, come within the areas included in

these articles”. He also, for some unknown reason, gives aU the sjmonyms

and the vernacular name of this species but does not continue with the descrip-

tion.

By a clerical error the Ceylon Spur-Fowl {Galloperdix bicalcarata) is called the

Ceylon Jungle-Fowl.

I do not know whether Mr. Stuart Baker intends to follow Beebe in his

classification of the Kahj Pheasants, when publishing Vol. Ill of tliis series,

but I may mention that the latter author relegates Gennaeus h. williamsi,

G.l. oatesi, G.l. sharpei, G. n. ripponi, and G. n. rufipes to wild hybrids. He also

includes Mrs. Hume's Pheasant (P. h. hurnice) and the Burmese Barred-back

Pheasant (P. h. burmanicus) in the genus Syrrrvaticus instead of Phasianus, on

accoimt of those birds wanting the disintegrated rump feathers of the true

Phasianus and on account of their long central tail feathers.

Now coming to the Partridges IVIr. Stuart Baker gives us in his key of

the Francohns, F. p. pondicerianus, F. p. interpositus, and F. p. mecranensis,

but up to date through some oversight none of the Grey Partridges have been

described. I brought this to the notice of the Editors of the Journal sometime

ago as soon as the articles on Arboricdla were started.

In the last number of the Journal (No. 3 of Vol. XXVIII) Mr. Baker gives

the trivial name of Perdix h. hodgsonice as the Tibetan Partridge but on

the plate it is called Mrs. Hodgson's Partridge.

Now coming to Mr. Stuart Baker’s “List of the Birds of India,” there are a

good number of clerical errors which I would like to draw to the attention of the

Editors so that when the list is published in book form they may be corrected.

I ■will take number by number.

In Vol. XXVIl, No. 2, the word Jungle has been omitted from the trivial

name of No. 8 and in No. 170 the ii has been omitted from the name earlii.

In No. 3 of the same volume, Mr. Baker -writes that Tesia and Oligura are

probably Wrons, but does not seem to have put them into the Troglodytidce

COMMEi^TS ON AND CORRECTIONS OF VARIOUS ARTICLES, 1119

and I have failed to find them mentioned anywhere, but perhaps I may have

overlooked them.

On page 462 he says Zosleropidce wiU be found near the Dicoeidce but places

it next the Alavdidce and before the Nectariniidce and makes no mention of the

family Dicceidte.

On page 465, footnote, he says “ The genus Irena should probably be placed

in the Tvrdidoe near Cochoa, but he places it some distance after that genus

and with two subfamilies in between.

No trivial name is given for No 539 Hippolais languida.

In No. 4 of the same volume, the serial numbers of both Pericrocutus p. pere-

jurius and P. p. vividus are given as 664 instead of 664 and 665. This will alter

all the serial numbers subsequent to these.

The trivial names of both Nos. 724 and 726 are given as Hume’s Myna and

the trivial names of both Nos. 816 and 818 are given as the Pied Chat; also

the trivial names of Nos. 960 and 961 are given as Chestnut-headed instead of

Chestnut-beUied Munias. The trivial names of both Nos. 1122 and 1123 are

given as Tarniy Pipit and no trivial name is given to No. 1 145 Alavda gulgula

ccelivox.

In Vol. XXVIII, No. 1, the family Dicceidoe should surely have been mentioned,

but aU the Simbirds and Flowerpeekers are put under the family N ectarinidce.

Tlie trivial name of No. 1236 is given as Ruby Throat instead of Ruby Cheek.

In Nos. 1290 to 1293 the trivial names are sj>eltPygny instead of Pigmy. In

the trivial name of No. 1297 there is a comma instead of a hyphen.

In No. 2 of this volume the F.B.I. number in brackets of 1482 Cacomantis m.

guervlus is given as 1118 instead of 1113.

In the trivial name of No. 1632 the name Eagle has been omitted after Buzzard.

The F.B.I. numbers in brackets of Nos. 1646 and 1647 should of course be

1234 and 1235 and not 1334 and 1335.

In No. 1654 the t has been omitted from the word Desert.

I think before pubhshing this list in book form it would be as well to ask Mr.

Stuart Baker to revise it.

In Major Fraser's paper on Indian Dragonflies on page 620, fine 19, he gives

the name “ Mangphu ” ; the usual way of speUing this is “ Mangpu.”

In Mr. EUison’s article on the Nepal shoot on page 691, line 16, from the

bottom and on page 692, fine 1 at the top, he gives the word “Invertebrates”

this of course is a slip and the word should be Reptiles.

On page 790 Dr. Ticehurst wants the name of bird collectors. If he wiU com-

municate with me I shall be pleased to help him in whatever way I can. I

may also mention that I will always be happy to try and obtain for the

Society any of their desiderata from this District or from anywhere else where

I may happen to collect.

CHAS. M. INGLIS, F.Z.S., F.E.S., M.B.O.U.

Baghownie, Daebhanga, N. Bihar.

6t/j August 1922.

No. II.— BIRDS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

To “ The Birds of Mesopotamia ” notes in your issue of June 30, I would

like to add the following if helpful in any way.

(i) Grey lag Goose.

I observed these geese on the shores of the Hamar Lake at Legait pretty close-

ly. I shot, more or less in the bare desert, 109 of these geese in a month and a

half to my own gun — of which 74 fell to double shots (37 “ right and lefts.”) It

38

1120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXVIII.

may be of interest to record two consecutive shots from a 16 bore loaded with

No. 6 shot, i.e., one goose with the first barrel and two with the second- — and

then two with the first and one with the second — all fljdng. Nothing is claimed

beyond the “ fluke ” of it.

I cannot bear out Magrath’s statement of geese “roosting during the day

well out on the bare desert.” Surely geese roost at night and not in the day

time ? I found it their custom to return to the water about 11 a.m. to rest

and wash before gomg out to feed agam about 3-30 p.m. I found the geese

at Legait frequenting the bare desert regularly in the mommgs from davm to

nearly midday — and from about 3-30 p.m. to dusk for the purpose of feeding.

I was much puzzled by watching them — as I have by the hour tlirough field

glasses — feedmg reedily on apparently bare sand ; later I discovered that they

cropped a fine grass from beneath the surface of the sand which explained mat-

ters. I have never heard of geese going inland to sleep before.

Has no one seen domesticated geese resembling grey lay geese very closely

in Mesopotamia ? I seem to remember them but cannot say for certain now.

The weight of these geese varied from 8-10 lbs. {i.e., the largest were heavy

birds of their kind).

(ii) Purple Heron.

Doubt as to its breeding in Mesopotamia is expressed. I had several young

ones brought me at Hilla and kept some in my aviary at Musaiyib where they

were very tame and used to sit on their “ hocks ” in an amusing way.

(iii) Woodcock.

I shot one at Musaiyib in a date garden — but cannot recall the time of year,

(iv) Common Sheldrake.

I have seen several pairs in the desert in May — just before they were breed-

mg — and definitely foimd their breeding burrows on two occasions : —

(i) Lr the desert at Legait about ^ mile in from the Hamar Lake ; and

(ii) Li the desert between the Euphrates and Tigris in the Musaiyib dis-

trict and a long way from water.

T. R. LIVESEY.

NO. III.— THE GAME ANIMALS OF INDIA.

I find Major Stockley’s “ Notes on Lydekker’s Game Animals of Lrdia”, in

the Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, of the Journal, especially interesting in view of the fact

that I contributed some five or six columns under the same heading to the Asian

newspaper on January 22, 1901, on the appearance of the first edition of the

book. In my Notes several of the matters referred to by Major Stockley were

dealt Avith. I think the best account of the Gaur (Indian Bison) is that given

by Mr. Inverarity in Vol. 4, No. 4, of the Journal, in 1889. My Notes above

referred to point out that the Black Buck becomes more or less brown during

the hot weather, and that the blackest hue is assumed during the rutting season,

■with which this form of coloration is probably connected. It was also remarked

that it would be interesting to know whether a similar change of colour has been

observed in other antelope, as for example the Blue Bull, but this does not appear

to have been commented on elsewhere. In the Deccan some specimens of the

Black Buck appear never to become black, and these are distinguished in the

vernacular by the term “ Bahmani.” The finest head I have seen in the Deccan,

with 24-inch horns, was from a buck almost as lightly coloured as a doe.

COMMENTS ON AND CORRECTIONS OF VARIOUS ARTICLES. 1121

I also noted the author’s remarks on the Baluchistan Gazelle, and returned

to this subject in the Journal for Vol. XVIII, No. 2, 1908. Dr. Lydekker ques-

tioned whether the Baluchi chikara is entitled to rank as a distinct race, but he

gave it sub-specific nomenclature. The grounds for this were that the horns of

the female were distinctly ringed, the dark portions of the face dark brown

instead of rufous ; and that the horns of the male are a little more curved back-

wards, and slightly more lyrate when viewed from the front. These reasons

were combated in my Note in the Journal above referred to. I have observed

that the chinkara of the Deccan has distinctly annulated horns, while the colour

of the face varies wth age, and the degree to which the horns of the chinkara are

lyrate varies in individuals. So far as I am aware this question as to the Balu-

chistan animal being a separate race has never been cleared up.

But the most important question of controversy in “ The Game Animals of

India ” was the statement that it was doubtful whether the Black Buck

ever drinks, while it was stated that the Gazelle was believed by some observers,

including Dr. Blanford, never to drink. On this I gave evidence in my Notes

in the Asian to show that both these animals are addicted to drink, and this

led to a controversy which lasted many years, although Dr. Lydekker in the end

(vide Indian Field, August, 1910) acknowledged the correctness of my views,

and said that if his “Game Animals of Lidia ” ever reached a third edition,

he would modify his opinions on the subject. It is to be regretted that this

distinguished naturalist did not survive to produce his third edition. An

exhaustive monograph which I contributed to the Journal on “ The drinking

habits of wild animals,” dealing -with these questions, will be found in the

Journal, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, 1908.

My experience as to the length of tigers and bears agrees with that of Major

Stockley. The subject of the length of tigers has been discussed dovTi to the last

stripe, and there appears to be little more to say about it. I find that skins

in my possession, which have not been unduly stretched, measure from 14 to 20

inches more than the animal measured immediately after death, when measure-

ments were taken between uprights and not along the curves. I have shot some

very large tigers, but none exceeding 9 feet 8 inches in length, including three

feet of tflil.

\st June 1922.

R. G. BURTON.

TO CONTRIBUTORS.

Will contributors when sending articles for insertion in th« Journal help the

Editors to prevent mistakes ? The most fruitful source of “ clerical” errors lies

in the original “copy.’’ If this were type VTitten — and type written only on

one side— and not sent in manuscript, many mistakes would be avoided. This

is not a counsel of perfection ; it is not meant to imply that if you do not

possess a Wpewriter or the means of getting your articles typed you are not

to send them in. Far from it — If you cannot send them in type, send

them in in good plain legible script and then you can blame the editors for

any mistakes. — Editoes.

1122

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

No. I.— NOTE ON JACKALS (CANIS INDICUS INDICUS) Etc.,

IN A COMPOUND.

We have experienced a very hot May and all the water, except in the tanks,

is dried up. Lr my fernery, a few yards from the bmigalow, is a reservoir to

which jackals, foxes, and mungooses come to assuage their thirst in the heat of

the day. On account of this dearth of water all the animals are exceedingly bold

and may be seen at all hom-s of the day, but more especially between ten and

three, rmming or strolhng about the compomid. A fox ( Vulpes bengalensis) is

fond of sitting or lying down in the shade of a tall evergreen shrub Avith pale

mauve floAvers, about 30 yards from where I Avrite ; jackals are seen singly or

m pairs trotting backAvards and fonvards across the laAAii, and this morning

about ten o’clock a pair of jmigle cats (Filis ajffinis) stealthily and slowly

slouched across the path Avith true feline gait.

About 1 p.m. to-day, AA'hile AATiting in the verandah, I saAV a jackal chasing

another across the compomid. They Avent the fuU length of the gromid and then

turned and came galloping towards the bungaloAV, jinking aromid the shrubs.

I noticed that the hair on the neck of the pursuing one Avas erect and that it

carried its tail right over its back, AA hile the hair on the other one lay flat and

the tail hung doAvn. I could see them very clearly as they charged right up to

the verandah steps, in fact I thought they Avere coming in, but they swerved

as they reached them. Although I Avas only some 2 or 3 yards distant they

never saAV me and AA’ent off. The pmsuing jackal evidently lost the other one

as shortly afterwards it returned on the scent, folloAAing the latter up all over

the compound. I could easily recognise the beast as it AA^as most repulsive look-

ing, gaimt and mangy, a brute Avbose bite would be dangerous. What specially

struck me was the different positions m Avhich the tails AA'ere held. The jackals

care nothing for my dogs, a spaniel and a small terrier, but stand and shoAV

fight Avhen chased, much to the dismay and aimoyance of the former.

This is the first year I have seen so many animals in the compoimd especially

diuing the hottest hours.

Tavo otters {Lidra lutra ?) were killed by my coolies m a drain leading from

my tank, but I did not know about it till the evening, Avhen it Avas too late to

save the skins for the Society, as the “ dhangars ” had consumed both.

CHAS. M. INGLIS, F.Z.S., F.E.S., M.B.O.U,

Baghowote, Bihae,

26/A May 1922.

No. II.— JACKALS ATTACKING A SPANIEL IN THE COMPOUND.

A day or so ago, my spaniel spied a jackal crossing the compoimd and rushed

out at it. The jack stood to fight and the dog also stood, at a safe distance,

and kept barking at it. Li a few mmutes a second jackal came from the

direction of the fernery where it had evidently been haAung a drink and com-

ing behind the spaniel made a snap at it. The first jackal then advanced to

attack, but the dog considering discretion the better part of valour, bolted,

yelping, to the bungalow.

I am certain had the dog been any distance from safety, both jackals would

have attacked and killed it.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1123

Besides the cries mentioned by Blanford, the jackal utters a pure and simple

bark of three or four yelps without any preceding wail.

Has any reason been assigned to the chorus of barks and wails given by

jackals ? Is it only a meeting of the clan ?

CHAS. M. INGLIS, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., F.E.S.

Baghownie, Bihak,

10<^ June 1922.

No. HI.— NOTES ON SOME SHEEP SHOT IN LADAKH.

( ii’ith a Block.)

When examining the horns of some sheep shot in Ladakh I was struck by

the similarity of certain markings on the horns to the “ stint,” or winter,

marks on scales of Salmonidse.

As j'ou are doubtless aware it is by counting these marks, caused by a check

in development due to poor feeding, that the age of salmon and trout is now de-

termined. From the very limited number of heads I have to work on (Two Ovis

hodgsoni and three Ovis vignei) it seems probable that the markings alluded to

also show the number of winters which the late owners had survived, and give

a close approximation to age.

1124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVII 1.

I send heremth a photograph of head No. 1 on the following list, which shows

some of the marks well. Those that are indistinct on the right horn are clear

on the left.

It is not probable that heads of 0. vignei from low elevations would show

the marks to the same extent, if at all, as should my theory be correct, they are

caused by recm-rmg periods of practical starvation during the severe winters

of Ladakh.

Ryajvi Factory P.O., J. S. E. WALKER.

Darbahnga, Bihar and Orissa,

23rd May 1922.

XO. IV.— NOTES ON i\L\N EATING TIGERS.

For some months past, a family of man eating tigers had been doing a lot

of damage about 18 miles from here. Their excursions extended dovTi a

nullah seven miles or so long. We sent our head Jemadar to reconnoitre

and he came face to face with 4 tigers, 2 of which he reported as being of a

very light colour.

Three days later we shot 4 tigers out of the same jmigle, and, extraordinarily

enough, a big male leopard, 7'-9", which at one portion of the beat climbed a tree

evidently in fear of the tigers. We thought we had bagged all the tigers, but on

examination found that two were full growTi cubs, and two about three quarters

«wown. The two fuU grovTi cubs were of the ordinary colour and marking of a

tiger, 1 male and 1 female. Measurements about 6'-6". The three quarters

gro-mi cubs were unique and to me seemed pure albinos. They had pink

eyes and were evidently in very bad condition because before being shot at

they only trotted along like big dogs, whilst the other two galloped hard.

Another peculiarity was the long neck, quite unlike that of any tiger or leopard

I have ever seen ; one was a male and one a female. As it was dark we could

not beat anymore but two days later got the mother, a fine beast in the prime

of life and condition. Measurement 8'-9". I forgot to mention the measurement

of the freaks, viz., 6'-0". Such beasts have never been known of, or seen here, nor

during the many shootmg excursions my father (the late INIaharaja Uripendra

of Cooch Behar) made into Assam.

I should be glad if any of the readers of your Magazine could give me any

definite information on the subject. Could it be possible that all four cubs be-

longed to the same litter ?

VICTOR N. NARAYAN,

Cooch Behar,

3rd May 1922.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1126

No. V.— SORE NECK IN SAilBHAR.

Your notes on the above in a recent issue of the Journal, seem to explain an

experience of a mine in the Southern Province of Ceylon. Whilst shooting

one morning I encountered a sambhar hind, in a narrow game path, which was

apparently incapable of movement. On closely examining the animal I found

that the under part of the neck was covered with festering sores over an area of

several inches. The hind was otherwise in fair condition, but made several

unsuccessful attempts to rise. At the time, I attributed it to a wound mflicted

by a leopard, but as the sore appeared to be superficial, I think the theory of

disease, more probable.

R. A. H. McConnell,

Aden,

\Qth May 1922.

Lieut., R. I. M.

No. VI.— CORRUGATIONS ON ELEPHANT TUSKS.

{With a Block.)

I enclose a snapshot of a pair of elephant tusks I bagged in May, which I

think will be of some interest to you, and I should be greatly interested if you

could explain any reason for the corrugations on the tusks.

I have not heard of or seen a tame elephant which has this peculiarity, but

heard of one other similar wild elephant being shot in the same district (Kele

1126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

Valley, IT. Chindwin R., U. Burma.) This type of “ freak ” tusk is apparently

known to the Jungle Burman but as being very rare — they refer to it by a

word meaning (sugar) “ cane ” which is corrugated in this fashion.

The corrugations are certamly not due to any rubbing on the part of the

elephant, but are in the growth from the very root. I thought perhaps it was

due to some disease when the elephant was young but the Burmans say no.

If you could account for it in any way I should very much like to know as

may be you have seen similar tusks.

Rangoon,

7th July 1922.

J. H. W,

No. vn.— EFFECT OF STORM ON ANIMALS.

During the writer’s visit to Mysore on the Prince of Wales’ tour, a shikari

friend told me the following incident : —

In 1912 or 13 the Colonel who narrated the incident said that he happened to

be motoring through the jimgle ui the South of India. They had to make a stop

on account of a thunderstorm. During the violent outburst nothing was to

be seen of any of the denizens of the jimgle, who were probably cowering away

in the thickest depths, in great fear. Immediately after the storm had subsided,

about 4 p.m. in the evenmg when the sun had broken through the clouds and its

rays were making all the beautiful trees, rendered doubly green by the sudden

outburst of the rain, scintillate and glitter in the way one often sees them do at

home after a June thunderstorm, they proceeded on their way. The whole

road became one mass of animals. The sides were thick with every imaginable

kind of jungle animal ranging from a panther to numerous members of the

CervidM and smaller mammals, and numbers of peacock and jungle

fowl. They were all sunning themselves in the space cleared in the jungle on

either side of the road. The Colonel had often done this journey, but this was

the only occasion on which ho had seen the place ‘ swarming ’ with wild life.

I wonder if other members have had similar experiences ?

BERNARD C. ELLISON, C.M.Z.S.

Bombay Nattieai, History Society,

June 1922.

NO. VIII.— NOTES ON OORIAL.

Life history. — Oorial are typical wild sheep, giving birth to one or, very

occasionally, two lambs every year.

I take the period of gestation to be 51 months, not six as is usually stated.

I base this statement on the following observations. I have never seen any

signs of the commencement of the rut in September. In the second half of

September 1910 I was hunting oorial in the Shahpur district and right up to the

end of the month the old rams were apart from the ewes. I then crossed the

Indus and hunted markhor in the hills West of Kalabagh up to October 10th.

There were oorial there also (I shot one ram) and no sign of the rut commencing.

I returned to Massan and hunted oorial for a week in a jagir in the Talagang dis-

trict and on October 17th I saw rams fighting and next day saw five rams chasing

a ewe in season. In the third week of October 1920 1 was in the Nili rukh (Jhelum

district), and the rut was in full swing. In November 1919 I was in the Kala Chitta

Range (Campbellpore district) and saw four rams chasing a ewe on November

19th. I have frequently been on oorial ground in early December, and the rut

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1127

has always been finished by then ; the old rams having mostly separated into

small parties unaccompanied by ewes. It seems certain therefore, that the rut

falls normally between the first week of October and the last in November.

The present close season is therefore based on, zoologically, incorrect data.

1 have always seen the first lambs in the first week in April and some are bom

in the first half of May. The period of gestation therefore appeals to be 5^

months.

Ewes are said to come into bearing in their fourth year, but it is possible that

the third year is correct. Data on a point like this are verj' hard to obtain, and

observations based on animals in captivity are not always applicable to wild

animals.

It seems certain that a ram is not fully mature till his eighth year, at which age

his horns should measure from 24 to 27 inches according to the conditions of

grazing in his youth.

I would here emphasise the fact that oorial are grazing and not brow'sing ani-

mals, and that during the recent drought the want of grass was a strong factor in

the reduction of their numbers.

Preservation. — It has always been found that on grounds where the old

males have been shot off, that the heads never recover their strength, even

with several years complete preservation, e.g. Red deer in Scotland and ibex in

the Sind Valley in Kashmir. Once the immature rams have no difficulty in

obtaining ewes, the stock weakens. There are at present a few old rams

amongst the oorial, and a very promising stock of five to seven-year-olds. If these

old rams are killed off now the stock bom next year will be weak and a danger

to the race. Then, if as they mature, the others are killed, the competition for

ewes will cease and the race may even die out altogether.

A po.ssible alternative to complete cessation of shooting for five years is clos-

ing for two or three years and then reopening to limited shooting with a

higher size hmit : I would recommend 26 inches. Nature has a way of compen-

sating for the unusual, and it may be found that next spring the ewes will mostly

have bom twfins instead of the usual single lamb.

As far as relative damage by sportsmen and villagers is concerned, it must be

remembered that the modem young officer has still to be educated in the ethics

of sport and the principles of preservation. There is a great deal of poaching

carried out by Europeans in rukhs near the railway : notably Nili and Lehri

Godari. I heard of three British officers basing their operations on Tarki railway

station in the middle of last October, and killing 14 rams between them. I have

personal knowledge of two other cases when officers from Rawalpindi motored to

Sehawa and shot oorial under direction of a doctor (or veterinarj' officer) of a

camel corps stationed there, he himself having no license. I found that much of

this was due to ignorance of the shooting regulations, and after getting the Com-

mandant of the Musketry School at Rawalpindi to post a notice on the subject,

the practice ceased to a large extent. When I v/as in occupation of NUi rukh

in the first half of December 1920, I twice saw Europeans shooting in my block,

but was unable to come up with them on either occasion.

I would suggest that the regulations on the subject bo posted in every club.

Villagers' dogs are a fmitful source of damage, as they chase ewes heavy with

young, and frequently destroy the new-born lambs. I recommend their absolute

exclusion from rukhs.

The' occasional visit of a sportsman to a rakh is an excellent thing, as it often

reveals an outbreak of poaching or of slackness of a watcher, and certainly acts

as a deterrent. During the war the game in the remoter portions of Kashmir

is reported to have decreased considerably owing to the want of any check on

the Game Watchers and the consequent increase of poaching.

The proportion of rams to ewes should bo about 50 per cent, of all ages :

this gives about 10 ewes to every fully mature ram. Any increase of this

39

1128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

proportion should be dealt with by the shooting of a ewe before each ram is killed.

Complaints as to destruction of crops would be met by such a regulation. There

is no doubt that such complaints were justified in some few localities before

this last disastrous season.

Since writing my first letter on the subject to you, I had a conversation

with a big land-owner of Jalalpur, whose name I unfortunately cannot remember.

He told me that the oorial in Jalalpur ruldi had not suffered much from the

drought, as they came down to the Jhelum to drink. This rukh is peculiarly

situated, however, and I can think of no other with such advantages. The

reports I have had from other rukhs are most depressing.

Stanyon’s Hotel, Quetta,

3rd October 1922.

C. H. STOCKLEY, D.S.O.,

Major.

No. IX.— THE BREEDING OF ELEPHANTS IN CAPTIVITY.

I have read with great interest Mr. Hundley’s letter of 30th August 1921,

given in the last issue of the journal received by me.

I have kept a record extending over a number of years and put the period of

gestation at 22 months. An elephant may calve after 20 months, but if she

does i t is due to over work or over marching and the calf if bom living will at

first be weaker than a calf carried for the full period. More usually it is bom

dead.

My records comprise cases when I have seen the act myself and also cases

when I know that a cow elephant has been covered by a bull within a period of

a very few daj's.

It is not necessary for the bull elephant to be “ musth ” to reproduce his

kind and in fact a calf can be got by an immature, stiU growong, bull, which has

never been on “ musth.”

Among wild elephants a yoimg bull would be driven away by the bigger tuskers

and also in cases where a number of tame elephants are working and grazing

together.

I differ from Mr. Hundley when he states that “ musth ” has little to do with

the sexual instinct. Bull elephants on “ musth ” always become queer tempered

at that time and many very dangerous both to men and to other elephants and

have to be tied up and starved until “ musth ” abates.

If a cow in season can be provided for the bull it wall tend to reduce his “ musth,”

but he wdU drive away and even gore a cow which is not in season and will there-

fore not allow him to cover her.

We had a case only last April in our elephant rest camps, when a tusker — a

dangerous man-killing beast even when sane — went musth and got loose with-

out his hobbles. My two travelling elephants were fortunately close at hand and

more fortimately still both in season. He covered them both repeatedly

which so reduced his “ musth ” that our men were able to recapture him. He

was then tied up and in spite of starvation his “ musth ” increased for some

days and he would have nothing to do with another cow introduced to him.

A cow elephant in season will very often have a shght discharge from the

glands between the eye and ear, similar to the discharge from a “ musth ” bull but

of course to a very much less extent, in fact merely a shght dampness visible

when the skin of the elephant is dry.

A bull going “ musth ” usually gives fair warning of his approaching condition

by the glands of the temple swelling some days before the discharge commences

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1129

In a wild state, judging from cases I have knowm of wild tuskers coming down

to worry our tame herds and occasionally induchag a tame cow to elope with them,

“ musth ” usually comes on at end of December or in January when vegetation

is at its best, but in tame herds, which are generally worked till the end of Feb-

ruary, “ musth ” does not come on till later, after the elephants have had time

to pick up and get into good condition.

There is something radically wrong with any mature bull which does not come

on “musth” at least once annually and if looked into the cause will be foimd to be

ill-health or more usually over work which may have taken place one or even two

years before. To my mind the only cure in either case is complete rest in a good

grazing area for six months, a year, or even longer, though tonics may assist

matters a bit.

J. C. C. WILSON.

Maihongsong, Siam,

19th July 1922.

No. X.— FURTHER NOTES ON TRAPPING.

In some earlier notes I attempted to describe my impressions of trapping m

heavy jungle and at the time of witing them was of the opinion that trapping

mider these conditions was the most trying pastime imaginable, wherein I was

sadly mistaken, as the first day’s trapping in open coimtry forcibly showed me,

and which I shall now try and describe.

Imagine for your setting then, any part of the Plains of India, as plain as

your imagination can run to.

A cursory inspection on arrival had shown me a number of things of interest

to the collector, such as the fact that every ridge dividing one field from another

had a number of rat boles and runs along it, and that almost every suitable bush

had a rat or mouse hole at its roots. This gave me a fair id 3a as to where the

traps had best be placed, and I set out accordingly with a light heart to do so.

Selecting a ridge that had a fair number of thorny stimted bushes growing

on it I started to set traps or, I should say, nearly started, for, as I bent

down to examine a promising looking rat run, I noticed a man, at work

with a plough not 50 yards away, gazing at me intently. That rather

spoilt that ridge, but nothing daimted, I started for an equally promis-

ing looking one some way off. When I was about half way there a goat-herd

appeared like a phantom from behind a bush that didn’t look big enough to

conceal a quail. “ That’s that ” said I, and thanking providence and the local

ryots for having arranged a liberal number of ridges per square mile, I made for

another. “At last” I thought as I drew near it, “I’m safe”; just then a hare got up

and offered me a very tempting shot which I took, this had very little effect on

the hare, but drew excited exclamations from four urchins who I found had been

following me unknown to myself. I turned on them and shouted to them to

“ Jao ” and they responded vigorously. I then decided on a ridge in the distance ;

and towards it I made, walking in a manner I reckoned should arouse little or no

suspicion. I passed two boys en-route and was glad to see that they did not seem

to be aware of my existence. On reaching the ridge I had a good look round to

satisfy myself that I was not being watched and, seeing no watchers, started to set

traps. I had just set my third, when my skinner who was with me touched me

on the shoulder and pointed, and, following the direction his finger pointed to, I saw

a head bob up and then as rapidly down again behind a bush. I felt like putting

a charge of No. 6 shot into it but refrained from so doing. Now, being evening,

time was an item not to be ignored, and knowing this I was getting irritable, but

as a last venture I decided to make for a deserted garden that looked as though it

couldn’t possibly hold more than rats, mice and cobra. I got into it and searched

1130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

all round for watchers, and being convinced of their entire absence, started yet

again to set traps. I got all bar three set when I noticed an Indian come

quietly into the garden so I wended my way homewards deciding to set the

remaining traps near the Bimgalow. The marking of the spots where

traps had been set, with bits of paper or rag was as my readers will

easily see highly inadvisable under the present circumstances, so I had not dared

to do so, and the next morning the fun started at the commencement of our search

for traps. My skinner and I both selected a different ridge as being the one on

which the first traps had been set, and had not a Neophron tearing at something,

that proved to be a trapped Gerbril, on a ridge some 50 yds. away led us to the

right spot, we might still have been searching for those traps. Of that lot I found

the last set had vanished, the urchin whose head I had contemplated filling with

No. 6 shot no doubt having borrowed it. In the deserted garden I found one trap

stolen by my visitor or so I presumed. News, and especially such news as “ Good

rat and mouse traps to be had for the asking ” travels fast in India, and the next

day I found a group of eager looking urchins loitering near the Bungalow in order

to be able to join me from the start. Close scrutiny of this sort is very hard on one’s

nerves and compels one, in trying to set traps without being seen, to behave in a

manner usually associated with a lunatic with homicidal tendencies, which you

will agree is infra dig. I strongly advise anyone contemplating trapping in the

Plains of India therefore to think twice.

After such an evening as that just described it is most annoying to pick up

the Gazetteer and read something of this sort, “ The population of the District

is scanty, the average for the whole being approximately P01739 per square mile”

but then when were figures and facts found to agree on comparison and what is

there to prevent a decimal having been erroneously inserted in the printing ?

Sept. 1922. C. PRIMROSE.

No. XL— THE COMMON INDIAN BEE-EATER. (MEROPS VIRIDIS)

Last month I opened a Bee-eater’s nest at the end of a tunnel three feet long

and found the young ones hatched out but not fledged. In the hope of saving

them I made an artificial tunnel of country tiles with stones laid over them. At

first the parent birds kept flying to the mouth of the tunnel and going away but

at last the persistent calls of their young ones were too much for them and they

essayed the great adventure and went in. After this they went in and out quite

happily and the work of bringing up thj family proceeded in the normal manner.

I imagine they would have deserted the nest if the eggs had not been hatched.

E. O’ BRIEN,

Bhuj, Cutph, Lt.-Colonel.

30lh June 1922.

No. XII.— NIDIFICATION OF THE CEYLON THRUSH {O.IMBRICAT A).

With reference to my note on 0. irnbricala breeding in Ceylon published in

Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, pages 546 and 547, I was unable to obtain an egg drill

and blower (mine having been lost during my absence on War service) so had to

resort to the old pin method by making a hole at each end. The egg was very

much incubated and I regret to say it got rather badly broken, though I did

manage to patch it up. I continued to watch the nest daily, being anxious to

obtain notes of the plumage of the nestling, etc. The bird sat cn her solitary egg

for literally weeks and I began to suspect that all was not well. During one oif

my daily visits I found the bird off the nest and on examining the egg discovered

MISCELL A NEC US NO TES.

1131

a small hole in it and the ants hard at work cleaning it. The hole looked as if,

the bird, becoming fed up with such a long sitting, had punctured it herself to see

what was Avrong, and finding the egg a ‘ dud ’ had left in disgust. I had no diffi-

culty in cleaning it as the contents simply ran out and besides the ants had cleaned

about half of it already. I sent the whole nest and both eggs to the Colombo

Museum where they now are but my conscience has pricked me ever since that

I did not send them to you, still, after all, charity begins at home. 1 took my first

egg, which as I mentioned was very much incubated, on 9th August 1921, and the

second egg on 3rd September 1921 so that wretched bird was sitting for over a

month. The curious part was that they started building again within 200 yards

of the old site on the 30th September 1921 in a Dadap (shade tree) this time about

20 ft. up, and on visiting the nest on 1st October found the bird on so did not

disturb her. On 2nd October the nest contained one egg exactly similar to the

last only not quite so clouded with brown wash at the large end. I unfortunately

was prevented from visiting the nest for about 5 days and when I returned, found

it had been robbed and pulled down by coolies. I am convinced it was the same

pair as 1 only know of one pair in that particular spot, though I have seen one

or two more birds in an entirely different part of the estate. The birds are still

there and I hope to get another nest this year. During the dry weather,

when most of the leaves had fallen off the albizzias 1 found no less than three old

nests which goes to prove that I have hit upon their usual breeding locality.

Dandukelawa, Hatton, Ceylon,

2ith May 1922.

T. E. TUNNARD.

No. XIIL— NIDIFICATION OF THE CEYLON ARRENGA (A. BLIGHI).

On March 30 of this year (1922) I foimd the nest of Arreaga hlighi containing

one egg on the point of hatching, the shell being already cracked, so needless to

say it was useless taking it. I was chmbing up a steep rocky ravine on the hunt

for this particular nest when I saw one of the birds fly out from under a pro-

jecting ledge of rock. I could not reach the place from the same side so had to cross

a slippery face of rock and then recross again higher up stream in order to reach

the spot from where I saw the bird fly out. I had on rubber soled shoes which

are excellent for dry rock climbing, but worse than useless where the rock is at

all wet. I first of all tried bare feet but that was as bad as wet rubber so put on

my stockings and managed to crawl across on these, finding that wool grips

quite all right on wet rock. There was the nest, about 7 ft. up, built on a fairly

wide ledge under another projecting ledge of rock and quite sheltered from

rain or any drips from above. The nest was a large, but neat and compact,

structure composed entirely of moss and Uned with fine fern roots. The egg

a rather broad oval with a large and small end fairly smooth and glossy. The

ground colour whitish green with a few faint brownish streaks distributed over

the large end only. I fancy that one egg is the maximum laid (compare previous

and only Ceylon record, E. Green, Tabrobanian, 1887). Close to this nest on

other ledges of rock I found three old nests of previous years in good

preservation owing to their being placed in sheltered spots protected in each

case from rain.

Amongst uncommon Ceylon birds, I have seen here Legges Flowerpecker

(Acmonorhyncus vincens) and the Red- Winged Crested Cuckoo (Coccys es

coromandus). The latter on migration on 12th January of this year.

T. E. TUNNARD.

Dandukelawa, Hatton, Ceylon,

24th May 1922.

1132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII

No. XIV.— OCCURRENCE OP THE DESERT LARK {ALAEMON

DESERTORUM) IN THE PUNJAB.

I am not aware that the occurrence and breeding of the Desert Lark has been

reported from the Punjab. Neither in the Faima of India, Birds, nor in Hume

and Oates’ “ Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds ” is the Punjab mentioned. The

following may therefore he of interest.

On the 18th current, accompanied by my wife, I was looking in the desert

country west of this place for possible nests of the Spotted Sandgrouse, when my

wife called my attention to a curious nest that she had just found. It was like

nothing that I had ever seen before, and there was no bird on, or near, it. It

was late in the afternoon and we waited as long as we could afford to do, but no

bird came, though there was one egg in the nest. We left and returned two days

later.

On this occasion I foimd a bird sitting. Our approach was not very

quietly made and the bird got up. I felt sure that it was the Desert Lark, and

so it proved, after full investigation, to be. There were now three eggs in the

nest, which was placed in the middle of a vast expanse of perfectly bare, hard,

dry pat under a small, bare, naked branch which had got stuck in the

groimd on some occasion when there was rain. There was the “ layer of small

branches,” or twigs, mentioned by Lt. Francis in “ Nests and Eggs”, about

a foot in diameter ; it did not however raise the nest above the ground so much

as make a fringe all roimd the nest. There was also the deep cup, lined

in this case with wool and a httle fine grass. The nest was indeed “ very cons-

picuous,” though the odds against any human being finding it in this great

desert space were long. I let the sitting bird run away in order to use to

the full the time at my disposal for observation. Her Plover-hke appearance

(I take it this was the female, though, unfortunately, the underparts were,

later, too damaged for certain identification of sex of the dead bird) and

china- white, long, legs struck me at once. Once off the nest, the bird was wary,

and her behaviom on this occasion was unhke that of Lt. Francis’ bird,

so after following for a bit, I decided to wait at a distance till she should return.

1 then became aware of a loud melodious call, something like “tee, tee, tee” followed

by a trill reminiscent to one long absent from England of the trill of the Nightin-

gale. I looked round and saw another and similar bird, evidently the mate of the

one I had disturbed. At times he ran, and once I saw him chmb into the

air for about 30 feet and almost tumble down again, the white, grey and brown

of the upper wing and the silvery wing-lining being very conspicuous in these

aerial movements. The call was repeated several times, but out of one corner of

my eye I was looking at the nest, and the original hird was now returning. I

followed her and this time, my approach being more cautious, she let me get

within six or eight yards of the nest, seeming to hope that she would escape

notice. Rather rejuctantly she left, and I had no difficulty in shooting her.

On examination, the specimen I secured measures 8.5" with a wing of a little

less than 4.5." I note that the “ Fauna ” says the females are much smaller than

the males, and that the maximum length given is 11". My specimen seems paler

than normal, the outer tail-feathers and the primaries being very much more

brown than black.

The eggs in this clutch vary rather in markings, one being more profusely

speckled, and with the speckles lighter in colour, than the other two. The colour

is as described in “ Nests and Eggs.”

R. C. BOLSTER, I.C.S.

Deea Nawab, Bhawalpub State, Punjab,

20th April 1922.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES,

1133

No. XV.— EASTERN SOLITARY SNIPE SHOT AT NALBAN ISLAND,

CHILKA LAKE, ON THE 16th DECEMBER 1921.

While out duck shooting with Mr. T. McDonnell of 9, Theatre Road, Calcutta,

at Chilka (Nalban Island), I flushed and killed a Solitary Snipe. As duck were

fairly plentiful and flighting well at the time we did not trouble to fire at snipe.

These were very plentiful and were being flushed almost every time we moved.

This particular snipe however first attracted my attention by its loud cry. Then,

noticing its large size, I shot it. (No. 5 shot. Smokeless Diamond).

Mr. McDonnell identified it as G. solitaria and informed me that Mr. James

Smythe of Calcutta had flushed several in the same locality in X’mas, 1920.

We spent 3 days on the Chilka Lake and although we flushed and killed

numerous Fantails and Pintails we saw no more Solitary Snipe.

Unfortunately I did not skin and preserve my specimen as I then did not realise

that it was so rare on the Chilka. I guess it weighed between 6 and 7 oimces.

There were 18 tail feathers. Legs were olive green.

I have no doubt that Mr. McDonnell’s identification was correct,

H. B. TILDEN.

Carlton Hotel,

Bombay, 9th May 1922.

' No. XVI.— IS THE DHAYAL {COTSYCHUS SAUL Alii S) A MIMIC ?

Legge says of CopsycAws saularis, “Its power of imitation is considerable,

tempting it to mock the voice of fowls and other birds in the vicinity of its

domicile ” {Birds of Ceylon, p. 435). To illustrate this habit of mimicry in the

Magpie-Robin, he has quoted an anecdote related by Layard. The latter’s

observation is that even in freedom the Dhayal can mock to perfection the voices

of other creatures. If this observation be true, the birds’ behaviour appears

quite singular, for even the parrots, which are past-masters in the art of mimicry,

do not exhibit their apish propensity in their wild life.

It is very strange, however, that aU the writers on Indian birds are silent on

the Dhayal’s power of mimicry. We find nothing about it in the works of Frank

Finn, Jerdon, Eha, Dewar, and Dalgliesh. Even the Fauna of British India does

not touch the point. On the other hand, Gould, in the Birds of Asia, Vol. Ill,

states positively that this bird is not “ degraded by apish tricks of imitation.”

My own aviary has harboured Dhayals for a long time, but no effort on their

part to mimic the voices of their mess-mates has come to my view. I am anxious

to know if any of the readers of this Journal has any experience of the above

trait in the character of the Dhayal. Information on this point through the

medium of this Journal would certainly add to oih knowledge about the be-

haviour of the bird.

SATYA CHURN LAW.

No. XVII.— DESCRIPTION OF CHICK OF THE BENGAL FLORICAN

(SYPHEOTIS BENGALENSIS). »

In a notice on Mr. Stuart Baker's game birds, published in the April number

of the Ibis, there is the following remark : — “ Of the remaining Bustards, more

especially the Bengal Florican, Sypheotis bengalensis, complete accounts have been

given and we are suiprised to find that apparently the chick of that species does

not appear to be known.”

I am very certain that I sent Mr. Stuart Baker, when at Dacca, a series of

Bengal Florican skins, including that of a chick, which I had acquired ; but as he

1134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIIL

has not described it and, from the above notice, it presumably being undescribed,

I do so now.

Description. — Above and below warm rufous buff. Crown rufous mixed with

rufescent brown and bordered by a stripe of the same colour from each side,

meeting beliind at the nape and continuing partly down the back of the neck ;

oar-covets bordered wth rufescent brown ; back and wings mixed rufous buff and

rufescent brown ; a patch of rufous bordered by rufescent brown from lower neck

to breast and a patch of rufescent brown on each side of the breast ; thighs with

three broad rufescent brown bands on outer sides.

“ Irides hazel brown ” (A. M. Primrose). This was collected by Mr. A. M. Prim

rose in Goalpara on the 12th June 1916.

Baghownie Laheria Sarai, CHAS. M. INGLIS, m.b.o.u., e.z.s., f.e.s.

Bihar,

^th June 1922.

No. XVIII.— OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK THROATED DIVER

{COLYMBUS ARC TIC US) IN INDIA.

It is worth recording the fact that on February 19th, 1922, I shot a specimen

of the above species on the Western Jumna Canal at Jagadhri, Ambala

District, Punjab.

Soon after daybreak on this date I had gone up the left bank of the canal after

some Pintail duck which I had seen alighting in the shallows some half mile above

the railway bridge. I may mention that the canal here partakes more the char-

acter of a river inasmuch as the banks on either side are very irregular and on

this particular day the water was very high, having in places inundated some

extent of the adjacent low ground which usually is simply rush-covered mud, the

haunts of Prinia flaviventris, Cyanecula suecica and Centropus sinerisis. I

mention these details because the Pintail usually do not settle on the canal

proper, but finding this inundated patch suitable as a resting or feeding place they

had congregated there in some numbers, and had it not been for this fact I

should have gone in the opposite direction.

Ha\dng dealt with the duck, I was returning to the bridge when I saw this

bird fishing near the bank. Waiting for it to dive I ran up and just before it

reached the surface I could see the small frj>- leaping clear of the water before

it’s approach. As soon as it appeared clear on the surface I shot it.

Mr. Hugh Whistler, who kindly examined the specimen for me, in confirming my

identification, tells me this is the first occurrence in India, adding that it is also

the most southerly record, at the same time he adds in epist : — It apparently

belongs to the race Colymbus arcticus suschkini (Sarudny), which according to

Sarudny is found in Mongoha (Kobdo), Tomsk, the provinces of Ufa and Oren-

burg, the Kirshis Steppes and Western Siberia to the Yenissai.

Dissection proved it to be a female and Mr. Whistler is of opinion that it is a

first winter bird.

There was very little fat on the specimen.

Colours of soft parts : — Irides red brown ; bill livid grey, culmen dark brown ;

tarsi and feet dark leaden on upper surface, remainder livid grey.

20lA April 1922.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1135

No. XIX.- OCCURRENCE ON THE NILGIRIS OF A PARTIAL

ALBINO OF THE SOUTHERN INDIAN SCIMITAR BABBLER

[POMATORHINUS HORSFIELDI TRAY ANCORIEN SIS)

(HARINGTON). F. B. I. No. 120.

Oil the 29th June of tlii.s year, Mr. G. Oakes of Downham, Kalhutty Sigur

Ghat, Nilgiris (elevation 5,500 feet), very Idndly sent me a pair of these birds,

shot in his fruit garden. One was the ordinary type, the other was a partial

albino of which the following is a description ; — Length 8'5", wing 3'5", tail

3‘5", tarsus 1‘25", bill from gape P2". Bill orange yellow, the nostrils and a

small portion of the basal part of the upper mandible greenish, legs and feet pale

leaden blue, soles and claws yellow, iridcs red-brown. The whole lower plumage

from the chin pure silky white, upper plumage, including the head, white streaked

in places with pale brown, primaries and secondaries white faintly edged exter-

nally with pale brown, tertiaries white, rather broadly edged on both webs with

pale brown, tertiary coverts darker brown with white tips, the other coverts pure

white, tail white, wth some of the feathers edged with pale browm.

Prospect Lodge, Ootacamund, H. R. BAKER,

Nilgiris, Lt.-Col., I. A. [Retd.)

ZOth June 1922.

No. XX.— BREEDING OF THE INDIAN PITTA {PITTA BRACHYARA

AND THE STREAKED WREN WARBLER {PRINIA LEPIDA).

In Vol. XXVIII. No. 1, Mr. R. C. Bolster, I.C.S., has notes on these two species.

As I have had some experience of them, I venture to give this now.

I have not access to my Natural History Magazines, but I know' I published

notes in them regarding the Indian Pitta. This bird is fairly plentiful on the Ghats

near Mhow, Central India, during the monsoon. In 1909-10, I took many nests

through June and July. I was commanding at Dehra Dun in 1919, where the

Indian Pitta arrived in June, and on the 17th of that month I obtained 4 fresh

eggs from a nest in a shad}' nullah not far from the Body Guard Lines. As I had

a fairly good collection of eggs of this bird, I did not woriy much about them. The

impression I formed W'as that, although it was fairly common during the month,

most birds moved further on to breed for I found no more nests. As they are

most conspicuous, had they been plentiful they could hardly be overlooked. As

regards the Streaked Wren Warbler {Prinia lepida) I foimd many nests during

1916-17, when quartered at Ferozepore and Lahore. The majority during July.

The earliest date recorded is, however, 9th April 1917, and the two latest 9th

and 10th October 1916.

I have had very similar experiences to those of Mr. Bolster regarding the

“ Destruction of Birds’ Nests ” and am at a loss to account for them. Mt'nas,

Tree pies. Crows, Coucals and Shrikes, 1 know are not above suspicion, but there

are many other enemies to small birds.

Cape Town, South Africa, R. M. BETHAM,

15th March 1922. Brig. -General.

No. XXI.— CURIOUS SITE FOR NEST OF THE BENGAL RED

VENTED B\lUB\]'L{MOLPASIE8 HAEMARRHOUS BEN GALEN SIS).

As is well known these Bulbuls usually nest on trees and bushes but a pair here

have built a nest under the eaves of a thatched roof. The nest is placed resting

40

1136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

on one of the bamboo butties and between it and the thatch ; as the house is low

roofed and the eaves come well over, the nest is exceedingly well concealed

and but for the bird flying out on several occasions when I passed the house I

should never have noticed it.

Baghownie Laheria Sakai, CHAS. M. INGLIS,

N. Bihar, f.z.s., re.s., m.b.o.u.

1th August 1922.

No. XXII.— CURIOUS NESTING SITE CHOSEN BY THE PURPLE

HONEY SUCKER (ARACHNETHRA ASIATICA).

I send you a photograph shewing a peculiar nesting site chosen by the

Common Purple Honey Sucker. As you will see from the photo the nest is

attached to the wire carrying the current and is within a few inches of the lamp

itself. The lamp is suspended by a bracket placed at the entrance of the Officers’

Club, Ajmer, and is ahght from sun down till past 9 p.m. eveiy night.

Eggs were actually laid in the nest and would probably have incubated in the

usual course but some well meaning member thinking the nest required

strengthening tied the upper jwrtion to the wire with string.

This was apparently too much for the parent birds who deserted.

Ajmer, W. E. SHIPP.

17 th June 1922.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1137

No. XXm.— WOODPECKER OCCUPYING NESTING BOX.

Early in the spring this year I prepared a number of nesting boxes, in hopes

of attracting birds, especially tits or nuthatches, and of inducing them to breed

in my compound in Pachmarhi. The boxes were constructed as follows :

DiagtiQins (b iSastrdk wethod of cons trued on of

boY.es.

FRorrr elevation.

SIDE ELEVATION

SECTION.

Cylindrical sections of a yoimg tree, about 9 inches in diameter with the bark

on and about 15 inches in length were prepared with a cross cut saw. Each such

cyhnder was then cut across again, diagonally, into two unequal halves as shown

in the diagram, the smaller half to constitute the hd of the nesting box.

Both halves were then hollowed out with a stout auger and goudge, giving a

cylindrical hollow 5 inches or so in diameter and 10 or 11 inches long, a thickness

of 2 inches being left at top and bottom of the cavity.

A circular hole IJ inches in diameter was then bored through the longer side

of the lid section, communicating with the central hollow.

Two stout headless nails were then driven into the margin of the lower half of

the cyhnder on opposite sides of the hoUow and in a vertical position protruding

about an inch above the level of the surface of the wood, and two corresponding

holes were bored with a gimlet in the rim, at the base of the lid portion. The hd

could now be firmly fitted into the basal portion of the cyhnder and could be easily

removed and replaced again with no danger of its falling off.

The nesting boxes were then hung up against the trunks of trees about 15 ft.

from the ground, with entrance hole facing outwards. This was done early in

February. Towards the end of February a pair of Golden Backed Woodpeckers

{Brachypternus aurantius) became interested in one of the boxes; but the entrance

hole having been made smaU (to exclude mynahs) they set to work to enlarge it.

EventuaUy they enlarged the hole to 2j inches diameter and finding the cavity

inside quite suitable for nesting purposes they adopted it without further excava-

tion.

On March 9th the nest contained 3 fresh eggs, pure white of course but pink

from translucence. Incubation commenced the same day.

From this date onwards I examined the nest daily and the birds gradually

became accustomed to my visits. They always left the nesting box, however,

on my commencing to cUmb the tree. The following notes are from my diary.

March 19th Eggs not yet chipped.

„ 20th All three eggs hatched. The young are quite naked. The upper

mandibles are tipped with a conspicuous white shining scale.

1138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVI 11

March 21st

22nd

23rd

24th

25th

26th

27th

A similar but smaller scale is present on the tips of the lower

mandibles. One of the young birds opened its mouth for food

and made the characteristic rattling sound of young wood -

peckers.

No important change. Nestlings still quiet naked but stronger.

The elbows of the legs have a peculiar swollen comb-hke serrated

appearance behind.

Birds still naked. One is only about half the size of the others.

No great change.

Only two birds in the nest. The small one must have died and been

removed by the parents.

Yoimg birds growing rapidly . Otherwise no change.

Also feathers and quills just beginning to

Eyes just opening,

show.

„ 28th Feathers developing, especially a curious band or strip across the

thigh.

„ 29th Further development.

„ 30th A tinge of red appearing on crown.

,, 31st to April 3rd. Steady development in feathering.

April 4th Red caps and orange backs conspicuous.

„ 5th to 8th Gradual fuU development of feather tracts. Birds very noisy.

„ 9th Both birds left the nest.

The nest box cavity was not enlarged by the parent birds. It was throughout

kept scrupulously clean. This surprised me as I always understood that the

removal of the fseces of the young was performed by Passerine birds only.

No droppings or dirt of any kind were found in the nest until the last day

before the birds left the nest.

The young never returned to the nest after leaving it.

B. B. OSMASTON, C.I.E., I.F.S.

Gulmakg, Kashmir.

No. XXIV.-NOTES ON THE NESTING OF THE HLMALAYAN TREE

CREEPER (CERT HI A HIMALAYANA).

The following note on the nesting of the Himalayan Tree Creeper (Certhia

himalayana) may be of interest. Blanford, in the Fauna of British India, and

also Hume, in Nests and Eggs, state this bird nests high up in taU trees, 40' to 50'

from the ground. I have found three nests of this bird here, and they have all

been quite low down near the ground. It is an early breeder, March and

April, at least they must commence building in March. I had no experience of

this bird’s habits, so judging from the above authors’ notes I spent hours watching

them in hopes of discovering their nests, but failed to see them breeding till by

accident I discovered the nest.

On the 19th April I was sitting in the shade of a pine tree, when two creepers

flew on to the next tree, each with an insect in its biU. They were much excited,

peeping at me round the trunk of the pine, then one bolder than the other, flew

down to the tree I sat near, and disappeared round the trunk. A few seconds

later it went off without the insect, and shortly after the second bird did the

same ; when they had left I examined the trunk and found a large piece of the

back was detached from the stem, and on touching this to look behind, it came

away disclosing the nest of 3 nearly full grown yoimg ones. They all flew out,

and there was also one adled egg. I replaced one chick, the only one I could

find. The nest was situated only 2 ft. from the ground and composed of a few

ML^CELLANEOUS NOTES.

1139

soft feathers, etc., placed on top of coarse material such as dark chips and other

stuff to fill up the cavity.

The 2nd nest was in a nearly similar situation behind the partly detached bark

of a dead cherry tree, about three feet from the ground and of hke materials.

This nest was also discovered by seeing the parent birds feeding their yoxmg.

After the young had flown (I did not hke to examine the nest for fear the chicks

might be too young to fly) I examined the nest and formd one addled egg. This

was on 14th May.

The 3rd nest was destroyed by woodcutters breaking off the detached piece of

bark behind which the nest was built. The remnants of the nest with a broken

egg lay at the foot of the tree which led to its discovery. The site was only a

foot from the ground, on a large pine tree at the edge of a foot path.

Had I known these birds built so low down I might have discovered them

earlier. My experience may assist others in further observations.

I also saw a pair feeding their young very high up on a huge pine tree, so they

do not always build low down, but I should think a number must, as subitale

pieces of detached bark are more hkely to be found low than high up on trees.

Rantkhet, U. P. F. field.

lOth Angitst 1922.

No. XXV.— SOME NOTES ON THE METHOD EMPLOYED IN CATCH-

ING CROCODILES IN SOUTH INTHA.

I enclose a photo taken of two Valans with a crocodile captured by them

with their queer instruments which if you care to publish may be of interest

to some of your readers.

These ^Valans and Katal Arayan are Ashing castes of the Cochin and Travan

core States. The name Valan is derived from Vala, meaning fish in a tank.

The method employed by the two particular men who I witnessed catch this

crocodile is novel and exciting to say the least of it. These Valans are, for their

1140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

particular craft, expert rowers or perhaps I should say boatmen, and possess the

special privilege of ro\ving from Thripunathura the boat of His Highness the

Maha Raja for his installation at the Cochin Palace, when the Aravan “(or Aravar,

the headman of their caste who is appointed by thitturam or writ issued by bis

Highness the Maha Raja) ” with sword in hand, has to stand in front of him in

the boat. However I am transgressing and to return to the method of capture

I witnessed, I will explain it briefly as follows. Each man is provided with a long

bamboo pole, at one end of which is fastened some 30' of rope, the pole itself is

generally about 5 to 6' long, at the other end of which a 1' iron rod is sphced at

the end of which is a 3 to 4" barb, and this weapon although not too well-balanced

can be thro\vn with great force and accuracy up to 15 to 20'. Each individual is

also provided with a “ one man ” tiny canoe, which can only be steadied by the

paddle, or one end of the bamboo pole referred to, an axe is also carried and one

then proceeds gingerly to the hunting ground, in the case of the European with

as few clothes on as possible. I have to admit my boat bemg towed, as the diffi-

culty for any European to balance one of these egg-shells alone and propel

it for any distance without tremendous strain and considerable anxiety would

no doubt be difficult for those who have not experienced it to understand, and

is a feat that cannot be accomplished without considerable practice. However

having arrived at our destination off the Vembanad lake in a small lagoon (the

water here being slightly brackish) one of the Valans informed me there was

a crocodile in the middle of the expanse of water in front of us, the water there

eventually turning out to be about 6' deep. I cannot say I had noticed or could

see anything, but he told me he had seen the ripple on the surface when it sank ;

we proceeded carefully to the spot, 3 boats in a line about 15' apart and one of us

in each. I had the embarrassing post of honour in the centre. The

man on my right eventually stopped his boat and pointing into the water

on his right said in a solemn imdertone, “ he is down there.” I am afraid I felt

rather inclined to say “he is quite safe, leave him alone” especially as we had been

told he was a twenty footer and swallowed cows whole! The boat on my left circled

round to the other side of where he was said to be, and I was instructed to close

up but assured them I felt sure I must be in the line of flight, whereupon I was

left alone and felt able to breathe once more. However my respite was short, as

one man kneehng in his boat gently lowered his pole into the water until onlj

about a foot of the top was visible, then suddenly drove it down with all his

might : the result was rather sudden and did not give one much time to think. A

large crocodile shot up to the surface with a tremendous commotion between these

two boats, one was capsized and its occupant made remarkable time for the bank

holding on to his len^h of rope, his harpoon being firmly embedded, the other

man had also driven his in as soon as the crocodile appeared and he also made

tracks in his boat, for the bank which was only some 50 yards away. In the

meantime the south-west monsoon appeared to have burst to my starboard and

waves appeared to be running mountains high, however with my pole I managed

to find bottom and there I held on as I should have been capsized in a second if

I had let go. After some 5 minutes the crocodile went to earth about 15 yards

from the bank, and I lost no time in getting ashore; the animal was then again

stirred up and with the help of some 12 more men we got him up high and dry

in about a quarter of an hour. The axe was not necessary as his brain had been

pierced by one of the barbs. He was 9' 11" long, very fat and in fine condition.

The men assured me they had often had much worse trouble.

T. H, CAIVIERON, F.Z.S.,

Asst. Commissioner.

White House, Peermade,

Travancore, S.I.,

\Wh June. 1922.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1141

No. XXVI.— NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF SNAKES FROM

SHEMBAGANUR, PALNI HILLS.

(Circa 6,500 feet). "

I am indebted to the Revd. L. Anglade, S. H. College, Shembaganur, for the

privilege of examining a small collection of snakes collected locally, some of

which are specially interesting.

Family — Uropeltidae.

Silybura pulneyensis, Beddome.

One typical but rather shrivelled 5 . Ventrals 182 ? Subcaudals 8 ? I notice

in this species the tip of the tail is invariably white, as it is in maculata and

some others.

Silybura nigra, Beddome.

This would appear to be the commonest species in the Palni HiUs. Five speci-

mens in all were included. 2 Ventrals 179. Subcaudals 7. $ 324 mm. (12J

inches) long. Ventrals 185. Subcaudals 6 on the right side, 7 on the left. 2

Ventrals 178. Subcaudals 7. 2 Ventrals 178. Subcaudals 6 on the left side,

7 on the right. 2 237 mm. (9J inches). Ventrals 176. Subcaudals 5 on the

right side, 6 on the left. This proved to be gravid, and contained four eggs in

the oviducts, measuring 21x8 mm. These contained small embryos about

25 mm. long (1 inch). The size of the eggs, and the condition of the embryos

lead me to think that this species is ovoviparous. Unfortunately the date

of capture is not on record. The tip of the tail in all is black.

Platyplectrurus madurensis, Beddome.

Four specimens of this httle known species were received. 2 260 mm. (lOJ

inches). Ventrals 171. Subcaudals 11. This contained two eggs 25x6 mm.

long, with small embryos about 25 mm. long within. 2 311 mm. (12|^ inches).

Ventrals 171. Subcaudals 12. This was captured on the 1st of April 1907,

having just laid five eggs. The eggs measure 25 to 28 mm. X 10 mm., and con-

tain small embryos about 25 mm. in length. The eyes in the embryos are con-

spicuous. The heart and neighbouring viscera are still extra-abdominal. 2 •

Ventrals 175. Subcaudals 10. c? U7 mm. (4| inches.) Ventrals 168 ?

Subcaudals 15. This appears to be a hatchling. There is no record of the date

of capture.

Family — Colubridae.

Amphiesma stolata, (Linne).

One quite tjq)ical.

Xylophis perroteti.

Two examples.

Oligodon venustus, Jerdon.

One 2 specimen. Ventrals 161. Subcaudals 31.

Chrysopelea ornafa (Shaw).

A young specimen 317 mm. (12^ inches), appears to be a hatchhng. Date of

capture not on record.

F. WALL,

Lieut-Col., I.M.S.

Bangalore,

November 1920.

1142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

No. XXVIL— GORDIUS WORMS.

Among the snakes sent to me by Father Anglade from Shembaganur is a

Gordius Worm. I have now seen several of these curious nematodes, which

are remarkable for the tenuity of their caUbre coupled with their length, re-

minding one of a fiddle-string. One specimen was found in the mules’ drinking

trough at Drosh, Chitral (circa 4,500 feet) in April 1910, during very cold weather

when snow was on the ground. I sent this to Professor A. E. Shipley who forwarded

it to Professor Camerano of Turin, and it was pronounced a Gordius zavattarii, Ca-

merano. Another was killed in my outhouses in Almora (5,200 feet) on the 2nd

of January 1911, on a bitterly cold day when sleet was falling. It measured

495 mm. (1 foot 7^ inches), and was exactly like an animated fiddle-string.

Another came to my notice in Dibrugarh, Assam, date uncertain, but it

was in the winter and the weather cold. Another was foimd in the drinking

water supply inShiUong (circa 4,800 feet) where it created considerable excite-

ment from its extraordinary activity. This was sent to me as a snake for

identification. A similar worm was noticed by me i n a puddle by the road side

left by recent rain, above Newara Ehya, Ceylon (circa 7,000 feet) many years

ago, and astonished me by its activity. All of these appeared to me to be the

same species. The specimen from Shembaganur however is very much

compressed, and the body of greater cahbre than in the previous specimens I

have seen, and is probably another species. When forwarding the first men-

tioned specimen to Professor Shipley I asked for information about life habits,

and obtained the following reply.

“ The Gordian Worms fertilise each other, and lay their eggs free in

water. They twist about amongst plants. The egg gives rise to an

embryo, which bores into some water mollusc or insect, and encysts there

for a bit. This moUusc or insect is generally eaten by another insect, such

as a mantis or a beetle, and the larvae grow very largely in this second

host, absorbing its tissue. After a time the worms emerge free, often a

large number on the same day, giving rise to the idea that there has been

a shower of worms.”

Considerable mystery surrounds these extraordinary worms which appear as

if by magic. Some natives declare they fall with the rain, and in Chitral they

firmly believe they are generated during faUing snow.

It is probable that many of our members are familiar with these nematodes,

and it would be interesting to collect more specimens to determine the number

of Indian species, and their distribution.

Bangaloke, F. wall,

November 1920. Lieut. -Col., I.M.S.

NO. XXVm.— A PYTHON’S LONG FAST.

The following is an extract from a neighbouring planter’s letter : —

“ Herewith the facts about the python. I shall be interested to hear what the

Bombay Natural History Society say about it, if you think it worth informing

them. The python was a young one 9| feet long. It was caught, without being

injured some time in 1911 or 1912. It was kept in a wire cage for 2J years.

During that time it ate absolutely nothing. It was tried with frogs, and a

pigeon was in its cage for 5 or 6 days. The pigeon had to be removed as it

started bullying the python. It had a dish of water in its cage always,

but there is no absolute proof that it drank. During the 2^ years it changed

MISCELLA2^^E0US NOTES.

1143

its skin regularly and appeared in perfect health. At the end of the time

it suddenly began to get thin and weak very rapidly, so we let it go in

the jungle.” Toads and ducks were also presented. The author of the above

story, IVIr. F. G. Ballantyne of the Poloi T. E., who kept the reptile in captivity,

Col. K. St. J. Hickman, C.I.E., and Dr. Davis of the Bura Jalinga T. E. can

vouch for the above facts. I would be glad to hear from any member of a similar

case of the longevity of a python’s fast.

Boro Jalinga T. E., Dwarband P.O., A. G. McARTHUR.

Cachar,

\lth June 1922.

[We would refer members interested in this subject to Col. Wall’s exhaust-

ive treatise on the common python which appeared in Part II, Vol. XXI of

this Society’s Journal. “ A Popular Treatise on the Common Indian

Snr.kes”. Illustrated copies of this part are obtainable from the Society —

Price Rs. 10. — Eds.]

^O. XXIX.— XOTE ON THE OPERCULUM OF THE TURBAN-

SHELLS.

The object fonvarded by Captain T. S. Jervis is the stony operculum of one

of the Turban-shells, gastropod inolluscs of the family Turbinidae. Possibly

it belongs to the common Indian species Turho argyrostoma, abundant on rocky

shores all round the coasts of India. This operculum is always plano-convex

in shape and stony in structure. In life it is attached bj'^ the flattened side to

the upper surface of the tail end of its owner, which is a snail-shaped mollusc

allied to the pretty Top-shells (Trochidae) so common at home among rocks

and boulders ; the latter, however, have an operculum thin and horny and

marked with a closely set spiral, very different from the thick, stony and

massive one characteristic of the Turban shells. When one of these animals

retires into its shell, when alarmed or attacked, the operculum serves as a door

or rather stopper to close the opening and so to keep the intruder out. The

Turban shell operculum is particularly effective for this purpose ; it is too hard

to be broken through or pierced and its rounded (convex) shape jirevents a

po\^erful enemy from getting a grip at the sides in order to tear it out.

The outer rounded surface of the operculum is usually more or less prettily

mottled with green on a white ground ; that of one species found in New Zealand

is so very brightly ornamented with green and brown that the Maoris value

it highly as a personal ornament and set it in gold, particularly in the form of

brooches ; they also employed specially large and fine ones to make the eyes of

their weirdly fashioned wooden idols in former times. There are also species

so large that the operculum is heavy enough to be used as a paper weight two

inches in diameter. Such big .shells are valuable as a source of mother of pearl

for the manufacture of pearl buttons in particular.

In India the operculum of Turbo is one of several common objects of the sea

shore that possess deep intere.st for tlie ])ilgrims and devotees who flock in

thousands from all parts of India to worshij) at the most holy shrine of Rames-

waram in the south. There, just within the main entrance to the temple, half

a dozen shell vendors are allowed stalls ; on the floor in each are arranged trim

heaps of shells of many sorts, all carefully separated according to their kinds.

Here is a pile of several tliousand Money Cowiies from the Maldives, there a

smaller one of the same shells but brighter in colour and larger in size from the

41

1144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII.

reefs of the coi’al islands south of Pamban Pass, close by is a heap of the pretty

Eyed-Cowry, and so on througli the whole series of local shells that are attrac-

tive either because of their colour or their shape. And with them are always

great heaps of thousands of the stony opercula of the Turban shells. The Tamil

name for these is amhiUninn, meaning “ the disc of the moon.”

The actual shells of Turbo, after the death of the occupants, are often appro-

priated by hermit-ci’abs ; some of these are more at home on the beach above

tide-mark than in the sea, and, in the Laccadive Islands, on turning big boulders

in the screw pine scrub along tbc beach a crowd of hermit-crabs usually make

off in a flurry hiding their soft tails in Turban shells.

M.\nRAS, %th June 1922.

.TAMES HOP NELL.

NO. XXX.— SOME INTERESTING SPECIMENS OF THE PIERID

GENTTS EUCHUE.

( With a te.it fiyuve)

Among a collection of butterflies sent to the Zoological Surv^ey of India last

year for identification by Mr. G. E. Shaw were seveial specimens of two forms

of the Piei'id genus Euchlce, one closely related to E. charlonia transcaspica and

the other to E. helemia. The form related to transcaspica was originally thought

to be a race of the form described by Bingham as Sjjnchloe lucill'i, (but which

IS now regarded as a race of E. charlonia ), differing only in being quite white.

It is. however, more closely related to transcaspica, differing mainly in size, its

whiteness and the paleness of the underside of the wings and the conspicuousness

of the marginal white markings on the upperside of the forewings. Mr. N. D.

Riley has very kindly compared one of the specimens sent to me with the twenty-

four examples of transcaspica in the British Museum and finds that it disagrees

in these points from all of them. He writes that if there are many specimens

exactly like the one I sent him they should receive a name, but though I have

.seen many specimens I have refrained from describing them as new as I hope

Mr. Riley will do so himself. The object of the present note is merely to bring

to the notice of the Society’s members the fact that the butterflies mentioned here

are ajrparently new, and to ask them if they have arry specimens to send them

to Mr. Riley at the British Museum, who will I think be jrleased to name them.

The form related to E. helemia differs chiefly from the forma tijpica in its

smaller size and the maikings on the apex of the forewings and the underside

of the wings. The apical area of the upperside of the forewiirgs is almost en-

tirely black, except for a small white spot near the costa and two ill-defined white

dots. The apical area of the underside of the forewings is marked with yellowish*

green stripes, which are considerably nairower than those of the tyjheal

• I'lidcr a leas the •‘yellowisli green” stripes on Uie iiiulerside seem to me tote really

blackish, with tiny yellowish-green scales superimposed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1145

form, and the stripe adjoining the torinen is also much reduced and does not

touch the margin. The underside of tlio liindwings is marked with similaily

coloured stripes which are much narrower and liglitcr in colour than those of

typical helemia. This form is either a new or a seasonal variety of E. heleinia.

(See figure.)

The form of charlonia has been taken in South Persia by Di'. C. L. Digsby-

Roberts, and ^Ir. t!. E. R. Cooper of the Survey of India has also taken it from

Turbal-i-Hindari to near Robat in Baluchistan, while his brother took it at Toba in

Baluchistan in May, 1910. Dr. Roberts’ and ]\Ir. Cooper’s specimens were all

taken from Febmary to IMay, 1918 and 1919. Mr. Cooper informs me that the

form was very common round hill-tops and mounds. The form of belemia was

taken by Dr. Roberts in Guhra,* South Persia, in May, 1918. The typical

form occurs in South Spain, North Africa, the Canaries, Asia Minor and

Syria.

The Zoological fSurvey of India has two specimens of each of these forms and

I believe Dr. Roberts and Mr. Cooper also possess examples of these butterflies.

CEDRIC DOVER,

Indian Museum, F.E.S.

Calcutta, January 1922.

We submitted the above note to Lt.-Col. H. D Peile who wrote as follows : — ■

“EucMce transcaspica, Stgr., seems to be the same form in Mesopotamia as in

Persia ; and E. helemia, E., is also veiy probably the same for both these

regions.

Euchloe transcaspica, Stgr.

A male of the typical transcaspica (2nd genei-ation) form, agreeing well with

transcaspian specimens in the B. M., was taken by me on 11th April 1920, at

Fathah, on the right bank of the Tigris on a small hill crest on the .Tebel Hamrin

range, at about 500 ft. elevation.

The 1st brood (Jan. -Feb.) has been named vernalis by Verity. Le Cerf records

it from Danah Konh and says it is slightly intermediate.

The Summer form of transcaspica, Stgr., from N. Persia and Turkestan is more

yellow than the Spring form.

Euchloe belemia, E.

In Mesopotamia this varies very much in size, and in the markings of the upper

and undersides, with the season.

Capt. N. D. Riley has recently gone through a long series of this taken by me

in Mesopotamia in 1919, and selected from them a series of 81 specimens wJiich are

now' incorjxirated in the National Collection.

The iVet season, form, (.Jan. -March) have the black markings above

very pronounced, the. bases of both wings being black ; and on the underside

well defined, daik green bands broader than the white bands between them.

The Dry season form (Mar.-Apl.) has much less black above, and on the under-

side narrow, broken up green and yellow streaks between wider w'hite portions ;

this form being also slightly the larger.

Five specimens indicated a partial third brood.

Both ‘ w'ct ’ and ‘ dry ’ forms were taken in perfectly fresh condition in the

last week of March.

This seasonal variation is referred to more fully under this species in the article

on “ The butterflies of Mesopotamia ” in Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, of the Society’s

Journal.

• This locality is knowa to most Europeans as Gotha, but Dr. Roberts informs me that the

correct P»rsian name is Gahra.

1 14fi JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIll

The accompanying transfer shows extreme variations in markings. The

specimen sketched by iVIi'. C. Dover seems to be an intermediate one taken about

he end of the wet season.

Coloured sketches of the larva and pupa are with my specimens in the National

collection.”

No. XXXI.— A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A SPECIES OF

THE FAMILY RAPHIDID^ IN BRITISH INDIA.

The family Raphididae is generally regarded as being allied to the Sialidae

and uith it forms the comparatively new order Megaloptera. There are two

genera : Raphidia and Inocellia, easily distinguished from each other by the

fact that in the fonner genus three ocelli are present on the head, while in the

latter they are entirely absent. In his recent account of the [family in Genera

Insectorum, Megaloptera (191.3), Dr. Esben-Petersen gives the distribu'iou as

Palaearctic and Neartic regions, one species being also found in the Neotropical

region. This is Raphidia herbsti, Petersen, from Chile. The family has not hitherto

been recorded from the Oriental or Australian regions. While putting away a

collection of insects made by myself in the jungle around Calcutta in Novem-

ber, 1920, I found a species of Raphididae among them, and a search through

the collection of Neuropteroid insects belonging to the Zoological Survey of India

revealed another, but badly damaged, specimen, labelled “Upper Burma.”

Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher very kindly informs me that he has specimens of

the genus Inocellia from Shillong in the Pusa collection which he thinks might

be new. These are being referred to Dr. Petersen for identification.

With the assistance of Mr. H. Srinivasa Rao, M. A., I have identified the Cal-

cutta specimen as Inocellia crassicornis, Schummel (cf. Petersen, loc. cit. p. 11,

pi. 2, fig. 3) and the Burmese example probably belongs to the same species

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1147

certainly to the same genus. It might be of interest to mention that in my

speeimen the first subcostal nervure of the right forewing is forked and

so is Cm', while the venation of the loft forewing is perfectly normal and agrees

with that shown in Petersen’s figure. I. crassicornis is apparently wid ly dis-

tributed and has hitherto been rocortled from Sweden, Saxony, Westphalia,

Silesia, Hungary, Italy, Siberia, and as close to India as Japan.

Calcutta,

20f/i Janvuary 1922.

CEDRIC DOVER.

No. XXXII. -A NOTE ON THE REPRODUCTION OF THE COMMON

HYDRA OF BENGAL {HYDRA VULGARIS, PALLAS).

The following observations were made on Hydra vulgaris, Pallas, in the months

of August and September, 1920. The polyps were reared in cylindrical glass

ars containing weeds from a pond. *

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fig. 1.- — Budding Hydra with characteristic moniliform appearance.

Fig. 2. — Colony formation of Hydra by budding.

Fig. 3. — Vertical fission of Hydra.

Fig. 4. — Hydra bearing spermaries in different stages of development.

Fig. 5. — Hydra bearing spermaries and a bud.

1148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVlll.

Fission. — An instance of vertical fission was witnessed on the 26th August,

1920. Fission was more or less complete and the two j)olyps were still united

by the basal j)art of the column. One had five tentacles and tlie other four.

The contraction and e.xpansion of the column and tentacles of the polyps were

independent. The gastro-vasculai' ca^•ities were continuous and small jmrticles

were seen passing througli the fluid from the gastral cavity of one into that of

the other. The ectoderm and endodenn were distinct, and at the base of the

polyps were observed two endodcrmal prominences. The ectoderm in this

region was slightly depressed. (See Fig. 3.)

On the following day an endodcrmal wall Avas completely formed cutting off

the gastro-vascular cavity of one polyp from that of the other. The ectodermal

depression was invaginated. On the third day the ectoderm of the basal disc

was formed and the polyps were sticking to each other by a secretion of mucus.

The same evening they were observed to have separated. The difference in

the number of tentacles of the two polyps was still maintained.

Though several polyps were reared for over two months this was the only

instance of vertical fission observed.

In his account of Hydra in the Memoirs of the A siatic Society of Bengal, I, p. 344,

1906, Dr. Annandale states that he has only seen throe instances of vertical fission.

Apparently this mode of reproduction is very rare.

Budding. — Several individuals bearing two or three buds were seen during

the earlier part of August. l\Iost of the buds were in a fairly advanced state

Avdth, as a rule, the same number of tentacles as in the parent polyp. The

lower half of the column was slender and transparent, and as a result of swell-

ings the upper half was moniliform (Fig. I). Usually the buds were

confined to a small zone about the middle of the column ; and it Avas remark-

able that the column beloAv this zone did not present a moniliform appeaj’ance.

This phenomenon Avas noticeable in the budding indiA’iduals only. That the

SAvellings are different from buds is suggested by the fact that they sometimes

disappear and reappear in the same place. The entire gastro- v-ascnlar cavity

is clear, and any food particle too large for it can at once be seen. SeAmral in-

dividuals AAdth the SAvellings Avere examined, and in none of them Avere they the

result of distension by food particles or other foreign matter.

The budding polyps Avere generally found attached to the bottom and sides

of the glass- jar, and to the underside of weeds.

The polyps attached to the sides lay usually inclined upside doAV'n Avith the

tentacles fully expanded and hanging pendulously. A horizontal and rarely

an erect position Avas hoAA^ever assumed by some indiAuduals.

In the “ Fauna ” volume on Fresh-Avater Hydroids, Dr. Annandale states

that he has never seen a bud giving rise to buds while attached to the parent

hydra. I have seen an instance of this phenomenon on a single occasion (August

18, 1920). This polyp Avas found at the bottom of the jar. It aaus difficult

to make out the order in Avhich the buds had arisen. Tliere AAere tAvo fairly

Avell developed buds, one Avith five tentacles, and the other Avith six. The for-

mer had one bud and the latter tAVO (Fig. 2). It may be suggested that the

first parent polyp underwent A'eitical fission for some distance doAvn the column,

Avhen budding started precauciously on each of the daughter polyps. There Avas

hoAvever no clear evidence to shoAV that the colony formed as entirely due to

budding or to vertical fission and budding. This branching hydra AA-as unfortun-

ately devoured by a dragon-fly larva a foAV days later, and no further observation

could be made on it.

Branching in II . oligactis Avas noticed by Baini Prashad in Lahore.*

Spermaries. — From about the last Aveek of August upto the 4th September,

several polyps bore spermaries. Subsequent to this date sexual activity gra-

See Journ., As. S.ic., Bengal, (N. H. 8.) XII, p. 143 (19] t>

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

1149

dually slackened, and about the middle of September no polyps bearing sper-

maries were observed. Bud-formation recommenced, lasting for a couple of

days. The polyps were very thin and transparent.

The spermaries generally arise as small mound-shaped sweOings on the upper

half of the cohimn. They are however not restricted to this region, as occasion-

ally several may be seen in the basal part of the column (Fig. 4). The

nunrber of spermaries apparently varies, sometimes seven or eight being formed

close to one another. They are found in different stages of development, and

do not seem to be arranged in a definite manner. In the more developed .sper-

maries the active movements of the spermatozoa can be observed under the low

power of a microscope. As they mature a tine spray of sperms in the form of a

faint white cloud is ejected from time to time from the papilliform process at

their ape.x.

Sometimes buds are also formed simultaneously with the spermaries but they

are always found below the region on which spermaries arise (Fig. 5). One

after another the spermaries discharge their contents, and the polyps become

very thin. A few however recommence budding, but the buds remain unde-

veloped.

H. SKIXIVASAKAO, M.A.

No. XXXIII.— FOLKLORE OF BIRDS AND BEASTS OF INDIA.

I have read with much interest Mr. Fitzpatrick’s article in Vol. 28, No. 2, of the

Journal on folklore of birds and beasts and would like to know if he has any

stories connecting the actions of birds and beasts vdth a forecast of the monsoon.

Sir Gilbert Walker, our chief rain-maker, may base his forecast on such things

as barometrical iiressure in places in South America or Zanzibar, a low or

high Nile, late sno\vfall in the Himalayas, etc., but we who live in agricultural

districts know that the monsoon is really foretold by the blossoming of the nim

trees and khed bushes, the direction of the wind at Holi and the lucky and

unluclcy days on which lightning is seen.

I remember last year there was lightning one day early in June and I was

told there would be no rain for 72 days. There was none for about 45 days

which was not a bad effort to fulfil the prophecy !

But the clinching test is the position of the eggs in the nest of a ‘ Did he do

it ’ (Bed Wattled Lapwing). If the pointed ends all point to the centre of

the nest a good monsoon is assured. This belief prevails in Cutch and Kathia-

war and probably in other parts of India. Yesterday I found a ‘Did he do

it’s ’ nest with three eggs in the happy position, so it is now up to the mon-

soon to do its bit according to rule.

E. O’BRIEN, Lt.-Colonel.

Bhu.j Cutch,

\lth May 1922.

No. XXXIV.— A LONG NEGLECTED GROUP OF INSECTS.

The purpose of this note is to draw the attention of the numeT'ous natural-

ists who have the chance of collecting in desert and semi-desert parts of India,

as well as in adjacent countiies (Pei'sia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, etc.), to a

groujj of insects which is always neglected by collectors. The group is Orlhoy-

tera, i.e., gra.sshoppers, locusts, crickets, mantids and stick-insects ; all these

insects are most numerous and various in dry ])l.ains, on stony hills, on sand

dunes, and in dry gras.sy places with scattered shrubbery ; many species are

1150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII-

strictly attached to a certain kind of habitat and each of the above named habi-

tats bears its special fauna. Collecting Orthoptera is, surely, not more difficult

than that of beetles, though a stout butterfly-net is wanted to catch some

strong flying species and to sweep the grass and shrubs ; many quite interesting

species (particularly of gryllidae, or crickets) may be taken also at night. As

for preserving, the majority of Orthoptera may be perfectly well preserved

in paper packets, like butterflies and moths, or simply wrapped singly in tissue

paper, with the date and locality legibly inscribed on it ; the packed insects

must not be put into a tin box, but in a wooden or cardboard one, where they

may dry quickly. Some very large species require special attention, as they

are liable to jnould or rot ; in these the abdomen must be slightly cut open

from the underside with fine scissors, and the moisture sucked out by

slips of blotting paper stuck into the wound and changed several times ; in

a dry and hot climate there is usually no necessity to take out the viscera and

to stuff the insects with cotton-wool, a procedure which is supposed to be quite

necessary and which makes a collector avoid taking Orthoptera altogether. It

must be remembered that, for a specialist, even a badly preserved specimen

may be of great value, though of course good series of well preserved and care-

fully labelled specimens are more desirable. I mention long series deliberately,

because it often happens that a collector does not care to take more than one

or two specimens of what he considers to be a “ very common ” insect, while

for a specialist it is always very important to study a series in order to find out

the range of individual variability of the species ; besides, it is very easy for a

collector to confuse more than one, superficially alike, species. Of equal im-

portance is the collection of the same species in different localities as also in

different habitats.

As I have mentioned in my papers in this Journal (Vol. xxviii. No. l,p. 71, a.o.)

the orthopterous fauna of deserts of S.W. Asia is almost entirely unexplored

and even some of the most common and striking species are still undescribed.

This gives a guarantee that every collection, however small, will contain new

or interesting species and even genera, and this should surely make collecting

of Orthoptera worth the trouble, the more so as I shall be very glad to work

out collections of these insects without delay, being much interested in the

fauna and having worked on it specially for many years. I hope that the

Bombay Society will publish the results in its Journal, so that collectors maj^

see that their efforts are not wasted.

Further enquiries and collections may be sent to me either through the Society

or direct to me at the British Museum (Xatural History), London, S.W. 7.

B. P. UVAROV, F.E.S.,

Assistant Entomologist, Imperial Burea2t of Entomology.

4

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CONTENTS OF Vol. XXVIIT No. S.

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L The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon. Part XXXIT (Genus Perdix)

a plate). By E. C. Stuart Baker, f.l.s., f.z.s,, m.b.o.d., cf.a.o.u 571

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New AND Little Known Indian Bombyliid.®. {With a plate). By Lt.-Col.

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Egret Farming in India. By C. G. Chevenix Trench, i.c.s 751

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List of Mollusca of Rangoon. By Dr. H. Marshall 773

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Museum. By B. C. Ellison, c.m.z s 777

ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XXVIII, No- 3-(cmid.)

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Rfview. — The Edge of the Jungle. By Win. Beebe 780

Editorial. (W ith a plate) 781

Miscellaneous Notes: —

I. — Editors’ and Readers’ comments on Articles and Notes which have

appeared in previous numbers 786

II. — Jungle Notes 792

Ilf. — The Indian Lion. By T. R. Livesey 795

IV. — The Occurrence of the Stripe-Backed Weasel {Mnstela strigidorsa)

in the Naga Hills. By J. H. Hutton 795

V. — The Tenasserim Tree-Shrew {Tupaia helangeri). By C. Primrose. . . . 796

VI. — Four-Horned Fat-Tailed Sheep. By H. J. Elwes 798

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and O. 0. Ollenbach 798

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XI. — Note on Nightars in the Central Provinces. By E. A. D’Abreu. . . . 806

XII. — The Food of the Shikra {Astur badius). By Lt.-Col. E. O’Brien .... 807

XIII. — The Marbled Duck {Marmaronetta angustirostris) in the Punjab. By

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XIV. — The occurrence, habits and breeding of the Spotted Sandgrouse

(Pteroclurus senegallus) in the Bahawalpur State, Punjab. By

R. C. Bolster, i.c.s 807

XV. — Crocodile Shooting and Snaring. (With a plate) 809

XVI. — Food of the Fat-tailed Lizard (Eublepharis macularius). By S. H.

Prater, c.m.z.s 811

XVII. — The Senses of a Snake. By A. F. Abercromby 812

XVIII. — Pearl Bearing Mussels 813

XIX. — An L^nusual Swarm of Moths 814

XX. Occurrence of the Galeod Spider (Rhagodes nigrocirUtta) in the South

Arcot District, Madras Presidency. By S. G. Manavalaramanujam 815

XXI. — A case of plant surgery. By L. B. Kulkarni, m.a 815

Proceedings 817

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